’' Pd ee “ . a) ed an e4 fe D> oe Lid) A Ek ah ALE eo oe 4 A - a % © ie vs" ae Ae : awe an Mt Aa aint RAH an are yan aK nt Hey Val hala PRR ity rie i WA tal vi, sO ie Ve dt Aue a RC PRE PM ETON HOC yan Aaa te Bp 5 sien RHE TPs We MeN TES Ra Et Ro att M AY AR aN ‘ad ‘Se a i SRE ee Ky PARA A te Lae ROR A i hard Oe Guyer ty aed Ward eia aval ines ‘ nbehe A "ie 4b t VO tated UI \ ‘ Oe Sen: 4 ny Math ‘4 wee be aed ap ey > vided ber “ Pe Re PC Ue AL Ferny GOA Oe Cal FH ae an ROR Woe te Pc yale Da a aod Vid deat UAT CRC Fe Tet) ena? Myr BUI A VACA sins 1,159 0b b Pea TERA E HOO URE SEIKO SU itintile AAUP rua a naa ‘ “1 ' gf he Pee We Wc eee) (‘8 ay tebe Nr Ure ly ; a Le Peie peed dew gg a) Tie Ti gies CON a beh ae Dv v PAG ta Vi Hae a athe Ain ten ley TURD ORSON STEHT RHE MMA r Oy ry Vj iea : ’ %, ! rs Pu " Me 1? AUC eu i eau, AAA hh) ih bt) H RW hile i ty wich are hth th 4 inbet \\ rah ie te fips ) Pea Be ate We eC a CAT Sa! TH aaa a Aa i ‘ ! f ; hk YC ee en I PGR ATT MG Oh RGR epi t we \ ait " iF hak 4 ead hy! seh Nis ra PEO RAR ao CSTR aM REN SUM CO MRD NE a es re annie ‘ ‘ ’ ee ) 4° fi + fy L bt gh 8 OS ted dS wd Rare AN iia th at {ng i) 4 ‘aah NaN ugha’ ane ‘ mah nf ee itd Ye Ye Pe ee LO at va Pa Ti 4 ys gel ial yo | #3 i Wntaes ei.0 ’ ‘ biaeee LAG Oe f a4 4 ey 's ‘ ify’ MH Phe Ye i} vil eny ' ha shit Vi iy ata te re thes vis Na ih yt} ae ens Hue CN "Neat int : it ith yt xi i ii ; nen iz oy te mts HCE v Patt ok, Neet 8 Dean ire ata Ghetca ates) ‘he ‘| mE yee VOL re dpe Pha dah: bea as Pt hedee a ee A 4, ’ a sya a deen gees Rete Jy bite ed eee da i ante a TOA ASS MWK COC NIRA AUN CCS Ta Ra ICP Atala 52 RAMAN pC E ELA alee ya DATESO YR RO KTH TCA HERA AUP ALL a bybayaan a ‘ i Honus “fain: tleceyt Ad kd Ae aT) YH 3 Bee MEIC SO Me PP RUM eh ROME Mn AR} JAS nately eo a TOC ia ae Ca Ar , i S Ads ta Tea ee Law f : ina Pi ee a4 1.9 7S \ 7) } ' ’ ‘ * * il Aa ey be Peta ey vt v4 Pk ‘ aight “te alt. ont ats * r) ‘ ' f} 13 wad Ay x - 4 ae on hay 1 Wy s*,! 1 i 5 ye ‘4 7 it aes fal | re ae i } , 1 Al » (y @ {ity 5 ee he | basa ll dad ay) 4° it tey't 19 1° bh eta ’ Tere Pee WEE x PORE ROH” bods it f Wa M bau stat . 1 aT cat UA Wd sal Ai) Jah Be | 2 Vs ) ral et . ny Pt IA es ' *, By Way ryt a He ‘ i ‘ uit ie! | Wy baa i ih AA BHA ARS ; TE } His Hao i! i ah ee a o 9) He Ws int De if Mii eh ta ‘ ” ay) bo cy ening ead a a8 cea i Ye he ‘ FNAL te ae i ty tea i AM ts tot Md ies ") , ” + iy Aa Po yee die yee PO na WW ‘ a bf fs 2s Mag iaty) eh hitel es Gaaet UME Ma Hn! “hia vt ik SRAM Sean Hainanned ae i ah ANA whit i i, Heed M4 be uit WY iis" a Barne Hadas na * Py wendy Nye bea a NP, “4 Mh erat cc cS is My it mise ei) te Vay ic at on ay aaa AA LHI ny iM RUN Ae Mais ne ee Krai i iH an uh bs 4 tay ph Hy i Hi yoN aie 2 Deal mye Pet i) Vie 1 ee ES aah} 4 PAE ae A ene oh bun LBA ih v tai ou his I= iy ai == eet oe ay aoks BE oe ie eC AP 4 PAMPER WHE} Aca eta ¥ adi, yf El ih SUE Ps He) ABE Ki Has His} ih hate ne + ft 4 i jhe test Nae i . os iB , SCS a ity easy Hay ae | ha) 0 an Wit te WS 4 aay in dikes pu + Ha 1 va. se ’ Phe soa rt ehinsh| a2. . ne in os eh ‘ iat ratiasy aM ie ne nt Bercy pa ea ASG bie - 4, RRR wel “fh i AEN Heniabe pats ot oe i a Fy ‘ fiat i nae #383 a Hh Hal cnn " Sd ot oy MP PCIE, ie Ke eee it a4 (24 » fa H Laity t a faa ‘* Hs Pt a be Kh oe EE MH ROHN ha thai raga aR i , ue ie ay a Pp 434 deb Ag 3‘ (raat HAW 4 Hie f wright ra vie seni bh : oa tea atl Iyintt at ol tt i wie +h oe iW ee, jay i ae Hy eae 4 RP 8 CUR ae Ch eta ia te ae ; ‘ y2 58 wie hy a ests E a a tg ‘ aes oe f. ie a7 “ie Ani UST sH eabtat oe ry y ty Lee ty it $4 HeOa Rk Ni AE AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW sOUTH WALES | FOR 1914 (INCORPORATED 1881.) Poa, 2eiaV Lt. EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARIES. THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. SYDNEY: PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. J LONDON AGENTS: GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, 17 Warwick SquarRz, PATERNOSTER Row, Lonpon, E.C. 1914. 143865 HSO AN N | AUG3 0 1961 ART. ART. ART. ART, ART. ART, ART. ART. ART, _ ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. CONTENTS. VOLUME XLVIII. é I.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By Henry G. SMITH, F.C.S. II.—Napier Commemorative Lecture. The Discovery of Logarithms by Napier of Merchiston. By Professor H. S. CARSLAW, SC. D. III.—On the Accuracy of | See S Method Ae te Estima- tion of Phosphorus. By H. 8S. H. Warpuaw, B.sc. IV.—Hepatice Australes. By Dr. Franz STEPHANI and PAGE. 1 4.2 73 Rev. W. Watrer Warts. uC oremiiestes by Mr. J. H. MAIDEN). V.—Dimorphic Foliage of ve rubida, aed Teaeaceeen during Bipinnate Stage. By R. H. CamBags, F.u.s. [With Plate I.) “3H VI.—The Australian J eral of oe W. oinpaeis Pe senie with an introduction. By Cuarues HEDLEY, F.L.S. VII.—On the Nature of the Deposit obtained from Milk ee Spinning in a Centrifuge, (Preliminary pee aa By H. 8S. Hatcro WARDLAW, B.SC. VIII.—The Geology of the Cooma District, N. s. W., isa 4 By W. R. Browns, B.sc. [With Plates II, II, IV, A IX.—The Oxidation of Sucrose by Potassium Permanganate By C. W. R. Powe tu, Science Research Scholar, University of Sydney, (Communicated by Prof. Fawsi1tT T). X.—The Composition of some Lime-sulphur Sprays made according to Recognised Formule. By A. A. Ramsay. (Com- municated by F. B. Gururiz, F-.1.¢., F.C.s.) Sas = XI.—On the Diffusible Phosphorus of Cow’s Milk. oo H. 8S. Hatcro WaRDLAW, B.SC.. : XII.—Mountains of Eastern Mcfabralis aa nee Effect on the Native Vegetation. By R, H. CamsBaas, F.u.s. [With Plate VI. } shee eas ae i Fo XIII.—Description of a Limestone of Lower Misecne Age from Bootless Inlet, Papua. By FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L‘s., F.R.M.s. (Communicated by W.S. Duy). a Plates VII, PELE EX ‘ i. XIV.—Notes on Tasmanian Eire By E. AS alts B.8C., Zoologist, Australian Museum, Sydney. (Communicated by C. Hepuey, F.u.s., with the authority of the Trustees of the Australian Museum, Sydney.) [With Plates X, XTI.] 94: 136 140 152 172 223 242 253 267 281 302 ART. (vi.) XV.—Notes on the Catalase Reaction of Milk. By H. B. TAYLOR, B.sc. (Communicated by Professor C. E. Fawsirt). PaGe. 319 Axt. XVI.—The Development and Distribution of the Natural Order Leguminose. By E. C. ANDREWS, B.A., F.G.S. oe oe Art. XVII.—On the Recovery of Actinium and Ionium from the Olary Ores. By S. Rapcuirr. 4.08 Art. XVIII.—The Hematozoa of haste Bataan No.. 2. By J. B. CLELAND, m.p. (Syd.) : Ai 412 Art. XIX.—Observations on some reputed eee Huealegene Hybrids, together with descriptions of two new species. By J. H. Marpen, F.u.s. and R. H. CamBaGs, F.L.8. . ALS Art. XX.—Notes on Eucalyptus, (with a description of a new species) No.3. By J. H. Marpen, F.1.s. sich .. 423 Art. XXI.—Notes on Australian Fungi, No. 1. By J. B. CLELAND, M.D., (Syd.) and EDWIN CHEEL, Botanic Assistant, Botanic Gardens, Sydney... 433 Art. XXII.—A new Croton from N.S.W. By R. r. Butas F.L.S. [With Plate XIT.] . sa ae aed ws 444 Art. XXIII..—A Note on Neate Bpnadtuue “Blows.” By A. Pappison. (Communicated by R. T. Baxsr, F.L.s.) . 448 Art. XXIV.—Eudesmin and its Derivatives, Part 1. By Professor R. Roprnson, pD.sc., Professor of Organic Chemistry in the University of Sydney, and H. G. Smirga, r.c.s., Assistant Curator of the Technological Museum.. a . 449 ArT. XXV.—On the Butyl Ester of meee Acid occurring in some Eucalyptus Oils. By H. G. Suir, F.c.s. 4.64: Art. XX VI.—Note on the Estimation of Fat in Food for Tafeute By H. G. CHAPMAN, M.D., M.S. 469 ArT. XX VII.—Studies in Statistical Repaasent nude: III, Guvvas their Logarithmic Homologues, and Anti-logarithmic Generatrices; as appled to Statistical Data. By G. H. KNIBBS, C.M.G., F.s.S., etc., and F. W. BARFORD, M.A., A.I.A... 478 Art. XX VIII.—The Distribution of Frictional Losses in Internal Combustion Engines. By E. P. Tayitorn, B.u. (Communi- cated by Prof. S. H. BARRACLOUGH) i. ae Art. XXIX.—A note on the Phenols occurring in some Bnealypee - Oils. By R. Roprinson, D.sc. and H. G. SMITH, F.c.s. 518 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS 1,— XXIV. PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION ... .. XXV — XXXIV. TirteE Pace, Notices, PuBLIcATIONS, CONTENTS, (1. -— vi.) OFFICERS FOR 1914-1915... . Ga) List oF MremBers, Kc. (ix.) INDEX TO VoLumME XLVIII. «. XXXV. DATES OF PUBLICATION. Votume XLVIII. Part I—pp. 1 — 128, published August 5, 1914. 5 ILi—pp. 129 —- 288, 5 November 25, 1914. 55 LII—pp. 289 - 519, 53 March 31, 19195. », LV—pp. i.—xxxvii., (1.)—(xxii.) published April 19, 1915. ERRATA. Page 19, After bornyl-acetate, in line 21, read :—accompanied by a. small amount of geranyl-acetate. Page 243,1 Table III, column three, section (6) read Monosulphide 1°35; Polysulphide 410; Thiosulphate 1:90; Sulphate and sulphite ‘12; Total sulphur 7°47; Total lime 4°22. Page 251, Table LV, column four, read Degree Baumée 1:97; column seven, read Total lime 3°90. PUBLICATIONS. O The following publications of the Society, if in print, can be obtained at the Society’s House in Elizabeth-street:— Transactions of the Philosophical Society, N.S. W., 1862-5, pp. 374, out of print. Vol. 1. Transactions of the Royal Society, N.S. W., 1867, pp. 83, __,, 29 Il. ” ” ” 29 ” 1868, ” 120, ” 29 Til. ” ” ” ” ” 1869, ” 173, ” 2” IV. ” oe) 9 ” ” 1870, 29 106, 9 ” v. 9 ” ” ” ” 1871, oy) 72, 9 ” VI. ” ” ” ” ”? 1872, ” 128, ” ” Vil. ” ” ” ” 29 1873, oe) 182, ” ” VIII. ” ” 29 ” ” 1874, » 116, 29 ” IX. ” ”? »” ” ” 1875, re) 235, Lh ‘4 x. Journal and Proceedings es es 1876, ,, 333, 5p 99 XI. 99 99 99 99 29 LSTT, bP) 305, bP) Xi; 5 es _ os om 1878, ,, 324, price10s.6d. ” XIII. ” ” oe) oy) 29 1879, ” 255, 29 99 XIV. ” ” ” 9 or) 1880, oy) 391, yr) 99 XV. %9 99 99 99 99 1881, 99 440, >) yr) XVI. 9 ” ” re) ” 1882, ” 327, 99 Pr) XVII. ” ” ” ” ” 1883, oy) 324, ) eee 94086 » » » » » 1884,,, 224, ,, 29 XIX. 99 99 be) 99 99 1885, 39 240, 99 99 XX. 39 9? 99 99 319) 1886, oN) 396, 99 99 XXI. be) 9 99 be) be) 1887, 99 296, 9? ‘5 XXII. 9 9 » 9 » 1888, ,, 390. _,, 9° XXIII. 99 99 99 99 99 1889, 99 534, 99 be) XXIV. 99 be) 99 99 bb) 1890, 29 290, 99 99 XXV. bP) oP) ” 39 bi) 1891, 99 348, 39 99 XXVI. 99 2) 29 33 99 1892, 39 426, bP) re) XXVII. o> 39 bP) 99 99 1893, 99 530, 33 99 XXVIII. 99 99 39 bP) 99 1894, 99 368, 939 Pe) XXIX. 399 bP) 399 99 399 1895, 99 600, be) 9 XXX. 39 33 bi) 99 99 1896, 99 568, 99 9° XXXI. 99 be) 99 99 99 1897, 99 626, 9 9° XXXII. 39 bb) 99 93 99 1898, 29 476, 99 99 XXXII. 3° 93 29 33 99 1899, 99 400, 39 99 XXXIV. 99 2° >) +) ee) 1900, 39 484, 99 ee XX Ky, ‘ a ue » ms 1901, ,, 0815 5 9) XXXVI. 32 39 bP) 99 99 1902, 99 531, 3° Pe RX VAT. me -s i. a a 1903, ,, 663, 45 “5 XXXVIIT. ss = 55 5 1904, ,, 604, os 99 XXXIX. 99 29 99 99 399 1905, 99 274, 393 99 XL. be) bP) 99 99 99 1906, 99 368, 99 be) XLI, 39 99 9° 39 99 1907 99 377, 23 29 XLII. 99 39 39 99 99 1908, 99 593, 99 39 XLII. 39 39 bP) be) 29 1909, 93 466, 39 9 XLIV. 99 99 39 39 99 1910, 39 719, 39 ” XLV. 39 99 9 99 9 1911, 9 611, 99 99 XLVI. 99 39 29 ” 99 1912, 99 275, 9) 99 XLVII. 99 be) 93 99 b>) 1913, 39 318, 99 39 XLVIII. ” 3? 4c) ”) 9 1914, 39 584, 99 AMopal Society of Alew Sonth Gales. bee h@aseee > Oy Lola Lot S_ Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HONOURABLE SIR RONALD CRAUFURD MUNRO FERGUSON, pP.c., G.c.m.a. Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia. Vice-Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY SIR GERALD STRICKLAND, G.c.m.c., ete. Governor of the State of New South Wales. President: C. HEDLEY, F.1.s. Vice-Presidents: F. H. QUAIFEH, m.a., u.p. J. H. MAIDEN, F.us. D. CARMENT, t.1.a., F.F.A. HENRY G. SMITH, F.c.s. Hon. Treasurer: H. G, CHAPMAN, mp. Hon. Secretaries: R. H. CAMBAGE, 1.s., F.L.8s. | Prof. POLLOCK, p.sc. Members of Council: J. B. CLELAND, m.p., cu.m. W. M. HAMLET, F.1.c., F.c.s. Prof. T. W. E. DAVID, c.u.a., B.A., | T. H. HOUGHTON, m. inst. c.z. W. S. DUN. [D.sc., -B.S.| J. NANGLE, vr.a.s. R. GREIG-SMITH, p.sc. C. A. SUSSMILCH, r.«.s. F. B. GUTHRIE, F.1.c., F.c.s. H. D. WALSH, B.A.1., M. INST. ¢C.E. NOTICE. Tue Royat Soctery of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the ‘‘ Philosophical Society of Australasia”; after an interval of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the ‘* Australian Philosophical Society,” by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the ‘‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, it assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. TO AUTHORS. Authors of papers desiring illustrations, are advised to consult the editors (Honorary Secretaries) before preparing their drawings. Unless otherwise specially permitted, such drawings should be carefully executed to a large scale on smooth white Bristol board in intensely black Indian ink, so as to admit of the blocks being prepared directly therefrom, in a form suitable for photographic “process.” The size of a full page plate in the Journal is 44 in. x 62in. The cost of all original drawings, and of colouring plates must be borne by Authors. FORM OF BEQUEST. E bequeath the sum of £ to the Royat Socipry oF New Souru Watszs, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall be an effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct to be paid within calendar months after my decease, without any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my estate as may be lawfully applied for that purpose. [Those persons who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Socrety of New South Wales by Legacies, are recommended to instruct their Solicitors to adopt the above Form of Bequest. | \ ge re INDEX. A PAGE Abstract of Proceedings nee Ape Acacia longifolia, Willd, and certain allied species, Notes on Mp o.4 i's rubida, Dimorphie foliage af = 136 Accuracy of Neumann’s Method for the Estimation of Phos- phorus she ah he Actinium 4.08 Andrews, E. C. The Develop- ment and Distribution of the Natural Order Legu- minose : ; Australian Antarctic “Expedi- tion . 8 Journal of Dr. W. + Stimp- son, The : : B Baker, R. T., A new Croton from New South Wales.. 1. 444 Barford, F. W., Studies j in Sta- tistical Representation, EET, Curves, their Logarithmic Homologues, and. Anti- logarithmic Generatrices ; as applied to Statistical Data ng . A473 Batrachians. The Hamatozoa of Australian e Briggs, E. A., Notes on Tas- manian Hydrozoa.. .. o02 British Association in LIES 10 Browne, W. R., The Geology of the Gene District, New South Wales, Part I. » he Cc Cambage, R. H., Dimorphic foliage of Acacia rubida, and Fructification during Bipinnate Stage ... —— Mountains of Eastern Australia and their effect on the Native Vegetation —— Observations on some re- puted natural Eucalyptus hybrids, together with de- scriptions of two newspecies 415 412 136 267 PAGE Carslaw, Enok H. S., Napier Commemorative Lecture mepely\ Ae Catalase Reaction of Milk, Notes on the Chapman, F., Weccipiien a a Limestone of Lower Miocene Age from Bootless Inlet, Papua ; . 281 —,H.G., Note on ‘ele Hee: apes oe of Fat in Food for Infants . 469 Chemical factor in Fie! aque at Plants, The value of the ... 12 Cheel, Edwin, Notes on Aus- tralian Fungi, No. 1 ... 483 Notes on Acacia longifolia, Willd, and certain allied species 520-4013 Cleland, J. Burton, The leona tozoa of Australian Batrach- lans, No.2 ... Notes on Australian Fungi No. 1. . 433 Composition of some lime-sul- phur sprays made according to recognised formulee Cooma District, The Geology . 319 412 of the.. 172 Cow’s Milk, On the Diffusible Phosphorus of Bb 242 Croton, a new, from New South Wales woe 444 Curves their ie eeatatle Homo- logues and ‘Antilogarithmic Generatrices, as applied to Statistical Data ... 473 D Desert Sandstone Blows, Note on 448 Dimorphic foliage of Acacia rubida, and Fructification during Bipinnate Stage ... 136 Discovery of Logarithms by Napier of Merchiston real Ae Distribution of Frictional Losses in Internal Combustion Engines 0 497 XXXVI. E PAGE Earth’s Crust, Pressure in rela- tion to the solid components of the Estimation of Fat in “Food for Infants, Note on the . 469 Eucalyptus, Notes on ... .. 423 — Oils, On the butyl ester of butyric acid occurring in some . 464 Eudesmin aud its Denivatives, Part I . 449 , KV; F Foraminiferal Limestones, Note on the bearing of, upon the occurrence of Petroleum Fields Bae Frictional losses in Internal Combustion Engines, The Distribution of . 497 Fungi, Notes on Australian ... 433 G Geological Section Geology of the Cooma District, New South Wales, Part I. 172 H Hematozoa of 283 ~ XXV. Australian Batrachians, No. 2 412 Harper, L. F., Identity of the Sydney Harbour Collieries Coal Seam ... XXix, Hedley, C. The Australian Journal of Dr.W. spar gs Zoologist ... 140 Hepatice ‘Australes... ody Ss z Identity of the Sydney Harbour Collieries Coal Seam Db. Tonium . 408 K Knibbs, G. H., Studies in Sta- tistical Representation, IIT. Curves, their Logarithmic Homologues and Antiloga- rithmic Generatrices, as applied to Statistical Data 473 Leguminose, The Development and Distribution of the Natural Order . 333 PAGE Limestone of Lower Miocene Age from Bootless Inlet, Papua. Description of a... 281 List of Members . (ix.) MM Maiden, J. H., Notes on Euca- lyptus, No.3.. es . 423 —— Observations on some re- puted natural Eucalyptus hybrids with descriptions of two new species . 415 Members, List of (ix.) —., Newly elected iii, x, xil, XV1. XViil, XX. ——., Honorary .. .. (xx) Meanie of Hastern Australia and their effect on the Native Vegetation ... : sa, BOE N Napier Commemorative Lecture 42 Native Vegetation, Mountains of Eastern Australia and their effect on the ... Nature of the Deposit obtained from Milk by aaa in a 267 Centrifuge ... 152 O Obituary... 2 Observations on some “reputed natural Eucalyptus hy- brids, together with de- scriptions of twonewspecies 415 Officers ... . (vii) Olary Ores, On the Recovery of Actinium and Ionium from theis.22: . 408 Oxidation of Sucrose by Potas- sium Permanganate . 223 P Paddison, A., Note on Desert Sandstone Blows .. 448 Phenols occurring in some Eu- calyptus Oils, Anoteonthe 518 Powell, W. R., The Oxidation of Sucrose by Potassium Permanganate 4 --. 220 Presidential Address, aE Ge Smith - 1 Pressure, in ope to the solid components of the Earth’s crust... s a sac) OMe XXXVIl, PAGE R Radcliff, S.,On the Recovery of Actinium and Ionium from the Olary Ores . 408 Radium ... 6 Ramsay, A.A., The Composition of some Lime-sulphur Sprays made according to recognised formule . 242 Recovery of Actinium and Tonium from the Olary Ores, On the . 408 Robinson. R., Eudesmin and its Derivatives, Part I. . 449 —, A note on the Phenols occurring in some Euca- lyptus Oils... . 518 ) Smith, H.G., Presidential Ad- dress ‘ 1 —, A note on 1 the ‘Phenols occurring in some Eucalyp- tus Oils. . 518 ——, Eudesmin and its deriva- tives, Part I. - 449 —. On the butyl ester of butyric acid occurring in some Eucalyptus Oils . 464: PAGE Statham, E. J., Pressure, in relation to the solid com- ponents of the Earth’s crust xiv. Stephani, Dr. Franz, Hepatice Australes... 94. Stimpson, Australian J ournal of 140 Studies in Statistical Represen- tation a w AUB Tr Tasmanian Hydrozoa, Notes on 302 Taylor, E. P., The Distribution of Frictional losses in In- ternal Combustion Engines ——,H. B., Notes on the Cata- lase Reaction of Milk . 319 Ww Wardlaw, H. S. H., On the Accuracy of Neumann’s Method for the Estimation of Phosphorus 73 —, On the Diffusible Phos- phorus of Cow’s Milk . 2538 —, On the nature of the Deposit obtained from Milk by spinning in a Centrifuge 152 Watts, Rev. W. Walter, me tice Australes o. . 94 497 Sydney: F, W. W8HITE, PRINTER, 344 KENT STREET. 1915. LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE Aopal Society of Mew South OGales, P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society’s Transactions or Journal; papers published in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society are also included. The numerals indicate the number of such GOL MOESIOES. ft Life Members. Elected, 1908 Abbott, George Henry, B.A., m.B., cH.m., Macquarie-street; p.r. ‘Cooringa,’ 252 Liverpool Road, Summer Hill. 1877 | P5| Abbott, W. E., ‘Abbotsford,’ Wingen. 1904 Adams, William John, m. 1. mEcH. E., 175 Clarence-street. 1898 Alexander, Frank Lee, c/o Messrs. Goodlet and Smith Ltd., Cement Works, Granville. 1905 Anderson, Charles, u.a., p.sc. Edin., Australian Museum, Col- lege-street. 1909 | P7) Andrews, HE. C.,8B.A., F.a.s., Geological Surveyor, Department of Mines, Sydney. 1878 Backhouse, His Honour Judge A. P., m.a., ‘ Melita,’ Elizabeth Bay. 1894 |P 20; Baker, Richard Thomas, F.u.s., Curator, Technological Museum. 1894 {Balsille, George, ‘ Lauderdale,’ N.E. Valley, Dunedin, N.Z. 1896 Barff, H. E., u.a., Warden of the University of Sydney. 1908 | P 1) Barling, John, ‘St. Adrians,’ Raglan-street, Mosman. 1895 | P9| Barraclough, 8. Henry, B.E., M.M.E., ASSOC. M. INST. C.E., M. I. MECH. E., Memb. Soc. Promotion Eng. Education ; Memb. Internat. Assoc. Testing Materials; Lecturer in Mechanical Engineering in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Marmion,’ Victoria-street, Lewisham. 1906 Basnett, Nathaniel James, Punch-st., Mosman. 1894 Baxter, William Howe, Chief Surveyor, Existing Lines Office, Railway Department, Bridge-street. ; 1877 Belfield, Algernon H., ‘ Eversleigh,’ Dumaresq. 1909 | P2| Benson, William Noel, s.sc., The University, Sydney. 1905 *Bignold, Hugh Baron, Chambers, Wentworth Court, 64 Elizabeth-street. 1913 Bishop, Joseph Eldred, Killarney-street, Mosman. 1905 Blakemore, George Henry, Castlereagh Chambers, 10 Castle- reagh-street, Sydney. 1888 ‘{Blaxland, Walter, F.z.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., Fremantle, West Australia. 1893 Blomfield, Charles E., B.c.z. Melb., ‘ Woombi,’ Kangaroo Camp, Guyra. 1898 | Blunno, Michele, Licentiate in Science (Rome), Government Viticultural Expert, Department of Agriculture, Sydney. Elected 1907 1879 1907 1910 1876 1891 1914 1878 1913 1906 1903 1898 1890 1907 1909 1904. 1907 1876 1897 1901 1891 1909 1903 1913 1909 1913 1909 1913 1896 Pi P6 P 4 Pa P2 P2 P3 P 15 P2 (x.) Bogenrieder, Charles, ‘Scibile,’ Little’s Avenue, off Nicholson- street, Balmain. t{Bond, Albert, 131 Bell’s Chambers, Pitt-street. "Boyd, Robert James, M.E., ASSOC. M. INST. C.E., ‘ Greenstead,’ Park Road, Burwood, Bradley, Clement Henry Burton, M.B., cH.M., D.P.H., Demon- strator in Physiology in the University of Sydney. Brady, Andrew John, L.K. and qQ.c.p. Irel., u.R.c.s. Irel., 175. Macquarie-street, Sydney. Brennand, Henry J. W., BA., M.B., cH.M. Syd., ‘The Albany,’ Macquarie-st., p.r. ‘ Wobun,’ 310 Miller-st., North Sydney. Broad, Edmund F., ‘ Cobbam,’ Woolwich Road, Hunter’s Hil).. {Brooks, Joseph, F.R A.S., F.R.G.S., ‘ Hope Bank,’ Nelson-street, Woollahra. Browne, William Rowan, B.sc., Assistant Lecturer and Demon- strator in Geology in the University, Sydney. Brown, James B., Resident Master, Technical School, Gran- ville; p.r. ‘Aberdour,’ Daniel-street, Granville. Bruck, Ludwig, 15 Castlereagh-street. {Burfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, B.A., B.Sc., M.B., cH.M. Syd., ‘Wyom- ing,’ 175 Macquarie-street, Sydney. Burne, Alfred, pD.p.s., Buckland Chambers, 183 Liverpool-st. Burrows, Thomas Edward, m. INST. C.E., L.s., Metropolitan Engineer, Public Works Department; p.r. ‘ Balboa,’ Fern- street, Randwick. Calvert, Thomas Copley, assoc. M. INST. C.E., ‘Maybank,” Manly. Cambage, Richard Hind, u.s., ¥.u.s., Chief Mining Surveyor; p-r. Park Road, Burwood. Hon. Secretary. Campbell, Alfred W., m.p., cu.m. Edin., 183 Macquarie-street.. Cape, Alfred J., m.a. Syd., ‘Karoola,’ Edgecliffe Rd,, Edgecliffe.. Cardew, John Haydon, m. INsT. ¢.E., L.s., 75 Pitt-street. Card, George William, a.R.s.u., F.4 s., Curatorand Mineralogist. to the Geological Survey, Department of Mines, Sydney, Carment, David, F.1.a. Grt. Brit. € Irel. ¥.¥.a., Scot., 4 Whaling Road, North Sydney. Vice-President. Carne, Joseph Edmund, Fr.a.s.,Assistant Government Geologist, Department of Mines, Sydney. Carslaw, H. S., m.a., sc.p., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Sydney. Challinor, Richard Westman, F.1.c., F.c.s., Lecturer in Chem- istry, Sydney Technical College. Chapman, H. G., m.p., B.s., Assistant Professor of Physiology in the University of Sydney. Hon. Treasurer. Cheel, Edwin, Botanical Assistant, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Cleland, John Burton, m.p., cH.m., Principal Assistant Micro- biologist, Department of Public Health, 93 Macquarie-st. Cooke, William Ernest, M.A.,F.R.A.s., Government Astronomer and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Sydney, The Observatory, Sydney. Cook, W. E., u.c.u. Melb., mM. Inst. c.z., Water and Sewerage Board, North Sydney. Elected 1904 | P 2| Cooksey, Thomas, PH.D., D.sc. Lond., F.1.c., Second Govern- 1913 1876 1906 1882 1909 1892 1886 1912 1875 1890 1876 1910 1886 1909 1892 1885 1894 1875 1906 1876 1913 1913 1873 1908 1908 1879 Pt et P3 P 21 PA P3 P12 P4 (xi.) ment Analyst; p.r. °Clissold,’ Calypso Avenue, Mosman. Coombs, F. A., F.c.s., Instructor of Leather Dressing and Tanning, Sydney "Technical College; p.r. 55 Willoughby Road, North Sydney. Codrington, John Frederick, m.x.c.s. Eng.,u B.c.P. Lond.,L.B.¢.P. Edin., ‘Roseneath,’ 8 Wallis-street, Woollahra. Colley, David Johu K., Superintendent, Royal Mint, Sydney. Cornwell, Samuel, J.P., Brunswick Road, Tyagarah. Cotton, Leo Arthur, B.A., B.sc., Assistant Lecturer and Demon- strator in Geology in the University of Sydney. Cowdery, George R., Assoc. M. INST. c.E., Blashki Buildings, Hunter-st.; p,r. ‘Glencoe,’ Torrington Road Strathfield. Crago, W. H., m.R.c.s. Hng., L.R.C.P. ‘Lond., 16 College-street, Hyde Park. Curtis, Louis Albert, u.s., ‘ Redlands,’ Union-street, Mosman. Dangar, Fred. H., c/o W. E. Deucher, 12 and 14 Loftus-street. Dare, Henry Harvey, M.8., M. INST. c.E., Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, 29 Elizabeth-street, Sydney. Darley, Cecil West, mu. inst. c.z., Australian Club, Sydney. Darnell-Smith, George Percy, B.sc., F.1.c.,F.c.s.. Department of Agriculture, Sydney. ' David, T. W. Edgeworth, c.M.ca., B.A., D.SC., ¥.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology and Physical Geography in the University of Sydney. Davidson, George Frederick. Davis, Joseph, m. Inst. c.z., Director-General, Public Works Department, Sydney. Deane, Henry, M.A., M. INST. C.E., F.L.S., F.R. MET. SOC., F.R.H.S., ‘Campsie,’ 14 Mercer Road, Malvern, Victoria. Dick, James Adam, B.A. Syd., M.D.,C.M., F.B.C.8. Edin., ‘ Catfoss,’ Belmore Road, Randwick. Dixon, W. A., F.1.c., F.c.s., 97 Pitt-street. Dixson, William, ‘ Merridong,’ Gordon Road, Killara. Docker, His Honour Judge E. B., m.a., ‘Mostyn,’ Billyard Avenue, Elizabeth Bay. Dodd, Sydney, v.v.Sc., F.R.C.V.S., - Lecturer in Veterinary Pathology in the University of Sydney. Doherty, William M., Analyst, Department of Public Health, Sydney. Du Faur, E., F.R.aG.8., ‘ Flowton,’ Turramurra. Dun, William §., Paleontologist, Department of Mines. Esdaile, Edward William, 54 Hunter-street. Etheridge, Robert, Junr., J.p., Curator, Australian Museum ; p.r. ‘ Inglewood,’ Colo Vale, N.S.W. Elected 1877 1896 1868 1887 1902 1912 1910 1909 1881 1888 ~ 1900 1879 1905 1904 1907 1899 1881 1876 1906 1897 1907 1914 1899 1912 1912 1899 1891 1880 1912 1892 1909 1912 (xii.) {Fairfax, Edward Ross, 8S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. Fairfax, Geoffrey E., S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. Fairfax, Sir James R., Knt., S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-st. Faithfull, R. L., u.p., New York, L.R.C.P., L.S.A. Lond., 5 Lyons: Terrace. Faithfull, William Percy, Australian Club. Farnsworth, W. J., p.p.s. Penn., ‘Shelcote,’ Shelcove Road, Neutral Bay. Farrell, John, Assistant Teacher, Sydney Technical College ; p-r. 8 Thompson-street, Darlinghurst. P 1| Fawsitt, Charles Edward, p.sc., PH.p., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. Fiaschi, Thos., M.p., M.cH. Pisa, 149 Macquarie-street. Fitzhardinge, His Honour Judge G. H., m.a., ‘Red Hill,” Beecroft. {Flashman, James Froude, B.A., B.SC., M.D., CH.M., Jersey Road, Burwood. {Foreman, Joseph, m.R.c.s. Eng. u.R.c.P. Edin., ‘ Wyoming,’ Macquarie-street. Foy, Mark, ‘Kumemering,’ Bellevue Hill, Woollahra. Fraser, James, M. INST. C.E., Engineer-in-Chief for Existing Lines, Bridge-street ; p.r. ‘Arnprior,’ Neutral Bay. Freeman, William, ‘Clodagh,’ Beresford Road, Rose Bay. French, J. Russell, General Manager, Bank of New South Wales, George-street. Furber, T. F., F.n.4.s., Lands Department. George, W. R., ‘ Warialda,’ Neutral Bay. Gosche, W. A. Hamilton, 243 Pitt-street, Sydney. Gould, Senator The Hon. Sir Albert John, kK.c.m.a., ‘ Eynes- bury,’ Edgecliffe. Green, W. J., Chairman, Hetton Coal Co., Athenzeum Club. Greig, Arthur, Assoc. M.1. MECH. H., Designing Engineer, Harbours Branch, Public Works Department. Greig-Smith, R., p.sc. Hdin., u.sc. Dun., Macleay Bacteriologist, Linnean Society’s House, Ithaca Road, Elizabeth Bay. Grieve, Robert Henry, B.a., ‘ Langtoft,’ Llandaff-st.,Waverley. Griffiths, F. Guy, B.a., M.D., CH.M., 135 Macquarie-st., Sydney. P 2| Gummow, Frank M., m.c.z., Corner of Bond and Pitt-streets. P 16] Guthrie, Frederick B., F.1.c., F.c.s., Chemist, Department of Agriculture, 137 George-street, Sydney. . P 4| Halligan, Gerald H., r.a.s., ‘ Riversleigh,’ Hunter’s Hill. Hallmann, EH. F., B.sc., Biology Department, The University, Sydney. Halloran, Henry Ferdinand, t.s., 82 Pitt-street. Hammond, Walter L., Science Master, Hurlstone Agricultural Continuation School, Hurlstone Avenue, Summer Hill. Hamilton, A. G., Lecturer on Nature Study, Teachers’ College, Blackfriars. Elected (xili.) 1887 |P8 Hamlet, William M., r.i.c., F.c.s., Member of the Society of 1912 Public Analysts; Government Analyst, Health Depart- ment, Macquarie-street, North. Hare, A. J.. Under Secretary for Lands, ‘ Booloorool,’ Monte Christo-street, Woolwich. 1905 | P 1| Harker, George, p.sc., Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Organic Chemistry in the University of Sydney. 1887 |P 23\tHargrave, Lawrence, Wunulla Road, Woollahra Point. 1913 1884 | P 1 1900 1914 1891 | P2 1899 1884 | P 1 1905 1876 | P 2 1914 1892 1901 1905 1891 | P 2 1906 1913 1904. | 1904. | 1905 P8 1907 | 1909 P13 1867 | 1911 Harper, Leslie F., r.a.s., Geological Surveyor, Department of Mines, Sydney. Haswell, William Aitcheson, M.A., D.SCc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Mimihau,’ Woollahra Point. Hawkins, W. E., 88 Pitt-street. Hector, Alex. Burnet, 481 Kent-street. Hedley, Charles, F.u.s., Assistant Curator, Australian Museum, Sydney. President. Henderson, J., F.n.u.s., Manager, City Bank of Sydney, Pitt-st. Henson, Joshua B., assoc. M. INST. c.E., Hunter District Water Supply and Sewerage Board, Newcastle. Hill, John Whitmore, ‘ Willamere,’ May’s Hill, Parramatta. | Hirst, George D., F.R.a.s., c/o Messrs. Tucker & Co., 215 Clarence-street. Hoare, Robert R., Staff Paymaster, Royal Navy, Garden Island, Sydney. Hodgson, Charles George, 157 Macquarie-street. Holt, Thomas S., ‘Amalfi,” Appian Way, Burwood. Hooper, George, Assistant Superintendent, Sydney Technical College; p.r. ‘ Banksome,’ Henson-street, Summer Hill. Houghton, Thos. Harry, M. INST. C.E., M.1I. MECH. E., 63 Pitt-st. Howle, Walter Cresswell, u.s.a. Lond., Bradleys Head Road, Mosman. Hudson, G. Inglis, J.p., ‘Gudvangen,’ Arden-street, Coogee. Jaquet, John Blockley, a.x.s.M., F.a.s., Chief Inspector of Mines, Department of Mines. | Jenkins, R. J. H., ‘Ettalong,’ Roslyn Gardens, Rushcutters’ Bay. Jensen, Harold Ingemann, D.sc., Government Geologist, Darwin, Northern Territory. Johnson, T. R., M. INST. ©.E. Johnston, Thomas Harvey, M.A., D.sc., F.L.S., Lecturer in Biology in the University of Queensland, Brisbane. Jones, Sir P. Sydney, Knt., u.p. Lond., ¥.R.0.8s. Hng., ‘ Llandilo, Boulevarde, Strathfield. Julius, George A., B.SC., M.E., M. 1. MECH. E., Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street, Sydney. Kaleski, Robert, Holdsworthy, Liverpool. Kater, The Hon. H. E., 3.r., u.u.c., Australian Club. Elected 1873 1914 1887 1901 1896 1878 1881 1877 1913 1911 1913 1906 1909 1914 1883 1906 1911 1912 1884 1887 1878 1903 1891 1906 1891 1876 1880 1912 1903 1901 P3 P 23 P 2 Pe P9 Pd Pi (xiv.) Keele, Thomas William, m. Inst. c.z., Commissioner, Sydney Harbour Trust, Circular Quay; p.r. Llandaff-st., Waverley. Kemp, William E., a.m. Inst. c.z., Public Works Department, Sydney. Kent, Harry C., w.A., F.R.1.B.A., Dibbs’ Chambers, Pitt-street. Kidd, Hector, M. INST. C.E., M. I. MECH. E., ‘Craig Lea, 15 Mansfield-street, Glebe Point. King, Kelso, 120 Pitt-street. Knages, Samuel T., m.p. Aberdeen, F.R.c.s. Irel., ‘ Northcote,’ Sir Thomas Mitchell Road, Bondi. Knibbs, G. H., c.m.ac., F.s.s., F.B.A.S., Member Internat. Assoc. Testing Materials; Memb. Brit. Sc. Guild ; Commonwealth Statistician, Melbourne. Knox, Edward W., ‘ Rona,’ Bellevue Hill, Double Bay. Kuntzen, Harold Eric, Australian Glue and Gelatine Works, Alexandria. Laseron, Charles Francis, Technological Museum. Lawson, A. Anstruther, pD.sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany in the University of Sydney. Lee, Alfred, ‘Glen Roona,’ Penkivil-street, Bondi. Leverrier, Frank, B.A., B.sc., K.c., 182 Phillip-street. Lightoller, G. H. Standish, m.8., cu.m., ‘ Yetholm,” New South Head Road, Darling Point. Lingen, J. T., m.a. Cantab., University Chambers, 167 Phillip- street, Sydney. Loney, Charles Augustus Luxton, M. aM. SOC. REFR. E., Equi- table Building, George-street. Longmuir, G. F., B.a., Science Master, Technical College, Bathurst. Lovell, Henry Tasman, m.a., PH.D., ‘Tane,’ Hodson Avenue, Cremorne. MacCormick, Sir Alexander, mu.pD., c.m. Edin., m.R.¢.s. Eng., 185 Macquarie-street, North. MacCulloch, Stanhope H., m.B., cu.m, Hdin., 24 College-street. MacDonald, Ebenezer, J.p., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co, Ld., 2 Spring-street. McDonald, Robert, s.p., Pastoral Chambers, O’Connell-street ; p.r. ‘ Wairoa.’ Holt-street, Double Bay, | McDouall, Herbert Chrichton, m.r.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.s. Lond., D.P.H. Cantab., Hospital for the Insane, Gladesville. McIntosh, Arthur Marshall, ‘Glenbourne,’ Hill-st., Roseville. McKay, R. T., assoc. mM. INST. c.E., Geelong Waterworks and Sewerage Trusts Office, Geelong, Victoria. Mackellar, The Hon. Sir Charles Kinnaird, M.L.c.. M.B., C.M. Glas., Equitable Building, George-street. McKinney, Hugh Giffin, m.z., Roy. Univ. Irel., m. 1NST. C.E., Sydney Safe Deposit, Paling’s Buildings, Ash-street. MacKinnon, Ewen, B.sc., Agricultural Museum, George-st. N. McLaughlin, John, Union Bank Chambers, Hunter-street. McMaster, Colin J., Chief Commissioner of Western Lands ; p.r. Wyuna Road, Woollahra Point. Elected 1894 1899 1909 1883 1880 1897 1908 1914 1875 1903 1912 1905 1889 1879 1877 1879 1876 1893 1891 1893 1903 1913 1896 Pt P 27 P8§ P3 (xy), McMillan, Sir William, k.c.u.c., ‘Darrah,’ 311 Edgecliff Road, Woollahra. MacTaggart, J.N.C., m.u. Syd., assoc. M. INST. c.E., Water and Sewerage Board District Office, Lyons Road, Drummoyne. Madsen, John Percival Vissing, p.sc., B.E., P. N. Russell Lec- turer in Electrical Engineering in the University of Sydney. Maiden, J. Henry, s.p., F.u.s., Hon. Fellow Roy. Soc. 8.A.; Hon. Memb. Royal Society, W.A.; Netherlands Soc. for Promotion of Industry; Philadelphia College Pharm.; Southern Californian Academy of Sciences; Pharm. Soc. N.S.W.; Brit. Pharm. Conf.; Corr. Fellow Therapeutical Soc., Lond.; Corr. Memb. Pharm. Soc. Great Britain; Bot. Soc. Edin.; Soc Nat. de Agricultura (Chile); Soc. d’ Horticulture d’ Alger; Union Agricole Calédonienne ; Soc. Nat. etc., de Chérbourg; Roy. Soc. Tas.; Roy. Soc. Queensl.; Inst. Nat. Genévois; Hon. Vice-Pres. of the Forestry Society of California; Diplomé of the Société Nationale d’Acclimatation de France;. Government Botanist and_ Director, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Vice-President. Manfred, Edmund C., Montague-street, Goulburn. Marden, John, M.a., Lu.D., Principal, Presbyterian Ladies’ College, Sydney. Marshall, Frank, B.p.s. Syd., 141 Elizabeth-street. Martin, A. H., 17 Hughes-street, Potts Point. Mathews, Robert Hamilton, t.s., Assoc. Etran. Soc. a’ Anthrop. de Paris; Cor. Mem. Anthrop. Soc., Washington, U.S.A.; Cor, Mem. Anthrop. Soc. Vienna; Cor. Mem. Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust. Q’sland; Local Correspondent Roy. Anthrop. Inst., Lond.; ‘ Carcuron,’ Hassall-st., Parramatta. Meggitt, Loxley, Co-operative Wholesale Society, Alexandria. Meldrum, Henry John, p.r. ‘ Craig Roy,’ Sydney Kd., Manly. Miller, James Edward, Broken Hill, New South Wales. Mingaye, John C. H., ¥.1.c., F.c.s., Assayer and Analyst to the Department of Mines, p.r. Campbell-street, Parramatta. Moore, Frederick H., Union Club, Sydney. {Mullens, Josiah, F.n.c.s., ‘Tenilba,’ Burwood. | Mullins, John Francis Lane, m.a. Syd., ‘ Killountan,’ Dar- ling Point. Myles, Charles Henry, ‘ Dingadee,’ Everton Rd., Strathfield. Nangle, James, F.R.A.s., Superintendent of Technical Educa- tion, The Technical College, Sydney; p.r. ‘St. Elmo,’ Tupper-street, Marrickville. {[Noble, Edward George, 8 Louisa Road, Balmain. Noyes, Edward, Assoc. INST. C.E., ASSOC. I. MECH. E., c/o Messrs. Noyes Bros., 115 Clarence-street, Sydney. fOld, Richard, Waverton,’ Bay Road, North Sydney. Olié, A. D., ‘Kareema,’ Charlotte-street, Ashfield. Onslow, Col. James William Macarthur, ‘Gilbulla,’ Menangle. Elected 1875 1891 1880 1878 1906 1901 1899 1877 1899 1909 1879 1881 1879 1887 1896 1910 1914 1893 1901 1508 1876 1912 1890 1865 1906 1914 1909 1902 Pt Py P8 Pil Pa (xvi.) O’Reilly, W. W. J., u.v., cu.m.. Q. Univ. Irel., u.n.c.s. Eng., 171 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park. Osborn, A. F., assoc. M. INST. c.E., Water Supply Braneh, Sydney, ‘ Uplands,’ Meadow Bank, N.S.W. Palmer, Joseph, 96 Pitt-st.; p.r. Kenneth-st., Willoughby. Paterson, Hugh, 183 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park. Pawley, Charles Lewis, 137 Regent-street. Peake, Algernon, M. INST. C.E., 25 Prospect Road, Ashfield. Pearse, W., Union Club; p.r. ‘ Plashett,’ Jerry’s Plains, via Singleton. Pedley, Perceval R., Lord Howe Island. Petersen, T. Tyndall, F.c.p.a., 4 O’Connell-street. Pigot, Rev. Edward F., s.J., B.a., m.B. Dub., Director of the Seismological Observatory, St. Ignatius’College, Riverview. Pittman, Edward F., assoc. R.s. M., L.s., Under Secretary and Government Geologist, Department of Mines. Poate, Frederick, Surveyor-General, Lands Department, Sydney. Pockley, Thomas F. G., Union Club, Sydney. Pollock, J. A., D.sc., Corr. Memb. Roy, Soc. Tasmania; Roy. Soc. Queensland; Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney. Hon. Secretary. Pope, Roland James, B.a., Syd., M.D., C.M., F.R.C.8., Hdin., 183 Macquarie-street. Potts, Henry William, F.u.s., F.c.s., Principal, Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, N.S.W. Purdy, John Smith, m.p., c.u. Aberd., D.p.H. Camb., Metro- politan Medical Officer of Health, Town Hall, Sydney. Purser, Cecil, B.A., M.B., cH.M. Syd., 189 Macquarie-street. Purvis, J. G. S., assoc. M. InsT. c.E., Water and Sewerage Board, 341 Pitt-street. Pye, Walter George, m.A., B.sc., S. M. Herald Office, Pitt and Hunter-streets; p.r. ‘Gainsford Lodge,’ 331 Ernest-street, North Sydney. Quaife, F. H., u.a., u.p., m.s., ‘ Yirrimbirri,’ Stanhope Road, Killara. Vice-President. Radcliff, Sidney, Radium Hill Works, Woolwich. Rae, J. L. C.. ‘ Lisgar,’ King-street, Newcastle. {Ramsay, Edward P., uu.p. St. And., F.R.S E., F.L.S., Queens- borough Road, Croydon Park. Redman, Frederick G., P. and O. Office, Pitt-street. Rhodes, Thomas, Civil Engineer, Public Works Department, Sydney. Reid, David, ‘ Holmsdale,’ Pymble. Richard, G. A., Mount Morgan Gold Mining Co., Mount Morgan, Queensland. (Xvil.) Elected 1906 Richardson, H. G. V., 82 Moore-street. 1913 | P 2| Robinson, Robert, v.sc., Professor of Organic Chemistry in the University of Sydney. 1913 Roseby, Rev. Thomas, m.a4., LL.D. Syd., F.R.A.S., ‘Tintern,’ Mosman. 1884 Ross, Chisholm, u.p. Syd., M.B., c.m. Hdin., 151 Macquarie-st. 1895 | P 1/| Ross, Herbert E., Equitable Building, George-street. 1897 Russell, Harry Ambrose, B.A., c/o Messrs. Sly and Russell, 369 George-street; p.r. ‘Mahuru,’ Fairfax Road, Bellevue Hill. 1893 Rygate, Philip W., u.a., B.E. Syd., assoc. M. INST. ¢.zE., City Bank Chambers, Pitt-street, Sydney 1913 Scammell, W. J.. Mem. Phar. Soc. Grt. Brit., 18 Middle Head Road, Mosman. 1905 Scheidel, August, pH.D., Managing Director, Commonwealth | Portland Cement Co., Sydney; Union Club. 1892 |P 1! Schofield, James Alexander, F.c.s., A.R.S.m., Assistant Pro- fessor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. P 1 |f{Scott, Rev. William, m.a. Cantab., Kurrajong Heights. P 1| Sellors, R. P., B.a. Syd., ‘Mayfield,’ Wentworthville. Sendey, Henry Franklin, Manager of the Union Bank of Australia Ld.,Sydney; Union Club; p.r. ‘The Hermitage,’ Vaucluse Road, Rose Bay. |P 4| Shellshear. Walter, mu. Inst. c.£,, Inspecting Engineer, London. Simpson, R. C., Technical College, Sydney. Simpson, Wilham Walker, ‘Abbotsford,’ Leichhardt-street, — Waverley. Sinclair, Eric, u.p., c.m. Glas., Inspector-General of Insane, 9 Richmond Terrace, Domain; p.r. ‘ Broomage,’ Kangaroo- street, Manly. Sinclair, Russell, w.1. mEecu.£., Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt-st. P 3| Smail, J. M., m. inst. c z., Chief Engineer, Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street. Smart, Bertram James, B.sc., Public Works Office, Lithgow. P 48) Smith, Henry G., F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. Vice-President. P1(\{¢Smith, John McGarvie, 89 Denison-street, Woollahra. P 2| Statham, Edwyn Joseph, assoc. mu. Inst. c.E., Cumberland Heights, Parramatta. Stephens, Frederick G. N., F.R.c.s., M.B., CH.M,, ‘Gleneugie,’ New South Head Road, Rose Bay. Stewart, Alex. Hay, B.z., Metallurgist, Technical College, Sydney. Stewart, J. Douglas, B.v.sc., m.R.c.v.s., Professor of Veterinary Science in the University of Sydney; ‘ Berelle,, Homebush Road, Strathfield. Stoddart, Rev. A. G., The Rectory, Manly. Stokes, Edward Sutherland, m.a. Syd., F.R.c.P. Ivel., Medical Officer, Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street. P 4| Stuart, Sir Thomas P. Anderson, M.D., CH.M., LL.D. Edin., D.sc., Professor of Physiology in the University of Sydney ; p.r. ‘Lincluden, Fairfax Road, Double Bay. Elected 1901|P6 1912 1906 1906 1905 1893 1899 1861 |P 19 1878 1879 1885 | P 2; Thompson, John Ashburton, m.p. Bruz., D.P.H. Cantab., M.R.C.S. . 1896 1913 1913 1879 1900 1913 1883 1890 1892 (xviii). Stissmilch, C. A., F.a.s., Technical College, Newcastle, N.S.W. Swain, H. H. F., District Forester, Narrabri. Taylor, The Hon. Sir Allen, u.u.c., A.M.P. Society, Pitt-street. Taylor, Horace, Registrar, Dental Board, 7 Richmond Terrace, Domain, Taylor, John M., m.a., uL.B. Syd., ‘ Woonona,’ 43 East Crescent- ) street, McMahon’s Point, North Sydney. tTaylor, James, B.sc., A.R.S.M. Teece, R., F.1.4., F.F.A., General Manager and Actuary, A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-street. Tebbutt, John. F.R.a.s., Private Observatory, The Peninsula, Windsor, New South Wales. Thomas, F. J., ‘ Lovat,’ Nelson-street, Woollahra. Thomson, The Hon. Dugald, Carrabella-st., North Sydney. Eng., Australian Club, Sydney. Thompson, Major A. J. Onslow, Camden Park, Menangle. Thompson, Joseph, M.a., LL.B., Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt- street, Sydney. Tietkens, William Harry, ‘Upna,’ Eastwood. Trebeck, P. C., 12 O’Connell-street. Turner, Basil W., A.R.s.M., F.c.s., Victoria Chambers, 83 Pitt-st. Ullrich, Richard Emil, Accountant, 43 Bond-street, Mosman. Vause, Arthur John, m.B., c.m. Edin., ‘Bay View House,’ Tempe. Vicars, James, u.u.. Memb. Intern. Assoc. Testing Materials; Memb. B. S. Guild; Challis House, Martin Place. Vickery, George B., 78 Pitt-street. 1903 | P 3| Vonwiller, Oscar U., B.sc., Assistant Professor of Physics in 1879 1899 1910 1910 1901 1891 | P 2 the University of Sydney. Walker, H. O., Commercial Union Assurance Co., Pitt-street. {Walker, The Hon. J. T., ¥.n.¢.1., Fellow of Institute of Bankers Eng., ‘ Wallaroy,’ Edgecliffe Road, Woollahra. Walker, Charles, ‘Lynwood,’ Terry Road, Ryde. Walker, Harold Hutchison, Major, C.M.F., ‘ Vermont,’ Bel- more Road, Randwick. Walkom, A. J., a.m.1.z.8., Electrical Branch, G.P.O., Sydney. Walsh, Henry Deane,s.a.1. Dub., mM. INST. c.E., Commissioner and Engineer-in-Chief, Harbour Trust, Circular Quay. re Ta Elected 1903 1901 1913 1883 1876 1910 1910 1911 1910 1897 1892 1907 1907 1881 1892 1877 1909 | 1907 1908 1901 1890 1907 1891 1909 1906 1909 P3 P17 Pe Pl P'6 (xix. ) Walsh, Fred,, J.P., Capt. C M.F., Consul-General for Honduras: in Australia and New Zealand; For. Memb. Inst. Patent Agents, London; Patent Attorney Regd. U.S.A.; Memb. Patent Law Assoc., Washington; For. Memb. Soc. German Patent Agents, Berlin; Regd. Patent Attorn. Comm. of Aust; Memb Patent Attorney Exam. Board Aust.; George and Wynyard-streets; p.r. ‘ Walsholme,’ Centennial Park, Sydney E. Walton, R. H., r.c.s., § Flinders,’ Martin’s Avenue, Bondi. Wardlaw, Hy. Sloane Halcro, B.sc. Syd., 87 Macpherson-street,. Waverley. Warren, W.H., Lu.pD., WH.SC., M. INST. C.E., M. AM. SOC. C.E., Member of Council of the International Assoc. for Testing Materials, Professor of Engineering in the University of Sydney. Watkins, John-Leo, B.A. Cantab., m.a. Syd., Parliamentary Draftsman, Attorney General’s Department, Macquarie-st. Watson, James Frederick, m.B., cH.m., Australian Club,Sydney, p.r. ‘Midhurst,’ Woollahra. Watt, Francis Langston, F.1.c., A.R.c.s., 10 Northcote Cham- bers, off 163 Pitt-street, City. Watt, R. D., m.a., B.sc., Professor of Agriculture in the Uni- versity of Sydney. Wearne, Richard Arthur, B.4., Principal, Technical College, Ipswich, Queensland. Webb, Frederick William, c.m.a., J.p., ‘ Livadia,’ Manly. Webster, James Philip, Assoc. M. INST. C.E., L.S., New Zealand, Town Hall, Sydney. Weedon, Stephen Henry, c.z., ‘ Kurrowah,’ Alexandra-street,. Hunter’s Hill. Welch, William, r.x.a.s., ‘ Roto-iti,’ Boyle-street, Mosman. ~Wesley, W. H., London. White. Harold Pogson, F.c.s., Assistant Assayer and Analyst, Department of Mines; p.r. ‘Quantox,’ Park Road, Auburn. tWhite, Rev. W. Moore, A.m., LL.D. Dub. White, Charles Josiah, B.sc., Science Lecturer, Sydney Train- ing College; p.r. ‘ Byrntryird,’ 49 Prospect Rd. Summer H. Wiley, William, ‘ Kenyon,’ Kurraba Point, Neutral Bay. Willis, Charles Savill, u.s., cu.m. Syd., M.R.c.s. Eng., L.R.C.P. Lond., p.p.H., Lond., Department of Public Instruction, Bridge-street. Willmot, Thomas, s.e., Toongabbie. Wilson, James T., M.B., cH.m. Edin, ¥.B.8., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Sydney. Wilson, W. C., c.8., 30 and 34 Elizabeth-street, Sydney. Wood, Percy Moore, t.x.c.p. Lond., u.R.c.s. Eng., ‘ Redcliffe,’ Liverpool Road, Ashfield. Woodhouse, William John, m.a., Professor of Greek in the University of Sydney. Woolnough, Walter George, D.sc., F.a.s., Professor of Geology in the University of Western Australia, Perth. Yeomans, Richard John, 14 Castlereagh-street. Elected 1914 1900 1905 1911 1914 1901 1908 1908 1912 1905 1894. 1900 1908 1876 1880 1900 1876 1896 1904: 1876 P 57 HonorRARY M=zMBERS. Limited to Twenty. M.—Recipients of the Clarke Medal. Bateson, W. H., m.a., F.R.8s., Director of the John Innes Horti- cultural Institution, England, The Manor House, Merton, Surrey. Crookes, Sir William, Kt., 0.M., LL.D., D.Sc., P.R.S., 7 Kensington Park Gardens, London W. Fischer, Emil, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Berlin. Hemsley, W. Botting, Lu.p. (Aberdeen), F.R.S., F.LS., V.M.H., Formerly Keeper of the Herbarium, Royal Gardens, Kew; Korresp. Mitgl. der Deutschen Bot. Gesellschaft; Hon. Memb. Sociedad Mexicana de Historia Natural; New Zea- land Institute; Roy. Hort. Soc. London; 24 Southfield Gardens, Strawberry Hill, Middlesex. Hill, J. P., p.sc., F.R.s., Professor of Zoology, University College, London. Judd, J.W., c.B., LU.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., Formerly Professor of Geology, Royal College of Science, London; 30 Cumber- land Road, Kew, England. Kennedy, Sir Alex. B. W., Kt., uL.D., D. ENG., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of Engineering in University College, London, 17 Victoria-street, Westminster, London S.W. *Liversidge, Archibald, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, ‘ Fieldhead,’ George Road, Coombe Warren, Kingston, Surrey. Martin, C. J., p.sc., F.R.S., Director of the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, Chelsea Gardens, Chelsea Bridge Road, London. Oliver, Daniel, uL.p., F.R.s., Emeritus Professor of Botany in University College, London. Spencer, W. Baldwin, c.M.G., M.A., D.SC., F.B.S., Professor of Biology in the University of Melbourne. Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William Turner, K.C.M.G., C.I.E., M.A., LL.D., SC.D., F.R.S., [The Ferns, Witcombe, Gloucester, England. Turner, Sir William, K.c.B., M.B., D.C.L., LL.D., SC.D., F.R.C.S. Edin., F.8.8., Principal and Emeritus Professor of the University of Edinburgh, 6 Eton Terrace, Edinburgh, Scotland. * Retains the rights of ordinary membership. Elected 1872. OBITUARY 1914. Ordinary Members. Brown, H. J. Bush, T. J. Canty, M. MacLaurin, The Hon. Sir Henry Normand. Plummer, J. Noss, W. J. Clunies. Watson, C. Russell. (xxi.) AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL. Established in memory of Tur Revp. W. B. CLARKH, m.a., F.R.s., F.G.8S., etc., Vice-President from 1866 to 1878. : To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the Geology, Mineralogy, or Natural History of Australia. The prefix * indicates the decease of the recipient. Awarded 1878 *Professor Sir Richard Owen. K.¢c.B., F.R.S. 1879 *George Bentham, ¢.M.G., F.R.S. 1880 *Professor Thos. Huxley, F.R.s. 1881 *Professor F. M’Coy, F.R.s., F.G.S. 1882 *Professor James Dwight Dana, LL.D. 1883 *Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.c.M.G., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. 1884 *Alfred R. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 1885 *Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, 0.M., @.¢.8.1.,C.B., M.D.,D.C.L., LL.D.,F.R.S- 1886 *Professor L. G. De Koninck, m.p., University of Liége. 1887 *Sir James Hector, K.c.M.G., M.D., F.R.S. 1888 *Rev. Julian EH. Tenison- Woods, F.G.s., F.L.S. 1889 *Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.R.s., F.R.A.S. 1890 *George Bennett, u.D., F.R.c.s. Hng., F.L.S., F.Z.S. 1891 *Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.R.s., F.G.8. 1892 Sir William Turner Thiselton Dyer, K.c.M.G.,¢.1.E.,M.A., LL.D., SC.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., late Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. 1893 *Professor Ralph Tate, F.L.S., F.G.S. 1895 Robert Logan Jack, F.a.s., F.R.G.8., late Government Geologist, Brisbane, Queensland. 1895 Robert Etheridge, Junr., Curator of the Australian Museum, Sydney 1896 *The Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, C.M.G., F.R.G.S. 1900 *Sir John Murray, K.C.B., LL.D., SC.D., F.R.S. 1901 *Edward John Eyre. 1902 F. Manson Bailey,F.t.s., Colonial Botanist of Queensland, Brisbane. 1903 *Alfred William Howitt, pD.sc. F.a.s. 1907 Walter Howchin, r.a.s., University of Adelaide. 1909 Dr. Walter E. Roth, B.a., Pomeroon River, British Guiana, South America. 1912 W. H. Twelvetrees, r.a.s., Government Geologist. Launceston, Tasmania. 1914 A. Smith Woodward, LL.D., F.R.8., Keeper of Geology, British Museum (Natural History) London. (xxii.) AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE. Money Prize of £25. Awarded. 1882 1882 1884 1886 1887 1888 1889 1889 1891 1892 1894 “1894 1895 1896 John Fraser, B.A., West Maitland, for paper entitled ‘The Aborigines of New South Wales.’ Andrew Ross, m.p., Molong, for paper entitled ‘ Influence of the Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of wool.’ The Society’s Bronze Medal and £25. W. E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper entitled ‘Water supply in the Interior of New South Wales.’ S. H. Cox, F.a.s.,F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘ The Tin deposits of New South Wales.’ Jonathan Seaver, F.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘Origin and mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the associated . Minerals.’ Rev. J. E. Tenison- Woods, F.4.s., F.L.S., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to Australia.’ Thomas Whitelegge, F.R.u.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘ List of the Marine and Fresh-water Invertebrate Fauna of Port Jackson and Neighbourhood.’ Rev. John Mathew, m.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper entitled ‘The Australian Aborigines.’ Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Micro- scopic Structure of Australian Rocks.’ Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for paper entitled ‘The effect which settlement in Australia has pro- duced upon Indigenous Vegetation.’ J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper entitled the ‘ Timbers of New South Wales.’ R. H. Mathews, u.s., Parramatta, for paper entitled ‘The Abori- ginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in New South Wales.’ C. J. Martin, p.sc., u.B., F.R.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The physiological action of the venom of the Australian black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus).’ Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The occurrence of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a description of the Deposits in which they are found.’ mse Arhee- * onl 1 . ~ ISSUED AUGUST 12th, 1914 f Vol. ivi | i Pert 1. || JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS ROYAL SOCIETY NEW SOUTH WALES wie PART I., (pp. 1-128). CONTAINING PAPERS READ IN MAY to JUNE (in part). SYDNEY : PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. LONDON AGENTS: GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, 17 Warwick Square, PaTERNOsTER Row, Lonpon, E.C. 1914. 2 ne a Se ee ee ee a ee ‘* ¥ 4 “4 , - y \ \ 3 ( : F. WHITE Typ.. 344 Kent Street Sydney, Tu Ss. ul 4 4 Qrre 7 t Pa . oh ig 5 4 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By HENRY G. SMITH, F.C.S. [Delivered to the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, May 6th, 1914. | IT is now my privilege, on this, the ninety-third anniversary of the foundation of this Society, to address you as your President. It gives me great pleasure to be able to con- gratulate you on the present satisfactory position of the © Society; the membership has increased, and no less than eleven new members were admitted on one evening. The financial statement, together with other items of interest concerning the progress of the Society, will be found recorded in the report from the Council, published in another portion of the Journal. Considerable interest was taken by the members in the proceedings at the monthly meetings, and the four popular Science Lectures were well attended, not only by the members, but also by the general public. In some instances the available room was not sufficient to accommodate all who wished to be present. This attempt by the Society to popularise science in Sydney is to be commended, and should be continued. It speaks well for the active interest in science, that members are willing to undertake the great ’ trouble of preparing lectures of the nature of those so far given, and such effort must tend eventually to awaken more general interest in scientific subjects. The Society is, therefore, grateful to Mr. H. C. Andrews, B.A., Mr. James Nangle, Mr. W. M. Hamlet, F.I.c., and to Professor W. H. Warren, for delivering these lectures dur- ing the year. A—May 6. 1914. — ae aA ~~ 7 rhein ion : ; ah 2 H. G. SMITH. Obituary.—I will now refer briefly to those of our mem- bers who, during the year, have been removed by death. This Society did itself the honour, and at the same time expressed approval of the scientific efforts of Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, when, in the year 1895, it elected him as one of its Honorary Members. Although 90 years old when he died, yet, his scientific life had been one long period of strenuous activity and continuity of purpose. He will perhaps be best remembered as an advocate for and co-worker with Darwin in the exposition of the cause of natural selection, and in the time to come when scientists of the next generation shall look back on the efforts of the workers of this, one of the names to be remembered with appreciation will be that of Dr. Wallace. The message he has left to usis one of encouragement, and suggestion, and we recognise that as one of the active men of his day he did his share in the forward march of scientific progress. Dr. Critchley Hinder was elected to this Society in 1896, and although he did not take a very active part in the affairs of the Society during later years, yet, his marked ability and activity in the field of surgery brought his name prominently to the front, and in this connection he became one of the best known practitioners in Sydney, if not in the whole State. Dr. Hinder graduated with honours at the Sydney Medical School in 1889, and was one of the second batch of graduates from that school. After filling various positions as a medical man, he was, in 1894, appointed . assistant honorary surgeon to the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, an institution with which he remained actively connected, until, at the time of his death, he held the position of second on the staff of full surgeons. He was lecturer and examiner in clinical surgery in connection with the University Medical School, and a member of the Faculty of Medicine. He greatly assisted in the establish- PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3 ment of the Western Suburbs Cottage Hospital, and was one of the founders of the Western Suburbs Medical Society. In 1909 he was elected President of the New South Wales Branch of the British Medical Association, and was Vice- President in the section of surgery at the Australasian Medical Congresses at Adelaide and Melbourne. In many other directions he took an active part in the progress and welfare of the people, and was a citizen worthy to be remembered. His death on the 14th September—brought about through an accidental wound obtained in the course of his professional duties—removed from among us one of — our most brilliant members, and from scientific surgery one of its best exponents. Dr. Hinder wrote numerous articles, and was the author of a copiously illustrated work “‘ Lec- tures on Clinical Surgery,’’ published in 1904. Mr. J. H. Goodlet, better known perhaps as Colonel Goodlet, was elected a member of this Society as far back as 1859, and was, at the time of his death, the second oldest member. When quite a young man he took an active interest in the work of this Society, and although not a contributor to the proceedings, yet, he continued to show his appreciation of its efforts untilthe last. It is, however, as a philanthropist that he will be chiefly remembered, and from his large hearted benefactions many institutions in New South Wales have greatly benefitted. His practical Sympathy with the sick was always in evidence, and his action in the establishment of the first home for consump- tives in New South Wales, was only one exampie of his continuous efforts to benefit the afflicted. He was treasurer to the Sydney Female Refuge for forty years, a director of the Sydney Hospital for many years, and he also took an active part in the affairs of the Benevolent Society, as well as many others. JBorn in Leith, Scotland, he came to Australia when but seventeen years old, and was seventy- eight years of age at the time of his death. 4 H. G. SMITH. Mr. Lewis Whitfeid, the well known Sydney Barrister, was elected to this Society in 1879. He was called to the Bar in 1888, and was in active practice to the last, as he appeared in Court on the morning of the day of his death. The suddeness of his death on the 28th June, when playing golf at Rose Bay, was extremely sad. He was a man highly respected, and his active assistance in the cause of scientific effort was shown by his long association with this Society. Mr. John Plummer, who died on the 9th March, 1914, was elected a member of this Society in 1896. He was connected with journalistic effort in New South Wales for: more than thirty years, and had previously been occupied with literary and statistical work in England. At one time he was sub-editor of the ‘‘ Morning Advertiser,’’ which position he relinquished to join the staff of the ‘‘Graphic.”’ In 1879 he came to Sydney as the representative of that journal at the International Exhibition in the Garden Palace. His sympathies were always with the efforts of this Society, and with scientific work generally. He was in his eighty-fourth year at the time of his death. Dr. C. Russell Watson, who died on the 24th January, 1914, was elected a member of this Society in 1876. For a great number of years he carried on his duties as a medical practitioner in Hrskineville, near Sydney, where he gained the respect and regard of all those who came into contact with him. His many acts of kindness and his’ benevolent actions generally, caused him to be highly esteemed, and the district has lost a good resident as well as this Society a good member. * * * * * * * The new buildings of the Institute of Tropical Medicine at Townsville, Queensland, were opened on June 28th. This institution has been established to deal specially with PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5 diseases peculiar to Northern Australia, and at the com- mencement of its existence was assisted by contributions from various Australian Universities. It is now supported by an annual grant of £4,000 from the Federal Government, as well as one of £500 from the Queensland Government. This is a direct recognition of the value to a country of systematic scientific research, and one might express a hope that this policy will be extended to the furtherance of research in other directions. That the results obtained by this institute may be as successful, and as advantageous to the people of Australia, as similar investigations under- taken in Africa and Central America have heen to the © inhabitants of those regions, is, Iam sure, the wish of every. member of this Society. A research of considerable importance now being under- taken at Cobar in this State, under the direction of the Rev. Edward F. Pigot, S.J., B.A., of the Riverview College Observatory, Sydney, is the investigation of the elastic rigidity of the earth, derived from the tidal deformation of our planet by the sun and the moon. This research on the “‘body-tides”’ or ‘‘earth-tides ’’ has been in progress in HKurope for a number of years, andinthe hands of more recent investigators, e.g., Schweydar (Heidelberg), Orloff (Dorpat), and above all, Hecker (Potsdam), remarkable results have been obtained by horizontal pendulums of extreme sensi- bility, with photographic registration. The curves obtained have, however, exhibited certain anomalous secondary features, and with the view of investigating these, a Com- mission of the International Seismological Association was appointed. The commission is establishing research stations in Asia, Africa, North America, and Australia, in addition to the Huropean stations already existing. The stations must be at a sufficient distance from the coast to avoid disturbing influences of the oceanic tidal wave, and 6 H. G. SMITH. for this}jreason Cobar was selected as the Australian station, this locality being 360 miles north-westerly of Sydney. The instruments have been installed there recently, ina disused portion of one of the mines, 430 feet below the surface so as to avoid thermal warping due to solar radiation. The registration of each station will be continued for at least two years, and the measurements and reductions will be carried out at head-quarters in Hurope. Perhaps the most momentous question which has arisen during the past year, concerning the health of the people, is the marvellous success which has attended the treat- ment of cancer with radium. The initial experimental stages have shown most satisfactory results, and the more that is known about the action of radium on growths of this nature, the more enthusiastic specialists become. Early this year, Dr. W. S. Lazarus-Barlow, of the Mid- dlesex Hospital, England, made some startling statements. when recounting the satisfactory results of treatment at that institution. The United States of America has shown considerable anxiety in reference to this question, and through the kindness of Mr. Radcliff, I have been able to read the reports of the inquiry on radium before the Com- mittee of Mines and Mining (The House of Representatives) held on January 19th last. Testimony to the efficacy of radium in the treatment of cancer was given by Dr. H. A. Kelly of Baltimore ; Dr. Robert Abbe, Senior Surgeon, St. Luke’s Hospital, New York City; Dr. H. R. Gaylord, Director, State Institute for Study of Malignant Disease, Buffalo; and Dr. C. F. Burnham, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore ; who all certified to the splendid results they obtained with radium, and Dr. Kelly declared that radium was the most remarkable therapeutic agent which has ever been put into the hands of man, and that it had far greater curative effects in cancer than had been hitherto suspected. The cry was in all cases for more radium, so that even PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 7 more satisfactory results might be obtained, and attempts. are being made in that country to give the Government greater control over the production of radium, and to a certain extent a monopoly of all deposits of carnotite,. pitchblende, or other ores containing radium in sufficient quantity for extraction, in lands belonging to the United States. At the present time, no less than 75,000 people die annually in the United States from cancer, and if it is only possible to save ten or fifteen per cent. of these by this method, then any expenditure of money in the preparation | or purchase of the necessary radium would be justified, if it could be obtained. The German Government, progressive as ever, gave last year a million marks with which to purchase radium, to be used in their teaching institutions and hospitals for public work. Important as this question must be to those countries whose populations are large, yet, itis just as important to us in Australia, as the deaths in this country from cancer are proportionate to those of other countries, and we should not be behind in the en- — deavour to save to the nation the lives of those who are now shown to die unnecessarily. Mr. Knibbs, the Com- monwealth Statistician, informs me that the deaths from the various forms of cancer in the Commonwealth during the year 1913 numbered 3,603. During the year one of our members, Mr. S. Radcliff, brought under the notice of the Society, and the world generally, the methods adopted by him at the works at Woolwich, near Sydney, in extracting the small amount of radium from the ore deposits at Olary, South Australia. This ore was found by Huropean chemists to be difficult of treatment, so that buyers could not be found for it. It is thus creditable in the extreme that the possibility of profit- ably treating the ore locally has been shown. ‘The success of the process adopted depends largely on the fact that it 8 H. G. SMITH. is possible to extract the radium without having to decom- pose the whole of the mineral constituents in the ore, and when it is considered that the material treated contains only one part of the element radium in 214 million parts of ore, it is seen how intricate the process becomes, and how carefully the manufacture must be carried on. Under such conditions as maintain in this and similar ores, it is hardly to be expected that radium will ever be cheap, although even at its present price a lot of radium could be purchased for the cost of a modern battleship. When the mineral deposits of the little known portions of Australia shall be systematically prospected, it is very probable that more extensive deposits of radium bearing minerals will be discovered, and production thus increased. It is worthy of consideration, therefore, whether the needs of our own people are not sufficiently imperative to demand the retention in Australia of our own material, until home requirements are satisfied, even if the State finds it neces- sary also to undertake the manufacture of the radium itself, in order to augment the supply. ; _ Itis, however, the scientific aspect of this question which appeals more strongly to us, because we recognise that all such discoveries must result in increased stimulus to further physical and chemical researches. Weare only just on the threshold of the utilisation of minute quantities of matter, and the advantages of these, both in the animal and vege- table kingdoms, will be more and more brought out as research proceeds and satisfactory results accumulate. The Australian Antarctic Expedition under Dr. Douglas Mawson has now returned to Australia, having completed the work it set out to accomplish. This Society took advantage of the opportunity when the leader was in Sydney to tender to him a hearty welcome on his return to Australia, and the Society’s rooms on that. occasion were PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9 well filled by members wishing to do honour to him and to his brave companions. The forced detention of Dr. Mawson and some other members of the expedition in Antarctica for a longer period than was intended, should be the means of adding considerably to the magnitude of the scientific results obtained by the expedition generally, so that the delay may be advantageous after all. We are anxiously waiting for the further statement of these scientific results, and Dr. Mawson proposes making an announcement during the visit of the British Association in August next. Some of the general scientific results from the expedition were recorded and explained by Mr. Cambage in his Presidential | Address of last year, and these indicate the extent of the observations and the efforts of the members to carry out successfully the duties allotted to them. How much Aus- tralia is likely to be advantaged by the results of the expedition will be seen later, for it must necessarily be some time, perhaps years, before all the scientific data can be systematically arranged. We must wait, therefore, for the publication of the promised volumes to see in what directions these data help towards a general scientific advance. That progress will be considerable in certain directions cannot be doubted, and the results of the labours of the members of this expedition will show that Australia is not behind in the effort to advance the scientific know- ledge of the world, nor in the ability necessary to carry it out to a successful issue. Symon’s Meteorological Magazine for July, 1913, speaks eulogistically about the inclusion of the Antarctic regions within the system of daily reports, and congratulates Dr. Mawson on the realisation of what was but recently a fantastic dream. | Another matter for congratulation in connection with the progress of Antarctic Research is the approaching issue 10 H. G. SMITH. of some of the scientific results of the Shackleton Hxpedi- tion. Professor T. W. Hdgeworth David, F.R.S., B.A., etc., has just returned from Hurope, having there completed and prepared for press the first volume of the geological reports of that expedition. lam sure we all congratulate Professor David on the completion, so far, of a work of such magni- tude. The meeting of the British Association in Australia this year is such a momentous epoch in the scientific life of this country, that every effort should be made to render the meetings to be held here in August next as successful as possible. That the British Association should have decided to hold its annual meeting in 1914 so far from the centre of the Empire, is indeed a compliment to us, and a recog- nition of the efforts of the scientific workers of this young country. This visit will act as a stimulus to the aspira- tions and ambitions of Australian scientists, and encourage them to work with renewed energy in the future. The liberal financial assistance given to this undertaking by the Federal and State Governments—described in detail in the Presidential Address of last year—is a matter for gratifi- cation on all sides. We, asa Society, are not unmindful of this generosity, and fully appreciate the help thus given. The British Association has, since its inception, done much to foster a progressive scientific spirit throughout the British Dominions, and has followed, in this particular, the policy enunciated in the preface to the first report in 1831, a paragraph in which reads as follows:—“‘ witha just sense, therefore, of the consequences to Science of combining the Philosophical Societies dispersed throughout the provinces of the Empire in a general co-operative union.’’ We in Australia can reciprocate the spirit of such a policy, and endeavour to do our share towards its consummation. I take this opportunity of expressing my thanks to the Honorary Secretaries and to the Honorary Treasurer for PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ll the manner in which they have conducted the affairs of the Society during the year. It is not generally recognised how much valuable time is given by these Honorary Officers in the interest of the Society, but the preparation of the annual volume, the library management, the arrangement of the financial affairs of the Society, the correspondence and many other duties all demand considerable attention and exacting service. In this connection, I would direct your attention toa matter of some moment tothe Society. As youare aware our highly respected Honorary Secretary, Mr. J. H. Maiden, has expressed a wish to retire from that office. It is now 21 years since Mr. Maiden was first elected to the position of Honorary Secretary, and with the exceptions of the years 1896 and 1911 when he was your President, his services have been continuous. His efforts have always been willingly given to further the welfare of this Society, and his natural ability for organising and his methodical methods have enabled its affairs to proceed smoothly and efficiently. The Royal Society is under a great obligation to Mr. Maiden for his unselfish devotion to duty, and for his endeavours to increase its importance as a scientific institution. He has always been ready to help in every possible way, and we all regret that he has now ceased to hold the position of Honorary Secretary. We wish him long life, continued health, and energy. Although he retires from the office of Secretary, yet the Society will continue to have his advice and counsel in the direction of its affairs. * * * * * * * I now come to the main portion of my address, and ask you to bear with me while I endeavour to explain to you some features brought out by the study of our: Native Flora. I have to thank my colleague Mr. Baker for botanical advice and assistance, and my Laboratory Assistant, Mr. Randle, 12 HG. SMITH. for the preparation of the ashes. I need hardly say that I have taken full advantage of the resources of the Techno- logical Museum. The value of the chemical factor in the study of Plants. When choosing the subject for this address it appeared to me that the time was opportune to review the results so far obtained from the phytochemical investigations which have formed the principal portion of the research work of the Technological Museum during recent years, and endeavour to show in what directions these data appear to assist the establishment of broad generalisations, the correct understanding of which would go far towards securing important economic results. It is now more than twenty years since my colleague (Mr. R. T. Baker, F..s.) and I first commenced our joint investigations into the economic possibilities and scientific characters of certain groups of the indigenous flora of this continent, a study which has been continued to the present time. During this period, the chief botanical and chemical features—more or less complete—of about 160 distinct species of Kucalyptus have been collaterally determined, while practically the whole of the coniferous trees of Australia have been similarly treated. Besides these largersystematic investigations many species of Melaleuca, growing in eastern Australia, have been worked in a corres- ponding manner, as well as several other species belonging to different genera. A considerable amount of general evidence in a new direction has thus been collected, the consideration of which should make it possible to offer some reasonable suggestions as to the manner in which certain chemical phenomena appear to have influenced the botanical char- acters of some of these plants, or at least, to have become in contemporaneous agreement with those morphological PESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13 distinctions which go to differentiate the several species in the larger Australian genera. It might perhaps be accepted that real insight into the constructive unity of the plant would be more satisfactorily obtained from the consideration of results derived from separate lines of investigation, and no objection can now be taken to the conclusions arrived at from specialised effort in any direction, so long as it assists the object in view. Botanical science already relies upon the efforts of workers in many sections, such as those of morphology, anatomy, cytology, physiology, and ecology, all these being | in co-operation with the systematic side. But it is now shown that some of these sections are particularly depend- ent upon the results of chemical reactions, the principal efiect of which may be observed in well defined botanical changes, these eventually becoming quite distinctive in character, and as such are now recognised. The time absorbing and exacting nature of extensive chemical investigations in directions sufficiently compre- hensive to enable generalisations to be undertaken, is, perhaps, one reason why some biologists have, in the past, not always been prepared to take advantage of such evid- ence as is to be derived from extended chemical studies carried out in parallel directions with their own, and on the same or similar material. If the results of the chemical work with the principal Australian genera have been help- ful to my botanical colleague, certainly his investigations on the same material have greatly assisted my conclusions. This co-operation necessarily broadened the outlook in both directions and offered considerable advantages to thought and suggestion, while enabling a deeper insight to be obtained into some of the problems underlying the evolu- tionary formation of these genera and of their peculiarities of distribution. 14 H. G. SMITH. The demonstrated results of life effort are now recognised as being largely due to chemical action, and extended investigations of the chemical and physical causes which are responsible for these changes would throw considerable light on the metabolic processes of the plant, the value of the results being, of course, governed largely by the extent of the observations, and on the completeness with which they have been undertaken. Professor Vines has admitted that in studying the differ- entiation of the cell wall the botanist received valuable aid from the chemist, and research in this direction probably began with Payen’s discovery that the characteristic and primary chemical constituent of the cell wall is a carbo- hydrate which he termed cellulose. This is only one of numerous instances of appreciation; but it is to the slow accumulation of isolated chemical facts such as this, that we may hope to arrive at more definite conclusions as to the chemical reactions by which pronounced anabolic changes are brought about, and the directions in which the substances thus formed are utilised. Darwin was evidently convinced that chemical conditions influence greatly the growth and characterisation of plants, because in the first chapter of the Origin of Species he writes :—“‘such facts as the complex and extraordinary out-growths which variably follow from the insertion of a minute drop of poison by a gall producing insect, show us what singular modifications might result in the case of plants from a chemical change in the nature of the sap.” It would be possible, of course, to multiply references of a Similar nature, but these are sufficient to indicate the opinions of workers generally on the effect of chemical influences in the establishment of natural floras. In dealing with genera of economic importance it is, of course, the utilitarian side of the question which dominates, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 15 and commercial progress must be advantaged when proper value is attached to the results of chemical work, if this is able to supply the evidence required. Morphological characters are not always sufficiently distinctive to enable important differences to be determined, and with certain genera discrimination is difficult between species the botanical features of which have very much in common. For instance, one species may yield in quantity a substance which has, or may have, considerable economic importance, while another species, thought perhaps by some to be identical with it, has no economic possibilities in a similar direction. If these distinctive peculiarities are eventually found to be definite throughout the whole extent of the distribution of the species, then such a constancy of specific character, in this direction, is shown, that it becomes desirable to investigate more deeply the morphological and other features, so that these may be arranged in agreement with the combined botanical and chemical evidence. When examined under such a suggestion it may be expected that differences which originally appeared not to be particularly worthy of notice for specific purposes, would become well defined characteristics, and thus allow discrimination between them to be easily made. Such has been our experiences during the investigations, so far undertaken with the Melaleucas, the Callitris and the EKucalypts. Melaleuca genistifolia and its allied species will furnish one illustration in support. M. genistifolia was first described by Dr. Smith in 1776. In 1858 Baron von Mueller named a species M. bracteata, which tree has botanical characters somewhat closely resembling M. genistifolia. Bentham certainly thought so, because in the Flora Aus- traliensis he there synonymised them. The chemical evidence is conclusive that the two trees are quite distinct, so much so, that all doubts are now set at rest, and the 16 H. G. SMITH. botanical differences which Mueller saw are now shown to be distinctive. The essential oils obtained from the leaves by steam distillation are alone sufficient for the purpose, as these are distinctly different in the two trees, that from M. genistifolia has no possible commercial value, as it con- sists very largely of pinene, between 80 and 90 per cent. of the oil being that constituent, and it does not appear to contain in any degree the characteristic constituent of the oil of the other species. The oil of M. bracteata consists very largely of methyl-eugenol—a constituent heavier than water—while the very small amount of terpene present is pbellandrene. The oil also contains a small amount of an ester of cinnamic acid, a little cinnamic aldehyde, and some eugenol. None of these constituents occur in the oil of M. genistifolia. Surely these two plants must be distinct. The yield from M. bracteata is about one per cent., so that it produces an oil containing methyl-eugenol in larger amount than is obtainable from the leaves of any other known plant. Since the first results were published the Technological Museum has received material of M. brac- teata from Kinbombi in Queensland, hundreds of miles from the previous locality. The oil from this material was identical in character with that from New South Wales, showing the constant nature of this chemical character. If the time ever came when it might be desirable to culti- vate M. bracteata for its oil, it would not do to substitute M. genistifolia, the closely agreeing botanical characters notwithstanding. wit , The correct position of M. trichostachya with that of M. linariifolia has also been decided in a similar manner. The leaf oil of M. trichostachya is rich in cineol and the species may thus eventually be of some commercial import- | ance, but M. linariifolia has no economic value in a like direction. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 17 Differences of a like nature are even more strongly emphasised with the several species agreeing somewhat in botanical features with M. leucadendron. When these chemical characters have been definitely determined, botanical differences often appear more dis- tinctly marked, so that specific features are not likely to be again mistaken. The acceptance of such economic influence towards discrimination does not in any way detract from the value of specialisation in the higher branches of botanical science, for indeed it must rather be considered as helpful, suggest- ing perhaps the existence of peculiar conditions, in certain directions, which previously were indifferently noticed or not understood. A scientific discovery often has immediately a commercial value, but while the latter is, from a scientific point of view, subordinate to the former, yet, the study from the economic side often gives the necessary stimulus to effort, and promotes activity in the endeavour to solve the more scientific problems, often with the idea that the result may ultimately be of monetary value. Many of the facts of theoretical science have been the outcome of economic work, and have often been suggested from the practical side. This suggestion has been demonstrated over and over again during the remarkable progress which has taken place in specialised organic chemistry during the last fifty years, and many of the laws governing constitution and construction of organic compounds have been the outcome of effort directed by economic considerations. Is it not then to be expected that chemical laws governing the growth of, and the formation of plant constituents, as well as those which lead to special peculiarities, will be dis- covered ina similar way, when economic considerations require that the subject shall be studied with that care, B—May 6, 1914. 18 H. G. SMITH. skill and perseverance which have made modern organic chemistry such a splendid consummation ? It is, perhaps, to be regretted that the prosecution of pure science, in many directions, is now so largely dependent upon the commercial aspect, and that the idea of carrying on scientific work for the pure love of it, regardless of all monetary considerations, is so rapidly becoming obsolete. But nevertheless whatever may be the stimulus to scientific effort the results are the same, and all tend, in one direc- tion or another, to the betterment of human conditions. In Australia the circumstances are such that the tendency is to devote larger effort to the investigation and discrim- ination of economic material; but even so, the opportunity for deeper study is also present, and it is desirable that the relations of trees to their environment, the influences which have enabled certain forms to survive adverse conditions, the development of species and distribution of particular genera, and the reasons for predominance of certain struc- tural characters, so pronounced throughout the members of some groups, should be more deeply investigated. It is upon the results of experimental work that we may hope to establish these broader generalisations, and in this direction those from chemical research would be perhaps the most helpful. The discrimination between species alone, if this be the object of the work, may be considered as the least valuable of all these investigations, as such decisions, when so restricted, do not enable us to under- stand the general causes which have been responsible for generic structural differences. The work so far carried out in this way with the Callitris of Australia has added to the knowledge of the general characters of the group, and this result was largely made possible by the co-ordination of the results of both botanical and chemical investigations. The peculiarities of the genus PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 19 were thus more completely indicated, and the contempor- aneous alterations, both in botanical features and chemical constituents, could thus be followed throughout the series. In the foliage of Callitris spp. the secretion of essential oil takes place in one or more pockets hidden in the summit towards the free ends of the adnate decurrent leaves, and in the numerous sections observed the secretion glands show no passage to the outer air. It thus appears that with the Callitris there is no exhalation of the essential oil product, this apparently being utilised by the plant in other ways. Although the oil constituents vary consider- ably in the various species, yet, these are comparatively constant for each, and it does not matter how extensive is their natural geographical distribution the results are the game. The yield of oil for each species is also fairly con- stant, indicating also a uniformity insecretion. The form- ation of the alcohols borneol and geraniol in the oils of the Callitris is also in a uniform direction. In those species which, perhaps, constitute the oldest members of the genus now living in Australia, the greater portion of the ester consists of bornyl-acetate, but as the genus evolved, the latter ester increased in amount until in the oils of certain species growing on the extreme eastern portion of the continent, and in Tasmania, it had entirely supplanted the bornyl-acetate, and at the same time had increased in per- centage amount. By analysis it was possible to follow the diminution of the one ester, and the corresponding increase of the other, and also to show that when the bornyl-acetate had been quite supplanted that the free alcohol was entirely geraniol. As the chemical characters changed the botanical features altered in agreement. The comparative constancy of individual species, in both botanical and chemical directions, is so definite that there is little fear that subsequent investigations will upset con- 20 H. G. SMITH. clusions based on evidence of this nature, but rather that. further study will demonstrate more completely the indi- cations of divergence so obtained. Whatever may be the object of the plant in the formation of these particular essential oil constituents, it seems evident that definite lines of molecular arrangement are followed, and it is possible that the formation of these characteristic constituents is a part of the economy of the plant, leading to the completion of the metabolic processes of the particular species in which they occur. It thus appears that the influences directing the formation of these chemical products are practically constant,.even under diverse conditions of natural growth, so that the products thus formed have a discriminative value and bear a constant relation to other structural characteristics of the plant. This chemical feature thus becomes really of morphological value, as much perhaps as either a fruit or a bud, although the identification is more subtle, and it is of course, less. easily available for observation. It would be well if the chemical characters of the closely related genera of Africa, Tetraclinis of the north, and Widdringtonia of the south, were determined so that the origin and method of distribution of these, together with Callitris, might be more satisfactorily followed. Dr. Henry has shown that the sandarac resins of Callitris and of Tetraclinis are similar, but more complete investi- gation with the exudations of all the species of the three genera would probably show a gradation in the percentage amounts of the chief resin acids or resinoids, the arrange- ment of which in proper sequence—together with the determination of their leaf oil constituents—would probably - assist greatly their classification. The leaf oils of Tetra- clinis and of Widdringtonia have not so far been chemically determined, so that comparison in this direction with those PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. — 21 of Callitris cannot yet be made. The knowledge of the identity of the predominant terpene in these African oils, together with that of the composition of their esters, whether bornyl- or geranyl-acetates, would probably assist towards suggesting a theory to account for the territorial distribution of the three genera. That they are very old seems conclusive, and that they were originally distributed over land connections now no longer in evidence seems also a reasonable conclusion. Professor Saxton, from his studies with Tetraclinis, recently published in the Annals of Botany, thinks that the southern sub-family Callitroidece were derived from the essentially northern sub-family Cupressoidecw, and from the available evidence suggests the former existence of a great Antarctic continent with a land connection between Southern Africa and southern Australia. It will probably be found that pinene was the earliest terpene in the leaf oils of these sections of the Coniferex, and that the other terpenes and oxygen bearing compounds developed later. Such aresult would bein agreement with those already obtained with some other large and ancient genera. The most important result so far derived from the phyto- chemical studies with the genus Eucalyptus, and the closely — related genus Angophora, is, perhaps, the intimate connec- tion shown to exist between the leaf venations of the mature lanceolate leaves of the several species and their | essential oil constituents. This striking correlation enabled suggestions to be formulated, particularly in respect to. Eucalyptus species with closely agreeing characters, which | when followed up led to a more intimate acquaintance with the genus, and, perhaps, has also been the means of stimu- lating research by workers in other directions, with very gratifying results. This frequently recurring agreement 92 H. G. SMITH. between the salient points, both botanically and chemically, appeared to point to important functional characteristics, so that it has been possible to suggest, with perhaps more than a degree of probability, the line of descent followed during the evolution of this most extensive Australian genus. The comparative constancy of chemical constituents in the products of individual species—essential oil, astringent. exudation, tannin, etc., suggests the idea that each species acts as if it were a chemical factory, manufacturing par- ticular chemical constituents, under natural conditions, according to a specific formula. What these conditions of formation are it should be our endeavour to determine. It. does not matter bow extensive the distribution of the species, the chemical constituents are still in agreement, and this has been found to be the case with members of the same species growing both in Tasmania and on the main- land, districts hundreds of miles apart. These agreeing results seem tosuggest that the establishment of the species. itself is largely governed by the chemical requirements of the tree, particularly in its earlier stages. If the con- ditions of growth still remain in conformity with original factors the species continue, generation after generation to repeat, in every detail, both the botanical and chemical features characteristic of the tree. This has been well demonstrated with several Hucalyptus species common to both Australia and Tasmania, which were evidently quite definitely fixed long before Tasmania was separated from the mainland, a period sufficiently long for some species. peculiar to the island to have definitely established them- selves. Available evidence also indicates that a few species have found conditions of separation not so congenial, | the struggle to overcome certain adverse conditions having brought about changes not difficult to trace. Here we PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 23 have, now proceeding, perhaps, evidences of the influences which in the dim past have largely been responsible for the original establishment of the numerous species and groups of the genus, which have thus become not only divergent but progressive. It seems then not unreasonable to consider that if sufficient time were allowed for the completion of the changes now proceeding that the several groups of the genus Hucalyptus, as we know them to-day, would eventu- ally establish themselves as new genera of the Myrtaceeze. Hooker, in his Flora of Tasmania, evidently felt a difficulty in discrimination, because, when writing from the botanical standpoint, he says, ‘‘that it is much easier to see peculiarities than to appreciate resemblances, and that important general characters which pervade all the mem- bers of a family or flora are too often overlooked or under- valued.”’ To assist in the endeavour to attach their true value to these important general characters of the genus Kucalyptus is, [ am sure, the ambition of all workers upon these scientifically interesting and economically valuable trees. The genus Angophora furnishes considerable evidence, both botanically and chemically, in the direction of showing that the Corymbosece is perhaps, the oldest of the many groups into which the genus Hucalyptus divides itself. The venation of the mature lanceolate leaves is the same, the chemical constituents of the essential oils are similar, the exudations are in agreement, and the general morphological features have strong resemblances, excepting, of course, the important character of the Eucalypts, the operculum. The genus Angophora is probably a very old and perhaps a decaying one, and originally may have had a much more extensive distribution in Australia. It does not appear to have had the power to adapt itself generally to the changing ; r a? 24 H. G. SMITH. conditions of soil and climate in the same way that Hucalyptus had, and this is illustrated by the fact that the leaf oils of the Angophoras are all practically identical in composition, while the exudations of the species are also similar. The principal terpene in these oils is pinene, and this has an identical specific rotation in all the species, a constancy so very different from that found in Eucalyptus. The ester is geranyl-acetate and this also occurs in very many species of Hucalyptus, reaching a maximum in H, Macarthuri. | These results taken together seem to indicate that the constituents of the oils of the earlier members of the genus Eucalyptus had their origin in those of the genus Angophora if not in a still older one. From the Corymbosece group the genus Eucalyptus evolved in various directions, and to enable the conditions adverse to distribution to be overcome, both the botanical features and chemical characters underwent considerable changes. The mature lanceolate leaves altered consider- ably the disposition of their veins, denoting eventually the presence of eucalyptol (cineol) in their oils, or of that of the terpene phellandrene in those of the more recent species. The form and structure of their anthers and of their seed- lings changed in agreement. The appearance of their barks became more diverse, and distinct groups were established considered on a cortical classification; while the texture, hardness and general characters of the woods of the several groups varied considerably. The tannins and astringent exudations are also shown to have been correspondingly under the influences of the factors which were instrumental in bringing about changes in the genus; constituents characteristic of the exudations of earlier members continue for a time and then are found no more, while even the tannin in the members of the later STOUps is not the same substance as that in the earlier. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 25 - These distinctive changes, which can now be somewhat readily followed, suggest the evolutionary formation of the several species and groups. The extended period which must have elapsed before the species succeeded in reaching such definiteness in general features, indicates also a con- siderable age for the genus, and suggests the probability that these changes have been by slow and almost imper- ceptible stages. The evidences which have so far accumulated appear to point to chemical influences being largely the direct cause of these distinctive changes, and our knowledge of the . groups would be greatly advanced if it were possible to discover the mechanism of these chemical reactions. That they are physiological in effect is evident, and it is to the results of extended study in this branch of science that we may hope to understand more and more those complex chemical reactions, ever at work building up distinct organic material from very simple substances. The results of Plant Metabolism are, perhaps, more often considered as directly traceable to the effects of organic influences, than to those in which inorganic constituents appear to play a more important part. It may even be suggested that the deeper consideration of these latter processes has so far been neglected; certainly this is so in comparison with those studies carried out from the strictly organic side. Itis generally recognised, however, that the available food of plants is intimately associated with the presence of certain elements, and metabolism does not appear to be able to proceed satisfactorily without their assistance. The methods whereby these inorganic elements—often present in most minute quantities—are able to assist in the synthetic production of these complex organic bodies are certainly not understood, and the presence of manganese 26 H. G. SMITH. for instance, in small amounts in all the species of Oallitris and Kucalyptus growing in Australia, does not suggest that this element, at all events, is there by accident. If it were possible to follow this substance through all its ramifications in the tree it would probably be found to be in unstable association, and a necessary factor in the pro- duction of more stable substances, if not even largely responsible for the very existence of the plant itself, Professor Bertrand, in an address before the International Congress of Applied Chemistry, discussed the role played by traces only of chemical substances in biological chemistry. He pointed out that besides the three or four elements which it is generally recognised go to form plant substances,. there may be more than thirty other elements which may be detected in the plant in minute proportions, even to less. than one 100,000th of the plant’s weight, but which play an important part in the life of the plant and in its develop- ment. As will be shown later with certain of the Hucalypts. this minuteness may extend to less than one in a million parts of anhydrous timber. It may be that the correct application of these minute quantities of mineral substances, which probably act as catalysts, would result in enormous economic advantages in production, and lead to increased formation in the plant of what at present are but rare and costly commodities. The discovery of radium and its influences on plant growth has stimulated enquiry in corresponding directions, and Stocklasa has shown that both uranium and lead nitrates, in small proportions, definitely augment vegetable growth and production, although having less influence than radium itself. The literature in regard to this subject of inorganic influence on plants is now somewhat extensive, from a perusal of which it may be seen that a considerable number of the so-called rarer elements have at one time or another PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 27 been detected as occurring in plants, as well as minute quantities of such common elements as copper, zinc, barium, etc. In one species of Hucalyptus copper was detected; this was found in the ash of the timber of the ‘‘ Ironbark ’” EK. sideroxylon, growing at Condobolin, and was separated in the metallic form. The general map published by the Mines Department does not include Condobolin in the cupriferous districts of New South Wales, but there is now no doubt but that copper does occur in that district as indicated by this Kucalyptus.* The repeated occurrence of manganese in the ash of the wood of the Australian Callitris led to an extended study as to position, and it was found that this element occurs in all parts of the plant; seeds, seed cases, leaves, bark, as well as in the timber, but alwaysin minute proportion. As the manganese is found in the ashes of all the species of Callitris it is reasonable to suppose that its presence is essential to the satisfactory growth of these trees, and is perhaps, as important in this connection as either potassium or phosphorus. These results with the Callitris led to further inquiry in the same direction with the other extensive Australian genus—Hucalyptus. So far as investigation has proceeded it is shown that manganese is also a constant constituent in the ash of all the species of this genus, and further, that. there is a remarkable uniformity between the percentage amounts of manganese in the ash of the several species belonging to the same group, and that this is irrespective of the location where the trees grow, even if these are hundreds of miles apart. It appears, therefore, that the uniformity in the amounts of this necessary food material, taken in conjunction, perhaps, with other ash constituents, have been granted near Condobolin to the north, for working copper, etc., indicated in Map Sheet 9 of the Mining Districts of New South Wales. 98 H. G. SMITH. may be connected in some way with the original establish- ment of the particular form and structure of the distinctive features which are characteristic of the species or group. The amount of manganese in the ashes of the timbers of all the species of the ‘‘Ironbarks’’ tested was in remark- able agreement, ranging from 1°5 per cent. in those of E. crebra and E. melanophloia to 1°15 per cent. in that of E. sideroxylon. If the presence of this element were an accident due to location of growth then there could not be this uniformity in percentage amount, and the presence of | Manganese in the soil in varying quantities may be thus a contributing factor to the distribution of these particular species. It is apparent, however, that manganese is a very widely distributed substance, for besides being found in all species of Callitris it most probably occurs in every species of Hucalyptus, and members of this genus extend over the greater portion of Australia. 3 Those Hucalyptus trees which grow on the higher and poorer lands appear to contain less manganese in their ash than those which require a soil richer in ordinary mineral plant food, and this again may account somewhat for the position where certain Eucalyptus species grow. This question of the natural distribution of the Kucalypts is one which has had particular interest for scientists for along time. It may be, however, that species location is more largely due to chemical influences, and as our know- ledge extends in this direction it may be possible to give, eventually, a satisfactory explanation as to why certain species of Hucalyptus, under natural conditions, grow luxuriantly in one place but not in another. Mr. Cambage in his Presidential Address of last year brought forward considerable data, which added to our knowledge regarding this question of Hucalyptus distribu- tion, and directed attention to the influences certain soils appear to have on the location of members of the genus. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 29 Dr. Cuthbert Hall informs me that he has experienced great difficulty with the seedlings of E. fastigata, E. dextropinea, and a few other species, and that he has been unable to grow the seedlings of these species beyond the second leaf stage, as with a very few exceptions they then all died, the soil apparently not being suitable. It is not possible, of course, to know the real extent of these influences until the chemistry of the species in its relation to the soil, on which it grows naturally, shall have been fully determined. Although the soil and its constitu- ents exert the chief influences upon the natural distribution of species, yet, altitude or climate, seems to be a con- tributing factor also. The conditions directing these influences are, however, at present very imperfectly under- stood, and it may be that one set of factors is the corollary of the other, both acting along parallel lines. | The marked differences in the characters and amounts of inorganic constituents which appear to be necessary to the natural growth of the different species, or rather groups of Kucalypts, arrests one’s attention; particularly when it is seen that there is roughly arelative constancy in require- ments with certain elements with the members of each group. This unconformity in mineral constituents with species belonging to different groups, but growing in close proximity to each other, seems to indicate that the solvent. action of the roots of the several species is not ofa uniform character, or else that certain of the mineral substances dissolved have a poisonous action upon some _ species, although necessary to the growth of others. Magnesium appears to be a necessary constituent for the growth of all species of Kucalyptus, and is one of the principal mineral constituents in the ashes of some of them. On the other hand calcium does not seem to be in such demand by the members of certain groups, although it is found in great 30 H. G. SMITH. quantity in the ashes of species belonging to some others, particularly those of the typical ‘‘Boxes,’’ (See Table II). Phosphorus is always present, although in certain species or groups it isin comparatively small amount, while in the ashes of all the ‘‘Stringybarks’’ and allied groups alumina was always detected, as well as a small amount of iron. Potassium was, of course, always present, although very small in amount in some species, as well as varying quan- tities of sulphur, and in some cases chlorine and sodium. The alkalis are more pronounced in the ashes of those species in which calcium is less abundant, and the largest percentages of phosphorus are found there also. A considerable number of Hucalypts, particularly those belonging to the groups in which calcium is a pronounced constituent, construct oxalic acid as one of the products of metabolism. In some species the oxalic acid is often pro- duced in such abundance that in some cases as much as one-sixth of the air dried bark consists eventually of calcium oxalate. These species, however, are usually of small size, | often occurring in the shrubby or ‘‘Mallee”’ form. It is hardly to be supposed that such Hucalypts would live long enough to enable them to grow into very large trees, so that the largest EKucalypts of Australia can hardly belong to groups the members of which are subjected to such adverse chemical influences. The gigantic Eucalyptus trees of this continent, as, for instance, those belonging to such species as H. regnans, EH. pilularis, H. Delegatensis, EK. obliqua, etc., only use calcium in comparatively small quantities, while magnesium is an important mineral con- - stituent in these trees. Species belonging to such groups do not, under ordinary circumstances, form oxalic acid in excess, nor other poisonous constituent, so that it is not unreasonable to assume, that under the most favourable conditions these EKucalypts could continue to construct their woody tissue for thousands of years. That these PESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 31 species are, however, easily susceptible to the effect of constructive poisons is indicated by the destructive effects of Loranthus when this parasite takes possession. A few years ago some fine trees of “‘ Blackbutt’”’ H. pilularis were growing in the neighbourhood of the Marrickville Railway Station. They became badly infected by the ‘‘ Mistletoe ”’ Loranthus sp., and after a time first one and then another died, until all were eventually destroyed. This result is, in certain localities, not an uncommon occurrence with the Kucalypts. It is, perhaps, largely due to the composition of the soil upon which these little ash-giving species choose to grow, and the comparatively small amount of the necessary mineral food available in like situations, that these par- ticular Eucalypts have acquired the power of almost dispensing with the necessity of storing mineral material in the trunk of the tree, perhaps with the object of not depriving the leaf portion of the required mineral food supply. It can be readily calculated how large an amount of mineral matter would be stowed away in the trunks of these enormous Hucalyptus trees, if the percentage was as large as that found in the timbers of the smaller trees of some other groups. The giant trees of HE. regnans growing in the Gippsland Ranges of Victoria are cases in point. These trees are sometimes over 70 feet in circumference, and nearly 400 feet in height. A sample of the timber from a smaller tree of this species from near Warburton in Victoria gave only 0°054 per cent. of ash, calculated on the anhydrous wood, so that a ton of this wood, when freed from moisture, only contained one pound three ounces of mineral substances. This result is quite in agreement with the ash contents of the timbers of other species belonging to this and closely associated groups, so that it may be assumed, from these data, that the largest trees of this species of Kucalyptus only store up mineral matter in their on ln ws s s ” ? 4 © 5 o2 H. G. SMITH. timbers to the extent of about one pound to 2,000 pounds of anhydrous wood. ‘Taking the percentage result of mineral substances as determined in the ash of HE. regnans as fairly representative, it will be seen, from the figures tabulated further on, that the amount of lime (CaO) in the timbers of these big trees would only be about one 15,000th part of the weight of the timber when calculated free from moisture. Although the amount of magnesia (MgO) is somewhat greater, yet, even this constituent only repre- sents about one 10,000th part of the weight of the anhydrous wood. It has been stated previously that manganese is a con- stant constituent in the Hucalypts generally, and it thus appears to be essential to the growth of these trees. The amount of manganese in the ash of the timber of EH. regnans was only 0°274 per cent.,sothat this element only represents one part in 676,000 parts of the anhydrous wood. The leaves of E. regnans, however, gave 2°85 per cent. of ash, this being in agreement with the amount obtained with the leaves of allied species. A Eucalyptus which often grows to a very large size in Eastern Australia is the ‘‘Blackbutt’’ E. pilularis. One of the local sights at Bulli in New South Wales is the big tree of this species which is growing near that place. It has a circumference of 59 feet, and is about 280 feet high. It is not difficult to suggest the distribution of mineral constituents in this tree also, as considerable data have been obtained from the timbers, as well as other portions of representative trees of this species. This material was collected from trees growing at the following widely dis- tributed localities, Ashfield, Thirlmere, Ulladulla, North Coast New South Wales, and Marrickville (two specimens). This species has been chosen for more extended investiga- tion because it is a good representative Eucalypt in New PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ao South Wales, and complete material could readily be obtained in the immediate neighbourhood of Sydney, although any other closely related species would, no doubt have served the purpose as well. The comparative con- stancy of the results with the mineral constituents in this species is remarkable, and it is evident that some directing influence must be responsible for this similarity in amount of mineral contents of trees of one species growing at localities so far apart. The highest ash content in the timbers of this species tested was 0°088 per cent. of the anhydrous wood. This — was obtained from a tree growing at Marrickville (tree No.1). The lowest amount was 0°029 per cent. from a commercial specimen from the North Coast, the next being 0°037 per cent. from another Marrickville specimen (tree No. 2). The mean of the six samples from the above localities was 0°0518 per cent. of ash, or one ton of the timber of this species would only contain about 1 fb. 24 ounces of mineral matter. From these agreeing results it may be expected that the big tree of EH. pilularis above mentioned will also be in agreement, and that the anhy- drous wood of its trunk probably only contains about one 15,000th part by weight of lime (CaO) and one 30,000th part of magnesia (MgO), while the manganese will only represent one part in about 900,000 parts by weight of the timber. It seems difficult to understand in what manner such minute portions of mineral substances could assist con- struction, if not largely catalytic. The results with two distinct trees of H. pilularis growing on the sandstone formation at Marrickville show, however, that trees which contain only about 0°05 per cent. of total ash in the wood have almost 3 per cent. of mineral matter in their leaves, while the buds and petioles contain about 3°8 per cent. The constituents of the ash of the leaves are in much the same C—May 6. 1914. 34 H. G. SMITH. ratio as in that of the wood, but the total quantity is nearly 60 timesasmuch. The manganese is also in larger amount in the ash of the leaves. The two specimens of E. pilularis from Marrickville were both in good condition and perfectly sound. No. 1 was growing at the foot of the sandstone cliffs, the other (No. 2) on the top of the hill beyond Cook’s River. The manganese might thus be more readily avail- able to No. 1, owing to its position of growth, than to the other. The results suggest that this is so, because the manganese is consistent in this direction with all parts of the trees. The top of the sandstone hills around Sydney could hardly be more unpromising for the presence of man- ganese, yet, the Kucalypts manage to find and use it. The results here tabulated are too uniform in character to permit the assumption that the minute quantities of manganese are not essential to successful growth. The closely agreeing percentages of manganese in the ashes of all the timbers of E. pilularis tested, are of such a nature that the idea of accidental inclusion can hardly be admitted. The uniformity which is shown to exist between the ash contents of the leaves and buds, as well as in that of the timbers of E. pilularis, and other species, indicate that these amounts can hardly be accidental, and the whole arrangement may be looked upon as nature’s method for making the most of the available mineral food supplies. The leaves would naturally fall to the ground in time, so that the mineral substances they contain would be again available for use, but if the same percentage amount had been stored in the woody portions of trees, which might, perhaps, live on for thousands of years, too large an amount of the limited supply would have been withdrawn, and this would naturally lead to exhaustion. It may, therefore, be considered that the small amount of ash in the timber of those groups associated with E. pilularis is the least PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 35 possible upon which these trees can continue to live and thrive. What necessary function the inorganic matter plays in the development of cellulose, as well as in other natural colloidal substances is not known, but that it is incidental to the vital processes of the plant can hardly be doubted. More complete and extended studies in colloidal chemistry, and a knowledge of the influences exerted by the enzymes, or organic catalysts, when considered with those of inorganic origin, would, no doubt, do much to solve many of the problems so closely connected with the . phenomena of vegetable life. The table (No. 1) gives the percentages and parts of ash and manganese in the portions of the trees treated. The species include representatives of the several groups into which the genus Hucalyptus naturally divides itself. The results show that the inorganic portions of the groups of trees are somewhat constant in character, and agree closely jo this respect with the organic chemical constituents of the various species of Kucalyptus. Perhaps it is for this reason that the organic chemical characters are of such a constant nature. It will be observed that the similarity existing between the members of the “‘Ironbark”’’ group, for instance, and between those of the ‘‘Boxes”’ is not peculiar, and that the two “‘Stringybarks,”’ E. macrorrhyncha and H. eugeni- oides also show agreeing results, while EH. obliqua is more in conformity with H. Delegatensis and EH. regnans, this being in agreement with the botanical evidence. H. botryoides is also shown to differ somewhat from E. saligna, while the two “‘Peppermints”’ EH. amygdalina and E. dives are in accord. The figures also indicate that of the ‘‘Iron- barks,”’ E. erebra would prefer to grow on land less rich in available basic mineral food material than would appear to be necessary for some of the other members of this group. 36 H. G. SMITH. E. sideroxylon approaches E. crebra in this respect while E. paniculata would appear to require good land similar to that chosen by the members of the “‘Box”’ group. The presence of manganese in the soil is essential for all, and it may appear remarkable perhaps that no matter whether the percentages of the total mineral substances in the timbers of the “‘ Ironbarks”’ be great or small the percentage of manganese in the ash is practically the same with all of them. The indication is that the “‘Boxes’”’ also, as well as the other groups will also show agreement in this respect when complete data shall be available. Table No. I. One part of ash in| One part One part Man- anhydrous pe cros parts ash material Percentage] Percen- of Ash in | tage of anhydrous| Mangan- material. jese inash £. pilularis (wood) Thirlmere ...) 0°051 | 0°200| 1960 500 980,000 Ashfield ...| 0°065 | 0:200/} 1538 500 769,000: Ulladulla ...; 0:041 | 0°260} 2438 385 938,630 North Coast | 0:029 | 0:210) 3448 476 | 1,641,248 Marrickville No. 1 tree} 0:088 | 0:220) 1136 455 516,880: F No. 2 tree} 0:037 | 0:200/} 2703 500 | 1,351,500 Mean of above calculated from} (:05]8!}| 0:215)| 1930 465 897,450: the ash and manganese percentages. £. pilularis (leaves) Marrickville No. 1 tree} 2 a No. 2 tree} 2: (buds with petioles) No. 1 tree} 3:79 led - No. 2 tree} 3:786 | 0°2 0 99 x9 99 5 34. ea 2,278 ‘25 37 | 400 14,800 33 26 75 1,950 33 26 | 430 11,180 (seed cases = fruits) No. 2 tree | 2°893 "15 35 | 667 23,345. (seeds) No. 2 tree ...| 1:044 | 0:316 964. 3ii7 30,432 EL. regnans (wood) Warburton, | 0:054 | 0°274; 1852 | 365 675,980 Victoria (leaves) ditto 2:851 | 0°666 35 | 150 5,250 E. macrorrhyncha (wood) Woodlands | 0:072 | 0°733/ 1390] 136 189,040 Table No. I—continued. E.. eugenioides (wood) Ilford .| 0:075 £. obliqua (wood) Monga .| 0:025 #. Delegatensis (wood) Laurel Hill | 0:038 £. amygdalina (wood) Moss Vale...| 0:033 (leaves) Braidwood | 3:852 E. dives (wood) Rydal | 0:059 £. botryoides (wood) Belmore ...} 0°152 i Milton .| 0°132 Lf. saligna , (wood) Newcastle ...| 0°08 », commercialsample 0-045 £. goniocalyx (wood) Delegate R. | 0:137 £. maculata (wood) Cooloongolook| 1:56 E. Smithu (wood) Hill Top ...| 0-482 £. hemiphloia (wood) Belmore tio £. Woollsiana (wood) Cobar | 0°716 £. albens (wood) Grenfell ...| 0-476 £. melliodora (wood) Colombo ...) 0°552 £. viminalis (wood) Tasmania ...| 0:161 », Black Mountn! 0-418 £. microcorys (wood) Dunoon ...} 0:582 £. paniculata (wood) Newcastle ...| 0-477 » stroud .| 0°348 £. siderophloia (wood) Thirlmere ...| 0-170 £. melanophloia (wood) Narrabri ...| 0-172 £. sideroxylon (wood) Condobolin | 0:072 E. crebra (wood) Thirlmere ...| 0-060 e Percentage] Percen- of Ash in anhydrous| Mangan- material. jesein ash tage of One part of ash in | One part parts an-) of Moin hydrous |parts ash. material. | 0-766! 1333 0:22 | 4000 0:30 | 2632 0:666| 3030 0:633 26 0-50 | 1695 0-833) 658 0:60 758 0-60 | 1250 0-733| 2222 0:333| 730 0:76 64 0:90 208 0-25 56 0:50 140 0-50 202 0-583/ 181 0:833| 621 0:566| 239 0-20 172 1-40 210 1:33 288 1:25 588 1:50 582 1:15 | 1390 1:50 | 1667 130 455 67 | One part Man- ganese in parts anhydrous material. 173,290 1,820,000 876,456 454,500 4,108 339,000 73,960 % 125,828 207,500 302,192 219,000 8,448 23,088 22,400 28,000 40,400 30,951 74,520 42,303 86,000 14,910 21,600 47,040 38,994 120,930 111,689 38 H. G. SMITH. * The Table No. II gives the percentages of phosphoric acid, lime, and magnesia, in the ashes of a few representa- tive species of distinct groups of Hucalypts. It was a difficult matter to completely burn the woods of the little- lime-containing species, like E. macrorrhyncha, E. pilularis, etc., as the ash was so readily fusible, this being due to the large amount of potash and other alkalis present. It might be thought, therefore, that these species would produce an abundance of potassium carbonate when burned, but unfor- tunately the total mineral contents in their timbers is. remarkably small, as can be seen from Table I. With the ‘* Boxes ’’ the ash is almost entirely lime, with little mag- nesia, and there seems to be a remarkable agreement in this respect with species of the several groups which have closelyfagreeing botanical characters. It is in the members of this group, particularly the species which contain the aldehyde aromadendral in their oils, that the greatest amount of oxalic acid seems to be: formed, so that the abundance of lime in these trees may be necessary to com- bine with the excess of this acid. The alkalis in this group appear to be just as small in amount as the lime is abundant; in the ash of H. albens the potash (as K,O) was 1°64 per cent., and this represented practically the whole of the alkalis present. It is thus not feasible to obtain potassium carbonate in quantity by burning the timbers of this group of Eucalypts. With the ‘‘Ironbarks”’ the lime is still in considerable amount, and the magnesia relatively increas- ing. Tbe alkalis in this group, although greater in amount | than in the “‘ Boxes,’’ do not appear to much exceed 25 per cent. of the total mineral constituents. The amount of magnesia in the ash-like timbers of EH. Delegatensis and EK. regnans is remarkable, even exceeding the lime in this respect, and the lime and magnesia taken together repre- sent—as carbonates—about three-fourths of the entire mineral constituents of these trees, consequently the alkalis PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 39 are comparatively small in this group also. This fact, taken together with the small ash yield, renders the timbers of these species of little use for the production of potassium carbonate. - se. Porphyries es Fis a ¢ It/ - @oul 2r000feelh= 11Nch hary Basa Be UU EAOM er, Hill ‘Bushy ie M'bidgee Vertical! scale and of the Ordovician and Silurian, ete. ’ 2Lmiles =s1nch Dairymans Horizontal Scale Inclusions of the in- truded schists are fairly common in the Cooma gneiss in certain places. Beyond Mittagang ' ‘ t] ‘ c flary Basalt, ooo ES Rew, an - / ‘ t 26 ‘I NS apes wo at) a) Life gee in , Piel hate => a We Le re Sito Ub . .\e ue fey fs awe nt § af ieee ane ap Se eo in ‘ Ul . r . | 4 thas me <() i asi NepRtANEe A fey dead NOSES ye Penhhes Uglies > F aie wt af Vests, f\ Old vailey of Ck rdoviciain Slates ke Upper M’bidgee Fig. 1 —#.W. Sketch section through Cooma, showing suggested relations of gneiss, schist, phyllite and slate, Bridge on the Murrum- 182 W. R. BROWNE. bucca Road these are found of lenticular shape about three feet long, and with a maximum breadth of about four inches. They occasionally consist of a hard outer shell of an inch or one and. a half inches thick, with a core of softer rotten schist. This may bea kind of case-harden- ing, due to the heat etc. of the eruptive rock. Partial digestion of the inclusions seems to have occurred, or their recrystallization, as exhibited in the cuttings just outside Cooma on the Berridale road. In general appearance the Cooma gneiss is very variable. Typically it has quite a granitic fabric and massive struc- ture, but at times it assumes a schistose appearance and develops a rude cleavage, particularly near its boundaries. Again, a typical gneissic structure may be exhibited, bands of light and dark minerals alternating, due in some cases to lit par lit injections of pegmatite, but often, I believe, to recrystallization at the time of metamorphism. Here and there are to be found dykes or bands of a more acid gneiss, consisting of quartz, felspar, and white mica, of the same general texture as the ordinary gneiss, but differing in the absence of black mica, The normal gneiss itself consists, megascopically viewed, of quartz, felspar and biotite in varying proportions, generally with a subordinate amount of white mica. Locally the acidity of the rock may be increased, while again, especially along the borders of some large pegmatite vein, the biotite content increases very largely, giving the rock a very basic appearance. Preliminary microscopic examin- ation shows the constant occurrence of topaz, and of little zircons with pleochroic haloes in the biotite. . The grain of the gneiss is asarule very even, but felspars up to 14 inches long and quartz grains up to 4 inches long occur, giving the rock in places a porphyritic appearance. These are evidently fragments which have resisted crusb- GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 183 ing, and would indicate that the original granite was either very coarse grained or else porphyritic. That they are not products of recrystallization their sparing distribution would show. The blue gneiss.—The extent of this, particularly to the north, has not been fully traced. The investigated outcrop occupies a fairly large area some distance to the west of the Sydney road between Bunyan and Pearman’s Hill, and is well developed at the point where the Murrumbidgee, in emerging from its V-shaped gorge in the Berridale table- land, executes a sharp S-shaped bend. Like the Cooma gneiss, the blue gneiss sends out numerous tongues into the surrounding rocks, and inclusions are frequent, also what look like basic segregations. For the most part the rock shows well-marked foliated gneissic structure, but as one goes westward across the outcrop between Governor’s Hill and the Murrumbidgee, one notices that about + mile from the edge of the intrusion the rock loses its gneissic appearance and becomes granitic, resembling, in fact, a normal biotite granite. Here, too, it weathers into the great rounded tors characteristic of massive granite. At the southern end of the main intru- sion there is a porphyritic and relatively acid facies, with pink, simply-twinned orthoclase phenocrysts measuring up to $inch by +inch. As has been mentioned, numerous dykes of blue gneiss are found, usually with the strike of the schists. A long dyke-intrusion can be traced along the Mittagang Road from the Cooma Creek bridge nearly as far as the waterworks distributing reservoir about a mile out of Cooma; further on the same dyke appears in a rail- way cutting, crosses the Sydney road, and eventually disappears under the basalt behind Cooma Railway Station. A probable continuation of this dyke northward would make its total length somewhere about 6 miles. The width 184 W. R. BROWNE. of the outcrop varies; in some places it is upwards of 100 yards, thinning considerably towards the southern end. The gneissic structure is very pronounced, and the basicity of the rock increases towards the south, megascopic free quartz disappearing and the layers of biotite giving the rock the characteristic bluish-black appearance from which the whole gneiss has been named. The white and pink gneisses.—Along the Sydney Road there is a long band of acidic gneisses which has been traced from a point 14 miles north of Tillabudgery Trig. Station as far as Pearman’s Hill, a total distance of over 53 miles, and which may extend farther north still. At Bunyan the outcrop is not less than 400 yards in width, and it forms a strong feature on the west of the Sydney road for some distance past the Cooma Creek bridge. Two varieties of gneiss are recognised. The white gneiss has in many places strongly marked gneissic foliation, the folia consisting of quartz and felspar alternately, with subordin- ate development of white mica in small flakes. Apparently of somewhat later origin, since it intrudes the white gneiss, is a pink rock strongly jointed, very compact and seen under the microscope to consist mainly of quartz, with very subordinate felspar, the whole stained with hematite, and possessing marked schistosity. The affinities of these two gneisses it has been found impossible to determine with complete satisfaction. Not far past Cooma Creek bridge the white and blue gneisses were found in close association, and what looked like an intermediate type of gneiss, very similar to the blue gneiss, but with very subordinate mica, was also seen. On the whole it seems as if the white and the pink gneisses were genetically related to the blue gneiss as later acid differ- entiates from thesame magma. A pink rock which intrudes the blue gneiss at Pearman’s Hill may bea phase of the pink GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 185 gneiss. It is however devoid of gneissic banding, and has more of the appearance of a felspathic porphyry. Amphibolite.—In the town of Cooma, 200 yards or so south of the R. C. Church, is an outcrop of amphibolite intrusive into the Cooma gneiss. The main outcrop is of rudely circular form, and about 50 yards in diameter. The rock consists largely of coarse amphibole crystals up to # of an inch long, medium and fine-grained modifications occurring in subordinate association. The first two kinds are massive, but the fine-grained rock is in places notably schistose, with bands of fine pegmatite running parallel to the schistosity. The mutual relations of the three varieties are obscure, the grainsize changing abruptly without any apparent reason. Interstitial white material in the coarse and medium- grained varieties probably represents felspar. Apophyses from the main mass are thrown out to both north and south; medium-grained amphibolite is found in the street between the R.C. Church and Convent, and a narrow dyke can be traced for upwards of halfa mile tothe south. Pegmatite veins seam the main outcrop in all directions, and the southward dyke is generally in close proximity toa narrow vein of pegmatite. Small isolated patches of amphibolite, usually not more than a yard or two in diameter, are found. One is on the north side of the Berridale road at the first rise out of ‘Cooma, having associated with it ill-defined dykes of fine- grained amphibole schist; another occurrence of coarse- grained rock is at Pine Valley, a little north of the Berri- dale road, and a third has been noticed to the west of the Mittagang road, near the S.W. corner of Portion 108. These last two occurrences, like that in the town of Cooma, are closely associated with pegmatite veins: the probable significance of this will be discussed later. 186 W. R. BROWNE. This amphibolite must be taken to represent an original dioritic or gabbroic rock intruded subsequently to the Cooma gneiss, but anterior to the large pegmatite veins. The pegmatites.—Pegmatite veins are distributed very widely among the crystalline metamorphic rocks, but in spite of this their relations to the surrounding rocks are by no means Clear in all cases. There have been three sepa- rate igneous intrusions in connection with which pegmatites might have been injected. With regard to the blue gneiss no evidence has been found to show that there was a proper pegmatitic phase of the intrusion: it is different with the others. The schists, particularly to the south and west of Cooma, are in places very strongly injected with pegmatitic material. Owing to the fact of the mottled gneiss and the Cooma gneiss having been intruded over very much the same area, it is often impossible to tell to which intrusion these injections aredue. Furthermore, both of the igneous gneisses have themselves been subjected to pegmatisation. This may be observed in the bed of Cooma Creek a few miles north of Cooma, at the head of Snake Gully near ‘**Kiaora,’’ and elsewhere. Long veinlets of pegmatite follow the lines of foliation of the gneiss, occasionally bulging out into lenticular masses. The sedimentary schists have been similarly affected, the little pegmatite stringers being very numerous, and following the puckerings and foldings of the schist. These veinlets are as a rule narrow, varying in width from 4 of an inch up to a couple of inches or so, although some in the Cooma gneiss attain a width of 6 inches. They consist for the most part of quartz and flesh-coloured felspar, with subordinate white mica and black tourmaline. Apparently distinct from these minor pegmatites, there have been observed a number of larger and more truly pegmatitic injections. The principal of these and their Priaciea!l outcrops of Cooma gneiss thus: former Probable, courses of ie Murrumbidgee ana Upper Murrumbidgee thus: *>-7* a 2 ‘ Mureumbidqee Faulr thus: ~~2 ~ Scale Positions of principal 1 pegmatite dykes Tus (25) Omares, t ° V2 ‘. F & GaN » >» ES e's 2 >) ; a z \) an 4 ° CH 2 ) v NG 1S ‘ s A 0 © ‘ B 3 unya aa, ¢ v ‘ : a | @ fe 3 ¢ Trpolite e a eX , = Q 5 b o t = ) & ’ o ra . & ‘ zig by 3 iaecos 1 2 NSA) BS? ci eth N W a8 SY) Oy ka 8 4 = . ) a ry , x + \< 77 \ we @ a Se SE SS Sar SS ae wee = - Approximate’ Sbuthern limit of present youthful fopsy y Coomaa [529] ringden Code 5 ° g g 3} ‘ 9 : fo) . S oO ; AN ee of ’ Z a ° > S- 3 < Ss 2 iS 2 > n > Brothers e593 yI20%8 JED Te] y 294) 188 : W. R. BROWNE. position relations to the Cooma gneiss, are indicated on the map (Fig. 2). They nearly all have an approximately meridional trend, and consist of quartz, felspar, mica and tourmaline; no other minerals have been recognized mega- scopically. Mr.O.F.Laseron, of the Technological Museum, Sydney, has kindly given mea piece of rock picked up by him near the Cooma pegmatite dykes, composed mainly of quartz and epidote. Unfortunately however, the relations of this fragment with the pegmatite could not be established although there is a strong probability of some connection between them. Graphic granite is a feature of all the occurrences, and there are also coarse irregular intergrowths of quartz and felspar. Occasionally a rude ‘“‘comb structure”’ is developed by the crystallization of large felspars growing towards the centre, the central space being filled with quartz. Mica, both white and brown, is developed, the latter sometimes being particularly noticeable along the sides of the veins with the short axes of the crystals parallel to the walls of the intrusion. Tourmaline often occurs in large segregations, but may also be irregularly distributed: in the Cooma veins the tourmaline occurs mostly along the boundary between the comb structure felspars and the central filling of quartz. There is at times a notable local increase in the basicity of the country rock in the vicinity of a pegmatite vein, expressed by a concentration of biotite along the margin of the intrusion. The dimensions of the veins are not in every case ascer- tainable, owing to the presence of a covering of soil. The occurrence west of Mittagang road appears to be about 20 feet wide, two others are 15 feet and 6 feet respectively, while those in the town of Cooma are not more than a foot or two in width. Some of them must have considerable GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 189 length: the main vein in Cooma has been traced south for about a mile, and it is probably the same which outcrops along the east bank of Cooma Creek a mile or so north of the town. None of the other outcrops have been traced for more than 150 yards. The contacts with the invaded formations are as a rule quite sharp. In the case of the Cooma pegmatite this is very marked indeed; here a great number of veins intersect the amphibolite and the gneiss, and in each case the hound- aries are very definite. In a number of the veins or dykes there is evidence of crushing subsequent to intrusion. This chiefly affects the margins of the dykes and shows itself in jointing parallel to the walls, and in marginal granulation of the pegmatite, producing a coarse aplitic-looking and rather friable rock. Most of the dykes exhibit this to some extent, but a notable exception is the Cooma pegmatite, which remains quite massive, this being possibly due to its being in the heart of the Cooma gneiss and so more effectively protected from crushing than those dykes which are among the less resistant schists. A certain amount of ragged-looking white mica often developed in the cracks of the felspars may be secondary. The relative proportions of quartz and felspar in these pegmatites are very variable, quartz being sometimes very subordinate and at other times the predominant mineral. The dyke at ‘‘Kiaora”’ is characterized by a number of elongated outcrops of quartz up to 8 or 10 yards in length, bordered by felspar and graphic granite. Quartz veins.—By the decrease and vanishing of felspar we have veins of tourmaline greisen and of quartz with tourmaline. These probably represent the last phase of pneumatolytic action, and have an origin similar to that 190 W. R. BROWNE. of the pegmatites, although no actual case was found of a pegmatite vein grading into a quartz vein. Quartz veins are very common among the altered rocks, often grooved and slickensided, and generally following the strike of the country. Some of them are metalliferous: mispickel occurs in one to the N.W. of ‘‘Kiaora,’’ and I understand that silver was formerfy mined in a quartz reef at the mouth of Slack’s Creek. Some of the barren quartz reefs which outcrop may be connected with the intrusion of the Berridale granite. The relations of the pegmatites and the gneisses, as has been said, are not at all clear. The Cooma gneiss is the most likely intrusion for the pegmatite to be connected with, but it may be noted that on the hill behind the R.C. Church in Cooma, the pegmatites intrude the amphibolite, which in turn appears to intrude the Cooma gneiss. More- over the well-defined boundaries of the veins would indicate the intrusion of the pegmatite after the complete solidifi- cation of the invaded rocks. On the whole, however, it seems most reasonable to suppose that the injections represent the pneumatolytic phase of the Cooma gneiss. As for the minor pegmatites—those narrow stringers which seam both gneisses and schists—it is hard to say whether they are all to be correlated as phases of the Cooma gneiss magma or not. The very striking, though not constant, association of pegmatite and amphibolite suggests that these two may represent complementary differentiates from the magma of the Cooma gneiss. This, however, is a matter which can only be determined, if at all possible, by laboratory investigation. (b) ORDOVICIAN.—While it is not intended at the present juncture to discuss the relations of the metamorphic series with the other formations, it may be remarked here that GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 191 there are strong indications of a gradual passage from the crystalline schists through phyllites to Ordovician slates. Going due west from Kiaora homestead, one notices that the Slack’s Creek phyllites appear to grade into dark micaceous slates which become less micaceous and more like ordinary slate. At McCarty’s Crossing, near the junction of Bridle Creek and the Murrumbidgee, are bands of hard dense blue-black slates interbedded with whitish- grey felspathic-looking slates, and dipping east. The black slates contain obscure marks of graptolites, which have been identified as such by Mr. W. 8S. Dun. Lithologically these slates are similar to those interbedded with the phyllites on Slack’s Creek, and appear to be of the same age. Going west along the Adaminaby road slates similar to those at McCarty’s crossing are found to occur as far as Wambrook Creek. I was unable to examine in detail the slates occurring here, but Mr. C. F. Laseron has kindly shewn me specimens of slates containing well-preserved graptolites, found by him some distance up Wambrook Creek from the road, and exhibited before the Linnean Society in1909.* Mr. Laseron has also very kindly furnished me with the following list of the graptolites represented:— Diplograptus foliacius (very abundant), Climacograptus bicornis, C. hastata (very abundant), Dicellograptus elegans, D. caduceus, D. affinis, (?) Pleurograptus. These slates are chiastolite-bearing, the presence of this mineral being due to contact metamorphism of the slates by the intrusion of the Berridale granite. Following the Adaminaby road past Wambrook Creek one meets with a succession of rotten slates, and farther on of quartzites, extending right on to the outcrop of the Berridale granite, about 14 miles out from Cooma. These + Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxxiv, 1909, p. 118. P | 1 ’ ny) ~ 192 Ww. R. BROWNE. rocks are assumed to be Ordovician, as by their strike they are somewhat to the east of the Geygedzerick Hill slates | mentioned below. Dense black slates outcrop between Cooma and Bunyan, and at Bunyan to a distance of 400 yards east of the Sydney Road. No fossils have so far been discovered in them, but their marked contrast with the Silurian slates farther to the east, and their lithological similarity to those west of Slack’s Creek, seem sufficiently striking to determine their age aS Ordovician. The exact eastern boundary of these slates is not known, its determination being rendered difficult by the quartz-porphyry intrusions, by cappings of basalt, and by the recent alluvials of Cooma and Middle Flat Oreeks. However there is a distinct difference in appearance between these slates and those outcropping further to the east which are definitely Silurian, so the Ordovician may be taken as having its eastern boundary approximately as given on the map. At Bunyan these slates have been locally silicified, or replaced by silica, with retention of their original cleavage and other characteristics. This I can only ascribe to the intrusion of the white gneiss: traversing across the strike one observes all gradations from evident gneiss to equally evident silicified slate; there is no distinct line of demar- cation between them. Although they are not included in the map, and are somewhat beyond the area dealt with, some mention must be made of the Ordovician slates of Geygedzerick Hill, 24+ miles N.H. of Berridale. Iam indebted in the first instance for information as to their existence to Mr. L. Grater, a science student at the University of Sydney, who kindly gave me.some specimens of the slates which he had picked up on the spot. The hill, or rather ridge, looks to be the end of a tongue of slates and quartzites almost surrounded by GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 193 granite, the quartzite being mostly on the lower slopes nearest the igneous rock, while the slates appear on top of the ridge. Contact metamorphism has produced a very dense black slate, only imperfectly cleaved, and exceedingly rich in chiastolites. These vary very much in size, some being of microscopical dimensions, while others are upwards of 14 inches in length. In spite of the alteration which they have undergone, the slates contain a great abundance of fairly well preserved graptolites, Tetragraptus, Didy- mograptus and Diplograptus being recognized. The pres- ence of these fossils in such a good state of preservation here and elsewhere, denotes that the cleavage planes of the slates coincide with the bedding-planes of the original sediments. It is interesting to note that the presence of chiastolites | in the slates of Geygedzerick Hill was observed by Rev. W. B. Clarke in 1851,! though, curiously enough, he seems to have failed to notice the graptolites, in spite of the fact that, on his own testimony, he was ever on the lookout for them in the slates of New South Wales. A small patch of dark blue limestone is interbedded with the slates at Pearman’s Hill. The outcrop is not more than 15 yards long by about 5 yards wide. The rock shows signs of great compression, and is crystalline; possibly this is due to the presence of the white gneiss a few yards away, that is of course, if the latter is really intrusive. A diligent search failed to reveal any fossils in the limestone. According to David, Helms and Pittman,’ the Ordovician rocks extend about 64 miles to the west of Berridale, where they are intruded by the Kosciusko granite. It is interest- ing to note that Mr. C. F. Laseron has recently’ found 1 Southern Goldfields, p. 115. ? Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S.Wales, xxv, 1901, p. 30, 3 Personal communication from Mr. Laseron. M—July 1, 1914. 194 W. RB. BROWNE. graptolite-bearing beds in the neighbourhood of Cobargo, which lies about 44 miles from Cooma in a direction roughly 10° S. of H. The slates are identical in appearance with those of Geygedzerick Hill and Wambrook Creek. The following forms were determined by Mr. Laseron:—Diplo- graptus foliaceus, - Climacograptus, Dicellograptus (2) gracilis, D. affinis. It would be interesting to trace the relations of these rocks to the Ordovician of Cooma and Berridale. The interposition of Silurian sediments to the east of Cooma suggests their deposition in.a trough or synclinorium of Ordovician rocks. (c) SILURIAN.—As the Ordovician lies, roughly speaking, to the west of Middle Flat and the Silurian to the east, and as, in spite of some discordances, the prevailing dip is towards the east, it is natural to assume that the upward sequence, or the sequence of deposition, for the Silurian beds is from west to east. That being so, the lowest sediments are slates, with interbedded limestone and brown quartzites, passing upwards into gritty sandstones, carbon- aceous shales and quartzitic sandstones alternating with bands of clay-shale. The limestone, carbonaceous shales and gritty sandstones are fossiliferous ; the other horizons are barren. ; The slates vary in colour, and are extremely cleavable and much jointed, splitting readily into small pieces. Their stratigraphical position is sufficiently determined by their association with the other fossiliferous beds. } The limestone runs in a general N.N.W. direction and forms a belt about 4 miles long. Its northern end, which disappears under the alluvials of Cooma Creek, has a width of outcrop of over 1,000 yards; this gradually decreases as one goes south, till at Toll Bar Bridge it is not more than 100 yards. The main mass disappears here, but the belt continues southwards as a series of small isolated ~ GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 195 lenticular patches, the most southerly of which crosses the * Greenhill Road a little to the west of Rock Flat Creek. Here there are seen to be two intermittent outcrops of two distinct kinds of limestone, separated by slates, and some- times 40 yards apart. The main outcrop is of light blue limestone, massive and fossiliferous, the other harder, of a deeper blue, flaggy, unfossiliferous, and much intersected with veins of white secondary calcite. Occasionally this band is broken up into smaller bands, about 4 inches wide, interbedded with the slates. The limestone is traversed by cracks or joints striking a little west of north. The dip appears to be easterly on the western side, and -westerly on the eastern, the angles in both cases being very high. Caves are said to exist in the limestone, fairly extensive and containing stalactites. The main outcrop of the limestone is constantly attended by quartz-porphyry on both sides, which has very probably intruded and to some extent destroyed part of the limestone. A certain amount of assimilation may have taken place; a specimen of quartz-porphyry collected from near the junc- tion showed under the microscope numerous little patches of what look like epidote. Along the eastern boundary of the limestone, however, the quartz-porphyry (and possibly the limestone too) has been converted into a kind of iron- stone, thus destroying any evidence of contact effects. This ironstone is indeed more or less characteristic of the limestone outcrop, and where the latter cannot be traced ironstone is often found. The occurrence is suggestive of a metasomatic replacement. There is in the limestone abundant development of Favosites, both the large massive and the small dendroid species, also Heliolites, Tryplasma, Pentamerus, and Stromatopora. The fossils are in general well preserved. Hast of the limestone there is a further development of slates. Between Rosebrook homestead and the Umaralla 196 WwW. R. BROWNE. River the rest of the sequence is well shown. One passes in succession over grits, carbonaceous shales and quartzitic sandstones interstratified with shales in bands up to a foot in thickness. These are vertical at first but towards the river they have a westerly dip which decreases to 56°. Rhynchonella in great abundance, Strophomena, and (?) Tryplasma have been found in the grits and carbonaceous shales. The fossils are a good deal compressed, and their species are indeterminate. (d) Post-SILURIAN BUT PRE-TERTIARY.—To these rather wide limits are referred three apparently independent occurrences of igneous rocks, the quartz-porphyries, the Berridale granite, and the Myalla Road syenite. Quartz-porphyries.—This is a general term employed to denote a series of intrusions with many differences both textural and mineralogical, but evidently of common origin. They outcrop along roughly meridional lines, and so far have not been found west of a north and south line through Cooma, but intruded among the slates and other sedimentary rocks to the east and north-east of the town. Southward they disappear under the Tertiary basalt, to the north they have been traced as far as Bredbo, 20 miles from Cooma, where their extent is very great. They have played a considerable part in determining the contours of the present land surface, for, as one goes east from Cooma, it is observed that, generally speaking, the porphyries form a series of parallel low ridges, while the valleys in between have been cut out of the softer and less resistant slates. The por- phyries are perhaps best described as irregular dyke-like intrusions into the slates, although the outcrops attain a width of about half a mile in places. Their intrusive nature is abundantly proved by inclusions of the intruded slate, as wellas by the tapering terminations of the outcrops. Very little contact metamorphism is observable, barring a little local induration of the slates. GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 197 The rock has been subjected to pressure subsequently to its consolidation; this has caused a good deal of shattering and alteration, in some cases changing the original appear- ance almost beyond recognition. From a field examination of the porphyries it has been concluded that there must have beenat least three distinct series of intrusions, possibly four. There is first of all the very much sheared type, exemplified in the Bushy Hill formation, now reduced to what Van Hise would call a quartz-porphyry slate,* quite schistose in structure. The cleavage pieces have a some- what greasy lustre, with dark green colour and greasy feel, due possibly to the development of chloritic minerals, Frequent eyes and lenticles of unshattered quartz, the relics of former phenocrysts, are scattered about the rock. Doubtless a certain amount of alteration is to be attributed to the mineralised waters which percolated through the porphyry at this place. Northwards right along the line of the Bushy Hill outcrop the porphyry is much ‘‘mylon- ized,’ in places so much so as to be recognizable only with difficulty. On Bushy Hill the cleavage planes are vertical, and no where has the departure from the vertical been found to be more than 40°. Very little in the way of ferro- magnesian constituents has been observed in the Bushy Hill porphyry. In addition to quartz, felspar occasionally appears as phenocrysts. Between “‘Rosebrook’’ homestead and the Umaralla River one passes over a couple of outcrops of porphyry of a light grey colour, with large and abundant phenocrysts of quartz, felspar, and a dark green chloritic-looking mica in small hexagonal plates. This rock is rather shattered ; it is intruded among Silurian slates and appears to be of no great extent. In the size and abundance of its quartz crystals it much resembles some of the “‘mylonized”’ * A Treatise on Metamorphism, p. 779. 198 W. R. BROWNE. porphyry, and may possibly be the unaltered equivalent of this latter. In general appearance and mineral constitution it also bears a striking resemblance to a quartz-porphyry from Yass district, with which indeed it may be genetically connected. Closely associated with this Rosebrook porphyry is a. dark blue exceedingly compact felsitic rock, with relatively small development of phenocrysts, which are mainly quartz. By weathering and bleaching this rock assumes the appear- ance of a quartzite, as at Toll Bar Bridge. From here to Rosebrook it forms a considerable part of the eastern boundary of the limestone; itisentirely free from shattering. A ridge of the same rock is to be seen near Rock Flat, proving for it a meridional extension of at least 16 miles. Another variety of porphyry, which is found to the east of Cooma and north as far as ‘* Rosebrook,”’ is a dark rock with much smaller and very abundant phenocrysts of quartz and felspar; at first sight the rock appears to be tuffaceous but this is not so. It is in all cases highly and irregularly jointed, and very often shows a rude cleavage. On the appearance of the rock in the field one would pronounce it to be of an entirely distinct type from the Bushy Hill and Rosebrook porphyries, the chief differences being the smaller grainsize of the phenocrysts and the greater abundance of felspar. The remaining type of porphyry has evidently been intruded last of all, and has been subjected to very much less crushing than the other varieties. It is to be found on the Greenhill Road about two miles out from Cooma. Though just a little east of the line of the Bushy Hill out- crop, and west of some of the small-grained porphyry, the rock is here quite massive and free from shattering, proving its relative youth. The same porphyry also occurs farther to the east along the road to “‘Nitholme”’ and on the Kydra GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 199 Road at and past Middle Flat. Going about a quarter of a mile N.N.W. from ‘“‘Nitholme,’’ one observes that this porphyry is intrusive into the fine-grained variety; the out- crop is very wide, about one-half to three-quarters of a mile in places. Generally the rock is massive, but some- times it is a bit shattered at the periphery of the mass. Its intrusive character is shown near Rosebrook, where an isolated outcrop of it forms a conical hill sharply differ- entiated from the other porphyries and from the slates. This porphyry is a very handsome rock, abundantly por- phyritic in quartz and felspar, usually also with hornblende in varying amount. Quartz-porphyry was found in which practically all the base had been replaced by oxide of iron, leaving intact only the porphyritic quartz and felspars, and again in another place kaolinization had occurred, resulting in a soft white rock studded with quartz grains. Berridale granite.—Only a very small portion of the whole area of this was examined, and then not in great detail. It was only studied where it touched on the main area investigated. ) As one goes from Cooma to Berridale the granite is first met about 94 miles out. Great rounded monoliths of it strew the plain, and it can be seen stretching for a con- siderable distance on either side of the road most of the way into Berridale, the outcrop being occasionally con- cealed under small residual patches of basalt. On the Cooma side, the junction of the granite with the intruded Ordovician slates and quartzites has been to some extent eroded, and is masked by alluvial. The granite was also met witi along the Adaminaby road at a point 14 miles from Cooma, but a journey of 20 miles south on the Bobundarah road failed to reveal any signs of it, so evidently the boundary of the outcrop takes a sweep to the south somewhere between the Berridale and Bobundarah roads. 200 W. R. BROWNE. The rock is a typical biotite granite and it exhibits con- siderable variation both in grain and in the proportions of ferro-magnesian minerals present. ‘This variation is of the usual type, that is with decreasing basicity and coarser grain inwards from the margin of the intrusion; this is well exhibited as one proceeds from the margin of the mass towards Berridale. A slight but distinct gneissic foliation, apparently primary, was noticed at one place, but the extent of this phenomenon was not traced. Basic segre-. gations are fairly numerous, and a number of aplitic dykes intersect the granite; some of these were entirely of the ordinary granular type, while others exhibited occasional graphic fabric, and others again had miarolitic cavities filled with tourmaline. On Arable Station just on the north-eastern border of the granite occurs a dyke of a dark grey porphyritic rock, without megascopic quartz, and of rather indefinite mega- scopic characters. In thin section the rock is seen to be of lamprophyric type. At every place where the edge of the granite was encountered a selvage of quartzite of varying width was found, while large quartz dykes were, as might be expected, very common. The quartzite border was noticed on the Adaminaby Road, on the Berridale Road and south of it, on Arable Station, and at Geygedzerick Hill. Contact effects were not specially looked for, but this constant occurrence along the irregular granite border suggests that the quartzite represents a complete replacement of the original sedimentary rocks by silica from the granitic magma for some distance from the actual contact. Another contact phenomenon has been already alluded to, namely, the production of chiastolite in the intruded slates. Myalla Road syenite.—Vive miles along the Myalla road south from Cooma, there is an isolated outcrop of syenite GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 201 of boss-like appearance. The mass is over two miles long, with a maximum width ofa little under two miles; it is surrounded on all sides by schists and olivine basalt, and is 7 miles away from the nearest outcrop of Berridale granite. The syenite is in general massive, and weathers into great rounded tors like granite, which undergo a kind of spheroidal exfoliation. Jointing is developed at times: one reading on a joint plane gave its dip as 65° in a direction H. 10° 8. Megascopically the rock would be called a syenite, as it is seen to consist of felspar (orthoclase) and hornblende, but a microscopic examination would place it rather among the quartz-monzonites. Towards the eastern periphery of the mass there is a considerable development of a porphyritic facies, which might be called asyenite-porphyry. Irregular basic patches without any definite sharp boundaries are also frequent. The plutonic rock is intersected by dykes of felspar- porphyry or bostonite, with only very small traces of ferro- magnesian constituents, and many apophyses radiate into the surrounding country. One ofthese forms a conspicuous feature among the schists along the Myalla road, and can be traced for about 6 miles, ultimately coming to an end ina railway cutting a mile north of Cooma. The texture of this dyke-rock changes as we get away from the parent plutonic mass. The felspar phenocrysts may be upwards of half an inch in length and very numerous, the base being fine-grained but evidently holocrystalline. Farther away the base gets exceedingly fine-grained and phenocrysts are very much fewer and smaller, the rock giving the impress- ion of a trachytic lava rather than of a hypabyssal rock, while the subordinate ferro-magnesian constituents have completely disappeared. These variations are evidently functions of the distance from the parent magma, the con- ditions of consolidation, and especially of heat, as we get 202 W. R. BROWNE. away from the syenite, gradually becoming less and less plutonic in character. The actual contact of the syenite with the older rocks is covered over by basalt. or alluvium, so it was not possible to obtain any information as to the nature and amount of the contact metamorphism or the form of the intrusion. Geological age of the igneous intrusions.—There are no means of determining with exactitude the geological age of all these intrusions, nor indeed is there any direct evid- ence to show that they are genetically connected, or even contemporaneous with each other. It will be observed on referring to the map that the syenite is a long way away, and quite isolated from the granite, and that the porphyries are far removed from both. : With regard to these porphyries, if they all belong to the Same series they must be Post-Silurian, but if not, then some may be as old as the Ordovician. Very much mylonized porpbyries, hardly recognizable as such, occur in among the Ordovician slates at and north of Bunyan, and it is possible that here they represent contemporaneous submarine sheets interbedded with, and subsequently tilted and compressed along with, the original sediments. On the other hand, others of the porphyries have all the appear- ance of intrusions, fragments of the intruded slates being included, and slight alteration of the surrounding rocks being produced. The form of the outcrop too, in many cases, suggests a tapering sheet or sill. The intruded formations in these cases embracing Silurian beds, the porphyry must be of laterage. Some of the quartz-porphyry, since it is relatively unshattered, must have been injected after the folding and compression had practically ceased. The granite and the syenite are both clearly later than Silurian, as they have been subjected to strain only toa slight extent. The granite along its marginal portions and GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTIRICT, N.S.W. 203 the syenite throughout its observed extent are free from gneissic structures, indicating that their crystallization took place during a period of comparative crustal stability. Since the Carboniferous appears to have been a time of intrusive igneous activity in central and southern New South Wales, it seems not unreasonable to assign these igneous rocks tentatively to that period. (e) TERTIARY AND RECENT. Olivine Basalt.—The latest evidences of igneous action about Cooma are to be found in the extensive flows of basalt which cover a considerable area of the surface of the country, and must have had a very much greater extent before erosion and denudation reduced the capp- ing to its present dimensions. Besides the large sheets, isolated residual patches of basalt, forming the charac- teristic table-topped hills, are to be found overlying the Berridale granite, the schists, and the slates and other Paleozoic rocks. Of the highest basalt residuals—the three hills known as The Brothers, about eleven miles south of Cooma—the Middle Brother is 100 feet higher than the next highest Trig. Station in the district, and about 700 feet above the general level of the country, but these figures of course do not necessarily indicate the depth to which the whole country was originally covered with basalt. The basalt hasa much greater extent to the south and §.H. of Cooma than to the north; it may be seen practically all the way along the road from Cooma to Nimitybelle and as far as Bombala. There is evidence of a number of successive flows, in the shape of terraced hills, sometimes as many as four terraces being distinguishable. Again occasionally one finds a flow of fresh basalt on top of an older and much decomposed flow. On the summit of the North Brother, and also, I under- stand on the Middle and the South Brother, the basalt is 204 W. R. BROWNE. prismatically jointed over a space of two or three acres. The columns are remarkably regular, mainly hexagonal in section and up to 18 inches in diameter, and no columns were observed more than 4 feet long. In texture the rock is exceedingly fine, and olivine occurs in nodules or segre- gations, in much greater proportion than in the normal basalt. In places there has been a tendency to subsidiary jointing, producing a kind of pisolitic effect on the weathered surface. Only the summit of the North Brother is com- posed of this very compact basalt; below it the hill is terraced and the basalt is of the ordinary fine-grained type. A noteworthy example of variation in the texture may be observed west of the Myalla Road 4 miles south of Cooma. Here there is a flat-topped terraced ridge, the topmost terrace being of coarse-grained basalt, doleritic in aspect and microscopically seen to have ophitic fabric. The basalt of the terrace immediately underneath is much finer in grain and of granulitic fabric. Two possible explanations suggest themselves. What we now see as the upper terrace may really represent the bottom part of a thick flow, whose top has been denuded; the bottom part would have cooled comparatively slowly and so have become somewhat coarsely crystalline. Or else the coarse-grained rock might have been intruded as a kind of dolerite sill between two pre-existing flows, one of which is now denuded away. To the N.W. and east of Cooma the basalt has in some instances filled old pre-Tertiary valleys; for example, the road from Cooma to Murrumbucca via Mittagang Bridge runs mostly along such a valley for 11 miles, and the former course of the Upper Murrumbidgee from McCarty’s Cross- ing to the junction of the Dalgety and Berridale Roads is now marked by flows of basalt. No tuffis have been any- where found associated with any of the flows. GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 205 The age of the basalts, and the possibility of their extru- sion having continued into recent geological times, will be discussed later in connection with the physiography. — Diatomaceous earth.—There is a deposit of diatomaceous earth or tripolite about 1$ miles H.S.H. of Bunyan Railway Station (See Fig. 2). The deposit is referred to in Pitt- man’s ‘‘Mineral Resources of N. S. Wales,”’ p. 429, also in the Records of the Geological Survey of N.S. Wales, 1897, p. 128. From test-holes which have been put down, the deposit is believed to cover an area of 30 acres. It is situated in a hollow on the western side of Middle Flat, surrounded on the north and west by a ridge of slates and mylonized quartz-porphyry capped by Tertiary basalt. The deposit. is close to the surface, being covered by 18 inches to 2 feet of alluvium, chiefly basaltic soil, Under this is about 2 feet of very hard buff-coloured ‘‘ mullock,”’ a kind of traver- tine containing numerous angular fragments of quartz and of diatomaceous earth. This is succeeded by another 2 feet of massive tripolite of a pale creamy-white colour, then comes 3 feet of layered tripolite—‘‘slate,’’ as it is called—which is slightly denser than the other and shows stratification. Under this the deposit is alternately massive and stratified. At intervals, pipes of roughly elliptical section occur, filled with a hard, brittle brown clay, in which remains of bones, etc., are often found. Veins of wood opal are fairly frequent, yellow, red, and green in colour, and very light and brittle. The deposit is being worked, but not in systematic fashion, digging operations not being carried on to a greater depth than 10 or 12 feet. Travertine.—At Rock Flat, 9 miles 8.H. of Cooma, on the right bank of the creek, are situated the well-known Rock Flat mineral springs,* where carbonated waters rise 1 For an account of these see Rec. Geol. Surv., N.S.W., 1889, p. 179. 206 W. R. BROWNE, from a depth and flow to the surface. Although at present only one spring—a chalybeate one—is actually flowing, it is only of recent years that the spring which is the source of the present supplies has ceased to flow, and there is evidence that in the past quite a number of springs were active. A considerable amount of travertine has been deposited from these springs, and is still being formed. So far the deposit has a maximum depth of 12 feet, and is said to cover an area of D acres. Hxcept at one point where the creek takes a sharp bend to the east, the traver- tine is wholly on the east or right bank of the stream. The Rock Flat Springs are at the base of a great quartzitic outcrop, from which the place takes its name. The out- crop consists of sandstone on edge, intersected with quartz veins, and which merges into quartzites towards the west, and ultimately into a kind of quartz breccia, the cementing material being also quartz. The dip of the quartzite is about W. 10° S. at 40°. Travertine is found sparingly developed in other parts of the region; it has been noted along the Bobundarah Road near the North Brother, also just south of Bunyan along the Sydney Road. It occurson top of the old metamorphic rocks, and is generally covered by alluvium. Probably it is post-Tertiary in age. A curious occurrence was found in Butler’s Creek, a bit north of Mittagang Bridge. Here the creek, when running, tumbles over a rock-bar about 12 feet high, and down the face of this there is a kind of stalactitic deposit of traver- tine, evidently formed when only a trickle of water was running, and due to evaporation as the water flowed over the heated rock in summer. River gravels.—Perhaps the most extensive development of these is along the Numeralla Road to the west of the ‘Toll Bar Bridge over Rock Flat Creek. The gravels com- GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 207 mence three-quarters of a mile from the creek, and forma very striking feature of the topography, extending half a mile to the south and much farther to the north. They are composed principally of boulders and pebbles of brown quartzite and white quartz. The quartzites are up to 18 inches in length, and there are occasional boulders of nearly three feetin diameter. They allshow a good deal of round- ing and smoothing and occasionally of polish. Low mounds of gravel and other alluvium are to be seen in the vicinity, and similar accumulations may be observed in the broad flat valley north of the limestone belt. There is little doubt that these gravels belong to Rock Flat Creek or an ancestor of it; their presence at a distance of three-quarters of a mile west from the present bed of the creek, and at least 100 feet higher, would indicate a good deal of migra- tion and erosion on the part of the creek since their depo- sition. It is rather puzzling to find these gravels, and especially the boulders of three-foot diameter, on the highest point of the ridge separating Middle Flat from Rock Flat Oreek. I was at first inclined to ascribe their presence to ice-transport, but doubtless they are fluviatile deposits. Three well-formed crescent-shaped alluvial terraces mark the point near Pearman’s Hill where with a sharp S-bend the Murrumbidgee emerges from the Berridale fault- block. The highest is at 130 feet, and the others at 50 and 25 feet respectively, above the present level of the stream. These terraces are of gravel principally, but the middle one is mostly mud. Molian deposits.—A noticeable feature of the Sydney road between Cooma and Bredbo is the great extent of country partially or wholly covered with drifting sand. Shortly after the road crosses Umaralla River, this sandy country begins, and it continues to within 5 or 6 miles of Bredbo. This mantle of sand gives the region a barren and 208 W. R. BROWNE. desolate appearance. It is due to the disintegration of quartz-porphyry, of which there is a very extensive development along the road to Bredbo. The shifting of the sand by the action of the wind has the effect of drifting up the road in many places, of burying ie and of destroying vegetation. Quartzitic conglomerate.—At various points in the Cooma district One comes across outcrops and boulders of a Silicified quartz-conglomerate, apparently forming a sur- | face capping to the slate, etc. Just north of the Myalla Road syenite masses of this conglomerate are seen, and here too we get a dense bluish-grey quartzite, evidently connected with the conglomerate. No evidence could be found as to the age of these occurrences, or their relations with other formations: they are probably the result of deposition from silica-bearing solutions, but whether these were connected with the late igneous intrusions, or are of much more recent date it is impossible to say. III. Economic Geology. Bushy Hill.—The Bushy Hill gold mining field is dealt with in the Annual Report of the N. 8S. Wales Department of Mines for 1898. A number of references are made to it there, including the report of the Chief Inspector of Mines, with petrological appendix by Mr. G. W. Card. The occurrence of gold at Bushy Hill was noted about 16 years ago, and a certain amount of mining work was done, but, though some good results were obtained, for various reasons work was abandoned almost completely. Gold, copper and lead ores have been obtained. In the old days only the gold was sought after, some good values being obtained from the surface free gold. Telluride yielding high percentages was found, but not in great quantity. The copper occurs as auriferous pyrites, apparently in consider- able quantity in places. At present copper is being GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 209 extracted from the water in some of the old shafts by the simple method of throwing in scrap-iron, which is in time replaced by metallic copper. Galena is said to have been found on the hill. Bushy Hill, which is really a long ridge, is composed mainly of a mylonized quartz-porphyry which forms the country rock, and the minerals occur mostly disseminated through it. The porphyry contains numerous ‘“‘eyes”’ of quartz, while less frequently felspar occurs as phenocrysts. Slates also form part of the country rock. The cleavage planes of quartz-porphyry and slates are vertical. On the Cooma side there is quartz-porphyry which appears to be of a later date than the other: it is free from crushing, has smaller phenocrysts, and has a siliceous-looking base, resembling to some extent the silicified porphyry at Toll- Bar Bridge. North of Bushy Hill a long sinuous outcrop of quartzite, running in general N. 20° EH. extends to near the Numeralla Road. Between Bushy Hill and Middle Flat is a long reef, forming a conspicuous ridge about half a mile long, and composed of what appears to be a kind of quartzite, seamed with quartz veins. This reef has been found to be barren. Tripolite.—Reference has already been made to the deposit near Bunyan. This is being worked by a company which employs one man in digging the tripolite, drying and bagging it, and despatching it to Melbourne, for what ultimate purpose I have been unable to ascertain. Lime.—At Toll Bar Bridge there isa kiln where the limestone is being burnt on a small scale. There is appar- ently only a local sale for the lime, but there seems no adequate reason whya bigger industry should not be built up. Barytes.—Abont 200 yards east of the N.E. corner of Portion 300, Parish of Cooma, and just outside the eastern N—July 1, 1914. 1 € | | ™ ‘ 210 Ww. R. BROWNE. municipal boundary, there is a vein of barytes in shattered quartz-porphyry. The vein has a maximum width of 14 inches at the surface, but I understand it widens consider- ably as it is traced downwards. The dip is at 50° ina direction E. 19° N., which is more or less in conformity with the cleavage of the quartz-porphyry. The outcrop was traced by me for a distance of about 30 yards. A little excavating has been done and some of the barytes removed, but the work has not advanced beyond the prospecting stage. IV. Age of the Metamorphic Series. The stratigraphical position of the crystalline complex consisting of the schists, phyllites and quartzites, intruded by the mottled, Cooma, and blue gneisses, is a matter which has exercised me very much without any definite conclusion being reached. At the present stage of the work it is perhaps a trifle premature to discuss the matter fully. In the first place it is only in the area round about Cooma that the field relations have as yet been studied, whereas there is reason to believe that this crystalline series extends considerably farther north than Pearman’s Hill; the northerly limit of my investigations up to date; an examin- ation of this northerly extension may perhaps result in the discovery of some conclusive evidence. Secondly, field evidence may quite possibly be supplemented by laboratory investigation, and this latter is by no means complete. However, I have thought it good to make some mention here of this most important question. The principal difficulty, and it isa great one, which con- fronts anyone attempting to delimit the various formations around Cooma lies in the fact that no stratigraphical breaks are to be found, the whole of the old Palseozoic rocks being so intensely folded as to obliterate all traces of original — unconformities, if such existed. The prevailing dip of planes of schistosity and cleavage is easterly, but many GEOLOGY OF THE COUMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 211 reversals are found. High dip-angles are the rule, and the cleavage planes are often vertical. Possibly the present state of affairs results from the erosion of a series of isoclinal folds. On the slopes of ridges one occasionally found discordances of dip—beds on one side dipping towards those on the other side, apparently indicating a fold-trough, but in some instances this was clearly seen to be merely a surface phenomenon, the beds, originally vertical or nearly so, inclining over towards the downhill side of the ridge under the influence of gravity." Nothing but extremely detailed mapping of individual horizons could determine the nature of the folding. With regard to the metamorphic series, the gneisses are quite definitely intrusive into the schists, and the question of age therefore centres round these schists and the phyllites. A number of traverses were made across the strike, both to the east and west of the axis of the complex, and in no case could an abrupt transition in the rock-type be found. Starting from Kiaora homestead, on crystalline schists, as -one goes west the rocks become more micaceous and phyl- litic in appearance: there is a considerable belt of these rocks, about 14 miles wide, which I have named the Slack’s Oreek phyllites from their typical development and the good sections shewn there. Near the Dry Plain road and beyond it to the west, the phyllites have graded into micace- ous slates which are in the same line of strike with the ‘slates in which graptolites occur at McCarty’s Crossing, about a mile to the north. On the eastern side there is the same gradual passage from schist through phyllite into micaceous slate, but here the transition belt is not so broad, practically no knotted phyllite is developed, and there is the intrusion of white gneiss which interrupts the succession of the beds. + Mr. E. C. Andrews informs me that he too has found this ‘false dip,’ as it may be called, troublesome in the field. 12 W. R. BROWNE. Again, as further evidence, as has been stated above, at Bunyan the Ordovician slates are silicified for some distance out from their contact with the white gneiss. Now this. white gneiss is closely associated with the blue gneiss, and this would go to show that. the gneiss is later than these slates. It has been urged that strike faulting could have thrown down the Ordovician slates against the Pre-Cambrian schists, but in this case the problem of the transitional phyllites becomes insistent of solution. Of course it may be argued that, as no definite junction between Silurian and Ordovician can be found, any original unconformity between Ordovician and older formations would likewise be obliterated. But on the other hand the Ordovician and Silurian can be separated on fossil evidence, whereas there is nothing but gradual change of lithological char- acters to differentiate the schists from the slates. So far as I can interpret it, the evidence available would point to the fact that we are dealing with an area which has been affected by both regional and contact metamor- phism. The gneisses have been intruded successively and crystallized under conditions of great pressure; the schists. would then be caused by contact metamorphism of the slates in the vicinity of the gneissic intrusions, the intensity of the metamorphism gradually diminishing outwards. It. is plain that there is a much greater extent of gneiss than indicated by the outcrops, and in such case the underground extension would go to the west principally. The suggested broad relations between the metamorphic rocks and the other formations of the area are shown in Fig. 1. Iam quite aware that the hypothesis here advanced | raises serious difficulties, but at the same time it is to be — understood that the evidence so far gathered is by no means. regarded as conclusive; nothing at all final can as yet be oo Phat ti ge GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. ONS stated about the question, and of course it is very doubtful whether the matter will even be settled by future inves- tigation. V. Geological History up to Tertiary Times. We can to some extent trace the sequence of the events which have formed the geological history of the region. In Ordovician times the whole extent of the country was a great sea, in which sandy and muddy sediments were deposited to a considerable thickness: later, in Silurian times, marine conditions still obtained over part of the area at any rate, with deposition of limestones, shales, sandstones and grits. These last would appear to mark a change to shallower water conditions, possibly indicating a positive movement of the earth’s crust. Uplift of the area followed, with great earth movements and intense folding along a nearly meridional axis. What was in Silurian times a sea now became dry land, and has not since been submerged. Subsequently to this uplift, during Devonian or Car- boniferous times, intrusions of porphyry, granite and syenite took place. Very extensive denudation and base-levelling must have occurred, and was probably repeated as a result of successive uplifts, so that before the outpouring of the Tertiary lavas the physiography of the country had reached a state of considerable maturity. The granite and syenite had been laid bare by erosion, and the ancient corrugations of the Ordovician and Silurian rocks had been smoothed out by denudation. VI. Physiography. The geological history from the Tertiary till now is really the history of the present topography, and is best to be learnt by considering and studying the surface of the country as it now exists. 214 W. R. BROWNE. It is to be observed that two strikingly different types of topography are presented within the area described. If two lines:be drawn, one north and south through Cooma, and the other westwards from a point a few miles south of Cooma, the areas exhibiting these two types are roughly divided off from one another (Fig. 2). To the N.E. we have rugged country, intersected by deep V-shaped valleys, but. with some remnants of mature physiograpbhy still visible, as for example Dairyman’s Plain, the valley of Pilot Creek, and the upper part of Slack’s Creek. In other words, we have an area of mature topography with youthful features superimposed. This country is mainly schists and gneisses. The remainder of the area is generally speaking in strong contrast: itis of a gently undulating nature, characterized by wide shallow valleys running north and south, and bear- ing all the marks of old age. ‘These valleys are eroded out of the comparatively soft slates, the separating ridges being largely of the more resistant quartz-porphyries. The surface of the country is diversified by a number of elevations above the general level; such are the Blue Peak, Mount Gladstone, The Brothers (North, Middle and South), Coolringdon Hill,etc. A number of small lakes are scattered about, mostly in a belt extending for about four miles north of the Great Divide. The drainage of the country is effected by the river Murrumbidgee and its tributaries. The Murrumbidgee, in the earlier part of its course, as seen in this region follows an approximately E.S.H. direction; it then turns sharply to the east, and flows in this way as far as Mittagang Bridge, when it turns once more, this time sharply north- ward, or a little east of north. Before the eastward turn the river occupies a middle-aged valley, but from this on it pursues a tortuous course in a youthful valley, between high steep banks of phyllite and schist, which in parts GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 215 descend sheer into the water on both sides. The stream . continues in this young valley through schists and gneisses to a point about 9 miles N.N.E. of Cooma, where with a sharp S-bend it debouches from between its high containing walls into open country, after which it continues north- ward, flowing at the base of a steep escarpment which forms its western bank. During the eastward part of its course the river receives no tributaries from the north, but on the south bank it receives Bridle Creek (with its tributaries Wambrook and Peak Creeks), Slack’s Creek, Spring Creek and Snake Gully. These are all characterized, especially near their junctions with the river, by relatively steep grade and by V-shaped valleys. Slack’s Creek near its source flows in a broad shallow valley, of which mention will be made later, while Spring Creek rises at the northern extremity of Dairyman’s . Plain, a shallow valley up to three-quarters of a mile wide. After the river turns north it receives a couple of small youthful creeks, Butler’s Creek and another one, unnamed, on its right bank; on the left the only tributary of importance is Pilot Creek, which flows S.K. for 4 miles close up against the eastern side of a mature valley to within a mile of the river, when it plunges into a narrow gorge, joining the Murrumbidgee three-quarters of a mile north of Mittagang Bridge. Pilot Creek forms with the Murrumbidgee a boat- hook bend,* the flow of the river being directed northward, while that of its tributary is towards the south. The drainage of the country is mainly to the north. Cooma Creek and Cooma Back Creek pursue a more or less parallel course through open country in fairly wide valleys to within 5 miles of Cooma, when they begin to converge, uniting in the town to enter a deep valley cut through the Cooma gneiss and schists. Cooma Creek emerges from 1 Griffith Taylor, op. cit. sup., p. 8. 216 WwW. R. BROWNE. this valley 4 miles along the Mittagang road and flows N.N.EH. across a level plain to join Rock Flat Creek. Oon- siderable alluvium marks the confluence of the two streams. Rock Flat Creek has cut for itself a fairly wide valley. It shows evidence of having shifted its bed somewhat to the east in recent times. From about the 6-mile peg on the Kydra Road, as one looks north there can be seen a long ridge of quartz-porphyry forming the left bank of the valley evidently carved out by the creek in the past. The present course of the stream however is upwards of half a mile to the east of this ridge. Again, the gravels along Numeralla Road to which reference has already been made give evidence of easterly movement. Rock Flat Creek joins the Umaralla River 4 miles nearly due east of the S-bend in the Murrumbidgee. The history of the present topography has been referred to by Griffith Taylor,* and discussed in greater detail by Sussmilch.? Briefly, the region forms part of what was in late Tertiary times a peneplain area—the Monaro pene- plain—the occasional isolated elevations being residuals of a former peneplain—the Mount Ainslie peneplain. This Monaro peneplain has undergone differential uplift, the area in the N.W. which has been roughly indicated above forming part of the Berridale fault-block, with probably a slight tilt down towards the south, and bounded on the east by asteep escarpment—the Murrumbidgee fault-scarp, indicated in Fig. 2. This escarpment crosses the Murrum- bidgee near Pearman’s Hill, and continues south, gradually merging, as it nears Cooma, into the general level of the country. To the east of the fault-scarp the country has been less elevated, and farther north this relatively depressed area is rather narrow, forming the Colinton senkungsfeld. It broadens considerably towards the south ' Loc.. cit. swp. 2 Loe. cit. sup. GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 217 and eventually merges into the Berridale fault-block to the south and §8.W. of Cooma. This Colinton senkungsfeld is tilted towards the north. It was probably the same series of earth movements as caused the faulting and differential elevation which also shifted the divide and altered the drainage system of the region. The present divide, which runs roughly EK. 30° S. at a distance of about 9 miles from Cooma, is very low, and is the result of recent slight tilting of the whole country towards the N.H. The old divide is placed by Stissmilch between Bredbo and Colinton, and by Taylor at — Tharwa, 25 miles farther north. Both authors are, how- ever, agreed that the Upper Murrumbidgee used to form part of the Snowy River system, and that for the part of the river between Mittagang Bridge and the old divide there has been a reversal of flow, or in other words that this part also of the river used to belong to the Snowy system, and is now really an obsequent stream. The above is in the main an abstract of Sussmilch’s views as outlined in his extremely interesting and suggestive paper, and there can be little doubt as to their general accuracy. It might be urged that the so-called Berridale fault-block is due to differential erosion. It is certainly remarkable that to the west of the scarp the rocks are schist and gneiss, while to the east the country is composed mainly of less resistant slates, etc., so that one might expect a greater degree of erosion to the east than to the west. And again the Berridale fault-block merges to the south into the general level of the Colinton senkungsfeld just about where the gneiss-injected crystalline schists cease. But on the other hand we have evidence of recent uplift and dissection of the fault-block in the presence of the youthful Murrumbidgee valley, which is in places a veritable Zo W. R. BROWNE. gorge (see Plate IV, fig. 4), and in the fact that we find youthful streams flowing in old valleys, as in the case of Pilot Creek. There is no stratigraphical evidence of the fault, but the fact that we do get the same schists and gneisses on the low ground to the west of the scarp as occur on the higher ground to the east, would go to show that the scarp is due to something else than differential erosion. On the basis of Stissmilch’s conclusions I have tried to work out in some little detail the physiographic history of the area with which I am concerned. The ancient valley of the Upper Murrumbidgee, from the point where near McCarty’s Crossing it now turns abruptly east, can be traced south till it joins the broad old valley of Slack’s Creek. The ancient course of the river is now blocked by thick basalt flows, and bounded by ridges of phyllite and quartzite, and its contours are in marked con- trast to those of the present Upper Murrumbidgee. The latter has been rejuvenated in consequence of the uplift, and has cut down a comparatively recent gorge through its former mature bed. The old valley forms the diagonal of a quadrilateral formed by Bridle Creek and Slack’s Creek on the west and east, and the Murrumbidgee and the Adaminaby road on the north and south respectively. The old river joined Slack’s Creek or its south-flowing ancestor just south of the Adaminaby road, and thereafter flowed to the S.W., crossing the site of the present divide just a little to the west of the Dalgety road. The valley now known as Dairyman’s Plain was probably a tributary. With regard to the other part of the Murrumbidgee, north of Mittagang, there is less certainty. At the time of the uplift the country was in a state of very mature erosion; the dividing ridges between the broad meridional valleys had been considerably worn down and there was doubtless GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 219 much anastomosing in the river system. The probable main features of the drainage are indicated in the map (fig. 2). The mature valley now occupied by Pilot Creek marks the course of a stream which flowed across the line of the present river at Mittagang, and S.H. along the dry valley in which is the present Mittagang road, thence south of Tillabudgery Trig. Station, across the racecourse, along the valley just west of Bushy Hill, and then probably into the valley of the present Cooma Creek. This old Pilot Creek valley is marked by the remnants of a basalt flow through- out its entire length. To this valley there is a tributary dry valley starting at a point about three-quarters of a mile east of Mittagang Bridge, and running a little east of north parallel tothe present Murrumbidgee to within a short distance of the S-bend in that river. This valley is cut pretty deeply into the schists and gneisses, but is fairly mature: it is now tapped and drained into the Murrum- bidgee by Butler’s Oreek and another small creek further north. It is extremely unlikely that the old Murrumbidgee should have flowed south through the Berridale fault-block along its present very youthful channel. More probably it originally flowed S.H. in the present channel of the Umar- alla for some distance, then south along the valley of the present Rock Flat Creek, and so on to join the Snowy River.* When the tilting and other earth-movements occurred the direction of flow was reversed and the now north-flowing Murrumbidgee began to head back towards the south. At the S-bend for some reason or another it commenced to cut into the fault escarpment, and a new stream was formed which cut across Pilot Creek, captured its head-waters, and converted the southern portion of its bed into a dry valley. * An alternative suggestion is that the river flowed through the dry valley between the S-bend and Mittagane, and down southwards through the Mittagang road valley (see Fig. 2). 920 _ W. R. BROWNE. How the east-flowing’ part of the river came into being is undoubtedly puzzling. The presence of conspicuous | jointing ina direction nearly east and west, already noted, may indicate an east and west fault or buckle along the line of the river. At all events there is a downward slope from the divide to the river. fi It is a noteworthy fact that while some of the valleys, as for example those of Pilot Creek and of the old Murrum- bidgee south of McCarty’s Crossing, are marked by flows of basalt, others such as Dairyman’s Plain and the valley between Mittagang and the §S-bend are quite free from — basalt. It may be that certain of the valleys were more conveniently placed than others with regard to the centres _ of eruption, for flooding with lava. From the depth to which the relatively mature valleys ; such as that of Pilot Creek have been eroded in the Berri- dale fault-block, and the fact that this valley when it emerges along the Mittagang road from the fault-block suffers no change of level, and from consideration of the fact that the valley between Mittagang Bridge and the S- bend is at its northern end on about the same level as the’ topmost alluvial terrace at the bend, one is inclined to- believe that the fault-block rose very gradually, the erosion ° of the southward-flowing stream keeping pace with the elevation, until the formation of the new divide tilted the country down somewhat towards the north and caused the formation of the present Murrumbidgee gorge through the fault-block. Itis probable that the upheaval which caused | the present divide gave the country a bit of a tilt to the north-east. Age of the basalts.—A very interesting question is raised by the foregoing discussion, with reference to the exact period of outpouring of the basalts. Such basaltic eleva- tions as Tillabudgery and The Brothers probably antedated /\ pts GEOLOGY OF THE COOMA DISTRICT, N.S.W. 221 the present Monaro peneplain. It was thought that they might have been centres of eruption, but no evidence has been found to confirm such a view. Now if theseare really residuals, it follows that the extrusion of basalt which formed them must have occurred prior to the evolution of the present topography. Again the Murrumbidgee near the mouth of Bridle Creek is seen to flow between banks which are of slate capped by basalt, as if an old valley had existed which had been filled with lava, and the rejuvenated river had cut through this and down considerably below the level of the former stream-bed. On the other hand the basalt existing in the Mittagang road valley and that of Pilot Creek must have been extruded subsequent to the formation of these valleys, that is to say, subsequent to the uplift of the Berridale fault-block. In addition to this, the basalt hills are often terraced, denoting a succession of flows, and in various places one finds a flow of perfectly fresh and recent-looking basalt on ioe of an earlier and much decomposed one. While therefore there has been no definite field evidence made available, it seems at least possible from the above considerations that the extrusions of lava, which were doubtless connected with the earth-movements, were pro- longed over a considerable period or may belong to two widely separated epochs; they may even have lasted into recent geological times. Petrological work on the basalts may do something towards the elucidation of this question, and further field-work may also help to settle the matter. No decisive evidence as to foci of eruption was discovered. It is thought that one focus may have been the head of Pilot Creek, where the valley is abruptly terminated by the scarp of a basaltic platform raised toa height of about 250 feet above the level of the valley. Of course the out- DAA -« é — | DED De W. R. BROWNE. pourings may have been in the nature of fissure-eruptions, and the absence of tufis renders this highly probable. Lakes.—Mr. Sussmilch* ascribes the numerous small lakes which indent the surface of the country to warping of the earth’s crust as a result of the movements of eleva- tion. They seem to be most naturally associated with the formation of the present main divide, as they occur mostly in a belt about 4 miles wide lying along and to the north of the divide. In the case of Arable Lake it seems possible that its formation was due to ponding of the headwaters of Arable Creek by the upraising of the divide. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate I1.—Geological Map of the Cooma District, N.S. Wales. Plate III.—Fig. 1. Phyllites in Slack’s Creek due west of ‘‘ Kiaora,” showing dip towards the east and jointing in a direction E. 10° N. Fig. 2. Dykes of pegmatite intersecting amphibolite, in Cooma town. Plate IV.—Fig. 3. Outcrop of intensely crushed quartz-porphyry at Bunyan. Note the cleavage that has been developed. ig. 4. Wallaby Rocks, on the Murrumbidgee, about 14 miles up the river from Mittagang Bridge. Note the youthful character of the gorge. The banks are composed of schist mainly. = Q Plate V.—Fig. 5. The northern portion of the S-bend, Murrum- bidgee River, looking a little west of south down the U-shaped dry valley in the Berridale fault-block. Fig. 6. Another view of the S-bend, looking east, and showing the river emerging from the fault- block. Observe the fault-scarp in the background. » Loc. cit. sup. OXIDATION OF SUCROSE BY POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE. 7 A THE OXIDATION OF SUCROSH BY POTASSIUM PHERMANGANATH. By C. W. R. POWELL. Science Research Scholar, University of Sydney. (Communicated by Prof. Fawsirt.) [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, July 1, 1914. ] ATTENTION has been drawn at various times to the reaction which ensues when potassium permanganate is added to an acid solution of sucrose. The reaction, which for certain concentrations is very rapid, results in the formation of manganese and potassium salts and various organic acids, but there is not general agreement as to the nature of the acids produced. In most cases it is probable that saccharic and tartaric acids are produced, while oxalic, citric, formic, carbonic and other acids are also formed under suitable conditions." Maumené? has found that acids having the formulae, O;2H12014, Cio2Hi2O1e and CeHeOc¢ are also formed. It was noticed by the author that this reaction between sucrose and potassium permanganate in acid solution did not proceed at a constant rate, but that the velocity of reaction gradually increased as the reaction proceeded. The increase in the velocity ‘‘constants’’ was noticed whether the calculation of the constants took place accord- ing to the first or second order formule. This could only be explained by supposing that either subsidiary reactions exerted a growing influence as the reaction proceeded or that some substance was being formed which had an accler- ative efiect on the main reaction, which consists of the splitting up of the molecules of sucrose and potassium 1 Chem. News, 72, 257, 1895. 7” C.R., 1895, 783. DAL Cc. W. R. POWELL. permanganate. This investigation was carried out in order to throw some light on this point as well as to decide the order of the reaction, and to ascertain to what extent the concentration of the acid influenced the velocity of reaction. | Method.—The reaction proceeds in acid, neutral or alka- line solution, the rate being slowest in a neutral solution, and increasing with the addition of either acid or alkali. If the solution is not sufficiently acid, however, a dark pre- cipitate is thrown down Consisting in all probability mainly of manganese peroxide. This is no doubt the substance referred to by Maumené, who stated that in this reaction the permanganate was reduced to sesquioxide or a mixture of MnO, and MnO, or a combination of both. The stage to which the reaction had advanced at different times was determined by running a measured volume of the reaction mixture into an excess of ferrous ammonium sulphate and then determining the excess by titration against dilute potassium permanganate solution. This method being adopted, the formation of manganese peroxide in the reac- tion mixture was undesirable as manganese peroxide and sulphuric acid (which was the acid used to acidify the solution) liberate oxygen which would interfere with the titration of the ferrous ammonium sulphate. For this reason the greater number of the determinations were made in solutions sufficiently acid to prevent the precipita- tion of manganese peroxide. In the actual experiments 5 ccs. of the reaction mixture were run into 5 ccs. of 0°5 per cent. solution of ferrous ammonium sulphate made acid with about 4 ccs. of 5 normal sulphuric acid. This immediately checked the reaction at atime noted on a stop watch. The excess of ferrous ammonium sulphate was then determined by titration against potassium permanganate (about. 0°0031 normal), * OXIDATION OF SUCROSE BY POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE. 225 Calculation of velocity constants. For the calculation of constants as for a reaction of the first order the equation et b ke pela ae lo oe fre bs 2 x) was used and for constants as for a reaction of the second order, the equation ay ose (a — x) b ~ t(a — b) = (b - x) a where a is the initial concentration of sucrose, b the initial concentration of potassium permanganate and x the amount of potassium permanganate decomposed in the time t minutes. Concentrations are expressed throughout in terms of normality; and the values of x are given by (1 — Mo ) 4 (nx — Np) where 1 is the number of ccs. of permanganate solution required to neutralise the excess of ferrous ammonium sulphate, after running in 5 ccs of the reaction mixture and bis as above; x is thus obtained by determination of the permanganate. The sucrose was not determined at all stages but for the calculation of the second order constants, the assumption was made that this reaction takes place between one molecule of sucrose and one molecule of potassium permanganate. a The order of the reaction. As already stated the reaction does not proceed at a constant rate, so that the determination of the order of the reaction could not be very satisfactorily calculated from the results of experiments made with solutions containing only those substances necessary for the reaction. It was subsequently found, as will be shown in a later paragraph, that the addition of a suitable amount of manganese sulphate to the reaction mixture causes the reaction to proceed at a muchmore uniform rate. This substance was therefore employed in the following experiments and the results indicate that the reaction involved is of the second order. O—July 1, 1914. . _ ie Mead " 226 Cc. W. R. POWELL. 1. Concentration of sulphuric acid -58 N. Concentration of manganese sulphate 017 N. (a) ‘0731 N.; (b) O113N. Temperature 15° C. t n x (a—x) (b-2) k, k, a, ohare a 0731 0113 ae a 5. ie AED °0054 ‘0677 °0059 “2 -000185 f 13°71 -0067 0664 -0046 -129 "000185 il 15:0 -0081 ‘0650 -0032 "114 -000168 16 16°8 "0094 "0637 -0019 °110 -000166 22 18:2 70104 = =:0627 "0009 "115 "000175 oc 19°5 "0113 0618 k, = velocity constant (first order). k, = velocity constant (second order). 2. In the second experiment the concentration of sucrose was halved. Concentration of sulphuric acid ‘58 N. Concentration of man- ganese sulphate ‘017 N, (a) ‘0365 N.; (b) ‘0113 N. Temp. 15°C, t n x (a—x) (b-2) k, k, fee 4+3 iy "0365 "0113 ft: 3 3 8:3 "0022 "0343 “0091 ‘0719 - 000702 5) 2 "0032 0333 0081 -0674 -000191 i Jide "(0040 -0325 (0073 -0625 -000182 10. 13:4 "0050 -0315 0063 °0582 . “MO0Iiag Ip. 16:0 "0064 =-0301 70049 -0559 -000170 20 dy-2 "0074 = -0291 "0039 -0539 “-0015 | -0133 ..,-000iiag 15 24-2 70046 = 0635 = 0010 = 0118 = -000164 oC 26:0 0056 ‘0675 OXIDATION OF SUCROSE BY POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE, 220 4. In the fourth experiment the concentrations of both sucrose and potassium permanganate were halved. Concentration of sulphuric acid ‘58 N. Concentration of man- ganese sulphate ‘017 N. (a) 0365 N.; (b) 0056 N. Temp. 15°C. t n a (a-x) (b—2x) ky ky ae 151 es: 70365 :0056 me ae 5 18:0 ‘O01 0349"; 0040" -0672 000188 eels 9 “0021 » --0344 0035-0671 "000190 11 =. 20°3 "0029 =:0336 = 0027) = -0676 = -000190 13-209 70033-0332 = :0023:-«-:0677 = -000198 20 22:0 0039 «0326 «©0017-0596 = -000175 oc 25:0 70056 = :0309 If this reaction is one of the second order, the velocity constant may be written 1 a-x) b i — 7166) . log. ae = so that t, the time taken for any definite amount of the reaction to proceed may be written 1 a—x)b (geby eas ae a From this equation it can be calculated that if a, the concentration of sucrose is halved, the time the reaction takes to proceed half-way should roughly double itself; if b the concentration of potassium permanganate is halved, the time taken to proceed half-way should remain the same; and if both a and b are halved the time taken to proceed half-way should be roughly double the time taken before dilution. That this is the case with the reaction in question is shown by the following figures collected from the foregoing tables :-— Concentration of Concentration of Time taken to sucrose (a). pot. permg. (0). proceed half-way. ‘0731 0113 54 mins. °0365 “OLLS 1, Rs ‘0731 "0057 5 9 -0365 0057 iG 228 Cc. W. R. POWELL. From this table it may be seen that on halving a, t was found to double; on halving b, t did not alter, while on halving both a and b, t again doubled: the combined results justifying the designations of the reaction as one of the second order. The influence of sulphuric acid on the reaction. In preliminary experiments it was found that the con- centration of sulphuric acid in the solution had a consider- able influence on the rate of reaction. A series of experi- ments was therefore carried out in which the concentration of the acid was varied from 1°16 normal to 0°058 normal. Determinations were made at 5° ©. and 15° OC. and the sucrose waS maintained in considerable excess in order to minimise the influence of subsidiary reactions. The concentration of sucrose and potassium permanganate: remained constant throughout the series. Sucrose (a) °0731 N. Potassium Permanganate (b) °0113 N.. 5. Temperature 5° C. Sulphuric acid ‘29 N. t n xv (a—x) (b-«a) k, k, ae 6°2 mn 0731 0113 us i 53 (ie ‘(0007 = 0724 = 0106=— 0012 +=-0000017 70 82 ‘0016 ‘0715 . -0097 . -0021 =B0GGGa0 84 8-6 ‘0019 ‘0712 +0094 -0022 -000G0a5G; 105 9-3 -:0024 ‘O707 ~=:0089 = 0023 ~—_ -0000032 129° (10-7 |} 70055... 0636 ‘0078 -0029 -0000043. oe BOT 9 11S |» 061s 6. Temperature 5° C. Sulphuric acid ‘58 N, t n i (a-x) (b-2x) k, k, ai 6:1 je "0731 °0113 ate Bs 35 68 0005 -0726 £-0108 .-0015-——=00600Ts 45 73 =6°0009—s- -0722—s ©0104 «= 0018 0000075 60 86 0019 -0712 £-0094 -0030 “0000025 70 102 :0030 -070i1 #-0083 -0045 00000iz 83. 116 |':0041 0690 ‘0072 -0054 , 0000077 3°4 oF ist "0054 = -0677 0059 =:0067 0000096. 110 144 -:0061 "(0670 =:0052 0071 -0000102 123 163 -0075 -0656 -0038 #-0089 -0000129 oe 218 “O1ts >06i8 OXIDATION OF SUCROSE BY POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE. 7. Temperature 5° C. Sulphuric acid 1:16 N. 10. t 14 29 4] 45 56 61 66 75 84 co t 37 4 5d 63 68 76 oe t 12 22 32 39 47 57 oC n z 6°3 oe 6-4 . -0001 6:6, “0002 <6 “OOT10 o3) * 0022 339 Le 0026 12-4 = 0045 14:2 =-0058 15-6 +0068 HO. , 0085 9-5 (00097 met (PCOS . Temperature 15° C. n x 6-2 te ao | 10027 11-3. -0038 pa-6* ~-0055 he: 0077 17°8 = :0086 £-6- .-0100 21-4 = 0113 . Temperature 15° C, n x 6:0 er fies “0008 8-4 = -0018 11-4 = 0040 13°1 = 0052 Ee 0070 18-2 -0090 2G 0113 Temperature 15° C. n a5 59 wes 6°6 :0005 ii 009 78 = 0014 8:8 -0020 PT) “0038 13°3—_-0053 149 -:0065 16-4 0076 £9) 0087 18°9 = -0094 ZG) OLIES (a—-a) (b-2) ky “Ofsr SOPIS bh O730) /.SO0L12> 0016 “O29 COM: 0014 ‘Orb -O103° “0030 “O09 O09) 0054 s0705).. 0087)’ 1-0059 WoC = -0053 4) -0090 UO72" 2 0057" 2OLES "0663 :0043 +0140 0646 -0026 -0186 "0634 -0014 -0231 "0618 Sulphuric aia ‘29 N. (w—ax) (b-2) ky” “O731 "0113 bse “0704 » -0086 -00737 "0693, 0075 | “0093 *O676' ,-0058', ,-0102 654 — -0036 — 0179 0645. » 0027 ,, 7021) ‘Oo3l “0013 -0298 "0618 Sulphuric bal ‘O8 N. (a-x) (b-«x) k, Wiriol O13 We Umor s-Ol0a— <0061 Witaw J0do | “OORT OG215) “0073 “-O136 UGK9 5 0061 *0160 ‘0661 :0043 +0205 Uoll ~ 0023 0279 0615 Sulphuric ia 1:16 N. (a-x) (b-«x) k, ‘Ofol, —-Ol13 oat O726 ~ §-O108 0152 0722 = -0104 0132 OF Le 0099 0107 ‘O71L | +0095 0127 “OG9m se O075" "0201 "0678 :0060 :0277 "0666 -0048 -0340 "0055 -0037 0409 "0644 0026 8 °0498 Nosh O0L9 ~ -0567 ‘0618 229 hs -00000307 °00000176 °00000440 °00000733 "00000810 °0000128 "0000134 °0000213 "0000290 "0000374 ks °0000112 "0000131 "0000173 "0000265 "0000311 "0000429 i "0000084 "0000109 "0000192 "0000226 "0000298 "0000412 ki “0000207 *0000195 "0000158 “0000169 "0000288 -0000392 "0000494 ‘0000603 ‘0000748 "0000858 230 Cc. W. R. POWELL. The acid concentrations so far employed wereall sufficient. to prevent the separation of manganese peroxide. In some of the following experiments, however, manganese peroxide was precipitated, but the results are nevertheless inter- esting since they indicate the direction in which the reac- tion tends to go at lower acid concentrations. 11. Temperature 15° C, Sulphuric acid -15 N. t n x (a-x) (b-2x) fe: ky aes (o> og 0731 ‘O113 She ah 17 v3 ‘0001 0730 °0112 0005 -00000072 51 9-2 :0017 -0714 "0096 0032 -00000442 60 9-9 0023 "0708 -0090 0037 ~=:00000527 74.) 11°93. =:0035 "0696 ‘0078 0049 -00000703 81 12-4 "0044 ‘0687 ‘0069 0061 -00000859 92 »13°6 -0054 ‘0677 °0059 -0070 -0000100 101. 14:8 ‘0064 -0667 "0049 0083 =-0000119 oo 20°6 ‘O11S ‘0618 12. Temperature 15° C. Sulphuric acid 058 N. t n x (a—x) (b-2x) k, k, ey 6-2 - ‘OF ot “0113 a < Me 2 -0009 “0722 -0104 0030 -00000457 50 (ee -0013 ‘0718 ‘0100 0025 -00000337 74 9-] -0022 ‘0709 ‘0091 0030 +00000406 92. 10:3 ‘0032 “0699 ‘0081 "0035 -00000496 106. i1:2 "0039 “0692 ‘0074 0040 -00000562 PYG pokes -0050 ‘0681 -0063 "0045. . 00000712 oc 20°8 “0113 ‘0618 The reaction between sucrose and potassium permangan- ate is very complex, as indicated by the variety of products obtained, and it is very probable that the number of sub- Sidiary reactions increases as the reaction proceeds. In any case, their influence on the velocity of reaction would gradually become more marked owing to the gradual decrease in the concentration of sucrose and potassium permanganate, and for this reason the velocities for different acid concentrations were compared at a stage as near to the commencement of the reaction as was possible. OXIDATION OF SUCROSE BY POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE. 231 In the following table are given the velocities at which the reaction proceeded for various concentrations of sul- phuric acid, when one eighth of the total permanganate had been decomposed. The initial and final velocities are also included in order to give a more general idea of the influence of the acid concentration. Table A.—Influence of the acid concentration on the velocity of reaction at 5° C. Acid cone. Velocity of reaction (second order constants). One-eighth. Initial. Final. “29 N. 0000026 °0000017 0000043 “DS ,, "0000033 *0000018 "0000129 EPG: 5; "0000054 "0000091 "0000374 Table B.—Jnfluence of the acid concentration on the velocity of reaction at 15° C. Acid cone. Velocity of reaction (second order constants). One-eighth. Initial. Final. "058 N. ‘0000034 "00000046 "000007 1 oe, “0000039 "00000070 “0000119 - “29. 5, "0000050 "0000012 "0000206 ao |; "000010 000008 "0000412 £1695; ‘000016 000021 "0000860 At 15° C. the effect of increasing the acid concentration is to increase the velocity constant at all stages to roughly the same extent, and to increase the final rate to almost exactly the same extent. This is especially so with the higher acid concentrations, the figures referred to being :— Acid cone. Velocity (4) near end-point. “29 N. "000021 DOI |} ‘000041 TG, 3; "000086 The inference drawn from these experiments was that the velocity of reaction depended directly upon the hydrogen ion concentration, but that the nature of the reaction was little changed by varying that concentration. In order to 2a C. W. R. POWELL. confirm the latter conclusion the course of the reaction was studied more closely by noting the time that any par- ticular reaction took to reach some definite stage, say one- eighth or one-sixth of the total decomposition. Table C.—Influence of the acid concentration on the velocity of reaction. 5° ©, Acid cone. Time taken to decompose. One-eighth. One-sixth. One-half. 29 NC 75 90 170 “DS 3; 53 61 102 L2hG 5, 31 39 60 1 ae 6 "058 N. 52 64 ae MD: di 46 53 94 ei See sta $e 56 “8 +5) 18 23 4] Lelib 12 15 24 If, as concluded, the nature of the reaction is not altered by varying the concentration of sulphuric acid in the solu- tion, then the increase in the velocity of reaction caused by increasing the hydrogen ion concentration should be the same at any stage of the reaction. An examination of Table C. showed this to be the case, and the fact was made much clearer by expressing the relation between the figures for different experiments as in Table D, where the increase in the velocity of reaction caused by increasing the acid con- centration from °58 N. to 1°16 N. is expressed by dividing the time taken to decompose a definite fraction of the whole at the lower concentration by the time taken to decompose a Similar amount at the higher acid concentration. Table D. Temperature Stage at. which reactions compared. Gs One-eighth. One-sixth. Half-way. 5 Led 1:56 Li, 15 1:50 153° 1-71 OXIDATION OF SUCROSE BY POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE. Das Furthermore, if the conclusion arrived at be correct, the rate at which the velocity of reaction increases in any one experiment should not be altered by varying the acid con- 7 centration, and this was found to be the case as is shown in Table EH, where the increase in the velocity of reaction is expressed by dividing the time taken to decompose one- half of the potassium permanganate by the time taken to decompose one-eighth. Table E. Acid cone. Temperature of experiment. oe, lage. 58 N. 1:94 2°26 FOG. 1:94 2°00 These figures as well as those in Table D are very satis- factory and give added weight to the conclusions already drawn, namely that the velocity of reaction depends on the hydrogen ion concentration and that the nature of the reaction is independent of such concentration, the rate at which the velocity of reaction (k) increases, in any one experiment, being the same for any acid concentration, provided that it is not below the concentration necessary for the liberation of oxygen according to the equation: 2KMnO, +3H,S8SO, = 2 MnSO, + K,SO, +3H,O0+50 Influence of subsidiary reactions on the velocity of reactions. An examination of the figures for any of the experiments given in the foregoing section will show that the velocity of reaction is not constant but increases until the end point is reached. This may be explained by supposing that secondary reactions proceed, in which the products of decomposition of sucrose are further decomposed, or that some substance is formed which exerts an accelerative influence on the main reaction. One side reaction that must necessarily take place toa certain extent, is the inversion of sucrose by sulphuric acid, 234 . C. W. R. POWELL. yielding glucose and fructose. As these two sugars have much simpler molecules than sucrose a quicker reaction with potassium permanganate might be expected, and this was experimentally found to be the case. The following experiment was performed under similar conditions to the previous experiments, the concentrations employed being as follows :— Concentration of glucose ac + . (@)- “LSS Ane 5 potassium permanganate (6) ‘0113 ,, i. sulphuric acid ee biscs Temperature 15° C. t n x (a-x) (b-2) k, k, Bs ‘bel ae 380) Ulli eeaee es 3 102 :0024 $-1365 :0089 -0795-° -0000469 4 14:0 :0053- +1336. -0060 “160 ‘000116 5 1li4 *0080 -:1309.5 -0033 5, :244 "000183 6. 205 -O104 1285” -0009 +326 ‘000320 a 21% 3011S 1276 For a solution of sucrose of acid concentration 1°16 N. the amount of inversion which would proceed in 20 minutes (roughly the time taken for complete decomposition for the concentrations given) at 15°C. would be about one-twertieth of the total sucrose, so that for strongly acid solutions the velocity of reaction would be slightly increased as the reaction proceeded, owing to the faster rate of decompo- sition of the sugars formed. However, in most of the later experiments, where the rate was considerably increased by the addition of various reagents, the time taken for total decomposition seldom exceeded twenty minutes, so that for the greater number of the experiments the influence of the greater activity of the reducing sugars upon the velocity of reaction may be neglected. Another of the main products of the reaction is man- ganese sulphate, and it was thought possible that this OXIDATION OF SUCROSE BY POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE. 235 substance might act as an accelerator. The following experiments were therefore made, the concentrations employed being :— Sucrose te vo) (Ge OT 31 IN. Potassium permanganate (6) -O113 ,, Sulphuric acid Mang. Sulphate : Temperature 15° C. 14. Temperature 15° C. Sulphuric acid -29 N. Manganese sulphate -0008 N. varied t n nS (a—x) (b-«x) k, k, ee 6°8 me O73] O113 te ee 15 8-2 0012 0719 "0101 "0072 =-0000103 22 2-6, 00245-0704 "0089 70104 -0000151 ae fc E35 | O0S7 (0694 -0076 -0128 -0000180 of = E20" ~ “0043 “685 = -0070 “0136 ~ -0000195 FI 12-9) © °-0050'* - -0681 0063 = 0143 ~——- 0000203 45 13:9 "0059 (0672 »=:0054 =©:0164 :0000235 51 14:9 0067 -0664 :0046 :-0175 :0000254 fess 0076. 86-0655 «0037 «| 0194 = «0000296 60 169 -0084 0647 :0029 :0222 -0000334 meee — OlLS 0018 15. Temperature 15° C, atric “ee ‘29 N. Manganese sulphate :004 N, t n 2 (a-x) (b-«) ies k, os. 7:8 i. ‘Oite 1 OL1S mae ts a TES © 0037 «©0694. 0076 -044 -0000620 14 147 :0064 -0667 :0049 -060 -0000859 Pant 2 0087. * 0044 ~'-0026 “06 -0000987 Zornes et 0095: F-06530) F-70018 069 -0001020 ea OO) (N13) * “OGL8 Under similar conditions the RP iecies of reaction of a solution with an acid concentration of °29 N., but con- taining no manganese sulphate was t n L (a—az) (b-«Z) k, k, ae 6°9 oe 0731 0113 va co 9 6°95 ‘0001 WislmemcOll2 0010 20000011 34 8°8 “OOLG = s-O7 157520097 70044" “0000062 44 16:0 “0026 7) F-07105 Pe 570087 0058 ~=-0000083 54 =11°6 0039 0602 E0074 -0078 V-O000HT0 58 12:2 (0044. 0687) = 0069 = 0084 = 0000120 oe TS" 056 "20675 iv-005/ ~.\-0110 + -0000TSS bee TIVE9 (0066 =-0665 -0047 -0121 -0000176 fo) © T6"1 ‘0076 +0655 ‘0037 "0141 -0000206 70113 = -0618 Q bo > ron 236 C. W. R. POWELL. The effect of manganese sulphate as indicated by these experiments is to considerably increase the initial velocity of reaction. A comparison was made between the figures by tabulating the times taken to decompose definite frac- tions for tbe various concentrations of manganese sulphate. Table F. Concentration of Time taken to proceed (at 15° C.) MnSO,. One-eighth. One-sixth. Half-way. 0000 31 37 63 0008 N. 7 20 45 0040 ,, (3) (4) 12 The velocity of reaction, however, still increases as the reaction proceeds, although not to the same extent as when no manganese sulphate is present. A more complete series of experiments was made with solutions having an acid concentration of °58N. in which the addition of manganese > sulphate was continued until no further accelerative effect was obtained. 16. Temperature 15° C. Sulphuric acid ‘58 N. Manganese sulphate ‘0008 N. t n 2 (a-x) (b-«x) k, k, ep 6:3 am 073) “Ol s BA we 5 6:5 "0001 0730 «© 0112 = °0018 -0000025 15, 2 10-2 ‘0031 ‘0700 -0082 -0208 0000238 bea 2 0038 -0693 -0075 , -0229. ‘0000sz0 22: 126 70049 -0682 -0064 ~<°0253 )-00005GT% Did. ib Aey 70066 »=-0665 = 0047) — -0320 = -0000468 3 ee ba 0099s -0632=—_ -0014 «= 0522 »=— -0000766 e JOO ‘Hii. “0618 17. Temperature 15° C. Sulphuric Bab ‘58 N. Manganese sulphate ‘004 N. t n x (a—x) (b-2x) k, ke 1 5:3 ne ‘0731 4g pOlis “> iu l H235 4. 20001 0730 =6:0112 »=-0090 -0000123 3 6:2 0007 = 0724 «= 0106 ~=— 0210 §=-0000293 6 9-0 0028 0703 -0085 0471 -0000662 8 10°4 0036 0693 -0075 -0518 0000720 £2) oe9 0058 -0673 -0055 -0588 -0000858 LG my dG-2 0074 :0657 :0039 -0676 -0000967 20 Aged 0090s 0641 »=—:0033)- 0772 = :000118 oc 20°3 ‘OMS .-Dols OXIDATION OF SUCROSE BY POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE. 18. Temperature 15° ©. Sulphuric acid °58 N. sulphate ‘008 N. t n Le, 4-9 Boy 9-3 12 13°8 16 16:0 25 18°5 x 20°] t an 377 Pia Die Z,.13-1 11 15-0 16 16-8 22 18-2 19:5 t n oa. Ey 4 14:0 8 16°5 9 17:0 12 18°6 17 21-0 22 21°6 a 24:3 The velocities of reaction for these experiments are a 0033 0066 0082 0101 0113 19, Temperature 15° C. sulphate ‘017 N. n 4 67 "0054 -0067 ‘0081 "0094 "0104 0113" 20. Temperature 15° C. sulphate ‘034 N. x 0052 0066 0069 0079 0093 -0097 0113 (a— 2) “0731 "0698 ‘0665 -0649 -0630 0618 Sulphuric acid ‘58 N. (a-2) ‘0731 ‘0677 °0664 "0650 -0637 °0627 0618 Sulphuric acid ‘58 N.. (a - x) 0731 ‘0679 -0665 "0662 "0652 -0638 *0634 ‘0618 (6 - x) -OL13 “0080 "0047 "0031 -0012 (6 — 2) SOnslicy -0059 "0046 ‘0032 “0019 “0009 (6 —«) "0113 0061 0047 ‘0044 "0034 "0020 0016 compared in the following table :— Table G. Concentration of MnSO,,. “0000 "0008 N. “004 ‘008 ‘017 "034 oP] 9) 9 3) hy, "063 073 "082 "090 ky 139 129 114 "110 "115 hy ‘153 aula ‘106 ‘097 102 ‘088 Manganese ks ‘0000880: -000106 "000119 "000135 Manganese ks "000185 "000185 "000168 "000166 "000175 Manganese ks "000219 ‘000159 "000152 -000146 "000152 °000135 Time taken (at 15° C.) to proceed. One-eighth. One-sixth. 18 23 10 1h 4 5 2 3 1 Tez 1 1°6 Halfway. 4] 24 12 10 9) 5 237 238 C. W. R. POWELL. In the first of these experiments, where no manganese sulphate was present, the velocity increased throughout — the reaction and the difference between initial and final velocities was fairly large. As manganese sulphate was added the increase in the velocity throughout the reaction gradually lessened, until, when the concentration of man- ganese sulphate had reached °017 N., the velocity became practically constant; the difference between initial and final velocities being only *00001 (second order). On further addition of manganese sulphate the velocity no longer increased, and instead of showing an increase throughout the reaction, a slight decrease was obtained. This showed that the maximum efiect for the complete reaction was obtained when the concentration of manganese sulphate was ‘017N., and it is interesting to note that this figure represents little more than the amount of manganese sulphate that would have been formed by the potassium permanganate and sulphuric acid originally present in the solution. The figures in Table G. show clearly that the velocity of reaction is not increased on further addition of manganese sulphate after the concentration of this salt has reached 0°017 N. The conclusion may therefore be drawn that the acceler- ation obtained in those experiments in which no manganese sulphate is used, is due to the formation of this salt as the reaction proceeds, especially so since it has here been proved that if the amount of manganese sulphate that the potassium permanganate and sulphuric acid in the solution would finally form, be added at the commencement of the reaction, a fairly constant velocity of reaction is obtained. This power possessed by manganese sulphate to acceler- ate certain reactions has previously been noticed and in some cases its presence is necessary for the reaction to proceed. Harcourt? refers to the case of the oxidation of 1 Chem. News, x, 171, 1864. OXIDATION OF SUCROSE BY POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE. 239 sulphurous acid, stating that “‘Sulphurous acid, as is well known, when mixed with a large bulk of water which has been exposed to the air, is but slowly oxidised and the change proceeds still more slowly if the solution is freely acidified. If, however, a minute quantity of manganese sulphate is added the oxidation of the sulphurous acid is at once determined.’’ He then supposes that if the water can act to a small extent upon the manganese salt, as it ~ acts upon a bismuth salt, that is, separate the base from the acid, then, no doubt, the hydrate of manganese thus displaced would absorb free oxygen and the sulphurous acid would at once again reduce the peroxide formed. Without insisting on this definite hypothesis, he thinks it is probable that this action of the manganese salt is in some way related to the fact that the protohydrate of this metal has the property of absorbing oxygen from water and parting with it again to sulphurous acid. Ina later paper in conjunction with Esson,* it was found that at ordinary temperature, in a dilute and feebly acid solution, permanganic acid acts very slowly on oxalic acid, but the presence of a manganous salt formed by the reduc- tion of the permanganic acid or previously added, caused a great acceleration. In this case the acceleration reached a Maximum when three molecules of manganese sulphate were present to one of potassium permanganate :— 2KMnO,+3 MnSO,+2 H,O = K,S80,+2H.SO,+5Mn0O, These reactions although somewhat similar, are not identical with the reaction in question, namely the oxida- tion of sucrose by potassium permanganate. In the latter reaction decomposition can proceed rapidly in either acid, neutral or alkaline solution, and without any previous addition of manganese sulphate. Further, this salt, when added, increases the initial rate of reaction to an extent 1 Proc. Roy. Soc., London, xtv, p. 470, 1865. 240 Cc. W. R. POWELL. proportional to the amount added, but ceases to have an accelerative effect when the amount added is equal to that which could have been produced by the potassium par manganate originally present in the solution. Influence of temperature. Temperature coefficients for 10° O. were worked out for — solutions containing varying amounts of sulphuric acid. The coefficients were obtained by comparing the times taken to decompose certain fractions of the total potassium permanganate, the velocity constant being considered pro- portional to the time. The amount of potassium perman- ganate decomposed was plotted against the time the reaction had been proceeding, and the time taken for the completion of various fractions of the reaction read off from the curve thus obtained. Table H. Acid Temperature. Time taken to decompose. concentration. Gh One-tenth. One-eighth. -29 N, 5 67 75 15 21:9 25°5 ID. ons 5 48:5 53 15 15 li-p LAB ys 5 30°5 33 15 2D 12 Table I.—TZemperature coefficients calculated from the figures in Table H. Acid Temperature coefficients calculated at concentration. One-tenth. One-eighth. “20 IN. 3°06 2°95 "DO 55 3°23 3°03 Loy 3°21 2°75 The temperature coefficient is about the same at all concentrations and is similar to that obtained for most chemical reactions. OXIDATION OF SUCROSE BY POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE. 241 Summary. 1. The oxidation of sucrose by potassium permanganate proceeds in acid, neutral or alkaline solutions; manganese peroxide being separated in the last two cases and also in solutions of low acid concentration. 2. The reaction involved is bi-molecular. 3. The reaction does not proceed at a constant rate but gradually increases until the end point is reached. 4, This increase in the velocity of reaction in any one experiment is due to the accelerative effect of manganese sulphate which is one of the products of reaction. 5. Within certain limits the concentration of sulphuric acid does not afiect the nature of the reaction; but the (initial) velocity of reaction varies directly with the hydrogen ion concentration. 6. Although glucose reacts with potassium permanganate more rapidly than does sucrose it is not formed in sufficient quantity to affect the velocity constants in the reaction studied. 7. The temperature coefficient for 10° O. is about 3°0. In conclusion I wish to express my thanks to Professor O. E. Fawsitt for his advice in connection with this inves- tigation. P—July 1, 1914. 2432 A. A. RAMSAY. THE COMPOSITION oF soME LIMEH-SULPHUR SPRAYS MADE ACCORDING TO RECOGNISED FORMULA. By A. A. RAMSAY. (Communicated by F. B. GuTHRIE, F.1.C., F.C.S.) [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, August 5, 1914. | THE use of lime-sulphur sprays as a fungicide and insecti- cide in the orchard is now very general and is steadily increasing. The term lime-sulphur has been applied to the product of boiling together lime and sulphur with water. These sprays are usually made on the orchard as they are required, and for their manufacture many and varied formule have been suggested both here and in America, satisfaction and efficiency having been claimed for each, persumably after actual trial in the field. It was thought advisable, owing to the absence of specific information, to manufacture a quantity of the spray-fluid according to certain formule on a small scale in the labor- atory, and to have these examined and analysed to ascertain what results were actually obtained by following the various methods suggested. This has been done, and the results of the investigation are here given. The mixtures ex- amined have been prepared according to:— Wagga Orchard Formula (a)—using 4$ tbs. lime, 6 Ibs. sulphur, 50 gallons of water. Farmers’ and Fruit Growers’ Guide Formula (b)—using 18°91 ibs. lime, 16°66 tbs. sulphur, 50 gals. water. Illinois Formula (c)—using 15 Ibs. lime, 15 Ibs. sulphur, 50 gallons of water. Dural Demonstration Orchard Formula (d)—using 40 Ib. lime, 80 fb. sulphur, 50 gallons of water. (a) As used at Wagga Farm Orchard, N.S.W. (6) Farmer’s and Fruit Growers’ Guide, 5th Edit., Government Printer N.S.W., 1904, page 378. (c) Agr. Gazette, N.S.W., xx1, page 643. (d) As used at Dural Demon- stration Farm, N.S.W. COMPOSITION OF SOME LIME-SULPHUR SPRAYS. 243 The boiling was done ina flask under a reflex condenser, pure lime and pure sulphur were used throughout. The _~methods of analysis used are those published in the Journal of Agricultural Science.* Mayers method,” Podreschetnikofi’s method,* and that of Dusserre and Vuilleumier* were tried and abandoned as unsatisfactory. The methods described by James HE. Harris® were adopted with slight modifications and gave excellent results. In using sodium peroxide as an oxidising agent to convert sulphides of alkaline earths into sulphates, the method as recommended by Harris which is apparently Modrakowski’s® method is as follows :— **10 cc. of diluted solution is placed in a tall beaker, covered with a watch glass and 5 or 6 grams sodium per- oxide added. After standing a few minutes hydrochloric acid is added with stirring until the solution clears uy, . « . . after ooiling a few minutes to drive off dissolved gases the sulphur may be precipitated as barium sulphate.”’ I have followed this method and have failed to obtain concordant duplicates. The reason I find is due to the presence of higher oxidised products—chlorates, for such a solution discharges the colour from methyl-orange and from indigo. This fact has been noted by Pringsheim.’ * Journal Agricultural Science, Vol. v1, pt. ii, May 1914, p. 194. 2 E. Dhvique-Mayer, Rev. génér. Chim. pure appl. 1908, p. 273 — 274. Analyst xxxitl, p. 484. 3 E. Podreschetnikoff, Zeit. Farben Ind. 1907, p.6--388. Analyst xxxiII, p. 14t. * E. Dusserre and V. Vuilleumier, Chem. Zeit., 1909, p. 33-1129. Analyst xxxIv, p. 545. ° James E. Harris, Technical Bulletin No.6, Michigan Agricultural College, 1911. ® G. Modrakowski, Zeit. physiol. Chem. 1903, xxxvitl, p. 562. Analyst XXVIII, p. 321. 7 H. H. Pringsheim, Berichte 1903, xxx, p. 4244-4246. Analyst Rix, p. 97. 244 A. A. RAMSAY. These higher oxidised products may be removed, and con- cordant results obtained, if the solution be reduced with a little potassium iodide, and the excess of iodine removed by boiling. With this alteration, I find the method gives excellent results. For the determination of the total lime present I now prefer to decompose the sulphides of calcium with N/10 iodine solution, filter off the precipitate of sulphur and determine lime in the filtrate as usual by ammonium oxalate. The method gives excellent results and obviates the necessity of doing a blank determination of lime in the sodium peroxide used. The results of these analyses are given in Table I in (a) grams per 100 cc. and (b) pounds per 50 gallons. The ‘‘calculated lime”’ is the lime calculated as necessary to combine with the mono-sulphide sulphur plus that necessary to combine with the thiosulphate sulphur plus that neces- sary to combine with the sulphate and sulphite sulphur. It must be noted how closely this figure agrees with the actual determination of lime. It will be noted also that in three of these mixtures, viz. the second, third and first, large quantities of the total lime used have not entered into solution and there appears therefore to have been a quite unnecessary expenditure of lime. The mixtures show a great similarity when the table is examined which sets forth the various forms of sulphur present when expressed in terms of the total sulphur, except. that there is a greater proportion of thiosulphate and sulphate sulphur in the first three than in the last, causing less polysulphidal sulphur in those than in number four. COMPOSITION OF SOME LIME-SULPHUR SPRAYS. Table J.—Results of Analyses. Specific gravity of spray Degree Baumé of spray Chemical Monosulphide sulphur . Polysulphide (free sulphur) Thiosulphate sulphur ... Sulphate and sulphite sulphur. Total sulphur ... Total lime Calculated lime Lime not used... Sulphur not used Pounds of Monosulphide sulphur ... Polysulphide Thiosulphate 43 Sulphate and sulphite sulphur = Total sulphur .. Total lime 33 Monosulphide sulphur ... Polysulphide Thiosulphate 3 ee Sulphate and sulphite sulphur 33 245 Dural Demons Wagg Farmers’ and sets Orchard | Fruit Growers’ TWlinois_ | _ stration Formula. Formula. Bormule: Borinalan 3—6—50 | 18°9—16°66—50 | 15—15—50 40—80—50 10138 1°0276 1°03845 1°1687 1:97 3°80 469 20°74 composition| (in grams | per 100 cc.) *220 608 545 2-630 672 1°824 1-719 9°260 | *292 "847 "692 3°080 7013 *051 “040 080 Neer 3°325 2°996 15°050 “658 1°88 1°619 7°420 663 1°887 1-630 7°370 26:°9% 50°3% 46% heals nil nil nil 59% Ingredients| in 50 gallons | Spray. 1°10 3°0L 2°72 13°17 3°36 9°12 8°60 46°38 1°46 424, 3°46 15°42 0-06 0°26 0°20 0°40 5°98 16°63 14°98 75°37 3°29 9°40 8°10 37°01 The various forms of sulp|hur present | expressed in |per cent. of tlotal sulphur 18°38 18°15 18°19 17°47 56°14 54°84. 57°38 61°53 24°39 25°46 23°10 20°47 1-09 1°55 1°33 0°53 110-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 Total sulphur ... At the time of commencing these investigations the Department of Agriculture of New South Wales’ recom- mended a dilution of one gallon of concentrated lime-sulphur solution of 34 to 35 degrees Baumé to 12 gallons of water for winter use, and of one gallon concentrated lime-sulphur solution to 50 gallons of water for summer use. This would give for winter use a fluid of 1°0237 to 1°0246, or 3°24 to 3°37" * Agricultural Gazette N.S.W., xxiv, p. 914, xx, 85. 246 A. A. RAMSAY. Baumé, and for summer use 1°0060 to 1°0063, or °86 to °90° Baumé, and the opinion was held that lime-sulphur solutions in general should be diluted to these limits of specific gravity using a Baumé hydrometer for this purpose.* American Agricultural authorities state that solutions of lime-sulphur should be diluted to contain 12 to 15 ibs. sulphur per 50 gallons for winter use and to contain 335 to 4 ibs. sulphur for summer use. Assuming that both the above suggestions are based on the results of practical trials in the orchards of the two countries it was thought useful information would be afforded by correlating the results of these experiences. Table II has been prepared to show— (a) the number of gallons of water which must be added to one gallon of the spray so that a fluid of 1°0242 sp. gravity may be obtained (N.S.W. winter strength.) (b) the number of gallons of water which must be added to one gallon of the spray so that a fluid of 1°0062 sp. — gravity may be obtained (N.S.W. summer strength). (c) the number of gallons of water which must be added to one gallon of the spray so that the resultant fluid may contain 12 to 15 ibs. sulphur in 50 gallons mixture (American winter strength). (d) the number of gallons of water which must be added to one gallon of the spray so that the resultant fluid may contain 33 to 4 lbs. sulphur in 50 gallons mixture (American summer strength). This shows that in the case of the Wagga formula the strength is too weak for winter use according to both New South Wales and American recommendations, while for Summer strength New South Wales recommends about twice as much water to be added as does America. + Quaintance and Scott, “Better Fruit,” U.S.A. Department of Agri- culture. Agricultural Gazette N.S.W., xx1II, p. 990. COMPOSITION OF SOME LIME-SULPHUR SPRAYS. 247 In the Farmers’ and Fruit Growers’ Guide formula the strength for winter and summer use according to New South Wales, falls within the limits suggested by American authorities. . In the Illinois formula the strength for winter and sum- mer use following the New South Wales recommendation contains about one and a half times as much water as the American authorities recommend. In the Dural Orchard formula for winter use New South Wales recommends one and one-tenth more water than American authorities, and for summer use one and a quarter times more water than American authorities. Table II.— Table of Dilution. Farmers’ Wagga. ee Illinois. Gee Guide. (a) New Number of gallons of South Wales| water to be added to recommenda-} one gallon of spray as |too weak} 07140 | 0°426 5971 tion. mauufactured to pro- duce a sp. gravity of 1°0242. (Winter use.) (b) New Number of gallons of South Wales| water to be added to recommenda-| one gallon of spray as| 1°226 3°452 | 4565 | 26:210 tion. manufactured to pro- duce a fluid of sp. gr. 1:0062. (Summer use.) (c) Recom-| Number of gallons of mendation by| water to be added to United States| one gallon of spray as |\too weak] °388 to | 0°251 to | 5-281 to of America. | manufactured to pro- "110 0:000 | 4024 duce a fluid contain- ing 12 to 15 ibs. sul- phur per 50 gallons. (Winter use.) (d) Recom-| Number of gallons of mendation by| water to be added to United States] one galion of spray as| °708to| 3°757to| 3°287 | 20°533 of America. | manufactured to pro-| 0°495 | 3:162 2°747 | 17°839 duce a fluid contain- ing 324 to 4 ibs. sul- phur per 50 gallons. (Summer use.) 248 A. A. RAMSAY. The two schemes therefore are sometimes in agreement, but in other cases are not. Table III. has been prepared to show the number of pounds of sulphur (in the various states of combination) and of lime in 100 gallons of the mixture obtained by diluting the fluids prepared by the various formule as set forth in Table II. This table shows in a clearer manner the differ- ences in composition. For example one of those lime-sulphur solutions of 1°0242 sp. gravity contains 21°0 Ibs. sulphur and 11°4 tbs. lime per 100 gallons, while another also of 1°0242 sp. gravity con- tains 29°2 tbs. sulphur and 16°5 tbs. of lime per 100 gallons. Table III.—Composition of Sprays as diluted according to Table IT., in pounds per 100 gallons. Farmers’ and Sulphur. Wagga Formula.| Fruit Growers’ Tilinois. Dural. Guide. (a) Monosulphide| ‘Too weak 5°28 3°82 3°78 Polysulphide 16°00 12°06 13°31 Thiosulphate 14d. 485 4°42 Sulphate and sulphite “46 "28 ‘ll Total sulphur 29°18 21°01 21°62 Total lime 16°49 11°36 10°62 (b) Monosulphide 0°99 1°29 0°98 0:97 Polysulphide 3°02 3°91 3°09 3°41 Thiosulphate 1°31 1°81 1-24 1°13 Sulphate and sulphite 05 “11 07 03 Total sulphur 5°37 7:12 5°38 5°54 Total lime 2°96 4°03 2°91 2°72 (c) Monosulphide| Too weak | 4°35 | 544 | 4°36 | 5°46 | 4°19 | 5°24 Polysulphide 13°16 | 16°46 | 18°77 | 17°22 | 14°77 | 18°46 Thiosulphate @1ll | 7:64] 554 | 693 | 491 | G14 Sulphate and sulphite 37 “46 "32 “40 13 "16 Total sulphur 23°99 | 30°00 | 23°99 | 30°01 | 24°00 | 30°00 Total lime 13°59 | 16°96 | 12°97 | 16°22 | 11°78 | 14°73 (d) Monosulphide} 1°29 1:47 | 1:27 | 1:45 | 1:27 | 146 { 1:22 | 140 Polysulphide | 3°94 450 | 3°84 | 439 | 4:02 | 4:59] 431 | 4°92 Thiosulphate | 1°72 1:96] 1°78 | 2°04] 162] 185] 143] 164 Sulphate and | sulphite "OF. iy DO a ig: 12 ‘09 "10 04 04 Total sulphur; 7:02 | 802 7:00} 800} 7:00 | 8:00} 7:00] 8:00 Total lime 3°86 | 441 | 3°96 | 452 | 3°78 | 433 | 3°44 | 3°93 COMPOSITION OF SOME LIME-SULPHUR SPRAYS. 249 In the case of mixtures having asp. gravity of 1°0062, one contains 5°5 Ibs. sulphur and 2°7 Ibs. lime per 100 gal- lons, while another contains 7°5 tbs. sulphur and 4°2 Ibs. of lime per 100 gallons. It has not yet been ascertained to which of these forms of sulphur compounds lime sulphur soiution owes its effici- ency, nor what proportion of this efficiency is due respec- tively to the monosulphide form, the polysulphide form and to the thiosulphate form. In the absence of this information it was thought that the examination of a particularly concentrated form of lime-sulphur mixture manufactured abroad, and which has given highly satisfactory results over a wide range of country, at certain observed dilutions, would be desirable. This concentrated lime sulphur mixture was examined with the following results :— Specific Gravity... eh 1 Ea elesOLls Degree Baumé mote ; Bae 1. Oo OF Composition in grams per 100 (os Monosulphide sulphur de bts Say OOo Polysulphide sulphur oe He ..», 20° OL Thiosulphate sulphur Ae pe ee OO Sulphate and sulphite sulphur _... cane et LO Total sulphur ... wits ai se OODLE Total lime - Be: ay wae), Lomo The percentages of the various forms of sulphur in per- centage of total sulphur are:— Monosulphide sulphur a és ... 19°60 Polysulphide sulphur ae bes LOO Thiosulphate sulphur ee Mi 4°61 Sulphate and sulphite sulphur _... Aree 4) Total sulphur ... ane As, ... L00°00 Field experience has shown that the best results obtained for (a) winter use is by mixing one volume concentrated spray with 10 volumes of water, and (b) for summer use by i * ‘ 7 r ei =u 250 A. A. RAMSAY. mixing one volume concentrated spray with 50 volumes of water. The composition of these mixtures (a) and (b) would be:— (a) (b) Specific Gravity nae w. =: 1°02'74 1°0059 Degree Baumé sf a On 0°84 Composition in grams per 100 ¢ ce. Monosulphide sulphur a. °625 "135 Polysulphide sulphur... ... 2°410 019 Thiosulphate sulphur ae °147 °032 Sulphate and sulphite sulphur "009 "002 Total sulphur ... wo oo Lom °688 Total lime he ow | 228 °264 Or expressed in pounds 950 imperial gallons Monosulphide sulphur sa oO) °675 Polysulphide sulphur... 127070 2°600 Thiosulphate sulphur aa °739 °160 Sulphate and sulphite sulphur "045 °010 Total sulphur... .. 15°980 3°445 Total lime... ae .. 6°100 1°320 Since it is admitted that the above strengths (a) and (b) have given satisfaction in field trials, I have taken these strengths as a standard and have calculated the dilution necessary in the case of these lime sulphur solutions as made by the various formule stated, so that the resultant mixtures shall contain the same number of pounds of sul- phur per 100 gallons as do the standards chosen, namely one volume of the highly concentrated lime-sulphur solution with ten volumes of water for winter use, and one volume of the highly concentrated lime-sulphur solution with fifty volumes of water for summer use. These are set forth in Table IV which also gives the Specific gravity and degrees Baumé. Underneath will be found a table giving the amount in pounds per 100 gallons of sulphur in the various forms of combination present in these mixtures. 251 COMPOSITION OF SOME LIME-SULPHUR SPRAYS. 8E-E 68-9 IL-1 8Z00.T 288:02-+1 JowWUINs 96-18 Die 79-9 19-61 8g-g 0-001 8-84 06-16 69-ST 96-18 C87 890-1 UE Ga 0 10401 MA *‘pavyolo [wang 68-9 10-08 60: OF- 69-1 66:9 96-8 GG LT 96-1 9V-S 68-9 IT. GL-T 8L- Gé.T 96-16 68-9 6P- L0- P1-8 89-T 6S-LT L8-& 08-S LE.T 68-9 C6-16 CO- 60- GE: LY-T 0z-¢ EL-¥G Cé-1 L6-9 ie ms “anydyns [eqoy, anydyns oy1ydjns pue eyeqdyng ves “* angd[ns eqeqd[nsorqy, vee * anydins oprydjnskjog ve ‘ inydjus optyd[nsouopy swo7)06 OOT ad spunod sv paznjs ‘suorgnjup aacqn ay, wr unydyns 70707 ay} fo worgnqrlgsuy c @ souny $Z yvom $¢-9 96-TT L61-6 8S10-T 0-001 0-001! OO0T 0-001 Go-LL | A19q S118 €.64| 7 P-2b C6.26 | yo 4-02 | 96 9.16 Ze ZZ-91 | 06-8 80-ST| 64-8 68-9 10:08 | 68-9 96-18 | 68-9 Nall 89-p 18-0 19-8 Gren 6400-1 | SP80-1 | £S00-1 | 8920-1 | 6100-1 1G¢e.e-+1 |'549198 1103] 9¢9.¢+ 1 FO.0O-+T |9e1-0-FT JOU wmung LOZUL AA LoTATA NG TOJUT AA TOTATING ‘SIOUILIT ‘apmny) SAaMOay VINA pus Sdawavy *OUIAYS [VJ TO} U1 M\ eee eee "VSO A 79-6 O§-éT 68-9 96-16 8-0 LL-€ 6900-T | PLG0-1 OSs TsO Dist 1 JOTAUING | JOJUT AA *paepuvyg ‘diq poqvay -uadUOH paqtodwy eee eee pee JOPVM SUOTIVD INYA[Ns sMI], SUO][VS JO LeEquaNnyy NEC L ‘ 5 OuNIT (VFO, (‘[es OOT ted ‘sqy) anydyns [e907, - aa ' o9mneg oo1c0q “s AWAVIS oIOEdG "Psopunys OG + paqn1jUa0Uod J,, 0 pun QT + parwuguaouod [,, 0072 puodsa.soo 07 pagnjip shoudy sno.ww4 —* AT 24%], Iz A. A. RAMSAY. Looking at Table IV it isseen that lime sulphur solutions | containing the same weight of sulphur per unit volume may vary from 1°0265 to 1°0358 in specific gravity or from 3°67 to 4°85 if expressed in degrees Baumé. It should also be noted that the dilutions calculated in Table IV are just about the mean of the values calculated in Table II. It appears therefore that the “‘content of sulphur”’ is a more suitable method for calculating dilution than is the specific gravity method. Norr.— The degrees Baumé stated are the European standard bat a The American degrees 144°3 — my 45 Baumé are calculated by the formula b= aera calculated by the formula d = DIFFUSIBLE PHOSPHORUS OF COW’S MILK. DoS On THE DIFFUSIBLH PHOSPHORUS or COW’S MILK. By H. S. HALCRO WARDLAW, B.Sc., Science Research Scholar of the University of Sydney. (From the Physiological Laboratory of the University of Sydney.) [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 5, 1914. | NUMEROUS data are available concerning the total quanti- ties of the various elements which are present in milk. With regard to the forms of chemical combination and to: the physical states in which these elements exist, however, our knowledge is much less complete. We know that milk contains substances both in solution and in suspension, but. as to how the different elements are distributed between these states very few reliable data are to be found. The separation of the substances in suspension in milk from those in solution has been attempted in three chief ways :— 1. By forcing milk through a filter made of some material having extremely fine pores, such as unglazed porcelain. A perfectly clear filtrate is obtained by this process. 2. By spinning milkinacentrifuge. In this way portion of the suspended matter of milk is obtained as a deposit. 3. By allowing the soluble portion of milk to dialyse away from the substances in suspension. Although the first method of separation has been known for many years, few statements as to proportions of the substances in milk which pass through a porcelain filter are to be found, and there are considerable discrepancies. 954 H. S. H. WARDLAW. between the corresponding figures given by different authors. Further, it has been objected that the passage of milk through porcelain may not simply effect a mechanical separation of the suspended from the dissolved matter of milk, but changes may be induced which bring about the precipitation of substances originally in solution (see Raudnitz, 1902). With regard to the method of separating the suspended matter from milk by spinning in a centrifuge, still less is known. Indeed, although it has been observed that a separation of some of the suspended matter of milk can be effected in this way, and one or two analyses of separator slime have been made (Fleischmann, 1901; Alson, 1908; Barthel, 1910), the only systematic attempt to determine the nature of the deposit obtained appears to be that of the present author (1914, 2). The investigations in this direction, however, have so far not thrown much light on the state of combination of the substances in solution and in suspension in milk beyond showing that calcium phos- phate does not exist in suspension in milk as is generally believed, or rather that it is not deposited when milk is spun in a centrifuge. More complete information will be obtainable in this way only when a more perfect separation of the suspended matter has been brought about. With regard to the separation of the suspended from the dissolved matter by means of dialysis, again very few data are available. When a body such as milk, in which there must exist a complex series of equilibria between dissolved and suspended substances, is allowed to dialyse against water, the effect is that of diluting the soluble constituents, which will dialyse out into the water. This dilution will disturb the equilibrium between dissolved and suspended matter, and may result in substances, originally in sus- pension, going into solution, just as a precipitate of an ae DIFFUSIBLE PHOSPHORUS UF COW’S MILK. 255 “‘insoluble’’ salt may be dissolved up if the concentrations of the ions with which it is in equilibrium be diminished. Hence, when a quantity of milk is dialysed against a large volume of water the substances obtained in the dialysate will include not only those substances which exist in a state of true solution or in a dialysable or diffusible condition in the unchanged milk, but also those substances in suspension which can be made to go into solution by diluting with water. How considerable the amount of these substances may be has already been shown by the present author (loc. cit.). The amounts of the sub- stances in milk which are dialysable under these conditions therefore give no idea as to the amounts of dialysable or diffusible substances in the unchanged milk, the substance secreted by the mammary gland. In this paper, those portions of the substances present in milk which can be made to dialyse into a large (unlimited) volume of water will be distinguished as the dialysable substances. Those substances which exist in unchanged milk in a dialysable or diffusible condition will be called the diffusible substances. To determine the amount of the diffusible substances of milk some means are required by which these may first be separated without disturbing the equilibriaexisting between them and the remaining constituents; the process of dialysis as ordinarily carried out gives nohelp. A distinct advance in the study of diffusible substances was made by Moore and Bigland (1911) when they employed the method of dialysis against known volumes of water. - In this way the equilibria were displaced to a definite, although still un- known, extent. Another improvement in the study of diffusible substances was that introduced by Zuntz and Loewy (1894), and later employed by Rona and Michaelis (1909). In this method, which is known as the method of oJ 256 H. S. H. WARDLAW, compensatory dialysis, the solution in which the amount of a certain constituent in a diffusible condition is to be determined is dialysed, not against water, but against a second solution so made up as to contain in a diffusible condition all the constituents of the second solution except the one the amount of which is to be determined in such concentrations that only the constituent under observation will diffuse, all the other constituents being balanced or compensated by equal concentrations outside the membrane through which dialysis takes place. Apart from the fact that one would require to know a great deal about the solution being examined before such an outer liquid for the dialyser could be prepared, this balancing of all of the con- stituents of a solution but one does not at all mean that the natural equilibria will remain undisturbed. Returning to the analogy with the equilibrium between a salt and its ions, it is known that any alteration in the concentration of any one of the ions will bring about a re-adjustment of concentrations of the other substances present necessary to reach a state of equilibrium under the changed con- ditions. Thus, although in special cases it may be possible to prepare these compensating solutions, as Rona and Michaelis have shown, this method does not seem to possess a wide range of applicability. These authors, however, have employed another method for the examination of the diffusible substances of milk which reduces toa minimum all displacement of equilibria. This method is simply an extension of that of Moore and Bigland. The liquid under examination is allowed to dia- lyse against a known volume of water, but in this case the volume of the water is made very small in comparison with that of the milk (25 cc. of water to 1000 cc. of milk). The milk is thus only slightly diluted and a much truer estimate of the diffusible substances may be formed. By this method, and by the method of compensatory dialysis, Rona and ° DIFFUSIBLE PHOSPHORUS OF COW’S MILK. eel Michaelis have determined the amount of diffusible calcium in milk. This paper is an account of the application of the method of quantitative dialysis to the study of the diffusible phos- phorus of cow’s milk. A few determinations of the diffusible calcium have also been made. The Milk Used. The milk used for the first experiment was ordinary mixed milk as supplied by a city milk-vendor. This milk is about twelve hours old before it reaches the consumer, and is generally pasteurised. Such milk was found quite unsuit- able for the present work as even the addition of toluol did not prevent its souring before the completion of the dialysis. The remaining experiments were made upon the milks of single cows. Hach cow from which a sample of milk was taken, was milked directly into a vessel containing 10 cc. of toluol for each litre of milk collected. The access of bacteria is very much hindered in this way; milk collected as described keeps sweet for several days. The essential point here seems to be to prevent the entrance of bacteria, as it has been shown that although toluol kills organisms, such as yeasts, it has practically no efiect on the rate of action of the enzymes produced by them (Harden, 1910). Toluol was chosen as the disinfectant as being a hydro- carbon and practically insoluble in water it did not seem likely to have any marked effect on the substances in an aqueous solution suchas milk. Toluol does exert a solvent action on the fat of milk, however. The samples of milk were all collected at about 12 noon; the last milking of the same cow had occurred in each case at about 4a.m. of the same day. The milk obtained was generally the first portion of the milking. The Dialyses. The dialysis of milk against water was allowed to take place through celloidin membranes. These membranes Q—July 1, 1914. 258 H.S. H. WARDLAW. were prepared in the form of sacs by covering the inside of a test-tube with a layer of a solution of celloidin and allowing the sol vent (alcohol-ether) to evaporate off. Before the ether and alcohol have completely disappeared from the layer of celloidin deposited in this way in the test-tube, the latter should be filled with water and the remainder of the alcohol and ether dissolved out. Membranes prepared by allowing all the ether and alcohol to evaporate off in the air are very brittle. The sacs formed in this way do not adhere firmly to the inside of the test-tube, and with a little patience can easily be coaxed away from the glass. These celloidin membranes, when prepared in the right way are transparent and flexible. They withstand a consider- able tensile stress but are very easily torn. If water be poured into the test-tube before enough of the solvent has evaporated from the celloidin, the membrane formed will be opalescent and will tear so easily as to be useless. A suitable solution for the preparation of these membranes consists of equal parts of ether and absolute alcohol con- taining 5% of celloidin (see Abel, Rowntree and Turner, 1914). The dialysates obtained in these celloidin sacs are per- fectly clear when bacterial contamination is avoided. When a sac has once been used, however, it is rather difficult to clean properly inside, and the dialysate becomes infected and turbid in spite of the presence of toluol in the surrounding milk. In the later experiments this source of contamination was avoided by using a new diffusion sac for each dialysis. In carrying out the dialyses 25 cc. of water were put in the celloidin sac and the latter suspended in one litre of milk. It was found that no further change occurred in the concentrations of the substances which had diffused through into the water after the dialysis had continued for twenty- a eee DIFFUSIBLE PHOSPHORUS OF COW'S MILK. 259 four hours. At the end ofthis time the molecular concen- trations ofsthe dissolved substances on each side of the celloidin membrane were practically the same. The relative molecular concentrations of milk and its dialysates were determined by measuring the depressions of the freezing point of water (A) due to the substances in solution in these liquids. The following are the figures obtained. Values of A for spun milk, twenty-four hour dialysate, and forty-eight hour dralysate. Experiment. Spun milk. 24-hr. Dialysate. | 48-hr. Dialysate. i ely Os56dS 5 0:580° 0-576° 62 0:576 0-547 0:533 63 0-569 0°530 0°526 64 0:560 0:535 0°539 These results show that the values of / for milk from which the fat has been removed by spinning in a centrifuge {spun milk) and for the twenty-four hour and forty-eight hour dialysates agree to within about 57%, and that the freezing point of the dialysate does not alter its value once it has approximated to that of milk. When it is remem- bered that the diffusible part of the milk has been diluted to the extent of 2°57 it will be seen that a closer agree- ment between the freezing points of milk and its dialysates is hardly to be expected. An experiment in which the values of /\ for spun milk, dialysate and the milk in equi- librium with the dialysate were determined, gave the following results. 0°560° | ~——-0°5 42° 0°548° The values of /\ for the dialysate and the liquid in equi- librium with it thus agree very closely. Spun Milk. | Dialysate. Outer Liquid. It will be noticed that the freezing points of the dialy- sates have been compared, not with the milk with which 260 H. S. H. WARDLAW. they were in equilibrium, but with the same milk freed from fat in the centrifuge. This was done because the freezing point of spun milk is more easily determined than that of the same milk still containing fat. It has already been shown (loc. cit.) that the freezing points of whole and spun milk are practically the same. The milk on which all the work described in the present paper was done contained 1% of toluol as already stated. It was thought that the presence of the toluol might have some effect on the freezing point of the milk, but the follow- ing determinations of the value of A for spun milk (a) without toluol, (b) containing 5% of toluol, show that this. is apparently not the case. Spun Milk Alone. | Spun Milk + Tolwol. 0°552° 0°556" The effect of the toluol, if any, is thus small. All these determinations of freezing point were carried out in the manner previously described (loc. cit.). The agreement between the freezing points of the correspond-. ing liquids is within the limit of accuracy of the method there set down. Hach value of / given is the mean of at. least three determinations having an extreme difference of not more than about 0°005°. During the course of a dialysis the volume of liquid put. into the celloidin sac does not remain constant, but. diminishes, as the following results show. Volume of liquid in celloidin sac before and after completion of dialysis. Experiment. | Original volume. | Volume of dialysate. 55 25 cc. 18:6 ce. 56 25, Lora 58 25%) 16275 These figures were obtained for the dialysis of spun milk; they show the osmotic effect which occurs before the con- DIFFUSIBLE PHOSPHORUS OF COW’S MILK. 261 centrations of the substances in solution have become the same on each side of the membrane. Results. Having demonstrated that the process of dialysis as carried out in the present investigation leads to a definite state of equilibrium between the substances on each side of the membrane of the dialyser, we may now enquire what concentrations of substances in the dialysate are in equi- librium with those in the milk. In this paper I shall deal only with the concentrations of calcium and phosphorus. The amounts of calcium (expressed as CaO) were deter- mined in addition to the amounts of phosphorus (expressed as P.O;) only in the first few experiments. P.O; alone was determined in the later experiments as the length of time required for the analyses was so much increased when CaO was estimated as well, and as the amount of diffusible CaO in milk has already been determined by Rona and Michaelis (loc. cit.) by this method. For these estimations as a rule not more than 10 cc. of dialysate were available; in the case of milk, portions of 20 cc. of spun milk were used, as the removal of the fat considerably reduces the amount of organic matter which has to be destroyed before proceeding to the actual estima- tion. The organic matter in the liquids under examination was destroyed, and the calcium and phosphorus oxidised by the acid-ashing process of Neumann (1902) as modified by -Plimmer and Bayliss (1906), i.e., by oxidation with a mix- ture of concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids. Use of spun milk.—It has already been shown that the removal of the fat of milk by mechanical means does not alter the freezing point (Wardlaw, loc. cit.), that is, removes nothing from solution in the milk. This is no justification for concluding however, that the percentage of any par- ticular constituent such as CaO or P.O; is the same in spun 262 H. §S. H. WARDLAW. milk as in whole milk. We must therefore ascertain how the contents of phosphorus and calcium differ, if at all from those of whole milk before we can with strict justification deduce from a comparison of the amounts of these con- stituents in spun milk and in the dialysate of whole milk the proportions of them which exist in a diffusible condition in whole milk. When milk is spun long enough in a centrifuge (for over half an hour), the fat collects in a solid layer which may be easily removed from the top of the liquid. The liquid portion is therefore diminished by a volume equal to that of the fat or cream. The following measurements allow this diminution of volume to be calculated in percentages of the original volume of the milk. The milk was spun in cylindrical, flat-bottomed tubes; the volumes of the different portions of the milk were therefore proportional to the lengths of tube occupied by them. Diminution of volume of the liquid part of milk due to the removal of the fat or cream in a centrifuge. Mik, | Total eight | Lena of | eae 3 12:0.cm,. | 12°3 em: 0:7 cm. 5:4 4 12-7 ,, 12-0 ,, 0-7 ,, BB. Ba teen 126 0-7 ,, 5-3 mean +. “Sie eee 5°4 ,, It will thus be seen that if the fat or cream removed — contain no CaO or P.O; the amounts of these in a given volume of milk will be increased to the extent of 5°4% by merely spinning in a centrifuge. As, however, cream con- tains a certain amount of ash, a direct determination of the ash, CaO and P.O; in the fat or cream removed from 100 cc. of milk was made. The following results were obtained. | DIFFUSIBLE PHOSPHORUS OF COW’S MILK. 263 Amounts of ash, CaO and P,O; in the fat or cream of 100 cc. of milk. Ash. CaO. 0°0180 gm. 0°0063 Pion 0°0046 These quantities amount to 2°4% of the corresponding constituents of whole milk. The total result of the removal of the fat from milk in this way is thus a ‘“‘concentration’’ of the remaining con- stituents to the extent of 5°4% (the actual molar concen- tration of the substances in solution is not changed, v. s.), and the removal of 2°4% of the substances which go to form theash. On the whole there is therefore a “‘gain”’ of these substances ina given volume of liquid equal to 3°0% (5°4 — 2°4). Direct determinations of the amounts of P.O; in whole and spun milk were also made. These gave the following results :— Percentage increase of P,O; in milk due to the separation of the fat in a centrifuge. E50. 118, 100 ee. of Milk. Percentage Whole Milk. Spun Milk. TCT PASE. 3 0-210 gm. 0-217 gm. 3°5 - C216 ,, | 0-222 ,, 3°60 These direct measurements thus lead to the same result as was deduced above. The accuracy with which phos- phorus could be estimated was not high enough to allow of complete reliance being placed on results obtained by the direct method alone. We may now proceed to compare the amounts of CaO and P.O; in spun milk with those in the dialysates of whole milk, remembering that the values obtained for the first quantities must be diminished by 3°07 if strictly corres- 264 H. S. H. WARDLAW. ponding figures are required. The correction is not large, and for comparative purposes need not be made. Amount of diffusible CaO.—The estimations of CaO were made by the method of Aron (1907) in which the Ca is pre- cipitated from the acid ash as CaSO, by the addition of alcohol. The figures below give the proportions of diffusible CaO found in three samples of milk. Percentage of CaO of milk in a diffusible condition. CaO in 100 ce. of Percentage in Milk. Spun milk. Dialysate. dialysate. A B 24-hour. | 48-hour. | 24-hour. | 48-hour. _ 55 0°180 0-166 | 0-061 o0"o 56 0:164 0-153.) 0:061 ae 30'S Me 58 0-280 0-086 0:077 30°8 27°4 The agreement between the duplicate analyses is not good, but the results show that roundly 30—407 of the calcium of milk is present in a diffusible state. These figures are rather lower than those given by Rona and Michaelis for the four samples of milk examined by them. Their figures range from 40 to 50%; they give no duplicate analyses. Amount of diffusible P.O0;.—The phosphates in the acid ash were precipitated in the way described by Neumann. These precipitates were dissolved in dilute ammonium hydroxide, the P.O, was precipitated again as MgNH,POQ,, and finally weighed as Mg.P.O, in the usual manner. The details of these processes will be found in the author’s previous papers (loc. cit.1 and 2). The accompanying figures show the results obtained for the amounts of diffusible P,O;. DIFFUSIBLE PHOSPHORUS OF COW’S MILK. 265 Percentage of P.O; of milk in a diffusible condition. PO, im 100 ce... of Percentage in Milk. Spun milk. ~ Dialysate. dialysate. A B 24-hour. | 48-hour. | 24-hour. | 48-hour. 55 | 0-235 | 0-232 | 0-153 | 35-0 59 0-216 0-212 4\5.0:076 0-136 35°5 60 0°233 0:235 | 0:106 0-131 45:3 Yee 61 0-259 0-250 | 0:138 0:139 54-1 54°5 62 0-263 O-261 | O-112 0-110 42°] 42-0 63 0:220 0°:225 | 0:123 0°122 55°3 54°8 64 0:22] 0:21 0-106 Sy 48°6 These results show that the amount of diffusible P2O; of cow’s milk waries from 35 to 557%. The amount of the soluble or diffusible calcium and phos- phorus in milk is thus by no means consistent, but varies between rather wide limits. This variation is striking when the comparative constancy of the freezing point, and therefore of the total amount of dissolved matter is remembered. Jackson and Rothera (1914) have examined this peculiarity and have shown that there is a reciprocal relation between the salts in solution in milk and the amount of milk sugar. Summary. 1. When a large volume of milk is dialysed against a small volume of water, the freezing point of the dialysate after twenty-four hours approximates to that of the milk, and does not change as the dialysis is continued; a definite state of equilibrium is therefore reached. 2. Milk freed from fat in a centrifuge contains 3/ more ash-forming substances than whole milk. 3. The diffusible calcium of cow’s milk amounts to 30— 40% of the total present. 4, The diffusible phosphorus of cow’s milk amounts to 35 —55% of the total present. 266 H. S. H. WARDLAW. In conclusion I wish to express my indebtedness to Sir Thomas Anderson Stuart, in whose laboratory this work was done, and to thank Assistant-Professor Chapman for the advice and encouragement he has given me during the work. REFERENCES. ABEL, RownTREE and TurNER, J. of Pharmacol. and exp. Therap., 5, 276, 1914. ALson, J. Biol. Chem., 5, 261, 1908. ARON, Biochem. Zeitschr., 4, 268, 1907. BartTHeL, Methods used in the Examination of Milk and Dairy Products, p. 13. Macmillan, London, 1910. FLEISCHMANN, Lehrb. d. Milchwirtsch. 3 Aufl. Lpzg. 1911. Cited by Raudnitz, Sommerfeld’s Handbuch der Milchkunde, p. 200. Bergmann, Wiesbaden, 1909, Harpen, Alcoholic Fermentation, p. 104, Longmans, London, 1911. Jackson and Roruera, Biochem. J., 8, 1, 1914. Lorwy and Zuntz, Arch. f. die ges. Physiol., 58, 511, 1894. Moore and BIGLanpD, Biochem. J., 5, 32, 1911. Neumann, Zeitschr. f. physiol. Chem., 33, 115, 1902. PuimMER and Bayuiss, J. of Physiol., 33, 439, 1906. Raupnitz, Ergeb. d. Physiol., II, 1, 193, 1903. Rona and MicHak is, Biochem. Zeitschr., 21, 114, 1909. WaRrDLAW, (1), this Journal, 48, 1914; (2), ibid., 48, 1914. Note.—'The milk used for the experiments described in the author’s paper on the “Nature of the Deposit obtained from Milk by Spinning in a Centrifuge,” p. 152, this volume) was mixed milk about twelve hours old, obtained from a city milk vendor. MOUNTAINS AND THEIR EFFECT ON NATIVE VEGETATION. 267 THE MOUNTAINS OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA AND THEIR EFFECT ON THE NATIVE VEGETATION. By Rh. H. CAMBAGE, F.L.S. [With Plate VI.] [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 2, 1914. ] THE principal mountains of the Australian mainland are situated along its eastern margin, and consist of a notched chain or dividing range, extending from Oape York in the north, to the centre of Victoria in the south. Here the range swings round to the westward, and except for the Grampians and a few isolated peaks, loses much of its rugged and distinctive character. It has a somewhat sinuous course, and the Main Divide lies at varying dis- tances from the coast, for while it follows southerly along the eastern portion of the Cape York Peninsula, coming to within ten miles of the ocean a little to the north of Cairns, (Plate VI) it afterwards recedes to the westward, and opposite Townsville is over 100 miles inland, and is 300 miles west of the coast from Gladstone, while opposite Brisbane it has returned to within 80 miles of the ocean. Coming through New South Wales it may be said to aver- age 80 to 100 miles from the coast, its nearest point being to the south-east of Cooma where it approaches to within about 35 miles in a straight line. Curling round from this point to the west, north-west, and south, it reaches its greatest elevation in Australia, 7,328 feet, on Kosciusko. Passing south-westerly through eastern Victoria, with several points exceeding 6,000 feet above sea-level, it occupies a position about 70—80 miles from the coastline. This mountain system or Dividing Range and its effect on climate, and consequently on vegetation, can be better 268 R. H. CAMBAGE. understood if it be regarded as an uplifted plateau which for a great portion of its length presents its higher and steeper face to the east, and in most cases, with a more gradual slope to the westward. In its southern part, where it crosses from New South Wales into Victoria, both faces are steep, particularly the western, while on the Blue Mountains west of Sydney, there is a distinct down- ward warp to the eastward, up which the railway has to climb from HKmu Plains. As the streams on the eastern side of the mountains are generally short, and in view of the elevation of their sources consequently rapid, they have already succeeded in entrenching themselves to depths of several thousand feet, according to the height of the plateau, with the result that the line of the water-parting is being gradually but surely forced to the westward. ‘he effect of these parallel gorges, which are being thus formed, is to isolate sections of the plateau into lateral spurs, and in frequent instances the elevations on these spurs, especially where residuals of older levels occur, are greater than those of the Main Divide itself. Another feature of the water-parting is that it occupies various positions on these mountains, being sometimes in the centre, but very often towards the edges, and in some instances coincides with the actual margin of the plateau, as at the head of the Kybean River, south- east of Cooma. It will be seen, therefore, that the ridge which divides the waters on the plateau, often exercises less influence on the climate and vegetation than many of the lateral ranges, or in other words, it is the steep eastern margin of the plateau, rather than a slight dividing ridge on the tableland, which dominates the climate of the coastal belt and influences the character of the resultant flora. In Australia there is a type of vegetation known as brush or jungle, (in Queensland the term ‘‘scrub”’ is now largely MOUNTAINS AND THEIR EFFECT ON NATIVE VEGETATION. 269 used), largely a tropical element, which has entered the continent, probably through New Guinea, before the last land connection was severed, and this is practically con- fined to the coastal strip and eastern face of the Main Range in Queensland and New South Wales. Now it is interesting to consider why this brush vegetation has such a limited range in Australia. We can readily understand that, being of tropical origin, its progress southwards will be arrested by the cold of southern latitudes, but seeing that it enters Australia in the north, it is not clear why it does not extend right across the continent from east to west, and come an equal distance south throughout. The reason which suggests itself is that this distribution is regulated by climate and rainfall. It would seem however, that these factors are directly the result of certain topo- graphic conditions, and had the topography of northern and eastern Australia been similar, there would not have been such a wide difference in the two floras. There is perhaps nothing which shows more evident response to certain physiographic features than the resul- tant native flora. This response is due to certain natural laws, an important one being that it is the cooling, and, therefore, often the ascending cloud which precipitates most of the rain. The result of this law is a good rainfall throughout practically the whole of the eastern slopes of Australia, for the rainy weather comes from the ocean, and ascends these mountains to their summits, there being none so high as to reach above the rain zone, and the clouds are chilled in their ascent. It seems unquestionable that had this great plateau been only half its present height, and one or two hundred miles further inland, as well as reached by a gentle slope instead of a fairly abrupt face, the rain- fall over the present coastal belt, though considerable, would have been less, while that of the area now occupied by the lower western slopes would have been increased. 9270 R. H. CAMBAGE. ea Our good coastal rainfall is largely due therefore to the comparative proximity of the Main Range to the ocean, to the height of the plateau (averaging from 3,000.to 4,000 feet), and the steepness of its eastern face. Another effect of this long north and south range is that it tends to keep the western country dry, by shutting off coastal moisture, and thus is produced the two well known distinctive types of coastal and inland floras, the one result- ing from moist and temperate surroundings, and the other from colder winter and hotter summer conditions. The plateau itself, owing to its altitude, produces a third type of vegetation, in which is to be found much of what is known as the Antarctic element, and it is along this high Jjand that many southern plants are able to make their way northwards into latitudes which at lower levels are altogether too hot for them. KHspecially is this the case in connection with the genus Eucalyptus, and the only portion of northern New South Wales in which Tasmanian members of this genus are to be found is on and, around the New Hngland tableland. The effect of the two distinct climates produced by this Great Dividing Range is so pronounced that although there is a dense brush vegetation on very many portions of the eastern face, the moment the summit of the plateau is reached and drier western, and colder winter conditions are encountered, while coastal humidity is shut off, the jungle or brush ceases, and its place is taken by open forest country, or by low scrub made up of species distinct from those on the eastern face. This applies practically through-— out the whole length of the range, for at Milton, in the south, in latitude 35}°, where the most southern trees grow of that northern hemisphere species, Cedrela toona (Red Oedar) the brush vegetation may be found in the coastal belt, while on the plateau to the west, from Braidwood to MOUNTAINS AND THEIR EFFECT ON NATIVE VEGETATION. 27% Lake George, the country is all open forest. The same contrast exists between Illawarra on the coast and Moss Vale to Goulburn and Yass on the plateau, and again between the North Coast of New South Wales and the New England tableland. Passing into Queensland we find the same conditions in regard to plant distribution wherever the mountain range is sufficiently high to form a barrier. At Cairns, in latitude 17°, brush growths are abundant, but in going westerly from here, the whole of this class of vegetation is left behind before Mareeba is reached, or within 20 miles ina straight line. Between the Mareeba- Parada districts, and the southerp shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, a distance westerly of about 300 miles ina direct line, the country gradually falls from about 1,700 feet to sea level, though some of the hills near Parada exceed 2,000 feet. During the whole of this distance no sign of brush vegetation is seen, though a little occurs on a few of the moist river flats near the Gulf, and the large forest trees are made up chiefly of Hucalyptus species, while along the banks of the Htheridge, Gilbert, Norman, Flinders and other rivers are luxuriant growths of Mela- leucas, neither of which genera contributes to the ingredi- ents of an Australian brush or jungle. In a distance due south, 200 miles, from the Gulf to Cloncurry, the ascent is almost imperceptible but amounts to about 700 feet, while the divide between the Gulf and Lake Kyre waters is crossed at Whitewood between Hughenden and Winton, at an elevation only slightly exceeding 1,000 feet. From White- wood to the Gulf of Carpentaria at the mouth of the Flinders River, is a direct distance northwesterly of about 330 miles, and the country has the appearance of a level plain through- out, the fall amounting to only slightly over three feet per mile. It will be seen, therefore, that there is a total absence of any high range to create moist conditions over this large area. Turning next to the westward, there is the Barkly 272 R. H. CAMBAGE. Tableland with an elevation of about 1,000 feet, at a dis- tance of 150 miles from the Gulf, and this forms some of the highest land in Northern Australia, excepting a few isolated peaks, and also the Main Divide along the Cape York peninsula, From observations made throughout Eastern Australia in regard to the effect of the mountain chain upon the climate and vegetation, and a comparison between eastern and northern conditions, it would appear that the absence of brush or jungle from Northern Australia is largely owing to the absence of any considerable rainfall for about seven or eight months of the year, viz., from March or April tilk December, and this dry period would be greatly reduced by the presence of a mountain range upwards of 3,000 feet high and within 100 miles of the coast line. Under present conditions there is no cold zone such as would be formed along a high mountain chain, and which would create con- ditions of moisture throughout the year, and induce more dense growths. During the wet season, and with the monsoonal influence, the rainfall along the southern shores of the Gulf of Car- pentaria aggregates about twenty inches in the months of January, February and March, but this amount is much exceeded around Cairns, on the steep eastern face of the Main Divide, where the records show an average of about twenty inches for each of those months mentioned. The clouds, which are borne across North-eastern Australia by the south east trade winds, precipitate the rain as they ascend the eastern face of the mountains, and afterwards reach the interior as descending clouds. Briefly, the conditions necessary for the production of a ‘*‘prush’’ flora are a good rainfall, warmth, shelter from cold winds, and a basic rather than a siliceous geological formation. With an abundance of moisture, warmth, and MOUNTAINS AND THEIR EFFECT ON NATIVE VEGETATION. 273 shelter, a jungle flora may be produced on soils which are fairly siliceous and porous, but towards the colder latitudes, say from Sydney southwards, where the element of cold is beginning to be felt, it is found that this particular class of vegetation is gradually restricted to the more basic form- ations, with usually less than 55 to 657% silica, such as the basalts, the volcanic tuffs and the shales of Illawarra, and the igneous rocks (monzonite) of Milton. On the other hand, in Northern Queensland, as on Bellenden Ker Moun- tain near Cairns with excessive moisture and warmth, we find the ‘“‘brush’”’ vegetation swarming up to the summit, upwards of 5,000 feet, in a formation of granite containing about 72% silica. In making a comparison between the vegetation of any two areas, the question of soil as well as that of climate must be considered, and it would seem that there is a greater proportion of siliceous soils in Northern Australia as compared with those of the east, the latter being rendered more basic by the presence of large areas of Tertiary basalts. It is clear, however, that the difference of soils in this case is by no means the only factor in accounting for the difference of vegetation, for we have the example of Bellenden Ker on the east, with a siliceous soil though with the excessive rainfall of 165 inches per annum, supporting a brush vegetation, while in much the same latitude, the beautiful rich flats of the Flinders flowing into the Gulf, and which are formed of alluvium, a considerable portion of which is brought down from the basalt tableland to the north of Hughenden, are richly grassed and almost treeless. Neither is there any brush on the basalt where it occurs in situ near Hughenden, but on similar elevated formations east of the Main Divide as at the Blackall Range north of Brisbane, and Atherton near Cairns, the brush vegetation is amongst the finest in Australia. B—Sept. 2, 1914, Q74 R. H. CAMBAGE. These latter remarks apply to the basaltic lands of the Richmond River, while on the tableland of New England to the westward, with the same class of rock in many places, but a much lower rainfall, and a cooler climate, the country is open forest. Many more similar examples could be quoted. This goes to show the highly important bearing which topography, in regulating aspects and climate, exercises on the native flora, and it furnishes examples in nature which might profitably be considered in connection with agricultural and forestry matters. Geocols.—In their valuable work on “‘The Climate and Weather of Australia,’ (p. 24), Messrs. Hunt, Taylor and Quayle refer to five geocols, or low gaps across the mountain ranges of New South Wales and Victoria, and which receive a lower rainfall than that of the surrounding hills, and itis by studying the floras of these geocols and contrasting them with those of the higher mountain chain that we are able to more fully appreciate the marked effect of this higher land in differentiating the floras on either side of it, which effect is interrupted, and in some cases wholly removed at the points where the geocols cross the main chain. It is instructive to briefly discuss some of the features of these geocol fioras as resulting from climatic influences which are largely produced from the local topography. The first thing to decide is which influence dominates, the coastal or inland. Here again the natural law of the cooling or ascending cloud chiefly precipitating the rain has to be considered, and while all along the high mountain slopes facing the ocean there is a good rainfall, the absence of a high range across the geocol, reduces the precipitation from the ocean side with the result that in every case where the gap is a low one, it is the inland or drier influence which dominates, with the result that the moisture-loving, coast MOUNTAINS AND THEIR EFFECT ON NATIVE VEGETATION. 275 vegetation is kept back to the eastward and the western or inland flora comes through on to the eastern watershed. The Kilmore Geocol in Victoria is situated so far towards the cooler southern latitudes that its elevation, about 1,200 feet, is sufficient to allow the colder-loving type of plants suchas Eucalyptus amygdalina (Messmate or Peppermint), E. dives (Peppermint), and H. viminalis (Manna Gum) to continue in and across the depression, and as the divide runs east and west at this point, it is fully exposed to the cold from the south, and there is consequently no’consider- able invasion of either inland or coastal plants to the opposite side. The Omeo Geocol is situated on an angle of the Main Divide where, after coming from the west, it swings round to the northward into New South Wales, and being about 3,000 feet high, has a climate sufficiently cool for the growth of such mountain species as Eucalyptus coriacea (Snow Gum), EH. stellulata (Sallow or Sally), E.camphora (a Swamp Gum), and E. rubida (a White Gum). It forms a plateau about ten miles wide across the main axis of the mountain from which the waters fall steeply into the Mitta Mitta on the north and the Tambo River on the south. Within forty miles on either side of the Omeo Geocol the Main Divide rises to elevations of 5,000 to 6,000 feet. This geocol, though a distinct mountain gap, is sufficiently high to form a natural barrier between two floras, but yet such species as Eucalyptus albens (White Box) and E. macror- rhyncha (Red Stringybark) which prefer a dry to a moist atmosphere, and are not found on the summit of the range in the geocol, have managed to cross this narrow barrier from north to south, and occur below the level of the snow- falls in the warm valley of the Tambo. The presence of these two species on both sides of the Main Divide without their being able to exist on the summit, is of interest, and 276 R. H. CAMBAGE, may perhaps be accounted for through seeds having been carried across by the agency of birds, or it seems just possible both species may have extended right across before the mountains were uplifted to their present elevations in late Tertiary time. ”* In a paper on the flora from Bowral to the Wombeyan Caves I have previously referred to the possibility of H. albens having crossed the Main Divide before the final uplift.? The Cooma Geocol is a north and south gap with the lowest point on the Main Divide being upwards of 3,000: feet, and is therefore high enough to form a natural barrier, consequently there is little or no invasion of either the dry or moisture-loving floras from one side to the other. Much of this gap isa very expansive open plateau, and therefore the possibilities of plants crossing are less than in the case of the depression at Omeo. There is however a remarkably long valley down which the Murrumbidgee flows, northwards from near Cooma towards Canberra, and a fair number of western or warmth- loving plants find their way up this somewhat sheltered valley, and in this way reach elevations greater than those they attain anywhere else south of the latitude of Goulburn.. Sterculia diversifolia (Kurrajong) is an example of this, although it appears unable to face the cold of that portion. of the geocol on or near the Main Divide itself, The Lake George Geocol, though only alittle over 2,000 feet above sea level is also a very broad plateau of plains and open forest, and in view of its southern latitude is. sufficiently elevated for the growth of the cold-loving plants. and therefore acts as a barrier between the moist east, 1 “Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia,’ E. C. Andrews, B.A., this. Journal, Vol. xiv, p. 420, (1910). * Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.Wales, Vol. xxx, p. 452, (1906). MOUNTAINS AND THEIR EFFECT ON NATIVE VEGETATION. 277 and drier west. In this latitude, about 35°, there are few western plants which thrive at elevations exceeding 2,000 feet. The Cassilis Geocol, in about latitude 32°, is only from 1,700 — 2,000 feet above sea level, and there are higher mountains to the eastward, both north and south of Singleton, which have the effect of shutting off the coastal influence from a fairly large area to the westward, between these mountains and the low portion of the Main Divide near Cassilis. The result is that it isthe descending clouds which reach this isolated area, and the rainfall, which on the coastal side of the mountains opposite this point is upwards of fifty inches annually, is less than twenty-four inches in the geocol area. There are many plants in the western districts occupying zones which reach up to eleva- tions of 1,800 feet in latitude 32°, and it is easily seen that in following their upper contours along the western side of the Main Divide, these plants on arrival at the broad gap are able to pass through on to the eastern watershed, seeing that from this particular locality the coastal moisture has been largely excluded, and the climatic conditions are more Similar to those of the western than the eastern side of the main mountain range.? Part of the Liverpool Range, however, as it winds round north-easterly towards Murrurundi, and forms the north- western side of the geocol, rises to elevations of about 3,000 feet, and receives a greater rainfall from the ascend- ing clouds, with the result that the heads of the gullies which face easterly and are sheltered from the colder and drier westerly influence are filled with brush, and when viewed from the lower open forest areas within the geocol, present a magnificent example of the effect of topography on the native flora. * A list of the plants which have crossed is given in the New South Wales Handbook, p. 418, Cambage and Maiden. 278 R. H. CAMBAGE. Going northerly from herethe great New Hngland plateau, with elevations from 3,000 — 4,500 feet and 5,000 feet, forms a distinct barrier between eastern and western floras, but as Queensland is approached and warmer latitudes are entered, and the elevations become slightly reduced, the effect of the north and south barrier becomes less, and western plants which in southern New South Wales are only found below elevations of 1,500 feet, are now able to flourish at altitudes of about 3,000 feet. Some interesting floral responses to climatic effect resulting from topographical features are to be seen near Toowoomba in Queensland, where the Main Divide for a considerable distance at about eighty miles from the ocean is only about 2,000 feet high. Some of the results are that such a typical western species as Hucalyptus microtheca (the Coolabah of the Bourke district), ascends the Darling Downs almost to the summit, and such western species as Casuarina Luehmanni (Bull-Oak) and Acacia harpophylla (Brigalow) though not on the actual summit, manage to cross to the eastern watershed and are found on the lower levels around Gatton and Laidley, while areas of brush may be seen nestling under the eastern face of the moun- tain, practically to the very summit near Toowoomba, but sheltered from westerly conditions. Going north-westerly from Toowoomba, the Divide recedes from the coast, and although some peaks exceed 3,000 feet, for several hundred miles it loses much of its identity as a rain regulator owing to its moderate elevation, and in some instances to the presence of higher mountains to the eastward. Where it is crossed near Jericho by the railway line from Rock- hampton to Longreach at a point nearly 300 miles from the ocean, it is only a very slight rise on an extended sandy plateau of scarcely 1,200 feet above sea level, while fifty miles to the eastward, the Drummond Range rises to about 1,500 feet. On both sides of the water- MOUNTAINS AND THEIR EFFECT ON NATIVE VEGETATION. 279 parting near Jericho, the flora consists almost wholly of western types, and owing to the absence of any high mountain between this point and the coast, some members of the western or interior flora follow the consequent drier atmosphere to within at least twenty miles of the ocean, Acacia harpophylla, Hucalyptus microtheca and EH. populi- folia (Bimble Box) being found in the suburbs of Rock- hampton, while Casuarina Cambagei (Belah, regarded as C. lepidophloia by Mr. Maiden) is growing to the westward, and also in the village of Marmor to the southward. Eremophila Mitchelli (Budtha or Sandalwood) occurs between Marmor and Raglan, and Casuarina Luehmanni near Rodd’s Bay platform between Gladstone and Bunda- berg. ) A similar invasion of some western plants on to the. eastern watershed takes place at various places north of Jericho as the Main Divide is comparatively low, and also between Hughenden and Townsville, the highest portion of the railway between these points being only slightly over 1,800 feet. Near Cairns, the Main Divide approaches to within about twenty tothirty miles of the coastline, but presents a steep face to the ocean, so that the eastern or moist atmosphere, which is intensified by Bellenden Ker and Bartle Frere Mountains acting as condensers and inducing abnormal rainfalls, is restricted to the coastal belt, the result being a brush or jungle flora on the eastern side and open forest on the western. Summary. A study of the topography of EKastern Australia and of the distribution of the native flora along and on each side of the mountain range which forms the Main Divide, serves to show that the two classes of climate, moist and dry, produced on each side of this mountain chain, are not so 280 R. H. CAMBAGE. much the result of the position of the actual water-parting on the tableland, as that the eastern or ocean face of the plateau is fairly high and steep and at no great distance inland. The effect of the range in the south is to create three climates, a humid and adry one on the east and west sides respectively, and a cold one on the summit which acts as a barrier between two floras which would otherwise to some extent commingle at lower levels. In Queensland, a generally lower summit of the plateau, and an increase in temperatures owing to the more northerly position of the range, permit the western or dry influence to cross the mountains in various places, and allow mauy interior types of plant to thrive on the eastern watershed, while the moisture-loving or coastal brush plants are largely excluded from these invaded areas. This invas- ion occurs in the Goulburn River Valley near Cassilis in New South Wales, and at such places in Queensland as between Toowoomba and Brisbane, between Jericho and Rockhampton, and between Hughenden and Townsville. In no case where such a gap occurs does the eastern brush or moisture-loving flora pass through to the west, although it may reach there by other agencies. The absence of a high range extending along behind the coastal belt in Northern Australia is considered to largely account for the absence of any considerable rainfall in that locality during the winter months, and the absence of such rainfall, together with the siliceous nature of much of the soil, appear to account for the general absence of brush or jungle from the central and western portions of Northern Australia. The observations indicate that the rainfall and climate in Hastern Australia are very largely regulated by the topography, and the vegetation, after allowing for the differences of soils, is chiefly the result of rainfall and climate. It would therefore appear that the removal of the forests would not result in a greatly reduced rainfall along the east coast over a long period of, say, fifty years, but would very probably decrease the number of damp days. DESCRIPTION OF A LIMESTONE OF LOWER MIOCENE AGE, 281 DESCRIPTION oF a LIMESTONE or LOWER MIOCENE AGE FRom BOOTLESS INLET, PAPUA. By FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.S., F.R.M.S., etc., Palzontologist to the National Museum, Melbourne. With Plates VII, VIII, and IX. (Communicated by W. 8. Dun.) [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 7, 1914.] 1. Introduction. No) 2. Note on the Bearing of the Foraminiferal Limestones upon the Occurrence of Petroleum Fields. 3. Detailed Description of the Limestones. a . Summary. 1. Introduction. THE rock specimens from the above locality, for the examin- ation of which I am indebted to my friend Mr. W. 8. Dun, of Sydney, have an important bearing on the geology of Papua. The limestone is in fact, a very fine example of a foraminiferal rock denoting a definite horizon in the Cainozoic system. The specimens were collected at Bootless Inlet, Papua, by Mr. J. H. Carne, F.G.S., during his recent geological explorations in search of petroleum- bearing beds. The present occasion seems to be the second on which Cainozoic fossils belonging to a definite horizon have been obtained from Papua, the first being the determinations made by C. S. Wilkinson in 1876.* That author then recorded Voluta macroptera, Volutilithes anticingulatus and several other genera of mollusca from the blue clays of Hall’s Sound, Papua, and which he regarded as common * Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. 1, pt. 2, 1876, pp. 114, 115. 282 F, CHAPMAN. also to the Victorian Cainozoics.* He further remarks that. “The Miocene clay beds of New Guinea, judging from the Specimens collected by Mr. Macleay, are exactly similar in lithological character to the Lower Miocene beds near Geelong, and on the Cape Otway coast in Victoria.’’ Wilkinson accepted McCoy’s conclusions as to the Miocene age of the Victorian beds, when he compared them with the clays of Hall’s Sound. Since that time, however, some authors have relegated the Victorian beds above named to the lower series, the Hocene. Latterly the writer, having obtained what he regards as conclusive evidence of the Sequence and relative ages of the Victorian beds, finds it supports the original idea of McCoy’s, that the Geelong and Torquay series are comparable with the Miocene beds. of the northern hemisphere. It will, therefore, be of great interest if we can obtain further evidence from Papua as. to the relationship of the blue clays to the Lepidocyclina. limestone herein described. Wilkinson also referred to an oolitic limestone occurring at Bramble Bay,* which he thought to be an upper bed of the Miocene formation. Itis here suggested that this and the brecciated rock composed of corals, shells and echinoids, from Yule Island, may have some age affinity with the present brecciated limestone. Sofar as we can judge from the paleontological evidence, both the Voluta clays and the Lepidocyclina limestone occur on or about the same horizon; the latter by its characteristic species denoting an Upper Aquitanian stage, whilst the Cape Otway series. probably comprises that and the succeeding Burdigalian stages, as seen in the shell marls of Bird Rock and the polyzoal rock of Spring Creek and Batesford’ respectively. * Wilkinson rightly refers the two species named as common to the Otway series, now called Janjukian, and not, as would be gathered from Mr. Etheridge’s note (Pal. Queensland and New Guinea, 1892, p. 697), denoting the fauna of Schnapper Point, Mornington and Muddy Creek. * Loc. supra. cit., p. 115. % The Lepidocycline of Batesford denote a higher stage than those of Papua. DESCRIPTION OF A LIMESTONE OF LOWER MIOCENE AGE. 283 In his paper on the echinoids of New Guinea, Tenison Woods’ referring to the limestone of Yule Island mentioned by Wilkinson, states that he could not “‘detect any Fora- minifera on subjecting different portions to microscopic examination.’’ He also notes its resemblance both litho- logically and paleeontologically (in the presence of well preserved Pectens) to the Mount Gambier limestone, although the Yule Island rock showed an absence of polyzoa. Besides the Cainozoic fossiliferous rocks above mentioned, Jurassic,” doubtful Cretaceous,* and numerous Pleistocene fossils* have been recorded from Papua. 2. Note on the Bearing of the Foraminiferal Limestones upon the occurrence of Petroleum Fields. The Cainozoic geology of the petroleum area of the Gulf division of Papua indicates that there are in this district enormous deposits of sandstone, marls and hard limestones, Mr. EH. R. Stanley remarks of these beds ‘‘All carry fossil remains in parts.’’> The limestones and marls, as shown by this present work and previous papers already quoted, * Proc. Linn. Soc.. N.S. Wales, Vol. 11, pt. 2, 1877, p. 126. ? Etheridge, R. jnr., “Our Present Knowledge of the Paleontology of New Guinea.” Rec. Geol, Surv. N. 8S. Wales, Vol. 1, pt. 3, 1889, pp. 175, 176. Also Etheridge and Jack, Geol. and Pal. Queensland and New Guinea, 1892, p. 696. 3 Etheridge, R. jur., in Pal. Queensland, etc., p. 696. Also Maitland, A. G., “The Salient Features of British New Guinea (Papua).” Journ. W.A. Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. 11, No. 2, May, 1905, p. 52. * Etheridge, R. jnr., Rec. Geol. Surv., N. 8. Wales, Vol. 1, pt. 3, 1889, p. 174. > See Report by J. E. Carne, F.a.s., on the Petroleum Oil Field, Vailala River, ibid., p. 174. In this report Mr. Carne states that the blue mud- stone and sandstone of the Mura Group and at Orokolo Spring contain indications of petroleum ; and that the petroleum-bearing strata of Vai- Jala and the coal-seams at Purari and Curnick Rivers are identical in age. Mr. Carne further draws attention to the probable westerly extension of the oil belt across Dutch New Guinea and thence to Timor and Java. Also “ Report on the Geology of the Vailala Petroleum Area, Gulf Division, Papua.’ Stanley, E. R., Commonwealth Government Report on Papua, for the year ending June 30th, 1912, p. 176. 284 F. CHAPMAN. are of true Cainozoic age, and this opinion as regards the mudstones is further confirmed by Stanley’s determination of the fossils from the petroleum-bearing mudstones as consisting largely of Plewrotomiidce and Dentaliidce. Bear- ing in mind the fact that both the mudstone and the lime- stone form part of a nearly synchronous series, it is most necessary to follow up this discovery of a Lower Miocene limestone by further collecting in other areas of the country. The close relationship of these Lepidocyclina limestones with oil-bearing strata is not confined to Papua, but is a prominent feature in Borneo, Sumatra and Java, with which fields the present locality is undoubtedly stratigraphically connected. Verbeek and HKennema, in their exhaustive geological treatise on Java and Madoura* refer to the probability of the vast number of foraminifera found having been the source of the petroleum in those islands. Thus these authors observe’ that ‘‘il est tres probable que l’on doit chercher l’origine du pétrole dans la masse sarcodaire de ces foraminiféres, trés petits il est vrai, mais existant a des millions d’ examplaires; en effet, cette masse contient des matieres grasses, et déja l’on a réussi a fabriquer arti- ficiellement du pétrole par distillation des graisses.”’ As a corollary to this theory of a foraminiferal origin of the petroleum in certain areas, one may mention that many of the foraminiferal limestones of Carboniferous age in Hngland and Scotland, as the Endothyra and Saccammina limestones, are often highly bituminous; and there is also a limestone rich in bitumen found in the Carboniferous of Russia, which is crowded with the remains of the fora- minifer, Schwagerina. Whilst pointing out the economic value of the foraminiferal remains as a source of hydro- carbon, it is also noted that the fish remains found in these 1 Description géologique de Java et Madoura, Vols. 1and u, Amsterdam, 1896. * Op. cit., Vol. t1, p. 1043. ia DESCRIPTION OF A LIMESTONE OF LOWER MIOCENE AGE. 285 Papuan rocks, may in some strata as yet undiscovered, be found to occur in greater abundance than in the present limestone sample, and consequently yield a further supply of oily material, as they have been known to do elsewhere. 3. Detailed Description of the Limestone. General Structure. The limestone of Bootless Inlet is a fairly compact rock, but shows a sub-brecciated structure in which the frag- mentary character was induced prior to the final cementa- tion of the constituents. A microscopical examination shows that in its initial stages of formation, this rock was a shallow-water shelly and coral sand, the particles being intermingled with frag- ments of a now partially or wholly decomposed volcanic rock of diabasic and andesitic nature, some fragments being quite glassy in structure as if derived from submarine ejections. The component organisms forming the rock are foraminiferal tests, among which are some gigantic species of Lepidocyclina, fragments of fish-teeth and bone, echinoid remains, polyzoa and calcareous alge. The separate organisms show signs of severe treatment, being not so much water-worn as angularly chipped and fractured, especially in the case of the larger foraminiferal tests. In most examples the peripheral edges of the large, peltate forms, as Heterostegina and Lepidocyclina, have been chipped and broken, and some of the organic material has been finely comminuted. Tidal and current action would scarcely account for this subangular, and even angular, condition of the shells, and many of the fragments are so sharply fractured as to lead one to conclude that fishes with crushing teeth, as the Labridce and Sparide, as well as other predatory animals, such as the echinoids and star- fishes, may be partly or wholly responsible for the peculiar condition of the material composing this limestone. ee ‘= ar . we . 286 F, CHAPMAN. Towards this conclusion strong support is rendered by the relative abundance of fish remains, as teeth and bone frag- ments, occurring scattered throughout the limestone. The writer had already drawn attention’ to the possibility of such reef-forming foraminifera as Carpenteria which occur in coral islands, having been broken up by predatory fishes which would find a nutritious pabulum in the protoplasmic tests of the larger rhizopods. Description of Fossil Remains in the Limestone. PLANTA. Genus LITHOTHAMNION, Philippi, 1837, emend. Foslie, 1900. LITHOTHAMNION RAMOSISSIMUM, Reuss sp. Nullipora ramosissima, Reuss, 1848, Haidinger’s Naturw. Abhandl., Vol. 11, pt. ii, p. 29, pl. iii, figs. 10, 11. Lithothamnion ramosissium, Rss. sp., Giimbel, 1871, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., Vol. XI, pt. i, p. 34, pl. i, figs. la-d. Smith, W. W., 1907, Phil. Journseer- Vol. 11, No. 6, p. 396, pl. 11? Iv. Chapman, 1913, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. xxv1, (N.S.) pt. i, p. 166, pl. xvi, figs. la—c, 2, 3. Fragments of this branching type of calcareous alga are quite common in the limestone. It often materially helps to build up limestones of Cainozoic, and especially of Miocene age; as for example the “‘Leitha Kalk’? of the Vienna Basin. It generally accompanies the Lepidocyclina limestone of the Indo-Pacific area, as at Christmas Island, Borneo, Japan, the New Hebrides and the Philippines. In Australia, Lithothamnion is of frequent occurrence in the Janjukian series of Victoria and South Australia. + « Foraminifera collected round the Funafuti Atoll from Shallow and Moderately Deep Water.” Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool. Vol. xxvum1, 1902, p. 394 (in note on Carpenteria balaniformis); and on p.»395 (in note on C. raphidodendron). DESCRIPTION OF A LIMESTONE OF LOWER MIOCENE AGE. 287 LITHOTHAMNION SP. A laminate or encrusting species also occurs in the lime- stone. It has numerous conceptacles immersed below the surface of the thallus, and therefore belongs to the above genus. The specimen is probably the encrusting condition of the foregoing species, which, being attached to a free particle, is prevented by its motion from taking on the dendroid habit of the normal form. FORAMINIFBRA. Fam. Miliolide. Genus MILIOLINA, Williamson. MILIOLINA SP. A section across the test of a milioline occurs in one of the limestone sections. It resembles M. circularis, Borne- mann sp. in general contour. It belongs, moreover, to a group which is at home in shallow-water deposits in all parts of the world. Fam. Textuluriide. Genus TEXTULARIA, Defrance. TEXTULARIA RUGOSA, Reuss sp. Plecanium rugosum, Reuss, 1869, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, Vol. LIX, p. 433, pl. i, figs. 3a, b. Textularia rugosa, Rss. sp., Brady, H. B., 1884, Rep. Chall. Vol. Ix, p. 363, pl. xlii, figs. 23, 24. Chapman, 1907, Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool. Vol. xxx, p. 27, pl. iii, nes. o7. A vertical section showing the characteristic features of the test of the above species occurs in one of the thin slices of limestone. It isa peculiarly restricted coral reef species, although very rarely found under other and more argillaceous conditions in warm temperate seas. EHspeci- ally was this so in past times, as in the Oligocene of Gaas, 288 F. CHAPMAN. south of France, and the Oligocene of Grice’s Oreek, Victoria. T. rugosa is of frequent occurrence in the limestone containing Lithothamnion and Lepidocyclina of Christmas Island,* belonging to the same geological horizon as the present sample. In the living condition it has been fre- quently recorded from the South Pacific and Hast Indian areas, aS round Funafuti, Honolulu, Sandwich Islands, Admiralty Islands, Friendly Islands, as well as in the Gulf of Suez. Fam. Globigerinide. Genus GLOBIGERINA, d’Orbigny. GLOBIGERINA BULLOIDES, d’Orbigny. Globigerina bulloides, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., Vol. VII, p. 277, No. 1, Modeles, No. 17 and No. 76. Brady, H. B., 1884, Rep. Chall. Vol. Ix, p. 593, pls. Ixxvii, Ixxix, figs. 3-7. Occasional small-sized tests of the above species occur in the present sample of limestone from Papua. Itisa pelagic form, but by no means confined to the open sea, although there most abundant. GLOBIGERINA TRILOBA, Reuss. Globigerina triloba, Reuss, 1849, Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien., Vol. 1, p. 374, pl. xlvii, fig. 11. G. bulloides, d’Orb., var. triloba, Rss., Brady, H. B., 1884, Rep. Ohall., Vol. Ex, p. 595, pl. Ixxix, figs: 1, 25" pl tix figs.2,3. G. triloba, Rss., Chapman, 1910, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. Vol. xxi, (N.S.) pt. ii, p. 281. 1 Jones and Chapman, “On the Foraminifera of the Orbitoidal Lime- stone and Reef Rock of Christmas Island.’’ Mon. Christmas Island (Brit. Mus.) by C. W. Andrews, 1900, p. 231. # i Agr. 1V.—Continued ea BERS ei se ae? Art. V.—Dimorphic ‘Foliage of Acacia rubida, and Fruc ‘ificat during Bipinnate Stage, By R,.H. CamBace, PDS. Plate fi}. . we ee ap Sah, geet baysane ART. VI. —The Australian Journal of Dr. W. Sie Holog ART. By Ww. R. Browne, B.sc. [With Plates II, TL, IV, va a Art. [X.—The Oxidation of Sucrose by Potassium Permanganate By C. W. R. Poweun, Science Research Scholar, University of Sydney, (Communicated by Prof. Fawsir'). sa OE oe Art. X:—The Composition of some Lime-sulphur Sprays haat according to Recognised Formule. ° By A. A. be eae Ue : municated by F. B. GuTHRIn, F1.C., F.c.s8.) -.., Say Arr. XI.—On the Diffusible Phosphorus of Cow’s.’ Milk. H. S$. PALERO WARDLAW, B.SC... Pri oh etek At the Native Vegetation. By R. H. Campaag, F.1.8. With Plate VI.) eos cae see eee een pay g vie'e ete Arr. XIJI.—Description of a Limestone of Lower Miocene, Ag F.R.M.s. (Communicated by W.S. Dun). ee Plates 8 VIL, VI te cS oe to EP al Se gee ~ ISSUED MARCH 81st, 1915. 3 va XLVI ee Part IIL. || JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS | NEW SOUTH WALES 1914 PART III., (pp. 289-520). CONTAINING PAPERS READ IN OCTOBER to. DECEMBER. WITH SIX PLATES. (Plates vii, viii, ix, x, xi, xii.) Ur eee ae ee ae Te ee ee ee « is cation we 4 vate r Ah ¢ es “ai east “ 4 : : ROYAL SOCIETY | : SYDNEY : PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. LONDON AGENTS : GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, 17 Warwick SquaRE, PaTERNOsTER Row, Lonpoy, E.C. , 1915. ays : ¥. WHITE Typ., 344 Kent Street Sydney. wi Sn a ae) ¥ is ake =e ou a Dad oe is a hee OR : wy ‘Mess ’ 7 “> ~~ =) J y DESCRIPTION OF A LIMESTONE OF LOWER MIOCENE AGE. 289 Some small, rather thick-shelled examples of this pelagic species occur in the limestone from Papua. It is one of the species accompanying Lepidocyclina in the Miocene limestone at Batesford near Geelong. GLOBIGERINA CONGLOBATA, Brady. Globigera conglobata, Brady, 1879, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., Vol. xix, N.S., p. 72. Idem, 1884, Rep. Chall. Vol. rx, p. 603, pl. Ixxx, figs. 1-5; pl. Ixxxii, fig. 5. A few typical examples of this stoutly-built, pelagic foraminifer, so frequently met with in tropical coral-reef deposits, both fossil and recent, occur here. The closely adpressed outer chambers and their excessively thick walls distinguish the form from others of this genus. Fam. Rotaliide. Genus TRUNCATULINA, d’Orbigny. TRUNCATULINA cf. LOBATULA, Walker and Jacob sp. Nautilus lobatulus, Walker and Jacob, 1798, Adams’ Hssays, Kanmacher’s ed., p. 642, pl. xiv, fig. 36. Truncatulina lobatula, W. and J.sp., Brady, 1884, Rep. Chall., Vol. 1x, p. 660, pl. xcii, fig. 10; pl. xciii, figs. 1, 4,5; pl. cxv, figs. 4, 5. A partial section of a thin-walled Truncatulina, probably nearest to the above species, occurs in the Papuan Lepido- cyclina rock. Itisacommon shallow-water form in almost all existing seas. Genus CARPENTHRIA, Gray. CARPENTERIA CAPITATA, Jones and Ohapman. Pl. VII, fig. 1. Carpenteria capitata, Jones and Chapman, 1900, Mon. Christmas Island (Brit. Mus.), p. 246, pl. xx, fig. 7. S—Sep. 2, 1914 290 F. CHAPMAN. The test in this species is thicker than in C. monticularis,’ and, unlike C. utricularis,” has a smooth exterior. From C. raphidodrendon*® it is separated by its non-rambling habit, showing a tendency rather to connect Rupertia stabilis* with Carpenteria proteiformis.°* Sections of Le pidocyclina limestone from Triomoté Island, Loo Choo Islands, show the rock to contain numerous remains of Carpenteria which Messrs. Newton and Holland® have compared in one instance with the above species, C. capitata. The Christmas Island specimen measures 6 mm. in height, whilst the largest specimen in the present limestone sample is 2°55 mm. Several specimens occur in the limestone sections examined. Genus ROTALIA, Lamarck. ROTALIA CALCAR, d’Orbigny sp. Calearina calear, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., Vol. v1, p. 276, No.1; Modele, No. 34. Idem, 1839, Foram. Cuba, p. 93, pl. v, figs. 22 — 24. 1 ©. monticularis, Carter, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 4, Vol. x1x, 1877, p. 211, pl. xiii. Brady, Rep. Chall. Vol. 1x, 1884, p. 677, pl. xcix, figs. 1 - 5. Chapman, Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool., Vol. xxv111, 1900, p. 14, pl. ii, fic. 5; pl. iv, figs. 5, 6. 2 Polytrema utricularis, Carter, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 4, Vol, xvi, 1876, p. 210, pl. xii, figs. 11-16. Carpenteria utricularis, Carter sp., Brady, Rep. Chall. Vol. 1x, 1884, p. 678, pl. xcix, figs. 6,7; pl.c, figs. 1 - 4. Chapman, Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool., Vol. xxviii, 1900, p. 12, pl. ii, fig. 4; pl. iv, figs. 3, 4. 5 C. rhapidodendron, Moebius, Tageblatt der 49 Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte in Hamburg, 1876, p.115. Chapman, Journ. Linn. Soc Lond., Zool., Vol. xxvit1, 1900, p. 395, pl. xxv. fig. 2. + Rupertia stabilis, Wallich, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 4, Vol. x1x, 1877, p. 501, pl. xx. Jones and Chapman, Mon. Christmas Island, 1900, p. 254, pl. xxi, fie. 11. 5 Carpenteria balaniformis var. proteiformis, Goés, Retic. Rhizop. Carib. Sea, 1882, p. 94, pl. vi, figs. 208-214; pl. vii, figs. 215-219. CC. prote- formis, Goés, Brady, Rep. Chall., Vol. rx, 1884, p. 679, pl. xcvii, figs. 8—14. 6 Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ., Tokyo, Vol. xvii, Art. 6, 1902, p. 15, pl. li, fig. 3. DESCRIPTION OF A LIMESTONE OF LOWER MIOCENE AGE. 291 Rotalia calear, d’Orb. sp., Brady, 1884, Rep. Chall., Vol. Ix, p. 709, pl. cviii, fig. 3. Chapman, 1910, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. xxi1 (N.S.), pt. ii, p. 289, pl. iii, fig. 2. This is a typical coral-reef species at the present day. As a fossil it occurs in the older Muddy Creek beds (Oligo- cene); and in the Batesford limestone series (Miocene). One or two specimens with the salient features well- defined, occur in the limestone. They show the strong papille and vestiges of the spurs of secondary shell-growth _ of this species. Fam. Nummulinide. Genus AMPHISTEGINA, d’Orbigny. AMPHISTEGINA LESSONII, d’Orbigny. Plate VII, fig. 2; Plate IX, fig. 8. Amphistegina lessonii, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., Vol. vil, p. 304, No. 3, pl. xvii, figs. 1—4; Modele, No. 98. Brady, 1884, Rep. Chall. Vol. 1x, p. 740, pl. exi, figs. 1-7. Flint, 1899, Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. (Rep. for 1897), p. 338, pl. Ixxx, fig. 4. The lenticular testsof the above species are very abundant in portions of the Papuan limestone. The majority of the shells are of the thick, inzequilateral type, typical of the warmer areas of the coral seas at moderately shallow depths. The post-Miocene limestone of Port Stanley, New Hebrides, contains similar varietal forms with thickened — tests, associated with the encrusting Polytrema planum, Carter.* Genus OPERCULINA, d’Orbigny. OPERCULINA COMPLANATA, Defrance sp. Plate VII, fig. 2. Lenticulites complanata, Defrance, 1822, Dict. Sci. Nat., Vol. xxv, p. 453. 1 As at Funafuti and elsewhere, see Chapman, Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool., Vol. xviit, 1901, p. 205. 292 F. CHAPMAN. Operculina complanata, Defrance sp., Newton and Holland, 1902, Journ. Coll. Sci., Imp. Univ. Tokyo, Vol. xvi, Art. 6, p. 13, pl. i, figs. 3, 5; pl. iii, fig. 3. Chapman, 1908, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. xxxu, pt. iv, p. 749, pl. xxxvii, figs. 1, 2; pl. xxxviii, fig. 3. Several tests of the above species occur in the limestone sections; but the form is not so common as that of Hetero- stegina depressa in the same rock, and which it much resembles in section. In Heterostegina the area around the umbilical axis in vertical section is correspondingly — thicker than in Operculina, and a few fragments in hori- zontal section bear out this determination. O. complanata is a typical and common form in almost all Cainozoic deposits laid down in warm temperate seas. Amongst other places it occurs at Muddy Oreek, Victoria (Oliogocene), and the New Hebrides (Miocene); as well as in the Raised Coral Reefs of the Loo Choo Islands, Japan (? Pleistocene). Genus HETEROSTHGINA, d’Orbigny. HETEROSTEGINA DEPRESSA, d’Orbigny. Plate IX, fig. 9. Heterostegina depressa, d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., Vol. vil, p. 305, pl. xvii, figs. 5-7; Modeéle, No. 99. Brady, 1884, Rep. Chall., Vol. 1x, p. 746, pl. cxii, figs. 14-20. Chapman, 1900, Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. Zool., Vol. xxviii, p. 18, pl. iii, figs. 6, 7. Unlike the structure of the living forms of this species, which show in the majority of cases that they belong to the megalospheric stage (propagation by budding), the Papuan fossil examples are nearly always microspheric (adapted for sexual generation). H. depressa is very common in thin slices of the Papuan limestone. The species is widely distributed, generally in coral seas and warm temperate areas, and is found fossil from Hocene times. . DESCRIPTION OF A LIMESTONE OF LOWER MIOCENE AGE. 293 HETEROSTEGINA MARGARITATA, Schlumberger. Plate IX, fig. 11. Heterostegina margaritata, Schlumberger, 1902, Samml. Geol. Reichs. Mus. Leiden, Ser. 1, Vol. VI, pt. iii, p. 252, pl. vii, fig. 4. One or two well marked examples of this species are found in the limestone sections. They are easily distin- guished from H. depressa not only by the pustulate orna- ment of the surface, but from the internal structure seen in section, in which the cones of non-tubulate shell are distinctly marked off from the rest of the test. The species probably occurs also in the Middle Miocene (Janjukian) of Batesford, as previously remarked by the writer.’ Schlumberger’s specimens came from Teweh, Borneo, and his figured example shows the megalospheric stage. Genus CYCLOCLYPEUS, Carpenter. CYCLOCLYPEUS CoMMUNIS, Martin. Plate IX, fig. 8. Cycloclypeus communis, Martin, 1880, Niederlandische Archiv fur Zool., Leyden, Vol. v, p. 191, pl. xiii, figs. 1, 2. Fragments of the tests of this generic type are distributed throughout the Papuan limestone. No isolated test-frag- ments could be seen, however, on the small portion of the weathered suriace of the rock examined, so that a definite determination of the species was impossible. Two species of this genus have already been recorded from Miocene Lepidocyclina limestone; one of these is the above species from Java (Martin) and Borneo (H. Douvillé), the other being C. pustulosus, Chapman, from the New Hebrides’ and Batesford near Geelong.° * Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. xx11, (N.S.), pt. ii, 1910, p. 295. ? Journ. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, Vol. xxx, 1905, p. 271, pl. v, fig. 1; pl. vi, fig. 2; pl. vii, fig. 2. 3 Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. xxu1, (N.S.), pt. ii, 1910, p. 295, pl. ii, fig. 6; pl. v, fig. 4. 294 F, CHAPMAN. The lengths of the chamberlets near the centre of the disc in C. communis, as given by Martin, measure 75 mm., whilst that of C. pustulosus is much smaller, being only about 2; mm. Inthe present example the chamberlets of about the third annulus from the primordial chambers have a mean length of 7z mm., so that the evidence in this respect is in favour of a reference to the above species, C. communis. ~ Genus LHPIDOCYCLINA, Gumbel. LEPIDOCYCLINA SUMATRENSIS, Brady sp. Plate VII, fig. 3. Orbitoides sumatrensis, Brady, 1875, Geol. Mag., Dec. 11, Vol. a1, p. 550, DlAxiv, lige: | Orbitoides (Lepidocyclina) sumatrensis, Brady, Newton and Holland, 1899, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 7, Vol. Ill, p. 259, pl. x, figs. 7, 8, 10, 11 (fig. 12=L. tournoueri, — Lem. and Douv.). Jones and Chapman, 1900, Mon. Christmas Island (Brit. Mus.), p. 244, pl. xx, fig. 6. Lepidocyclina sumatrensis, Brady sp., Silvestri, A., 1906, Atti della Pontificia Accad. Rom. d. Nuovi Lincei, Anno LIx, p. 150. Some typical and beautifully preserved specimens of L. sumatrensis occur in the limestone sections. They are of average dimensions, having a diameter of about 3mm. The Borneo specimens also have a diameter of 3 mm., whilst those from the Loo Choo Islands are only 1°5 mm. Lemoine and Douvillé have recorded L. cf. sumatrensis from France and Spain,’ but that particular form is herein referred to L. Andrewsiana, Jones and Chapman for reasons subsequently mentioned. LL. sumatrensis has been cited, with some reservation by the present writer, from the New Hebrides Miocene.” Other localities for this species are, 1 Mem. Soc. Geol. France, Vol. x11, pt. 11, 1904, p. 18, pl. i, fig. 14; pl. li, fig. 15; pl. iii, fig. 6. $ Chapman, Journ. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, Vol. xxx, 1905, p. 267, and ibid., Vol. xxx11, pt. 4, 1908, p. 753. DESCRIPTION OF A LIMESTONE OF LOWER MIOCENE AGE. 295 Borneo, Sumatra, Christmas Island and the Loo Choo Islands, Japan. LEPIDOCYCLINA ANDREWSIANA, Jones and Chapman sp. Plate IX, fig. 8. Orbitoides (Lepidocyclina) Andrewsiana, Jones and Chap- man, 1900, Mon. Christmas Island (Brit. Mus.), p. 255, pl. xxi,. fie. 14. Lepidocyclina sumatrensis, Newton and Holland (non Brady), 1902, Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ., Tokyo, Vol. eee Aet Gop. 11. pl. i, fig..7. L. cf. sumatrensis, Brady, Lemoine and Douvillé, R., 1904, Mem Soe. Geol. France, Vol. xl, pt. ii, p. 18, pl. i, fig. 14; pl. ii, fig. 15; pl. iii, fig. 6. L. Andrewsiana, J. and C., Chapman, 1908, Journ. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. Xxxtl, p. 757, pl. xxxix, fig. 10. This species is distinguished from L. sumatrensis, Brady sp., by its lenticular rather than subglobular shape, the circumferential disc as a rule being pronounced. Itisa larger species than L. sumatrensis, averaging about six milimetres in diameter. The megalospheric condition seems to obtain in all the specimens examined or described. Lemoine and Douvillé figure interesting examples from Spain, France and Italy under the name of L. cf. suma- trensis, Brady, but marked differences from that species are evident in the more numerously pustulate central area of the disc, and the tendency to develop a depressed border. These differences have already been noticed by Dr. A. Silvestri,! who refers to this form under a separate heading from the species identified with Brady’s true L. swmatrensis. From L. tournoueri, L. Andrewsiana is chiefly distinguish- able by the compact structure of the latter as regards the peripheral layers. The examples from the Loo Choo Islands * Atti della Pontificia Accad. Rom. d. Nuovi Lincei, Anno t1x, p. 150. 296 F. CHAPMAN. described and figured by Newton and Holland also belong to this species. Distribution.—Spain, France, Italy, New Hebrides, Loo Choo Islands, and Christmas Island. LEPIDOCYCLINA MURRAYANA, Jones and Chapman sp. Plate VIII, fig. 7. | Orbitoides (Lepidocyclina) Murrayana, Jones and Chap- man, 1900, Mon. Ohristmas Island (Brit. Mus.), p. 252, 253, pl. xxi, fig. 10. | Lepidocyclina formosa, Schlumberger, 1902, Samml. des Geol. Reichs-Mus. Leyden, Ser. 1, Vol. v1, pt. 3, p. 251, pl. vii, figs. 1-3. Douvillé, R., 1909, Ann. Soc. Roy. Zool. et Malac. de Belgique, Vol. xLiv, p. 135, pl. vi, figs. 1, 2. Provale, 1909, Rivista Ital Pal., Anno xv, p. 5, pl. ii, figs. 1—3. The test of this striking species, which belongs to the group of ZL. dilatata, Michelotti and ZL. insulae-natalis, Jones and Chapman, has an undulating disc, which, when cut equatorially, gives the appearance of a central disc with four or more rays. Schlumberger described his L. formosa as a new species, on the supposition that our Z. Murrayana had rectangular chambers. This was evidently due to a misreading of our original description, where, speaking of Orbitoides stellata, we state’ of that species that it “‘has rectangular chambers in the median plane and consequently belongs to the Discocycline series.’’ How- ever, we proceed to say ‘“‘the earlier known species (O. stellata) having rectangular chambers in the median plane, we have named this form, which has the rounded imbri- cated chambers, distinctively as Orbitoides(Lepidocyclina) Murrayana.”’ It follows therefore that LZ. formosa drops into the synonymy of the above species. * Mon. Christmas Island! (Brit. Mus.), 1900, p. 253. DESCRIPTION OF A LIMESTONE OF LOWER MIOCENE AGE. 297 Distribution.—Christmas Island, Indian Ocean (Chap- man); Borneo (Schlumberger); German Hast Africa and Madagascar (R. Douvillé). LEPIDOCYCLINA VERBEEKI, Newton and Holland sp. Plate VIII, figs. 5,6; Plate IX, fig. 10. Orbitoides papyrucea, Brady (non Boubée), 1875, Geol. Mag. Dec. 1, Vol. 11, p. 535, pl. xiv, fig. 1. Lepidocyclina sp. g and k, Verbeek and Fennema, 1896, Descr. Geol. de Java et Madoura, Vol. I, pl. xi, figs. if — lia, ATF —150 5 Vol. 11, p: 1178. Orbitoides (Lepidocyclina) Verbeeki, Newton and Holland, 1899, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 7, Vol. Ill, p. 257, pl. ix, figs.7—-—11; pl. x, fig.1. Jones and Chapman, 1900, Mon. Christmas Island (Brit. Mus.), p. 245. Newton and Holland, 1902, Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, Vol. xvii, Art. 6, p. 12. Orbitoides ? Verbeeki, M. and H., Smith, W. D., 1906, Phil. Journ. Sci., Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 206, pl. ii, fig. 1. This modification of the species, represented by form A, is abundant in the Papuan limestone. It is distinguished from L. Andrewsiana by its more lenticular shape and absence of large, well-marked pillars; the superficial papille, representing the terminations of these pillars, being very small, and imparting a granulate appearance to the exterior. Asarule the tests are regular, but occasionally the disc tends to become slightly flexuose, but not to so marked a degree as in L. Murrayana. Form A.—This is very common. The diameter of the test averages about 7mm. Verbeek’s figured specimen measures 4°76 mm. The megaspheres in the Papuan examples have a larger diameter of 690“-—1170p; whilst Verbeek’s specimen is only 360. 298 F. CHAPMAN. Form B.—This form is rare and of large dimensions, one specimen when complete measuring 23 mm. in diameter. The enormous development of the form A and its extra- ordinarily large megasphere make it necessary to refer this form, the most abundant in the Papuan limestone, to a new variety of L. Verbeeki, viz., var. papuaensis. Distribution.—L.V erbeeki, which in all previously figured specimens are of the megalospheric form, excepting perhaps the occurrence in the Philippines recorded by W. D. Smith, occurs in Sumatra, Borneo, Christmas Island, Formosa, the Loo Choo Islands, and probably the Philippines. The present Papuan occurrence appears to be the first undoubted record of the species in the microspheric stage. (Form B.) ECHINODERMATA. Hchinoid spines and plates. The radioles of several types, probably belonging to more than one species of sea-urchin are present in this limestone. Remains of the plates of the test in addition show this group to be well represented in the sub-littoral fauna at the time. None of the remains are determinable, although in all probability both diadematoids and spatangoids are present. POLYZOA. Fragmental remains of indeterminate remains of polyzoa are occasionally seen in this limestone. PISCES. Tooth of fish, allied to ? Chrysophrys, Plate VII, fig. 4. An oblique section of a fish tooth occurs, amongst other obscure fish remains, in one of the limestone sections. On comparing it with a section of the tooth of the living Chrysophrys (Sea Bream), the structure is seen to be almost identical, and different from the tooth structure of the Labridce (Wrasses), both of which groups, however, are characteristic feeders on shell-fish and similar food. DESCRIPTION OF A LIMESTONE OF LOWER MIOCENE AGE. 299 4. Summary. The following organic remains have herein been deter- mined as from the Lepidocyclina limestone at creek head, one and a half miles inland from Bootless Inlet, Papua:— Lithothamnion ramosissimum, Reuss sp. Miliolina sp. Textularia rugosa, Rss. sp. Globigerina bulloides, d’Orbigny. a triloba, Rss. A conglobata, Brady Truncatulina cf. lobatula, W. and J. sp. Carpenteria capitata, J. and C. Amphistegina lessonii, d’Orb. Operculina complanata, Defr. sp. Heterostegina depressa, d’Orb. zs margaritata, Schlumberger. Cycloclpeus cf. communis, Martin. Lepidocyclina sumatrensis, Brady sp. ets Andrewsiana, J. and ©. sp. = Murrayana, J. and C. sp. Verbeeki, Newton and Holland sp. var. papuaensis, nov. Echinoderm remains, indet. Polyzoa, indet. Fish tooth, cf. Chrysophrys. Amongst these organisms the important factors in the determination of the Lower Miocene age of the limestone are the genera and species of Carpenteria, Heterostegina, Cycloclypeus and Lepidocyclina. A comparison of the Papuan series of fossils may be profitably made with those given in the table of stages in the Cainozoic series of Borneo by H. Douvlllé.* This was 1 «Les Foraminiferes dans le Tertiaire de Bornéo.” Bull. Soc. Geol. France, Ser. 4, Vol. v, 1905, p. 454. 300 F. CHAPMAN. based on a collection of rocks made in Borneo by Dr. Buxtorf. It shows the Papuan series to be nearest related to Douvillé’s stage 10 or Upper Aquitanian, with a slight leaning towards the Lower Aquitanian indicated by the presence of ZL. Murrayana, J. and OC. (= L. formosa, Schl.). The Upper Aquitanian, however, contains the majority of genera and species found in the present series, as Heterostegina margaritata, Cycloclypeus communis and L. Verbeeki, the latter belonging to the Z. insulce-natalis group, with large or medium sized tests, small or unde- veloped pillars and closely-set and widely-expanded cham- berlets in the peripheral zone. The range of L. Murrayana (= L. formosa) moreover, is really of higher range in the geological scale than H. Douvillé sets forth in his table, for, as already remarked, this species belongs to the JL. dilatata group, which is characteristic of the Upper Aqui- tanian in Italy. In that country Dr. A. Silvestri has shown* that LZ. dilatata occurs in company with L., marginata, a species which is found in the Miocene of the Geelong District at Batesford, Victoria. In conclusion it may be noted that this occurrence of a Lower Miocene horizon in Papua is of exceptional interest as showing the existence of another link in the chain of localities where the beds of the old shore-line of the ancient Tethyan sea were laid down. It thus helps to connect with the Victorian occurrence at Batesford, in all probability by way of a portion of the lost shore-line indicated by the subsiding area now occupied in part by the Great Barrier Reef off the north-eastern coast of Australia: whilst a divergent arm extended as far as New Zealand, as shown by the occurrence of Lepidocyclince at Orakei Bay. 1 « Distribuzione geographica e geologica di Due Lepidocicline comuni nel Terziario Italiano.” Mem. del Pont. Acc. Rom. d. Nuovi Lincei, vol. XxIx, 1911, p. 52. DESCRIPTION OF A LIMESTONE OF LOWER MIOCENE AGE. 301 EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate VII. Carpenteria capitata, Jones and Chapman. Section nearly vertical to the plane of growth. x 26. . Operculina complanata, Defrance, and Amphistegina lessonit, d’Orb. Several vertical sections. x 26. . Lepidocyclina sumatrensis, Brady sp. Vertical section. x 13. | . Vertical section of fish tooth (? Chrysophrys), showing vasodentinal structure. Plate VIII. Lepidocyclina Verbeeki, Newton and Holland sp., var. papuaensis, nov. Form 4. Vertical section. x 8. . L. Verbeeki var. papuaensis, nov. Form A. Vertical section. x 13. oh ie Murrayana, Jones and Chapman sp. Form 4. Ver- tical section. x 16, Plate IX. Lepidocyclina Andrewsiana, Jones and Chapman sp. Form A. Vertical section: Amphistegina lessonit, d’Orb., and Cycloclypeus cf. communis, Martin. . Heterostegina depressa, d’Orbigny sp. Vertical section. x 26. . Lepidocyclina Verbeeki, var. papuaensis, nov. Form A. Vertical section. x17. . Heterostegina margaritata, Schlumberger. Vertical sec- tion, << 19, 302 E. A. BRIGGS. NOTES ON TASMANIAN HYDROZOA. By H. A. BRIGGS, B.Sc., Zoologist, Australian Museum, Sydney. (Communicated by C. Hepuzy, F.L.s., with the authority of the Trustees of the Australian Museum.) With Plates X - XI. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 4, 1914.] I. Introduction. During a recent Kaster encampment of the Tasmanian Kield Naturalists’ Club, several successful hauls of the dredge were made in the neighbourhood of Freycinet Pen- insula, on the eastern coast of Tasmania. By permission of the Trustees of the Australian Museum I was enabled to accompany the party officially, and I obtained a large collection which includes numerous representatives of several invertebrate groups. In company with Professor T. T. Flynn, another day was spent collecting in the D’Entrecasteaux Channel where additional material was secured. Owing to the generosity of the authorities of the Tas- manian Museum, I have also been enabled to examine the Tydroid collection under their charge which includes a considerable number of local species. The Hydroids dealt with in the present paper were col- lected at four definite areas—within Thouin or Wineglass Bay, Freycinet Peninsula, 11 fathoms; off Thouin Bay, 80 fathoms; Storm Bay; and D’Entrecasteaux Channel, 2 to 11 fathoms. The following notes refer to the family Plumularidce, which is represented by fourteen species, NOTES ON TASMANIAN HYDROZOA. 303 eight of which are here recorded for the first time from the eastern coast of Tasmania. The occurrence among the specimens of Aglaophenia armata, and Aglaophenia tenuis- sima is of interest since these species have only within the last month been described by Mr. W. M. Bale from Queensland and the Great Australian Bight respectively. In addition, the collection includes Nemertesia ciliata, Bale, recently described from Oyster Bay, Tasmania. List of Species. Phylum COHKLENTHRATA. Class HYDROZOA. Order CALYPTOBLASTEBA. Family Plumularide. *Plumularia buskii, Bale. * ie procumbens, Spencer. ** ae suleata, Lamarck. Nemertesia ciliata, Bale. *Kirchenpaueria mirabilis (Allman). Halicornopsis elegans (Lamarck). Halicornaria furcata, Bale, var. intermedia, Bale. ** ig longirostris (Kirchenpauer). * x superba (Bale). *A glaophenia armata, Bale. 3 decumbens, Bale. os divaricata (Busk). 6 tasmanica, Bale. * Fs tenuissima, Bale. II. Description of the Species. Order CALYPTOBLASTERA. Family Plumularide. Genus PLUMULARIA, Lamarck. * Indicates that the species is here recorded for the first time from the eastern coast of Tasmania. 304 E. A. BRIGGS. PLUMULARIA BUSKII, Bale. Plumularia buski, Bale, Cat. Austr. Hydroid Zoophytes, 1884, p. 125, pl. x, fig. 3, pl. xix, figs. 34, 35; 2d., Bale, Trans. Roy. Soc. Vict., xx111, 1886, p. 94; id., Hartlaub, Zool. Jahrb. Syst., x1v, 1901, p. 374, pl. xxii, figs. 22, 32, 36; ad., Thornely, Rep. Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fisheries, pt. 2, Suppl. Rep., vu, Hydroidea, 1904, p. 120; zd., Ritchie, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1910, p. 832 ; ad., Bale, Biological Results “ Endeavour,” ii, 1, 1914, p. 28. Plumularia buski, Billard, Les Hydroides de | Expedition du Siboga, 1, Plumulariide, 1913, p. 21, pl. i, fig. 15. Plumularia nutting, Billard, Arch. Zool. Exp., (5), vii, 1911, p. Ixvi, fig. 8 I have included in the synonymy of this species the Hydroid, which Hartlaub has recorded from Laysan under the name of P. buskii, Bale, although the minute sarcotheca immediately behind the hydrotheca is undoubtedly absent. With regard to the identity of Plumularia nuttingi, a further examination of the type specimen in the Siboga collection has convinced Billard that this species is iden- tical with P. buskii, Bale. A few well-preserved colonies, the largest 50 mm. in height, do not differ from others in the Australian Museum from St. Francis Island, South Australia, and from King Island, Bass Strait. Dimensions.— Stem internode, length ... att .. 0°70 — 0°73 mm. Stem internode, diameter sae .- O29 — 0°33 ,, Hydroclade, length sae BA up to 9 ,, Hydroclade, thecate internode, ian 0°57 — 0°61 ,, Hydrotheca, depth see we ope O20. ae Hydrotheca, diameter at mouth . 0°26 — O25 Locality.—D’ Entrecasteaux Channel, Tasmania, 2—11 fathoms. NOTES ON TASMANIAN HYDROZOA. 305 Distribution.—Previously recorded from Griffith Point, Victoria (Bale); Laysan Island, Hawaiian Archipelago (Hartlaub); Gulf of Manaar, Ceylon (Thornely); Flying- Fish Cove, Christmas Island, Indian Ocean (Ritchie); Great Australian Bight, 40-100 fathoms (Bale). Billard records the presence of P. buskii at nine stations in the eastern part of the Indian Archipelago (Siboga Expedition). PLUMULARIA PROCUMBENS, Spencer. (Plate: X,\fig.1.) Plumularia procumbens, Spencer, Trans. Roy. Soc. Vict., u, 1891, p. 130, pls. xxi — xxiii; zd., Bale, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (n.s.), wi, 1695, p, 11d, pl. v, figs. 11, 12; ed., Bale, Biological Results ‘‘Endeavour,” 11, 1, 1914, p. 29. The specimens of this species in the present collection agree with Spencer’s description and with the type in the Australian Museum, except for the presence of a nemato- phore on some of the short intermediate internodes of the hydrocladia, an arrangement which Bale has described in the case of specimens of P. procumbens from Port Phillip and the Great Australian Bight. Dimensions.— Hydroclade-bearing internode, length _... 0°61 —0°64 mm. Hydroclade-bearing internode, diameter 0°12—0°14 ,, Hydroclade internode, hydrothecate, length 0°29—0°31_,, Hydroclade internode, intermediate,length 0°10—0°12 ,, Hydroclade internode, diameter ... -»» 0 05 —0°04 -,, Hydrotheca, .epth ... hs a ... 0°05—-0°06_ ,, Hydrotheca, diameter at mouth ... ne 0°08 ,, Supracalycine sarcotheca, length ... we O00 0205 ye Locality.—Off Thouin or Wineglass Bay, Freycinet Pen- insula, Tasmania, 80 fathoms. Distribution.— Previously recorded from Port Phillip, Vic- toria (Spencer); Great Australian Bight, 40-100 fathoms (Bale). T—November 4, 1914. 306 E. A. BRIGGS. PLUMULARIA SULCATA, Lamarck. (Plate XI, fig. 1.) Plumularia sulcata, Lamarck, Hist. nat. Anim, sans Vertébres, 1816, p 128; id., Bale, Cat. Austr. Hydroid Zoophytes, 1884, p. 145; cd., Billard, Ann. Sci. Nat., Zool., (9), v, 1907, p. 321; id., Ritchie, Mem. Austr. Mus., tv, 16, 1911, p 852, pl. Ixxxiv, fig. 3, pl. Ixxxix, fig.5; id., Ritchie, Proce Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, x1x, 1, 1913, p. 6; zd., Bale, Biological Results “Endeavour,” 11, 4, 1914, p. 172, pl. xxxv, figs. 6, 7. Plumularia aglaophenoides, Bale, Cat. Austr. Hydroid Zoophytes, 1884, p. 126, pl. x, fig. 6. Owing to the very imperfect nature of Lamarck’s original description of Plumularia sulcata, the species was not again identified until his type was recently examined and described in full by Billard. Meanwhile the first detailed description of this species was published by Bale, who described it as new in 1884, under the name of Plumularia aglaophenoides, but the examination of the type of P. sul- cata enabled Billard to recognise its identity with Bale’s species. Further details of the specific characters of the species have been added by Ritchie and also by Bale, the latter author describing the gonosome. Previous to the publication of Bale’s report on the “ Hndeavour’’ Hydroida, the gonosome had not been observed, and it is interesting to note the occurrence among the present specimens of a colony with gonangia. Bale’s description reads as follows : ““Gonothece large, urceolate, slightly narrowed upward and again expanding to the summit, margin circular, oblique, not contracted nor thickened; a stout transverse ridge inside the front a little below the margin; alarge operculum the full width of the gonotheca, slightly convex in the middle, situated inside the margin and resting on the internal ridge in front; several large sarcothece (often five or six) surrounding the base.”’ NOTES ON TASMANIAN HYDROZOA. 307 Dimensions. — Gonosome, length... ee ae Ae up to 1°6 mm. Gonosome, maximum diameter... .. 0°70 — 0°71 99 Locality.— Off Thouin or Wineglass Bay, Freycinet Pen- insula, Tasmania, 80 fathoms. Distribution.—Previously recorded from Mers australes — (Lamarck); Broughton Island, New South Wales, 25 fathoms (Bale); Station 48, off Wollongong, New South Wales, 55 — 56 fathoms (Ritchie); Bass Strait, 40 fathoms; Fifty miles south of Cape Wiles, South Australia, 75 fathoms (Bale). Genus NEMERTESIA, Lamouroux. NEMERTESIA CILIATA, Bale. (Plate X, fig. 3.) Nemertesia ciliata, Bale, Biological Results “Endeavour,” Il, 4, Paez p. 170; pl. xxxvi, fig. |. There isa considerable amount of variation in the details of the structure of this species recently described by Bale from Oyster Bay, Tasmania. A single robust colony 213 mm. in height, was dredged in the neighbourhood of the type locality. The stem and main branches are polysi- phonic and give off numerous small monosiphonic branchlets. These, as in Bale’s specimens, are divided into internodes which support from one up to six or eight whorls of hydro- cladia. Hach whorl! usually consists of three hydrocladia: in a few instances four were observed. There was no trace of gonosome. The colour of the colony is very dark brown. A specimen (locality unknown) in the Tasmanian Museum is similar to the type, being light brown in colour. Dimensions.— Hydroclade internode, hydrothecate, length 0°26 —0°29 mm. Hydroclade internode, intermediate, length 0°15 — 0°17 Hydroclade internode, diameter ... oo. 0 0a —0:06 Hydrotheca, depth .. iD 3 Oe 0°05 Hydrotheca, disinoter at sight ..- 0°05- 0°06 308 E. A. BRIGGS. Locality.— Off Thouin or Wineglass Bay, Freycinet Pen- insula, Tasmania, 80 fathoms. Distribution.—Hitherto recorded only from Oyster Bay, Tasmania, 60 fathoms (Bale). Genus KIROHENPAUERIA, Jickeli. KIRCHENPAUERIA MIRABILIS (Allman). Diplocheilus mirabilis, Allman, Rep. Sci. Res. ‘“Challenger” Exped., Zool., vil, Hydroida, pt. i, 1883, p. 49, pl. viii, figs. 4—7; id., Stechow, Abh. K. Bayer. Akad. Wissensch., 1, Suppl. Bd., 1909, p. 89; zd., Ritchie, Mem. Austr. Mus., rv, 16, 1911, p. 854. Kirchenpaueria mirabilis, Bale, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (n.s.), v1, 1894, p. 109, pl. vi, figs. 4-7; id., Warren, Ann. Natal Govt. Mus., 1, 1908, p. 321, fig. 15. Plumularia mirabilis, Billard, Ann. Sci. Nat., Zool., (n.s.), x1, 1910; p: oT. Many specimens of this species were obtained, which do not differ in any important particular from the type. The characteristic gonangia are present on several of the colonies. Dimensions.— Stem internode, length He bak ... 0°87—1°13 mm, Stem internode, diameter ... ss - O17 —0° 19 Hydroclade internode, length sid ... 0°59—0°64 ,, Hydrotheca, depth ... fai . 0°28 —0 tae Hydrotheca, diameter at mouth (side iae 0°28-—0°33 _ ,, Gonangium, length ... sy bate wp tones Gonangium, maximum diameter ... wit OrSRy. 3. Localitves:—Storm Bay, Tasmania; D’Entrecasteaux Channel, Tasmania, 2—11 fathoms. Distribution.—Previously recorded from Station 162, off Monceeur Island, Bass Strait, 38-40 fathoms (Allman); NOTES ON TASMANIAN HYDROZOA. | 309 Port Phiilip and Griffith Point, Victoria (Bale); Scottburgh, Natal (Warren); Station 44, off Coogee, New South Wales, 49 —50 fathoms (Ritchie). Genus HALICORNOPSIS, Bale. HALICORNOPSIS ELEGANS (Lamarck). Plumularia elegans, Lamarck, Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vertebres, BESO, p. 129. Aglaophenia elegans, Lamouroux, Hist. Polyp. Cor. Flex., 1816, p. 169; zd., Lamouroux, Encyclop. Méth. Zooph., 1824, p. 16. Aglaophenia avicularis, Kirchenpauer, Abh. Nat. Ver. Hamburg, ¥, £872) p..33, pls: 1 and:1i1, fig, 3. Halicornopsis avicularis, Bale, Journ. Micro. Soc. Vict., 1, 1881, p- 26, pl. xin, fig. 3; id., Bale, Cat. Austr. Hydroid Zoophytes, 1884, p. 185, pl. x, figs. 1, 2, pl. xix, fig. 32; id., Bale, Trans. ametroc. Hoy.’ Soc. Vict., xx1, 1887, pp. 90,101; 2d, Marktanner-Turneretscher, Ann. K. K. Hofmus. Wien, v, 1890, p. 279. Azygoplon rostratum, Allman, Rep. Sci. Results ‘Challenger ” Exped., Zool., vit, 1883, p. 54, pl. xix, figs. 1 —3. Halicornopsis elegans, Billard, Ann. Sci. Nat., Zool., (9), v, 1907, p. 323; zd, Billard, Comp. Rend., cxivi1, 1908, p. 940; id., Pilar, Aim, Sci. Nat., Zool,, (9), 1x, 1909, p. 329% '2d., Billard, [bid., (9), x1, 1910, p. 44; td., Ritchie, Mem. Austr. Mus ive O, Voll. S50, pl: Ixxxtx, fig; 1;" 7d, Bale; Bio- logical Results ‘‘Endeavour,” 1, 1, 1914, p. 56; 2d., Briggs, Rec. Austr. Mus., x, 10, 1914, p. 296. The colonies belonging to this species are mature, and bear well-developed gonangia, which spring from the bases of the hydrocladia at their junction with the stem. They are somewhat irregularly ovate bodies, thick-walled, with- out operculum or orifice, and are turned alternately to right and left, forming a row along the front of the stem. Here and there the gonangia have become detached leaving 310 E. A. BRIGGS. only a shallow basin-shaped portion of the base, and Bale suggests that “‘it would seem probable therefore that the opening so formed may be the normal channel of exit of the contents.”’ Dimensions.— | mim. Hydroclade-bearing internode(single one) length 0°61 — 0°73. Hydroclade-bearing internode (double one) length0°97 — 1°38. Hydroclade-bearing internode, diameter .-- 0°28 —0°36 Hydroclade internode, length ... se ... 0°42 —0°45. Hydroclade internode, diameter ... se . 0°12 -0°17 Hydrotheca, depth... Sa ee . 0°29 — 0°31 Hydrotheca, diameter at mouth inten nace 0°26 — 0°28 Hydrotheca, diameter at mouth Ge aspect) 0°36 —0°40: Gonangium, length... oe 2hre a sat 1°31 Gonangium, greatest diameter ... me ... 0°73 — 0°80 Localities.—D’ Kntrecasteaux Channel, Tasmania, 2 - 11 fathoms; Within Thouin or Wineglass Bay, Freycinet Peninsula, Tasmania, 11 fathoms; Off Thouin or Wineglass Bay, Freycinet Peninsula, Tasmania, 80 fathoms. Distribution.— Previously recorded ‘from Indian Ocean (Lamouroux); Hobart, Tasmania; Bass Strait (Kirchen- pauer); Griffith Point, Portland, Queenscliff, Victoria (Bale); Station 161, off Port Phillip, Victoria, 38 fathoms (Allman); Victorian Coast (Marktanner-Turneretscher); Station 36, off Botany Bay, 23—20 fathoms; Station 48, off Wollongong, New South Wales, 55-56 fathoms (Ritchie); Great Aus- tralian Bight, 40—100 fathoms (Bale); Seven miles east of Cape Pillar, Tasmania, 100 fathoms (Briggs). Genus HALICORNARIA, Busk. HALICORNARIA FURCATA, Bale, var. INTERMEDIA, Bale. Halicornaria intermedia, Bale, Biological Results ‘‘ Endeavour,” 11, 1, 1914, p. 53, pl. v, fig. 2, pl. vii, figs. 3, 4. (Not Mali- cornaria intermedia, Billard, Les Hydroides de I’Expedition du Siboga, 1, Plumulariide, 1913, p. 65, pl. iv, fig. 37). NOTES ON TASMANIAN HYDROZOA. 311 Halicornaria furcata, Bale, var. intermedia, Bale, Biological Results “Endeavour,” 1, 1, 1914, Addendum, p. 1; zd., Briggs, Rec. Austr. Mus., x, 10, 1914, p. 298, pl. xxv, fig. 3. Several monosiphonic, dichotomously branched colonies, the largest 285 mm. in height, are associated with Aglao- phenia tasmanica, on which this variety always occurs as an epizoon. Bale first recorded it from Oyster Bay, Tasmania, where ‘‘a large colony of it was found accom- panying Aglaophenia tasmanica, but whether it had com- menced as a parasite on that species, after the fashion of so many of its congeners, it was impossible to determine, the stems being matted together with other growths.”’ This variety was also found in association with specimens of A. tasmanica from 100 fathoms, seven miles east of Cape Pillar, Tasmania. The present specimens are quite similar to the colony originally described. Dimensions.— Hydroclade internode, length ... .. 0°39—0°42 mm. Hydroclade internode, diameter ... wa tOi29 O73 0 ie Hydrotheca, depth* ae 1 a «. O'28—0°29 ,, Hydrotheca, breadth? a cet O20 = 072i Hydrotheca, length of free Ui of mesial sarcotheca Boe es .- O'07—0°09 ,, Locality.—Ofi Thouin or Wineglass Bay, Freycinet Pen- insula, Tasmania, 80 fathoms. Distribution.—Previously recorded from Oyster Bay, Tas- mania, 20 fathoms (Bale); Seven miles east of Cape Pillar, Tasmania, 100 fathoms (Briggs). HALICORNARIA LONGIROSTRIS (Kirchenpauer). Aglaophenia longirostris, Kirchenpauer, Abh. Nat. Ver. Hamburg, Vv, 1872, p. 42,-pl. 1, fig, 19, pk v, fig. 20: + Measured from aperture to base along long axis of hydrotheca. # At right angles:to depth. 312 E. A. BRIGGS. Aglaophenia Thompsoni, Bale, Journ. Micro. Soc. Vict., 1, 1881, p. 33, pl. xiv, figs. 1, la. Halicornaria longirostris, Bale, Cat. Austr. Hydroid Zoophytes, 1884, p. 181, pl. xiii, fig. 7, pl. xvi, fig. 3, pl. xix, fig. o0;i7e7 Marktanner-Turneretscher, Ann. K. K. Hofmus. Wien, v, 1890) ..202. Four monosiphonic, unbranched, simple pinnate colonies, the largest 86 mm. in height, were found associated with Aglaophenia divaricata. The measurements of the tropho- some agree very closely with those of Victorian specimens and with calculations made from Bale’s figures. In one case the terminal aperture of the mesial sarcotheca is wanting, the nematophore being closed at the end. Such an arrangement, however, appears to be temporary or abnormal. Dimensions — Hydroclade-bearing internode, length ... 0°40—0°45 mm. Hydroclade-bearing internode, diameter... 0°35—0°36_,, Hydroclade internode, length is ... 0°24—0°26 ,, Hydroclade internode, diameter ... ... 0°14—0°15 ,, Hydrotheca, depth ... os oF .. 0719—0°21 ,, Hydrotheca, breadth By tas O17 —019r Locality.— Storm Bay, Tasmania. Distribution.—Previously recorded from Wilson’s Pro- montory, Victoria (Kirchenpauer); Griffith Point; Port- land; Queenscliff, Victoria; South Australia (Bale); Port Phillip Heads, Victoria; Bondi, New South Wales (Austr. Mus. Ooll.). HALICORNARIA SUPERBA (Bale). Aglaophenia superba, Bale, J ourn. Micro. Soc. Vict., 11, 1881, pp. 31, 45, pl. xiii, figs. 4 — 4b. Halicornaria superba, Bale, Cat. Austr. Hydroid Zoophytes, 1884, p. 175, pl. xiii, fig. 1, pl. xvi, fig. 4; id., Bale, Proc. Roy. NOTES ON TASMANIAN HYDROZOA. are Soc. Vict., (n.s.), v1, 1893, p. 107; «d., Marktanner-Turner- etscher, Ann. K. K. Hofmus. Wien., v, 1890, p. 279; id., Bale, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (n.s.), xxvi, 1913, p. 145. A solitary colony, 87 mm. in height, alone represents this species originally described by Bale in 1881 under the name of Aglaophenia superba. Although the colonies are generally simple, specimens have been observed with one or two small branches very similar in structure to the proximal part of the stem. In the present specimen the lower portion of the stem is destitute of hydroclades. A branch originates at the side of the stem between two hydroclades, and occupies the whole of the space between the two. The branch, incomplete, is 11 mm. in length, and projects almost at right angles from the side of the stem; soon, however, it takes a characteristic upward curve, becoming erect, and finally incurved in the distal portion. The first four proximal internodes of the branch are devoid of hydroclades. The first branch-internode is very Short andunarmed. The second is longer, cylindrical, and is furnished with a large sarcotheca in the middle. Then follow two internodes, each of which carries two large sarcothece abreast. The fifth supports a single hydro- clade. The remainder are uniform, bearing two alternate hydroclades. As Bale’s recent examination of the mode of branching in H. superba shows, there is a considerable amount of variation in the number of proximal internodes bearing sarcothece only. Dimensions.— Stem internode, length isi sai ., 0 06-077 mm. Stem internode, diameter ... “ds Se HNO O UT Med Hydroclade internode, length aed ian Os — Orde ee Hydroclade internode, diameter ... .-- O'24—0°26 ,, Hydrotheca, depth ... a eu ay O24 026" 5, Hydrotheca, breadth 1B ie .. O17-O°19 ,, Locality.--Storm Bay, Tasmania. aid E. A. BRIGGS. Distribution.—Previously recorded from Griffith Point; Queensclifi, Victoria; Dongarra Beach, Western Australia (Bale); Port Phillip Heads, Victoria (Austr. Mus. Coll.). Genus AGLAOPHENIA, Lamouroux. AGLAOPHENIA ARMATA, Bale. (Plate X, fig. 2.) Aglaophenia armata, Bale, Biological Results “Endeavour,” 1, 4, 1914, p. 175, pl. xxxviul, figs. 3, 4. The occurrence of Aglaophenia armata in Tasmanian waters is of interest since this species has only within the last month been described by Bale from Queensland. Although my specimen is somewhat fragmentary and evidently the terminal portion of a branch, it is sufficient to confirm Bale’s description of the long tubular hydrotheceze and the peculiar position of the intrathecal ridge, a character shared only by Aglaophenia megalocarpa, Bale. The specimen is extremely dark in colour, and in this respect presents a striking contrast to the type, which is light brown in colour. The gonosome was not observed. Dimensions.— Hydroclade-bearing internode, length ... 0°26—0°28 mm. Hydroclade-bearing internode, diameter... 0°22—0°24 ,, Hydroclade internode, length i .. 028—Usie Hydroclade internode, diameter ... .. 0°24—0°26 ,, Hydrotheca, depth ... ae ee .. 0°38—0°40 ,, Hydrotheca, breadth at mouth ... ..» 017-0599 | Locality.— Off Thouin or Wineglass Bay, Freycinet Pen- insula, Tasmania, 80 fathoms. Distribution.—Hitherto recorded only from thirteen miles north-east of North Reef, 70—74 fathoms; Thirty-eight miles north-east of North Reef Lighthouse, Capricorn. Group, off Port Curtis, Queensland, 74 fathoms (Bale). NOTES ON TASMANIAN HYDROZOA. 315 AGLAOPHENIA DECUMBENS, Bale. Aglaophenia decumbens, Bale, Biological Results ‘‘ Endeavour,” 11, 1, 1914, p. 48, pl. iv, fig. 4, pl. vi, fig. 6; sd. Briggs, Rec. Austr. Mus., x, 10, 1914, p. 300. Bale instituted this species for a single specimen from Bass Strait, at the same time pointing out that “‘there is some doubt as to whether this species is identical with the A. brevicaulis, Kirchenpauer.”’ The largest colony is 84 mm. in height, and the minute characters of the hydrothecee agree closely with Bale’s diagnosis, except that the median anterior teeth of the hydrothece are without the characteristic outward bend. Dimensions.— Hydroclade-bearing internode, length ... 0°42—0°45 mm. Hydroclade-bearing internode, diameter... 0°19—O°21 ,, Hydroclade internode, length 4 .. 0'435—0°45 ,, Hydroclade internode, diameter ... ... O'O8—O0°10 ,, Hydrotheca, depth ... oe Pe tO ad OOS by. Hydrotheca, breadth at mouth ... ae Ol SOL 47, Locality.— Off Thouin or Wineglass Bay, Freycinet Pen- insula, Tasmania, 80 fathoms. Distribution.— Previously recorded from Bass Strait (Bale); Seven miles east of Cape Pillar, Tasmania, 100 fathoms (Briggs). AGLAOPHENIA DIVARICATA (Busk). Plumularia divaricata, Busk, Voy. ‘‘ Rattlesnake,” 1, 1852, p. 398. Piumularia ramosa, Busk, op. cit., p. 398. Aglaophenia ramosa, Kirchenpauer, Abh. Nat. Ver. Hamburg, ¥, 8372, p. 38) pls, 1, uw, fist 7; Aglaophenia McCoyi, Bale, Journ. Micro. Soc. Vict., 1, 1882, p. 36, pl. xiv, fig. 2. Lytocarpus ramosus, Allman, Journ. Linn. Soc., Zool., x1x, 1886, p. 154, pl. xxv, figs. 1 — 3. 316 E. A. BRIGGS. Aglaophenia divaricata, Kirchenpauer, op. cit., p. 26; id., Bale, Cat. Austr. Hydroid Zoophytes, 1884, p. 162, pl. xv, figs. 7, 8, pl. xvii, figs. 6, 7; 7d., Marktanner-Turneretscher, Ann. K.K. Hofmus. Wien, v, 1890, p. 267; 7d., Billard, Compte Rendu Acad. Sci, cxtvii1, 1909, p. 368; zd., Ritchie, Mem. Austr. Mus., 1v, 16, 1911, p. 866. Several specimens of Aglaophenia divaricata, Busk, do not differ in any important particular from those already described by Bale. Dimensions.— Hydroclade-bearing internode, length ... 0°29-—0°33 mm. Hydroclade-bearing internode, diameter... 0°28—0°29 ,, Hydroclade internode, length nee ... 026-0267, Hydroclade internode, diameter ... .. O17—O°19 ,, Hydrotheca, depth ... sie oe ... 0°24-—0'°26 ,, Hydrotheca breadth at mouth ... .. 017-0719 ,, Localities. —Storm Bay, Tasmania; Off Thouin or Wineglass Bay, Freycinet Peninsula, Tasmania, 80 fathoms. Distribution.—Previously recorded from Bass Strait (Busk, Allman); Swan Island, Banks Strait (Busk); Wilson’s Promontory, Victoria; Georgetown, Tasmania (Kirchen- pauer); Portland; Griffith Point; Queenscliff; Williams- town, Victoria; Brighton, South Australia; Port Jackson, New South Wales (Bale); Victoria (Marktanner-Turner- etscher); Station 54, within Jervis Bay, New South Wales, 10-11 fathoms (Ritchie). AGLAOPHENIA TASMANICA, Bale. Aglaophenia tasmanica, Bale, Biological Results ‘‘Endeavour,” 11, 1, 1914, p. 37, pl. iii, fig. 2, pl. vi, fig. 2; 2¢.,, Bregaeees Austr. Mus., x, 10, 1914, p. 300, pl. xxv. Several examples with female corbule agree with Bale’s description and with the proportions deduced from his figures (pl. iii, fig. 2, pl. vi, fig. 2). The stems bear branches NOTES ON TASMANIAN HYDROZOA. 317 in opposite pairs, both series in one plane and all facing the same direction. Hach branch commences with several internodes carrying median sarcothece only. Gonosome.—Corbule (female) are present on several of the colonies, and agree in structure with those described by Bale. Dimensions.— Hydroclade-bearing internode, length ... 0°42—0°43 mm. Hydroclade-bearing internode, diameter... 0°40 —0°42 99 Hydroclade internode, length $08 et OraO — Ora ates Hydroclade internode, diameter ... soe MUI Us Hydrotheca, depth ... fa 14. ... 0°36—0°38_ ,, Hydrotheca, breadth at mouth ... . O21-0°22 ,, Corbula, length ia: “ae sac oo stl) GO; 1275, 4 45 Corbula, diameter ... ae ted a 2 99 Locality.— Off Thouin or Wineglass Bay, Freycinet Pen- insula, Tasmania, 80 fathoms. Disiribution.—Previously recorded from Oyster Bay, Tasmania, 20 fathoms (Bale); Seven miles east of Cape Pillar, Tasmania, 100 fathoms (Briggs). AGLAOPHENIA TENUISSIMA, Bale. (Plate XI, fig. 2.) Aglaophenia tenuissima, Bale, Biological Results “ Endeavour,” 11, AP UStAS yp. 179, pl. xxxvii; figs. 1,2: Several colonies, the largest 335 mm. in height, represent this extremely slender and flexuous species recently described by Bale from the Great Australian Bight. The gonosome was not observed. The specimens, however, agree in detail with the type, for the colonies are very light brown in colour, exhibit a slender habit, and have poly- Siphonic stems, 2 mm. in diameter at the base. From the flexures oi the stem arise small and delicate alternate monosiphonic branches, the proximal portions of which a “ q 318 E. A. BRIGGS. bear sarcothece only. No details have to be added to Bale’s description of the characters of the species, the fasciculation, nor the mode of branching. } Dimensions.— Hydroclade-bearing internode, length ... 0°54—0°78 mm. Hydroclade-bearing internode, diameter... 0°14—0°17 ,, Hydroclade internode, length scl ... 0°45—0°47 ;, Hydroclade internode, diameter ... ... 0°07 = 008are Hydrotheca, depth ... es ae ... 0°33 — 0°35 4,, Hydrotheca, breadth at mouth ... ..«: O18 — O19 Fe Locality.—Off Thouin or Wineglass Bay, Freycinet Pen- insula, Tasmania, 80 fathoms. Distribution.—Hitherto recorded only from the Great Australian Bight, Long. 126° 454’ H., 190-320 fathoms; Long. 130° 40’ E., 160 fathoms (Bale). EXPLANATION OF PLATE X. Fig. 1. Plumularia procumbens, Spencer. Photograph of a specimen, 23] mm. in height, from off Thouin or Wineglass Bay, Freycinet Peninsula, Tasmania, 80 fathoms. Fig. 2. Aglaophenia armata, Bale. Photograph of co-type (in the Australian Museum, Sydney) 235 mm. in height, from thirty- eight miles north-east of North Reef Lighthouse, Capricorn Group, off Port Curtis, Queensland, 74 fathoms. Fig. 3. Nemertesia ciliata, Bale. Photograph of a specimen, 213 mm. in height, from off Thouin or Wineglass Bay, Freycinet Peninsula, Tasmania, 80 fathoms. EXPLANATION OF Puate XI. Fig. 1. Plumularia sulecata, Lamarck. Photograph of a specimen 203 mm. in height, from off Thouin or Wineglass Bay, Freycinet Peninsula, Tasmania, 80 fathoms. Fig. 2. Aglaophenia tenuissima, Bale. Photograph of a speci- men, 227 mm. in height, from off Thouin or Wineglass Bay, Freycinet Peninsula, Tasmania, 80 fathoms. CATALASE REACTION OF MILK. 319 NOTHS on THE CATALASH RHACTION oF MILK. By H. B. TAYLOR, B.Sc., Science Research Scholar, University of Sydney. (Communicated by Professor C. EK. Fawsirt.) [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, October 7, 1914. | WHILE investigating some of the physico-chemical con- stants of milk’ it was thought desirable to make some observations on the catalytic action of milk on certain chemical reactions. It is known that milk has the power of accelerating the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide and it is supposed that this is due to an enzyme, catalase, in the milk. Milk is further able to accelerate the rate of action of hydrogen peroxide on such substances as hydriodic acid and phenylenediamine hydrochloride, and the body causing these reactions is similar in many respects to the enzyme- peroxydase. The following investigations were undertaken in order to examine the catalase reaction more minutely. Catalase. The action of milk, and an active product obtained from it, on hydrogen peroxide were studied. There are various methods of following the rate of decomposition of the hydrogen peroxide. Two methods have been used here. The first, which is suitable for work with milk and hydrogen peroxide, consists in taking a definite volume of the mixture of milk and hydrogen peroxide at any stage of the reaction and running into sulphuric acid which serves to stop all action and to precipitate the caseinogen. The quantities used in these experiments were :—d cc. of a mixture which originally contained 15 cc. of M/10 hydrogen peroxide and 1 Taylor, this Journal, xiv11, 1913. 320 H. B. TAYLOR. 50 cc. of milk and 20 cc. of N/5 sulphuric acid. The solu- tion is then filtered, and the filtrate analysed for its hydrogen peroxide content, by comparing the colour produced on adding excess of titanium sulphate with that obtained when the titanium solution is added to a standard solution containing a known amount of hydrogen peroxide. In the second method a purified solution of catalase was used, Experiments were carried out at 25° O. with mixtures of 50 cc. of milk and 15 cc. of M/10 hydrogen peroxide, ard the concentration of the hydrogen peroxide determined from time to time. In Table I are given values for X, the velocity constant, calculated as a first order reaction, from figures obtained by the method described above. In order to obtain the true catalytic action of the enzyme, it is assumed, in the calculation of A, that the concentration of the hydrogen peroxide at the end of the reaction is zero (i.e., assuming that the enzyme catalyses the reaction as an ideal catalyst). Table I. Temperature 25°C. K = 23 log 2 a—-iX. ae toe t ax K x 10# M/47 ) 1:70 oe | 30 9) |t legs 69 | 40 1:30 67 | 84 “96 68 tat oa ee 82 60 | 1490 40 Where a = initial concentration of hydrogen peroxide anda — x = concentration at time t. The hydrogen per- oxide used had been ‘previously purified by redistillation under reduced pressure. Working with a number of different samples the velocity constants obtained were not by any means the same, even CATALASE REACTION OF MILK. 321 when milks were examined under comparable conditions. This is shown in the following table. Table IT. Temperature 25° C. Time examined after Concentration of K x 104 Total H.O. milking. hydrogen peroxide. decomposed. (1) O hrs. 17 min. M/35 29 0-09 Sere 55 23) 45; a 46 Iai Paes 55, LO: 5, Ae 56 1°25 Peete. | by. ;, M/47 121 0:70 ey t.. 29 ;, * 21 0-60 (es, = 40.5 } 42 0-78 a, 20, ,, M/29 OF 2°42 The total amounts of hydrogen peroxide decomposed as given in the last column, are measured in cubic centimetres of the standard hydrogen peroxide solution (1 cc. = °00008 of a gram of hydrogen peroxide). It appears from a con- sideration of the above figures that the activity of the enzyme, measured by 4, is not dependent on the stability of the enzyme. By stability is meant the power the enzyme has of resisting the action of the hydrogen peroxide, and this is probably measured by the total hydrogen peroxide decomposed. This will again be referred to when the action of potassium cyanide on the enzyme is considered. The variation in the above figures might be accounted for in two ways:—(1) that the catalase is produced by bacteria in the milk while in the udder, (2) that varying amounts of catalase are secreted, together with the milk, by different cows. In regard to (1) it has been shown by several workers that the milk when first drawn from the udder contains a considerable number of bacteria, and, since blood heat is U—November 4, 1914. 322 H. B. TAYLOR. most favourable for their growth, it is quite possible that in the short time the milk is in the udder some catalase could be produced. To see whether it was possible for bacteria from the air to form catalase, some milk was boiled and divided into two parts, one being closed from the air by means of cotton wool, the other left open. In the course of two days at a temperature of 25° CO. the one left open gave a value for & of °00323, while that kept closed did not decompose hydrogen peroxide at all. It was also noticed that in milk kept for some time the amount of catalase increased, as shown by the increased value of £; this action could also be attributed to the action of bacteria. Table III. Temperature 25° C. Concentration of K x 10+ Total H,O¢ hydrogen peroxide. Age of Milk. decomposed. (1). M28 : 2 hrs. 52 min. 97 er) 27 ” 53 ” oh 1°36 (2) -M/35 Oe) liens, 29 i 2 ” 35 ” efets 1:07 3 bb) 30 99 eee 1°15 22 ” 10 ” 141 1°68 (3) M/35 2 99 15 “rn 56 1:25 4 99 0 99 eee 1°30 ao 4 «=O Gy 340 1:70 sail 99 30 ” 156 1°36 50 ,, 25°, 97 22 he) 30 bb) 235 1°59 27 ” 7 ” 186 1°39 47 ” 10 ” Vie 1°30 51 be) 25 99 89 1°21] CATALASE REACTION OF MILK. B29 Evidence of this increase is well shown by the foregoing figures, which show an increase for the value of A, and the total hydrogen peroxide decomposed, until the milk is 22 hours old: after this the value for A shows a decrease. This decrease being probably due to the inhibiting action of the lactic acid formed. The total decomposition is expressed in ces. of standard hydrogen peroxide solution. From these results it seems highly probable that there are ordinarily bacteria in the air which on gaining access to the milk are able to produce a substance having the power of catalysing the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. In order to study the action of catalase in as pure a state as possible, the following method of purification was arrived at. To 500ccs. of milk enough acetic acid, 5H, was slowly added to precipitate the caseinogen; sodium hydrate was then added until the resulting solution was acid to phenol- phthalein and alkaline to methyl red. This brought the milk back to its original acidity. The liquid was then filtered. To the resulting filtrate, which was quite clear, 800 — 900 ccs. of 90% alcohol were added until a precipitate was formed. This precipitate was filtered off, freed from alcohol by drying, in vacuo, and treated with water in the presence of chloroform. The resulting solution contained catalase, and readily decomposed hydrogen peroxide. Table IV. Temperature 25° C. tO ts lene: Ee a — « K x10+ M/300 0) 14:16 a 20 10-00 189 30 8-25 196 40 7-20 177 45 6°35 185 te 5-80 184 60 4°80 185 324 H. B. TAYLOR. The values of A obtained for such a preparation of cata- lase are given on the preceding page. A solution of catalase obtained in the manner described above was used for determining the effect of different con- centrations of enzyme on tbe rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. The method used to determine the concentration of hydrogen peroxide in the experiment was as follows:—the enzyme solution was mixed with hydrogen peroxide at a temperature of 25° C., so that the resulting concentration of hydrogen peroxide was M/300. From time to time 5 ccs. of this solution were added to 1 ce. of a saturated solution of mercuric chloride and filtered, the filter washed with water and the filtrate titrated with potassium permanganate solution of a concentration N/400. If the values of X are calculated as for a first order reac- tion, and compared with the concentration of the enzyme, the rate of decomposition is found to be proportional to the concentration of enzyme as shown below. Table V. Temperature 25° C. Concentration of Concentration of Kx 104 K/Cs hydrogen peroxide. | enzyme. M/300 : 10 15 1:50 25 62 2°48 50 126 2°52 (© 188 2°50 100 256 2°56 This proportionality between the values of A and the concentration of the enzyme agrees with the result given by Senter? for blood-catalase. The effect of hydrogen peroxide on the velocity constant. The solution of catalase, used for the remainder of the experiments given in this paper, was obtained by dialysing 1 Zeit. fur Physik. Chemie, 1903. CATALASE REACTION OF MILK. 325 the previous solution through parchment paper, and gave no reaction for proteins. Since this solution does not con- tain proteins the use of mercuric chloride is not necessary. If the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by catalase proceeds as a typical first order reaction any increase in the concentration of the hydrogen peroxide should have no efiect on the velocity constant. As will be seen from the figures in Table VI, the rate at which the reaction proceeds gradually diminishes with increase in hydrogen peroxide concentration, showing clearly that the hydrogen peroxide must have an inhibiting influence on the action of the enzyme. Table VI. Temperature 25° C. Concentration of Concentration of he LoS at as enzyme. hydrogen peroxide. Het py Rex / Conc. He0g l M /500 53 DAs ] M/160 4) 3°4 ] M/120 36 3°3 l M/80 31 3:5 The values of X are calculated on the assumption that the reaction goes to anend. From the figures in the last column of the above table it will readily be seen that the inhibiting action of the hydrogen peroxide for the higher concentrations is proportional to the square root of the concentration of hydrogen peroxide. The rate at which the inhibiting action proceeds will be considered at a later ‘stage. Effect of temperature on the velocity constant. As is the case with all catalytic actions, increase of temperature increases the velocity of the reaction. Inthe following table are given the temperatures at which the reaction took place and the value for the velocity constants K and K, at that temperature. The enzyme solution was 326 H. B TAYLOR. in all cases kept at the required temperature five minutes before the hydrogen peroxide was added. Table VII. Concentration of hydrogen peroxide = M/300. K = ae log t a-— x C tration of = | = 2? jog eae oncentration: of enzyme. — 1 taf: cee © 4 4 H.O, decomposed Temperature ° C. K x10 K, x10 in thirty sale 0 22 41 1-2 15 39 80 2°0 26 66 152 2°4 35 51 482 2°05 50 42 842 1°30 It will be seen that as the temperature increases, a maximum figure is reached in the value of A showing that. the optimum temperature, taken for one-third of the reac- tion, was in the vicinity of 25° C. When the end point of the reaction is taken into consideration the figures for the: velocity constant A, show no maximum, but increase in a regular way similar to that of a reaction catalysed by an inorganic catalyst, as shown in the last column of the above: table. The reason why there is no maximum in the value of X, is that the destruction of the enzyme is very greatly increased with rise of temperature, thus making the period of the reaction much less. By decreasing the period of the reaction and the total amount of hydrogen peroxide decomposed so that C,, becomes greater, the ratio C,- C, : C.-C, in the formula ren’ hee HO becomes greater and consequently the values of A, are greatly increased. This increase in the value of 4, is large enough to obscure the decrease owing to the inactivation of the enzyme. CATALASE REACTION OF MILK. 327 Temperature Coefficient. As the range of temperature between the different values of & is not, in all cases, equal to 10° C., a formula was used by which the temperature coefficient for 10° OC. can be calculated. This formula is as follows: log K, — log A, = A(T7,-—7,) The temperature coefficient for 10° C. is given by A¢+10/K, where Ay+10/K, = 10°. The value for the temperature coefficient for 10° CO. was calculated by the above formula from the values of A given in Table VII. Table VIII. Temperature °C. | Temperature Coefficient 10° C. 0-15 1°47 0 — 25 1°55 15 — 25 1°68 25 — 35 he 25 — 50 °83 35 — 50 87 The value for the temperature coefficient for the range 0° — 15° C. is 1°47 and agrees with that given by Senter,’ 0° - 10° C. = 1°5, for blood catalase. Inactivation of Catalase. In the experiments on the efiect of varying the concen- tration of hydrogen peroxide and the temperature, for which the values of X are given in Tables VI and VII, the ratio a/a — x showed a decrease, indicating that both hydrogen peroxide and temperature have an inactivating effect on the enzyme. Assuming that this inactivation proceeds as a first order reaction, Tammann’ has derived a formula by which the ' Zeit. fur Physik Chemie, xxiv, 1903, p. 257. * Zeit. fur Physik Chemie, xviir, 1895, p. 436. 328 H. B. TAYLOR. values of A;, the rate of inactivation of the enzyme, can be calculated from the initial velocity A. This formula is as follows :— Kab a—2x ] K Ks 3 et teres (IR ESE ots Te. | 5 ) where a and a — x have the usual meanings, and E is the initial concentration of the enzyme. If in this formula, t is put equal to 2, a—x becomes equal to the concentration of hydrogen peroxide at the end of the reaction, and the equation then takes the form, ao K log - = 1 = || The values of A used for the calculation of A; according to Tammann’s formula must be those which are obtained by taking into consideration the end point of the reaction. The values for A are shown under 4A, in Tables [IX and X. (1) Effect of hydrogen peroarde on value of Kg. Since the rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide decreases with increase of hydrogen peroxide concentration as Shown under A in Table VI, it would be expected that the rate of destruction of the enzyme A, would increase as the values of A decrease. That this is the case is seen from Table IX. Table IX, Temperature 25° C. Concentration | Concentration KX104 | K.X104 Ke X104 of enzyme. of hyd. peroxide. 5 ; 1 | ™M/500 53 122 446 M/160 42 216 1893 M/120 36 227 2465 M/80 a 257 3609 (2) Effect of Temperature. The rate of destruction of the enzyme, as will be seen from the following figures, is very greatly increased by the rise of temperature. CATALASE REACTION OF MILK. 329 Table X. Concentration | m y amount LO of hydrogen frees KX 1074 | X10? | Ke 104 decomp. t i es peroxide. M/300 0 29 rl 103 | 9:40 15 39 80 950 | 8:35 25 66 152 552 7-35 35 51 482 6,267 2-50 50 42 842 21,260 1°35 From the above figures it will be seen that the rate of destruction at 50°C. is over 200 times as fast as it isat 0° C., and even as low as 15° C. it is two and a half times as fast asat0° ©. The amounts of hydrogen peroxide decomposed are measured in ccs. N/400 permanganate solution. The value for the temperature coefficients calculated in the same way as for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by the enzyme (Table VII), are given in the following table. Table XI. Kx X 10+ Temperature ° C. Temp. Coefficient 10° C. 103 0 Oy es le 250 1d On 2a; — 1-9 552 25 Loe) D2 6267 a 25 — 35 = 11:4 21260 | 50 25 — 50 = 4:3 JOO) me From the above it is seen that the temperature at which the greatest increase in the rate of destruction takes place - corresponds with the temperature at which the velocity constant A begins to decrease. Effect of potassium cyanide on K and Ky. The catalase solution used in the following experiments was prepared by dialysing an aqueous solution of the 330 H. B. TAYLOR. alcoholic precipitate through parchment for three days, and was kept active by the addition of some chloroform. The results obtained were as follows:— Table XII. Temperature 15:5° C. Concentration of hydrogen peroxide = M/300. Concentration of Enzyme = 1. (1) — KCN = M/o KCN = M/o ; a-w K t a-—2 K 0 13:6 Eo 0 13°4 10 13:0 °0045 10; > 12:9 -0037 20 12°8 -0030 20 12°45 :0036 30 12-4 -0031 30 12-1 °0034 D0 11°65 0031 50 11°8 0025 60 11°4 ‘0029 1380 (6) 1140 ee. Mean :0033 . Mean ‘0033 (2) KCN = M/100,000 KCN = M/10,000 KCN = M/1,000 t a-2 K t a-2 K iE a-2@ | K 0.) 1398 he 0} 14:2 ish Oe hs327/ be 10°) 1345170026 10 | 13°87) -0028 10 | 13°5- | 300i \ 20 | 13-05 )}-0028 | 21]13-4 |-0028} 20113-:3 |-0015 41 |12-4 |-0026 | 30/13-4 |-0029| 401]|13-0 |:0013 50 | 11:7 |-0033 | 40] 12-9 |-0024 | 1020 | 5°6 60 | 11-3 |-0033 | 60) 12:3 | -0024 1140 | 7-2 ee ene ge Mean :0029 Mean *0026 Mean :0014 CATALASE REACTION OF MILK. 331 (3) HCN = M/100,000 HCN = M/10,000 t a-—w# TG t a—x K 0 14:0 a 0 14:15 20 13°1 "0026 10 14:00 "0011 40 V2°7 0024 20 13:0 “0009 70 11:6 -0026 40 12:9 "0023 1080 T°4 ae 70 12-4 "0019 1080 is Mean ‘0025 Mean -0015 In (3) of the above tables the HCN was formed in the catalase solution by the addition of the requisite amount of HCl to the KCN. It will be noticed that the values for K decrease with the increasing concentration of potassium cyanide, and on comparing the values for hydrogen cyanide with those for potassium cyanide, that solutions of a strength M/100,000 and M/10,000 of hydrogen cyanide give approximately the same figures for X as solutions M/10,000 and M/1,000 of potassium cyanide. From this it would appear that hydrogen cyanide has ten times the effect of potassium cyanide. It was at first thought that by calculating the values for the rate of destruction of the enzyme, figures would be obtained somewhat similar to those given in Tables IX and X for the effect of hydrogen peroxide and temperature, but this does not seem to be the case, as will be seen from the following table. Table XITI. | Amount of hydrogen eee |. e108 fe Kx peroxide ; | decomposed. M/x been 38 76 275 6-4 M/100,000 | 29 66 232 6°6 M/10,000 26 57 192 UA, M/1,000 14 22 57 8:1 332 H. B. TAYLOR. The amounts of hydrogen peroxide decomposed are measured in ccs. of N/400 potassium permanganate solution. The figures for the values of A; show that, although the | activity of the enzyme is decreased, as shown by the values for A, the destruction of the enzyme proceeds at a slower rate. The addition of potassium cyanide and hydrogen cyanide, although they decrease the activity of the enzyme, have, therefore, the effect of causing the enzyme to decompose more hydrogen peroxide, (i.e.) increasing its stability. It might be said then that variations in the values for the velocity constants need not: necessarily be followed by. similar variations in the total amounts of hydrogen peroxide ' decomposed, although for temperature and increase in enzyme concentration, the amount of hydrogen peroxide decomposed decreased in one case and increased in the other along with corresponding changes in the values for &,. From what has been said above there appears to be no doubt that the catalase of milk is analogous to the catalase obtained from blood. DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF LEGUMINOS. BiB. THE DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE NATURAL ORDER LEGUMINOSAi.* By H. C. ANDREWS, B.A., F.G.S. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 4, 1914. | General Notes and Summary. Acknowledgments. Classification. Systematic Notes. Geographical Distribution: General. Genera indigenous to temperate regions. Geography during Cretaceous and Post-Cretaceous time. The Age of Dicotyledons: Commenced probably in the lowest Cretaceous. Well differentiated during Upper Cretaceous. The futility of attempts to determine plant genera on the evidence of imperfect leaf remains only. Principles of Geographical Distribution: Climate and soil studies indispensable'in this connection, Jsolation. The influence of marine transportation in populating lands. Nature and Home of the Ancestral Forms. The Differentiation of Leguminose. Appendix. Bibliography. General Notes and Summary. In a previous paper (2), the writer indicated the signific- ance, in part, of the distribution of the Myrtacee. Inthe present paper the significance of the geographical distribu- tion of the Leguminosz is considered. | The terms Leguminosee and Myrtacez are practically interchangeable in the consideration of former land con- Dee ee 1 [Read before Section E. of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, August 21st, 1914. | 334 E. C. ANDREWS. nections in the tropics, inasmuch as each appears to have descended individually from certain peculiar groups of uniform primary types which at one time were widely diffused throughout the tropics, and which show xerophytic modifications in varying directions in different extra- tropical regions such as HKurasia, South Africa, and Aus- tralia. On the other hand, the study of these two great plant- groups would be of little or no use in a discussion as to any possible former land connections between Antarctica and the southern continents, inasmuch as Leguminose and Myrtacez appear to be of tropical origin, having accom- modated themselves only in later geological time to tem- perate regions, and that with only a moderate amount of morphological change. A study of the distribution of OComposite,? however, would be exceedingly valuable in such a discussion because of the morphological similarity exhibited by certain groups of Compositz which are clustered at the southern ex- tremities of countries such as New Zealand, Australia, and South America. For the sake of brevity it has been considered advisable to discuss only the main principles underlying plant distri- bution in space, and to describe the development, in brief, of a few of the twenty-four tribes recorded for Leguminosz by the great systematist Bentham, reserving the genus Acacia for more detailed mention as indicating the general lines upon which leguminous development may have taken place. Ina problem such as that under consideration, the studies of geology, geography, and biology, are complementary, and no decided advance is to be expected without the co- operation of workers skilled in these branches of science. + Bentham, (12) p. 504. DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF LEGUMINOSE., 335 The case may, perhaps, be stated briefly in the form of a summary of the paper. The present distribution of plants and animals is the algebraic sum of the responses made by organisms to their changing environment during the whole of the known geological record, and the present adjustment of the activities involved has been obtained only after ages of development during various geographical changes. As such, an analysis of a great and widely-spread Natural Order, such as Leguminose, might be expected to throw light upon the nature of former land connections by reason of the peculiar similarities, and dissimilarities, of mor- phology, exhibited by the plants in countries at present separated from each other. Leguminose contains many uniform types which are widely diffused throughout the tropics, and which, more- over, are in the main luxuriant in habit. In extra-tropical countries, such as Hurasia, South Africa, and Temperate Australia, these uniform tropical forms are represented by specialised types, which have developed along different directions in the different extra-tropical regions, while the primitive, or connecting forms, are to be found in the tropics. These specialised or secondary forms are mainly xerophytic. Furthermore, many widely diffused types of the tropics have not entered Australia, while others have a wide dis- tribution in America, and only occur rarely in Africa and Asia. Out of a total of nearly five hundred genera in Leguminose, only seven exist in New Zealand. It would appear that the present great tropical lands were connected during one or more previous periods, and that a genial and moist climate extended far beyond the tropical and subtropical regions. In these lands a few uniform primary types of Leguminosz had a wide distribu- tion. New Zealand was separated from the tropical world 336 E. C. ANDREWS. early in the differentiation of the Order, while Australia was cut off at a date considerably later. A great differentiation of climate ensued about the date of the separation of Australia from Asia accompanied by a decided contraction of the genial and moist climate of earlier times. High mountains, large continents, and great deserts came into existence at the time of this shrinkage, and the uniform primary types of the Leguminosz were called upon either to adapt themselves to the new conditions or to retreat to the tropics. Instead, however, of retreat- ing, defeated, to the tropics, many of the uniform types of the legumes responded to their inhospitable environment in temperate regions by the development of large and important groups of xerophytes, such development being practically simultaneous in the various extra-tropical regions, but in different morphological directions. A study of Myrtacez (2) leads to a conclusion almost identical with that stated in the previous paragraph, the evidence, however, not being nearly so weighty as in the case of the Leguminosee. Before accepting such a con- clusion, however, the reader would need to be convinced that a genus such as Hucalyptus had not existed in Hurope and America in Cretaceous, Hocene, and Miocene times, inasmuch as systematists, such as Ettingshausenand Unger, have laid decided stress upon this supposed existence of Kucalyptus by reason of the evidence of certain fossil leaves of lanceolate, and somewhat falcate, appearance, in Cre- taceous and Tertiary beds in the Northern Hemisphere. Hucalyptus, however, has only in late, or recent, geological time, acquired the petiolate and twisted leaf stage, whereas, previously to that, it possessed leaves either sessile, cordate, opposite, thin and horizontal, more suggestive of certain Myrtles and Kugenias of to-day, a leaf very different from the present xerophytic form of many adult Hucalyptus. DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF LEGUMINOSA., 337 Furthermore, a consideration of the families Composite, Hpacridez, Hricaceze, Coniferze, Goodeniacez, Casuarines, Rutacee, Proteacez, Candollaceze, and Rubiacez, reveals other remarkable and additional evidence, partly supple- mentary, but never contradictory, to that yielded by a study of Leguminosze and Myrtacez, the whole leading to the conclusion that the endemic vegetation of Australia has developed in that continent mainly as a result of the pres- ence there of large areas of barren sandy soil, and very variable, therefore inhospitable, climate, and partly as a result of its isolation and freedom from competition. This vegetation such as Eucalyptus, Hakea, Banksia, and Persoonia, has never migrated far from the old home. Bibliography.—The numbers against authors’ names in the text, and in the footnotes, refer to the bibliographical list at the end of the paper. Acknowledgments. From Mr. R. H. Cambage the names of Australian plants were learned in the field, and by him also the writer was led to perceive the great influence of soil and climate upon the Australian plants. Without knowledge such as this, the present paper could not have been prepared. Seedlings of various Acacias were also grown by Mr. Cambage to enable the writer to reach a satisfactory conclusion con- cerning the priority in age of the Uninerves or Pleurinerves among the phyllodineous members of the genus. To Mr. J. H. Maiden very cordial thanks are due for access, at all times, to the National Herbarium of Sydney, for permission, moreover, to use the unpublished Oensus of New South Wales Plants by Maiden and Betche, and also for helpful discussions on the Acacias described in his Forest Flora. The writer desires to call attention also to the great assistance derived in the preparation of this note V—November 4, 1914, 338 E. C. ANDREWS. from the magnificent collection of plants in the National Herbarium due so largely to the unremitting efforts of Mr. Maiden. To Mr. H. Cheel and Mr. A. A. Hamilton, of the National Herbarium, the writer is deeply indebted for help in the naming of specimens and for valuable references to litera- ture dealing with Leguminose. It was also due to the kindness of Mr. Cheel that the writer was enabled to con- sult that rare book in Australia, namely, Pflanzenfamilien by Engler and Prantl. Classification. In the preparation of this paper, the classification of Bentham in “‘Flora Australiensis’’ has been followed, with the exception of that dealing with the tribes Sophorez and Podalyrieze. The morphology and geographical distribution of these plants have suggested that Podalyrieze should be included under Sophorez, the one flourishing mainly in the tropics and there maintaining its purity, the other repre- senting a modification of Sophorez by adaptation to harsh, sub-arid, or cold surroundings, in very late or in Post-Cre- taceous time. Systematic Notes on the Natural Order Leguminose. The subjoined notes are supplied for the help of the geographer, who may be unacquainted with the morphology of the plants belonging to this great order. Only the lead- ing characteristics of the families and the principal tribes are supplied. ‘““LEGUMINOSAI: Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Leaves alternate or rarely opposite, often compound. Stipules rarely wanting. Gynoecium free, consisting of a single’ 1 Sometimes double, as in Swartzia. The style is simple, with its inner angle, or ventral suture, facing the dorsal aspect of the flower (opposite the standard in Papilionaces). [E.C.A.] DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF LEGUMINOSZ. 339 excentrical carpel with a terminal style, the ovules inserted along the upper or inner angle of the cavity. Albumen usually scanty or none.’’—Bentham. Family PAPILIONACEH: Flowers irregular, petals usually five, overlapping, the upper one outside. Stamens 10, rarely fewer. Radicle curved, rarely straight. — If the stamens be free, the plant belongs either to Sophoreze or Podalyrieze. The former usually has a luxuriant habit with plurijugate leaves, the latter a dwarfed appearance with leaves either simple, trifolio- late, or wanting. If the stamens be united and the leaves simple, digitately 3—5 foliolate and stipulate, pinnately tri- foliate, verticillate, or absent, the tribe indicated is Genistez. In Australian Genistez the sheath enclos- ing the stamens is generally open along the upper side. With leaves pinnately 3—5 foliolate and stipulate, and diadelphous stamens, the tribe Trifolieze is sug- gested. Phaseolez possesses pinnately trifoliate leaves and stems. Galegez comprises non-twining herbs, tall trees, or woody climbers. Leaves pinnate, plurijugate. Upper stamen free, remainder in sheath. Hedysareze: Pod separates into one-seeded portions which do not split open. Dalbergiez are trees or woody climbers. Leaves pinnate, plurijugate, rarely simple. Stamens usually united or in two bundles each of five. Pod does not open. Family CSALPINIEZ: Flowers, irregular to nearly regular. Petals, 5 or fewer, overlapping, the upper one inside, not outside, as in Papilionacese. Stamens 340 E. C. ANDREWS. 10 or fewer, or at times indefinite. Radicle straight. Seeds usually albuminous. Kucesalpinieze: Leaves bipinnate. Petals usually 5, subequal. Stamens 10. Cassieze: Stamens usually 10,free. Leaves abruptly pinnate. Trees, shrubs or herbs. Family MIMosE4%:—F lowers regular, small, in spikes or heads. Petals 5, 4, or rarely 3, overlapping or valvate. Stamens definite or indefinite in number. Leaves bipinnate. MRadicle straight. Parkiez: Definite stamens. Petals slightly over- lapping. Kumimoseze: Definite stamens. Acaciez: Indefinite free stamens. Ingez: Indefinite stamens enclosed at base in ring. Geographical Distribution of Leguminosz. In 1855, Alphonse De Candolle’* indicated the tropics as the probable home of the Leguminosze and, in support of this belief, he pointed out the gradual diminution in num- bers of species as the tropics are left behind in both — Northern and Southern Hemispheres. De Candolle made this announcement at a time when very few legumes had been recorded from South Africa and extra-tropical Aus- tralia; nevertheless, the known distribution of those plants in these two countries has not invalidated his conclusion. The Mimosez and Ceesalpinies are more characteristic of the tropics than are the Papilionaceze. The Mimosez with its vast genera Acacia, Mimosa, Inga, Pithecolobium, and Calliandra, possesses no indigenous representative in Europe, although Prosopis occurs in Cyprus. The Cesal- pinieze, possessing about eighty genera—one genus alone 1 (22) p. 1288 and onwards. DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF LEGUMINOSAE. 341 (Cassia) containing four hundred species—has only one representative, namely, Cercis, in Southern Hurope. A few small genera of the family have representatives in the United States. This is strikingly analogous to the distri- bution of the Myrtaceze in Hurope and North America beyond Mexico, inasmuch as Myrtus communis is the only representative of the vast family in Hurope and only a few species appear to occur in the United States. In the Southern Hemisphere, however, both Mimosez and Cesal- piniez extend to the southern portions of the three continents. Of the three families, Papilionacee is characteristic of cooler rather than of tropical regions, and in both hemi- spheres its members extend, asrare stragglers, to the limits of Dicotyledonous vegetation. Thermopsis is an example of this in the Podalyriee, growing at an altitude of 17,000 feet above sea level in the Himalaya. The accompanying table indicates the approximate dis- tribution of the Order in the more important countries of the world. Spain and Russia have not been included, as the literature dealing with the Leguminose of these countries was not accessible to the writer. Table of Geographical Distribution of Leyuminose. Number of!Number of Country. Genera. | Species. Remarks and Authorities. New Zealand... er a 29 | Cheeseman, 1906. Australia Ze cae 97 1275 | Bentham, Flora Australiensis, Vol. 11, 1862; Maiden, Federal Handbook, 1914; Mueller, Second Census of Australian Plants, 1889. South Africa... re 82 800 | Harvey and Sonder, 1862. Tropical Africa a 141 850 | Baker, in Oliver’s Flora of Tropical Africa, 1879. British India... ae 132 800. | Baker, in Hooker’s Flora of British India, 1879. Brazil ... et aa 140 1500 | Bentham, in Flora Braziliensis, 1859 — 1876. Britain St we 20 69 | Bentham and Hooker, 1887. France ye sy 45 4t0 | Acloque, 1894. 342 : E. C. ANDREWS. Table of Geographical Distribution of Leguminose—continued. ! Country. oe fale "Boseae Remarks and Authorities. Germany ras sat 31 131 | Garcke, 1895. Italy ... 4; - 42 410 | Arcangeli, 1894. North America (exclu- sive of Mexico)... 55 700 | Britten and Brown, 1897. Duh Ean AS sat ee 31 45 | Seeman. New Caledonia oe 43 100 | A list quite incomplete, from Helmsley’s Manuscript. Queensland ... Ws 95 470 | Bailey, 1902. New South Wales ... 59 385 | Maiden and Betche. In Manu- ak script only. Tasmania... 2s 20 59 | Rodway. 1 Lists only approximate. Some of the works consulted are not only from forty to fifty years old, but have not been brought up to date. It is highly probable that the actual numbers of species in Brazil, India, and Africa are much greater than as here recorded. Various tribes and genera are characteristic of the tropics, for example, genera such as Dalbergia, Macherium, Lon- chocarpus, Indigofera, Bauhinia, Entada, Abrus, Afzelia, Mucuna, A’schynomene, Parkia, Calliandra, Albizzia, Pithecolobium, Inga, Mimosa, and Tephrosia. Other genera again, such as Acacia, Cassia, and Crotalaria, appear to have their real homes in the tropics but occur, nevertheless, with few exceptions, as xerophytes in many warm tem- perate regions. The tropical forms of these genera, con- sidered individually, bear a much greater resemblance to each other than to the xeropbytic forms. Moreover, the xerophytes of these genera appear to have developed along divergent lines in different temperate regions. For example, the Acacias of South Africa vary considerably from those of Australia, so also the xerophytic Cassias of Australia are peculiar to that country. And in like manner the Podalyrieze and Genistez of South Africa, Eurasia, and Australia, differ widely in these contrasted regions. This may be stated another way: Thus various genera, such as Cassia, Acacia, Crotalaria and Indigofera, are widely diffused throughout the tropics apparently as uniform { ’ DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF LEGUMINOSZ. 343 primary types. Hach temperate region adjoining tropical lands has its peculiar species of these genera, the species in each genus showing marked divergence in different directions in different temperate regions from the common or uniform types in the tropics, the endemic species as a whole of each temperate region exhibiting likenesses to the tropical types rather than to those of contrasted extra- tropical regions. Similar reasoning applies to the case of the various endemic genera in the various tribes. In New Zealand, the endemic genera are three in number comprising twenty-two out of a total number of twenty- nine species of Leguminose in that country. This paucity of species appears remarkable at first sight, but its discus- Sion is reserved for a subsequent chapter. It is sufficient, at this stage, to state that the three endemic genera are xerophytes, belonging to the tribe Galegeze, which tribe, moreover, includes five out of the total of seven genera in the Island. Australia contains ninety-seven genera of which thirty- five are endemic. These peculiar forms are decidedly vigorous and aggressive in the main, and, with the excep- tion of a few genera, they are almost all xerophytes. Exceptions are to be found in the monotypic genera Castano- spermum, Podopetalum, and Barklya. In the Podalyrieze there are twenty endemic genera comprising four hundred species. The genus Pultenza alone contains about one hundred species. Genistez is also well represented by xerophytic types such as Platylobium, Hovea, Bossizea, and Templetonia. Labichea and Petalostyles, also in Cassiez, are xerophytes. Both the Australian Podalyrieze and Genisteze form special subtribes. South Africa, similarly to Australia, is rich in endemic genera, especially in peculiar subtribes belonging to Poda- lyriee and Genisteze. But whereas Australia is the strong- 344 E. GC. ANDREWS. hold in the world of Podalyriez, South Africa holds a similar proud position with respect to Genisteze. Moreover, as with the Podalyriee of Australia, the South African endemic genera are very vigorous and aggressive and xerophytic in nature, flourishing alike in poor soils and severe climates. Whereas the Podalyries of South Africa comprises only two genera with thirty species, the Genistez of that region contains nineteen genera and nearly four huudred species. One genus alone, Aspalathus, has one hundred and fifty species. Thus the hardy South African Genistez takes the place of the vigorous Australian Podalyriez. Tropical Africa, Asia, America and Australia together (Australia, however, possesses only a few endemic tropical types) contain many endemic genera, bu’ these almost all conform to the average type of the Leguminose, and are not suggestive of the aggressive xerophytes of either Aus- tralia, South Africa, Temperate Hurasia, or some portions of America. Kurope, in the Northern Hemisphere, is well supplied with genera and species of xerophytic Genistez, as for example Ulex, Genista, Adenocarpus, and Cytisus. The Galegez and the related Hedysarese have a great development in the temperate regions of the Ncrthern Hemisphere. So also Viciesw, Trifoliesee, and Lotez, in common with the North Temperate Galegese, are almost absent from the Southern Hemisphere, except for a recent. spilling, or creeping, from Northern Asia along the Andes and the high tablelands in America by way of British Columbia and the surrounding regions. Thus Trifolium, Lupinus, Lathyrus, Vicia, and Astragalus are absent from New Zealand and Australia, besides being absent, appar- ently, from South Africa, with the exception of one: Astragalus and several species of Trifolium. Nevertheless these genera occur throughout the highlands from Cali- DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF LEGUMINOSAE. 345 fornia to Ohbili, the latter region containing many species of these genera. It will be advisable at this stage to state the geographical distribution of afew important genera, and as a supplement to that to prepare a table showing the species of Legumi- nosz in one region, such as tropical Africa, which are common to other continents or regions. The genera chosen in illustration of the first point are Inga, Pithecolobium, Albizzia, Acacia, Mimosa, Calliandra, Piptadenia, Parkia, Cassia, Bauhinia, Hriosema, Dalbergia, Astragalus, Teph- rosia, Indigofera, Crotalaria, and Lupinus. The analysis has been taken from Pflanzenfamilien, from the Index Kewensis, and from Bentham’s Flora Australiensis, his Revision of the Genus Cassia, as well as from his Mimosee. INGA.—About 150 species in five sections, all in Tropical America. PITHECOLOBIUM.—About 120 species in seven sections. Five sections, containing 66 species, are endemic in America. One Section, with 23 species, in Tropical Asia and Australia. One section, with 28 species, four in Old World and twenty-four in America. , ALBIZZIA.—Three sections, namely, Lophantha, Eual- bizzia and Zygia. Lophantha.—India, Java, Malay, 20 species in a sub- section in Tropical Asia and Africa, one in North America. Zygia.—100 species in five subsections. No. 1 Subsection, 20 species Tropical America and India. 346 E. C. ANDREWS. No. 2 Subsection, 12 species West Indies, Mexico to Columbia. No. 3 Subsection, 4 species in Brazil. No. 4. Subsection, 60 species Old and New World (one Madagascar, one Ceylon). No. 5 Subsection, 5 species in America. This information regarding Albizzia has been taken from Pflanzenfamilien. According to the Index Kewensis, however, the genus Albizzia is not repre- sented in America. ACACIA.—About 700 species in six sections. Gummifere—In Tropical America, Africa, Asia, and Australia: also in Temperate regions. The subsections Summibracteatz and Medibract- eatze are widely diffused, but the subsection Basi- bracteatze in Gummifere is not represented in Australia. Vulgares.—_Abundant in America, Africa and Asia; absent from Australia. Filicinee.—Several species in America. Botryocephale.—Large section. Hndemic in Hastern Australia. Pulchelle.—Endemic in Western Australia. Phyllodinez.—About 400 species. Hndemic in Austra- lasia. A few waifs occur in neighbouring islands. MIMOSA.—About 400 species in two sections, Humimosa and Habbasia. Eumimosa. + 140 species. No. 1 Series in Tropical America. No. 2 Series in Tropical America, with M. pudica as a cosmopolitan type. Habbasia. + 160 species. No. 1 Series in Tropical America. DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF LEGUMINOSZ. 347 No. 2 Series has two sub-series, one occurring in Tropical and Sub-tropical America, Africa and Asia; the other occurring in Tropical and Sub- tropical America, Africa and the Mascarenes. CALLIANDRA.—100 species in five sections. Macrophylle.—20 species, Tropical America, India. Lactivirentes._12 species, America, West Indies (C. portoricensis). Pedicellate —4 species, Brazil. Nitidze.—About 60 species, one subsection, America; one subsection, Ceylon and Madagascar. Racemosee.—9 species, Central America. PIPTADENTIA.—Three sections. Eupiptadenia.—30 species, Brazil, Africa, Asia, Mada- gascar. Pityrocarpa.—5s0 species, Tropical America. Niopa.—9 species, four in Tropical America. PARKIA.—19 species in two sections. Euparkia—6 species, Tropical Asia, 3 Tropical Africa, 3 species Brazil. Paryphosphera —7 species, Tropical America. CASSIA.—400 species in 3 subgenera, Fistula, Senna, Lasiorhegma. Fistula.—20 species, Cosmopolitan Tropics. Senna.— No. 1 Section.—2 species, Tropical Africa, 40 species American Tropics. No. 2 Section.—15 species America; 1 of these in Asia and Australia. No. 3 Section. + 70 species, majority in Tropical America. Well represented in Australia and Africa. 348 ‘ E. C. ANDREWS. No. 4 Section.—20 species, Old World, especially Aus- tralia. Mostly xerophytes in Australia (H.0.A.) Lasiorhegma.—160 species, especially in America. A few in Old World and Australia (Chameecrista). BAUHINIA.—150 species in eleven sections—three sec- tions endemic in America, two sections endemic in Africa, two sections endemic in Asia, two sections in Africa and Asia, one small section in Tropical Australia and South-west Asia, one large section in Tropical America and Old World. BRIOSEMA.—About 70 species, two sections. Simplicifolia.—Tropical Africa, Brazil. Trifoliata.—Brazil, Tropical Africa, Natal, The Cape, Asia, Australia. DALBERGIA. + 80 species, four sections. First Section.—15 species Old World, 4 species America. Second Section. + 20 species Old World, + 15 species America. Third Section. + 15 species Old World Tropics. Fourth Section.—Cosmopolitan Tropics. ASTRAGALUS.—About 1,250 species. (According to Bunge)—Nine sections in Hurope, Asia and Africa, three sections in North America, three sections in South America, one section, namely, Phaca, has 250 species in Hurope, Asia and Africa, many species also in North America, and 38 species in South America. Mostly cool to cold temperate types. TEPHROSIA. + 130 species, four sections. Brissonia.—90 species. Unifoliolate.—3 species, India, Tropical Africa. DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEGUMINOSZA. 349 Digitatee —2 species, Tropical Africa. Pinnatze.—40 species, Tropical Africa, of which T. eandida occurs in India and Malay Islands, and T. toxicaria from Mexico to Brazil. Reineria.—80 species. Unifoliolate —4 species, Angola, India, Australia. Heterophyllz.—4 species, Tropical West Africa, Aus- tralia. Pinnate. + 70 species, T. purpurce, a cosmopolitan type. Pognostigma.—1 species in Africa. Requienia.—2 species, Tropical Africa. INDIGOFERA.—About 300 species, four sections. Buindigofera—280 species. Hndemic series and sub- series occur in Africa, Africo-Asia, Africo-Asi- atico-Australia, or as cosmopolitan tropical types. Amecarpus.—10 species, Africa and India. Spheridiophora.—48 species, India, Africa, Australia. A®Zanthonotus.—Several species, India, Africa, Ceylon. CROTATLARIA.—250 species, three sections. Simplicifolis.—One series out of seven occurs in Aus- tralia and India. Unifoliolatz.—4 species, one in Brazil, three in Aus- tralia. Trifoliolate.—In all Tropics, especially Africa. LUPINUS.—100 species, three sections. Digitatze gerontogesze.—12 species. Digitatee Neogeze + 60 species. Simplicifolie._12 species, Brazil, Hastern North America. * a ee ’ Scat ay 350 E. C. ANDREWS. It will be helpful at this stage to supply a list* of the more important species of Leguminosee in Tropical Africa, which occur either in other regions or which have closely- > related species in other regions, so as the better to appre- ciate the nature of the relations existing between Tropical Africa and other lands. The list is not complete, as the analysis was only made on incomplete collections. Abbre- viations used in this list are Trp. for Tropics, Eur. for Europe, Am. for America, Afr. for Africa, As. for Asia, Aust. for Australia, Cosmo. for Cosmopolitan, Ind. for India, W. Ind. for West Indies, Sp. for Species. By Afr. is meant Trp. Afr. Genus and Species. Countries in which Plants Romieres are Indigenous. Rothia -| One sp. Trp. Afr. ...| Other sp. very close in Ind. and Aust. Crotalaria retusa .| Ind. and Afr. é ene introduced to Afr. i. verrucosa ...|Trp. Afr., Am., As., Mauritius. op calycina ».| rp. Atr., Ind., Aust. A oriwensis ...| Trp. Afr., Ind. - incana .| Cosmo., Trp. ...| Possibly introduced in Old World. “es striata ao: ade, Tep. Asi, Ama, Natal. = latifolia Parochetus communis ... veel Mites Trigonella hamosa ...| Afr., W.Ind., Mauritius 2 Argyrolobwum virgatum... ae Afr. .| Very close to the Ind. type A. flaccidum. Afr., Ind. Egypt, Cape, Ind. ie occulta .o-| Afr., End. Lotus corniculatus ...| Afr., Eur., Jap., Aust. Cyamopsis ‘ ...| One sp. Afr., 1 sp. Ind. Indigofera echinata .| Afr., Ind., Ceylon. - linifolia 4 Atr., As,, Amish, S cordifolia .| Afr., Ind., Malay, Ind. Le viscosa ...| Afr., East Ind., Aust. Bs pentayhylla ..| Afr., East Ind. 3 parviflora ...| Afr., As., Aust. es subulata ..| Afr.,As.,W.Ind., Mexico = paucifolia ...| Afr., As. A hirsuta .| Afr, Mediterranean, As., Aust. + Analysis of chapter on Leguminose by Baker, in Oliver’s “ Flora of Tropical Africa,” Vol. 11, 1879. DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEGUMINOSA, 351 Genus and Species. Indigofera nN: aes a Pas Afr, Lnvd: paiPAtEs, ..| Cosmo. Trp. SALE. A anil Tephrosia villosa 38 incana ee purpurea Mundulea suberosa Sesbania aegyptica = aculeata Taverniera Alhagi Ormocarpum dennoides. ds Aeschynomene sensitiva... a indica Smithia sensitiva Stylosanthes viscosa mucronata Zornia tetraphylla Desmodium umbellatum | Afr., ..| Egypt to N.W. Ind. .. | Afr., As., | Afr., As. Countries in which Plants are Indigenous, Afr., Ind. Am. Tnd. As. Afr., As., Aust. As., Aust. Egypt to N.W. Ind. ... Aust... Afr., Trp. As., Aust. i HAtrE, lod. Al PAE.: | Afr., As. ... Afr., The Cape, N. and Trp. Am. S. Am. | Afr., Medit., As. m spirale . Afr., Polynesia, Am. a giganticum... Afr., Ind., Malay. $3 lasiocarpum | Afr., Ind., Malay. i ascendens ... Afr., Am. eA incanum . Afr., Aust., Am. , scalpe . Afr., Mascarens, Ind., polycarpum... Uraria picta Alysicarpus monilifer a vaginalis o rugosus Abrus precatorius », pulchellus ... Centrosema virginiana ... : Cosmo. Tepe us .| Af., Natal, As. ...| Cosmo. Trp. Clitoria ternatea Glycine javanica... Mucuna urens Bs pruriens Galactia tenuiflora Dioclea reflexa Canavalia obtusiflora - ensiformis Phaseolus lunatus ane Coes te .| Cosmo. Trp. Malay. | Afr., Ind., Malay. | Air, As, Aust. Afr., As. . Cosmo. weed. Afr., Cape, As., Aust. 4) Cosmo. rp: | SABER, As., Malay, Natal. Afr., ee Cosmo. Trp. Afr.,Mascarenes, E.Ind. Afr., Fae Am. 3: Afr., , Am., Aust. a adenanthus ...; Cosmo. Trp. ... y3 trinervis ...| Afr., Natal, As. Z trilobus sea ebrs AS Vigna vexillata ... Cosmo, Prop,” ... » luteola ..| Afr., Cape. As., Am. », oblonga aoe | bE Ai, » lutea aos Gono. ae shi Pachyrhizus 2 sp. Afr., 1 sp. Mexico .| Trp. Coasts .| Trp. Coasts Remarks, Small desert genus. .| Small desert genus. ...| Lrp. Coasts. .| Trp. Coasts. Trp. Coasts. .| Trp. Coasts. -| Cultivated. Not recorded for Aust. Trp. Coasts. .| Trp. Coasts. .| Trp. Coasts. ...| Stray from cultivation (?) .| Not recorded from Aust. (E.C.A.) .| Not in Aust. (E.C.A.) ...| Trp. Coasts. ...| [rp. Coasts. .| Coastal form. 3 sp. in genus. 352 Genus and Species. Dolichos biflorus... =m awillaris oe uniflorus Rhynchosia cyanosperma a minima ss caribeea o VISCOSA Ecastaphyllum Brownii monetaria Drepanocarpus lunatus . Derris uliginosa .. Sophora tomentosa ; Cesalpinia bonducella .. Cassia occidentalis .| Afr., .-.| Cosmo. Erp ie. ..| Cape, Afr., Am. 2| (AES Mascarenes, E. Ind. E. C. ANDREWS. Countries in which Plants are Indigenous. As., Aust. Afr., Medit., Cape. | Adee As: Afr., E. Ind. Af., Am. Af., Am. NAb Am ...| Afr., As., Aust... .| Cosmo. Trp. Cosmo. Trp. Cosmo. Trp. » sophora ... Hud Af., Nth. Afr; E: Ind. Archipelago. » laevigata... ...| Adr,, Am.,. Aust. = tora ...| Cosmo. Trp. b alata «s-| COSMO. Pep. +( hiz: u absus | Afr. whks., Aust. » nigricans .| Afr. - Kirk Afr. Bauhinia tomentosa _...| Afr., Natal, As. Erythrophleum ... me Pentaclethra tomentosa. .. Parkia biglobosa ... Entada scandens Adenanthera Neptunia oleracea Mimosa pudica ... An asperata Schrankia leptocarpa Acacia catecha » pennata ... * Sieberiana » Farnesiana Calliandra portoricensis Albizzia julibrissin » amard..... 7 Lebbek ... .|2or 3 sp. Afr. . ...| Cosmo. Trp. .| Afr., Am. ..| Afr., As ced AER a Aah Afr. (Coasts) -«-| Adis, Ind. von SAcee As., Atist.., Ag. Afr., As., Aust. Cosmo. T'rp. Afr., Am. As. Cosmo. "Erp. 0's. Atrs Ind.) Avm,;; 4 Afr., As. Afr., As. e: Afr, Ag, Remarks. Ait Coastal types. .| (Dalbergia). 33 .| Trp. Coasts. .| Coastal form. .| Coastal form. .| Coastal form. Introduced (?). ...| Colonists (?). .| Not in Aust. (E.C.A.) Colonist (?). . |Very close to C. patellaria Trp. Am .| Very close to C. chame- crista, Am. ...| 1 sp. Aust. ...| 1 sp.in Trp. Am. closely allied. .| (Coastal). ...| Very small genus. ..| Not in Aust. (H.C.A.) ...| Colonist. ...| Coastal form. .| Near A. macrantha, Am. 25 Near A. .| Coastal form. Sieberiana. Tropical Africa has at least 80 species of Leguminosee common to Tropical Asia, 15 species common to Tropical Asia and Australia, 3 common to America and Asia, 1 common to America and Australia, 16 common to Tropical America, and 27 in common with the world-wide tropics $ several of the last group, however, are absent from Australia. DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEGUMINOSZ. 353 Of these some may be found to fall in line either with proved colonists such as Pithecolobium dulce, Mimosa pudica, Mimosa sepiaria. Luccena glauca, Desmanthus virgatus, or with plants transported by sea currents, such as Entada scandens, Afzelia bijuga, Abrus HPACCOLaRI GS and Sophora tomentosa. Attention will be directed to this subject in a subse- quent chapter. If consideration be now given to the distribution of Leguminose in Australia, it will be seen that out of 39 genera in Australia which have almost cosmopolitan tropi- cal range, and which possess 535 species in Australia, 73 species are common to Asia, 22 to Africa and 12 to Tropical America. Facts such as these led Wallace,’ the great exponent of geographical distribution, to the conclusion that the tropi- cal flora of Australia was comparatively recent and deriva- tive. Wallace also, from the distribution of the plants, proceeded to explain the origin of the endemic flora of New Zealand.” The discussion of this point may be deferred until a later stage, but, in the meantime, it may be stated that the facts presented in this note indicate that Australia has been isolated from the rest of the world for a long period, and that, with the exception of certain species which appear to be colonists or waifs, those genera in Australia which are not endemic there have been in that continent for a long time. Thus it will be seen that the following widely-spread genera have established themselves firmly in Australia, and have each produced from one to numerous endemic species: Crotalaria, Trigonella, Lotus, Psoralea, Indigofera, 1 (62) p. 498. * Ibid., p. 500. W—WNov. 4, 1914 354 E. C. ANDREWS. Milletia, Clianthus, Swainsona, Glycyrrhiza, Desmodium, Uraria, Lespedeza, Glycine, Erythrina, Galactia, Vigna, Atylosia, Rhynchosia, Flemingia, Dalbergia, Lonchocarpus, Derris, Sophora, Mezoneurum, Pterolobium, Oassia, Bau- hinia, Afzetia, Erythrophlocum, Adenanthera, Neptunia, Acacia, Albizzia, and Pithecolobium. From this list the systematist will note the absence of Hriosema, Smithia, Zornia, Mimosa, Oalliandra, Inga, Dolichos, Auschynomene, and other well known and widely- spread genera. It would appear as if Australia had been isolated from the tropical world before the differentiation of these types, and that the species belonging to such forms as Aischynomene, Smithia and Zornia, now found in Australia, are either colonists or waifs. It is possible also that the thirty-five genera enumerated above were established in Australia before the development of the thirty-five endemic genera of that continent, and that they are examples of arrested development, whereas the endemic forms are vigorous, but younger types, which only appear to be ancient and archaic by reason of their stunted and weather-beaten aspect. This statement concerning the probable great age of the pantropical genera of Australia, and the relative youth of the endemic legumes of Australia, and South Africa, is not so remarkable as might appear upon first consideration, if a co-ordination be made of the principles upon which plant distribution and development depend. But before a dis- cussion of these it will be advisable to mention the main features of the Cretaceous and Post-Cretaceous geography and climate. After a brief discussion has been presented in a later chapter of the principles of geographical distri- bution, the way will be open for a consideration of both the home and the nature of the primitive types, and some insight may thus be gained as to the lines along which the development of Leguminosze appears to have taken place. DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEGUMINOSA. 355 The Geography of the Cretaceous and Later Periods. It isalways a matter of difficulty to determine the amount of reliance which can be placed upon geological evidence in the elucidation of problems dealing with the distribution of any particular angiospermous genus in former times. There are, however, several points upon which reliance may be placed in this inquiry, and these depend, in part, upon the relations of land and sea, and the general relief of the land, and, in part also, upon the general characters of any particular group of plants under consideration occurring in the fossil state. Thus, conclusions fairly definite may be reached as to the nature of the climate of a bygone period from a study of the plant remains as a whole from rocks of that age. Satisfactory results may also be obtained as to the order, the family, the genus, or even the species, to which a plant belongs, provided full and abundant material be available for examination. On the other hand it is extremely hazardous and quite unscien- tific to refer angiospermous forms of plants to genera, or even families, on the evidence of leaves alone, and this for the reason that the greatest systematic botanists need full material for the proper determination of modern plants. The following general notes concerning Upper Cretaceous, Tertiary, and modern geography may be found helpful in a discussion of the distribution of the Angiosperms. Modern geography is characterised by the presence of high mountains, great deserts, large continents, small inland seas, glaciated poles, and a strong differentiation of climate generally. Upper Cretaceous geography, on the contrary, was characterised by the presence of low-lying lands, by large epicontinental seas, by an extension of mild and genial climate from the tropics to the polar regions. The fossil plants discovered in sediments of this age suggest, more- over, that the climate was moist as well as mild. 356 E. C. ANDREWS, The general lack of relief in the Cretaceous continents appears to have been due to the action of long continued erosion, while the great epicontinental seas were caused by a general rise of the ocean levels, suggestive of a spill-. ing over of the oceans basins on to the continents. North America was separated thus into two portions by a long and wide sea running north and south from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean. A great Mediterranean sea — appears to have extended from the Mexican Gulf clean across South Europe, and Northern Africa, to the eastern portion of the Himalaya. Australia also was almost com- pletely separated in two portions’ by a long and wide sea. extending southwards from the Gulf of Carpentaria. The continents of Asia and Africa also appear to have been isolated towards the close of the Cretaceous by the general rise of the water in the ocean basins. A study of the fossil animals and plants, as also the sediments of the periods, indicates that the Cretaceous. was a period of genial and moist climate, but that the latter became differentiated somewhat near its close. The Kocene, or Harlier Tertiary, was ushered in by the formation of mountain chains in regions outside of Australia and Africa generally. The epicontinental seas were drained, in great measure, but the great Mediterranean sea already mentioned was a distinctive feature, as was also an offshoot thence from the Caspian Sea region estab- lishing marine communication with the Arctic Ocean. The climate was generally mild and moist extending far to the north and south of the tropics. Since that date the climate of the globe has been under- going distinct, but oscillatory, differentiation throughout the Miocene and Pliocene Periods culminating in the 1 (2) p. 526-538. DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEGUMINOSAE. 357 Great Ice Age of Post-Tertiary time. This period has just disappeared. Great mountain ranges were formed also, either during, or at the close of, both the Miocene and Pliocene Periods. In Australia the land appears to have been worn down to a low-lying surface towards the close of the Cretaceous, and much of the area so worn down was of barren sandy, or hungry clay, nature. During the Tertiary the eastern side of the continent had been elevated by stages to its variable height, and the waste from the plateaus so formed was carried, in part, by the inland drainage to form the rich soils of the great plains of the interior. These inland plains are therefore relatively recent in age. South Africa also, during later geological time, appears to have been elevated to forma great plateau. Southern New Zealand also, in the closing Tertiary, appears to have been elevated to form high plateaus. The Pleistocene Ice Age arose from a general lowering of temperature throughout the world. Messrs. David, Pittman, and Helms’ have also demon- strated a Pleistocene glaciation for the Kosciusko Plateau of Australia. Summary.—The geological records of Cretaceous and Post-Cretaceous time suggest that there was a luxuriant vegetation both in Upper Cretaceous and Hocene time, with xerophytic forms confined to barren, sandy and hungry dry areas relatively limited in extent. A gradual contrac- tion of areas of moist and mild climate is indicated for the Post-EKocene, with a concomitant increase in the develop- ment of xerophytes in the world, especially in either exposed subarid, or sandy, areas such as Australia, South Africa, and the steppes of Kurasia. The Post-Tertiary 1 (27). 358 E. C. ANDREWS. Glacial Period connotes either rapid modification, or migra- tion, of tertiary plant types respectively within, or from, any given district affected. The Age of Dicotyledons, With notes on generic determinations of Angiosperms on the evidence of leaves alone. In any discussion as to the age of a particular family or order of the Dicotyledons, it would be necessary in the first place to ascertain the morphological position occupied by such family, or order, in its subclass; and, in the second place, to ascertain if possible, the geological age of the subclass or class itself. With regard to the first point, it would appear that the Leguminosze are types which are highly developed, as compared with many families of the Dicotyledons, such as the Casuarinez, the Juglandacee, the Salicinez, the Cupu- liferze, the Ulmacez, and the Moracez. This suggests that the present families of the Leguminosze had not been outlined until the earlier forms of the dicotyledons had been well established and differentiated. With regard to the second point, it may be mentioned that no undoubted plant remains of dicotyledonous nature have been found in beds older than the lower Cretaceous. On the other hand they have been recorded from the oldest, of these beds in the Atlantic Coast area of the United States, while from the younger beds of the Lower Creta- ceous, Dicotyledons have been recorded throughout North America." ‘*In Portugal primitive types of Angiosperms appear in the Lower Cretaceous, but apparently not so low down in the series as the Potomac of North America. . . . The view that seems best justified at the present stage of 1 Chamberlain and Salisbury (24) pp. 130-138. DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEGUMINOSZ. 359 evidence is that the angiosperms developed on the old lands of the eastern part of North America, and that until the close of the Lower Cretaceous they had only spread westward as far as Kansas and the Black Hills, northward as far as Greenland, and eastward to the coast of Portugal, but not to Hurope generally, nor to the western part of North America, for they do not appear in the Kootenay or the Shastan series. . . . Inthe most typical region on the Atlantic coast, nearly half the known 800 species of Comanchean age are angiosperms. They beganin marked minority in the lowest Potomac (Lower Oretaceous) and increased to an overwhelming majority in the uppermost beds. The earliest forms are ancestral, but not really primitive, and throw little light on the derivation of the angiosperms. While some are undifferentiated, the majority bear resemblances to modern genera. . . . ” (p. 133). Scott’ refers to the great work of Wieland in describing the Bennettites found in the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous rocks of Western America. This group of plants appears to be intimately related to the modern Cycadacez and the Angiosperms are supposed to have descended through these Bennettites. The Dicotyledons are believed to be older than the Monocotyledons, the latter descending in turn through the Polycarpice’ of the Dicotyledons. Adverting to the question of the geographical distribu- tion of the Dicotyledons as time progressed, it may be noted that by the close of the Upper Cretaceous they had spread over a great portion of the world and, moreover, by the close of that period, they had become highly differentiated. It would appear, indeed, as though a new yet cosmo- politan set of geographic and organic conditions had 1 The Evolution of Plants. Home University Library, p. 80. 2 Strasburger. Text Book of Botany. 1912, p. 525. 360 E. OC. ANDREWS. characterised the Cretaceous Period, and that it had caused the rapid rise and differentiation of the angiosperms, together with their dispersal throughout the world. In this development insects possibly played a great part. Inasmuch as the Leguminosz, especially the Papilio- nacee, are highly developed members of the Dicotyledons, it would appear that they had no existence during the Lower Cretaceous. Taubert,* in Pflanzenfamilien, records the existence of Leguminose remains, as fossils, from sediments of unknown age. It is thought the age may be Tertiary. It is difficult, however, to classify dicotyledonous fossils in the absence of full material. Reports have been made by Heer, Unger (61) and Ettingshausen (32), in which certain Upper Creta- ceous and Tertiary fossils of dicotyledonous types have been referred to existing families, and even to living genera, from the evidence of leaves alone in the main. All such determinations should be treated with the utmost caution. It is very difficult to classify many modern dicotyledonous types, even with full and abundant material and a know- ledge of the growing plants. For example, the genus Krameria is now placed in the Leguminose, nevertheless the great systematist, Bentham, referred it to the Poly- galeze; Lindley was inclined to place it among the Sapin- dacez, because of its trifoliolate leaves, but Asa Grey pointed out that trifoliolate leaves were characteristic, also, of certain tribes of Leguminosee. Other examples might also be quoted, such as the difficulty experienced by systematists in classifying Chamalauciez and Lecythidee, as also the genera Trigonia, Podogonium, and Acicalyptus. The leaves of Hakea, Persoonia, Grevillea, Acacia and Kucalyptus may also be cited as consisting of varied forms. 1 (60) p. 385. DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEGUMINOSZ. 361 Nevertheless, on the evidence of leaves alone, in most cases, genera such as Magnolia, Ficus, Hucalyptus, Hakea, Knightia, Lomatia, Banksia and Fagus have been recorded from Upper Mesozoic and Tertiary beds in Hurope and America, whereas all that could have been stated with any approach to certainty was that these leaves belonged to certain alliances, or large groups of orders, among the dicotyledons. Even leaves of the Polycarpicee, within certain limits, might be mistaken for monocotyledons. Clement Reid, in a letter to the writer, has drawn atten- tion to the figured fossils supposed to be traces of Kucalyptus in “Die Tertiare Flora von Haring’ by Ettingshausen. In this figure may be seen fossil leaves bearing a general form analogous to a few modern Huca- lyptus types, but certainly not at all similar to the leaf of the Hucalypt as it must have existed before the later Tertiary, if reliance is to be placed upon morphological characters. Around the leaves are arranged fruits some- what suggestive of the forms of modern Eucalypt types, but apparently artificial in their geometrical arrangement on the slab. Hven, however, were fossil buds with oper- cula, and flowers without petals in association with them, to be recorded from Hurope and America, this would by no means prove that such plants were Hucalyptus. Acica- iyptus, far removed from Eucalyptus, has a circumciss operculum. Calyptranthes, one of the Myrte, has a cir- cumciss operculum, and in some species the petals are suppressed. Marlieria alsohas an operculum. Nostudent of living EKucalypts, moreover, would mistake the fossil leaves assigned to Hucalyptus in the Northern Hemisphere for leaves of that genus. In this connection Mr. R. H. Cambage has drawn my attention to an illustration’ of a + Taken from “ Comprehensive Catalogue of Queensland Plants,” p. 90, by F. Manson Bailey. 362 E. C. ANDREWS. leaf of Samadera Bidwilli (Simarubez), which the ordinary botanist, not well versed in Hucalyptus studies, might mistake for a leaf of that genus. In a note shortly to be issued by Mr. Cambage and the writer, it may be seen that the evidence is overwhelming against the probability of any dicotyledonous genus which is endemic in Australasia, having existed in any other continent in either Cretaceous or Tertiary time. These endemic genera, such as those of the Australian Podalyrieze in Leguminose, as Hucalyptus and others in Myrtace, form peculiar groups, all evidencing a similar origin, as a response to a common geographical environment, and one which, during the Mesozoic, does not appear to have existed elsewhere during, or prior to, the isolation of Aus- tralia from the tropics. These endemic types are so numerous, both in genera and species, so full of vitality and endurance, that it would be impossible to believe in their annihilation, one and all in Kurope, Asia, Africa and America, without leaving any closely related types had they existed in those countries in Tertiary time. In this connection it is of little use to call in the aid of the aggressiveness of the Scandinavian and Himalayan floras as a means of annihilation of the types under consideration in the Northern Hemisphere. In the first place the Aus- tralian types are mainly xerophytes, and would not enter into competition with luxuriant tropical vegetation inas- much as they avoid such growths even in Australia.* But if forms such as Hucalyptus, Hakea, Pultenzea, the phyl- lodineous Acacias, Styphelia, Boronia, Leptospermum, Banksia, Kunzea, Daviesia, and Persoonia, had gained access either to South Africa or to the plains and rocky, sandy, or waste areas of Eurasia and America there would be little need to entertain any fears as to their ability to maintain themselves in such localities. 1 (2), pp. 529 - 534. Ba ii DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEGUMINOS#. 363 Nevertheless, inspite of all these facts, the best geological text books to-day perpetuate these unscientific conclusions —conclusions based upon evidence which no systematist of note would endorse for living plants, and conclusions which appear to have given such an utterly false idea of plant development and of geography in Cretaceous and Tertiary time. No real advance may be expected with regard to the age and development of the dicotyledons, and, inci- dentally, of Leguminosze and Myrtacez, unless unreliable determinations are to be discarded in dealing with matters of such importance. All lines of evidence must converge if truth is to be attained, and palzeobotany should be sub- mitted to the rigorous methods employed in modern angio- spermous classification by systematists such as Hooker, Bentham, Lindley, Asa Grey, Engler, and even Ettings- hausen himself. Some Principles of Geographical Distribution. The orders of plants considered in this chapter are Leguminose and Myrtacee. The great genera of Leguminose occur, as a rule, in the open country, and they frequent the poorer, rather than the richer, soil. They are composed mainly also of herbs, undershrubs, shrubs or small trees, rarely forest trees. A careful study of Taubert’s learned and comprehensive article on Leguminose, in ‘* Pflanzenfamilien’’ would enlighten the reader on this point. As examples may be quoted Astragalus, with about 1,250 species, from the plains, steppes, and wastes, of temperate Eurasia, and America; Acacia, with about 700 species occupying subarid and open lands in most regions, although some species fre- quent thick forests. Cassia, Crotalaria, Ononis, Lotononis, Genista, Ulex, Pultenza, Dillwynia, Aspalathus, Daviesia, Tephrosia, Indigofera, Swainsona, Medicago, Rhynchosia, Psoralea, and others, may be cited in this connection. 364 E. C. ANDREWS. Moreover, most of these great genera are either xero- phytic, or dwarfed, in nature. Supplementary evidence is also afforded by a study of Australian Myrtaceze where the great genera Hucalyptus, Melaleuca, and Leptospermum are xerophytic in nature, with the exception of the types which have been developed recently, in the moist eastern portions of the continent. In this connection it may be advisable to consider the environment of the plants. The Leguminose of the fertile tropics are subject to severe competition in the jungle, but there are limitations set to the struggle, and, moreover, such struggle proceeds along few lines. In the first place the climate is mild and equable, each plant protects the other in great measure from the storm and diurnal changes in temperature, and the competition resolves itself into a desperate struggle to reach the light and obtain food. With the plants of the open, sub-arid, or barren and sandy, plains or plateaus the struggle for existence is much more com- plicated. Great variation of conditions is ever to be expected. The food supply is scanty, the climate is torrid in summer and marked by cold desolating winds in the winter. The diurnal changes of temperature, moreover, are very great. Generally, also, the plants of these regions are more or less isolated, their foliage is not dense, and they are unable to protect each other from fierce and sudden climatic changes. The rain may fail to fall for months at a time, and the plants of such regions must develop special structures to minimise transpiration. Plants which can thrive under such hardships are possessed of wonderful powers of vitality. It may seem strange that the hardy xerophyte, being possessed of enormous vitality and rich in species, should not in turn, over-run and oust the jungle growths, never- theless a little reflection would supply the explanation. DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF LEGUMINOS. 365 The xerophytes with their phyllodes, cladodes, leaves hung vertically, woolly surfaces, bulbous rootstocks, and their leathery leaf cuticles, all calculated to diminish transpira- tion in barren sand, sub-alpine swamps, saline coastal soils. or deserts, would be handicapped by such structures in regions of prolonged rainfall, abundant shelter and rich soil. Moreover, being lovers of the direct rays of the sun, and being of diminished height, they would be strangled and suffocated by the twining and towering canopy of the jungle. In the jungle, then, the struggle is for light and food and the tendency there for the Angiosperms is to pro- duce tall trees or great climbing twiners, with abundance of luxuriant foliageas opposed to the tendency of xerophytes. to become dwarfed, and with a limited food supply, to develop into numerous species and toexercise their strength in the production of abundance of fruit and seeds rather than magnificence of the individual. This great vitality of xerophytes, within appropriate limits, is exemplified well in the distribution of Leguminosze and Myrtacez, in both the subarid as well as the more barren and sandy portions of Australia, also in the distribu- tion of Leguminosz both in sub-arid South Africa and in the waste places of Hurope and Asia. This has led the majority of botanists to consider the tropical Mimosee,, and Ozesalpiniez, as of relatively recent development, while at the sam time, it has led them to consider forms such as. Kucalyptus, the Australian Podalyriez, the South African Genistez, and the extratropical Galegee, as of great age. Nevertheless, in a former chapter, it has been shown that the evidence both of the geographical distribution and the plant morphology suggests that types such as Acacia and Cassia were in existence before any of the existing Poda-. lyriee, or Genisteze, with the exception of the tropical Crotalaria, and before any of the xerophytic Galegez or 366 E. C. ANDREWS. Hedysareze. On the other hand a study of the seedlings of legumes suggests that the Mimosez are relatively young as compared with genera such as Cassia, Crotalaria, Rhyn- chosia, Psoralea, Dalbergia, Bauhinia, and Sophora. Still again, however, from a study of seedlings and from a study of allied families such as Rosacee, Connaracee, Saxifragacez, Passifloraceze, and Crassulacez, it is evident that the Papilionacee are extremely modified plant types, and that free stamens and regular corollas characterised the more primitive types of the order. To this point reference will be made subsequently. Itis not here maintained that Mimosez and Oczesalpinieze are older than Papilionacez, but on the other hand, it would be unscientific to assume that the Papilionacez are the older forms simply because the Mimosez and Cesal- pinieze belong to the tropics, rather than to the temperate regions, and because the Papilionacez have spread from the tropics into the temperate regions. In many genera there is a tendency to become fixed under peculiar conditions, while for certain elastic types a new geographical environment presents them with the opportunity to develop into new genera and species with great relative rapidity. A hasty consideration of Sophorez would suggest its youth as compared with that of Poda- lyriez, nevertheless, as may be shown later, the former appears to be an old, decadent tribe, while the latter is a vigorous offshoot from this vanishing tribe. Indeed, the geographical distribution and the morphology of Leguminosze and Myrtacee suggest that small genera sporadically dis- tributed over wide areas are decadent types, while local floras of peculiar type with large genera and numerous individuals are relatively young. | An example of this may be seen in the infrequent mem- bers of Dalbergia, Sophora, and other types, confined to DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF LEGUMINOSAE. 367 small patches of the fertile tropics in Australia, just as though they had been gathered from the world-wide tropics and carefully guarded from marked modification, while Hucalyptus and the phyllodineous Acacias have overrun Australia both in species and individuals. Nevertheless, outside Australia the Kucalypt and the leafless Acacia only occur as waifs or strays which have undergone but slight modification. To understand the development of a genus the factors of evolutions must be considered. -These comprise selection, heredity, environment, and variations. But traced back- ward far enough, geographical environment appears to be the key to evolution. One genus may be endemic and yet appear to be ancient, another may be cosmopolitan and yet appear tobe recent and derivative. Such a conclusion needs careful consideration since the operation of one principle must not be permitted to clash with that of another. A study of the next chapter will help the student in this connection. For example, the HKugenias, as classified by Bentham, the Myrtles, Erythrinas, Sophoras, and Dalbergias, of Australia, flourish in the fertile tropical or subtropical forests or jungles; they present great similarities in general appearance to these genera in Asia, and other places, so much so that they appear recent and derivative. The Hucalypts, Melaleucas, the phyllodineous Acacias, the Pultenzeas, Dillwynias, Daviesias, and Jacksonias, on the other hand are peculiar and have no close relations in other portions of the globe. The luxuriant types by their rich colouring and their delicate leaves give the impression of youth for these types, while the rusty, dilapidated, weather- beaten, tough, and stunted appearance of the majority of the endemic genera cited give the impression of great age. 368 E. C. ANDREWS. Let it be assumed that the latter types which have over- run Australia, and which also have such a venerable and weatherbeaten aspect, are ancient, while the luxuriant types mentioned are of recent development. To maintain this claim it would be necessary to account for the fact that the species of types such as Hugenia, Myrtus, Hry- thrina, and Sophora, in Australia are endemic, with the exception of afew waifs transported from other continents by marine currents, while these same genera but with other endemic species, occur throughout the tropics, some also, as Hugenia and Myrtus, occur in New Zealand, while the phyllodineous Acacias, Eucalyptus, Pultenzea, and other genera in Myrtacez and Leguminose, are confined to Australia or its vicinity. If then a bridge existed for the advance in recent time of Myrtus, Eugenia and Sophora, towards Australia, it should at the same time have permitted of the egress of the more ancient Australians within certain limits of soil and climate. Again, it would be necessary, in such an assumption, to explain the fact that a study of the seedlings of Hugenia, Myrtus, Sophora, Dalbergia, and other types, indicate plants which have long since attained their general char- acters while the seedlings of Hucalyptus, the phyllodineous Acacias, Bossisvea, and other endemic Australian types, suggest that these plants have only, in relatively recent geological time, assumed the general leaf forms possessed by them at present, and that the types from which they have sprung are closely related to the widely spread tropical forms, such as Hugenia and Myrtus in the case of the Hucalyptus, and to the tropical Acacias in the case of the phyllodineous Acacias. In the next place the luxuriant types have a very limited area within which to expand, even in the tropics of DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEGUMINOSZ. 369 Australia, while, on the other hand, the Hucalypts, the phyllodineous Acacias and other endemic plants havealmost the whole of Australia in which to develop. Thus the luxuriant forms have but insignificant opportunities of developing fresh species. From these considerations it would appear that the luxuriant types are much the older, while the xerophytes are by far the younger, forms in Australia.* This illus- trates, in a measure, a few of the principles of Geographi- cal Distribution, the main consideration being that all principles should be coordinated without clashing, thus excluding any hasty generalisation. Another principle governing the distribution of plants is that occasioned by the combined influence of soil and climate. Cambage has done pioneer work in this connec- tion in Hastern Australia. If this continent should be converted rapidly into an area of heavy and continued precipitation, and if the present poor sandy soils should be replaced by heavy ones, then the great bulk of the endemic vegetation of Australia would perish hopelessly. On the other hand, if the areas of heavy precipitation now sup- porting luxuriant vegetation in Australia should be supplied with a rainfall of less than 20 inches a year, and falling mostly in one season, then the types at present luxuriant would in turn vanish and the endemic genera would reign supreme. It might be interesting also to enquire how Hdwardsia, Kugenia, Myrtus and Leptospermum, could occur in New Zealand, while neither Acacia, Cassia, Melaleuca, Dalber- gia nor Hrythrina have been collected within that area. + Since this report was written Mr. R. H. Cambage has drawn my attention to an article by Dr. Domin (31), in which the separation of Australia from Asia is supposed to have taken place at an early period, resulting in a great number of endemic species being developed in Australia. X—November 4, 1914. 370 E. C. ANDREWS. It will be advisable in this case to make an assumption, namely, that all the Myrtacez and Leguminose, as known to-day, were in existence during certain assumed land conditions between Australia and the neighbouring lands as outlined herewith. (1) That New Zealand was connected to Australia by a long strip of land via Antarctica,’ while both countries were separated by a wide and deep sea to the north as at present. (2) That New Zealand was connected directly with the south-eastern portion of the continent. (3) That the two lands were connected by a relatively narrow tropical belt via New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and the New Hebrides, as suggested by Hedley. Under the first complex assumption there would be no migration of either Leguminose or Myrtacez, with the possible exception of certain species of Leptospermum, Pultenzea, Bossizea and Beeckea, for climatic reasons. These genera are all represented at the present time in the colder parts of Tasmania. On the other hand, this would have afforded an excellent opportunity for the passage of types such as Hricacez, some Hpacrides, Campanulacee, and many genera of Composite. Under the second assumption New Zealand would be populated from Australia with Eucalyptus, phyllodineous types of Acacia, Daviesia, Swainsona, Pultenzea, Dillwynia and other forms, such as Beckea, but not by forms such as Sophora, Castanospermum, Dalbergia, Hntada and Afzelia. Under the third assumption, let us suppose that the soil was sandy and barren in nature. The Eucalyptus of then Corymbose type, many phyllodineous Acacias, Beeckea, 2 Hedley (39). DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEGUMINOSZ. 371 Leptospermum, Jacksonia, Melaleuca, Callistemon, and allied types, could have reached New Zealand. Let us suppose as an alternative to this that the soil was good, the shelter pronounced, and the rainfall long continued. This land connection, while being distinctly opposed to the distribution of xerophytes, would favour the passage of fertile tropical types, especially dense jungle growths. Nevertheless types such as Dalbergia, Castanospermum, and Afzelia, would be prevented from extending the whole way to New Zealand, because its station is far south of the tropics. Types such as Hdwardsia, Sophora, and certain members of the Galegese, Hedysarece and Phaseolese would find ready access to New Zealand, but Podalyriez, Genistez, Viciex, and some other types, such as Leptos- permee and Trifolieze, would be missing. Acacia, Cassia and some other members of Mimosez and Cesalpiniee, would not reach New Zealand, because of the lack of exposed situations, while Calliandra, Parkia, Copaiba and others would fail to extend so far South. On the other hand, in Upper Cretaceous and early Ter- tiary time, when the climate appears to have been much more genial than at the present, it is evident that forms such as Dalbergia, Mimosa, Heematoxylon, Calliandra, Cas- tanospermum and Hntada, if existent, could have reached New Zealand by such a route. Hdwardsia appears to have entered New Zealand, and there established itseli firmly, changing from a warmth- loving type to one flourishing in cold localities. Carmi- cheelia, Corallospartium and Notospartium are endemic; Carmichelia, especially, is firmly established, and is evidently a xerophytic modification of some ancient warmth-loving member of the Galegese. Swainsona and Clianthus are indigenous, but appear to own their origin to Australian waifs in the first place, owing to the singular 372 E. C. ANDREWS. absence of similar types and the monotypic nature in New Zealand of these genera. Canavaliais evidently a common maritime type. The genera in New Zealand which may have arrived from the north west by a land connection between New Zealand and the tropical continents, are Hdwardsia and Oarmicheelia, with the monotypic Notospartium and Coral- lospartium. The two tribes represented are Sophores and Galegeze. It seems impossible from the evidence available. to avoid the conclusion that New Zealand was isolated from the great tropical lands before the differentiation of Leguminosze into Mimosez, Cesalpinieze, Dalbergieze,, Trifoliese and similar tribes, but not necessarily before the development of Sophorez and Galegez. Another point needing consideration is the possibility of the existence of soil or climate barriers. Thus neither Oastanospermum nor EHntada could cross a subarid sandy waste. The next point to be considered is the factor of marine transportation. Throughout the tropics are many legumi- nous species, which are either identical within the various countries considered, or are so much alike that they are: only separated systematically by their geographical station. In this connection the more striking examples of the African legumes have been cited in an earlier chapter. An analysis. of Australian, Asiatic and Brazilian Leguminose reveals features equally startling in nature. Guppy has made a long and careful study of the histories of strand plants and sea currents, and an analysis of his. observations’ suggests that these plants are best con- sidered, not as examples of arrested development predating the separation of the great tropical land masses, but as. * Guppy (35 and 36). DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF LEGUMINOSZ. 373 examples of development in one region and transportation thence to other lands by sea currents in recent geological time. In this connection it will be instructive to quote Guppy’s summary of observations on Afzelia bijuga, as being typical of the origin of many other types in various countries, such as Acacia Farnesiana, Tephrosia purpurea, Entada scan- dens, and Ceesalpinia Bonducella. **(1) Assuming that the genus has its home in the African continent, and that the species have frequently a riverside station, it is argued that the distribution of the genus on both sides of that continent can only be explained by its dispersal by rivers from a centre in the interior. (2) Afzelia bijuga, a widely distributed shore tree of tropical Asia, occurs in Fiji, both at the coast and in the inland forests. (3) This double station is associated inter alia with a different buoyant behaviour of the seeds, those of the coast trees floating for long periods, while those from inland generally sink. (4) There can be no doubt that this widely ranging littoral tree has been dispersed by the currents, but the specific weight of the coast seeds is on the average, but slightly less than sea water; and it is to this fine adjustment, always liable to be disturbed by variations in the environ- ment, that the irregularities in the distribution of the species are to be attributed.”’ The slow distribution of certain genera across certain land blocks is also an important point to remember. A famous example is that of the endemic species and genera of West and Hast Australia, respectively. In each area here considered the species are numerous, nevertheless they are identical only in very rare cases. Certain genera 374 E. C. ANDREWS. are even endemic in West Australia, nevertheless the two countries are in direct land connection by way of South Australia and the Northern Territory. The only barrier between the two countries is a sub-arid to arid tract of land south of the fifteenth parallel of south latitude. In this case the common types appear to have originated mainly in the north and later to have worked southwards around each side of the barrier, into West and Hast Aus- tralia. This slow migration of genera or species of plants across regions of barren soil, or of sub-arid to arid climates, must ever be kept in mind in dealing with problems such as that under consideration. Leguminose Indigenous to Various Countries. This section has been placed here instead of in the chapter on “Geographical Distribution,”’ because it depends in part, for its understanding on the foregoing chapter. GENERA OF LEGUMINOS2Z INDIGENOUS IN NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIA, New Zealand contains seven genera and twenty-nine species, while Australia contains ninety-seven genera and nearly 1,300 species of legumes. In any attempt to ascertain how many of these genera and species are really indigenous in the lands under con- sideration, it would be necessary to exclude shore types, which may be believed reasonably to have been carried thither by means of animals, by sea currents, or by winds. In the case of sea currents, a study of Dr. Guppy’s’* work is invaluable. The endemic genera such as Corallospartium, Notospar- tium, and Carmicheelia in New Zealand, and Brachysema, Isotropis, Jansonia, Chorizema, Viminaria, Jacksonia, 1 Naturalist in the Pacific. Plant Dispersal, 1905. DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF LEGUMINOS&. 375 Gastrolobium, Burtonia, Sphcerolobium, Gompholobium, Goodia, Oxylobium, Pultenzea, Dillwynia, Hutaxia, Aotus, Phyllota, Daviesia, Mirbelia, Latrobea, Hovea, Templetonia, Bossizea, Platylobium, Kennedya, Hardenbergia, Penta- dynamis, Lamprolobium, Podopetalum, Castanospermum, Barklya, Petalostyles, and Labichea in Australia, appear to have developed in these countries respectively, and never to have migrated therefrom. In the second place there are others, such as Clianthus and Swainsona, which are practically confined to New Zealand and Australia, and these may be considered as strictly indigenous in each of the two countries, inasmuch as the species are endemic in each country considered. Swainsona, however, has many close relations in other continents and lands, for example: Lessertia in Africa, Colutea and Astragalus in the Northern Hemisphere, and another genusin the Malay Archipelago. The significance of this will be considered later. In the third place, genera in Australia, such as Crotalaria, Trigonella, Lotus, Psoralea, Indigofera, Tephrosia, Millettia, Sesbania, Desmodium, Glycyrrhiza, Glycine, Hrythrina, Galactia, Vigna, Atylosia, Flemingia, Dalbergia, Derris, Sophora, Mezoneurum, Cassia, Bauhinia, Erythrophlocum, Adenanthera, Neptunia, Acacia, Albizzia, Pithecolobium, and Archidendron, are strictly indigenous, because these types, although common to the tropics and sub-tropics generally, and possessing some species in Australia, which are common to other countries, nevertheless possess endemic species in that country. 13. Adenanthere.—Abruptly pinnate. Eumimosee.—Abruptly pinnate. Acaciee.—Abruptly pinnate (Acacia Burkitii, recorded by Lubbock as bipinnate). Ingeex.—Abruptly pinnate. Bibliography. . Aclogue (A.)—Flore de France, 1894. . Andrews (E. C.)—Development of the Natural Order Myr- tacee, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1913. Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia in Late and Post-Tertiary time, with Appli- cations to Biological Problems (see refer- ences therein). Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. 1910, xxiv, pp. 420 — 479. . Arcangeli (Giovanni).—Flora Italiana, IT Ed., 1894. . Bailey (F. Manson)—Queensland Flora. By Authority, Pt. 1 2900- . Bentham (G.)—Flora Australiensis, 11, 1869. i Flora Braziliensis de Martius, xv, 1859-1876. - Mimosee. Trans. Linn.Soc. Lond., xxx, 1875. 3 Revision of the Genus Cassia. Trans. Linn. Soc., London, xxv. 1869. nA Dalbergiee. Journ. Linn. Soc, Lond., tv ‘ Notes on Myrtacee. Journ. Linn. Soc., Lond., x, 1869. c Monograph on the Composit. Journ. Linn. Soc., Lond., x111, 1873, pp. 335 — 577, pp. 101 — 166. . Presidential Address. Linn. Soc., London, 1870. 14. Bentham (G.) and (Hooker (Sir J.D.)—British Flora. 1887. 15. Baker (J. G.)—Article Leguminose, in Oliver’s “Flora of Tropical Africa,” 11, 1879. 16. FF: 1S. 1. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEGUMINOSA, 405 Baker (J. G.)—Article Leguminose, in Hooker’s “Flora of British India,” 11, 1879. Baker (R. T.) and Smith (H. G.)—Research on the Genus Eucalyptus, 1902, Chapter on Evolution of the Genus. Britten and Brown—Flora of Northern United States and of Canada, 11, 1897. Cambage (R. H.)—Series of sixteen papers on the Geo- graphical Distribution of the Plants of New South. Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S. Wales, 1900 — 1913. Climatic and Geological Influence on the Flora of New South Wales. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1907, p. 473. =; Development and Distribution of the Genus Eucalyptus. Presidential Address, Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1913. be Dimorphic Foliage of Acacia rubida and Fructification during bipinnate Stage. Journ. Roy. Soc, N. 8. Wales, 1914, p. 136. Candolle (Alphonse de)—Geographie Botanique, 1855. Chamberlin (T. C.) and Salisbury (R. D.)—Geology, 1906, m1. Cheeseman (T. F.)—Manual of the New Zealand Flora, 1906, pp. 107 — 123. David (T. W. Edgeworth)—Geological Notes on Kosciusko, with special reference to evidence of Glacial Action. Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S. Wales, 1908, xxx, pp. 657 — 660. David (T. W.E.) Pittman (E.F.) and Helms (R.)—Geological notes on Kosciusko, with special reference to evidences of Glacial Action. Proce. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, xxvi, 1901, p. 26, 27. Deane (H.)—Presidential Address. Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S. Wales, 1895, pp. 638 - 667. 3l. 32. 30. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44, 45. 46. E. C. ANDREWS. . Deane (H.)—Presidential Address. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1896, pp. 821 — 859. b Observations on the Tertiary Flora of Aus- tralasia, with special reference to Ettings- hausen’s Theory of the Tertiary Cosmo- politan Flora. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1900, pp. 463 — 475. Domin (K.)—Queensland’s Plant Associations. Proc. Roy. Soc., Queensland, 1910. Ettingshausen (Baron von)—Cosmopolitan Flora of Tertiary Australia. Mem. Geol. Soc. N.S. W., 1888. 2 Die Tertiarflora von Haring. Wien Abhandl. Garcke (A.)—Illustierte Flora von Deutschland, 1895. Guppy (H. B.)—Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific. Macmillan & Co., 1906. i Studies in seeds and fruits. Williams and Norgate, 1912. Harvey and Sonder—Flora Capensis, 11, 1862. Hedley (C.)—A Zoodgeographic Scheme for the Mid-Pacific. Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S. Wales. 1899. - Paleogeographical Relations of Antarctica. Proc. Linn. Soc., Lond., 1911-12, p. 80-90. - Hooker (Sir J. D.)—Introductory Essay to the Flora of Tasmania, 1859. . Index Kewensis and Supplements. Jhering (von)—Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxiv, 1891, p. 431. Quoted from Hedley (38). 5 N. Jahrb. of Mineralogie, Sc. Beit. Bd., xxx, 1911, p. 176, pl>-+v, quoted irom Hedley (38). Kirk (T.)—The Forest Flora of New Zealand. Wellington, By Authority, 1889. Lindley (John)—The Vegetable Kingdom, 1853. Lubbock (Sir John)—A Contribution to our knowledge of Seedlings. (Article Leguminosz) 1, 1896. 47. 48. 61. 62. DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEGUMINOSAE. 407 Maiden (J. H.)—Forest Flora of New South Wales. By Authority. - Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus, 26 parts prepared todate. By Authority. . Maiden (J. H.) and Betche (E.)—Census of Plants of New South Wales. In Manuscript only. . Mueller (Baron F. von)—Iconography of the Genus Acacia. 13 Decades. ” Second Census, Australian Plants, 1889. eS “Hucalyptographia.” By Authority, Vic- toria, 1879 — 1884. 3. Newberry (J.)— Monograph xxvi, U.S. Geol. Surv., 1890. . Rodway (L.)—Flora of Tasmania (Leguminosz). 5. Scott (D. A.)—Evolution of Plants. Home University Library, 1913. (Chapter on the origin of Dicotyledons). . Spencer (Baldwin)—Summary, Horn Expedition, 1896, p.160. . Strasburger (Ed.)—Text Book of Botany, 1912. . Tate (R.)—Influence of Physiographic Changes in the Dis- tribution of Life in Australia. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1, pp. 312 — 325. Horn Expedition, Botany, 1896. re | . Taubert—Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien, 111, Teil. (Engler and Prant). (Leguminose). Unger—New Holland in Europe. Journ. Botany, 1865. Translated by Seeman. Quoted from Deane (28). Wallace (A. R.)—Island Life, 1892. 408 S. RADCLIFF. ON THE RECOVERY OF ACTINIUM AND IONIUM FROM THE OLARY ORES. | By 8S. RADCLIFF. [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, November 4, 1914.) A general account of the methods devised for extracting radium from the interesting ore complex occurring at Olary, South Australia, has already been given,* the present com- munication deals with the recovery of the ionium and actinium. Both ionium and actinium possess many of the properties of the rare earths, and separate out along with these in the course of treatment. It is necessary, there- fore, to investigate the distribution of the rare earths in the various residues and precipitates produced in treating the ore, and to examine these chemically and also by means of the electroscope. ITonium. As ionium appears to be chemically inseparable from thorium, the activity of the ionium preparation that can be separated from a given ore depends on the ratio of the uranium to the thorium in it. The chemistry of thorium has been very fully worked out, and in order to obtain an active ionium preparation from an ore, all that is necessary is to extract the thorium and purify it by any of the well known methods. The uranium thorium ratio for the Olary ore is about 100: 1. It is possible therefore to obtain from it ionium prepara- tions of considerable activity. Actinium. Our knowledge of the chemistry of actinium is very imperfect, none of its salts have yet been prepared in a * Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., XLVIIL, p. 146. RECOVERY OF ACTINIUM AND IONIUM FROM OLARY ORES. 409 state approaching purity, and methods for its complete isolation remain to be devised; the progress of the separa- tion can of course be followed by means of the electroscope. Unfortunately actinium preparations frequently show little or no activity initially, and it is necessary to keep them for some weeks in order to observe the characteristic rise of the activity with time. The uranium concentrates as received for treatment contain between three and four per cent. of rare earths, the mixture having the composition :— Thorium oxide se ... 0°32 per cent. Cerium oxide on ... 27°60 ae La and Dy oxide... ... 46°60 & Yttrium oxide ot ne Zora 99 These earths distribute themselves in three of the works’ products. They are found :— (a) In the hydroxides of the elements of the iron group which are precipitated by carbonate of soda during the extraction of the uranium. (b) In the uranium oxide recovered. (c) In the mixture of impure sulphates of lead barium and radium recovered in the course of the extrac- tion of the radium. The uranium oxide contains only traces of rare earths, and as these are only very feebly radioactive, they have not been examined in detail. The hydroxides (w) when washed and dried contain about 5% of a mixture of rare earths of the composition :— Thorium oxide aoe Bee, io per Celt. Cerium oxide ... snd ses, O47 os Paand Dyroxde 7; 87280.) 263 NA Yttrium oxide ee ca Ten 99 These rare earths appear to be actinium free. 410 S. RADCLIFF. The sulphate mixture (c) contains about 37% of rare earths of the composition :— Thorium oxide wie ... 13°2 per cent. Oerium oxide ... i .. 44°0 cA La and Dy oxide a oc | 4256 . Yttrium oxide Sy. a.) SLAee The activity of these rare earths increases at about the rate expected from the presence of actinium and almost the whole of the actinium in the ore appears to be carried down with the precipitated lead and barium sulphates. This is in accord with the observation of Debierne,* who states that actinium can be removed from a solution by precipitating barium as sulphate in it. As ten tons of concentrates yield only 40 kilos of sulphates, the concentration of the actinium is very considerable. The sulphates, which have the composition:— Lead sulphate a ... 69°24 per cent. Barium sulphate ... vt P50 xs Ferric oxide ... che iey ly eako a Silica: |. a eA wa - 10782 ~ Titanic oxide a Rye) ae Rare earths ... at Pe ieee Hl) < are treated as follows:— 1. They are fused in an iron crucible with excess of caustic soda containing some carbonate of soda; the melt is extracted repeatedly with hot water, and this removes the greater part of the lead. 2. The insoluble residue is digested under a steam pres- sure of 90 fds. with an excess of carbonate of soda. 3. The carbonate residue after washing is treated with dilute hydrogen chloride and the solution evaporated to 1 C.R., 129, p. 593. RECOVERY OF ACTINIUM AND IONIUM FROM OLARY ORES. 41} dryness, the residue is taken up with water and the silica filtered off. 4. The solution is saturated with gaseous hydrogen chloride and the radium and barium quantitatively pre- cipitated. The solution contains the actiniferous rare earths. It is evaporated to dryness to expel the excess of hydrogen chloride, and the residue is then treated for the separation of the actinium. It is hoped that ultimately sufficient material will be available to allow of pure salts of actinium being prepared. The determination of both the atomic weight and the period of actinium is much to be desired, as a knowledge of these two constants would fix the position of actinium and its products in the disintegration series of the radioactive elements. 412 J. B. CLELAND. THE HAMATOZOA or AUSTRALIAN BATRACHIANS, No. 2.1 By J. BURTON CLELAND, _D., Ch.M. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 4, 1914. } SINCE the publication in 1910 by Dr. Harvey Johnston and myself in the Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales of a paper dealing with the Heematozoa of our Australian Batrachians, I have continued an examin- ation of the blood of such specimens as have come my way, and this has been very materially supplemented by blood- films kindly forwarded by Dr. T. L. Bancroft of Hidsvold, Queensland. Blood-films from 54 individuals, comprising 18 species, have been examined. In only two of these were heematozoa detected, one being a film from Hyla cerulea containing Heemogregarina (Lankesterella) hyloe (previously described by us) forwarded by Dr. Bancroft, and the other being from Limnodynastes tasmaniensis caught on the Murray River, near Morgan, in South Australia, which contained trypanosomes. We have also previously described trypanosomes from this species at Hidsvold in Queensland. It is of interest to note that in only one species of frog, Hyla coerulea, have we so far found heemogregarines, and that these may be found in this batrachian at such remotely separated places as Sydney and Hidsvold. Further, in only two species of frogs, Limnodynastes tasmaniensis and L. ornatus ?, both nearly related, have trypanosomes been seen by us, and these again at such sundered places as Hidsvold in Queensland and near Morgan on the Murray 1 Vide The Hematozoa of Australian Batrachians, No. 1, by J. B. Cleland and T. H. Johnston, this Journal, 1910, p. 252. HEMATOZOA OF AUSTRALIAN BATRACHIANS. 413 River in South Australia. In both instances the absence of widespread infestations of many species of frogs suggests either that these respective parasites are almost or quite confined to single species and are not capable of living ir others, or else that some feature in the life-history of the infected species enables the intermediate host to transmit the parasite from individual to individual, this feature being absent in non-infected kinds. H#MOGREGARINA (LANKESTERELLA) HYL&, Cleland and Johnston. In only one out of nine specimens of Hyla ccerulea examined was this hematozoon detected. This frog came from EKidsvold in Queensland, the range of the parasite being thus extended from Sydney to this part. TRYPANOSOMA ROTATORIUM, Mayer (?) In a specimen of Limnodynastes tasmaniensis obtained on the river Murray near Morgan, South Australia, in November, 1913, trypanosomes were present. We have previously recorded them from Queensland in this species and in L. ornatus(?) under the specific name of Trypano- soma rotatorium, Mayer (?). The trypanosomes in the river Murray frog were again very pleomorphic, some being very narrow and some broad, some almost unstained and very slender, some deeply stained and others coarsely longitu- dinally streaked. The sizes varied from 20+ long by 2°5u broad, up to 52y long by 8°5y at the widest part in a deeply stained example. The results of these further examinations may be tabu- lated as follows :— List I.—Species in which Hematozoa were found :— Hyla coerulea, Sydney, October 1910, nil; November, 1910, nil; Hidsvold, Queensland, December, 1910, nil; Sydney (two sps.), February, 1911, nil; Liverpool, Sydney, 414 J. B. CLELAND. October, 1911, nil; Sydney, November, 1912, nil; Hidsvold (two sps.), February, 1913, Haemogregarina hyloe in one. Limnodynastes tasmaniensis, Widsvold, Queensland, 1913, nil (? this species); Murray River, near Morgan, South Australia, November, 1913, Trypanosoma rotatorium(?) List Il.—The following frogs have been examined for Hematozoa but with negative results -— Limnodynastes peronii, D. and B., Hidsvold, Q., November, 1910; Hidsvold, April, 1913. L. dorsalis, Gray, Sydney (two sps.}, November, 1910; Flinders Is., Bass Straits, November, 1912. L. ornatus (2), Hidsvold, Q. (two sps.), November and December, 1911. L. fletcheri, Cowra, N.S.W., (nine sps.), February, 1911. L. sp., Hidsvold, Queensland, June, 1911. Crinia signifera, Kosciusko, December, 1910. Hperolia marmorata, Hidsvold, Q., June, 1911. Pseudophryne bibronii, Kidsvold, Q., June, 1911; Hidsvold, April, 1913. Phractops australis, Hidsvold, Q., December, 1910, and April, 1913. Hyla peronii, Hidsvold, Q., November, 1910. H. rubella, Widsvold, Q., June, 1911. H. ewingii, D. and B., Flinders Island, Bass Straits, Nov., 1912. H. citropus, Blackheath, N.S.W., November, 1910. H. aurea, Hawkesbury River, (ten sps.); Sydney, Feb., 1913. H. lesueurii, Hidsvold, Q., (two sps.), June, 1911. Green frog like H. aurea but not a Hyla, Hidsvold, Q., (two sps.), 1913. Small frog, Hidsvold, Q., June, 1911. ON SOME REPUTED NATURAL EUCALYPTUS HYBRIDS. 415 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME REPUTED NATURAL EUCALYPTUS HYBRIDS, TOGETHER WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO NEW SPECIES. By J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S., and R. H. CAMBAGE, F.L.S. [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, December 2, 1914. ]} WE desire to invite attention to three interesting plants described by us some years ago’ as Suggestive of hybridism, and we offer some notes upon them. The direct evidence of hybridism in Eucalyptus is usually a matter of inference and not of direct experiment; it seems to us that in two oi the plants referred to, it is desirable to attach names to them. A. (op. cit., p. 199). We have no further evidence to ofier in this case, and consider that it is one for further investigation. We have since found a few additional trees belonging to this form, but they were only about a quarter of a mile from the original tree. B. (op. cit., p. 200). Many small mallee-like forms are very puzzling, partly because they are so small that cer- tain characters are not obvious as in the case of large trees, and partly because the Renanthere, to which class this particular plant belongs, present many points of resem- blance. As regards B. it appears to be identical with EH. he- mastoma, Sm. var. montana, Deane and Maiden,’ from Mount Victoria about four miles from Blackheath. Since then, one of us has suggested* the close resemblance of the Mount Victorian specimens to EH. amygdalina, Labill. var. nitida, Benth. (HE. nitida, Hook. f.) of Tasmania. * Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxx, 199 (1905). * Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxv1, 125, (1901). * «Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus,” i, 163. 416 J. H. MAIDEN AND R. H. CAMBAGE. The type of H. nitida is figured at Plate xxix of Hooker’s Fl. Tas. (Botany of Tasmania). What Hooker says about it has been quoted at p. 158 of the “Critical Revision.’’ Compare with p. 163. We are of opinion that B. is conspecific with EH. nitida, Hook. f., and that that species is sufficiently distinct from E. amygdalina, Labill. Thus H. nitida should be added to the flora of New South Wales (it will probably be found in Victoria); it is not exclusively a Tasmanian species. Bentham, as already indicated, combined E. amygdalina and H. nitida, and Rodway agreed with him. Messrs. Baker and Smith dissent,? but do not publish their evidence. Mr. Oambage’s No. 2004 from Kydra Trig. Station, Kybean, (4,030 feet), north-east by east of Nimitybelle, New South Wales, is from a locality connecting Blackheath with Tasmania. Here the plant is mallee-like and 6-8 feet high. Tasmanian specimens.—Certain specimens quoted by Hooker are referred to in the ‘‘Oritical Revision,’’ p. 163, together with a specimen by Milligan, and the notes need not be reprinted. Comparing these specimens, and Hooker’s figure, the leaves of the Tasmanian forms are longer and narrower than those of New South Wales, but we find the character not constant, since there are transition forms both in Tasmania and New South Wales. Ten to fifteen feet high. Towards summit of Mount Bischoff, Waratah, West Tasmania (R. H. Cambage 4103). Small stunted trees near summit of Mount Roland (3,700 feet) near Sheffield (R. H. Cambage Nos. 4097 and 4099). | ? The Tasmanian Flora, p. 56. ? Research on the Eucalypts, p. 169. ON SOME REPUTED AUSTRALIAN EUCALYPTUS HYBRIDS. 417 C. (op. cit, p. 201). EUCALYPTUS KYBEANENSIS, NOV. sp. Arbor Mallee similis, 6-10’ alta, caulibus levibus viridibus, ligno pallido. Folia juvena lanceolata circiter 6 cm. longa, 1 cm. alta, non-glauca, subtus pallidiore-virentia, margine crassata, costa media prominente, venis lateralibus prominentibus et fere pinnatis. Folia matura coriacea, lanceolata, circiter 6—8 cm. longa, 1:5 em. alta. Alabastra operculis hemisphericis diametro circiter conoideo calycis tubo dimidio equilongis. Flores renantheri. Fructus sessiles, ad 7 in capito, fere hemispherici, diametro fere 1 cm., orificio leniter rotundati, valvarum apicibus orificio quis. Species cum #. stricta affinitate trahitur, fructibus autem maxime diversis et Z. capitellate, Sm. similibus, qua magna “Stringybark” est. Of mallee-like growth, six to ten feet high, with smooth, greenish stems one and a half inches in diameter. Timber pale coloured. Seedling leaves. Lanceolate, about 6 cm. long by 1 cm. broad as the alternate stage is reached, very shortly petio- late, non-glaucous, of a brighter green on the underside. Margin thickened. Midrib prominent and raised, showing a depression on the upper page of the leaf, the lateral veins prominent and roughly pinnate, intramarginal vein well removed from the edge. Mature leaves rather coriaceous, lanceolate, about 6-8 cm. long by 1°5 cm. broad, erect, shortly petiolate, equally green on both sides. Veins fairly prominent and spreading from the base; intramarginal vein a considerable distance from the edge. — Buds. Hxternally rough in texture, operculum hemi- spherical, the diameter about half the length of the conoid calyx-tube. Flowers. Renantherous. Asa—December 2, 1914. 418 J. H. MAIDEN AND R. H. CAMBAGE. Fruits. Sessile, up to seven inthe head. Nearly hemi- spherical, nearly 1 cm. in diameter, rim broad and reddish- brown, gently domed, tips of valves flush with the orifice. The type grew on sandy conglomerate formation at Kybean, amongst Casuarina nana, Sieber, near the Kydra Trigonometrical Station, on the Great Dividing Range, 4,000 feet above sea-level, sixteen miles easterly from Nimitybelle. (Coll. R. H. Cambage, 4th November, 1908).* We are of opinion that it is not to be specifically separated from the plant we have indicated as C.’ in another paper. The seedling shows its close relationship with H. virgata Sieb. var. stricta (E. stricta, Sieb.), but the domed fruits of hemispherical shape separate them sharply from that species. They are reminiscent of those of H. capitellata, Sm., though not quite similar to those of that species, which is a tall Stringybark tree. EUCALYPTUS BENTHAMI, nov. sp. Arbor magna erecta, ‘‘White” vel “ Flooded Gum” vocata, cortice basi plusve minusve secendente 3 — 4 ft. diametro, 60 — 100 ft. alta, ligno pallido et non duro, foliis juvenibus tenuissimis glaucis infra pallidioribus lanceolatis ad ovato-lanceolatis cordatis, foliis maturis sub-glaucis lanceolatis, alabastris ad 7 in imbella leniter urceolata, operculo acuminato, pedicellibus brevibus, umbella in pedunculo gracile circiter ‘5 cm. longo, fructibus imma- turis urceolatiusculis ad fere hemisphericis, margine distincto, fructibus maturis fere hemisphericis circiter ‘5 cm. diametro, val- varum apicibus leniter exsertis. A large conspicuous White or Flooded Gum, rather erect in habit, with more or less rough-flaky bark at the butt; such bark may be almost wholly absent, or sometimes 1 The plant referred to as No. 1980 in Proc. Linn, Soc, N.S.W., xxxiv, 327, (1909) is this species. | 2 Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxx, 201, (1905). ON SOME REPUTED AUSTRALIAN EUCALYPTUS HYBRIDS. 419 extending to the first fork. The rough bark rather hard, but rarely almost fibrous, and terminating in short ribbons. Commonly three to four feet but sometimes six feet in diameter, and sixty to a hundred feet high. Timber pale pink when fresh and of medium hardness and fissility. Juvenile leaves very thin, very glaucous when young, but drying nearly glabrous, paler on the underside, showing a profusion of oil-dots and distinct veins. Lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, and cordate, amplexicaul, bluntly pointed or acute, up to 10 cm. long, by 4 cm. in greatest width. Mature leaves slightly glaucous, lanceolate, petiolate, somewhat falcate. Midrib prominent, (sometimes pinkish), the lateral veins, which are irregularly pinnate, prominent, the intramarginal vein distinctly removed from the edge. Common dimensions are 14 cm. long, 1°5-2 cm. broad, with a petiole of 2 cm. Buds usually glaucous, up to seven in the head, slightly urceolate, operculum pointed, about half the length of the calyx-tube, which gently tapers into a short pedicel, the umbel being supported by a slender peduncle of about °5 cm. Expanded flowers not seen. Fruits. Inthe half grown state glaucous, somewhat urceolate to nearly hemispherical, and with a well-defined raised rim. When ripe, nearly hemispherical, about °5 cm. in diameter, slightly domed; tips of the valves slightly exsert. It is the ‘“‘Flooded Gum of Camden,’’ No. 108 of the New South Wales timbers contributed by Sir William Macarthur to the Paris Exhibition of 1855 and No. 28 of those of the London Exhibition of 1862). Under 108, Sir William Macarthur notes in the Catalogue, ** Flooded Gum of Camden, diameter 36 — 48 inches, 80 — 120 feet high. A fine-looking tree, with elegant pendant foli- 420 J. H. MAIDEN AND R. H. CAMBAGE, age; the timber not valued, being weak and perishable in comparison with many other of the common hardwoods.” - Under No. 28 it is described by the same writer as ‘“‘A fine looking but comparatively worthless sort; the timber weak and not durable.’’ The diameter is given as the same, but the height is reduced to from 80—100 feet high. It will be observed that under 108 the tree is described as of ‘‘elegant pendant foliage.’’ Speaking generally, this is not a good description, although we have seen an odd tree to which it would apply. In the great majority of cases the trees and foliage are rather erect in habit. In the ‘‘Flora Australiensis’’ (iii, 240) the specimen just mentioned (bearing the No.108) is placed under E. viminalis and the record has always been accepted, e.g., Woolls’ ‘*Plants indigenous in the neighbourhood of Sydney ’”’ (1st and 2nd editions). The Nepean River trees are quite close to Camden Park and it would be impossible for Sir William Macarthur not to be familiar with them, and no other local tree could be mistaken for them. We are of opinion that H. viminalis, Labill. should be removed from the flora of the County of Cumberland. In the Kew herbarium isa specimen labelled “‘No. 16. Southern district New South Wales, Macarthur and others. ‘Flooded Gum.’ From the London Hxhibition of 1862,’’ which appears to be referable to H. Benthamt. No. 16 in the official catalogue has the entry “‘Oollected by Edward Hill, Esq., aboriginal name at Brisbane Water ‘Thurambai,’ vernacular name ‘Flooded Gum,’ a famous timber for ship-building and for house carpentry.’’ This description can only apply to E. saligna, Sm., but the herbarium specimens are not of that species. It is proper to refer to a numbered specimen in the principal herbarium ON SOME REPUTED AUSTRALIAN EUCALYPTUS HYBRIDS, 491 of the world, but one cannot explain the label. To begin with, Brisbane Water is in the north, and not in the southern districts. The specimen may have been received as ‘*Flooded Gum,’’ and the description of a second Flooded Gum (saligna) other than Benthami, tacked on to it. The specimen was not exhibited in the previous or Paris Exhibition. Affinities. 1. With E. viminalis, Labill. The new species has by most observers been confused with E. viminalis and being a White Gum with rough bark at butt, and growing on river flats and banks of rivers explain why this view has been so prevalent. But it is more erect in habit, E. viminalis having more pendulous branches and more dis- tinctly ribbony bark. The new species has broader juvenile leaves, the foliage is sub-glaucous, the flowers are smaller and never in threes, the fruits are of a different shape, with the valves never as exsert as those of H. viminalis. 2. With HE. Macarthuri, Deane and Maiden. H. Benthami is a tall, rather erect tree with a somewhat thin canopy; E. Macarthuri is a smaller tree with a rather umbrageous head. The bark of HE. Macarthuri is rough, somewhat box-like, but very woolly; that of H. Benthami being smooth in the upper portion (a White Gum) and flaky at the base. Sometimes it is wholly smooth. The juvenile foliage and buds are sub-glaucous in H, Benthami; the buds of H. Macarthuri are often shining and slightly smaller than those of H. Benthami. The trees referred to as E. Macarthuri at Werriberri Creek in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxxvi, 553, (1911) are E. Benthami. 422 J. H. MAIDEN AND R. H. CAMBAGE. Type from the banks of the Nepean River near Cobbitty, N. S. Wales (Camden district). J. H. Maiden and R. H. Cambage, June, 1913. The following specimens are either referable to the present species or are closely related thereto:— (1) Seven miles east of Walcha, J. H. Maiden, Nov., 1897. A tree with box-scaly or rough apple-like (Angophora intermedia) bark, rough, except the ultimate branchlets; suckers ovate-lanceolate, not glaucous, except the very young tips of the branchlets of the suckers. (2) Guy Fawkes, Armidale district, J. L. Boorman, Decem- ber, 1909. A tall tree with a fibrous bark, and claret coloured tips. to branches. Reputed locally to be a useful timber for building and fencing purposes. NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 423 NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS, (WITH A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES) No. III. By J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S. [Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, December 2, 1914. ] HUCALYPTUS PRACOX, NOV. sp. Arbor pumila, ramis dependentibus. Cortex levis, maculata, secedens. Lignum pallidum et fragile. Folia juvena lato-ovata et crassa. Folia matura petiolata, lanceolata ad lato-lanceolata, ad fere ovata, dilute virentia. Alabastra in umbellis glaucis, ovoidea in juventute. Operculum conicum et acuminatum, calycis tubo leniter breviore. Florit in state lato-foliata vel juvenile. Fructus fere hemispherici, circiter ‘6 cm. diametro, margine lato - et rotundato valvarum spicibus distincte exsertis. A dwarf tree of drooping habit. Bark smooth, blotched and also ribbony. Timber pale-coloured and brittle, showing a tinge of reddish-brown, and possessing kino veins. Juvenile leaves broadly ovate, thick, coarse, venation very prominent, lateral veins at about an angle of 45° to the midrib, intramarginal vein far removed from the edge. Mature leaves petiolate, from lanceolate to broadly lanceolate and nearly ovate, pale green, and the same colour on both sides, midrib prominent, lateral veins dis- tinct but not prominent, intramarginal vein well removed from the edge. Buds in glaucous umbels, ovoid when young, when riper operculum conical and pointed, a little shorter than the calyx-tube, which tapers gradually into a short, thickish pedicel, the whole on a peduncle of about °7 cm. 7 | ~ +" 494 J. H. MAIDEN. Flowers not seen fully expanded. Unripe anthers appear to be similar to those of HE. maculosa of the same age. Fruits nearly hemispherical, about °6 cm. in diameter, rather abruptly set on the short pedicels, rim broadish and domed, the tips of the valves distinctly exsert. Type from Capertee, N.S.W., J. H. Maiden and J. L. Boorman, March, 1901. This species possesses characters in common with E. maculosa, R. T. Baker and E. rubida, Deane and Maiden. It has a closer and general resemblance to EH. maculosa, but the fruits are rounded and the juvenile foliage is broad. That of EH. maculosa is on the whole narrow, although exceptionally it may be broadish. An outstanding character of the present species is that of the flowering, which may take place while the leaves are in the broad or juvenile stage, and the specific name is given in reference to this. As regards New South Wales, the only truly homoblastic species, so far as we know, is the disappearing endemic HK. pulvigera, A.Cunn. There are, however, several species in which the vegetative form, or the foliage characteristic of juvenility, persists for a considerable time, the tree flowering frequently and indeed usually, in this stage. Indeed, the advent of the mature foliage is often so retarded that it may require careful search to find it, and from some individuals it may be absent altogether. We must of course bear in mind that the adult foliage may be found at the very top of a particular tree, and if the tree be of any size, it is quite easy to omit seeing it. New South Wales species in which the juvenile foliage is very persistent include EH. parvifolia, Cambage, and EH. cinerea, K.v.M., H. melanophloia, F.v.M., and the one pro-’ posed as new in this paper is an addition toa short list. NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 495 I have referred to the subject in another paper* and have quoted a number of species which, so faras we know, are homoblastic (isoblastic) throughout life. The ascertainment, during the last few years, that certain reputed homoblastic species are really heteroblastic, stimu- lates us tofurther enquiry in the same direction. Incident- ally, it may be remarked that Dr. Diels has proposed the word helicomorphy to include the two leaf forms in hetero- blastic species. Following the cotyledon leaves, the ordinary sequence of leaves is from the sessile to the petiolate, but I exhibit an example (HE. macrocarpa, Hook.) in which the reverse is the case. Following are notes on species already published. 1. EUCALYPTUS PLANCHONIANA, F.v.M. [Previous reference, this Journal, xLvi1, 234, (1913).| This not very well known species is also found at Glen Elgin, east of Glen Innes, and particulars of this locality will be found at p. 66, part 24 of my “Forest Flora of New South Wales.”’ | It occurs with the Waratah (Telopea speciosissima) more or less over an area of one hundred square miles; i.e., from Boundary Creek east to Pheasant Creek, north to Moojam, south to Tindale, and to the west following the Dividing Range. It is known locally as Red Mahogany, because of the similarity of its bark to that of H. resinifera, but it has not a red timber like that tree; it is also known as Needle Bark, because it is prickly to rub down with the hand. * «On two new Western Australian species of Eucalyptus,’ Journ: Nat. Hist. and Science Soc., W.A., Vol. 111, No. 1. 426 J. H. MAIDEN. The name Porcupine Stringybark is also applied to it for the same reason. 2. EUCALYPTUS KIRTONIANA, F.v.M. [Syn. E. patentinervis, R. T. Baker. | Following is the history of Mueller’s species, beginning with the two published references made by him. 1. ‘In the Illawarra district occurs a tree which attracted great attention in India, not only because of its rapid growth, but also as it proved the best species there to cope with the moist tropical heat. This tree has been cultivated at Lucknow by Dr. Bonavia, who recorded that it attained in the best soil twelve feet in two years; it was there considered to belong to Z. resinifera. It differs, however, from that species in having the leaves of equal colour on both sides with more prominent veins, the intramarginal veins more distant from the edge; thus in venation, as also in odour of foliage and fruit, the tree in question approaches £. robusta, but its fruit is certainly similar to that of ZH. resinifera, wanting, however, the broadish outer ring around its orifice characteristic of the typical Z. resinifera, while the lateral veins of the leaves are not quite so transversely spreading as in either. If really specifically distinct, the tree might be named £. Kir- toniana in honour of its discoverer.” (Mueller’s ‘‘EKucalypto- graphia under Z. resinifera. ) 2. “A quick growing tree, rare in the Illawarra district, which at Lucknow attained a height of 45 feet in 10 years, and which as a species or variety I distinguished as #. Kirtoniana, is in flowers and fruit nearer to #. resinifera than to £L. robusta, but has the leaves of almost equal colour on both sides, thus far, and also in shape, more resembling those of LZ. tereticornis, while the bark, unlike that of £. saligna, is persistent. The stomates of E. Kirtoniana vary on the upper side of the leaf between 33,000 and 43,000, and on the lower page from 95,000 to 166,000 on a square inch, this great fluctuation being attributable probably to the age of the tree. It is particularly noticeable on account of NOTES ON EUCALYPTUS. 497 its adaptability to a warm wet clime, and grew under Dr. Bonavia’s care better than any other species in Oude ; the technic value of its timber remained unascertained.” (Op. cit. under E. robusta.) The first reference is in Part I of the ‘‘ Kucalyptographia’”’ (1879). Indeed, under E. hcemastoma in the same work, Mueller definitely gives the date 1879 for EH. Kirtoniana. The second reference is in Part VII. Later on (in some editions of his ‘“‘Select extra-tropical plants’’) Mueller obviously looked upon it as a form of EH. resinifera. The description is unsatisfactory as measured by modern standards, but it is backed by herbarium specimens, and so, whatever the opinions of botanists as to its relationships may be, we know precisely the plant to which Mueller referred. The specimens seen by me are labelled as follows :— 1. “EH. punctata, DO. (E. Kirtoniana, F.v.M.). Kirton, Illawarra.’’ 2 MeO EUDESMIN AND ITS DERIVATIVES. 453 With regard to the central portion of the molecule the first point to notice is the function of the oxygen atoms. The negative experiments detailed in the experimental portion conclusively demonstrate the absence of hydroxyl or car- bonyl groups. Both oxygen atoms have, therefore, ether function. The absence of ethylene linkages is also proved, and, if these conclusions be accepted as accurate, then an inspection of the above formula will show that this central portion of the molecule must contain two closed rings in _ order to account for the number of hydrogen atoms below the saturation capacity. Now there are six carbon atoms and two oxygen atoms, altogether eight atoms which could be members of a ring structure, and from this it follows that if the rings be separate the number of members in the two rings will be five and three or four and four—in either case a very improbable supposition. The rings are, there- fore, fused as in naphthalene and the possible systems will then be seven fused with three, six with four, or five with five. The latter is clearly the most probable in view of the almost complete absence of three and four membered rings from natural products. The following formula indi- cates a probable constitution for eudesmin Me O O a tbe Me O Teaeee iis oa O Me CH2—OH ee: O Me Soph. iad, O although there is no evidence for the position of the vera- tryl rests, and the following ring systems are alternatives to the one figured above :— O O O je / s / \ _oCON O00 0 O0-O\Y Oe pe nisi, So 454 R. ROBINSON AND H. G. SMITH. It is now proposed to make a series of oxidation and other experiments in order to advance further in our knowledge of this central portion of the molecule. It will be admitted that methylation is an adventitious part of the synthesis of a plant product, and the formula of eudesmin stripped of its methyl groups appears as (HO)2CsH3s—CsHs02—C.gH3(OH)2 If now a process of hydrolysis be imagined to occur, it. will be seen that the nor-eudesmin splits up into three groups, each of which is in the same state of oxidation and could be regarded as a condensation product of a hexite CeH140c. (HO )2xC6H3——CsHs02- —CesH;3(OH)2 OC.H,O2 + 4 HO H | OH HO|H and OgHi00,4 + 2 HeO OgHg02 | CeHi1004 | CeH6O2 = O,H140¢ We believe therefore that when the constitution of eudesmin is completely elucidated, the central portion will be found to be readily derivable from a reduced hexose structure. Experimental. ISOLATION OF EUDESMIN FROM THE KINO OF HUCALYPTUS HEMIPHLOIA. The air-dried kino was finely powdered, passed through an 80 mesh sieve and heated on the water bath with such a quantity of water that the mass acquired the consistency of thick treacle. This was cooled, and extracted eight or nine times with a considerable volume of ether, the com- bined yellowish extracts being then distilled. The residue, resulting from the evaporation of the ether was crystalline and consisted of a mixture of eudesmin and aromadendrin. It was recrystallised from as small a quantity of ethyl alcohol as possible, and the finely powdered, dried crystals treated with cold chloroform, a solvent which dissolves EUDESMIN AND ITS DERIVATIVES. 455 eudesmin quite readily, but in which aromadendrin is very sparingly soluble. The filtered chloroform solution was evaporated and the residue crystallised several times from methyl or ethyl alcohols or from ethyl acetate. The above process was adopted after many comparative experiments, and it is especially important to employ a thick aqueous solution of the kino for extraction. Inthis way the tannins are retained by the water and the formation of a trouble- some emulsion, so readily produced by more dilute solutions, is avoided. The following method of gravimetric determination of the eudesmin in eucalyptus kinos has been devised, and is now illustrated in the case of the kino of HKucalyptus hemiphloia : The finely powdered kino (1 gram) was dissolved in 50ccem. of water by heating, and the cooled solution extracted during several hours with chloroform (10 ccm.), the process being then repeated with another equal quantity of chloro- form. After remaining during twenty-four hours the mixture had resolved itself into two layers; a colourless chloroform solution containing the eudesmin, and an aqueous liquid containing the tannins. At the junction of the two, a quantity of some insoluble substance was deposited. The chloroform was separated, and after removal of the solvent and heating to 105°, the weight of the residue was 0°1 er. Since this residue consisted of almost pure eudesmin it is clear that the air dried kino of Eucalyptus hemiphloia (with 997% H,O) contains 107% eudesmin. PROPERTIES OF EUDESMIN AND ANALYTICAL DATA. HKudesmin is readily soluble in chloroform, benzene, acetic acid, and ethyl acetate, but sparingly so in cold methyl or ethyl alcohols and in ether, It also dissolves to some extent in boiling water and crystallises on cooling in slender needles. It is best crystallised from methyl alcohol and is 456 R. ROBINSON AND H. G. SMITH. so obtained in colourless prismatic needles. When not quite pure, eudesmin occasionally crystallises in the form of leaflets. The melting point of pure eudesmin is 107° and although the molecule is large, small quantities of the sub- stance may be distilled unchanged in vacuo. The substance is levo-rotatory and the following determinations have been made :— 1°3112 made up to 100 ccm. with chloroform at 21° gave [a]> = -—64°4 1°0022 made up to 10 ccm. with chloroform, [a]> = —64°3° 1°0834 made up to 10 ccm. with benzene, lalp = —92°3° 1°0294 made up to 10 ccm. with acetic acid, la), = —i373° The first two determinations were made with distinct specimens of eudesmin and with different instruments, so that the rotation in chloroform is a physical constant, the determination of which will be of great value in proving the identity of eudesmin derived from different sources. The following analyses of eudesmin have been performed: 0°1224 gave 0°3051 CO, and 0°0763 H.O. C=68°0; H=6°9. 0°1206 gave 0°3018 CO, and 0°0718 H,O. C=68'°2; H=6°6. 0°1211 gave 0°3028 CO, and 0°0730 H.O. C=68°2; H=6°7. 1°1972 dissolved in 77°504 benzene gave a solution whose freezing point was ‘193° lower than that of benzene. Whence M.W. = 392. C2reH2eO¢ requires O = 68°4, H = 6°7 per cent., and M.W. = 386. The methoxy groups were determined by Zeisel’s method: 0°1400 gave 0°3417 AgIl. MeO = 32°2. CooHoeO¢ containing 4 MeO requires MeO = 32’1 per cent. Eudesmin dissolves in sulphuric acid to a red solution which slowly becomes purple, this latter change is how- EUDESMIN AND ITS DERIVATIVES. 457 ever prevented by the addition of veratrol and the colour obtained is then intense crimson lake. It is interesting to notice that a similar colour is produced when veratrol and glucose or cellulose are treated with concentrated sulphuric acid. With nitric acid eudesmin gives a pure yellow solu- tion, from which, in course of time, a nitro derivative (dinitro. eudesmin, see below) separates in crystals. Since aromadendrin gives in nitric acid a fleeting green and then a red solution the progress of a separation of eudesmin and aromadendrin may be easily followed. Eudesmin is unchanged by boiling alcoholic potash, by hydroxylamine, hydrazine and phenylhydrazine, and by semicarbazide in dilute acetic acid solution. It is also inactive towards acetylchloride, benzoyl chloride, phenyl isocyanate, and was recovered unchanged after being boiled during an hour with acetic anhydride and sodium acetate. It is clear, therefore, that it contains neither carbonyl nor hydroxy]. With an ethereal solution of magnesium methyl iodide a colourless precipitate is formed, but a few experi- ments showed that this isa common property of phenol ethers, and, for example, tetramethoxydihydroanthracene exhibits it almost in identically the same manner as eudes- min. It is more difficult to determine directly whether or not eudesmin contains ethylene linkages. It reduces potassium permanganate slowly in acetone solution, and is quickly attacked by bromine, but the reaction is one of substitution, and is accompanied by the production of hydrobromic acid, however little bromine is employed. The substitution derivatives described below are quite stable towards halogens, and eudesmin must, therefore, be satur- ated. Confirmation of this conclusion is obtained by study- ing the reduction of the substance since it was found that endesmin is unchanged after treatment witha great excess ofsodium amalgam in aqueous alcoholic solution, as also 458 R. ROBINSON AND H. G. SMITH. by treatment with hydrogen in the presence of colloidal palladium. Hudesmin may be boiled with aniline without condensation and is recovered unchanged. Cold aqueous hydrobromic acid dissolves it, but the solu- tion soon clouds and an oil separates. At the same time a pink colour appears, and this is much increased if the liquid be heated. On the addition of water an.almost colourless precipitate is obtained, but could not be crystal- lised. This substance contained bromine which was removed by means of alcoholic potash, without, however, altering the appearance of the substance. The bromine free product could also not be crystallised. When the aqueous hydrobromic acid solution was boiled and then diluted with water, the odour of guaiacol was very pro- nounced. On oxidation of eudesmin in the usual manner with potassium permanganate, a small quantity of veratric acid was isolated. There was also evidence of the presence of a phenyl glyoxylic acid, and when larger amounts of eudesmin are available, this oxidation will be studied in greater detail than has been possible hitherto. Me O \eeoe O Me Dinitroeudesmin, | Me O Lyne OoN O Me This nitro derivative is obtained by the action of nitric acid on eudesmin under almost any conditions in the cold. It is produced slowly when the reagent is 307% aqueous nitric acid, and is also the product obtained when cold con- centrated nitric acid is allowed to react with eudesmin. The substance is a dinitro derivative but it was not found possible to prepare a mononitro or any higher nitro eudes- mins by modifications of the conditions. The following method of preparation is most convenient :— A solution of eudesmin (5 gr.) in acetic acid (25 ccm.) was carefully cooled under the tap and a mixture of nitric EUDESMIN AND ITS DERIVATIVES. 459 acid (D = 1°42, 10 ccm.) and acetic acid (15 ccm.) gradually added. When all the nitric acid had been added, the nitro derivative crystallised from the solution, and, after five minutes, the mixture was diluted with water, the pre- cipitate collected, washed with water, dried and crystallised first from acetic acid and then from ethyl acetate. The substance is, when freshly prepared, almost colourless and crystallises from all solvents in the form of extremely slender needles, which fill the whole solution. It melts without decomposition at 214°. 9°1275 gave 0°2608 CO2 and 0°0582 H2O. C =55°8sy H=5'1. 0°1242 gave 5°9 ccm. Ne reduced to N.T.P. N = 6°0. C22H210¢6(NO2)2 requires C = 55°5, H=5'0, N=5'9 per cent. Dinitroeudesmin turns yellow on exposure to light, and dissolves in sulphuric acid to a bright red solution. It is unchanged by treatment with nitric acid in the cold, and is perfectly stable to bromine in carbon disulphide solution. It is readily soluble in chloroform but sparingly so in other solvents, and remarkably sparingly soluble in alcohol. It may be easily reduced by means of tin and hydrochloric acid, but the corresponding amine is unstable and undergoes some decomposition in acid solution, which will be further investigated. The solution of the aminoeudesmin obtained by elimination of the tin with hydrogen sulphide gives a bright blue colour with ferric chloride, and exhibits the diazo reaction. The constitution of dinitroeudesmin as regards the position of the groups directly attached to the benzene nuclei is clearly proved by the experiment described in the next section. SIMULTANEOUS OXIDATION AND NITRATION OF EUDESMIN ; FORMATION OF 4: 5—DINITROVERATROL. Eudesmin (1 gr.) was boiled for ten minutes with ordinary concentrated nitric acid (10 ccm.) when the substance was oxidised and a large amount of nitrous fumes evolved. The 460 R. ROBINSON AND H. G. SMITH. liquid was diluted with water and the precipitated solid crystalline substance separated and crystallised from methyl alcohol, and then again from ethyl alcohol. It was so obtained in pale yellow needles which melted at 132°, and at the same temperature when mixed with an equal quantity of 4: 5-dinitroveratrol. The substance was further identified with 4: 5-dinitroveratrol by a careful direct comparison, and by the preparation of a quinoxaline derivative by reduction and condensation with phenan- threnequinone in the usual manner. The nitric acid solution after separation of the dinitroveratrol was examined and found to contain oxalic acid. This important experiment was performed quantitatively and it was found that the yield of dinitroveratrol was greater than the theoretical on the assumption that the molecule of eudesmin contains only one veratrol nucleus. It is, therefore, beyond question that eudesmin contains in its molecule two veratrol nuclei. 0°6451 gr. eudesmin gave by the above method 0°6926 gr. dinitroveratrol, perfectly dry but in the crude condition. This is a yield of 90 per cent. on the assumption that there are two veratrol nuclei. After crystallisation the amount of perfectly pure dinitroveratrol was 0°531 gr., a yield of 69 per cent. Me O —CgHsO2- O Me Dichloreudesmin, Me O iy Cl Cl O Me A slow stream of chlorine was passed through a well cooled solution of eudesmin (5 gr.) in acetic acid (50 ccm.) during half an hour. Hydrochloric acid was produced and a very sparingly soluble crystalline substance precipitated. After dilution with an equal volume of water, the solid was collected and crystallised, first from acetic acid EUDESMIN AND ITS DERIVATIVES. 461 (needles), and then again from ethyl acetate until no change in the melting point could be observed. The colourless, rectangular plates melted at 163°. 0°1302 gave 0°0840 AgCl. Cl = 15°8 Co2HesOeCle requires Cl = 15°5 per cent. This compound is stable to bromine in carbon disulphide solution, and dissolves in sulphuric acid to a red solution which very quickly becomes dirty brown red and then slowly dark green and green blue, finally the solution becomes almost colourless and a black precipitate is produced. DIBROMEUDESMIN, (CONSTITUTION SIMILAR TO THAT SHOWN ABOVE FOR DICHLOREUDESMIN). A solution of bromine (12 gr.) in acetic acid (55 ccm.) was added in the course of five minutes to eudesmin (5 gr.) in acetic acid (25 ccm.) any rise of temperature being checked by cooling in running water. After a further five minutes a dilute solution of sodium sulphite was added and the crystalline precipitate collected and recrystallised from ethyl acetate. Although this solvent was found to be the most satisfactory for the crystallisation of large amounts of this bromo derivative, yet, when it is used a slight pink tint of the crystals cannot be removed, and, for analysis, a portion was crystallised from glacial acetic acid and so . obtained in the form of colourless prismatic needles which melt at 172°. 0°1778 gave 0°1233 AgBr. Br = 29°5 Co2HoxOsBre requires Br = 29°4 per cent. This compound always crystallises in needles and is very sparingly soluble in most organic solvents, readily, however, in chloroform. Its specific rotation was accordingly determined in this solvent. 0°9182 made up to 25 ccm. with chloroform gave lal» Gije = + 69°4° 462 R. ROBINSON AND H. G. SMITH. The colour reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid was almost exactly the same as that described for dichlor- eudesmin (see above). Bromine in carbon disulphide solution leaves this substance unchanged under ordinary conditions, but, if a solution containing the bromo derivative and bromine is placed in a quartz vessel in the sunlight, reaction occurs and the bromine is very slowly absorbed. Hven in this case, however, hydrobromic acid is produced and the action is evidently one of further substitution. DILODOEUDESMIN, (CONSTITUTION CORRESPONDING TO THAT OF DICHLOREUDESMIN). Iodine does not attack eudesmin, and in order to produce an iodo derivative, recourse was had to the action of iodine monochloride. The yield of this compound was, however, not so satisfactory as that of the chloro and bromo deri- vatives. Eudesmin (5 gr.) dissolved in acetic acid (50 ccm.) was gradually treated with 50 ccm. of an acetic acid solution of iodine monochloride (containing 64 grs. IC] in 500 ccm. acetic acid) and the whole then heated on the steam bath during half an hour. The mixture was then treated with excess of aqueous sulphurous acid and the sticky residue dissolved in acetic acid. After standing overnight in the ice chest feathery needles were found to have separated, and these were collected and recrystallised from ethyl acetate. The colourless needles were sparingly soluble in organic solvents with the exception of chloroform and melted without decomposition at 175°. 0°1113 gave 0°0824 AgI. I = 40°0 CooHosOel2 requires I = 39°8 per cent. | The substance is similar in most of its properties to the previously described bromo derivative, but, on treatment with nitric acid it loses its iodine as such. Iodine in the elementary condition is also observed as a momentarily EUDESMIN AND ITS DERIVATIVES. 463 formed black precipitate on dissolving the diiodo derivative in concentrated sulphuric acid, when, however, a brown solution is quickly produced as the result of some further reaction. OXIDATION OF DIBROMEUDESMIN ; FORMATION OF 6-BROMO- VERATRIC ACID. Dibromeudesmin (5 gr.) was dissolved in hot acetic acid and the solution poured into a large volume of cold water. The finely divided substance was collected, washed with water, and oxidised at about 50° with three per cent. aqueous potassium permanganate with continual shaking. The oxidation was very slow at first, but soon became more rapid, and was discontinued when the amount of unchanged substance became relatively small. This point was deter- mined by means of tests made from time to time on a portion of the well stirred liquid, which was saturated with sulphur dioxide until the manganese precipitate dissolved. The excess of permanganate was destroyed by sulphurous acid and the liquid heated, filtered, concentrated to small bulk and acidified whilst hot with hydrochloric acid. On cooling, needles separated from the solution and these were recrystallised several times from hot water, the first solution being decolourised with the aid of animal charcoal. The colourless satiny needles melted at 184° and at the same temperature when mixed with an equal quantity of 6-bromoveratric acid which had been prepared by the hydrolysis of its methyl ester obtained by the bromination of methyl veratrate in acetic acid solution. 464 H. G. SMITH. On THE BUTYL ESTER or BUTYRIC ACID occURRING IN SOME HUCALYPTUS OILS. By HENRY G. SMITH, F.C.S. Assistant Curator of the Technological Museum, Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. 8S. Wales, December 2, 1914. | IN a paper by the Curator (Mr. R. T. Baker, F.L.S.) and myself, read before the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science when that body met in Sydney in August last, the announcement was made that a previously unde- scribed ester, with a low refractive index, occurred in some quantity in the oil of Eucalyptus Perriniana, collected both in Tasmania and in New South Wales, and that the presence of this ester in such quantity was one of the dis- tinguishing features for this species when compared with the closely related one, EH. Gunnii. Considerable work was done on these species with material collected at both localities, and it is evident from the results that these two EKucalypts are not identical. It is the purpose of this paper to record the chemical results obtained with this ester, which is evidently a con- stant constituent in the oils of a certain class of Kucalypts, although in most cases occurring but in small amount. This is another instance of the peculiarity, so pronounced with chemical constituents in the genus Hucalyptus, namely a progressive increase throughout a whole series of closely agreeing forms until the maximum is reached in one of them. Not only is this the case with the oils, but with the exudations and other secretions also, the sequence running through a whole group being sometimes remark- ably complete. BUTYL ESTER OF BUTYRIC ACID. 465 Butaldehyde, perhaps the parent substance of this ester, is present in most crude EKucalyptus oils, and is one of the constituents which give to unrectified oils a somewhat objectionable odour. The formation of the ester might perhaps be accounted for by a rearrangement in the alde- hydic groups of two molecules of the butaldehyde. Normal butyric acid has already been identified as occurring in small quantity in several of these oils, and this acid was probably derived from the hydrolysis of the ester, because a corresponding change does take place when the oil of EB. Perriniana has been stored for a sufficiently long time. The material of EH. Perriniana from which this oil was distilled, was collected at Tingiringi Mountain, southern New South Wales, in September, 1913. The crude oil was rich in eucalyptol, but phellandrene was not detected at this time of the year. The general characters of this oil agreed with those obtained with the material of the same species from Strickland, in Tasmania, collected July 1912. The analysis of the Tasmanian sample is recorded in a paper by Mr. Baker and myself, in Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas- mania, October, 1912. The abnormally low refractive index of the lower boiling fractions of the oil led to the determination of this ester, as so low a refractive index as 1°4538 at 16° C., in ordinary fractions, had not previously been detected in Hucalyptus oils. Determination of the Acid. The portion of 200 cc. of the crude oil distilling below 190° C., was boiled with aqueous potash under a reflex con- denser for some hours. The aqueous portion was separated and distilled, but nothing came over below the boiling point of water, so that methyl, ethyl, and propyl alcohols were absent. The remainder was evaporated to dryness and the potassium salt decomposed by sulphuric acid and distilled Dp—December 2, 1914. 466 H. G. SMITH. until all the volatile acid had come over. This had an odour of butyric acid strongly marked. The free acid in the distillate was exactly neutralised with barium hydrate solution, evaporated to dryness and heated in air bath to 105°C. A molecular weight determinations with this barium salt gave the following :— 0°3592 gram gave 0°2668 gram. BaSO, =74°28 per cent. Barium butyrate gives theoretically 74°91 per cent. BaSO,, so that most probably no other acid than butyric was present. The odour and other indications suggested the normal form for this acid, and the ethyl ester gave the characteristic pine-apple odour. To decide the point the calcium salt was prepared by decomposing the remainder of the barium salt with sulphuric acid, and distilling over the volatile acid. The distillate was exactly neutralised with freshly prepared and filtered lime water, using a trace of phenolphthalein as indicator. It was then carefully evaporated to a small bulk on the water bath until a portion of the solid salt separated, but this took up again when the liquid cooled. The precipitation was again brought about when heated in test tube, but this was also dissolved on cooling. It is thus apparent that the acid of this ester is normal butyric. Determination of the Alcohol. On distilling the oil separated after saponification, about 1°2 per cent. came over below 150° ©. A trace of eucalyptol was present and perhaps a trace of pinene also. ‘This portion was carefully oxidised with K,Cr,O, + H.,SQO,, by heating to boiling, and allowing to stand for twenty-four. hours. A volatile acid with the odour of butyric was then readily detected, this was distilled over, filtered through wet paper, exactly neutralised with barium hydrate solu- tion, and evaporated to dryness and heated in air oven. BUTYL ESTER OF BUTYRIC ACID. 467 The barium salt thus obtained was identical in odour and reactions with that from the acid of the ester. Although the amount of salt at disposal was small, yet, sufficient was obtained with which to make a quantitative determin- ation for molecular weight. 0°0354 gram gave 0°0264 gram BaSO, = 74°58 per cent. Barium butyrate gives 74°91 per cent. BaSO, It might reasonably be considered that as this ester is butyl-butyrate that both the alcohol and the acid are identical in form, and although sufficient acid from the alcohol was not available with which to prepare the calcium salt, yet, the odour of this acid, as well as that of its ethyl ester, was identical with those of the acid, and again corresponded with those given by pure normal butyric acid. That the greater portion of the total ester in the oil of EK. Perriniana is the low boiling butyl-butyrate is shown from the saponification results with the freshly distilled oil. The saponification number for the crude oil was 52°6, representing 13°52 per cent. of an ester having a molecular weight 144. The saponification number in the portion distilling below 190° OC. (75 per cent.) was 57°2, representing 14°7 per cent. of ester in this fraction. The ester was not decomposed on direct distillation, no free acid being detected in the lower boiling fractions. In future analyses of Hucalyptus oils from trees belong- ing to this class, it will be necessary to determine the ester value in the lower boiling fractions, particularly when the saponification number for the crude product is at all high. When the identity of the ester in the oil of H. Perriniana from New South Wales had been determined, the amount of ester in the first fraction of the oil of this species from ‘Tasmania was taken. This fraction—although investigated 468 H, G. SMITH. over a year previously had fortunately been preserved— represented 18 per cent. of the crude oil distilling below 173° C. It contained, however, some free acid at this time, as a portion of the ester had hydrolised. The saponification number for the ester and free acid in this fraction was 45°8. This result also shows the ester in the oil of EH. Perriniana of Tasmania to be a low boiling one, and that the greater portion distilled over in the first fraction. These chemical results support the botanical evidence that the trees growing both in Tasmania and on the main- land of Australia are the same species. ESTIMATION OF FAT IN FOOD FOR INFANTS. 469 NOTE ON THE ESTIMATION OF FAT IN FOOD FOR INFANTS. By H. G. CHAPMAN, M.D. (From the Laboratory of Physiology in the University of Sydney.) [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, December 2, 1914. | RECENTLY I analysed a food prepared for infants. The estimation of the fat led me into serious error. Special investigation was needed to obtain an accurate result. ° The composition of the food is indicated from the following data. It contained 2°25/ of water. The quantity of nitrogen was 2°87 (2°79 and 2°81), of which 0°25% repre- sented non-protein nitrogen. The percentage of ash was 3°55 (3°557 and 3°553). About 60% of the food consisted of carbohydrate of which about one-sixth was insoluble in alcohol (dextrins). At 45° C., 72°9% of the food dissolved in water and 67°6/ was dissolved by boiling water so that 5°3% of protein was soluble at 45° C. An attempt to estimate the fat was made by placing the dried powder in a thimble into a Soxhlet’s apparatus and extracting it with dried ether free from alcohol. The results are given in Table I. Table I. No. Weight of Dried Food | Weight of Fat extracted | Percentage of Fat in in gms, in gms. | Food. 1 0-683 0-0514 | 7:40 2 0°7421 0-0575 7-57 3 0-829 0-0636 7-50 4 1:5198 0-11.10 7-14 In order to be certain that the whole of the fat was extracted, the material was redried and again extracted 470 H. G. CHAPMAN. for twenty-four hours in the apparatus. Less than one milligram of fat was recovered. Later an extraction was. made in a similar way of the contents of six different tins. The averaged result was 7°247/ of fat, which agrees sufficiently with the averaged result of the figures in Table die WAG: An estimation of the amount of fat extracted by petro- leum ether was also made in the same way. The estimation gave 6°27% on the first extraction. Redried and extracted a second time, less than 0°02% of fat was obtained. The fat was estimated also by the Rose-Gottlieb Method.* The results are tabulated in Table II. Table IT. No. Weight of Food in gm. Percentage of Fat. 1 1:4915 16-67 2 1°8895 Louie 3 1°9820 16:9 4 2:1660 17:0 5 2:6380 17:0 The figures show an averaged result of 16°857%. This figure is more than twice that obtained by the ordinarily employed method of extraction. In order to determine whether the fats extracted by the two methods were identical, their saponification numbers were determined by Koettstorfer’s process. The numbers ° obtained were 234 and 236 respectively. Both samples of fat contained a trace of nitrogen (under 0°1%) and yielded no weighable amount of ash on incineration. To confirm the figures obtained by the wet process of Rose and Gottlieb, a weighed quantity of infants’ food was 1 Aberhalden, Arbeitsmethoden, Bd v., Abt. 1, 8. 432, Berlin u. Wien, 1911. , ESTIMATION OF FAT IN FOOD FOR INFANTS. 471 placed in a cylinder and mixed with 10 cc. water. The contents of the cylinder were washed on to filter paper, previously extracted with ether. The water was driven offat 90° O. The washing of the traces of undissolved food from the cylinder was a tedious process which occupied about two days. The dried filter paper was extracted with dry ether in a Soxhlet apparatus. The filter paper was redried and the extraction repeated. The results are recorded in Table III. Table ITI. . No. Weight of Food in gm. | Weight of Fat in gm. Percentage of Fat. l 0:7457 | 0-1310 17:5 2 1°4785 | 0-2152 14:5 3 4-368 0:3635 8:3 It will be seen that the fat is completely extracted when the quantity of food is less than 750 mg. Similar results: were obtained by repeating the experiment. An attempt to vary the method by mixing the food with glass wool, moistening with water and drying, yielded only 9.87% of fat. The saponification number of the fat obtained by this method was 232. The fats obtained were thus all butter fats. To elucidate the failure of the extraction by ether per- formed in the usual manner, two other foods for infants made by the same firm were subjected to analysis. Both these foods gave the same figures for fats by extraction with ether and by the process of Rose and Gottlieb. The results are recorded in Table IV. Tablesty No, Percentage of Fat on extraction. Percentage of Fat, Rése-Gottlieb. 1 ars | 5:4 2 6°73 6°6 472 H. G. CHAPMAN. It is proposed to deal in a later paper with the physical cause of this peculiarity. I beg to record my indebtedness to Professor Sir Thomas Anderson Stuart, in whose laboratory this research was undertaken, to W. M. Hamlet, EKsq., for much valued criticism, to the Nestle and Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company for the opportunity to make these investigations and to Mr. P. N. Woollett for much assistance in the conduct of these analyses. STUDIES IN STATISTICAL REPRESENTATION. 473 STUDIES IN STATISTICAL REPRESENTATION, III. CURVES, THEIR LOGARITHMIC HOMOLOGUES, AND ANTI- ae a Net aM te © oO LOGARITHMIC GENERATRICES; AS APPLIED TO STATISTICAL DATA. By G. H. KNIBBS, C.M.G., F.S.S., etc. and F. W. BARFORD, M.A., A.I.A. [ Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 2, 1914. } SYNOPSIS. Introduction. Character of data. Graphical Representation. Principles governing adoption of particular curves. Necessity for the adoption of equation with fractional indices. The logarithmic homologue. The antilogarithmic generatrix. . Logarithms of negative numbers. Geometrical conventions for representing the logarithms of negative numbers. Sine curves. 11, Parabolas and hyperbolas. Exponential Curves. . Curves which are the product of parabolic or hyperbolic and exponential curves. . On a curve which is the sum of a series of parabolas, or of a series of hyperbolas, or both. Graphs of Curves. 1. Introduction.—Physicists, engineers, actuaries and statisticians, frequently require to discover formulas which will represent, in the most simple and accurate way, groups of related facts. The work of Karl Pearson,* and W. Palin 1 Phil. Trans. Biometrika and elsewhere. 474 G. H. KNIBBS AND F. W. BARFORD. Elderton* in statistical and actuarial fields, and of C. Runge? in connection with the application of the Fourier Series in physics, have done much to show how this task can be simplified. J. W. Mellor has given many valuable sugges- tions in his special work for students in chemistry and physics,’ and elsewhere. By way of further illustration it may also be pointed out. that expressions of the type Y= a + De + CL? ete. ae (1) which have had an undue vogue in the formulae of physical chemistry, general physics, and engineering, are not always. valid. Often a result could have been better represented by such an expression as Of Ok bie eee (2)4 where 1 is not necessarily, and generally is not, integral, and sometimes (2) will accurately represent a series of results and (1) will not.* In such a case equation (1) is clearly inappropriate. For, forming new values of y by subtracting a, viz., the distance of the intersection of the curve with the axis of ordinates. (c= 0) we have, through subtraction, a new series of values, viz., y, say, thus:—y’ = y - a = ba Hence, taking the logarithms of both sides log y = loge b + mlosiav ae (3) or, Dis 4 NE sas (4) the graph of which, if log y' (=7) be plotted as ordinates to the values of log « (=) as abscissae, is a straight line inter- secting the 7- axis at a point distant 6 (= log b) from the origin, and making an angle with the é- axis whose tangent 1 Frequency curves and correlation. ? Zeitschrift fiir Mathematik and Physik, Bd.48. * Higher Mathematics for Students of Chemistry and Physics. Longmans, London, 1905. * For the solution of the constants of equations of this type see Section 10. hereinafter. 5 As for example, the velocities of liquids flowing in pipes under different rates of fall in pressure. STUDIES IN STATISTICAL REPRESENTATION. 475- is n, whereas the graph of foe ty a) los (bu y+ yen? GE ete.) Win5! oc aie). (5) is clearly not a straight line.* For brevity \ may be used for log. The data furnished by any series of observations whatso- ever, susceptible of numerical expression, consist essenti- ally of a series of quantities, the members of which stand in immediate relation to those of a series of other quantities. This relation may be expressed by Gy ao Ae aN OWCS)) Na IN eal (6) The problems which arise will be (i) to ascertain the precise nature of the function through which y may be related to x, and (ii) the values of the associated constants a,b,etce. The independent variable is the argument of the function, the related dependent variable, the value of the function for that particular argument. It will sometimes suffice to note merely that the points. lie on some particular curve, e.g., a straight line, circle, ellipse, parabola, a sine curve, a damped harmonic, etc. 2. Character of Data —The data for examination may be either continuous, as in the record of a self-registering gauge or apparatus (tide, barometric pressure, wind-velocity,. automatic stress-strain, and indicator diagrams, may be cited as examples) in which case there is an infinite number of related values, or may be discontinuous viz., for a finite number of points only, as, where the values of y are observed for a finite number of values of theargument «. Or again, as frequently occurs in the field of statistic, the data may * This was pointed out in an incidental way by St. Venant in 1850. Vide Comptes rendus, t. 31, pp. 283-286, 581, 583. He says:—On en acquiert facilement la conviction en prenant les logarithmes, ce qui donne (RI) = loge + m log U et en construisant deux suites des points. . - on voit que chacun de ces deux ensembles affecte une direction rectiligne See also Prof. Karl Pearson, Biometrika, Vol. 1, p. 266. 476 G. H. KNIBBS AND F. W. BARFORD. be group-results, that is to say, the ordinates may represent the total for a particular interval on the axis of abscissa, as for example the total number of persons in particular community between the ages of 0 and 5, 5 and 10, 10 and 15, etc. Strictly, in such cases, the results should be indicated graphically by rectangles standing upon these intervals of the abscissae as bases, though for special pur- poses they may be otherwise shewn. The form of the data may be numerical or graphical: the numerical may be con- vertible into graphical by drawing and the graphical into numerical by scaling. 3. Graphical Representation.—Since in a very large num- ber of cases graphic methods are not only convenient but essential to the proper understanding of the possible pre- cision of the relation, it will be indicated how numerical results can be graphically tested notwithstanding all diffi- culties as to the representation of large numbers on a limited scale. Poincaré’s dictum that ‘‘It is unprofitable to require a greater degree of precision from calculated than from observed results, but one ought not to demand a less,’’ may be accepted as a guiding principle.* Graphic methods greatly facilitate the recognition of the type of function which best represents any given curve. 4. Principle governing adoption of particular curves.— Any curve represented graphically or indicated by a finite number of points, may be represented by an indefinitely large number of formule. The selection of a single formula should be guided by certain criteria which ordinarily depend upon two considerations, viz., (i) some rational view of the nature of the relation, i.e., one independent of the mere mathematics of the question, and (ii) the method by which the relation may be most simply expressed mathematically. In regard to (ii), it may be remarked that critical values 1 H. Poincaré, Mécanique Celeste, Paris, 1892. STUDIES IN STATISTICAL REPRESENTATION. ATT such as the nature of the curve which represents f («) when x= 0or ©, etc., or when it is a maximum or minimum, will often decide its form. It may be evident, for example, from the nature of the case that y = 0 for both « = 0 and «= © for « = 0; or again that y has some limiting value or values: in other words, that certain values of y cannot be exceeded, no matter what the value x may be. More succinctly we may say that a consideration of the value of y for critical values of the independent variable, and of the possibility of the existence of straight or curved asymptotes, will often afford the necessary guidance in the choice of the type of formula which would be found appropriate. 5. Necessity for the adoption of equations with fractional indices.—The unsatisfactory results arising from the use of inappropriate formule are, even yet, only imperfectly realised. Many expressions have been devised from time to time to meet particular cases and have had considerable vogue, notwithstanding that the results analysed could possibly have been more suitably and more accurately represented by a much simpler formula. This has been in the main owing to a somewhat remarkable habit of limit- ing rational algebraic expressions to forms containing only integral powers of the variable. This limitation, self-imposed by mathematicians, arises merely from an inadequate conception of the synthesis of such expressions, seems entirely unnecessary, and in some cases to be illegitimate. For example, the expression gio is usually considered as the tenth root of x°, and thus the idea that only integral powers of x are quite admissible is implicitly maintained. That «xt? may also represent, for example, a value through which the function <* passes, as n increases continuously from 0 to 1, is often not sufficiently kept before the mind. A78 G. H. KNIBBs AND F. W. BARFORD. A simple geometrical illustration will shew even more clearly the inadequacy of an algebraic expression, from which fractional indices are rigidly excluded. Oonsider the family of curves y = <" where n has different values. Suppose 1 to be positive and to nave the values 0, 1, 2, 3. Then the graphs of the curves, following the wsual con- ventions, are :— n = 0, a Straght line parallel to and distant 1 from the axis of x, passing through 1st and 2nd quadrants. n = 1, a Straight line bisecting the angle between the axes and passing through Ist and 3rd quadrants. n = 2, a parabola whose axis is the axis y and vertex the origin: passing through ist and 2nd quadrants. nm = 3, a cubic curve witha point of inflexion at the origin and passing through 1st and 3rd (not 2nd) quadrants. (The point of inflexion is also a minimum for one branch of the curve and a maximum for the other.) The curves so obtained are thus wholly dissimilar when n is even and nis odd, that is, the graph region in the former case is quadrants 1 and 2, and in the latter quadrants 1 and 3. If, however, n be supposed to increase continuously from the value 0 and a series of curves be drawn,! which all pass through the origin, and also the point (1.1), a much clearer idea of the relationship of the curves of the family can be obtained. Thus in general we should expect the curves y = 2° 3°= a2" on. = + — etc., when 6n is very small, to occupy the same spatial positions approximately, that is to say «°° and «°” should be sensibly identical curves for all values of x positive or negative. 1 See “Studies in Statistical Representation,” by G. H. Knibbs, Journal Royal Soc., N.S.W., Vol. xiv, p. 344, fig. 1. STUDIES IN STATISTICAL REPRESENTATION. 479 6. The logarithmic homologue.—The analytic value of taking the logarithm of a quantity depends upon the fact that the operation converts the products of quantities into sums, and the powers of quantities into products. In general before the logarithm is taken the quantity to be operated on must be in the form of a product or a power. Thus if Dake byt ON Opa See mann (7) B must if possible first be eliminated by some method other than mere subtraction of two values of y so that a new equation is obtained in the form, Ay’ denoting log y’ CRASS ES ls) BMS a (8) Pee —NG 1 G2, OF Say = Yar aaa. ht 022. (9) since, using Napierian logarithms, 4e = 1. Thus the equa- tion becomes linear: and this last expression may be said to be the logarithmic homologue of equation (8). In some cases the expression of the form y = k + f(x) is manageable by approximation. Thus the above equation (7) may be written ax B o = UE2S (has onee Pan hre eN (10) hence Aa NC er) a NL bo) Sree (11) which may be quite satisfactory, if B be so small, that roughly approximate values of the denominator are suffici- ent, forasmuch as the expression is small. When the term in B is very small, it is sometimes convenient to calculate it by the formula Mate BF 8 6 denoting 4/Ce*, Or yet again, when B has any value whatsoever, we may proceed in the following way :— Col CO Go | oO et © “~ — bo — Take the values of y1, ¥2; Ys, corresponding to three points 2,2 +kand« + 2k: then we have identically, from (7) Ys — Yo _ CO fer(x+2k) — eax+k)] Yo yi. C[#at ex | 480 G. H. KNIBBS AND F. W. BARFORD. Hence, writing Ys for the left-hand member and taking logarithms if lor, Ve, (14) ali MEE oe ak log,e = log, V3, ora = in which M is 2°30258509...... When a is found the solutions for C and B are obvious. Should the left hand member of (13) be negative this curve is unsuitable. It may be noted that, in general, if a quantity to be operated upon is not in the form of a product or a power it should be converted if possible into such a form. For example, in the equation y= = 8 cos’a — 8 cos*a + 1 = cos 4a, eee (15) the initial and final terms give ta meet ATO (16) log y though from the intermediate terms a solution cannot be directly obtained. In expressions like (8) « may indifferently + or —, butin Uy Ne Sener oe, eee (17) care has to be taken in respect to the interpretation of the logarithm of negative numbers; see §8 hereinafter. 7. The antilogarithmic generatrix.—What has been some- times called the antilogarithm of a number, is that number the logarithm of which is the number in question. It is convenient, following the analogy of inverse trigonometric functions, to express this operation by prefixing log—! or A-* to the number. Thus, if log y = 7, then log—*7 or A—"y = y. Thus, if log f («) = 7, the curve y = / (#) may be called its first anti-logarithmic generatrix. Y¥or example, if Y = -PomM 20.2 ed UB) these quantities actually being logarithms, then we have A—ty=A—* (a+ mr) =(A—*a) (AT me) = Y= AL" where log Y = y; log A =a; log X = x; log M = m. STUDIES IN STATISTICAL REPRESENTATION. 481 Again, if DG SALE OS AME 4 Cait. a (20) Ra A AC) = ASIC) (AH YAY); ete: =y = GeAxX”" = Gem” = CA” = CAM oo... (21) where log p = Y'; and log € = C, log A = A; etc. This last curve may be called the second anti-logarithmice generatrix of y = a + mx, and if € be unity, the first anti- logarithmic generatrix of equation (20). Provided its axes of reference are suitably determined, a curve therefore is the anti-logarithmic generatrix of its logarithmic homologue, and the logarithmic homologue of its anti-logarithmic generatrix. It is important to observe that the logarithmic homologue depends not only upon the form of the curve, but also wpon its position with relation to the axes of reference. Similarly, if ("CAO ee ene OSI (22) its anti-logarithmic generatrix is a ee (23) where, therefore, log Y = y: and so on. 8. Logarithms of negative numbers.—Since log 0, log-+1, log + © are respectively —«, 0and +o, the whole range of negative and positive real numbers is exhausted in expressing the logarithm of the numbers +0 to +0. Moreover, with a positive number as base, no power, positive or negative, integral or fractional, can give a negative number. It is consequently usual to say that in general there can be no logarithm of a negative number. Any curve which may be represented by negative or positive numbers may therefore have an anti-logarithmic generatrix. We proceed to consider whether every curve can be said to have a logarithmic homologue. Again, in order to follow out the matter a little more closely, consider the expressions y = x"; and log y = » log %, or 7 = né. Ex—December 2, 1914. 482 G. H. KNIBBS AND F. W. BARFORD. For negative values of y it may be said that log y or 7 is an impossible quantity, and therefore there can be no logarithmic homologue. Or again, if « be negative, there is similarly no logarithmic homologue since log x or € is an impossible quantity. We can, however, conceive the matter thus:—Let us first suppose that the value of y is positive. Thus in Fig. 1 shewing 7 = n&, we have, if we plot the points P for various values of é, n the tangent of 6, or the angle of intersection of the line passing through the points and the axis Op=. The point P of the logarith- mic homologue corresponding to the value x, moves from P to O as « changes from + © to +1; from O to P’asx changes from +1 to +0. As « changes from —0to —1, P’ moves on the inverted face of the same surface from P’ to O, and finally as « changes from —1 to — ©, P’ moves on the inverted face of the line OP. Or representing the result on an infinitely great sphere—See Fig. la—we can call the face POP’ the normal, and P'O’P the inverted face, (reach-~ ing the paradox that the logarithm of — © becomes the same as that of +o) which is not only a matter of no moment but a difficulty that arises in other schemes of curve tracing. Secondly, let us suppose that y is negative, that is, that —y=2. Then we have y = —(«") and the representation isas before. Or,again, we may suppose the representation to start at O' and it will be as shewn by fine dotted lines on Figs. 1 and 1a. STUDIES IN STATISTICAL REPRESENTATION. 483 From what has been stated we see that as in the con- vention, by which so-called “‘imaginary’’ quantities can be represented as lying outside the space in which, for “‘real’’ quantities, the function in which they arise is representable, (e.g., x —1 or xi represented as being at right angles to the x axis, or to an «y-plane, etc.) so can the logarithm of a negative number arising in an xy—plane be regarded as representable, say in the direction of the z-axis, or in some other way. This convention remains to be further examined. Eat 2— —*, then y = 2 => (—)"; and log y =n log’2 =nlog(—x). We may also put, if necessary, log —% = log (—1) + log (+). Similarly, if « = —0, —1,and - 0, we may regard the logarithms as numerically equivalent to those of +0, +1 and +o but spatially distinguishable therefrom by whatever may be implied by log (—1). It is possible to represent this spatial distribution by a bifacial line or surface, on which as a number passes through the values of 0 to —o, the corresponding values of the logar- ithms, of the number pass from — © to +0 on one face, say the « face (inverted face); and when the number passes through the values 0 to +, the logarithms of the number pass over the same range in the same manner, but on the normal face. Thus log (—1) =+ may be regarded as an operator inverting the line or surface on which the quantity is representable without numerically affecting it.* In this it is analogous toi = }/-1. We shall then have log -1 = + log 1; and« (log -1) = «log 1 = log 1; or putting a suffix to denote where the number of operations is even, viz., p (pair), or odd i (impair), log (1) = login nee ely = log) pees (24) 1 It would be well to retain the Greek letter « to denote this and ana- logous operators, and i to denote the operator ,/—14. 484 G. H. KNIBBS AND F. W. BARFORD. The values of logarithms, therefore, of negative numbers may be regarded as numerically equal to those of positive numbers, but inverted in reference to the space occupied by the positive numbers.* Hence the values, which may be differentiated by prefixing « thereto are not continuous with the logarithms of positive numbers, in an analogous way to that in which the values of y = }/« are regarded as imaginary when the values of x are negative. 9. Geometrical conventions for representing the loga- rithms of negative numbers.—The matter may be looked at in two other ways. In Fig. 2 the ‘‘ normal curve ”’ represents the values of the logarithms of + 2, and the ‘‘inverted curve”’ the values of the logarithms of —x. The latter may be regarded as an inverted image of the former. There is still another way of regarding the representa- tion of log -1. Let « denote the operator which, when applied to log 1 converts it into log —1. If the operator « is again applied to log —1, we get log —1 or wlog1. If the nature of the operator + is such that «. = 1 we are brought back again to our starting point which was log 1.’ 1 Mobius was, we believe, the first to recognise that a simple type of surface can be unifacial and unimarginal. It has been suggested that the ordinary plane of projective geometry is unifacial. See Klein, Math. Annalen, Bd. vu, p. 549. 2 wis not ce? but the operation of « upon uv, that is the operation twice repeated. STUDIES IN STATISTICAL REPRESENTATION. 485 Now, to convert the length 1 into —1 a geometrical con- vention has been adopted that this may be done by two operations: the first being effected, it is in a position at right angles to the original position: the second operation again places it at right angles to the new position, and it is then in the negative direction as regards its first position: the first position is regarded as the geometrical represen- tation of the operation denoted by i or ;/ —-1. ? This suggests the suitability of a similar convention for log -—1. Since log1=0 we have to deal with a point instead of a straight line of unit length. Suppose a closed curve symmetrical with respect to the ¢ axis, (a circle will do for simplicity) in a plane perpendicular to the xy plane, and with the origin as its lowest or highest point, according as the curve is above or below the plane. A point, moving round this closed curve from the origin, returns again to the origin after one complete circuit. The operator : signi- fies that it is in a new position, viz., that which it would have after passing through the angle z. This is consistent with the fact that +. = 1. As the origin represents log 1 we must have log —1 represented by the point attained in half a complete circuit: that is, it will be on the other extremity of the diameter, somewhere on the ¢ axis. Consequently, if log 1 be represented by the origin, log —1 may be represented by two points on the < axis equi- distant from the xy plane, one above and one below. The convention may be extended so as to give the points a definite position. For, writing down the identity —1 =. cos 7 + i sin 7 or —1 = e*7' we see at once that the * It is erroneous to say the operator 1 rotates a line through 37, because t would be +7 and 21 would bez. Also, it may be argued that wis -1, not 1”, and thereforei is not really ~-1 except by a mere convention. The essence of the matter is that i is an operator, not a multiplier, and in the calculus of operations it is not established that f¢ is $2, where ¢ is any operation, though ¢” may be used to denote d¢...repeated ton times. 486 G. H. KNIBBS AND F. W. BARFORD. principal value of Log —1 is t7i. Log —1is not, of course, . the same as log —1,* but by analogy we may take along the 2 axis the two points whose distances from the xy plane are -7. Lastly, since log —x = log x + log —1, we see that if = log x represents a curve in the «y-plane then it follows. that y = log —« may be considered to be represented by one of two curves, homothetic with the first, lying in planes which are parallel to the «y-plane, and passing through the two points on the z-axis defined as above. This may be considered as a particular case of representation by means of a bi-facial surface already discussed. It is evident that, with care, the use of logarithms of negative numbers pre- sents no insuperable difficulty. 10. Sine curves.—The simplest and most general form of the sine curve is y = a, + a, sin (w + 0) +...... G,, sin m (#@ + OL)" eee (25) Given a series of equidistant values of y the method of solving for the constants d,......... dm, and for the epochal angles 9,,........ 6... is dealt with in many mathematical treatises. Where group-results are given for successive equal stretches of the abscissze, the necessary formule: have been deduced and given in a paper on the “ Statistical Applications of the Fourier Series.’ Solutions are given for groups up to the number 12. 11. Parabolas and hyperbolas.—The general equation is. es (Ava Beet IAA (26) a parabola if m is positive, an hyperbola if m is negative. The solution is obvious if A = 0 for then log y = B tom log aor (27) + For the difference between Log. - land log —1see Chrystal’s Algebra, Part 11, Ch. xx1x. 2 G. H. Knibbs, c.m.e., ete. Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. xiv, pp. 76-110. ‘a. 240 ee é STUDIES IN STATISTICAL REPRESENTATION. 487 that is to say, if the equation be applicable to the repre- sentation of a series of points 2, Y,............% Yx the logarithms of the coordinates will lie on a straight line. If A be not zero the logarithmic homologue is not a straight line. ‘To obtain the constants we must take three points on the curve the abscissae of which are in geo- metrical ratio: that is, we must obtain the values of y,, ¥2, y; for the abscissae x,, xk, «,k. Then we may write y=atber=at+L Y, = a + bak” = a + La, say, then Yo — @ + bok” — a +. La’. Consequently Ch = eC es 28 i A L(a—1) oD that is, pee eg i Ya) WOR MG We) (29) log k When n is found, the constants a and bare readily deter- minable since x and k are also known. For mean values we may proceed analogously to the method indicated in Section 12 hereinafter. Equation (28) is unsuitable when the left hand member is negative. If not negative, then the curve is a parabola or hyperbola according as y; - y. is greater or less than yy, — 3. 12. Exponential curves.—The general equation is de pee Wet (30) the logarithmic homologue of which, when A is 0, is logy = log B-+ na? log é.......:.--- (31) Hence if we take three ordinates whose abscissz are in geometrical progression x, xk, «wk? (k being known) the following equation can be deduced :— bie: ee (32) log y, — logy which determines p since k is known. 488 G. H. KNIBBS AND F. W. BARFORD. The constant nis determined by the equation log yo — y, = nu” (ke? — 1) logieina2 ee (33) which gives n since all the other quantities are known. Lastly B is obtained from the equation log B = log y, |= me” log ie .f hee (34) This is the solution when a single set of three points is taken. Ifit is required to approximately fit a large number of sets of points, the following method of obtaining the constants may be adopted. Using Y» as an abbreviation for log y. — log y,, etc., we Shall have pe — *x Ya Calculating p from the geometric mean of s such sets of quantities the previous equation (32) becomes op el WS ws TL from which the mean value of p may be determined. The value of n given by (33) may be written 1 ¥, 1h — = 32 a(kP?- 1) loge «(kP—1) loge The mean value of n is consequently given by a pe Uy Yo ee pe Ih V9 a GR Sate — 1) AS eh ee n® Lastly, the value of B was given by (84). The mean value is given by log B = & | 2 log (yy2y3) — Mn X;{ af (kh? +k +1)} | sae (37) In the case when A, however, is not 0, it will be necessary by graphic or difference methods to ascertain the value of y for the asymptotic line y = A. If this cannot be done the original equation is inappropriate. * is equal to unity for Naperian logarithms, and to 2°302586...... for common logarithms. The value of M in the last line is 1//. STUDIES IN STATISTICAL REPRESENTATION. 489 13. Curves which are the products of parabolic and exponential curves.—The application and solution of a curve which is the product of the parabolic or hyperbolic and exponential curve, is dealt with in a paper entitled ‘* On the Nature of the Curve OS Lie ES aire (38) } 14. On the curve which is the sum of a series of para- bolas, or of a series of hyperbolas, or both.—Consider the curve y = a + bx?+ cxv4+ da™+ etc....in which p,q, r, etc., may be fractional. Since each term has greater fitting power than when restricted to an integral value of the index, it is obvious that the sum of several terms has also greater fitting power. Within the region of possibility if there be m indices, the curve will pass through 2n + 1 points, whereas if the indices are integers the curve will pass through n + 1 points only. It will be well to consider first the case where there are two terms in x only, that is, two indices p and q of which, let us suppose, q is the greater. By taking the origin on the curve the equation assumes the simpler form 7 OTD a A er AA (39) and we shall primarily consider this case, viz., where a=0. The determination of the constants may then be effected as follows:—Taking, as before, four ordinates whose abscisse are in geometrical progression, viz., x, xk, xk’, xk’, we have = UL? cx 6 Op == Cn?) BP AN | ae oe” ce ye be. bee + pee For $ O. This may be written in the form yayi — 2ygyo(B ys — 2y2) + Ys(4HYs — 3 y2)> 0 STUDIES IN STATISTICAL REPRESENTATION. 49} ; ‘a 4 (us — Ys) = Yi This condition will be fulfilled if y; < y,y;, for then the left hand side will be essentially positive. | or | yah a =e YY, — 2 yi) 1 If, however, ¥; > "y; then we must have 4 (ys — ry)” 2 Yi ae BI Peg in2 ‘ YY = YY; — 242) > 1 3 ‘ Biel 2 that is, yw — a WwYs — 2y2) > 2 (ya = Ws)” numerically, : | Y or in other words y; cannot be between the values ya(3 yy — 298) + 2(v8 — Ys)? wereeeeeeees (45) Yi The condition for real roots shews, therefore, that if yz > yyy; there isa certain portion of the straight line whose distance from the axis of y (to which it is parallel) is 4° which cannot be cut by a curve of the form y = ba + ca! when p and q are real. In other words, there is what may be termed an “‘impossible region’’ about any point in which no curve of this form cutting three other points can lie. Reverting to the equation (47a) it has been seen that the roots must be not only real but positive. Consequently YY; — yz must have the same sign as yy, — y; and the opposite sign from yy; — yy. This still further limits the possible values of 4. . It is of interest to note what happens when y;=y,y;- In this case (47a) degenerates from a quadratic to a linear equation | E(YxYs — Yiys) + (YoY, — Y2) = O Ys — YYs _ Ys — VIYs Ys Yos — Yrs Y3V YiYs — Yrs * iu YXY3V Yo TF OVA) ies V Ys We YW(YsV/ Ys a ay Ys) Vn aie, is Ys Nn n ¥ Consequently 4” = 492 G. H. KNIBBS AND F, W. BARFORD. In this case the curve degenerates into the curve y=ba? and there is only one possible value for y;, viz., the fourth term of the geometrical progression of which y y,and ¥; are the first three terms. [Since y ¥2 ys; ys, are in geometrical $ uea 0 progression the expression "4 assumes the form = Y2¥3 — Yiys whose limiting value has been proved to be @ ori 41 2 This limitation of the possible values for y; can be illus- trated by an example. Suppose that three points are taken whose abscissae are 1, 2 and 4 (and consequently in geo- metrical progression) and whose ordinates are 13°7, 22°4 and 24°0. It is required to find the limits for y, when «=8, In this example k = 2, and 2°, 2° are the roots of the equation 1°43°7 22°40) =O € 22°4 24°0 & 240 y, which when expanded becomes 172°96 & — € (537-6 — 13:7 y,) + (576 — 22°4 y,)=0...(49) In this example y, = 13°73 yo = 22°43; y; = 24°03; conse- quently, referring to condition (48) already established, 4, cannot lie between the values —2o-+ = #9" 187°7 22°2 and — 26°28. Also, since the roots of (47a) must be positive, it follows that 576 — 22°4 y, must be positive. Consequently either y, is negative, or, if positive, cannot be greater than 516 22°4 or say say 29°7. From these conditions it is evident that the positive values of y, are limited to the region between 22°2 and 25°7. All negative values are admissible which are numerically greater than 26°28. We now proceed to investigate the curve of three terms, iz y = be? + cw + dx STUDIES IN STATISTICAL REPRESENTATION. 493 three indices being taken instead of two. Subject tosome limitation this may be made to pass through six points besides the origin. | For the determination of the constants it will be necssary to take the six points so that the values of the abscissae will be in geometrical ratio, as with the four points in the preceding case. This gives then six equations which, analogously to the previous case, may be written :— y= L+M+N y, = La + MB + Ny yz; = Lo? + MB? + Ny? ys = La? + MB? + Ny’ By reasoning similar to that in the preceding case, it may then be established that «, 6, y, are the roots of the equation J 1 Yo Ys | = On..eereees (50) GY, Sar Ya 3 4-4 YS Ga ve. Us) Ye which may be expanded in the form ae SA +d Ase = TA, = OC antes es (50a) where A,, — 3A,, 3A,;and — A,are the minors respectively of x’, x x, and1inthe determinant. The roots of this equa- tion must be real and positive. The condition that the roots should be positive is that. A,, Az, A;, A, should have the same sign. To examine the equation for real roots it must first be deprived of its second term. It then becomes X*+3 X (A,A, — A’) +3 A,(A,A, — A) + AB - AjA,=0......... (51) The equation y’ + qy + r = 0 will have its roots real and unequal if ey + a) isnegative. The condition becomes in this case 3 A,(A,A, — AZ) + A} - AA, 9 ad 2 t + (4,4, —- A$)? is negative. 494 G. H. KNIBBS AND F. W. BARFORD. Since the first term is essentially positive, it follows that A,A;, — A; must be negative; that is, A; > A,As. The condition above propounded may be written as follows :— 42 A,(A, A, — 43) + A,(A,4;— A,A,)} “4+ 44,4, Ae (52) must be negative. Writing 4 for A,A, — A} and p» for A.A; - A,A, the above condition becomes finally that : A,{Ayp? + 4A,\p + 44,47} must be negative. This is the ‘‘irreducible case’’ in Oardan’s solution of the cubic. When the equation contains the constant a we must have five points given on the curve and the computation becomes more tedious. We then proceed as follows:— Adopting the same notation we have for the general expression Ing = & + Ga 4 AO sien (53) Hence, writing L' for L (4-1), and M’ for M (6-1), the general expression becomes Jase = Yas = ees 6 eee (54) Consequently, as before, « and f are the roots of | 1 Yo — “Oy Ys = Yo == 0) i aber (55) | g Us — Yo Ys. — Y3 Brg Ao Gi) ily a trig Similarly, if we have three indices, viz., p, q and r, we shall have Ym+1 = a2 + Lom + Mpm “Dey ee oe (56) which by subtraction reduces to ng = gma = Do™ + P+ Ree ee (57) so that a, 6 and y are the roots of 1. to => Hh 9s - Ya Gaye =) 0) eae (58) S We = Ys ais Gomera E Yat Be Ye = YaeGer aaa CS 9s = ty. Ye = is Mee STUDIES IN STATISTICAL REPRESENTATION. 495 In this case we must have given seven values of y. Writing 7, ¥» y, and y for the minors of &, €, € and 1 in this determinant, the equation becomes EF ys — Fy. + &y, - yy = 0 sec ceerccccce (59) 15. Graphs of curves.—The graphs of some of the curves SB Nii ea Ee os ST SY at ea eee a Fig. 3. A, v2"; Boa® +a; C, (a® + atl ae eee es Fig. 4. eee ob, 2! cal; Ci(ba' + a1); D(a +cat!) 1... Big.d. These give a sufficient indication of curves with two indices only, and are sufficient to indicate the utility of such formule as have been considered. It is obvious that VisiCalc < Sa SesieiNts SRK sie ae | LJ is (a a ig a. aaamm [eas aa a 3 4 0 | 2 3 4 Fig. 3. 496 G. H. KNIBBS AND F. W. BARFORD. we may write equations which are the reciprocals of those considered, and by solving for values of 1/y instead of y, obtain the required pom ? s B. Fig. ‘Tz SUC Te a hd emda Bele A Pees PRES Soe Bee: TECHIE ee "AUPE ett | UT | et ea TMC oC CC “HE Eto Hi aa | VA 2 ress | | A /7 acne Ais. NZ A Vp ass EEE a CERES EE Set FERSEAS ese pS il Oa Tl alae TC artery a 2 Pagan SN las eg ee IEE EEE EEC EEE TARE CCT eS, | ‘CCCP C7 Net Te TANS bet CT VC? CACC TSS “TN NCS CTT Ne a eneca CCC ARTES "TN eS ee TRS Se SCAN Le [Aoeott Heeee ‘eee tT [erases ARERR ee Fig. 5. FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. 497 THE DISTRIBUTION OF FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINKS.? By H. P. TAYLOR, B.E. (Communicated by Professor 8S. H. BarracLouGs.) [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 2, 1914. | 1. Introductory.—Though a great deal has been published concerning the friction of steam engines, very little seems to have been written on the subject of Internal-Combustion Engine Friction. Apart from certain investigations carried out at the University of Sydney,* the writer could find no record of any attempt to separate the total friction of such an engine into its component parts; that is, the friction at the main bearings, connecting-rod bearings, piston, layshaft and valve gear, and the frictional resistance of the gas through the valves and passages. An interesting account of experiments made on a 12 H.P. gas engine by Professor C. H. Robertson is given in the “Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers,”’ 1902, Vol. xxiv. Noattempt was made in this case to separate the component frictions, but from curves obtained it was shown how the total power lost in friction varied with different factors such as speed, power, tem- + This research was carried out by the author in the Mechanical Engineering Laboratory of the University of Sydney during his tenure of Science Research Scholarship given by the Government of New South Wales, 1913-14. The author desires to record his great indebtedness to Professor 8. H. Barraclough, for much valuable advice, and for the assistance rendered him by the Engineering Staff at the University, and particularly for the personal assistance of Mr. B. S. Dowling during part of the research. 2 Report to the Engineering Seminar by Mr. W. J. Sachs, on the results of some experiments made on a 40 H.P. National Gas Engine. Fr—December 2, 1914. - 498 E. P. TAYLOR. perature, etc., and also how frictional resistance at the rubbing surfaces varied with the same factors. The object of the present paper is to summarise the results of a series of experiments carried out on several internal combustion engines to determine the distribution of frictional losses in such engines under specified conditions; and further to describe certain useful modifications of methods and apparatus arrived at in the course of the investigation. 2. The Retardation Method.—To determine the distri- bution of friction in an engine the most convenient way, and, at the same time, one by which most accurate results can be obtained, is that known as the retardation method of determining engine friction. This method was employed in the separation of friction losses in three engines at the P. N. Russell School of Engineering. The method is so generally known that only a brief description is necessary. When an engine is run up to speed, energy is stored up in the revolving masses. On removing the source of power the speed will gradually diminish owing to dissipation of the energy by a retarding torque set up by friction in the different sections of the machine. The magnitude of this retarding torque can be deter- mined when the negative acceleration and moment of inertia of the revolving masses are known. Expressed algebraically T; = Lo 2a where T; = friction torque in Ibs. ft. 4 I = moment of inertia in ibs. ft. units. © = retardation in radians per sec. per sec. n = retardation in revolutions per sec. per sec. FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. A499 Measurement of the retardation may be made in a number of ways. The most suitable way for very accurate results is by means of a chronograph. For these tests there was mounted on the main shaft of the engine, an electric contact maker of a special design, originally devised by Professors Dalby and Callender. Hvery revolution contact was made for an instant, this completed an electric circuit round a small electro-magnet actuating a stylus on the chronograph. A sheet of glazed paper wrapped round the cylinder of the chronograph, and smoked, served to take the record of the revolutions, as shown by a series of kicks in the line scratched on it by the stylus. The cylinder is made to revolve by clockwork at either of two speeds; a low speed which moves the paper at a peri- pheral speed of 1 cm. per sec., and a high speed of 10 cm. per sec. At the same time the stylus is fed along the cylinder at a pitch of about8 mm. A retardation chart produced on this instrument shows a series of kicks at gradually and continuously-increasing intervals, as the _ speed of the engine falls. In the appendix will be seen how velocity-time curves were obtained from these charts, and how from the curves, by drawing tangents at various points, the retardations in revolutions per second per second were obtained at speeds of the engine corresponding to the points on the curve at which the tangents were drawn. It was estimated that these retardations were measured with an accuracy of half per cent. when using the high speed of the chronograph, and between two and three per cent. when using the low speed. 3. Determination of Moments of Inertia.—To find the moment of inertia of the revolving masses was a serious difficulty in the early stages of the experiments, and a great deal of time was spent in developing a method of 500 -E. P, TAYLOR. making this determination with the degree of accuracy required. . Many methods of finding the moment of inertia of a body are available, but when the body is heavy and not readily removed from its bearings the number is practically nar- rowed down to the following. Suppose a retardation test is run and from the chrono- graph there is obtained a certain value 1 for the retardation at a certain instant when the engine was revolving at N revolutions per second. At this instant Ty = Q2QrIny Now if a second test be made, but this time with a known brake torque Ty» applied to the engine shaft, the retardation at the instant when the speed is again N revolu- tions per second is greater than m, giving Ty + Tr = 27 Ing Assuming JT; to have remained unchanged, since both values are at the same speed, a combination of the two- equations gives Ty, = 271 (m2 - 1) Ty Se ee a 27 (m2 — 1) All the values of the right-hand side of the equation are experimentally known; hence, the value of “‘J,’’ the moment of inertia of the revolving masses, can be deter- mined. 4. Type of Brake employed.—Too much stress cannot. be laid on the necessity for a very carefully-designed brake. by which this known brake torque is to be given to the engine. The tangential pull of the brake, and also the. lever arm at which it acts on the shaft must each be capable. of precise measurement. On this account brakes of the rope or band variety, which were at first tried, were- FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. 5Ol abandoned, and development took place in the use of an electro-magnetic shoe brake which attracted and attached itself to the rim of the flywheel. Owing to the brake B, Fig. 1, being necessarily heavy, it was found best to balance its weight by a counterpoise © on the end of a lever L, so that a spring balance placed directly over the brake would show only the tangential wheel-pull on the brake. Increasing or decreasing the exciting current round the brake windings increased or decreased the pull on the brake. Controlled by a spring balance in this manner, however, the brake was very irregular in its action, and values for **T’’ could not be obtained with a probable error of less than 16%. But advantage was taken of the electro-mag- netic brake to arrange an automatic control. Instead of counteracting the pull on the brake by a spring balance, a constant known weight W was hung on the other end of the lever, as well as the counterpoise O already there. This weight W being at the same distance from the fulcrum of the lever L, as was the brake, gave directly the pull on the brake, and to keep the lever floating steadily in a horizontal position an electrode EH was hung from the lever and dipped into water forming part of the electric circuit. Then, when the brake had a tendency to be pulled down, the other end of the lever would lift the electrode E so that less was immersed in the water; this weakened the excitation, and consequently the brake was allowed to rise again to the correct position. Another rheostat, operated by hand, was necessary in the circuit for preliminary adjustments, but during a run the automatic rheostat worked admirably. The brake pull by this means was able to be determined with an error of not more than one half per cent. 502 E. P. TAYLOR. ees Cc CUuRRENTSUPPLY HAND CONTROLLED RHEOSTAT Oit DAMPER Fial The pole faces of the shoe brake were curved to fit the rim of the wheel, and it was found necessary to connect the brake to the end of the lever by a suspension link S pivotted both at the lever and at F on the brake as close as possible to the centre of contact between the latter and the wheel. By this means it was ensured that the length lL of the lever arm, at which the brake was producing a torque on the shaft, remained constant—provided the brake was allowed only aslight vertical movement. The height of the brake was, of course, so adjusted that the line join- ing the suspension pivot F and the centre of the shaft was. horizontal. The lever arm length 1 was, therefore, equal to the radius of the wheel plus the distance from the periphery to the suspension F. 5. Description of the Author’s Method.—The most. important development in this brake retardation work was FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. 503 the elimination of the necessity for assuming, as above, that Ty remains constant at the same speed in the two tests—the unbraked and the braked. Ordinarily in tests on engines where so many different places exist in which friction occurs, T; was found to be far from constant, though every effort was made to run the tests under exactly the same conditions, and the resulting error in the deter- mination of I was too large to be neglected. Finally, the following scheme was arrived at. For the first part of a test a known brake torque was applied and a chronogram taken on the high-speed of the chronograph. After a sufficient interval the current was cut off the brake and for the remainder of the test the engine allowed to retard under its own friction alone. On drawing the corresponding velocity-time curve from this chart the curve was at first steep and then at the instant.at which the brake was removed the curve became suddenly much less steep (Fig. 5, Appendix). Tangents drawn to the curve immediately on each side of this change point gave the retardations m2, due to combined brake and friction torque, and m, due to friction torque alone, at obviously one and the same speed N at which the engine was revolving when the change was made, and equally certain is it that T; had not changed. The estimated error in the value of I obtained in this way is from one to two per cent. This error was greatly reduced by taking the mean of many values of I. 6. Distribution of the Friction Losses.—Knowing ‘‘I’’ for any one engine the amount of power lost in friction in the various parts of the engine can be determined by a process of elimination of the parts of the machine, a separate retardation test being run after each successive part is removed from the engine. The general procedure was to run retardation tests when the engine was fully assembled at temperatures varying 504 E. P. TAYLOR. from that of the atmosphere to figures above ordinary running temperatures. From these tests the total friction torque and friction horse-power were found at several speeds. Next, the big end of the connecting rod was dis- connected so that a retardation test now would give a friction-power loss less than before by an amount equal to the power lost in friction of the piston, of both ends of the connecting rod and of the gas through ports. The flywheel, shaft and valve gear have in this case, of course, to be run up to speed by external means. Finally, the lay shaft was taken off so that now there remained only the main shaft in its bearings to cause any friction. The friction loss in this part of the engine was, therefore, got directly from the retardation test run when in this condition. 7. Conditions of the Tests.—It is convenient at this stage to call attention to what these friction losses actually represent, and to the conditions under which the results were obtained. All the tests were made under circum- stances as nearly as possible representing usual running practice. This could be easily arranged as to temperature, lubrication and speed, but the circumstance of load on the rubbing surfaces could not be represented in the tests. For instance, in the fully-assembled tests there neces- sarily could not be explosion pressure on the piston, with consequent increase in the piston thrust on the cylinder walls, and in the shaft and connecting-rod pressures. On this account the fully-assembled engine-friction-horse- power loss from a retardation test may not be the same as the no-load indicated horse-power as ordinarily obtained. Again, after disconnecting the big end of the connecting rod the friction in the main-shaft bearings is no longer influenced by any pressure on the piston that would other- wise have been communicated to the shaft. Therefore, one cannet say that the friction measured at the main bearing is all that is generated there when fully assembled. FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. 505 Further, two tests, in general, have to be made to determine the friction loss in any one part as, for instance, the valve gear. One test is made with the shaft and valve gear in place, and the other after the valve gear has been removed. The valve gear friction will be the difference between the friction losses found from the two tests, pro- vided that the losses occurring in those parts that are present in both tests have remained altered. In order that this last condition be attained as nearly as possible, special care was taken to keep the lubrication of the engine con- stant. Separate tests made with varying rates of lubrica- tion showed clearly how greatly the friction varied with the quantity of lubricant supplied to the different bearings. Finally, the fact that the measurement of the friction loss of one part depends on the difference of two other measurements is in itself a possible source of error. So much for the limitations of the retardation method as applied to measuring the distribution of friction in engines. In its favour there are several very striking points. From the fact of its being a retardation test, values of friction at any required speed may be obtained from one test. The necessary apparatus is simple, easily applied and capable of performing highly accurate measurements for this class of work. It depends for none of its results on instruments needing previous calibration. There are no uncertain conditions to be allowed for, as there are for instance, in the case of a belt drive from a dynamometer. The engine, when run under the conditions ordinarily present in retardation tests, is left entirely to itself. An important advantage is the existence of a time-velocity curve drawn for each test. For the alteration in the slope of the curve shows at a glance how the coefficient of fric- tion varies with the speed. 506 E. P. TAYLOR. 8. Types of Engines tested.—This research was carried out on three engines belonging to the Mechanical Engineer- ing Laboratory plant. Most of the experiments were made on the smallest of the three—a 6-H.P. Victor Oil Hngine of 6" bore and 8” stroke. There were two flywheels, one on each side of the engine, and the rotary mass had a moment of inertia of 17°6 feet Ibs. units. The engine was of the vertical enclosed-crankease type with plain bush bearings lubricated by the splash in the crankcase running through holes in the upper part of the bearings. This crude method of oiling the bearings gave considerable trouble until it was decided to keep the bear- ings always flooded by hand feeding, giving a condition that could be repeated at any time. The necessary speed was attained by belt drive from an electric motor, the belt being simply run off the pulleys to commence a test. A record was kept of the temperatures of the main bearings and cylinder. This is an important point, for previous to this, tests made under apparently similar conditions often disagreed as to their results owing almost entirely to the temperature of the rubbing surfaces having altered. The second engine to be tested was a 40-H.P. National Gas Engine of the usual horizontal four-stroke cycle type, —hbore 11”, stroke 19”, and one large flywheel] supported between one of the main bearings and an outside pedestal bearing. The moment of inertia of the rotating masses was 1940 ft. Ibs. units. Directly coupled to the engine shaft by means of a leather-laced flexible coupling was a 25 K.W. generator. The three engine main bearings and two generator bear- ings were normally well lubricated by ring lubricators; the piston and connecting rod by sight-feed drip lubricators. This metbod of oiling was found to give quite satisfactory service for the tests and so was retained unaltered. The FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. 507 temperature of the cylinder only was observed as the bearings remained at practically the same temperature throughout. For tests on the engine when fully assembled, the speed was attained by driving under gas in the ordinary way. After disconnecting the piston, etc., the generator was used aS a motor to speed the engine up for the tests, though full speed could not quite be reached by this means. By auxiliary tests on the generator alone, the friction loss in its bearings was determined and deducted from the results of the main tests. Lastly, exactly similar experiments were made on a 30-H.P. Crossley Gas Hngine of very much the same type as the National,—bore 94", stroke 18” and moment of inertia of flywheel, etc., 1070 ft. ib. units. Sight feed drip lubri- cation was relied on throughout. The engine was arranged to drive a generator by means of a leather belt. This generator was used as a motor for driving the dismantled engine ina first series of tests made immediately after overhauling and reassembling. The friction of the main bearings came out extremely high, and so another series was made after a month or so of running in. In this later series the engine was run up to speed, when gas could not be used, by a friction drive from a small 3-H.P. electric motor acting directly on to the fly- wheel. A hand screw adjusted the friction pressure by moving the whole motor on a special sliding base. 9. Procedure followed in each test.—A somewhat detailed description of the work carried out on the National Gas engine will serve for the tests on all three engines. (a) Twelve runs were made with the engine when fully assembled—six of these were at different cylinder temperatures to find the effect of temperature on the friction of the piston. 508 E. P. TAYLOR. (b) The other six tests were made with a known brake torque applied to the flywheel for determination of the moment of inertia. (c) Six more runs were then made after removing the connecting rod and, consequently, the piston. (d) After the layshaft was removed, five more runs were made with the main bearings only left to produce friction. And as each part was replaced on the engine, checking runs were made again. The procedure in each test was to run the engine up above normal speed when possible, and then cut off the driving source, leaving the engine free to run down under only its own friction. This could be done only in the case of the Victor and Crossley engines. In the case of the National engine the relatively small extra friction due to the coupled generator was allowed for afterwards. While the engine was slowing up, a contact maker on the engine shaft completed an electric circuit for an instant every revolution. In this circuit was a small electro- magnetically-operated stylus which recorded on a smoked paper every revolution of the engine. The chart revolved at a regular rate so that the number of kicks in a certain length of chart gave a means of measuring the speed of the engine at any instant. Asa check, and also to facilitate the working out of the velocities, another stylus actuated every second from an independent clock, was caused to mark seconds just beside the revolution line. After flxing this smoked chart ina very weak solution of shellac, a velocity-time curve was drawn from it, and from this curve the retardation of the engine was determined at several speeds by drawing tangents at the points representing those speeds. FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. 509 Having found the moment of inertia of the rotating masses by combined free and braked retardation tests, the torque producing retardation in the main tests, i.e., the friction torque, was straight away calculated and also the friction loss at the given speeds. | The friction loss in Section (a) is the total loss in the whole engine and corresponds to the ordinary no-load losses. of an engine, except for the special conditions stated in §7. Deducting from this the friction loss in Section (c) gave the loss due to the friction of the piston, both ends of the connecting rod and the gas friction through the ports, etc. These were separated by further tests, § 10. On subtracting the results of (d) from (c) the friction loss of the valve gear becomes separated. Finally, the runs made under conditions (d) gave the main bearing friction directly. ; 10. Measurement of Gas Friction.—In order to isolate the friction losses due to piston, connecting rod and gas passage, some auxiliary experiments had to be performed,, Since the retardation method could not satisfactorily be used. The best way to measure the power lost in forcing the gas through the valves and passages seemed to be by taking indicator cards. Accordingly cards were taken with the engine running under full compression, but not under power; 1.€., under exactly the same conditions as governed the retardation tests. The algebraic sum of the areas on the card enveloped during four strokes, or a complete cycle,. will represent the net negative work. Such cards were taken at a range of speeds and the corresponding torque in each case was found. A curve was then drawn showing the variation of this equivalent torque with speed. By this means the results of the test were made comparable 510 E. P. TAYLOR. with those of the retardation tests, and it was possible to isolate the value of the gas friction. , There remained, then, the separation of the friction at the connecting-rod bearings from the piston friction. For this purpose it was assumed that the proportion of the connecting-rod friction to the main-bearing friction would be as their respective areas. This assumption becomes more correct the nearer the lubrication of the surfaces becomes perfect. 11. Statement of Results.—A table of results shows this process of separation from first to last. Retardation Tests on 40 H.P. National Gas Engine. 7 Retard-| Frict. ae Distrib. Part of Machine. nN | ation | Torque of No. id T_27In 27 N Friction “550 {per cent. . "0062 1 | Engine fully assembled| 1 Full compression Zz 0097 Cylinder temp. 125° F.) 3 | :0127 2 |Main bearingsandvalve| 1 | :0014 gear(afterunshipping| 2 | :0021 con. rod) plusdynamo| 3. | ‘0027 bearings. 3 | Main bearings and 1 | 0013 dynamo bearings. 2 | 0019 3 | 0025 4 | Dynamo bearings. 1 | :0004 2 | :0005 3 | 0006 5 | Piston, connecting rod; 1 | :0048)| 58 and ‘‘gas friction.” 2° OOO") 485 (1) -— (2) 3 | :0100) 122 6 | Main bearings only 1 /-0009] 10 | -114] 15 (3) -— (4) 215) “ODT Ad Ealee "39 16 2 a) SOO1L0 ee? "75 15 FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. | Retardation Tests on 40 H.P. National Gas Engine.—continued. Ref B.P.g| Retard-| Frict. ae Distrib. ; Part of Machine. ‘y. | ation | Torque of _ ow Friction Us R= Zin ——— NL 550 per cent. ‘0001 i Ol 1 05 2 “0002 3 10 2 7 | Layshaft and valve gear (2) — (3) Wom S (as) i=) — or bo 8 | “Gas friction.” 1 17 20 25 2 30 "67 39 3 50 | 1-74 34 9 | Connecting rod pro-| 1 3 "03 4 portional to (6) 2 4 210 + 5 *20 4 10 | Piston 1 we 38 “40 55D (5) — {(8) + (9) 2 or Bi | Us) aks 3 ng On) | Dea ae The friction-horse-power losses are well shown by the curves drawn in Fig. 2. From these curves it is seen how rapidly the losses increase with increase in the speed of the engine. Hspecially is this so in the case of ‘*‘ Gas friction.”’ The equation of the total friction-horse-power curve may be taken as colon F.H.P. = ‘8N from which it is seen that the total horse-power lost at the the normal speed of the engine, 250 R.P.M., is 10°1 H.P. Since the friction-horse-power depends on the two factors —resistance to motion and speed at which this resistance is overcome—the resistance must be proportional to N°. This resistance is directly proportional to the coefficient of friction, since the pressure on the rubbing surfaces remains constant throughout the range of speeds. There- fore, the average coefficient of friction throughout the 512 : E. P. TAYLOR. whole machine varies as z 3 N*. The tests on the other two engines were carried out in very much the same manner, and therefore need no further description. A table comparing the per cent. distribution of friction in the three engines is given. Those values are compared in the table which were determined at the speed nearest to the normal running speed of each engine, though, as will be seen from the previous table, the relative dis- tribution does not vary very much with variation in the speed. Friction Horse Power Loss | : Connecting Rod Fic.2. Revs PerR SEconNp. FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. Comparison of distribution of friction in three internal combustion engines. ‘ National | Crossley | Victor Parton Bingine. 40 H.P. | 30 HP. | 6 HP. Main'bearings ... » ... 1b HOM Gay Lay shaft and valve gear 2 ‘L 1:5 Gas friction 34 37 37 Connecting rod ...° 4 3°5 5 Piston 45 40 45 513 From the last table it is seen that even with different types of engines there is such a general agreement in the percentage of friction allotted to each part of the engine that one is justified in drawing up a general table to show in round figures the average distribution of frictional losses in internal-combustion engines. Such a table is given below Distribution of friction in internal-combustion engines. Part of Engine. Per Cent. Distribution. Piston 45 Gas friction ... 35 Main bearings 14 Connecting rod Je zp | 4 Lay shaft and valve gear ... 3 In concluding one might draw attention to the large loss under the title of ‘“‘gas friction.’”’ From Fig. 2 is seen how rapidly this increases with the velocity of the engine, and conversely how greatly it is diminished by reducing the speed of the engine or, what comes to the same thing, the speed of the gas through the passages. It seems, there- fore, that valves could, with advantage, be increased still more in size even at the risk of mechanical difficulties. To sum up, the retardation method offers the advantages ofaccuracy and complete speed range with the disadvantage Gea—December 2, 1914. 514 . EE. P. TAYLOR. that values of friction are obtained under special conditions. By careful attention to brake design and modification of the methods of running a brake retardation test, the prob- able error in a measurement of the moment of inertia was greatly reduced, and the final results are given in the form of a table showing approximately the relative distribution of friction in internal combustion engines. Appendix. An idea of the kind of record produced on the chronograph, from which the retardations were calculated, may be gathered from Fig. 3. Hach stylus when unexcited marks a straight line beside the other. But when the contact maker for an instant closes the circuit round one of them it is caused to move suddenly to one side and back again, thus making a “‘kick’’ in the line. These kicks were arranged to move across the other line in order the more conveniently to compare the intervals marked on one line with those on the other. Revolution kick Fic 3. When interpreting: these records one of two methods was used, according to the length of the test. Ifthe test lasted for more than about seven minutes, every thirtieth second was marked and the number of revolutions which occurred FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. 515 during five seconds on each side of a mark was noted. One- tenth of this number was the revolutions per second at the time under consideration. If the test took less than, say, seven minutes, the follow- ing procedure was adopted. The test was divided up into about twenty equal intervals—in the case of the brake runs this meant every two seconds—and the total revolutions up to each division noted. The velocity at the middle of interval was taken as the result of dividing by the number of the seconds the number of revolutions which occurred during the interval. Very great accuracy in reading the records was required in the brake runs, and for the purpose of measuring the decimal parts of the revolutions use was made of the following simple device. A piece of unexposed but fixed photographic negative was marked by ten parallel equally- spaced lines. Placing this on the record in the manner shown in Fig. 3, it was easy to accurately read where the seconds mark divided the revolution space. In this way values of the angular velocity of the engine at certain intervals of time were obtained from the charts. These were shown graphically as a curve plotted to velocity and time co-ordinates. A typical curve is shown in Fig. 4, drawn from one of the National engine test when fully assembled. Bearing in mind that coefficient of friction is proportional to frictional resistance—pressure remaining constant—and that resist- ance or friction torque is proportional to the retardation, it is evident that the behaviour of the coefficient of the engine friction may be seen at a glance from the slope of the curve in Fig. 4. At high speeds the coefficient is comparatively great and decreases gradually as the speed falls, But when the speed becomes very low the coefficient rapidly increases 7 516 E. P. TAYLOR. until at the instant of stopping it has increased to about ten times the value. This is evidently due to the lubri- cating film having broken down at these low speeds allow- ing an increasing degree of metallic contact. Revs PER SECOND Fic 4. TIME in SECONDS To find the negative acceleration or retardation at a particular instant, say, at a speed of two revolutions per second, a tangent, Fig. 4, was drawn to the velocity-time curve at this speed. The retardation was given by the value of the tangent expressed in the proper scale units; that is, the instantaneous change of velocity divided by the time during which the change took place. As a description of calculating the moment of inertia of the engines, one case worked out for the National gas engine is here given. Fig. 5 shows one of the combined braked- free runs. This velocity-time curve was drawn from a chart taken with the high speed of the chronograph in gear. Tie scales of the curve are very open and consequently the curve is represented by two very-nearly straight lines. FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. 517 The change in their slopes occurs at the instant the brake is released. 2:9 PER SEcOND Revs a> 10 20-0. 230 40 50 60 Fic 5. Time in Seconps A tangent drawn to the upper curve at the change point gave a retardation of °0125 revolutions per second per second, and another drawn to the lower curve made the retardation at the consecutive instant *002. The brake pull was 33’6 Ibs. acting at a lever arm of 3°8 feet, therefore ae aoe Oe 27 (°0125 — °002) == US) elo, units. 518 R. ROBINSON AND H. G. SMITH. A NOTE ON THE PHENOLS OCCURRING IN SOME EUCALYPTUS OILS. | By ROBERT ROBINSON, D.Sc, and HENRY G. SMITH, F.C.S. [Received January 19, 1915.] So far as our knowledge goes phenolic bodies are absent in the greater portion of the essential oils of the various species of Hucalyptus, or, if occurring at all, are only present in very minute quantities, particularly in those usually found in commerce. In the oils of some species, however, phenols do occur, and it is the object of this note to record this fact. The chemistry of these bodies must be left for a subsequent paper. In the oil of EK. linearis of Tasmania a liquid phenol occurs in sufficient amount to enable its general characters to be determined, and as it does not appear to have been previously described we propose the name Tasmanol for it, as it appears to be most abundant in the oils of certain Tasmanian species, which, so far, are considered to be endemic in that island. Another species in which it occurs in fair amount is EK. Risdoni. The phenol was removed from the crude oil in the usual manner by shaking with aqueous sodium hydrate, washing the aqueous solution with ether to remove adhering oil, acidifying and extracting with ether. The residue, which contained a small amount of acetic and butyric acids, was washed with dilute sodium carbonate, extracted with ether, the ether removed and the phenol distilled. It boiled at 268 — 273° O. (uncor.) and at 175° under 25 mm. pressure. It was optically inactive, the specific gravity at 23° was 1°077, and the refractive index at 22° was1°5269. Besides PHENOLS OCCURRING IN SOME EUCALYPTUS OILS. 519 being soluble in the alkalis the phenol is soluble in ammonia, partly soluble also in sodium carbonate but not in bi-car- bonate. It also dissolves slightly in boiling water. The reaction with ferric chloride in alcoholic solution is charac- teristic, the deep red colour which is first formed remaining persistent for days, after the alcohol has evaporated. The odour reminds one somewhat of carvacrol under certain conditions. It contains one methoxy group and appears to have two phenolic groups in the para position to each other. : Tasmanol appears to be associated more with the cineol-phellandrene oils, but in the oils of certain species which do not contain phellandrene another phenol occurs, which, although probably allied with the other, is not identical with it, and may perhaps also be found to be anew substance. This phenol gives a green colour with ferric chloride in alcoholic solution, and is readily soluble in sodium carbonate, but not in bi-carbonate. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. ART. CONTENTS. XIII.—Continued ... aa ee ae BS hbo XIV.—Notes on Tasmanian Hydrozoa. By BE. A. BRIGGs, B.SC., © Zoologist, Australian Museum, Sydney. (Communicated by ~ C. Heputy, F.L.8., with the authority of the Trustees of the ~ Australian Museum, Sydney.) [With Plates X,XI.] — ... XV.—Notes on the Catalase Reaction of Milk. By H. B. TayLor, B.sc. (Communicated by Professor C. E. Fawsirr). XVI.—The Development and Distribution.of the Natural Order Leguminose. By E. C. ANDREWS, B.A., F.G.S. XVII.—On the Recovery of Actinium and Ionium from the Olary Ores. By S. Rapcuirr. ... aad oe XVIII.—The Hematozoa of Maes Batrachians, No. 2 By J. B. CLELAND, M.D. (Syd)... if sen 7 tine XIX.—Observations on some reputed Natural Rucsivpen Hybrids, together with descriptions of two new species. o J. H. MArpen, F.L.s. and R. H. CAMBAGE, F.L.S. XX.—Notes on Eucalyptus, (with a description of a new species) No.3. By v. H. Marpen, F.1.s. XXI.—Notes on Australian Fungi, No. 1. By z: : B. CLELAND, M.D., (Syd.) and Epwin CueEsrt, Botanic Assistant, Botanic Gardens, Sydney... sat ake ay XXII.—A new Croton from N.S.W. By R, Tr. ‘Bae BYL.B. [With Plate XII.] . sae ah oa Bs a XXITI..—A Note on - yeadit Sandeigns “* Blows.” re A Pappison. (Communicated by R. T. Bakur, F.1.8.) Bes XXIV.—Eudesmin and its Derivatives, Part 1.. By Professor R. Rosprinson, v.sc., Professor of Organic Chemistry in the University of Sydney, and H. G. Smits, F.c.s., Assistant Curator of the Technological~-Museum... . ... ans oot XXV.—On the Butyl Ester of Butyric Acid occurring in some Eucalyptus Oils. By H.G. Smiru, F.c.s. XXVI.—Note on the Estimation of Fat in Food for ee By H. G. CHAPMAN, M.D,, M.S. ... wats XX VII.—Studies in Statistical Reprdcentabion, IIL, ‘Curae ‘= their Logarithmic Homologues, and Anti-logarithmiec Generatrices; as applied to Statistical Data. By G.H = ~ ia fe ae XX VIII.—The Distribution-of Frictional Losses in Internal — Combustion Engines. By E. P. Taynor, B.e. (Communi-— cated by Prof. S. H. BARRacLouGH) ... is sf eee XXIX.—A note on the Phenols occurring in some Mucaly ame - Oils. By R. Roxzinson, D.sc. and H. G. SmitTH, F.c.s. pve 518 as KNIBBS, C.M.G., F.8.S., etc., and Ff. W. BARFORD, M.A., A.LA... |. ‘FINAL PART OF VOL. XiVIII. ISSUED APRIL 19th, 19165. ‘Vol, XLVIII. iy) Pai TV, ~ JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ~NEW SOUTH WALES | FOR 1914. f PART IV., (pp. (i) -— (xxii), i.-xxxiv.) COMPLETING VOL. XLVIII. Containing Abstract of Proceedings, Ti fle-Paso, Contents, List of Publications, List of Membérs, etc., and Index. SYDNEY : PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. LONDON AGENTS : GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, 17 Warwick Square, PaTERNOsTER Row, Lonpon, E.C. 1914. F. WHITE Typ,. 344 Kent Street Sydney. . Hu—December 2, 1914. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS Aopal Society of Ale South Wales. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, MAY 6th, 1914. The Annual Meeting, being the three hundred and sixty- fourth (364th) General Monthly Meeting of the Society, was held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth-street North, at 8 p.m. Mr. H. G. SMITH, President, in the Chair. Wifty-six members and three visitors were present. The minutes of the General Monthly Meeting of the 3rd December, 1913, were read and confirmed. The certificates of candidates for admission as ordinary members were read: two for the second, and four for the first time. Dr. G. HARKER and Dr. C. ANDERSON, were appointed Scrutineers, and Mr. W. M. HAMLET deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :-— ROBERT R. HOARE, Stafi Paymaster, Royal Navy, Garden Island, Sydney. JOHN SMITH PURDY, M.D., C.M., D.P.H., Metropolitan Medical Officer of Health, Town Hall, Sydney. It was announced that the Council had awarded the Olarke Memorial Medal to ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S., Keeper of Geology, British Museum, (Natural History), London. lv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Professor W. H. BATESON, M.A., F.R.S., Director of the John Innes Horticultural Institution, England, and Pro- fessor J. P. HILL, D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Zoology, University College, London, were duly elected Honorary Members of the Society. The receipt, during the recess, of 529 parts, 18 volumes, 21 reports, 8 maps and 2 catalogues was reported. Letters were read from representatives of the late Mr. J. H. GOODLET and the late Dr. ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE. The President announced that a Special Meeting of the Society would be held on the evening of May 21st, when an address entitled ‘“‘Napier and the Discovery of Loga- rithms’’ would be delivered by Professor H. 8S. CARSLAW. It was also announced that a series of Popular Science Lectures would be delivered. The Annual Financial Statement for the year ended 31st March, 1914, was submitted to members, and, on the motion of the Honorary Treasurer, Dr. H. G. CHAPMAN, seconded by GENERAL ACCOUNT. RECEIPTS. £ s. Gd. - eee To Cash in Bank on Ist a is AS nS Th stein 71 By », Subscriptions... ave es DOT Baw ¢ », Rents— Offices ... iy an 276 15 O Hall and Library ae us Bb0/12. 0 — 627 7 0 », Sundry Receipts... Aas coat ieme hoa 8) Rh Daa — 1147 4 1 », Clarke Memorial Fund-- Amount advanced to Building and Invest- ment Fund Soo BOO Amount advanced to General Fund eV TSB? OF — 455 0 0 »» Donation to Library (Dr. Quaife) _... was 20 0 O » Building and Investment Fund Account— (Subscription for Life Membership) ve 21 0 0 5», Dr. Balance carried forward, viz :— Unpresented cheques .. hes ss. aah on Less :—Credit Balance at Bank sae A 9 8 oO 1118 0O £1732 5 9 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. V. PAYMENTS. £ os. d. Lesa: By Salaries and Wages— Office Salaries and Accountancy Fees ... 130 0 O Assistant Librarian... os Ne com Jel OPO Caretaker... Rae Me ass ihe, SLI Gy AO) ' 366 16 O ,, Printing, Stationery, Advertising, Stamps etc. Advertising . siea ate chi aes 9 2 0 Office Sendrios sa we ae Sat 5 14 10 Stamps and Telegrams _... aes a aoe 7 OF 20 Stationery ... ate ae ae was lies -——— 57 14 3 >, Rates, Taxes and Services— Electric Light Re ces see fae, be Ong Gas. .... a sas ae dah a G74 38 Insurance ... a ae nae ee LS ul Rates ... vee a ; ae: Cae Iie 2r6 Telephone ... aes A be sare Gy Le kl 140 15 4 », Printing and Publishing Society’s Volume— Printing 2 G3 ae ae wy GSP 2hS Blocks “a nae sae 273) 9 Freight, Caries ‘ited Packing “a a: Thy BN 8} —— 16615 3 » Library— Books and Periodicals sia nas os) LOSS co Bookbinding... af eh Me Nas OO, reg 167 6 O By Sundry Expenses— Bank Charges and Exchange ... apn 011 6 Repairs bei a Ne on des 815 9 Lantern Operator ... 2a se, 2. 40°12 6 Sundries La aa pe ef tee oon on. 6Z ——- 59 14 11 » Interest on Mortgage ... diol Sad we Oa 10T 70 Clarke Memorial Fund ... ae SoS) 4,0 118 4 O » Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science—On account of repayment of Loan 300 0 0 », Clarke Memorial Fund— Instalment Refund to Ruilding anu Investment Fund ae a We 200 3OUL@ 0 O Refund to General Fund ... — Jie LOD Biya 0) 1G) £1732 5 9 Compiled from the books and accounts of the Royal Society of New South Wales and certified to be in accordance therewith. (Signed) H. G. CHAPMAN, m.p., Honorary Treasurer. W. PERCIVAL MINELL, F.c.p.a. Syvpyev, 24TH AprRIL, 1914. (Auditor.) vi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. BUILDING AND INVESTMENT FUND. RECEIPTS. & s. oae To Loan on Mortgage from the A.A.A. Science— Balance as at 3lst March, 1918 ... ial was s.. - 2800) "0am » General Fund— Amount received to date... ae Pa ae a. 105s a ,», Amount received for Life Membership _... ae eae 21 0 0 £2926 0 0 PAYMENTS. £ s. d. By A.A.A. Science— Amount repaid to date... oe: a sas .- -d0O>O7eG », Luterest Account— Amount paid to A.A.A. Science... ree < wot LOS Oli ,, General Fund— Amount paid to date wie nce un aa wie 21 0 0 , Balance owing on Loan to date an ae ae .. 2500 0 0 £2926 0 0 CLARKE MEMORIAL FUND. BALANCE SHEET, 31st Marca, 1914. LIABILITIES. £s.d. £ ‘s,.d5 ce eemee Accumulation Fund— Amount at 31st March, 1913 an 551.10 4 Additions during the year— Interest Savings Bank wi =O ABOLO " ’ General Fund wn LBRO 22 17 10 574 8 2 ASSETS. £ s. d. £) sea Royal Society General Fund = oe 400 0 O Cash Deposited in Savings Bank of N.S. w. 164 6" One ae Government Savings Bank ey ten aa Commonwealth ,, sb 5 0 6 / 174 8 2 £574 8 2 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. vil. STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND Payments, 3lst Maron, 1914. RECEIPTS. a Saar Gy eer 1Se bl. To Balance at 3lst March, 1913— Savings Bank of N.S.W. ... ape soe lal Saal Government Savings Bank me we AOR RG, | Fe), ote KON IA », Interest to date— Savings Bank of N.S.W. ... ote bs 9 13 10 Government Savings Bank oe ach 1 ES an GO) ae 22 17 10 » General Fund— Amounts refunded to date... ade ee 3505 0 O £629 8 2 PAYMENTS. os) 820d 8 2ollissa ds By General Fund— Advances to date om a ee she 455 0 9 » Balance at this date— Savings Bank of N.S.W. Ae ae .. 164 6 O Government Savings Bank Sy Commonwealth Savings Bank 5a ipl ge OF OO _—— Win 8) 2 £629 8 2 A report on the state of the Society’s property and the following annual report of the Council were read :— ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1913-14. (1st May to 30th April.) The Council regrets to report the death ofa very dis- tinguished Honorary Member, ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE, 0.M., and the loss of seven ordinary members. Ten members have resigned. On the other hand, twenty-three new members have been elected during the year, which consti- tutes a record in the history of the Society. To day (29th April, 1914) the roll of members stands at 313, and, considering the number of scientific and cognate societies in New South Wales, which meet special require- ments, the number is a creditable one. During the Society’s year members have assembled as a body ten times. Vill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, There were eight monthly meetings, a meeting on the 17th of March to honour Dr. MAWSON on his return from Antarctica and the Annual Dinner at Farmer’s Restaurant on the 24th of April, 1913. On this latter occasion the Society was honoured by the company of His Honour Sir W. P. CULLEN, K.C.M.G., LL.D., Chief Justice, and the Presidents of several Societies. EKleven meetings of the Council were held. Twenty-one papers were read at the ordinary monthly meetings and there were numerous exhibits. Four Popular Science Lectures were given during the year, the titles being as follows :— July 17—“ The Grand Cafion of Colarado and its Lessons,” by Mr. EK. C. ANDREWS, B.A., F.G.S. August 21—‘‘ The Evolution of Architectural Style,” by Mr. JAMES NANGLE, F.R.A.S. September 18—‘“Alkali, Alkaloid, Alkohol,” Mr. W. M. HAMEED, F.1.C5.F.C.8; October 16—“ Irrigation in India and in Egypt,” by Pro- fessor W. H. WaRREN, LL.D. The President then delivered the Annual Address. On the motion of Professor David, seconded by Mr. HAMLET, a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to the retiring President for his valuable address. Mr. SMITH briefly acknowledged the compliment. There being no other nominations, the President declared the following gentlemen to be Officers and Council for the coming year :— President: C. HEDLEY, F...s. Vice-Presidents: F. H. QUAIFE, m.a., u.p. J. H. MAIDEN, F.1us. D. CARMENT, t.1.4., F.F.A. HENRY G. SMITH, F.c.s. Hon. Treasurer: H. G, CHAPMAN, mp. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ix. Hon. Secretaries: R. H. CAMBAGE, L.s., F.1L.s. | Prof. POLLOCK, p.sc. Members of Couneil: J. B. CLELAND, m.p., cH.M. W. M. HAMLET, F.1.c., F.c.s. Prof. T. W. E. DAVID, c.m.a., B.a.,| T. H. HOUGHTON, m. Inst. c.2. W. S. DUN. [D.sc., F-R.S.| J NANGLE, FR.as. R. GREIG-SMITH, p.sc. C. A. SUSSMILCH, F.«a:s. F. B. GUTHRIE, rf.1.c¢., F.c.s. H. D. WALSH, B.A.1., M. INST. C.E. Mr. SMITH, the outgoing President, then installed Mr. HEDLEY as President for the ensuing year, and the latter briefly returned thanks. NAPIER COMMEMORATIVE LECTURE. A Special Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth-street North, on Thursday, May 21st at 8 p.m., in commemoration of the Tercentenary of the publication of the “ Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio,’? when Professor H. S. CARSLAW, Se.D., delivered an address on “‘ Napier and the Discovery of Logarithms.”’ At the conclusion of the lecture a vote of thanks was passed to the lecturer on the proposal of His Excellency -the Governor, Sir GERALD STRICKLAND, G.C.M.G., seconded by Professor DAVID, C.M.G. == ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, JUNE 3rd, 1914, The three hundred and sixty-fifth (365th) General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth-street North, at 8 p.m. Mr. C. HEDLEY, President, in the Chair. Thirty members and one visitor were present. Xe: ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of candidates for admission as ordinary members were read: four for the second, and two for the first time. Mr. L. HARGRAVE and Mr. W. WELCH were appointed Scrutineers, and Dr. GREIG-SMITH deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society:— ARTHUR GREIG, Assoc. M.I. Mech.E., Harbours Branch, Public Works Department. WILLIAM EH. KEMP, Assoc. M. Inst. c.E., Public Works, Department, Sydney. Dr. G. H. STANDISH LIGHTOLLER, “‘ Yetholm,’’ New South Head Road, Darling Point. Dr. F. G. N. STEPHENS, “‘Gleneugie,’’ New South Head Road, Rose Bay. On the motion of Dr. ANDERSON, seconded by Mr. HALLIGAN, Mr. W. P. MINELL was elected Auditor for the current year. A letter was read from the Registrar of the University asking co-operation, by the provision of exhibits, in the Oonversazione to be given during the visit of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in August. The Honorary Secretary stated that the Council of this Society had directed that members were to be notified of the date when the list of proposed exhibits was to be sent to the University. Four volumes, 78 parts and 6 reports were laid upon the table. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. “‘On the Accuracy of Neumann’s Method for the Hsti- mation of Phosphorus,”’ by H. S. H. WARDLAW, B.Sc, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xl. 2. Hepaticz Australes,’ by Dr. FRANZ STEPHANI, and Rev. W. WALTER WatTTs. (Communicated by Mr. J. H. MAIDEN). Remarks were made by the President. 3. ‘*Dimorphic Foliage of Acacia rubida, and Fructification during Bipinnate Stage,’’ by R. H. CAMBAGE, F.L.S. Remarks were made by Dr. CLELAND and Mr. MAIDEN. EXHIBITS: 1. A parrafin bath for preparation of microscopic sections, and a water bath for general laboratory purposes, by Pro- fessor CHAPMAN. 2. A collection of synthetic gem stones, rubies and sap- phires, by Mr. H. G. SMITH. 3. Somerare earths containing ionium, by Mr.S. RADCLIFF. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, JULY Ist, 1914. The three hundred and sixty-sixth (366th) General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held at the Society’s House, 5 Elizabeth-street North, at 8 p.m. Mr. C. HEDLEY, President, in the Chair. Thirty-one members and three visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of two candidates for admission as ordinary members were read for the second time. Mr. L. HARGRAVE and Mr. J. HE. CARNE were appointed Scrutineers, and Mr. C. A. SUSSMILCH deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The following gentlemen were duly elected . ordinary members of the Society:— xi, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ALEXANDER BURNETT HECTOR, Manufacturing Chemist, 481 Kent-street, Sydney. DAVID REID, General Manager in Australia of Orient Line of Royal Mail Steamers, ‘*‘Holmsdale,”’’ Pymble. On the motion of Professor DAVID seconded by Mr. H. G. SMITH, it waS unanimously decided that a very hearty message of congratulation from this Society be sent to Sir THOMAS ANDERSON STUART, a former President, and to Sir DouGLaAs MAwson, in recognition of the honour of Knighthood having been conferred upon them by His Majesty the King. Professor CHAPMAN brought under notice the desirability of intending members for the August Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science enrolling as early as possible, so as to avoid congestion during the last week, and he expressed the hope that there would be a large enrolment. Four volumes, 175 parts, 15 reports, and 1 map were laid upon the table. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. ‘‘The Australian Journal of Dr. W. Stimpson, Zoologist,”’ with an introduction by C. HEDLEY, F.L.S. 2. “On the Nature of the Deposit obtained from Milk by spinning in a centrifuge,”’ (Preliminary Communication) by H. S. H. WARDLAW, B.Sc. 3. ““The Geology of the Cooma District, N.S.W., Part I,” by W. R. BROWNE, B.Sc. Remarks were made by Professor DAVID, Mr. SUSSMILCH, Mr. CARNE, and Mr. BENSON. 4. “The Oxidation of Sucrose by Potassium Permanzanate,”’ by C. W. R. POWELL, Science Research Scholar, University of Sydney. (Communicated by Professor C. E. Fawsitt). Remarks were made by Professor FAWSITT. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. X1ll. EXHIBIT. Mr. J. EK. CARNE F.G.S., Assistant Government Geologist, exhibited polished specimens of nepheline-zgirine rock from about six miles N.K. of Lue railway station on the Mudgee railway line. Here, and in the neighbouring Barigan district, this rare and highly interesting rock occurs in huge dome-shaped masses or laccolites. The colour of the rock varies from pale mottled blue, greenish-grey and pinkish-grey with dark green feathery crystals of eegirine, to brown with red and green mottling. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, AUGUST 5th, 1914. The three hundred and sixty-seventh (367th) General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth-street North, at 8 p.m. Mr. O. HEDLEY, President, in the Chair. Thirty-one members and one visitor were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificate of one candidate for admission as an ordinary member was read for the first time. The President welcomed Professor W. M. DAVIS as a visitor from Harvard University, U.S.A. Letters were read from Professor BATESON, who had been elected an Honorary Member of this Society: from Sir THOMAS ANDERSON STUART, who had been congratulated by the Society on receiving the honour of Knighthood: and from Dr. A. SMITH WOODWARD, who had been awarded the Clarke Memorial Medal by this Society. The President urged the desirability of intending mem- bers for the coming meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science enrolling as early as possible. XIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Ten volumes, 233 parts, 2 maps and 2 reports were laid upon the table. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. ‘‘Pressure in relation to the solid components of the Harth’s Crust,’ by H. J. STATHAM, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Abstract.—A list of thirty test specimens of various rocks, as given in Molesworth’s Pocket Book of Engineer- ing formule, shows that the crushing strains per square inch vary from “Cheshire Red Sandstone”’ 2,185 fbs. per square inch to “‘ Welsh Slate’’ 21,000 tbs. per square inch. A paper by FRANCIS Fox, c.#.,' dealing with the construc- tion of the Simplon Tunnel through the Alps, gives interesting data in this connection. This great work penetrates to a depth of 7,005 feet beneath the slopes and crags of Mount Leone, the highest mountain of the Simplon Range, 11,684 feet above sea level: this is by far the greatest depth to which man has ever been below the sur- face of the earth. The rock consists chiefly of gneiss, mica schist, and on the Italian side of antigorio gneiss, but in some places limestone was encountered. Great pressures were experienced in places when the geological beds were horizontal, and much heavy timbering was required. The maximum temperature was 133° F. in proximity to the maximum depth of tunnel (7,005 feet). Formidable diffi- culties were encountered in unsound rock, which it is needless to detail, but the effect of pressure causing ‘“‘ereeping of the floor’’ is pertinent to the intent of this paper. The rising of the floor occurred in several places even in solid rock, and it became necessary to construct inverts for a very considerable distance ; 54 feet of granite blocks being used in some instances. Under-pinning with similar granite blocks was also necessary where side thrusts were met with. It will thus be seen that all but the 1 Proce. Inst. C.E. Vol. cxyim, poor: ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XV. hardest gneiss is crushed under a pressure of 7,000 feet equal to 7,770 tbs. per square inch, whereas granite can stand a pressure of from 10,000 to 14,000 Ibs. to the square inch before crushing. Pari passu the more resistent Welsh slate would require 18,918 feet of similar pressure to crush it, that is at a depth of a little more than 3} miles. It is probable, therefore, that at a depth of 4 miles every descrip- tion of rock would be crushed as at 35 miles depth with an increment of 67°5* F., the temperature would be 280° F., and at 4 miles, over 301° F. 2. ‘“‘The composition of some lime-sulphur sprays made according to recognised formule,’’ by A. A. RAMSAY. (Communicated by Mr. F. B. GUTHRIE.) Remarks were made by Mr. HAMLET. 3. *“‘On the diffusible phosphorus of Cow’s Milk,’’ by H.S. H. WARDLAW, B.Sc. Remarks were made by Professor CHAPMAN, Dr. QUAIFE and Mr. HAMLET. EXHIBIT. Mr. OLLE exhibited some examples of a condensation product of phenol. Remarks were made by Mr. CLUNIES Ross. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, SEPTEMBER 2nd, 1914. The three hundred and sixty-eighth (368th) General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth-street North, at 8 p.m. Mr. C. HEDLEY, President, in the Chair. Thirty-four members and seven visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. XVi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The President welcomed Professor MINCHIN, Professor Guipo Cora, Mr. J. T. CunningHam and Dr. ARMITT, visiting members of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science. The certificates of candidates for admission as ordinary members were read: one for the second, and one for the first time. Mr. L. HARGRAVE and Mr. E. C. ANDREWS were appointed Scrutineers, and Mr. W. M. HAMLET deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society :— | EKpmunp FEF. Broap, Timber and General Importer, ‘“Cobbam,’’ Woolwich Road, Hunter’s Hill. A letter was read from Professor J. P. Hitt who had been elected an Honorary Member of this Society: and the Hon. Secretary conveyed an appreciative message from Sir DouGLAS Mawson who had been congratulated by the Society upon his having received the honour of Knighthood. Six volumes, 308 parts, 11 reports, 2 catalogues and 3 maps were laid upon the table. THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ: ‘* Mountains of Hastern Australia and their effect on the Native Vegetation,’’ by R. H. CAMBAGE, F.L.S. Remarks were made by Mr. R. T. BAKER, Mr. G. H. HALLIGAN, Mr. H. C. ANDREWS, Professor GUIDO CORA and Judge DOCKER. Professor CorA and Professor MINCHIN, as visiting scien- tists, expressed their appreciation of the treatment received from fellow scientists, while in Australia. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XVil. EXHIBITS. 1. Mr. EK. F. PITTMAN sent a new geological map of New South Wales which had just been prepared under his super- vision. 2. Mr. G. P. DARNELL SMITH exhibited a so-called bulb of the pest Prickly Pear, Opuntia inermis, and pointed out that in any device for destroying this plant it would be necessary to include a means of destroying this bulb. 3. Mr. SmirH exhibited the seed case of the Wooden Pear, Xylomelum pyriforme, which on being gathered had been immediately bound with copper wire. Such is the force with which the seed case gradually opens that the copper wire, if not broken, cuts into the seed case, which is of extraordinary hardness. ; 4, Specimens of a siliceous sponge Purisiphonia Clarkei, Bowerbank, from the Lower Cretaceous of Wollumbilla, Queensland, were exhibited by Mr. W. S. Dun. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, OCTOBER 7th, 1914. The three hundred and sixty-ninth (369th) General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth-street North, at 8 p.m. Mr. C. HEDLEY, President, in the Chair. Twenty-eight members and one visitor were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificate of one candidate for admission as an ordinary member was read for the second time. Mr. G. Hooper and Mr. WELCH were appointed Scru- tineers, and Dr. Greic-S iirH deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. I1— December 2, 1914. XVili. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society:— Dr. A. KH. FINcKH, Medical Practitioner, 227 Macquarie- street. A communication was read from Dr. C. MACLAURIN expressing his appreciation of the message of sympathy which had been conveyed to him at the time of the death of his father, Sir NORMAND MACLAURIN. Donations consisting of 317 parts, 1 volume, 15 reports and 1 catalogue were laid upon the table. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. “Description of a Limestone of Lower Miocene Age from Bootless Inlet, Papua,’’ by FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.S., F.R.M.S. (Communicated by Mr. W. S. Dun.) Remarks were made by Professor DAVID. 2. ““Note on the Catalase Reaction of Milk,” by H. B. TAYLOR, B.Sc. (Communicated by Prof. C. E. FawsitTtT). Remarks were made by Professor Faws!tr and Professor CHAPMAN. EXHIBITS: 1. Glaciated boulders from a newly discovered area of the Permo-Carboniferous Lochinvar Glacial beds, and also from a newly discovered glacial horizon from what appear to be the topmost beds of the Rhacopteris Series of the Lower Carboniferous beds at Seaham and Paterson in the Lower Hunter area, by Professor T. W. EDGEWORTH DAVID, F.R.S., and Mr. C. A. SUSSMILCH. 2. Mr. J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S., exhibited living plants of :— (i.) Myremecodia Muelleri, Beccari, Papua. (ii.) Hydno- phylum formicaruim, Jack, var. dubium, Beccari, Malacca; both possess opinous tubers of great size, which. are gal- leried by ants. (iii.) Homalomena Wallisii, Regel, Aracece (Homalaomenince) from Colombia. (iv.) Calmus ciliaris, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XIX... Blume, Malaya. (v.) Durio zibethinus, DC., the Durian, Malaya. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, NOVEMBER 4th, 1914. The three hundred and seventieth (370th) General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth-street North, at 8 p.m. Mr. C. HEDLEY, President, in the Chair. Thirty-eight members and three visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of two candidates for admission as ordinary members were read for the first time. Donations consisting of 4 volumes, 77 parts, 7 reports, 1 map and 2 calendars were laid upon the table. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. ‘‘ Notes on Tasmanian Hydrozoa,”’ by EH. A. BRIGGS, B.Sc. (Communicated by Mr. C. HEDLEY, F.L.S.) 2. ‘“*The Development and Distribution of the Natural Order Leguminose,”’ by H. C. ANDREWS, B.A., F.G.S. Remarks were made by Mr. FREEMAN, Mr. MAIDEN, Mr. CAMBAGE and Mr. CHEEL. 3. ““On the Recovery of Actinium and Ionium from the Olary Ores,”’ by S. RADCLIFF. Remarks were made by Professor FAWSITT. 4, “The Hematozoa of Australian Batrachians, No. 2,” by J. BURTON CLELAND, M_D., Ch.M: EXHIBIT. Professor FAWSITT exhibited an apparatus for the pre- paration of nitrogen from the air according to a method described by VAN BRUNT in the Journal of the American Chemical Society for July, 1914. XX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, DECEMBER 2nd, 1914. The three hundred and seventy-first (371st) General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth-street North, at 8 p.m. Mr. C. HEDLEY, President, in the Chair. Thirty-six members were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of two candidates for admission as ordinary members were read for the second time. Mr. R. T. BAKER and Mr. HE. C. ANDREWS were appointed Scrutineers, and Dr. CLELAND deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society:— HAROLD BURFIELD TAYLOR, B.Sc., ‘* Ronsahl,’’ Moruben Road, Mosman. JOHN BisHoPp, Publisher, 24 Bond-street, Sydney. Letters were read from Mrs. M. Canty and Mrs. W. J.. CLUNIES Ross, expressive of their appreciation of the sympathy of members which had been extended to them in their recent bereavements. The President referred to the projected departure of the Antarctic Expedition, and on the motion of Professor DAVID. seconded by His Honour Judge DockER, the following resolution was carried unanimously:— ‘‘We the members of the Royal Society of New South Wales. on this the eve of the departure for Antarctica of the S.Y. ‘‘Aurora’’ from Sydney, desire to convey our best wishes. to Commander AINEAS MACKINTOSH, R.N.R., and all the members of the Imperial Transantarctic Expedition. It is. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XX1. our pious hope that the leader of the Hxpedition, Sir ERNEST SHACKLETON, with his party from Weddell Sea may be spared to carry the Union Jack entrusted to him by His Majesty successfully and gloriously across the Ant- arctic Continent, and that Captain MACKINTOSH and his brave comrades may be able to join forces with those of the leader and share in this great journey for the honor of the Flag and for the Advancement of Science. Most heartily do we wish God-speed and a safe return to every member of the Expedition.’’ It was announced that donations consisting of 6 volumes, 84 parts and 2 reports, were laid upon the table. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. “Observations on some reputed natural Hucalyptus Hybrids, together with descriptions of two new species,’’ by J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S., and R. H. CAMBAGE, F.L.S. 2. “Notes on Eucalyptus,’’ No. 3, by J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S. Remarks were made by Mr. H. C. ANDREWS. 3. ““Notes on Australian Fungi,’’ No. 1, by J. BurTON CLELAND, M.D., and EDWIN OCHEEL. 4. “‘A new Croton from New South Wales., by R. T. BAKER, F.L.S. 5. “* Hudesmin and its Derivatives’ (part 1), by R. RoBin- SON, D.Sc., and H. G. SMITH, F.C.S. Remarks were made by Mr. CHALLINOR. 6. ““On the butyl ester of butyric acid occurring in some HKucalyptus Oils,’’ by H. G. SMITH, F.c.s. 7. “Note on the Estimation of Fat in Food for Infants,”’ by H. G. CHAPMAN, M.D., M.S. 8. “Studies in Statistical Representation, III: Curves, their Logarithmic Homologues, and Antilogarithmic Generatrices, as applied to Statistical Data,’’ by G. H. KNIBBS, C.M.G., and F. W. BARFORD, M.A., A.I.A. Xx. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 9. **‘The Distribution of Frictional Losses in Internal Com- bustion Engines,” by E. P. TayLor, B.E. (Communi- cated by Professor S. H. BARRACLOUGH). EXHIBITS. Mr. C. A. SUSSMILCH exhibited some remarkable examples of miniature rock folding from near Seaham. Mr. H. CHEEL exhibited specimens and submitted notes on the following species of Acacia :— Acacia intertexta, Sieb. in DC. Prodr. ii, p. 454 (1825): A. obtusifolia, A. Cunn., in Baron Field’s N.S. Wales, p. 345 (1825). This species is included by Bentham under A. longifolia, Willd., c. typica. It may be distinguished from the latter species by the following characters :—A. inter- texta flowers during the months of December and January, but rarely matures its pods and seeds. A few pods were obtained from plants at Mount York near Mount Victoria in December, 1900, and from plants collected on the Woro- nora River in October, 1901, and also from plants at Hill Top in November, 1914. Although the pods are only found on an occasional plant, the individual plants are very numerous on the Blue Mountains, and also in the neigh- bourhood of Hill Top, on the southern line. The ripe pods are more fleshy or pulpy than those of A. longifolia, Willd., the latter being much thinner in texture and are produced in abundance. Although the plants of A. intertexta very rarely produce mature pods and seeds, it is found upon examination that the plants spread very rapidly by means of suckers. So far as I can ascertain, very few records have been made of Acacias reproducing themselves by means of suckers. R. T. Lowe in “A Manual Flora of Madeira etc.,’’ p. 231 (1848) mentions that Acacia dealbata, Link. is cultivated in gardens in Madeira, and that ‘“‘the roots run near the surface, throwing up suckers.’’ Inthe Proc. Linn. N.S.W., ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXill. Vol. xxxvi (1911), 158, I recorded the sucker producing habit of Acacia pugioniformis, Wendl. I have also noted that Acacia salicina, Lindl., produces suckers very freely under cultivation in the Sydney district, as will be seen by the specimens herewith exibited. Acacia longifolia, Wild.—This species has a very wide range, and specimens have been collected in flower during the months of May to August in the Sydney district, and in September at Hill Top and Bowral. The phyllodes are thinner in texture, with a very prominent gland near the base, and the pods are much thinner in texture and more or less constricted, and produced in abundance. The production of an abundance of seed accounts for the free cultivation of this latter species, and it is interesting to note that the figures quoted by Bentham in Bot. Mag. t. 1827, 2166; Bot. Reg. t. 362; Lodd. Bot. Cab. t. 678, are all from cultivated plants and agree with the plants com- monly known as the “Sydney Golden Wattle,’’ which is referrable to A. longifolia. In the Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. xxx (1905), p. 213, Mr. R. H. CAMBAGE has drawn attention to another species of Acacia which produced suckers. In this paper Mr. CAMBAGE points out that in trying to ascertain why num- bers of young Yarran (Acacia homalophylla) trees grew | with one horizontal root instead of a system of lateral roots, he discovered that those with the horizontal roots were suckers, and were much more plentiful around a ring- barked Yarran or where one had been cut down, than around a growing tree. In one instance a sucker was traced by the root for a distance of twenty-seven feet from the parent tree. He infers that probably most of the old Yarran trees grew from seedlings, and that suckers have become more common since the advent of clearing and ringbarking operations. Pretti gs it ni (a ‘a GEOLOGICAL SECTION. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION. <= Monthly Meeting, 10th June, 1914. Prof. T. W. E. Davin in the Chair. Fifteen members and six visitors were present. Professor W. M. Davis, Harvard University, Cambridge, U.S.A., was introduced by the Chairman and gave an address on the various theories used to explain the develop- ment of Coral Reefs. The address was spoken to by Messrs. E. C. ANDREWS, HEDLEY, HALLIGAN and the Chairman. Monthly Meeting, Sth July, 1914. Prof. T. W. EH. DAVID in the Chair. Nine members and three visitors were present. Dr. C. ANDERSON exhibited (a) Gold crystals from Darwin, N. T.; (b) Mimetite, from Mount Bonney, N.T.; (c) Wille- mite, from Franklin, N. Jersey. Mr. W. N. BENSON gave an account of his researches on the geology of the Serpentine Belt of New England, New South Wales. The address was spoken to by Messrs. CoTron, HAMMOND, SUSSMILCH, CAMBAGE and the Chairman. Monthly Meeting, 14th October, 1914. Professor T. W. E. DAvin in the Chair. Thirteen members and seven visitors were present. XXVIII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 1. Mr. H.C. ANDREWS exhibited numerous polished slices of ore and country rock from the Great Cobar Copper and the Mount Boppy Gold Mines, also specimens of ore from the Budgerygar and Tottenham Copper Mines. Large hand specimens of slate and sandstone from the Mount Boppy Gold Mine were also shown. The exhibits were selected from a collection of specimens obtained during the geological survey of the Cobar and Canbelego Mining Fields, and they illustrate in a striking manner, the great alter- ation which the rocks of the districts under consideration have undergone. The ores exhibited from the Great Cobar Copper Mine are massive copper pyrites, magnetic pyrites, magnetite, galena, zinc-blende, and iron silicate, in intimate association and which occur as lenses of enormous size in slate within a wide zone of faulting or crushing. The great lenses under consideration represent the replacement of slate by ore solutions. In other ore specimens exhibited from the siliceous deposits of Cobar, magnetite, magnetic pyrites, and iron silicate are almost completely absent. These siliceous ores, however, represent replacement by silica, iron sulphide and gold, solutions within long zones of faulting. The Budgerygar and Tottenham copper ores exhibited, illustrate the action of selective replacement in sandstone and slate which have been highly folded and puckered. Thin and puckered layers have been replaced by sulphides although intermediate layers exhibit slight replacement only, in the nature of iron pyrites as crystals scattered throughout such layers. Types of structure strikingly suggestive of miniature ‘saddles’ and ‘inverted saddles’ are common in the Tottenham mines. ‘The specimens exhibited of the country rock from the Mount Boppy Gold Mine consist of crossbedded sandstone and slate which have been intensely puckered. Undera strong lens these puckered layers show faulting of overthrust nature. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xe 2. Mr. PatneE—Devonian fossils from Quambaa, Rhyn- chonella cf. plewrodon, Leptodomus, Grammysia (?). 3. Mr. W. R. BRownE—Granitic and other rocks from the Cooma district. 4, Mr. J. H. CARNE—Diallage from Solferino. 5. Mr. W.S. DuN—A new Paleesasterid from the Permo- Carboniferous beds of Gympie, Queensland. 6. Professor T. W. E. DAvip—Glaciated boulders from Seaham. * Mr. L. F. HARPER read a note on the correlation of the coal seams occurring in the upper portion of the Upper Coal Measures as exhibited in the Southern, Liverpool, Sydney and Newcastle districts. THE IDENTITY OF THE SYDNEY HarBour CoLuizRies CoaL SEAM. This coal seam has always been definitely correlated with No. 1 or the Bulli Seam of the Southern Coal Field. It is proposed in this note to bring forward certain points which in the writer’s opinion, justify some doubts as to the exact horizon of the Sydney Harbour Collieries Coal Seam. The evidence obtained from the various bores put down between the Southern and Northern coal fields may first be reviewcd: No. 1 Bore, Cremorne (Sydney Harbour) penetrated about 300 feet of Permo-Carboniferous strata, and it is interesting to compare this section with a similar thick- Approx. Number total Locality. of Coal | thickness Remarks. horizons.| of coal and bands. Newcastle District. ... 7 68 The two upper seams are being worked with a total thickness of 32 feet. Hawkesbury River ... 7 18 None of the seams are workable. Sydney ss Pee 5 19 Only the top seam is workable, | ‘| (from 5 to 10 feet) Illawarra District 6 40 Practically all the coal is won (Southern Coal Field)| from the top seam (from 4 ft. to 12 ft.) No.2 seam worked | to a small extent. XXX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ness near Newcastle, in the Hawkesbury River Bore, and. a natural section of similar strata in the Southern Coal Field near Wollongong. A detail section of the lower portion of the Cremorne Bore as compared with a corresponding section in the Southern Coal Field may now be considered. CREMORNE. SOUTHERN Coat FIELD. Ft. In. Ft. In. Top coal seam ... ..» 8 9% No.1 Coal Seam ... ween. $Oys @ Strata ae cae ae DO Strata as ... 16 ft. to 26 Clayey calcined coal... 1 1 No. 2 Coal Seam ... ree eal! Strata oe ne .. @L 13 Strata aut 60 ft. to 100 , Coal (dirty splint) 2 No. 3 Coal Seam ..._ up to 18 Strata Pas ae nce) ae “0 Strata ts ... 40 ft. to 60 Inferior coal Sai ie . OO No. 4 Coal Seam ... 6 ft. to 10 Strata a _ ee oP) Strata Rs — or) BOn ao Coal (inferior in part) ... 2 4 No. 5 Coal Seam ... con oe OO Strata eee cs 6 Strata =i ... 80 ft. to 50 Coal and bands ... ans Sealge A No. 6 Coal Seam ... Jee) SD Strata nae oe sme, OA Mid Strata io 80 ft. to 150 Coal and bands ... ree ON 25 Strata at: Abe soe OO The coal seams penetrated by this bore afford no reliable guide for correlation, for most of them are very thin and may represent splits. If the top seam pierced be excluded, there is no seam at all comparable to No. 3 of the Southern Coal Field, which is there the most persistent horizon, and at the southern end occupies the top of the measures, No. 1 and No. 2, having thinned out entirely. That such is the case may be seen beneath the Fitzroy and Bel- more Falls. Attention is now called to the Liverpool Bore section, the lower portion of which is as follows :— No. 1 Coal Seam __... nae we > 1 fe Sain, Strata .. a: ae age sen Leta We No. 2 Coal Seam ... wae nae!) 7 tie Ay ia Strata ... sete a a“ «oe JAG. Sime No. 3 Coal Seam .... an w.. . O 1b. Ge In, Compare this with the upper portion of the Southern Coal Field exposures of Permo-Carboniferous strata and the similarity justifies their identification as given in the section, the differences in thick- Se he ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXX1. ness evidently being due to a normal thinning in that direction. This in the writer’s opinion paves the way for a complete thinning out of the upper portion of the measures under Sydney. This possibility is again evidenced in the Mount Westmacott and Holt- Sutherland No. 3 Bores, in-which No. 1 seam was proved to have diminished from 12 feet at Helensburgh to 4 ft. 84 in. and 4 ft. 2 in. respectively. With regard to the southern extension of the Northern Coal Field, it may be again pointed out that no seams comparable in thickness with Nos. 1, 2 and 3 were proved by the Hawkesbury River Bore, so that a thinning from that end towards Sydney has been proved. ; The second point brought forward is the pronounced split proved in the opening up of the Sydney Harbour Collieries coal seam. One of the features of the Bulli seam is that no split has ever yet been found in it where its identity is undoubted. Having regard to the origin of splits, it seems unlikely that one would occur in the central portion of the area of deposition and not in the peri- pheral portion. A third item for consideration, and one more tangible than either of those already advanced, is the finding of Glossopteris impressions at least 4 feet 74 in. above the roof of the seam in the Balmain shaft. Great importance is placed upon this fossil in determining the upward limits of the Permo-Carboniferous forma- tions in New South Wales, and Professor Davin has laid particular stress upon the fact that there is not a single instance on record of Glossopteris having been found above the top seam of the Northern coal field. Mr. J. E. Carne, Assistant Government Geologist, had the same experience in the Western coal field, and was unable to record the presence of Glossopteris above the Katoomba seam, which he correlates with the Bulli seam. During the geological survey of the Southern Coal Field par- ticular attention was paid to this important question, but no specimen of Glossopteris was found overlying the Bulli seam. This evidence all serves to confirm the opinion held by our leading XXXll. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. geologists, that Glossopteris died out absolutely with the top coal seam of the New South Wales Permo-Carboniferous beds. Bearing this in mind, and in view of the conflicting evidence obtained in the Balmain shaft, we are compelled to accept one of two theories, either : 1. Conditions were favourable in the central portion of our Permo-Carboniferous basin for the survival of Glossopteris above the Bulli coal seam horizon. 2. The coal seam now being worked under Sydney Harbour is on a lower horizon, and is overlain by Permo-Carboniferous strata devoid of coal seams. ) Any one of the points raised, if considered alone, may have no significance, but are we justified in ignoring the evidence as a whole? The writer is inclined to favour the possibility of the Sydney Harbour coal seam being on a lower horizon than the Bulli seam, possibly No. 2 or No. 3, and is of the opinion that whilst Permo-Carboniferous sedimentation continued in the central portion of the basin, conditions were not favourable for the form- ation of a coal seam during its closing phases. The question was discussed by Messrs. PITTMAN, ATKIN- son, CARNE, DuN, and Professor DavibD, and replied to by Mr. HARPER. Monthly Meeting, 11th November, 1914. Prof. T. W. E. DAVID in the Chair. Twelve members and six visitors were present. Professor DAVID made some remarks in further discussion of Mr. L. F. HARPER’S paper on the coal seams of the Southern Coal Field read at the previous meeting. 1. Mr. C. A. SussMILCH exibited specimens of contorted strata from Seaham, associated with thin bedded acidic tuffs, dipping at 18°, the series being unfolded; a local occurrence. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXlil. Professor DAvip suggested that the specimens might possibly be explained as mud lavas of contemporaneous age. Remarks were made by Messrs. W. N. BENSON and H. C. ANDREWS. 2. Mr. SUSSMILCH also exhibited a boulder from the glacial beds of Seaham. 3. The Mining Museum exhibited: (a) Natural glass from the Jukes, Darwin Range, Tasmania; (b) Moldavite from Bohemia; (c) White marble from Rockley and New- bridge. 4. Mr. W.S. Don exhibited the type specimen of Phia- locrinus princeps, Hth. fil., from Bow Wow, now in the possession of the Mining and Geological Museum—the gift of the Maitland Scientific Society. 5. Professor DAVID exhibited and made remarks on the Talgai skull, recently presented to the University of Sydney, and portion of the upper jaw of Diprotodon from King’s Creek, Upper Condamine. Professor Davip, on behalf of the Section, welcomed Father PIGOT, S.J., on his return from Hurope. Captain du BATY gave an interesting lecturette on Ker- guellen Island, illustrated by a series of lantern slides. Remarks were made by the Chairman, Messrs. HEDLEY, ANDREWS, BENSON, and DUN, and a vote of thanks was carried. Monthly Meeting, 9th December, 1914. Mr. R. H. CAMBAGE in the Chair. Hight members were present. Letter of apology for absence was received from Professor DAVID. XXXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Mr. W. S. DUN exhibited fossil coniferous wood from the old Stockton Shaft, and also from the Grose Valley. Mr. W. N. BENSON delivered a lecturette on Daly’s Theory of the origin of Igneous Rocks. It was discussed by Messrs. Corron, BROWNE, and Dr. . C. ANDERSON. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XLVIIL, 1914. Plate I. ACACIA RU BIDA. . rd A et ae at a Ae 4 — - Pir Fr y ad » Sa > — ‘ > = agen f wee i ~~ 7 iN} . eS i x he . . * Pen % “3 = 1 : ————— tet ne > i " . a ~ La nai - ripe . : > . oe , ee) 1 “T oo ~ Ary sd! Se e ‘ % i or Fs 1 RQ " sa gta A Fa ae! ea te ~ ‘ * ty ‘ 1 “ \ 4. x i x st rae Plate IT. 1914. Vol. XLVIL., Jrnal Royal Society of N.8.TF. WeSvaney probably intrud by Cooma J greits ani blue qneits fe, Se Pa us Ge bosalr. g 2 = ey ie ge é= 2 § a 3 2 woof 8 @ 2 5 [ine eee ees ee! = 2: = = ane 25 z BE Ee Pac ES Ea A ed E = a= ry Sd} | === ee] ESS] SSS = Boe Oe 8 fg ae TR OG & é Ss = a cs s 8 GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE COOMA DISTRICT. NS.W. Per it oth eet Journal Royal Society of N.S8S.W.,Vol. XLV IIT., 1914. Plate IT]. Fig. 2. aS. ; i Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,Vol. XLVILI, 1914. Plate LV. Zz Plate V. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol XLVIIT , 1914. Plate VI. Journal Ri ww Nie Dv 72 5 2 = ( 4 Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XLVIIL, 1914. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,Vol. XZVIIT , 1914 Plate VII. F. C., Photomicr. FORAMINIFERA (Carpenteria, Operculina, Amphistegina and Lepidocyclina) and Fisu Remains, Lower Miocene; Papua, Plate VIII. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,Vol. XLEVIIL, 1914. F. C., Photomicr. PAPUA, LoweErR MIOCENE jy. ma FoRAMINIFERA (Lepidocycl Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,Vol XLVIIT, 1914 Plate 1X. F.C., Photomicr. FORAMINIFERA (Lepidocyclina and Heterostegina), LowER Miocene; Papua, bd \ t ) : | : ; : | q ; | § . | ‘ 7 I . a . . Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XLVITII., 1914. Plate X. E. A. Briggs, photo, Journal Royal Society of N.S. W., Vol. XL VITI., 1914. Plate XI. E. A Briggs, photo. I ) Plate XII, Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XLVIIL., 1914. RS SIS Ba ~ nance Rev enetet ey w Cen erc C harhs . eaten as eT ag +e oe Re et Sab Sea et aes ess asin Ne JANE Be av $ SERRA we ee SN x Weare ae lai” xl cy nan tepace nt | a eee R.T.B. del. Croton Maideni, sp. nov. eR ee SS, CONTENTS. SUSI. Fe ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS $3 moet Me has PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL§SECTION ... TiTLe Pace, Contents, Pusruications, NorTicus, ... OFFICERS FOR 1914-1915... “we List or Memspers, &c. .:. xsi! InDsx To Votume XLVIII. ... : i" PD ve " va a | ‘ ey ba j ry a i rj as Ny Hibs eae . porn it a we. o. o ie a ae 4 } ‘ € q Ws . | van 3 9088 01308 4421