GO MOT A wt , ace G mo TP, } tla PMT! : White a aN ge beste aoe | v a4 a an - 1 raed i) ’ a aa ere erea ya iM VES Bee Fanidodett Oae aioe ; vay 641 ge iy eae ee 4 ee wa thy SEM KA CS Ronit i i Oe) 6 a yb tite 5 halle Avg by ‘1 BM Ahad Puen ee ced i eM ' ¥ ' neatiity Tage Fs if hit Vt iG b “i aE H we ae ” a af #2 GR 04M wae 3 ‘) ni ey ieee as a 4 ‘hes Fg oh Fi i pagel ae sh atoritanste ‘Y WW atital as WA F y oY yy " & wae ede Satan ontady shame leay 1A Wk CN tre ' a” PAI: oa rc Vee “or ine i sty ( ‘a TPO aL LH Paced F i f 4 j * Weels ’ Naan an Mason i 3 ey eld ae ar e ' ; or “eng y i | ? } 4 Vat a Mao Pb ks bir yp 4 wan) 2 AMI tS ata dyad ’ OF \ ee) ‘ aE Dh Abo ote 4 as U ef e } On AA Ny % “ wnt tena: te a a RSH EG HLA Pig Saige but § it aT oF eu d iis oo Pee eee ‘ ef ie, fit at a ae et ” a ye Be pt a iy Vag Aue iste" » a wig ere lt ood ae ne ‘ an) Pa ou RAAB “ Milas Pee iy hale a an’@-r 1 hy meth a ve “ ’ Mite y ~ ted Nearer Pere PR NOME LAG ECA 4 ree i a Pegict 4 ae ao * ‘ 5 “the sane eye Bie fo a A 44.0 & facathnieia lt: “an At Ws 8 Pere PLE melee Se ba ee Oe eae re z0,0s4z4 7 * ’ a fy rae tn ia eas ths tise petite ‘ ms Vaan & rit , ; ir) Alt we heh Beet ae PR HE anne? ar i Cen eH REM mh thy i PONE AC sah Iain one NT Va Lite A Te ee a ee te ae ee em ye ON Eysn it 14 1 jae dh ine nee Tener aaet 4 ce es tes aly get eats re lela! ry ) ‘| Ye Sueur ae ’ i Ve a Forres Pcie tee ke ee ee a yp sefy Fhe atts syne te oa0 ae ne or as 4% Sauer conaess Sasiais a ih rite A Shes sean ees se* ea ate LI Weer ue A re ur =) “e 460d at ab See 13 s Masuands % cA nice Satins +” i wand! evar aed wn ' Tila ine ttt f tniaite cn n fa tne re o hagavateean Lut ny Pa tate rash Yaar uitat gad i ; Py dain aanie { Vas a i if 0 et sata beh HL Wty ian } hen ‘ Te alae y Vee far Ae ge Sa ooh? \ are * ’ ora ” ¥ 4 ee ’ on i APS i ( Y } RNS haNaeesh cae ‘ mt aie Far Te apes Ni Sat i ie Nah FA ehh fia pine Seabees rs d AY Safa ok aoe Atty aad gh i’ + acne * 4 ” a 1 : uh if ” ob Ble i pel 8C et ete SOE Mashort pee AN Sting =e ‘ei Veh, yj 4 Bt ‘ ; na ; i sep biae Bet i = 76) ny aaa bis NY dis a SAM Meats aint + af shoth a wiage His ake rs { dietat Akt ee vw Vey FA en ea } J + be + ’ Stat it eet ra Aad abe ; ; tded wl, ee ‘ Hit rere ; ‘e . ws 44 isebeae A + of 3 ee { +4 aed if Has SAS a +e ed iy : tal nk i atk i Y 3 i Mia Ta Ea Pee NN f ait Wet y Fils natty an mae nyt ee neg ihe BON AAD hee tee ER apie SU \hie ee i Bet ; Lehi Ue ue Ni Ie vie Bye ae ii ane) aii Ann PRAY ARA hh, 2) 8 oy yr SA Sh ae « Vi j i Pon f i { fe ~f \ \ \ » Py ' » Fe g . 1 7 2 { | 4 * ' ~ » nae act at yo ag age [24 || JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS” | ROYAL SOCIETY NEW SOUTH WALES ee ee OT THE HONORARY SECRETARIES. THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. BA cre REDE ere oo va \THSONIRG T, Smithsonian Lies Pe Ney Py oy 4, j Slo 2al vi, SYDNEY PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET, SYDNEY. LONDON AGENTS : ‘ GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, : 17 Warwick SQuARE, PATERNOSTER Row, Lonpon, E.C. ; . = 1919. ee nr SET ere ee ‘VOLUME LIZ, L.—PREsIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By Se Bunton ‘Cupra v1 M.D., Ch.M. Issued September 5th, 1918. era: elds = "The Spine Mode of Centropyxis dies Stein. eS =. D. GILLIES, M.Sc. [With Hae Tewt Ble >: Issued — September 12th; A918.2 es oi Soa ees : ; IIJ.—A new species of Leptospermum aaa its” Hssential Oil. By R. W. CHatutinor, F.c.s., EH. CHEEL and = R. PeNvoup. Issued September 18th,1918.... ee ) 99 7) 9 29 1879, ” 255, 9 oy) XIV. 29 29 9 ” 99 1880, ” 391, be) 9 XV 29 9 9 9 99 1881, ” 440, 5) 99 XVI 99 29 99 99 29 1882, ye) 327, 99 9 XVII 9 i) 99 9 99 1883, ” 324, > 5) XVIII 29 99 oy) 29 99 1884, 9 224, 99 99 XIX 99 ” ry) 29 9 1885, 9 240, 99 29 xx 99 99 99 29 9 1886, ” 396, 99 99 XXI 99 9 i) 9 99 1887, ” 296, > 99 XXII 99 99 9 99 99 1888, 99 390 97 LB) XXIII 99 29 99 29 99 1889, ”9 534, ” 29 XXIV 39 99 99 29 99 1890, 99 290, 99 29 XXV 29 99 99 29 2” 1891, ” 348, 9% 29 XXVI 99 9 99 9 Py) 1892, ” 426, 9 99 XXVII 99 99 39 me) 99 1893, ” 530, 29 See XeXCVALTT f en 6 ee as 1894, ,, 368, A 99 XXIX 99 ”9 99 99 99 1895, ” 600, Le) 99 XXX 99 9 99 9 9 1896, ” 568, 2% 99 XXXI 99 9 ee) 99 29 1897, 9 626, ” oo) RXXIT 9 i. * - a 1898, ,, 476, As 99 XXXIII 99 99 ) 99 99 1899, 9 ’ 29 99 XXXIV 9 my) cy) 99 99 1900, 99 484, 9 A BeOS Re ap A i ay 1901, ,, 581, Bs ” XXXVI 5) 9 99 99 99 1902, 9 531, > 99 XXXVII 99 99 99 9 9 1908, ”9 663, 99 XXXVIII He . Ss . ms 1904, ,, 604, 7 99 XXXIX 99 99 99 99 99 1905, 9 274, 99 39 XL 3) 99 99 9 33 1906, ” 368, 9 a XLI ee sa ee Ms - 1907. ,, 377, ” 9 XLII i) ” 99 ye) 29 1908, ” 593, ” 9 XLII 99 9 ye) 99 29 1909, ” 466, ) ” XLIV 9 9 ” 9 9 1910, ” 719, +) ” XLV 99 3) 9 9 ” 1911, ” 611, B) 99 XLVI 9 9 99 ” ” 1912, 9 275, LB 9 XLVII 99 oe) cy) 99 99 1918, y) 318, 2” 99 XLVIII ” ” 5) ” ” 1914, Ly) 584, ”7 29 XLIX 99 99 39 9 99 1915, ” 7, 9 39 L 99 29 9 99 9 1916, 29 362, 99 45 LI. of a a9 . is 1917. ,. 786s 99 LII. 99 9 oh) 9 9 1918, ” 624, 29 Mopal Society of Set South ates. Oe Ere MRS EO@ix LotSs-LOLto- Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HONOURABLE SIR RONALD CRAUFURD MUNRO FERGUSON, P.c., G.c.u.a. Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia. Vice-Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WALTER EDWARD DAVIDSON, x.c.u a. Governor of the State of New South Wales. President: W. S. DUN. Vice-Presidents: ©. HEDLEY, F.u:s. T. H. HOUGHTON, m. Inst. c.5. R. GREIG-SMITH, p.sc, J. B. CLELAND, m.p., ch. mM. Hon. Treasurer: Prof. H. G, CHAPMAN, mp. Hon. Secretaries: R. H. CAMBAGE, F.1.s. | J. H. MAIDEN, 1.s.0., F.R.s. Members of Council: C. ANDERSON, m.a., pD.sc. F. H. QUAIFHE, m.a., uv. E. C. ANDREWS, B.a., F.G.s. HENRY G. SMITH, F.c.s. D. CARMENT, v.1.a., F.F.A. C. A. SUSSMILCH, r.«.s. Prof. C. E. FAWSITT, p.sc., Ph.D. H. D. WALSH, B.A.1., M. INST. C.E. J. NANGLE, F.R.A.s. Prof. W. H. WARREN,LL.D., Wh. £e, FORM OF BEQUEST. ¥ bequeath the sum of £ to the Royat Sociery or New Souta Watss, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall be an effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct to be paid within calendar months after my decease, without any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my estate as may be lawfully applied for that purpose. [Those persons who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Socrety of New South Wales by Legacies, are recommended to instruct their Solicitors to adopt the above Form of Bequest. | LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE Aopal Society of Ae South Hales. 8 a eeES P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society’s Transactions or Journal. The numerals indicate the number of such contributions. t Life Members. Elected. 1908 1877 1918 1904 1916 1898 1905 1909 1915 1878 1894 1894 1896 1908 1918 1895 1894 1877 1909 1916 1915 1913 1905 P5| P2 P8 P 26 PI P9 P2 Abbott, George Henry, B.A., M.B., ch.M., Macquarie-street; p.r. ‘Cooringa,’ 252 Liverpool Road, Summer Hill. Abbott, W. E., ‘Abbotsford,’ Wingen. Adam, George Hyslop, Chemist, ‘Lintrose,’ Warren Road, Marrickville. Adams, William John, m. 1. MECH. E, 175 Clarence-street- Allen, William John, ‘‘Oriel,’’ The Boulevard, Strathfield. Alexander, Frank Lee, c/o Messrs. Goodlet and Smith Ltd., Cement Works, Granville. Anderson, Charles, M.a., p.sc. Hdin., Australian Museum, Col- lege-street. Andrews, Ernest C., B.A., F.a.8., Geological Surveyor, Depart- ment of Mines, Sydney. Armit, Henry William, m.n.c.s. Hng., L.R.c.p. Lond., 30 - 34 Elizabeth-street. Backhouse, His Honour Judge A. P., m.a., ‘ Melita,’ Elizabeth Bay. Baker, Richard Thomas, F.L.s., Curator, Technological Museum. {Balsille, George, ‘ Lauderdale,’ N.E. Valley, Dunedin, N.Z. Barff, H. E., m.a., Warden of the University of Sydney. Barling, John, t.s., ‘St. Adrians,’ Raglan-street, Mosman. Barr, Robert Hamilton, Mechanical Engineer, Australasia Chambers, 2 Martin Place. Barraclough, 8. Henry, B.z., M.M.E., ASSOC. M. INST. C.E., M. I. MECH. E., Memb. Soc. Promotion Eng. Education ; Memb. Internat. Assoc. l'esting Materials; Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Marmion,’ Victoria-street, Lewisham. Baxter, William Howe, t.s., Chief Surveyor, Existing Lines Office, Railway Department, Bridge-street. Belfield, Algernon H., ‘ Eversleigh,’ Dumaresq. Benson, William Noel, D.sc. Syd., B.A. Cantab., F.a.s., Professor of Geology, The University of Otago, Dunedin, N.Z. Birrell, Septimus,‘ Florella,” Dunslaffnace-st., Hurlstone Park. Bishop, John, 24 Bond-street. Bishop, Joseph Eldred, Killarney-street, Mosman. Blakemore, George Henry, 4 Bridge-street. Elected 1888 1893 1898 1907 1879 1917 1910 1876 1916 1917 1891 1914 1913 1906 1898 1890 1907 1909 1904 1907 1876 1897 1891 1909 HS)LS/ 1903 1913 1909 1913 Pi P13 P 4 P3 P3 PZ P8 (x.) tBlaxland, Walter, F.R.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., No. 4A. G. Hospital, Randwick. Blomfield, Charles E., B.c.z. Melb., ‘ Woombi,’ Kangaroo Camp, Guyra. Blunno, Michele, Licentiate in Science (Rome), ‘ Havilah,’ No. 1, Darlinghurst Road, Darlinghurst. Bogenrieder, Charles, u.a., No. 2 Little’s Avenue, Balmain. {Bond, Albert, Wentworth Court, EKlizabeth-street. Bond, Robert Henry, ‘Tiro-Tiro,’ Middleton-street, Stanmore. Bradley, Clement Henry Burton, m.8., ch,M., D.p.H., ‘Mebra,” Little-street, Longueville. Brady, Andrew John, u.kK. and q.c.p. Irel., L.R.c.s. Irel., 175. Macquarie-street, Sydney. Bragg, James Wood, B.a., c/o Gibson, Battle &Co. Ltd.,Kent-st. Breakwell, Ernest, B.A., B.Sc, Government Agrostologist, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Brennand, Henry J. W., B.a., M.B., Chm. Syd., c/o H.M.A. Naval Establishments, Garden Island, Sydney; p.r. ‘Wo- bun,’ 310 Miller-st., North Sydney. Broad, Edmund F., ‘Cobbam,’ Woolwich Road, Hunter’s Hill. Browne, William Rowan! B.sc., Assistant Lecturer and Demon- strator in Geology in the University, Sydney. Brown, James B., Resident Master, Technical School, Gran- ville; p.r. ‘Aberdour,’ Daniel-street, Granville. tBurfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, B.A., B.Sc, M.B., chm. Syd., ‘Wyom- ing,’ 175 Macquarie-street, Sydney. Burne, Alfred, p.p.s., Buckland Chambers, 183 Liverpool-st. Burrows, Thomas Edward, M. INST. C.E., L.s., Metropolitan Engineer, Public Works Department; p.r. ‘ Balboa,’ Fern- street, Randwick. Calvert, Thomas Copley, assoc. m. Inst. c.E., Department of Public Works, Sydney. Cambage, Richard Hind, L.s.,¥.L.s., ude Secretary for Mines, Department of Mines, ‘Sydney; p.r. Park Road, Burwood. (President 1912). Hon. Secretary. Campbell, Alfred W., m.p., ch.m. Edin., 183 Macquarie-street. Cape, Alfred J., m.a. Syd., ‘Karoola,’ Edgecliff Road, Edgecliff. Cardew, John Haydon, m. INST. C.E., L.s., Commercial Bank of Australia Chambers, George and Margaret-streets. Carment, David, F.1.a. Grt. Brit. & Irel. ¥.F.A., Scot., 4 Whaling Road, North Sydney. Carne, Joseph Edmund, F.a.s., Government Geologist, Department of Mines, Sydney. Carpenter, Frederick Wm., m.a., Senior Science Master, Sydney Grammar School, College-street. Carslaw, Horatio S., m.A., Sc. D., Professor of Mathematics. in the University of Sydney. Challinor, Richard Westman, F.1.c., F.c.s., Lecturer in Chem- istry, Sydney Technical College. Chapman, Henry G., m.p., B.s., Professor of Pharmacology in the University of Sydney. Hon. Treasurer. Cheel, Edwin, Botanical Assistant, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Elected 1909 |P 20 1896 | P2 1913 | Pl 1904 | P2 1913 1876 1906 1882 1909 |P 2 1892 | P 1 1886 1912 1876 | P3 1910 | Pl 1886 |P 21 1885 | P 3 1915|P1 4913 | P 2 1908 |P3 (xi.) Cleland, John Burton, m.p., ch.m., Principal Assistant Micro- biologist, Department of Public Health, 93 Macquarie-st. (President 1917) Vice-President. Cook, W. E., m.c.e. Melb., m. inst. c.z., Water and Sewerage Board, North Sydney. Cooke, William Ernest, M.A.,F.R.A.s., Government Astronomer and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Sydney, The Observatory, Sydney. Cooksey, Thomas, Ph.D., B.Sc. Lond., F.1.c., Government Analyst; p-r. ‘Clissold,’ Calypso Avenue, Mosman. Coombs, F. A., F.c.s., Instructor of Leather Dressing and Tanning, Sydney Technical College; p.r. 55 Willoughby Road, North Sydney. Codrington, John Frederick, m.R.c.s. Hng., u.R.c.p. Lond, and Edin., ‘Roseneath,’ 8 Wallis-street, Woollahra. » Colley, David John K., ‘Culwalla,’ Abbey-street, Leura. Cornwell, Samuel, J.p., Brunswick Road, Tyagarah. Cotton, Leo Arthur, m.A., B.Sc., Assistant Lecturer and Demon- strator in Geology (Acting Professor) in the University of Sydney. Cowdery, George R., Assoc. mM. INST. C.E., Blashki Buildings, Hunter-st.; p.r. ‘Glencoe,’ Torrington Road, Strathfield. Crago, W. H., u.R.c.s. Hng., u.R.c.p. Lond., 185 Macquarie-st. Curtis, Louis Albert, L.s., ‘ Redlands,’ Union-street, Mosman. Dangar, Fred. H., c/o W. G. Deuchar, 12 and 14 Loftus-street. Dare, Henry Harvey, ™.#£., M. INST. c.E., Commissioner, Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Perpetual Trustee Chambers, Hunter-street, Sydney. Darley, Cecil West, um. Inst: c.z., Australian Club, Sydney, ‘Longheath,’ Little Bookham, Surrey, England. Darnell-Smith, George Percy, D.sc., F.1.C., F.c.8., Department of Agriculture, Sydney. David, T. W. Edgeworth, c.M.G., D.S.0., B.A., D.Sc, F.R.S8., F.G.S., Professor of Geology and Physical Geography in the University of Sydney. (President 1895, 1910.) Deane, Henry, M.A., M. INST. C.E., F.L.S., F.R. MET. SOC., F.R.H.S., ‘Campsie,’ 14 Mercer Road, Malvern, Victoria. (President - 1897, 1907.) Dick, James Adam, c.m.G., B.A. Syd., M.D., Ch.M., F.R.C.S. Edin., ‘Catfoss,’ Belmore Road, Randwick. Dick, Thomas, J.p., Port Macquarie. Dixon, Jacob Robert L., m.x.c.s., .R.c.P., The University, Syd. Dixson, William, ‘ Merridong,’ Gordon Road, Killara. Docker, His Honour Judge E. B., u.a., ‘Mostyn,’ Billyard Avenue, Elizabeth Bay. Dodd, Sydney, b.v.se, F.R.c.v.s., Lecturer in Veterinary Pathology in the University of Sydney. Doherty, William M., Analyst, Department of Public Health, Sydney. Dun, William S., Paleontologist, Department of Mines, Sydney. President. (xil.) Elected 1918 Elhott, Edward, Chemical Engineer, c/o Reckitts’ (Oversea) 5 Ltd., Bourke-street, Redfern. 1916 | P 2| Enright, Walter J., B.a., High-street, West Maitland, N.S.W. 1908 Esdaile, Edward William, 54 Hunter-street. 1879 | P 4| Etheridge, Robert, Junr., g.p., Curator, Australian Museum ; p.r. ‘Inglewood,’ Colo Vale, N.S.W. 1896 Fairfax, Geoffrey E., 8S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. 1887 Faithfull, R. L., u.p., New York, u.K.c.p., u.s.a. Lond., ‘ Wilga,’ 18 Wylde-street, Potts Point. 1902 Faithfull, William Percy, Australian Club. P 1910 Farrell, John, 683 Pitt-st.; p.r.26 Bayswater-rd., Darlinghurst. 1909 | P 3| Fawsitt, Charles Edward, p.sc, ph,p., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. 1881 Fiaschi, Thos., M.D., M.ch, Pisa, ‘Beanbah,’ 235 Macquarie-st. 1888 Fitzhardinge, His Honour Judge G. H., m.a., ‘Red Hill,” Beecroft. 1879 tForeman, Joseph, m.R.c.s. Hng. t.R.c.p. Edin., ‘Wyoming,’ Macquarie-street. 1905 Foy, Mark, Elizabeth and Liverpool-streets. 1904. Fraser, James, ©.M.G., M. INST. C.E., Chief Commissioner for Railways, Bridge-street ; p.r.‘Arnprior, Neutral Bay. 1907 Freeman, William, ‘ Clodagh,’ Beresford Road, Rose Bay. 1899 French, Sir J. Russell, k.B.z., General Manager, Bank of New South Wales, George-street. 1881 Furber, T.F., F.R.4.s., c/o Dr. R. I. Furber, ‘Sunnyside,’ Stan- more Road, Stanmore. 1917 Galbraith, Augustus Wm., Civil Engineer, Broken Hill, Pro- prietory Co. Ltd., Box 196 P.O., Newcastle, N.S.W. 1918 Gallagher, James Laurence, Chemist, c/o Lever Bros. Ltd., Balmain. 1918 | P2| Gillies, C. D., msc, Assistant Lecturer in Biology, The Uni- versity of Queensland, Krisbane. 1897 Gould, Senator The Hon. Sir Albert John, K.B., v.p., ‘ Eynes- bury,’ Edgecliff. 1916 Granger, James Darnell, pr. p., Manager of Chiswick Polish Co. of Australia, Mitchell Road, Alexandria. 1916 Green, Victor Herbert, 7 O’Connell-street, Sydney. 1899 | P1| Greig-Smith, R., p.sc. Hdin., m.se. Dun., Macleay Bacteriologist, Linnean Society’s House, Ithaca Road, Elizabeth Bay. (President 1915.) Vice-President. 1912 Grieve, Robert Henry, B.a., ‘ Langtoft,’ Llandaff-st.,Waverley. 1912 Griffiths, F. Guy, B.a., M.D., chM., 185 Macquarie-st., Sydney. 1891 |P 16} Guthrie, Frederick B., F.1.c., F.c.s., Chemist, Department of Agriculture, 137 George-street, Sydney. (President 1903). 1880 | P 4| Halligan, Gerald H., u.s., F.a.s., ‘ Riversleigh,’ Hunter’s Hill. 1912 Hallmann, E. F., B.sc,, Fort Street Boy’s High School, Peter- sham; p.r. 75 Hereford-street, Forest Lodge. Elected 1892 | 1909 1916 1912 1887 | 1916 | 1912, 1905 1913 1918 1884. 1916 | 1914 1891 1899 1916 1884 1918 1916 1901 | 1905 1891 | 1906 1913. 1917 | 1904 1905. 1917 1918 1916 Re P8 Pe Ee | agen | P3| aa Et (xiii.) Halloran; Henry Ferdinand, t.s., 82 Pitt-street. Hammond, Walter L., B.sc., Public High School, Newcastle. Hamilton, Arthur Andrew, Botanical Assistant, Botanic Gar- dens, Sydney. _Hamilton, Alexrnder G., Lecturer on Nature Study, Teachers’ College, Blackfriars. Hamlet, William M., r.1-c., F.c.s., Member of the Society of Public Analysts ; ‘Glendowan,’ Glenbrook, Blue Mountains. (President 1899, 1908). Hardy, Victor Lawson, ‘The Laurel, 43 Toxteth Rd., Glebe Pt. | Hare, Arthur J., Under Secretary for Lands, ‘ Booloorool,’ _ Monte Christo-street, Woolwich. Harker, George, p.sc, Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Organic Chemistry in the University of Sydney. Harper, Leslie F., F.a.s., Geological Surveyor, Department of Mines, Sydney. Hassan, Alex. Richard Roby, ‘Sunnymount,’ Gordon Road, Roseville. Haswell, William Aitcheson, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Emeritus Pro- fessor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the Uni- versity of Sydney; p.r. ‘Mimihau,’ Woollahra Point. Hay Dalrymple-, Richard T., u.s.,Chief Commissioner of Forests, N.S. Wales; p.r. Goodchap Road, Chatswood. Hector, Alex. Burnet, 481 Kent-street. Hedley, Charles, F.u.s., Assistant Curator, Australian Museum, Sydney. (President 1914.) Vice-President. _ Henderson, J., F.R.5.s., ‘ Wahnfried,’ Drummoyne. _ Henderson, James, ‘ Dunsfold,’ Clanalpine-street, Mosman. Henson, Joshua B., assoc. mM. INST. c.z., Hunter District Water Supply and Sewerage Board, Newcastle. _ Hindmarsh, Percival, m.a., ‘Linden Park,’ Revesby, via Banks- town. - Hoggan, Henry James, Consulting Engineer, ‘Lincluden,’ Frederick-street, Rockdale. | Holt, Thomas §&., ‘Amalfi,’ Appian Way, Burwood. _ Hooper, George, Assistant Superintendent, Sydney Technical College; p.r. ‘ Branksome,’ Henson-street, Summer Hill. Houghton, Thos. Harry, M. INST. C.E., M.I. MECH. E., 63 Pitt-st. (President 1916), Vice-President, Howle, Walter Cresswell, t.s.a. Lond., Bradley’s Head Road, Mosman. Hudson, G. Inglis, 3.p., ‘Gudvangen,’ Arden-street, Coogee. Hurse, Alfred Edward, aA.m.i.c.£., ‘Llanfair,’ Robert-street, Strathfield. Jaquet, John Blockley, a.x.s.M., F.G.s., Chief Inspector of Mines, Department of Mines, Sydney. Jensen, Harold Ingemann, p.se., Treasury Chambers, George- street, Brisbane. Jenkins, Richard Ford, Engineer for Boring, Irrigation Com- mission, 6 Union-street, Mosman. : Johns, Morgan Jones, M.a.m.u., Civil Engineer, Mount Mor- gan Co., Mount Morgan, Queensland. Johnston, Stephen Jason, B.A., D.se., Professor of Zoology in the University of Sydney. Elected 1909 1911 1883 1873 1914 1887 1901 1896 1878 1881 1877 1911 1913 1916 1906 P15 P 4 P 23 P3 1909 1883 1906 1884 1887 1878 1876 1903 1891 1906 1891 1880 1917 1901 Pi2 2) Pt (xiv.) Johnston, Thomas Harvey, M.A., D.Sc. F.L.S., C.M.Z.S., Professor in Biology in the University of Queensland, Brisbane. Julius, George A., B.Sc., M.E., M.I. MECH. E., Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street, Sydney. Kater, The Hon. H. E., J.p., m.u.c., Australian Club. Keele, Thomas William, L.s., M. INST. c.E., Commissioner, Sydney Harbour Trust, Circular Quay; p.r. Llandaff-st., Waverley. Kemp, William E., a.m. Inst. c.e., Public Works Department, Coff’s Harbour Jetty. Kent, Harry C., ™.A., F.R.1.B.A., Dibbs’ Chambers, 58 Pitt-st. Kidd, Hector, M. INST. C.E., M. I. MECH. E., Cremorne Road, Cremorne. King, Kelso, 120 Pitt-street. 3 Knages, Samuel T., m.p. Aberdeen, ¥.R.c.s. Irel., ‘ Northcote,’ Sir Thomas Mitchell Road, Bondi. Knibbs, G. H.,c.m.G.,F.S.S.,F.B.A.S.,L.S8., Member Luternat. Assoc. Testing Materials; Memb. Brit. Sc. Guild; Commonwealth Statistician, Melbourne; p.r. ‘Normanhurst,’ Denmark-st., Kew, Victoria. (President 1898.) _ Knox, Edward W., ‘ Rona,’ Bellevue Hill, Double Bay. Laseron, Charles Francis, Technological Museum. Lawson, A. Anstruther, D.Sc., F.R.S8.E., F.L.s., Professor of Botany in the University of Sydney. L’Estrange, Walter William, 55 Albert Road, Homebush. Lee, Alfred. ‘Glen Roona,’ Penkivil-street, Bondi. Leverrier, Frank, B.A., B.Sc. K.c., 182 Phillip-street. Lingen, J. T., m.a. Cantab., University Chambers, 167 Phillip- street, Sydney. : Loney, Charles Augustus Luxton, M. AM. SOC. REFR. E., Equi- table Building, George-street. MacCormick, Sir Alexander, m.p., c.mM. Edin., m.R.c.s. Eng., 185 Macq uarie-street. MacCulloch, Stanhope H., m.s., ch.m. Edin., 24 College-street. MacDonald, Ebenezer, J.p., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co., Ld., Hunter-street, Sydney. Mackellar, The Hon. Sir Charles Kinnaird, K.c.M.G., M.L.C., M.B., c.m. Glas., 183 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park, Sydney. McDonald, Robert, J.p., u.s., Pastoral Chambers, O’Connell-st.; p.r. ‘ Lowlands,’ William-street, Double Bay, McDouall, Herbert Crichton, wm.R.c.s. Eng., w.R.c.s. Lond., D.P.H. Cantab., Hospital for the Insane, Gladesville. McIntosh, Arthur Marshall, ‘Glenbourne,’ Hill-st., Roseville. McKay, R. T.,L.s., assoc. M.INST.c.E., Geelong Waterworks and Sewerage Trusts Office, Geelong, Victoria. McKinney, Hugh Giffin, u.z., Roy. Univ. Irel., M. 1NST. C.z., Sydney Safe Deposit, Paling’s Buildings, Ash-street. McLean, Archibald Lang, m.p., ch.u., B.A., c/o Bank of New South Wales, 29 'hreadneedle-street, London, E.C. McMaster, Colin J., u.s., Chief Commissioner of Western Lands; p-r. Flat 14, Kelburn Hall, Elizabeth Bay Road, Elizabeth Bay. Elected 1894 1916 1909 1883 |P 34 P3 (xv.) McMillan, Sir William, x.c.m.c., ‘ Althorne,’ Edgecliff Road, Woollahra; 79 York-street. McQuiggin, Harold G., B.sc, Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physiology in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘ Berolyn,’ Beaufort-street, Croydon. Madsen, John Percival Vissing, D.sc., B.E., P. N. Russell Lec- turer in Electrical Engineering in the University of Sydney. Maiden, J. Henry, J.P., 1.8.0., F.B.S., F.L.S., F.R.H.S., Hon. Fellow Roy. Soc. 8.A.; Hon. Memb. Roy. Soc, W.A.; Netherlands Soc.for Promotion of Industry; Philadelphia College Pharm. Southern Californian Academy of Sciences; Pharm. Soc. N.S.W.; Brit. Pharm. Conf.; Corr. Fellow Therapeutical Soc., Lond.; Corr. Memb. Pharm. Society Great Britain ; Bot. Soc. Edin.; Soc. Nat. de Agricultura (Chile); Soc. d’ Horticulture d’ Alger; Union Agricole Calédonienne; Soc. Nat. etc.,de Chérbourg; Roy. Soc. Tas.; Roy. Soc. Queensl.; Inst. Nat. Genévois; Hon. Vice-Pres. of the Forestry Society of California; Diplomé of the Société Nationale d’ Acclimatation de France; Linnean Medallist, Linnean Society; N.S.W. Govt. Rep. of the “‘ Commission Consulta- tive pour la Protection Internat. de la Nature”; Govern- ment Botanist and Director, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Hon. Secretary. (President 1896, 1911.) Manfred, Edmund C., Moatague-street, Goulburn. Marden, John, m.a., Lu.D., Principal, bees ndelsreas Ladies’ College, Croydon, Sydney. Marshall, Frank, c.m.G., B.p.s., ‘Beanbah,’ 235 Macquarie-st. Martin, A. H., ‘Ruthven, Hric-street, Artarmon. Meggitt, Loxley, c/o James Barnes Ltd., Alexandria, Sydney. Meldrum, Henry John, p.r. ‘ Craig Roy,’ Sydney Rd., Manly. Miller, James Edward, Albury, New South Wales. Mingaye John C. H., F.1.c., F.c.s., Assayer and Analyst to the Department of Mines; p.r. Campbell-street, Parramatta. Moore, Frederick H., Union Club, Sydney, c/o Dalgety’s Ltd., London. Mullins, John Francis Lane, m.a. Syd., u.u.c., ‘ Killountan,’ Darling Point. Murphy, R. K., Dr. Ing., Chem. Eng., Consulting Chemical Engineer and Lecturer in Chemistry, Technical College, Sydney. Nangle, James, F.B.A.s., Superintendent of Technical Educa- tion, The Technical College, Sydney; p.r. ‘St. Elmo,’ Tupper-street, Marrickville. Nash, Norman C., Analytical Chemist, ‘Treleaven,’ Darling- street, Balmain East. tNoble, Edward George, L.s., 8 Louisa Road, Balmain. Noyes, Edward, Assoc. INST. C.E., ASSOC. I. MECH. E., c/o Messrs. Noyes Bros., 115 Clarence-street, Sydney. tOld, Richard, ‘ Waverton,’ Bay Road, North Sydney. Ollé, A. D., F.c.s.. ‘Kareema,’ Charlotte-street, Ashfield. Onslow, Col. James William Macarthur, ‘Gilbulla,’ Menangle. Elected 1875 1917 1891 1880 1901 1899 1918 1909 1879 1881 1887 OI: 1896 1910 1918 1918 1914 1893 1876 1912 1916 1914. | 1909 1915 1884 1895 1897 P2 P8 P10 Pl Pa (xvi.) O’Reilly, W. W. J., m.v., chu.. Q. Univ. Irel., u.x.c.s. Eng., 183 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park. Ormsby, Irwin, ‘Caleula,’ Allison Road, Randwick. Osborn, A. F., assoc. mM. INST. c.E., Water Supply Branch, Sydney, ‘ Uplands,’ Meadow Bank, N.S.W. Palmer, Joseph, 96 Pitt-st.; p.r. Kenneth-st., Willoughby. Peake, Algernon, M. INST. C.E., L.S., Prospect Rd., Summer Hill. Peterson, T’. Tyndall, F.c.p.a., E.S.&A.Bank, King & George-sts. Petrie, James Matthew, p.sc. F.1.c., Research Fellow of the Linnean Society in Biochemistry, The University, Sydney. Pigot, Rev. Edward F., s.J., B.A., M.B. Dub., Director of the Seismological Observatory, St. lgnatius’College, Riverview. Pittman, Edward F., assoc. g.s.m., L.s., ‘The Oaks,’ 65 Park- street, South Yarra, Victoria. Poate, Frederick, u.s., ‘Clanfield,’ 50 Penkivil-street. Bondi. Pollock, J. A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Corr. Memb. Roy. Soc. Tasmania; Roy. Soc. Queensland; Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney. Poole, William, B.E., A.M. INST. C.E., L.s., 906 Culwulla Cham- bers, Castlereagh-street. Pope, Roland James, B.a., Syd., M.D., C.M., F.R.C.S., Hdin., 183 Macquarie-street. Potts, Henry William, F.u.s., F.c.s., Principal, Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, N.S.W. Powell, John, 170-2 Palmer-street. Priestley, Henry, B.Sc, M.D., ch.m., Physiology Department, The University, Sydney. Purdy, John Smith, p.s.0.,m.D.,c.u. Aberd., D.p.H. Camb., Metro- politan Medical Officer of Health, Town Hall, Sydney. Purser, Cecil, B.A., M.B., Chm. Syd., 193 Macquarie-street. Quaife, F. H., u.a., M.p., Mm.s., ‘ Yirrimbirri,’ Stanhope Road.,. Killara. |" Radcliff, Sidney, ¥.c.s., B.M.A. Building, 30 Elizabeth-street. Read, John. M.A., Pn.D., B.Se., Professor of Organic Chemistry in the University of Sydney. | Rhodes, Thomas, Civil Engineer, Box 109, Post Office, Broken Ali: Reid, David, :‘ Holmsdale,’? Pymble. . Ross, A. Clunies, B.sc., C. of E. Grammar School, North Sydney. Ross, Chisholm, m.p. Syd., M.B., c.M. Wdin., 155 Macquarie-st. Ross, Herbert E., Equitable Building, George-street. Russell, Harry Ambrose, B.A., c/o Messrs. Sly and Russell, 369 George-street; p.r. ‘ Mahuru,’ Fairfax Road, Bellevue Hill. Elected 1893 1915 1917 | 1913 1892 Pl 1904; P1 1918 1883 P 4 1917 | 1900 | 1910 1882 1912 1893 |P 55 1916 1917 | 1892 | P 2 1918 | 1916 | 1914 1913, 1900 | 1903 1909 | 1916 Pl 1883 P4 | | | (Xvii.) Rygate, Philip W., m.a., B.z. Syd., ASSOC. M. INST. C.E., L.s., City Bank Chambers, Pitt-street, Sydney. Sach, A. J., #.c.s., ‘ Kelvedon,’ North Road, Ryde. Sawkins, Dansie T., m.a., ‘‘ Brymedura,’ Kissing Point Road, Turramurra. Scammell, W.J., Mem. Pharm. Soc. Girt. Brit., 18 Middle Head Road, Mosman. Schofield, James Alexander, F.c.s., A.R.S.M., Assistant Pro- fessor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. Sellors, Richard P., B.a. Syd., ‘ Mayfield,’ Wentworthville. Sevier, Harry Brown. Manager, Lewis Berger and Sons (Aust.} Ltd., 16 Young-street. Shellshear, Walter, m.1nsT.c.E,, Consulting Kingineer for N.S. Wales, 64 Victoria-street, Westminster, London. Sibley, Samuel Edward, Chemist, ‘Garnella,’ Blenheim-street, Randwick, Simpson, R. C., Technical College, Sydney. Simpson, William pe ‘Abbotsford,’ Leichhardt-street, Waverley. Sinclair, Eric, m.p., c.m. Glas., Inspector-General of Insane, 9 Richmond Terrace, Domain; p.r. ‘ Broomage,’ Kangaroo- street, Manly. Smart, Bertram James, B.Sc. Public Works Department, Sydney Smith, Henry G., F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. (President 1913.) Smith, Stephen Henry, Department of Education, Sydney. Spruson, Wilfred Joseph, Consulting Engineer and Patent Attorney, Daily Telegraph Building, King-street. Statham, Edwyn Joseph, assoc. mM. Inst. ¢.B., Cumberland Heights, Parramatta. Steel, Frederick William, Chemical Works Manager, c/o General Chemical Co. Ltd., Parramatta Rd., Auburn. Stephen, Alfred Ernest, Culwulla Chambers, 67 Castlereagh- street, Sydney. Stephens, Frederick G. N., F.R.c.s., M.B., Chm., ‘Gleneugie,’ New South Head Road, Rose Bay. Stewart, Alex. Hay, B.z., Metallurgist, Technical College, Sydney. Steveet J. Douglas, B.v.sc., M.R.C.V.S., Professor of Veterinary Science in the University of Sydney; ‘ Berelle,’” Homebush Road, Strathfield. Stoddart, Rev. A. G., The Rectory, Manly. Stokes, Edward Sutherland, m.s. Syd., F.R.c.p. Irel., Medical Officer, Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street. Stone, W.G., Assistant Analyst, Department of Mines, Sydney. Stuart, Sir Thomas P. Anderson, M.D., Ch.M., LL.b. Edin., D.Sc, Professor of Physiology in the University of Sydney ; p.r. ‘Lincluden,’ Fairfax Road, Double Bay. (President 18938, 1906.) Sullivan, Herbert Jay, c/o Lewis Berger and Sons (Aust.) Ltd., Rhodes. ° a (xviii. ) Elected 1918 Sundstrom, Carl Gustaf, Manager Federal Match Co. Ltd., 6 Arcadia Road, Glebe Point. 1901 | P 7 | Siissmilch, C. A., F.c.s., Technical College, Newcastle, N.S.W. 1912 Swain, E. H. F., Director, Forestry Department, Brisbane. 1917 Tate, Herbert, Bridge Road, Stanmore. 1915 | P 1] Taylor, Harold B., B.sc., Kenneth-street, Longueville. 1905 Taylor, John M., m.a., uu.B. Syd., ‘ Woonona,’ 43 East Crescent- street, McMahon’s Point, North Sydney. 1893 {Taylor, James, B.Sc, a.R.s.M. ‘Cartref,’ Brierly-st., Mosman. 1899 Teece, R., F.1.4., F.F.A., Wolseley Road, Point Piper. 1878 Thomas, F. J., ‘Lovat,’ Nelson-street, Woollahra. 1879 Thomson, The Hon. Dugald, Carabella-st., North Sydney. 1913 Thompson, Joseph, M.a., LL.B., Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt- street, Sydney. 1918 Tietkens, William Harry, ‘Upna,’ Eastwood. 1916 Tilley, Cecil E., Demonstrator in Geology, The University, Sydney. 1916 Tillyard, Robin John, m.A., D.sSc., F.L.S., F.E.S., ‘Kuranda,’ Mount Errington. Hornsby, N.S.W. 1879 Trebeck, P. C.. Orange, N.S.W. 1900 Turner, Basil W., A.R.8s.M., F.c.s., Victoria Chambers, 83 Pitt-st. 1916 Valder, George, 3.p., Under Secretary and Director, Depart- ment of Agriculture, Sydney. 1883 Vause, Arthur John, m.8., c.m. Edin., ‘Bay View House,’ Tempe. 1890 Vicars, James, m.z., Memb. Intern. Assoc. Testing Materials; Memb. B. S. Guild; Challis House, Martin Place. 1892 Vickery, George B., 78 Pitt-street. 1903 | P 3| Vonwiller, Oscar U., B.sc, Assistant Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney. (Acting Professor.) © 1879 Walker, H. O., Commercial Union Assurance Co., Pitt-street. 1899 tWalker, The Hon. J. T., ¥.x.c.1., Fellow of Institute of Bankers Ena., ‘ Wallaroy,’ Edgecliff Road, Woollahra. 1910 Walker, Charles, ‘ Lynwood,’ Terry Road, Ryde. i910 Walker, Harold Hutchison, Major, C.M.F., Vickery’s Cham- bers, 82 Pitt-street. 1917 Wallas, Thomas Irwin, Bacteriologist, 175 Macquarie-street. 1891 | P 2| Walsh, Henry Deane, 8.4.1. Dub., M. INST. c.E., Commissioner and Engineer-in-Chief, Harbour Trust, Circular Quay. (President 1909.) 1903 Walsh, Fred.,, J.p., Capt. C.M.F., Consul-General for Honduras in Australia and New Zealand; For. Memb. Inst. Patent Agents, London; Patent Attorney Regd. U.S.A.; Memb. Patent Law Assoc., Washington; Regd. Patent Attorn. Comm. of Aust; Memb. Patent Attorney Exam. Board Aust.; George and Wynyard-streets; p.r. ‘ Walsholme,’ Centennial Park, Sydney. 1901 Walton, R. H., rc.s., ‘Flinders,’ Martin’s Avenue, Bondi. (xix. ) Ward, Edward Naunton, Superintendent of the Botanic Gar- dens, Sydney. Warden, Kobert Alexander, President, Government Savings Bank, N.S.W., Moore-street, Sydney. P 4| Wardlaw, Hy. Sloane Halcro, p.s.. Syd., 87 Macpherson-street ,. Waverley. P 17} Warren, W. H., Lu.D., WH.SC., M. INST. C.E., M. AM. SOC. C.E., Member of Council of the International Assoc. for Testing Materials, Professor of Engineering in the University of Sydney. (President 1892, 1902.) Watkins, John Leo, B.a. Cantab., mu.a. Syd., Parliamentary Draftsman, Attorney General’s Department, Macquarie-st. Watson, James Frederick, m.B., ch.M., Australian Club, Sydney, p.r. ‘Midhurst,’ Woollahra. Watt, Robert Dickie, m.a., B.sc, Professor of Agriculture in the University of Sydney. P 4| Watts, Rev. W. Walter, ‘The Manse,’ Wycheproof, Victoria. P1| Wearne, Richard Arthur, B.a., Principal, Central Technical College, Brisbane. Webb, Frederick William, c.m.e., J.p., ‘ Livadia,’ Manly. Welch, William, F.R.G.s., ‘ Roto-iti,’ Boyle-street, Mosman. tWesley, W. H., London. White, Edmond Aunger, m.a.I.m.z., Manager of Electrolytic Refining and Smelting Co. of Australia Ltd., Port Kembla, New South Wales. White, Charles Josiah, B.sc, ‘Kooringa,’ Robinson-street,. Chatswood. White, Harold Pogson, F.c.s., Assistant Assayer and Analyst, Department of Mines; p.r. ‘Quantox,’ Park Road, Auburn. tWhite, Rev. W. Moore, A.M, LL.D. Dub. Willington, William Thos., 0.B.z., King-street, Arncliffe. P 1} Willis, Charles Savill, u.B., chm. Syd., M.R.c.s. Eng., L.B.C.P. Lond., p.p.u., Lond., Department of Public Instruction, Bridge-street. Wilson, James T’., M.B., ch.m. Edin., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Sydney. Wood, Percy Moore, u.rx.c.p. Lond., u.R.c.s. Eng., ‘Redcliffe,’ Liverpool Road, Ashfield. |P 7| Woolnough, Walter George, D.Sc. F.a.s., Professor of Geology in the University of Western Australia, Perth. Wright, Gilbert, Lecturer and Demonstrator in Agricultural Chemistry, Department of Agriculture, The University, Sydney. Wright, George, c/o Farmer & Company, Pitt-street. Youll, John Gibson, Perpetual Trustee Chambers, Hunter-st. Young, John Anthony, Director, Lewis Berger and Sons (Aust.) Ltd., 16 Young-street. e Elected 1914 1918 1911 1914 1908 1908 1915 1912 1894. 1900 1915 1900 1878 1868 1867 1875 1876 1878 1877 1879 1913 1874 1906 P 57 (xx.) Honorary MEMBERS. Limited to Twenty. M.—Recipients of the Clarke Medal. Bateson, W. H., m.A., F.R.S., Director of the John Innes Horti- cultural Institution, England, The Manor House, Merton, Surrey, England. Chilton, Charles, M.A., D.se., M.B.c.M. etc., Professor of Biology at Canterbury College, Christchurch, N.Z. Hemsley, W. Botting, Lu.p. (Aberdeen), ¥.R.S., F.L.S., V.M.H.y Formerly Keeper of the Herbarium, Royal Gardens, Kew; Korresp. Mitgl. der Deutschen Bot. Gesellschaft; Hon. Memb. Sociedad Mexicana de Historia Natural ; ie Zea- land Institute; Roy. Hort. Soc., London ; Tees Lodge, St. Peter’s Road, Broadstairs, Kent, England. Hill, James P., D.se., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology, University College, London. Kennedy, Sir Alex. B. W., Kt., tu.p., D. ENG., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of Engineering in University College, London, 17 Victoria-street, Westminster, London S.W. *Liversidge, Archibald, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, ‘ Fieldhead,’ George Road, Coombe Warren, Kingston. Surrey, England. (President 1889, 1900.) Maitland, Andrew Gibb, F.a.s., Government Geologist of Western Australia. Martin, C. J., p.sc., C.M.G.,F.B.S., Director of the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, Chelsea Gardens, Chelsea Bridge Road, London. Spencer, Sir W. Baldwin, k.c.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Biology in the University of Melbourne. Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William Turner, K.C.M.G., C.I.E., M.A., LL.D., Se.D., F.R.S., The Ferns, Witcombe, Gloucester, England. Thomson, Sir J. J., 0.M., D.Sc., F.R.S., Nobel Laureate, Caven- dish Professor of Experimental Physics in the University Cambridge, T'rinity College, Cambridge, England. * Retains the rights of ordinary membership. Elected 1872. OBITUARY 1918-19. Honorary Member. Crookes, Sir William. Ordinary Members. Brooks, J. Fairfax, Sir James R. Jones, Sir P. Sydney. 7 Mathews, R. H. Myles, C. H. Paterson, Hugh. Pedley, P. R. Pockley, T. F. G. Roseby, Rev. T. Smith, J. McGarvie. Taylor, H. a a, (xxi.) AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL. Established in memory of THE Revp. W. B. CLARKE, m.a., F.R.8., F.G.8., etc., Vice-President from 1866 to 1878. To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the Geology, Mineralogy, or Natural History of Australia. The prefix * indicates the decease of the recipient. Awarded 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1895 1895 1896 1900 1901 1902 1903 1907 1909 1912 1914 1915 1917 1918 *Professor Sir Richard Owen. K.c.B., F.R.S. *George Bentham, C.M.G., F.R.S. *Professor Thos. Huxley, #.R.8. *Professor F. M’Coy, F.R.S., F.G.S. *Professor James Dwight Dana, Lu.p. *Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.c.M.G., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. *Alfred R. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. *Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, 0.M., G.c.8.1.,C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,F.R.S. *Professor L. G. De Koninck, u.p., University of Liége. *Sir James Hector, K.c.M.G., M.D., F.R.S. *Rev. Julian E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.8., F.L.S. *Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.R.s., F.R.A.S. *George Bennett, m.p., F.R.c.S. Eng., F.L.S., F.Z.S. *Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.R.s., F.G.s. Sir William Turner Thiselton Dyer, K.C.M.G.,C.I.E.,M.A., LL.D., Se. Dey F.R.S., F.L.S., late Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. *Professor Ralph Tate, F.L.s., F.G.S. Robert Logan Jack, F.a.s., F.R.G.S., late Government Geologist, Brisbane, Queensland. Robert Etheridge, Jnr., Curator of the Australian Museum, Sydney. *The Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, ¢.M.G., F.R.G.S. *Sir John Murray, K.C.B., LL.D., Sc. D., F.B.S. *Kdward John Eyre. *F, Manson Bailey, c.M.c.. F.L.S. * Alfred William Howitt, D.sSc., F.G.S. Walter Howchin, F.a.s., University of Adelaide. Dr. Walter E. Roth, B.a., Pomeroon River, Britisb Guiana, South America. W. H. Twelvetrees, F.a.s., Government Geologist. Launceston, Tasmania. A. Smith Woodward, LL.D., F.R.s., Keeper of Geology, British Museum (Natural History) London. Professor W. A. Haswell, m.a., D.sc., F.R.S., The University, Sydney. Professor T. W. E. David, ¢..G., B.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.G.S., The University, Sydney. Leonard Rodway, c.u.a., Honorary Government Botanist, Hobart, Tasmania. (xxii.) AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE. Money Prize of £25. Awarded. 1882 1882 1884 1886 1887 1888 1889 1889 1891 1892 1894 1894 1895 1896 John Fraser, B.A., West Maitland, for paper entitled ‘The Aborigines of New South Wales.’ Andrew Ross, u.p., Molong, for paper entitled ‘Influence of the © Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of wool.’ The Society’s Bronze Medal and £25. W. E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper entitled ‘ Water supply in the Interior of New South Wales.’ S. H. Cox, F.a.s.,F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Tin deposits of New South Wales.’ Jonathan Seaver, F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘Origin and mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the associated Minerals.’ Rev. J. E. Tenison- Woods, F.G.S., F.L.S., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to Australia.’ Thomas Whitelegge, F.R.m.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘ List of the Marine and Fresh-water Invertebrate Fauna of Port Jackson and Neighbourhood.’ Rev. John Mathew, m.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper entitled ‘The Australian Aborigines.’ Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Micro- scopic Structure of Australian Rocks.’ Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for paper entitled ‘The effect which settlement in Australia has pro- duced upon Indigenous Vegetation.’ J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper entitled the ‘Timbers of New South Wales.’ Rk. H. Mathews, u.s., Parramatta, for paper entitled ‘The Abori- ginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in New South Wales.’ C. J. Martin, p.sc., u.B., F.R.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The physiological action of the venom of the Australian black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus).’ Rey. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The occurrence of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a description of the Deposits in which they are found.’ PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By J. B. CLELAND, M.D., Ch.M. Delivered to the Royal Society of N. 8S. Wales, May 1, 1918. Introduction. During another year the titanic conflict of the Great War has overshadowed every aspect of the life of our community. The part that scientific knowledge is playing in its progress, the part that it will take in the strenuous times of the peace to come, indicate the important effect the war must exert on the activities of this Society. It is a national duty at all times, and much more so during the present world- érisis, for every member of the community to add all he can to the sum total of general knowledge. Thus shall we, ~ aS a nation, be made fitter for our present task and more capable of holding our own in the future. That in this respect members of the Society have recog- nized the duty imposed on them is shown by the number and nature of the communications submitted during the year and published in our journal. Still more important is the fact that some of our members are engaged in ser- vice abroad, in many cases placing at the disposal of the military or other authorities the special knowledge at their command. Prof. T. W. E. David, Prof. J. A. Pollock, Dr. J. A. Dick, Dr. J. S. Purdy, A. Clunies Ross, W. G. stone, C. E. Tilley, A. M. McIntosh, H. B. Taylor, and F. Marshall, are thus still in Europe, whilst Dr. F. Guy Griffiths and Dr. Archie Lang McLean have left us for this purpose during the year, and Professor S. H. Barra- clough is in America. Dr. H. J. W. Brennand, Sir Alex- A—May 1, 1918. 2 J. B. CLELAND. ander MacCormick (for the second time) Dr. T. Fiaschi and Rev. A. G. Stoddart have returned from service abroad during my term of office, and we have great pleasure in welcoming them home again. Our membership now totals 318, and it is gratifying to note that there has been a slight increase during the year. 17 new members have joined, whilst we have lost 10 members by resignation and 4 by death. The Sections of Industry and Agriculture have fully justified their establishment in the nature and number of the meetings held. Both owe much to Dr. Greig-Smith, who continues as Honorary Secretary of the former. Messrs. Wright and Breakwell have proved themselves en- ergetic Honorary Secretaries of the latter and have spared no trouble in making its meetings a success. The Geolo- gical Section has held meetings as usual, but owing to the departure for the Front of Dr. Guy Griffiths, Honor- ary Secretary of the Section of Public Health and Kin- dred Sciences, this Section did not hold its ordinary num- ber of meetings, though the earlier ones were important and well attended. I would like to express my warmest thanks to the Hon- orary Secretaries, Mr. R. H. Cambage and Mr. J. H. Mai- den, F.R.S., and to the Honorary Treasurer, Professor H. G. Chapman, for kindly assistance, advice and guidance on many occasions. Let me add that these gentlemen spare neither trouble nor time in their several capacities, and that the affairs of the Society could not be in better hands. To the members of Council I am indebted for courteous consideration on all occasions, and I wish to thank them cordially for their support and goodwill. Necrology. Wittiam Apam Dixon, whose death at the age of 76 years occurred at North Sydney on November 6th, 1917, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3 was one of the oldest members of the Society, having been elected in 1875. He held office as a Vice-President in 1883 and 1884, and in 1890 and 1891, and in addition was a member of the Council from 1879-1882, and in 1888 and 1889. He contributed twelve papers to the Society. He retired from active practice as an analytical chemist some 16 years ago. When the Sydney School of Arts was opened jn 1878 he was appointed instructor in chemistry, a posi- tion he continued to fill for some years after the establish- ment of the Technical College at Ultimo. He was for some years an examiner in chemistry at the University of Sydney, and was one of the foundation directors of the North Shore Gas Company, being chairman from its ini- tiation until about five years ago. SAMUEL LEvy BENSUSAN died in London in November at the age of 90 years. For many years he was a member of this Society, having been elected in 1869 and having resigned in 1905. He arrived in Australia in 1850 and was specially identified with mining operations, opening the first copper mine and tin smelting works in Australia. He discovered the Sunny Corner silver mines, and was instru- mental in the finding of nickel in New Caledonia. Epmunp Miungt, Deputy Chief Commissioner of Rail- ways for New South Wales, was elected a member of the Society in 1916, and. though in ill-health for some time, died suddenly, amidst universal regret, on August 23rd, 1917, at the age of 55 years. His early school days were spent at Ulladulla, and he entered the Railway service in 1876, and, by sheer ability, progressed to his final high position as one of the Commissioners. I am indebted to Mr. R. Etheridge, Director and Curator of the Australian Museum, for the following generous appreciation of his work and personality: ‘‘The late Edmund Milne was an observer, and not a writer, and a very earnest and close 4 J. B. CLELAND. observer at that. The only articles written by him, so far as my knowledge extends, are the following :— ‘1. ‘An Keho of Bogan River History,’ Town and Coun- try Journal, 1918 (May 14th), p. 22. “2. “Aboriginal Arborglyphs,’ Scientific Australian, xx., No. 2, 1914, pp. 29-31, text figs. ‘*3. ‘The Passing of the lithic People. A Story of the Coming of White Wings to Australia,’ Life, xxv., No. 4, 1916, pp. 300-3804, text figs. ‘*T know of no other direct publications of Milne’s, but the following article was unquestionably inspired by him: ‘* “Relics of Past History—Aboriginal Arborglyphs. The Chief that Oxley exhumed.’ Daily Telegraph, 1913 (July 30th), text figs. This is the history of the Oxley tree, as told by Milne. ‘‘His first hobby was the collection and study of the aboriginal stone implements, and of these he amassed a very considerable collection, more particularly from the western districts of this State. He next turned his atten- tion to the ‘carved trees,’ or, as he called them, ‘Arbor- olyphs,’ a subject of absorbing interest—the second of the above references refers to these. On finding that I had been for some years engaged in collecting data about these same ‘carved trees,’ which I termed ‘Dendroglyphs,’ as a more appropriate name, Milne, in the most unselfish and kind manner, placed the whole of his photo-prints and notes at my disposal. The account of these remarkable objects by myself is now in the printer’s hands, and will be issued as one of the publications of the Department of Mines, when the large share taken in the work by my de- ceased friend will be manifest to the most casual reader.’’ JOHN McLAuGHuin, who was elected as one of our mem- bers in 1903, died in Sydney on February 4th, 1918, at PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5 the age of 67 years. He was born in Westmeath, Ireland, m 1850, and came to New South Wales with his parents whilst still an infant. He was a well-known man in public life and, for eleven years in all, sat as a member of the Legislative Assembly. As a legislator, he took an active interest in bird protection, as well as in law reform and land legislation. He was admitted as a solicitor in 1874, and for three or four years was chairman of directors of the Insurance Office of Australia. Honours Conferred For War Services. It is with great pride that we are able to refer to high honours conferred on two of our members for services ren- dered on the Western Front in France. Lieutenant-Colonel (now Colonel) JoHN SmirH PurRDY, Army Medical Corps, was announced in the Commonwealth of Australia Gazette, No. 219, of December 20, 1917 (Lon- don Gazette, August, 1917), as being the recipient of the Distinguished Service Order ‘‘for conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty. Although continually under shell fire for seven days, he exercised close personal supervision over the evacuation of the wounded, and by his own ex- ample of courage and disregard of danger he animated all ranks with a similar attitude of mind. His work during preliminary preparations displayed the same untiring en- ergy and devotion to duty.’’ Major T. W. EpgkwortH Davin, as announced in the daily press of January 2nd, 1918, has also been awarded the Distinguished Service Order. So far it has not been possible to obtain the record of the specially distinguished service of which this honour was the recognition. It is very pleasing to note that in the first list of Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire, appointed in August last, appears the name of Professor RicuHarp THRELFALL. Sir Richard was for many years a \ 6 J. B, CLELAND. member of this Society, having been elected in 1886. He also occupied a seat at the Council table. The Chairs of Pharmacology and Zoology in the University of Sydney. It is a great pleasure to be able to congratulate two members of our Society on their appointments to Profes- sorial Chairs in the University of Sydney. Our Honor- ary Treasurer, Dr. Henry G. Chapman, is the first occu- pant of the newly-established Chair of Pharmacology. His researches in physiological chemistry and the advances he has made in our knowledge of these obscure processes show his eminent fitness for such a position. Dr. Stephen Jason Johnston has been chosen to succeed Professor W. A. Has- well, F.R.S., in the Chair of Zoology. That he is likewise an eminently suitable cccupant of such a high and honor- able position is shown by his published zoological works, and especially by his contributions to Australian helmin- thology. In wishing them all success and many years of fruitful labour in the provinces of knowledge they have made their own, it is an additional gratification to know that Australian citizens have been appointed to lead Aus- tralian thought. | It seems not out of place here, and before this Society, one of whose objects is the advancement of natural knowledge in Australia, to refer with gratification to the manner of the appointment to the new Chair of Pharmacology. A really suitable candidate being available in Australia, and, in fact, being actually at work in the University of Sydney, the chair was offered directly to him instead of the vacancy being advertised in Britain as well as in Australa. The latter procedure, however commendable in theory, is fraught with many difficulties, may be unfair to Australian applicants, and is ill-caleulated to encourage young Aus- tralians to take up scientific careers. We want as many PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ie of our able young men as possible to be induced to take up science as a life-work, or to undergo at least a scientific training. At present pure science commands too frequently but a pittance. A few high Government and University appointments furnish salaries approximating more to the merits of the positions, though sadly deficient when com- pared with those paid to business men. If our own gradu- ates on low salaries, after fitting themselves by years of study and research, are to see from time to time the higher positions they have understudied pass from their grasp to men, however capable, from overseas, what inducement is there for them to continue along unprofitable financial paths? How can we expect parents to consent to their sons thus, from’ the public point of view, throwing them- selves away by adopting such careers? If a really suitable man is available in Australia for one of these higher posi- tions, then let him be directly appointed, after adequate investigation by really competent persons, to such position, be it in the Public Service or at the University. Let the vacancy be advertised, if necessary, in Australia, prefer- ence being given to a candidate, if really suitable, already in the employ of the body concerned. Failing such a suit- able applicant here, then let us advertise abroad. It should always be remembered that a committee selecting applicants in Britain may be little aware of the personality, ability and work of the Australians applying, whilst they have probably been in personal touch with the applicants from Britain. Naturally, therefore, they select a good man whom they know, in preference to someone whom they do not know, and with whose particular field of work they have perhaps had little to do. It is to be hoped, therefore, that the precedent now established in the University of Sydney by this appointment will be followed in all cases by the Public Services and other Universities of Australia. There- by encouragement would be given to young men to follow 8 J. B. CLELAND. scientific careers. They would know that if they ‘‘made good,’’ such positions, as they fell due, or were created, would be fully open to them, and that they would have first claim on them. - Public announcement of such a policy would go far to hearten those already embarked on such careers, would encourage able young men to pursue with diligence their scientific work, and would tend to promote the advancement of natural knowledge in Australia. The Representation of Science in Parliament. As under our present State and Commonwealth Constitu- tions, it is almost impossible for direct representatives of science or in fact of knowledge in general—as, for instance, persons elected by members of our Universities—to occupy seats in Parliament, it seems necessary in the public interest to devise some other means by which legislators may be guided to right decisions on these aspects. That such a course 1s necessary is Shown by a recent Weights and Meas- ures Bill. No provision was made in this for the use of the metric system as a legal alternative. The necessity for such inclusion was not even hinted at till the Bill was launched. Yet the importance of the metric system in international commerce and in science, and the clear in- dication that its adoption throughout the British Empire is merely a matter of a few years, should have been recog- nised, especially by those members conversant with business requirements. There seems one way by which candid and — unfettered scientific advice can be rendered to members of Parliament. This would be by the appointment of one or two Royal Commissioners of Science in each Parliament. These Commissioners should have, by Act of Parliament, the right to be heard at the Bar of the House on any matter in which scientific knowledge plays a part. In other words, they would be to all intents and purposes members of Par- liament, but would not be allowed to express any political PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9 views or to vote. Their duties would consist in ascertain- ing, from authoritative sources, and in assessing the scien- tific aspects, from all sides, of any question submitted or that should be submitted to Parliament, and of expressing these views to members. By their patents they would have all reasonable access to public and private sources of infor- mation and, in placing the truth before the House, would be untrammelled by political or other considerations. It is clear that especially able and capable men, with real scientific training, must be chosen, and must be paid suitably high salaries. Their whole time would be devoted to this work. By an appointment for five years, and beyond that, by two years’ notice of intended removal, endorsed by both Houses under two consecutive Parliaments, ade- quate protection would be given them in fulfilling their duties. The appointment of such commissioners would, I feel certain, result in great advantage, whilst the Parlia- ments adopting the measure would lead in an advance in our methods of legislation that would be quickly followed elsewhere. Parliaments that have a nominee Upper House, as that of this State, already have a ready means of obtaining the invaluable advantages to be derived from inclusion amongst their members of men of high scientific attainments. Science and Its Applications in Australia. For many years British scientists have been calling atten- tion to the urgent need for more scientific research and a greater utilisation of scientific knowledge throughout all walks of our national life. The British scientist is, on the whole, not a business man, his chief desire being the acquirement of knowledge for its own sake rather than for the purpose, purely and simply, of money-making. The business man, on the other hand, is essentially not scien- tific. Huis training has been purely commercial, except in 10 J. B. CLELAND. a few instances, and his school work, to a large extent, has been classical rather than scientific. He knows his busi- ness, and knows it well from a commercial aspect, but he does not, and cannot be expected to, understand the appli- cation of the knowledge of various sciences to his own particular work. We see, therefore, as it were, a great cleft between the two important sections of the commu- nity—those engaged in scientific work, and those engaged in industrial, commercial, agricultural, pastoral and other pursuits. We have failed as an Empire—and this is also. true of Australia as a part of that Empire—to recognise that an intimate union is necessary between these two sec- tions of the community, so as to make the best possible use of all our national resources and the means for making” these available. The present great war has awakened us. to the true position of affairs in this respect, and has shown us what tremendous power can be acquired by an almost. perfect co-ordination between these two sections of the community, as manifested by our enemy, the German. We now know that for many years Germany has had one- great aim 1n view—preparation for the war now in progress. To ensure in her eyes certain success, she has not: only utilised in her military organisation all possible scientific knowledge which could be applied to the manufacture of weapons and other means of offence and defence, but she has also applied scientific knowledge in every other busi- ness or commercial transaction which could in any way increase her prestige and power. Not only were those sciences dealing more directly with war called to her ser- vice, but even those which at first sight might seem to be: of little practical use to her, have been shown to play a by no means unimportant part. We find, for instance, that the study of meteorology has been of the greatest value to her in deciding when to act in some of her great efforts, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LY and when to make aerial descents upon the British coast. Side by side almost with the advance of her invading armies the meteorological staff progresses so as to render the combatant forces such service as they can. If Germany, therefore, by this union of scientific know- ledge with business ability, has been able to achieve the striking results which she has attained, and which are costing us so many valuable lives and so much money to defeat, it is very obvious that the same means should be adopted by us, when the results, I think it is safe to say, would be still more successful than those obtained by Germany: Not only in the carrying on of the great war must this co-ordination be obtained, but when the fighting is over, and peace reigns once more, our future behaviour must be far different from the past. From these remarks it will appear that Australia, to be successful in the future, must apply science wherever she ean to her national undertakings and her daily work, cor- porate and individual. When the white man first reached Australia, vast potential resources presented themselves before him, but with the blindness of the newcomer their value was hardly recognised. To-day, the scales are drop- ping gradually from our eyes, and we see how much we have already lost by this spendthrift existence—feeding on our capital. Our timber has been rapidly cut out, and half a eentury will see a timber famine unless means are taken to make good the deficiencies. The by-products of many industries, especially those of coal, have received but seanty recognition, and in many other of our occupations we have been content to obtain a satisfactory main objec- tive, overlooking almost entirely the side-products that pay. It is all very well to say that under the circum- stances it would not have paid to conserve these various other materials; but what is the good of thinking and 12 J. B. CLELAND. talking in this fashion, if a few more years see us nation- ally bankrupt in some important commodity, merely be- cause it did not seem to pay to conserve that commodity in the earlier years of our life. It is high time, therefore, that science came to play her part in our national work, and we should now move energetically to organise our- selves in this respect so as to meet the final settlement of peace and the succeeding struggle of nations, calm in the knowledge that we are doing the right thing, and resolved to profit in every possible way by scientific research and effort, and their practical application. Under these circumstances it may be useful briefly to in- dicate, like Milton’s grades of angels, the various types or degrees of scientific workers, and their value and use to the community as a whole. We have, first of all, the man of general average ability, who has had a general average education, and has an aver- age knowledge of various sciences. I think it may be said with safety that many of our school children, educated in the public and private schools, have now this average scientific education. They are really in the position of knowing enough about various sciences to understand that there is a very great deal more which they do not know. They should also be in the position of knowing, when necessary, where to apply for sound scientific advice in problems that present themselves, and also to be guarded to some extent against the plausible views of the charlatan and the man with scientific obsessions. -It probably fre- quently happens that the individual possessed of this aver- age education is unaware of its limitations, and presumes to act or advise on scientific questions for which he is not competent. These cases must be carefully guarded against, for in science, above all, a little knowledge is a dangerous thing. Obviously, the more broad and the more thorough PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13 this basic scientific education is, the better citizens should those who have received it be, provided they are not car- ried away with the idea of knowing more than they actually do. It is obviously quite impossible for any one now-a- days, even of the utmost ability, to acquire more than a eveneral knowledge of all branches of scientific thought. An individual may specialise in one or two or three separate and narrow fields, but, as regards other lines, like members of the general community, he can be little more than a ehild in scientific thought, save—and here is the great distinction—that if he has been trained along some par- ticular scientific line, and has followed this to some of its utmost ramifications, this very training itself enables him more easily to understand the principles of other sciences, and to appreciate the value of the work done in these. Proceeding now to the second degree, we would include here those who have acquired some special scientific train- ing in connection with their own particular pursuit. Such scientific knowledge is necessary to a successful baker or wine-maker or brewer or plumber or pastoralist or wheat grower or accountant, or one may say almost anything. Those who have acquired special knowledge by reading and study, and the attendance of special lectures and demon- strations in connection with their own particular work, must obviously do that work better, more thoroughly, and more intelligently than those who have neglected these important adjuncts. Moreover, the more capable amongst this class may grasp new ideas or suggest new theories which may prove of the utmost value. Further, the more thorough such training has been, the more likely is the in- dividual to grasp the scientific necessities of the case be- fore him, and the possibilities will be added to when on top of his special training he has a broad general scientific education. He may then see difficulties which perhaps can 14 J. B. CLELAND. be removed by the application of scientific knowledge in some hitherto unthought-of direction. He will be able to understand the scientific requirements, and he will know through what channel to obtain advice in connection with these. Unfortunately for our national life, many of our number engaged in commercial pursuits are, through lack of initial general or special training in connection with these pursuits, quite unaware of the possible aid that may be given to their work by the application of scientific knowledge. They are, in fact, like the Chinese before, according to Lamb, they discovered, by burning down. their houses, the deliciousness of roast pork—they do not know what they are missing. They have no grasp of science themselves, and hence it never occurs to them that if vari- ous branches of science were brought to bear upon their work, these might be of the utmost value to them. The third degree of the scientifically trained mind is that of the person who has had a broad, general and scien- tific training, as in a university, and then has received special training in some particular branch or branches of higher scientific thought. In this way, along certain nar- row channels, he can speak and think with authority, and can apply to the use of the general community, and present needs, the scientific knowledge acquired in many countries during the past centuries. Still further elaboration of this type consists in the mentally more capable individual, trained along these same lines, who can bring to bear his own particular knowledge of some branch of science on problems that arise, and which at first appear to have no bearing directly ,upon his own immediate work. As an example of how such an application might arise may be taken, for instance, what is known as ‘‘dry-farming.’’ In recent years it has been shown that breaking up the surface soil in dry districts will PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 19 help to retain moisture in the deeper layers. This is de- pendent entirely upon physical laws, more especially in connection with capillary attraction. The advantages de- rived from this method of agriculture might have been achieved many years earlier had the attention of some physicist of ability been directed to the problem besetting the agriculturist in dry countries, and had he set to work then to think out some practical method for conserving the moisture of the soil. There must be very many other pur- suits in which the trained mind, if the owner has the ability, may be able to revolutionise our processes, if his attention were only brought to bear upon the _ require- ments. Obviously we need some machinery to enable this to be carried out.. We want, in fact, two different types of people—one mental type to go round and see what seems to be required, and another mental type to advise on and tackle the problems presented by the first. Highest of all the scientific grades, and often combined with the last mentioned, is that which can undertake original research and investigation, materially forwarding scientific knowledge by opening up new fields and making new discoveries. This type differs essentially from the plodder of infinite pains who, after much travail, brings forth in a mass of detail some small item of advance, and is best illustrated by brilliant investigators, such as Lord Kelvin, Lister and Pasteur, who, apparently almost with- out effort, have been able to grasp and crystallise from the Unknown ideas, thoughts and facts revolutionising the world. From the foregoing it is clear that men of the last type are born and not made, and are of the greatest value by far to the community. They should be sought after dili- gently, and, when found, given free scope. in whatever direction may seem to them best. The grade below this is POM) J. B. CLELAND, also to a great extent born, ability being enhanced by environment and opportunities. They also must be sought after and placed in positions where the best results can be obtained. The next grade, where a scientist by study has acquired a special knowledge of some group, is one that may be attained by almost anyone with ability a little above the average. To a great extent these men can be turned out to meet the demand. They are to some ex- tent the hewers of wood and the drawers of water in the realms of science, and though they cannot be expected to make great advances, yet they are of the utmost value in the application of knowledge already gained. Part I.—Scientific Aspects of the Year. The Great War.—lIt is the custom in Presidential ad- dresses to review any questions of scientific importance that may have cropped up during the year, more especially those affecting this State. The world-war has naturally been uppermost in the minds of all, and it may safely be said that every scientific worker and thinker in our midst has revolved, time and again in his mind, all the knowledge in his possession, of his particular province of science, with regard to its possible application, directly or indirectly, in the national interest. Though our losses in life—of the noble, of the supremely fit, of those who would have been leaders in science and in all the various walks of social life —can never be made up to us, yet the sacrifice has not been in vain. Out of the Spanish-American and South African wars arose a fuller knowledge of the role that flies may play in the spread of typhoid fever. That information has been applied in practice with far-reaching results. Perhaps it is no exaggeration to state that the losses of life in these wars have been made up since by the saving of life result- ing from the knowledge gained during their progress. Similarly, in the present war, and as a direct result of it, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 17 advances of enormous importance have been made in the treatment of wounds, in the knowledge of the means of spread of such diseases as typhus fever, cerebrospinal fever and bilharziasis, and in other directions. Of equal importance, though less directly connected with the saving of life, have been the discoveries made in chemistry, in engineering, and in many other fields. Though doubtless in the course of years, these various problems would have been solved, their solution has been precipitated, their erystallization from obscurity has been hastened, by the at- tendant requirements of war. Further, the need of scien- tific assistance is at last being realised by the community in general, and the closer co-ordination of science and in- dustry in our social life is being slowly brought about. The Housing Problem and the Public Health.—Ag a change, especially marked during the last year, has taken place in the housing accommodation of Sydney, a reference to it, as affecting the social welfare of the community, may be allowed from this chair. The matter might well re- ceive fuller consideration at the hands of our Public Health Section. The change to which reference is made consists in the introduction and rapid spread of the flat system. Its popularity may be referred to several causes, chief amongst which are the difficulties in obtaining domestic assistance, the scarcity and high price of dwelling-houses, and the in- crease in cost of suburban transit. These reasons for its adoption hardly concern us from the scientific aspect, and are quite legitimate, provided they are not counterbalanced by factors operating injuriously on the community as a whole. In this connection I would like to point out an aspect that, it seems to me, may have a very unfavourable effect upon the children of families living in flats. All are agreed, I think, that the family system is that best calculated, in the Anglo-Saxon race at least, to develop B—May 1, 1918, 18 J. B. CLELAND. children healthy in body, normal in mentality, and original in initiative. Mixing with the parents and in the surround- ines of the home, they assimilate the acquired knowledge of their parents, and acquire that touch of individuality that must be lacking to a great extent in the barrack-sys- tem. It is recognised that State children develop better and more naturally in the home surroundings of foster- parents than in reformatories. Now the flat system is a half-way house to the barrack-system. Families live, one piled on the other in layers, like the Chinamen in the steerage of an Eastern-going vessel. The seclusiveness of family life is lessened from the intimate proximity of neighbours, whilst the children home from school have no garden to play in nor free scope for their many activities. How the difficulty can be overcome is one for legislators to decide. Attention may also be called to the health value of large gardens round houses, and no municipal legisla- tion should exist which tends to make it unduly costly for homes to be surrounded by adequate air spaces. The Commonwealth Advisory Council of Science and Industry—The permanent establishment of the Institute of Science and Industry has not yet been accomplished. The Advisory Council, however, has continued its excellent work of initiation, supervision and direction, and it behoves all science workers to aid, in every possible way, investiga- tions of such national importance now being carried out under its auspices. It seems plainly to be the duty of any- one, with information, ideas or suggestions that may be of value, to place these, even though unsolicited, unreservedly and immediately at the disposal of the Council. The value of team-work, especially in unravelling difficult problems, ean hardly be over-emphasised, whilst batteries of workers, in cordial co-operation and representing all branches of knowledge possibly having a bearing on the question at PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 19 issue, are more likely than single workers to obtain the best and quickest solutions. The part played by our learned societies in the furtherance of scientific investigation in Australia, coupled with the personality and capacity of many individual members, indicate that they are corporate bodies of no small importance, of great public utility, and of very considerable experience in their particular pro- vinees of knowledge. As a consequence, I believe the Ad- visory Council itself, and the various State Committees, would be considerably strengthened if these societies were directly represented on them. The work now being ecar- ried out by the Council is far too little known to the scien- tific public of Australia, and I would suggest the import- ance of establishing a reeular Journal of Science, under its auspices, which would keep us all informed of the pro- eress made, and which might also contain references to cur- rent work published elsewhere in Australia, summaries of previous investigations, and other suitable matter. Through the kindness of the Secretary, Mr. Gerald Light- foot, I have been placed in possession of the following in- formation as to the work carried out by the Council during last year. I make no apology for including this in my address, as the matter is not otherwise easily accessible, and members will doubtless, like myself, be surprised at the volume and diversity of the subjects considered. Further, all will see from reading it, the importance of contributing what they can to ensure the success of the Institute of Science and Industry. | Brief Résumé of Work carried out by the Commonwealth Advisory Council of Science and Industry from June, 1917, to April, 1918 :— I. General.—As indicated in the Report of the Executive Committee for the year 1916-17, the objects for which the temporary Advisory Council was established, pending the 20 J. B. CLELAND. organisation of the proposed permanent Institute, had been largely carried out at the date at which that report was issued. A meeting of the whole Advisory Council was held in July, 1917, when a detailed scheme for the organisation and work of the future Institute was discussed and ap- proved. This scheme was brought before the Prime Minis- ter, who indicated that he approved of its general prin- ciples. Since the 30th June last, considerable progress has been made with the work, though the Executive Commit- tee has been hampered through having to carry on (under the temporary organisation and with insufficient powers and staff, and with no laboratory accommodation of its own), work which should really be carried out under the perma- nent Institute. The Executive Committee has dealt with a large number of matters of a very varied nature. The work may be summarised under the headings, firstly, the more systematic investigations conducted by Special and Standing Committees, and by other organisations assisted by the Executive; secondly, matters to which the Executive Committee have given a large amount of attention, but which have not yet reached the stage at which they can be made the subject of systematic investigation; and thirdly, miscellaneous inquiries and investigations. The last class at present fall into no special plan, and consist largely of inquiries for advice made by persons engaged in industry. It is probable that many of them will find their place later, in some co-ordinated scheme of work under the permanent Institute; but with the staff and funds at the disposal of the temporary organisation, it has not been practicable to undertake systematic investigations regarding those of them which the Executive consider require such investiga- tion. II.—Investigations conducted by Special Committees. 1. Ferro Alloys.—The work of this Committee is prac- tically completed. Valuable results have been obtained, and information has been supplied to persons interested. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 21 2. Mode of Occurrence of Gold in Quartz.—A large amount of work has been carried out, and the results are published in Bulletin No. 4. Provisional results of con- siderable value to the mining industry have been obtained. 3. Alunite.—Methods of treatment of each of the alunite deposits of Australia have been worked out. The results are published in Bulletin No. 3, and large-scale experi-. ments are in progress by the owners of certain of the de- posits with a view to the establishment of the potash in- dustry. 4. Yeasts and Breadmaking.—Results which may be of considerable importance with respect to the solution of the day-baking trouble, and which are of considerable scientific value, have been obtained. 5. Damage by Insects to Grain in Store.—A preliminary report has been made by the Committee, and published in Bulletin No. 5. Recommendations for systematic investi- gations have been made, but the question is still under consideration. 6. Purification of Damaged Wheat by Lime.—The re- sults of these investigations were reported in Bulletin No. aE 7. Electrical Sterilisation of Milk.—These investigations are still in progress. 8. Tanning Methods in N.S.W.—Investigations in pro- 2Tess. 9. Utilisation of Mangrove Bark for Tanning (Queens- land).—The investigations are not completed. Valuable results regarding decolourisation have been obtained. 10. Utilisation of Red Gum for Tanning (W.A.).—In- vestigations are in progress. Work has been delayed owing to difficulty in obtaining a properly trained leather chemist. 11. Means of Transmission of the Worm Nodule Para- site.—Investigations are in progress. De, J. B. CLELAND. 12. Control of Sparrow Pest.—Steps have been taken with a view to preventing this pest from reaching Western Australia. 13. Alcohol Fuel and Engines.—A large amount of work has been done, and a comprehensive report published as Bulletin No. 6. 14. Posidonia Fibre.—Investigations into the constitution of the fibre with a view to increasing its strength by chemi- cal treatment are practically completed. 15. Grass Tree Resin.—Fundamental research into the composition of the resin is in progress, with a view to the commercial utilisation of the resin. Definite chemical substances have been isolated. 16. Development of Mechanical Cotton Picker.—Inves- tigations are now in progress. Valuable results have been obtained. Arrangements are being made to grow cotton near Brisbane for the purpose of experimental picking by machine. 17. Utilisation of Phosphatic Rock.—Investigations are now in progress. 18. Life History of the Cattle Tick.—Investigations are in progress on the lines of the recommendations given on p- 17 of the Report of the Executive Committee. 19. Substitutes for Tin Plate—The investigations are nearing completion. Very satisfactory results have been obtained. 20. Commercial Utilisation of Kelp.—tInvestigations, specially in regard to the extraction of potash and iodine, are in progress at Hobart. 21. Blow-Fly Pest in Queensland.—Investigations are in progress in collaboration with the State Government. 22. Cold Storage Problems.—The Committee is engaged in devising a scheme for systematic investigation, especially in regard to the cold storage of fruits. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 2 23. Tuberculosis in Stock.—Special Committees are at work in each State. 24. Native Grasses and Fodder Plants.—A Special Com- mittee, with headquarters in Sydney, has been established on an Interstate basis. 25. By-products of Wool Scouring Industry.—A Special Committee is investigating this matter, especially with a view to dealing with the recovery of potash. 26. Nitrogen Requirements of Australia——A Special Committee has been appointed to investigate this matter. The work is in progress. Ill. Work of Standing Committees :— 1. Chemicals Committee——This Committee has dealt with a large variety of important matters. Other prob- lems are now under investigation. 2. Marine Biological Economics of Tropical Australia.— This Committee is dealing specially with Trochus and sponges. An expert sponge-fisher is to investigate the sponge beds near Cooktown. 3. Metric System and Decimal Coinage.—Work is in pro- oTess. 4. Seed Improvement.—This Committee has been estab- lished to undertake the examination, comparison, classi- fication and production of identification keys, to different varieties of cereals. IV. Investigations by Organisations other than Special or Standing Committees :— | 1. Society of Chemical Industry of Victoria.—A grant has been made to defray the expenses of work on the standardisation of chemical analysis. 2. N.S.W. Pastoral Committee on the Blow-Fly Pest— A grant has been made to assist this Committee in its in- 24 J. B. CLELAND. vestigations, and the Executive has appointed a represen- tative on the Committee. 8. Electrical Association of Australia: Committee on Standardisation.—Representatives of the Executive Com- mittee have been appointed both on the N.S.W. and Vic- torian sections of this Committee. V. More Important Matters which have not yet reached the Stage for Systematic Investigation by Committees :— 1. Paper Pulp.—aA large amount of information has been collected, and experiments have been conducted, on the paper making possibilities of a considerable number of indigenous plants, etc. The whole matter is still under consideration. 2. Prickly Pear.—A comprehensive report and recom- mendations for co-operative action between the Common- wealth and New South Wales and Queensland Governments have been made, but the consent of the New South Wales Government has not yet been obtained. 3. St. John’s Wort.—The question of the introduction of a parasitic insect, with a view to the repression of the pest, is under consideration. 4. Destructive Distillation of Hardwoods.—Preliminary experimental work has been completed. Other Matters of Special Importance dealt with by the Executwe :— 1. Repression of Cattle Tick—At a conference held in Brisbane in January last, at which representatives of the Commonwealth, Queensland, and New South Wales were present, a scheme of action was devised. This is now being considered by the Commonwealth and State Governments. 2. Organisation of Industry.—The Executive is taking action with a view to the establishment of industrial re- search associations, on the lines of the scheme adopted by PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 25 the British Department of Scientific and Industrial Re- search. 3. Flax Industry.—The Commonwealth Flax Industry Committee has been established under the War Precautions Act, on the recommendation of the Executive Committee, to control and develop the flax industry. 4. Interstate Forestry Conference——The Executive Com- mittee was represented at this conference, which was held in Perth, and as a result it has been decided that the com- pilation of data on Australian forest products shall be un- dertaken by the Executive Committee. D. Imperial Sugar Research Association.—A proposal for the establishment of research laboratories on a basis of co-operation between the different parts of the Empire con- cerned, is under consideration. 6. Agricultural Conference—An important conference of Agricutural Experts was held in Melbourne under the weeis of the Advisory Council. Already valuable results are accruing, e.g., the establishment of the Special Com- mittees on Seed Improvement and Native Grasses, ete. The Report of the Conference will be issued shortly as Bulletin Naa ts. - en 7. Catalogue of Scientific and Technical Periodicals in Australia.—This work is in progress in each State. The final compilation of the results will be carried out in Mel- bourne under the Executive Committee. 8. Soil Survey of Australia.—Preliminary steps have been taken. The matter is in abeyance through lack of funds. 9. Herb-growing.—Action has been taken for the develop- ment of this industry in conjunction with the work of the Victorian Government’s Medicinal Plants Board. 10. Ceramics, Enamels and Glazes.—Various aspects of this matter have been considered. The conclusion has been 26 J. B. CLELAND. reached that until a School of Ceramics, with a thoroughly qualified director, is established, research into these matters cannot be usefully undertaken. 11. Miscellaneous.—The following gives some idea of the range of miscellaneous matters dealt with by the Executive Committee :—Manufacture of cylinders for hold- ing compressed gas, manufacture of starch, manufacture of white lead, bleaching of pith cane, botanical and forestry survey of Papua, the training in England of Australian apprentices, recovery of potash from eucalyptus distil- leries, production of oxidised linseed oil, remission of duty on alcohol for scientific purposes, the most suitable times for felling timber, brown coal, War Profits taxes and the chemical industry, production of vinegar, transmission of disease through mouse-infested wheat; utilisation of waste fruit, of leather shavings, of waste paper, of wood shavings, of willow bark and of vegetable dyes, sugar from grapes; liability of copra to spontaneous combustion, chemical ret- ting of flax, regulations regarding the use of small stills for laboratory work, patent fodder cakes for’ stoek,. manufacture of tinplate in Australia, milling tests for flour, the production of tar oils, remission of duty on alco- hol used in the manufacture of rennet, atmospheric nitro- gen. Worm-Nodules wm Cattle—The difficult task of discover- ing the means of transmission of the larve of the nematode worm, Onchocerca gibsom Jnstn. et Cleland, from one bo- vine to another still awaits solution. As a result of a careful survey of the whole subject, and especially of our experiences on Milson Island, in the Hawkesbury River, it seemed highly probable that the most likely vector of the parasite was a March fly. Previous experiments having been unsuccessful, Dr. (now Professor) S. J. Johnston and I approached the Advisory Council of Science and PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Pdf Industry for financial assistance to carry out further ones. This was granted, and I have the permission of the Execu- tive Committee and of my colleague to make an announce- ment which, though far from conclusive, rather strongly supports the view, based on epizoological grounds, in- eriminating tabanids. With the aid of our assistants, Miss Marguerite Henry, B.Sc., and Miss Chase, B.Sc., on three occasions larve, probably those of O. gibsoni, have now been found, in the course of dissecting several thousand March flies. Whilst a single worm was found in one of these tabanids, several were present in each of the others. It must be remembered that it is still quite possible that these larve were merely accidental infestations, but the fact that in two of the flies the worms had much increased in size is important. It is also further possible that these larve are not those of O. gibsom. We have also several calf experiments in progress, one in a fly-proof pen, from which helpful results may follow. A partial worm-nodule survey of the State, carried out chiefly by Miss Somerville, B.Sc., and myself, shows wide dispersion of the parasite. even as far as the Victorian border, with an absence, some- times apparently complete, of nodules in certain highly- situated districts, such as Bathurst and Blayney. The Experiments Supervision Committee of the Depart- ment of Agriculture——The work done by this Committee, quietly and unostentatiously, is little known to the general public, or even to those interested in agriculture, but out- side the Department itself. Most of the experimental work of the Department is controlled by this Committee. Many of the experiments themselves are designed in detail by its members, whilst others are submitted by officers engaged in the subject under consideration. The objects aimed at are a full exploitation of all aspects of the science of agricul- ture, avoidance of over-lapping, co-ordination of effort with 28 J. B. CLELAND. the view of quicker and more final results, accuracy of de- tail of experiments to avoid possible flaws, and adequate control and check experiments. From time to time the results of this work appear in the Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, covering such wide fields as manuring and variety trials of cereals and other crops, fungicide tests, ploughing experiments, the improvement of pastures, the control of flying-foxes, the prevention of blow-fly in sheep, prickly-pear eradication, ete. One of the most im- portant investigations recently dealt with by the Commit- tee was the use of dry copper carbonate for the prevention of bunt, instead of the pickling of wheat with a solution of copper sulphate, the experiments having been suggested and designed by G. P. Darnell Smith and H. Ross. Blow-Fly in Sheep—Mr. John Froggatt, under the direction of the Government Entomologist (Mr. W. W. Froggatt), has been continuing his investigations at Moree into the best baits and traps for attracting and catching the blow-flies, the effect of the heavy seeding of an exten- sive area with the hymenopteron parasite (Nasoma brevi- ‘cornis) of the pupe of these flies, and the results of sys- tematic poisoning of careases for the purpose of destroying the blow-flies. In wishing them every success in their in- vestigations, it should be borne in mind that the control of this pest will probably always be a matter of consider- able expense, untiring energy, and meticulous care; that it is unreasonable to expect the discovery by anyone of an easy and rapid means of eradication; and that they will have performed a remarkably useful piece of work when, at the conclusion of their experiments, they have co-ordin- ated and perfected a scheme to utilise to the fullest advan- tage the information at their disposal, and backed this by an Act of Parliament to enforce its essentials. Prickly-Pear.—The seriousness of the prickly-pear prob- lem in Queensland and New South Wales is hardly realised PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 29 by the community. Day by day the pest is extending, and year by year the millions of acres already infested are being added to by hundreds and thousands. With a problem of this nature, it is highly improbable that any royal road to eradication will be discovered. The Experiments Super- vision Committee of the Department of Agriculture is actively engaged in investigating the most effective means of destroying the pear, and has in hand experiments to test the relative costs of the different methods suggested. These comprise mechanical means and spraying with cer- tain preparations of arsenic. All are costly, and in poor country the expenses of eradication will often exceed the value of the land. The fact that Opuntia monocantha, a pest pear in parts of Australia, can be destroyed by the cochineal insect, suggests the possibility that a mutant from it may possibly be found which would attack also the common pest pear, O. mermis. Provided there is no mechanical reason why these insects cannot feed on the latter, massed feeding experiments might be tried on an area where the two species are growing together. The fre- quent transmission of millions of coccids from plants of O. monocantha to adjacent ones of O. inermis, may eventu- ally lead to the appearance of a mutant able to maintain itself on the latter. Considering the issues at stake, it is worth while expending a considerable sum on this matter to test it thoroughly. Meanwhile drastic action is necessary to prevent more land being rendered useless and a nuisance. Lightly infested areas, with easily eradicable pear, on Crown and private lands, must at once be eradicated before the plants have gained a stronger hold. It is folly to delay action longer, and essential that the present limits of ‘‘in- eradicable’’ pear should not be extended by further neglect. Introduced Plant Pests.—In every direction one sees the extension of noxious weeds, and new species are frequently 30 J. B. CLELAND. being brought from overseas. No effort to control these seems to be made until they are so firmly established that extinction is impossible. Surely some means could be de- vised by which a special botanical staff, placed at the dis- posal of the Government Botanist, could methodically survey likely portions of the State, especially in the neigh- bourhood of seaports and along railway lines, to detect the early appearance of noxious weeds, and to arrange for their elimination at once. If some such scheme is not adopted millions more will be wasted in vainly endeavouring to remedy what a few hundred pounds expended now could with reasonable certainty accomplish. IT am indebted to others for the following summaries of progress made in Australia in various branches of science during the year under review :— Work of Australian Mathematicians.—Professor H. S. Carslaw, in the University of Sydney, has published two papers, one (Proc. London Mathem. Soc.) continuing his work on Wave Equation, the other (Amer. J. of Mathem.) on the Gibbs’ Phenomenon in Fourier’s Series. His (see- ond) paper on Napier’s Logarithms (this Journal, L, 1916, p. 180) has appeared also in the Phil. Mag. Professor H. J. Priestley, of the University of Queens- land, has also given attention to the mathematical theory of the diffraction of waves, and has contributed a paper on this subject to the London Mathematical Society. He is at present engaged in important research on these lines. — Dr. C. E. Weatherburn, the first Doctor of Science -in Mathematics of the. University of Sydney, and now lec- turer in the University of Melbourne, has made several contributions to the Phil. Magazwme and the Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, continuing the researches which won for him the D.Sc. here. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 31 The large work by Mr. G. H. Knibbs, C.M.G., the Com- monwealth Statistician, based on the Census of Australia, has attracted considerable attention. The staff of the Sydney Observatory, under Professor W. E. Cooke, has devoted much of its time to the prepara- tion for publication of measures of the plates taken at Pennant Hills in connection with the photographic survey of the heavens, and in other circumstances this work would by now have been published. Physics—E. M. Wellisch, Lecturer in Applied Mathe- matics in the University of Sydney, has contributed im- portant papers with regard to the motion of ions and elec- trons through gases. The Reverend Father Pigot has carried out valuable work in his seismological laboratory. Early in the year our members were invited to contribute toward a fund to defray the expenses of a research into the nature of earth tides at present being carried out by him at Cobar. Father Pigot was invited, before the outbreak of war, by the Inter- national Gecdetic Society to install a pendulum of extra- ordinary precision, in a situation and at a point removed from the influence of ocean tides and solar thermic action. He selected a deep level in one of the mines at Cobar, and received generous facilities at the hands of the Great Cobar Company. This work has not been conducted previously, under such favourable conditions, in many respects in any part of the world. Moreover, no earth-tide records have hitherto been obtained outside of Germany and Russia, save in the neighbourhood of Chicago, where the conditions are far from ideal. After exercising much patience and ingenuity in the accurate installation of the pendulum, Father Pigot has succeeded in overcoming many of the preliminary difficulties, and has now his first tracings of the earth tide—an achievement which will undoubtedly ae J. B. CLELAND. be followed by a series of further, improved curves, from ; which calculations of eminent scientific importance will be made. The expense of this research, a research of inter- national character, must be borne by those who have learned to appreciate the value of science, and it should not be left to Father Pigot to trouble himself about these sordid matters. The Editor of The Medical Journal of Australia has therefore taken upon himself the respon- sibility of collecting a sum sufficient to cover the cost of the research for two years. Contributions to the fund will be gratefully acknowledged. Chemistry —The chemical research done in Australia within the last year, 1s chiefly that in connection with prob- lems which have been taken up by the Advisory Council of Science and Industry. A Bulletin dealing with the Alu- nite deposits of Australia and their utilisation, has ap- peared. The conditions for roasting alunite so as to obtain the potash in a soluble form (potassium sulphate) have now been well investigated. The potassium salts thus made available should be a valuable asset to the country, as potash manures have not been obtainable to any extent since the outbreak of war. Establishments for the manufacture of electrolytic zine and calcium carbide are under construction in Tasmania. Messrs. Baker and Smith, of Sydney, have continued - their researches on the eucalypts and other native plants, and the importance of their work to chemists becomes in- creasingly more evident. Part Il—Rats and Mice. For the special part of this address, I am taking as a subject ‘‘Rats and Mice.’’ My reasons for doing so are several. First of all, the subject is one of general interest, and in a Society such as ours, composed of members whose PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Ae, a interests are aS diverse as are the paths of natural know- ledge, it seems fitting to choose a text that may appeal to all. Secondly, the association of these animals from time immemorial with man, and often. under tragic circum- stances, opens up by-paths of history and literature that may tend to lighten a scientific discourse, and to introduce that human touch that adds a piquancy to the pursuit of knowledge. Thirdly, my official work in this State, and in Western Australia, has brought me into intimate personat contact with these pests, and it has been necessary to acquire local information concerning them from every possible aspect. Lastly, animals of such social habits may, like ourselves, be afflicted with grievous ailments, and behave and suffer in many ways like the races of man, and so offer headings for discussion, philosophical and otherwise, that, as disjointed units, would partly lose their application and direction. I do not propose to deal with the subject from all its aspects, but to confine my remarks more especially to Australian conditions and experience. Special attention was first directed in Australia to rats more than 18 years ago, in January, 1900, when cases of plague in man were reported in Sydney, being part of the great pandemic of this disease that originated a few years previously. Before the pandemic died out, outbreaks oceur- red also in Queensland and Western Australia, with a few cases in Melbourne and Adelaide. As the result of the epidemiological observations of Ashburton Thompson, the bacteriological work of Tidswell, and the investigations of Ham, Australian workers were in the van in elucidating the problems connected with.the transmission of the plague bacillus to man. Their work, confirming and supporting that of investigators in other parts of the world, soon in- criminated the rat as a dispersing agent. Since that date rats have received the closest attention in this State, as C—May |, 1918. 34 : J. B. CLELAND. y elsewhere. A ceaseless vigil has been kept upon them here, ° and daily examinations are made for the purpose of antici- pating any future recurrence of plague in human beings. Consequently a large amount of data has been collected in my laboratory in connection with them and their habits, parasites and diseases in general. Though in such a systematic survey of rats, the common house mouse, Mus musculus, is included, being also subject to plague, much general attention had not been directed io this small pest till recently, when the enormous havoc amongst our wheat stacks caused by its phenomenal abun- dance perforce directed attention to it. With this short introduction, the consideration of our rats and mice divides itself naturally under the following headings — The Species of Rodents concerned, and their Habits. The Damage done by Rats and Mice. The Distribution and Prevalence of the Common Rats and Mice in Australia. The Numbers of Rats and Mice per Litter. The Rats that Travel by Sea. The Diseases of Rats: Community Animals and the Origin and Spread of Epizootie Diesease. The True Significance of Disease. The Manifestations of Disease may be Specific. Attributes both of the Parasite and of the Host. Plague: The Romance of Plague. A summary of the occurrence of Cases of Plague in Australia. The Species of Animals naturally infected with Plague in Australia. Rat Leprosy. Spirochetosis ictero-hemorrhagica. Rat-bite Fever. ew) we) Wt PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Malegnant Growths in Rats and Mice: A Theory as to the nature of Cancerous Processes. Cancerous Growths in Rats and Mice. Malignant Growths in Other Animals. | Other Disease Conditions met with. The Ectoparasites of Rats and Mice: Fleas.—Fleas caught on Human Bengs. Bed Bugs. Pediculids. Acarina. The Protozoal Parasites of Rats and Mice: Trypanosoma lewrst. Heemosporidia. Sarcosporidia. Spirochetes. The Helminth Parasites of Rats and Mice: Nematodes: Trichinella spiralis. Gongylonema neo- plasticum. Hepaticola hepatica. Larval. Nema- todes in subserous nodules on the intestines. Rats as possible dispersers of the eggs of Human Ankylostomes. Acanthocephala—Cestodes—Trematodes. Previous Phenomenal Visitations of Rats or Mice in Australia : The 1869-70 ‘‘Gulf Country’’ Rat Visitation. The 1887 Cooper’s Creek and Darling District Rat Visitations. The 1895 Visitation of the Rat Asco- pharynx cervinus at Charlotte Waters. The 1904 Visitation of Rats at Alice Springs, S.A. The 1903-5 Mouse Visitation. Mice in South Australia Talal The Mouse Plague of 1917: The Species of Mouse responsible. Summary of the Information available. Official Information. Per- sonal Information. Disease in the Visitation Mice. Disease in Men associated with the Mice. Birds and the Destruction of Mice. Means of combating the Plague of Mice. 36 J. B, CLELAND. The Species of Rodents concerned, and Their Habits. The species of rats and mice dealt with in this review comprise only the two common rats, Epimys rattus and E. norvegicus, and the common house mouse, Mus musculus— three species usually and more or less universally associated with the habitations of man. Epimys rattus (.) (including E. rattus alexandrinus). —This is the so-called old English Black Rat. LH. alexandri- nus is considered by Oldfield Thomas (MSS. letter) merely as a color variety, ‘‘a white or yellow bellied race,’’ of the black bellied E, rattus, being ‘‘essentially the same species.’’ The colour of #. rattus, in the wider sense, varies therefore considerably. Australian specimens are usually greyish- brown all over, in colour thus resembling H. norvegicus. Not infrequently we find them with light or almost white bellies, sometimes with an indistinct fawn edge separating the light under-surface from the brown back. Occasionally they are of a uniform rich glossy blackish colour, then pre- sumably representing the true black rat. Compared with E. norvegicus, the chief external specific characters are the larger, thinner ears, and a tail longer than the length of the body (125 per cent.). The skulls are slightly but specifically distinct in the two species. The Black Rat is essentially a house and climbing rat, in contradistinction to the Norway Rat, which has been designated the Sewer Rat. Consequently the former is brought more into intimate con- tact with man. Under the title ‘‘On the Habits of the Sydney Bush Rat (Mus arboricola),’’ Edgar R. Waite’ gives an interesting account of the tree-climbing habits and fruit-eating ca- pacity of this species at Mosman and in other parts of Sydney. He found difficulty in trapping it unless fruit was used as a bait. It also ate the seeds of Tecoma australis + Waite, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1897, p. 857. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 37 and Mandevillea suaveolens and the fruits of Moreton Bay figs. Another unusual article of diet was snails (Helix aspera), of which it bit off the apex of the shell to get at the animal inside. It formed nests in trees, and also made its home in the joints of bamboos. Oldfield Thomas points out that these rats, originally described by Macleay as Hapolotis arboricola, were evidently a form of Mus ratitus. Captain 8. A. White+ gives an interesting description of the habits of Black Rats which had recently appeared in numbers at the Reedbeds, near Adelaide. He caught them easily with flesh baits, and found that they hid in the day- time in holes in the river bank, under floors, and in old sparrows’ nests in hedges. It was almost impossible io grow maize, sorghum, sunflowers, or other plants, whilst they ate grapes on the vines, devoured fruit on the trees, and even climbed the stems of zinnias and bit off the flower heads in search of seeds. The device of paper twisted into spools, or bell-shaped, and encircling the stems of maize or zinnias, protected them, the rats fearing a trap. From the alarm calls of birds in the trees at night, he believed the rats were in search of birds at roost, and anticipated much economic harm from destruction of our native birds. Captain White’s notes are illustrated by photographs of rats eating maize cobs, of the damage done to maize and zinnias, and of the paper spools in situ. I remember when in Perth, W.A., that considerable damage was occasionally done by Black Rats in a florist’s shop, which is interesting in connection with Captain White’s observations. Mus tompson Ramsay, and M. variabilis H. and P., are apparently synonyms of EL. rattus.? Epimys norvegicus (Erxl.), (Mus decumanus Pallas), the Norway or Brown Rat.—This species has a tail less + White, “The Observer,” Adelaide, April 7th, 1917, pp. 4, 26. + A. EK. MeCulloch, Ree. Aust. Mus; VI., 1907, p.'-312, 38 J. B. CLELAND. he than the length of the body (80 per cent.), and shorter and thicker ears. It is also a larger and more robust rat. There seems to be little variation in colour, our specimens being all of a general greyish-brown. Though sometimes called the Sewer Rat, it does not confine itself to such localities. I remember in the early nineties frequently seeing it near Adelaide, climbing up into hedges of the African thorn, probably to eat the fruit. Mus musculus L., the Common House Mouse.—This al- most universal domestic pest varies little in size with us. when adult, nor have I personally met: with decided varia- tions in colour in wild specimens submitted for examination. Mus adelaidensis Gray (1841), and M. simsont (1882) from Tasmania, are both, Mr. H. A. Longman informs me, this species. The Damage done by Rats and Mice. I do not propose to deal fully with this aspect. The damage may be direct by eating foodstuffs or gnawing goods and spoiling them, or indirect by causing fires, or flooding by water, or expense in suppressing an outbreak of plague. References to details will be found in many publications dealing with rats. Mr. H. A. Longman,' of the Queensland Museum, in his introduction, gives some information, men- tioning for instance that in Great Britain the loss has been estimated at £15,000,000 a year. He also refers to a re- turn prepared some years ago in an Australian capital, where a firm dealing in meat products calculated the dam- age done by rats at a loss of £500 per annum. A few years ago, Dr. J. 8. C. Elkington,? then Commis- sioner of Public Health for Queensland, drew up a sche- dule of questions on this subject and submitted them to i Longman, Notes on the Classificat. of Common Rodents, C’ wealth of Aust., Quar. Serv., Serv. Publ. 8. 2 Ann. Rep. Comm. of P. Health, Q., to June 30th, 1910, p. 7. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 39 leading business firms in Brisbane. He gives the following examples of losses:—‘‘One firm lost from £50 to £100 per annum from rats until the Departmental Rat Gang came to their aid; another lost £35 in goods damaged by rats dur- ing a move; another suffered £10 worth of damage from these animals in a single night; and a fourth found the ex- penditure of £500 in rat-exclusion measures a profitable in- vestment.”’ Mr. N. G. Sparks, Chief Officer, N.S.W. Fire Brigades, in answer to an enquiry of mine, has kindly supplied the fel- lewing information as to the role rats and mice may pos- sibly play in causing fires. He states that in this State, for the four years 1914 to 1917 inclusive, 63 fires were attribut- ed to ‘rats and mice at matches,’ distributed as follows :— City: 1914, 1; 1915, 6; 1916, 7; 1917, 9—total, 23. Country: 1914, 9; 1915, 7; 1916, 7; 1917, 17—total, 40. He adds:— ‘The damage in each case was not extensive, otherwise there would have been no proof of the supposed cause. There is no record of the breaking down of insulations or short cir- cuit of electric wires caused by the action of rats.’’ The Distribution and Prevalence of the Common Rats and Mice in Australia. It is now known that the presence of rats (and possibly, but to a much less extent, of mice), is necessary: for the estab- lishment of bubonic and septiceemic plague in man. This statement does not apply to pneumonic plague, which may be directly conveyed from man to man. It is also neces- sary that infected rats or mice (or perhaps infected ma- terial) should be introduced into the area to start the epi- demic in the local rodent population. Such an introduced infection cannot lead to an epidemic of the first-mentioned types of plague in man in the absence of local rats (and mice), or if these are so few in numbers as to prevent a reasonably extensive epizootic occurring amongst them. At 40 J. B. CLELAND. the utmost, in human beings, an accidental case or so might occur under these circumstances, conveyed by fleas actually leaving the sick introduced rats or by some other fortuit- ous means. It is, therefore, of very considerable importance to know the distribution in Australia of these rats and mice. As regards the latter, they are so easily transported’ in mer- chandise of various kinds, by rail, team or sea, that they may be considered as practically universally distributed throughout the continent wherever man has his dwelling— even the temporary shelters of camps. Thus I remember in 1907, when investigating Surra in camels in Western Aus- tralia, when we were camped for several months 60 miles inland from Port Hedland, and with no town nearer than this port on one side or Marble Bar, equally far away, on the other, that several mice, almost certainly the house mouse, were found to have accompanied us, probably in forage. Yet there was no bush station house within many miles. Spencer and Gillen mention that the common mouse has reached the centre of Australia. The recent rapid ex- tension of the wheat belt also favours its spread by giving it abundant food. Mice, however, though capable of being in- fected by plague and suffering therefrom when the rat population is suffering from the epizootic, are not considered responsible for the general spread and maintenance of the disease. Doubtless, however, if plague gained access to them when present in such countless hordes as were re- cently witnessed in this and neighbouring States, an epi- zootic might be started and human beings infected, provid- ed, as regards the first occurrence, that fleas were on them capable of conveying the plague bacillus from mouse to mouse, and as regards the second occurrence, that such fleas would also bite man. Amongst samples of the mice from +“Across Australia,’ I., p. 166. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 4] the recent infested wheat areas, the only fleas encountered (all from one sample—they were not looked for in others) were the blind flea Ctenopsylla muscult, which does not, apparently, bite man. The two common species of rat are therefore the chief, in Australia, perhaps, the only, means available for the distri- bution of the plague bacillus apart from direct infection from man to man in pneumonic plague. A town free from rats will be free from a visitation of ordinary plague; a town that reduces its rats to numbers so small that a plague epizootic cannot establish itself amongst them, if plague rats are introduced, will be free; a town that lets its rats multiply is exposed to a menace that may lead to enormous financial losses and possibly a heavy death roll. It is, of course, an exceedingly difficult task to keep down the rat population. In spite of all efforts, they may still be pre- sent in large numbers. When plague has never reached such a town, or its ravages and cost have passed into ob- livion, the constant warfare against rats may wane and the authorities cry out at a seemingly needless expense. Days of financial stringency may arise, and the pruning knife lop off more and more of this important public protection. It is the old story again of one of Britain’s little wars. The expedition had been a success; the native tribes had made suitable submission; the general in command was submit- ting his report on the part played by the various units im achieving such desirable results. For the medical work, he wrote, little praise could be bestowed, because, as a matter of fact, the staff had had nothing to do, there had been no sickness at all—but in truth there had been no sickness because of the very efficiency of that staff 1n preventing its appearance. Had typhoid fever decimated the ranks and slain more than the enemy, had dysentery incapacitated the troops, the medical staff could have done tangible work in 42 J. B. CLELAND. trying to remedy an evil that might have been prevented— and a warm tribute of praise would have been paid them. Nevertheless, what finer recognition of their services could they have, in the eyes of a right-seeing posterity, than the unconscious compliment paid them in the despatches—there was no sickness. Even so is the attitude to rat control in cur midst. The quiet work goes on from year to year, the harbor shores and buildings are rendered rat-proof, syste- matic trapping and baiting are carried out, nesting sites _ for the vermin are removed, food to nourish and propagate them is protected from them—and then the ery goes up why all this needless expense, this waste of public and private money—we have no plague! Aye, we have no plague, but why? Shall we open the door to it again? And if we do, as sure as autumn leaves do fall, sooner or later the un- welcome visitor will come in thereat. And even though it be many years before he intrudes again, is not the pecuni- ary loss to the community from the ravages of rats, esti- mated at £15,000,000 per annum in Great Britain and Ire- land, alone worth while our attention? Let us now turn to the present known distribution of our rats. In England, the old English Rat, EH. rattus, is said to be nearly extinct, its place having been taken by the more aggressive Norway Rat, EL. norvegicus, introduced about 1728 or 1729. Sir Ray Lankester,! however, says. that the Black Rat is not extinct there, not even very rare. He had seen specimens from a warehouse in London where they were abundant, and they occurred, for instance, in Great Yarmouth and in isolated dwelling houses. In the United States the Norway Rat? is the prevalent one, though EH. rattus preceded it and is still found in a few + Ray Lankester, Science from an Hasy Chair. 2 Lanz, in “The Rat and its Relation to the Public Health,” Wash- ington, 1910, p. 18. > PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 43. places, whilst the Alexandrine variety of the latter is com- mon near the sea-coasts of the southern parts. In Sydney, EL. norvegicus and FE. rattus (including £. rattus alexandrinus), are present in about equal numbers. Thus, between March Ist, 1904, and December 31st, 1916, 89,216 of the former and 104,520 of the latter were examin- ed in the Microbiological Laboratory of the Department of Public Health. In 1904, 1905 and 1906, #. norvegicus was more numerous than HL. rattus, in one year being twice as many. Since 1907, EF. rattus has been the predominant rat submitted for examination, in some years being nearly twice as numerous as EL. norvegicus. In the ‘‘Report on a Second Outbreak of Plague at Sydney, 1902,’’ it is stated, in reference to rats examined between 1900 and 1902, that H#. rattus predominated amongst those taken along the shores and E. norvegicus amonest those taken inland. In the Ulmarra district of our North Coast, in 1905, out of 1,128 rats examined, only three were EF. rattus. At Graf- ton, however, 62 out of 234 were of this species. I have re- ceived recently a specimen of EL. rattus from Bathurst, ana specimens of both the Alexandrine and of the typical black forms from Goulburn. Mr. R. H. Cambage informs me that when Stockton and Hetton Collieries were working the former contained numerous rats but no mice, while in Hetton there were multitudes of mice but no rats. He also states from per- sonal experience that, in 1891, when on the Upper Nam- bucca River, he found, as soon as the lights were ex- tinguished, the miners’ huts were invaded every night by bush rats, which ran all over the room and over those lying in bed. From municipal enquiries I am informed that rats are known at Hay, and have been seen in the goods yard at 44 J. B. CLELAND. - Queanbeyan, and that one was seen three years ago at Cul- cairn, but there are said to be none at Yass, Narrandera, Jerilderie, Berrigan, Corowa and Albury. A. R. McCul- loch,+ in 1907, records having received specimens of rats from Wagga, where they were found about grocers’ stores and stables. I'rom these he was able to show that Mus ' tompsoni? Ramsay was really Mus (Epimys) rattus. Ben- nett’s account? of a visitation of Mus tompsoni (EH. rattus) in western Queensland and western New South Wales (east of the Darling) in 1887, shows a wide distribution of this — species. Rats are found deep down in the mines at Broken Hill, where they enter the sanitary pans and eat the feces, but I do not know which species these are. As regard Queensland, Ham® states that at Brisbane and Rockhampton EH. norvegicus was four times as common as EF. rattus, but at Townsville and Cairns, where epidemies and epizootics had frequently occurred, EL. rattus was the more common. In Melbourne, Ham (loc cit.) states that E. norvegicus was practically the only rat found in the city itself, a few E. rattus being occasionally found about the wharves and shipping. Through the courtesy of Dr. Robertson and the Secretary of the Public Health Department, Melbourne, I am informed that, of the rats examined between Janu- ary Ist, 1912, and August 31st, 1916, 86.02 per cent. were E. norvegicus, 10.93 per cent. EF. rattus (and E. rattus alexandrinus), and 3.01 per cent. ‘‘hybrids.’’ In Adelaide my recollection of the rats seen as a school- boy suggests these were HL. norvegicus. I remember being much struck when at the London School of Tropical Medi- cine with the beauty of the Alexandrine Rat from a New 2 McCulloch, Rec. Aust. WSIS; Woh, UOO%, Tos sz 2 Bennett, Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W. (2), I1., 1887, p. 447. 3 Report on Plague in Queensl., 1900-1907, p. 130. " PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 45 Zealand vessel, so different from the rats I had previously known. Adelaide specimens seen by me about 1907 were certainly EH. norvegicus. Dr. Borthwick informs me that when plague was present in Port Adelaide in 1909, both £. norvegicus and EH. rattus were present, the former pre- dominating. Recently the Black Rat has appeared near Adelaide in considerable numbers. Mr. E. R. Waite,4 of the South Australian Museum, first called attention to its presence and attributed its arrival to escapees from troop- ships. As this species, as I shall indicate elsewhere, is the principal rat that travels by sea and is present on manv vessels, any inter-State or oversea ship, however, might have introduced it. In Tasmania, Ham states that both species occur. In Western Australia, when I was there between 1906 and 1909, E. rattus was the only rat met with in Perth, ex- cept along or adjacent to the water frontage of the Swan River, where £. norvegicus was also found. Similarly at Fre- mantle, this latter species occurred only near the wharves. It seems fairly certain that E. rattus had been first intro- duced, as might have been expected, from its being the species usually found on ships, and that EH. norvegicus had only recently arrived, but had already established itself in the immediate neighbourhood of shipping and water car- riage. The Number of Rats and Mice per Litter. The number of rats and mice born per litter is of con- siderable interest, as showing the potentialities that exist for the rapid increase of these pests in the absence of con- trolling factors such as dearth of food supplies. It may be taken as a general axiom that the various living beings that inhabit the earth, both plants and animals, are as regards + Waite, “The Register,’ Feb. 12th, 1916. 46 J. B. GLELAND. 7 their numbers in a condition of approximate equilibrium, at least so far as their normal habitat is concerned. They have had countless ages in which to multiply. If prolifie breeders, their population has reached that degree of mag- nitude capable of being sustained under normal circum- stances. If slow breeders, the species may be on the verge of extinction—and doubtless many species have become ac- tually extinct for this reason—or slowly diminishing, or holding its own, or gradually increasing, according to the losses taking place amongst the young before these are capable of reproducing their kind. Altered conditions, as for instance, those due to the presence of man, may vastly disturb this equilibrium, whilst extension more or less fortuitous to a new habitat may enable a rapid increase to occur from absence of the usual controlling factors. The equilibrium is therefore an unstable one, liable to swing vio- lently in one or other direction as the result of fire or flood, starvation, or an abundance of food, alteration in environ- ment, increase or decrease of disease, and extension to new habitats or encroachments on old ones. The spread of in- troduced animal and vegetable pests in Australia is a strik- ing example of the swing of the pendulum in the direction of phenomenal increase, due to extension of the species to a new habitat, and that one lacking in many of the con- trolling factors found in the normal surroundings of the species. The apparent great increase of the Australian blowflies, Anestellorhina augur and Pollenia stygia, re- sponsible now for so much blowing of living sheep, is pro- bably a similar example due to an altered environment, namely, the presence of the exotic sheep, cattle, and rabbits. The approaching extinction in many parts of Australia of the aborigine, the kangaroo and wallaby, and wombat, shows a swing of the pendulum in the other direction, due to an environment altered by the white man’s presence and ac- tivity. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 47 In spite of these striking exceptions, the axiom still holds good in a general way. Further, the presence of the vari- ous species still existent on the earth shows that these, in contradistinction to species now extinct, have been suffi- ciently prolific to maintain themselves up to the present in spite of the summation of all adverse conditions. For some species this has been difficult, and in the case of those verging on extinction the death rate has evidently exceeded the birth rate. In others, the maintenance has been easy. But all, rare species and common ones, are at any particu- lar period of time, and under normal conditions, relatively stable in numbers. If this be the case, then it is clear that the number of progeny, potential or actual, produced by the parent, or in the case of dicecious species the parents, dur- ing its, or their, lifetime, is a measure of the risks encoun- tered by the young in reaching maturity under average nor- mal conditions. In other words, each parent or pair of parents has the expectation, on the average, of leaving one or two descendants, according to the case, to perpetuate the species. Otherwise, of course, the number of individuals of the species would progressively increase or decrease. If a large number of progeny, either young animals or seeds, be produced, then it can be assumed that the chances against any one of these reaching maturity are great. If the number is small, then the risks are few. Many orchids produce annually vast numbers of seeds—evidently the like- lihood of any one of these finding a suitable habitat and maturing is very small, but the operation repeated from time to time during the life of the plant eventually, on an average, enables it to leave at least one descendant. The spores set free from the cap of one agaric (Psalliota cam- pestris—the common mushroom) have been estimated by Buller? at 1,800 million; from the fruit-body of another + Buller, Researches on Fungi, 1909, pp. 82-85. 48 _ J. B. CLELAND. (Coprinus comatus) at 5,240 million; and from a bracket fungus (Polyporus squamosus) at 11,000 million, and this was only one of ten brackets on the tree from the, same. mycelium. As, in these fungi, the one mycelium may give rise to several fruit-bodies during the season and maintain itself for years, evidently the likelihood of the germination and establishment of any one of these spores is almost in- finitesimal. Woman in a savage state had probably about. a dozen children, perhaps more, during her life time, but the risks attendant upon their upbringing must have reduc- ed the average of adults reaching maturity and procreating to little more than two. Amongst the British race, where celibacy is unfortunately far too common, it is considered that four births to a married couple are capable of main- taining the number of the population. From this it would appear that if we knew the average numbers of litters during the lifetimes of rats and mice, and the average number of young per litter, we should get an indication of the risks attendant on the young rats or mice before they are old enough to reproduce themselves. I have not got personal information of the average number of litters borne by our two common species of rats and the common house mouse during the individuals’ lifetimes. It is known that they reach maturity quickly, and that one pregnancy can be followed by another at intervals to be measured by weeks. I have, however, a considerable amount of evidence as to the number per litter, and some interest- ing points emerge from the consideration of this. My data show clearly that a large number of young must be produced during the average lifetime of these rodents, and that, therefore, the risks normally attendant on their lives, and especially on that of their young—due to starva- tion, man, beasts of prey, disease, accidents, and perhaps cannibalism—must be considerable; and conversely that, in 49 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. the absence or diminution of these controlling factors, the rate of increase may be very rapid, in fact, in the absence of all inhibiting circumstances, astounding. The following table (Table I.) shows the number of rat foetuses found on examination in the Microbiological La- boratory of the Department of Public Health, in the three species, H. rattus, EL. norvegicus, and M. musculus, during the three years 1915, 1916, 1917. As not infrequently, when pregnancy is well advanced, one or two partly ab- sorbed fcetuses may be found in the horns of the uterus, the number born per litter will be somewhat less. Still, for practical purposes, these figures may be taken as showing the number actually born. Bere I.—Number of Fetuses found in Rats and Mice in Sydney during the Years 1915, 1916 and 1917. Epimys rattus. Epimys norvegicus. Mus musculus. Habis | Nomar of Apnrosinete|Orbuck | approximate) much [Approniont per litter. pregnancies | population - Bee population. fee population. ] 4 4 ] 1 2 2 Z 6 12 0 0 il 2 3 34 102 4 12 5 15 4 43 172 5 20 9 36 5 1936 680 35 175 8 40 6 145 870 M7 102 5 30 rs 160 1120 4] 287 5 30 8 7 ; 616 30 240 2 16 9 72 648 49 441 1 9 10 4] 410 22 220 0 0) ll 14 154 16 176 0 0 |e 8 96 9 108 0 0 13 1 13 6 78 0 0 14 3 42 4 56 0 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 0 0 0 0) 0 0 17 l en 0 0 0 0 18 0 0 1 18 0 0 Total 745 4966 240 1934 38 185 Average per litter 6°66 8:05 4°87 D—May 1, 1918. 50 J. B. CLELAND. A study of the table will show that specific differences exist as regards the number of fetuses present. Thus the average in 88 pregnancies of Mus musculus was 4.87 foetuses; in 745 pregnancies of EH. rattus, 6.66; and in 240 pregnancies of EH. norvegicus, 8.05. The highest number found in the common mouse was 9, whilst that for #. rattus was 17, and for E. norvegicus 18. I have a recollection of finding, in one or other of these two rats, on one occasion no less than 24. We have other records of 15 (once) in £. rattus; of 17 (once) and 15 (twice) in E. norvegicus; and of 11 (once), 10 (twice), and 9 (twice) in M. musculus, whilst my assistant, Mr. R. Grant, has seen 14. In Mus musculus the usual number of fcetuses is 4, and then 5, followed third in order by 3, 6 and 7. By reference to Table II it will be seen that in 44.7 per cent of the preg- nancies (38), 4 or 5 foetuses were found; in 84.27, 3 to 7. Table II.—Showing the Percentage of Pregnancies to the Total Number of Pregnancies for each Number of Fetuses found in utero. ‘No. of Foetuses| Epimys rattus. | Epimys norvegicus Mus musculus. 1 35) “4 5°2 2 8 0 2°6 3 4°5 1°6 13-1 4 Day 2 23°7 - 5 18:2 ) 14:5 a eee 6 19:4 > 59 7 13-1 7 21-4 | 17 |\71-6 l134 8 10:3 12°5 5-2 9 9°6 20°4 2°6 10 5°5 | 0 at 1°8 6°6 0 12 i 37 0 13-18 6 Ad 0 In E. rattus 7, followed by 6, and then 5, were the usual numbers. Then comes a big drop to those with 8 fetuses, followed by 9, and then by 4 and 10. In 59 per cent. of the 45 pregnancies the foetuses numbered 5, 6 or 7. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 51 In #. norvegicus, 9 followed by 7, and then 5 followed by 8, was the order of magnitude in 240 pregnancies. It is rather inexplicable to find that the number for 6 is less than half that for 5; whilst the numbers for 7 and 9 are more than for 5. Also that the number for 8 is slightly less than that for 5; whilst the numbers for 7 and 9 much exceed 8. I ean offer no explanation for this difference, but had odd and not even numbers been the lower, this might have sug- gested that each ovary supplied usually the same number of ova for fertilisation. 71.67 of the 240 pregnancies showed 5 to 9 feetuses present. 3 The presence of a small number of feetuses, say 1 or 2, can be explained by obstacles to fertilisation. An interest- ing feature in the two rats, one absent in the mouse, is the occasional occurrence of a number of fetuses much more than double that usually found. Perhaps these may be in- stances of superfetation or of the maturing of a double number of ova. Otherwise they must be considered as mu- tations. These New South Wales figures for the numbers of foetuses found in pregnant EF. rattws compare remarkably closely with some that I have published! for Western Aus- tralia. In 221 pregnant rats of this species examined in 18 months, 1143 fcetuses were found, giving an average of 6.43 per pregnancy, the figures for New South Wales being 6.66. Whilst examining the pregnant rats in Perth, I was struck by the fact that occasionally one horn of the bi- cornuate uterus might contain more fetuses than the other. This led to making notes, the substance of which was pub- lished in the above Bulletin, to see how great the divergence might be, and as to whether one side or the other tended on an average to have a greater number of young. 2Bull. of the Dept. of State Med. and Pub. Health, W.A., Nos. 10-12, 1909, p. 16. 52 J. B. CLELAND. The following extremes were noted, the right and left figures referring to the respective cornua:—9-0, 6-1, 1-5, 0-5, 7-2, 1-5, 5-1, 1-5, 3-8. In 101 rats 331 fetuses were found on the right side, and 326 on the left. It therefore appears. that either horn may have a considerable preponderance of foetuses, and that the average number on each side over a series iS approximately equal. In other words, it would appear that when a discrepancy exists, this is due to some accident, either mere chance or some pathological obstruc- tive process, and is not due to any inherent specific factor in the species, by which more ova were liberated into and fertilised in one horn than the other. From data, compiled by me in Perth between 1906-1908, over a period of 2% years, as to the percentage of pregnant females (of E. rattus almost entirely) to total adult females for each month, a definite variation seems to exist, if the totals of rats examined, which varied from 265 to 684, were sufficiently large to exclude undue error. In March this percentage was 14.7. From April to May, it fell from 10.1 to 9. It rose to 15.7 in July, and 20.3 in August, to fall in September to 13.6. From October to February it ranged between 21.2 and 35.3. The young rats from the October to February pregnancies would reach maturity at about the plague period of the year. The Rats that Travel by Sea. As the old English black rat (Hpimys rattus), including the Alexandrine variety (EH. rattus alexandrinus), the Nor- way rat (Epimys norvegicus |decumanus|), and the com- mon house mouse (Mus musculus) are all subject to plague, it is of considerable interest to see which of these species is most prone to travel by sea. The most frequent traveller of the three would naturally be looked on, other factors. being equal, as the most likely introducer of the plague bacillus into unaffected parts. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 53 For the purpose of putting this matter beyond dispute, IT have had a list prepared of all the rats and mice sub- mitted for examination to the Microbiological Laboratory under my charge, from vessels berthing in the cosmopolitan port of Sydney between April 16th, 1913, and April 14th, BOT. During the period rats or mice were found on fumigation by the Commonwealth Department of Quarantine on 189 vessels—of which eight are specifically designated barques —after the accomplishment of 325 voyages. I have no in- formation as to the number of instances in which neither rats nor mice were found. The ships belonged to all nation- alities, though naturally British vessels much predominated, whilst the voyages they had made included coastal, inter- state, and overseas in all directions. On the 325 voyages made by the 189 vessels, | Epvmys rattus was present in 2938, and absent in 32 in- stances. Epumys norvegicus was present in 3, and absent in 322 instances. Mus musculus was present in 53, and absent in 272 in- stances. Epimys rattus was associated with H. norvegicus in 1, and with M. musculus in 22 instances. Epimys norvegicus was associated with EH. rattus in 1, and with M. musculus in 1 instance. Mus musculus was associated with EF. rattus in 22, and with H. norvegicus in 1 instance. 2968 individuals of H. rattus were found and submitted, an average per voyage of 9. 7 individuals of E. norvegicus were found and sub- mitted, an average per voyage of .02. 487 individuals of Mus musculus were found and sub- mitted, an average per voyage of 1.5. 54 J. B. CLELAND. The largest numbers of EF. rattus found and submitted at the ends of voyages were 90, 71, and 68 (twice) ; in the ma- jority of instances under 10 were submitted. The numbers of E. norvegicus were 4,2 and 1. The largest numbers of house mice submitted were 95, 55 and 37 (twice). The largest numbers of mice were found on vessels trading with the North Coast of New South Wales, and an undue pro- portion of such vessels yielded mice, probably as a result of the frequent carriage of fodder. Interstate vessels and those plying to New Zealand came next in both respects. Mice were only occasionally found on vessels from over- seas, aS for instance England. Of the three vessels on which Epimys norvegicus were found, one came from Vancouver, and one from Noumea. In July, 1915, an unusual rat was submitted to us which had been caught in the 8.S. Le Maire, in Sydney, from Java. It was sent to Oldfield Thomas, at the British Museum, for identification. He kindly informed us that the specimen was somewhat deteriorated, but appeared to be an example of Epimys terre-regine Alston. This species is a native of Cape York, in Queensland. On a previous trip this steamer had called at Rockhampton, but apparently not further north in Queensland. Longman! states that the Indian Mole Rat, Gunomys (Nesokia) bengalensis Gray and Harden, has occasionally been taken on ships in Australian waters. The Diseases of Rats. The diseases of rats are very important from a human point of view, and this for two reasons. In the first place certain of the diseases affecting them may be conveyed directly or indirectly to man, and in this respect the rats 2 Notes on Classification of Common Rodents, etc., C’wealth of Aust. Quar. Service, Service Public., No. 8, 1916, p. 18. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5D may be the chief sources of infection, sometimes in large numbers, of human beings. In the second place other diseases are closely allied to, though probably not identical with, similar diseases in man. Conditions may exist for working out the full etiological his- tories of these latter rat diseases, which may be impossible in the case of the allied diseases in human beings. As instances of the first-named conditions may be given plague, trichinosis, rat bite fever, spirochetal jaundice, and per- haps trench fever. An instance of the latter type is rat leprosy. Commumty Animals and the Origin and Spread of Epizootic Disease: the True Significance of Disease.— Both rats and mice are, to a great extent, ‘‘community’’ animals. In other words, their numbers may be consider- able within a limited space, and the individuals must come frequently in direct contact with each other, whilst they associate together in the same place over long periods of time. Such circumstances favour the spread of epizootics. It is quite clear that if the members of any particular species of animal live in couples widely separated from their neigh- bours, there is little chance of noxious organisms passing readily from individual to individual of the species. . If the organism be rapidly fatal to its host, the victim dies alone, and the germs with it. If the host be a community animal, if it be a member of a herd, before its death it may have conveyed the germs of its disease, either directly or by con- tamination of its surroundings, to some of its fellows. Further, we know in bacteriology, that the rapid passage of certain bacteria from one individual to another tends to en- hance their virulence. Such rapid passage is easy of achievement in community animals, but more difficult of fulfilment the more solitary-living are the hosts. A com- munity-living animal, therefore, not only gives a_patho- 56 J: B. CLELAND. genic microbe a better chance to spread, but also tends to increase the pathogenicity of feebly pathogenic types. We are not quite clear as to what this increased pathogenicity really means. It may mean that the tendency of each spe- cies to vary round a mean, here gets its opportunity to perpetuate mutants of an aggressive type. Or it may mean that the strain as a whole accommodates itself better to its environment, becomes more acclimatised, with results disadvantageous to the host. As an offset to the increased virulence of the invader, we have an increase of protective bodies in the host, whilst if the host’s response is poor, it may die, and a weakling— ‘from this point of view—be thereby eliminated with advan- tage to the species. It may be briefly stated here that it is rarely of any advantage to the invader to destroy its host. It is, in fact, seldom of any advantage to it to incapacitate the host, or make it ill, or even to cause any reaction to its presence. Reaction—and these reactions constitute and cause the signs and symptoms of disease—is an effort on the part of the host to nullify the invasion of the parasite and to repair the damage done. In object, if not always in ef- fect, such reaction is purely protective. It may almost be stated as an aphorism that the first sign of getting well is getting ill! The invader’s aim is clearly to avoid any re- action at all if possible. The community animals, rats and mice, therefore, like the community animal man, might be expected to offer better facilities for the development of new races of patho- genic organisms than non-social animals. As a matter of fact, we do find that, just as man has a number of diseases, and is infested by a moderate number of parasitic animals, so are rats and mice affected by a considerable number- of animal parasites and several epizootic diseases. The Mantfestations of Disease may be Specific Attributes both of the Parasite and the Host.—In the early days of the PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 57 attempted differential descriptions. of species, a simple ex- elusive and inclusive definition was considered sufficient. A short deseription, which included all the necessary individu- als and excluded all others, was almost all that was required. Now much more complete morphological data—and the ful- ler the better—are demanded. As yet, however, there is little tendency to include as specific traits in the descrip- tions other facts than those of morphology. Baker and Smith, before this Society, have shown the importance of the presence or relative absence of certain chemical bodies in the separation of our species of Eucalyptus, Melaleuca, Callitris, etc. Mental characteristics, based as they must be on cellular, molecular, or perhaps chemical differences, ~ should also, I think, receive full consideration. The com- mon Australian Willy-wagtail or Shepherd’s Companion (Rhipidura motacilloides), has universally the habit of sett- ling on the backs of sheep, cattle and horses whilst these are feeding, and of circling round them from this perch to catch the flies disturbed during grazing. The bird is a friendly one, and little afraid of man. Its cousins, Rh. albiscapa and Fh. rufifrons, have not, as far as I am aware, the habit of settling on the backs of grazing animals, though they also are relatively tame. This peculiar habit of the Shep- herd’s Companion is a true specific trait, equally entitled to inclusion in the description as the morphological details of colouring or the character of the pigmentation of the eggs. I would go further and say that if I came across a race of Shepherd’s Companions which, in the presence of frequent opportunities, universally failed to manifest this habit, I would be induced to scan the members of this group closely to see whether such a difference in behaviour was not accom- panied by some other departure, perhaps morphological, perhaps in the structure of the nest, which would entitle one to distinguish the race as a distinct variety. It may here be noted that closely related species, so close as to be at 58 J. B. CLELAND. first sight deemed but one, nearly always show not one slight difference in detail alone, but usually several, apparently unrelated. “I SS) =a ©) () SS) = 49 oo SOS oo oS SS bt bd 27 54: oye o> Sr oo — Sr ~ —_ =) (eS) 23 bo a) Cairns— Attacks Deaths Port Douglas— | Attacks .. 9 5 84 2 On.-9 Deaths Be 0 | 6) 1 0) O UO — bo bo oS SS Sy=) — aS) oO — 13 10 SJ) S) aS oo oe oo (S) (S) ow | Charters Towers; Attacks Deaths Mackay— Attacks Deaths Cre SS ae oo oo So © S&S Sr rs ore SS SS) oo SO aS ere So oo oo ere So OS bo bw 0 1 ( Attacks|13 ( Deaths} 5 ~I ie | 0 Totals 91 | 29 | 35 | 56 | 32 | 538 | 29 | 2 | 499 oo [oll PZ fia | 2 26) | 167) 2) ene 1 Adapted from Ham, loc. cit. 72 J. B. CLELAND. Victoria—1900.—There was an imported case of plague in April, and 10 indigenous cases in May and June. The vital statistics show 2 deaths.. 1902.—An indigenous case oceurred in March. 1907.—An imported case, which was fatal, occurred in May. No plague infected rats were discovered in these out- breaks. South Australia—1900.—Considerable controversy took place at the time as to the real nature of certain cases which occurred in South Australia in January. In the light of | experience gained later as regards the plague bacillus and | the epidemiology of plague, it can only be said that on read- ing the reports, even were the cases this disease, the records do not carry conviction. The following are the cases re- ferred to:—Case 1, a man from Gawler, who was admitted to the Adelaide Hospital on January 1st and died on January 12th; case 2, a boy from Gawler, admitted to the | same hospital on January 5th; and case 3, a boy from Ade- -laide, admitted to the hospital on January 18th. Later, an undoubted case of plague occurred in a man at Port Ade- laide, who had been working on a steamer which had re- cently arrived from Sydney. 1909.—There were four fatal cases of plague at Port Ade- laide. Western Australia.—In this State, between 1900 and 1906, there were 80 indigenous eases of plague and 34 deaths. There were four additional cases landed from a French mail steamer. Two fatal cases in 1905 and a fatal case in 1901 were not indigenous. The Vital Statistics give 36 deaths in all up to the present. 1900.—Between April 6th and June 18th there were 6 cases, with 3 deaths, all at Fremantle. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ‘a 1901.—Between March 2nd and May 18th there were 23 cases, with 5 deaths. Of these 15 cases and 5 deaths were at Perth, 7 cases at Fremantle, and 1 case at Kalgoorlie. 1902.—There were 38 cases at Fremantle between May 22nd and July 8th, all of whom died. The Vital Statistics record 4 deaths. 1903.—138 cases, 8 fatal, at Fremantle between January 25th and November 6th. 1904.4 cases, 1 fatal, between June 25th and August 25th. Of these, 2 cases and 1 death were at Perth, 2 cases at Fremantle. 1905.—There were no local cases. The Vital Statistics record 2 deaths. ° 1906.—381 cases, 14 fatal. Of these there were four cases in Perth between January 12th and May 14th, 17 at Fre- mantle, with 6 deaths, between February 12th and June 2nd, and 10, with 8 deaths, at Geraldton, between Febru- ary 19th and March 8th. 1909.—A non-indigenous fatal case occurred. Of the local cases, 6 occurred in January, 22 in February, 24 in March, 2 in April, 7 in May, 5 in June, 2 in July, 1 in August, 1 in September, 1 in October, 2 in November, and none in December. THE SPECIES OF ANIMALS NATURALLY INFECTED WITH PLAGUE IN AUSTRALIA. In the earlier years of plague, differentiation between infected E. norvegicus and KE. rattus was not carried out. From 1904, however, some information is available for New South Wales, Queensland and South Aus- tralia. E. norvegicus.—In New South Wales, from 1900 to 1902, all the infected rats were considered to be E. norvegicus. 74 | J. B. CLELAND. From 1904 to 1910, 674 infected individuals of this species were recognised, located at Sydney, Newcastle, Ulmarra and Woodford Island. In Queensland, in 1904, 1905 and 1906 (vide Ham’s Report , p. 131)—the only years apparently in which the requisite data have been published—there were 412 infected FH. norvegicus. Dr. Borthwick informs me that in Port Adelaide in 1909 all the rats found infected, 6 in number, were of this species. Total, 1092. E. rattus.—In New South Wales, for the period mention- ed, 580 FH. rattus were found infected, all being from New- castle or Sydney. In Queensland the number for the three years 1904 to 1906 was 186. Total, 716. Mus musculus.—Whilst 257 infected mice in New South Wales were found at Sydney, Newcastle, Ulmarra, Wood- ford Island, Ballina and Lismore, only 4 altogether were found in Queensland. Total, 261. Other Animals.—4 cats were found infected in New South Wales, at Sydney, Woodford Island and Ballina. A list already given shows that in Sydney, in 1902, 4 wallabies, 1 wallaroo, 1 pademelon, 1 tree kangaroo, 1 Indian ante- lope and 3 guinea-pigs contracted plague naturally in the Zoological Gardens. Rat Leprosy. What is known as rat leprosy has been recorded from various parts of the world, including Australia (Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide). A severely affected rat loses the hair on the back and adjacent parts of the limbs, and this is accompanied with much thickening of the skin and sub- cutaneous tissues, and frequently with small areas of super- ficial ulceration. When sections are made of these tissues they are found to contain countless millions of the acid- fast bacilli of rat leprosy. Sections stained as for tubercle bacilli may appear deep red from their abundance—in fact, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. (e3: in some specimens examined by us it is safe to say that in the affected areas the weight of these leprosy bacilli was ereater than that of the tissue they were invading. This condition in rats meets its parallel in certain cases of nodu- lar leprosy of human beings; in these lepromata the lep- rosy bacilli may be present in enormous numbers. The first leprous rat recorded for Australia was found in Syd- ney on 20th April, 1904." In May, 1910,? another infected rat (Hpimys norvegicus) was found at Ultimo. Further leprous rats were found in Sydney on 4th December, 1911, 11th January, 1912, and 22nd August, 1912.2 From two of these rats successful inoculations were made into white rats. Up to the period when the last of these rats was found by us about 560,000 rats and mice had been examined during the previous 14 years, and five of the rats were found severely affected with this disease. From this it might be inferred that one diseased rat might be expected in Sydney in about 100,000 examined. In 1918 Dr. Priestley (Australasian Medical Gazette, Nov., 1918, p. 405) recorded the presence of these acid- fast bacilli in rats (E. norvegicus) in the Townsville dis- trict. Of 220 rats examined, 6 had the lymphatic form of the infection, 6 the musculo-cutaneous type found in the above-mentioned Sydney rats. The incidence amongst these North Queensland rats is much higher than in the New South Wales ones. In 1907, Dr. R. J. Bull* recorded a case from Collingwood, Melbourne. Ll. B. Bull reported the occurrence of a case in South Australia to the chair- man of the Adelaide Local Board of Health a few years ago. » Report of the Board of Health on Leprosy in New South Wales, 1904 . 13 a eeeodd Report of the Government Bureau of Microbiology, 1910- 1911, p. 49. * Fourth Report of the Microbiological Laboratory, Dept. of Public Health, 1913, p. 186. # Intercol, Med. J. of Austr., May, 1907. 76 J. B. CLELAND, From the above short resumé of the occurrence of rat leprosy in Australia it will be seen that this disease is fairly widely distributed, though of relatively rare occur- rence. Its incidence amongst the rat population is much about the same as the incidence of leprosy amongst the human population. Annually in New South Wales several cases of leprosy are as a rule notified, and the same pro- bably occurs in Queensland, whilst occasional instances are found in the Northern Territory and in North-west Aus- tralia. For the whole of Australia, during the nine years 1907 to 1915 inclusive, about 16 new cases were on an av- erage reported annually. Indigenous cases of human lep- rosy are not known in South Australia, and seem very rare in Victoria. On January Ist, 1915, there were 22 human lepers in New South Wales, in a population of 1,868,000. This is, approximately, 1 leper to 80,000 inhabitants. Though in some of the instances of human leprosy in Aus- tralia, infection may have occurred outside Australia, in quite a number of instances, there is no doubt the patients were infected naturally in Australia, as for instance in the case of persons who were born in Australia and have never been outside it. Whilst in some of these cases as- sociation, more or less direct, can be traced to previous lep- ers, In other instances no such association can be found. It may be roughly stated that whilst about one in 80,000 of the inhabitants of New South Wales examined at any particular time will be found to be leprous, about one in a hundred thousand of rats examined in this State may be expected to have rat leprosy. Is there any possible connec- tion between the two diseases? Are they due to the same crganism? Is there any reason to think that if the method of spread of rat leprosy could be discovered, the key would be found to the solution of the means of spread of human leprosy ? PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Th In answer to the second question, it may be stated that it is possible, if not absolutely certain, that the two diseases are due to different organisms. In answer to the third question, it 1s quite possible that if the etiology of rat leprosy were thoroughly worked out we would find the solution of the human leprosy problem. This leads to a very interesting, and possibly very im- portant, speculation. There are several diseases known, affecting man and animals, due to acid-fast bacilli, probably really species of Streptothrix, and quite a number of dis- eases due to other streptotriches and allied organisms. Tuberculosis in human beings, bovines and other animals, © is due to the various varieties or species of tubercle bacilli which by some are called Streptothrix tuberculosis. The disease affecting the intestines of cattle, causing thickening of the ruge, and known as Johne’s disease, is also due to an acid-fast bacillus. Dr. Bull met with a case of this disease in an imported cow in Melbourne in 1911. Then we have human leprosy and rat leprosy, all of these diseases being due to acid-fast bacilli of the Streptothrix group. In addition we have, as a common disease in cattle and an occasional disease in man, actinomycosis, which in cattle may be responsible for ‘‘lumpy jaw’’ and ‘‘ wooden tongue.”’ This disease is due to the growth of various species of Streptothrix or allied fungi, and there seems no doubt at all but that the infection is conveyed to the animals from their surroundings (herbage, ete.). This is indicated by the fre- queney with which awns of grass or similar material are found in cases of the disease whether in animals or human beings. From this it would appear that infection in ac- tinomycosis occurs ‘from the surroundings of the animals or human beings, where presumably the fungi responsible are living saprophytic existences, rather than by direct con- tamination from previous cases. 78 J. B. CLELAND. As regards tuberculosis, however, the infection of both animals and man is unquestionably more or less direct by contamination from the surroundings of previous cases, the tubercle bacilli not leading a saprophytic multiplicative existence in the interval. In this group of diseases, then, we see two different types of infection, one, illustrated by tuberculosis, showing more or less direct infection from one victim to another; the other being apparently due to the establishment of an or- ganism which usually leads a saprophytic existence, but which, given the opportunity, can multiply and produce dis- ease in higher animals. Under which of these two ecate- gories do leprosy in rats and leprosy in man come? It is recognised that leprosy in human beings is rarely conveyed to those in contact with lepers. Occasionally, af- ter lone and intimate association, such cases occur. The danger of a leper to others is greatly less than that of a tubercular person to his associates. Cases occur in fami- lies, but here it is hard to say whether one had been infect- ed from another or whether all had had a common origin. Leprosy is a relatively rare disease, both the human form and the rat one. Actinomycosis, a disease apparently not spread by direct association with previous cases, is common in our cattle, and even in man not rarer than leprosy. It seems to me quite possible, therefore, that leprosy, both in rats and men, is due to the accidental establishment in the tissues of an organism which is normally a saprophyte of their surroundings. Undoubtedly the phylogenetic his- tory of the tubercle bacillus would show that it was original- ly such a saprophyte purely confined to growth in our sur- roundings, as for instance the acid-fast Timothy-grass ba- eillus is still; that its next stage was its accidental introduc- tion by the alimentary canal or through wounds into the tissues of vertebrates, where it found itself capable of living PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 79 and multiplying, even though in such an unusual environ- ment; finally, being given frequent opportunities of escape from its host through ulceration in the lungs and of in- troduction consequently to fresh individuals, its pathogen- icity increased and its saprophytic qualities were diminished or lost. If the leprosy bacillus has reached only the second of these stages it may eventually be found in the natural surroundings of cases of leprosy. The chief objection to this point of view is the difficulty or impossibility of grow- ing the organism artificially. If this supposition be correct, it may modify considerably our methods of control of lep- TOsy. Spirochetosis icterohemorrhagica. For many years occasional outbreaks of an acute infective disease with jaundice have been known in man. Special attention was drawn to the disease in 1886 by a paper by Professor Weil, of Heidelberg, and the complaint has until recently been com- monly associated with his name under the designation ‘“Weil’s Disease.’? Now a more suitable name, indicative of its etiology, has been found for it. Recently this form of jaundice has been noticed in Japan to be unduly pre- valent amongst coal miners working in certain galleries, es- pecially liable to be flooded, and amongst sewermen. A spirochete, which Inada and Ino have called Spirocheta icterohemorrhagica, has been found in these cases, and seems clearly to be responsible for the condition. The dis- ease has also appeared on the western battlefront in Europe —its appearance during campaigns has been noted before, an infective jaundice having appeared, for instance, amongst Napoleon’s troops in Egypt—and the same organi- sation has been found in some of the patients. Further, fol- lowing on carefully reasoned epidemiological data, the Japanese searched for and found the Sp. icterohemorrha- 80 J. B. CLELAND. gica in sewer rats. Supplementing this discovery, Martin and Pettit found it in a Norway rat in Europe coming from an army area in which there had been a case of the spiro- chetosis, whilst Courmont and Durand! found it in 4 out of 50 sewer rats (E. norvegicus) in areas in France in which the disease was not known in man. The conclusion seems justifiable, therefore, that this organism is a parasite of the sewer-rat in various parts of the world, and it seems prob- able that this rat is its chief distributing agent. During 1917 we carried out some experimental inocula- tions to see whether this spirochete could be detected in rats in this State. For this purpose, on October 5th, six kidneys from six EL’. norvegicus were ground up in normal saline solu- tion and injected into the subcutaneous tissues of the groins of two guinea-pigs; on October 8th, three kidneys from three EL. rattus were similarly employed; on October 9th, four kidneys from four EH. norvegicus, and on October 11th, three kidneys from three FE. rattus were likewise injected into other pairs of guinea-pigs. Of the eight guinea-pigs used, one of the first pair died of sepsis within three days. The other seven remained unaffected, from which may be inferred the absence of the Spirocheta wterohemorrhagica in the 10 E. norvegicus and the 6 E. rattus used for the ex- periments. The occurrence of occasional cases of fatal jaundice (?) in monkeys in Taronga Zoological Park led to a careful ex- © amination of them for the spirochetes of this disease. These were not found either in suitably treated sections of the tissues, or by inoculations of emulsions of the spleens and kidneys into the susceptible guinea-pig. Equally unsuc- cessful in conveying the disease was the injection of an- other monkey with such an emulsion. Further, on Novem- 1 Bull. et Mém. de la Soc. Méd. des Hépitaux de Paris, 1917. p, 115; quoted in Rev. of Bact., etc., VII, 1917, No. 50. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 81 ber 18th, the injections of emulsions of the kidneys and spleens of four specimens of KH. norvegicus, caught in proximity to the monkey cages, into four guinea-pigs, were likewise without results. Thus there is no evidence that our local rats harbour this parasite. Rat-bite Fever. For some years a peculiar disease in man, follow- ing on bites by rats, has been known under this designation. Blake has given a full description of the disease on which the remaining part of this paragraph is based. In Japan, which has furnished most of the cases, it is known as “‘Sokodu.’’ The original wound having healed, after an incubation period of a few days to a month, the part becomes again inflamed. Systemic symptoms follow, and the patient’s condition may become grave. A characteristic rash may be present. If the patient recover from the first bout of fever, the disease may assume a re- lapsing form, and be prolonged for months and even, it is said, for years. The disease may be conveyed to guinea-pigs by making rats bite them. Recently Japanese workers have found spirochetes in healthy rats, in human beings bitten by rats and suffering from the disease, and in monkeys and guinea- pigs infected in the laboratory. Futaki, Takaki, Tangigu- chi and Osumi’? have designated this organism as Spiro- cheta morsus muris—but as trinominals are inadmissible, except to indicate a variety of a species, 1.e., a sub-species, Sp. morsus-muris should be adopted. “No eases of this disease have as yet been recorded for Australia. I have, however, heard of a child in Sydney who recently was bitten by a cat, a prolonged illness re- 'Biake, J. of Exp. Med., XXiII., 1, p. 39, quoted in C’ wealth of Aust., Quart. Service Public, No. 8, p. 26. * Journ. of Exp. Med., 1917, XXV, pp. 33-44. F—May J, 1918 82 J. B. CLELAND. sulting. From the account, it is possible that this was a case of rat-bite fever, the cat having been infected with the spirochetes from catching rats. A Theory as to the Nature of Cancerous Processes. During recent years great progress has been made in un- ravelling the principles governing phylogeny, ontogeny and heredity. In one direction, the discovery of the chro- mosomes of cells and of the differences between those of somatic and those of gametogenic cells, and in another direction the Mendelian theory of heredity, have both led to far-reaching advances in our knowledge of life-processes. Having been engaged some years ago in cancer investiga- tions as Cancer Research Scholar at the London Hospital, and this at a time when, through the researches of Farmer, Moore and Walker, particular attention was being directed to the types of mitoses found in cancer eells, my attention was naturally especially focussed on this aspect of the question. Since then opportunities for further practical work on this subject have not presented themselves to me, but nevertheless my interest in this and allied questions has naturally not flagged, and has been stimulated from time to time by new views and ideas that have suggested them- selves, often as a result of collateral work by various in- vestigators. The present seems a fitting occasion to pre- sent these ideas, partly because some of them may be of interest to educated people in general, partly because they may help in the solution of problems still unsolved. A cancer is a new growth or neoplasm. Neoplasms may be roughly divided into two groups, innocent and malig- ‘nant. Innocent growths form tumours, whose cells grow independently, or relatively so, of the needs of the rest of the body. Their cells do not invade the adjacent tissues, and injury or death to their host results merely from their position and size, which may interfere with vital functions. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 83 Enecapsuled fatty tumours or lipomata are typical instances of innocent tumours. Their relative independence of control by the rest of the body may be well seen in starvation or in emaciation from cachexia,’ when the normal fatty tissues may be absorbed to supply the needs of the moment, but those of the growth are unaffected. Here an interesting speculation may be hazarded. The fat manufactured in a fat cell is set free for use elsewhere by means of fat-split- ting ferments, lipases. This action is reversible, the same ferment having originally synthesised the fat from the materials furnished by the surrounding nutritive fluids. A condition of equilibrium is considered to exist between the pro-fat constituents on the outside of the cell-wall of the fat cell and the neutral fat stored within it, the lipase being the agent by which this equilibrium is maintained. An increase in the former constituents leads to storage of fat till equilibrium is again restored, whilst a diminution leads to splitting up of the stored fat with the same object in view. The accounts are transferred from side to side of the ledger according to requirements, so that, like an ideally- conducted business, with a perpetual audit, income and ex- penditure always balance. Now from this it will appear that in the absence of lipase or of means to set it working, the fat must remain where it is. The loaded fat cell will remain loaded if there is no percussion cap or ferment to initiate its discharge, or no finger to pull the trigger and so explode the percussion cap. It seems to me possible that lipomata may arise either through the disappearance of the lipase required to discharge the fat, or owing to failure of the required stimulus to make it split up the fat. The lipase may fail because the cells lose the capacity to make it, or an antilipase neutralises it as made—the stimulus (a +WVide Paget, Lects. on Surg: Path., Turner, 3rd Edit., 1870, p. 378. —case of intense emaciation from tuberculosis with fatty tumours . in the mesentery. 84 J. B. CLELAND. deficiency of the fat-forming constituents) may be unable to reach the cells because the vascular and lymphatic chan- nels, the roads by which it comes, are blocked or inefficient, or because the concentration of the pro-fat materials sur- rounding the fat cells is, for some reason, still too high in spite of a deficiency elsewhere. The fat cell is then in the position of the carpet-snake that has swallowed a china nest-egg—unable to split up the body distending it, and equally unable to disgorge it. Neighbouring pro-fat cells similarly form fat, store it up, and then find it cannot be dealt with. Finally the summation of these cells forms a tumour. Enzymes probably play a similar part in the production and absorption of fibrous and even bony material —witness, for instance, the absorption of callus after an injury to bone. A little imagination will show how this view can be applied to fibromata and osteotomata as well as lipomata. Malegnant growths are similarly formed of cells growing independently of the bodily needs. They differ from inno- cent growths in that their cells, to a greater or less extent, tend to invade the surrounding tissues and replace them, and even to be dislodged from the situation in which they ‘grow, to be distributed by the vascular or lymphatic tissues to other parts of the body. When thus seeded they begin to grow in the new situation, forming fresh deposits of the new growth or metastases. The faculty of invasion may give rise to a loss in size of the invaded tissues by a process of erosion—when we have the anomaly of a malignant ‘‘tu- mour’’ which shows a shrinkage in size from the normal, and not an increased ‘‘swelling,’’ as the name imples—or to an increase in size from the number and size of the malignant cells more than making up for the loss of the normal cells. Death may result either from interference, 22) by replacement, with vital tissues from the original growth PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 85 or its deposits, or by the pressure effects of the tumour masses. What is the essential basis of the malignant process? Is it due to changes inherent in the cells or the tissues, or to a reaction to parasites of external origin? Is the process intrinsic or extrinsic? If the latter, we must seek to ex- clude the causal factor or factors; if the former, to ascer- tain and control the means by which the departure from normal is brought about. The great body of cancer investigators hold the view, based on a reasonable assessment of all the known data, that an external parasite—protozoal or otherwise—is not an essential in. the development of true malignant neo- plasms. It is true that reactions of the body cells to foreign parasites, some bacterial, some animal, may ape in vari- ous ways malignant neoplasms, and that such parasites may aid in the starting of a cancer. But the balance of evidence is strongly against the view that such foreign living bodies are the essential cause, though this view cannot be con- sidered as conclusively discounted. To my mind, the nature of cancer is intimately bound up with the development of the body cells. I believe it to be the expression, by nearly effete somatic cells, of an attempt by them to prevent extinction by the formation of gametoid tissue—that, in fact, they are trying to form gametes or sex cells with the object of these uniting to form individuals of a new and rejuvenated generation. That under the circumstances they lamentably fail is only to be expected from their prentice hands. Their gametoid tissue, though bearing some of the marks of normal gametogenic tissue, is produced in a bed unprepared for it, and in sur- roundings not in keeping with its needs. The gametes formed are clumsy, unwieldy cells, and not the perfect mechanical and physiological units represented by the spermatozoa and ova of normal development. 86 J. B. CLELAND. What support is there to such a view? To my mind a thoroughly rational argument, with important data to sup- port it, can be brought forward. I know of no definite facts and no reasonable hypothesis to render it unlikely. And beyond these I may say that, considering the biological pos- sibilities, a cancer is, after all, only what might be expected to happen under certain circumstances. To explain this view, it 1s necessary to consider the be- ginning of the life of a multicellular organism such as man. The fertilised ovum, the union of the male and female gametes, 1s a pluripotential cell. Its descendants comprise all the cells of the body, whether somatic cells or germinal cells. As evidenced by experiments in various animals, of its early progeny some are likewise pluripotential, inasmuch as separation into two component parts may lead to the development of two individuals from one fertilised ovum. In man homologous twins, who are practically identical in appearance and characteristics—were in fact once identical —are examples of two individuals thus developed. Some- times we see a most remarkable further stage in which. after two individuals have started to form from one ovum, they have amalgamated again, the right of one twin and the left of the other being almost entirely suppressed. One individual is formed, but the suppressed limbs of the other halves may be recognised in abortive excrescences. For how long does this pluripotentiality continue? Authorities differ, but many biologists consider that at a | very early stage the forerunners of the sex cells are set aside for their specific purpose. Some, in fact, consider that this germ-plasm is directly continuous from individual to individual, and that it is, so to speak, the immortal element in us, our bodies as we see them being merely temporary tabernacles erected round the germ-plasm to protect and nourish it. With the transmission of the PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 87 sacred germ-plasm to the custody of a new generation, this domicile returns to dust and ashes again. Whilst admit- ting the relatively early differentiation of the germ-cells in the higher animals, I do not agree with the view that the gverm-plasm is set aside so early that it is correct to say that there is direct continuity of it from generation to generation. An analogy with the protozoa will make my meaning clear. The malarial organism, introduced into man, multiplies. Brood after brood of asexual forms are developed, giving rise during their evolution to the symp- toms and signs of the disease. These asexual forms are the representatives of the somatic cells of the body. If, instead of being separate units, like the cells in our blood, they were all brought together and made dependent one on the other, we would have a soma. LEventually, arising from these forms after various generations, gametes appear. These are the sex cells, incapable apparently of further development in the vertebrate host, incapable of causing in such the signs of disease, capable only of multiplying again after sexual conjugation in the mosquito. If, in the so- ealled lowly protozoon, we have a long series of X somatie generations, on which eventually are superadded Y gametogenic generations leading to the evolution of the gametes, why should we not have in man, for instance, a similar series of X somatic generations, followed by Y gametogenic generations, amongst that group of cells set aside for the purpose of reproduction? In my opinion, such a series of somatic generations does precede the gametogenic ones, and these somatic generations are no more a direct continuance of the germ-plasm than are the somatic generations of other tissues of the body. I fur- ther believe that in these other cells, that is those not originally set aside for reproductive purposes, the capacity to form gametoid tissue is latent, and not ab- sent or eliminated. Under ordinary circumstances, such 88 J. B. CLELAND. capacity cannot manifest itself, because other factors in- hibit it in the interests of the organism as a whole. The character is recessive, and so dormant, because other fac- tors are dominant, and so assert themselves. In other words, I look on every cell still capable of mitosing as pos- sessing the latent recessive character of producing game- toid tissue, and even perhaps of being pluripotential. I will admit that some cells may possibly have discarded, by accident or design, such potentialities. By virtue of the work required of them, by reason of specialisation, they may have sacrificed their birthright, just as the red cell of the blood has discarded its nucleus. The majority of multiplying cells, I believe, retain such latent potentiali- ties. I therefore put forward this view. Somatic cells are such because in them the somatic factor is dominant. Specialised cells are such because the factors bringing about specialisation are dominant in them, or because the co-ordin- ating mechanism of the individual stimulates these factors and inhibits others. These cells, however, also possess gametoid factors, which are recessive except in the case of the tissues set aside for reproduction. Remove the domi- nant somatic factors, suppress the stimuli giving them domination, and the gametoid factor will, of necessity, appear and exercise its functions. The gametoid tissue thus produced, under circumstances not provided for in . ontogeny and in places unsuited for the purpose of the procreation of a new individual, seems, so to speak, to run riot. Like the early gametogenic tissue of the germinal epithelium, it tends to invade the tissues surrounding it. From its unusual position and circumstances of origin, the factors that should keep this invasion in bounds and should modify the potential gametes into spermatozoa or ova ac- cording to circumstances, fail to reach or govern the cells. We have, in fact, an incoordinate mass of tissue, partly PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 89 gvametoid, partly somatically differentiated. Now the gametoid aspect predominates, and the cells invade and eat into the tissues, undergo reducing or irregular divisions, and form clumsy gametes incapable of fertilising each other; now the somatic side preponderates and the cells differentiate more or less, forming, for instance, in certain eases, keratin and cell-nests. This uncontrolled and un- controllable, unbridled, incoordinate and chaotic cell-mass is cancer. Its occurrence I believe to be thus due to the recessive gametoid factors in a group of cells becoming able to exert their influence through failure of the dominant somatic factors to maintain fully their dominance. 'Two questions require answering. One is, is there any evidence that recessive factors may in the progeny of so- matic cells eventually manifest themselves through failure of the dominant factors? The other question is, is there any evidence that the changes found in cancer are of a gametoid nature? As answer to the first question, may I mention a curious phenomenon in the case of my wife’s hair. This is dark brown, but occasionally she has noticed, and I have secured, an odd hair of much coarser texture and bright reddish colour. Being of Scotch extraction, it is clear that these are hairs of an individual with the vivid colouring well- known amongst that race. But how came they to appear on my wife’s head? The hairs of the head are derived from down-growths of the surface epithelium. This latter is derived from the epiblast. The epiblast is descended from the original fertilised ovum. The cells of the hair follicles, before producing a hair, have gone through an enormous number of generations since the epiblast first appeared. They all must at one time have possessed attributes in com- mon. How, then, does it come about that an occasional hair follicle produces a hair unlike its fellows? The 90 J. B. CLELAND. answer, I think, is clear. The cells, in this case, are not - pure cells, but hybrids—hybrids with brown and relatively fine as dominant factors, coarse and red as recessive fac- tors. As long as the factor or factors for brown and fine- ness exist in the cells, the hair formed is of this texture. If by any accident—and who can guess its nature ?—the dominant factor drops out or is inhibited, then the cells must, and do, produce a hair of the recessive type. This seems to me a reasonable and sound explanation of the circumstances and, to my mind, shows that a dominant factor may disappear or be inhibited in a group of somatic cells, and that then the antithetic recessive one will appear. Now are the changes in cancer those characteristic of gametoid tissue? Columns of cells invade a subjacent tis- sue—so does the primitive germinal epithelium. Reducing divisions eventually occur in normal gametogenic tissues, preparatory to the formation of the highly differentiated gametes—reducing divisions, both heterotype and homo- type, are of common occurrence in cancerous processes, but there is no formation of specialised gametes, only clumsy potential gametes appearing. Such reducing divisions are the chief characteristic of gametogenic tissue, and occur thus also in cancer. Reversing the view here -put forward, may I ask what changes one would expect if the somatic cells were econ- sidered as possessing recessive gametoid potentialities, and the dominant somatic factors were suppressed or inhibited ? One would expect an attempt at the formation of a bizarre ovary or testis, or at least of a tissue comprised of the noble elements of these organs. The cells affected would invade the surrounding tissues, and would sooner or later undergo reducing divisions preparatory to the formation of gametes. All this occurs, and the cancerous process is exactly what — one would expect under these circumstances. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9] What are the causes at work in stimulating this latent gvametoid capacity of the cells? I believe that many forms of chronic irritation and conditions leading to stress and strain in the normal functioning of somatic cells may be responsible. The cells multiply unduly rapidly, and do so exposed to noxious influences. They have probably nor- mally a limit to the number of somatic divisions they can undergo. This limit is reduced under these circumstances. They therefore become old before their time, whilst the previously dominant somatic factors are handicapped. Extinction or rejuvenation of the group of cells concerned are the only alternatives. Sometimes the former occurs, and we get necrosis of tissues. Sometimes the latter, and a eancer results. If this view is correct, then one of the main objects of cancer research should be to ascertain the factors, often obscure, that set up such chronic irritations. We know them fairly well in the cases of the lip and tongue. If we could discover them and remove them early in the cases of the mammary gland, the uterus and stomach, numbers of lives might be saved. If cancer research is to be conducted in Australia, I would most strongly advocate attention in this direction as being by far the most promising field for productive results. This aspect is referred to again in the next section. CANCEROUS GROWTHS IN Rats AND MICE. Rats and mice, like a number of other vertebrates, are subject to malignant growths, both carcinomata and sarco- mata. The recognition of these tumours in any species, whether the various races of man or a lower animal, is probably dependent in great part on the number of indi- viduals of the species (or race) available for examination, the average span of life of these individuals as compared with the natural length of life, and the degree to 92 J. B. CLELAND. which members are exposed to certain forms of chronic irritation. These three factors require a little fur- ther explanation. As regards the number of individuals, since cancer only appears in a small percentage, instances of the disease would be more likely to be encountered when the species was abundant in members and these easily acces- sible to intelligent observation. Thus many cases are recog- nised amongst the millions of civilized man, but fewer pro- portionately amongst savage races, partly because the latter are less closely under medical observation, though also be- cause they have, on an average, a shorter life, and are’ less exposed to certain forms of chronic irritation. With Dr. Bancroft? I have reported a case of carcinoma of the liver in an Australian aboriginal. Rats and mice are very abun- dant in numbers, though being elusive and small, they are not very closely under human observation. When examined systematically one would expect to find, and actually does find, cases of cancer amongst wild rats and mice. As large numbers of tame rats and mice are bred, amongst these also, from time to time, cases of cancer are found, and, in fact, such spontaneous tumours have yielded important ex- perimental data at the hands of cancer workers. Lions and tigers are relatively fewer in numbers—nevertheless I have met with a case of carcinoma of the mammary gland in an old lioness in the Zoological Gardens in Perth, W.A. This case, however, is probably unique. It is only to be expected, therefore, that the more abundant the individuals of a species, the more likely are we to meet with cases of malignant growths. The average span of life of the individuals as compared with the natural length of life might be better put as the number of indwiduals who reach old age. By the natural length of life is meant that age at which senescence de- tAust. Med. Gaz., May, 1913, p. 465. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 93 velops to such an extent as to lead to extinction of life. In most individuals of a species, accident or disease leads to death before senescence can play its part. Thus, in man, the average expectation of life at any age falls far short of the expectation of life if mere senescence had alone to be considered. The natural length of life varies, of course, markedly in different species, being probably a year or so in wild rats and mice, and about 70 years in man. But not only does it vary in extent according to the species, but it varies, though to a much less extent, according to the family, and even, probably, according to the individual. Long-lived human stocks and short-lived ones are well- known. I have seen a man of about 70 with the aspect of one of 40, and probably with his expectation of life, whilst the son of 40 looked like a lad of 20. Thus the natural length of life of the individual, or the age at which the animal machine will go to pieces from natural wear and tear, apart from being cut short by accident or disease, varies markedly with the species, decidedly with the family and somewhat with the individual. The greater the num- ber of individuals of the species who reach old age, and thus approximate to the tether of their natural existence, the sreater will be the average span of life of the individuals of the species. Now cancer is essentially a disease of old age. Even in those forms that occur in early life, it is note- worthy that they especially arise in cells which may be looked on as approaching senescence, or as having undergone approximately the number of mitotic divisions that would naturally be expected of them. Cancer of the liver and certain sarcomata in young children are instances in point. In such young persons, one never sees epithelioma of the lip or tongue, or carcinoma of the breast tissues, in which the cells will continue mitosing for many years to come. Hence one finds that, be it man or lower vertebrates, the greater the number of individuals who reach old age, the 94 J. B. CLELAND. greater, ceteris paribus, will be the occurrence of cancer amongst them. Probably this very fact, that more people through increased medical skill and better public health protection reach old age than formerly, and thereby in- crease the average span of life of the population, accounts in some measure for the apparent increase of cancer. The third factor, exposure to certain forms of chronic wrritation, is an important one. In man we know that such factors may consist in irritation of the lip from a clay or other pipe, injury to the tongue from a jagged tooth, un- wise exposure of the operator to X-rays, irritation of the serotum from soot in chimney sweeps, frequent burns on the chest from braziers containing hot charcoal in certain inhabitants of India, etc. In Epimys norvegicus we have the irritation of the stomach caused by a round worm, Gongylonema neoplasticum. In cattle in Australia we have squamous epithelioma of the orbital region, probably due to the chronic irritation of grass seeds or other foreign bodies, and the same condition occurring round brand marks on the rump. It is safe to say that in these instances removal of such causes of chronic irritation would eliminate, or at least vastly reduce, the occurrence of the cancerous process in the situations indicated. In fact, I would go so far as to say that, given a dictator’s authority in Australia, and the power to enforce effectively that authority, I could diminish materially the number of cases of cancer in males by stop- ping all smoking, and preventing the occurrence of syphilis! There would still, in males, remain a number of cases of cancer of the intestinal canal, and in women of the uterus and mammary gland. It is almost certain that these also owe their origin to some form of chronic irritation. If this could be ascertained and removed, how great would be the boon to humanity! I am firmly of the opinion that if cancer research is to be taken up in Australia the most PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 95 fertile field to investigate is that of the nature of these, at present unknown, causes of chronic irritation. Such chronic irritation is so clearly a factor in so many forms of malignant growth that I feel it must play an equally important part in the majority of cancerous conditions. In this continent the money would be much better spent along these lines than in attempts to fathom the deeper meaning of the cancerous process—which, to my mind, is already solved. Of course this view carries with it the reservation that the researcher has not conceived some entirely new line of investigation that, to expert minds, carries with it the possibility of material advance in our knowledge of the con- dition. -Applying the above three factors to the case of rats and mice, we find that, as regards numbers, they are very abun- dant, and that for certain purposes (plague to wit) very many have come under close human scrutiny; that there is reason to think that a considerable number, in the ab- sence of epizootic disease and exposure to danger, reach an age that may be called old for them; and that, in one in- stance at least, a form of chronic irritation is known that is specially apt to lead to cancer. We would therefore expect to find cases of malignant growths amongst them during a systematic examination of a large number. In those coming under my notice in Australia, the following cases have been met with, viz.:—Amongst Epimys norvegi- cus, 11 cases; amongst #. rattus, 12 cases, and amongst Mus musculus, 3 cases. The following indicate the forms found :— In Epimys norvegicus: Squamous-celled epithelioma of the stomach.—August 30th, 1912. Associated with the presence of a round worm, at the time thought to be Pro- tosprrura muris (Spiroptera obtusa), but perhaps Gongy- lonema neoplasticum (which see for further details). 96 J. B. CLELAND. Double renal carcinomata.—March 31st, 1915. A growth the size of a walnut in one kidney, and two small growths in the other. Renal carcinoma with metastases—March 2nd, 1909. A female rat with a large lobulated mass in the position of the left kidney, numerous small nodules seattered over the peritoneum, and several minute white areas in the liver. Renal carconoma.—November 11th, 1913. A growth in the lower end of the kidney. Malignant Hypernephromata in both Kidneys-—May 6th, 1910. A growth about the size of a large pea in the left kidney and several smaller crowths scattered through the right one. Sections showed cubical cells in columns, and the growths were considered as having arisen in remnants of the suprarenal capsules. Carcinoma of the Thyrord—ZJuly 7th, 1910. There was a growth the size of a walnut behind one shoulder, showing cystic spaces and the presence of colloid material. Fibro-adenoma of the Mammary Gland becoming Adeno- carcinomatous.—March 9th, 1909. A growth the size of a bantam’s ege. The lymphatic glands were not noticed as being enlarged. Fibro-sarcoma of Mammary Area.—May 31st, 1909. A tumour the size of a pigeon’s egg. Spindle-celled Sarcoma of the Liver-—August 30th, 1911. This was associated with the presence of Cysticercus fascio- laris, under which cestode further reference is made to it. Spindle-celled Sarcoma of the Stomach.—December 4th, 1908. A tumour the size of a walnut dependent from the pyloric end of the stomach, the peritoneal cavity being studded with a large number of secondary deposits up to the size of peas. bo fe PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 97 Large-celled Sarcoma.—November 18th, 1910.—Soft erowths over the right chest and in both thighs, showing very large irregular cells closely packed together. In £. norvegicus var. albina (Tame white rat) : Ossifying sarcoma (?).—There were small irregular car- tilaginous to calcified nodules in both lungs, in the thymus, over the pleure and ribs, in the pectoral muscles and the inner muscles of the thighs, attached to one femur, and near the vertebral column in the neighbourhood of the kidneys and invading these. In Epimys rattus: Carcinoma of Kidney.—June, 1910. In Mus musculus: Carcinoma of the Mammary Gland.— April 5th, 1911, Narrabri (Dr. Barton). Extensive irregu- lar nodular growths of the right mammary gland and ad- jacent part of the neck. Carcinoma of the Mammary Gland.—June 8th, 1911, Inverell. Irregular growths the size of half-walnuts in front of the left shoulder, on the right side of the chest, and in the left groin. Carcinoma of a Salivary Gland or perhaps a Mammary Gland.—October 23rd, 1916. Carcinomatous deposits, sug- gestive of a possible origin in a Salivary gland, were found between the right ear and shoulder (size of a small marble), in the left side in the same situation, and in both groins. The following innocent cyst has been met with in E'pimys rattus:—Multiocular Ovarian Cyst.—September 14th, 1909. Size of a walnut. MALIGNANT GROWTHS IN OTHER ANIMALS. It may be of interest, for comparison with the preceding, to record here the various malignant growths I have met with in other animals in this State from 1909 up to the present. The occurrence of such growths in so many species suggests that no vertebrates are exempt from them. The G—May 1, 1918, 98 J. B. CLELAND. protection afforded to animals by man’s care, either as regards his domestic animals or living zoological collections, probably adds to their span of life, so that more reach the ‘‘eancer age’’ than in a wild state, and hence more cases are met with under such conditions. Cattle-——Squamous epithelioma of the orbital region (six cases, one with tuberculosis elsewhere) ; squamous epitheli- oma of the rump developing on a brand mark (brand ecan- cer); squamous epithelioma infiltrating the parotid gland; squamous epithelioma of the anus; columnar epithelioma of the epiglottis; columnar epithelioma of the gall bladder ; carcinoma near the liver ; squamous epithelioma of the urin- ary bladder, apparently following on the irritation of the papillomata and angiomata, that give rise to endemic hematuria in the Illawarra district; colloid carcinoma in- vading the peritoneal cavity; epitheliomatous or sarcomat- ous cyst of the cervical region; large irregular-celled sar- coma of the mediastinum. ‘Total, 16 cases. Horses—Squamous' epithelioma of the lip; squamous epithelioma of the eyelid.. Total, 2 cases. Sheep.—Carcinoma, probably derived from the skin glands, of the face of a ram (Deniliquin) ; columnar epithe- oma invading the pleura and lung; columnar epithelioma invading the peritoneum ; colloid carcinoma of the intestine; round-celled sarcoma invading the diaphragm and perito- neum. Total, 5 cases. Cat.—Columnar epithelioma arising in the gall blad- der (7). Dog.—Squamous epithelioma of the anus. Deer.—Carcinoma of the stomach. Raccoon.—Carcinoma or sarcoma of the abdominal ca- vity. Peccary.—Spindle-celled sarcoma. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 99 Domestic Fowls—Squamous epithelioma of the rump; squamous.epithelioma of the head; colloid carcinoma (?) of the peritoneal cavity. Muscovy Duck.—lLarge-celled sarcoma forming subcuta- neous nodules. Other Disease Conditions Met With. Enlargement of the Spleen.—I have previously’ called attention to an enlargement of the spleen, sometimes up to eight or nine times the normal size of the organ, in many of the rats on the wharves at Fremantle. Though the species affected was not recorded at the time, this was prob- ably E. norvegicus. Since then, in this species, a similar enlargement of the spleen has been noted in New South Wales. I am not prepared to say whether this hypertrophy is due to some chronic pathological process, or is a specific feature of the species concerned. Other disease conditions of our rats to which I have referred? are the following :—Ulceration of the feet with death in caged rats; dark pigmentation of the lymphatic glands; chronic abscesses in the groin, near the stomach, in the left side of the thorax, the neck, and the axilla; ecurdy pus in a uterine horn; pus round the sheath of the penis; the spleen studded with small white granules and the liver pale; peritoneal adhesions; calcified areas in the liver (3 eases) ; infarct in the liver; subcutaneous dark-coloured areas on the abdomen; inversion of the uterus (2 cases) ; and cystic kidney. The following have occurred in New South Wales :— Fatty Infiltration of the Iwer—A very fat E. norve- gicus had a large friable liver mottled with bright yellow 1 Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Adelaide, 1907. 2 Loc. cit.; Bull. Dept. of State Med. and P. Health, W.A., 1909, Nos. 10-12, p. 17. 100 J. B. CLELAND. and maroon (due to blood). The cells contained numerous large and small fat globules. Necrotic Tubercles in the Lungs, due to a Diphtheroid Organism.—In a specimen of KH. rattus the lungs were speckled with numerous small white nodules the size of pins’ heads. There was a small abscess with thick pus near the base of the penis. Smears from the areas in the lungs showed. numerous long, somewhat irregular, thin Gram positive diphtheroid bacilli, which were isolated in pure culture and gave acid in glucose, lactose and saccharose, and no reaction in mannite and dulcite. A euinea-pig in- oculated with the culture died in three weeks—no lesions were found in it- A rabbit similarly inoculated was killed 24 months later, and found to be normal. Microcystic Kidneys —1 have an impression that the kidneys of EH. norvegicus are more subject to small cysts than those of E. rattus. I have a record of microcystic kid- neys in EL. rattus, in which many of the ducts were dilated to various degrees, with round-celled infiltration and blood pigment between the tubules. Cystic Spaces in the Lung.—The animal affected was a tame white rat (H. norvegicus var. albina). The lower half of one lung was occupied by cystic spaces filled with thick glutinous contents. Microscopically, the spaces were lined by one to several layers of somewhat flattened cells. ** Hlephantiasis.’’—Both hind legs of an EF. norvegicus were enormously thickened and fibrosed from the ‘‘ankle- joints’’ downwards. Apparently the animal had been walking on its tarsus, as one side of this was ulcerated. The condition was apparently due to chronic inflammatory changes. ; Lobulated Liver of a Mouse, showing Cystic Spaces the size of Wheat Grains.—This case is very interesting, as the microscopic appearances suggest that the condition was due PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 101 to a developmental anomaly, the outgrowths from the primi- tive intestine intended to form the solid liver having failed to do so completely, leaving cystic spaces resembling intes- tinal tissue. This view is supported by the presence of a narrow muscularis mucose in the walls of the cysts, which are lined by very tall, narrow, degenerated cells in places. Villous-like projections, one into each of several cysts, were also noted, perhaps representing the intestinal vill. Chronic Abscess of the Spleen.—In a specimen of E. nor- vegicus examined on July 6th, 1910, the spleen was greatly enlarged (17 grms., the whole rat weighing 381 grms.), and contained a large chronic cheesy abscess at one point, and a few smaller ones scattered throughout the rest of the organ. ‘ Cheesy Abscesses of the Iwer.—These were present in a common mouse submitted on May 26th, 1909. Decomposing Fatuses wn Uterine Cornua—A Norway rat, examined on April 8th, 1909. had one horn of the uterus distended with a foul-smelling fluid containing two macerating foetuses. A specimen of EF. rattus, submitted on July 9th, 1909, had a mass, the size of a marble and at- tached to one uterine cornu, distended with a foul-smelling mass, probably due to a retained feetus. Abscesses of Both Ovaries.—In a Norway rat, on March 28th, 1912, abscesses, one the size of a small mandarin orange, were present in both ovaries. Extra-Uterine Fetation (?).—In a specimen of E. rat- tus, on February 2nd, 1910, a mass the size of a walnut was found behind the uterus at the junction of one horn. It contained fcetal remains, and was due either to an extra- uterine fcetation or the rupture of one horn. Miliary Nodules in the Peritoneum and Abdominal Mus- cles.—In these situations, in a specimen of EH. norvegicus 102 J. B. CLELAND. submitted on February 11th, 1911, were a number of small, round, firm, yellowish-white nodules the size of wheat grains or larger. The KEcto-Parasites of Rats and Mice. The ecto-parasites of these rodents met with in Aus. tralia comprise fleas, bed-bugs, lice and species of acarina. FLEAS: Ham! gives a list of fleas associated with rats and mice. ‘Twenty-eight specific names are given of fleas found associated with individuals of the genus Mus, sensw lato. As probably three of these at least are synonyms, the total number of fieas recorded from Epimys rattus, E. norvegi- cus and Mus musculus is reduced to eleven, two of which are fowl fleas occasionally occurring on rats and mice. He gives the following as the flea species met with in associa- tion with E. rattus and HE. norvegicus :— 1. Pulex irritans Linn. 2. Pulex cheopis Rothschild. 3. Ctenocephalus cams Curtis (=C. felis Rothsch., and C. serraticeps). . Ceratophyllus fasciatus Bose. . Ceratephyllus londomensis Rothsch. . Ceratophyllus italicus Tiraboschi. . Neopsylla bidentatiformis Wagner. . Ctenopsyllus muscult Duges. . Clenopsyllus taschenbergi Wagner. Of the above list, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 8 have been found on rats or mice in Australia. aD OP c oO In the routine examination of rats for plague as carried out by the Microbiological Laboratory at the Department of Public Health, Sydney, the number of fleas collected weekly from the rats have been tabulated from the beginning of 1909 to 1917. During this period the total number of fleas identified comprises the following :—Lemopsylla 2 Report on Plague in Queensland, 1900-1907, p. 144. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 103 (Xenopsylla, Pulex) cheopis, 4863; Ctenopsylla (Typhlop- sylla) musculi, 3370; Ceratophyllus fasciatus, 1380; Cteno- cephalus canis or felis, 61; Pulex irritans, 3. Ham (loc. cit., p. 147) gives a table of the information available at the time of writing his report (1907), as to the relative prevalence of the species of rat-fleas in the various Australian States. In Queensland, L. cheopis comprised 90.8 to 100 per cent. of the fleas on rats; in New South Wales in 1902, 81 per cent.; in Sydney in 1904, 69 per eent.; in Neweastle in 1904, 20.5 per cent.; and in Perth, from December to July, 78 per cent.—but from July to December, 17 per cent. L. cheopis also occurs in Victoria and Tasmania. C. musculi composed 23 per cent. of the rat-fleas in Sydney in 1904, 70 per cent. in Neweastle in the same year, and 22 and 82.6 per cent. in Perth for the months respectively mentioned above. Of 60 rat-fieas found by me in Perth in 1906, 32 were L. cheopis, 27 C. musculi, and 1 C. fasciatus. . It is now universally recognised that L. cheopis is par excellence the plague flea, that is to say, that it is through its intermediation that the plague bacillus generally reaches man in bubonic and septicemic plague. As plague shows a pronounced seasonal prevalence, the object of this flea census was to ascertain not only the relative yearly preva- lence of fleas, but also their variations in numbers from week to week in order to ascertain whether there was any correlation between their number and the incidence of cases of plague in man. The accompanying table (Table V) will show the monthly prevalence of the various species of fleas on rats as met with in Sydney from 1909 to 1917. As regards L. cheopis, this flea is most abundant in February (962) and March (946), followed by April (691) and January (479). It will be seen, on referring to the summary of cases of plague in New South Wales, that these 104 J. B. CLELAND. Table V.—Showing the Incidence of Various Species of Fleas on Rats in Sydney during the Years 1909 — 1917. Lemopsylla cheopis. Year. | Jan. | Feb.|Mch./April} May | Jne.} July] Aug.|/Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec.| Total. 1909 | 108 | 120) 3831) 314/108) 55); 42 9) 76) 16)\ S|) io aon 1910 | 14} 88} 80/189] 43} 54) 44) 67)121) 20) 11] 20; 701 1911 | 97 | 316/191 /103} 47} 17/122) 55| 27) 26) 48) 61):1105 1912 | 44/129])128) 66; 59} 62; 42] 30; 14} 17) 11] 389] 641 19L3" | 80) 77) 29 283 62 Tle coat alaeteg ee OF nbs 243 1914.) 25) 2...) 29) 88] 0.0 7 scp Day Qa) 4 Sore eSh eeeen ieee 1915 | 88 8| 77| 14 1) 38) 2354 15" ) 5} 3| 252 1916 | 73120) 43)" (9) W612 | 26) = A ee One 300 LOW? 3) 2. (AOS BB 2a | teas oa ead 4 Liye hey Total | 479 | 962 | 946 | 691 | 307 | 271 | 802 | 197 | 286} 160] 93|169| 4863 Ctenopsylla musculi. 1910 | 41) 34] 33]) 48] 37) 56) 57| 46] 88) 87] 6] 8| 541 1911 | 46/106} 59| 37| 57| 28) 121|124/205; 97/106] 79) 1065 1912 | 28) 14] 25) 45) 12| 82) 15] 67] 40; 75} 34) 60) 442 1913 ON PN) 23) | AW IEC eee ek Pd fl Noe 113 1914 Ol eee PANE BN Ge 2) 2] 44) 48: 2384) 24) 7) 871 1915 4, Da 26) Gils Bi 288 2rd 6) ae.) Diedes 1916 | WL) 712) V7 LO TS ey LO) Teen ay eel Day IOUT |). WAS] AB | Ag” Mle ec op) ctor) deer =dlOl ene een eee 60 ee 1909 | 81| 60| 77| 42| 28| 25| 20| 16] 62 50| 15| 28] 514 Total | 218 | 264 | 226 | 219 | 184 |'178 | 262 | 324 491 | 552 | 254.|198| 3370 Ceratophyllus fasciatus. 1910 | 36| 19] 23] 11 5| 13) 24! 28; 48) 33) 9) 17) 266 1ST) 531) 2ZOW M2 Vs) 3| 16| 38] 66| 54) 38] 51) 3875 VOL2) 24), 71 a8 9 2) li I7|. 14) 9) B81). 29) |e aeiniS 1909 | 52] 11). 35 8 5; 4) 10 I 5 |) 47 6; 26) 210] — Osis lat Dp tise ner 7 Ne ol ata Tae . hl fase 31 1914 ZN Sees tere, Lance! | Bee i 6| 27| 37) 14 i 94 1915 ‘i 1 5 PAN Ae ee 3 20) S12) 2 3r eons 72 1916 4; 30] 138 oD ier) Makar Suen Oller. Gy ap 76 Osis ee tla Dl eee OH ras aly soe ob Diy AG tga 37 Total |189| 93|111] 52| 80! 35| 79| 90|174| 241/127|159} 1880 Ctenocephalus canis and felis. LOCO aN Ale a Led SB)a Lok bd 2 EIN 1 ee AOOM MI coils 2 1b. Wace 2a Se 8 TOM a 231123 Ne cent | tel None se el ehe2tt laneeeae 11 1912 6 1 Tul. ela 1913 3 a a 3 1914 2, 1 Wa 2 1915 3 1 4 1916 | 4] 8 Re 1 8 1917 1 ~ 1 Total )|, 7 }4384 144) ands BA Bll Aaa] ae asi PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 105 Pulex irritans. MOE ies Meyer). Vibe hss ade IW tamed ead Ws aaleettiton’s |i aoe, Was T penaely hE 1220) Sat a eee shee the al dete eee | een mee aoe LOBE it, LR Pray, SUA ARYA eee RNS SS aa 9 late PY EAE eh 1 19126 ... : 1913 eee: Loe lie RY eal Oy lated Lay White hE Sash d eoaebl Ata a bene LPL 1 NIP Se Re eV Petites Heweas (fate lg oie (era aaa | wee LP ge TEES eS ea a Ferry ence ea la On Tem he | Moatal |... l TF, ieee SP CIEE Pea me lie act Clie aoe Pee 3a are the months in which epidemics have most frequently originated and in which the majority of cases have occurred. Yet these figures have been obtained when, except for the years 1909 and 1910, no instances of plague in man or rats were known. The figures for the other months, though irregularly variable, are much lower. The monthly numbers of the blind flea, Ctenopsylla (Typhlopsylla) muscult, are less variable. Considerable increases occur in September and October, and next to these in August. The figures for Ceratophyllus fasciatus are smaller and very variable. There is a distinct increase in September and October, and another in December and January. Ctenocephalus canis or felis, of which few specimens were obtained, shows a preference for the warmer months. A further table (Table VI) shows the numbers and species of fleas found in Sydney in each of the three rodents concerned during the non-plague period 1911 to 1917. In E. rattus, somewhat Jess than half of 3221 fleas were L. cheopis, between one-third and one-half were C. musculi, about one-seventh C. fasciatus, a few were C. canis or felis, and 1 P. irritans. Five fleas found on this species from Goulburn, in April, 1918, all belonged to C. muscult. In E. norvegicus more than one-half of 2137 fleas were P. cheop- is, nearly one-third C. musculi, and about one-eighth C. 106 ° J. B, CLELAND. fasciatus, whilst there were a few C. canis or felis. Only 30 fleas from Mus musculus were identified, amongst which C. muscult were nearly twice as common as L. cheopis, the remaining few fleas being C. fasciatus. Six fleas, found in mice from Temora, in November, 1917, were all C. muscult. Table VI.—Showing the Total Number of Fleas taken from each Species of Lodent in Sydney from 1911 to 1917, Species of Rat. | L. cheopis | C. musculi| C. fasciatus wade P. irritans| Total ep Neel 8 BE. rattus 1,530 | 1,209 | 457 24 1. | 3,094 E.norvegicus| 1,161 688 274 14 5 2,137 M. musculus 9 17 4 Ws a 30 Total ..| 2,700'| 1,914 | 735 | 38/0 | 0 QIEPaHaes Besides one of these species of fleas (LZ. cheopis) acting as a nursery for the plague bacillus, this and other species are also true intermediate hosts for other parasites of rats. Thus Ceratophyllus fasciatus transmits Trypanosoma lewis from one rat to another, and Harvey Johnston’ has record- ed the finding of the Cysticercoids of the tapeworms Hymen- olepis dinunuta and H. murina in Sydney in both Lemop- sylla cheopis and Ceratophyllus fasciatus, and in a Mel- bourne specimen of C. fasciatus the Cysticereoid of H. diminuta. He has also recorded (p. 81) the presence of larval nematodes, Agamonema sp., in L. cheopis and once in C. fasciatus in Sydney. He considers the larva in all probability to be the young of a pre sensu lato, and suggests especially S. obtusa. FLEAS CAUGHT ON HuMAN Bernes.—It may be of interest to mention here the species of fleas that I have found in- festing man in Australia. In Sydney and at Narrabeen, out of 19 fleas caught at varying times, 18 were Pulex irri- tans and 1 Ctenocephalus canis. A batch of 27 fleas from < Johnston, Proc. Roy. Soc., Queensl., June, 1912, p. 69. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 107 Hamilton, near Newcastle, received in October, 1916, all proved to be Ct. canis—specimens were determined by the Hon. N. Charles Rothschild. They occurred in sandy sur- roundings, and constituted a veritable plague. Narrabri had a similar experience in April, 1917, these fleas being also identified for us by Mr. Rothschild. In the sandy suburbs of Perth fleas are also very abundant at times, and belong to the same species. The closely allied Ct. felis, dis- tinguished chiefly by a slight difference in the shape of the head, I have so far not found on man, but only on dogs. As already indicated, Ct. canis or felis (the separation of the two species was not made) is occasionally found on our rats, as is also P. irritans. So far, I have not found JL. cheopis on man, but the occurrence of plague in human beings indicates that on occasion this flea does bite man in Australia. Dr. F. Tidswell? found, out of 97 fleas caught on man in Sydney, that 81 were P. irritans and 16 Ct. canis. He (loc cit., p. 72) has been able to get Ceratophyllus fasciatus to bite man experimentally. Bep-pues, Clinocoris (Cimex) lectularius L.—In the 1902 epidemic of plague in Sydney, bed-bugs in all stages of development were found on the rats submitted»for ex- amination, and also occasionally by Dr. T. Harvey John- ston in 1909, 1910 and 1911. Similarly Ham mentions that they were present on rats during the outbreak of plague in Brisbane in 1900, and in some instances in subsequent ones. If bed-bugs attach themselves to living rats, and can be transported by them, there is naturally the possibility that they may be themselves transferred by rats from one building to another, and thus introduce the bugs to fresh quarters. As the rats submitted for examination in Syd- ney have been in nearly all instances dead trapped rats or 2 Rep. Second Outbr. of Plague, Syd., 1902, p. 74. 108 J. B. CLELAND. poisoned rats, I think it is quite possible that the bues found had merely taken advantage of the cover offered by the dead carease to hide themselves. The bug, I presume, after having fed, will at once seek cover. It will not remain on or near the host that it has bitten if any movement is made by such host. In the case of trapped rats, however, the bugs might come out and perhaps feed on the body when warm, and then, finding no movement, hide themselves in its neighbourhood or between the flexures of the joints, and thus be removed with the rats when found by the rat- catchers later; or, having fed elsewhere, the bugs may merely take shelter on the dead or cold carcase as they might in any other suitable situation. I think, therefore, that it still remains to be proved that rats can be respon- sible for the transference of bed bugs from one house to another. PrEpicuLinps.—Harvey Johnston! has recorded Polyplax spinulosus Burm. for EF. rattus and E. norvegicus from Syd- — ney, Melbourne and Brisbane. Neumann? has described an- other species, Hematopinus (Polyplax) bidentatus, as from Mus rattus, ‘‘au lac Torrens, dans 1’ Australie sud.’” (Rothschild Collection). This reference to the introduced E. rattus, suggesting its occurrence in the neighbourhood of the depression, sometimes containing salt-water, known as ‘‘Lake Torrens,’’ and situated to the north of Port Augusta in the interior of South Australia, aroused my in- terest. The arid nature of the country, far from the haunts of man, suggested some mistake. I made enquiries through Dr. Borthwick, Medical Officer of Health for Adelaide, which seem to show an error, by translation, in locality and an error in the host. Through Professor Stirling, then Director of the South Australian Museum, Dr. Borthwick 2 Johnston, Rep. Govt. Bur. of Microbiology, N.S.W., 1909 (1910), p. 30. 2 Neumann, Arch. de Parasitologie, XIII., 1909, p. 497. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 109 had forwarded a collection of ecto-parasites from rats to the Hon. N. Charles Rothschild. The host animals were caught near the banks of the R. Torrens, which runs through Ade- laide, its water being dammed back to form an artificial lake called ‘‘ Torrens Lake.’’ Amongst these external para-— sites were fleas from common rats and lice from a water- rat, Hydromys leucogaster. Presumably this was the source of the specimens described by Neumann, the host having been wrongly noted, and Torrens ‘‘Lake’’ being referred to as ‘‘lac Torrens.’’ As further support to this view, Dr. Johnston later examined a pediculid found by us on H. leu- cogaster caught in Sydney Harbour. The insect was muti- lated, but its appearance suggested that it was the species described by Neumann. AcsarIna: Leiognathus bacotr Hirst.—On several occasions in Sydney complaints have been received of small mites at- tacking workers in factories and shops. A similar com- plaint was received from Fremantle, in Western Australia, in 1908, in the case of men working on the wharves at night. These mites cause a good deal of irritation and skin- scratching. Enquiries showed the association with their presence of rats, some of which were caught, infested with the mites, in a shop in Sydney, next door to one of these factories. The mites were sent for identification to Mr. S. Hirst, of the British Museum, who identified them as Letog- nathus bacotr Hirst, a species originally described by him from Mus norvegicus, and found in Egypt, Abyssinia, Aus- tralia and South America. The irritation caused by these mites is very similar to that caused by Leiognathus bursa Perlese = L. morsitans Hirst, which has been identified for us also by Mr. Hirst, and is usually conveyed in Sydney by starlings nesting in premises. This other mite is normally a parasite of domestic poultry in the more tropical parts of the world. 110 J. B. CLELAND. GAMASIDS AND TicKs.—On Sydney rats, during 1909, 1910 and 1911, Harvey Johnson found 287 gamasids (Le- laps)—260 of them in 1909; 12 ticks (Ixodide); and 6 very small acarids, mites, probably the above L. bacott. NoOcTDRES ALEPIS Raillet et Lucet (Sarcoptes muris). —This causes a warty scabies, affecting the ears and genital organs. Such warty ears are not uncommon in Sydney rats. Johnston’ has recorded the mite for H. norvegicus in New South Wales and ££. rattus (alexandrinus) in Western Australia. The Protozoal Parasites of Rats and Mice. TRYPANOSOMA LEWISI (Kent).—Though trypanosomes were first observed in the blood of the trout in 1841, and _ various observations had later been made on species found in mammals, frogs and fishes, they received little attention until 1878. In this year, Lewis, in India, described the species found in Mus decumanus (Kpiymys norvegicus) and in Mus rufescens. In 1881, Saville Kent named this para- site Herpetomonas lewist. The name of Lewis is especially associated with the beginning of the enormous amount of work dealing with all aspects of trypanosomiasis, because his discovery of the trypanosome of the rat was soon follow- ed, in 1880, by that of the first definitely pathogenic species, the trypanosome of surra found by Evans in horses and camels in India. Some 20 years later, in 1901 and 1902, trypanosomes were found in cases of sleeping sickness in man. This discovery, followed later by proof of these try- panosomes being responsible for the disease, led to attempts, by means of arsenic compounds and synthetic dyes, to kill the parasites without injuring their host. From these partially successful results emerged eventually the dis- eovery by Ehrlich of salvarsan, and the employment of this: 2 Johnston, Rep. Govt. Bur. Microbiol., Sydney, 1909 (1910), p. 81. = PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 1h) drug and allied compounds in the alleviation and some- times cure of syphilis in man. Such treatment forms the essential basis in the present campaign to diminish and, if possible, to eliminate this scourge of mankind. Thus the study of a parasite of a common domestic pest has played a part, indirect yet by no means unimportant, in the diminution of human suffering. Tryon in Queensland was apparently the first to see this trypanosome in Australian rats. Harvey Johnston and I have found T. lewisi in EL. rattus and £. norvegicus in Sydney, whilst I have found them also in the former species in Perth, and C. J. Pound in rats in Brisbane.’ The flea Ceratophyllus fasciatus* is an intermediate host of 7. lewist. The flea Ctenophthalmus agyrtes and the louse, Hematopinus spinulosus, can also apparently transmit the parasites. HamosporipiA.—The following species have been re- corded * in the three rodents under consideration :—H epa- tozoon muris (Balfour), 1905 (1906?), in E. norvegicus (Africa, Oceania, Portugal, India) ; H. ratti (Adie), 1907, in EL. rattus (Azores, India, Oceania); H. pernicioswm Mail- ler, 1908, in EF. norvegicus var. albina (America); H. muscult (Porter), 1908, in M. musculus var. albina (Eneg- land) ; Piroplasma muris Fantham, 1905, in E. rattus var. albina (England; Nuttallia decumam Macfie, 1915, in HF. norvegicus (Africa) ; Toxoplasma muscula Sangior- gi, 1913, in M@. musculus (Italy); and 7. rattc Sangiorgi, 1915, in H. rattus var. albina (Italy). Pitvon, this Journal, XO. 88s, p 3814. 2 Vide Rep. Govt. Bur. of Microbiol. for 1909, N.S.W. (1910), p. 37. * Vide Nuttall, Parasitol, I., 1908, p. 296; Strickland, Brit. Med. J., a: eres 1049; and Minchin and Thomson, Brit. Med. J., June, , p. 1309. 4 Vide Franca, Sur. la Classificat. des Heemosporidies, J. de Sci- encias, Matematicas, Fisicas e Naturais, 38d Serie, No. 1, 1917. 112 J. B. CLELAND. Harvey Johnston and myself! have found Hepatozoa in Australian rats. In 1906, whilst in Perth, Western Aus- tralia, I first met with a Hepatozoon in the local rats. This was on the day after reading Balfour’s article? on a new hemogregarine of mammals, in the gerboa, Jaculus jaculus (gordoni), which he designated Hemogregarina jacult, but added in a footnote that Laveran had called it Hamogre- garina balfourr. In this article he mentions having found apparently the same parasite ih the leucocytes of Mus decu- manus (EH. norvegicus) at Khartoum. Consequently I re- corded this finding as that of H. balfouri in the host £. norvegicus (Mus decumanus). Subsequent identifications of these rats by Mr. Oldfield Thomas, of the British Mu- seum, showed they were E. rattus (alexandrinus). Balfour’ later separated the rat parasite as Leucocytozoon muris (now Hepatozoon muris). It will be seen, from the list given above, that Fran¢a considers as separate species the Hepatozoa of H. norvegicus and of E. rattus, named H. muris and H. ratti respectively. As we later in Sydney found a Hepatozoon also in FE. norvegicus, it is possible that only one species really exists, for which the name H. muris (Balfour) would take precedence. If there are two species, then the one in Perth in E. rattuws would be Hepatozoon ratti;* that in Sydney in EL. norvegicus, H. muris. SARCOSPORIDIA.—The exact position of the Sarcosporidia in the Sporozoa is still a matter of doubt. Minchin’ classi- fies them as an order under the Neosporidia. Recently Crawley’ has produced reasons for considering them as 1 Cleland, J. of Trop. Med. and Hyg., IX., 1906, p. 196; Aust. Assoc. Adv. Se., 1907, p. 516; Johnston and Cleland, Proc. Lanne ysoce IN So Wop UDO, 15 GxIal 2 Balfour, J. of Trop. Med. and Hyg., March, 1906, p. 82 (same article, August 15th, 1905, p. 242). ae Sec. Rep. Wellcome Research Labs., Khartoum, 1906, pe c 4 As suggested by me, Aust. Assoc. Adv. Science., Adel., 1907. > Minchin, An Introduction to the Study of the Protozoa, 1912. 6 Crawley, Proc. Acad. Nat. Scien., Phil., June, 1916. ‘ PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Ws forming a sub-order of the Order Coccidiomorpha under the Telosporidia. Het has worked out the evolution of Sarcocystis muris in the intestinal cells of the mouse. John- ston and I* have recorded S. muris in the muscles of E. rat- tus and E. norvegicus in Sydney. SPIROCHZTES.—The proper classificatory position of the spirochetes and allied organisms is a matter of much con- troversy. Some workers consider they are Schizomycetes or closely allied to the bacteria, basing their opinion chiefly on the occurrence of transverse division. Others consider them as protozoa, and complicated life-phases agreeing therewith have evén been described. The group is of vast human interest, inasmuch as one of the direst of human diseases—syphilis—is due to Treponema pallidum (Spiro- chaeta pallida), whilst several other fatal human com- plaints, in two of which rats probably play the part of normal hosts for the parasites, are due to other spiro- chetes. A digression as regards these organisms may therefore be allowed. | First of all it may be mentioned that spirochete-like forms are found in many ‘situations in man and animals, living usually a more or less saprophytic existence. Thus in man they are common in the mouth round the teeth, especially decayed ones, whilst Sp. refringens is found un- der the prepuce. Johnston and myself (loc. cit.) have re- corded as Sp. ratii, spirochetes found in the ceca of LE. norvegicus and E. rattus in Sydney. I have recorded? . abundant spirochetes in the centres of castration tumours in pigs in Western Australia, possibly dwelling in this situ- ation as imprisoned saprophytes. Sydney Dodd‘ has found them in ulcers of the skin in pigs in the Transvaal, and I + Crawley, loc. cit., May, 1914, p. 432. 2 Johnston and Cleland, Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1909, p. 510. * Cleland, Parasitology, I., Oct., 1908. - mPodd, Jo: Comp, Path.,) Sx, 1906, py 206: H—May 1, 1918. 114 J. B. CLELAND. have also seen them in the same situation in a N.S.W. pig (October, 1911), and also in a growth of a pig’s foot. They are also found in intestinal lesions in these animals. They may be found in several species of our white ants (Ter- mites) and in mollusca. From the above it will appear that Spirochetes, in the broad sense, are widely distributed organisms found in many Situations in association with various animals. In the above instances they seem, for the most part, to be simple saprophytes, living on mucous and allied surfaces, and deriving nourishment, presumably, from the broken down organic material there found in abundance. In some of the cases mentioned above, however, it is possible that they may also exert some pathogenic action—that is to say, they may feed upon the living tissue or may utilise foodstuffs in course of passage to the host’s cells. As a result of such damage or interference, or as a result of the production of toxins, they may cause a reaction to their presence by the cells of the host. The skin ulcers of pigs and perhaps the castration tumours may be such instances. We also find from time to time in man that certain spirochetes of the mouth may be present in large numbers in particular ul- cerations and infections of that region and the neck, con- stituting Vincent’s angina. Some of these saprophytic-living spirochetes, then, ap- pear to possess potentialities for pathogenic activity, if given the opportunity. The opportunity may be perhaps a wound or other infection. In such spirochetes, in fact, we see the beginning of the evolution of true parasites with pathogenic powers. To my mind it is unquestionable that the organism of syphilis, the dreaded Sp. pallida, has evolved from a saprophyte inhabiting originally only the mucous surfaces of the vagina and prepuce. Promiscuous sexual intercourse gave such saprophyte its chance to estab- PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ELS lish and develop pathogenic properties. It is well-known that repeated transmission of an organism from one host to an- other tends frequently to accentuate its pathogenic proper- ties, latent perhaps at first. Amongst the saprophytic spiro- chetes inhabiting the generative mucous membranes of man, one would expect that a mutant, possessing more than its fellows the capacity to invade living tissues, would have this property increased by repeated conveyance from one warm moist human mucous surface to another. Promiscuous sexual intercourse gave it this opportunity. The result we see to-day. A still further evolution in complexity of life-processes is seen in certain spirochetes. This consists in the con-. veyance of infection by intermediate hosts, ticks and bed- bugs for instance. How this has come about from sapro- phytic types is questionable. That these forms have arisen from such types in ages long ago is undoubted. The course of events was presumably one of two. The saprophyte, having become an invasive parasite, eventually reached the blood-stream, as it does now in syphilis. The arthropod, drawing this blood, ingested the spirochetes, which found themselves capable of multiplying in their new surround- ings. Thence they entered the tissues of a fresh vertebrate _ host when the arthropod fed again. The second alternative is that the pathogenic spirochetes were primarily arthro- pod dwellers (we have seen that they are found in ter- mites). The arthropod, in feeding on its host, either in- jected its spirochetes or fouled the wound it made with fecal matter containing these. In the new environment, the spirochetes were able to grow and multiply, and were not destroyed, whilst the vertebrate host reacted, in the shape of illness, to their presence. Bitten by further arthropods, the spirochetes entered again their original hosts. In either case, in the course of time, the spirochetes became more 116 J. B. CLELAND. selective in their behaviour, no longer being merely faculta- tive parasites of the two types of hosts, but obligatory para- sites of both, with perhaps complicated life-histories in each. I have mentioned Sp. ratt1 as a probable saprophyte of the intestinal canal of rats. The spirochetes (Sp. actero- hemorrhagica Inada and Ino) of a form of infective jaun- dice (Weil’s Disease) in man and those (Sp. morsus-muris Futaki, Takaki, Taniguchi et Osumi) found in rat-bite fever in man and other animals, appear to be normally para- sites of rats, occasionally conveyed to man with severe, even fatal, results. These diseases are dealt with else- where. The Helminth Parasites of Rats and Mice. NEMATODES.—Hall' gives the recorded numbers of species of nematodes in Hpimys norvegicus as 11, in EH. rattus (if E. alexandrinus is included) as 12, and in Mus musculus as 12. Of the species found in HZ. norvegicus and E. rattus, five are common to both. M. musculus shares three species with E. norvegicus and four with EF. rattus, whilst two species are common to all three rodents. Harvey Johnston? records the various species of hel- minths found in rats and mice in Australia. Six nematode species have been found in H. norvegicus, 5 in EL, rattus, and 5 in M. musculus. Consideration of this paper requires the addition to Hall’s list, to make it complete, of Hepatt- cola hepatica and Heterakis spumosa for Mus musculus, and of Oxyuris obvelata for Epimys norvegicus. Johnston also records Cisophagostomum sp.° for EH. norvegicus, whilst in 2 Maurice Hall, Nematode Parasites of Mammals of the Orders Rodentia, Lagomorpha and Hyracoidea, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1916, p. 227. 2 Johnston, Rep. Bur. Microbiol., Syd., 1909 (1910), and Proc. Roy. Soc., @,, 1912,;.p, 107, and 1918, p.-53, in the press: 3 Since identified by Johnston as Heligmosomum braziliense ‘Trav. Proc. Roy. Soc., Q., xxx, in the press. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 117 this species I have found larval nematodes, Spiroptera (7?) sp. The known nematodes of FE. norvegicus (Australian records!) are therefore :—Strongyloides papillosus, Capul- larva annulosa, C. schmidti, Hepaticola hepatica’, Tricho- somoides crassicauda!, Trichinella spiralis, Heterakis spu- mosa', Oxyuris obvelata’, Heligmosomum braziliense’, Strongylus sp., Gongylonema neoplasticum, Protospirura murist and Spiroptera ?..sp. | Of E. rattus (including E. rattus alexandrinus) :—Capul- laria annulosa, C. papillosa, Hepaticola hepatica’, Trichuris muris!, Trichosomoides crassicauda, Heterakis spumosa', Oxyuris obvelata’, Gongylonema neoplasticum, Protospir- ura muris', Physaloptera circularis, Spiroptera rattr, and Filaria sp. Of Mus musculus :—Capillaria bacillata, Hepaticola hep- atical, Trichuris muris', Trichosoma muris-muscult, Tricho- nella spiralis, Heterakis spumosa', Oxyuris obvelata', O. | tetraptera’, Strongylus lemni (2), Ollulanus tricuspis, Gon- gylonema musculi, G. neoplasticum, Protospirura muris', and Spiroptera quadrialata. Johnston records Gongylo- nema sp. for Australia. These lists give 13 species for H. norvegicus, 12 for EH. rattus (and E. alexandrinus), and 14 for Mus musculus. Seven species are common to EH. norvegicus and EF. rattus. M. musculus shares 5 species with EL. norvegicus and 6 with £. rattus, whilst 5 are common to all three rodents. In Australia, E. rattus and M. musculus have five species of nematodes in common, and share four of these with #. norvegicus. Of these nematode parasites of rats, two for different reasons are of world-wide interest, a third is of some par- ticular interest to members of this Society, whilst a fourth 118 J. B. CLELAND. a is hitherto unrecorded, at least for Australia. These are the following :— | Trichinella spiralis Owen.—The ingested larve of this species mature in the intestines of suitable hosts. The em- bryos of the new generation find their way to the voluntary muscles. Here they encyst and develop to the infective larval stage. Numerous mammals may act as such hosts, and these include man, the pig, the Norway rat, and the house mouse. In man, the muscular invasion causes a severe typhoid-like disease, with tenderness in the affected muscles, which may be fatal. The presence of eosinophilia in the blood, due to the worm infestation, is of assistance in diag- nosing the illness from other similar ones. Indigenous cases of the disease are unknown in Australia, but Johnston and Cleland’ have collected the records, up to 1912, of Aus- tralian cases in which the infection has been derived from elsewhere; whilst Palmer, Cleland and Ferguson? have recorded a later similar case. Man is usually, perhaps _ always, infected by eating raw or under-done pork contain- ing viable larve.. The fact that both Hpymys norvegicus and Mus musculus are liable to infestation opens a possible door for the introduction of the disease eventually to Aus- tralia. The former, and probably the latter also, are at times cannibalistic. Hence the infestation of one or more of their number may thus spread widely to others. Their original infestation may be derived from eating raw pig’s flesh. Rats or mice may therefore be the vehicle for the worm’s introduction into Australia. As white people do not eat either of these rodents, it might be thought that here, as regards man, the matter ended. Unfortunately, the omnivorous pig is a factor to be considered. Given the opportunity, he would certainly eat rats or mice, either . 2 Johnston and Cleland, Proc. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sc., 1912, p. 305. - 2 Palmer, Cleland and Ferguson, Aust. Med. Gaz., June, 20th, 1914, p. 456. F PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. | 119 sick ones infesting his sty, or dead ones disposed of by being given to him to eat by keepers too lazy to destroy them otherwise. Whilst the possibility exists in Australia of the infection of man by such a route, the likelihood of this happening is remote, partly because skilled meat in- spection would probably detect the small lesions in the muscles of the hog, and partly because Australians are very particular as to cooking their supplies of meat. Some years ago in Perth I examined the diaphragms and other muscles of a small series of'rats for Trichinella spiralis, but, as might have been expected, with negative results. Gongylonema neoplasticum Fibiger et Oitlusen.—This worm is of interest for quite another reason. Its presence in the squamous celled anterior part of the digestive tract is associated with hypertrophy of the mucosa, which may lead to a papillomatous condition, and even finally to carcinoma (cancer), with metastatic growths in other parts. It is well worthy of consideration, therefore, in elucidating the vari- ous etiological factors that, directly or indirectly, lead to the onset of the cancerous process. In this case, and with our present knowledge, competent cancer investigators can come to but one conclusion, viz., that the presence of this worm sets up a form of chronic irritation which, like many other forms of chronic irritation—from a jagged tooth to the injuries from repeated burns and the subtle chemical bodies present in chimney soot—may eventually lead to the cell dyscrasia which is the basal change in the cancerous process. The intermediate hosts, from which the Black Rat, Norway Rat or house mouse may be infected, are the cockroaches, Periplaneta americana, P. orventalis and Blat- ta (Ectobia) germameca, and the Mealworm (Tenebrio moli- tor). | These neoplastic changes due to Gongylonema were first described by Fibiger? in 1918. It is interesting to note that 2 Fibiger, quoted by Hall, Nematode Parasites of Mammals of Order Rodentia, etc., p. 235. 120 J. B. CLELAND. in August, 1912, I had the opportunity of examining a specimen of E. norvegicus, submitted for routine plague examination, in which the stomach was much enlarged, its wall thickened, the serous coat corrugated and the mucous membrane papillated. The stomach was full of nematodes, at the time presumed to be the common Protospirura muris (Spiroptera obtusa), but in the light of Fibiger’s findings perhaps really Gongylonema neoplasticum. Sections of the affected parts showed portions of the worms embedded in the squamous epithelium, which was much thickened, and showed numerous marked cell-nests. This apparent can- cerous process, a squamous-celled epithelioma, appeared to be invading the deeper parts, but had not yet reached the muscular coat. Strange to say, the stomach of another rat, taken as a normal control, showed also, embedded in the keratinized squamous epithelium, portions of a nematode. Mention may be made here to an adenomatous condition of the stomach of a fowl, examined by us in 1910, in which we thought that the round worm, Dispharagus nasutus Rud., might have been a contributory cause of the lesion. Heptaticola hepatica Bancroft.—In Australia the livers of our two common rats, and sometimes that of the house mouse, show irregular whitish or yellowish spots or streaks. In these areas are found numerous ova with opercular plugs at each end. During examinations for the presence of plague, these pathological lesions may give rise to some suspicion of the presence of this disease. In 1893, in the Journal of this Society, Dr. T. L. Bancroft, under the title ‘‘On the Whip-worm of the Rat’s Liver,’’ described the worm responsible for these eggs as Trichocephalus hepa- ticus, and also dealt with the lesions present. As this ne- matode has been found in France, Italy, England (?) and the United States, as well as Australia, it is of special in- 1 Bancroft, This Journal, Vol. XXVII., pp. 86-90, plates 7 and 8. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. E21 terest to us to find that such a widely distributed species was described and named by a member of our Society a quarter of a century ago. Hall (loc. cit.) states that the parasite had been previously observed by Chaussot (1850), Colin (1862), Davaine (1877), and Leidy (1891). Larval Nematodes wn Subserous Nodules on the In- testines—On March 14th, 1912, two fresh rats (FE. norve- gicus) and a decomposing one, caught on the same premises off Oxford-street, Sydney, were found to have minute whitish nodules scattered over the serous coats of the in- testines. On dissecting these, they were found to be occu- pied by larval nematodes, each about .4mm. long and 38 » broad. So far the species has not been determined. Maurice Hall (loc. cit., p. 223) refers to Spiroptera sp. Ger- staecker found encysted in the walls of the digestive tract of Epimys sp. These larve were 1.4 mm. long and 100 to 110 » thick. Our larve are smaller, and do not show the morphological details given for Gerstaecker’s forms. We sent specimens from these rats to Dr. Hall last year, and he thinks they may possibly be an earlier stage of the species found by Gerstaecker. Rats as Possible Dispersers of the Eggs of Human Ankylostomes.—Whilst visiting Broken Hill last year, I was much interested in finding that rats were present in the mines, even at deep levels. Sanitary pans, placed in re- cesses, were entered by them and the feces eaten. If at any time a carrier of ankylostomes from elsewhere, employed in the mine, should use one of these pans and rats ingest the ova, it is possible that infection might be spread to the workings, as the eggs may pass through the rat’s alimentary tract unharmed. A lid to each pan is, of course, the solu- tion of the matter. . ACANTHOCEPHALA.—The large Gigantorhynchus monili- forms has been recorded by Johnston (loc. cit.) in the in- 122 J. B. CLELAND. testines of Epimys rattus and EF. norvegicus in Australia. It is often present in numbers. CrestopES.—Harvey Johnston (loc. cit.) has recorded the tape worms Hymenolepis diminuta and H. murina, and Cysticercus fasciolaris, of which the adult stage is Tenia crassicollis of the cat, as parasites in Australia of E. rattus (alexandrinus), EH. norvegicus and Mus musculus. He has just recorded also Davainea sp. from EH. norvegicus in Brisbane. In connection with the Cysticereus (C. fasciolaris), in August, 1911, I received from Dr. R. Dick, of Newcastle, two paraffin blocks containing portion of a large tumour with a small outgrowing nodule which had been attached to the liver of a specimen of H. norvegicus. In the centre of the mass he had found a cestode parasite several inches in. length, which, from the description, was undoubtedly C. fasciolaris, which often matures to this stage in our rats. Sections revealed, in addition to much necrotic tissue and leucocytic infiltration, masses of mitosing spindle-shaped cells. [ came to the conclusion that the growth was a spindle- celled sarcoma, which had arisen as the result of the chronic irritation of the parasite. This malignant growth, though of different nature to the carcinomatous process resulting from the presence of Gongylonema neoplasticum in another situation, may be considered as a parallel instance of the chronic irritative effects of helminth parasites. Bridre and Conseil discuss the relation of hepatic sarcom- ata to the presence of Cysticercus fasciolaris.* Five out of 2,000 wild rats had these growths in the liver, and in four — of these a Cysticercus was present in the growth. In three of the four cases it was the only one in the organ. As mentioned more fully in discussing the rat fleas, Har- vey Johnston has found the Cysticercoids of H. diminuta + Vide Vet. Rec., XXII., 1910, No. 1126, p. 526. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 123 and H. murina in the fleas Lemopsylla cheopis and Cerato- phyllus fasciatus. In the rats found in a ship trading to Sydney in 1915, and identified by Oldfield Thomas as Hpimys terra-regine, cestodes were present. These were forwarded to Harvey Johnston, who informs me that the species is apparently Hymenolepis dinunuta. ‘‘It is rather broader, but I have not so far been able to find any difference justifying its separation from H. dinunuta.’’ TREMATODES.—No trematodes have been met with in any of these three rodents in Australia. Previous Phenomenal Visitations of Rats or Mice in Australia, ‘*Placues’’ of rats or mice in other parts of the world are well known. I do not propose to dwell on them, so will merely indicate several. There are two legends of the Rhine district concerning great hordes of mice invading stores of grain after years of famine. One mentions Hatto, Archbishop of Mayence, who in 970 was devoured by mice— he had previously assembled the poor in a barn and burnt them to death to save for the rich the corn the former would have consumed. The other is that a wicked Count Graaf was similarly treated by mice attracted to his tower by the grain collected there. Lantz! records instances of vast numbers of rats invading Astrakan in 1737, the Ber- mudas (E. ratiws) in 1615, various parts of the United States in 1877, 1903 and 1904, and parts of South America. Various American bulletins deal with the economic losses from species of mice other than Mus musculus. Longman’s list? shows that the following numbers of in- digenous species of rats and mice occur in Australia pro- 4tLantz. The Brown Rat in the United States, U.S. Dept. of Agric., Biol. Survey, Bull. 33, 1909. 2 Longman, List of Australasian and Austro-Pacific Muridae. Mem. Q.- Mus., V., 1916 124 J. B. CLELAND. per, viz. :—-Hydromys, 2 species; Xeromys, 1; Epimys, 13; Pseudomys, 18; Leporillus, 1; Notomys, 3; Ascopharynz, 1; Comlurus, 2; Mesembriomys, 2; Zyzomys, 2; Laomys, 2; Mastacomys, 1, and Uromys, 4. Total, 13 genera and 52 species. In addition, we have Epimys norvegicus, HE. rattus and Mus musculus as introductions, presumably since colo- nization began, a period of only about 130 years. The damage done by these alien pests far outweighs any produced by our native species. Though some of the following refer- ences to mouse or rat visitations concern Australian species, it is certain that the most grievous of them has been caused by an introduced one. The: first reference, of which I am aware, to an unusual. abundance of a murine rodent in any part of Australia is that in a footnote to the paper by Mr. E. Palmer to be shortly quoted. In this he states that ‘‘it is reported that Cooper’s Creek, and the far western country (of Queens- land) were visited many years ago by multitudes of mice.”’ K. H. Bennett (see later) refers to an invasion of rats in the Darling country in 1864. The 1869-70 “‘Gulf Country’? Rat Visitation.—Under the heading of ‘‘Notes on a Great Visitation of Rats in the North and North-Western Plain Country of Queensland, in 1869 and 1870,’’ KE. Palmer, M.L.A.!, describes the occurrence of an ‘‘extraordinary and sudden increase in numbers of an indigenous rat’’ at the period mentioned, from the heads of the Flinders and Cloncurry northwards. They were first noticed about the middle and towards the end of 1869. January and February, 1870, were months of continuous rains and extensive floods, resulting in an ex- uberance of vegetation. When the waters had subsided. in the words of Mr. Palmer, ‘‘the plague of rats increased to an extent that would scarcely be credible. They covered 4Palmer, Proc. Roy. Soc., Q., II., 1885, p. 198. = PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 125 the plains in every direction; when riding at night they eould be heard squeaking everywhere, fighting with each other; they swarmed into the huts and gnawed everything they could get at. Flour, meat, and leather articles had to be stored in galvanised iron rooms or safes, built expressly for the purpose. When camping out, every article had to be hung in a tree, and the hobbles, made of green hide, have been known to be gnawed off the horses’ feet during the night.... Ifa hundred were killed round the hut at night there appeared no diminution of the number of visi- tors on the following night; and for months in succession the same slaughter could be kept up. It would be impos- sible to estimate numbers; for hundreds of miles along the Flinders and its tributaries, traces of these rats were to be seen ; the grass looked as if it had been cut down, or flocks of sheep had been over it.... Fifty thousand square miles occupied by these animals, and one rat to every ten square yards in each mile would not represent anything like their numbers. The large open plains appeared to be their fa- vourite resort, and, strange as it may appear, very seldom were any young ones discovered, although their nests were occasionally found, showing that they bred in the country. Towards the end of 1870 they decreased in numbers, and in the following year disappeared.’’ Mr. Palmer states that this rat, which appeared to be indigenous to Australia, as 1t was known to the blacks, seemed most nearly to ap- proach the brown rat (Mus decumanus), and was similar to it in its burrowing habits. It was of a greyish-brown colour, not much more than six or seven inches long in the body, with a short, thick bare tail three inches long; the fur was close and short, the body thick and strong, the ears short and stiff. The increase of rats was accompanied by an ‘‘almost corresponding increase in their natural enemies —native dogs, snakes, hawks and owls.’’ 126 J. B. CLELAND. Kvidence existed that this same district had been sub- jected to a similar visitation years before, inasmuch as the settlers who first occupied it, five years before the visita- tion mentioned above, found great heaps of the skeletons of rats at the bases of old hollow trees, previously occupied presumably by owls. The sudden and remarkable increase seems rightly attri- buted to congenial surroundings and abundant food, coupled with the absence of enemies, whilst their disappear- ance is capable of explanation by a reversal of these con- ditions, aided by their own cannibalism. The 1887 Cooper’s Creek and Darling Rat Visitations.— The following description is from a commininitenia made to me in January, 1916, by Mr. John M. Bagot, and, in its nature, it closely. resembles that of Mr. Palmer, though floods and abundant herbage were not apparently associ- ated with the increase. Doubtless the same, or a closely allied, species of rat was responsible. As the species met with by Mr. Bennett in the Darling district was identified as Epimys rattus (Mus tompson.) presumably the Cooper’s Creek rats were the same. Mr. Heber A. Longman, of the Queensland Museum, suggests, from the term ‘‘river rats,’’ E. norvegicus, but adds that a long snout and rather thin body point more to E. rattus. Determinations from de- scriptions are, however, as he states, unsatisfactory. ‘‘In the year 1887 I was witness to an enormous migra- tion of rats, thousands of millions, I should say. In that year we were building the railway (of which I was one of the engineers) round the south shore of Lake Hyre. We were camped in tents a mile or two from the dry lake-bed, with one or two iron buildings for the protection of stores. Suddenly, before precautions could be taken, a plague of rats was upon us, and in a very brief space £1000 worth of provisions, tents, and other commodities were destroyed. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 14 The rats had come from the north, from the great dried-up river beds of the Finke, the Alberga and the Macumba, and smaller rivers which, in times of extraordinary rain, pour their floods into the north-west area of Lake Eyre. At any rate, the blacks and old bushmen told me that the rats came from these usually dry river beds, which, of course, contain many (so-called) permanent water holes. I heard also that this was not the only rat migration known in these parts.’’ Mr. Bagot attributed the fact that the rats travelled southward and not northward to their keeping ‘to the area where are the artesian springs, and where also temporary surface waters are more frequent than in the drier districts divided from the Lake country by faults.’’ He adds: ‘‘But the line of artesian waters breaks away from Maree (Hergott Springs) towards Lake Blanche, where it finally ends, and the cretaceous and oolitic forma- tions butt up against the older strata.extending eastward. This stretch is sandy and stony, there are but few springs in it, and the rats did not make in that direction. They turned southwards at Maree, following approximately the course of the railway through better country intersected at first by creeks coming from a range to the westwards, and after passing Mt. Deception they followed the plain be- tween the Flinders Range and Lake Torrens, passing through that range where the railway passes, and finishing up their journey at Quorn, some 240 miles from Adelaide, where they appear to have succumbed to nature or the hardships of their march. They appear to have spread 30 to 40 miles wide, always keeping the line of country where food and water was least problematical. I might here mention that no rats came from the Cooper River to Maree, the reason being, I surmise, that they would have had to cross 90 miles of stony desert, where no surface water is (or was), and where bores struck the secondary formation at 1200 feet without penetrating a water-bearing bed. During the in- 128 J. B. CLELAND. vasion I and others used to sink a hole in the centre of the tent, in which was placed a kerosene can with its top flush with the ground. The upper square of tin was cut out and pivoted on a pin of wood, and the can half filled with water. The rats, walking on this trap, fell into the water and were drowned, more than a dozen being sometimes taken out. in the morning. These river rats were grey, with a long snout and rather thin body.”’ I am indebted to Mr. J. C. B. Moncrieff, of Adelaide, for the following note from Mr. J. G. Stewart, in reference to this same visitation. He says: ‘‘I was engaged about this time upon the survey of the railway from Hergott to Oodna- datta, and afterwards on the trial survey from Oodnadatta to the McDonnell Ranges. These rats came down in enor- mous numbers about 1886, and it was understood that they travelled from the south-west of Queensland. They were smaller than the ordinary rat and, I think, entirely herbi- vorous, and were greatly relished as food by the natives. They appeared to pass through the country in a south- westerly direction, and eventually died out; but I cannot say how far they reached. I remember hearing at the time that there had been similar visitations before, always in ooad seasons, but have not been able to get any information of such having occurred in later years.’’ Mr. J. C. Moncrieff’s brother, Mr. A. B. Moncrieff, also personally witnessed their numbers, and remarked on the sudden way in which they came, and then disappeared with- out any apparent cause. An Adelaide newspaper cutting also mentions that Mr. D. J. Beck had seen large numbers of rats which had come from the Diamantina country, South-west Queensland, and had extended down as far south as Bulloo Downs. The rats were smaller than ordin- ary rats, and lived in warrens. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 129 K. H. Bennett!, under the specific name of Mus tomp- soni, Ramsay, which A. R. McCulloch? has shown to be a synonym of Epimys rattus, gives a note on rats then infesting the western portion of New South Wales. They had first appeared as stragglers in the Ivan- hoe district in February, 1887. By the middle of April, the country west of Booligal to Wilcannia was swarming with them, all travelling southwards. So numerous were they, that their countless footprints obliterated overnight on the roads all marks of vehicles, or even of flocks of sheep. They moved about at night, hiding by day in rabbit- warrens, ete. As food they consumed seeds, pigweed and probably young rabbits. About the middle of May, the ~main body had passed Ivanhoe. At the end of May, they were tolerably numerous along the river at Tilpa in the middle Darling. Near Cobar they were unknown. Previous to reaching Ivanhoe, they had been reported in Western Queensland. Floods in the Darling and other rivers, which occurred this year, did not stop their progress. Mr. Bennett remembered a similar invasion of rats in 1864, a year when the Darling was also in flood. He was doubtful wiicther they were the same species as, in addition to living in burrows, they built large heaps of sticks, under- neath which were nests of soft grasses. They were accom- panied by large numbers of hawks (Hlanus scriptus) and owls, which preyed on them, but which were not numerous in 1887. In 1874, in the Barrier Ranges, he had seen rats inhabiting similar nests and also accompanied by E. scriptus and owls. The 1895 Visitation of the Rat Ascopharynx cervinus at Charlotte Waters—Spencer and Gillen’ refer to these mi- gratory hordes of rats in Central Australia and mention Bennett, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (2), Il... 1887, p. 447. eawecutloch, mee, Aust; Must, Wi, 1907, p. 212: 2Spencer and Gillen, Across Australia, I, p. 166. I—May |, 1918 130 J. B. CLELAND. specifically that those responsible in 1895 belonged to an Australian species, 1) 283° 4% 5: 16) 0 7 Oueo Frequency o 7 26 2417 6-5 1 Total frequency 100 Mode 3 —_ (h) 28th November, 1916. No. of spines t 223: 4 56 77 89 Frequency 415 3423 9 9 4 1 Total frequency 100 Mode 3 — (i) 29th December, 1916. No. of spines 1) 2 3d: 4 DP IO OT Sa Frequency 12°13 29°20 14,8 3 700 Total frequency 100 Mode 3 (j) 30th January, 1917. No. of spines 12 3:4 5 62773 Frequency 19 438 49 48 2613 1 1 Total frequency 195 Mode 3 (k) 28th February, 1917. No. of spines 1 2 324: 5) 687 98 Sag Frequency 11 22 3524 21 14 20 ft Total frequency 131 Mode 3 THE SPINE MODE OF CENTROPYXIS ACULEATA. 169 (1) 29th March, 1917. No. of spines Dr 3) e448 O80 Oho nis Frequency 413 321914 9 5 4 Total frequency 100 Mode 3 (m) 2nd May, 1917. No. of spines fe ids 4 PGE 7 48 Frequency ay Sas) ike) Il 2h al i Total frequency 100 Mode 3 (xn) 31st May, 1917. Species too scarce for tabulation. (o) 28th June, 1917. Species too scarce for tabulation. (p) 1st August, 1917. Species too scarce for tabulation. (q) 31st August, 1917. No. of spines Lie 3S Aoi } Tid Frequency 17 3033342 a Lt 1 Total frequency 151 Mode 2-4 (vr) 28th September, 1917. No. of spines L225 4s 6" 7 Frequency 1. 8 24 10 55 1. 1 Total frequency 50 Mode 3 (s) 2nd November, 1917, No. of spines 1 2) 394 67S ae Frequency 4 12°38° 2216556 1 t Total frequency 100 Mode 3 (t) 30th November, 1917. No. of spines D2 ARES 657 Frequency inte Nerd Toya! tS) 1 Sle aa Total frequency 50 Mode 3 (uw) 29th December, 1917. No. of spines 1 295) Ao. 26 Hrequency d 12.20 8 Ses Total frequency 50 Mode 3 170 CG. D. GILLIES. Out of the seventeen sets of positive data, fourteen (d— m, r—u) show a mode of 3, and all of these except (g) exhibit a well defined modal preponderance. (a) 12th May, 1916, total frequency 33, and (c) 27th July, 1916, total fre- quency 30, show a modal value 2—3; (q) 31st August, 1917, total frequency 151, has a modal range of 2—4. As these values include 3, it is believed that this number is the true mode more or less obscured by the temporarily increased frequency of the adjacent values. (g) 30th October, 1916, total frequency 100, is an intermediate case in which 38 is. oniy slightly in excess of the greater of the two adjacent values, i.e.,4. By accepting the above explanation for the discrepancies mentioned, it will be seen for this locality that: (a) 3 is the monthly modal value, hence it is a seasonal constant. (b) (a) is not invalidated by the inclusion of empty tests as the mode is a constant. (c) June appears to be a minimum in the seasonal dis- tribution of the species, on account of the difficulty in obtaining data about this period. 2. Brisbane Gardens (Big Lagoon), Fig. 3. 7th Dec., 1915. No. of spines PP2 3 ASD 6 Ba, Frequency woe 2 A a A Total frequency 28 Mode 4 N "S|ENPIAIPUH Jo %0 No u spines, Fig. 3. Spine frequency polygon. Brisbane Botanical Gardens (Big Lagoon), 7th December, 1915. THE SPINE MODE OF CENTROPYXIS ACULEATA. Lia 3. Gold Creek, Fig. 4. June, 1915. No. of spines 2 SOs Frequency LE EG a at Total frequency 42 Mode 3 20 ; eg] eae oF aa a a Pam ah 5 ee es 6) No of spines. Fig. 4. Spine frequency polygon. Gold Creek, June 1915. 4. Ironside, Fig. 5. 7th October, 1916. No. of spines | Oey ers rare: Lawn 25 yous 0 alee uy ease el I) Frequency ae Hae 7) 9 Os ayn 0) ol Total frequency 121 Mode 3—4 TP rae eee reel es a ie ieee el Pcme: eae Ee a a ee ee ta Sal Ped ome) os oe oo Ba MASE ahem PEEEEE SED | Fig. 5. Spine frequency polygon. Ironside, 7th October, 1916. 172 C. D. GILLIES. do. Caloundra Head, Fig. 6. 19th May, 1917. No. of spines L "2° 3) 4> hore ey Frequency 2 6 14 1376 4.3 Total frequency 48 Mode 3-4 0 ! L 3 be 5 6 No. of spines | Fig. 6. Spine frequency polygon. Caloundra Head, 19th May, 1917. 6, Kumundi, Fig. 7. June, 1916. No. of spines He2 3 4A Oy. Frequency L249 0 722 ak Total frequency 50 No. of spines. Fig. 7. Spine frequency polygon. Eumundi, June 1916. THE SPINE MODE OF CENTROPYXIS ACULEATA. he; 7. Bajool, Fig. 8. April, 1915. No. of spines £2.83 °4, 3°56 7 Frequency 2 ide ee 4710) 00m «ih Total frequency 28 ; Mode 5 S|VnpIAspul 40 ON Fig. 8. Spine frequency polygon. Bajool, April 1915. From tables (2-7) it will be seen that: the modal value is not a constant for different localities. Table of Modes. Modal Value. Locality. 3 Brisbane Botanical Gardens (1), Gold Creek (3), Eumundi (6). 3-4 Caloundra Head (5), Ironside (4), - Brisbane Botanical Gardens (2). 5 Bajool (7). All the polygons (Figs. 1, 3-8) are unimodal in spite of the variability of the mode from 3-5, and the great range of variation that characterises Centropyxis aculeata. Summary. 1. Spine frequency polygons of Centropyxis aculeata, Stein are unimodal. 174 Cc. D. GILLIES. 2. The modal value for one locality appears to be a constant. 3. The modal value is not a constant for different locali- ties, in the observed cases varying from 3-5, I should like to express my indebtedness to-Dr. T. Harvey Johnston, Biology Department, University of Queensland, for his kindness in obtaining the material from Bajool and Humundi used in this investigation. Bibliography. 1. Lerpy, J., ‘““Freshwater Rhizopoda of North America,” 1879. 2. Waxes, G. H. and Penarp, E., ‘‘Rhizopoda,” Clare Island Survey, Pt. 65, Proc. Roy. Trish Academy, xxx1, 1911. 3. West, G., “On some British Freshwater Rhizopoda and Heliozoa,” Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool., xxvi1, 1901, p. 308 — 342. LEPTOSPERMUM AND ITS ESSENTIAL OIL. 175 ON A NEW SPECIES OF LEPTOSPERMUM ANDITS ESSHNTIAL OIL. By R. W. CHALLINOR, F.I.C., F.C.S., EDWIN CHEEL, and A. R. PENFOLD, F.C.S. [Read before the Royal, Society of N.S. Wales, June 5, 1918. ] LEPTOSPERMUM CITRATUM Sp. nov. L. flavescens var. citratum Bailey and White, Queensl. Agric. Journ. Vol. v, p. 161, pl. 13 (1916); Bot. Bull. Xvill, p. 8, pl. 2 (1916). Frutex, nonnunquam ad arborem minorem auctus, 4—20 pedalis, ramis junioribus angulatis mox teretibus. Foliis linearibus vel angustato-lanceolatis, obtusis, glabris, mem- branaceis obsolete-3-nerviis pellucido-punctatis, 2-44 e.m. longis, 3—4 mm. latis. Floribus albis, solitariis axil- aribus, sessilibus vel brevissime pedicellatis nonnunquam terminalibus in ramis lateralibus. Bracteis 2, caduceis. Calicibus glabris, lobis ovatis marginibus fimbriatis. Petalis spathulatis vel laminis orbicularibus. Ovario glabro; fructibus quinque-locularibus. A glabrous shrub or small tree, varying in height from 4 to 20 feet, the main stem up to and occasionally exceed- ing 3 inches in diameter, bark light brown colour and com- paratively thin and smooth on the upper branches, more or less fibrous and furrowed on the lower part of the stem. Juvenile branchlets at first somewhat angular, afterwards terete. Leaves alternate, linear or narrow linear-lanceolate, obtuse, 2 to 44 cm. long, 3-4 mm. broad. Flowers white, solitary in the axils of the leaves or occasionally terminal on the lateral branchlets, sessile or 176 R. W. CHALLINOR, E. CHEEL, AND A. R. PENFOLD, very shortly pedicellate. Bracts 2, greenish, enveloping the buds and soon falling -off when the flowers reach maturity. Calyx-tube glabrous, sepals 5, ovate, valvate, more or less sprinkled with prominent oil-glands, the mar- gins fimbriate with a woolly fringe. Petals 5, white, orbicular but distinctly clawed, giving them a somewhat spathulate appearance. Style 2—3 mm. long, with a capitate stigma. Stamens about 25 to 30. Ovarium glabrous. Oapsules 5-celled, the valves slightly domed and usually about the same size as the calyx-tube. Credit is due to Rev. H. M. R. Rupp for the first discovery of this interesting species. He forwarded some. specimens (in fruit only) to the National Herbarium in August 1911, from Copmanhurst, Clarence River, New South Waies. Additional specimens were obtained from Mr. G. Savidge from the same locality in December 1912, but were not sufficiently perfect for complete investigation. In September 1916, during a trip to the northern rivers with Dr. T. Guthrie, Mr. A. D. Ollé, and one of us (H.O.) visited Copmanhurst, and made special investigation of this species and secured a fair amount of material, including a quantity of ripe fruits and seeds, for the purpose of studying the plants in different stages of growth to see if they were really distinct from Leptospermum flavescens var. grandiflorum, which it very closely resembles. As a result of this trip, one of us (H.O.) has been able to raise a large number of seedlings, and has planted them in various localities in different kinds of soil, and finds that the characters, as well as the, citron-scented oil contained in the leaves, are constant and identical with the parent plants, and quite distinct from any other species of Lepto- spermum. Some difficulty was encountered during the early stages of growth of the seedlings, as it was found that the plants require careful nursing; this probably a LEPTOSPERMUM AND ITS ESSENTIAL OIL. Via accounts for the limited number of plants and restricted areas. In January 1917, Mr. R. W. Challinor collected some additional fresh material from Copmanhurst, and in November 1917, Mr. Cheel supplemented this, and, as a result of our investigations, we are now able to state that the oil from the leaves of the cultivated plants agrees in every way with that from the original plants. Its nearest ally seems to be L. flavescens var. grandiflorum Benth., but from this the new species may be distinguished by the more obtuse leaves, which have a distinctly fragrant citron- like odour, and the smaller flowers and different habit of growth. It is interesting to note that L. flavescens var. grandifiorum is chiefly found in the beds of creeks and rivers, and seems to be confined to Port Jackson and southern localities. The typical form of L. flavescens also seems to be absent from the neighbourhood of Copmanhurst. There is, however, an abundance of L. flavescens var. microphyllum in the neighbourhood of Copmanhurst; in fact this latter seems to be common in the northern parts of this State and Queensland, but it is quite distinct, and cannot in any way be confused with L. citratum. The distribution is as follows:—New South Wales— Copmanhurst (Rev. H. M. R. Rupp, August 1911; G. Savidge, December, 1912 (in flower); HE. Cheel, Dr. T. Guthrie, and A. D. Ollé, September 1916). Queensland—Springbrook, Macpherson Range (OC. T. White). The Essential Qil. The oil obtained from this species of Leptospermum is of a pale amber colour, and possesses a strong, pleasant. modified lemon odour, suggestive of the principal constitu- ents, which have now been identified as citronellal and citral. The crude oil contains 907% of these two aldehydes L—June 5, 1918. 178 R. W. CHALLINOR, E. CHEEL, AND A. R. PENFOLD. in nearly equal proportion, and in this respect appears to occupy a position intermediate between the oils from Eucalyptus citriodora and Backhousia citriodora, both of which give the highest recorded yields of the respective aldehydes citronellal and citral. The relative proportions of these two aldehydes are also apparent from the specific gravity and refractive index of the oil, these constants being approximately what might be obtained when citronellal and citral are mixed in equal proportions. Hxperimental.—Three lots of material were collected at Copmanhurst, New South Wales, in September 1916, by Dr. T. Guthrie, Messrs. H. Cheel, and A. D. Ollé; in January 1917 by Mr. R. W. Challinor; and in November 1917 by Mr. EK. Cheel. Altogether 686 ibs. of leaves and terminal branchlets were distilled, the yield of oil averag- ing from 1°73 to 1°85%. The crude oil was of a pale amber colour, of specific gravity 72° C. 0°8841; optical rotation ay +3°6 at 18° C.; refractive index 1) 20° O. 1°4730; con- tained 90% aldehydes and was soluble in 2 volumes of 70% alcohol (by weight). The Aldehydes.—The aldehyde content of the oil was determined quantitatively by the sodium bisulphite method. 5 c.c. of oil leaving 0°55 c.c. unabsorbed oil, another 5 c.c. left a residue of 0°5 c.c., which indicates 897% and 90/ respectively of constituents absorbed by sodium bisulphite. A larger quantity of the oil was then treated, 50 c.c. at a time, and the non-aldehydic portion separated, the aqueous solution was extracted several times with ether to remove undissolved oily matter, the ether was distilled off, and the aldehydes regenerated by means of alkali, dried over anhydrous Na.Suc. and separated into two fractions, fraction 1, boiling at 938-94° C. (12 m.m.) and consisting approximately of 48% of the original oil, and Fraction 2, LEPTOSPERMUM AND ITS ESSENTIAL OIL. 179 boiling at 110—112° (12 m.m.) which was about 427 of the Se eication of Citronellal.—The fraction of lower boiling point was a colourless oil of a strong citronellal odour, its specific gravity at 12° OC. was 0°8577; optical rotation at 20°C., a> + 8°61°, equal to a specific rotation [alp 20° of + 10; refractive index mp 20°, 1°4482. Molecular weight.—The molecular weight of this alde- hyde, determined by the Landsberger boiling point method, using acetone as solvent, gave the following results:— ei 1612 ems. of aldehyde in 27°5 c.c. of acetone elevated the boiling point 0°6° C. indicating a molecular weight of 156°2. 1°1612 grams in 36°5 c.c. acetone gave an elevation of 0°45°C. Molecular weight 156°8. The molecular weight of citronellal = 154. Derivatives.—The naphthocinchoninic acid derivative was prepared in the usual way from pyruvic acid and P. naphthylamine and the crystalline product purified; it melted sharply at 225° C. Citronellyl £. naphthocinchoninic acid melts at 225° C. With semicarbazide hydrochloride it gave a crystalline semicarbazone which melted at 78 — 79° C. OCitronellyl semicarbazone melts at 82°5° ©. On reduc- tion it yields an alcohol of specific gravity +3° C. 0°8602, boiling at 226° C. (761 m.m.) and giving a silver salt of its phthalic acid ester melting at 123° ©. Records of the melting point of the silver salt of citronellyl phthalic acid vary from 120 to 125°C. It is thus evident that the aldehyde boiling at 93 —94° O, (12 m.m.) is citronellal. Identification of citral.—The aldehyde fraction boiling at 110 - 112° C. (12 m.m.) is a pale yellow oil with a very strong lemon odour like citral. When submitted to treat- ment with sodium sulphite by Burgess’s method, it is com- pletely absorbed, showing the absence of non aldehydic 180 R. W. CHALLINOR, E. CHEEL, AND A. R. PENFOLD. constituents. Its specific gravity at +3° C. is 0°8929; optical rotation zero; refractive index at 20° OC. 1°4875. The @ naphthocinchoninic acid derivative prepared in the usual way and purified, was crystalline and melted at 200° C. Citryl naphthocinchoninic acid melts at 200° OC. These results show this aldehyde to be citral. The non aldehydic portion of the oil is still under inves- tigation, sufficient material for a complete examination not yet being accumulated. There appears to be a small amount of a phenol present, which gives a crystalline benzoate with benzoyl chloride, melting at 67 C. Acetylation of a small portion of this residue also indicates the presence of a small amount of an alcohol resembling geraniol or citronellol, but this requires confirmation. From colour reactions obtained with bromine and with hydrochloric acid, there is also evidence of the presence of small amounts of aromadendrene. The oil of this Leptospermum is therefore quite distinctive in character, and differs from that of any other species of Leptospermum so far recorded. This work has been carried out inthe Research Labor- atory of Messrs. Gillard Gordon Ltd., Sydney, and our thanks are due to this firm for their courtesy in this matter. PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS FENESTELLIDZ. 181 NOTES on sOME PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS FENKS- TELLIDAL WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIKHS. By CHARLES FRANCIS LASERON. With Plates I- XVI. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 5, 1918. ] Introduction. Fossil polyzoa are exceedingly abundant in many horizons in the Australian Permo-Carboniferous formation,. so abundant in places that their remains constitute the bulk of considerable rock masses. But as yet, perhaps less has been done to identify and study the numerous species found, than in any other group of Australian fossils. The reasons for this are fairly obvious. In the first place, the specimens mostly consist of casts or impressions in sandstone or shale. And as the structures on which identification depends are for the most part very minute, often no bigger than the grain size of the rocks in which they are preserved, these structures are generally quite lost, and the state of preservation is seldom eine for purposes of classification. Secondly,even when the state of preservation is sufficient, means have generally been wanting to enable adequate and correct illustrations to be made. Much of the pioneer work was done before the days of photography, and even in these days the possibilities of the camera do not seem to be adequately realised. Drawings of minute structures are always more or less diagrammatic, and even when correct, generally fail to give that ‘‘impression of a thing,”’ or as it is called its facies, the suggestion that is not expressed by point or line, but which nevertheless aids in after recog- nition. This is of the good drawing, but most of the 182 C. F. LASERON. published illustrations of the Fenestellidee are anything but good. This has rendered the task of identifying specimens. with described species very difficult; and as the types are in most cases unavailable, the difficulty is not lessened. De Koninck’s types were destroyed in the Garden Palace fire, Dana’s are in America and Lonsdale’s, supposed to be in London, are now untraceable. Fortunately, descriptions by Lonsdale, who has done the bulk of the work on Australian forms, are accurate, and there is less difficulty in recognising his species, than in the case of other authors. But, as previously remarked by other writers, very little dependence can be placed either on the description or on the figures in de Koninck’s work; for instance, in recording Polypora papillata McCoy, his description and figure are entirely at variance, and in a case like this, where an Australian specimen has been doubtfully identified with a form from a different formation at the antipodes, I think it is justifiable to expunge the record, until such time, if ever, the species is re-discovered or identified. A third difficulty is often presented, even when speci- mens are well preserved, in identifying the celluliferous with the non-celluliferous surface of the same species. Owing to the cells themselves becoming filled with matrix, this side generally adheres to the rock when a slab is split; and as a result, by far the majority of specimens display the non-celluliferous side. However, by carefully remov- ingafragment with a pocket-knife, it is possible in most cases to correlate the two sides of the one species. With reference to the photographs in this paper, a word might be said. For such groups as the Fenestellide, micro- sections are of little use, for most of the important char- acters are surface ones, and in addition, sections of shale or sandstone are very difficult, if not impossible to make. PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS FENESTELLIDA. 183 So the micro-photographs were made by reflected light, and even focus over the field was obtained by fitting a diaphragm of zine with a pin-hole aperture, between the two lenses of the objective in the microscope. The material here described mostly comes from Branxton, with a few specimens from Allandale, both localities in the Hunter River district, also for comparison, one speci- men of Protoretepora ampla Lonsdale, from Bundanoon. The Branxton specimens come from the railway cutting immediately to the west of Branxton Station, being found in that series of Polyzoal shales known as the Branxton Beds, which lie just above the basal sandstones and con- glomerates of the Upper Marine Series. The Allandale specimens on the other hand are ina hard calcareous shale or sandstone from a railway cutting east of. Allandale Station. This with associated conglomerates occurs about the centre of what Professor David! calls the Lochinvar Stage, at the base of the Lower Marine Series. So far ten forms have been separated from the material available, but I am satisfied that others exist in these localities, at least another Fenestella, and probably another Polypora, but as yet there is insufficient material at hand to be sure. Following is the description of the species:— Class POLYZOA. Order GYMNOLAIMATA Allman. Sub-Order CRYPTOSTOMATA Vine. Family FENESTELLIDA King. Genus PROTORETEPORA de Koninck.? Much doubt has hitherto existed as to the identity of this genus, and its relations to Polypora McCoy. One of the features made much of by de Koninck,? and afterwards 1 Prof. T. W. E. David, (14) p: 47. * de Koninck, (6) p. 138. 184 CO. F. LASERON. accentuated by Robt. Etheridge junr.,! was the presence of the celluliferous surface on the interior of the cup-shaped colony. Later Waagen and Pichl,*? working on the Indian Carboniferous forms, asserted that this character in itself is not of importance, and depended on the direction in which a young fan-shaped colony twisted to eventually become cup-shaped. In 1894, G. B. Simpson,* revising the genera of Fenes- tellidsee, makes no mention of Protoretepora at all, but creates a new genus, Flabelliporella, to comprise species of Polypora, witha flabelliform or fan-shaped habit, retain- ing the name Polypora for the cup-shaped species. At the same time he restricts Fenestella to cup-shaped forms, while another new name, Flabelliporina, is used for fan- shaped species previously comprised in that genus. This is perhaps unfortunate, especially in the case of Polypora, for McCoy, in describing his genus, particularly mentions that species are fan-shaped, so that if a new genus is necessary at all, it would have to apply to the cup-shaped species, and in this case the term Flabelliporella would be very contradictory. Simpson’s new genera seem for the most part very theoretical, and he does not mention what species come under their heads, a fact recognised by Nichols and Ulrich,* who in 1900, synonymised Flabelliporella under the original Polypora, In the same paper these authors synonymised Protoretepora under Polypora, a course pre- viously followed by Waagen and Pichl, but the justification of this yet remains to be proved, Considering the Australian species at my disposal, two species are undoubtedly congeneric with Protoretepora, of which one, P. ampla is the type species. After referring 1 R. Etheridge junr., (13) p. 220, 221. 2 Waagen and Pichl, (8) p. 775. 3 G. B. Simpson, (12) pp. 879 - 921. * Nichols and Ulrich, (15) p. 39. PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS FENESTELLIDE. 185 to McCoy’s original description,* I have little hesitation in referring the other three to Polypora. If the Australian species alone might be considered, the differences between the two generic types are distinct, and are as follows:— In Protoretepora, the colony is cup-shaped or infundi- buliform, with the cells upon the inside; in Polypora it is fan-shaped or flat, and while only one surface is cellulifer- ous, this can hardly be said to be either upon the interior orexterior. In connection with this last character, McCoy particularly remarks upon it when he says, “‘the species of the present genus (Polypora) do not appear to assume an infundibuliform or cup-shaped figure, but are usually flat and fan-shaped.’’* The branches of Protoretepora are more massive, the non-celluliferous layer is much thickened, particularly in older specimens, and instead of being vertically striated, the striz are in the nature of concentric plications sur- rounding the fenestrules. The cross-bars are nct prominent, nor as distinct as in Polypora, and there is a tendency for the fenestrules to be formed by an angulation of the branches as in Phyllopora. The cells of Protoretepora are rhomboidal in section with thin partition walls, though the mouths themselves are circular or oval, but the position of the cell walls is marked on the surface by a slight ridge, so that the cell mouths appear as circular dots each in the centre of the mesh of a rhomboidal pattern. On the other hand, in Polypora proper, the branches are straight, with distinct, often rod-like cross-bars, and the non-celluliferous surface is vertically striated. Referring to the presence or absence of cells upon the cross-bars, in allthe specimens of Protoretepora examined, * McCoy, (8) p. 206 186 i C. F. LASERON. none were actually visible on these processes, though occas- ionally they seem to encroach upon their borders. This is probably due, however, to the state of preservation, as Mr.W.S. Dun, Government Palezontologist, informs me that cells always occur on the cross-bars of the type P. ampla from Tasmania. In Polypora, the smooth or faintly striated cross-bars are absolutely devoid of cells. This is well shown on Plate VIII, fig. 2. But the character which is probably most important, yet. which appears to have been largely overlooked, is that in Polypora, the cells themselves are more or less oval in section, separated by thicker walls, and they are arranged in definite longitudinal lines or ranges, and not diagonally as in Protoretepora; also there is an absence of the rhom- boidal ridging upon the surface of the cell-bearing layer. McCoy in his original description says, referring to the cell apertures, that the margin of these is never raised, but though this might apply to his type species, P. den- droides, it hardly applies to other species of the genus. At this stage, it seems as if the differences between Polypora and Protoretepora were well defined, but a con- sideration of American and Indian species again involves the whole question in doubt. In the first place, many of the Indian Carboniferous. species, well described and figured by Waagen and Pichl, would on Australian evidence be referable to Protoretepora,. for the rhomboidal ridging, dividing the cell mouths on the surface of the colony is occasionally very prominent, and . the form of the colony is undoubtedly cup-shaped. But a study of American species still further increases the difficulty. The Paleeozoic beds of the eastern United States are probably the least disturbed, and contain a richer and better preserved fauna than those of any other part of the world, ranging from the Lower Silurian to the Car- PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS FENESTELLIDZ. 187 boniferous period with practically complete continuity; and they contain, especially in the lower beds, amongst other things, magnificent and well preserved series of Polyzoa, with numerous species of Fenestella and Polypora. Now if we apply our Australian observations to these, we are at once astray. For instance, amongst the numer- ous species of Polypora in the Upper Helderberg group, Hall! mentions only one, P. flabelliformis, as being fan- shaped, while all the others are infundibuliform, but the other characters of these species are certainly not those of Protoretepora as we know it, except that the figures of several show them to have thin cell walls. Sut in no cases are the cells shown-upon the cross-bars. In many of the American Polypore also, the branches are bent and the cross-bars ill-defined as in Protoretepora. So that while Australian species are on the whole well defined, and fall readily into two generic types, in America particularly, are many intermediate forms, containing some- times one and sometimes another of these characters, which here seem generically essential. However, after considering all the evidence, it would seem advisable for the present, to retain Protoretepora.as ‘a genus, at any rate until such time as the discovery in Australia of further connecting links; when it may become necessary to discard Protoretepora in favour of McCoy’s genus, Polypora, or at any rate, reduce it to sub-generic rank, PROTORETEPORA MONTUOSA sp. nov. (Plates I, II, IIT, fig. 2) Description :—Colony infundibuliform, celluliferous upon the inner surface. No complete colony is known, but the largest specimen shows that it is capable of attaining a size of several inches. Branches comparatively coarse, J. Hall, (9). 188 C. F. LASERON. the non-celluliferous layer occasionally much thickened. Cell-bearing surface flattened, the external surface ridged and angular, and covered with fine striations which are not longitudinal, but tend to surround the oval, but often nearly circular fenestrules. Cross-bars not. prominent and sunk beneath the general level of the main branches. These are much thickened opposite the dissepiments, and there is a marked tendency for the cross-bars to be thus suppressed, the main branches bending and forming the fenestrules by uniting with the adjacent branches. No perfect celluliferous surface is yet known, but speci- mens as a general rule, so readily split along the line between the two layers of the colony, that the base of the cells are often visible. By this it is seen, that the cells are rhomboidal in section, packed closely together, their thin walls running diagonally across the branch, from 7 to 10 rows upon each branch, and 3 or possibly 4 in the length of each fenestrule, and an additional 1 or 2 in the breadth of each dissepiment. So far, though several well preserved specimens have been examined, no cells have been actually detected on the cross-bars, though there is a tendency for the cells to encroach upon their borders. Measurements :—Average length of fenestrule, 1 to 1°2 -mm., width °5 to ‘75 mm., widtb of branches up to 1°5 mm.; and in a space of 10 mm. measured longitudinally there are present on an average 6 cross-bars. Horizon and Locality:—Branxton (Upper Marine Series). Relations and differences: — Protoretepora montuosa is undoubtedly closely related to Polypora Koninckiana Waagen and Pichl,* from the Carboniferous formation of India, this species showing similar concentric striations on the non-celluliferous side, the same thickening in older 1 Waagen and Pichl, (8) pl. 90, fig. 1. PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS FENESTELLIDA. 189 parts of the colony of this layer, and similar rhomboidal cells. Ihave no doubt they are congeneric, but P. montuosa differs inasmuch as there are only 3 or possibly 4 cells in the length of a fenestrule and 7 to 10 rows upon a branch, whereas in P. Koninckiana, there are 6 or 7 cells in the first case and only 5 to 7 transversely. With Polypora transiens Waagen and Pichl,* it also has affinity, but differs in the larger size of the cells, and the fewer number longi- tudinally. The Phyllopora like bending of the branches is very noticeable in P. transiens. From the only described species of Australian Proto- retepora, P.ampla Lonsdale, which is figured for comparison, it differs by the much greater number of rows of cells (7 to 10) as against 3 to 4 transversely upon a branch. Perfect material of P. ampla has yet to be described and figured. PROTORETEPORA AMPLA Lonsdale.? (PI. IV.) Specimens of this species, particularly from this locality, are seldom well enough preserved to identify with certainty, accordingly it is here figured and definitely recorded. This specimen shows well the nature of the colony; the non- celluliferous layer has entirely disappeared, and there is visible the cast of the base of the celluliferous layer, with the rhomboidal cells packed closely together, the walls of which, having decomposed, are represented by deep furrows. Again in this case no cells are actually visible upon the dissepiments. Locality and Horizon:—Bundanoon (Upper Marine series). Geuus POLYPORA McCoy. The differences between this genus and Protoretepora have already been discussed under the heading of the latter genus. ‘ Waagen and Pichl, (8) pl. 91, figs. 3, 4, 5. * Fenestella ampla Lonsdale (1) p. 180. 190 Cc. F. LASERON. POLYPORA PERTINAX sp. nov. (Plates V, VI, VIII, fig. 1, X, fig. 1.) Description:—Nature of colony uncertain, but probably fan-shaped. The largest specimen is about two inches in length, but this is evidently part of a much larger colony. Branches moderately coarse, very straight and rigid, bifur- cating at rare intervals, and thickened slightly opposite the cross-bars. The celluliferous surface is flat, and owing to the matrix filling the fenestrules, the branches appear broader, and the fenestrules smaller, on the non-celluliferous side. The non-celluliferous layer is rounded externally, but is slightly concave on the interior surface, that on which rests the bases of the cells. Both surfaces of this layer are covered with longitudinal striations, more pro- minent however on the internal surface. The branches are separated from each other by slightly more than their own width on the non-celluliferous surface and slightly less on the celluliferous side. Cross-bars thinner than the branches, distinct, rounded on the one side and flattened on the other, to conform to the shape of the branches, and faintly striated. The fenestrules are oval, about twice as long as broad. The cells are rounded, the apertures slightly restricted, with exserted rims, and separated from each other by a little more than their own diameter. The celluliferous surface is flat, or even slightly concave, and there are typically three rows of alternating cells on each branch. Previous to bifurcating, the branches generally broaden very much, and the number of cells increases typically to six. There are usually two cells longitudinally in the length of one fenestrule, with an additional one in the width _ of the cross-bar. Measurements:—In the space of 10 mm., measured longitudinally, 8 cross-bars were counted. Length of fenestrule °75 to 1 mm., width °*4 mm. Locality and Horizon :—Allandale (Lower Marine Series). PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS FENESTHELLIDA. 191 Relations and differences :—In 1885 Mr. Robt. Htheridge junr., described from Queensland, a species under the name of Polypora? Smithii,+ which resembles P. pertinax, but according to both the description and figure of this species, the material was not very good. However, Mr. Etheridge distinctly states that in P.? Smithii there are from 6 to 9 cells in the space of a fenestrule, and as this is a character which seems very constant, it is considered sufficient to separate the two forms. Again Waagen and Pichl? identified one of the Indian species from the Upper Productus Limestone with Polypora biamica Keyserling,a Permian form from Russia, and from Waagen and Pichl’s description and figure, P. pertinax only differs in minor details. Unfortunately I have been unable to obtain access to Keyserling’s original description, but feel that the weight of probability is very much against the identification of the two forms. POLYPORA TUMULA sp. nov. (Pls. VII, fig. 3, FX.) Description :—Colony fan-shaped, the largest specimen in its fragmentary form, over three inches in length. Habit erect. Branches moderately stout, separated from each other by approximately their own width, bifurcating at rare intervals. Cross-bars stout but thinner than the branches, rounded. Fenestrules oval, about twice as long as broad. The non-celluliferous layer is thin. Its exterior, only known from casts, is apparently nearly smooth or faintly striated longitudinally. These striations are however more prominent on the interior surface, that is the one on which rests the bases of the cells. The exterior surface of the celluliferous layer is decidedly irregular, being elevated into numerous protuberances, * R. Etheridge junr., (13) p. 219, pl. 9, figs. 1-38; pl. 44, figs. 9, 10. * Waagen and Pichi, (8) p. 791, pl. xe, figs. 5, 6, 7. 192 (G. F. LASERON.. which at times tend to form two definite longitudinal ridges which divide the apertures of the three rows of cells. This character is, however,, never so marked as in Fenestella. The cells are in three distinct rows, increasing to 4 or 5 before bifurcation. They are circular in section, and restricted somewhat at the apertures, which are small, with raised edges, separated from each other by a space equal to about twice their diameter; and they may lie either on the summit of the protuberances or in the hollows between. There are from two to three cells in the space of one fenestrule, with generally the addition of another one opposite a cross-bar. Measurements :—In 10 mm. longitudinally, from 7 to 8 cross-bars, length of fenestrules rarely above °5 mm., width °3 to 5 mm. Locality and Horizon:—Branxton (Upper Marine Series). Relations and differences:—I know at present of no Polypora which is at all comparable with this species. In the slightly carinated form of the celluliferous surface, it approaches P. carmella Hall,* from the Upper Helderberg of America, but differs in most other characters. POLYPORA VIRGA sp.nov. (PI. VII, fig. 4, Pl. VIII fig. 2.) Description :—Though only known from one fragmentary specimen, this is so well preserved, that its characters are very apparent. Form of colony not known. Branches fairly coarse, flat, bifurcating fairly freely and connected by very thin, rounded, rod-like cross-bars. Fenestrules rectangular, twice to three times as long as broad. Non-celluliferous surface not known. Celluliferous sur- face flat and broad, cell apertures circular or slightly oval, comparatively large and close, distant from each other by sometimes less than their own diameter, the rims not J. Hall, (9) Vol. vi, p. 1538, plied, Aes: PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS FENESTELLIDA. 193 exserted. Number of rows three to four, alternating, and increasing to five or six before bifurcating. Within the space of one fenestrule there are either three or four cells, with usually an additional one in the width of a cross-bar. | Measurements:—In 10 mm. longitudinally 4°5 cross-bars. Width of branches from under 1 mm. to 2 mms. just prior to bifurcation. Average length of fenestrules slightly over 2mm., and width 1 mm. Locality and Horizon:—Branxton (Upper Marine Series). Relations and differences:—The large cell-mouths, and the rounded, occasionally long, rod-like cross-bars are the chief characteristics of this species. It is most nearly related to P. dendroides McCoy,’ but differs particularly in the more upright and less diverging habit. Genus FENESTELLA Lonsdale. FENESTELLA FOSSULA Lonsdale.? (Pils. XIII, XIV.) Description:—This species, so far is the finest and most delicate of our Australian Henestelle; the branches are thin, separated from each other by rather more than their own width, and connected at regular intervals by much thinner cross-bars. The fenestrules are sub-oval or nearly rectangular, about 24 to 3 times as long as broad. The non-celluliferous surface is covered by a number of fine longitudinal striations. On the celluliferous surface, the carina is distinct, rising as a low but practically vertical wall, with a smooth, rounded summit, and separating the double row of cells. The apertures of these are compara- tively small, circular, alternating with those of the next row, separated from each other by about twice their own width, and their edges do not seem to be exserted as in * McCoy, (3) p. 266, pl. 29, fig. 9. ? Lonsdale, (1) p. 183; (2) p. 269, pl. 9, figs. 1, la. M—June 5, 1918. 194 C. F, LASERON, most other species of Fenestella. There are usually three in the space of one fenestrule, allowing an additional one for the width of a cross-bar. Measurements:—In 10 mm. longitudinally, 11 cross- bars; in 10 mm. transversely, 18 branches. Length of fenestrules °6 to °7 mm., width °2 to ‘3 mm. Locality and Horizon:—Branxton (Upper Marine Series). Remarks:—I believe I have identified, with as little doubt as possible in the absence of the type, Lonsdale’s species, originally described from Tasmania. It is here again figured, as all the previously published figures are very poor and of little aid in recognition. De: Koninck synonymises F’. fossula under F. plebeia McCoy,* and records the latter species from the Carboniferous rocks at Glen William, but as pointed out by R. Htheridge junr.,? F. fossula differs in being relatively much smaller and finer, with the branches closer. Whether de Koninck undoubtedly received F. plebia from Glen William, it is not within my power to contradict or confirm; but as this author’s synonymy of the two species is now held to be invalid, and the specific rank of F. fossula maintained, the Australian occurrence of F.. plebeia is, under the circumstances, very much open to doubt. FENESTELLA INTERNATA (?) Lonsdale.’ (Pls. X, fig. 2, XI.) To F. internata is referred provisionally a form, the known characters of which agree fairly well with Lonsdale’s description. Unfortunately the celluliferous surface is not visible in the one specimen available, and its correct identity must remain at present in abeyance. The known characters of this specimen are:—Branches thin, separated from each other by about twice their width, ‘ De Koninck, (6) p. 130 —1382. 2 R. Etheridge, junr., (18) p. 227, pl. 9, figs. 4 and 5. PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS FENESTELLID®. 195 increasing in width opposite the cross-bars, and very much so before their bifurcation, which is fairly frequent, giving the species a fairly spreading habit. Cross-bars thinner than the branches, distinct and regular. The fenestrules are slightly oval or circular, occasionally shorter than they are broad. The non-celluliferous surface of the branches is covered with longitudinal striations. This is a strongly marked species, the rounded broad fenestrules giving it a definite identity. . Though provision- ally referred to F. internata, I am somewhat dubious, and quite expect that on further material being obtained, it will prove to be new. Measurements:—In 10 mm. longitudinally, 13 to 14 cross-bars, and transversely 12 to 13 branches. Length of fenestrules ‘5 to °6 mm. width °5 to °75 mm. Locality and Horizon:—Allandale (Lower Marine Series). FENESTELLA EXSERTA sp.nov. (PI. VII, figs. 1, 2, XII.) Description :—Branches relatively of medium thickness, rather close together, separated by often less than their own width, parallel, bifurcating rarely. Cross-bars rounded, very much thinner than the branches. Fenestrules sub- oval to nearly rectangular, elongated, four or five times longer than broad. In one specimen, Pl. XII, fig. 1, what has evidently been an accidental fracture during the life of the colony, has been bridged over by several thickened, non-cell bearing, very much elongated dissepiments. Non- celluliferous surface not actually known, but from casts evidently faintly striated. Cells in two rows, their aper- tures small, alternating, separated from each other by about three times their width. The edges are well exserted, so much that at times they are almost tubular, with the mouths directed obliquely upwards. The carina is not distinct from + Lonsdale, (1) p. 181; (2) p 269, pl. 9, fizs. 2, 2b. 196 C. F. LASERON. the remainder of the surface, as in most other species, but is produced by the two lateral, cell-bearing surfaces meet- ing at an angle of about 90 degrees. Also, owing to the alternation of the two rows of cells, the carina is at times regularly sinuous, giving a very characteristic appearance to the species. There are from 4 to 5 cells in the length of each fenestrule. 7 Measurements:—In the space of 10 mm. longitudinally 7 cross-bars. Average length of fenestrule 1 mm., width 25 mm. Locality and Horizon:—Branxton (Upper Marine Series). Relations and differences:—The peculiar nature of the carina, with its sloping lateral cell-bearing surfaces, dis- tinguishes this at once from other Australian species of Fenestella. The difference, in fact, is so great from such typical species as F'. fossela and F. cavea, that I am inclined to think it is generic, and if so, then this genus is new, for there are no other genera of Fenestellids which have these characters. However, the carinze of some of the earlier Fenestellide from America show somewhat similar characters, and comparisons may be made with F. erebipora, Hall,* F. junceus Hall,’ and F. sylvia Hall,* from the Lower Helderberg, and other forms from the Upper Helderberg, all of which species nevertheless differ in other characters. Dana’s species F. gracilis,’ has, according to de Koninck,? who records it from Burragood on the Paterson (Carboni- ferous), cells with very great marginal enlargement, but differs in other characters. Dana’s original figure is very poor indeed, and conveys nothing, except it shows the branches to be irregular, and his description is equally lacking in detail, being evidently taken from material quite inadequate for specific determination. ' J. Hall, (9) p. 43, pl. 20, figs. 1-3; p. 44, pl. 20, figs. 16-18; p. 49, pl. 20, figs. 4 - 7. * Dana,:(7)p..711, pl. XUtig A: 5 de Koninck, (5) p. 185. PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS FENESTELLIDE. 197 FENESTELLA CAVEA Sp. nov. (Pls. XV, XVI.) Description :—Branches thin, rather far apart, separated from each other by twice or three times their own width, branching somewhat frequently, giving the colony a slightly spreading habit. Cross-bars distinct, rod-like, much thinner than the branches, rather distant but at regular intervals. Fenestrules rectangular, about three times longer than they are broad. Non-celluliferous surface rounded, smooth. Celluliferous surface with a distinct carina, rising as a low wall with rounded summit, from a flat surface, which bears the cells. These are in two rows, their apertures are very small, circular, separated from each other by 3 or 4 times their own diameter, occasionally so laterally placed as to indent the margin, and with exserted rims. There are regularly six cells in the length of each fenestrule, a character which seems very constant. Measurements:—In 10 mm. longitudinally 6 to 7 cross- bars. Length of fenestrules 1 to 1°5 mm., width °5 to ‘6 mm. Locality and Horizon:—Branxton (Upper Marine Series). Relation and differences:—The fine, widely separated branches and distant dissepiments give a characteristic appearance to this species. In most respects it resembles F. multiporata McCoy,* which has a similar habit, but it differs in having fewer cellsin the length of a fenestrule. This character seems a very constant one in the Fenestel- lide, as in every specimen yet examined, the number of cells never seem to vary more than one, and even this slight variation is generally corrected by allowing for the width of the cross-bar. In the form of the carina, F. cavea resembles F. fossula Lonsdale,” but differs in most other respects, including habit, size and shape of fenestrules, in its smaller cells, McCoy, (8) p. 208, pl. 28, fig. 9. 2 Lonsdale, (1) p. 83. 198 C. F. LASERON. and the presence of six instead of three of these in the length of a fenestrule. Genus PHYLLOPORA or PROTORETEPORA. (Pl. III, fig. 1.) Species indeterminate. I have only one specimen of this form, which does not. unfortunately show sufficient characters to enable it to be determined, but the colony is evidently cup-shaped with the celluliferous surface on the interior. The branches are moderately thick and very irregular, bending and uniting with each other to form the sometimes oval, but more often irregularly shaped fenestrules. Cross-bars are generally absent, and when present are not defined; in fact it is difficult tosay whether certain slightly thinner connecting processes are branches or cross-bars. The non-celluliferous surface is not striated but covered with innumerable small tubercles. Celluliferous surface not known, but in one portion of the specimen there is. evidence that the cells are rhomboidal in shape and about. three rows are present on each branch. Locality and Horizon:—Branxton (Upper Marine Series)- Remarks:—The very irregular method of growth and the tuberculated exterior is characteristic of this form, and it is apity that sufficient material is not available to satis- factorily place it. Explanation of Plates. Plate [. PROTORETEPORA MONTUOSA sp. nov. ‘The exterior of a cup- shaped colony, with a portion of the outer layer in the left hand top corner removed, showing the base of the celluliferous layer with its rhomboidal cells. Upper Marine Series, Branxton. “ Plate IT. P. MontTUOosA sp. nov. Fig. 1, Part of the same specimen as in Plate I, magnified 20 diameters, showing the exterior of the colony, PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS FENESTELLIDA. 199 and the concentric striations. Fig. 2, Another part of the same specimen, showing the bending of the branches, and the partial suppression of the cross-bars. Plate III. PROTORETEPORA or PHYLLOPORA sp. indet. Portion of the exterior of a colony magnified 20 diameters, showing irregular method of growth and tuberculated surface. Upper Marine Series, Branxton. Plate IV. PROTORETEPORA AMPLA Lonsdale. A complete specimen, show- ing nature of colony, in the form of a cast. The non-celluliferous exterior layer has disappeared, and the bases of the walls of the rhomboidal cells appear as slits on the surface of the specimen. Upper Marine Series, Bundanoon. Plate V. PoLYPoRA PERTINAX sp. nov. Magnified three diameters. Fig. |, Exterior of a fan-shaped colony. Fig. 2, Interior of another colony showing cell-mouths. Both from the Lower Marine Series at Allandale. Plate VI. POLYPORA PERTINAX sp. nov. Fig. 1, The same specimen as in Plate V. Fig. 2, magnified 20 diameters, showing cell apertures on the right, and the worn section of oval cells on the left. Fig. 2, Another specimen from the same locality, magnified 20 diameters somewhat worn, showing the oval cells with thick walls charac- teristic of Polypora, also the striated inner surface of the non- celluliferous layer. Plate VII. Figs. 1 and 2. FmNESTELLA EXSERTA sp. nov., magnified 3 diameters ; Upper Marine Series, Branxton. Fig. 3, Potypora TUMULA sp. nov., from the same locality, magnified 3 diameters 3 portion of a colony showing celluliferous surface. Fig. 4, Pony- PORA VIRGA sp. nov., also from the same locality, magnified 3 diameters. 200 C. F. LASERON. Plate VIII. Fig. 1. PoLypoRA PERTINAX sp. nov., magnified to 20 diameters; portion of the same specimen as in Plate V, fig. 2, showing cell apertures. Fig. 2, PoLyporA VIRGA sp. nov., magnified 20 diame- ters; portion of the same specimen asin Plate VII, fig. 4, showing rod-like cross-bars and cell apertures. Plate IX: Fig. 1. PoLyporRa TUMULA sp. nov., magnified 20 diameters; portion of the same specimen as in Plate VII, fig. 3. Fig. 2. Another specimen of the same species, magnified 20 diameters, showing the tendency for irregularities of the surface to fuse into longitudinal keels. Plate X. Fig. 1. PoLyPORA PERTINAX sp. nov., portion of the same speci- men as in Plate V, fig. 1, magnified to 20 diameters, showing the non-celluliferous surface with longitudiual striations. Fig. 2, FENESTELLA INTERNATA (?) Lonsdale, portion of the same specimen as in Plate XI, fig. 2, magnified to 20 diameters. Plate XI. Fig. 1. FENESTELLA INTERNATA (?) Lonsdale, magnified 3 diam- eters, from the Lower Marine Series at Allandale. Fig. 2, the same as in fig. 1, magnified to 20 diameters. Plate XII. FENESTELLA EXSERTA sp. nov. Fig. 1, portion of the same specimen as in Plate VII, fig. 1, enlarged to 20 diameters, show- ing nature of the cell apertures, median ridge, etc. Fig. 2, portion of the same specimen as in Plate VII, fig. 2, enlarged to 20 diameters. “Plate XITI. Fig. 1. FenesTeELLa FossuLA Lonsdale, portion of a colony, magnified 3 diameters, from the Upper Marine Series, Branxton. Fig. 2, portion of the same specimen enlarged to 20 diameters showing the non-celluliferous surface with longitudinal striations. PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS FENESTELLIDA. 201 Plate XIV. FgeNESTELLA FOsSULA Lonsdale. Further portions of the same specimen as on the previous plate, showing cell apertures, carina, etc. Plate XV. Fig. 1. FENESTELLA CAVEA sp. nov., enlarged 3 diameters, showing portion of a colony. Fig. 2, portion of the same speci- men enlarged 20 diameters, showing smooth non-celluliferous surface. Upper Marine Series, Branxton. Plate XVI. FENESTELLA CAVEA sp. nov., portion of another fragmentary specimen, magnified 20 diameters, showing the cell mouths, carina and the bifurcation of a branch. Also from Branxton. References. (1) Lonsdale—Darwin’s Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands, 1844, Appendix. (2) Lonsdale—Strzelecki’s Physical Description of New South Wales and Van Dieman’s Land, 1847. Appendix—Chapter on Polyzoa. (3) McCoy, Frederick—Synopsis of Carboniferous Fossils of Ireland, 1844. (4) McCoy and Sedgwick— English Carboniferous Fossils. (5) De Koninck—Description des Animaux Fossiles dans la terrain Carbonifere de Belgique. (6) De Koninck—Paleozoic Fossils of New South Wales. Translation, Records of the Geological Survey of New South Wales, Paleontological Memoir, No. 6, 1898. (7) Dana—Geology of the Wilkes’ U.S. Exploring Expedition. (8) Waagen and Pichl—Pal. Indica (Salt Range Fossils) 1885, Series XIII. (9) J. Hall—Paleontology of New York, Vol. VI, 1886. (10) R. Etheridge—Quart, Journ. Geological Society, XXXVI. 202 C. F. LASERON. (11) Ulrich, E. O.—American Paleozoic Bryozoa, Journ. Cin- cinnati Soc. Nat. History, V - Vill, 1882-4. (12) Simpson, G. B.—A Discussion of the Different Genera of Fenestellide, New York State Museum, 47th Report 1894, pp. 879 to 921. (13) R. Etheridge, junr.—-Etheridge and Jack, Geology and Pal. of Queensland and New Guinea. (14) Prof. T. W. E. David—Geol. of the Hunter River Coal Measures, Memoirs of the Geological Survey of N.S.W., Geology No. 4. (15) Nichols and Ulrich—Synopsis of American Fossil Bryozoa, Bulletin 173, United States Geological Survey, 1900. A SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE TAX. 203 A SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE TAX, anp ITs BHARING ON THE FEDERAL INCOME TAX and OTHER AOTS. By H. S. CARSLAW, M.A., Se.D. [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, July 3, 1918.] § 1. The simplest form of tax is, of course, that in which the rate is constant: e.g., 6d. in the £, whether the sum on which the tax is levied be large or small. Next comes a sliding scale of which the following may be taken as an example: On the first £500, the rate shall be 6d. per £. On the second £500, the rate shall be 7d. per £. On the third £500, the rate shall be 8d. per £. On the fourth £500, the rate shall be 9d. per £. And ever pound over £2000, shall pay 94d. In a case such as this, it is obviously more equitable that the larger rates should be levied only on the successive parts of the income, and not on the whole. If the latter alternative had been adopted above, an income of £500? would pay five hundred six-pences, and an income of £501 would pay five hundred and one times sevenpence. In other words, the extra pound of income would pay £2 2s. 3d., instead of 7d. Curiously enough, in Great Britain, the Income Tax is calculated in this way.” Throughout Australia the differ- ent States—with the exception of Western Australia, of * When reference is made to income, the taxable income is understood; i.e. the sum on which the tax is levied. 2 A slight modification has now been introduced at the critical points. a 204 H. S. CARSLAW. which we shall speak later—adopt the fairer system, in one form or another.* § 2. It is instructive to note the graphical representation of the sliding scales described above. Let the income be £x and the amount of the tax T pence. Also let do, ad), ds, etc., be the rates up to £%, and on the parts between £x% and £x,, £x, and Lx, etc. The rela- tion between T and x, is shown by the continuous line in Jhss ib Fig. 1. q Amount of Tax in pence . Taxable Income in pounds. On the other hand the relation between T and x, when these rates are charged on the whole income instead of on + Income Tax on earned income in New South Wales is computed as follows :— On the first £700, the rate is 8d. per &. On the next £1000, the rate is 9d. per £. On the next £1000, the rate is 10d. per &. On the next £2000, the rate is 11d. per £. On the next £2000, the rate is 1s. Od. per £. On the next £3000. the rate is 1s. ld. per &. Every pound over £9700 pays Is. 2d. Also there is a supertax of 3d. per &. A SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE TAX. 205 the successive parts, is shown by the broken lines in the same diagram, the first line T = a,x (0 a500 x ‘ This clause is a little misleading, as there is a rather complicated set of exemptions. N—July 3, 1918. DiO. - H. S. CARSLAW. There is no doubt whatever that the legislators who passed these Acts had very little idea of what the schedules meant; and the various changes in the wording of the clauses since 1915 have made the position no clearer to the average man. The curves of the second and third degree (See Appendix, Schedule II, (b) and (c)) are a byword throughout Australia. Of course the truth is that the idea of a continuously changing rate of tax—even the linear rate—is a difficult idea. Those without a knowledge of the Differential Cal- culus cannot be expected properly to grasp it. And it should surely only be in the last resort that a system of taxation is imposed, involving principles which the majority of the taxpayers cannot be expected to understand. § 7. It seems, therefore, worth while to repeat what I have already said elsewhere, (‘‘“Sydney Morning Herald,”’ May 2, 1918), that a simple progressive tax on the lines of » the First Schedule, as described in §4, could quite easily be substituted for this complicated and most unsuitable scheme. The substitute which I have proposed is as follows :— Schedule II.—Income derived wholly from Property:— (i) When the whole taxable income does not exceed £3800, the amount of the tax on a taxable income of £a shall be (3 + —o EY pence. (ii.) When the whole taxable income exceeds £3800, the amount of the tax on the first £3800 shall be £498 15s., and every pound over £3800 shall pay 5s. Schedule III.—Income derived partly from personal exertion and partly from property:— The amount of the tax shall be that for the whole taxable income under the scale given in Schedule II., less the sum by A SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE TAX. vi | which the amount of the tax on the part derived from Personal Exertion under the scale given in Schedule IT. exceeds that under the scale given in Schedule I. The second schedule given above is obtained in the same way as the first schedule. The first pound pays (3 + =) pence. The second pound pays (3 + = ) pence. 15 400 And so on, up to the 3800th pound. The third pound pays (3 + ) pence. A simple calculation will show that a total of £x would pay the sum named in the schedule. Also it will be noticed that the pro- gression stops at the 3800th pound, which pays (60 — ) pence, and that every pound over £3800 is to pay 60 pence. Further, an income of £3800 pays the sum of £498 15s. A comparison between the proposed schedule and the corresponding schedule of the present Act can most easily be effected by calculating under each the value of the average rate in pence per £& on an income of £x. By the term average rate is meant the amount of the tax in pence divided by the income in pounds—that is, T/x, in the notation of this paper. In the following table these rates are given at intervals sufficiently close for our purpose, up to £40,000. It will be seen that up to about £1,000 the rate in the new scheme is Slightly higher than the old; from £1,000 to about £3,300 slightly lower; and from about £3,300 onward slightly higher. Ne H. S. CARSLAW, New Average Rate} Present Average Taxable: Income, in pence per £. |Ratein pence per£. £200 | 4-5 4:10 £400 | 6 | £600 | 75 6°58 £800 | 9 8:60 | £1,000 ee ahs 10:53 | £1,200 | 12 12°38 £1,400 | 13:5 14:15 £1,600 | 15 15:83 £1,800 | 16°5 17°42 te £25000 Maal tes ls 18:93 £2,200 | 19:5 20°40 £2,400 | 21 21:82 £2,600 | 92°5 23°99 £2,800 | 24 24:58 £3,000 25-5 25°89 | £3,200 | 27 27:17 £3,400 | 28-5 28-40 £3,600 30 29°57 £3,800 315 30770 aan £4,000 | 32-93 Ma Nec he) £4,500 35-93 34-99) £5,000 | 38°34 36°52 £5,500 | 40°31 38-49 £6,000 41-95 40°22 £6,500 | 43°25 41-73 £7,000 44°53 43°04 £7,500 | 45-56 44°17 £8,000 | 46-46 1) * 945-16 £8,500 | 47°26 46-03 £9,000 | 47:97 46°81 £9,500 | 48°60 47°49 £10,000 | 49°17 48°12 £15,000 | 52-78 52-08 £20,000 | 54°58 54-06 £40,000 | 57°29 57-03 These results are also shown in Fig, 2, where the graph of T/x, as a function of x, is given to a convenient scale. The broken line refers to the schedule now in force. A SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE TAX. F153 Fig. 2. el 0S it a J) SS eae eee pp a fff} ea Eh av Bee eer d cS a a ptt a ee {ZR s i =) SEB Gn oles oe eas Pitt tt ta < | 5 Py 3 oy 5 mS a | esa 1ST a Sm Sa iad same Ae = Se a Da a 2 (3 0 a Benne a ee : aa Ey : > < Pome ee | ae - 1S Rae eee SS ene eee 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6006 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 Taxable Income in Pounds. It may also be remarked that, in the schedules which I have put forward, the Composite Incomes—that is, incomes derived partly from personal exertion and partly from property, and these must be a large proportion of the incomes on which a tax is levied—have a treatment similar to that which they receive in our New South Wales State Income Tax. The earned income is taken first, and taxed as in Schedule I; the income from property is taken next, and counted under Schedule II as beginning at the place at which the other income ends. 214 H. S. CARSLAW. APPENDIX. Income Tax Act, 1917 (Commonwealth of Australia.) SECOND SCHEDULE. RATE OF TAX UPON INCOME DERIVED FROM PROPERTY. (a) For such part of the taxable income as does not exceed £546 the average rate of tax per pound sterling shall be that given by the following formula :— R = average rate of tax in pence per pound sterling. I = taxable income in pounds sterling. I 2 reso | ee (b) For such part of the taxable income as exceeds £546 but does exceed £2,000 the additional tax for each additional pound of taxable income above £546 shall increase continuously with the increase of the taxable income in a curve of the second degree in such a manner that the increase of tax for one pound increase of taxable mcome shall be— 11°713 pence for the pound sterling between £545 10s. and £546 10s. 12-768 pence for the pound sterling between £59910s.and £600 10s. 14°672 pence for the pound sterling between £69910s.and £700 10s. 16°512 pence for the pound sterling between £79910s. and £800 10s. 18288 pence for the pound sterling between £899 10s. and £900 10s. 20-000 pence for the pound sterling between £999 10s. and £1,000 10s. 27°600 pence for the pound sterling between £1,499 10s. and £1,500 10s. 33°600 pence for the pound sterling between £1,999 10s. and £2,000 10s. (c) For such part of the taxable income as exceeds £2,000 but. does not exceed £6,500, the additional tax for each additional pound of taxable income above £2,000 shall increase continuously with the increase of the taxable income in a curve of the third degree in such a manner that the increase of tax for one pound increase of taxable income shall be— 33°600 pence for the pound sterling between £1,999 10s. and £2,000 10s. 40°000 pence for the pound sterling between £2,499 10s. and £2,500 10s. 45°300 pence for the pound sterling between £2,999 10s. and £3,000 10s. 49°600 pence for the pound sterling between £3.499 10s. and £3,500 10s.. 53°000 pence for the pound sterling between £3,999 10s. and £4,000 10s. 55°600 pence for the pound sterling between £4,499 10s. and £4,500 10s. 57°500 pence for the pound sterling between £4,999 10s. and £5,000 10s. 58800 pence for the pound sterling between £5,499 10s. and £5,500 10s. 59°600 pence for the pound sterling between £5,999 10s. and £6,000 10s. | 60:000 pence for the pound sterling between £6,499 10s. and £6,500 10s. (d) For every pound sterling of taxable income in excess of £6,500 the rate of tax shall be sixty pence. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 215 A CONTRIBUTION TO A HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALKS, (WITH INFORMATION IN REGARD TO OTHER NEW SOUTH WALES SOCIETIES.) By J. H. MAIDEN, I.S.0., F.R.S., F.L.S., One of the Honorary Secretaries. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, July 3, 1918. | DURING the year 1905, the Council contemplated the cele- bration of the jubilee of the 1856 (1855) Society, but cir- cumstances prevented the intention being carried out. I undertook to prepare a history of our Society up to 1906, but when the celebration was abandoned, I confined:my attention to the unravelling of the intricacies of the pedi- gree of the Society, and to its proceedings up to the date that they had been published in the Society’s Journal for 1875. I have by no means continuously worked at the subject since 1906, but have never lost sight of the matter, and from time to time have gleaned additional information. I now offer my compilation as matériaux pour servir. Detailed information has yet to be accumulated between 1823 and 1850, also during 1853 and 1854 and 1859 to 1861, in the files of contemporary newspapers, and notes, and perhaps the text of afew papers read before the Societies dealt with may be recovered, and printed to complete the record. I believe, however, that incomplete as it is, what I have got together will be useful to a future worker to enable him to prepare a really valuable history of our Society. Some of the older writers were inclined to be easy-going in quoting the titles of Societies, a circumstance which 216 J. H. MAIDEN. has often rendered my researches difficult. They seemed to forget that a Society had a definite official name, which ought to be used in writing, however it might be referred . to colloquially. I anticipate that the proceedings of our own and kindred Societies, including lists of the papers read, will be of real value to the student of scientific progress in Australia, as they exhibit the progress of science in New South Wales, while the personal touches concerning well known names have a very human interest. Notes are submitted under the following heads:— I. Details of the history of various Societies. II. Miscellanea. III. Knquiries and Conclusions. I. Details of the History of Various Societies. 1. Philosophical Society of Australasia (Dec. 1821 — 1822?). 2. Agricultural Society of New South Wales (5th July, — 1822 — 22nd February, 1826). 3. Agricultural and Horticultural Society of New South Wales (22nd February, 1826 — 1836). 4. Australian Society to promote the growth and con- sumption of Colonial Produce and Manufactures (1830 — 1836). 5. Australian Floral and Horticultural Society (1836— 1848). 6. Australasian Botanic and Horticultural Society (20th June, 1848 —8th December, 1856). 7. Horticultural Improvement Society of New South Wales (15th January, 1855 — 8th December, 1856). 8. Australian Horticultural and Agricultural Society (8th December, 1856). 9, Australian Philosophical Society (19th January, 1850 — 30th July, 1855). HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 2G 10. Philosophical Society of New South Wales (30th July, 1855 —12th December, 1866). 11. Royal Society of New South Wales (12th December, 1866 —). Floreat ! 1. The Philosophical Society of Australasia, December, 1821 — 1822 ?). Men early began to feel the necessity of a mutual improve- ment society, and the subject of agriculture being, (one would imagine), non-political, seemed to present itself in an obvious manner. Following is the first definite attempt I can trace to realize the above object. ‘‘An attempt at this time (1818) to form an Agricultural Society came to an untimely end. (Judge Advocate) Wylde hoped by means of balloting for the election of members to prevent the necessity of excluding or including ex-convicts by any rule. With a ballot he thought some would have been elected and others, who were personally undesirable, not. But the Governor (Macquarie) refused to be the patron of the society unless the emancipists were freely admitted; and, lacking his support, the scheme was dropped.’’—(Marion Phillips, ‘‘A Colonial Autocracy,”’ 1909,.p. 270). The time for an Agricultural Society was not ripe, nor did any Society take its place during the reign of Macquarie. It will be presently seen that Governor Brisbane, who was a scientific man (an astronomer), established a scientific Society or Club, and he lost no time about it. The following notes were read at the fifty-sixth meeting of the Philosophical Society of New South Wales, 17th December, 1862 (extracted from the Minutes). “The following extract from the ‘‘Australian Almanac for 1822,” gives an account of the formation and early 218 . J. H. MAIDEN. history of the Society, and will, we doubt not, be read with much interest :— ‘* PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF AUSTRALASIA. President: Major-General Sir Thomas Brisbane, kK.c.B., F.R.S.L., and E., and Corresponding Member of the French Institute. Treasurer and Secretary: Henry Grattan Douglass, M.D.* ** Members (alphabetically)—Alexander Berry, Esq., Barron Field, Hsq., Barrister-at-law; Frederick Goulburn, EKsq., Majorinthe Army; Patrick Hill, Hsq., Surgeon, R.N.; William Howe, Hsq., Captain Irvine, 11th Bengal Native Infantry; Oaptain King, R.N.; John Oxley, Esq., Lieuten- ant R.N.; Edward Wollstonecraft, Hsq.’’ In Trans. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1, 2 (1867) the enumeration is put slightly differently, and the name of Oharles Stargard Rumker, Esq., Astronomer, is added. Resuming the 1862 minutes, we have, “ Extract from the ‘Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser,’ of friday, March 15th, 1822:—On Wednesday morning his Hxcellency the Governor came to town for the purpose of accompanying the Philosophical Society to the south head of Botany Bay to erect an inscription to commemorate the first landing of Captain Cook and Sir Joséph Banks; but when the party arrived at the north shore, the state of the wind forbade their crossing the bay. The excursion was therefore postponed till the following Wednesday, and the President and members dined where they were, and were honoured by the company of the principal officers of the ‘Dauntless,’ together with Captain Elliott and Captain Piper.’’ ' He had, earlier in the year, 1821, arrived from Britain, and been appointed by Macquarie Assistant-Surgeon at Parramatta. He received the favour of Brisbane, who supported him during a trying experience. For particulars concerning him, see Hist. Rec. Austral., Vol. x. He became Hon. Sec. of both the 1850 Society and of the Philos. Soc. N.S.W. (1855). HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 219 ‘*Extract from the ‘Sydney Gazette, etc.,’ of Friday, March 22, 1822:—His Hxcellency the Governor-in-Chief came to town on Tuesday last, and returned to Parramatta yesterday. On Wednesday last his Excellency the President and members of the Philosophical Society of Australasia, made an excursion to the south head of Botany Bay, for the purpose of affixing a brazen tablet, with the following inscription, against the rock on which Captain Cook and Sir Joseph Banks first landed. A.D.—MDCCLXX. Under the auspices of British science, these shores were discovered by James Cook and JosrpH BAnks, the Columbus and Mecenas of their time. This spot once saw them ardent in the pursuit of knowledge. Now, to their memory, this tablet is inscribed, in the first year of the Philosophical Society of Australasia. Sir THomas BRISBANE, K.C.B. and F.B.S.L. and E., (Corresponding Member of the Institute of France), President. A.D.—MDCCCXXI. ‘On this interesting occasion the Society had the good fortune to be assisted by Captain Gambier and several of the officers of His Majesty’s ship ‘Dauntless’; and after dining together in a natural arbour on the shore, they all repaired to the rocks, against which they saw the tablet soldered, about twenty-five feet above the level of the sea, and they there drank to the immortal. fame of the illustri- ous men whose discoveries they were then met to com- memorate.”’ So that, although the Society was established in 1821, and the plate prepared and dated for that year, circum- stances prevented the fixing of the tablet until Wednesday, 20th March, 1822. The work “‘Geographical Memoirs on New South Wales, by various hands,” edited by Barron Field, F..s., late Judge 220 3 J. H. MAIDEN, of the Supreme Court of New South Wales, (London, 1825), has for sub-title, “‘other papers on the Aborigines, the Geology, the Botany, the Timber, the Astronomy and the Meteorology of New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land,”’ and some of these papers were read before the ‘‘Philo- sophical Society of Australia,’’ thus 1. “‘Onthe Aborigines of New Holland and Van Diemen’s Land,”’ by Barron Field, Esq. (Read 2nd January, 1822, before the Society), p. 193, ' 2. ‘““On the Geology of part of the coast of New South Wales,’ by Alexander Berry Esq. (Read —1822, before the Society), p. 231. 3. “*On the Astronomy of the Southern Hemisphere,”’ by Dr. Charles Stargard Rumker. (Read 13th March, 1822, before the Society) p. 255. | [These three papers were therefore read before the fixing of the tablet. | | 4, ‘‘On the Maritime Geography of Australia,’’ by Capt. Philip Parker King, R.N. (Read 2nd October, 1822, before the Society), p. 269. The next paper, entitled “‘On the Rivers of New South Wales,’’ by Barron Field, President, (of the Agricultural Society) was read 3rd July, 1823, “‘ before the Agricultural Society of New South Wales.’’ It does not seem to bea specially suitable paper for an Agricultural Society, and possibly it was originally prepared by Judge Field for the Philosophical Society (of which he was a member), and since (it is presumed) he found the Society was not then in active work, transferred it to the Agricultural Society. The rest of the papers in Barron Field’s work were official documents or scientific papers not formally read before any Society. In his preface, he says of the papers whose titles | have quoted, ‘‘Such of them as are part (apparently some papers HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Jape were not published and we do not know their titles.— J.H.M.) of the Transactions of the Philosophical Society of Australia are printed by the permission of the respective authors,’’ and he goes on to say, “for Iam sorry to say that that infant society soon expired in the baneful atmo- sphere of distracted politics, which unhappily clouded the short administration of its President, the present Governor of New South Wales. Let me hope that it is only a case of suspended animation and that our little Society will be resuscitated by the new colonial government.’’ These remarks were dated 28th February, 1825. At p. 497 of his work he published a ‘‘Sonnet on visiting the spot where Captain Cook and Sir Joseph Banks first landed in Botany Bay.’’ The poet refers to the tablet. There is an account of Barron Field, by Mr. J. Arthur Dowling, in “‘Journ. Aust. Hist. Soc., ii, 92,101. See also K. J. Godfrey’s “‘Australian Historical Gleaner,’’ Sydney, 1911, p. 26. See also a note on him in this Journal (XLi, 101, 1908). Not much is known of the first editor of our collected papers, and hence the following spicy reference to him may come here. Disraeli wrote as pompously as Field ever did, from Cadiz, on 14th July 1830 to his father, Isaac Disraeli. “The Judge Advocate at Gibraltar is that Mr. Baron (Barron—J.H.M.) Field who once wrote a book, and whom all the world took fora noble, but it turned out that Baron was to him what Thomas is to other men. He pounced upon me, said he had seen youat Murray’s, first man of the day, and all that, and evidently expected to do an amazing bit of literature; but I found him a bore and vulgar, a Storks without breeding, consequently I gave him a lecture on canes, which made him stare, and he has avoided me DAD) J. H. MAIDEN. ever since. The truth is he wished to saddle his mother on me for a compagnon de voyage . . . but yet more endurable than the noisy, obtrusive, jargonic judge, who is a true lawyer, ever illustrating the obvious, explaining the evident, and expatiating on the commonplace.’’—(Mony- peny’s ‘‘Life of Disraeli,’’ i, 142, 1910). Rev. W. B. Clarke (This Journal, i, ii) says—‘‘This early union (the 1821 Society) appears to have partaken rather of the character of a Mutual Friendly Association, than of that of a more formal body. It was, in other words, a Scientific Club. At that time, there were no public libraries, and scarcely a bookseller’s shop in the Colony, but the members possessed books of their own; these were cata- logued and lent to one another, so that the use of them was reciprocal. The business of the Society was transacted at the dwelling houses of the members in succession, where memoirs, prepared on an alternative of a fine of ten pounds sterling, were read and discussed, the only refreshment allowed being a cup of coffee and a biscuit.”” . . . The Philosophical Society was destined to only a brief period of service. ALO alia) Life Subscriptions from two members ae .1s,) LOO a0 £404 3 6 DISBURSEMENTS. if oy sapude Paid for Stationery and Printing oy. shes ae 9) Wares » Hire of Apartment for Meeting... .«-', 2h, Pon on Advertisements ae ae se oe » Postage and Sundries e a vee no, ss Commission etc. to Collector ee we Oe eee Total expenditure... sith a Odi 4e Balance in Union Bank of Australia... af Jon oO Ou Ome £404 3 6 (Signed) ANDREW Bonar and Atrrep Roserts, Auditors. 1 Financial Statements were not printed in our Annual Volume until 1875. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALKS. 271 Ballot for Office-bearers.—A ballot was then taken for Office-bearers for 1857-8, and the following gentlemen were declared duly elected :— President: His Excellency the Governor General. Vice-Presidents: Sir Charles Nicholson, and Hon. E. Deas- Thomson, C.B. Treasurer: R. A. A. Morehead. Secretaries: Dr. Douglass, Professor Smith, Captain Ward. Additional Members of Council: G. K. Holden, Professor Pell, Rev. W. Scott, J. Thompson, R. J. Want, Professor Woolley. Tenth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 10th June, 1857. EK. Deas-Thomson, Hsq. in the Chair. Members elected.—Messrs. Peppercorne, Waugh, Henry Mort, Beazley; Captain Scott, Messrs. Edward R. Drury, Freeman, Dyer. Papers read.—1. ‘‘On Pavements and Street Surfaces,”’ by Lieutenant Vigors. (Published at pp. 11 and 26 of Vol. Il of the Magazine). 2. ‘“‘On the Sanitary condition of Sydney,”’ by ©. Rolleston. (Published at p. 37, Vol. I1 of the Magazine). Hleventh Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 8th July. Sir William Denison in the Chair. Members elected.—J. Belisario, Dr. Foulis, George Falkner, O. Montefiore, Dr. Williams, Rev. G. Macarthur, Arch. Ashdown, A. H. Barlow, Rev. H. J. Hose, James Norrie. Papers read.—1. ‘‘On the Moon’s Rotation,’’ by His Excellency Sir William Denison. (Published at p. 43, Vol. Il of the Magazine). 2. ‘*On a new Sun Gauge or new Actinometer,’’ by Mr. Jevons. (Published at p. 58, Vol. 11 of the Magazine, with figures). 3. ‘“‘On Sanitary Reform of Towns and Cities,’’ by Dr. Bland. (Published at pp. 41 and 55 of Vol. 11 of the Magazine). Dee J. H. MAIDEN. Twelfth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 12th August, 1857. Sir William Denison in the Chair. — Members elected.—Captain Martindale, R.E.; Arthur Hodgson, John F. Hill; John Stafford. A specimen of artificial stone was submitted by Messrs. Bensusan and Westley, and a letter description of its pro- perties was read to the meeting. Papers read.—1. ‘‘On Railways,”’ (following up his paper of last year on the same subject), by Sir William Denison. (Published at p. 62, Vol. 11of the Magazine). 2. ‘‘On Rail- ways with reference chiefly to the Motive Power,” by Fred. S. Peppercorne, c.—. (Paper part read by Captain Ward, and published at p. 78, Vol. 1rof the Magazine). Thirteenth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, Bent-street, 9th September, 1857. Professor Woolley in the Chair. Members elected.—W. J, Stephens, James H. Blake, John Rae, Ed. Maitland, William C. Uhr, R. L. Jenkins, William Bell, M.D. Papers read.—‘‘On the waxed paper process of photo- graphy,’ by Frank Haes. (Published at p. 99, Vol. 11 of the Magazine). Fourteenth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 14th October, 1857. EH. Deas-Thomson, Esq., in the Chair. Members elected.—Francis Napier, Edwin Dalton, James Smith, Dr. George Walker, Henry Moreing. Papers read.—1. “‘On the poison apparatus of venomous snakes,’’ by Alfred Roberts, illustrated by drawings by Dr. Macdonald of H.M.S. ‘“‘ Herald.’’ (Published at p. 130, Vol. I of the Magazirie, under the title “On the structure and functions of the venom apparatus in serpents,” with a plate of figures, and part 2 at p. 50, Vol. 1). 2. ““Meteor- HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. PAE ology of New South Wales,’ by Rev. William Scott. (Pub- lished at p. 128, Vol. 11 of the Magazine). Fifteenth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 11th November. W.'l. Cape Hsq., in the Chair. Paper read.—‘‘On the use and abuse of tobacco,”’ by Dr. Berncastle. Sixteenth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 9th December. H.G. Douglass, Hsq., M.D., in the Chair, Members elected.—Dr. Ralph, Spencer Bransby, William MacDonnell. Paper read.—“‘On the formation of clouds,’’ by Mr. W. 8. Jevons. (Published at p. 163,, Vol. m of the Magazine, illustrated, under the title of ‘‘On clouds, their various forms and producing causes’’). Auditors.—The following gentlemen were re-elected Auditors:—A. Bonar, Hsq. and Alired Roberts, Esq. Seventeenth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 12th May, 1858. Sir Williai: Denison in the Chair. An assistant secretary, W. H. Catlett, was appointed, and the minutes of this meeting were the first written by him. Member elected.—Major Wingate. HKlection of Office Bearers.—The election of Office Bearers for 1858-9 then took place with the following results. President: His Excellency Sir William Denison, K.c.B. Vice-Presidents: The Honorable E. Deas-Thomson, c.B., and Rev. W. B. Clarke. Treasurer: R. A. A. Morehead, Esq. Honorary Secretaries: Professor Smith, m.p.; Captain Ward, R.E. Ordinary Members of Council: Honorable H. G. Douglass, M.D.; Captain Martindale, r.z.; Professor Pell; Alfred Roberts, Esq.; Rev. W. Scott; Professor Woolley. R—July 3, 1918. + 274 J. H. MAIDEN. Paper read.—‘‘On the strength and elasticity of woods of New South Wales and New Zealand,’’ by Captain Ward. (See pages 258 and 261, Vol. 11 of the Magazine). Exhibits.—Numerous objects of interest were laid out for the inspection of members, the following gentlemen being the contributors:—His Excellency the Governor- ‘General, K.c.B.; The Honorable EK. Deas-Thomson, C.B.; Rev. W. Scott; Professor Smith; Messrs. Woore, Hunt, Jevons, Flavelle, Freeman, and Macdonnell. Financial statement for the year ending 30th April, 1858: RECEIPTS. ese hae At the credit of the Society in the Union Bank, on 30th April, 1857 ... as a ae ik Oo Sh OMe: Entrance Fees ... a ae a a jc 2 SOS ae Annual Subscriptions ... ee att ae pe Oa eliarge@ Interest from the Bank se Lee he bua Lit ae 158 EDI Me Gy WU) DISBURSEMENTS. LO ssde Stationery and Printing a a », Maen iss Advertising S26 A black board to be Oe in illustrating papers read to the Society _.... we ser aah 1. > 4 Tomes Refreshments, etc., at the opening meeting ... > | eaee Hire of Hall and lights oe i ane > , 4 Postages oe be .») o OeOrssG Twenty-five copies of i otiney Meaney at.lls. ... )as alae Commission to the collector... ae - Pre 5) Balance in the Union Bank ... bat me re a0) £545 3 0 12th May, 1858. (Signed) R. A. A. Morehead, Treasurer. Audited and approved, Andrew Bonar, and Alfred Roberts, Auditors. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTE WALES. 275 At p. 253, Vol. 11 of the Magazine will be found the list of exhibits. The number of members is given at 174. Council Meeting, 28th May, 1858. Letter read from Mr. J. W. Waugh intimating to the Honorary Secretary that he had been put to considerable expense in publishing some of the Society’s papers, with illustrations, in the “‘Magazine of Science and Art,” and requesting to be informed if the Council would be disposed to assist him in any future expense of a similar nature, and further stating that it was his intention to raise the. subscription from 12/- to 15/- per annum. The Secretary was instructed to inform Mr. Waugh that the Council would in future meet the expense of preparing any illustrations required for their papers, and would have no objection to the increased subscription, but the Society would take only 15 copies of each number instead of 25, during the year now commencing. Highteenth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 9th June. Andrew Bonar, Hsq., in the Chair. Members elected.—William Kirchner, Esq.; Charles Kemp, Esq. | Paper read.—*‘Abridgment of a book of papers relating to the History and Practice of Vaccination presented to Parliament by Command of the Queen,’’ by Dr. Greenup, of Parramatta. [There is a reference to this paper at p. 26, Vol. 1 of the Magazine. It is stated to bea valuable paper, but far too long for publication in that work. | Nineteenth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 14th July, 1858. Sir William Denison in the Ohair. Members elected.—The Honorable J. Docker, M.L.c., and Thomas H, Bradridge, Esq. 276 J. H. MAIDEN. Paper read.—“‘On the Poison Apparatus of Venomous: Snakes, with a description of some of the species found in this Colony,” illustrated by numerous specimens both living and preserved, and by drawings, by Mr. Alfred Roberts. Second part of paper. See p. 58, Vol. 1 of the Magazine, with two plates; see also p. 272, supra. Twentieth Monthly Meeting, Sydney Chamber of Com- merce, 11th August, 1858. Sir William Denison in the Chair. Member elected.—James Robey, Esq. Papers read.-—“‘On the Meteorology of New South Wales. No. 2,’’ and presented to the Society, the Parramatta. Meteorological Tables from June 1857 to July 1858, also Meteorological Results for New South Wales, in Monthly Abstracts from June 1857 to June 1858, together witha pamphlet entitled Instructions for Meteorological Obser- vations in the Colony of New South Wales,’’ by Rev. William Scott. See p. 118, Vol. u of the Magazine, but it. was not published. 2. “The Clunes Mine,” illustrated by diagrams from H. A. Thompson, Hsq., Mining Engineer, Victoria. Read - by Captain Ward, who laid the following papers on the table from the same gentleman, ‘‘Gold Deposits of Victoria,’” ‘Outline of Plan for the formation and working of a Mining Company to open out the Quartz-Fields of New South Wales.’’ Not published. 3. “‘On Sydney Mortality from the 1st of March, 1857 to - the 28th of February, 1858,’’ by Christopher Rolleston, Hsq.. Not published. Twenty-first Monthly Meeting, Sydney Chamber of Com- merce, 8th September, 1858. Sir William Denison in the Chair. Member elected.—Mr. W. B. Allen. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. PA i | Papers read.—1. “On the present state of the supply of the Ores of Mercury,”’ by the Rev. W. B. Clarke. Pub- lished at pp. 157 and 170, Vol. 1 of the Magazine. 2. ‘‘On the Filtration of Water through Sand,’’ by His Excellency Sir William Denison. Published at p. 74, Vol. 11 of the Magazine. Twenty-second Monthly Meeting, Exchange, 13th ‘October, 1858. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Members elected.—Alexander Dick Esq., John Lucas Esq. Papers read.—1. ‘‘On the construction of Dams,”’ by Professor Pell. Published at p. 94, Vol. 1rof the Magazine. 2. ‘“On Ourrency and Banking in New South Wales,’”’ by Edward R. Drury Esq. Published at p. 97, Vol. 11 of the Magazine. Twenty-third Monthly Meeting, Sydney Exchange, 10th November, 1858. Sir William Denison in the Chair. Member elected.—J. 8S. Willis Hsq. Paper read.—*‘On the Plurality of Worlds,’”’ by Rev. William Scott. Published at p. 131, Vol. 11 of the Magazine. The Chairman read the result of an Examination of Coal from Bellambi, made at the Royal Branch Mint. (A refer- ence only at p. 117, Vol. 11 of the Magazine). Twenty-fourth Monthly Meeting, Sydney Exchange, 8th December, 1858. Sir William Denison in the Ohair. Member elected.—Lieutenant Colonel Percival. Auditors elected.—Andrew Bonar Hsq., The Honorable G. K. Holden Hsq. Paper read.—‘‘On the Progress of Photography and its application to the Arts and Sciences,’’ by Mr. James Free- man. Published at p. 136, Vol. 11 of the Magazine. A photographic Conversazione was then held. The exhibits were enumerated at p. 131. 278 J. H. MAIDEN. Twenty-fifth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 11th May, 1859. Sir William Denison in the Chair. Financial Statement.— SLO °o @ =. RECEIPTS. lag Balance in the Union Bank on the 30th April, 1858 443 0 Entrance Fees ... os a e ae a Annual Subscriptions ... : a aH -.0 SOME Interest from Government yan e mare 0) 0!) Interest from Bank balance ... Se th cs, eh COT oa aa DISBURSEMENTS. po SO Purchase of 4 Government Debentures of £100 each 387 3 6 Stationery and Printing Sek . ies Sai Oe Advertising... bas Be ie ae fe 5) EZ ESO! Refreshments ... ie e) ae xii li EEE SO Hire of Lamps and Tables se Pr re Carpenter’s Work and Labour eg rae Wrens lo) 050 Hire of the Hall of the Australian eae wpe) gee OE Os Hire of the Sydney Chamber of Commerce ... Se EROS “LO Fifteen Copies of the “Sydney Magazine” at 15/- ... 11 5 0 Illustrations for the ‘‘Sydney Magazine” ... oginis BOUL nar: Postage Stamps etc. ... de su Mae fao Secretary's Salary to 31st een 1858 en woe AO OO Commission to Collector cae - wat On ae Balance in the Union Bank on 30th ‘ape the woe N, deen baum LD 1 een By Debentures £400 | By Balance carried down oe a eae 17 l (Signed) Chris. Roles Treasurer. Members elected.—J. H. L. Scott Esq., and Samuel Bensusan Ksq. The Hlection of Officers for the year 1859 — 60 then took place with the following results:— HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 279 President: His Excellency Sir William Denison, k.c.B. Vice-Presidents: The Honorable EK. Deas-Thomson, c.B., and Rev. W. B. Clarke. Treasurer: Chris. Rolleston, Esq. Honorary Secretaries: Professor Smith, m.D.; Captain Ward, R.E, Ordinary Members of Council: Rev. Henry J. Hose; Professor Pell; Alfred Roberts, Esq.; Rev. William Scott; The Honorable R. J. Want, Esq.; Professor Woolley. Microscopical Committee.—On the suggestion of His. Excellency, it was moved by the Honorable R.J. Want Esq., seconded by Sir Charles Nicholson and carried, that it is desirable a Microscopical Committee be elected, to consist of the following gentlemen, with power to add to their number, viz:—Rev. W. B. Clarke, George Faulkner Hsq.,. F. Haes Esq., Professor Pell, Alfred Roberts Hsq., Pro- fessor Smith, M.D., Captain Ward, R.E., Dr. Williams. The above report was published at p. 211, Vol. 11 of the Magazine. A report of a paper on a ‘“‘Combustible mineral from Tasmania,’’ by Prof. Penny of Glasgow, was read at this. meeting, and will be found at p. 212, Vol. 11 of the Magazine. A preliminary meeting of the Microscopical Committee of the Philosophical Society was held at Government House in the month of May, 1859, at which the following gentle- men were added to the Committee or agreed to be added as soon as they have been elected members of the Philo- sophical Society, viz:—Joseph Burgon Esq., H. H. Browne Ksq., Dr. James Cox, Dr. McKay, Charles Moore Esq.,. OC. Watt Esq. For continuation of the Proceedings of the Microscopical Committee, see p. 312. Twenty-sixth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 8th June, 1859. EH. Deas-Thomson, c.B., in the Chair. 280 J. H. MAIDEN. Members elected.—Dr. Boyd, Dr. James Cox, Rev. 0. O. Kemp, Joseph Burgon Ksq. Papers read.—1. “‘On the Construction of Specula for Reflecting Telescopes,’’ by Mr. Henry A. Severn. 2. ‘On the Means of Deodorizing and Utilizing the Sewage of Towns,” (postponed). 3. ‘‘On Atmotic Navigation,’”’ which was illustrated by several diagrams, by Honorable William Bland. - At this meeting Capt. Ward, R.E., laid on the table a “Specification of a twelve-head stamping mill for crushing quartz,’’ by H. A. Thompson, which was published (with drawings) at p. 231, Vol. 11 of the Magazine. Twenty-seventh Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, L3th July, 1859. Sir William Denison in the Chair. Members elected.—Messrs. Squire, James Milson junior, Ed. S. Hill, Charles Watt, Louis Phillips, and Henry A. Severn. ) Papers read.—1. ‘‘On the means of Deodorizing and Utilizing the Sewage of Towns,’’ by Chris. Rolleston Hsq. See p. 235, Vol. 11 of the Magazine. 2. “‘On a new mode of using Canada Balsam and other adhesive fluids in mount- ing Microscopic Objects,’’ by Alfred Roberts Hsq. Council Meeting, 5th August, 1859.—“* It was reported that the yearly subscription to the Sydney Magazine of Science and Art had terminated, and it was agreed that the subscription be not continued.”’ Twenty-eighth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 10th August, 1859. W.T.Cape Hsq. in the Chair. It was resolved that the meeting day be changed from the second to the third Wednesday in each month. Paper read.—‘‘ On the Observatories of the Southern Hemisphere,”’ by Rev. William Scott. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 281 The following papers detailing investigations made at the Royal Branch Mint, Sydney, were received from Cap- tain Ward, R.E., and laid upon the table:—1. An analysis of Warriora (sic) Coal. 2. An analysis of Bellambi Coke. 3. Results of rough experiments on the heating power of Colonial Coal. The following contributions were also laid upon the table: 1. A paper ““On the adulteration of Milk in Sydney,”’ from the members of the Microscopical Committee who had undertaken the examination of the adulteration of Food. 2. An extract from the New Zealand Government Gazette of the 14th July, 1859, being a Lecture on the Geology of the Province of Auckland by Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter, Geologist on board the Austrian Frigate “* Novara.”’ 3. Transactions of the Philosophical Institute of Victoria, from January to December, 1858. 4, A Photographic Panorama of Port Jackson was exhibited, taken by Mr. J. Freeman from Kirribilli Point, and comprising the harbour from Milson’s Bay on the right to Bradley’s Head on the left. Council Meeting, 31st August, 1859.—‘* The Secretary reported to the Council that Mr. Fairfax would not publish the Society’s papers in the ‘‘ Herald,’’ unless he received all the papers read at the monthly meetings, and that he would not exchange slips with the ‘* Kmpire.”’ Resolved that no preference be shown to either paper, -and if Mr. Fairfax will not exchange slips, that the papers be given to the “‘ Empire ”’ for publication.” Council Meeting, 16th September, 1859.—‘‘The Secretary reported to the Council that he had taken His Excellency Sir Wm. Denison’s paper on the Dental System of Mollusca to Mr. Fairfax to publish and requested him to have the 282 J. H. MAIDEN. goodness to send a slip to the “‘Empire,”’ that Mr, Fairfax: had declined to do so and that His Hxcellency’s paper had therefore been published in the ‘“‘Kmpire.”’ *‘The Secretary was authorized to purchase for the use of the Society three copies of any newspaper in which the papers of the Society may be published.’’ It will be noted that on the “Sydney Magazine of Science. and Art’’ ceasing to be published with Vol. 11 (1858), there was no medium of publication for papers read before the- Society except newspapers, until such time as the Society published a journal of its own. Twenty-ninth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 21st September, 1859. Sir William Denison in the Chair. Members elected.—James McDonald Larnach Hsq.,. Kdward H. v. Arnheim Esq. Paper read.—‘‘On Telegraphic communication with England,” (by Francis Gisbourn Esq.) which he illustrated by numerous Admiralty Charts and Maps and specimens of the following Telegraphic Cables, viz:—Channel Islands Company’s Cable, shore end and deep sea part; Dover and. Ostend; Zuyder Zee; Dover and Calais; Port Patrick and Donaghadee; Atlantic Telegraph Company’s Cable; Malta. and Corfu; Red Sea Cable, deep sea part and shore end ;. Oagliari Bona Cable, deep-sea part. Thirtieth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library,. 19th October, 1859. Sir William Denison in the Chair. Member elected.—A. G. McLean Esq. Paper read.—‘‘On the Sydney Observatory,’’ by Rev.. William Scott, and drawings were laid upon the table of the instrument, together with an Azimuth Scale made by A. Tornaghi of Sydney, under his superintendence. ‘ HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 283- Thirty-first Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 16th November, 1859. H.H. Browne Esq. in the Chair. Members elected.—W. G. McCarthy Esq., Dr. Adolph Leibius, F. B. Miller Esq. Paper read.—‘‘ Observations on the separation of Gold from ‘ Mundic Quartz’,’’ by Professor Smith, who exbibited various illustrative specimens. Council Meeting, 9th December, 1859.—‘*‘ Resolved that £5 5s. Medals be given by the Society at the May meeting in 1860, for six of each of the following classes of Photo- graphy, viz:—Landscapes, Buildings, and Portraits.”’ Thirty-second Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 19th December, 1859. Sir William Denison in the Chair. Member elected.—Mr. John Goodlet. The meeting resolved into a Photographic Conversazione. (A list of the exhibits will be found in the Society’s Cutt- ings Book). Thirty-third Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library. 16th May, 1860. Sir William Denison in the Ohair. Financial Statement.— RECEIPTS, ES Se Cl To balance in the Union Bank on the 30th April, 1859 17 17 1 ,, Entrance Fees and Annual Subscriptions eee lays) 1) 10) ,, [nterest from Government Debentures ... fee, 2205 “OO Esse 8) IL DisBURSEMENTS. Sian Ce By Advertising... oe aie eae eo OP LO 39) ,, stationery and Sane she 5 if Se eae Oy Liha G » Refreshments as sag a Moe aa A nO Carried forward ... stef me by P22 eos 284 J. H. MAIDEN. DISBURSEMENTs—continued. £ Sait Brought forward .. of a wes 2D) HORS By Hire of Lamps and Tables.. om eA w+ cay le ,, Carpenter’s Work and eee Doe wt OL », Hire of the Hall of the Australian ere woe eae 0 3, Six Lamps and 1 gallon of oil for the Microscopical Committee ee 6 lie 5, Illustrations for the Deh nee Mapai a oa », Petty Cash Account, Postage Stamps, etc. 2 9 5, Gratuity to Messenger for trimming Jamps for Microscopical Committee... NES arr enes 8) A) 5, Commission to Collector, ete. a 10.15 16 », Secretary’s Salary from 31st Dec. to 31st ie: 1859 60 0 5, Balance in Union Bank ... wos ae, soe ON eae LLG Gone ,, Government Debentures ... 4? Ss £33 40052080 ,, Balance brought down _... bee 53 28 Ook BEF | (Signed) Chris. Rolleston, Treasurer. Sydney, 14th May, 1860. Election of Officers.— President: Sir William Denison, K.c.B. Vice-Presidents: Rev. W. B. Clarke and The Honorable E. Deas-Thomson, C.B. Treasurer: Chris. Rolleston, Esq. Honorary Secretaries: Professor Smith, m.p.; Captain Ward, R.E. Ordinary Members of Council: Rev. Henry J. Hose; Edward Moriarty Esq.; Professor Pell; Alfred Roberts, Esq.; Rev. William Scott; The Honorable R. J. Want, Esq. A large number of exhibits were shown. Thirty-fourth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 20th June, 1860. Sir William Denison in the Chair. Member elected.—Henry Lane Hsq. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALEs. 285 Paper read.—“‘On the Sydney Observatory,’ by Rev. William Scott. Thirty-fifth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library,, 18th July, 1860. Major Wingate in the Chair. Members elected.—Chas. Bell jun. Esq., Wm. Hillyer Hsq., Simon Pittard Hsq. Hdward Moriarty Hsq., laid upon the table plans and drawings of a new Steam Dredge for Queensland, and also. read *‘ Memoranda referring to the destruction of the Dam at Liverpool.” Papers read.—1. ‘‘On the detection of Spurious Gold,’” by F. B. Miller Hsq., which he illustrated by testing several. Specimens of spurious gold dust, 2. Memoranda upon the same subject, by Professor Smith. Thirty-sixth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library,, 15th August, 1860. Sir William Denison in the Chair. Paper read.—‘‘On the Adelong Quartz Reefs,’’ by Pro- fessor Smith, which he illustrated by a map of the locality and various specimens of Mundic Quartz. Thirty-seventh Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 19th September, 1860. Sir William Denison in the Chair. Member elected.—Henry Cary Dangar Hsq. Mr. Proschel presented his map of New South Wales and part of Victoria. Papers read.—1. ‘‘On Bridge Building,’ by His Excel- lency the President, which he illustrated by numerous. drawings and plans of bridges. 2. ‘‘On the application of an Anti-Collision Dial of his own invention to prevent col- lisions at sea,”’ by Mr. C. J. Perry formerly Master Mariner and late Member of the Legislative Assembly of Victoria,, who exhibited the use of the Dial before the Society. 286 J. H. MAIDEN. Thirty-eighth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 17th October, 1860. Sir Charles Nicholson in the Chair. Members elected.—Alexander Dawson Hsq., Roderick Flanaghan Esq. Papers read.—1. ‘“‘On Compass deviation in Iron Ships,”’ by Rev. William Scott. 2. “On Ozone,’’ by Mr. Proschel, of Victoria. Thirty-ninth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 21st November, 1860. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Paper read.—*‘On the Mundic Quartz of the Adelong,”’ by Dr. Leibius, of the Mint; which he illustrated by various experiments. 7 Fortieth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 19th December, 1860. Colonel Barney in the Chair. Address to His Excellency.—Captain Ward brought up a farewell address from the Society to His Excellency Sir W. T, Denison, which was unanimously adopted and signed by the members present. Following is the text of the Address :-— To His Excellency Sir William Thomas Denison, Knight Com- mander of the Honorable Order of the Bath, Governor. General in and over all Her Majesty’s Colonies of New South Wales, Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia, and Western Australia, Captain-General and Governor-in-Chief of the Territory of New South Wales and its dependencies, and Vice-Admiral of the same. May it please your Excellency— We, the members of the Philosophical Society of New South Wales, have learned with regret that we are soon to be deprived of your Excellency’s assistance as our President. On this, the last opportunity we shall have of meeting you in this capacity, we desire to express our warm acknowledgments for HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES 287 the service you have rendered to the Society, and to the cause of science generally. In parting with your Excellency, we are reminded that to your ‘successful exertions at an early period after your arrival in the Colony, we are indebted for the reorganisation of the Society on a satisfactory basis. We feel also that our best thanks are due to you for your earnest and constant endeavours to promote its interests, and more particularly for the valuable papers treating of the special capabilities and requirements of the Colony, which you have contributed from time to time at our monthly meetings. We trust that your Excellency’s departure to assume the high and responsible office to which Her Gracious Majesty has been pleased to appoint you, will not lessen the interest you have always taken in our labours, nor altogether deprive us of your co-opera- tion and assistance. In taking leave, we desire to convey to you, as also to Lady Denison and the members of your family, our earnest wish that health and happiness may support and encourage you in the new sphere of duties to which you have been called. We subscribe ourselves, with unfeigned regard, your Excel- lency’s sincere friends. [Signed by all the members present. | The President then read two communications he had received from Mr. Thomas Hale of Bellambi, giving par- ticulars of the horse tramway he had constructed from the coal-mine to the harbour. These communications were printed in the ‘*Herald,”’ and will be found in the Society’s Cuttings Book, witha list of exhibitors and their exhibits at this meeting. Forty-first Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 15th May, 1861. Alfred Roberts Hsq. in the Chair. 288 J. H. MAIDEN. Financial Statement.— RECEIPTS. £ oSu-idz To balance in Union Bank of 30th April, 1860 + OD aay ,, subscriptions and Entrance Fees ... “ oO ene ,, Interest on £400 Government Debentures ..» JOR ORS LISS Vaal DISBURSEMENTS. Seder By Advertising... ae ue Me sae ..,,, LOWS ,, Stationery and Printing ... aes sis vid. eae 5, Refreshments a : x, may colt, LOg Oe ae: ,, Hire of Lamps and Tables ae a sich ot SO ,, Hire of Hall of Australian Library a, tn oe taney Oe) , Petty Expenses—Postages etc. ... os vee eon au eae! ,, Gratuity to Messenger... ” ae hen ire (ite) » Freight of Books ... aes wise ee ody, RSL ,, Commission to Collectors ... v0 4 NO », secretary's Salary from Ist Jan. to one 1860 san OOF Oe <0 ,, Balance in Union Bank on 30th April, 1861 ... 41 16 9 | £188 14 1 To Balance brought down _... ys es vo ly LGie 9 400 0 O £441 16. 9 Hlection of Office Bearers.— President: His Excellency Sir John Young. Vice-Presidents: Rev. W. B. Clarke and The Honorable E. Deas-Thomson, C.B. Treasurer: Chris. Rolleston, Esq. : Honorary Secretaries: Captain Ward, R.E., and Professor Pell. Ordinary Members of Council: Dr. Sprott Boyd; Chas. Moore, Esq.; E. Moriarty, Esq.; Alfred Roberts, Esq.; Rev. William Scott; R. J. Want, Esq. Members elected.—Mr. John Kinloch and Mr. J, Glaister. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 289 Forty-second Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 19th June, 1861. William Bland Esq. in the Chair. Members elected.—Messrs. A. Tornaghi and George | Rowley. Paper read.—“‘On the Census of 1861‘? by Christopher Rolleston Esq. Forty-third Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 17th July, 1861. Sir John Young in the Chair. Meetings altered from third to second Wednesday of each month. Mr. A. Shadler caused the attention of the Society to be drawn to his invention of an oven thermometer. Paper read.—‘‘On the Sydney Observatory and Tebbutt’s Comet,’’ by Rev. William Scott. Forty-fourth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 14th August, 1861. Sir John Young in the Chair. Member elected.—Mr. John Tebbutt. Alfred Roberts Hsq. read a description of a new species of Foraminiferous Shell from Ovalau, Feegee. Paper read.—‘‘On the improvements in the navigation of the River Hunter,’’ by Edward Moriarty Esq. Forty-fifth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 11th September, 1861. Sir John Young in the Chair. Charles Moore Hsq. read his paper entitled ‘“‘A brief notice of a few of the prevailing but little known scrub timbers of the Colony.”’ Papers read.—1. ‘‘On a new mode of constructing timber bridges.”’ 2. ‘“‘On a new method of giving support to rail- way bars.’’ (Both by Thomas Woore.) S—July 3, 1918. 290 J. H. MAIDEN. Forty-sixth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 9th October, 1861. Sir Charles Nicholson, Bt. in the Chair. Paper read.—“‘A short description of the new works now being carried out for the improvement of Wollongong Harbour,”’ by Mr. Edward Moriarty. Forty-seventh Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 20th November, 1861. Sir John Young in the Chair. Member elected.—Samuel Grey Hsq. Paper read.—‘‘On some recent Geological discoveries in Australasia and the correlationof the Australian formations with those of Hurope,’’ by Rev. W. B. Clarke. Dr. Berncastle’s paper ‘‘on the Cave Temples af India,”’ was postponed until the next meeting for reading papers. Forty-eighth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, December 11th, 1861. The meeting took the form of a conversazione. Forty-ninth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 16th May, 1862. EK. Deas-Thomson Hsq. in the Chair. [From the Council minutes we learn that the monthly (annual) meeting was postponed until the 16th instant, (Friday) because a ball in aid of the funds of the School of Industry was fixed for the 13th instant. | Financial Statement.— RECEIPTS. Lo Se To Balance in the Union Bank on 30th April, 1861... 41 16 9 , Entrance Fees ee Lid ts Bh eo bi) 1: TORS 5, Subscriptions a ae zi, v7 i. LOGS 3, Interest on £400 Government Debentures oo.) 20) [Gea HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SUUTH WALES. 291 DISBURSEMENTS, nies bee Cd. By Advertising... oe o4 a? eel cdedo) Hat 9 ,, Stationery and Printing ... Ais she Ly Oh hha , Refreshments ae : aah an od 4 Uy ,, Hire of Lamps and Pawlet a ie Daa eel) die » Petty Expenses... ee Orel on tla 5», Hire of the Hall of the i woah Tihrate ei e010 ,, Gratuity to Messenger... ee uh ae Pe eG ,. Commission etc. to Collector me on Boe | 5, Secretary’s Salary from Ist Jan. to 31st (ee 1861 OO) », Balance in the Union Bank on 30th April, 1862 18 6 6 ees a G To Balance brought down _... ee a So AL Ose », Four Government Debentures... a . 400° @ 0 £418 16 6 Klection of Officers.— President: His Excellency Sir John Young. Vice-President: The Rev. W. B. Clarke and The Honorable E. Deas-Thomson Esq. Treasurer: Chris. Rolleston, Esq. Honorary Secretaries: Alfred Roberts, Esq. and Professor Smith. Ordinary Members of Council: F. M. Miller, Esq.; Charles Moore, Esq.; Edward Moriarty, Esq.; Charles Wall, Esq.; Dr. Williams ; W. J. Stephens, Esq. Fiftieth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 11th June, 1862. Sir John Young in the Ohair. Members elected.—Henry Prince Hsq.; William Hetzer Hsq.; J. F. Josephson Hsq.; Fred. J. Jackson Esq. Paper read.—‘‘On the Cave Temples of India,”’ by Dr. Berncastle, which he illustrated by sketches made on the spot. Published in the ‘Trans. Philos. Soc. N.S.W.”’ (1862 —1865) pp. 178—191, and the first paper read before the Society so published. 292 J. H. MAIDEN. This volume contains no index, and most of the papers contained in it have no particulars as to the date of read- ing in the volume itself. The volume was published in 1866. Fifty-first Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 9th July, 1862. William Bland Esq. in the Chair. Member elected.—Mr. Krefit. Papers read.—1. “‘On Improvements in Geometrical Science, with their applications in solutions to celebrated problems, and in the investigations of new porisms,’’ by Mr. Martin Gardiner, which he illustrated with numerous. diagrams. Presumably one or more of the four papers on “‘Geo- metrical Researchbes,’’ published in ‘‘ Trans. Philos. Soc. N.S.W.”’’ (1862-5), pp. 61 —126. 2. ‘On the Wombeyan Caves,’’ by Dr. James Cox. Published in ‘‘Trans. Philos. Soc. N.S.W.’’ (1862-5) pp. 197 — 204. Fifty-second Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 13th August, 1862. Sir John Young in the Chair. Mr. Alfred Roberts asked if any gentleman present could furnish some additional information relative to the hairless Aboriginals, some of whom had been seen in the district of the Ballonne. One of them had been brought to Sydney in February last by Mr. Donald McKay, who*had kindly afforded him an opportunity of examining the man, but he could not find a trace of hair structure on the scalp or other part of the body, with the exception of the upper eyelid, where a few well formed eye lashes existed. Mr. Roberts thought the subject worthy of further investiga- tion, and hoped members of the Society, having connections with the district from which this man came, would use their influence to obtain further information of an authentic character. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 293 Papers read.—1. “‘On the desirability of a systematic search for and observation of variable stars in the Southern Hemisphere,’ by Mr. John Tebbutt, jun. Published in “Trans. Philos. Soc. N.S.W.”’ (1862—5), pp. 126—139). 2. “On the performance of the A.S.N. Co’s Steamer ‘Diamantina’ from Sydney to Brisbane and return to Sydney,’’ by Commodore Seymour, read by His Excellency Sir John Young. Fifty-third Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 10th September, 1862. Sir John Young in the Chair. Paper read.—‘“‘On the Vertebrated Animals of the Lower Murray and Darling, their Habits, Economy and Geo- graphical Distribution,’’ by Mr. Gerard Krefit, which he illustrated with numerous drawings. N.B.—This is the first paper published in ‘‘ Trans. Philos. Soc. N.S.W.’’ (1862-5), 1—33, but, as we have already seen, not the first paper read. Fifty-fourth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 8th October, 1862. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Member elected.—The Honorable .T. A. Murray Hsq. Paper read.—‘‘On Comet I. of 1862,’’ by Mr. John Teb- butt. Published in ‘‘Trans. Philos. Soc. N.S.W.’’ (1862-5), pp. 140-146 (under the title of ‘On the Comet of Sep- tember 1862, No. 1).’ Fifty-fifth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 12th November, 1862. Sir John Young in the Chair. Members elected.—Richard Hill Hsq., Francis Hill Esq. Papers read.—1. The President then read extracts from @ paper drawn up by R. J. Swanson Esq., Vice-Consul, “‘On the Climate and Capabilities of the Fiji Islands.”’ 2. ““On the Comet of August and September, 1862,’ by John Tebbutt, junior. Published in ‘* Trans. Philos. Soc. 294 J. H. MAIDEN. N.S.W.” (1862-5), 146 — 153, under the title of ‘On the Comet, of September 1862, No. 2.’ Mr. William Keene exhibited an instrument of his own invention for testing the quality of the air in Coal Mines. Also a diagram showing the progress of the coal trade in this Colony from 1859 to 1860. Fifty-sixth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 17th December, 1862. Sir John Young in the Chair. Members elected.—Martin Gardiner Hsq., I. K. Ingelow Hsq., Samuel Clarke Hsq. There were then read extracts from the “Australian Almanac ”’ of 1822, and the “‘Sydney Gazette ”’ of 15th and 22nd March 1822, relating to the “‘formation and early history of the Society,’’ which will be found at p. 218, ante. There was a very extensive display of exhibits, all care- fully catalogued in the “‘Herald’’ of 18th December. Fifty-seventh Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 27th May, 1863. William Macleay Hsq. in the Chair. Financial Statement.— RECEIPTS. fis. d To Balance in the Union Bank on the 30th April, 1862 18 6 6 , Interest on £400 Government Debentures on LOS ONO , Subscriptions and Entrance Fees ... Le wi TT4 So £152) 15a DISBURSEMENTS. £ iuseeal: By Advertising and Printing... oe BS PM 5) oa. Refreshments uae a) TORE: », Hire of Hall of Rowinalen Library om: ee) 0) ,, Hire of Tables and Lamps ; Lt) Oe ,, Petty Expenses— Postage Stamps, ete,, ete. =) eidn leary ,, Attendance.. oy 312 0 ,, Commission ete. to Collector oo nae ,, Secretary's Salary from Ist Jan. to 31st Dec., 1862 60 0 0 ,, Balance in Union Bank _... af ae > 0 ae £152 15 6 HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 295 LS Nae To Balance brought down ... ee ae Ay oad eRe, ,, Government Debentures ... ae ae v2 400" OF ~O £403 17 5 Hlection of Officers.— President: His Excellency Sir John Young. Vice-Presidents: Rev. W. B. Clarke, and The Honorable E. Deas-Thomson, c.B. Honorary Treasurer: Christopher Rolleston Esq. Ordinary Members of Council: Edward Moriarty, Esq.; W. J. Stephens, Esq.; Alexander Dick, Esq.; F. B. Miller, Esq.; Chas. Moore, Esq.; Gerard Krefft, Esq. Honorary Secretaries: Professor Pell and The Honorable Cap- tain Ward. Paper read.—*‘On the Reptiles found near Sydney with - remarks upon their habits and geographical range,’’ by Mr. Krefft. Published in ‘* Trans. Philos. Soc. N.S.W.”’ (1862-5), 34 - 60, under the title “‘On snakes observed in the neigh- bourhood of Sydney,’’ by Gerard Krefit. Mr. William Macleay laid on the table a copy of Vol. 1 of the “‘Transactions of the Entomological Society of New South Wales.”’ Fifty-eighth Monthly Meeting, Hall. Australian Library, 17th June, 1863. J. F. Josephson Hsq. in the Chair. Member elected.—Dr. Fortescue. . Papers read.—1. “‘On Snake bites and their Antidotes,”’ by Dr. Berncastle. Published in ‘“‘Trans. Philos. Soc. N.S.W.”’ (1862-5), 191-6. Fifty-ninth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 8th July, 1863. Dr. Bland in the Chair. No new business taken. 296 J. H. MAIDEN. Sixtieth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 12th August, 1863. Sir John Young in the Chair. Paper read.—"* The correct scientific method of forming Railway Ourves and Railways, with an exposition of the injurious effects of the system adopted in this Colony,”’ by Mr. Martin Gardiner. The second part was postponed for a subsequent meeting. Sixty-first Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 17th September, 1863. H.C. Burnell Esq. in the Chair. Paper read.—‘“‘On the Vertebrated Animals of the Lower Murray, their habits, economy, and geographical distribu- tion,’’ by Gerard Krefft, which he illustrated by live and preserved Specimens and numerous drawings. (Continuation of the paper referred to at p. 293.) Sixty-second Monthly Meeting, October, 1863. No record of proceedings. Sixty-third Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 11th November, 1863. Sir John Young in the Chair. Mr. Justice Wise suggested to the Council that the Department of Public Works be written to requesting that in excavations for railway and other works, fossils and other objects of interest be preserved. Mr. G. Krefit then read a description of a new fish from the Hawkesbury River belonging to the genus Therapon, and exhibited a specimen of the same. Sixty-fourth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 16th December, 1863. Sir John Young in the Chair. A Conversazione was held and a list of the exhibits was published in the ‘“‘Herald”’ of the following day. Siaty-fifth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 6th July, 1864. Alfred Roberts Hsq., in the Chair. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 297 Financial Statement. RECEIPTS. oS ye To Balance in the Union Bank on 30th April, 1863... 3 17 5 ,, Interest on £400 Government Debentures ies 207.050 ,», Subscriptions and Entrance Fees... An b2 a ROO Ns teen) ,, Balance due tothe Union Bank ... KF salon Og 4 eS lier Ih) DISBURSEMENTS. 2, Sind By Advertising and Printing... Bc oe eC Oma G ,, Refreshments se : Sa; aA ae fo OO) ,, Hire of Australian ae ee 63 Ree 45) 0) », Hire of Tables and Lamps te ae aul ye SOO ,, Petty Expenses, Postage Stamps, etc. ... at leds sol ,, Attendance.. : y, a aA. era 6 20eOaae 5, Balance due to the Union Bank ... A me Wie | HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 301 DISBURSEMENTS. 2a) TS alr By Balance due to the Union Bank 30th April, 1864 6 0 4 ,, Rent of Hall of Australian Library ae Sete ie OL ar. ,, Rent of Chamber of Commerce ... ee see ye ,, Fairfax and Sons, Advertisements on io AED 6 ,, Hanson and Bennett, Advertisements ... ieqnbene Se sant, ,, Reading and Wellbank, Printing... Ae Spit tela) ay eho) » secretary’s Petty Cash Account ... Mas Oe Nis (0) ,, Secretary’s Salary from Ist Jan. to 3lst Dec., 1364 609090 £93 LSet To Government Debentures ... as ye LLO0 ORO By Amount overdrawn at the Ween Bank . aRey pals) 22) el Popalance.| ... ae seh te oY oe OO4 Lee el £400 0 0 Election of Officers:— President: His Excellency Sir John Young. Vice-Presidents: Rev. W. B. Clarke and The Honorable E, Deas-Thomson, c.B. Council of Management: W. C. Bennett, Esq.; Gerard Krefft, Esq.; Dr. Leibius; R. A. A. Morehead, Esq.; George Smalley, Esq.; Professor Smith, M.p. Honorary Secretary: W. J. Stephens, Esq. Honorary Treasurer: Edward Bedford, Esq. Paper read.—*‘On the Transmutation of Rocks in Austra- lasia,’’ by Rev. W. B. Clarke, illustrated by a large collec- tion of specimens of the various rocks. Also by photo- graphic views taken by Professor Smith and Mr. Hunt of several of the localities alluded to in the paper. (See Proc. Phil. Soc. N.S.W., 1862-5, 267 — 308.) Seventy-second Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 7th June, 1865. George R. Smalley Hsq. in the Chair. Members elected.—Hdward Ramsay Esq., Hdward Cracknell Hsq., M. H. Murnin Ksq. 302 J. H. MAIDEN. Seventy-third Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 5th July, 1865. George R, Smalley Hsq. in the Chair. Members elected.—Rev. William Stack, James Barnet Esq. Paper read.—“*On the Oology of Australia,’’ by Edward Ramsay Esq., which he illustrated by frequent reference to a large collection of stuffed birds, birds’ eggs and nests, also to two plates of engravings of eggs by Mr. Edward Forde. (See Trans. Phil. Soc, N.S.W., 1862-5, 309 - 329). Seventy -fourth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 2nd August, 1865. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Papers read.—1. ‘‘On the Theory of Encke’s Comet,”’ by George R. Smalley Hsq. (See Trans. Phil. Soc. N.S.W., 1862-5, 330 — 338.) 2. ““On the Manners and Oustoms of the Natives of the Lower Murray and Darling,’”’ by Gerard Krefit. (See Trans. Phil. Soc. N.S.W., 1862-5, 357 — 374; the last paper in the volume.) Seventy-fifth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 6th September, 1865. Rev. W. B. Olarke in the Chair. Papers read.—1. ‘“‘On the Defences of Port Jackson,”’ by G. A. Morrell Esq., illustrated by maps of the Harbour and plans of the proposed Fortifications. (See Trans. Phil, Soc. N.S.W. 1862-5, 245 — 266.) 2. “On the Geological Position of the Petroleum Coal,”’ by William Keene Hsq., illustrated with numerous speci- mens. Seventy-sixth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 11th October, 1865. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Report of the Committee of the Philosophical Society appointed by the Council, July 26th, 1865, to consider the HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 303 question of altering the title of the Society to that of ““The Royal Society of New South Wales,”’ adopted by the Council on the 27th September :— (1) Considering the languishing condition of this Society, we are of opinion that some effort should be made to restore its vitality and raise it to that important and useful position that it ought to occupy. (2) It is not easy to account satisfactorily for the decline of this Society. We do not believe that it arises from a general indifference to Art and Science, but there is good reason to suppose that many are deterred from taking a direct interest in its pro- ceedings by the conviction that the subjects discussed are of that abstruse and abstract character that few have had time or oppor- tunity to study; and that there are no general or useful results to be derived from it. (3) The principal cause of this impression may be traced to the present title of the Society, which assigns to it an exclusiveness by which many are deterred from becoming members. (4) If then, as we consider a change of name desirable, the question arises, “‘What shall we adopt in its place”? Now ina British Colony we naturally incline to follow the precedent of Great Britain and its principal Dependencies, and in conformity with the course pursued in ‘‘ England, Scotland, Ireland, Victoria, and Tasmania,” we recommend that ‘‘the Philosophical Society ” should adopt the more comprehensive and expressive title of “the Royal Society of New South Wales.” (5) So far as we can learn, there appears to be no difficulty in effecting the proposed transformation. The principal formality will be to petition His Excellency the Governor to sanction, on behalf of Her Majesty, the desired alteration of title. (6) The actual details of the new Society should be the subject of future discussions; at present we suggest the following outline which will serve as a basis for future amendments :— I. The Royal Society should consist of Fellows and Associates. 304 J. H. MAIDEN. The former might, in the first instance, be selected by His Excellency the Governor, and subsequently as vacancies occurred, — or additional Fellowships were determined upon, such selections would be made by the existing Fellows from the Associates. II. The Associates would pay the same Fees as at present, but a larger contribution might be required from the Fellows. III. The Society might be subdivided into Sections, after the fashion of the British Association; each Section having its own President and time of meeting, but subject to the general govern- ment of the Royal Society and enjoying the same advantages. IV. The common fund of the Society should be employed, after defraying current expenses in the monthly publications of its transactions; ‘the awarding pecuniary assistance to scientific expeditions; and the encouragement of Art and Science by the offer of rewards and medals for Colonial energy. V. It should be a great object with the Society to obtain a fixed establishment of its own—consisting of a resident secretary, with the advantages of a Library—forming in fact a sort of Scientific Club. ‘Unity is strength” and we cannot but think that the other learned societies of Sydney will be willing to combine under one common system which would beneficially influence their future prosperity, and would in no way diminish their present independ- ence. (Signed) George R. Smalley August 30th, 1865. Ed. Bedford. . The adoption of the above report having been moved by George R. Smalley Esq. and seconded by Hd. Bedford Hsq. was put by the Chairman to the meeting and carried. It was then moved by W. J. Stephens Hsq., seconded by Chris. Rolleston Esq., and carried, that a Sub-Committee be appointed to draw up a code of Rules and Regulations for the proposed Royal Society of New South Wales, and to submit the same for the consideration of the Philosophical Society at their next monthly meeting. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 305 And that such Committee consist of the Rev.W. B. Clarke, Professor Smith, Hdward Bedford Hsq., Chris. Rolleston Hsq., J. F. Josephson Hsq., Wm. McDonnell EKsq., G. Morrell Hsq., G. R. Smalley Hsq. Paper read.—"*On certain possible relations between geological changes and astronomical observations,’’ by George R. Smalley Hsq. (See Trans. Phil. Soc. N.S. W., 1862-5, 338 — 346.) Seventy-seventh Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, lst November, 1865. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Member elected.—G. A. Morell Hsq. Proposed change of title of the Philosophical Society of N.S. Wales. Ata General Meeting of the members of the Philosophical Society, held on lst November, and adjourned to the 8th November, it was resolved and finally confirmed on the 6th December:— 1. That the Philosophical Society shall from the 1st of May, 1866, be called the ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, subject to the sanction of the Governor. 2. All members of the Philosophical Society, who have paid their subscription at the date of the Governor’s sanc- tion to the change of title shall be considered members of the ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. The following were then passed as the fundamental rules for the Royal Society of New South Wales:— | Objects of the Society. 1. The object of the Society is to receive at its stated meetings original papers on subjects of Science, Art, Literature, and Phil- osophy, and especially on such subjects as tend to develop the resources of Australia and to illustrate its Natural History and Productions. T—July 3, 1918. 306 J. H. MAIDEN, President. 2. The Governor of New South Wales shall be ex officio, the President of the Society. | Other Officers. 3. The other officers of the Society shal] consist of two Vice- Presidents, a Treasurer, and two or more Secretaries, who, with six other members shall constitute a Council for the management of the affairs of the Society. Election of Officers. 4. The Vice Presidents, Treasurer, Secretaries, and the six other members of Council, shall be elected annually at an Annual General Meeting in the month of May. Vacancies during the Year. 5. Any vacancies occurring in the Council of Management during the year, may be filled up by the Council. Lees. 6. The entrance money paid by members on their admission shall be One Guinea; and the annual subscription to be One Guinea, payable in advance. The sum of Ten Pounds may be paid at any time as a composition for the ordinary annual payment for life. Honorary Menbers. 7. The Honorary Members of the Society shall be persons who have been eminent benefactors to this or some other of the Aus- tralian Colonies, or distinguished patrons and promoters of the objects of the Society. Every person proposed as an Honorary Member must be recommended by the Council and elected by the Society. Honorary Members shall be exempted from payment of fees and contributions, they may attend the meetings of the Society, and shall be furnished with copies of transactions and proceedings, published by the Society, but they shall have no right to hold office, to vote, or otherwise interfere in the business of the Society. Confirmation of Bye-Laws. 8. Bye-laws proposed by the Council of Management shall not be binding until ratified by a General Meeting. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 307 Alteration of Fundamental Rules. 9. No alteration or addition to the Fundamental Rules of the Society shall be made, unless carried at two successive General Meetings. Note.—The Bye-laws of the Philosophical Society will be con- sidered at the outset the Bye-laws of the Royal Society. Adjourned Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 8th November, 1865. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Paper read.—*‘On the Geology and Capabilities of the Cape York Peninsula,’’ by Alex. Rattray Hsq., M.D. Adjourned Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 6th Decem- ber, 1865. Chris. Rolleston Esq. in the Chair. Members elected.—Grafton Ross Hsq., J. Winnington Hsq., Rev. A. H. Wyatt. Paper read.—"‘On the present state of Astronomical, Magnetical and Meteorological Science, and the practical - bearings of those Subjects,” by G. R. Smalley Hsq. (See Trans. Phil. Soc. N.S.W., 1862-5, 347 —- 356. This is the paper of latest date, published in the volume in question. ) A letter was read from Mr. Joseph Chambers, addressed to Mr. Charles Moore, in reference to a cave of the abor- igines on the Goulburn River. The rules of the Society were finally amended and ap- proved. Seventy-eighth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 16th May, 1866. George R. Smalley in the Chair. Financial Statement :— RECEIPTS. Gi ssh To Subscriptions and Entrance Fees ... 5c we Gis | iam ,, Cash per Sale of One Government Debenture ... 91 12 0 ,, Interest on Government Debentures LT TORO 5, Balance due to Union Bank 5 pee are 308 J. H. MAIDEN. DisBURSEMENTS. £. 8 da By Balance due to the Union Bank on 30th April, 1865 15 2 1 ,, Rent of Hall of Australian Library na who 22h eae ,, Fairfax and Sons, Advertisements as J ie », Hanson and Bennett, Advertisements ... PE es)? », Reading and Wellbank, Printing Account os LOO eG , Edward Ramsay Esq., Lithographs en -s. | COORG ,, Petty Cash, Postage Stamps, etc.... ae /..) LORS , W. H. Ingram, Collection ... a ce ON) eee ,, Secretary's Salary from Ist Jan. to 3st Dee., 1365740 0R 0 BeOS) Ile | To Government Debentures ... = 2 LoOOtT OFaO By Amount overdrawn at the meee Bante, ee BPP at ger 5, Balance a se aie a oa: jo OOP LZ aR £300 0 0 (Signed ) Edward Bedford, Treasurer. Officers Elected :— President: His Excellency Sir John Young. Vice-Presidents: Rev. W. B. Clarke; The Honorable E. Deas- Thomson Esq. Council: Dr. Cox; Gerard Krefft Esq.; F. B. Miller Esq.; Charles Moore Esq.; Professor Pell; Professor Smith. Hon. Secretaries: W. J. Stephens Esq.; G. A. Smalley Esq. Hon. Treasurer: Edward Bedford Esq. Member elected.—William Ford Esq. It was resolved to move His Excellency the Governor to seek the Queen’s assent to change the name of the Society from Philosophical Society to that of Royal Society of New South Wales. Seventy-ninth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 6th June, 1866. Professor Smith in the Chair. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 309 Hightieth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 4th July, 1866. Professor Smith in the Chair. Paper read.—“‘On the Ornithology of Lake George,”’ by Mr. Edward Ramsay, which he illustrated with numerous specimens of skins and eggs. Highty-first Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, ist August, 1866. Professor Smith in the Chair. Papers read.—1. “Preliminary remarks on the Mag- netical Survey of New South Wales,’’ by Mr. Smalley, which he illustrated with diagrams and magnetical instru- ments. 2. “On the dentition of Thylacoleo carnifex,” by Mr. Gerard Krefit, which he illustrated with fossils and models. At this meeting *“Some conversation then followed on the subject of a Scientific Congress. . . . The Chairman said he had no doubt that at some future time there would be an Australian Association for the Advancement of Science, but he did not suppose we had the material for it yet. If anything was done now it would have to be done in con- nection with some other attraction, such as the Hxhibition, which would bring a large number of persons together. Dr. Bedford concurred with the chairman. The proposal was more likely to be carried into effect in Melbourne than in Sydney, for the Hxhibition there would collect a large number of persons interested in science and art, and they might use the intervals of leisure which they then only possessed in the way proposed. We were not yet ripe for the complete arrangements such ag were carried out in the British Association at home. If anything of the kind were attempted it would be definitely arranged beforehand, and that they should be of a practical character, such for example as the coal formations of Australia, or the extrac- 310 J. H. MAIDEN. tion of gold from quartz, not merely by machinery, but also by chemical processes. After some other observations of similar purport, the matter was allowed to drop. On the motion of Mr. G. A. Smalley, a vote of thanks was given to the Rev. Dr. Bleasdale and Mr. Knight for their attend- ance, and for the information which they had communicated in reference to the proposed Congress.”’ Highty-second Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 12th September, 1866. Professor Smith in the Chair. Paper read.—*‘ Remarks on the support of the young of Marsupial Animals in the pouch,’”’ by Kdward Bedford Hsq., which he illustrated by a diagram’and various Marsupial bones. Highty-third Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 3rd October, 1866. William Bland Esq. in the Chair. Paper read.—“‘On the Genus Trigonia, with remarks on the relative position of the living species found in the Australian Seas to the fossil species found in the strata | of the Old World,’’ by Dr. Cox, which he illustrated with various diagrams and cabinet specimens. Highty-fourth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library,, 7th November, 1866. Professor Smith in the Chair. Papers read.—1. ‘‘Remarks concerning a new species of Fagus,”’ by Charles Moore Esq., which he illustrated with dried specimens and a polished section of the wood. (He proposed the name F. Carroni, which Bentham subse- quently, considering it nomen nudum, changed to F’. Moorei.) 2. “On the Classification of the Small Marsupial Insecti- vora,” by Gerard Krefft Hsq., which he illustrated with numerous stuffed specimens and the skulls of the animals. Highty-fifth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 12th December, 1866. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 213 Oy | The Secretary then read :— November 15th, 1866. I am directed by the Governor to forward the enclosed copy of a despatch received by the last mail from the Secretary of State, and to say that His Excellency has much pleasure in transiaitting it to you for the information of the Philosophical Society. I have, etc, (Signed) F. Turvitue. To W. H. Catietr Esq , Secretary, Philosophical Society. (Copy of Despatch). New South Wales. Downing Street, No. 10. 24th September, 1866. I have received your Despatch No. 37 of the 10th of June, requesting on behalf of the members of the Philosophical Society of New South Wales, of which you are the President, that Her Majesty will be pleased to permit that Society to assume the title of the Royal Society of New South Wales. Having laid this application before the Queen, I have much pleasure in informing you that Her Majesty has been graciously pleased to signify Her Assent to it, and to sanction and approve of the Philosophical Society in future assuming the title of “‘The Royal Society of New South Wales ” I have, etc, (Signed) CARNARVON. Governor, The Right Honourable Sir Joun Young, Bt., K.c.n. The Rev. W. B. Clarke exhibited two species of Fossili- ferous Trigonia found in the Inferior Oolite of Western Australia, in order to correct a statement made at a recent meeting of the Society to the effect that only living speci- mens of the genus have hitherto been found in Australia. Paper read.—‘‘On our Condition and Resources,”’ by Mr. Christopher Rolleston. The Philosophical Society of New South Wales, after holding 85 monthly meetings then adjourned, (as the Royal Society of New South Wales) for its usual vacation. 312 J. H. MAIDEN, Microscopical Committee (or Section). Established at the monthly meeting of 11th May, 1859. See p. 279. | Following is an abstract of the minutes of the Committee: 22nd June, 1859. Met at 6 p.m. at Australian Library. Rev. G. EK. Turner was added to the Committee. It was decided to meet at 8 p.m. in future. Paper read.—‘ Describing a convenient mode of applying Canada Balsam in mounting microscopic objects,’’ by Alfred Roberts Hsq. It was decided to lay it on the table at the next meeting of the Society. It was read, see p. 280. Hxhibits.—The Rev. W. B. Clarke exhibited some beau- tiful specimens of fossil Hntomostraca and other minute shells, and Mr. Alfred Roberts some injected Specimens of portions of the intestinal tube from the black snake and from a Hydropis bicolor, also some varieties of Pleuwrostigma from Port Jackson. } 27th July, 1859, Australian Library, 8 p.m. Paper read.—‘‘On the adulteration of Milk in Sydney,” by Dr. Williams. “‘Tth September, 1859, Hall, Australian Library, 8 p.m. Paper read.—A paper was read by the President, His Excellency Sir William Denison, explanatory of the micro- scopic objects he had mounted and laid before the meeting, viz:—Tongues of two Siphonaria, Chiton, Chitonellus, Risella, Turbo, Radius, Nerita, and two Patellas. Hxhibits.—His Excellency also laid upon the table two photographs of microscopic specimens of sections of wood ‘taken and mounted by Mr. Dalton. Captain Ward also exhibited several photographs of microscopic specimens of sections of wood taken by himself. Joseph Burgon Hsq. exhibited various formsof Desmidians. Alfred Roberts Hsq., a collection of Diatomacee. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 313 5th October, 1859 (Wednesday), Hall, Australian Library. H. H. Browne Hsq. in the Chair. The exhibits included those of Alfred Roberts Esq., of transverse and longitudinal sections of Sphceria Robertsi, and a longitudinal section of a tooth of a diamond snake. Captain Ward, R.E., six sectional specimens of Australian woods, mounted in balsam, with their photos. Mr. Henry A. Severn also exhibited several sectional specimens of Australian woods. 2nd November, 1859 (Wednesday). Alfred Roberts Esq. laid before the meeting specimens of siliceous Orbitoloids dredged up at Cape Byron, N.S.W. by one of the officers of the “‘Tris’’ on her last cruise. 7th December, 1859 (Wednesday). A **Report on Flour and Bread” was furnished to the Society by the Committee which had undertaken the examinations for the adulteration of food. 6th June, 1860 (Wednesday). Meeting lapsed for want of quorum. 4th July, 1860 (Wednesday). At Australian Library. Diatomacee chiefly shown. ist August, 1860. No quorum because of the inclemency of the weather. oth September, 1860. ‘His Excellency Sir William Denison exhibited a set of scales cut by Mr. A. Tornaghi of Sydney for measuring microscopic objects. ord October, 7th November and 5th December, 1860, the entries are “‘ Meeting lapsed for want of a quorum.’’ The lapse in November is attributed to the inclemency of the weather. See J. H. MAIDEN. I can find no more entries, and as Sir William Denison, who instigated the formation of the Committee, and warmly supported it, shortly afterwards left the Colony, the Com- mittee probably lapsed. 11. The Royal Society of New South Wales, (12th December, 1866 —.) It seems proper to record the 12th December, 1866, the date on which the Royal Assent was communicated toa meeting of the Society, as the new birthday of the Royal Society of New South Wales. (The following abstract of minutes, almost exclusively of the monthly meetings, are from June 1867 until January 1875, after which date abstracts began to be published in each annual volume). The minutes of the Council Meeting of 17th June, 1867, record—“*The Secretary was instructed to furnish Mr. Olarke with the necessary documents to enable him to write an Historical Sketch of the Society from the com- mencement.” (Later Council Minutes are given below, p. 338). The result of this was the ‘‘Inaugural Address to the Royal Society delivered at its first meeting, 9th July, 1867, by the Revd. W. B. Olarke, M.A., F.G,S., etc., Vice- President,’’} and which is the best account we have of the history of the Society. First Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 9th July, 1867. Sir John Young in the Chair. Rev. W. B. Clarke, M.a., Vice-President, read the Inaugural Address. It is printed in Vol. I, and contains a valuable historical summary of the Society from its founda- tion. 1 Trans. Roy. Soc. N. 8. Wales, for year 1867, Vol. 1, p. 1, (1868). HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 315 Financial Statement :— RECEIPTS. £48.) de To Subscriptions bee ade asi ; mt te lot oO ,, Cash from the sale of two Government Teak Mora rays ,, Interest from Government Debentures ... eu wei Oa) EDyAa a) MOD) 74 DISBURSEMENTS. £5 fl By Balance due to the Union Bank on 30th April, 1866 33 7 1 » Rent of Hall of Australian Library Le Fen Puts Gre AO ,, Fairfax and Sons—Advertisements oe Pe WEA ORO , Hanson and Bennett ne L Ase Dita OS » Reading and Wellbank— Peres aa Sracine the Transactions of the Society... ae ae, en See Oa ,, Cubitt— Diagrams for the Society... a a a OR eG, ,, Petty Cash, Postage Stamps, etc.... ae be Peale Ui 1) / ,» Secretary’s Salary from Ist Jan. to 3lst Dec. 1866 40 0 O , Balance in the Union Bank ae a ie On nO souae o) ) Ys To one Government Debenture ee he £100 0 0 » Balance in the Union Bank ee ve Soo grant AO 0) By Balance ae “at ie ae Mee a OP MON Gre (Signed) Ed. Bedford, Treasurer. W. H. Catlett, Secretary. The list of office bearers will be found printed in Vol. I. Second Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 7th August, 1867. G.R. Smalley in the Chair. Members elected.—T. J. Jaques Hsq., Walter Adams Hsq., James Thompson KHsq., Treasury; W.C. Windeyer Hsq., M.P., Alex. M. Thomson Hsq., University; Dr. Sydney Jones, The Hon. F. Lord Esq., M.L.c., Arthur M. Allen Hsq., Dr. Belin- fante,7 Wynyard Square; Captain Purcell, R.A., Dr. Alston, Victor A. Prout Esq., P. B. Walker Esq., Telegraph Office. 316 J. H. MAIDEN, Two letters “‘On Light non-luminous, dated respectively the 21st December, 1866 and 10th January, 1867,” addressed to the Rev. W. B. Clarke by Mr. Robert Adams were read by the Chairman. A nearly complete set of Proceedings of the Royal Geo- graphical Society was presented by His Hxcellency the President. Paper read.—‘* On Non-Linear Co-resolvents,’”’ by the Honorable Chief Justice Cockle, F.R.S. (Read by Mr. Martin Gardiner.) (Printed in Trans. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1, 27 — 30.) From this onwards the papers read at the monthly meet- ings were regularly printed in the annual volume. Third Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 4th September, 1867. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Member elected.—A. B. Weigall Esq. In consequence of Mr. Wuth’s paper “‘On Bones found in a Cave at Glenorchy, Tasmania, having been printed in the Colonial Monthly and Australian Magazine, the paper was not read, but ‘Remarks on Mr. Wuth’s paper’’ was read by Gerard Krefft Esq, which he illustrated by numerous osteological remains. Paper read.—‘‘On the Auriferous and other Mineral Districts of Northern Queensland,’’ by Rev. W. B. Clarke, which he illustrated by photographs of the localities. Fourth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 9th October, 1867. G. R. Smalley Esq., in the Chair. Members elected.—Howard Reed Hsq., R. D. Ward Hsq. Paper read.—‘*On the reappearance of Scurvy in the Merchant Service,’’ by Edward Bedford Esq. Fifth Montbly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 6th November, 1867. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 317 Members elected.—The Honorable T. A. Murray Hsq., and R. M. Forster Esq. Paper read.—*‘On the Rates of Mortality and the expec- tation of Life in New South Wales as compared with Hngland and other Countries,’’ by Professor Pell. It was moved by Mr. Smalley and seconded by Professor Smith, and carried, ‘*That the Secretaries of the Royal Society be requested to communicate with the Colonial Secretary with a view of obtaining such extra clerical assistance as shall enable the Registrar General to reduce and finish the Statistics in his office so far as they relate to the number of individuals of all ages that have died in each successive year, and such collateral information as may supply complete Tables of Mortality and expectation of Life in New South Wales.”’ Notes on the Geology of the Mary River, Queensland, were then read by the Rev. W. B. Clarke. Sixth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 4th December, 1867. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Members elected.—John Gowland Hsq., R.N., and Rev. Dr. Lang, D.D. M.P. Papers read.—1. “On the Mutual Influence of Clock Pendulums under certain conditions,’ byG. R.Smalley Esq., which he illustrated by various experiments upon two clocks from the Observatory. 2. “On the Source of the Sun’s Light and Heat,’ by Frederick S. Peppercorne Hsq. Seventh Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 3rd June, 1868. His Excellency the Harl of Belmore in the Chair. Office-bearers were elected for the year 1868. (SeeVol.1.) Member elected.—Mr. F. Allerding. 318 J. H. MAIDEN. Financial Statement :— RECEIPTS. £ i s.aqa To Balance in the Union Bank on 30th April, 1867 30 6 6 5, Subscriptions and Entrance Fees... see noo, aOR ;, Interest from Government Debenture ... OS Oe ae £115 2a DISBURSEMENTS. £7 EE By Rent of Hall of Australian Library ss io SE ae , Fairfax and Sons—Advertisements 4 4 0 5, Samuel Bennett—Advertisements i 3) Diane , Reading and Wellbank, Printing Account ho) Ow ,, Commission to Collector 1-16-59 ,, Petty Cash, Postage Stamps |e! cabo 3) ;, Gratuity to Messenger So pea Wiig Ls ,, Assistant Secretary’s Salary for tite year aie 31st December, 1867 ... ner i: ee = ZOE Balance in the Union Bank ah, ah fh Ad OAS 49 oe 2 ene To one Government Debenture yer oe £100 O O ,, Balance in the Union Bank RAs eae .. 438 4 39 £43 Veto Mr. G. R. Smalley (Vice-President) read an opening address (See Vol. 1868, p. 1). Highth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, Ist July, 1868. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Members elected.—M. Metcalfe Hsq., Henry Halloran Hsq., Rev. James Graham, John Fairfax EHsq., Alfred Roberts Hsq., Charles Mayes Esq., H. H. O’Neil Hsq., Dr. Belisario, Dr. Brereton, H. Reading Esg., Major Roberts, Rev. William Roberts, Thomas Richards Hsq. | G. R. Smalley exhibited the Harth Thermometers about to be employed at the Sydney Observatory, and read a short paper “‘On the value of earth temperatures.”’ yy ee n HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 319 Ninth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 5th August, 1868. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Members elected.—Wm. Tucker Hsq., Clifton, North Shore; Fredk, Tooth Hsq., Montague Scott Esq., Captain ‘Hovell, Goulburn; Dr. Paterson, LL.D., Rev. Dr. Begg, Rev. Cave-Brown-Cave, A. Hordern Esq., J. D. Comrie Hsq., HK. Twynam KHsq., E. T. Beilby Esq. Paper read.—‘‘On Improvements effected in modern Museums in Hurope and Australia,’’ by Mr. Krefit, which he illustrated by numerous photographs. Adjourned Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 14th August, 1868. Professor Smith in the Chair. Paper read.—*'On the Hospital requirements of Sydney,”’ by Mr. Alfred Roberts, which he illustrated with drawings and plans of hospitals. (This was an historical paper, the author being, more than any other man, the founder of the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital). Tenth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 2nd September, 1868. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Members elected.—The Honorable Sir William Macarthur M.L.C., J. R. Fairfax Hsq., Andrew Garran Hsq., Charles Miles Esq., Charles Nathan Hsq., Judge Francis. Paper read.—*‘On the cause and phenomena of Harth- quakes, especially in relation to shocks felt in Australasia,”’ by Rev. W. B. Clarke, which he illustrated by coloured maps and diagrams. Eleventh Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 14th October, 1868. Christopher Rolleston Esq. in the Chair. Members elected.—Charles Campbell EHsq., O. Goodchap Esq., . Senior Esq. 320 J. H. MAIDEN. Paper read.—‘*On the Water Supply of Sydney,’ by Professor Smith, which he illustrated by maps and diagrams. (This was beginning to be an acute question. From this and subsequent papers, it will be seen that consideration of it formed an important part of the work of this Society). Twelfth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 11th November, 1868. Kdward Bedford Hsq. in the Chair. Moved by Henry Russell Hsq., seconded by F. Miller Hsq., and carried, °° That in future there shall be pro forma a ballot upon the admission of every member of the Royal Society of New South Wales.’’ Members elected.—Wm. J. MacDonnell Hsq., Walter Dickinson Armstrong Esq., Thomas Holt Hsq. Paper read.—‘‘ On the distribution of the Australian Volutes,’’ by Dr. Cox, which he illustrated by a fine col- lection of Volutes. Thirteenth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 2nd December, 1868. Professor Smith in the Chair. Member elected.—Hugh Paterson Hsq. Papers read.—1. “‘Results of Wheat Culture in New South Wales during the last Ten Years,’’ by Chris. Rolles- ton Hsq. 2. ‘‘ Remarks on the Dry Harth System of Con- servancy,’’ by Edward Bedford Hsq. Moved by Alfred Roberts Esq., seconded by Charles Mayes Esq., and carried, ‘“‘That a Committee consisting of Mr. Cracknell, Mr. Rolleston, and Mr. Bedford be appointed to draw up a report on the system dealt with in Mr. Bed- ford’s report, and that the report be forwarded to the Government for their consideration.”’ Adjourned Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 9th December, 1868. Professor Smith in the Chair. Paper read.—"‘On Pauperism of New South Wales, past, present and future,’’ by Mr. Alfred Roberts. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES B yA Fourteenth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 12th May, 1869. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Opening address read by the Rev. W. B. Olarke. (See Vol. 111, 1869, p. 1). Paper read.—"‘A Review of the progress of Lands Titles Registration in New South Wales,” by Mr. G. K. Holden. Financial Statement:— RECEIPTS, BOIS SeR 16 To Balance in the Union Bank _... Se sieieyh ty EO a Ad (Oo 5, Subscriptions and Entrance Fees ... ee pew) ee ,, Interest from Government Debentures ... Stoey) ON iyOr oO LA Se DISBURSEMENTS. Sune. By Rent of Hall of Australian Library Wee LESH ES! 20 , Fairfax and Sons—Advertisements Be OPENS OUT) (ale tae », Samuel Bennett— Advertisements AS ee 616 3 », FE. White, Printing Transactions ... ea be eliy Ceo emo ,, Hire of Tables and Lamps ae ae ese Ono eraaO) ,, Compagnoni, Refreshments ae a He NOLO », Petty Expenses... ue Me sed ste oF OME ,, Commission to Collector ... ae POE sail Aly 4088 ,, Assistant Secretary’s Salary Ie +4 4050-05710 », Balancein the Union Bank on 30th Leas 1869 24 5 2 £141 Ns); To One Government Debenture as was £100. 0. 0 ,, Balance in the Union Bank Ss eee t56 |) ie A ee, Office-bearers were elected for the year 1869-70. Adjourned Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 17th May, 1869. G. R. Smalley in the Chair. U—July 3, 1918. aoe J. H. MAIDEN. Paper read,—1. ‘“‘On the Water Supply of Sydney from George’s River and Cook’s River,’’ by Mr. Chas. Mayes, which he illustrated with diagrams. 2. ‘‘On the results of the Chemical Examination of Water for the Sydney Water Commission,”’ by Professor Smith. Fifteenth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 2nd June, 1869. Professor Smith in the Chair. Member elected.—S. L. Bensusan Hsq. Papers read.—1. ‘‘An analytical solution to Sir William Hamilton’s problem on the inscription of closed n‘gon’s in any quadric.”’ 2. “Important new theorem in the geometry of Three Dimensions.”’ 3. ‘‘An exposition of the American method of levelling for Sections—its superiority to the Hnglish and French methods as regards actual field practice and subsequent plotting of the Section.’’ (All read by Martin Gardiner Hsq.) — Sixteenth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 2nd June, 1869. His Excellency the Harl of Belmore in the Chair. Paper read.—‘‘On the Hlectric Telegraph between Hng- land and India, and how to connect the Australian Colonies with the Telegraphic Systems of Hurope and America,’’ by Mr. H. OC. Cracknell, which he illustrated by 12 electric batteries representing 12 repeating stations on the proposed circuit between Sydney and London, and by diagrams. Seventeenth Monthly Meeting, Hall, Australian Library, 5th August, 1869. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Member elected.—Mr. G. A. Mansfield. Paper read.—‘‘On the Geological Structure of the country around Goulburn,’’ by Dr. Thomson, which he illustrated by a geological map of the County of Argyle and by speci- mens of the rocks and fossils. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 323 Highteenth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, ist September, 1869. Rev. W.-.B. Clarke in the Chair. Members elected.—William Bell Esq., James Sutherland Mitchell Hsq.,S. Franck Hsq., George Thorne Hsq., junior. Paper read.—*‘ On the Origin and Migrations of the Polynesian Nation, demonstrating their discovery and pro- gressive settlement of the Continent of America,’’ by the Rev. Dr. Lang. Nineteenth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 6th October, 1869. Hdward Bedford Hsq. in the Chair. Members elected.—W. A. Duncan Hsq., Rev. C. Bode, J. H. L. Scott Hsq., J. -Williams Hsq. Paper read.—** Improved Solutions to important problems in Trigonometrical Surveying,”’ by Mr. Martin Gardiner. ‘‘The Chairman called the attention of the meeting toa Botanical Abstract published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania, in reference to the time of the leafing, flowering and fruiting of a few standard plants in the Royal Society’s Gardens, Hobart Town, and suggested that it would be very interesting if a similar abstract was made in this Colony. Mr. Moore undertook to carry out the Chairman’s suggestion.” (I cannot trace that Mr. Abbott’s phenological observa- tions, which were the earliest in Australia, were added to in New South Wales). Twentieth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 3rd November, 1869. G. R. Smalley Esq. in the Chair. Member elected.—Mr. John Hdye Manning. Mr. Moore intimated to the meeting that he had prepared @ paper on the leafing and flowering of shrubs in New South Wales, which he would have much pleasure in putting before the Society atan early meeting. (If this paper was published, it must have been in the daily press). 324 J. H. MAIDEN. Paper read.—‘‘ On the Origin and Migrations of the Polynesian Nation, demonstrating their discovery and pro- gressive settlement of the Continent of America,”’ (2nd Part) by Rev. Dr. Lang. Twenty-first Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 1st December, 1869. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Member elected.—Alfred de Lissa Esq. Papers read.—1. “On the refining of Gold by means of Chlorine Gas,’”’ by F. B. Miller Esq., which he illustrated with a diagram showing the furnaces and apparatus for generating the chlorine gas, and conveying it into the molten gold, and with samples of gold in the unrefined and refined condition, and with the silver extracted from it. 2. ‘““Onanew apparatus for reducing Chloride of Silver,’’ by Dr. Leibius, which he illustrated with slabs of fused Chloride of Silver and the apparatus for reducing them to a metallic state in the shape of a galvanic battery arranged in pairs, consisting of plates of chloride of silver and zinc. Adjourned Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 8th December 1869. G. R.Smalley in the Chair. Members elected.-—Dr. Mildred Creed, F. W. Hiliott Hsq. Papers read.—‘‘On the Origin and Migrations of the Polynesian Nation, demonstrating their discovery and pro- gressive settlement of the Continent of America,’’ by the Rev. Dr. Lang. (3rd Part). ‘*Remarks on his Tables for calculating the Humidity of the Air,’’ by H. C. Russell Esq. Twenty-second Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 25th May, 1870. G. R. Smalley in the Chair. Office-bearers were elected for 1870-1. Financial Statement :— “— o> ay HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 325 RECEIPTS. tyes. Cs To Amount in the Union Bank on 30th April, 1869 22 5 2 5, Subscriptions and Entrance Fees... aoe Pie LOA. TOO ;, Interest on Government Debenture eid tn we LO LO £123 5 2 _ DISBURSEMENTS. | a7 1S. 00s By Rent of Hall Australian Library... - wo. (, 5, Rent of Room from the Exchange Company ... 14 14 0 ,, Fairfax and Sons, Advertisements © Sie lel 5, samuel Bennett, Advertisements ... oy 13 99 5, White, Printing Transactions, etc. aa Ole hkl », W.H. Ingram, Collector ... ae sad Pee epee find 3! ONG: 3, Assistant Secretary’s Salary id fea oe a 5, Petty Expenses, Postage Stamps, etc. ... set 14.1078 ,, Balance in Union Bank on 30th April, 1870 ... 4 11 4 e230 5) 2 To One Government Debenture Pe Bs £100 0 O ,, Balance in the Union Bank a) a ded dae 88) EZ £104 11 4 Members elected.—W. EF. Cape Hsq., Richard Binnie Ksq., F. W. Hill Esq., Thomas Rowe Esq. | The Rev. W. B. Clarke, Vice-President, then read an opening Address. (See Vol. Iv, 1870, p. 1). Twenty-third Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 15th June, 1870. Members elected.—Charles Edward Pilcher Esq., Dr. Harteman. Paper read.—*‘On Government Savings Banks, Friendly Societies and Government Life Assurance and Annuity Offices,’ by Mr. Rolleston. 326 J. H. MAIDEN. Twenty-fourth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce,, 6th July, 1870. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Member elected.—Colin Fraser Hsq. Paper read.—‘*Remarks on the Report of the Water Commission with special reference to the George’s River Scheme,” by Dr. Garran. (The subject bulks largely dur- ing the next few weeks). : | Adjourned Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 14th July, 1870. Professor Smith in the Chair. The death of Mr. G. R. Smalley who had done so much for the Society was announced. The debate on Dr. Garran’s paper (remarks on the report of the Water Commission, especially with reference to the George’s River Scheme) was resumed. Adjourned Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 21st July, 1870. Professor Smith in the Chair. Continuation of the discussion on the Sydney Water Supply. Twenty-fifth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 3rd August, 1870. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Members elected.—Rowland Hill Hsq., Dr. Arthur Renwick, Walter W. Spencer Esq., Thomas Croudace Hsq., A. H. Richardson Esq. Moved by the Rev. W. B. Clarke, seconded by Dr. Thomson and carried, ‘“*That the Royal Society of New South Wales, at this its first meeting after the death of the late G. R. Smalley Esq., desires to express its sympathy with his family, and to record in its minutes their regret at his loss, and a deep sense of the valuable services which he rendered to the Society during his connection with it.’’ The debate on the Sydney Water Supply was continued. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 327 (In the minutes was inserted a letter from Rev. W. B. Clarke on the same subject in the “Sydney Morning Herald’”’ of the 5th August.) Adjourned Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 17th August, 1870. Professor Smith in the Chair. Discussion on the Sydney Water Supply continued. (These debates are the most important which have engaged the attention of the Society since its foundation and were fully reported in tbe daily press.) Twenty-sixth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 14th September, 1870. Professor Smith in the Chair. Members elected.—John Lucas Hsq., David Buchanan Hsq., A. Cane Hsq., Arthur H.C. Macafee Hsq. Paper read.—‘*‘ On the Botany Watershed,’ by Mr. Edward Bell. Adjourned Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 24th Sep- tember, 1870. Hdward Bedford Hsq. in the Chair. The debate on Mr. Bell’s paper was resumed. Twenty-seventh Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, Sth October, 1870. Professor Smith in the Chair. Meinbers elected.—G. H. Faithfull Hsq., William Tunks Esq. M.P., Rev. Thomas Horton, William Wallis Esq. The debate on Mr. Bell’s paper was adjourned. Twenty-eighth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 2nd November, 1870. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Member elected:—A. H. Thomson Esq. Paper read.—*‘ Notes on the Auriferous Slate and Granite Veins of New South Wales,’’ by Mr. H. A. Thomson; read by Mr. Chris. Rolleston. 328 J. H. MAIDEN. Twenty-ninth Monthly Meeting, Ohamber of Commerce, 7th December, 1870. Professor Smith in the Chair. Paper read.—‘‘On the occurrence of the Diamond near Mudgee,” by Professor Thomson. The paper was illustrated by geological charts and specimens of the rocks of the district. Thirtieth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 10th May, 1871. His Hxcellency the Earl of Belmore in the Chair. Office-bearers were elected for 1871-2. Financial Statement :— REcEIPTS. iS) Ce To Balance in the Union Bank on 30th April, 1870 411 4 ,» Subscriptions and Entrance Fees.. ase vant VV Sinan) ,, Interest on Government Depentire ae wide) SOD eNO aa) ,, Balance, amount overdrawn at Bank ... mie sas Low eel L130 IO DISBURSEMENTS. ee) Sin al: By Rent of Room from the Exchange Company... 25 4 0 ,, Fairfax and Sons, Advertisements be sda Ad yO ,, samuel Bennett, Advertisements ... nee Ms 6 oo ,, Cunninghame and Co., Printing Circulars tig 4g tO , Fredk. White, Printing Transactions... way GOD, OG , A. L. Jackson, Engraving Map ... ne se ee 2aOmeO », J. Degotardi, Engraving isiccuchy 4 0 0 ,, Assistant Secretary’s Salary from ‘Ist J anuary. to 31st December . io es con 40 ORO ,, W. H. Ingram, for Collector ane ae sate jy SOMME ,, Petty Cash, Postage Stamps, etc... ae oe Aa £137 JEG To One Government Debenture a: sig £100 0 0 By Amount Overdrawn at Union Bank 507 o- 15 1 3ae ,, Dalance 8. sk eAN 8 Leh seo O40 IO ae £100 O80 HISTORY. OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 329 Professor Smith, Vice-President, then read the opening address (Vol. v, p. 1). Paper read.—‘‘On the Nebule of Eta Argus,’’ by H. O. Russell. No meeting was held in June for want of a paper. } Thirty-first Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 12th July, 1871. Edward Bedford Esq. in the Chair. Members elected.—Thomas Hale Hsq., William Forlonge Hsq. Papers read.—1. ‘‘On Magnetic Variations at Svdney,”’ by H.C. Russell Esq. 2. ‘‘On the Deviations of Compasses in Iron Ships,’’ by the Rev. W. Scott. Thirty-second Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 6th September, 1871. Edward Bedford Esq. in the Chair, Members elected.—Alfred Fairfax Hsq., Thomas Robert- son Hsq. Paper read.—*‘On the Constitution of Matter,’’ by Pro- fessor Pell, which he illustrated by diagrams. Thirty-third Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 18th October, 1871. Rev. Dr. Lang in the Chair. Paper read.—‘‘ Remarks on the Botany of Lord Howe’s Island,’’ by Charles Moore Hsq. H.C. Russell Hsq. made a few remarks about the Spectrum of the Nebula round “‘y Argus”’ and exhibited Charts pub- lished by the Royal Society of Victoria for the Hclipse Hxpedition.’”’ (This was to Northern Queensland.) Thirty-fourth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 8th November, 1871. Honorable Charles Campbell in the Chair. Member elected.—John W. Brazier Esq., 0.M.z.s., Lond. 330 J. H. MAIDEN. With reference to Kclipse Expedition, Mr. Russell reported that the Government was willing to place £300 on the Estimates for the Expedition, and that the Govern- ment of Queensland had consented to lend the ‘‘Governor Blackall ’’ Steamer, for the same purpose. Mr. Russell further stated that in addition to the observing party, there would be twenty passengers from Victoria and two from this Colony, leaving accommodation for four more passengers. The only obstacle remaining was raising the sum of £100. Paper read,—‘‘On New Guinea—a highly promising field for settlement and colonization,—successfully accom- plished,’’ by the Rev. Dr. Lang. -Thirty-fifth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 22nd May, 1872. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Members elected.—The Honorable John Campbell, M.L.c., Horatio G. H. Wright Esq. Officer-bearers were elected for 1872-3. Hinancial Statement :— RECEIPTS. UD eg eC Le To Subscriptions and Entrance Fees... ey: $8) 4 OG sO; ,, Interest on One Government Debenture... eaten ots 04280 ,, Sale of Government Debenture ... a aa: LOD 24 au9 £1 8%: tOneea DISBURSEMENTS. ao ge mee By Balance amount overdrawn at the Union Bank on oUth April) sy rT re ate eee er , Rent of Room from the Exchange Coma oa 2 ,, Fairfax and Sons, Advertisements toe oe 2, Lone », Samuel Bennett, Advertisements ... ny » od) 2 eo ,, Cunninghame and Co. at¢ at ane , 3) ee Carried forward ne vat ft a. (SiGp GEG DISBURSEMENTS— continued. soy nee Oe Brought forward é ee perdke 1 aae O o By Fredk. White, Printing Tranedenons ed BAe ME , Assistant Secretary’s Salary from Ist January to 31st December, 1871 ... me ae wae 40s 0-2 , W. H. Ingram, Commission : res nae Syd ,, Petty Cash, Postage Stamps, etc... Le GAO OOO? iG ,, Balance at the Union Bank ela (SOR ate ea isi) We 1) Rev. W. B. Clarke read the opening address (Vol. VI, p. 1). Thirty-sixth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 24th July, 1872. Rev. Dr. Lang in the Chair. Members elected.—George Milner Stephen Hsq., B.A., F.G.S., Rev. Waldyve W. Tarleton, B.A., The Hon. J. Squire Farnell, Minister for Lands, The Right Rev. Dr. Marsden, Bishop of Bathurst, Dr. William Crosby Morgan. The Chairman reported to the meeting that he had received the following letter from the Honourable the Colonial Secretary, viz:— Sydney, 13th July, 1872. Rev. Sir and Gentlemen, With reference to the interview of the 11th ultimo between the Colonial Secretary and yourselves as a Deputation as appointed to urge the claim of the Royal Society of New South Wales to have its transactions printed at the Government Printing Office, [ am ° now directed to inform you that your application has been con- sidered, and that the Government, attaching much public value to the Society’s papers, will authorize compliance with your request. The Government Printer will however be instructed not greatly to exceed in bulk and cost the Society’s published “Transactions” of last year without express permission obtained on report to this office. 2. I am to add that the Society can communicate direct with the Government Printer on receipt of this letter. I have, etc. (Signed) Henry Halloran. 332 J. H. MAIDEN. Paper read.—‘‘A suggestion for an improvement in the projection of Maps,”’ by the Rev. Thomas Horton. The August meeting lapsed for want of a paper. Thirty-seventh Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce; 11th September, 1872. Christopher Rolleston Esq. in the Ohair. Member elected.—H. J. Bolding, P.m. Papers read.—1. ‘On Australian Gems,’’ by George Milner Stephen Hsq., which he illustrated by a number of gems in cabinets. 2. ‘“‘Astronomical Notices,’’ by H. O. Russell Esq. After some discussion in reference to the Telescope at the Observatory, it was moved by the Honorable Francis Lord, and carried, ‘‘That a deputation, consisting of the President of the Royal Society, the Rev. William Scott, Dr. Wright, H.C. Russell Hsq., George Milner Stephen Hsq., wait upon the Honourable the Premier of the Colony with the view of obtaining the necessary funds for purchasing a telescope for the observation of the transit of Venus.”’ Thirty-eighth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 2nd October, 1872. Professor Smith in the Chair. Member elected.—John T. Sleep Hsq. | Paper read.—‘‘On the Colored Cluster Stars about Kappa Crucis,’’ by H. C. Russell Esq. Thirty-ninth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 20th November, 1872. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Member elected.—Archibald Liversidge Hsq. Papers read.—1. ‘‘On an improved method of separating Goid from Argentic Chloride as obtained in gold refining by Chlorine Gas.’’ 2. ‘‘ Remarks on the fallacy of a certain method of assaying Antimony Ores, given by some Manuals HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 333 of Assaying.”’ 3. ‘Remarks on Tin Ore and what may appear like it,’’ illustrated by specimens. (All by Dr. Leibius). Fortieth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 11th December, 1872. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Members elected.—Thos. Hood Cockburn Hood, Hsq., F.G.S., John Mackenzie Hsq., Hxaminer of Coal Fields, Robert Prendergast Esq. Papers read.—1. “‘Statistical Review of the Progress of New South Wales in the last ten years, 1862 to 1871,” by Chris. Rolleston. 2. “On the Deniliquin Meteorite,” by Archibald Liversidge Esq. Forty-first Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 30th May, 1873. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Financial Statement:— RECEIPTS. £os d. To Balance ‘in the Union Bank on 30th BApel LOV2) vail gute 9 ,, Subscriptions and Entrance Fees.. : so OE) Less Cheque Book and Collection of CTreapes, OQ iGar 108 16 11 £185 19 8 DiIsBURSEMENTS. is. ck By Messrs. Cooke and Co., Printing Transactions ... 25 9 3 », Rent of Hall from the Exchange Company WA 4 0) », Messrs. Fairfax and Sons, Advertisements Pai ec aeloee o ,, Samuel Bennett, Advertisements... nn Bh eee pO) 5, Messrs. Cunninghame and Co, Printing... wm I 0 , W. H. Ingram, Commission ia ae Poy ho oe 5, Stamp for Books and Bookcase... ae iw eg Ome ,, Gratuity to Messenger... oa lee Oana », Petty Cash (eau Postage Stamps, ete. oe L Ont eno ,, Assistant Secretary's Salary form Ist January to 31st December, 1872 ... sie ee JV S08 OREO », Balance in the Union Bank tele me ei (AT TO (o) £185 19 334 J. H. MAIDEN. Officers-bearers were elected for 1873-4. Member elected.—William Adams Purves Esq. Forty-second Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 25th June, 1873. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Members Elected.—H. H. Kater Hsq., W. A. B. Greaves Hsq., Henry R. Allerding Hsq. The Rev. W. B. Clarke then read the opening address (Vol. vit, p. 1). In the discussion which ensued, Mr. Charles Moore expressed his hope that a certain portion of the Illawarra district owned by Mr. Macafee might be preserved, it being the only portion of that district in which the early form of the natural vegetation there was preserved. Forty-third Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 9th July, 1873. Professor Smith in the Chair. Members elected:—Dr. John Pierce, Rev. David Gallo- way, R.A., William Neill Hsq., W. J. Wilshire Esq., James Manning Hsq., Mons. Simon, French Consul, James Norton Hsq., G. R. Dibbs Esq., Rev. Edward Rogers, Charles M. Fisher Ksq, Dr. Irving, Hugh Kennedy Hsq. Paper read.—‘'On the Solution of certain Geodetic Problems,”’ by Mr. Martin Gardiner. Forty-fourth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 6th August, 1873. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Member elected.—George Makin EHsq.’of Berrima. Papers read.—1. ‘“‘ Note on some passages in the last Anniversary Address,’’ by the Rev. W. B. Clarke. 2. “‘Our Coal and Coal Ports,’’ by James Manning Esq. Forty-fifth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 3rd September, 1873. Professor Smith in the Chair. Member elected.—Stephen S. Vale Hsq. of Newcastle. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 335 Papers read.—1. ‘‘Local particulars of the Transit of Venus,”’ by H. O. Russell Esq. 2. ‘‘On our Coal and Coal Ports,’’ Appendix, by Mr. James Manning. Forty-sixth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 1st October, 1873. Professor Smith in the Chair. Members elected.—P. N. Trebeck Esq., Dr. Atherton, Thomas Stevens Esq., Hccleston Du Faur Esq., Samuel James Bray Hsq. Papers read.—1. ‘* Notes on the deposit of Gold in Quartz Veins,’’ by H. A. Thompson Hsq., which he illustrated by diagrams and specimens. 2. ‘‘Note on the Bingera Diamond District,’ by Archibald Liversidge EKsq., which he illustrated by a collection of minerals from the locality. Forty-seventh Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 5th November, 1873. Professor Smith in the Chair. Member elected.—Dr. Milford. Papers read.—1. ‘The Mammals of Australia and their Classification, Part I, Ornithodelphia and Didelphia,’”’ by Gerard Krefit Hsq. 2. “On Geodetic Investigations,’ by Mr. Martin Gardiner. Forty-eighth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, | 11th December, 1873. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Ohair. Members elected.—Henry Austin Esq., Edwin Daintrey Esq., Harrie Wood Hsq. Papers read.—"*On our Coal and Coal Ports,’’ by Mr. James Manning. Forty-ninth Monthly Meeting, Masonic Hall, York Street, 20th May, 1874. Rev. W. B. Clarke in the Chair. Members elected.—William Dumaresq Hsq., Rev. W. French Clay. Officers were elected for 1874-5. & 336 J. H. MAIDEN. Financial Statement.— RECEIPTS. Use To Balance in the Union Bank on 30th April, 1873... 74 17 0 », Subscriptions and Entrance Fees £113 7s. Od. Less 1/- for collection of cheque 0 1 O0—113 6 O LSS Nape0 DISBURSEMENTS. &S. 0s By Rent of Chamber of Commerce ... as oo) LOG Om », Fairfax and Sons, Advertisements Bue hile’ th OMG », samuel Bennett, Advertisements... ee jc IED LORS ,, W. H. Ingram, Collection .. a oe: vit yp ROR TO) ,», Messrs. Cunninghame and Co., Printing.. oat Ns POMG , A. A. Marshall, Gas Burners shi ay, ait | Or ao 5, Petty Cash Account oe Fae sey ies” OES ue O10 0e = bby: ae ae cat sot) JOVARER 3 ., Gratuity to Tee ce slo iis oe OE » Freight of Books ... » otieg ,, Assistant Secretary’s ake to 31st Dec, 1873 40 0 0 » Refreshments sae Mee ated BAY ies LILES iO », Balance in the Union Sha ee sie oe Ol halt £188" 30 Papers read.—‘‘On Duplex Telegraphy”’ which he illus- trated by working the instrument, by Mr. EH. C. Cracknell. The Officers of H.M.S, ‘“‘Challenger’’ exhibited the apparatus used in deep sea investigations and a collection of the objects obtained. Fiftieth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 1st July, 1874. Chris. Rolleston Esq. in the Chair. Members elected.—The Honorable John Hay, M.L.Cc., Alex. Stuart Esq., John McGarvie Smith Esq., Rev. James *L. White, M.A., LL.B., Dr. Fischer, H. A. Lenehan Esq., J. Hardy Esq., The Honorable G. A. Lloyd, M.P., F.R.G.S., HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 3D¢ EK. Woodgate Hsq., Dr. Taylor, James Jones Hsq., J. OC. Raymond Esq., Dr. Mackenzie, P. A. Jennings Hsq., John Warner McCutcheon Hsq., Philip G. King Hsq., Leonard A. Vessey Hsq., George M. O. Bowen Hsq., J. B. Watt Esq., John Hurley Hsq., M.P. (c.c.), Hdward M. Stephen Esq., D. Nichol Esq., Dr. Kichler. Paper read.—‘On Hospital Accommodation,” by Alfred Roberts Esq. Fifty-first Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 23rd September, 1874. Honorable John Smith in the Chair. Members elected.—Frederick Pedley Hsq., G. I. Latta Hsq., John Algar Esq. Papers read.—1. ‘‘On the Criminal Statistics of New South Wales,’’ by Ohris. Rolleston Hsq. 2. ‘‘A Descrip- tion of Eleven new species of Terrestrial and Marine Shells from the North Hast Coast of Australia,’ by John Brazier Hsq., who exhibited specimens of the same. Fifty-second Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 12th October, 1874. Honorable John Smith in the Chair. Members elected.—John Dansey Hsq., C. S. Wilkinson Hsq., Hdward Coombes Esq., John Brewster Esq. Paper read.—‘‘On the treatment of Iron Pyrites,’’ by Mr. G. I. Latta, read by Mr. H. A. Thompson. Fifty-third Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 9th December, 1874. Honorable John Smith in the Chair. Members elected.—R. B. Read Hsq., George Knox Esq., A. P. Neill Esq. Papers read.—1. ‘Iron and Coal Deposits at Wallere- wang’; 2. ‘‘Nickel Mineral from New Caledonia,’’ by Professor Liversidge. 3, “‘Sydney Water Supply by Gravi- tation®’’ by James Manning Hsq., which he illustrated by a map and diagrams. V—July 3, 1918. 338 J. H. MAIDEN. fifty-fourth Monthly Meeting, Chamber of Commerce, 11th January, 1875, Honorable John Smith in the Chair. Members elected.—Commodore Goodenough, Edward Knox Esq., The Honorable William Busby, M.L.c., The Honorable Robert Owen, M.L.C. Papers read.—1. ‘“‘Results of Observations of the late transit of Venus,’ by H. C. Russell Hsq., which he illus- trated by numerous photographs and diagrams. 2. ‘‘Results of Observations of the late Transit of Venus at Eden,”’’ by Mr. Scott, read by Mr. Russell. The minutes of the next meeting, 12th May, 1875, will be found at p. xxxi, Vol. 1x, and have been regularly pub- lished since in abstract. CoUNCIL MINUTES. [Following are extracts, of more or less interest, from the Council’s Minutes from October 1874 to April 1877.] | Council met in the Chamber of Commerce, 29th ‘October, 1874. The Secretary was instructed to apply to the Trustees of the Museum for the books belonging to the Society which were taken charge of by Mr. Krefft. (See Society’s minutes of 7th December, 1864, and also Council’s minutes of 30th June, 1875). Council met in the Chamber of Commerce, 28th April, 1875. The Secretary was also instructed to make inquiries whether the Society would get the use of Clarks’ Assembly Rooms (our present House.—J.H.M.) for the Society’s habitation, or any other suitable roomsin town. The rent not to exceed £50, and to report to the members of Council present at the ensuing meeting on the 5th May. 12th May, 1875, First Entry, Council met in the Sociales 8 Rooms, Hlizabeth Street. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 339 Professor Liversidge read the following letter from the Honorary Secretary of the New South Wales Academy of SAGs Viz. — Rialto Terrace, 11th May, 1875. Dear Sir,—In accordance with the request in your letter of the 30th ultimo, I enclose you a copy of a minute submitted to the Council of our Society on the 4th inst., respecting the subletting of its new premises to the Royal Society, which was duly approved. Regretting that press of business in connection with the open- ing of those premises should have prevented my replying more promptly. I am, etc., (Signed) Eccreston Du Faur, Hon. Sec. “Copy of Minute.” It was reported that acting on the general authority placed in their hands for carrying out such arrangements, the Vice-President and Honorary Secretary had entered into an agreement with a gentleman deputed to treat with them by the Royal Society of New South Wales, under which they had sublet the upstairs Room to that Society, as a Board room and office, and the Hall for about 8 nights in the year for their meetings, on the following terms :— (1) The Royal Society to contribute £50 per annum, payable quarterly. (2) To furnish the Board Room and to be allowed to place wire blinds in windows with ‘ Royal Society” thereon. (3) To allow the Council of the N.S.W. Academy of Art the use of the said Board Room for its meetings, about once a month, and, if required for similar meetings of a kindred Society with which the Council might make terms on a similar basis, provided always that such meetings should not clash with those of the Royal Society. (4) The Royal Society to be allowed to place a notice board on the outside wa!l of the building on one side of the entrance door 340 | J. H. MAIDEN. (5) The Royal Society to have the use of the Hall for about & nights in the year for their meetings (provided such meetings shall not interfere with the Annual Exhibition to be held for about five weeks in the months of March and April), and to have the use of the Hall, fittings, tables, chairs, linen and table utensils, the cost of gas on such evenings to be defrayed by the lessors. This agreement to be in force for the year ending 30th April, 1876. Approved by the Council of the N.S.W. Academy of Arts. at meeting held 4th May, 1875. (Signed) Du Favr, Professor LIVERSIDGE. Hon. Sec. Resolved that the terms of the Council of the New South Wales Academy of Art, for the subletting of its new premises to the Royal Society as stated in their minute of the 4th May be accepted. © Professor Liversidge informed the Board that he had purchased and had sent in the necessary furniture and gas fittings for their Board Room. Professor Liversidge’s pur- chase was approved of by the Council. Council met in the Society’s Rooms, Hlizabeth Street, 26th May, 1875. Mrs. Casey was appointed cleaner. Council met in the Society’s Rooms, Hlizabeth Street, 30th June, 1875. A letter was read from Mr. Gerard Krefft, dated 15th _ June, acknowledging the receipt of the Assistant Secretary’s letter of the 25th May, and stating that if anything is in his possession at the Museum belonging to the Council they shall have it when he gets his own property back. (See minutes of 29th October, 1874. Mr. Krefft had been the Curator of the Australian Museum, and a member of the Council, and disputes between the Trustees and Mr. Krefft led to the appointment of a Select Committee of the Legislative Assembly), HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 341 Council met in the Society’s Rooms, Elizabeth Street, 25th November, 1875. On Mr. (H. G.) Wright’s motion it was decided that the Session should be wound up with a Dinner. (So far as I know, this was the first Annual Dinner of the Society, a pleasant function interrupted by the Great War). Resolved that the following gentlemen form the Dinner Committee, viz:—Horatio Wright Hsq., Chris. Rolleston Hsq., Professor Liversidge, H. C. Russell Esq., Dr. Leibius. It was further decided that Dr. Leibius be requested to act as Honorary Secretary to the Committee. Council met in the Society,s Rooms, Hlizabeth Street, 16th March, 1876. It was decided that the following list of officers should be recommended by the Council to the members for election at the ensuing Anniversary Meeting. (See volume for year).. It was decided that it would not be necessary to make any further arrangement with the Council of the Academy of Arts for the lease of the rooms for the ensuing year. Committee Meeting, 22nd May, 1876. It was further decided that the whole Committee should form a deputation to wait upon the Honorable the Minister of Justice and Education upon such day as shall be most convenient to the Minister. Deputation to the Honorable the Minister for Justice, 26th May, 1876. In pursuance of a resolution passed at the last Committee Meeting, the following gentlemen waited upon the Honor- able Joseph Docker, on Friday the 26th of May, viz:— The Honorable J. Squire Farnell, M.P., H. C. Russell Hsq., 342 J. H. MAIDEN. Professor Liversidge, Charles Moore Esq., The Honorable Francis Lord, M.L.c., Dr. Leibius, Rev. Dr. Lang. The deputation having been introduced to Mr. Docker by Mr. Farnell, submitted a request to be communicated to the Government for the sum of £2,500 for the erection of a suitable building and £300 annually for the ordinary pur- poses of the Society. The deputation was courteously received,and the Minister promised to lay the matter before the Government in the following form, viz:—‘‘To place on the Supplementary Hstimates for the current year, the sum of £300, so as to: enable the Society to draw from the above named sum an amount equal to the annual subscriptions of the Society, and to place on the Hstimates for the year 1877 the sum of £2,500. The following memorandum was signed by the deputation. and handed in to the Minister, viz:— In re Royal Society’s application for Assistance—Reasons for the Application. 1. To enable them to give popular Scientific Lectures. 2. To establish working Sections of the Society for the pro- motion of special branches of Science. 3. To collect a Standard Scientific Library. 4. To be a central Institution in New South Wales for the collection of Scientific works from all parts of the world. Their recent experience has shown them that the Transactions of their Society will be received as an equivalent for the publications of many of the leading Scientific Societies of Europe and America. ° 5. In England similar Scientific Societies afford valuable: information to the Government on many subjects. The Royal Society of Sydney has done something in the past, and is anxious. to do more in the future. 6. The money at their disposal will not enable them to main- tain their present relations with the public and other societies, HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 343 and is totally inadequate to carry out their extended scheme of usefulness. 7. They have since the commencement of the Society sub- scribed upwards of (£5,000) Five Thousand Pounds, for the pro- motion of science and higher education in the Colony. And they now respectfully ask for assistance from the Government in order that they may make their past labours and present capabilities of more use to the public. They feel that they are justified in making this request, because other Societies established here to educate and instruct the public, receive money grants. 8. In England similar Societies are encouraged and assisted’ with large grants of public money; and provided with Hall and Offices in Burlington House, which has been rebuilt for them at enormous cost. 9. In Victoria the Royal Society has a large Hall and Offices, and an annual grant of money more than equal to their subscrip- tions. 10. In Tasmania the Royal Society is also provided with accommodation and an annual grant of money. 11. In New Zealand also the corresponding Society is likewise supported by Government grant. Under these circumstances the gentlemen whose names are attached, were appointed a deputation to wait upon the Minister for Justice and Public Instruction and ask him to take the case of the Royal Society of New South Wales into his favourable consideration, and give them an annual grant equal to their subscriptions, and provide them with accommodation for giving lectures, offices, etc., and money grant of £2,500 to help to provide them with this accommodation. Council met in the Society’s Rooms, Elizabeth Street, 27th September, 1876. A letter was read from the Sydney Botanical Society, dated 4th September, informing the Oouncil that at a 344 J. H. MAIDEN. recent meeting of the Sydney Botanic Society the following resolutions were carried:— ‘‘That the offer made through Mr. H. O. Russell to Mr. Fitzgerald, F.L.S., be accepted, namely, that if the members of the Sydney Botanical Society could join the Royal Society in a body with the view of forming a Botanical Section, the usual Hntrance Fee would be remitted, also that all the property of the Sydney Botanical Society be handed over to the Royal Society.’’ (It would be inter- esting to know more about this Society). Council met in the Society’s Rooms, Hlizabeth Street, 29th November, 1876. It was decided that the name of the next Volume should be called ‘“‘The Journal of the Royal Society of New South Wales.”’ Council met in the Royal Society’s Rooms, Elizabeth Street, 12th April, 1877. Resignation of Mr. W. H. Catlett of the Office of Assistant Secretary, after holding it for a period of 19 years (this is calculated from 1856. He was Secretary of the Austra- lasian Botanic and Horticultural Society, as far back as 1853.—J.H.M.). The work of the Society had so increased during the last eighteen months that it had been found necessary to increase Mr. W. H. Catlett’s duties very con- siderably. II. Miscellanea. Publications. Meeting Places and Benefactors. Meeting Days. Vice-Regal Associations. Microscopical Committee. Medals. Australian Association for the Advancement of Science. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTE WALES. 345 Publications. 8th May, 1857. The Council decided to select papers and prepare abstracts for the “Sydney Magazine of Science”’ and take 25 copies for one year at 11/- each. 28th May, 1858. Subscription increased to 15/- per volume, but only 15 copies ordered. In addition, the cost of illustrations was defrayed, which in the 1859 balance- sheet stands at £31 7s. 5th August, 1859. The arrangement was not continued. The Magazine was very indifferently edited, and the decision not to continue doubtless arose from that circum- stance. On 31st August, 1859, the Secretary reported that Mr. Fairfax would not publish the Society’s papers in the “*Herald’’ unless he received all those read, and that he would not exchange slips with the “‘HKmpire.”’ On 6th September, 1859, the Secretary reported that the impasse between the “‘ Herald’’ and the ‘‘ Empire”’ con- tinued, and a certain paper was therefore published in the latter journal. It is evident that the Society only published in the news- papers at this time, and this arrangement continued until the publication of the 1862-5 volume. In other words, the papers read during the years 1859, 1860, and 1861, were only published in the ‘‘Herald’’ and ‘“‘ Empire.”’ I have not had an opportunity of tracing all of them, and perhaps a young member may feel impelled to search the files and record the dates and pages where each paper was published, in order that our record may be complete. But we have got the next best thing, for the abstracts from the minutes show every paper read before the Society, and should lead to each being traced, if published in the newspapers or in some other manner, the pamphlet form being sometimes adopted. 346 J. H. MAIDEN, Professor Smith (1881, p. 6) gives a list-of papers read before the Philosophical Society from the year 1856 to 1866, doubtless taken, like my own, from the minutes. My list. will be found corrected in a few cases, and I have added references to their publication, wherever I could trace them. At the Annual Meeting of 6th July, 1864, it was resolved to publish the papers of the Society in a Separate form, and this led to the publication of “‘ Trans. Philos. Soc. N.S.W.’” (1862-5). The printing of the volume by private firms went on till 1872, when on 13th July of that year the Government agreed to print the Journal by the Government Printer on terms. stated. The names of our printers have been :— 1862-5, Reading and Wellbank. 1867-70, F. White, (same firm as F. W. White, below). 1871, Joseph Cook and Co. 1872-86, the Government Printer. 1887, F. W. White to date. The titles of our Journals are as follows :— 1. “‘ Transactions of the Philosophical Society of New South Wales, 1862-5,’ (1866). 2. ‘‘ Transactions of the Royal Society of New South Wales, for the year 1867,” Vol. 1 (1868). This title was continued to Vol. vir (1874). 3. ** Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales,’’ Vol. 1x for 1875 (1876). 4, ‘* Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales ’’ Vol. x for 1876 (1877). There has been no change in the title since. The Proceedings of the Society were therefore first printed in the 1875 volume, and the Abstracts from the HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 347 Minutes I have given in this paper supply the missing in- formation from 1855 to 1874. Professor Liversidge’s. editorial work commenced with that volume, and the 1875 volume was the first to be indexed. On 29th November, 1876, the Council decided that the title of the next volume should be ‘ Journal of the Royal Society of New South Wales.”’ Until recent years, and especially until a few years im- mediately preceding the war, the daily and weekly press of Sydney published our papers sometimes fairly fully, and often in useful abstract. From 1859 to 1861 we had no other form of publication, and this circumstance probably led the Council of the Society to think that the issue of a. volume on its own account was not an urgent matter. This attitude probably worked against the interests of the Society, for some members of a certain outlook could fairly ask themselves what advantage there was in belong- ing to the Society when they got no exclusive copy of its proceedings and papers, which were published in extenso in the daily press free to everyone. Meeting Places. The meetings of the 1850 Society were held in the Royal Hotel, George Street. The first and second meetings of the Philosophical Society of New South Wales, in 1856 (May and June) took place in the School of Arts, Pitt Street, and the rest in the Aus- tralian Library. The third meeting in 1857 (July) and the remainder for the year were held in the hall of the Aus- tralian Library (the present Public Library, subsequently added to). In 1858 meetings were held both in the Chamber of Commerce (Exchange) and in the Australian Library, the change to the Chamber of Commerce being a temporary one (minutes of 14th July), because of alterations taking place in the Library. 348 J. H. MAIDEN. From 1859 to 1868 the meetings were regularly held in the Australian Library, with the exception of one ake Te, in 1864 held in the Chamber of Commerce. The meetings from 1869 till 1875 (when the Society had its own House) were held in the Chamber of Commerce, with one exception, the meeting of May 1874 being held in the Masonic Hall, York Street. In other words, the meet- ings were almost entirely held in the Australian Library and the Chamber of Commerce. The entries in the Council Meetings under the dates 28th April and 13th May, 1875, and 22nd May, 1876, referring to the acquisition of the present premises, in order that the Society might have a house of its own, will be read with great interest. The Council met in its own house (as © tenants) in Elizabeth Street for the first time on 12th May 1875, while the first meeting of the Society (the Anniversary Meeting of the year) was held on the same date in the same place. We owe the acquisition of this House to the Council of the day, and especially to the then two honorary secretaries Professor Liversidge and Dr. Leibius, but the principal driving power was that of Professor Liversidge, who worked whole-heartedly for the advancement of the Society from the very day he became a member of it. I knew well the late Dr. Leibius, who was a most loveable character, and he often used to recount to me incidents of those early days. He often said to me “We never got a move on till Liversidge came.’’ Professor Smith refers (p. 12 of his address) most cordially to the work of these gentlemen. Perhaps this is not an inappropriate place to say that three men stand out, above all others, amongst many whose memory should long be cherished by us as having performed exceptional services to our Society. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 349 1. His Excellency Sir William Denison, whomI may call a refounder of the Society, who insisted on the re-establish- ment of the Philosophical Society of New South Wales in 1855, regularly attended the meetings, and gave it motive power. | 2. The Rev. W. B. Clarke, who joined the Society in 1850, regularly attended its meetings and, by means of his papers, addresses, and exhibits, did much to raise the work of the Society to a higher plane. 3. Professor Liversidge, who practically re-founded the the Society when he became Honorary Secretary in the year 1875, organised its activities on proper lines, and made it the power for good itis to-day. Heisour greatest living benefactor. Meeting Days. The first three monthly meetings of the Society (May — July, 1856), took place on the second Friday of the month, but on the 11th July it was decided to meet on the second Wednesday of the month, while the Council Meeting was fixed for the previous Friday. On 10th August, 1859, the meeting was altered to the third Wednesday in the month, and the minutes of the monthly meeting of the 17th July, 1861, record that the meetings were altered from the third to the second Wednes- day of the month. On 17th August, 1864, it was decided to hold the meet- ings on the first Wednesday in the month, and the Council Meetings on the last Wednesday, and that arrangement has continued to the present time. It will be observed that the monthly meetings were first numerically recorded from 9th May, 1856. There are two series, the Philosophical Society of New South Wales, first monthly meeting at the date given, and eighty-fifth, 12th December, 1866. | 350 J. H. MAIDEN. The first monthly meeting of our Society as at present named, took place on the 9th July, 1867, and the meeting at which the present historical account is read, is the three hundred and ninety-eighth, the date being 3rd July, 1918. Vice-Regal Associations. The Philosophical Society of New South Wales asked (1856) the Governor-General (as the Governor was then styled) to accept the office of President, following the 1850 precedent, but there was norule to that effect. The Royal ‘Society of New South Wales had a rule (1866) conferring the Presidency on the Governor, and this continued till 1880. From 1881 to 1900 the Governor was styled Honorary President. In 1901 (Federation year) this office was dropped, and we had no office-bearer of Vice-regal rank. During that year the Governor-General accepted the office of Patron, and the Governor the office of Vice-Patron, and that arrangement continues. In the days of the Philosophical Society of New South Wales the Governor (General) gave an inaugural address, usually brief. Coming to the Royal Society of New South Wales, His Excellency was supported by two Vice-Presi- dents, and the senior one made the “‘Inaugural Address,”’’ which began with that of the Rev. W. B. Clarke on 9th July, 1867, at the first meeting of our Royal Society, (Trans. Roy. Soc., 1). In 1868, Vice-President Smalley gave an ‘“‘Opening ”’ Address, and so did Professor Smith in 1878, but the Rev. W. B. Clarke in 1869 began the present designation of an *‘Anniversary’’ Address, which he repeated in 1870, 1872 and 1873 (no address was given in 1874), 1875 and 1876. It is no disparagement of the early addresses to say that those of Mr. Clarke were most numerous and most scien- tifically valuable. The remaining Vice-Presidents who delivered addresses (and whom now-a-days we would call ed HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 351 Presidents) were H. C. Russell in 1877, O. Rolleston in 1878, Professor Smith in 1879, and C. Moore in 1880. Pro- fessor Smith was the first non Vice-regal office-bearer who held the title of President, and that was in 1881, the Governor’s title having been changed to Honorary Presi- dent, as already explained. The Society continued to only have two Vice-Presidents until the year 1891, when four were appointed, and this arrangement has continued. Two Governors, at least, associated themselves very earnestly with the work of the Society, and it was the ordinary members, and not His Excellency, who first got tired of the Society. Sir William Denison presided at the following meetings: Concluding meeting of the 1850 Society, 30th July, 1855, when it was decided to form the Philosophical Society; Inaugural meeting of Philosophical Society of New South Wales, 9th May, 1856 (giving an address on railroads), and five other meetings in that year, three in 1857, six in 1858, five in 1859 and four in 1860, his term of office ending with the year. He gave several addresses and papers, and supported and virtually founded the Microscopical Section. Sir John Young presided at the meeting of 17th July, 1861, for the first time, and at three other meetings in that year, five in 1862, three in 1863, two in 1864, and not again till September 1867, which was his last appearance. The Earl of Belmore presided on 3rd June and 14th July, 1868. Smith (pp. 4—5) gives an amusing account of the dwind- ling attendance which even a Vice-regal President was unable to stem. | Ido not think that a Governor again honoured us at a monthly meeting until 6th September, 1916, when His Excellency Sir Gerald Strickland attended, but did not preside. 352 J. H. MAIDEN. Microscopical Committee. One was first elected 11th May, 1859. Its formation had been suggested by His Excellency, Sir William Denison, and it held its first meeting, during this month, at Govern- ment House. It seems to have ended with his term of office. For abstracts of its proceedings, see p. 312. The Microscopical Section was not re-established until 23rd June, 1876, see Vol. x for that year, p. 291. It was in the volume for this year that reports of the sections were first published. Membership. Following is the membership so far as I have been able toascertain it :—1855, 22 Australian Philosophical Society members brought into Philosophical Society of New South Wales; 1855, 153, (Philosophical Society of New South Wales); 1857, (no record); 1858, 174; 1859, 186; 1860, 154; 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, (no record); 1866 (the records of membership, Treasurer’s accounts, are probably in the keeping of some private person, and it is hoped that they will find their way into our archives); 1867, 108 (Royal Society of New South Wales); 1868, 118; 1869, 118; 1870, 127; 1871, 129; 1872, 134; 18738, 118; 1874, 155; 1875, 264, Honorary Members (in addition) were first elected in this year. I do not go past 1875, but I may mention that in no year from 1880 to 1892 did membership go as low as 450. In 1883-5 the numbers were 494, 494 and 492. It went below 400 (397) in 1897, and has fluctuated between 300 and 400 ever since. The report of the Committee, presented on 30th August, 1865, recommended two classes of members, Fellows and Associates. This was decided on at a meeting on the 8th November, but the decision was shortly afterwards reversed. HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. De At the meeting of the 11th November, 1868, it was decided to ballot for the admission of members, and this practice has continued to the present time. In the 1875 volume was first introduced the record of election, and number of papers published in the journal by an ordinary member, and it contains the first list of honorary members. The Fundamental Rules were published in the volumes from 1868 to 1875 (as a rule I go no further in this historical sketch), and the Bye-laws in the same volumes (greatly enlarged in the 1875 volume). The Society was incorporated inthe year 1881. A copy of the Act is in the 1881 volume, p. xi. Medals. The Australian Philosophical Society in 1850 gave notices of gold medals offered, to be adjudged in 1851 for the pro- duction of Madder, growth of Cotton, Metals from Colonial Ore, and Sugar. Ido not know whether they were awarded. Medals of £5 5s. each were, at the Council Meeting of 9th December, 1859, resolved to be given at the May Meeting in 1860 for illustrations of the new art of photography in the classes of Landscapes, Buildings and Portraits. I have not seen specimens of these medals, and if any are in existence they would form an acceptable exhibit before the Society, or they could be lent in order that they might be photographed. The Clarke Memorial Medal was established in memory of Rev. William Branwhite Clarke, M.A., F.R.S., one of the most distinguished and zealous members of the Society. See references to it in Vol. xilI, p. 133 (1879), xiv, 295 (1880), and xv, 16 (1881). The first award was made as for 1878, W—July 3, 1918. 354 J. H. MAIDEN. and awards have been made to date. This is the only medal now awarded by the Society. The Society offered its medal and money prize of £25 for the best communication (provided it be of sufficient merit), containing the results of original research or observation upon various subjects published annually. The first award was made in 1884, and the last in 1896. Australian Association for the Advancement of Science. At the monthly meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales of Ist August, 1866, Professor Smith (who was in the chair) said that ‘“‘ he had no doubt that at some future time there would be an Australian Association for the Advancement of Science, but he did not suppose we had the material for it yet.”” His remarks will be seen at p. 309. They were in connection with a proposal for a Scientific Congress, to be held with the Intercolonial Exhibition (Melbourne 1866-7), the Official Record! of which was published in 1867. The Rev. Dr. Bleasdale and Mr. Knight (the Secretary of the Exhibition) were present at the meeting, and the former showed his well-known Victorian gems. The actual foundation of such an Association (called Australasian) we owe to Professor Liversidge in the year 1888, and the preliminary steps, undertaken a few years earlier, are recounted by Mr. H. C. Russell, the first President of the Association, at p. 8 of his inaugural address (Vol. 1, Rep. ‘‘Aust. Assoc. Adv. Science.’’) Professor Smith’s words are worth recording, however. 1 This contains some valuable, but little known New South Wales, ‘scientific reports, e.g., a. ‘On the progress and present state of astro- nomical science in New South Wales,” by John Tebbutt, Junior. 5. “Remarks on the sedimentary formations of New South Wales,” by Rev. W.B. Clarke. c. “New South Wales coal-fields,’ by W. Keene. d. “Australian Vertebrata (Recent and Fossil),” by G. Kreft. i Or HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. BD IIL, Enquiries and Conclusions. The relations of our Society to the 1821 Society. The relations of our Society to the 1850 Society. The relations of the 1850 to the 1855 (1856) Society. Genealogical Table of Societies. The Royal Society of Tasmania older than the Royal Society of New South Wales. A notice in front of our Annual Volume has appeared in the following form since Vol. x, 1876:— “The Royal Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the ‘Philosophical Society of Australia,’ after an interval of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the ‘Australian Philosophical Society,’ by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the ‘Philosophical Society of New South Wales,’ and finally, in May 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen, it assumed its present title.” | We will proceed to examine the statement. The only three portions of it that may be disputed are— 1. Our Society...... “originated in 1821 as the Philo- sophical Society of Australasia.”’ 2. The 1821 Society...... ““was resuscitated in 1850 under the name of the Australian Philosophical Society.”’ 3. It was known by the title of ‘“‘Australian Philo- sophical Society”’ until 1856, ‘““when the name was changed.’’ Four Presidential Addresses take cognizance more or less of the history of our Society, viz., those of Rev. W. B. Clarke, 1867 (this is the most important of the four; tech- nically Mr. Clarke was a Vice-President, but he was really an Acting President), Charles Moore, 1880, Professor John Smith 1881 (second in importance to Mr. Clarke’s); the * Altered later to ‘ Australasia,’ which is correct. 356 J. H. MAIDEN. above have the historical value of contemporaries; and my own, a brief modern sketch, 1912. In addition we have the admirable historical sketch and statement of the work and objects of the Society which appeared in “‘ Nature,’’ on 23rd June, 1910, over the signa- ture of Professor Liversidge. The relations of our Society to the 1821 Society. It will be presently seen that the authorities for the various statements contained in the notice go back fora considerable period. The minutes of the Philosophical Society of New South Wales for 17th December, 1862, referring to the foundation of the Philosophical Society of Australasia in 1821, speak of ‘‘the formation and early history of the Society”’ (i.e. of the Philosophical Society of New South Wales), it being implied that the 1821 Society was the precursor. Mr. Clarke (loc. cit., p. 8) said, in 1867, ‘“Our own Society has had its changes also. At first, in the year 1821, it commenced as the ‘Philosophical Society of Australia” (should be Australasia.—J.H.M.), a very lofty title for its. dozen founders and members.’”’ It will thus be seen that Mr. Clarke accepted the view that ‘‘our’’ Society “‘com- menced’’ as the 1821 Society. He knew some of the mem- bers of it personally. In our Journal (Vol. xv for 1881, p. 2) the late Professor Smith said :—‘‘It would not be unfair, indeed, to claim an existence of sixty years, for undoubtedly the first beginning of this scientific organisation is to be traced back to 1821... It is mentioned among the Institutions of Sydney in the Australasian Almanac for 1825, but not afterwards...” It seems to me that while the 1821 Society had the same objects as our own, and was indeed its forerunner and exemplar, it is not historically correct to suggest lineal HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. aD7 descent from it, or even collateral descent, except with important reservations. Professor Smith (p. 3) referring to Mr. Clarke’s state- ment as to the “‘resuscitation in 1850 of the old Society,”’ says, “‘there must have been an attempted revival at an earlier date, for in the New South Wales Calendar of 1832 I find mention of an ‘Australian Society’”’ etc. This isa reference to the Australian Society of 1830, and at p. 228, I have stated that I know of no evidence to connect our Society with it. The relations of our Society with the 1850 Society. In ‘‘Sydn. Mag. Sci. and Art’’ we have:—His Excellency Sir William Denison, on arrival in the Colony, enquired if there were a Society. He found...‘*there had previously been a Society called the Australian Society (the 1850 Society). This however, had discontinued its operations, and was esteemed extinct. (It however had never been wound up and the funds were intact.—J.H.M.) By the exertions of His Excellency, in connection with some of the old officials’’...the 1856 Society was formed. The Rev. Mr. Clarke (p. 15), guardedly says ‘*‘ The interval between 1822 and 1856 was marked by a partial resuscita- tion of the Philosophical under the name of the Australian Philosophical Society, which was formed in the beginning of 1850,”’ etc. Mr. Charles Moore, ‘in his anniversary address to the Society for 1880 (xiv, p. 1) said, ‘‘Since the re-establishment of the Society in 1850, although it has undergone many vicissitudes, and changed its name more than once, it has yet been continuous under some form...... Of those who joined the Society in 1850, Mr. R. A. Morehead and myself are now the only members who have not severed our con= nection with it.”’ . 358 J. H. MAIDEN. Mr. Clarke had previously stated ‘“‘The members of the Australian Society passed over without re-election, and the former Secretary and Treasurer were retained’’ (Clarke p. 17). The Secretary was the Hon. Dr. Douglass, and the Treasurer was Mr. R. A. Morehead. Mr. Clarke is talking of the formation of the 1855 (1856) Society, which had, as. the first honorary secretary and treasurer the gentlemen who had filled those offices in the 1850 Society. The statement that the 1821 Society...‘ was resuscitated in 1850 under the name of the Australian Philosophical Society,’’ does not seem to be borne out by such evidence as I have been able to collect, and it seems to have been more or less connected with the fact that Dr. H.G. Douglass was honorary secretary of both Societies. Hverything turns on the meaning of the word ‘“‘resuscitated,’”’ or Mr. Moore’s word ‘‘re-established,’’ but it seems to me that. the 1821 Society, to some extent a Scientific Club, was. perfectly dead long before 1850. It was natural that Dr. Douglass should be thought of by the promoters of the new Society, and only he and Alexander Berry were members. of the 1821 Society and also of the 1850 Society. The relations of the 1850 to the 1856 (1855) Society. It is stated that the former was known by the title of the ‘‘Australian Philosophical Society’’ until 1856, “‘ when the name was changed.”’ IT have given the historical facts in regard to the 1850 Society, which began with the title “‘Australian Philo- sophical Society’? and soon became known as the “‘Austra- lian Society.”’ The 1850 Society, although it became dormant soon after the gold discoveries, met ayain in 1855, handed over its funds to form the Philosophical Society of ‘New South Wales, and its honorary treasurer, honorary secretary and a number of its members passed over into Wa | HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Ae, the new Society, It is historically correct for our Society to trace lineal descent from the 1850 Society. I have pointed out that the birthday of the Philosophical Society of New South Wales is 30th July, 1855, and the date 1856 in the notice should be struck out. 10. £f; Genealogical Table of Societies. . Philosophical Society of Australasia (December 1821 — 1822?) Extinct. . Agricultural’ Society of New South Wales (5th July, 1822 —22nd February, 1826). . Agricultural and Horticultural Society of New South Wales (22nd February, 1826—1836 ?). Extinct. . Australian Society...Colonial produce and manufactures (1830 - 1836 ?). Extinct. . Australian Floral and Horticultural Society (1836 — 1848). Extinct. . Australian Botanic and = 7. Horticultural Improve- Horticultural Society ment Society of New (—July, 1848 — 8th South Wales (15th Jan., December, 1856). 1855 — 8th Dec., 1856. | . Australian Horticultural and Agricultural Society (8th December, 1856 —). . Australian Philosophical Society (19th January, 1850— 30th July, 1855). Philosophical Society of New South Wales (30th July, 1855 —12th December, 1866). Royal Society of New South Wales (12th Dec., 1866). The Royal Society of Tasmania Older than Ours. The history of Agricultural, Horticultural and Scientific Societies in Tasmania (formerly Van Diemen’s Land) is somewhat analogous to our own. 360 J. H. MAIDEN. We are indebted to Mr. EH. L. Piesse for ““The foundation and early work of the Society; with some account of earlier institutions and Societies in Tasmania,’’ which he presented on 13th October, 1913, at a meeting held in celebration of the Seventieth Anniversary of the Royal Society of Tas- mania (Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1913, p. 117). He shows (p. 118) that the ‘‘Van Diemen’s Land Agri- cultural Society’? was founded in 1821 (neither day nor month stated), thus preceding the New South Wales Agri- cultural Society, which was not established until 5th July, 1822. Mr. Piesse (p. 136) also gives an account of the founda- tion, on the 14th October, 1843, of a Society which was a direct precursor of the Royal Society of Tasmania. I have already stated that, according to my researches, the Royal Society of New South Wales can only trace its lineal descent from a Society founded on 19th January, 1850. I therefore am of opinion that our sister Royal Society is the oldest scientific Society in Australasia, its seniority to ours being six and a quarter years. May it long continue to flourish ! K * * Governor Denison (who came to New South Wales from Tasmania) was a great resuscitator of scientific societies. Mr. Piesse (pp. 148, 151) gives an account of his work in connection with the Tasmanian Society (by the way the ‘“‘Tasmanian Society’’ has a technical meaning), while at pp. 351 and 357, I have given some notes in regard to his services to the New South Wales one. Mr. Piesse (p. 158) reminds us that the title of the older ‘Society was, until 1911, ‘“‘The Royal Society of Tasmania for Horticulture, Botany and the Advancement of Science.” So that while the present title ‘‘ Royal Society of Tasmania’’ HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 361 dates from 1911, that of ‘“‘Royal Society of New South Wales’’ dates from 1866, which is the only priority we can claim. While we cannot trace our pedigree to a Society founded in 1821, it will be seen that ever since 1821 there has always been a Society for the diffusion of information in regard to the resources of New South Wales. For many years (both here and in Tasmania) the Society has been often agricultural or horticultural in form, and such scien- tific matters were brought before the Society of the day as the state of knowledge and the limitations of the colonists permitted. It is gratifying to the compiler of these notes to point out how inherent, desire for knowledge of botany and horticulture always has been in the inhabitants of Australasia. 362 R. T. BAKER. ON THE TECHNOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF SOME SILKY OAK TIMBERS. | By R. T. BAKER, F.L.S. With Plates XVII - XXIX. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 7, 1918. ] Introduction. This common name is applied in the Australian timber trade to quite a variety of timbers, each having a distinct specific origin, and yet all possessing one common character viz., very pronounced rays, or in trade terms a “‘large silver grain,’’ whilst they all differ in colour, weight, hardness and anatomical structure. It was this confusion which pro- duced the incentive to see if something could be done to scientifically classify these timbers, and at the same time find out some character which would help the trade to. differentiate them, and also to introduce a common name at least to each for the benefit of timber dealers and users.. The use of scientific names would at once rectify the trouble, and the author makes a special plea to the tech- nologist to give his aid to the introduction of such, and to. help scientific industry by placing it on a correct natural basis. As things are at the'present time, if an order be placed for “‘ Silky Oak,”’ several different kinds in colour at least,. would probably be supplied, various species being included under the name. The result of using such a variety of timbers in a single house decoration or suite of furniture is not by any means a colour triumph, and such cases have occurred. However great their specific and generic differ- ences, they have at least one thing in common, and that. is they all belong to the same Family,—Proteacee. New TECHNOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF SOME SILKY OAK TIMBERS. 363- common names have been introduced into this paper in an endeavour to assist the trade, and these could be used till such time as scientific names are employed. Histological study has opened up a new feature, and attention is drawn to the fact that the preponderance of the rays in the wood material appears to break up the usual uniformity of concentricity of annual rings,so characteristic of dicotyledonous stems, into arcs on a transverse section. In the case of “‘ Bull Silky Oak’’ the rays ina cross section are so broad and numerous as to make up quite half of the surface. It is the long straight and numerous rays that. give the wood of these oaks its radial fissility. The ray feature is so characteristic of the Family that it differenti- ates the Proteacee from all othersexcept the Casuarinacee. The deep broad rays have given rise to the common name of Oak to these timbers, which correspondingly give the well known figure to the silver grain of the Huropean or northern hemisphere oaks, Quercus. But here the similarity ends so far as wood structure is concerned. Some of these Oaks can be determined microscopically at once by their cell contents, especially Orites excelsa. The timbers are, with one exception, comparatively light in weight yet comparatively strong, and are regarded mostly as excellent cabinet woods, although they are much appreciated in several trades, such as for coach build- ing, cooperage, dairy utensils, saddle-trees particularly so, as in the case of Grevillea robusta and Orites excelsa, no timber mentioned in this paper holds nails so well as these. I am informed by Mr. T. I. Wallas “‘that silky oak timbers. have been used in cooperage on the Northern Rivers dis- trict, N.S.W. for many years, and also all dairy utensils,— churns, tubs, basins, wine casks, meat pickling tanks and buckets were made of silky oak timber.’’ These would probably be G. robusta or Orites excelsa. In Queensland Cardwellia sublimis is the more generally used Oak. 364 R. T. BAKER, The characteristic features of each species are shown in the macroscopical and microscopical illustrations. The most remarkable will be seen in the transverse sections, which show the rays dividing the other wood elements into segments, which have their concavity outwards, i.e., towards the bark, an arrangement which is now found to obtain in all the genera of Proteacese except Persoonia. In no other Family was this found in any timbers ex- amined, not even the Casuarinacez, which has equally as large rays as the Proteacez. “The small globular bodies found in the wood elements of the several species is a unique feature in timbers and has taxonomic value, in which direction can also be used the disposition of the fibres and wood parenchyma in the several species, and this should aid specific determination. This paper covers investigations on the timbers of the following species:—Grevillea robusta, Silky Oak; G. Hilli- ana, Red Silky Oak; Embothriuwm Wickhami, Satin Silky Oak; Cardwellia sublimis, Bull Silky Oak; Orites excelsa, Pink Silky Oak. , Acknowledgments.—I am indebted to Mr. T. C. Roughley for the section cutting, autochromes and microphotographs, and to Mr. D. Cannon and Mr. F. Shambler for botanical and timber help respectively; and also to Mr. C. T. White, N. W. Jolly B.A., B.Sc, and Mr. H. W. Mocatta for some Queensland botanical material. GREVILLEA RopusTa A. Cunn., Silky Oak, (B. Fl. v, 459). Remarks.—This was probably the first tree to receive the name of Silky Oak, or at least the name was first associated with this species, and it has been customary by the un- initiated, to give the name Grevillea robusta to every timber in the Sydney market called commercially Silky Oak. TECHNOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF SOME SILKY OAK TIMBERS. 365 Range.—Richmond and Tweed Rivers, New South Wales, also the coastal districts of Queensland. Timber.—(a) Macroscopical.— Physical Properties. Colour.—It is the palest of all the Silky Oaks here described, and more nearly approaches in colour that of the true oaks Quercus, than any other. The rays, although distinct, are the same tint as their setting, their distinctiveness being caused by the contrasting plane. Figure or Silver Grain.—It possesses a very attractive figure which more nearly resembles that of Quercus than any of the other Silky Oaks. Therays area very prominent feature on the quarter or silver grain, being broad and of good length, and the fibres often wavy between them add to the beauty. In the tangential section, the ends of the numerous rays give a lace-like appearance to the surface, and in this end-on-view the rays are more pronounced than in the common oak. Texture and Grain.—The grain may be said to be straight, although at the prominent rays the fibres are bent, but. this does not affect the planing or dressing of it, and viewed longitudinaily in any cut it would be classed as open. Trans- versely tle texture is close, the fibres predominating and forming a close compact mass between the well defined rays. It works and planes well and takes a good polish. Transverse Tests.—(The following were made upon selected timber of standard size 38 in. x 3 in. < 3 in., and the same remark applies to the other tested pieces.) Now yNor2, No. 3. ipreakime’ load) «..! <1 1 BON P8961) #91370 7,000 Modulus of rupture in ibs.persq.in. 3,720 4,650 14,237 » 483,000 486,000 1,700,000 Rate of load in tbs. per minute ... 250 428 875 Modulus of elasticity _,, Weight.—40 Ibs. 6 ozs. per cubic foot. 366 R. T. BAKER. 4b) Microscopical. Transverse.—There are four main features in this section which characterise the field of vision ina low power object- ive, viz, the medullary rays, fibres, parenchyma and pores, and each occupies about an equal area. The wide multi- Seriate rays are especially conspicuous, running in broad Jines through the picture, with uniseriate ones intervening. Between the broad rays the other organs mentioned above occur, the fibres and parenchyma alternating in well marked loops with the concave side outwards, towards the bark. Interspersed amongst the parenchyma, but close up to the fibres are pores, mostly empty; tyloses and resin were not seen. Radial Section.—When cut clear of the rays, the salient feature is the columns of fibres separated by their thin walled cells from the xylem, parenchyma and vessels. There are two kinds of rays, broad and narrow, the latter showing to better advantage ina micro-section. Both vary in height according to the number of cells in the vertical plane, they naturally form a pronounced feature in the section; most of the cells contain either an amorphous substance or silica, in fact the amount of silica detected in this species exceeded that found in any Silky Oak or other species examined. Small globular bodies were seen in a few of the cells of both the ray and wood parenchyma. Vessels with innumer- able bordered pits on the walls form a very attractive object in the field of vision. The wood parenchyma appears to be of a tracheidal nature, the cells showing bordered pits in the radial walls. The fibres run in regular columns alternately with parenchyma tissue, and scattered vessels. The lumen of the fibres is exceedingly narrow owing to the thickened walls of these wood elements. Tangential Secttion.—The salient features in this section are the multiseriate rays which occupy a large portion of TECHNOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF SOME SILKY OAK TIMBE RS. 367 the field, and which at the broadest part number from 50 to 100, or even more, a few uniseriate occur amongst the _fibres. The radial walls of the parenchyma cells show bordered pits in section, and these very numerous markings of the vessels look very beautiful under a high power, GREVILLEA HILLIANA F.v.M., Red Silky Oak, (B.FI. v, 463). Remarks.—This comparatively common name of Red Silky Oak is fairly well chosen, for it is certainly the darkest of them all, although dark brown in a colour scheme would more correctly describe it. It is not so common on the market as the others, and the colour is not so pleasing, although some perhaps would prefer it when furnishing in a dark brown study. Range.—North Coast districts of New South Wales and the coastal districts of Queensland. Timber.—(a) Macroscopical.—Physical Properties. Coiour.—As already stated the colour is dark—a true brown, and in a colour scheme can easily be distinguished from the other Silky Oaks. Figure.—The bulk of this wood seems to be made up of small rays, which are finer than those of the other species, consequently the figure in any but a radial section is very small and is not nearly so attractive. Ina radial section the whole figure is one mass of fine rays, resembling some- what ringed or fiddle-backed Blackwood, Acacia melan- oxylon. | Texture and Grain.—This is the closest grained of all the Silky Oaks, and is characterised by a greasy feel which with the colour differentiates it from all its class. It is consequently easy to work and dress. The pores are almost equal in number to those of Orites excelsa, and less numer- ous than io the other three. 368 R. T. BAKER. Transverse Tests,— No.l. (No. 2! No. 3. Breaking load... ee ht 9,760 + 9,440 9,660 Modulus of rupture in ibs.persq.in. 19,520 18,880 19,320 Modulus of elasticity __,, » 2,964,705 2,677,640 2,734,177 Rate of load in tbs. per minute ... 813 944 805 Weight.—62 tbs. per cubic foot. (b) Microscopical. Transverse Section.—A very beautiful figure is obtained from this section when stained with malachite green. The rays form attractive green bands across the fields of vary- ing thickness according to the number of cells, many of which contain a deposit in amorphous form or spherical. Between these occur wood parenchyma, fibre and vessels, the first two arranged in concentric loops, concave always towards the bark. The fibres occupy by far the biggest area, being only separated by the narrow band of wood parenchyma, one, two or three cells wide. The walls of the fibres are very thick, and so only a very small lumen obtains; the cell walls are not numerous. The wood parenchyma cells have the long axis in some few instances in the arc of their disposition, and are almost all filled witha coloured deposit, which makes them still more conspicuous. The vessels are irregularly distributed throughout. Radial Section.—A section of this face shows clear of the . rays arather regular structure, the columns of fibres alter- nating with the parenchyma and vessels. The rays, especially the multiseriate ones, are very pronounced, and show globular and amorphous cell contents, the former occurring also in the cells of the wood parenchyma and in the vessels, the only species in which they were so found in the latter. Silica was also detected. Tangential Section.—The compact mass of fibres and spindle shaped end-on view of the large and small rays, with their varied cell contents are characteristics of this view. TECHNOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF SOME SILKY OAK TIMBERS. 369 EMBOTHRIUM WICKHAMI F.v.M., Satin Silky Oak, Red Silky Oak. (See Bailey’s ‘‘Queensland Flora,”’ iv, 1358). Remarks.—This is easily distinguished from the other Silky Oaks by its specific gravity being the lowest. The first common name well describes the face of a planed surface. Range.— Brushes of the North Coast of New South Wales and the coastal districts of Queensland. Timber.—(a) Macroscopical.—Physical Properties. Colour.—A. pale pink. Figure.—This has quite a different facies from any described Silky Oaks. The figure is a decidedly “‘Oaky”’ one, and its sheen adds to its beauty. The rays are prominent, but the open texture along with the sheen rather adds to the ornamentation of the timber. It is the most porous timber of them all; most of the fibres occur in bundles. Texture and Grain.—This is the most open grained of all ‘the Silky Oaks and naturally the specific gravity is the lowest, and although the rays are very prominent, yet it is not interlocked, the fibres running quite straight, and so it is easy to plane. The rays are of a darker shade or colour than the other wood elements, which possess such a very high sheen or satin surface that in cabinet work, especially panelling, there would be no necessity to polish it. It planes and works very easily. Weight.—30 tbs. per cubic foot. (b) Microscopical. Transverse Section.—This is quite unlike in structure any of the other Silky Oaks described in this paper, in fact, unlike any other Proteacez so far examined by me. The X—August 7, 1918. 370 R. T. BAKER. fibres occupy a large area of the wood structure, and having a large lumen and comparatively thin walls give quite a uniformity of structure, almost similar to that of a conifer; the wall perforations are very rare. The rays too are not by any means broad, and the parenchyma is most limited and not difficult to discern in this section, the cells being filled with an amorphous deposit. The vessels are numer- ous and mostly didymous and tridymous. Radial Section.—In places the fibres make quite a solid face and the wood parenchymatous cells are a less signifi- cant feature of the section. The ray parenchyma cells are characterised by a brown substance which quite fills them and gives the appearance of a brick wall to this portion of the slide, but this substance occurs in the vertical paren- chyma and is only rarely in the vessels. A few specimens of silica were seen. Tangential Section.—Only in this view is the character of a Proteaceous timber seen, the multiseriate rays and fibres almost making up the whole structure. The fibres appear as very compact, in strong lines around the rays, and few pits were detected. It will be noted from the figure that it is the outer cells of the rays that contain the red colour- ing substance. Uniseriate rays are small and fairly dis- tributed, whilst vertical parenchyma is a conspicuous feature. CARDWELLIA SUBLIMIS F.v.M., Bull Silky Oak, Silky Oak, Gold-sprinkled Silky Oak. (B. Fl. v, 538). Remarks.—The origin of the first common name given above is difficult to trace, and may possibly be used as a term of comparison in regard to the size of the medullary rays, as obtains in a similar case of a Casuarina (C. Lueh- manni), which is known as *‘ Bull Oak,” the rays in this case being more pronounced than in any other species of that TECHNOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF SOME SILKY OAK TIMBERS. 371 genus, and probably of the whole vegetable kingdom, just as the rays of C. sublimis are larger than those of any other of its congeners. According to Mr. R. H. Cambage, ‘*Bull Oak ’’ (Casuarinacez) also occurs near the coast in North Queensland,* where both these trees go under the name of ‘*‘ Bull Oak ’”’ and “Bull Silky Oak ”’ respectively, and probably because they both have such pronounced figures. The rays are prominent in every section of the wood, and can sometimes be shown in a radial section a foot long and half an inch high, when that portion of the ray can be caught in a straight line when cutting. Timber.—(a) Macroscopical.—Physical Properties, Colour.—Brick red, and quite distinguishable from the others described in this paper. Itis open in the grain with a comparatively small sapwood in full grown trees, but larger in the younger trees; the neighbourhood of the cambium is generally darker than the other parts of the wood. Figure.—This wood has certainly the most showy figure of the Silky Oaks, especially when cut on the quarter, the height and length of the rays leaving little of the other wood elements exposed. The figure of course varies accord- ing to the angle the timber is cut to the rays. The vessels give it an open grain effect, a neat figure is shown when cut tangentially, and in a transverse section the rays are of course the salient feature. Texture and Grain.—This is the second coarsest grained species described in this paper, Embothrium Wickhami being perhaps somewhat coarser; the large diameter of the vessels and exceptionally wide rays give it this character. The end grain is especially marked by the long distinct numerous lines of the rays which show more clearly than * This Journal, xuviir, 278 (1914). 372 R. T. BAKER. in any other species of Silky Oak. The grain may be described as straight, the timber planing easily and a smooth surface is obtained. ‘The silver grain is very fine, due to the large rays, and from which the tree derives its name of * Bull Oak.’’ There is, however, one slight defect in it, namely, occasionally black streaks running through it longitudinally. Transverse Test.— Breaking load tt ees ove ites 5,680 Modulus of rupture in ibs. per square inch 11,360 Modulus of elasticity _,, x BS 1,344,000 Rate of load in tbs. per minute ... oe 560 Weight.—36 ths. per cubic foot. (b) Microscopical. Transverse Sectton.—The area of an average field of obser- vation is seen to be evenly occupied in amount by the rays, parenchyma, fibres and pores. In general, the section more nearly approaches that of Grevillea robusta, but the fibres are more regularly arranged in parallel or concentric curves (convexity inwards), than in that species, and the same remarks apply to the parenchyma throughout, which is scattered; pores are numerous, containing in some cases material not yet identified. The walls of the fibres are much thinner than in G. robusta, and are remarkable for the paucity of perforations. The rays are very prominent, containing minute globular substances in some of the cells. Radial Section.—The regularity of structure of this species is well seen in this section, the columns of fibres alternating with the wood parenchyma, giving it a tracheidal appear- ance, and in most instances with spherical bodies in the cells of both forms of parenchyma. The two kinds of rays are well seen; the multiseriate lacking the regularity of the uniseriate, which shows very clearly the outline of each TECHNOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF SOME SILKY OAK TIMBERS. 373 cell, whilst in the former the cell walls are so numerous as to make the structure appear lost in so many lines. Amongst them appear at rare intervals cylindrical or elongated bodies with processes scattered over the surface, a transverse section showing them to be amorphous; therefore they can hardly be classed as sclerenchymatous bodies, but are in all probability silica. Very small spheri- cal bodies are also seen in the cells. The bordered pits of the parenchyma are well seen in section in both the end and side walls. The wood parenchyma is the only instance in which the small spherical bodies were detected. Tangential Section.—The most conspicuous objects in this view are, the transverse sections of the multiseriate rays, the uniseriate rays being quite insignificant compared to these. The other structure calls for no remarks, being explained in the radial section. A brown amorphous sub- stance is in evidence in several of the vessels which have scalariform septa. ORITES EXCELSA R. Br., Prickly-leaved Silky Oak. (B. FI. v, 411). Remarks.—This species is best known in the bush by the above name, but when cut into planks and placed on the market has the same common designation as Grevillea robusta, viz. “Silky Oak,’”’ although there really is little difference in the colour of the wood, but microscopically and chemically the differences are very marked. fange.— Brushes of the North Coast of New South Wales and coastal districts of Queensland. Timber. (a) Macroscopical.—Physical Properties. Colour.—It falls, like most of the ‘‘ Silky Oaks’’ described in this paper, ina class of browns, this being pale but a shade darker than Grevillea robusta, or perhaps light pink would nearly describe it. 374 R. T. BAKER. Figure.—The rays are a little darker in colour than the rest of the timber, but are fairly deep, perhaps deeper than Grevillea robusta, and nearly equal in size to those of Cardwellia sublimis. The ‘‘oak figure’’ is of course best Seen in the radial surface as obtains in all this class of woods. A neat figure is found when the wood is cut tangentially or at right angles to the rays, which then appear as innumerable flecks on the surface. Texture and Grain.—It is rather open in texture, but yet closer than that of any other described in this paper except Grevillea Hilliana. It planes easily, and is free working, but the prominent rays give trouble in dressing as they easily tear out. It looks well polished or waxed, but when so treated the colour changes to a dark, dirty tint. Transverse Test.— No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Breaking load in ibs. - ala 5,550 5,850 4,750 Modulus of rupture in ibs. persq.in. 10,744 11,397 9,238 Modulus of elasticity ,, 3 1,561,234 1;293,2oi eee Rate of load in ths. per minute ... 504 390 327°6 Weight.—37 to 40 ibs. per cubic foot. (b) Microscopical. Transverse Section.—The unstained section is one of the prettiest specimens of timber to be seen under a microscope. The natural colour a pale brown, brings the whole structure into good definition. The rays are naturally a prominent figure, and are very attractive by the presence of a small globule of an unidentified substance in almost every parenchyma cell, and in the uniseriate rays they look exactly like a string of beads. The fibres are seen to predominate in amount over that of the other elements, occurring in concave masses with the concavity outwards, and simple pits are fairly numerous. These are separated by mostly single rows of pores, and one or two rows of small parenchyma cells. TECHNOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF SOME SILKY OAK TIMBERS. 375 Radial Section.—In this species the wood parenchyma is very little in evidence, the columns of fibres being separated fairly regularly by the vessels. The multiseriate rays are conspicuous objects, and this is specially emphasised by the globules of a brown substance giving it a bead work appearance; they are also tracheidal in some instances. Sparsely scattered in the rays are afew sclerenchymatous stone, octangular cells, a distinct specific character. Tangential Section.—The dense masses of fibres are the salient feature of this view, and next to these the multi- Seriate rays showing the brown globules in the cells and some octagonal sections of sclerenchyma cells, a feature which makes the specific distinction from that of any other found in this series of “‘Silky Oaks.” EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate X VII.—Transverse sections of Grevillea robusta, Grevillea Hilliana, Embothrium Wickhami, Cardwellia sublimis and Orites excelsa (all natural size). » &©VWIII.—Radia] sections of the above. » &LX.—Tangential view of timber next to bark of the above. 5» &X&.—Transverse section of Grevillea robusta (in colour). ,, XI1.—Radial and tangential sections of G. robusta. , ©XII.—Transverse section of G. Hilliana (in colour). 5 XILI.—Radial and tangential sections of G. Hilliana. 5, %XIV.—Transverse section of Embothrium Wickhami (in colour). » + V.—Radial and tangential sections of #. Wickhami. » &*VI.—Transverse section of Cardwellia sublimis. 5 ©&© VII.—Radial and tangential sections of C.:sublimis. 5, *XVIII.—Transverse section of Orites excelsa (in colour). » ©XIX.—Radial and tangential sections of O. excelsa. Rk. T. BAKER. 376 ‘TUNTIG MeO oy} spaemoy govedmoo ‘xorqy ‘souqy joeduroo ‘yaeq-iapun per |jpue vuakyoucred SULYBvIIG JaAO UIYS uiyy |‘serpoq [vorseyds | anofoo pu ystqurd 10 ‘qstqiqam “Yjoourg) esavy snotownNy shvl O6a1¥ 7 | ‘Sql ege’s | ‘sql $Z¢g Z uaoiq oped ‘soTpoq [wormeyds jo oeduesead eynuim ‘seiqy pav vufyoucrrd ‘IaYsnol nq vs7a9 |poom jo uo1jsz0d sfear BY}OO-V1II194 -%8 sajwQ xsuitq |-oad jenbo‘serod § peaounouoad USI 10 -Ulesea yVq moog) 10 sTesseA eSavrT pus anojog| sq] ogg9e | ‘sq] ge P pod-yo11g ‘euidyoue -ied UL 90uR4s a1N4x04 ‘UTYY ‘SGOT} |-qns ped ‘UoT}0es uedo ‘useeays quid -vlessa} [j[evuls |ssozoutoouvaved Yory ‘}USTIoM -YSIuUMOIg YIM peyejessay|-de [epreyorry, ur sseuqysry a ‘Sql 08 G 44.51] “SUdLINIAP DILIP | ‘yaeq oTgVa 04 IB|IUIIS ‘pavy pus | ‘SyUoMelO poom qovdwo0o 910M |1904JO 1dA0 Somqgy Ie} oeslMsoyyo | jo souvszopuod qnq ‘Sul}voo |-oad ‘sjessoa pus UMOIG 194jNoO UO Hsza0va | BUIAGOUOIed UL Ssoupavy pur -Ysippos saz OXI] YOU] Sarpoq jworweydg Fqystem “aNofoy | ‘sql OZ9‘6 | “SQL ZO if [he] *ATOSAOA -suvay eurdyoue -1ed poom pue souqy jo ‘quo -9SUBIIG SBMS “yreq yeo gst | ‘em youored ; , -ouUn ayTT Yonum | Avr UL ous ‘g9044 poyeat}No | -qns snoydiome ut os Ajp~etoadse jpuv vuAqouered ‘soroeds 09 [IB | poom UT saipoq skvr pur fO pomosany ysopy| [Boltayds o}nUIp| nooo jYSI'] | ‘sq eget, | “sgl OF ge UMOIq e[Vd *[word 0080401 IT *[BoLdoosO.10e peed ee Ea 9 ALTE. orice mH nen ceri USPS cea Fu TEIN OnaO, oles WUUDYYIVLAL WNIAYIOGUEAT DUYYIVA V97)1NALD 9S199%9 $d7V(O SIUWQNS DYANPLVO DISNQOL DAP/LAILY ‘soloodg “XAVAWOS Di THE VERTICAL GROWTH OF TREES. BE THEH VERTICAL GROWTH OF TREES. By R. H. CAMBAGR, F.L.S. [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, August 7, 1918.] THE point discussed in this paper in regard to the vertical growth of trees has no reference to the rate of growth, but deals only. with the question as to whether the trunk of a tree continues to lengthen among or below the branches while it increases in girth, or whether the increase in height is wholly due to the growth at the tree top. The question is one which has often been discussed, and opinions on the point are very diverse, but actual observations by means of experiments or tests appear to be few. lm regard to an Australian tree, testimony has been recorded by Mr. T. W. Fowler, . mst. c.2, who quotes a con- tractor of standing, as saying that a certain tree when first examined was about one foot too short to provide a twenty-foot beam, but twenty years later had increased sufficiently in length for the purpose. The species or kind of tree was not stated. Mr. District Surveyor W. G. Walker (ibid., p. 213), refers to an occasion, when some years previously, he saw some twenty-five year old blazes on trees growing on a low- lying rich flat on the Richmond River, and which were between two and three feet higher than those ordinarily made. The inference in this case was that the blazes had been cut at about three to three feet six inches above the ground, and in the subsequent twenty-five years the lower portion of the tree trunk had increased its length by about 60 to 807%. In my own experience I have never noticed * The Surveyor, New South Wales, xvu, 187, (1904). 378 R. H. CAMBAGE. anything to corroborate this observation, old blazes and shields on marked trees having senor aay been found at about the usual heights.* Some years ago Mr. District eae W. M. Thomas drew my attention to the results of some tests made by Mr. G, W. Cooley, in America, in regard to the stability of bench marks cut near the base of fifteen trees of several different species.2, The observations extended over a period of five or six years, the tests being made annually. No upward growth was detected, although a change from one to three-hundredths of a foot was noticed from year to year, probably caused by the action of frost during the winter. It was further pointed out that three nails driven into some of the trees, about four feet above ground, maintained for five years the same relative position with regard to the nails on the bench marks. It may be mentioned that the trees selected for use as bench marks in the above tests were from three to twenty inches in diameter, the majority being one foot and upwards, and it might seem more reason- able to expect an extension, if any, to take place in such trees in the higher rather than the lower portions of the boles. Some experiments have been carried out by me for years past on very young trees growing in my own garden, and in the Sydney Botanic Gardens, the latter tests being made by permission of the Director, Mr. J. H. Maiden. These tests have been made by placing small tacks in the stem, one foot apart, the measurements being taken from a peg driven into the ground, or in some cases from a nail driven into the base of the stem. Tacks were renewed when 1 The Surveyor, xvii, 226, (1904). 2 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs., xx, 73, (1889). The Surveyor, XviIt 35, (1905). lod THE VERTICAL GROWTH OF TREES. 319 found to be nearly covered by the bark. The results of these observations go to show that the extension of the stem is made at the summit or growing point of the plant, and not between the branches. It is difficult to always guarantee the accuracy of the measurements nearer than to half an inch. Where the tree grows perfectly straight and the measurements are taken froma nail driven into the base of the stem, and there are no branches in the way, a high degree of accuracy can be maintained. An objection to measuring from a peg is that as the tree grows, the peg gets pushed out of position, so that it is considered better to start the measure- ments from a base-nail. Hxtreme accuracy is difficult to obtain if the tree becomes crooked, or grows out of the perpendicular. ! In the following tables the first column indicates the number of nails, one foot apart, driven into the stem on a given date, and also the number of branches between each nail. The remaining columns show the measurements to each nail on subsequent dates, and the number of branches then remaining, there being practically no difference found in the position of the nails in the great majority of cases. The columns also show where higher nails have been placed as the stems increased in height. The diameter of the stem was measured at two feet from the ground in all cases. Asa general rule the top of the plant was about one anda half feet above the highest nail, and this higher portion of the stem was too frail to admit of a nail being driven into it. 1 For information concerning the increase in diameter of ordinary timber trees, see a paper entitled “Growth of Trees, with a Note on Interference Bands formed by Rays at Small Angles,” by A. Mallock, F.r.s. Proc. Roy. Soc., London, Series B, Vol. 90, No. B 627, (1918). 380 R. H. CAMBAGE. Eucalyptus parvifolia Cambage (No. 1). Number of branches between each foot at date of measurement. 24/3/1912 | 22/9/1912 | 10/5/1914. 17/10/1915 24.7/1918 Diam. # inch. Diam. 12 in. | Diam. 8}.in. ; Diam. 5 in. 18 feet bigh 9 ft. 9 ft. 9 ft. + in. 14 br. 8 br. 3 br: 8 ft. 8 ft. 8 ft. 2 in. 12 br. 3 or: 2 br. vt Sp Toki Uf Aus Tatts 7 ft. 2 im 11 br. Naor: 2 br. no br. “ere 6 ft. 6 ft. 6 ft. 6 ft. 6 ft. 4 in. 16 br. 16 br. 5 br. 1 br. Tor: itites Pyatis 5 ft. Syefibe 5 ft. 2 in. 13 br. 12 br. no br. as Rac 4 ft. 4 ft. 4 ft. 4 ft. 4 ft. 3 in. 15 br. 15 br. 1 br. 1 br. tone 3 Bt. 3 ft. 3 ft. 3 ft. 3 ft. 4 in 9 br. 9 br. no br. oa 2 ft. 2 ft. 2 ft. 2 ft. 2 ft. $ in 4 br. 4 br. no br. Mee sar 1 ft. tt: 1 ft: 1 ft. Lents isbr: 1 br. no br. Ground. On 24th July, 1918, the tree was very considerably bent over, which accounts for variation in distances between nails. Eucalyptus parvifolia No. 2. Acacia podalyrefolia A. Cunn. Nuwber of branches between each Number of branches between each foot at date of measurement. foot at date of measurement. 24/3/1912. 22/9/1912 23/5/1914 17/10/1915 Diam. $ inch. Diam. 4 inch. Diam. 1 inch 8 feet 83 feet high ? branch 7 feet 7 feet 7 feet 15 branches 15 branches 2 branches 6 feet 6 feet 6 feet 19 branches 19 branches 5 branches 5 feet 5 feet 5 feet 12 branches 12 branches 1 branch 4 feet 4 feet 4. feet 4: feet 19 branches 19 branches 8 branches 7 branches 3 feet 3 feet 3 feet 3 feet 18 branches 18 branches 5 branches 5 brauches 2 feet 2 feet 2 feet 2 feet no branch a 6 branches 6 branches 1 foot 1 foot L foot sa) 1 foot no branch 4 branches 4 branches Ground Ground Cinnamomum camphora T. Nees. THE VERTICAL GROWTH OF TREES. 381 Cinnamomum camphora No; 1. No. 2. Number of branches between each Number of branches between each foot. foot. 11/5/1912 26/12/1912 10/5/1914. 13/10/1915 Diaw.} inch. Diam. 2 inch. | Diam. 2 inches. | 5 feet 53 feet high 11 feet bigh 6 branches 4. feet 4-1 feet 4 feet 4 feet 10 branches 6 branches 5 branches 5 branches 3 feet 8 feet 8 feet 3 feet 11 branches 12 branches 4 branches 4 branches 2 feet 2 feet 2 feet 2 feet 5 branches 5 branches 4. branches 4 branches 1 foot 1 foot 1 foot 1 foot 1 branch 1 branch 1 branch no branch Ground Ground In the case of Cinnamomum No. 1, the tree died shortly after 26/12/12, consequently no further tests could be made. In the case of Cinnamomum No. 2, the tree had to be cut down. Melaleuca leucadendron L. Acacia pycnantha Benth. Number of branches between each Number of branches between each foot. foot. 25/5/1912 13/6/1914 | 27/5/1916 | 18/3/1917 | 28/7/1918 Diam. $ inch. |Diam. 23 inches.| | Diam. in.|Diam.13in.|Diam. 3} in. 16 ft. high 6 feet 6 feet 6 feet 6 branches 5 branches} 6 branches 5 feet 5 feet 5 feet 7 branches 6 branches] 5 branches 4 feet nail gone 4 feet 4, feet 4 feet 13 branches 1 branch 6 branches! 5 branches! 5 branches 3 feet 3 feet 3 feet 3 feet 3 feet 15 branches 5 branches 1 branch | 3 branches} 4 branches 2 feet 2 feet 2 feet 2 feet 2 feet 12 branches 2 branches 3 branches! 1 branch | no branch 1 foot 1 foot 1 foot 1 foot 1 foot 1 branch no branch 1 branch |1 branch | 1 branch Ground Ground 382 Acacia decurrens Willd, var. R. H. CAMBAGE. normalis Benth. Number of branches between each Number of branches between each Acacia nerifolia A. Cunn. foot. foot. 18/3/1917 24/7/1918 10/6/1917 20/2/1918 Diam. 4 inch. |Diam. 23 inches. Diam. 4 inch. Diam. 3 inch. 16 feet high 6 feet high 7% feet high | 9 feet 4 ft. 114 in. 5 feet 5 feet 3 branches 3 branches 7 branches 7 branches | A feet 3 ft. 113 in. A feet 4 feet | 4. branches 3 branches 9 branches 8 branches | 3 feet 3 feet 3 feet 3 feet 6 branches 4. branches 12 branches 6 branches 2 feet 2 feet 2 feet 2 feet 3 branches 1 branch 10 branches 3 branches 1 foot 1 foot 1 foot 1 foot 1 hranch no branch 1 branch no branch Ground measured from Ground . peg From the foregoing tests it will be seen that the vertical growthin very young trees appears to be practically limited to the terminal shoot or growing point, and does not extend to the lower portion of the stem among the branches. If this conclusion be accepted as the correct one, there are still two other questions to be considered viz:—(1) Might there not be a prolongation of the bole over a period of 20 or 30 years, and (2) how isit that so many Eucalypts may reach a height of 60 feet to the first limb ? Although careful experiments and testing can alone answer the first question, it would seem remarkable, when apparently no extension of the stem takes place among the branches while the tree is very young and making rapid growth, that it should occur at a later stage. Take the case of the Camphor Laurel (Cinnamomum camphora, No. 2), where the stem increased 5% feet in length, or double its original, in one year and five months, without anything being added to the lower four feet. THE VERTICAL GROWTH OF TREES. 383 In the case of the Wattle (Acacia decurrens), no increase was found in the first five feet in one year and four months, although the whole stem grew from about 7 to 16 feet in that period. The Hucalyptus parvifolia example shows that a length of 7 feet remained stationary for three years and seven months, and at the end of six years only showed change of + inch, and this difference probably arose owing to the difficulty of measuring along a bent stem. Mr. Walker’s example suggests a rate of growth of slightly over an inch in one year, but nothing approaching this rate has been found in the present tests. In the case quoted by Mr. Fowler, the rate of increase for a length of nineteen feet was just over half an inch per annum, but even this is more than has been disclosed by the foregoing tests. At the same time the tree selected for a twenty- foot beam would probably be a tall-growing species of Kucalyptus, and I have had no opportunity of testing such a tree. H. parvifolia only grows to a height of about thirty feet. In regard to the second question as to the long clean boles of many Hucalyptus trees, the explanation lies in the fact that where trees grow in warm Sheltered situations and are closely packed among many neighbours, they run up rapidly in their upward search for the light, and during this process the young boles produce many branches which never mature, but, at first, when little more than twigs, wither and fall. As the tree grows, the limbs attain a larger size, but many eventually fall and the trunk becomes naturally disbranched, sometimes up to a great height. Should a tree grow in the open it will retain a much greater number of branches and reach only a lesser height than if it had grown under sheltered conditions. Some evidence in regard to the loss of branches may be found by reference to the table illustrating the growth of 384 R. H. CAMBAGE. Hucalyptus parvifolia, No. 1. In 1912 there were four branches on that portion of the stem between 1 and 2 feet, but these had all gone in 1914. In the same period, between the heights of 2 and 3 feet, nine branches dis- appeared, and between the 3 and 4 feet marks fifteen branches were reduced to one. In a comparatively short time after these little branches die off, there is nothing left to show that they ever existed. So far as the tests recorded in this paper have been carried, they have tended to show that although the boles and branches increase in diameter as the young trees grow, there is practically no extension in length of stem among or below the branches, at least during the first few years. In other words, though conclusive proof is still wanting, especially in regard to tall-growing trees, the results obtained make it appear, that once a young tree throws out definite branches, the portion of the stem below such branches will increase in diameter but not appreciably in length, and acts as a sort of strong base upon which the superstructure of a tall tree may be erected, and nails placed in the stem at any distance apart will retain their positions, relatively to each other, forat least several years, irrespective of how high the tree may grow. THE DARLING PENEPLAIN OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 385 THH DARLING PEHENEPLAIN OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA. By W. G. WOOLNOUGH, D.Sc., F.G.S. With Plate XXX. [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, September 4, 1918.] THE foundations of the study of the physiography of Western Australia have been laid deep and strong by Jutson in his masterly survey of the question in Bulletin No. 61 of the Geological Survey of that State, published in 1914. The author desires to express his admiration for the work done by this investigator, a work remarkable quite as much for its sobriety of hypothesis as for its scope of reading, care in investigation and profundity of deduction. As Jutson himself has pointed out, little detailed investigation of physiographic problems has been carried out in Western Australia, and the results of a preliminary statement of physiographic structure cannot be considered as final or complete. From time to time the author hopes to add contributions to the subject. The present note in some ways elaborates, and in others differs from the views of the previous author. With Jutson’s main premise, that the “‘ Great Western Australian Plateau ”’ is a vast uplifted peneplain, the author is entirely in agreement. Peneplain is here used in the sense of an almost level, or, at most, a gently undulating surface, carved out at an altitude very near base-level of erosion (usually sea-level), by the ordinary forces of sub- aerial erosion under humid conditions. Asa result of many years of teaching experience, it has been found extremely Y—September 4, 1918. 386 W. G. WOOLNOUGH. difficult to get beginners to remember the fact, that a peneplain is not a mathematical plane; and the same difficulty seems to exist in the minds of some geologists. Criticisms are frequently levelled at descriptions of pene- plains because differences of level, amounting sometimes to a couple of hundred feet, are noted. The evolution of a perfect peneplain, while rapid in its earlier stages, is undoubtedly almost inconceivably slow as completion is approached ; and it is for this reason that, in most of the peneplains of Australia, various types of ‘“‘residuals”’ of the older land surface, from which the pene- plain has been carved, are left standing above the general level. Mechanical transportation of detritus is almost non-existent during the later stages of erosion, by reason of the extremely sluggish nature of the streams. On the other hand, chemical weathering, and the action of solu- tions are strongly predominant. In another paper (in the press) the author has endeavoured to show that these phenomena, combined with the action of a copious, but markedly seasonal rainfall, have been necessary and sufficient conditions for the production of the laterite cap- ping which is so ubiquitous a feature throughout the length and breadth of Western Australia. The latter part of the thesis has been put forward by Simpson! and others, but, so farasthe author is aware, the formation of the material 1 Simpson, E. 8., Laterite in Western Australia, Geol. Mag., Decade v, Vol. 1x, pp. 399 - 406, 1912. | Burton (Rec. Geol. Surv. India, xLv1tt, pp. 204 — 218, 1917) believes that the laterites of the Central Provinces of India are lacustrine in origin, and in this he follows Middlemiss, Wetherell, and Fermor, (references in paper quoted). That such cannot be the case with the laterites of Western Australia is clearly shown by the occurrence of fine quartz and aplite veins in situ in the leached “ pipe clay,” which always forms the foundation of the laterite of the Darling Range. It seems probable that two essentially different but superficially similar substances are being called “laterite ”’ in India and Western Australia respectively. THE DARLING PENEPLAIN OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 387 on a land surface of low altitude has not been insisted on previously. If this view is correct it follows that the original laterite formation of Western Australia may be taken as an indica- tion of the peneplain surface. The question is suggested, why are not all peneplains indicated by laterite cappings ? The answer is that several conditions, other than ordinary {and therefore in general partial) peneplanation, are neces- sary. So long as normal and effective drainage exists, the ferruginous and aluminous solutions are largely carried away seawards. It is only when practical stagnation is attained, that is, when the peneplain stands for long ages at base level, that the necessary concentration of solutions takes place. In the second place the alternation of seasona! desiccation and saturation is also necessary. This coincid- ence of circumstances is rarely attained. .This view of the case bears out Jutson’s main contention with regard to the origin of the Western Australian Uplands. To the South Western section of these Uplands he applies the term Darling Peneplain, and it is to this portion of the area that the author wishes to draw attention chiefly. Thealtitude of the laterite ‘“‘level’’ rises gradually from about 800 feet above sea level at the Darling Scarp overlooking the coastal plains, to 1,400 feet’ at Coolgardie, and 1,700 feet at Meekatharra. The surface of the Darling Range is remarkably level (neglecting the obviously recently-denuded valleys of the existing streams) and the skyline is very even. When examined in closer detail, however, quite considerable differences in altitude of different parts of the laterite cap . are noticeable. These are, in part, and probably principally, due to the sagging of the outer edges of ‘‘Mesa”’ cappings through the removal of the very decomposed granitic material on which the laterite universally rests. 388 W. G. WOOLNOUGH. -Coolgartie °Southern TOSS J Nullabor Plains In part, however, there isa real and fundamental differ- ence of level. So far as the observations of the author extend (and the Darling Range area has been fairly thoroughly traversed) these residual differences amount to: less than 200 feet in most cases, and this difference does. not appear excessive when the proviso that a peneplain is. not a mathematical plane is remembered. The present. height of the laterite surface is due to epeirogenic uplift of the whole area under discussion to the extent of the difference in altitude between the laterite-level and sea- level. A tilt as well as an uplift is at first suggested. When, however, it is considered that the difference in altitude between Coolgardie and the Darling Scarp is only 600 feet, and the distance is about 300 miles, it is apparent. that the gradient of the surface must have been negligible ‘ THE DARLING PENEPLAIN OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 389 even if the same difference existed prior to uplift. There is then no necessity to postulate a tilt as well as bodily uplift, though it is possible that sucha tilt may have taken place. Up to this point the author’s observations are merely a corroboration and amplification of the principles laid down by Jutson. Here, however, the author desires to diverge somewhat. Jutson has made no mention of residuals of an older landscape standing above the surface of the Darling Peneplain, and such residuals are by no means abundant or conspicuous. One’s outlook from one of the laterite scarps usually so circumscribed, owing to the heavy jarrah forests and to the youthfulness of erosion of the stream valleys, that an extensive prospect is rarely obtained. The author was fortunate enough to visit the estate of Mr. A. R. Gorrie near Chidlow’s Well, and to obtain thence a magnificent panorama of part of the Darling Peneplain (Plate XXX, fig. 1). From this point of view the existence of monadnocks of considerable dimensions was at once recognised. The chief of these is Mount Dale, associated with which are a number of other out-standing peaks including Kagle Hill, Mount Randell and others. Ontwo recent motor journeys between Perth and Albany, near views of Mount Randell (about 45 miles south of Perth) were obtained, and the general contour of the mountain strongly bears out the views stated as to its mode of origin. The same group of hills also forms a conspicuous landmark from the higher ground near Williams (100 miles south of Perth) and from this aspect also their residual character becomes apparent. There is therefore evidence of the existence of a higher, and therefore older, level of erosion for which the name of the “‘ Mount Dale Level’’ is proposed. Jutson has noted the highly mature character of many of the valleys on the surface of the Darling Peneplain, of which the Avon River at York and Northam is a striking 390 W. G. WUOLNOUGH. example. It appears to the author, however, that Jutson has not fully appreciated the significance of these valleys, which are extremely widely developed in the Darling Range area. They form a series of sub-parallel troughs, roughly meridional in direction, and parallel with the general “‘grain’’ of the country. They are very wide in proportion to their depth, that is, are highly mature, and are of the utmost economic importance, since they consti- tute the arable portion of the ‘‘Wheat Belt’’ of Western Australia. They are carved out of the laterite covered plateau, and their bottoms lie at least 200 feet below its level. The floors and sides are clear of laterite coating, and the basement granites and “‘greenstones’’ of the country are exposed. The author regards these great longitudinal valleys as evidence of a slight uplift which occurred after the forma- tion of the Darling Peneplain, and before its elevation to its present altitude. This uplift was of small amount, but sufficed to rejuvenate the drainage, and to reinstate the normal processes of corrosion; and the land surface remained in a stable condition long enough for advanced maturity of erosion to be attained, without production of | a complete peneplain. For this reason the author suggests. the name ‘* Mature Valley Level’’ for the partial peneplain which was produced under the circumstances described. If a local name is preferred instead of that suggested, (and such is probably better, since there are other mature valley levels in Australia and elsewhere) the name ‘‘ Meckering Level’’ may be substituted, since the prosperous agricultural townof Meckering occupies one of these valleys. Meckering is preferred to Beverley, York or Northam, as being more distinctively Western Australian, though the mature valley topography is even more marked at the towns mentioned. At the time of the principal Darling Range uplift, these mature valleys were occupied by long, gently-flowing THE DARLING PENEPLAIN OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 391 *“subsequent’’ streams, some of which probably fell south- wards while others flowed tothe north. Asaresult of the production of the Darling Scarp, new, active, consequent rivers came into existence. Inthe area under review these streams flowed from east to west, and, rapidly extending their valleys headwards, they gradually dismembered the older streams and produced the present arrangement of the drainage. While this latter part of the question is treated by Jutson, the author differs from him in some of his con- clusions as to matters of detail, and intends to deal with the matter of river development in a subsequent paper. At Northam and York (Figs. 59 and 60, Jutson loc. cit.) the Avon River has not yet been affected by the piracy carried out by the Swan. The stream occupies its ancient mature valley. A little further north, at Toodyay, how- ever, the Swan is actively incising its valley and is ina comparatively youthful stage of development. Its bed lies far below the original valley bottom, but the positions of both the Darling Peneplain and of the Meckering Level can be traced quite readily; the former in the level-topped laterite covered hills of the 1,000 foot level, and the latter in the broad, gently sweeping, curved shoulders of these hills (Plate XXX, fig. 2). In many parts of the Darling Range there is a strong suggestion of two mature-valley levels, but much more investigation will be necessary before such a fact can be substantiated. Passing eastward across the mature valleys of the Avon, Logan and other streams, the clearness of definition of the Meckering Level is lost, though, all the way, to Southern Cross at all events, the existence of mature valleys is noticeable. This is only what would be expected on the theory ofa slight uplift after perfect pene- planation. The roughening of the land surface would be most pronounced near the coast, and would become less 392 W. G. WOOLNOUGH. marked inland. While it is really beyond the scope sug- gested by the title of the present paper, the author wishes to suggest the possible bearing of the theory, above out- lined, upon the problem of the topographic development in the great interior Salt Lake Region. Jutson has implicitly stated that the summits of the higher levels in this region are the remnants of the Great Plateau. The author desires to make this statement explicitly, and to claim the laterite residuals like the Red Hill at Coolgardie (Plate XXX, fig. 3) as the remnants of a peneplain contemporaneous and co- extensive with the Darling Peneplain. During the great rest-period, when laterization was going on, this surface was at a much lower level than at present, quite low enough to account for the submergence below sea-level which has been noted at Lake Cowan (Norseman). While it is by no means so certain as the fact of the existence of a western coast not far from the present one, there is strong probability that a coast line existed away to the south-east of the Coolgardie area. The comparatively recent date of the limestones of the Nullarbor Plains (Hucla Limestone Plateau of Jutson) suggests former extension of the Southern Ocean as a veritable Mediterranean Sea far into the south-eastern portion of the State. The uplift which produced the Meckering Level on the western side rejuvenated the drainage on the eastern side as well. As Jutson has pointed out, there is every reason to believe that the climate of the interior of Australia was formerly much moister than it is now. Under such con- ditions a development of mature valleys analogous to those of the Meckering level may be postulated. As these would be base-levelled, their lower courses would undoubtedly enter salt water, and Lake Cowan may have been a bay or estuary. About the time of the main Darling Uplift, which may also have caused the Bunda Scarp, the progressive desicca- THE DARLING PENEPLAIN OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 393 tion of the climate prevented the development of young consequent streams on the eastern side of the peneplain, and the previous normal erosion gave place to the cycle of arid erosion through which the region is passing at present. The author is of opinion that such a mode of development reconciles the somewhat divergent views which have sought to explain the great salt lake systems by arid erosion, by river erosion or by wave action.’ The author has not travelled sufficiently extensively in the salt lake region to be able to speak with the same cer- tainty as with respect to the Darling Range area, but wishes to suggest that some of the higher hillsin that area such as Mount Burgess, north of Coolgardie, may possibly be residuals of the Mount Dale level. It is possible also _ that the recognition of a mature valley cycle of erosion may assist in explaining some of the difficulties which exist in connection with the origin of the deep leads of Norseman and elsewhere. Jutson has explicitly assumed such a cycle, subsequent to the main planation of the area (loc. cit., p.98). Age of the Different Levels. The author agrees in every point with Jutson as to the evidences of date of peneplanation afforded by the Irwin River sections and those from that point southward to Gingin. .The author has had an opportunity recently of re-examining the Irwin River area, and is convinced not only that: ‘“‘the Jurassic rocks in the Irwin River district were uplifted with the granite,’”’ (Jutson, p. 94), but that the laterite level marking the Darling peneplain is con- tinuous across the old fault plane which marks their junc- * Gregory, J. W., “ The central lakes of Westralia and the Westralian peneplain,” Geog. Journ. 1916, pp. 326—331. Jutson, J. T., “Erosion and the resulting land forms in sub-arid Western Australia, including the origin and growth of the dry lakes,’ Geog. Journ., 1917, pp. 418-437. Montgomery, A., “The significance of some physiographic characteristics of Western Australia,” Journ. Roy. Soc. W.A., vol. 11, 1915-6, pp. 59— 96. 394 W. G. WOOLNOUGH. tion. The evidence with regard to the Cretaceous rocks at Gingin is almost, if not quite as conclusive, except that the topmost member of the Cretaceous series, being a porous sandstone, is not a suitable rock to produce laterite. It is, however, so strongly ferruginous as to suggest that it was a superficial formation when laterization was in > progress. Its position with regard to the laterite to the Darling Range is not identical with that on the Jurassic formation (fifty miles further north). It is certain, however, that it has been displaced to some extent by the formation of the main Darling fault. There is no doubt, then, that the peneplanation is post-Jurassic, and there is extremely strong presumption that it is post-Cretaceous. With regard to its upper limit of age, the author is much more doubtful, and is inclined to place it much furtber back than does Jutson. The latter argues from the im- maturity of development of existing valleys in the Darling Range, but, as the author has shown, these valleys do not date from the termination of what may be termed the ‘great laterite cycle,’’ but from the close of the ‘“‘Mecker- ing Level’’ cycle. Assuming the latter to have been con- temporaneous with the formation of the Norseman Beds, it is to the Meckering Level cycle that Jutson’s reasoning applies with full force. This being so, the age of the Darling Peneplain must be notably older, since a considerable period must have been necessary, not only to excavate the valleys of the Meckering Level, but to bring them into such marked adjustment with geological structure as seems to be the case. The author would therefore place the date of the close of the main peneplanation at least at the lower limit (older Pliocene) assigned by Jutson, with a strong prob- ability that it may even be somewhat older still. Reasons ‘ The author feels strongly, that in view of the uncertainty which exists with respect to the correlation of the Australian Tertiaries, the use of such terms as Miocene, Pliocene, etc., is of doubtful advantage, and would prefer the use of a term such as Norseman or Eucla to indicate the ages of the formations developed respectively at these two places. THE DARLING PENEPLAIN OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 395 have been given for believing that the duration of the great laterite cycle was almost inconceivably protracted. The beginning of this period must therefore have been much earlier in Tertiary time, and the date of the Mount Dale peneplanation may have been quite early in that era. Summary. The author agrees with Jutson in describing the uplands of South-Western Hastern Australia as an uplifted peneplain but goes further, and claims that not one but several periods of uplift, with intervening periods of crustal stability, can be recognized. For the oldest peneplain, represented by a few scattered residuals only, the name *‘ Mount Dale Level ’”’ is suggested. The name ‘Darling Peneplain”’’ should be confined to the laterite covered surface so widely developed in Western Australia, and reasons are advanced for believing that an enormously protracted period of crustal stability is demanded for the production of this peneplain. A subsequent small elevation caused the development of an extensive series of mature valleys, for whose base level the name.*’ Meckering Level” is suggested. It is probable that, during this cycle of erosion, mature valleys were carved on the eastern as well as the western side of the land surface, and that these valleys subsequently decided the development of the great salt lakes of the goldfields areas. Probably the marine beds of Norseman were developed during this period, and possibly also some of the deep leads. | A sharp uplift of the highlands, with an isostatic depress- ion of the coastal area, brought about the existing con- ditions of topography. Dissection of the uplifted Darling Peneplain, now at an average altitude of about 1,000 feet above sea-level, caused dismemberment of the mature valleys of the Meckering level. 396 W. G. WOOLNOUGH. The author differs somewhat from Jutson in the ages assigned to these earth movements, and believes that the early or late Pliocene date assigned by that author to the Darling Peneplain should refer to the Meckering Level. The formation of the Darling Peneplain was older, while that of the Mount Dale Level may be as ancient as early Tertiary. EXPERIMENTS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF IRON IN CONTACT WITH SULPHURIC ACID. By OC. EK. FAwWSITT, D.Sc, and A. A. PAIN, B.Sc., [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, September 4, 1918. } Two papers on this subject have already appeared.1 Com- paratively little research on this subject has been carried out, yet the matter is of great importance; the researches already published (loc. cit.) have therefore been continued. There are many peculiarities about the action of sulphuric acid on iron that have still to be cleared up, but we have confined our present experiments to two questions only. Part I.—A comparison of Iron in concentrated Sulphuric Acid with Passive Iron. Although iron is attacked very noticeably when first inserted into concentrated sulphuric acid, the action is much less vigorous after a few hours, and suggestions have been made by some chemists to us that in this case we may have to do with something resembling a “‘ passive”’ State of iron. We have therefore performed some experi- * Fawsitt and Powell, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., xxx11I, 234,1914; and Powell, Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xtvu, 59, 1918. BEHAVIOUR OF IRON IN CONTACT WITH SULPHURIC ACID. 397 ments with wrought iron and 967% sulphuric acid (pure for analysis). If the word ‘‘ passive’’ be here used as denoting ‘‘ inac- tive,’’ then there is no great objection to it, for the activity in the case of action on wrought iron and cast iron is excessively slight. But the word “ passive’ could not at any rate be applied to iron in pure sulphuric acid as denoting a State in any sense similar to that of the state of iron when placed in 1°4 sp. gr. nitric acid. The results of the follow- ing experiments bring out the difference between the two cases. J.—I a. When passive iron, lying in 1°2 nitric acid was touched with platinum, neither iron, nor the platinum experienced any change noticeable to the eye. Is. When iron lying in concentrated sulphuric acid (967) was touched with platinum, then although there might. have previously been no bubbles of gas coming from the iron, bubbles of gas appeared after contact almost. immediately on the platinum. II.—II a. The cell. Passive iron [1°2 nitric acid] Platinum was found to have a potential of 0°13 to 0°3 volt, while the cell Active Iron [1°2 nitric acid] Platinum had a. potential of 0°95 to 1°1 volts. In both cases the iron was positive to the platinum. When passive iron immersed in 1°2 nitric acid was touched with tin or copper, the iron became suddenly active, and the. potential immediately rose to that of the second cell, viz., 1°1 volts. When the passive iron was lifted into the air fora few moments and replaced in the solution, there was no considerable influence on the potential of the cell. Ifs. The E.M.F. of the cell. Iron [concentrated sul- phuric acid] Platinum was found to be much more variable than the H.M.F. of the cell where iron, passive 398 C. E. FAWSITT AND A. A. PAIN, or active, is tested against platinum in nitric acid. This is shown in Table I. Table I. Time after Rontaee of iron with acid. Potential 1 Minute 1 * 2 volts 8 99 1 = 1 99 lentes 0:95 ,, 30 as Oats) 65 OFT, 99 After 65 minutes insertion in the acid, the iron was touched with a piece of tin, when the potential rose only to 0°68 volts. The iron was then scratched vigorously with tin, when the potential rose to 0°79 volts. The potential however started to fall again immediately. On bringing the iron now into the air for one minute, and again intro- ducing into the sulphuric acid, the potential was found to have risen to 0°95 volt. The voltage immediately began to decrease slowly again as before. Whenever the iron was lifted into the air for one minute, the potential rose considerably, and in some cases as much as 0°4 volt. III.—Passive iron (made passive by 1°4 sp. gr. nitric acid) was put into concentrated sulphuric acid (96%). In the concentrated sulphuric acid the potential of the cell —Passive Iron [concentrated sulphuric acid] Platinum— was found to be from 0 to 0°2 volt. When the passive iron . was brought into the air for a minute, and then replaced in the sulphuric acid, the potential was not noticeably affected. On touching the passive iron (while in the sul- phuric acid) with a piece of copper, the potential rose suddenly to 1 . 15 volts. It will be seen from these experiments that wrought iron made passive by 1°4 nitric acid, bears no simple relation to ordinary (active) iron which has been lying io pure con- centrated sulphuric acid for.some time. BEHAVIOUR OF IRON IN CONTACT WITH SULPEURIC ACID. 399 The slow action of concentrated sulphuric acid on iron or steel, whereby hydrogen is produced, is dependent on all the usual factors governing the action of acids on metals. The peculiarities noticed in the case of iron and concen- trated sulphuric acid are due partly to the protective coat- ing of FeSO,, H2O which tends to cover the iron soon after the action has begun; partly also, we think, to the fact that iron is capable of absorbing hydrogen; and partly to impurities in the iron. Concentrated sulphuric acid does not of itself passidify iron. Part I].—Variation in the rate of action according to the Concentration of Acid. It would probably be expected that dilution of the acid would greatly increase the velocity of action. Our experi- ments have shown, however, that the increase in action is not in any way proportional to the increase in the per- centage of water in the acid, but rather that no great increase in the rate of action is obtained when the acid is reduced from 94 per cent. to a concentration of 85 per cent. H,SO, (154 water). Below a concentration of 85% sul- phuric acid, the velocity increases somewhat more notice- ably as the concentration of H,SO, diminishes. A further decidedly greater increase in velocity is noticed in proceed- ing from 70% acid to 64°5{% acid. Some investigations into the rate of action of concentrated sulphuric acid on iron have been made by Knietsch.* Broadly speaking, it might be said that his experiments give somewhat similar results to those we have obtained. An exceptionally slight action was obtained in our experi- ments with 89°3°4 H.SO.. Knietsch, on the other hand, obtained a minimum action with 94° H.SO.. This may possibly be accounted for by the different kind of iron used in the two researches. + Journ. Soc. Cham. Ind., Xx1, p. 343, 1902. 400 C. E. FAWSITT AND A. A. PAIN. The rather sudden increase in velocity of action which we have observed in proceedings from 85% to 80% and from 70% to 64°5/ acid, may not be unconnected with the fact that the monohydrate, H.SO., H.O contains 845% of H.SO, while the trihydrate H.SO,, 3 H,O contains 64°77 H,SO,. * The amount of action depends to some extent on whether the acid is kept in movement or is left undisturbed in con- tact with the iron. One set of experiments, Series A, was conducted without shaking, and the rate measured by reading the volume of gas (reduced to N.T.P.) evolved from the iron and acid contained ina flask. In Series B, the flasks containing the iron and acid were shaken, and the rate measured by noting the diminution in weight of the iron used. SERIES ‘°A.”’’ The iron used was a steel wire of the following com- position:—carbon 0°51%, phosphorus 0°046%, silicon 0°0837/, sulphur 0°058%, manganese 0°487%. The steel wire hada — diameter of 0°0706 centimetres. A length of 634 cm. of wire, weighing 20 grams, was polished with emery paper and was cut up into lengths of ocm. This lot of 20 grams weight was the amount used in each experiment, and the surface exposed to the acid was approximately 143 sq. cms. in each case, The volume of the acid used was 120 cc. This was put into a Jena distilling flask (130 cc.) with the portion of the neck above the side tube shortened so as to reduce the gas space in the flask toa minimum. The side tube was shaped to a delivery tube permitting the collection of evolved gas over mercury. After introducing the iron and acid, the neck of the flask was closed witha paraffined rubber stopper. This arrangement was proved to be gas-tight under a pressure of 24 cm. of mercury. The flasks were placed in a water BEHAVIOUR OF IRON IN CONTACT WITH SULPHURIC ACID. 40] thermostat at 30° O., and the gas was collected in a measuring tube over mercury. Owing to it being necessary to displace a small and variable amount of mercury in the delivery tube before any readings of the volume could be made, it was necessary to wait for 1—8 days, before the first reading could be taken. When therefore no reading for the volume of gas is given in the first few days (Table II), this does not mean that no gas was evolved, but that it was not possible to register the volume with the method of collection which was adopted. Using 120 cc. of acid, there is not a very marked change in the concentration of the acid even in several weeks, for although acid is being used up by water it is also used up in order to form the compound FeSO,, H.O, which has been shown’ to be the compound formed in the action of concentrated sulphuric acid oniron. Fe+H,S0O,+H,O = FeSO,, H.O+ Ho. An extreme case is next given where the action is taken as much greater than anything actually experienced in these experiments. Taking 94/ acid as an example, and allowing this to act on steel for 45 days at 30°C., the Maximum amount of gas which could be produced in this time (30° O.) from 140 sq. cm. of the steel used, is say, 45 x 24 x 3°D cc. = 3780 cc. This (maximum) amount of gas is calculated on the assumption that the velocity throughout was the maximum velocity ever obtained in an experiment with 94% acid at 30° CO. These 3°780 litres would use up 16°8 grams of sulphuric acid (H.SO.). 16°8 grams of acid and 3°93 grams of water are thus removed. Now the original acid had a volume of 120 cc. and weighed 217°4 grams; this contains 205°8 grams H.SO, and 11°6 grams water. After 45 days action 189 grams acid and 7°7 grams water are left, so that the per- + Powell, Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xuvii, 59, 1913. Z—September 4, 1918. 402 C. E. FAWSITT AND A. A. PAIN, centage of H.SO. in the acid is 96°08. A concentration of 84°5% acid corresponds to the composition of the mono- hydrate He2SO., H.O and so will not gain or lose in con- centration when acting. More dilute acids will lose in concentration. As the acids employed usually had a much smaller action in these experiments than that formulated in the calcula- tion, any alteration in the concentration of the acid from the initial values may be regarded as negligible. In a previous research’ it was suggested that the real (maximum) velocity of the action of concentrated sulphuric acid might not always be obtained owing to the adhering coats of ferrous sulphate and other causes. In many of those cases, shaking appears to be all that is necessary to produce the maximum velocity. In many of the experiments, the results of which are given below, the velocity of action increased continually towards the maximum as time advanced, even when the flasks were not shaken; one could explain this by assuming that the faster the evolution of hydrogen gas, the more stirring action there is of the acid at the surface of the iron exposed; or one could assume that the products of the action have some accelerating effect on the action. It was assumed in a previous research, using the same steel and 94°67 acid, that the velocity of action obtained at 30° C. viz. 2°4 cc. per sq. dcm. per hour, approximated pretty closely to the the maximum velocity obtainable. In the first experiment (Series A, Table II) the flasks were left quite undisturbed except for the stirring action of the gas evolved, and the velocities obtained with 94% acid were somewhat less than those obtained originally by Fawsitt and Powell (loc. cit.) with 94°6/% acid. The concentration of acid in those solu- tions was determined in the first instance by density, but 1 Journ. Chem. Soc. Ind., xxx111, 234, 1914. 403 BEHAVIOUR OF IRON IN CONTACT WITH SULPHURIC ACID. Cis We ESO ECON | Ol espa lens G8-0| Seles oe Pee oS ae oe Se eo reo vases | a eal Gb | FL.0| 19.0) °" reece ae isang. lo 8-¢ | 6-F | ‘’ | 19-0] 9F-0] 98.0 PS TN Gre i 7G, FERetO | ee eve .0 Ae eee er eo aati ooilte agen lee Pie ae) eS ae OO | Ol Que 7 "| 68 | 6:& | %-8 | 9150 |. 91.0) 2i-0 ee 08s Oe | ad ed aloo O:cie ii tal a2 ea Be Foo | eora FS BP ee ee rs ue Pala oe om ae 8G | 8:0 | 6.0 | 22-0.| ¥.0 | 88:0 | 70-1 | | = | FO Lb | 2F.0 | 19-0 | 20-0 | 40-0 | “| 80) “ |FI0.0; Cia lee all met | 09604) 29:0.) sea) ZOO as |= ee eo %S-69| %OL | %OL | %F-LL| %F-LL| %08' | %08 | %S8 | %es |%6-18 GZ. 1 PPT eS ea TOM lesOTal i 2c cies OI-T os _ reve GOW = eetceO. 9630 FO | WH Silo) |. ae ZIAD -0|.980-0| 1-0 | TL-0 ge aaa 2 0 0) rato | FT-O | O8-0 Pr-0| 790-0) °° Dye 92-0| 60-0} °° LI-0 Z-0| PFO-0 | 27-0 | 910-0 een ee a es ee - 0 cbmenya te 10-0 | 810-0 a 800-0 | 900-0) °" ze %6-L8 | %8-68-| %E-68 | %6-06 on hls OO Lore “ee6e5oq OSrNwWi91 Noe we ane 6) ° %0F6 eee (a9 Le eee 66 Ee 68-0 ele 61-0 Re ees (74 CZ eee €¢ eZ 19-0 HIG ees 6 61 eee 6é el ee ce ie OT-O OG GO00-O pita) F ¢00-0 i 9 eae ee G eee ce P eee o¢ e ee ce 4 eee ce T OO fep « *OS*H |q0¥qu00 Ysayg %F6 | Wlosz OVAL, ‘O.0€ 72 wnoy wad aujawmrop “bs | wosf q's N 7 saugourjuso ougno Ur passardua swb fo wonjoag—'TT- AT VL 404 C. E. FAWSITT AND A. A. PAIN. M in the case of most of the concentrations given in Table I, a determination was also made by titrating the acid with alkali. In Table II the gas evolved has been calewinted to ce. of gas evolved per sq. decimetre per hour, on the assump- tion that the whole of the surface of the steel used (143 sq. cm.) was freely exposed to the action of the acid. This is only approximately true, as the small pieces of steel touched each other in places. SERIES ‘‘B.”’ Samples of steel of the same kind as in series *‘A’’ but. only 5 grams in weight (the surface being 35 sq. centi- metres) were exposed to the action of concentrated sul- phuric acid in large test tubes, and the tubes were then placed in a thermostat at 30° O. and shaken from side to side by a mechanical shaker worked by a motor. In this case the gas evolved was not measured, but the weight of the iron was taken before action, and after 28 days of action; the iron on being taken out of the sulphuric acid was washed with alcohol, then with water, then with alcohol and dried before the final weighing. The results obtained are as follows :-— Table IIT. Concentrated acid. | Weight of iron lost in 28 days. 97°4 0:0993 94-0 0°8605 90:0 1°2223 89°3 0:°1401 89°3 0°1331 87:9 0°5230 85:0 0:5264 80-0 2°9145 | The experiments with 89°3% concentrated acid show distinctly less action than those with 94°0% acid, thus con- firming the results obtained in the unstirred experiments. BEHAVIOUR OF IRON IN CONTACT WITH SULPHURIC ACID. 405 Comparing the 94% acid when shaken with the results obtained in Table II, we notice that °8605 gram of iron is lost in 28 days from 35 square centimetres of surface. This means that 340 cc. of hydrogen were produced by the solution of this °8605 gram of iron, or 1°4 cc. per hour per sq. decimetre. This is the average rate for the 28 days, and is just about equal to the rate (1°36) obtained from the undisturbed acid after 43 days. As the average rate for 94% acid for 28 days in Series ‘‘A”’ (Table IT) is only 0°35 cc. per sq. decimetre per hour, the accelerating effect of shaking is thus very noticeable. It is noticeable also in the other concentrations of sulphuric acid used. Conclusions.—(1) The solvent effect of sulphuric acid, of concentration (80% —94%) H.SO:, on steel is noticeably increased by shaking the vessel containing the acid and steel. (2) 97°4% H,SO, and 89°3 H.SO, have less action on the steel used than 947%, 90°9% , 87°9 % or 85% acid. (3) As the action of the acid on iron or steel produces a form of ferrous sulphate monohydrate (FeSO,, H,O) on the surface of the iron, this causes a slowing down of the action and prevents action almost entirely in some cases. (4) No real similarity exists between iron which is slowly dissolving in concentrated sulphuric acid and “‘ passive’’ iron as produced by dipping iron into 1°4 sp. gravity nitric acid. 406 H. G. SMITH. NOTE on THE RESINOUS EARTH OCCURRING at THE HEAD oF tHE NAMBUCOA RIVER, N.S. WALES. By HEwnRyY G. SMITH, F.C.S. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 4, 1918. ] DURING the last few years instances have been recorded of the occurrence, in more than one locality in New South Wales, of an earthy substance which readily burns when a lighted match is applied to it. It has also been noticed that in the neighbourhood of this peculiar earth, water often shows iridescent films upon the surface. Peculiarities such as these are commonly thought to be due to the presence of oily substances, and naturally the idea has arisen that possibly petroleum oil may occur in close prox- imity to these readily ignitible earths. Natural liquid petroleum supplies would, of course, be of the greatest value to Australia, so that the question has considerable fascination for some people. If the material, the subject of this note, is representative of that found in the other localities in New South Wales, then the supposition that its presence is an indication of petroleum oil must be abandoned. Investigation of the ignitible earth from the head of the Nambucca River shows it to be of organic origin; of this there seems to be little doubt for the following reasons :— 1. The ignitible substance is a resin. 2. The residue after removal of the resin by alcohol contains a fair amount of nitrogenous products, the nitrogen being evolved as ammonia on heating with soda-lime, 3. Phosphoric acid is present in some quantity in the ash. 4, Benzoic acid can be obtained in small amount from the material by sublimation. OCCURRENCE OF RESINOUS. EARTH. 407 The resin is not fossil, but, on the other hand, is appar- ently of somewhat recent formation, because the interiors of some of the lumps were quite soft when received, so much so that they could bedrawn out instrings. Onexposure this resin hardened considerably. The resin does not show resemblance to Ooniferous resins, and about two-thirds consists of neutral bodies. Other New South Wales resin- yielding plant genera do not appear to offer a reasonable solution of the difficulty, so that it is necessary to seek further. Harthy nodules are often found associated with the resin- ous earth in the locality mentioned; they are sometimes quite large and are coated with organic material, and have the general appearance of ‘* Black-fellow’s Bread,’ Poly- porus Mylittce. Is it that complete alteration of the organic material of these ‘Native truffles’’ under certain peculiar conditions, has brought about the formation of these resins? Mr. Angus McKay, of Macksville, to whom I am indebted for the material, has supplied the following information concerning it. ‘°“‘The substance occurs at the head waters of the Nambucca River, at Taylor’s Arm, and is first found at a depth of two feet under the ground, but has also been located at 30 feet. It occurs in layers of varying thickness up to 6 inches, and is found occasionally over an area of 15 to 20 miles by about 15 miles. It is principally found in what appears to have been an old river bed, in which a considerable quantity of black sand occurs.’’ The material submitted consisted of brittle and friable lumps, the largest roughly about two inches across. The larger masses are of a friable earthy nature, with bands of a more solid resin ofan orange to lemon-yellow colour, the laminated nature of which often gives the appearance of a woody structure. The lumps readily ignited, melting easilv 408 H. G. SMITH. to a dark coloured mass, and continued to burn with a smoky flame and a resinous-like odour. The low melting point of the resin suggested perhaps the idea of a natural sealing wax. The resin is readily soluble in ether, alcohol, chloroform and acetone, and is partly soluble in petroleum ether. : The amount extracted by alcohol from average material of the most resinous lumps, containing 1°9 per cent. of moisture at 100° C., was equal to 65°2 per cent. Of the remainder 10°9 per cent. was removed on ignition, leaving 23°9 per cent. of ash. Of this amount 8°3 per cent. was removed on boiling with hydrochloric acid, which represents less than 2 per cent. on the whole material. The soluble portion of the ash contained phosphoric acid equal to 0°086 per cent., calculated on the whole. Iron, calcium, mag- nesium and potassium, besides a small quantity of sulphuric acid, were also present. The insoluble portion of the ash consisted mostly of silica, although no soluble silica was detected, The alcoholic extract of the resin was dried on the water bath as much as possible, but as the melting point of the hardest purified resin is between 80° and 84° C., it was difficult to complete the drying in this way, so it was spread in thin layers upon glass plates and set aside to thoroughly dry in the air. The specific gravity of the resin thus pre- pared was 1°128 at 20° C. A portion of the thoroughly dried resin was dissolved in ether and neutralised with alcoholic potash; only a small quantity, less than one per cent., of an insoluble potash salt was formed, this was filtered off, water added to filtrate, and the neutral resins extracted by ether in a separator. The aqueous portion was then evaporated down, acidified with hydrochloric acid and the resin acids separated. Dur- ing the process a slight odour of benzoic acid was detected, OCCURRENCE OF RESINOUS EARTH. 409 so a portion of the the resin acids wassublimed. A crystal- line sublimate was obtained which from tests applied indicated benzoic acid. A larger portion of the original material was then sublimed through paper in a suitable apparatus, and sufficient acid thus obtained to enable it to be purified. It gave the tests for benzoic acid, and melted at 121° O. A similar resinous earth from near Ourimbah, New South Wales, supplied by Mr. B. E. Broué, had all the properties of the above. It ignited readily and burnt with a smoky flame and asimilar odour. The resin was readily extracted by alcohol, and when dry resembled in all respects the resin from the Nambucca River. It melted at the same tempera- ture. The amount of material available did not permit of a complete examination. In the Annual Report of the Department of Mines, N.S. Wales for 1890, page 308, Mr. J. C. H. Mingaye, F.1.c., reports on a substance from Bowra, in the Nambucca District, which was apparently of a somewhat similar nature. 410 R. H. CAMBAGE. ACACIA SHEDLINGS, Parr IV. By R. H. CAMBAGE, F.L.S. With Plates XXXI- XXXV. [Read before the Royal Society of N. 8S. Wales, October 2, 1918 | SYNOPSIS: VITALITY OF SEED IN SEA-WATER. SEQUENCE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF LEAVES. NuMBER OF PINN& ON ONE LEAF. ABSENCE OF BIPINNATE LEAVES. DESCRIPTIONS OF SEEDLINGS. Vitality of Seed in Sea-water. In order to further test the vitality of Acacia seeds in sea-water, two seeds each of A. penninervis var. falciformis and A. melanoxylon, both from Jenolan Caves, N.S. Wales, which had been in sea-water for 469 days, were planted after having first been placed in boiling water, and one seedling of the former appeared in about two, and the other in six weeks, while a seedling of the latter came up in four weeks. A seed of A. Farnesiana from Central Queensland, remained in sea-water for 1,375 days, or 3% years, and was then quite hard and sound. After having been placed in boiling water it was planted, and germinated in a week. Sequence in the Development of Leaves. In previous papers of this series it has been pointed out that of 81 species of Acacia seedlings raised, 74 had one simply pinnate leaf, and this was succeeded by a bipinnate leaf. The remaining 7 species always produced an opposite pair of pinnate leaves, and these were succeeded by a bipinnate leaf. In afew instances a species usually having only one pinnate leaf was found to have an opposite pair. ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 41} In addition to those mentioned in previous lists (Parts I to III), the following species have produced only one pinnate leaf, and this brings the number up to 83:— A. diffusa Lindl. A. cultriformis A. Ounn. A. sentis F.v.M. A. Howittii F.v.M. A. hakeoides A. Cunn. A. Chisholmi Bailey A. difformis R. T. Baker A. cardiophylla A. Ouun. A. decora Reichb. Three further species have now been found to have an opposite pair of pinnate leaves, which brings the number of such species up to ten. These are A. alata R. Br., (with an exception), A. continua Benth., and A. Oswaldi F.v.M. Number of Pinnz on One Leaf. In Part III, (p. 393), a list is given of phyllodineous Acacias which may have two or more pairs of pinne on the same leaf, and the following are now added to such list :— A. lanigera, A. oxycedrus, A. pendula, and A. pycnantha may have two pairs, A. trinervata four, and A. rubida six pairs. As each pair of pinnee is attached to the midrib, the appearance of the leaf is somewhat remarkable in cases such as where A. neriifolia has three pairs. Where the lamina is continued between the first and second pairs, the midrib comes to the upper margin of such lamina at the base of the first or basal pair. The width of the lamina varies between the first and second pairs, but between the second and third pairs the extension of the midrib is not dilated. (Fig. 1.) Absence of Bipinnate Leaves. Seeing that bipinnate leaves are such a feature of the genus, especially among the seedling foliage, it is of interest to observe that one species, A. alata, does not appear to produce such leaves at all. In about a dozen seedlings so ° far examined, there has been an opposite pair of simply- 412 Rk. H. CAMBAGE. pinnate leaves, though in one case only. one such leaf appeared, and these have been succeeded by a phyllode, but in no case has there been a bipinnate leaf. Further tests will be made. Gea NYG Ly NY \ WZ p ‘ S Fig. 1. Acacia neriifolia. Leaf with three pairs of pinne. Natural size. Acacia Oswaldi commences with an opposite pair of pinnate leaves, and these may be succeeded by a pinnate, a bipinnate leaf, or a phyllode. In afew cases where the third leaf has been simply-pinnate, the fourth has been reduced to a phyllode, and in such cases, as also where No. 3 has been a phyllode, there has been no bipinnate leaf on the plant. Lubbock describes this species as having abruptly pinnate leaves, but speaks of one first leaf as ** pinnate, with one pair of pinne,’’ the word pinne being possibly intended for leaflets. He appears to have had only two seedlings to guide him.’ 1 «A Contribution to our Knowledge of Seedlings,’ by Sir John Lubbock, 1, 478, (1892). ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 413 Descriptions of Seedlings. ALATA, * ACACIA ALATA R. Br. Seeds from Botanic Gardens, Sydney, (J. H. Maiden), a Western Australian plant. (Plate XXXI, Numbers 1 to 3). Seeds rusty-brown, oval, 4 mm. long, 3 mm. broad, 1 to 1°5 mm. thick. Hypocotyl erect, terete, creamy to brown, 7 mm. to 1°5. em. long, 1°5 mm. thick at base, 1 mm. at apex, glabrous,. or rarely with a few short roots just above the base. Cotyledons sessile, sagittate, oval to oblong-oval, 5 mm. long, 3 to 3°5 mm. broad, outer or underside yellowish- green at base, purple towards apex, inner or upper-side green to purplish-green, remaining erect, becoming revolute and soon falling, glabrous. Stem sinuous, slightly angular owing to position of decur- rent leaf-stalks, green, glabrous to faintly pilose. First internode °5 mm.; second 3 to8mm.; third 7 mm. to 1°3. em.; fourth 4 mm. to 1°3 cm.; fifth 5mm. to 1°2 cm.; sixth 8 mm. to 1 cm. Leaves—Nos. 1 and 2. Abruptly pinnate, forming an opposite pair, petiole 4 mm. to 1°2 cm. long, terete, green, glabrous; leaflets one to two pairs, oblong-acuminate, mucronate, 5 to 7 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm. broad, midrib fairly distinct, secondary vein showing under pocket lens, light. green on both sides, underside slightly paler; rachis up to 3mm. long, glabrous, excurrent; stipules 1 to 1°5 mm. long. In one case only a single pinnate leaf appeared. No. 3. A linear phyllode, 5 to 7 mm. long, °5 to 1 mm. broad, tapering to a pungent point, slightly decurrent, margins pilose; stipules 1 to 2 mm. long. No. 4. A linear phyllode, 7 to 8 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, pungent-pointed, decurrent, glabrous or with hirsute margins; stipules about 1 mm. long. 414 R. H. CAMBAGE. No. 5 and upwards. Falcate, pungent-pointed phyllodes, bifacial and decurrent, each one extending down to the next on the same side of the stem, the whole phyllode having a remarkable flange-like appearance, midrib approxi- mately at right angles to the stem, the decurrent portion of the lamina being marked by reticulating veins, margins hirsute; stipules spinescent, 1 to 3 mm. long, gland not conspicuous on first few phyllodes. This is the second seedling described in this series where the No. 3 leaf has been reduced to a phyllode, the previous one being A. excelsa.+ In some examples of the latter Species, however, the third to fifth leaves were bipinnate, but in about a dozen seedlings examined of A. alata, no instance of a bipinnate leaf was found. In one example the second and subsequent leaves were reduced to phyl- lodes. CONTINUA. ACACIA CONTINUA Benth. Seeds from Broken Hill, N.S. Wales (Archdeacon F. E. Haviland and H. C. Andrews). (Plate XXXI, Numbers 4 to 6). Seeds dark brown with paler centre, obliquely obovate, 3 to 3°5 mm. long, 2 to 2°5 mm. broad, 1 mm. thick. Hypocotyl erect, terete, green to pale pink, 1°3 to 1°6 cm. long, 2 mm. thick at base, 1 mm. thick at apex, glabrous. Cotyledons sessile, slightly auricled, obovate to oval, 4mm. long, 3 mm. broad, underside creamy to brown or reddish-purple, sometimes with raised centre line, inner or upperside pinkish-brown, remaining erect and soon falling. Stem terete, except where affected by the slightly decurrent leafstalks, brown at base, green above, striated with several nerves. First internode °5 mm.; second 1 mm.; third 1 mm.; fourth 2 mm.; fifth 2 to 3 mm.,; sixth 3 to5 mm.; seventh 4 to 6 mm.; eight 5 to 8 mm. 1 This Journal, Vol. x1, p. 403. ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 415 Leaves—Nos. 1 and 2. Abruptly pinnate, forming an opposite pair, petiole slender, 5 to 8 mm. long, green, glabrous; leaflets two to three pairs, oblong-acuminate, 6 to 7 mm. long, 1°5 to 2 mm. broad, upperside light green, underside at first reddish-brown, becoming pale green, venation obscure, midrib showing under pocket lens on underside; rachis 3 mm. long, glabrous, excurrent ; stipules 1 mm. long. No. 3. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1°3 to 2 cm. long, slender, green, glabrous, excurrent; leaflets three to four pairs, the number not being constant on each pinna of the same leaf, obovate to oblong-acuminate, 3 to 5 mm. long, i to 2 mm. broad; rachis 6 to 9 mm. long, glabrous, excur- rent; stipules linear, 1°5 mm. long. Nos. 4and 5. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1 to 2°4 cm. long, slender; leaflets four pairs, often mucronate; rachis 7mm. to 1 cm. long, glabrous, excurrent; stipules as in No. 3. Nos. 6 to 8. Usually abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1°5 to 2'3 cm. long, glabrous, or with scattered hairs, excurrent; leaflets four to five pairs, obovate to oblong-acuminate, often mucronate; rachis 8 mm. to 1°3 cm. long; stipules linear-acuminate, with an almost spinescent point, up to about 2 mm. long. Nos, 9 to12. These may be phyllodes vertically broadened to about 1 mm., sometimes almost, but never quite terete, from about 7 mm. to 1°5 cm. long and continuous with the stem, not articulate, striate with two or three nerves, straight, or sometimes falcate or recurved, tapering into a pungent point; stipules present on most plants but absent from some. No. 9 may be abruptly bipinnate, petiole up to 2°3 cm. long, leaflets four to flve pairs. 416 R. H. CAMBAGE. PUNGENTES—(Spicatze). ACACIA OXYCEDRUS Sieb. Seeds from Galston Road, Hornsby, and Faulconbridge, N.S. Wales. (Plate XXXI, Numbers 7 to 9). Seeds brownish-black, oblong to almost cylindrical, 4mm. long, 2 mm. broad, 2 mm. thick. Hypocotyl erect, terete, pale green, 1°1 to 3 cm. long, 1°5 to 2°5 mm. thick at base, 1 to 2 mm. thick at apex, . glabrous. In one case a root grew toa length of 7 mm. at about 6 mm. from the base of the hypocotyl. Cotyledons sessile, not auricled, oblong, apex rounded, 6 mm. long, 2°5 to 3°5 mm. broad, outer or underside pale yellow, sometimes reddish towards apex, slightly wrinkled longitudinally, inner or upperside yellowish-green, becom-. ing dark green, glabrous. Stem terete, green, hirsute. First internode °5 mm.; second 1 to 7 mm.; third 1 mm. to 1 cm.; fourth 1 mm. to 1°4 cm.; fifth 1 mm. to 1°5 cm.; sixth 1 mm. to 1°3 cm.; seventh 3 mm. to 12 cm.; eighth 1 to 8 mm. Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 3 to 8 mm. long, green, faintly pilose; leaflets three to five pairs, oblong-acuminate, mucronate, 5 to 7 mm. long, 1°5 to 2°5 mm. broad, midrib and secondary vein, as weil as lateral venation, showing under pocket lens; rachis 7 mm. to 1°1 cm. long, glabrous, excurrent; stipules about 1 mm. long, tapering from a broad base to a fine point. Out of about twenty seedlings raised, one example from Hornsby had an opposite pair of simply pinnate leaves. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 6 mm. to 1°6 cm. long, pilose, excurrent, leaflets two to four pairs, oblong-acumin- ate, mucronate, 5 to 6 mm. long, 1°5 to 2 mm. broad, the basal pair sometimes smaller; rachis 4 mm, to 1 cm. long, faintly pilose, excurrent. ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 417 Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1 to 3°3 cm. long, pilose, excurrent; leaflets two to five pairs; rachis 6 mm. to 1°5 cm. long, faintly pilose, excurrent; stipules acuminate, 1°5 to 2 mm. long. In one case, No. 3 had two pairs of pinne. Nos. 5 and 6. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1°4 to 3 cm. long, sometimes vertically flattened to 1 mm. broad, No. 5 having a strong nerve along the lower margin, and No. 6 sometimes having a definite midrib below the centre of the lamina, in the upper portion of which is a finer vein, mar- gins nerve-like, pilose, excurrent; leaflets four to six pairs; rachis 8 mm. to 1°7 cm. long; stipules as in Nos. 3 and-4. No. 6 may sometimes be a phyllode, Nos. 7 to 10 may be pungent pointed phyllodes, from 5 mm. to 1°2 cm. long, °6 to 2 mm. broad, with midrib just below and finer vein above centre, the upper vein some- times coinciding with the margin, especially towards the apex, pilose; stipules about 1°5 to 2 mm. long, pointed, but at this youthful stage scarcely spinescent. No. 7 may be abruptly bipinnate, petiole up to 3 cm. long; leaflets four to six pairs. UNINERVES—(Armatee). ACACIA ASPERA Lindl. Seeds from Temora, (Rev. Father J. W. Dwyer per J. H. Maiden), and Wyalong, N.S. Wales. (Plate XXXII, Numbers 1 to 3.) Seeds black, oblong-oval to oblong, 5 mm. long, 2 to 2°5 mm. broad, 1°5 mm. thick. Hypocotyl erect, terete, pinkish-brown or very pale brown, 1°2 to 2°6 cm. long, 1 to 1°5 mm. thick at base, °7 to 1 mm. thick at apex, glabrous. Cotyledons sessile, slightly auricled, oblong-oval to oblong, apex rounded, 6 to 7 mm. long, 3 mm. broad, outer or underside green, with one or two raised longitudinal Aa—October 2, 1918. 418 R. H. CAMBAGE. lines, upperside green, glabrous, becoming revolute in about two weeks, and later sometimes partly cylindrical, remain- ing on the plant until the phyllodes appear. Stem terete, glabrous, to pilose. First internode °5 to 2mm.; second 3 mm, to 2°2 cm.; third 5 mm. to 1°9 cm.; fourth 5 mm. to 2 cm.; fifth 3 mm. to 1°2 cm.; sixth 4 to 8mm. Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 4mm. to 1°1 cm. long, green, glabrous or rarely faintly pilose; leaflets two to four pairs, oblong-acuminate 4to 6 mm. long, 1°5 to 2mm. broad, midrib distinct on underside, greyish-green on both sides, glabrous; rachis 4mm. to1°3 cm. long, green, glabrous, excurrent; stipules 1 mm. long. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 9 mm. to 1°4 cm. long, slender or sometimes slightly flattened vertically, green, pilose, excurrent, the subulate point being sometimes 1°5 mm. long; leaflets one to four pairs, the number not being constant on each pinna of the same leaf, 3 to 5 mm. long, the basal pair smaller, sometimes mucronate, margins may be ciliate; rachis 3 to 7 mm. long, pilose, excurrent; stipules 1 mm. long, flat at base and tapering to a weak point. No. 3. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1°3 to 1°6 cm. long, sometimes vertically flattened to 1 mm. broad, with the midrib slightly above the lower margin, pilose to hirsute, excurrent; leaflets two to three pairs, the number not con- stant on each pinna; rachis 4 to 6 mm. long; stipules pilose to hirsute, 1°5 mm. long. In one case No. 3 and upwards were phyllodes. No. 4. Sometimes a phyllode, or abruptly bipinnate, petiole up to 1°7 cm. long, leaflets three pairs; stipules as in No. 3. Nos. 5 to 8. Phyllodes from about 1 to 3 cm. long, 1 to 2°3 mm. broad, oblong-linear, with a few scattered hairs, ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 419 somewhat oblique, tapering towards the base, and termin- ating in a short, straight or curved point. This is the third seedling described in this series where the No. 3 leaf has been reduced to a phyllode, the previous ones being A. excelsa and A. alata (supra). In one case, after the second bipinnate leaf had appeared, a simply pinnate leaf grew in the axil of the cotyledon, a most unusual occurrence, and a further remarkable feature was that the under, and not the upperside was next to the stem of the plant. UNINERVES—(Angustifoliz). ACACIA MONTANA Benth. Seeds from Temora, (Rev. Father J. W. Dwyer per J. H. Maiden). Plate XXXII, Num- bers 4 to 6). Seeds dark brown, oblong-oval to obovate-oblong, 4 mm. long, 2 to 2°5 mm. broad, 1 to 1°3 mm. thick. . Hypocotyl erect, terete, pale brown, 1°7 to 3°5 cm. long, 1 mm. thick at base, °8 to 1 mm. thick at apex, glabrous. Cotyledons sessile, slightly auricled, oblong-oval, about 6 mm. long, 3 mm. broad, outer or underside pale green, often with one or two longitudinal raised lines, and some- times with a warty protuberance near centre, upperside green, glabrous, soon becoming horizontal and doubling downwards from about the middle, often remaining until after the advent of the phyllodes. Stem terete, except where affected by decurrent leaf- stalks, pinkish-brown towards base, green above, becoming brown and pubescent. First internode ‘5 to 2 mm.; second 2mm. to 1°1 cm.; third 6 mm. to 1°8 cm.; fourth 4 mm. to 2°2 cm.; fifth 5 mm. to 2°7cm.; sixth 5 mm. to 2°6 cm,; seventh 5 mm. to 1°8 cm. Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 4 mm. to1cm. long, green, glabrous; leaflets usually two pairs, sometimes 420 R. H. CAMBAGE. three, obliquely oblong-obovate, 4 to 7 mm. long, 2 to3 mm, broad, midrib often distinct, secondary vein showing under pocket lens, upperside green, underside paler, rachis 3 to 6 mm. long, green, glabrous, excurrent; stipules reduced to. scales about 1 mm. long. In one instance leaves Nos. 1 and 2 were both simply- pinnate, forming an opposite pair. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 6 mm. to 1°4 cm. long, green, glabrous, excurrent; leaflets two to three pairs, the number not being constant on each pinna of the same leaf, the pinna also often irregularly pinnate, oblong-acuminate to oblong-obovate, 3 to 6 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm. broad; rachis 5 mm. to 1 cm. long, glabrous, excurrent; stipules as in No. 1. Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1°1 to 1°6 cm. long, sometimes vertically flattened to 1 mm. broad just. above the middle, with a strong nerve or midrib along the lower margin and extending to the base of the pinne, with perhaps a fine vein running along the upper portion of the lamina, glabrous or with a few scattered hairs, usually excurrent; leaflets three to four pairs on both, oblong- acuminate, often mucronate, margins ciliate; rachis 6 mm, to 1 cm. long; stipules with flat broad bases, tapering to. apex, 1°5 mm. long. Nos. 5 to 8, These may be phyllodes or they may be abruptly bipinnate, petioles 1°1 to 2°1 cm. long, with scat- tered glandular hairs, vertically flattened from °5 to5’0 mm. broad, with a strong midrib just below the centre of the lamina and a finer vein above; leaflets three to four pairs 5. rachis 7 mm. to 1°5 cm. long, with a few scattered hairs, excurrent; stipules as in Nos. 3 and 4, Nos. 9 and 10, and sometimes including Nos. 5 to 8. Phyllodes, 2 to 3 cm. long, up to 5 mm. broad, very like those of A. aspera in shape but differing in venation, nar- ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 421 rowed at the base, often witha small outward curved point at the apex, midrib distinct, and finer vein above which is not always continuous to the apex, lateral venation fairly clear, small gland near base, slightly viscid but less so than phyllodes of more mature plants. UNINERVES—(Racemosz). ACACIA CHALKERI Maiden.* Seeds from Wombeyan Caves, New South Wales, (O. Trickett). Growing on lime- stone formation. (Plate XXXII, Numbers 7 to 9). Seeds black, oblong to oblong-oval, 4 to 5 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm. broad, 1 mm, thick. Hypocotyl erect, terete, reddish-green to brownish-red above soil, pale beneath soil, 1°2 to 3 cm. long, 2 to 2°7 mm. thick at base, 1 mm. thick at apex, glabrous. Cotyledons sessile, sagittate, oblong-oval, about 7 mm. long, 3 mm. broad, becoming revolute in a week or two, outer or underside dark green, with a few raised longitudinal lines, inner or upperside green, glabrous. Stem terete, green, glabrous. First internode °5 mm.,; second 1 to6mm.; third 1 to 8 mm.; fourth 3 mm. to 1°6 cm.; fifth4mm.to1°7cm.; sixth6 mm. to 1°3 cm.; seventh 4mm, to 1°3 cm. Leaves—No.1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 3 to 5 mm. long, green to reddish-green, glabrous; leaflets three pairs, 3 to 4mm. long, 2 mm. broad, oblong-acuminate, the terminal pair being sometimes obliquely cuneate, venation obscure, midrib showing under pocket lens, upperside green, under- side brown to pale green, glabrous; rachis 3 to6 mm. long, green, glabrous, excurrent, the point being often brown; stipules reduced to scales. 1 This Journal, xix, 482, (1915). 422 R. H. CAMBAGE. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 5 mm. to 1°3 em., glabrous, excurrent; leaflets two to three pairs; rachis 3 to 7 mm. long, glabrous, excurrent. Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 7 mm. to 1°8 cm. long, No. 4 being sometimes vertically flattened slightly, and showinga strong nerve along the lower margin; leaflets three to five pairs, oblong-acuminate; rachis 5 mm. to 1°1 cm.; stipules reduced to scales. Nos. 5 and 6. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1 to 2°5 cm. long, often vertically flattened up to 1 mm. broad with the midrib towards the lower margin, glabrous, excurrent ; leaflets four to six pairs. In one case No. 6 was reduced to a phyllode. Nos. 7 and 8. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly bipin- nate, petiole up to2cm. long, 2mm. broad, with the midrib just below the centre of the lamina, glabrous, rarely with a small gland above or below the middle, excurrent; leaf- lets five pairs. Nos. 9 and 10. Phyllodes, oblanceolate, commonly from 3 to5cm. long, up tod mm. broad, with the midrib slightly below or in the centre of the lamina, and terminating in a short mucrone. On one plant No. 9 was 6, and No. 10 was 7 cm. long, linear-oblanceolate, the broadest portion only measuring 2°5 mm. ‘This is much longer and narrower than is usually the case with the mature foliage. There is often a small gland a little above the base. ACACIA NERIIFOLIA A. Cunn. Seeds from Howell, N.S. Wales (T. S. McCrae). (Plate XX XIII, Numbers 1 to 4). Seeds black, oval to oblong-oval, 5 mm. long, 3 mm. broad, 2 mm. thick. Hypocotyl erect, terete, red, up to 3°6 cm. long, up to 2°3 mm. thick at base, °7 to °8 mm. thick at apex, glabrous. ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 423 Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong, apex rounded, 5 to 7 mm. long, 3°5 mm. broad, becoming revolute and cylin- drical, soon falling, outer or underside pale brown to yellowish and straw-coloured, central portion raised, some- times rugose with gland-like formations, upperside reddish- brown. Stem terete, bluish to brown, pilose to tomentose. First internode °5 mm.; second 2 mm. to 1°1 cm.,; third 3 mm. to 1ecm.; fourth 3 mm. to1°4 cm.; fifth 5 mm. to 1°7 cm.; sixth 7 mm. to 2°5 cm.; seventh 1 to 2°2 cm.; eighth 1 to 2°8 cm.; ninth 1°2 to 3°5 cm. Leaves—No.1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 2 to 8 mm. long, green, glabrous; leaflets three to five pairs, oblong-acumin- ate, often mucronate, 5 to 7 mm. and rarely 1°2 cm. long, 1°5 to 3°5 mm. broad, midrib often distinct, secondary vein and some lateral venation seen under pocket lens, upper- side green, glabrous, underside red to reddish-green, often becoming pale green, the midrib dark red and usually raised; rachis 1 to 2°2 cm. long, pale green, glabrous, excurrent. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 8 mm. to 1°3 cm. long, green, sometimes with gland below middle of upper margin, excurrent; leaflets three to five pairs, the leaflets not always opposite, 3 to6 mm. long, 1°5 to 2°5 mm. broad, the basal pair sometimes smaller, oblong-acuminate to obovate, often mucronate, upperside green, underside pale reddish- green; rachis 5 mm. to 1°1 cm. long, glabrous, excurrent; stipules reduced to scales. No. 3. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole sometimes slightly flattened vertically, 1°2 to 1°5 cm. long, often with gland below middle of upper margin, excurrent; leaflets four to six pairs; rachis 1°1 to 1°7 cm. long; stipules as in No. 1. No. 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole vertically flattened to 1°2 mm. broad with strong nerve or midrib along the lower margin, gland towards base on upper margin, 1°7 to 2°7 cm. 494 R. H. CAMBAGE. long; leaflets six to eight pairs, the number not always equal on each pinna of the same leaf, up to 7 mm. long; rachis 2 to 2°3 cm. long. Nos. 5 and 6. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole up to 4 mm. broad in the case of No. 6, gland towards base, 1°5 to 3°9 cm. long; leaflets eight to ten pairs on either; rachis up to 3°7 cm. long. Nos. 7 and 8. Abruptly bipinnate, sometimes with two pairs of pinne, petiole up to 6 mm. broad in No. 7 and 9 mm. in No. 8, with the midrib below the centre of the lamina, 2°7 to 4°7 cm. long; leaflets eight to eleven pairs. Nos. 9 and 10. Abruptly bipinnate, sometimes with two pairs of pinnse, petiole up to 4°7 cm. long, 1 cm. broad, gland near base; leaflets nine to eleven pairs. Nos. 11 and 12. Abruptly bipinnate, often with two pairs of pinnee, petiole up to 4°3 cm. long and 1°4 cm. broad. Nos. 13 and 14. Leaflets sometimes up to fourteen pairs. This species is very variable in regard to the stage at which phyllodes appear. In one case No. 9 was reduced toa phyllode while several later leaves were bipinnate. On plants two feet high there may be numerous leaves with petioles developed as broad phyllodes, but having one, two and even three pairs of pinne (Fig. 1). There is usually a gland at the base of the dilated petiole, and also at the _ bases of the second and third pairs of pinnee. ACACIA OBTUSATA Sieb. Seeds from Wingello and Tallong, N.S. Wales. (Plate XXXIV, Numbers 1 to 3). Seeds black, oblong-oval, 4 to 5 mm. long, 3 to 3°5 mm. broad, 1°5 to 2 mm. thick. Hypocotyl erect, terete, pale pink to brownish-red, 1 to 2 cm. long, 1 to 2 mm. thick at base, about 1 mm. thick at apex, glabrous. ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 435 Cotyledons sessile, slightly auricled to sagittate, oblong to obovate, 6 to 7 mm. long, 3 to 3°7 mm. broad, outer or underside brownish-red to red, with two or three longitu- dinally raised lines, inner or upperside reddish-green, glabrous. Stem terete, reddish to bluish-green, glabrous. First internode *5 mm.; second 1 to 2 mm.; third 1 to 2 mm.; fourth 1 to 4 mm.,; fifth 2 to8 mm.; sixth 2 to 7 mm. Leaves—No.1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 3 to5 mm. long, glabrous, excurrent; leaflets three pairs, oblong-acuminate, the terminal pair sometimes obovate, sometimes mucronate, D to 7 mm. long, 1°5 to 3 mm. broad, upperside green, mar- gins often red, underside reddish to pale green, midrib sometimes obscure and at others fairly distinct; rachis 5 to 9 mm. long, glabrous, excurrent. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 6 mm. to 2°7 cm. long, sometimes with a small gland on upper margin, glabrous, excurrent; leaflets three to five pairs; rachis 7 mm. to 1°2 cm. long, glabrous, excurrent. No. 3. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1°2 to 3 cm. long, vertically flattened up to 1 mm. broad, with strong nerve along lower margin and gland on upper edge, glabrous, or with a few scattered hairs, excurrent; leaflets three to seven pairs, the numbers not constant for each pinna of the same leaf, 4 to 5 mm. long, the basal pair smaller, oblong- acuminate, the terminal pair sometimes obovate, often mucronate; rachis 1 to 1°9 cm. long, glabrous; stipules reduced to flat acuminate scales. No. 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1°5 to 3°6 cm. long, vertically flattened up to 2mm. broad,- strong nerve or midrib very close to lower margin, the upper edge nerve- like and sometimes with a gland below the middle, glabrous or with a few scattered hairs; leaflets five to nine pairs; rachis 1°2 to 2°2 cm. long, excurrent. 426 R. H. CAMBAGE. No. 5. Sometimes a phyllode, or it may be abruptly bipinnate, petiole 3 to 3°5 cm. long, up to 4 mm. broad, ~ with midrib below the centre, and with nerve-like margins and sometimes a gland on upper edge; leaflets six to eight pairs. Nos. 6 to 8. Phyllodes with fairly central midrib and nerve-like margins, and gland towards base. ACACIA HAKEOIDES A. Cunn. Seeds from Wyalong and Tottenham, N.S. Wales. (Plate XXXIV, Numbers 4 | to 6). Seeds dull black, oval to oblong-oval. 4°5 to 6 mm. long, 2°5 to 3°D mm. broad, 1°5 to 2 mm. thick. Hypocotyl erect, terete, brownish-green, 1°2 to 2°7 cm. long, 2 mm. thick at base, 1 mm. thick at apex. Cotyledons sessile, slightly auricled, oblong-oval to. oblong with apex rounded, 6 to 8 mm. long, 3 to 3°5 mm. broad, outer or underside yellowish to brownish-green, paler towards apex, with a few longitudinally raised veins, the central one the largest, upperside green, soon becoming revolute. Stem terete, reddish-brown, pilose. First internode °5. mm.; second °5 to 1 mm.; third 1 mm.; fourth 1 to 2 mm.; fifth 1 to 5 mm.; sixth 4 to 8 mm.; seventh up to 9 mm. Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 4 to 6 mm. long, greenish-brown, glabrous, or with a few short stiff hairs, excurrent; leaflets three to four pairs, oblong-acuminate, up to 9 mm. long, 2 to 45 mm. broad, upperside green, underside paler, venation indistinct, midrib sometimes. showing without the aid of a pocket lens; rachis 5to 9mm. long, glabrous, excurrent. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 8 mm. to 1°4 cm. long, greyish-green, pilose, excurrent; leaflets three to four pairs, ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 427 rarely two; rachis 4 mm. to 1°3 cm. long, glabrous, excur- rent; stipules reduced to small scales. No. 3. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1°2 to 2°5 cm. long, vertically flattened to sometimes 1°5 mm. broad, with a strong nerve or midrib along lower margin, upper margin brownish and somewhat nerve-like, pilose, excurrent; leaf- lets four to five pairs, oblong-acuminate, often mucronate, the terminal pair often obovate, the basal pair small, mar- gins often brownish-red; rachis 6 mm. to 1°3 cm. long, glabrous, or with a few scattered hairs. No. 4. This may be a linear-lanceolate phyllode 6 to 8 cm. long, narrowed towards the base, or it may be abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1°8 to 4°7 cm. long, up to 4°5 mm. broad, much narrowed towards the base, midrib slightly below centre of lamina, pilose; leaflets four to six pairs, the number on any of the bipinnate leaves not always constant on both pinne of the same leaf; rachis up to 1°4 cm. long; stipules flat, acuminate scales, 1 mm. long. Nos. 5 to 7. Phyllodes, at first reddish, becoming green, _up to 10 cm. long, 7°5 mm. broad in widest portion, some- times with a straight or hooked point, faintly pilose, with gland below middle. ACACIA CRASSIUSCULA Wendl. (A. pycnophylla Benth.). Seeds from Mount Melville, Albany, Western Australia (Professor W. G. Woolnough). (Plate XXXV, Numbers 1 to 4). Seeds black, oblong, 4 to5 mm. long, 2mm. broad, 1 mm. thick. Hypocotyl erect, terete, creamy to pale pink, 1 to 1°5 ecm. long, | mm. thick at base, 1 mm. thick at apex, glabrous, except that in one case it was noticed that several roots grew from a point about 5 mm. above the base of the hypocotyl. 498 R. H. CAMBAGE. Cotyledons sessile, very slightly auricled, oblong, apex rounded, 6 to 7 mm. long, 2 to 2°5 mm. broad, remaining erect and soon falling, outer or underside brownish-red, sometimes wrinkled longitudinally, inner or upperside reddish, glabrous. Stem terete, green, glabrous. First internode °5 mm.; second ‘5 mm.; third and fourth 1 mm.; fifth 1 to 2 mm.,; sixth about 2 mm.; seventh 2 to 4 mm.; eighth 5 to 7mm. Leaves—Nos. 1 and 2. Abruptly pinnate, forming an opposite pair, petiole 3 to 6 mm. long, pale red to reddish- brown and reddish-green, glabrous; leaflets two pairs, 3 to 4mm. long, 1°5 to2 mm. broad, oblong-acuminate, mucron- ate, venation obscure, midrib showing under pocket lens, upperside green, margins red, underside bright red, often becoming reddish-green, glabrous; rachis 2 to 3 mm. long, reddish, glabrous, excurrent. No. 3. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 7 mm. to 1°2 cm. long, greenish-brown, often slightly dilated vertically, with gland on upper margin, usually a little below the middle, glabrous, excurrent; leaflets two pairs, oval-oblong to oblong-acumin- ate, the terminal pair sometimes obovate, often mucronate, margins often reddish, UppSuEnee green, underside paler with midrib distinct. Nos. 4 and 5. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 8 mm. to 1°5 cm. long, slightly dilated vertically, gland just below middle on upper margin, glabrous, excurrent; leaflets two pairs on No. 4, and three pairs on No. 5, up to 6 mm. long, 4 mm. broad, mucronate; rachis up to 1°2 cm. long; stipules reduced to flat, acuminate scales. Nos. 6 and 7. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole up to 1°7 cm. long on No. 6, and up to 2°5 cm. on No. 7, dilated vertically to 1 mm. broad, gland below middle, and sometimes a second gland at base of pinnee, with strong nerve along lower ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 429: margin, glabrous, excurrent; leaflets three to four pairs; rachis up to 2°5 cm. long on No. 7. Nos. 8and 9. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole up to 3°5 cm. long on No. 8, and 4'8 em. long, 2 mm. broad, on No. 9, midrib below centre of lamina; leaflets five pairs; rachis. up to 2°4 cm. long. No. 10, Abruptly bipinnate, petiole linear, up to 7°8 cm. long, 3 mm. broad, with definite midrib; leaflets five pairs. Nos. 11 and 12. Linear, erect, phyllodes, up to about. 10 cm. long, with gland near base. Although the phyllodes are markedly erect, the leaves. below them are disposed horizontally, and give to the little plants a prostrate appearance, especially prior to the advent of the phyllodes. PLURINERVES—(Oligoneure). Acacia HowiTtit F.v.M.! Seeds from Melbourne, (EK. EH. Pescott. Oultivated). (Plate XXXIV, Numbers 7 to 9). Seeds brown to black, oblong to oblong-oval, 3 to 4mm. long, 1°5 to 2 mm. broad, 1 mm. thick. Hypocotyl erect, terete, reddish-brown, 7mm. to 1°5 cm. long, up to 1°8 mm. thick at base, °8 mm. thick at apex, glabrous, except that in one case six roots grew at about 5 mm. from the base. Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong, apex rounded, about 2mm. long, 2 mm. broad, soon becoming revolute, remain- ing until the phyllodes appear, outer or underside brown, upperside green, glabrous. Stem terete, the decurrent stems of the phyllodes often giving it a striated appearance which partly disappears. with age, green, somewhat viscid, pilose to hirsute. First 1 Vict. Nat. x, 16, (May, 1893). 430 Rk. H. CAMBAGE. internode ‘5 mm.; second 1 to 2mm.; third 1 to 5 mm,; fourth 2 to 5 mm,; fifth 3 to 8 mm,; sixth 4 mm. to 1 cm. Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 3 to4 mm. long, green, glabrous; leaflets three to four pairs, oblong-acumin- ate, the terminal pair usually obovate, 4 to 5 mm. long, about 2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside paler, ven- ation obscure; rachis 5 to 7mm. long, glabrous, excurrent. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 8 mm. to 1°2 cm. long, excurrent; leaflets three to four pairs, oval to obovate, usually mucronate; rachis 7 to 8 mm. long; stipules reduced to flat, acuminate scales. Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 7 mm. to 1°4 cm. long, dilated vertically, sometimes to nearly 1 mm. broad in the case of No. 4, with strong nerve along lower margin, pilose; leaflets five to seven pairs, oblong-oval to obovate, about 5 mm. long, 2 to 2°5 mm. broad; rachis 1°2 to 1°6 cm. long, excurrent. No. 5. This may be a phyllode, or abruptly bipinnate, petiole about 1 cm. long, dilated, hirsute; leaflets six to seven pairs. Nos. 6to9. Phyllodes, from obovate to obliquely-ovate, mucronate, 7 mm. to 2°5 cm. long, up to 1 cm. broad, 2 to 3-nerved, the upper vein not always extending to the apex, lateral veins numerous, glabrous. Later phyllodes usually become viscid. On plants 1 foot high the phyllodes may not exceed 1°5 cm. long, by 9 mm. broad. BIPINNATH—(Botryocephale). ACACIA SPECTABILIS A. Ounn. Seeds from Gungal, N.S. Wales (J. H. Maiden). (Plate XXXV, Numbers 5 to 7.) Seeds black, oblong, 5 to6 mm. long, 2°5 to3 mm. broad, 2 mm. thick. Hypocotyl erect, terete, pale red, soon becoming dark red, 1°2 to 2°7 cm. long, 1 to 2 mm. thick at base, °6 to 1 mm. thick at apex, glabrous. ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 431 Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong, apex rounded, 8 mm. long, 3°5 mm. broad, becoming revolute and cylindrical within one week, outer or underside yellowish, sometimes becoming brownish-red, with raised portion 1 mm. broad extending along centre from base to apex, outer flanges thinner, inner or upperside yellowish to reddish-green, becoming green, glabrous on both sides. © Stem terete, green to reddish-green, later becoming bluish, hirsute. First internode °5to2 mm.; second 2 mm. to 3 cm.; third 7 mm. to 1°5 cm.; fourth about 1 cm.; fifth 1°4 to 2°4 cm.; sixth 1°8 to 5°3 cm.; seventh 3°2 to 6 cm. Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 4 to 6 mm. long, reddish to reddish-green, with a few scattered hairs; leaflets four to five pairs, oblong-acuminate, 4mm. to 1 cm. long, 2 to3°5 mm. broad, midrib often distinct on underside, secondary vein showing under pocket lens, upperside green, sometimes reddish-green, underside reddish to reddish- green, becoming pale green, margins often red; rachis6 mm. to 2°4 cm. long, reddish-green, becoming green, glabrous or with a few hairs, excurrent; stipules reduced to small scales. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, in one case with two pairs of pinne, the lower pair not quite opposite, petiole 7 mm. to 2-1 cm. long, pilose, with a band of reddish-green at the base; leaflets five to six pairs, 4 to 8 mm. long, 2mm. broad, the basal pair smaller, oblong-acuminate, often mucronate, the terminal pair often obovate; rachis 1 to 1°6 cm. long, with brown band at base, glabrous, excurrent; stipules as in No. 1. Nos.3and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, No. 3 with one or two pairs of pinnee, and No. 4 with one, two or three pairs, petiole from 1 cm. in No. 3 to 2°5 cm. in the case of the common petiole of No. 4 having three pairs of pinng, pilose to hirsute; leaflets six to eight pairs in No. 38, and six to 432 R. H. CAMBAGE. nine in No. 4, often mucronate; gland on petiole and often at base of terminal pair of pinnee; rachis 1°2 to 2°4 cm. No. 4 may be an apparent tripinnate leaf.* Nos. 5 and 6. Abruptly bipinnate, No. 5 with three and ° four pairs of pinnee, and No. 6 with five pairs; the common petiole up to 3° cm. long in No. 5, and 5°7 cm. in No. 6, hirsute, excurrent; leaflets on the terminal pair of pinnee nine to ten pairs; gland on petiole and often at base of terminal pair of pinnee; rachis on the terminal pair of pinnz up to 3 cm. long. A plant a little over one foot high may have nine pairs of pinnee on one leaf. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Puate XXXI., Acacia alata R. Br. Le a 1, Cotyledons and opposite pair of pinnate leaves. From Western Australia, cultivated in Botanic Gardens, Sydney, (J. H. Maiden). 2. Opposite pair of pinnate leaves and phyllodes. 3. Pod. Acacia continua Benth. 4, Cotyledons, with tips of opposite pair of pinnate leaves showing. Broken Hill (E. C. Andrews). 5, Opposite pair of pinnate leaves, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. 6. Pod and seeds. Acacia oxycedrus Sieb. 7. Cotyledons and pinnate leaf. Hornsby. 8. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and pungent pointed phyllodes. Nodule on root. 9. Pod and seeds. + This Journal, Vol. ui, 394, (1917). SS = ws uN Cyc “I bdo ee Co to oe ma Co So St em ACACIA SEEDLINGS. Prats XXXII. Acacia aspera Lindl. . Cotyledons. Temora (Rev. J. W. Dwyer). . Cotyledons, pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. . Pod and seeds. Wyalong. Acacia montana Benth. . Cotyledons. Temora (Rev. J. W. Dwyer). . Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. . Seeds. Acacia Chalkeri Maiden. Caves (O. Trickett). . Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. . Pod and seeds. PLATE SXOOXT EE, Acacia neritfolia A. Cunn. . Large bipinnate leaf on plant two feet high. . Pod and seeds. PEATE oO. Acacia obtusata Sieb. . Cotyledons. Tallong. . Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. Wingello. . Pod and seeds. Acacia hakeoides A. Cunn. . Cotyledons. Tottenham. . Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. Wyalong. . Pod and seeds. Be—October 2, 1918. 433 . Cotyledons with young pinnate leaf showing. Wombeyan . Cotyledons with tip of pinnate leaf. Howell (T. S. McCrae). . Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. 434 R. H. CAMBAGE. bo Ti Cp Cr Acacia Howitt F.v.M. . Cotyledons. Melbourne (EK. E. Pescott. Cultivated). ° . Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. . Seeds. PuaTE XXXYV. Acacia crassiuscula Wendl. . Cotyledons, with tips of opposite pair of pinnate leaves on each side. Albany, Western Australia (Prof.W.G.Woolnough). . Opposite pair of pinnate leaves, also first and second bipinnate leaves. . Bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. . Pod and seeds. Acacia spectabilis A. Cunn. . Cotyledons and pinnate leaf. Gungal (J. H. Maiden). . Pinnate leaf and bipinnate leaves. . Seeds. BACTERIAL DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 435 PRELIMINARY INVHSTIGATIONS on 4 BACTHRIAL . DISEASE or TOBACCO. By G. P. DARNELL-SMITH, B.Sc., F.1.C. With Plate XXXVI. [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, November 6, 1918.] The incidence of Blue Mould.—*‘ Blue Mould”’ due to the fungus Peronospora hyoscyami has long been a serious disease of tobacco in Victoria, and during the last two seasons it has wrought great havoc in New South Wales. It makes its appearance particularly in seasons when the rainfall is excessive. As in the case of most fungus diseases, a particular relationship must exist between the weather, the plant attacked, and the fungus, before the latter can establish itself and spread with rapidity. ‘°‘ Blue Mould” especially attacks young plants in the seed beds; and when the particular relationship above referred to exists, it spreads so rapidly that if it makes its appearance the whole seed bed may be damaged in the course of a few days. The conditions in a tobacco seed bed are ideal for the spread of a fungus disease. The seed is sown broadcast, and the young plants come up in hundreds close together. The general practice is to pull the more sturdy plantlets as they mature and to plant them out in the fields. Under this method the seed bed is for a long time covered with young plants in close juxtaposition, so that a disease upon any one plant has every chance of spreading. Moreover, in the early stages, the seed bed is kept continually moist by watering, and the young plants are covered over with a layer of loosely scattered straw or dried grass to prevent them from scorching; the atmosphere surrounding them is 436 G. P. DARNELL-SMITH. therefore continually damp. The conidiospores of Perono- spora hyoscyami are produced in countless numbers upon branched conidiophores upon the under side of the leaf only,. and to the naked eye the underside of the leaf appears to: be covered with a fluff of a faint violet tinge, This fluff is composed of conidiophores and spores. The spores germin- ate readily, and have not the appearance of spores capable of undergoing a long resting stage. While the production of oospores is Common among many members of the Perono- sporacee, the oospore of Peronospora hyoscyami is, accord - ing to Massee,”) unknown. I have not been able to find any trace of oospore formation in the specimens I have examined, but the intermittent manner in which the disease makes its appearance, renders it probable that oospores exist. In the allied genus Phytophthora infestans the oospore was only discovered by Clinton in 1910, though it had been sought for by mycologists since 1845. I have been unable to detect Peronospora hyoscyami upon Datura Stramonium or other weeds belonging to the Family Solan- aces, growing near tobacco beds upon which it might overwinter. Plants attacked by Peronospora hyoscyami early lose their bright green colour, and a practised eye can quickly detect the change. The point of development at which the *“blue mould’’ chiefly attacks the plants is in the seedling stage when they have from four to eight leaves; these have been previously figured. On older plants that have been transplanted to the field I have not often found the mould itself, though often they show spots and withering of the leaves; this lam inclined to attribute to a different cause. Tobacco culture in New South Wales is largely in the hands of Chinese; their seed beds are usually close to their planting-out grounds and adjacent to old seed-beds; it is not surprising therefore that the disease frequently re- BACTERIAL DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 437 appears year after year. In 1917 I had two interesting illustrations of the way in which the disease may be trans- ported. At Tamworth some Chinamen had tobacco seed- beds on high land on virgin soil on a spur of the Moonbi Ranges, many miles from other tobacco growing land. The crop was free from “‘ Blue Mould”’ until the owners visited some of the gardens of their compatriots where the disease was rampant and then returned. At Tumut, one grower in an isolated spot made a handsome return by supplying seedlings to those whose beds had been destroyed by “‘ Blue mould.’’ But he got tired of lifting and delivering the seedlings himself, and those who wanted them had to come and get them themselves. Shortly after this his beds also were attacked by “‘ Blue Mould.”’ A Bacterial Disease of Tobacco.—Seedlings that have been attacked by Peronospora hyoscyami may die out completely or they may exhibit a partial recovery, sufficient to induce the grower to transplant them. Such plants may grow in the field and almost completely recover, or they may attain a certain size and then wilt. They seldom have the appearance of normal healthy vigorous plants, and are very liable to develop brittle stems that break off in a very moderate breeze. The stems of all such plants when cut sharply across, just above the root, show aring of vascular tissue that is discoloured—it is brown or black. Cutting the stem across at intervals, this discoloured tissue may be traced upwards towards the apex. The colour becomes fainter, but it can be traced even with the naked eye into the veins of the big leaves. The distribution of this colour in the vascular tissue of the stems and leaves is very similar to the distribution of the black pigment in cabbages affected with ‘‘Black Rot.”’ This disease occurs in New South Wales, and the organism Pseudomonas campestris (Pammel) Erw. Smith, has been isolated from diseased specimens. | 438 G. P. DARNELL-SMITH. In tobacco plants from the neighbourhood of the dis- coloured tissue, I have obtained smears full of bacteria, and have obtained cultures of them from various parts of the plant. They exist in such numbers that there seems. good reason to suppose that they are the cause of the dis- coloration and the diseased condition. A tobacco plant. has bast inside and outside the ring of wood; in the neigh- bourhood of this bast the bacteria are very numerous. The wood of a diseased stem snaps easily, and often shows little splits and cavities filled with a dark material. A plant affected by bacteria shows, when young, a peculiar appear- ance. The stem, immediately above the roots, swells and | becomes tumid, sometimes almost bulbous. The stem may be abnormally swollen for two inchesormore. If the plant remains short and swollen, it is regarded as being worthless. for planting out, but if, as sometimes happens, it begins to lengthen and lose its swollen appearance, it may be worth transplanting, though it never fully recovers. . Tyloses are very frequently to be observed in the vascular tissue of the swollen plants, and in the vascular tissue of older diseased plants. The production of swellings and tyloses is rather a commom symptom of bacterial infection, and it was this that first led me to suspect bacterial infection. Erwin Smith® to whose recent monumental work on Bacteria in relation to Plant Diseases I shall have fre- quently to refer, states :— ‘“‘In hypertrophied tissues the individual cells are larger than normal. Usually both hyperplasia and hypertrophy occur in the same growth, e.g. in olive-tubercle. Good examples of hyper- trophied cells occur also in root nodules of Leguminose. Here their volume may become many times that of the normal cell. Dr. Hunger pointed out that tyloses are very common in the vessels. of plants attacked by Bact. solanacearum, and ascribed their formation to the presence of the bacteria. Of the correctness of BACTERIAL DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 439 this view I have since satisfied myself. The writer has seen the same thing in the wood of young shoots of the mulberry attacked by Bact. mort. Here the stimulus to growth appears to be due to poisonous products absorbed by the vessels of the plant in advance of the movement of the bacteria. This is quite in accord with what we know of the action of many poisons, minute doses stimulating and larger doses destroying.” HK. Smith figures a potato shoot inoculated with a non- virulent culture of Bact. solanacearum Va. The inoculated stem is swollen. I have not come across any reference to bacterial infec- tion following an attack of Peronospora hyoscyami. H. Smith, however, gives a translation of a paper by Dr. Hunger on the Dutch Eastern Diseases of Tobacco. Dr. Hunger describes the symptoms of the disease, which are very similar to the disease found in New South Wales so far as the effect upon the vascular system is concerned, but I have not observed the production of such complete wilting of the leaves of the mature plant as he describes. He concludes :— “The inclination to this formation of tyloses is caused by a bacterium (Sacillus solanacearum Smith), which by means of many sorts of external wounds is given an opportunity to enter into the interior of the plant. When once entered into the xylem vessels the vessel wall is through them partially absorbed, so that the above mentioned tyloses are formed. The slime-disease described here is altogether a secondary phenomenon, which is made possible by external wounds. “In by far the most cases injury of the plant takes place either on the root or on the stem concealed underground. In the latter case | mean the stem part which has been covered with earth by heaping up the ground. The woundings may be due to many causes. In the first place should be mentioned wounds due to plant and animal parasites, Among the first named I reckon chiefly the parasitic moulds, especially Phytophthora nicotiane. 440 G. P. DARNELL-SMITH. The Wilt disease of Tobacco described by Erwin Smith, and shown by him so definitely to be due to Bact. solan- acearum, shows many characters similar to those found in the diseased tobacco crops in New South Wales, that I have examined. (These crops had been planted out after infec- tion in the seed bed with Peronospora hyoscyami). The questions therefore arose—does Bact. solanacearum occur in Australia? and is it the cause of a tobacco plant disease? The evidence on the first point is not satisfactory. Though diseases among Solanaceous plants have been ascribed to Bact. solanacearum, no definite evidence that this bacterium is really the causative organism is forth- coming. Erwin Smith“ deals very severely with the papers of Tryon ona potato disease in Queensland, ascribed by him to Bacillus vascularum solani. He concludes :— “Mr. Tryon is either describing mixed infections or else a different disease (i.e. different from the disease caused by Bacillus solanacearum )—why not ‘Schwarzbeinigkeit’ due to Sacillus phytophthorus. We shall never know the specific cause of this Australian potato disease until some bacteriologist takes hold of the problem, isolates and describes the organism in ways recognised as proper, and demonstrates his ability to reproduce the disease with one particular organism by means of pure culture inoculation.” I have not yet been able to complete inoculation experi- ments, but from diseased potatoes that were grown in New South Wales, and which showed all the symptoms of Brown Rot disease due to Bact. solanacearum (Smith), pure bacterial cultures, however, have been obtained; these have been tested upon various media. In their morphology and in their reactions upon the sugars, they agree with the characters given for Bact. solanacearum by Erwin Smith. They differ only in the reaction upon milk. When we con- sider the variable nature of milk, and of the variable way BACTERIAL DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 44] in which lactic bacteria act upon it, this is not a point upon which great stress can be laid. Dr. Honing, working on tobacco diseases in Sumatra, published eleven papers (1911-—1913)—these have been summarised by Erwin Smith. In paper (2) he states “The Deli-strain (in Sumatra) is somewhat more variable than Smith (in America) and Uyeda (in Japan) have announced. Because the Deli isolations have given three different results (in milk) depending on the age of the cultures and on the kind of milk used, the possibility is not excluded that Uyeda actually had another bacterium.”’ For the purpose of comparison, Erwin Smith’s characters of Bact. solanacearum are given. They are followed by Table I. in which are given the characters of the bacterium which has been isolated from potatoes in New South Wales. In Table II are given the characters of another bacterium which has been isolated from tomato plants in New South Wales, showing a wilt-disease and which agrees in very many respects with Bact. solanacearum. - From ‘Bacteria in Relation to Plant Diseases,’ by Erwin Smith ively an, p. 199. Brown Rot of Potatoes (Bacteriwm or Pseudomonas solanacearum). Named Bacillus solanacearum by Erwin Smith in 1896. It is motile by means of one polar flagellum, and therefore should be classified as Bacterium or Pseudomonas solanacearum. This is a specific communicable disease of Potatoes, ‘Tomatoes, Egg-plants, etc. In potato tubers it rots the region of the vascular ring. The organism is a short rod often termo-like with rounded ends, often occurs in pairs, usually 4°59 by 1:5 mu, no spores, Sugars—No acid or gas. Milk—Converts slowly to alkaline translucent fluid. Litmus-milk—Gradually changes to indigo or hyacinth blue. Gelatine—Does noé liquefy. Gram.—Negative. 449 G. P. DARNELL-SMITH. Agar Plate—Surface colonies slow growing, roundish, white at. first, then brownish. Bouillon—Clouds with formation of flocculent particles in top layers. Pigment— Brown in agar and gelatine; soluble in water and glycerine; insoluble in absolute alcohol, sulphuric ether, chloroform, turpentine, benzine, xylol, benzole, and carbon bisulphide. Potato slope—Grows readily, producing pale to dark brown stain. Reduces nitrates to nitrites. Table I—Potato BB 689 (B. solanacearwm ?) 27/11/17. No. 1. Incubated 14 days at 38°. Morphology etc.—Gram negative, cocci to short rods often in pairs Sugars—No acid or gas. Milk—Clotted. Litmus-milk— Bluish-purple clot. Gelatine—No liquefaction (5th day). Agar-plate—Dirty white moist circular semi-transparent. colonies (3rd day). Broth—Flocculent surface growth and deposit. Potato—Copious moist growth becoming brownish. No. 2 as No. 1, but the blue colour of litmus-milk became dis- charged in 14 days. Table I1—Tomato BB 98 (B. solanacearum ?) 27/11/17. Results at end of 4 weeks. Sugars—No acid or gas, Milk— Digested. Litmus-milk—Indigo blue. Gelatine—Liquefied with green fluorescence, dense clouded growth at bottom of liquid. Broth—Pellicle and deposit. Potato—Dirty white to brownish. There is therefore strong prima facie evidence that. Bact. solanacearum exists in Australian soil. Some ex- BACTERIAL DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 443. periments made later with pure cultures of bacteria obtained from diseased tobacco plants, where the reactions. of Bact. solanacearum were expected but were not obtained, led to the re-testing the Bacterium, No.1, obtained from potatoes after it had been kept in the laboratory for four months and re-subcultured at long intervals. The results were remarkable, the bacterium produced acid but no gas in media containing glucose and lactose, while the mannite broth was rendered alkaline. Milk was clotted with an acid reaction, and litmus milk became partially bleached in 17 days. These results show that for comparative results cultures. of bacteria must be freshly obtained. Hven when bacteria are subcultured for a length of time upon media that may be regarded as eminently suitable, they may change their characters. An example may be given in the case of Streptococcus lacticus. In my laboratory a ‘number of strains of these organisms are kept differing slightly in the rapidity with which they produce lactic acid in milk. Pure cultures of these organisms are supplied to butter factories to be used as ‘“‘starters’”’ in the ripening of cream. The organisms are subcultured every day upon milk. On one occasion the milk was found to be slimy and it was thought that contamination by another organism had taken place. Careful examination and subculturing from old tubes that had not been discarded revealed no such contamination. The same phenomenon has occurred several times since, and there seems no doubt but that after frequent subcul- turing, Streptococcus lacticus may cease to give its normal reactions with milk and cause it to be become slimy. Hasting™) has observed a similar phenomenon in America: “Many of the cultures gradually lose their fermentative proper- ties and do not form acid rapidly and in sufficient amounts to insure exhaustive churning and to produce the desired degree of 444 G. P. DARNELL-SMITH. flavour in the product. Cultures frequently become slimy or ropy on propagation. Thisis not necessarily due to contamination with specific slime-forming organisms but rather to a change in the lactic organism itself. Such an abnormality usually persists for a short period only, and the conditions that govern its appearance and disappearance are not known.” Too much reliance therefore for the purposes of identifica- tion cannot be placed upon the reactions with the sugars of any organism unless it has been freshly obtained. While in tomato plants from Emu Plains showing undoubted signs of wilting, bacteria have been found in countless numbers in the cells, and which were easily visible in the cells in sections, in the tobacco plants that I have examined the bacteria are not easily visible in sections. Yet from diseased plants from Tamworth, from Barraba, and from Texas (N.S.W.) it has been possible to obtain with ease what were apparently pure plate cultures. Bact. solanacearum apparently exists in our soils, and my view at present is that the wounds in the stem caused by the rotting leaves of the seedlings attacked by Peronospora hyoscyami afford a means of entrance to the bacteria into the plant. Ifa series of sections be taken across young plants attacked by Peronospora hyoscyami,apoint or points will be found where a connection is visible between the decayed end of aleaf and the brown discoloured vascular System of the stem. In some few roots I have found eel worms, but they have not been found sufficiently often to suggest that they make a wound through which the bac- teria enter. The method followed of obtaining cultures has been to isolate a very small piece of the diseased tobacco stem under strictly aseptic conditions, to place this piece in broth and then to pour agar plates from the broth. The plates obtained have been always apparently pure cultures. The colour of the colonies varies from white to BACTERIAL DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 445 dirty white, anda typical plate is shown at Plate XXXVI, fig.1. Twodistinct types of growth however are obtained, round colonies with a smooth margin and dendritic colonies. The organisms from these, howexer, show the same mor- phology and give the same reactions on the sugars. This variation in the form of the colonies is remarkable, and one would expect to find two different organisms. IH. Smith, however, figures a petri-dish poured-plate from the cavity in stem of an inoculated plant showing the presence of a white organism producing branching colonies. A similar branching colony recovered from an inoculated plant in one of my experiments is shown at Plate XXXVI, fe. 2. Particulars of the cultures obtained from diseased plants. from Tamworth are given in Table III. Thus from three diseased tobacco stems three plates were poured. From the plates obtained two colonies on each plate were com- pared, there being only two types of colony on the plates. Plate 1, Col. 1, like each other in sugar reactions. Pe Col. 2, differed only in their plate growth, (1) being den- dritic, (2) circular. Plate 2, Col. 1, like each other in sugar reaction. Bs Col. 2, and resemble Cols. 1 and 2 of Plate No. 1, but differ from them in sugar reactions. Plate-3, Col. 1, like each other in sugar reaction. 4: Col. 2, and similar also to Cols. 1 and 2 of Plate No. they resemble Cols. 1 and 2 of Plate Bi. ic in plate growth. Thus we have two types of growth, the dendritic and the circular in each plate, and two types of sugar reactions, those given by the organisms on Plate 1 and those given by the organisms on Plates 2 and 3. From these cultures tobacco plants were inoculated as. under :— Pot 1, Plants 3, Culture No. 1 (1) This organism was recovered at the end of 2 months. ” 2, 9 2, ” 9 2 (1) ” 9 G. P. DARNELL-SMITH. 446 —-ysTUMorg eqrym AQarp eyiya AQt1p |surpeoards ‘ystow (LT) I se |Sutpveads “stom (1) 1 se qisodep ‘so[No00 (a) g se (z) z se eowsans “piqang | qrsodap ‘prying (1) 1 se 1B[NOITO OFLA (z) I sv (1) T se (Zz) T se (1) T se | 4941p a0 vas goumedsai0ng Gaeih) “UOTIORT -enbry, ou “qeqs tworpoejonbiy (JMOIS DOVzJANS ou ‘papreq (I) @ SB | avpn soaat ‘ogra (I) 3 s¥ |‘peoy preu ‘oqry a Giese posdivyo -SIp SUTMODaq pesaego pesavyo : IMO[OO “4OTD OU | -SIP ANOTOD “4OTD | -SLP ANO]LOD ‘JOD |pesavyosIp IO[OO Genase (skep 0T)}01? 4408 }0]9 (1) z sv_| (shep OT) 4079 (1) T 88 ( Ses ‘prow (C | SBS ‘plow | (T) @ se (1) % se (1) @ ses esavyo ou (1) 1 sv4 | SVs ‘ploe | ly Svs ‘poe L (1) 1 se (1) T sv (1) T sv (I) T se (2) ¢ “ON (1) § ON (2) 2 ON (1) 2°ON (Z) 1 ON ystumorq Suipveids “stout 4tsodep ‘so[no007 oovjanS ‘priqan} ysrour “OTFLaIp -Uep ‘oqzIqm Ajup a0 fois (jouunj) peyonbry pasaeyosip INO[OD + FI SB ory -vivdes pu yoo Svs prov esoueyo ou 66 6¢ Sed ‘pro CAT }VSOU “TRIS 0}%40g qqO1g eyed avsy eulzelOD YLita-sn wg] ATTHIN _ 9801BTOIVG esoqoury SAUL eV a0 AL asoon|[ H—savsng ASojoqdaopy Q1/1/e “ysvonumny wolf (wnuveonunpos “gq j) (g) swmarg oo0vq0,7—‘Kep YyF 9% IIT 14%, BACTERIAL DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 447 The inoculated plants (white Burley tobacco plants) after two months showed a tumescence of the stem and a slight yellowing of the vascular tissue. The cell nuclei as in tumid diseased plants in the field were frequently much enlarged. Check plants stabbed at the same time witha sterile needle showed no alteration in growth. Cultures were obtained from the inoculated plants at the end of two months and the reactions of the organism which are given in Table IV leave no room to doubt that it is the same organism as that inoculated. It is note- worthy that two of the colonies examined gave no acid and gas on the sugars, a characteristic of B. solanacearum. Table IV.—Organisms recovered from Inoculated Tobacco Plant, Pot No. 2. No. 2) Q) No. 2 (1) No. 2 (2) No. 2 (3) Sugars— Glucose acid, gas no change | } Mannite | acid, gas i, | Dulcite no change % bas 2 (1) as 1 (1) Lactose acid, gas (slight) Pos | Saccharose} acid, gas es J Milk clot, separation,| separation, | as 2 (1) asm i(( 1) gas digestion Litmus milk clot, separation, gas decolorised almost com-| as 2 (1) plete diges- clot, separa- tion, no gas tion, liquid decolorised brown Gelatine irregular surface) liquefied, as 2 (1) gran-| as 1 (1) growth, broken| half inch) ular liquid margin, wavy band only puncture growth no liquefaction Agar plate | dirty white, dirty white.| greycircular| large grey, rounded,slightly| circular, thin colony} thin colony Wavy margin convex, submerged| submerged moist Broth pellicle, turbid | turbid, film, turbid,| no film, tur- deposit deposit bid, deposit Remarks.—Results at end of seven days—1 (1) and 2 (8) is the same organism that was inoculated; recovered at end of two months. 448 G. P. DARNELL -SMITH. A second series of inoculations was carried out, the roots and not the stem of the plants being inoculated. Colony 1, Plate 1[1(1)] and Colony 1, Plate 2[2(1)] were inoculated into roots and recovered after 47 days. Details of the reactions of the recovered organisms are given in Table V. Table V.—Inoculated Tobacco Plants, Second Serves. Morphology Sugars—Glucose Mannite Dulcite Lactose Saccharose Milk Litmus milk Gelatine Agar plate Broth Potato No.1 (1) BB 72. From Pot 1, root inoculated. short rods; gram negative acid and gas acid and gas acid and gas (slight) acid, no gas ' acid, no gas tendency toclot, clot and separation (6 days) slight clot, separation slow funnel liquefaction dirty white to grey, den- dritic, moist (5 days) thin, pellicle, turbid,deposit fawn, moist spreading cocci to short rods, gram No. 2 (1) BB 72. From Pot 2, root inoculated. negative acid and gas acid and gas no change _ acid and gas (slight) acid and gas tendency to clot, clot (6 days) clot, separation no liquefaction dirty white, circular to irregular, moist (3 d.) pellicle, turbid, deposit white, moist spreading In the first series of inoculations (stem inoculations) the inoculated plants showed the tumescence of the stem that is characteristic of the disease in the early stages. In.the second series of inoculations (root inoculations) the inoculated plants showed no tumescence up to the time at which the organism was re-isolated. We may conclude that the organism had lost its virulence, or that root inocu- lation does not produce the disease so rapidly as stem inoculation. Further supplies of diseased plants were obtained and plates made from them; the details of the culture reactions are given as under:—Plants from Texas, Table VI; from Dungowan, Table VII; from Tamworth, Table VIII. 449 BACTERIAL DISEASE OF TOBACCO. ‘skup xis Jo ptta ot} 4v suUOTJOVeY— syumMaY Sutpvoids | sutpveids sutpveids | suipveids ‘ayigam = AQarp | “gstow = ‘oqrqm | ‘jstoOuUL §=‘UMO1G ‘ystou ‘UMOIG s}tsodep S}isodep YSIuoe1s ystuseis qnoysnoryy prqany |ynoysnoayy prqany | ‘prqan} ‘oporqjed | ‘prqany eportjed quoosa1ony qstout ‘avpno | aro ‘agi Aqatp mor -ovjonbiy pideu UWOI}Bl -edas “Jo[o prow wo1zeavdes “o[9 S¥o OU PLOV 6¢ 6¢ esuvyo Ou 66 66 S¥d OU p10B eATZesoU wmBis ‘spor 41048 qstoul ‘OT}IAp -aep foqgryum A£II1p phos) pidea Oe -wivdeas “yoo proe -ovjonbiy] uoT}Buvdes “4019 S¥us OU PlDV 66 ry asueyo ou 6 ce SVs OU PIOV dATZBSIU WIB1s ‘Spor.41o0gs ystoum |suipvoids uee1s ystmojed ‘aepnorto | -mojjok — ‘a.8 1¥T ploy deei8 ‘a01y |pIny use16 u0Ty -ovjonbry Jouung | -ovjzonbi, [ouungj posreqosip pesavyosip INOTOD “WOI4SaSIp |aMOT[OO ‘MOI}SecTp Moros ‘TOTsSasIp |mopos “MOTJSeSTp € ce €¢ 66 66 66 66 6 SVs OU OUT[BY[V Svs OU PIO SBS OU OUITRY[V SBS OU ploV OAT} Bd0U dATZVSoU UIBIS ‘Sporl JOYS |UIvIS ‘spor JaroYs | sutpveaads |} Suipvoads ‘Qstoul “YsIUMOL] |9STou a41qM AqaTp qisodap qisodep ‘epotjjad ynoysnoiyy prqany aoryzans ov qstom ‘avyno = = |-dnS yey ystow -3I10 ‘agi a AqATp [OIyLIpusp ystfoas uory uorzRyjonbhiy -ovjoubiy jouung |podeys-dno {jeus wor -viedas yoo plow yoyo prow Oe -wivdes pu jojo yoyo gavd esuryo Ou SVS puV pIoV esueyo ou SVs OU pIOe SBo OU PIOV O1gtavis MBI [NJIQnop ‘spot uwlMipou Svs pue prov SVd puv ploV SBS OU OUT[VY[B Svs pues plow SB pu PIO’ OATZVIOU TIBI ‘spor wntpout 04e10g qq ayeTd avsy aulyepay yr suwyvy ATTA QSOLVYOOVG QS0}OVT SLOT OUR AT gsoon,[H—SsaIRGNG Asopoydaoyy (Z) III 93*%1d (1) TIT 9¥%I1d | (8) 11 99%Id (1) II 99" 1d (1) I 9° (2) I I sox], wotf ‘EEL ‘gg ‘1/G/11 (g) suas 090V90J —"TA TIL Cc—November 6, 1918 G. P. DARNELL-SMITH. 450 qstoum ‘motos Ajuo yiscedep qsloml ‘AvpNoITO ‘MoT[ad Loovjonbry jeuuny goo plow AY) 6) ce svs OU pIoR 6¢ esuvyo ou svs ou plore (z) A 94¥[q ‘eoUadse10fH UY] stom ‘UMVI prying aepnoit ‘ysimoyod uorgovjon bry UOTSASIp‘posieyosip nooo UO014YSOSTP 66 66 6 6¢ esuvyo ou JAIZVSOT WIS ‘SPOI JAOYS (I ON) TIT 93% [q ‘90097 ‘skep XIs Jo pua oq} 4B SUOT}OVAay—'syummagy qstoum ‘qstMoypad qisodap ‘piqany qstouw ‘18[NOATO queoseiony ‘uotyoejonbiy ou Ajao aulleyTe 66 tas 6¢ esuvyo ou Ses OU P10B 4SIOUL ‘UM®BJ qisodep “prqan4 ‘aqiga AAIIp \ystour‘avpnoat “eyiq L4a1p YyMo1s Kava ‘“uorjoejoubiy ou PesaVyOSIp ANOTOO “qoTO 309 esuvyo ou ce c¢ svd pus por 19 (as Svs OU proe (1) A %¥[q ‘ouedsa10 HUT qsiom ‘aqIqM yisodep prqan} IVepNo ‘ayia A4I1p WIMois Axem “uorjovjoubiy ou SPORE [Oieke Xo) 9) esavyo ou ses puv prov asuvyo ou SVs puv plow SVs OU plow -110 “ystout (Z ON) IT 93¥[q ‘m94g JATPVSOU WRI ‘SpOd JOYS (Z ON) AT 99%[d ‘400% qstoul ‘ystmorjad qisodop qstout peqoy A[daep ‘ayy Aqa1p uorjpejonbry Touuny UOTysSastp Teryavd ‘pasi1vyOSIp 10TOO “4oTO 4jOS JOTI Jos Svs pue proe osuvyo ou 6 6é cé 66 Svs puv plow (1 ON) AT 9%[d ‘ooy 07Rj0g One o}eld aesy eulqelan > Sr aT ATLA BSOAIVYIORG 9S0zB'T SHAS TILAG | OPIUUL PL asoon[H —Savsng ystom ‘UM qtsodep piqany ursaewu LAM 4 SITS ‘aejynoito ‘eqigMm = A4a11p YI MOIS ‘morjovjonbiy ou 22D [ouoe 4o[o esuvyo ou Seo OU prow esueyo Ou Svs puke ploe Ses OU pI0V LACM DATPVSOU WIVIS ‘Spor JOYS (1 ON) I] 3¥Ild ‘tg polLJUIIM SUMBI eprted [PEG] ‘sutpevords oqigM Aj}ATp worpRjonbiyy jeuung UO1}SaSIp FOLD 9jOs ses OU ploV 6é esuvgo ou 6 Co Svs OU ploR JAT}VSOM WVIS ‘Spor 4104s 078 40g | qqoag eyed avsy eutzrlex snuyqiy ATTA asorVyooRG asoqoe'y S7ro(nd OPLU NVI] aesoon[H—suBvsng Asopoyda0p Syne (1 ON) JT 93¥[q ‘Weg (COLT PUP GOL ‘A'd) Y204) uvmnobung pun vonsiung worl sjuvig 099090,7,—' ITA 14%, BACTERIAL DISEASE OF TOBACCO. 45] Table VILI.—Zobacco Plants (Tamworth ). Plate I (No. 1) Plate I (No. 4) Sugars —Glucose | no change no change Mannite of ” Dulcite Ae Ye Lactose a 43 Saccharose ss Br Milk digestion digestion Litmus milk ‘complete digestion complete digestion Gelatine liquefaction liquefaction Agar plate dirty white, dendritic dirty white, circular moist In examining these tables we find that the following colonies give reactions very closely resembling those ascribed to Bact. solanacearum :— Table VIII, Plate I, No. 1 this organism differs only from ” 3 ” 35 B. solanacearum in the meets «55 TH, ., f liquefaction of gelatine. this organism differs only from Vv 1 B, solanacearum in giving a a a Meher ( acid on glucose and green fluorescence on gelatine. From the various diseased tobacco plants examined, pure cultures of bacteria have been obtained almost without exception. The colonies on the poured plates were moist, dirty white in colour, and either circular or dendritic; this difference in shape of the colonies seems to be of not much importance, since the morphology and the reactions agree in any comparative series of the two. The organisms are motile, gram negative short rods. With three exceptions all gave acid on glucose, and as regards milk, sixteen out of the twenty cultures examined caused it to clot. I am indebted to my assistant Mr. W. A. Birmingham for much careful work in connection with the organisms isolated and examined. Summary. 1. Peronospora hyoscyami is the cause of a disease which gives rise to serious loss in tobacco seed beds. 452 G. P. DARNELL-SMITH. 2. Plants that have been attacked by Peronospora ‘hyoscyamtin the early stages show characteristic symptoms. of disease when planted out. 3. The symptoms are swelling at the base of the stem, brown discolouration of the vascular system in the stem and leaves, and later cavities in the stem, brittleness of the stem and a certain amount of wilting of the leaves. | 4. These symptoms are those which have been described by HE. Smith, as associated with Granville Wilt in U.S.A., (Sumatran slime disease of Tobacco, Japanese Stem Rot, etc.) and shown by him to be due to Bact. solanacearum. o. A bacterium has always been found associated with the disease in New South Wales. 6. Cultures of the bacteria have been obtained; they agree with B. solanacearum in their morphol char- acters, but differ culturally. 7. Plants have been inoculated with pure cultures of the bacteria isolated, some symptoms of the disease produced and the bacteria reisolated in pure culture. 8. There are indications that cultural differences obtained with different strains of B. solanacearum arise through differences in age or treatment of the cultures. Literature Cited. 1. Masser, G.—Diseases of cultivated plants and trees 1910, p.115. . Cuinton, G. P.—Oospores of Potato Blight. Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1909-1910, 753 —T77A, 3. SmitH, Erwin—Bacteria in relation to plant diseases, Vol. 11, (Os ROW SME . fbid., Vol. 1, p. 208, 1914: Toid Nola, p, 91, 1911: Ibid., Vol. 111, p. 223, 1914. . MarsHa.u, C, E.—Microbiology, 2nd edit., 1917, p. 414. bo ID oT TWO NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS. 453 8. Smita, Erwin—Bacteria in relation to plant diseases, Vol. 111, p. 231, 194. 9, DaRNELL-SmitH, G. P.—Diseases of Tobacco Plants. Agric. Gaz. of N.S.W., xxvill, p. 83. Explanation of Plate. Prats XXXVI. Fig. 1—Pure culture of bacteria re-isolated after two months from a plant that had been inoculated. Fig. 2—Photograph of a dendritic colony among a number of circular ones. TWO NEW SPECIHS OF EUCALYPTUS. By R. H. CAMBAGH, F.L.S. [With Plates XXXVII - XXXIX.] [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 6, 1918. ] 1. HUCALYPTUS PUMILA 2. Sp. Arbuscula alta, cum truncis multis separatis, in altum pedes quindecim vigintive extendens, trunci diametrum unciarum duarum triumve habens. Ramusculi angulares precipue ad extremitates. Folia (reversio) tenera ovata ad ovata-lanceolata, 3-5 cm. longa, 1 —1°5 cm. lata. Folia matura. Lainearia-lanceolata ad ovata-lanceolata, modice crassa, sex ad duodecim cm. longa, unum ad tria cm. lata, sepe leviter falcata, utrobique obtuse viridia, extremitates fusce et flaccide, systema venosa modice clara, vene laterales angulis cir- citer 40 ad 55° e cortaé media disposite, vena inter margines plerumque juxta marginem, olei glandule numerose. Petiolus 1—1°5 cm. longus. 454 R. H. CAMBAGE. Gemme. Fusce cum colore viridi tincte, prope sessiles vel cum pediculis circiter unum mm. longis, operculum conoide, quinque ad septem mm. long, calycistubus vix longitudinis dimidius, pedunculus aliquanto complanatus circiter unum mm. longus. flores. Circiter septem ad tredecim in umbella, anthere modice, calle parallelee. } Fructus. Prope sessiles, hemisphericales, diametrus circiter: septem mm. plerumque cum quatuor valvis exsertis, ora crassa, convex. Cortex. Tenuis et levis ad humum, interdum cum vittis pendulis. longis, crassus *D — 2 mm., color cinereus vel subviridis. Lignum. Fuscum in centrum, durum. * A tall shrub of many separate stems reaching 15 — 20 feet high, with stem-diameter of 2—3 inches. Branchlets.—Angular, especially towards the tips. Juvenile (reversion) foliage.—Ovate to ovate-lanceolate, 3-5 cm. long, 1—2°5 cm. broad. Mature leaves.—Linear-lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate,, fairly thick, 6—12 cm. long, 1-3 cm. broad, often slightly falcate, dull green on both sides, tips brown and withered. Venation fairly distinct, lateral veins arranged at angles of from about 40 — 55 degrees with the midrib, intramar- ginal vein usually close tothe edge. Oil glands numerous, Petiole from 1—1°5 cm. long. Buds.—Greenish-brown, almost sessile or with pedicels about 1 mm. long, operculum conoid, 5 to 7 mm. long, the calyx-tube scarcely half that length, peduncle somewhat. flattened, about 1 cm. long. Flowers.—About 7—13 in the umbel, anthers of medium. size, the cells parallel. Fruits.—Almost sessile, hemispherical, about 7 mm. in diameter with usually four exserted valves, rim thick, convex. | sat a TWO NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS. 455 Bark.—Thin and smooth to the ground, sometimes rib- bony, ‘5-2 mm. thick, slaty to greenish in colour. Timber.—Brown towards centre, tough. Habitat—Near Pokolbin, a quarter of a mile west of portion 146, Parish of Rothbury, County of Northumberland, New South Wales. This species is a Mallee growing on the side of a hill amongst Hucalyptus siderophloia Benth., EH. maculata Hook., Callitris calcarata R. Br., Casuarina Luehmanni R. T. Baker, and C. stricta Ait. The specific name is in allusion to the dwarfed habit of the tree. Seedlings—Hypocotyl red, erect, glabrous. Cotyledons slightly emarginate, 1°7 mm. long, 5 mm. broad, lobes oblong-obtuse, upperside green, underside red, glabrous; petiole 2mm. long. - Seedling foliage opposite for two or three pairs, entire, glabrous, oval-lanceolate to ovate and ovate-lanceolate, obtuse. First pair up to 1°4 cm. long, 7°5 mm. broad, upperside green,underside red to purple, petiole 2 mm. long. Second pair up to 3 cm. long, 1°8 cm. broad, underside red to purple, petiole 5 mm. Third pair up to 4°7 cm. long, 2°4 cm. broad, underside at first reddish-purple, becoming pale green, petiole up to 7 mm. Stems red. The seeds germinated 125 years after being gathered. Plants, when about 6—8 inches high, developed nodules or swellings about the axils of the cotyledons, which had fallen. Affinities. Its closest affinity appears to be with EH. dealbata A.Cunn., from which it differs in bark and timber, as well as the texture of the leaves, and the position of the intramarginal vein. The seedling foliage is also different.* H. dealbata * The evolution of the Eucalypts in relation to the cotyledons and seed- lings, by Cuthbert Hall, m.p., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. xxx1x, p). xlvi. 456 R. H. CAMBAGE. will sometimes grow in Mallee form, but in such cases the bark remains fairly thick and the timber soft. In bark, timber, oil and habit H. pumila much resembles HE. Behri- ana F.v.M., but differs in the flowers, fruits and leaves. Leaves of this Kucalyptus were procured and distilled in August 1907 at the Technological Museum. Messrs. Baker and Smith report on the oil as follows :— “The yield of oil is large, 617 tb. of leaves with terminal branchlets giving 9 tb. 10 oz. of oil—equal to 1°56 per cent. ‘‘The oil is very rich in eucalyptol, and both in yield and euca- lyptol content this species is one of the best from which to distil Eucalyptus oil for pharmaceutical purposes, and in this respect may be associated with Z. Smithi, £. polybractea aud E£. Morrisiz. The oil contains some pinene, but the dextrorotatory form only slightly predominates, and consequently the large fraction of rectified oil does not vary but slightly in optical properties from that of the crude oil. This is contrary to the general experience with oils of the eucalyptol class, as in those the dextrorotatory pinene generally predominates. There are only a few species which give an oil, the rectified portion of which has a less dextro- rotatory than the crude oil; £. dealbata is one of the species having this peculiarity as well as #. Behriana, £. maculosa, and a few others. No phellandrene could be detected. A small amount of the lower boiling aldehydes was present; the odour indicated that butaldehyde and valeraldehyde were present, thus following the general rule. The crude oil in appearance and other characteristics resembles those of this group generally, and the rectified oil is slightly tinted yellow. “The higher boiling portion contains a very small portion of an aldehyde; this is perhaps aromadendral, but it was not separated. ‘The sesquiterpene only occurs in small amount. The crude oil had specific gravity 0°9237 at 15°C. Rotation ay 2°3°; refractive index 1°4683 at 20° C., was soluble in 1:1 volumes of 70% alcohol by weight, and contained 74 per cent. eucalyptol by the phos- phoric acid method. On redistillation 89 per cent. came over Addendum slip to be pasted in Journal of the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, Volume uit, p. 457 (1918). Eucalyptus Mitchelli, Cambage. The undersigned, having ascertained that the name is pre-occupied for a fossil species by Ettingshausen in ‘Contributions to the Tertiary Flora of Australia,’ the name E. Mitchelliana is proposed in lieu of H. Mitchell. R. H. CAMBAGE. : , tte, os i "i a w @ ’ : . aS 1 IS i > ? . * i} i} 7 : i : ‘ 4 iz x wo ; 1 Bax’ ‘ \ “ 7 ie * 7 ~ us ; q | : i 1 2 cm H = | vu “ 3 f By ee” é . ae =J oy o = ! \ . ks by i ? : 4 i or | ’ J 1% ‘ J | ¥ ‘ oe “Td 1 ™ p | ‘ ' i | " Q 7 } . | t fo : 4 | i i Ps é 4 ¢ | 4 Bs \ i} 4 f ‘ é ‘ a ‘ \ r i Rag . i c 4 % ee 2 j / 3 ‘ ? e y } AD ik Se ri 4 et ' 5 | ‘ i , \ ‘ j ho fe. 1 ' 5 o ‘ ’ S s . f a a | t ’ . ' “ uo 4 hd & = ; ud | if Bil © | rm ; , Sl . | 5 \ | r ws s . y ie , a A a : E—E—E em — a = Tce at i u 2 ‘ ere : Z i ’ ‘ i 4 Ne i t alee = . ; ‘ i . “i oa F . * } pe a 1 ‘ Ps i % - a . ¥ TWO NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS. 457 between 167 — 183°C. (cor.), this had specific gravity 0°9166 at 15°C.; rotation a, 2°2°; refractive index 1°4668 at 20°C. Between 183 — 250° C. 8 per cent. distilled; this had specific gravity 0°9359 at 15° C.; rotation ay +0°6°; refractive index 1°476 at 20°C. It contained rather a large amount of eucalyptol, and gave the bromine reaction for the sesquiterpene, also the aldehyde reaction. Of the most closely allied oils it more nearly approaches £. dealbata than that of any other species which has yet been investigated, although the resemblance between it and the oil of #. Behriana, is also strongly marked. ‘Being a Mallee, it was thought that it might contain a con- siderable amount of calcium oxalate in the bark. The green bark taken from small sticks, had a thickness of 1 to 2 millimetres; it was found to contain 3°85% of calcium oxalate. The amount of calcium oxalate in the bark of the largest piece having a diameter of 3 inches was 5°39 per cent. The crystals in the bark of this species differ in no respects from those of Eucalyptus barks gener- ally (see paper with plate by H. G. Smith. The amount of of lime in the bark of Z. dealbata was 1:19 per cent.” 2. HUCALYPTUS MITCHELLI nN. sp. Arbor umbrosa in altum pedes quinquaginta crescens, trunci diametrum duorum pedum habens. Folia matura. Linearia lanceolata, a septem ad quatuor decim cm. longa, a septem inm. ad 1-4 cm. lata, cum apice directo vel falcato, utrobique equaliter viridia, glabrosa et notabile nitida, aliquanto coriacea, costa media modice clara, vene laterales aliquanto obscure et angulis 7 — 15°e costa media dispositee, mar- gines quasi nervi sunt, olei glandule numerosissime petiolum 1—1°3 cm. longum. Gemme—Sessiles, operculum acutum, longe circiter a tria ad quatuor mm. gemme vix tam longe quam calycistubus, racemus stellatus, pedunculum Jongum circiter unum mm. ? This Journal, xxxtx, 23, (1905). 458 R. H. CAMBAGE. Flores—In umbell& tenus undecim, anther parve, color ut lactis flos, versatiles, renantherosi. Fructus—Sessiles, globosi-truncati, fusci, nitidi quasi fuscati, interdum punctis parvis palladis clavati, longi a quinque ad sex mm. diametrum quinque sexve mm. habentes, apud os restrict, labrum interius unum mm. crassus valve depresse. Cortec—Levis et alba nisi quod squamas paucas asperes apud basem habet. Habitat—Summum jugum montis “ Buffalo” prope casam ad provinciam ‘ Victoria” pertinentem, in formationem siliceam raniteam quatuor millia et quadringenti pedes super mare nascens. fo) An umbrageous tree reaching 50 feet high with stem- diameter of 2 feet. Mature leaves linear-lanceolate, from about 7—14 cm. long, 7mm. to 1°4cm. broad, with straight or hooked point, equally green on both sides, glabrous and remarkably shiny, somewhat coriaceous, midrib fairly distinct, lateral veins. rather obscure, and arranged at anglesof from 7 — 15 degrees. with the midrib, margins nerve-like, oil glands very numer- ous, petiole 1—1°3 cm. long. _ Buds sessile, operculum pointed, about 3—4 mm. long, scarcely as long as the calyx-tube, the cluster stellate, peduncle about 1 mm. long. Flowers up to eleven in the umbel. Anthers small, creamy-white, versatile, renantherous. Fruits sessile, globular-truncate, brown, shining as if varnished, sometimes studded with small pale dots, 5-6 mm. long, 5—6 mm. in diameter, restricted at the orifice, inner rim 1 mm. thick, valves sunk. Bark smooth and white except for a few rough flakes at. . the base. Habitat—Summit of Mount Buffalo, Victoria, near the Government Chalet, growing on siliceous granite formation TWO NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS. 459: at 4,400 feet above sea-level, and known as Willow Gum. The species flowers in December. Seedlings—Hypocotyl erect, terete, red, glabrous, up to 2°3 cm. long. Cotyledons obtusely quadrilateral to orbicular-reniform, entire, about 3 mm. long, 5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside red to reddish-green, glabrous; petiole about 3 mm. long. Seedling foliage opposite, entire, glabrous, oblong- lanceolate to elliptical-lanceolate, petiole 1—2 mm. long; midrib prominent on underside, lateral veins fairly distinct, and arranged at angles of from 40—60 degrees with the midrib. On seedlings 5 inches high the second pair of leaves were elliptical-lanceolate, and up to 2 cm. long by 8 mm. broad, while the sixth pair were elliptical, and 2°5 cm. long by 1 cm. broad. This species is named in honour of the late Sir Thomas Livingstone Mitchell, Surveyor General, who collected many native plants, and was the second explorer to pass. Mount Buffalo. Affinities. 1. With HE. vitrea R. T. Baker. From this it differs somewhat in its leaf venation, for the prominent, almost parallel veins of EK. vitrea are not represented in this new species. The pedicellate hemispherical fruits of E. vitrea are also different; the operculum of that species is shorter and more obtuse, while the peduncle is very much larger. The bark of the new species is smooth and white, that of EH. vitrea being fibrous over the greater part of the trunk, 2. H. nitida Hook. f. From this it differs in its more globular fruits, pointed instead of obtuse buds, and is an umbrageous tree, while E. nitida is only a tall shrubby plant. 460 R. H. CAMBAGE. 3. With E. stellulata Sieb. It resembles this species in its stellate buds and to some extent in the shape of its fruits, but differs in its leaf venation, colour of bark which is white, while that of H. stellulata is slate-coloured, and in its seedling foliage. 4, With E. Moorei Maiden and Cambage. Its resem- blances and differences are similar to those mentioned in the case of EH. stellulata, and in addition EH. Moorei only grows as a Mallee-like shrub of about 10—12 feet high. I have to thank Mr. J. Newton of the Chalet, Mount Buffalo, for supplementing my collection of specimens. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PuateE XXXVIT. Eucalyptus pumila. . Seedling plant. Pokolbin. b> re . Juvenile (reversion) foliage. . Buds and leaves. . Fruits. Hm 09 Pirate XXXVITII. Eucalyptus Mitchell. . Seedling with cotyledons. Mount Buffalo. . Seedling leaves, except first pair and cotyledons. Oo bSD ee . Buds, fruits aud leaves. PuateE XXXIX. Eucalyptus Mitchells. Trees at back of Chalet, Mount Buffalo. OCCURRENCE OF MUELLERIAN DUCTS. 461 A NOTE on THE OCCURRENCE oF MUEHLLERIAN DUCTS 1n THE MALE oF HYLA CAJRULEA WHITE. By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc. and C. D. GILLIES,M.Sc. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 6, 1418. | THE pronephric or Muellerian ducts normally become the oviducts in the vertebrate female, but they usually dis- appear in the mature male. In the Anura, however, these ducts are almost universally present in the male in varying degrees of development. In the case of Hyla coerulea White, the Australian green tree frog, a series can be obtained from specimens devoid of the ducts altogether, to those showing a development of these structures almost rivalling the female genital ducts in size, though the usual condition is not so pronounced, and is figured in text Fig. 1. The Muellerian ducts lie externally to the ureters and are closely connected with the posterior outer edges of the latter, but the former enter the cloaca separately. This portion of the Muellerian duct, which is associated with the ureter, is dilated, and in some of the preserved speci- mens contained a jelly-like substance. Near the posterior aspect of the kidney, the duct runs independently of the ureter and becomes conspicuously coiled. By means of a dissecting needle, a lumen can be traced up the duct for some distance, but eventually the latter becomes too con- stricted to enable this to be done along the remainder of its length. The anterior portion of the duct is not closely coiled, but travels in a sinuous manner to terminate dors- ally near the base of the lung. Sections were made of testes of males with Muellerian ducts typically developed, 462 T. H. JOHNSTON AND C. D. GILLIES. to see if there was any tendency towards an ovotesticular condition, but the histology was normal. Explanation of Figure. —k, kidney; 1.l., leftlung; M.d., Muellerian duct; r, rectum; r.l., right lung; ¢t, testis; wu, ureter of right kidney; v, verte- bral column. Sketch ofa male Hyla ccerulea with the Muellerian ducts typically developed, (The alimentary canal and liver have been removed, while to expose the right Muellerian duct the lung, kidney and testis of that side have been displaced to the left.) The figure was kindly drawn by Mr. Hubert Jarvis, Assistant Entomologist, Brisbane. ON SOME AUSTRALIAN CLADOCERA. 463 ON SOME AUSTRALIAN CLADOCEHRA. By MARGUERITE HENRY, B.Sc. ( Communicated hy Prof. 8. J. JoHNSTON, D.Sc. ) With Plates XL— XLII. [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, December 4, 1918. | Introduction. In the beginning of 1917 I undertook to work on the life- history of the nematode parasite of cattle, Onchocerca gibsoni, under the direction of the Special Committee appointed by the Commonwealth Advisory Council of Science and Industry. Inthe course of this work it became necessary to examine the fresh-water crustacea in the district in which the work was being carried on. This work, begun in Kendall, on the North Coast, N. S. Wales, was continued at the Zoological Laboratory at the Sydney University. Material Investigated. The greater part of the material investigated was obtained from ponds and creeks at Kendall, where crustacea were very abundant; five of the new species here described were collected in that locality. Collections were also made from a creek at Nelson’s Bay, Port Stephens; from the Lett River, Blue Mountains; Centennial Park, Sydney; and from a pond in the Sydney University grounds. Miss Somerville, B.Sc, kindly made collections for me in the following places and forwarded the preserved material. Two tubes from Mudgee, and two from Bathurst, collected in December, contained very few crustacea; in collections from Cumbalum, Casino, and Byron Bay made in January, they were fairly abundant, and two tubes from Corowa obtained in March were very rich in Crustacea. All the localities cited are in New South Wales. 464 MARGUERITE HENRY, Methods Employed. When possible the material obtained was examined alive, and samples of it were kept alive for some time; this was always the case at Kendall, and with the collections made at Centennial Park and the University. The specimens were drawn with the aid of a camera lucida while still alive. Various means of fixing and preserving were tried, such as glycerine alcohol, sublimate acetic and Carl’s fixative; of these the glycerine alcohol was found to be the most satisfactory. Specimens that were unstained and had been fixed in glycerine alcohol were placed under a bell-jar until the alcohol had evaporated and were then mounted in glycerine jelly; these proved to be quite satis- factory, and the more delicate crustacea were always mounted in this way, as the staining process injured their shape and internal structure. The stains used were heema- toxylin and borax carmine; the latter proved more suitable for those parts that needed closer examination. I have to thank Professor 8. J. Johnston for his valuable advice and assistance in the preparation of the paper. The Cladocera comprised in this paper are— Family DaPHNIDz. Daphnia carinata King Simocephalus acutirostratus King Scapholeberis kingi Sars Ceriodaphnia spinata sp. n. Simocephalus elizabethe King Moina tenuicornis Sars 2 australiensis Dana Family LyNCODAPHNID. Llyocryptus longiremus Sars Macrothrix spinosa King Family LyNnceipa. Camptocercus australis Sars Alonella clathratula Sars Acroperus avirostris sp. n. Graptoleberis testudinaria Fischer fs sinuatus sp Nn. Dunhevedia crassa King Alona wallaciana sp. n Pleuroxus reticulatus sp. n. » kendallensis sp. n. Chydorus denticulatus sp. n. » longirostris sp. n. 5 clelandi sp. n. » wWhateleggw Sars i, globosus Baird » affinis Leydig » cambourt Richard E. ovalis Kurz ON SOME AUSTRALIAN CLADOCERA. 465 Family DAPHNIDA. Genus DAPHNIA Miller. DAPHNIA CARINATA King This form was first described by King in the Proc. Roy. Soe. Van Diemen’s Land, Vol. 11, Part 1.) A more detailed description was later given by Sars in ‘*Fresh- water Entomostraca from the neighbourhood of Sydney,’’!) and in ‘‘ Daphnia carinata King.’?®) This species was fairly abundant in two tubes of crustacea obtained at Corowa in March. It had been recorded pre- viously from Palestine and Syria, and in Australia from the Waterloo Swamps, Sydney, and at St. Arnaud, Fairfield, and Cheltenham in Victoria. Genus SCAPHOLEBERIS Schoedler. SCAPHOLEBERIS KINGI Sars. This species was described by Sars in ‘‘ Freshwater Ento- mostraca from China and Sumatra.’’'?) It had formerly been described by King as Daphnia mucronata in the Proc. Roy. Soc. Van Diemen’s Land. This form was found in abundance at Kendall from October to June. Outside Australia it has been recorded from South Africa and Sumatra. | Genus SIMOCEPHALUS Schoedler. SIMOCEPHALUS ELIZABETH King. This form was first described by King) as Daphnia elizabethce. It was later more fully described by Sars in ‘* Additional Notes on Australian Cladocera.’’“®) Numerous specimens of this species were found in a pond in the grounds of Sydney University in June, and from Mudgeein December. King records finding this species at Newtown, Parramatta, near Stroud, and at Port Stephens. Dp —December 4, 1918. 466 MARGUERITE HENRY. SIMOCEPHALUS AUSTRALIENSIS Dana. This species was first described by Dana, in the ‘‘U.S. Exploring Expedition,’’ Crustacea II, as Daphnia australi- ensis, A more extended description with good figures was later given by Sars in “Additional Notes on Australian Cladocera.’’‘18) This form was found in abundance at Kendall from October to June. A few specimens were obtained from a pond at Sydney University in June, and numerous ephippia- bearing specimens were collected at Corowa in March. This species has been recorded from South Africa, from Gracemere in Queensland, and from Sydney. SIMOCEPHALUS ACUTIROSTRATUS King. King first described this form in the Proc. Roy. Soc. Van Diemen’s Land.’ It was later more fully described by Sars in “Freshwater Entomostraca from the neighbour- hood of Sydney.’ “! A few specimens of this form were obtained at Casino in January. The size of these was smaller than is usual in this species, the largest specimen obtained being only 2 mm. long. King records this species from Denham Court, N.S. Wales, and Sars from a waterhole in Bourke Street, Sydney. Genus CHRIODAPHNIA’ Schocdice CERIODAPHNIA SPINATA Sp. nN. (Plate XL, figs. 1, 2.) The length of the adult female is1°2mm. ‘The carapace, seen laterally, is rounded oval in outline, dorsal and ventral margins are evenly curved, the posterior prominence very distinct and rather short pointed; it is situated above the middle axis of the body. The head, as compared with other species of the genus, is not very much depressed; it is distinctly marked off from the carapace dorsally by a comparatively deep groove. ON SOME AUSTRALIAN CLADOCERA. 467 The reticulation of the carapace is not very distinct. The free edges of the valves are minutely denticulate. The eye is large with conspicuous crystalline lenses. The ocellus is very small, subrectangular. The antennules are short and somewhat rectangular, each has a spine at the edge and is tipped with a bundle of bristles. The tail-piece (fig. 2) is strongly built, and its posterior edge is fairly straight. There are ten spines on the infra- anal margin; these are strong and curved, but the tenth is very small. The end claws are long and curved. Hach bears a row of small spinules along its whole length; no secondary denticles are present at their base. The caudal sete are long and feathered anteriorly. There are three feathered spines on the supra-anal prominence, and two on the posterior. As many as Six summer eggs may be present. There is one winter egg in the ephippium. This species.somewhat resembles Ceriodaphnia reticu- lata Jurine. In general shape, the head is more erect and the posterior prominence more distinct and pointed in C. spinata. It also differs in the presence of denticles on the margin of the carapace, a greater number of anal spines and the row of tiny spinules along the whole length of the end-claws instead of the row of seven spinules near the base as in C. reticulata. Specific Characters.—Carapace, seen laterally, rounded oval in outline, with the posterior prominence above the middle axis of the body, very distinct. Head not very much depressed. Surface of the carapace not distinctly reticu- ' lated; margins minutely denticulate. Hye large, ocellus very small. Antennules rectangular, each with a spine and a bundle of bristles. Tail-piece strong, ten infra-anal spines present; end-claws with a row of small spinules. Average length i°2 mm. Locality —Corowa, collected in March. Type specimen in the Australian Museum, No. P 4327. 468 MARGUERITE HENRY. Genus MOINA Baird. MOINA TENUICORNIS Sars. This form was destribed by Sars in “‘ Freshwater Ento- mostraca from the neighbourhood of Sydney.’’) This species was obtained at Corowa in March, where it. was present in abundance. It has been recorded from South Africa and from a waterhole in Bourke St., Sydney. Family LYNCODAPHNIDA. Genus ILYOCRYPTUS Sars. ILYOCRYPTUS LONGIREMUS Sars. Sars described this species in ‘‘Additional Notes on Aus- tralian Cladocera.’’(®) This species was collected at Kendall in November and December, and it was also found at the University and Centennial Park in June. It is also recorded from North and South America, Hast Africa, Celebes, afd from Grace- mere, Queensland. Genus MACROTHRIX. MACROTHRIX SPINOSA King. King first described this form in his paper “‘On Australian Entomostracans.’’ Sars gave a more extended description in ‘‘Additional Notes on Australian Cladocera.’ (®) A few specimens of this form were obtained at Corowa in March. King records this species from Liverpool and Sydney, and Sars from the Crescent Lagoon near Rock- hampton, Queensland. Outside Australia it has been re- corded from South America and South Africa. Genus CAMPTOCERCUS Baird. CAMPTOCERCUS AUSTRALIS Sars, This form was described by Sars in “Freshwater Hnto- mostraca from the neighbourhood of Sydney,’ from a single specimen. ON SOME AUSTRALIAN CLADOCERA. 469 A single specimen of this form was found at Kendall in October, and a number at Port Stephens in September. Sars records this species from Oentennial Park, Sydney. Genus ACROPERUS Baird. ACROPERUS AVIROSTRIS Sp. 0. (Plate XL, figs. 3, 4.) The length of the adult female is from 0°57—0°68 mm. The carapace is compressed, and viewed laterally, the shape is truncated oval; the greatest height is more than half the length and occurs in front of the middle. The dorsal margin is fairly strongly arched; the ventral edges of the valves are convexly curved in front, but straight for the remainder of their length; the posterior edges are obliquely truncated, slightly curved. The postero-dorsal angle is very obtuse, almost obliterated; the postero- ventral angle is distinct and bears two denticles on each valve. The head is bent down, the dorsal margin forming an even curve with that of the carapace. The rostrum is wide and blunt. The surface of the carapace is marked by a series of distinct oblique striations. The ventral margins of the valves are fringed with a row of long bristles. The eye is of moderate size; the ocellus is only slightly . smaller and situated closer to the eye than to the end of the rostrum. , The antennules are long and slender, reaching nearly as far as the tip of the rostrum; the tuft of sensory bristles at their apex extends beyond the rostral tip, The antenne are long and slender with long swimming bristles. There are three bristles and a spine on the ter- minal segment of the outer branch, and three bristles on 470 MARGUERITE HENRY. the terminal segment of the inner branch. The lip-plate is somewhat triangular in form. The tail-piece (fig. 4) is moderately long and broad; the supra-anal angle is distinct but somewhat blunt. There are no spines present on the infra-anal margin, but above it is a row of about eleven bundles of fine spinules of which the outermost are longer and larger than the rest. The end-claws are situated on a prominence; they are very long,. straight for the greater part of their length, with gently curved tips; each bears two denticles, one at the base and one finer than the other about the middle of its length; there is a row of spinules between these two denticles. This species resembles most nearly Acroperus harpce Baird, described in the “‘Natural History of the British Entomostraca.’’) The general shape is different; the head comparatively smaller, the eye and ocellus larger and not so far removed from the dorsal margin. The depression of the posterior edge as seen in A. harpeoe is absent. The antennule has no long sensitive papilla. Specific Characters.—Carapace, seen laterally, truncated oval; dorsal margin arched, ventral edges of the valves. convex in front; posterior edges slightly curved, oblique. Postero-ventral angle armed with two denticles. Head bent down, rostrum blunt. Hye moderately large, ocellus slightly smaller. Antenne reaching nearly as far as the tip of the rostrum. Surface of the carapace obliquely striated. Tail-piece provided with eleven comb-like bundles of spines, end-claws long, each with two denticles and a row of spinules. Two eggs present in the brood-pouch lying side by side. Average length 0°62 mm. Locality.—Collected at Port Stephens, Kendall and Cum- balum in the spring and summer months. Type specimen in the Australian Museum, No. P 4328. ON SOME AUSTRALIAN CLADOCERA. 471 ACROPERUS SINUATUS Sp. 0. (Plate XL, figs. 5, 6.) The length of the adult female reaches 0°59 mm. The carapace is compressed; seen from the side, its shape is truncated oval. The dorsal margin is only slightly arched; the ventral edges of the valves are straight for the greater part of their length and form an abrupt angle with the anterior free edges. The posterior edges are sinuated, forming an obtuse angle with the ventral edge, convex about the middle, concave dorsally, meeting the dorsal margin at almost aright angle. There are no denticles present on the postero-ventral angle. The head is rather large; the dorsal margin forms an even curve, continuous with that of the carapace. The anterior contour of the head is almost vertical. Inferiorly the head terminates in a very blunt rostrum pointing downwards. ‘The sculpture of the carapace consists of distinct, oblique striations. The eye is large, with conspicuous crystalline lenses; the ocellus is smaller and situated slightly nearer to the tip of the rostrum than to the eye. The antennules are long and reach beyond the tip of the rostrum; each bears a tuft of sensitive bristles at the apex. The tail-piece (fig. 6) is more slender than in the fore- going species, and the supra-anal angle is not so distinct, but the armature closely resembles it, there being eleven lateral bundles of spines present; the end-claws are long, each bearing two denticles, one at the base and the other about the middle of its length; a row of spinelets is present between the two denticles. There may be two summer eggs present in the brood pouch, one in front of the other. 472 MARGUERITE HENRY. This form differs from A. avirostris in the peculiar shape of the posterior edges and the absence of denticles on postero-ventral angles. It also differs in the position of the ocellus and the length of the antennules. Specific Characters.—Viewed laterally, the carapace has a truncated oval form; the dorsal margin is slightly arched, the ventral edges of the valves fairly straight, forming an abrupt angle with the anterior edges, posterior edges sinuated, no denticles present on the postero-ventral angle, shell obliquely striated. Head bent down terminating ina blunt rostrum. Ocellus situated nearer the tip of the rostrum than to the eye. Antennules reaching beyond the tipof the rostrum. Tail-piece long and narrow, eleven comb-like bundles of lateral spines present; end-claws long with two denticles one at the base and one at the middle with a row of spinelets between the two. Length of the adult female 0°59 mm. Locality.—Kendall, collected in November. Type speci- men in the Australian Museum, No. P 4329. ALONA WALLACIANA Sp. 0. (Plate XLI, figs. 7, 8.) The length of the largest specimen examined is 0°49 mm. The carapace is compressed, and, viewed laterally, has an oblong oval form; the greatest height 0°31 mm. is slightly in front of the middle. The dorsal margin is evenly arched; the ventral edges of the valves are almost straight; the posterior edges slightly arcuate, evenly rounded off at the corners. , The head is hood-like, its dorsal margin forming a con- tinuous, even curve with that of the carapace; inferiorly the head terminates in an acute rostrum which does not reach ventrally as far as the inferior edges of the valves. ON SOME AUSTRALIAN CLADOCERA. AD The surface of the carapace is marked by numerous small pits arranged close together. The ventral edges of the valves are fringed with a row of fine bristles. The eye is moderately large; the ocellus is about the same size, square in shape and situated nearer to the eye than to the tip of the rostrum. ; The antennules are short and thick, not nearly reaching the tip of the rostrum. . They bear a number of bristles at the tip. The antennee are small; in structure they agree with those of other species of the genus. The lip-plate is comparatively large and rounded. The tail-piece (fig. 8) is long and slender, slightly nar- rowed towards the apex. There are about fifteen pairs of ‘spines present on the infra-anal margin, those nearer the end-claws being larger and stronger; above the anal spines is a row of marginal combs. The end-claws are very long, curved at the tips; a strong secondary denticle is present at the base of each reaching to half the length of the end- claws. This species agrees most nearly with the Australian form Alona archeri described by G. O. Sars in “‘Additional Notes on Australian OCladocera.’’®) It differs from the latter in the following details:—The sculpture of the shell has not the longitudinal rows of pits characteristic of A. archeri, the pits being massed together in an irregular manner. The ocellus is very much larger, square in shape and situated comparatively closer to the eye. The proximal spines of the tail-piece lack spinules on the upper edge; the lateral spines of A. archeri are replaced by combs in A. wallaciana and the secondary denticles at the base of the end-claws are longer and stronger. Specific Characters.—Carapace seen laterally is oblong . oval; dorsal margin arched, ventral edges straight, corners evenly rounded. Surface of the carapace marked with 474 MARGUERITE HENRY. irregular pits. Ocellus equal in size to the eye, square shaped. Antennules short, not reaching to the end of the rostrum. ‘Tail long and slender; fifteen pairs of anal spines. and a row of lateral combs present; end-claws long with strong secondary denticles. Colour yellow. Length of adult female 0°49 mm. Locality.—Kendall, collected in May from creeks on Mr.. Wallace’s farm. Type specimen in the Australian Museum No. P 4330. ALONA KENDALLENSIS sp. 0. (Plate XLI, flgs. 9, 10.) ‘ The length of the adult female is 0°88 mm. Seen later- ally, the carapace is somewhat quadrangular, obliquely truncated behind. The greatest height, 0°49 mm., occurs. behind the middle. The dorsal and ventral edges of the valves are almost straight, the posterior edges are slightly arcuate. The head is somewhat depressed with an acute rostrum pointing downwards and almost reaching the ventral edges. of the valves. The forehead is very sloping, joining the dorsal edge of the carapace somewhat abruptly. The sur- face of the carapace is marked by distinct longitudinal striations. The ventral edge of each valve bears a row of long bristles, which are continued round the postero-ventral angle. The eye is of moderate size, with conspicuous crystalline lenses. The ocellus is very slightly smaller than the eye, and situated much nearer to it than to the tip of the rostrum, The antennules are narrow, and extend about two-thirds the length of the rostrum. The antenne are comparatively small; they exhibit the usual structure. The tail-piece (fig. 10) is very strongly built, nearly uniform in width throughout. There are twelve pairs of ON SOME AUSTRALIAN CLADOCERA. 475 spines on the infra-anal margin with spinules on the pos- terior border of each. The end-claws are strong witha very well developed denticle at the base of each. A row of about twelve marginal combs is present. This species somewhat resembles Alona whiteleggii Sars, but differs in the greater width of the posterior edges, the straight dorsal margin and the more depressed head; the tail-piece is like A. whiteleggii in shape but has fewer spines. and further these possess spinules on their posterior edges. Specific Characters.—The carapace seen laterally, is quadrangular, very wide posteriorly; dorsal and ventral margins Straight. Posterior edges arcuate. Head depressed with a long acute rostrum. COarapace longitudinally stri- ated. Ocellus almostas largeastheeye. Tail-piece large,,. twelve pairs of spines on the infra-anal margin, provided with spinules; twelve marginal combs present, end-claws. and secondary denticles strong. Length 0°88 mm. Locality.— Kendall, collected in October. Type specimen in the Australian Museum, No. P 4331. ALONA LONGIROSTRIS Sp. 0. (Plate XLI, figs. 11, 12.) The length of the specimen examined is 0°74 mm. Seen laterally, the shell exhibits an oblique oval form, obliquely truncated behind; the greatest height is 0°41 mm. and occurs just behind the middle; the dorsal margin is arched, the ventral edges of the valves are straight for the greater part of their length, curving upwards posteriorly. The head is depressd, with an elongated pointed rostrum reaching below the ventral edges of the valves; the dorsal margin of the head forms an even curve with that of the carapace. The surface of the carapace is not striated but marked by a number of pits; the ventral edges of the valves bear 4.76 MARGUERITE HENRY. .arow of bristles and there is a group of bristles on the postero-ventral corner. The eye is of moderate size; the ocellus is smaller and situated closer to the eye than to the tip of the rostrum. The antennules are not as long as the rostrum, but the sensory tufts of filaments at their apices reach beyond its tip. The tail-piece (fig. 12) is strongly built, of almost uniform width throughout; the supra-anal angle is not very distinct; there are twelve pairs of short thick spines present on the infra-anal margin, and also a row of about ten lateral combs; the end-claws are strong, each with a secondary denticle which reaches half its length; the denticles each bear a row of spinules. Specific Characters.—Oarapace seen laterally oblong oval, obliquely truncated behind, dorsal margin arched, ventral straight, curving posteriorly. Head depressed. Rostrum reaching below the ventral edges of the valves. Surface of the carapace pitted. Ocellus smaller than the eye, closer to it than to the tip of the rostrum. Tail-piece broad, with twelve pairs of short, thick infra-anal spines, and ten lateral combs; end-claws strong; secondary denticies long, each bearing a row of spinules. Locality.—This form was collected at Byron Bay in January. ‘ype specimen in the Australian Museum, No. P 4332, ALONA WHITELEGGII Sars. This species was described by Sars in “‘Freshwater Ento- mostraca from the neighbourhood of Sydney.’’(!) This form was abundant at Kendall during the summer months. It is recorded by Sars from Oentennial Park, Sydney. ON SOME AUSTRALIAN CLADOCERA. A477 ALONA AFFINIS Leydig. This species was first described by Leydig in “‘Natur- geschichte der Daphniden,’”’ 1860. Lilljeborg gives a detailed description with good figures in ‘‘Cladocera sueciae.’’7 Several specimens of this large form were obtained at the Lett River, Blue Mountains. It has been recorded from EKurope, Asia, North and South America, South Africa. and Greenland. ALONA CAMBOUIL Richard. This form was first described by Richard in ‘‘ Nouveaux Entomostracées d’eau douce de Madagascar.’” Sars gives a good figure of it in *‘ Pacifische Plankton-Crustaceen.’’) A few specimens of this species were obtained at Port Stephens in August. It has been recorded from Mada- gascar, Palestine, South America, New Zealand. Genus ALONELLA Sars. ALONELLA CLATHRATULA Sars. This form was described by Sars in “* Freshwater Hnto- mostraca from the neighbourhood of Sydney.’’@”) This species was found in abundance at the Lett River in September. A few specimens were obtained at Kendall in October. It has been recorded from South America and in Australia from the Maroubra Swamp, Sydney. Genus GRAPTOLEBHRIS Sars. GRAPTOLEBERIS TESTUDINARIA Fischer. This form was first described by Fischer in ‘“‘Mém de Acad. Impér. de St. Petersb. des Savants étrangers, T. VI, page 191. Lilljeborg gives a detailed description with good figures in ‘‘ Cladocera sueciz.’’ A solitary specimen of this form was obtained from a pond in the University grounds in June. It has been 478 MARGUERITE HENRY. recorded from Hurope, North and South America, Asia, Iceland and the Azores. Genus DUNHEVEDIA King. DUNHEVEDIA CRASSA King. This form was first described by King in ‘‘Australian Entomostracans.’’'® -—3p; thickness of spore 34; length of polar capsule 5—6y; breadth of polar capsule 1—2y; length of tail process about 20 — 26p, In order to obtain additional evidence, either for or against the view that two distinct species were being dealt with, a fairly large number of spores, taken at random, were drawn with the aid of a camera lucida, and measure- ments made thereof. The dimensions noted were, length and breadth of spore, and length of polar capsule. The average dimensions founded on these measurements Were. - Length of Species. Length of spore| Breadth of spore polar oanenie. Hf, gracilis 11°38 2°74 D°22u Hi. australis Tole 3°68 5°66 The results of plotting the lengths measured against the number of spores in each case are given below. The empirical mode in the case of H. gracilis will be seen to be 11, and in the case of H. australis 13. There was not. sufficient variation in the other dimensions to render a graphical representation of any value. Auerbach (1910, pp. 183 — 186) has recorded 18 species of Henneguya, from fish, two of which were undescribed. The various species inhabit almost every organ of the body but are rather more usually found in the ovary, gills and con- nective tissue. 26°. ° T., H. JOHNSTON AND M. J. BANCROFT. DEAG ERRRR SHER BREE pm tt | BERS SRERE SRS sears FIRRRERA ERGR OBER RARE DEAR, VER L2RMs PMR AT « SON - oo L BEV SRR GG ie TEE 4 ea SOE NSS OA yp aaa Be - RP SER EMRE has BRR SEP 16 DAR AER ER We ; BE bat GERRE Be Ob PSR va Baws aa | LAG GEO Cee apts “ee _ GERD | ci GR ee A Bee, Se ee ee Bae JABE GEES PEE na f-—— me Oe 0 sale eee (ARRR BRREE 40 ISR SREAVNCE aoa EE cof) aan ee 2d BY. V OR eee OPA Bean RGME Son) (GSS Seo a ee eee Sil GUROR PSEeE PACE HUGE RR PERE EP GRRE RO. q Ei 8 0 RN OD Tw Y, 9 HTD A DE Piet eect Hitt een ERRRORBRER END. ACC RmnG Naas Bat GSRRROEERRRE ANOS? G 3 ol he | | Length of spore—A. Henneguya gracilis; B. H. australis. HENNEGUYA Sp. A number of spores of a Henneguya were detected in scrapings of the gill of one out of four specimens of the slender bony bream, Nematalosa elongata Macleay. The glide having become mislaid, we are unable to give further particulars. MICROSPORIDIA. PLEISTOPHORA SCIANA 0. Sp. Figs. 7, 13. The ovary of a single specimen of Scicena australis Gunther,* the so-called perch of the Brisbane River, examined by us, was found to contain small white cysts. Hach cyst was seen to be filled with myriads of tiny spores. When sections of the infected portion were examined, it was obvious that the parasite had originally taken up its ‘ Syn. S. canina de Vis. See Ogilby Mem. Qld. Mus. 6, 1918, p. 75. SPOROZOON PARASITES OF QUEENSLAND FRESHWATER FISH. 527 position in the connective tissue covering the ovary, but as growth proceeded, the cyst had come to press down among the developing ova, though it was still surrounded by a hypertrophied layer of this tissue. The spore is a tiny pyriform structure with a mass of more deeply staining material at the narrower end. The average length is 3—5y, while the breadth is 2—3y. Its morphological characteristics and the formation of an indefinite number of spores relegate this organism to the genus Pleistophora. Host. PARASITE, Nematalosa elongata Henneguya sp. Plectroplites ambiguus Myxosoma ogilbyz J. and B, Myzxobolus plectroplites J. and B. Henneguya australis J, and B. Sciena australis Pleistophora sciene J. and B. Therapon carbo Myxidium therapon J. and B. Therapon hallo Myxidium therapon J. and B. Henneguya gracilis J. and B. All figures (1 — 9) on Plates XLIII and XLIV have been drawn to the same magnification, (see scale beside fig. 1). The photo- micrographs have not been retouched in any way. References to lettering :—c, cyst; ¢.t., connective tissue surrounding cyst; d.s., developing spores; ect., ectoplasm; end., endoplasm; g.t., gill tissue; k.t., kidney tissue; ov., ovum; s., spores; s.f., skeleton of gill filament. | EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Puate XLII. . Group of spores of Myxidium therapon. x 1250. . Myxosoma ogilbyi. x 1250. . Myxobolus plectroplites. x 1250. . Henneguya australis. x 1250. 33 “ abnormal spores. x 1250. a gracilis, %* 1250. oF WOH a 528 10. i. ee 13. 14, Ro: 16. Wife T. H. JOHNSTON AND M. J. BANCROFT. Piuate XLIV. . Portion of transverse section ovary of Sciwna with spores of Pleistophora science. x 1250. . Transverse section, gill filament of Vherapon hillii; with cyst of Henneguya gracilis. x 1250. . Edge of plasmodium of Myxidiuwm therapon. x 1250. PuaTeE XLV. Portion of gill filament of Therapon hillii (stained with hematoxylin) showing six pyriform cysts of Henneguya gracilis. x 34. Portion of gill filament of Plectroplites ambiguus (un- stained) showing cyst of Henneguya australis. x 35. Portion of plasmodium of Myxidium therapon. x75. Puate XLVI. Transverse section of ovary of Sciena with cyst of Pleis- tophora. x72. Transverse section of gill filament Plectroplites ambiguus, showing portion of cyst of Henneguya australis. x 312. Transverse section of kidney of Plectroplites ambiguus with cyst of Myobolus plectroplites. x 434. Puate XLVII. Transverse section of two gill filaments of Plectroplites ambiguus, one showing section of cyst of Henneguya australis. x 90. No radiating arrangement of spores. Transverse section of portion of gill arch of P. ambiguus at base of several filaments—showing two cysts of Myxosoma ogilbyi. x74. Or bo Ne) OCCURRENCE OF TERPENE TERPINENE. On THE OCCURRENCH oF THE TERPENE TERPINENE IN THE OIL oF Eucalyptus megacarpa. By HENRY G. SMITH, F.C.S. [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, December 4, 1918. ] TERPINENE was first recognised as a definite terpene by Wallach,! and has, so far, been detected only in a very few essential oils. It was first discovered by Weber? in carda- mom oil, and has been recorded as occurring in marjoram oil, dill oil, coriander oil, and a few others. Terpinene is thus rarely found existing naturally, and Gildemeister and Hofimann® have stated “that it may appear doubtful whether this terpene is really found in nature or whether it is formed by the influence of heat during the distillation from other compounds contained in the respective oils.”’ This opinion cannot now be supported in reference to Hucalyptus oils, because if true the terpene would without doubt, have been detected in them before this, seeing that the oils of such a large number of species have now been determined. It must, therefore, be considered as a natur- - ally occurring terpene in some Kucalyptus oils. Terpinene is formed artificially by the action of alcoholic sulphuric acid on many of the terpenes and terpene deriva- tives, ordinary turpentine (pinene) being well adapted for the purpose. It may also be prepared by similar means from terpineol, geraniol, dihydrocarveol and cineol. This formation is interesting in this connection as, besides cineol and the terpenes pinene and limonene, geraniol appears to be present also as an ester in the oil of Eucalyptus megacarpa. 1 Ann. Chem., (230) 254 and 260. 2 Ann. Chem., 238, (1887) 107. * «The Volatile Oils,” p. 119 (English translation, 1900). Hu—December 4, 1918. 530 H. G. SMITH. The molecular structures which have been suggested for terpinene are the following, known asa, 6, and y-terpinenes respectively:— C-CH, Cc: CH, C-CH, He ©) S CH H.C Vn py CH, H,C X CH | | H.C JCH HC CH, He CH 6) C C O,H, C,H, C,H, Wallach*' contends that it has been shown with sufficient clearness that terpinene is a mixture of Ai,3. and A 4,4. dihydrocymenes, and that it is the former which gives the characteristic nitrosite reaction. A considerable amount of work has been undertaken upon this terpene by Wallach, Semmler, Auwers and others, and both the «, and y-forms have been synthesised during these investigations. As terpinene has not, so far, been regenerated from its solid derivative ina pure form, its physical properties can- not be stated with precision, but from the several results obtained with the terpene formed in various ways the following range of figures may be given:— Boiling point 171 to 181° C.; specific gravity 0°842 at 22° to 0°848 at 18°; refractive index 1°4719 to 1°4789. The two reactions which largely help to distinguish terpinene from other terpenes are (a) the crystallised nitrosite OioHisN2O3 melting at 155° C., which is formed when the oil is treated with nitrous acid, and (b), the com- parative ease with which it is destroyed when treated in the cold with Beckmann’s chromic acid mixture; this reagent under such conditions has little action upon either pinene, limonene or cineol. 1 Ann. Chem., 374, 217. OCCURRENCE OF TERPENE TERPINENE. 531 The pinene in the oil of EK. megacarpa was shown to be highly levorotatory, as was also the limonene; dipentene appears also to be present. The cineol content was 30%. It does not appear that the terpinene in this oil can exceed 10%, judging from the results of the distillation and the amounts of other constituents determined. Although limonene tetrabromide was formed with the oil of the fraction boiling between 170—190° yet the result was not altogether satisfactory, and the compound small inamount. This peculiarity naturally led to further search for the interfering constituent with the resulting detection of the terpinene. Limonene rarely occurs in eucalyptus oils, and it may be that terpinene will be found more frequently associated with that terpene in the oils of certain species of this group. The formation of terpinene from terpineol through the terpene terpinolene is thus of special interest, because dipentene can also be formed from the same terpineol. Wallach and Kerkhoff! found that oxalic acid was a useful reagent by which to prepare terpinolene and then terpinene from terpineol. EK. megacarpa is a Western Australian species, and the oil was forwarded to the Technological Museum for investi- gation by Mr. C. KH. Lane Poole, the Conservator of Forests for that State. The formation of the terpinene nitrosite. A portion of the fraction distilling between 170—190 C. was mixed with an equal quantity of petroleum ether and an equal bulk of a saturated solution of sodium nitrite added, and afterwards sufficient glacial acetic acid to decompose the salt. The whole was then allowed to stand on one side. After twenty-four to thirty hours + Ann. Chem., (275), 106. 532 H. G. SMITH, a crystals commenced to form, and increased considerably in amount after two days. The crystals were separated, pressed on porous plate to absorb the liquid products, and purified from a mixture of alcohol and chloroform. The terpinene nitrosite thus formed melted at 155°C. (corrected), and answered to the more easily applied chemical reactions for this substance. Terpinene nitrosite, which is a more stable substance than the corresponding compound formed with phellandrene,, has had two formule suggested for it :— N=O ZN—O-H Le a ; but no definite conclusion has yet been arrived at. and Oi0Hi15 Treatment with Beckmann’'s reagent. A portion of the fraction boiling between 170 —190° was. repeatedly treated in the cold with small quantities of Beckmann’s chromic acid mixture, until the formation of the brown precipitate was less noticeable. The optical rotation of the fraction before treatment was 35°5 degrees. to the left, due principally to the limonene. After the first treatment, the optical activity had increased to36’4 degrees, and after further action reached 36°6 degrees. The sub- stance removed in this way was evidently the inactive terpinene, while the optical activity of the limonene had apparently not been interfered with. If Wallach’s statement that the «form produces the crystalline nitrosite is accepted, and assuming that the terpene is not a mixture of the «- and y-forms, then the terpinene in the oil of this Hucalyptus species has the molecular structure I above. HK. megacarpa, in the sequence of species, more nearly approaches the first members of the genus, or those with the parallel feathery leaf venation, than the more recent OCCURRENCE OF TERPENE TERPINENE. 533 forms. This is also indicated by the principal chemical constituent in the oil being pinene. It is only in the oils of the more recent members of the genus that the terpene phellandrene is found, so that the peculiarity is noticed of terpinene (one of these closely agreeing terpenes) being found at that end of the genus which is more largely repre- sented in Western Australia, while the other terpene (phellandrene) is a characteristic constituent in the oils of the members of the more recent groups of the genus, or those which occur most abundantly in the south-eastern vortion of Australia. ABSTRACT 0F PROCEEDINGS ® ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS Aopal Society of Alew South Bales. —= MAY ist, 1918. The Annual Meeting, being the three hundred and ninety- sixth General Monthly Meeting of the Society, was held at the Society’s House, 5 Elizabeth Street, Sydney, at 8 p.m. _Dr. J. B. CLELAND, President, in the Chair. Fifty-one members and one visitor were present. The minutes of the General Monthly Meeting of the 5th December, 1917, were read and confirmed. The certificates of eleven candidates for admission as ordinary members were read: one for the second and ten for the first time. Mr. H. CHEEL and Mr. I. ORMSBY were appointed Scru- tineers, and Mr. C. HEDLEY deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society :— CLYDE DOUGLAS GILLIES, M.Sc., Assistant Lecturer in Biology, the University, Brisbane. The following gentleman was duly elected an Honorary Member of the Society:— CHARLES CHILTON, M.A., D.Sc., etc., Professor of Biology at Canterbury College: Christchurch, New Zealand. The Annual Financial Statement for the year ended 31st March, 1918, was submitted to members, and, on the lv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. motion of the Honorary Treasurer, Professor H.G. CHAPMAN, seconded by Mr. R. T. BAKER, was unanimously adopted:— GENERAL ACCOUNT. REcEIPTs. £-s. dG. | eee To Balance, Cash on hand and at Bank, 1st April, HOUT saan se an dds Be ae 1387 4 8 » Subscriptions— Anuual... wee ae sh ae ae DOLLS 0 Sectional Member ... ae see ie AO eLOW NG —-—-—-. 502 8 6 >», hents— Offices ... : adh Bi ae 5.047 Lo 0 Hall and Tabeaty ae ee a ve 19 OO —-————- 427 5 0 »» Sundry Receipts ... sf Pade Ae 7 8 10 » Government Subsidy for 1917. asi sae 399 19 10 », Clarke Memorial Fund— Amounts received to date ... is aa 200 0 0 £1,674 6 10 PAYMENTS. es) al EO eae de By Salaries and Wages— Office Salary and Accountancy Fees . 107 15 0 Assistant Librarian ... a aes it 487 3010 Caretaker Bx: des tse tee we Lao. 10, 6 — 3841 5 0 », Printing, Stationery, Advertising, Stamps, etc.— Stamps and Telegrams ste Sais «yey (OO) 82046 Office Sundries, Stationery, etc. ... oe OPTS iO Advertising ... Ad Se ia wet LOVIG LIS Printing see oie Ane site oi Oe 18 6 a 85 16 5. », Rates, Taxes and Services— Electric Light... a bal Be eee Ses) \ 7) Gas as ie 5 13 10 Insurance oie os hue Sek oe 25) AS Rates ... oe Hh Pen bene 96 1O'8 Telephone Sa ors — 152 0 5 » Printing and Publishing Society’s Volume— Printing, etc. ... aN ihe sas at LOL 2 Book Binding... a4 Cee be i MIS LQ 602 — 210 1 8 5, Library— Books and Periodicals nits nfo is \ f x \ . d ~ { ’ — — : . an ' i 7 . ' ay a3 \.. ae ‘ — 4 ‘ = 7 ey eee . ta 1 t < - Mert ten Os lie ‘ ; + . i { : ‘ i » ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS see tl LON OF INDUS bie > a Monthiy Meeting, 8th April, 1918. Mr. W. T. WILLINGTON in the Chair. Prof. N. H. Lerroy of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensington, gave a lecture upon **The Weevil Problem—Its Solution.’’* A series of lantern slides showed the conditions under which wheat had been handled and stacked at various centres before the weevil made its appearance. This was followed by a description of the kinds of insects infecting wheat. The Rice Weevil is most frequently found, then the Grain Weevil, followed by the Grain Borer. They are found in the approximate ratio of 87:35:24. These are the chief pests, and they are the most troublesome because they pass a portion of their life history within the body of the grain, and cannot be entirely removed by the mechanical process of cleaning which eliminates all the other pests such as the Red Flour Beetle, the Saw Tooth Beetle, Cadelle and the Flat Grain Beetle. The two weevils are most numerous and may be taken as one pest. The life histories of all these insects were shown upon the screen and described by the lecturer. In the case of the weevils, the life history is completed in from four to eight weeks. Like some other insects they have parasites such as certain chalcid wasps which prey upon them, but * Reports of the lecture appeared in the Sydney Morning Herald and Daily Telegraph of April 9th, 1918. XXXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, these have very little effect, for in places where they were quite plentiful, the weevils did not seem to have lessened. Grain with 8% of moisture is proof against weevil, and even with 10% it is fairly safe. Wheat will never absorb more than under 2% of moisture from damp air, even under extreme conditions, so that if it is stacked with 8% of moisture it should be fairly safe from weevil. The trouble is not brought about by moist air, but by water getting at the grain. The weevil multiplies rapidly in grain that has become wetted, and especially after fermentation has set in. In the stacks, there is always some place where through insufficient covering, rain has got to the grain, or where the grain falls from a pierced or burst bag to the ground, and getsdamp. The damp grain serves as a breed- ing centre for the weevil. Various disinfectants have been tried, but with some the smell is too persistent, and clings to the grain and damages the flour. Others, while destroying external insects, do not affect the grub within the grain. To be of use the disinfectant must not be too volatile, for it requires from 24 to 48 hours to ensure penetration, and*yet it must be sufficiently volatile to become dissipated during storage or the subsequent milling. A good disinfectant has not yet been obtained. The electrical method of endeavouring to destroy them by high voltages was ineffectual, as with a charge of 63,000 volts between two metallic plates, the insects simply stood on end, and when the current was disconnected, they ran off the plate. One cannot get the current to go through the weevils. The method of destroying them by heat remained. In this connection, it has been found that if the grain is sub- jected to a temperature of 140° F. for three minutes, all the weevil is killed. The desideratum is to get a machine ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, XXXV. which will effectively and expeditiously heat the body of the grain to this temperature, so that the pest will be killed and the grain will not be cooked. Most of the machines designed for this purpose depend upon the grain being heated by hot air, and because of the greater specific heat of the grain as compared with air, it has been deter- mined that 1,000 gallons of air are necessary to heat up one gallon of grain. The machine must, therefore, have a large air capacity. Many types of machines have been made by various makers within the last few months, and the principles underlying their mechanics were illustrated by the lecturer with the aid of the lantern. Some, as the Robinson machine, are already treating wheat, others are in the experimental stage. The following notes were contributed :— 1. ‘‘ Fixation of Nitrogen by Burchner’s Method,” by A. R. PENFOLD, F.c.S. Sodium cyanide is obtained by passing air through retorts containing briquettes made of iron, coke and soda ash.! 2. “Castor Oil grown in New South Wales,’’ by W. M. DOHERTY, F.I.C., F.c.S. Oil of good quality was obtained from locally grown plants.’ 3. **The Production of Potash,”’ by A. EK. STEPHEN, F.C.S. Attention was called to the necessity for augmenting our supply of potash salts. 4, ** Power Alcohol,’’ by WM. POOLE, B.E., M. inst.c.H. A review of the Report upon Power Alcohol, issued by the Advisory Council of the Institute of Science and industry. 5. ‘Sources of Alcohol,’ by E. J. STATHAM, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. The advantages of the Lower Hawkesbury as a. suitable locality for establishing a factory for the production of alcohol was emphasised. * Fully reported in Australasian Manufacturer, April 27th, 1918. * Ibid. April 20th, also Chem. Eng. and Mining Journal, June. oa ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 6. ‘* Note upon above,’’ by the Hon. See. With alcohol at the then contract price of 1/1 per gallon, the price of starch would require to be about $d. per Ib. This precludes. the use of cereals as sources of alcohol.? Monthly Meeting, May 13th, 1918. Mr. W. T. WILLINGTON in the Chair. The Chairman gave an address upon “‘ Progress of Manu- facture in New South Wales,”’ in which he referred to the early work of the pioneer manufacturers, and discussed the reasons for the slow progress made up to some thirty years ago. Since that time the progress has been of great. magnitude, which is the more creditable as the difficulties. of establishing industries in a new country, and the com- petition of outside manufacturers had to be surmounted, while the strong prejudice against locally produced articles had to be overcome. Witha small and reducing margin, New South Wales may be accepted as a self supporting community, and should, in the not distant future, be in a. position to largely export her manufactures.” The following notes were contributed :— 1. “Report of the Nitrogen Committee,”’ by B. J. SMART,. Bsc. The work may be regarded as a revolution in the attitude of the British Government towards science. Steps have been taken to conserve waste ammonia, to erect plant for the synthesis of ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen, for the oxidation of ammonia to nitrates, and. for the production of cyanamide. 2. ‘* The Removal of Rust from Iron Plates,’’ by A. D. OLLE, F.c.S. A mixture of two parts of sodium bisulphate and one part of common salt are wetted and applied to the rusty plate; when the plate is clean it is washed with an ' Ibid. May 4th. * Fully reported in The Australasian Manufacturers’ Journal, June, 1918, p- 37. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXVll. alkaline solution. The efficiency of the method was shown by an exhibit, and confirmed by Mr. B. J. SMART. 3. “The Minimum Hffective Quantities of Disinfectants Required for Efficient Fumigation,’ by R. W. CHALLINOR, F.1.C.,F.c.S. Areference to the work of KINGZETT, BOTTOMLEY and BRIMLEY, indicating the smallest amount of disinfect- ants required to disinfect a room as indicated by the destruction of Bac. typhosus. The note led to an animated discussion in which the following took part; Drs. J. B. CLELAND and R. K. MurpPuHy, Messrs. B. J. SMART, F. OAKDEN, T. I. WALLAS, S. EH. SIBLEY, A. D. OLLE, GC. Hupson, A. B. HEcTOR, and the Hon. Sec. This being the Annual General Meeting the following business was done :— Rule—*‘ That the retiring Chairman should be a member of the Committee ex officio, for three years.”’ Proposed by Mr. A. B. HEcTOR, seconded by Mr. S. HE. SIBLEY, and carried. Rule-—“ That the Committee consist of seven mem- bers, exclusive of ex officio members.’’ Proposed by Mr. A. D. OLLE, seconded by Dr. GREIG-SMITH, and carried. Rule—‘‘ That the past President of the Society be an ex officio member of the Committee.’’ Proposed by Mr. A. F. OSBORN, seconded by Mr. A. D. OLLRE, and carried. The Sectional Office-bearers were elected:—Chairman, Mr. W. T. WILLINGTON. Hon. Sec., Dr. R. GREIG-SMITH. Committee—Dr.. R. K. Murpuy, Dr. J. D.. GRANGER, Messrs. J. NANGLE, A. B. HEcTOR, J. HENDERSON, B. J. SMART, and F. W. STEEL. Monthly Meeting, June 10th, 1918. Mr. A. B. HECTOR in the Chair. XXXVIli. - ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The following notes were communicated :— 1. “The Toxicity of Wood Alcohol,’ by R. W. CHALLINOR F.I.C., F.c.S. The manufacture of methyl alcohol was described, and instances were detailed of its poisonous effects when drunk. The paper led to a useful discussion by Prof. C. HK. Fawsirt, Messrs. W. Poo Le, T. I WALLAS, ff. W. STEEL and the Chairman. 2. “Industrial Betterment,’? by W. W. L’ESTRANGE. Attention was called to the necessity for considering the comfort and health of the workers when a maximum out- put is expected, and an excessive turnover of labour is to be minimised.’ A discussion was contributed by Dr. C. S. WILLIS, Messrs. DARNELL-SMITH, F. W. STEEL, A. D. OLLE, T. I. WALLAS, the Chairman and the Hon. Sec. 3. “Industrial Fatigue,’’ by the Hon. Sec. The cause of fatigue was shown to be of nervous origin, the remedy for which was properly proportioned rest periods.* The subject was discussed by Dr. OC. S. WILLIS, Messrs. A. D- OLE, T. I. WALLAS, DARNELL-SMITH, and the Chairman. 4. “The Bulletins published by the Advisory Council of the Institute of Science and Industry.’’ The Hon. Sec. drew the attention of members to these pee ca tee. which are sent post free upon request. Monthly Meeting, July 8th, 1918. Mr. A. B. HEcToR in the Chair. Mr. H. B. SEVIER gavea lecture upon “‘Modern Methods of White Lead Corrosion.’’ After explaining the various ° methods which have been tried for corroding the lead, the lecturer described the old Dutch method, which with few 1 Reported fully in The Australasian Manufacturer, No. 120, July 20, also in Chem. Eng. and Mining Journal, July. 2 Tbid., No. 117, June 29th. 3 Ibid., No. 116, June 22nd, also in Chem. Eng. and Mining Journal September. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXIX. alterations is in general employment at the present time. The details of the process as conducted at Rhodes near Sydney were given. The main improvements consisted in the corroded lead being manipulated in contact with water and finally with oil. The process is automatic from the time that the corroded buckles are taken from the stone- ware pots until the finished white lead in oil is obtained. Mr. H. J. SULLIVAN continued the lecture, describing the blending of the white tead with pigments, and explaining the research work necessary in a paint factory to maintain and improve the quality of the products. He detailed the methods used in standardising the chemical and physical properties of his firm’s products. The lecture was followed by a discussion, in which the following took part, Dr. J. B. CLELAND, Messrs. WM. POOLE, A.D. OLLE, J. A. YOUNG, FINLAY, NEIL, WATT, the Chair- man and the Hon. Sec. Mr. SEVIER invited the members to inspect the works of Messrs. Lewis Berger and Sons at Rhodes, and twenty-five accepted the invitation upon August 13th. Dr. R. K. MURPHY contributed a note upon Cobalt Plat- ing which of recent years had been suggested as a substi- tute for nickel plating, The advantages are that iron, steel, and brass can be plated directly and more rapidly than with nickel, the material to be plated does not require the same careful preparation, and the finished surface is harder and does not scratch so easily. The present price for cobalt in Australia, however, would prohibit its general use, but if a demand should arise, the price would probably fall sufficiently to enable it to compete with nickel. Monthly Meeting, August 12th, 1918. Mr. W. T. WILLINGTON in the Chair. Mr, F. OAKDEN gave a lecture upon *‘ Progress in Cement Making.” After referring to the increase in the world’s xl. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. production of cement during the last thirty years, the lecturer proceeded to describe the various improvements in the mills for grinding together the chalk and clay, and in the kilns for converting the “‘slurry”’ into “‘slip’’ and finally into “‘clinker.’’ The gradual improvements in the kinds of kiln from the primary Bottle type to the Ransome rotary kiln were illustrated by means of diagrams. It was to the invention and improvements in the rotary kiln that made the increased production of cement possible. The evolution of the method of grinding the “‘clinker’’ was shown by the changes from the old stone mill to the Krupp combined erushing, pulverising and sifting rotary mill. HKmphasis was laid upon the fact that the efficiency of a cement depended largely upon its fine state of division as compara- tively large particles are inert and behave like sand. The lecturer dealt with the varieties of specifications laid down by the various State Governments, and as con- fusion tended to retard the industry, he suggested that scientists should move in the matter of obtaining a stan- dardisation of the specifications. Mr. MorRIson followed with a description of the physical properties of cement as indicating its value. He gave the various standards adopted by the New South Wales Govern- ment, and the methods used for testing cement. The breaking strength was demonstrated by means of the standard apparatus. . The Chairman in thanking the lecturers, mentioned that the question of standardisation was part of the scheme of the Institute of Science and Industry. A discussion upon the lectures was contributed by Dr. R. K. MURPHY and Mr. W. M. HAMLET. Monthly Meeting, September 9th, 1918. Mr. W. T. WILLINGTON in the Chair. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xl. Mr. P. G. L. Law gave an address upon “‘ Some Impress- ions upon the Conditions of Labour as they exist in America and Australia.’’ Contrary to anticipation the lecturer had found that in the States, education was not as general as in Australia; organisation was on the average not any better, while efficiency taken all round was lower than with us. But there are in America some of the most highly efficient and best organised businesses in the world, and these are showing the way for the others to follow. There are few organised labour troubles, the workers take individual action, and in some works the average length of service is only six weeks. In 1916, 13,000 men were hired in a Pittsburg establishment to keep up a staff of 1,700. Organisation, industrial welfare and _ profit- sharing are slowly but effectively reducing this great “‘turn- over’’ of labour. American employers encourage sugges- tions from their employees, and are thus developing the constructive faculty which is becoming a trait in the national character. In the shirt and collar trade, America is ahead in collar- making, because they are able to use machinery which with our smaller market it would not payto put in. But with standardised articles such as shirts, our labour costs are less than theirs, and we turn out as many per week although we work for 15 hours less. If this can be done with shirts it can also be done with other articles, but the crying necessity in Australia is to have our articles standardised. Why should blankets have blue bands at the ends? The custom neither makes for efficiency in their use nor in their manufacture. The lecture was followed by a discussion in which Messrs. LoxLEY MeceittT, F. W. STEEL, NAPIER THOMSON, A. A. HAMILTON, A. F. OSBORN and the Chairman took part. xlii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Monthly Meeting, October 14th, 1918. Mr. LOXLEY MEGGITT, F.I.C., F.C.S., in the Chair. Mr. WM. DOHERTY, F.I.C., F.C.S., read a note upon “‘Iodine in our Seaweed.’’? He had analysed a large variety of Laminaria (Heklonia radiata) obtained near Sydney Heads and found it to contain [odine 0°06% in the fresh weed, 0.40% in the dry state and 1°57 in theash. This was equal to 33°6 lbs. per ton of ash. In the discussion contributed by Messrs. S. KE. SIBLEY, F. A. RANDLE and J. H. BISHOP, it was pointed out that the world’s supply of Iodine was obtained chiefly from Chili, as a byproduct in the production of Nitrate of Soda, and the price was determined by a Secrets 7 Mr. F. A. RANDLE gave a lecture upon ‘‘ Modern Illus- trative Processes,’’ in which he traced the evolution of book illustration from the invention by the Chinese of fixed type and by the Koreans of moveable type. Line engraving upon wood, the discovery of the use of porous stone in lith- ography, and other processes were described. The modern photographic methods in black and in colour Were given in detail, and were illustrated by examples and by practical demonstrations. Monthly Meeting, November 11th, 1918. Mr. W. T.. WILLINGTON, 0.B.E., in the Chair. The Chairman announced that news had been received during the last hour, by cable, notifying that the armistice had been signed by the Central Powers. He shortly spoke upon the glorious victory that had been obtained by the armies and navies of the Allies, and asked the members to join in singing “‘God Save the King.’’ This was followed by cheers for the King and for the heroes who had helped * Reprinted in the Chem. Eng. and Mining Journal, November, 1918. . ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xliil. to gain the victory and end the greatest war the world had seen. The Hon. Sec. congratulated the Chairman upon having received the honour of Officership of the British Empire. Mr. HE. P. FINLEY gave a lecture upon **The Art of the Potter.”’ Denmark imports almost every item of material necessary for the manufacture of porcelain, and yet the Royal Copenhagen Porcelain stands highest to-day in the records of all time. Australia has many of the materials, and there is no reason why it should not produce as fine porcelain as Denmark. A descri ption of the materials used, and the properties which they confer upon the finished porcelain was followed by the details of manufacture. The clay is washed and sifted, the runnings evaporated, then pressed to produce a thin “‘slip”’’ of uniform consistency, which is worked into various shapes. A demonstration of throwing on the wheel was given by an expert potter, who quickly converted a slab of clay into vessels of diverse shapes. The construction, loading and firing of the kiln, the burning of biscuit ware, and of the glazed shapes was described in detail, and an explanation followed of the composition and chemical action of glazes, and also of the various methods used in applying the design to pieces of — decorated ware. To illustrate these processes specimens of Barbotine and Intarsio vases, designed and fashioned by the hands of the lecturer were exhibited, as well asa valu- able and beautiful collection of both antique and modern pieces to illustrate the art at various periods. Monthly Meeting, 9th December, 1918. Mr. W. T. WILLINGTON, 0.B.E., in the Chair. Mr. A. D. OLLE gave a lecture upon “*The Vagaries of the Electric Bell,’ in which the lecturer traversed ground familiar to experienced electricians. The lecturer dealt in Kx—December 4, 1918. xliv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. detail with the structure and parts of the bell and battery, and gave the conditions that make for good and efficient service. The zinc should be of drawn, not cast rod, and should be amalgamated. The manganese in the Lelanché cell should be native pyrolusite, and while ammonium chloride is best it could be substituted by sodium chloride. To prevent the evaporation of the ammonium chloride solution, it is desirable to cover the liquid with a mixture of resin 1 part, Venetian turpentine 1 part, and paraffin 2 parts. This has a melting point of 60° C. Good bells, made of 26 silk covered wire, and having platinum points of contact, should be used, and the connecting wires (20 for household use), should be stapled singly. Old Lelanché cells could be revivified by immersion in moderately strong hydrochloric ° acid, and used up dry cells, could, after puncturing the zinc casing, be utilised as Lelanché cells by immersing in dilute ammonium chloride. Questions were asked by Messrs. F. W. STEEL, R. W. CHALLINOR and the Hon. Sec. Mr. A. B. Hector gavea lecture upon ‘*‘ Business Reson- ance or Live Wires and Wireless.’’ Beginning with the statement that business is everyone’s avocation, the lec- turer proceeded to deal with resonance, demonstrating the absorption and emission of sounds of the same pitch by tuning forks. The structure of the ear followed, and emphasis was laid upon the hairs of Corti which, like a row of tuning forks, took up the vibrations transmitted to the lymph by way of the bones from the drum of the ear. The mechanism of receiving and transmitting the sounds to the brain is similar in some respects to the Marconi system of wireless telegraphy, which was described. Resonance is the basis of wireless and business. The business man must become attuned with his customers, and the best way of getting in tune is to sell good articles. He should endeavour ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlyv. to induce the buyer to think as he does. It is also import- ant for the employer and employed to get into intelligent sympathy with each other, and therefore resonating one with the other, for this is the only true way of solving the differences between Capital and Labour. A good discussion was contributed by Messrs. R. W. CHALLINOR, S. H. SMITH, F. W. STEEL, A. D. OLLE, LOXLEY MeceirtT, A. A. HAMILTON, J. TAYLOR and the Chairman. In his reply, the lecturer emphasised the importance of resonance to the teacher, and suggested that it were better to get the best brains to teach the boy to keep him out of jail than to employ the best legal brains to put him there. The Chairman wished the members the Compliments of the coming Season. a Paula chil tec al) oA SO Oa of ] F Je De as hie } Vy F 1M ; r BK eye 4 i y . ge & Biren abo & ee ah 4, iy Pyrite Cae at CA ENE ee Pant h Ae t : . ’ § ‘ss Ps n ye oe fee 5 : ~STPeE ee PROD ey ty , it i , : AR ny ate i \ y - = . Fi 4 ba Fira A af : 4 it . = : re = 6 : ee 5 ry ee ACY : yl = at 4 1 vi 2S ee ae Baise * j j | f ; ' \ y i SECTION OF AGRICULTURE, ' i \, ; ‘ ! ’ ‘ i \ > = vd nas H é * ¥ 4 , . \ ‘ ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE See TION or ACRICUL MDE Monthly Meeting, 13th March, 1918. ' Mr. H. W. Ports, Chairman, in the Chair. An address on ‘Agricultural Hducation in England, Canada and Australia Compared,’’ was delivered by the Chairman. The lecture was illustrated with a fine series of lantern slides. The popularity and respect with which agricultural education was received in America, was shown by the fact that in the year 1914 no less than 1,652 students received tuition at the Guelph Agriculturai College in Ontario, Canada. Located at this college was Professor ZAVITZ, who, by selection, has improved cereals, particu- larly barley, to such an extent that 93% of the barley grown in Canada is bought from the college. In Canada, in 1915, there were 4,552 experiment plots, conducted by private farmers. The exhibits from the different colleges and those from the experiment plots, displayed at the Toronto National Exhibition, were sights never to be forgotten. Although the theoretical training at the college was every- thing to be desired, there was a decided lack of properly supervised practical training, and this, which occupied five months of the year, had to be received at the hands of the farmers. Coming to England, the lecturer pointed out the stimulus given to stud-breeding by his late Majesty, KInc KDWARD VII. Of late years some fine agricultural colleges had been established at Swanley, Wye, Reading and Cambridge. ( }. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. At the last named institution Professor BIFFEN was doing excellent work in plant breeding, and arrangements had been made for New South Wales Farrer research scholars tostudy under him. Speaking generally, public interest in agricultural education in Hngland was far inferior to that in America, but the results from the newly instituted colleges must surely, if slowly, be felt. The lecturer thought that the development of agricultural education in Australia was encouraging for the future, but needed much more financial backing than it received at present. Hawkesbury Agricultural College carried out a very complete course of instruction for students, and was extremely popular, as shown by the large increase in the number of students during the present year. The sound theoretical training received was supplemented by a com- plete course of supervised practical instruction. Monthly Meeting, 14th May, 1918. Mr. F. B. GUTHRIE in the Chair. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year :—Chairman-——H. W. Ports, Hsq., J.P., Principal, Hawkesbury Agricultural College. Hon. Secretary—HL. BREAKWELL, B.A., B.Sc. Committee—Drs. CLELAND and GREIG-SMITH, and Messrs. GUTHRIE, DARNELL-SMITH, STEPHEN, CHEEL, WRIGHT, OLLE, SACHS, HINDMARSH, and WARD. Mr. P. HINDMARSH, M.A., delivered a lecture on the latest researches in ‘“‘The Inheritance of Fecundity in Fowls.’’ The lecturer dealt with the researches carried out by Dr. PEARL, U.S.A. This investigator claims to have proved that the record of fecundity of a hen taken alone is no guide to the probable egg-production of its daughters. This was shown by che fact that the average winter record of registered hens (Barred Rocks) was 55°89 and that of their daughters 15°29. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ip Mr. HINDMARSH showed by Mendelian graphical repre- sentation how Dr. PEARL proved that fecundity in fowls is inherited, and how pure strains could be determined by the study of pedigree lines. He claims that the study of winter production is the best guide to the innate capacity in regard to fecundity. At that period of the laying cycle the widest difference in fecundity is exhibited. There were three well defined classes in this respect, viz. (1) zero winter production; (2) under 30 (eggs); and (3) over 30. Dr. PEARL claims to have proved (1) that low fecundity may be inherited from the sire or the dam; (2) high fecundity is not inherited by the daughter from the dam ; (3) high fecundity may be inherited by the daughter from the sire independent of the dam. The interpretation was based on (a) hypothesis of sex as an inherited character on a Mendelian basis; (b) the male is the homozygote and the female the heterozygote in respect to sex inheritance, and (c) high production was a sex-linked character. Dr. CLELAND considered it doubtful whether there could be birds with pure maleness or femaleness respectively. Mr. DUNNICLIFF said that Dr. PEARL’S theory could not be accepted without reservation, because there were limiting factors. The Hawkesbury College Laying Com- petitions appeared to contradict the principle laid down as regards winter egg production. Messrs. SHELTON, GUTHRIE and Dr. GREIG-SMITH also spoke. Monthly Meeting, 9th June, 1918. Mr. F. B. GUTHRIE in the Chair. Mr. KE. BREAKWELL contributed a note and exhibited “Variations in Saccharine Sorghums.’’ It was pointed out that sorghum is a crop very prone to variation and splitting into types, owing to the facility with which law. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. natural crossing was effected. Types could thus be selected, which, if grown so that crossing with other types could be prevented, would remain remarkably true to type. Con- siderable scope was therefore given to the plant breeder in improving Sorghums by a process of selection. Mr. DALTON contributed notes and exhibits on two widely distributed plants which had certain economic features.. These were Asclepias physocarpus, a weed introduced from South Africa, and Alpinia ccerulea. The former had a fibre of great tensile strength, with flowering buds filled with a cottony substance. Mr. R. T. BAKER reported that the fibre was superior to that of jute, in having a breaking strain of 28°98 kgs. per sq. mm. as against 23°86 kgs. per sq. mm. for that of jute, and the preliminary testing of this fibre showed promising results. Alpinia coerulea was closely related to our ginger of commerce, and still more closely related to Alpinia nutans, from which Galangal, a medicinal soporific, was obtained. Mr. H. W. HaMILToN delivered a lecture on “‘ Birds of the Farm,”’ illustrated with a fine series of lantern slides depicting the habits of the birds, and, in many cases, their protective colouration. The lecturer said that birds could be divided into three groups according to their environment, viz. (1) birds of the field; (2) birds of the water; and (3) birds of the air. The most important birds from the farmer’s point of view were the insectivorous birds, including the willie-wagtails, various robins, blue wrens, peewee, magpie,. jack y-winter, ibis, jackass and curlew. Amongst the insects destroyed by these birds were codlin moth, blowfly, cut- worms, grasshoppers and various scale insects. Investig-. ations carried out in a natural rookery of Ibises, in the Riverina district, showed the presence. of 240,000 ibises,. and on examining a few specimens, 2,000 immature grass- hoppers were found, on an average, in each bird’s stomach. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Jiu. this would mean the destruction of 480,000,000 grasshoppers inaday. Reference was also made to the destruction of small noxious rodent animals, as field mice, bush rats and rabbits, by owls, moreporks and hawks. Immense quantities of guano had accumulated from birds on ocean islands. The lecturer made out a strong case for the better pro- tection of useful bird life in New South Wales. America had societies for this purpose throughout the length and breadth of the land. Although legislation was in force in this State, the laws were often broken with impunity, and the surest way of preserving bird life was to educate the people, such as the Gould League of Bird Lovers was doing. Mr. GILDER referred to the valuable work Dr. CLELAND was doing in examining the contents of bird’s stomachs, with a view towards determining their economic value or otherwise. Monthly Meeting, 11th July, 1918. Mr. H. W. Ports in the Chair. Mr. SacH read a note on “‘The Probable Cause of Woodi- ness in Passion-fruit. He stated that as the result of three years’ experience in growing passion vines at hisown home in which some vines were completely exposed to the south and south-east winds, and others were completely sheltered, he had come to the conclusion that the deformed fruit on the exposed vines was due to the cold winds. When grown in sheltered situations the fruit was quite normal.. Mr. DARNELL-SMITH thought that cold winds were not the only explanation. In some cases woodiness was due to bad soil, in others to bad pruning. The development of woodiness in passion-fruit was very erratic. Mr. H. BREAKWELL read a note on “* The Cultivation of Grasses and Fodder Plants at Public Schools.’’ Very-val- uable work was being done in this direction, and the data liv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. obtained by the pupils on the growth of our native grasses justified a considerable extension of this work. Professor KOIDE delivered a most interesting lecture on “‘Agriculture in Japan.’’ A complete account of this lecture was printed in book form and presented to the Library of the Society. Monthly Meeting, 13th, August, 1918. Mr. H. W. Ports in the Ohair. } The President drew the attention of the Section to the very generous action of Mr. SPENCER WATTS, in having printed in excellent form, 75 copies of Professor KOIDE’S paper on “‘ Agriculture in Japan,’’ read at the previous meeting, for distribution amongst members. A very hearty vote of thanks was accorded Mr. WATTS. - Mr. HADLINGTON, Poultry Expert, discussed in detail the advisability of testing Dr. PEARL’s researches on “ The {Inheritance of Fecundity in Fowls.’’ He pointed out that certain of Dr. PEARL’s conclusions were now being tested at the College, but the results were not yet available. He was doubtful whether high winter production betokened high fecundity. Other features mentioned in Dr, PEARL’S researches also required explanation. Mr. EK. BREAK WELL delivered a lecture on “‘ Hxperimental Work with Grasses and Fodder Plants,”’ illustrated with lantern slides. The lecturer pointed out that no opportun- ity was provided until recent years for the testing of native and introduced grasses and fodder plants at the State Experimental Farms. It was shown that very often an introduced grass was particularly valuable, as in the case of Soudan Grass from Northern Africa, and Napier’s Fodder Grass from Rhodesia. Although Paspalum had obtained a strong hol! on the Northern Rivers, there were other grasses here, Para, Guinea and Rhodes Grass, which could ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lv. be grown in separate paddocks, and which would provide a more balanced ration than Paspalum alone. In attempt- ing to bring native grasses under cultivation the best results seemed obtainable from the species of those genera of grasses which were native to this country, but which were also found in different parts of the world. This appeared to imply that such grasses were plastic enough in their structure to respond to changed conditions. Many of the native grasses were being tried at Coonamble Ex- perimental Farm to determine the exact changes that take place in the composition and relative sizes of the grasses and herbage, typical of the black soil, (1) when overstocking was indulged in, (2) when grazing was carried out for a certain portion of the year, and (3) when a pasture was protected continually from stock. Certain native grasses were proving very promising for laying down in cultivated pastures in wheat growing districts. The everlasting or neverfail grasses of the interior, with their wiry curled-up leaves and densely hairy stems, were admirably adapted for hot, scorching winds and baked soils, but were most unhappy when removed to more congenial surroundings. The manner in which native grasses of the interior could stand up to the hot. summer conditions was remarkable, and it would be to the nation’s permanent loss were such a rich heritage lost or affected by bad management of pastures. Saltbushes and other native edible trees and shrubs should be developed much more than at present. The Grain Sorghums were also, as a result of selection and acclimatisation, producing most satisfactory results. The practical development of grasses and fodder plants was an important part of the work of the State Agricultural Department. 1vi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Monthly Meeting, 1ith September, 1918. Dr. J. B. CLELAND in the Chair. The report of the sub-committee in connection with the development of horticulture was submitted. It was resolved that a letter be written to the Minister of Agri- culture, drawing his attention to the necessity for the establishment of a School of Horticulture, and inviting his assistance in the matter. It was resolved that the Section should offer their services as a sub-committee in order to carry out experiments to test Dr. PEARL’s mean hypotheses, the committee to consist of Professor WATT, and Messrs. H. W. Ports, DARNELL-SMITH, and HINDMARSH. Mr. EH. M. WARD delivered a lecture on ‘‘ Hybridisation.”’ The lecturer referred to the rapid progress made in the hybridisation of flowering plants and fruits. As far as horticulture was concerned, it was not necessary to have fertility in the hybrid, asa sexual propagation from cuttings or buds could be carried out with the hybrid, This was the cage with the beautiful display of Begonia Gloirede Lorraine in one of the Botanic Gardens’ houses. Hxpert plant breeders hybridised to get a break or to obtain the ideal for which they had been seeking. Then by selection and — ‘breeding they aimed at fixity of the plant. Crossing differ- ent generaor different species led to sterility in the progeny, and seemed impracticable from an agricultural point of view. In the case of graft hybrids, it was only factors like increased vigour, productiveness, or flavour which were influenced by the stock. Mr. WARD showed what could be done by crossing, instancing the Httersburg straw- berry. This was raised by Mr. Etter, of Ettersburg, Cali- fornia. By crossing different species, he produced the Rose Ettersburg with no flavour. Knowing that the com- mon alpine strawberry had a good flavour, he crossed this ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, lvii. with the Rose Ettersburg, and as a result produced the famous tree Ettersburg No. 80. Monthly Meeting, 9th October, 1918. Mr. H. W. Ports in the Chair. Mr. P. GILDER opened a discussion on “‘ The Hffect of the Stock on the Scion in Fruit Trees.’’ It was pointed out that the value of bud selection was a subject of decided economic importance, and that if all observers would record their impressions on a uniform basis, an extensive collection -of data could eventually be made, from which conclusions could be drawn, and this would provide a convenient jump- ing off ground for systematic inquiry in the future. In discussing in detail the uses of different stocks for different purposes, the lecturer remarked that the universal popular- ity which Northern Spy possessed as a stock for the apple, in New South Wales and Victoria was somewhat astonishing. This was in spite of the fact that Winter Majetin was considered by some as equal to Northern Spy in respect of blight resistance, and superior to it in respect of Bitter Pit; and at Capertee, New South Wales, Winter Majetin ~ stocks are producing a better development of tree and root system, and greater freedom from other diseases. Again different stocks were used for different soils as in the case of plums and oranges. Certain stocks were also used for dwarfing apples, and the Mahaleb stock for dwarfing cherries. In investigating the effect of the stock on the scion, one should not lose sight of the factor of bud variation. Krom such a sport the Washington Navel Orange had originated, and SHAMEL, the Oalifornian scientist, had shown that great variations existed in the trees propagated by such buds, and that a considerable increase in yield could be obtained by selecting the right types. viii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Mr. H. BREAKWELL referred to the latest investigations which absolutely proved that alkaloids, like nicotine, could migrate from scion to stock and vice versa. Mr. STEPHEN referred to personal cases where grafted scions did better than seedlings. The Gravenstein Apple was noted for canker, and the best stock for such anapple . should be studied. He thought that this important matter should be brought before the attention of orchardists. Mr. Potts referred to the good work America was doing in this connection. Mr. A. A. HAMILTON thought that trained observers would be necessary before experiments could be properly carried out. It was decided that opinions be obtained through the “‘Fruit World’’ from orchardists in regard to this important matter. | Mr. A. D. OLLE read a letter from Mr. HugH Drxson in regard to Indian Wax Scale. The writer pointed out that. he had drawn the attention of the Agricultural Department. to the possibility of obtaining a better destructive agent than washing soda. In experiments which he had carried out, he found that the wax constituted one-third the bulk of the whole scale, and it might be just possible that anew source of wax would arise. It was decided to draw the attention of the Agricultural Department to this matter. Mr. STEPHEN exhibited samples of two varieties of Cotton grown in Queensland, and emphasised the excellent pros- pects of this industry. The meeting in November lapsed owing to Armistice celebrations. Monthly Meeting, 10th December, 1918. Dr. CLELAND in the Chair. Mr. A. E, STEPHEN exhibited a soil fungus from the Narara Viticultural Station. | ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lix. Mr. CHEEL stated that the fungus resembled Blackfellow’s Bread, a specimen of which he exhibited. Mr. STEPHEN’S exhibit consisted of earthy matter, with mycelium interwoven with it, believed to be that of Poly- porus tumulosus. The sporophores were very rare. Dr. CLELAND pointed out there was an essential difference between the false sclerotium of the exhibit and the true Blackfellow’s Bread; the false sclerotium was a mass of sand and mycelium, with a thin crust of felted mycelium. He had only found two sporophores of this Polyporus tumulosus, these occurring about the autumn after heavy rain, Mr. STEPHEN said that the Superintendent of the Narara Station regarded the soil in which the fungi occur as infertile. Dr. CLELAND stated that the phenomenon might be similar to the “‘Fairy Ring,” infertility being due to soil moisture being prevented from reaching the surface. Mr. A.D. OLE exhibited a specimen of Alyxia buxifolia from Western Australia. An infusion of the leaves was very commonly used by camel drivers, and on the Western Australian gold-fields as a cure for dysentery. The leaves were supposed to contain coumarin. An infusion of the bark had been used and patented as a “‘cure-all’’ on the south coast of New South Wales in 1888, and called the “* Physic of the Sea.”’ | Mr. CHEEL advised caution in using the plant internally, as many of the Apocynaceze contained a milky fluid of a poisonous nature. The report of the Sub-committee in devising experiments upon the ‘‘Inheritance of Fecundity in Fowls,’’ was then discussed. These experiments, which were outlined in Ix ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. detail, were of special economic importance and would prove or disprove Dr. PEARL’s conclusions. Mr. HADLINGTON pointed out that, owing to great vari- ations in both Leghorn and Game birds, the work would need to be done in triplicate, and with check experiments. also. There were not twelve tested hens available of over 250 egg capacity, and the standard would need to be lowered to 220. He advised that the Department should be asked to carry out experiments to determine, if possible, the manner of transmission of fecundity through the male. The capacity to pick out prepotent animals was, in his opinion, the basis of all breeding. It was decided that the Experiments Supervision Com- mittee carry out experiments along the lines stated in the report, and that members of the Sub-committee be given. the opportunity of making personal observations. INDEX. A Abstract of Proceedings 1— xxi. Agricultural Section xlvii—Ix. Geological Section XXlli - XXX. Industry Section .. XXXi- xlv. Acacia alata 411, 418, 414, 419 aspera ... .. 417,420 cardiophylla .. 411 Chalkeri ses we 421 Chisholmi we ALL continua . 421 crassiuscula . 421 cultriformis sacy All aecora ... 546 411 decurrens fed ike 2. 883 var. normalis . 382 difformis . 411 diffusa ... . 411 eacelsa ... 414, 419 Farnesiana ... “at . 410 Ahakeoides bee .. ALL, 426 Howitt he Seo AE AZo lanigera oer wae sso ALL melanoxylon ss. ee sou abr microcarpa 501 montana Ae w. 419 nervifolia "382, 411, 412, 422 obtusata - 424, Oswaldi .. 41, 412 oxycedrus 411, 416 pendula, ae ee . 411 penninervis var. -. faleiformis .. . 410 podalyrefolia ... 380 pycnantha 381, 411 rubida ... . All Seedlings, Part IV... . 410 sentis . 411 spectabilis ... 420 trinervata . 411 Achorions Quinekeanum... 156, 159 Acroperus avirostris 464, 469 harpe 470 sinuatus ; AGA, A471. Advisory Council of Science and Industry 18 Work carried out by... 19 Agricultural Education ok Society of New South Wales 225 Agriculture Section, Abstract of Proceedings xlvii - lx. in Japan eealive Alcohol, Sources of XXXV. PAGE | Alcohol, The Toxicity\of Wood PaGE XXXVIlii. Alona affinis 464, 477 archert .. . 473 avirostris ... 472 camhouit ... «©6464, 477 kendallensis ... we «= 46.4, AT longirostris ; 464, 474 wallaciana 464, 472, 473 whiteleggiu _... 464, 475, 476 Alonella clathratula 464, 477 Alpinia cerulea ... = ELM. Alyxia buxifolia ... 5) lex, Angophora cordifolia . 493 Annual Dinner .., s . d41 Grant ... . 343 Meeting iii. Antilope cennacapra 65 Armistice os) KER Asclepias physocarpus té. lags Ascopharynz cervinus 129, 130 Australian Association for the Advancementof Science 309, 354 Botanic and Horticultural Society, The 233, 239, 244 - Australian Floral and Horti- cultural Society, The . 231 Horticultural and Agricultural Society, The 233, 244 Philosophical Society, The 252, 258, 353 Society, The .. 228, 357 B Bacillus phytophthorus ... .. 440 vascularum solani . 440 Backhousia citriodora 178 Bacterial Disease of Tobacco, Preliminary Investigations on a, by G. P. Darnell-Smith 435 Bact. mori @ fis ‘ae . 439 Bact. solanacearum 438, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 447, 451, 452 Baker, R.T., On the Technology and Anatomy of some ee Oak Timbers : . 362 Bancroft, Miss M., Some new sporozoon parasites of Queensland Freshwater Fish 520 Belmore, Earl of . 317 Benzoic acid é . 406 Bipinnate Leaves, Absence of 411 Ixil. INDEX. PAGE PAGE Birds and the destruction of mice 159 , Chiton_... 1. BLA Birds of the Farm hi. | Chitonellus : . 312° Blow-fly in sheep & ... 28 | Chydorus clelandi 464, 481 Blue Mould hee .. 435, 437 denticulatus 464, 482 Board Room 339 globosus .. 464, 482 Boulton twopenny piece Poi tax: ovalis . 464, 482 Bopple Nuts sat ... XlVv. | Cinnamomum cumphora 381, 382 Brain-Growth, Education and Circus assimilis .... —... . 160 Social Inefficiency... ... x. | Clarke Memorial Lecture ae Brisbane, Sir Thomas ... 225 Memorial Medal viii, 351 Bugs, Bed Bi 107 | Clark’s Assembly Rooms . 3838 Building Society 342 | Cleland, J. B., Presidential Business Resonance or Live Address. es ON Wires and Wireless .. Xliv. | Clinocoris lectularius . 107 Cobalt Plating XXXI1X. Cc Callitris calcarata 455 Cambage, R. H., Acacia Seed- lings, Part IV. 410 The Vertical Growth of Trees 377 Two new species of Eucalyptus 453 Camptocercus australis .... 464, 468 Cancerous Growths in Rats and Mice .. 91 Processes, A theory a: as to the nature of 82 Cardwellia sublimis 363, 364, 370, 371,374 ' Carphibis spinicollis 5 BY) Carslaw, H.S., A simple Pro- gressive Tax, and its bear- ing on the Federal Income Tax and other Acts , 2038 Castor Oil grown in New South Wales ( KV. Casuarina Luehmanni ... . 455 SUNLCEG) + 6. ... 400 Cavia cutleri 65 Cement Making, Progressin xxxix. Centropyxis aculeata 166, 173 Ceratophyllus fasciatus 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 111 italicus ... . 102 londoniensis . 102 Cerchneis cenchroides afk) Ceriodaphnia reticulata... . 467 spinata... 464, 466, 467 Challinor, R. W., On a new species of Leptospermum and its Essential Oil Chair of Pharmacology, Prof. H.G. Chapman ... 6 Zoology, Prof. 8. J. Johnston 6 Cheel, Edwin, Ona new species of Leptospermum and its Essential Oil ple 175 Commonwealth Advisory Council of Science and Industry, The 18 Contribution to a history of the Royal Society of New South Wales PJ. illo Corone australis .. Cae hol Corrosion, Modern Methods of White Lead . -XXXviii. Cracticus destructor SU T6L nigrigularis . 161 Crustacea 5 . 463 Ctenocephalus canis 102, 108, 104, 105, 106, 107 Ctenophthalmus agyrtes... ated Ctenopysyllus musculi 102, 108, 104, 105, 106. taschenbergi : . 102 Cynodon dactylon ine . 246. D Dacelo gigas . 161 Daphnia carinata 464, 465. mucronata 465. Darling Peneplain of Western Australia, W.G. Woolnough 385. Darnell-Smith, G. P., Prelim- inary Investigations on a Bacterial Disease of Tobacco 435. Datura Stramonium . 486 Deas-Thomson E. a 254.. Denison, Sir William 240, 257, 263, 273, 279, 284. Didelpbia and Ornithodelphia 335. Dinner Committee ee SAL Dioscorea batatas we. 245 Disease in Mice... .. 144 Disease of Tobacce, Preliminary Investigations on a Bacterial 435. Diseases of Rats, The «.. .. OF INDEX, xiii. PAGE PAGE Disinfectants required for Effici- Eucalyptus goniocalyx ... ... 900 ent Fumigation, The Mini- gracilis 486, 487, 488. 489, 491, 492 mum Effective Quantities var. Yilgarnensis ... we» 489 OE Ps sh. ae a KEK 1, grandis ... ei za 801; 502 Dunhevedia crassa we «©4064, 478 var. grandiflora ys oe O02 aincrassata seh see mn oOUS E var. angulosa a ve OOD Ecklonia radiata .. ©... Pex Ie Kirtoniana sis 503 Ecto-parasites of rats and mice 102 levopinea 492, 496, 498, 499, 500 Elanus axillaris ... i= GOP TCL leptopoda ah Re w. O05 scriptus... ... 129,160} leucoxylon aM ee 2 OO Electric Bell, The Vagaries of var. macrocarpa ... 510 the ... Se-d irs Luehmanniana 510, 511, 512, Eleocarpus dentutis an .. 254 513, 514, 515, 516 Embothrium Wickhami 364, 369, 371 var. altior = oreades 516 Entomostraca ... 312 ligustrina neh .. ©=—9 O08, ‘504 Epimys norvegicus 49, 50, 51, 52, ~ longicornis te .. 004, 505 53, 65, 66. 67, 69, 70, 713, TA; lorophleba ae BAe ... 604 75, 80, 81, 94, 95, 97, 99, macrocarpa ... Acre 2.006 100, 101, 102, 105, 108, 110, macrorrhyncha... 492, 498, 499 Ply, 112 var. brachycorys ... ... 492 rattus 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 65 66, maculata ee a .. 455 67, 69, 70, 73, 74, 80, 95, 97, maculosa 78 nee ... 456: £02, 105,:408; LO 111, 212, 129 Maideni a sae 250000) Epizootic Disease, Community megacarpa ee 529, 531, 5382 animals and the origin and micranthera 5306, 50% spread of .. 5D Mitchelli Hs ee 2. ABE Erection of a suitable building 342 Moorei .., he A ... 460 _ Essential Oil, On a new species Morrisu oe he .. 456 of Leptospermum and its.. iio Muelleriana ... 492, 498, 499 Eucalyptus alpina 0) 507 | Laibida” .s. a 302459) 515 ambigua f at a OLDS normantonensis ... 486, 489 amygdalina ... 516, 518, 519 Notes on a ean ee ORO. Behriana We .. 456, 457 oblonga... Ae ~ 492, 497, 498 Blazlandi ... 492, 495, 496, 497 obtusiflora aS eee PolOn SiG: botryoides ie es x OUZ occidentalis... Sy, .. 510 calycogona Sa 486, 487, 488 oleosa Sa w. 004, 505 var. gracilis... 490 var. glauca ... ae .. 506 capitellata 492, 493, 494, 495, 498 var. longicornis _..., ... 004 celastroides eh 486, 487, 488 pachyphylla .., 2 +507, 508 citriodora Ae bay oa NS parvifolia nee .. 3880, 383 cneorifolia itl aos ... 506 | ptlularis “ie 496, 498, 499 coriacea, 5 516, 518, 519 polybractea ... 4 456 corrugata eR eee 2 900 pumila ... Sak oa 453, 456. dealbata i 455, 456, 457 pyriformis as 507, 508, 509 decipiens ans fa te) DUS var. elongata 500 ..- 009 dextropinea... . 498 var. Kingsmilla 2 To OUG eugenioides 492, 495, 498, 497, var. minor ... Ex ee OOF 498, 499, 503, 504) radiata... a ee mL var. nana ... ... 0038, 504 robusta . o:, war ... 0038 fecunda foe :.- 800; 505 saligna .. ce ... 502 Forrestiana ... oe SP437 var. pallidivalis = 501 fraxinoides ae or ee SLL salmonophloia .. $5 504, 505 fruticetorum ... ies vee 487 salubris .. Se ee . 505 globulus dae nae H OUU sideroxylon ben 510 gomphocephala sae »» 900 Sieberiana ol2s 513, 514, 515. Ixiv. INDEX. PAGE PAGE Eucalyptus Smithu . 455 , Fenestella internata 194, 195, 200 stellulata . 460 junceus ... ide . 196 Stowardi a 510 multiporata .. ie as BOL stricta ... 510, 511, 513 plebecia... ... 194 var. Luehmanniana 513 sylvia... ms . 196 tetraptera 487 , 494] Fever, Rat- bite . aaa es PS Thozetiana ... 492 | Field, : Barron ... 225 trachyphloia xxi. | Financial Statement ... wo ili Two new species of . . 453 | Fitzroy, Sir Charles Augustus.. . 233 virgata 510, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 515 vitellina .. 916, 518 vitrea 459, “512, 516, 517, 518 Wilkinsoniana .. 499, 500 Eupodotis australis L6L Exhibits :— A continuous dialyser_..., xvii. Araucarioxylon XXV Atrypa xXXV Boulton twopenny piece ae Colour photography Xiv. Cotton from Queensland .. Xvi. Crystals, Growth and solu- tion in .. XXvl. Cyathophyllum Shearsbyi XXVlil. Dadozxylon australe XVili. Diagram a baja! rain- fall J AV Dodonea, twigs of a 5a XT Licmetis nasica