Per hed ied U 4 fae pains). i es Ty Tee Wer Ja Wr aire . { rabid if : weds GRO Tae 4 it vest al Hy febedant Weeder kone Detent Lat abe Par Ware rad a ed a eh Bee ” wd i H) oa ste ib Woaveye i, “ wane ee eed oan , vin it » Sa ee en ea Hoa Wire hbo at fo? aS 4 aay Pr Med baa : pedowon tbe oR att 0 v i i Gru rae “ils ren wer i Vp a ome | 7 BU a : oy ayy *, Ve adie a yohansy Beh a V 4 1 P Vea tie tone a Ar A nt wel epi rad a Fri a ea ‘ Pye hah At 4 y ay Me goat Ti ataaulty ast woe re a) ' ‘ Pg a atid fet ve 1 it TY a ten he ‘ Vegeiinn Ye aa ON ds Vor ey Nar , Waly YA Voh We We wet Loh iat } A r sey ie oe ' : a : ? HROAY ET acy aaa Ley ary ou as ig t i Rec ee HOR tae ren i ) (i wok wey HENS iu vi Prt ie) We ea ny LIP AY AL 1 “ Pein Ore EL eA, 1 hit ed aw wen rent 3 , Hi aharaet. " all: { ? f ’ Hemel am ove Se ye tors ite oat oy ’ Shalyto Destin 4 \ rea wate ty 4 Ho bob hadi Tr ! i doystahet Vals, wii ibe , ey re ‘ pee . At s, A r) 4 e babes ‘ ] ery ete A Ving! ; ey Woy et anh, Deed ay eet ad Mt ‘ 4 4 E " a “ ie ha i i Dhow a toy qty tn) } o) Jad pies. my ay Y WEY teyipae \ er aa er Bin eae, : pened : voy ay « : i EE Bat Q ai woe vt i ahs Wot Saget Wade Fade i P ve Vib i Pires x “4 a) A Pry allt jets i it we eit PANT payers) ne rn Hynes” Me aH Sears Fn el a Cone fede = eee aS ey ait coal q two ae Caras § > omer tie ae es : oa ut Aa wt Dey aids Tp eet wp eared Wnt eo ae : s iad ie oe pipes a “ iadhaibyinstre ai “s ohne: ee Fat steed aon ‘Wi diene be us fie ornare 4 wie all, th Nat ‘ t t tual Gate wet Mites cil Soran tg ah lh sae Y hee i + te bebe ie PY , eda h Wa § te 4 ‘ , , 5 . wat " ' 2 : 4 wai oo \ ‘ ’ d ut oh il, 5 tos F ! ‘ es) ‘ ey ‘ BUN VAY MTV SE RN ot \ » i aah hI all tae CAL Ye Vek tive ARR ree re , . ‘ “4 yaee Npevey ow _ a _ JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS CF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES 1923. ota Liv LL. Ea EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARIES. “THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS es MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. - a nae 5 we PF] Wy ts ig a SYDNEY " PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET, SYDNEY, ISSUED AS A COMPLETE VOLUME, MAY 1924. Sy CONTENTS. VOLUME LVII. PAGE. .7. 1—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By C. A. SUsSsSMILCH, F.6.8. (Issued August 9th, 1923.) [With Plate I.] . 5a” ees 1 * af Art, II.—Noteon the Dilution of Se or with Water. By Prof. J. Reap, m.a., pnp. and G. J. BuRROWsS, B.&c. (Issued August 9th, 1923.) rsa oF ie oa Bee ok Arr. III.—The Warped Littoral around Sydney, Part I. By Prof. T. GrirFiTtH TAYLOR, D.Sc, B.E., B.A. (Issued August 9th, 1923.) on at 2 Be ae aise o Ras tke? | Art. 1V.—The Germicidal Values of the Principal Commercial Eucalyptus Oils and their Pure Constituents, with obser- vations on the value of concentrated disinfectants. By A. R. Penrobp, F.c.s., and R. GRANT, F.C.8. ence Sep- tember 28rd, 1923.) .. ats aS fc = st pore «4 Arr. V.—Stypandra glauca, a suspected Poison Plant. By Max HENRY, M.R.C.V.S., B.V.Sc., and W. L. HinpMARSH, M.R.C.V.S., B.V.Sc. (Issued October 16th, 1923). ... er ig aot) ao Art. VI.—Relationship of the Australian Languages. By Prof. - | A. L. Kronser, (communicated by C. Hepuny). {With Plates II —- 1X, and text figure.| (Issued October 16th, 1923.) 101 | Art. VII.—Molecular Solution Volumes in Ethyl Alcohol. By | G. J. Burrows, B.se, and F. Has7woop, B.sc. (Issued Octo- ber 16th, 1923.) ... a a Re ae aes: | Arr. VIII.—Two additional Species of Leptospermum. By Epwin CHEEL. (Issued October 16th, 1923.)... ee Bt ih S28 Art. I[X.—The Essential Oils of Callistemon lanceolatus and C. viminalis. By A. R. Penroup, F.c.s._ (Issued October 16th, 1928)... aie ‘gh oie ade sa SF Sais YY, Lobe Arr. X.—Cancer of the Ear of Sheep, a contribution to the know- ledge of chronic irritation as a secondary factor in the causation of cancer in the lower animals. By Sypngy 4 Dopp, D.v.8c., F.B.C.v.8. (Issued October 16th, 1923.) «= 189 ¥ Arr. XI.—The Estimation of Cineol in Essential Oils by the ‘Cocking’ Process. By L. S. Cas, B.Sc, and C. E. Fawsrrt, | D.Sc, Ph.D. (Issued October 16tb, 1923.) ia Pe we LE Ce Bs ge JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS ROYAL SOCIETY NEW SOUTH WALES FOR 1923. (INCORPORATED 1881.) Mmet. AV LE. EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARIES. THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN, SYDNEY PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET, SYDNEY. ISSUED ’AS A COMPLETE VOLUME, MAY 1924, CONTENTS. VOLUME LVII. j PaaeE. ArT, I.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By C. A. SUSSMILCH, F.G.S. (Issued August 9th, 1923.) [With Plate I.] ... a ia 1 Art. II.—Note on the Dilution of Ethylenebromohydrin with Water. By Prof. J. Reap, m.a., Pn.p., and G. J. BURROWS, B.&c. (Issued August 9th, 1923.) sae Ho Sa aes | Art. III.—The Warped Littoral around Sydney, Part I. By Prof. T. GRiFFITH TAYLOR, D.Sc, B.H., B.A. (Issued August 9th, 1923.) i, a a sie ss ae sss “ss, 408 Arr. 1V.—The Germicidal Values of the Principal Commercial Eucalyptus Oils and their Pure Constituents, with obser- vations on the value of concentrated disinfectants. By A. R. Penroup, F.c.s., and R. Grant, F.c.s. (Issued Sep- tember 23rd, 1923.) ... 80 Art. V.—Stypandra glauca, a suspected Poison Plant. By Max HENRY, M.B.C.V.S., B.V.Se, and W. L. HINDMARSH, M.B.C.V.S., B.v.Se. (Issued October 16th, 1923). ... = ae wee OO) Art. VI.—Relationship of the Australian Languages. By Prof. A. L. Kronsper, (communicated by C. Hupuny). [ With Plates JI — 1X, and text figure.] (Issued October 16th, 1923.) 101 Art. VII.—Molecular Solution Volumes in Ethyl Alcohol. By G. J. Burrows, B.sc,, and F, EAsTwoop, B.8e. (Issued Octo- ber 16th, 1923.) __... si ase sats oF ie se 128 Art. VIII.—Two additional Species of Leptospermum. By Epwin CHEEL. (Issued October 16th, 1923.)... sia es we =126 Art. I[X.—The Essential Oils of Callistemon lanceolatus and (C. viminalis. By A. R. PENFOLD, F.c.s. (Issued October 16th, TNOPAS) cE San a un a ou Art. X.—Cancer of the Ear of Sheep, a contribution to the know- ledge of chronic irritation as a secondary factor in the causation of cancer in the lower animals. By Sypngy Dopp, D.V.Sc., F.R.C.V.8. (Issued October 16th, 1923.) sesm ido Art. XI.—The Estimation of Cineol in Essential Oils by the ‘Cocking’ Process. By L. S. Casu, B.sc., and C. E. Fawsirr, D.Sc, Ph.D. (Issued October 16tb, 1923.) sts re elm (iv.) PagE Art. XII.—Investigations by the late ©. O. Hamblin into the Helminthosporium Disease of Wheat. By H. J. Hynus, B.8c.,(agr.) [With Plate X.] (Issued October 16th, 1923.) ... 160 Art. XIII.—Atmospheric Dust and Atmospheric Ionisation. By Epe@ar H. Boots, B.se. { With Plates XI, XII, and teat hae : (Issued November 20th, 1923.) . fe Tike 173 Art. XIV.—The Germicidal Values of Australian Essential Oils (exclusive of Eucalypts) and their Pure Constituents, together with those for some Essential Oil Isolates and Synthetics, Part I. By A. R. PEenFoup, F.c.s., and RR. . GRANT, F.c.s. (Issued November 20th, 1928). ne au. 21 ArT. XV.—Preliminary Note on the Electrolytic Reduction of Piperitone. By A. R. PENFOLD, F.c.s., and F. R. Morrison, A.T.C., F.c.S. (Issued November 20th, 1923.) ... He w. 215 Art. XVI.—The Secretory Epidermal Cells of certain Eucalypts and Angophoras. By M.B. Wetcg, B.se. [With Plates XIII, XIV and tezt figure.] (Issued December 27th, 1923.) i) 21s Art. XVII.—Note on the effect of Temperature on Borers attack- ing seasoned and unseasoned Timber (with special reference to the Furniture Beetle). By M. RB. Wretcu, B.sc, (Issued December 27th, 1923) ee ie eh Ly eo ee Bam Art. XVIII.—Note on the Occurrence of Double Embryos in Wheat Grains. By W. L. WarTERHOUSE, B.Sc. Agr. [With Plate XV.] (Issued December 27th, 1923.) ... ete a 28k Art. XIX.—Method of computing the True Anomaly in an Ellip- tical Orbit from values of the Mean Anomaly. By C. J. MERFIELD, F.R.A.S., (communicated by J. NANGLE, F.R.A.8.) (Issued December 27th, 1923.) ... 503 tn oh w. 283 Art. XX.—The Essential Oil of Darwinia grandiflora and the pres- ence of a new Acetic Acid Ester. By A. R. PENFOLD, F.c.s. (Issued December 27th, 1923.) ... ash Bee te8 an ae Art. XXI.—The Distribution of the Active Deposit of Radium in Helium and Argon in an Electric Field. By G. H. Briaas, B.Sc. (Issued December 27th, 1923.) ... ae ree .. 249 Arr. XXII.—Notes on the Bacterivlogy, Titratable Acidity and H-Ion concentration of some Creams. By J. K. Murray, B.A., B.Sc. Agr., and V. WESTON, H.D.D. [ With four text figures. | (Issued December 27th, 1923.) ... ae 5 oa w. 256 Art. XXIII.—Acacia Seedlings, Part IX. By R. H. CamsBaag, ¥.L.8. [With Plates XVI - XIX.] (Issued March 28th, 1924.) 283 (v.) ART. XXIV.—The Essential Oil of Backhousia angustifolia, Part I, By A. R. PenFoup, F.c.s. (Issued March 28th, 1924.) ART. XXV.—Notes on Wattle Barks. By M. B. WEtcg, B.8c.; W. W. McGuywnw and F. A. Coomss, F.c.s. [With Plates PaaeE 300 XX, XXI. (Issued April 24th, 1924.) ... 313 Art. XXVI.—Plant Invasion of a Denuded Area. By R. H. CaMBAGE, F.L.S. [With Plate XXII and teat figure.] (Issued April 24th, 1924.) ... 334 Art. XX VII.—On the occurrence in New South Wales of Gibberella Saubinetii, the organism causing Scab of Wheat and other Cereals. By H. J. Hynuzs, Bsc. agr. [With Plates XXIII - XXVII.|] (Issued April 24th, 1924.) 337 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS se Bee ee ae an i. — xXx, PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION .. Res .. XX1.— XXXiv. PROCEEDINGS OF THE AGRICULTURAL SECTION sci .. XXXv.—XI. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF INDUSTRY or ath xli. - xlv. TirLe Page, Contents, Notices, PUBLICATIONS, ... ve (i. — vi.) OFFICERS FOR 1923-1924... ee se ee se aes bal (Val, List or Memsers, &c. (ix.) INDEx To VoLume LVII. . Xivi. PUBLICATIONS. ———9 The following publications of the Society, if in print, can be obtained at the Society’s House in Elizabeth-street:— Transactions of the Philosophical Society, N.S. W., 1862-5, pp. 374, out of print. Vols. I—x1 Transactions of the Royal Society, N.S. W., 1867—1877, ” a x11 Journal and Proceedings __,, 3 1878, ,, 324, price 10s.6d. 99 XIII 9” * ” ” ” ” 1879, ,, 255, ry) ” XIV 9 ” ” ” ) 1880, ,, 391, 99 ry) XV ” ” 99 ” ” 1881, ,, 440, oT) 99 XVI ” ” 9 ” ry) 1882, ,, 327, 39 99 XVII ” ” ” ” ” 1883, ,, 324, 9 ” XVIII ” ” ” 9 ” 1884, ,, 224, ” ” XIX 9 9 ” ” ” 1885, ,, 240, 9 ” xXx ” ” ” ” ” 1886, ,, 396, 9 ”» XXI ” ” ” 9 ” 1887, ,, 296, ” 9 XxIl y) 9 ” ” 9 1888, ,, 390. 9 ” XXIII ” ” ” ” 9 1889, ,, 534, ” 9 XXIV ” ” 9 99 ” 1890, ,, 290, 9 ” XXV ” ” ” ” 99 1891, ,, 348, ” ” XXVI 9 rr) ” ” ” 1892, ,, 426, 9 ” XXVII oF) 9 ” 9 ” 1893, ,, 530, 9 »» XXVIII ” 9 ” ” 9 1894, ,, 368, ” 9 XXIX ” ” ” ” 99 1895, ,, 600, ” ” XXX ” ” ” ” 9 1896, ,, 568, ” 9 XXXI ” ” ” ” ” 1897, ,, 626, ” 9 XXXII 9 ” yy ” 99 1898, ,, 476, 9 »» XXXII ry 9 ” ” ” 1899, ,, 400, 99 »5 XXXIV 99 99 ” 9 99 1900, ,, 484, 99 ” XXXV 99 ” ” ” 99 1901, ,, 581, 99 » XXXVI 9° ” ” ) ”» 1902, ,, 531, ” 9» XXXVII ” ” ry) ” ” 1903, ,, 663, 99 3) XXXVIII ies a me A 33 1904, ,, 604, a 99 XXXIX an 9 9 29 ” 1905, ,, 274, 99 29 XL 99 99 99 99 93 1906, 99 368, 9 ” XLI ” 9 ” ” ” 1907, ,, 377, ” ” XLII 9 ” 9 9 ” 1908, ,, 593, 9 ” XLIII ” ” ” ” ” 1909, ,, 466, 9 ” XLIV ” ” 99 99 9 1910, ,, 719, 9 9 XLV 9 ” ” 99 ” 1911, ,, 611, ” y) XLVI ” ” ” ” ” 1912, ,, 275, ” ” XLVII ” ” ” ” 9 1918, ,, 318, 99 7) XLVIII ” ” 9 ” ” 1914, ,, 584, ” 9 XLIX ” ” ” 9 ” 1915, ,, 587, ” ” L ry) ” yh) ” 99 1916, ,, 362, 99 ” LI ” 9 ” ” ” 1917, ,, 786, ” ” LII ” ” ” ry) 99 1918, ,, 624, 9 AN LIII ” 9 ”9 9 9 1919, ” 414, me) ” LIV 9 ” 29 9 99 1920, ,, 312, price £1 ls. +} ) LV 39 bb) 99 399 99 1921, 99 418, ” ” LVI 9 99 99 ” 99 1922, ,, 372, ” LVII YT} 9 99 cy) 9 1923, ” 421, ” Royal Society of Slew Sonth Wales. QOFPFICHERS FOR 1923-1924. Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HONOURABLE HENRY WILLIAM, BARON FORSTER, pP.c., K.c.m.a. Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia. Vice-Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WALTER EDWARD DAVIDSON, xk.c.m.a. Governor of the State of New South Wales. President: k. H. CAMBAGE, F.us. Vice-Presidents: Prof. C. E. FAWSITT, pD.sc., Ph.p. E. C. ANDREWS, B.A., F.G.8. J. NANGLE, 0.B.E., F.R.A.S. C. A. SUSSMILCH, F.a.s. Hon. Treasurer: Prof. H. G. CHAPMAN, m.p. Hon. Secretaries|: Prof. O. U. VONWILLER, Bsc. | G.A. WATERHOUSE, B.se. B.z., F.E.S8. Members of Council: C. ANDERSON, m.aA., p.sc. Rev. E. F. PIGOT, s.J., B.a., M.B. Prof. Sir EDGEWORTH DAVID, | W. POOLE, m.z., . Inst.c.k., M.I.M.M. K.B.E., C.M.G., D.S.0., F.R.S., D.Sc. er a cant rh ieee ga .G. F.C.8. WwW. S. DUN. 4 f. J. R. GREIG-SMITH, v.se., m.8c. Be eu EAE Ree tt es ats CHARLES HEDLEY, r.1.8, Prof. R, D. WATT, m.a., B.8e, NOTICE. THe Royat Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the ‘‘ Philosophical Society of Australasia”; after an interval of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the *“* Australian Philosophical Society,” by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the “ Philosophical Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, it assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. TO AUTHORS. Authors of papers desiring illustrations are advised to consult the editors (Honorary Secretaries) before preparing their drawings. Unless otherwise specially permitted, such drawings should be carefully executed to a large scale on smooth white Bristol board in intensely black Indian ink, so as to admit of the blocks being prepared directly therefrom, in a form suitable for photographic “process.” The size of a full page plate in the Journal is 44 in. x 6#in. The cost of all original drawings, and of colouring plates must be borne by Authors. ERRATA. Page 4, line 28, for 1909 read 1908. » 9, line 30, for 48 years read 45 years. » 90, Last citation but one should read—No. 23 ‘‘The Geology. of the Eruptive and Associated Rocks of Pokolbin, New South Wales.” FORM OF BEQUEST. E£ bequeath the sum of £ to the Royat Society oF New Souta Watess, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall be an effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct to be paid within calendar months after my decease, without any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my estate as may be lawfully applied for that purpose. [Those persons who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Socrety of New South Wales by Legacies, are recommended to instruct their Solicitors to adopt the above Form of Bequest. | LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE Aopal Society of Slew South dHales. OOOO eae P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society’s Transactions or Journal. The numerals indicate the number of such contributions. { Life Members. Elected. 1908 1877 1918 1904 1898 1905 1909 1915 1919 1923 1878 1921 1919 1894, 1894 1919 1896 1908 1918 1895 1894 1909 1923 P5 BZ P9 lear Pil Eo Re Abbott, George Henry, B.A., M.B.,Chm., 185 Macquarie-street; p.r. ‘Cooringa,’ 252 Liverpool Road, Summer Hill. Abbott, W. E., ‘Abbotsford,’ Wingen. Adam, George Hyslop, ‘Lintrose,’ Warren Road, Marrickville. Adams, William John, m. 1. MECH. E., 175 Clarence-street. Alexander, Frank Lee, William-street, Granville. Anderson, Charles, M.A., D.Sc. Edin., Director of the Australian Museum, College-street. Andrews, Ernest C., B.A., F.a.S.. Hon. Mem. Washington Academy of Sciences, Government Geologist, Department. of Mines, Sydney. (President, 1921.) Vice-President. Armit, Henry William, m.r.c.s. Eng., u.n.c.p. Lond., B.M.A. Building, Elizabeth-street. Aurousseau, Marcel, B.sc., c/o American Geographical Society, Broadway at 156th Street, New York City. Baccarini, Antonio, Doctor in Chemistry (Florence), Victoria- street, Darlinghurst. Backhouse, His Honour Judge A. P., m.a., ‘ Melita,’ Elizabeth Bay. Baker, Rev. Harold Napier, m.a. Syd., St. Thomas’ Rectory, North Sydney. Baker, Henry Herbert, 15 Castlereagh-street. Baker, Richard Thomas, The Avenue, Cheltenham. {Balsille, George, ‘ Lauderdale,’ N.E. Valley, Dunedin, N.Z. Bardsley, John Ralph, “The Pines,” Lea Avenue, Five Dock. Barff, H. E., m.a.,c.m.a., Warden of the University of Sydney. Barling, John, t.s., ‘St. Adrians,’ Raglan-street, Mosman. Barr, Robert Hamilton, 37 Sussex-street. Barraclough, Sir Henry, K.B.#., B.E., M.M.E., M. INST. C.H., M.I. MECH. E., Memb. Soc. Promotion Eng. Education; Memb. Internat. Assoc. Testing Materials; Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Marmion,’ Victoria-street, Lewisham. Baxter, William Howe, u.s., Chief Surveyor, Existing Lines Office, Railway Department, Bridge-street. Benson, William Noel, p.sc., Syd., B.A., Cantab., F.a.s., Professor of Geology in the University of Otago, Dunedin, N.Z. Berry, Frederick John, F.c.s., ‘Roseneath,’ 51 Reynolds-street, Neutral Bay. Elected 1919 1923 1916 1920 1915 1913 1923 1923 1905 1888 1893 1917 1920 1922 1910 1876 1916 1917 1891 1923 1919 1919 1922 1923 1906 1913 1921 1898 1919 1909 P2 Pil Pl P 4 (x.) Bettley-Cooke, Hubert Vernon, ‘The Hollies,’ Minter-street, Canterbury. Birks, George Frederick, c/o Potter & Birks, 15 Grosvenor-st. Birrell, Septimus, c/o Margarine Co., Edinburgh Road, Marrickville. Bishop, Eldred George, Belmont-street, Mosman. Bishop, John, 24 Bond-street. Bishop, Joseph Eldred, Killarney-street, Mosman. Blair, Kenneth John, ‘ Mimpi,’ Parsley Road, Vaucluse. Blakely, William Faris, ‘ Myola,’ Florence-street, Hornsby. Blakemore, George Henry, Room 82, Third Floor, Commercial Bank Chambers, 273 George-street. {Blaxland, Walter, F.R.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., ‘ Inglewood,’ Florida Road, Palm Beach, Sydney. Blomfield, Charles E., B.c.z. Melb., ‘ Woombi,’ Kangaroo Camp, Guyra. Bond, Robert Henry, ‘ Elfindale,’ Croydon Avenue, Croydon Pk. Booth, Edgar Harold, m.c., B.sSe.. Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physics in the University of Sydney. Bradfield, John Job Crew, M.E.,, M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. E.Aust., Chief Engineer, Metropolitan Railway Construction, Railway Department, Sydney. Bradley, Clement Henry Burton, m.B., ch.M., D.P.H., ‘Nedra,’ Little-street, Longueville; 80 Hunter-street. Brady, Andrew John, L.kK. and Q.c.P. Irel., L.R.c.s. Irel., 175 Macquarie-street, Sydney. Bragg, James Wood, B.a., c/o Gibson, Battle &Co. Ltd.,Kent-st. Breakwell, Ernest, B.A., B.Sc, Headmaster Agricultural School, Yanco. Brennand, Henry J. W., B.A., M.B., Chm. Syd., 208 Macquarie- street; p.r. 73 Milsons Road, Cremorne. Brereton, Ernest Le Gay, B.sc., Lecturer and Demonstrator in Chemistry in the University of Sydney. Bretnall, Reginald Wheeler, ‘ Dardanella,’ Bowral, N.S.W. Briggs, George Henry, B.se., Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physics in the University of Sydney. Brough, Patrick, m.., B.Sc,, B.Se., (Agr.) (Glasgow), Lecturer in Botany in the University of Sydney. Brown, Herbert, ‘ Sikoti,’ Alexander-street, Collaroy Beach, Sydney. Brown, James B., Resident Master, Technical School, Gran- ville; p.r. ‘Aberdour,’ Daniel-street, Granville. Browne, William Rowan, p.sc., Assistant-Professor of Geology in the University of Sydney. Bull, James Towers, 48 Fort-street, Petersham. tBurfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, B.A., M.B., Ch.M. B.Sc. Syd., ‘Wyom- ing,’ 175 Macquarie-street, Sydney. P6| Burrows, George Joseph, B.sc, Lecturer and Demonstrator in Chemistry in the Universityf Sydney; p.r. Watson-street, Neutral Bay. Calvert, Thomas Copley, assoc. M. INST. C.E., Department of Public Works, Sydney. lected (xi.) 1904 |P 21| Cambage, Richard Hind, .s.,¥.u.s., Under Secretary for Mines, 1923 1922 1907 1921 1876 1891 1920 1903 1913 1909 1913 1909 1876 1896 1920 1913 1913 1882 1919 1909 1919 1892 1886 1921 1912 1920 1890 P3 P3 ar P12 P 20 P 4 Pil Bi P5 Pil Department of Mines, Sydney; p.r. Park Road, Burwood. (President 1912). President. Cameron, Lindsay Duncan, Hilly-street, Mortlake. Campana, Maurice, Consul General for France, 247 George-st. Campbell, Alfred W., m.p., ch.m. Edin., 188 Macquarie-street. Campbell, John Honeyford, m.s.z., Deputy Master of the Royal Mint, Macquarie-street, Sydney. Cape, Alfred J., m.a. Syd., ‘Karoola,’ Edgecliff Road, Edgecliff. Australia Chambers, George and Margaret-streets. Carment, David, F.1.a. Grt. Brit. @ Irel. ¥.F.A., Scot., 4 Whaling Road, North Sydney. Carruthers, Sir Joseph Hector, M.t.c., M.a., Syd., Lu.D., Sé. Andrews, ‘Highbury,’ Waverley. Carslaw, Horatio S., M.A., Sc.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Sydney. Challinor, Richard Westman, F.1.c., F.c.s., Lecturer in Chem- istry, Sydney Technical College. Chapman, Henry G., m.D., B.s., Professor of Physiology in the University of Sydney. Hon. Treasurer. Cheel, Edwin, Botanical Assistant, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Cleland, John Burton, m.p., ch.m., Professor of Pathologyin the University of Adelaide. (President 1917.) Codrington, John Frederick, m.r.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond. and Edin., ‘Roseneath,’ 8 Wallis-street, Woollahra. Cook, W. E., m.c.8. Melb., M. INST. C.E., Burroway-st., Neutral Bay. Gouna roderick. c/o Meggitt’s Limited, 26 King-street. Cooke, William Ernest, M.A.,F.R.A.s., Government Astronomer and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Sydney, The Observatory, Sydney. Coombs, F. A., F.c.s., Instructor of Leather Dressing and Tanning, Sydney Technical College; p.r. Bannerman Crescent, Rosebery. Cornwell, Samuel, J.P., ‘ Beechworth,’ Lane Cove Road, Pymble. Cotton, Frank Stanley, B.sc, Chief Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physiology in the University of Sydney. Cotton, Leo Arthur, m.a., D.se, Assistant-Professor of Geology in the University of Sydney. Cowdery, Edward Henry, t.s., 6 Castlereagh-street, Sydney. Cowdery, George R., Assoc. M. INST. C.E., 154 Hay-street; p.r. ‘Glencoe,’ Torrington Road, Strathfield. Crago, W. H., u.R.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., 185 Macquarie-st. Cresswick, John Arthur, 101 Villiers-street, Rockdale. Curtis, Louis Albert, L.s., F.1.8. (N.S.W.), v.D., Hampton Court, Bayswater Road, Darlinghurst. Danés, Jiri Victor, Ph.p. Prague, Consul General for Czecho- Slovakia, The University, Prague. Dare, Henry Harvey, M.£., M. INST. c.E., Commissioner, Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Union House, George-street. 1876 | P3| Darley, Cecil West, m. inst. c.z., ‘Longheath,’ Little Bookham, Surrey, England; Australian Club, Sydney. Elected 1886 |P 23 1919| Pl 1921 1921 1894 1906 1913 1913 1920 1908 1923 1919 1918 1916 1908 1896 1887 1902 1921 1910 1909 1922 1920 1923 1881 1920 1888 1922 P2 P3 P5 P2 lege Pa (cit:)) David, Sir Edgeworth, k.B.£., C.M.G., D.S.0., B.A., D.Sc, F.B.8.5 F.G.S., Professor of Geology and Physical Geography in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Coringah,’ Sherbrooke-street, Hornsby. (President 1895, 1910.) ; de Beuzeville, Wilfrid Alex. Watt, Forestry Assessor, Forest: Office, Tumut. Delprat, Guillaume Daniel, c.B.r., ‘Keynsham,’ Mandeville Crescent, 'l'oorak, Victoria. Denison, Sir Hugh Robert, x.s.z., 701 Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street. Dick, James Adam, c.m.a., B.A. Syd., M.D., Ch.M., F.B.C.S. Edin.,,. ‘Catfoss,’ Belmore Road, Randwick. Dixson, William, ‘ Merridong,’ Gordon Road, Killara. Dodd, Sydney, v.v.sc., ¥F.R.C.v.s., Lecturer in Veterinary Pathology in the University of Sydney. Doherty, William M., F.1.c., F.c.s., Second Government Analyst, ‘ Jesmond,’ George-street, Marrickville. Downing, Reginald George, B.sc., (Agr.) Field Branch, Depart- ment of Agriculture, Sydney. Dun, William S., Paleontologist, Department of Mines, Sydney. (President 1918.) Karl, John Campbell, B.sc., Pn.pv., Lecturer and Demonstrator in Organic Chemistry in the University of Sydney. Earp, The Hon. George Frederick, c.B.z., m.u.c., Metropolitan Building, 56 Hunter-street. Elliott, Edward, c/o Reckitts’ (Oversea) Ltd., Bourke-street, Redfern. Enright, Walter J., B.a., High-street, West Maitland, N.S.W. Esdaile, Edward William, 42 Hunter-street. Fairfax, Geoffrey E., 8. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. Faithfull, R. L., u.p., New York, u.K.c.p., u.s.A. Lond., c/o Iceton, Faithfull and Maddocks, 25 O’Connell-street. Faithfull, William Percy, ‘The Monastery,’ Kurraba Road, Neutral Bay. Farnsworth, Henry Gordon, ‘ Rothsay,’ 90 Alt-street, Ashfield. Farrell, John, Riverina Flats, 265 Palmer-street, Sydney. Fawsitt, Charles Edward, p.sc, Ph.p., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. (President 1919). Vice- President. Ferguson, Andrew, 9 Martin Place, Sydney. Ferguson, Eustace William, m.B., cn.m., “Timbrabongie,’ Gor- don Road, Roseville. Fiaschi, Piero, 0.B.z.,M.p. (Columbia Univ.), p.p.s. (New York). M.R.c.S. (Eng.), L.R.c.P. (Lond.), 178 Phillip-street. Fiaschi, Thos., M.D., M.ch, Pisa, ‘The Albany,’ 201 Macquarie-st.. Fisk, Ernest Thomas, Wireless House, 97 Clarence-street. Fitzhardinge, His Honour Judge G. H., m.a., ‘Red Hill,” Beecroft. Fleming, Edward Patrick, Under Secretary for Lands, Lands. Department, Sydney. (xiii. ) £lected 1921 Fletcher, Joseph James, M.A., B.Sc, ‘Ravenscourt,’ Woolwich Road, Woolwich. 1879 {Foreman, Joseph, m.R.c.s. Eng. u.R.c.p. Edin., ‘ Wyoming,’ Macquarie-street. _ 1920 Fortescue, Albert John, ‘Benambra,’ Loftus-street, Arncliffe. 1905 Foy, Mark, Elizabeth and Liverpool-streets. 1904 Fraser, James, ¢.M.G., M.INST.C.E., Chief Commissioner for Railways, Bridge-street ; p.r.‘Arnprior,’ Neutral Bay. 1907 Freeman, William, ‘ Ghyll Grange,’ 50 Muston-st., Mosman. 1881 Furber, T. F., F.R.4.S., L.S., c/o Dr. R. I. Furber, ‘Sunnyside,’ Stanmore Road, Stanmore. 1918 Gallagher, James Laurence, m.a. Syd., ‘Akaroa,’ Ellesmere Avenue, Hunter’s Hill. 1921 Godfrey, Gordon Hay, m.a., B.sc., Lecturer in Physics in the Technical College, Sydney; p.r. 262 Johnston-street, Annandale. : 1897 Gould, The Hon. Sir Albert John, k.B., v.p., ‘ Eynesbury,’ Edgecliff. 1922 | P2| Grant, Robert, F.c.s., Department of Public Health, 93 Mac- quarie-street. 1916 Green, Victor Herbert, 7 O’Connell-street. 1922 | P1| Greig, William Arthur, Mines Department, Sydney. 1899 | P1| Greig-Smith, R., p.sc. Hdin., M.se. Dun., Macleay Bacteriologist, Linnean Society’s House, Ithaca Road, Elizabeth Bay. (President 19135.) 1912 Griffiths, F. Guy, B.a., M.D., chM., 131 Macquarie-street. 1923 Gurney, William Butler, Government Entomologist, Depart- ment of Agriculture, Sydney. 1919 Grutzmacher, Frederick Lyle, F.c.s., Church of England Grammar School, North Sydney. 1891 |P 16/{Guthrie, Frederick B., F.1.c., c/o ‘ Daily Mail’ Office, Brisbane. (President 1903). 1919 Hack, Clement Alfred, Collins House, 360 Collins-street, Melbourne. 1880 | P 5| Halligan, Gerald H., u.s., ¥.4.s., 97 Elphin Road, Launceston, Tasmania. 1912 Hallmann, E. F., B.sc,, 75 Hereford-street, Forest Lodge. 1892 Halloran, Henry Ferdinand, L.s., 82 Pitt-street. 1919 Hambridge, Frank, 58 Pitt-street. 1916 | P1| Hamilton, Arthur Andrew, ‘The Ferns,’ 17 Thomas-st., Ashfield 1912 Hamilton, Alexander G., ‘Tanandra,’ Hercules-st., Chatswood. 1887 |P 8| Hamlet, William M., F.1.c., F.c.s., Member of the Society of Public Analysts ; ‘Glendowan,’ Glenbrook, Blue Mountains. B.M.A. Building, 30 Elizabeth-st. (President 1899, 1908). 1909 Hammond, Walter L., B.sc, High School, Broken Hill. 1916 Hardy, Victor Lawson, 6 Dudley-street, Coogee. 1905 | P 3| Harker, George, p.sc., Lecturer and Demonstrator in Organic Chemistry in the University of Sydney. 1913 | P 1| Harper, Leslie F., r.a.s., Geological Surveyor, Department of Mines, Sydney. Elected, 1919 1923 1918 1884 1919 |. 1916 1914 1891 1916 1919 1919 1884 1918 1921 1920 1916 1901 1905 1920 1919 1919 1919 1891 1919 1906 1913 1920 1923 1923 1923 Pl P3 P2 Pl Pil P3 Pl P2 (xiv.) Harrison, Launcelot, B.sc, Syd., B.A. Cantab., Professor of Zoology in the University of Sydney. Harrison, Travis Henry, Lecturer in Entomology and Botany at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond. Hassan, Alex. Richard Roby, c/o W. Angliss & Co. Ppty. Ltd., 64 West Smithfield, London, E.C. Haswell, William Aitcheson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Emeritus Pro- fessor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the Uni- versity of Sydney; p.r. ‘Mimihau,’ Woollahra Point. Hay, Alexander, Coolangatta, N.S.W. Hay Dalrymple-, Richard T., t.s.,Chief Commissioner of Forests, N.S. Wales; p.r. Goodchap Road, Chatswood. Hector, Alex. Burnet, 481 Kent-street. Hedley, Charles, v.u.s., Australian Museum, Sydney. (President 1914.) Henderson, James, ‘ Dunsfold,’ Clanalpine-street, Mosman. Henriques, Frederick Lester, 56 Clarence-street. Henry, Max, D.s.0., B.V.Sc., M.B.C.V.s., ‘Coram Cottage,’ Essex-- street, Epping. Henson, Joshua B., assoc. Mm. inst. c.z., Hunter District Water Supply and Sewerage Board, Newcastle. Hindmarsh, Percival, m.a., B.Sc. (Agr.), ‘l'eachers’ College, The University, Sydney; p.r. ‘Lurnea,’ Canbarra Avenue, Greenwich. Hindmarsh, William Lloyd, B.v.sc., M.n.C.V.S., D.V.H., Stock Branch, Department of Agriculture, Sydney. Hinds, Herbert Henry, 484 Kent-street, Sydney. Hoggan, Henry James, ‘Lincluden,’ Frederick-st., Rockdale. Holt, Thomas §&., ‘Amalfi,’ Appian Way, Burwood. Hooper, George, F.T.c. Syd., Assistant Superintendent, Sydney Technical College; p.r. ‘Nycumbene,’ Nielson , Park, Vaucluse. Hordern, Anthony, c/o Messrs. A. Hordern & Sons Ltd., Brick- field Hill. Horsfall, William Nichols, m.s., B.s. Melb., Lecturer and’ Demonstrator in Physiology in the University of Sydney. Hoskins, Arthur Sidney, Eskroy Park, Bowenfels. Hoskins, Cecil Harold, Windarra, Bowenfels. Houghton, Thos. Harry, M. INST. C.E., M.1I. MECH. E., 63 Pitt-st.. (President 1916), Houston, Ralph Liddle, ‘ Noorong,’ Cooper-street, Strathfield. Howle, Walter Cresswell, u.s.a. Lond., ‘Lugano,’ 244 Military Road, Mosman. Hudson, G. Inglis, J.p., F.c.s., ‘Gudvangen,’ Arden-st., Coogee.. Hulle, Edward William, Commonwealth Bank of Australia. Hunter, John Irvine, u.B., ch.m., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Sydney, ‘Montrose,’ Musgrave-st., Mosman. Hynes, Harold John, B.sc., (Agr.), Walter and Kliza Hall Agri- cultural Research Fellow, Agricultural School, The Uni- versity of Sydney. Ingram, William Wilson, m.c., M.D., chB., The University, Sydney. Elected 1921 1922 1904 1917 1918 1909 1911 1883 1876 1887 1919 1901 1896 1923 1920 1919 1881 1877 1911 1913 1920 1916 1909 1883 1923 1906 1884 1887 P15 P 4 Lg P 23 P3 (xv.) Jackson, Frederick Henry, c/o J. B. Jackson, B.M.A. Building 32 Elizabeth-street. Jacobs, Ernest Godfried, ‘Cambria,’ 106 Bland-street, Ashfield. Jaquet, John Blockley, A.R.s.M., F.a.s., Chief Inspector of Mines, Department of Mines, Sydney. Jenkins, Richard Ford, Engineer for Boring, Irrigation Com- mission, 6 Union-street, Mosman. Johns, Morgan Jones, Aa.M.1.4.E. Lond., M.1.E. Aust., m.1.M. Aust., Box 2, P.O., Mount Morgan, Queensland. Johnston, Thomas Harvey, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., C.M.z.S., Professor of Zoology in the University of Adelaide. Julius, George A., B.Sc., M.E., M. I. MECH. E., Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street, Sydney. Kater, The Hon. H. E., J.p., m.u.c., Australian Club, Mac- quarie-street. Keele, Thomas William, L.s., M.INST.c.E., ‘Gladsmuir,’ Rivers- street, Woollahra. Kent, Harry C., u.a., F.R.1.B.A., Dibbs’ Chambers, 58 Pitt-st. Kesteven, Hereward Leighton, M.D., cn.M., D.Sc. Bulladelah, New South Wales. Kidd, Hector, M. INST. C.E., M. I. MECH. E., Cremorne Road, Cremorne. King, Kelso, 14 Martin Place. Kinghorn, James Roy, Australian Museum, Sydney. Kirchner, William John, B.sc., ‘Clyde,’ Cavendish-street, Con-. cord West. Kirk, Robert Newby, 25 O’Connell-street. Knibbs, Sir George, Kt., o.u.a., F.s.s., F.R.A.S., L.S., Director, Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry, Member Internat. Assoc. Testing Materials; Memb. Brit. Sc. Guild, 314 Albert-street, East Melbourne; p.r. ‘Cooyal,’ Sunnyside: Avenue, Camberwell, Victoria. (President 1898). Knox, Edward W., ‘ Rona,’ Bellevue Hill, Double Bay. Laseron, Charles Francis, Technological Museum. Lawson, A. Anstruther, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the University of Sydney. Le Souef, Albert Sherbourne, Taronga Park, Mosman. L’Estrange, Walter William, 7 Church-street, Ashfield. Leverrier, Frank, B.A., B.Sc., K.c., 182 Phillip-street. Lingen, J. T., m.a. Cantab., x.c., University Chambers, 167 Phillip-street, Sydney. Lipscomb, Alan Price, t.s., c/o Lands Office, Hay. Loney, Charles Augustus Luxton, M. aM. soc. REFR. E., Equi- table Building, George-street. MacCormick, Sir Alexander, m.p., c.m. Edin., m.R.¢.s. Eng., 185 Macquarie-street. | MacCulloch, Stanhope H., m.B., ch.m. Edin., 24 College-street. Elected 1878 1922 1923 1921 1903 1891 1919 1919 ~1906 1891 1880 1922 1901 1916 1909 1883 1880 1920 1920 1908 1914 1912 1922 P } P2 Po Jers P 44 (xvi.) MacDonald, Ebenezer, J.P., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co., Ld., Hunter-street, Sydney. MacKay, Alexander Clarke, c/o British Consul, Harbin, Man- churia. Mackay, Iven Giffard, c.u.a., D.s.o., B.A., Student Adviser and Secretary of Appointments Board, The University, Sydney. McDonald, Alexander Hugh Earle, Department of Agriculture, Sydney. McDonald, Robert, J.p., u.s., Pastoral Chambers, O’Connell-st; p.r. ‘ Lowlands,’ William-street, Double Bay, McDouall, Herbert Crichton, m.r.c.s. Eng., w.R.c.s. Lond., D.P.H. Cantab., Hospital for the Insane, Gladesville. McGeachie, Duncan, M.1.M.£,, M.1.B, (Aust.), M.1.m.m. (Aust.), ‘Craig Royston,’ Toronto, Lake Macquarie. McGlynn, William Henry, ‘Koora,’ Iredale Avenue, Cremorne. McIntosh, Arthur Marshall, ‘Moy Lodge,’ Hill-st., Roseville. McKay, R. T., L.s., M. INST. C.E., Commissioner, Sydney Har- bour Trust, Circular Quay. McKinney, Hugh Giffin, m.z., Roy. Univ. Irel., M.1NsT. C.B., Sydney Safe Deposit, Paling’s Buildings, Ash-street. McLuckie, John, M.A., B.Sc, (Glasgow), D.Sc, (Syd.), Lecturer in Botany in the University of Sydney. McMaster, Colin J., u.s., ‘Crona,’ Keydon Avenue, Warrawee. McQuiggin, Harold G., B.sc, Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physiology in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘ Berolyn,’ Beaufort-street, Croydon. Madsen, John Percival Vissing, D.sc., B.E., Professor of Elec- trical Engineering in the University of Sydney. Maiden J. Henry, J.P.,1.8.0., F.B.S., F.L.S., F.R.H.S., Hon. Fellow Roy. Soc. S.A.; Hon. Memb. Roy. Soc, W.A.; Netherlands Soc.for Promotion of Industry; Philadelphia College Pharm.; Southern Californian Academy of Sciences; Pharm. Soc. N.S.W.; Brit. Pharm. Conf.; Corr. Fellow Therapeutical Soc., Lond.; Corr. Memb. Pharm. Society Great Britain ; Bot. Soc. Edin.; Soe. Nat. de Agricultura (Chile); Soc. d’ Horticulture d’Alger; Union Agricole Calédonienne; Soc. Nat. etc., de Chérbourg; Roy. Soc. Tas.; Roy. Soc. Queensl.; Inst. Nat. Genévois; Hon. Vice-Pres. of the Forestry Society of California; Diplomé of the Société Nationale d’ Acclimatation de France; Linnean Medallist, Linnean Society; N.S.W. Govt. Rep. of the ‘‘ Commission Consulta- tive pour la Protection Internat. de la Nature’; Corr. Memb. National Acclimatisation Society of France; Govern- ment Botanist and Director, Botanic Gardens, Sydney; p.r. ‘Levenshulme,’ Turramurra Avenue, Turramurra. (Presi- dent 1896, 1911.) Manfred, Edmund C., Montague-street, Goulburn. Mann, Cecil William, ‘Pentreath,’ Fairview-street, Arncliffe. Mann, James Elliott Furneaux, Barrister at Law, 163 Phillip- street. Marshall, Frank, c.M.c., B.D.s., 151 Macquarie-street. Martin, A. H., Technical College, Sydney. Meldrum, Henry John, p.r. ‘ Craig Roy,’ Sydney Rd., Manly. Mills, Arthur Edward, m.B., cn.m., Dean of the Faculty of Medicine, Professor of Medicine in the University of Sydney, 1389 Macquarie-street. Elected “1889 1879 1921 (1922 “1879 1915 1923 1893 1917 1891 1920 1919 1903 1921 1913 1896 1917 “1891 1921 1920 1880 -1921 1920 1899 “1918 -1909 -1879 -1881 P8 P'S Pp2 P 4 P2 P 22 P2 P8 (Xvil.) Mingaye, John C. H., F.1.c., F.c.s., Assayer and Analyst to the Department of Mines; p.r. Campbell-street, Parramatta. Moore, Frederick H., Union Club, Sydney. Morris, Albert, 74 Cornish-street, Railway Town, Broken Hill. Morrison, Frank Richard, Assistant Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney; p.r. Brae-street, Waverley. Mullins, John Lane, u.a. Syd., M.u.c., ‘ Killountan,’ Double Bay. Maaeeba R. K., Dr. Ing., Chem. Eng., Lecturer in Chemistry, Technical College, Sydney. Murray, Jack Keith, B.a., B.Sc. (Agr.), Principal, Queensland Agricultural Cullege, Gatton, Queensland. Nangle, James, 0.B.E., F.R.A.S., Superintendent of Technical Education, The ‘l'echnical College, Sydney; p.r. ‘St. Elmo,’ Tupper-st., Marrickville. (President 1920.) Vice-President. Nash, Norman C., ‘Ruanora,’ Lucas Road, Burwood, tNoble, Edward George, u.s., 8 Louisa Road, Balmain. Noble, Robert Jackson, M.sc., B.se., (Agr ), Pn.D., ‘Lyndon,’ Car- rington-street, Homebush. Oakden, Frank, c.z., 33 Hunter-street. tOld, Richard, ‘ Waverton,’ Bay Road, North Sydney. Olding, George Henry, ‘'Tufra,’ Napier-street, Drummoyne. Olle, A. D., F.c.s.. ‘Kareema,’ Charlotte-street, Ashfield. Onslow, Col. James William Macarthur, B.a., Lu.B., ‘Gilbulla,’ Menangle. Ormsby, Irwin, ‘Caleula,’ Allison Road, Randwick. Osborn, A. F., assoc. mM. INST. ¢.E., Water Supply Branch, Sydney, ‘ Uplands,’ Meadow Bank, N.S.W. Osborne, George Davenport, B.se, Demonstrator in Geology in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Belle-Vue, Kembla-st., Arncliffe. Paine, William Horace, State Abattoirs, Homebush Bay,N.S,W. Palmer, Joseph, 96 Pitt-st.; p.r. Kenneth-st., Willoughby. Parkes, Varney, Royal Chambers, Castlereagh-street. Penfold, Arthur Ramon, F.c.s., Economic Chemist, Techno- logical Museum, Harris-street, Ultimo. Peterson, T. Tyndall, r.c.p.a., E.S.& A. Bank Building, King and George-streets. Petrie, James Matthew, p.sc., F.1.c., Research Fellow of the Linnean Society in Biochemistry, The University, Sydney. » Pigot, Rev. Edward F., s.J., B.A., M.B. Dub., Director of the Seismological Observatory, St. lgnatius’College, Riverview. Pittman, Edward F., assoc. R.s.m., L.s., ‘St. Ives,’ Toorak Road, South Yarra, Melbourne. ; Poate, Frederick, F.R.A.S., L.s., ‘ Clanfield,’ 50 Penkivil-street, Bondi. Elected 1919 1917 1896 1910 1921 1918 1919 1918 1893 1912 1922 1919 1916 1923 1909 1914 1920 1921 1915 1884. 1895 1897 1907 1922 1917 1920 1920 1913 1892 1919 1923 P2 P2 P3 P5 Pl Pl (Xvili.) Poate, Hugh Raymond Guy, m.B., cn. mM. Syd., F.R.c.8. Eng., . L.B.c.P. Lond., 225 Macquarie-street. Poole, William, m.z., (Civil, Min. and Met.) Syd., M. INST. C.E., . M.I.M.M., M.1.E., Aust., M.Am.1I.M.E., M. Aust. I. M.M., L.S., . 906 Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street. Pope, Roland James, B.a., Syd., M.D., C.M., F.B.C.S., Edin., 185 Macquarie-street. Potts, Henry William, Fr.u.s., F.c.s., c/o Lindley Walker & Co,, . Ltd., Mark Lane, Sussex-street, Sydney. Powell, Charles Wilfrid Roberts, a.1.c., c/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co., O’Connell-street. Powell, John, 170-2 Palmer-street. Pratten, Herbert #., m.H.R., 26 Jamieson-street. Priestley, Henry, M.D., ch. M., B.Sc, Associate-Professor of Physiology in the University of Sydney. Purser, Cecil, B.A., M.B., ch.m. Syd., 198 Macquarie-street. Radcliff, Sidney, r.c.s., Department of Chemistry, The Uni- - versity of Sydney. Raggatt, Harold George, B.sc,, Lord-street, Roseville. Ranclaud, Archibald Boscawen Boyd, B.sc., B.E., Lecturer in Physics, Teachers’ College, The University, Sydney. Read, John, M.A., Pn.D., B.Sc, Professor of Organic Chemistry at St. Andrew’s University of Scotland. Reid, Cicero Augustus, 14 Mount-street, Coogee. Reid, David, ‘ Holmsdale,’ Pymble. Rhodes, Thomas, ‘High Coombe,’ Carlingford. Richardson, John James, a.m.1.£.E. Lond., ‘ Kurrawyba,’ Upper Spit Road, Mosman. Robertson, Frederick Arnold, Science Master, Sydney C. of E. Grammar School, North Sydney. Ross, A. Clunies, B.se., c/o G. R. W. McDonald, 32 Elizabeth-st. Ross, Chisholm, m.p. Syd., u.B., c.m. Hdin., 225 Macquarie-st. Ross, Herbert E., Equitable Building, George-street. Russell, Harry Ambrose, B.a.,c/o Sly and Russell, 369 George- street; p.r. ‘Mahuru,’ Park Road, Bowral. Ryder, Charles Dudley, Box 1934 G.P.O. Sydney. Sandy, Harold Arthur Montague, 326 George-street. Sawkins, Dansie T., u.a., ‘Brymedura,’ Kissing Point Road, - Turramurra. Sawyer, Basil, s.t., ‘Birri Birra,’ The Crescent, Vaucluse. Scammell, Rupert Boswood, B.sc., Syd., 18 Middle Head Road, Mosman. Scammell, W.J., Mem. Pharm. Soc. Grt. Brit., 18 Middle Head Road, Mosman. Schofield, James Alexander, F.c.s., A.B.S.M., Associate-Pro- fessor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. Sear, Walter George Lane, c/o J. Kitchen & Sons, Ingles-st., . Port Melbourne. Seddon, Herbert Robert, D.v.sc,, Director, Veterinary Research Station, Glenfield. Elected 1921 1904 1918 1917 1900 1910 1882 1893 1916 1922 1919 1921 1917 1916 1921 1914 1920 1913 1900 1903 1909 1916 1919 1918 1920 1918 1901 1919 1920 1919 Pi P 62 Pl P 1 P10 (xix.) Sellers, Alfred Edward Oswald, M.1.M.8., M.A.1.E., ‘Strathmere,” Bellambi. Sellors, Richard P., B.a. Syd., ‘ Mayfield,’ Wentworthville. Sevier, Harry Brown, c/o Lewis Berger and Sons (Aust.) Ltd., 38a Pitt-street. Sibley, Samuel Edward, Mount-street, Coogee. Simpson, R. C., Lecturer in Electrical Engineering, Technical College, Sydney. Simpson, William Walker, ‘Abbotsford,’ Leichhardt-street,. Waverley. Sinclair, Eric, m.p., c.m. Glas., Inspector-General of Insane,,. 9 Richmond Terrace, Domain ; p.r. ‘ Broomage,’ Kangaroo- street, Manly. Smith, Henry G., F.c.s., ‘ Dunbourne,’ Shirley Road, Roseville. (President 1913.) Smith, Stephen Henry, Under Secretary and Director of Edu-- cation, Department of Education, Sydney. Smith, Thomas Hodge, Australian Museum, Sydney. Southee, Ethelbert Ambrook, 0.B.8., M.A., B.Sc, Principal, Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, N.S.W. Spencer-Watts, Arthur, ‘Araboonoo,’ Glebe-street, Randwick. Spruson, Wilfred Joseph, Daily Telegraph Building, King-st. Stephen, Alfred Ernest, rF.c.s., 801 Culwulla Chambers, 67 Castlereagh-street, Sydney. Stephen, Henry Montague, B.A., LL.B., 167 Phillip-street Stephens, Frederick G. N., F.R.c.S., M.B., Ch.M., 13 Dover Koad, Rose Bay. Stephens, John Gower, B.sc. St. Andrew’s College, The Uni- versity, Sydney. Stewart, Alex. Hay, B.z., 165 Wardell Road, Dulwich Hill. Stewart, J. Douglas, B.v.sc., M.R.C.v.s., Professor of Veterinary Science in the University of Sydney; ‘ Berelle,’?’ Homebush Road, Strathfield. Stoddart, Rev. A. G., The Rectory, Manly. Stokes, Edward Sutherland, m.s. Syd., F.x.c.p. Irel., Medical Officer, Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street. Stone, W.G., Assistant Analyst, Department of Mines, Sydney. Stroud, Sydney Hartnett, ¥.1.c., Lecturer in Pharmacy in the University of Sydney. palven: Herbert Jay, c/o Lewis Berger and Sons (Aust.) Ltd., Rhodes. Sulman, John, Warrung-st., McMahon’s Point, North Sydney. Sundstrom, Carl Gustaf, c/o Federal Match Co., Park Road, Alexandria. Sussmilch, C. A., F.a.s., Principal of the Technical College, Newcastle, N.S.W. (President 1922.) Vice-President. Sutherland, George Fife, a.R.c.sc, Lond., Assistant-Professor in Mechanical Engineering, in the University of Sydney. Sutton, Harvey, 0.B.8.,M.D., D.P.H. Melb., B.Sc. Oxon., ‘Lynton,’ Kent Road, Rose Bay. Swain, Herbert John, B.a. Cantab., B.sc., B.E. Syd., Lecturer in Mechanical Engineering, Technical College, Sydney. lected 1917 1915 1893 1921 1905 1921 1920 1899 1923 1878 1919 1913 1919 1916 1916 1923 1923 1923 1879 1900 19i9 1916 1890 1921 1892 1903 1919 1910 1910 1879 1919 1903 P2 (xx. ) Tate, Herbert, Bridge Road, Stanmore. Taylor, Harold B., B.sc, Kenneth-street, Longueville. {Taylor, James, B.Sc, A.R.S.M. ‘Cartref, Brierly-st., Mosman. 2| Taylor, John Kingsley, 16 Ferrier-street, Rockdale. pe P4 P5 Pat Taylor, John M., m.a., LL.B. Syd., ‘ Woonona,’ 43 East Crescent- street, McMahon’s Point, North Sydney. Taylor, Thomas Griffith, B.A., D.sc., B.E., Associate- Professor of Geography in the University of Sydney. Tebbutt, Arthur Hamilton, B.A., M.B., D.P.H., 185 Macquarie-st. Teece, R., F.1.4., F.F.A., Wolseley Road, Point Piper. Thomas, David, B.E., M.I.M.mM., F.a.s.. 15 Clifton Avenue, Burwood. Thomas, F. J., ‘Lovat,’ Nelson-street, Woollahra. Thomas, John, t.s., Chief Mining Surveyor, Mines Department : Sydney; p.r. ‘Remeura,’ Pine and Harrow Roads, Auburn. Thompson, Joseph, M.a., LL.B., Vickery’s Chambers, 82. Pitt-st. Thorne, Harold Henry, B.A. Cantab., B.sc. Syd., Lecturer in Mathematics in the University of Sydney; p.r. Rutledge-st., Eastwood. Tilley, Cecil E., B.sc., The Sedgwick Museum, The University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England. Tillyard, Robin John, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.E.8., Biological Branch, Cawthron Institute, Nelson, New Zealand. Timcke, Edward Waldemar, Meteorologist, Weather Bureau, Sydney. Tindale, Harold, Works Engineer, c/o Australian Gas-Light Co., Mortlake. Toppio, Richmond Douglas, a.1.c., Parke Davis & Co., Rose- berry. Trebeck, P. C., ‘ Banavie,’ Bowral. Turner, Basil W., A.R.S.M., F.c.s., Victoria Chambers, 83 Pitt-st. Turner, Eustace Ebenezer, B.A. Cantab., p.sc. Lond., A.1.C., East London College, Mile End Road, London, E. I. Valder, George, s.p., Under Secretary and Director, Depart- ment of Agriculture, Sydney. Vicars, James, m.u., Memb. Intern. Assoc. Testing Materials; Memb. B. S. Guild; Challis House, Martin Place. Vicars, Robert, Marrickville Woollen Mills, Marrickville. Vickery, George B., 78 Pitt-street. Vonwiller, Oscar U., B.sc, Professor of Physics: in the Uni- versity of Sydney. Hon. Secretary. Waley, Robert George Kinloch, 63 Pitt-street. Walker, Charles, ‘Lynwood,’ Terry Road, Ryde. Walker, Harold Hutchison, Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt-st. Walker, H. O., Commercial Union Assurance Co., Pitt-street. Walkom, Arthur Bache, pD.sc. Linnean Society’s House, 23 Ithaca Road, Elizabeth Bay. Walsh, Fred,, s.p., Consul-General for Honduras in Australia and New Zealand; For. Memb. Inst. Patent Agents, Lon- don; Patent Attorney Regd. U.S.A.; Memb. Patent Law Assoc., Washington; Regd. Patent Attorn. Comm. of Aust.; Memb. Patent Attorney Exam. Board Aust.; George and Wynyard-streets; p.r. ‘Walsholme,’ Centennial Park, Syd. —" Elected 1901 1918 1913 1922 1883 1921 119 1919 1919 1876 1910 1911 1920 1907 1920 1921 1881 1922 1909 1918 1892 1923 1921 1920 1917 1923 1891 1906 1916 1917 1921 1916 | P4 P17 2 P3 P8 (xx1.) Walton, R. H., r.c.s., ‘Flinders,’ Martin’s Avenue, Bondi. Ward, Edward Naunton, Superintendent of the Botanic Gar- dens, Sydney. Wardlaw, Hy. Sloane Halcro, p.sv. Syd., Lecturer and Demon- strator in Physiology in the University of Sydney. Wark, Blair Anderson, V.c., D.S.0., M.1.Q.c., c/o Thompson and Wark, T. & G. Building, Elizabeth-street; p.r. ‘ Braeside,” Zeta-street, Lane Cove, Sydney. Warren, W. H., Lu.D., WH.SC., M. INST. C.E., M. AM. SOC. C.E., Member of Council of the International Assoc. for Testing Materials, Professor of Engineering in the University of Sydney. (President 1892, 1902.) tWaterhouse, Gustavus Athol, B.Sc, B.E., ¥.E.8., Royal Mint, Macquarie-street. Hon. Secretary. Waterhouse, Lionel Lawry, B.z. Syd., Lecturer and Demon- strator in Geology in the University of Sydney. Waterhouse, Walter L., m.c., B.Sc. (Agr.), ‘Cairnleith,’ Archer- street, Chatswood. Watkin-Brown, Willie Thomas, 24 Brown’s Road, Kogarah. Watkins, John Leo, B.A. Cantab., u.a. Syd., University Club, Castlereagh-street. Watson, James Frederick, m.B., ch.m., ‘Midhurst,’ Woollahra. Watt, Robert Dickie, m.a., B.Sc, Professor of Agriculture in the University of Sydney. Welch, Marcus Baldwin, B.sc., A.1.c., Economic Botanist, Tech- nological Museum. Welch, William, F.R.4.s., ‘ Roto-iti,’ Boyle-street, Mosman. Wellish, Edward Montague, m.a., Lecturer in Applied Mathe- matics in the University of Sydney. Wenhbolz, Harold, 29 Palace-street, Petersham. tWesley, W. H., London. Whibley, Harry Clement, 39 Moore-street, Leichhardt. White, Charles Josiah, B.sc., Lecturer in Chemistry, Teacher’s College. White, Edmond Aunger, m.A.1.M.E., c/o Electrolytic Refining and Smelting Co. of Australia Ltd., Port Kembla, N.S.W. | White, Harold Pogson, F.c.s., Assistant Assayer and Analyst, Department of Mines; p.r. ‘Quantox,’ Park Road, Auburn. Whitehouse, Frank, B.v.sce, (Syd.) ‘Dane Bank,’ Albyn Road, Strathfield. Willan, Thomas Lindsay, B.sc, Geological Survey, Depart- ment of Mines, Sydney. Williams, Harry, a.1.c., c/o Rosebery Lanolines Pty. Ltd., Arlington Mills, Botany. Willington, William Thos., 0.B.£., King-street, Arncliffe. Wilson, Stanley Eric, ‘Chatham,’ James-street, Manly. Wood, Percy Moore, u.r.c.p. Lond., M.R.c.s. Eng., ‘ Redcliffe,’ Liverpool Road, Ashfield. Woolnough, Walter George, D.sc., F.a.8., Florence-st., Killara. Wright, George, c/o Farmer & Company, Pitt-street. Wright, Gilbert, Lecturer and Demonstrator in Agricultural Chemistry in the University of Sydney. Yates, Guy Carrington, 184 Sussex-street. Youll, John Gibson, Water Conservation and Irrigation Com- mission, Leeton, N.S.W. Elected. 1914 1918 1911 1914 1908 (xxil.) Honorary MzempBers. Limited to Twenty. M.—Recipients of the Clarke Medal. Bateson, W. H., m.A., F.R.S., Director of the John Innes Horti- cultural Institution, England, The Manor House, Merton, Surrey, England. Chilton, Charles, M.A., D.Sc. M.B.,C.M., etc., Professor of Biology, Cavterbury College, Christchurch, N.Z. Hemsley, W. Botting, Lu.p. (Aberdeen), F.R.S., F.L.S., Formerly Keeper of the Herbarium, Royal Gardens, Kew; Korresp. Mitgl. der Deutschen Bot. Gesellschaft; Hon. Memb. Sociedad Mexicana de Historia Natural; New Zealand Institute; Roy. Hort. Soc., London; 16 Osborne Road, Broadstairs, Kent, England. Hill, James P., D.sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology, University College, London. Kennedy, Sir Alex. B. W., Kt., Lu.pD., D. ENG., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of Engineering in University College, London, 17 Victoria-street, Westminster, London S.W. 1908 |P 57|*Liversidge, Archibald, m.a., LL.D., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor 1915 1912 1894 ‘1900 1915 1921 1922 1885 1916 1876 1899 1914 1906 1905 | of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, ‘ Fieldhead,’ George Road, Coombe Warren, Kingston, Surrey, England. (President 1889, 1900.) Maitland, Andrew Gibb, F.a.s., Government Geologist of Western Australia. Martin, C. J., .M.G., D.Sc., F.B.S., Director of the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, Chelsea Gardens, Chelsea Bridge Road, London, S.W.I. Spencer, Sir W. Baldwin, K.c.M.G., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of Biology in the University of Melbourne. Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William Turner, K.c.M.G., C.1.E., M.A., LL.D., Se. D., F.R.S., The Ferns, Witcombe, Gloucester, England. Thomson, Sir J. J., 0.M., D.Sc., F.R.S., Nobel Laureate, Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, England. Threlfall, Sir Richard, K.B.E., M.A., F.R.S., lately Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney, ‘Oakhurst,’ Church Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham, England. Wilson, James T., .B., ch.M. Edin., F.B.S., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge, England. * Retains the rights of ordinary membership. Elected 1872. OBITUARY 1923-24. Davidson, Sir Walter (Vice-Patron) Ordinary Members. Deane, Henry Dixon, Jacob R. L. Docker, Ernest Brougham Henderson, James Kemp, William E. Lee, Alfred Miller, James Edward. (xxiil.) AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL. Established in memory of “The Revd. WILLIAM BRANWHITE CLARKE, m.a., F.R.8S., F.G.S., etc., Vice-President from 1866 to 1878. To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the “Geology, Mineralogy, or Natural History of Australia. The prefix * “indicates the decease of the recipient. . Awarded 1878 *Professor Sir Richard Owen, K.c.B., F.R.S. 1879 *George Bentham, c.M.@., F.R.S. 1880 *Professor Thos. Huxley, F.R.s. 1881 *Professor F. M’Coy, F.R.s., F.G.S. “1882 *Professor James Dwight Dana, LL.D. 18838 *Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.c.M.G., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. 1884 *Alfred R. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 1885 *Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, o.M., @.c.8.1.,C.B.,M.D.,D.C.L., LL.D.,F.R.S. 1886 *Professor L. G. De Koninck, m.p. 1887 *Sir James Hector, K.c.M.G., M.D., F.R.S. 1888 *Rev. Julian E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.S., F.L.S. 1889 *Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.R.s., F.R.A.S. 1890 *George Bennett, m.D., F.R.c.s. Eng., F.L.S., F.Z.S. 1891 *Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.R.S., F.G.S. 1892 = =SirWilliam Turner Thiselton Dyer, K.c.M.G.,C.I.E.,M.A., LL.D., Sc, Dey F.R.S., F.L.S., late Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. 1893 *Professor Ralph Tate, F.L.s., F.G.S. 1895 *Robert Logan Jack, Lu.p., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 1895 *Robert Etheridge, Jnr. 1896 *The Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, c.M.G., F.R.G.S. 1900 *Sir John Murray, K.C.B., LL.D., Sc. D., F.R.S. 1901 *Edward John Eyre. 1902 *F. Manson Bailey, c.m.ca.. F.L.S. 1903 *Alfred William Howitt, p.sc., F.G.S. 1907. Walter Howchin, r.a.s., University of Adelaide. 1909 Dr. Walter E. Roth, s.a., Pomeroon River, British Guiana, South America. 1912 *W. H. Twelvetrees, F.a.s. 1914 A. Smith Woodward, LL.D., F.R.s., Keeper of Geology, British Museum (Natural History) London. 1915 Professor W. A. Haswell, m.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., The University, Sydney. 1917 + Professor Sir Edgeworth David, K.B.E., C.M.G., D.S.0., B.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.G.S., The University, Sydney. 1918 Leonard Rodway, c.m.ca., Honorary Government Botanist, Hobart, Tasmania. 1920 *Joseph Edmund Carne, F.«a.s. 1921 Joseph James Fletcher, m.a., B.Sc., ‘Ravenscourt,’ Woolwich. 1922 Richard Thomas Baker, The Avenue, Cheltenham. 1923 Sir W. Baldwin Spencer, kK.c.M.G., M.A., D.Sc. F.R.8., National Museum, Melbourne. (xxiv.) AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE. Money Prize of £25. Awarded, 1882 1882 1884 1886 1887 1888 1889 1889 1891 1892 1894 1894 1895 1896 John Fraser, B.A., West Maitland, for paper entitled ‘The Aborigines: of New South Wales.’ Andrew Ross, u.p., Molong, for paper entitled ‘ Influence of the Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of wool.’ The Society’s Bronze Medal and £25, W. E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper entitled ‘ Water supply in the Interior of New South Wales.’ S. H. Cox, F.a.s.,F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘ The Tin deposits. of New South Wales.’ Jonathan Seaver, F.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘Origin and mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the associated. Minerals.’ Rev. J. E. Tenison- Woods, F.4.s., F.L.S., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to Australia.’ Thomas Whitelegge, F.R.M.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘ List of the Marine and Fresh-water Invertebrate Fauna of Port Jackson and Neighbourhood.’ Rev. John Mathew, m.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper entitled ‘The Australian Aborigines.’ Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Micro- scopic Structure of Australian Rocks.’ Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for paper entitled ‘The effect which settlement in Australia has pro- duced upon Indigenous Vegetation.’ J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper entitled the ‘ Timbers of New South Wales.’ R. H. Mathews, u.s., Parramatta, for paper entitled ‘The Abori- ginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in New South Wales.’ C. J. Martin, p.sc., u.B., F.R.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The physiological action of the venom of the Australian black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus).’ Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The occurrence of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a description of the Deposits in which they are found.’ PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By C. A. SUSSMILCH, F.G.S. With Pilate I, and Text Figures. [Delivered to the Royal Society of N. 8S. Wales, May 2, 1923.) Another year in the history of this Society has passed by, a year of satisfactory endeavour and progress, but without any happening of an outstanding nature. The number and quality of the papers read has been quite up to that of recent years, while the attendance of mem- bers, both at the general meetings and at the sectional meetings, has been well maintained.- The number of mem- bers remains about the same, the number elected during the year just about equalling the number lost by death and resignation. In this respect, the position is not so satisfactory as one could wish; with the large increase which is yearly taking place in the population of this city, we might surely expect to see something like a cor- responding increase in our membership. War conditions have undoubtedly directed the minds and energies of many in other directions; but conditions have now so far become normal again that this reason should no longer apply. If the work of the Society, including the adequate main- tenance of its library, is to be efficiently carried out, a larger revenue than we now possess is essential; an in- creased membership would help materially in this direction. One would like also to see a larger number of the younger generation who have had a scientific training, entering the field of original research, than is at present the case. The amount of important research work waiting to be done in Australia is simply enormous, but the number of research workers remains deplorably few. Let us, for example, consider that highly important branch of re- A—May 2, i923 7 ©. A. SUSSMILCH. search, Anthropology: for many years past, the amount of research work done in this subject in this State has been so small as to be almost negligible. Besides the problem of our own aborigines, there is an immense field of work awaiting the anthropological investigator in the neighbour- ing Pacific Islands. Some of these islands are now being administered by the Australian Commonwealth, and surely one of the most important factors in their successful ad- ministration should be to have as complete a knowledge of the inhabitants as is possible. The first step in the direction of obtaining this knowledge should be the pre- paration of a definite, well-thought-out, and comprehensive programme of anthropological research. The preparation of such a programme is well worth the attention of this Society in the immediate future. Much has been achieved in the past in this field by the efforts of individual in- vestigators, but the time has now arrived for a more comprehensive scheme of anthropological investigation for these islands, with each section of the work adequately provided for, and all sections properly co-ordinated. There is also a pressing need for scientific research in these Pacific Islands in all other branches of science, but par- ticularly in geography, geology, botany, and zoology. It is sincerely to be hoped that one of the results of the forth- coming Pan-Pacific Science Congress will be to stimulate interest and bring about increased attention to the scientific problems of our Pacific possessions. This Society might well devote some of its energies to these problems, both in the direction of working up interest in these matters and of preparing comprehensive programmes of research. The Clarke Memorial Medal has this year been awarded to Sir W. Baldwin Spencer for his very eminent services in the cause of science generally, and particularly for the great work he has done in the subject of Australian Anthropology. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3 This evening, I have much pleasure, on behalf of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, in presenting the Mueller Memorial Medal to Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.R.S., F.L.S., for his eminent services in the cause of Australian Botany. I am sure that you will agree with me that this medal has never been more worthily bestowed. It was with very great regret that your Council acquiesced in Mr. Maiden’s request that he should not be nominated for the Council for the coming year; Mr. Maiden has been a member of the Council for the past 33 years and I would like to take this opportunity of testi- fying to the very valuable and unselfish service he has rendered to this Society during that time. It is pleasing also to note that another member of our Council has been honored. I refer to Mr. E. C. Andrews, who has been made an Honorary Member of the Washing- ton Academy of Sciences. It is a matter for sincere regret that we have lost nine members by death during the past year, viz.:—Prof. J. A. Pollock and Messrs. A. L. McLean, J. HE. Carne, A. H. Belfield, W. G. Jira, C. O. Hamblin, Dugald Thompson, J. T. Walker, and Albert Bond. ARCHIBALD Lana McLEAN, M.c., B.A., M.D., elected a Member of this Society in 1917, died at the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital on Saturday, 13th May, 1922, at the age of 37 years. Dr. McLean, who was born in Sydney in 1885, received his early education at Fort Street School, and then proceeded to the Sydney University. Here he obtained the B.A. degree in 1906, and the M.B. and Ch.M. degrees in 1910. Upon leaving the University, he was appointed resident medical officer at Lewisham Hospital, and subsequently at the Coast Hospital, Little Bay. In 1911, Dr. McLean joined the Australasian Antarctic Expedition as surgeon-in-chief and bacteriologist, and pro- 4 ©. A. SUSSMILCH. ceeded to Antarctica, where he remained with the Expe- dition for two years. He rendered very valuable service both to the Expedition and to the cause of science, and later collaborated with his leader, Sir Douglas Mawson, in producing ‘‘The Home of the Blizzard,’’ an account of the Expedition. He was also the author of a work on ‘“Bacteriological and Other Researches,’’ published by the New South Wales Government Printer in 1919. When the war broke out, the late Dr. McLean was in England, and joining the R.A.M.C., was appointed to the Black Watch Regiment as surgeon. Owing to illness, he was discharged in 1916, and returned to Australia. The following year he joined the A.I.F., with whom he served in Egypt and France. During his period on active service, he gained a high reputation for gallantry and devotion to duty, was mentioned in despatches, and was awarded the Military Cross. He was twice gassed. He was an -assistant collector in the compilation of the Medical History of the War (Australia), and after his return was ap- pointed medical officer in charge of the Red Cross farm- colony at Beellangera. In 1921 he was awarded the M.D. degree of Sydney University. His untimely death is a great loss to science. Pror. JAMES ARTHUR POLLOCK, D.S¢., F.R.S., One of the Honorary Secretaries of this Society, died after a short illness on the 24th May, 1922, at the age of fifty-seven years. He was elected a Member of this Society in the year 1887, became a Member of Council in 1909, and two years later was elected to the position of Hon. Secretary, a position he held until his death. Professor Pollock was born in or near Cork, Ireland, and was educated at the Manchester Grammar School and the Royal University of Ireland, where he took the engineering degree. He arrived in Sydney in the year 1884, and obtained an ap- PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5 pointment at the Sydney Observatory, but soon gave this up in order to enter as a student at the Sydney University. He obtained the B.Sc. degree in 1889, obtaining the Uni- versity medal for physics, and in the following year he was appointed demonstrator of physics, under Prof. R. Threlfall. Upon Prof. Threlfall’s retirement in 1899, J. A. Pollock succeeded to the professorship, which he held up to the time of his death. He was President of Section A of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science in 1909, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1916. When the Australian Mining Battalion was formed for service in France in 1915, Prof. Pollock joined with the rank of Captain. Upon arrival in France, he was placed in charge of the school for training officers in ‘‘listening”’ underground by means of geophones and other listening devices. Later, when this work was finished, he was moved to Farnborough in England, where he carried out important research work on aeroplane navigation problems. Here he was promoted to the rank of Major. Prof. Pollock’s published research work includes some twenty papers, including research on (a) the relations between the geometrical constants of a conductor and the wave- length of the electromagnetic radiation obtained from it, (b) specific inductive capacity of a sheet of glass at high frequency, (c) the application of the ionic theory of con- duction to the carbon are, (d) investigation of the ions of the atmosphere, ete. Professor Pollock was a member of the Royal Society of New South Wales for thirty-five years, and during this long period became endeared to all those with whom he came in contact. The essential qualities which con- tributed so largely towards ensuring him the affection and esteem of his colleagues were his inherently modest and 6 C. A. SUSSMILCH. courteous nature, his strict integrity, and his very great ability. He had a very high sense of duty, and could be very firm when the occasion demanded it. He con- tributed twelve papers to the Royal Society of New South Wales, in addition to his numerous publications elsewhere. His duties as Honorary Secretary of this Society included the charge of the Society’s library, and the editing of the Society’s volume. He was actuated in retaining his position on the Council purely from his desire to assist scientific effort and to serve the Society to which he had for so many years belonged. He always avoided anything which might result in drawing attention to himself, and, although on several occasions he was pressed to accept the Presi- dency of the Society, he always courteously but firmly declined to accede to the request. Some estimate of the place he had won in the hearts of members may be gleaned from the following resolution passed by the Council at the meeting following his death, and which reads as. follows :— Members of the Council of the Royal Society of New South Wales desire to place on record their profound sorrow at the death of their dear colleague, Professor J. A. Pollock, and to express their high appreciation of his eminent. service in the cause of science, and of his personal, most valuable, and unselfish work for this Society. Professor Pollock was one of the founders of the Aus- tralian National Research Council in 1919, and took a very active part in all its doings. He was one of the original members of the Council and also of its Executive Committee. JOSEPH EH. Carne, late Government Geologist, who died on July 23rd last, had been a member of this Society for 13 years, having been elected in 1909. He was born in the Riverina District of New South Wales in 1855, and was trained in his youth as a pastoralist. He spent some PRESIDENTIAL ADDKESS.. if of his early years droving cattle in Central Australia, along the Diamantina and Cooper Rivers. Becoming almost blinded by sandy-blight, he was forced to give up this life, and came on to Sydney. Here he came under the notice of the late C. S. Wilkinson, then Government Geologist, who found him a position on the Geological Survey staff in March, 1879. Later he became mineralogist to the Survey and Curator of the Geological Museum, and was largely responsible for getting together the fine col- lections of minerals sent from this State to the Melbourne International Exhibition of 1888, and that held at Chicago in 1893. later, Mr. Carne took up the position of Geological Surveyor, and in 1916 was promoted to the position of Government Geologist, a position which he held until his retirement in 1920. While on the Geological Survey staff of this State, he made many valuable additions to our knowledge of its geology and mineral resources. His notable works include: (a) Memoir on the Kerosene Shale Deposits of New South Wales; (b) Geology of the Western Coalfield of New South Wales; (c) Mineral Resources Series on New South Wales deposits of copper, tin, limestone, mercury, chrome iron ore, antimony, ete. In 1912, at the request of the Commonwealth Government, he visited New Guinea for the purpose of investigating the possibility of the occurrence of oil in that country ‘The results of his work there were embodied in a Memoir which was published by the Commonwealth Government. Both in the field and in the office, Mr. Carne was a tireless worker, and he never spared himself; his thoroughness in every branch of his work, even when he was getting on in years, was remarkable, and an object-lesson to all who came into contact with him. No country was too rough for him to traverse in carrying out his work, and nothing 8 C. A. SUSSMILCH. was ever taken for granted. So far as this Society was concerned, he took a very great interest in the work of the Geological Section, and was for several years its Chairman. As Government Geologist, he was a worthy successor to such men as W. B. Clarke and C.'S. Wilkinson. ALGERNON H. BELFIELD, who died on the 5th August last at the age of 83 years, had been a member of this society for the past 46 years, having been elected in 1877. He was born in England but came to Australia while still a young man. He was one of the pioneers of the New England District, and spent the greater part of his life in the Armidale District, where he was a well-known and highly-respected pastoralist. He was an amateur as- tronomer of no mean order and had an observatory at his residence at Eversleigh Station, near Armidale. WILLIAM GEORGE JIRA, who died on the 8th August | last, had been a member of this Society for a few months only. He was a native of Bohemia, but arrived in Aus- tralia in 1895. He was a well-known figure in Sydney business circles, and carried on a large business as a gem merchant. He did a great deal to forward the Australian gem-stone industry, and was a well-known buyer on all our gem-fields. CHARLES OSWALD HAMBLIN, B.Sc., who died on 38rd Oc- tober last, was one of our younger members, who was ) giving every promise of a useful scientific career and at the time of his death was one of the Honorary Secretaries of the Section of Agriculture. He was born in 1893, and was, therefore, only 29 years of age at the time of his death. He entered the services of the De- partment of Agriculture in Sydney in 1912, and in 1915 he enlisted with the A.I.F., and served four years abroad. On his return to Sydney in 1919 he resumed his depart- mental work, and was promoted to the position of assistant PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9 biologist, and still later to the position of principal as- sistant biologist, a position he held until his death. Mr. Hamblin rendered valuable service to the Department in connection with investigations of plant diseases, ete. DuGgaLD Tuompson, who died in November last, was one of our oldest members, having been elected a member in 1879. He was born in London, but came to Australia while still quite young. He was for many years a very prominent member of the business community in Sydney, and entered the political arena in 1894, when he became a member of the Legislative Assembly of New South Wales. In 1901 he was elected a member of the first Commonwealth Parlia- ment, as the representative of North Sydney, and was Minister for Home Affairs in the Reid-McLean Ministry. In 1910, failing health caused him to retire from political life. He did not take any active part in scientific work, and did not often attend our meetings, but he nevertheless took a keen interest in scientific matters. JAMES THoMAS WALKER, F.R.S.1., who died on 18th Janu- ary last, was another of our older members, having been elected a member in 1899. He, also, was a well-known figure in Commonwealth political life, being a member for many years of the Commonwealth Senate. He was also a member of the National Convention which drafted the Commonwealth Constitution. Mr. Walker was a _ well- known figure in banking circles, and took an active part in philanthropic and educational movements. ALBERT BonpD, who died on the 27th March last, had been elected a member of our Society in 1878 and had thus been a member for 48 years. He was one of the oldest practising architects in Sydney, and for many years played a conspicuous part in the life of the Institute of Architects. He was responsible for designing a number of large city buildings. He would have been 81 years of age this month. 10 CG. A. SUSSMILCH. J. A. Pollock Memorial Fund.—A meeting of the many friends of our late honorary secretary was held in the Royal Society’s House on the 21st June last, for the purpose of making arrangements to raise a fund to per- petuate his memory. At that meeting, a strong committee — was formed, and as the result of their efforts the sum of £302 has been collected. The particular form which the memorial is to take has not yet been decided upon. The National Research Council of Australia.—This. Council, which is a branch of the International Re- search Council, held its second general meeting in Sydney in August last, when it completed the formation of its rules and transacted much other important business. The Executive reported that the Council had joined the Inter- national Unions of Astronomy, Geodesy and Geophysics, Pure and Apphed Chemistry, Mathematics, and Radio- Telegraphy. The Executive also reported that arrange- ments had been made for the second Pan-Pacifie Science Congress to be held in Australia in August, 1923, and that the Commonwealth Government had agreed to vote the sum of £5,000 for the expenses of the meeting. It was further reported that arrangements had been com- pleted for the publication quarterly of Australian Science Abstracts, and that Part I. was available for issue. This publication must necessarily be of great use to Australian scientific workers. The Forthcoming Pan-Pacific Science Congress——The event of outstanding scientific importance this year will be the meeting of the second Pan-Pacifie Science Congress. in Australia in August next. The first Pan-Pacifie Con- gress was held in Honolulu in September, 1920, under the auspices of the National Research Council of America and of the Pan-Pacific Union, and was in every way an unqualified success. At that meeting it was decided, if PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 11 possible, to hold a similar conference every three years, the actual place of meeting being varied so that each im- portant Pacific country might be visited in turn. The Honolulu meeting was attended by about 100 delegates from the United States, Canada, Philippine Islands, China, Australia, and New Zealand. It is confidently expected that a larger number of delegates will attend this next conference, and that all those countries which have in- terests in the Pacific Region will be represented. Inter- course with such a large gathering of eminent scientists from other lands must necessarily be of the greatest value to scientific workers in Australia; it will broaden their outlook and stimulate their research activities. At the Congress there will be discussed scientific problems, the solution of which will be of the very highest importance not only to Australia but to most of the nations around the Pacific. With its mandated territories, Australia has to face many new problems, and to hear the views of those who are faced with similar problems in other parts of the Pacific, must be of the highest value to all concerned. The Conference will have the further value of focussing the attention not only of scientists but also of Parliament and the public upon Pacific problems, and thus bring about a better realization of our duty to do our share towards solving these problems. Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. —This Association held its 15th meeting in January last in Wellington, New Zealand. The membership on this occasion numbered about 600; of these, about 450 enrolled in New Zealand, while about 150 enrolled in Australia. The number from Australia would have been larger but for the doubt which existed for some weeks before the meeting as to the certainty of getting both to and from New Zealand, owing to the maritime strike in New Zealand. As it happened, no great difficulty occurred. 12 C. A. SUSSMILCH. The meeting was very successful from every point of view. Many valuable papers were read, and many im- portant discussions took place. It would be of advantage, at least in some of the sections, if fewer papers of purely local interest were read, the time so saved being used for holding discussions on scientific problems of general Aus- tralasian importance. The subjects of these discussions should be selected beforehand, and members advised, so that they might prepare themselves for such discussions. This principle has been adopted for the forthcoming Pan- Pacific Congress, and if adopted as a regular thing by the Australasian Association, would add materially to the value of the meetings. It was decided that the next meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science would be held in Adelaide in September, 1924. THE HISTORY OF VULCANISM IN NEW SOUTH WALES. For the scientific portion of my address this evening, I purpose giving a summary of our present knowledge of past voleanic activity in New South Wales. The first summary on this subject was made by Prof. T. W. E. David 8) as far back as the year 1892, when, in his address to the geological section of the Australasian As- sociation for the Advancement of Science, he gave a summary of the then knowledge of volcanic action in Eastern Australia. Nothing further in this direction for New South Wales was done until 1911, when the writer prepared a very brief summary for his book on the Geology of New South Wales.) A similar brief summary of New South Wales voleanie rocks was prepared for the State Handbook for the Meeting of the British Association in 1914. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 13. Since 1892 very large additions to our knowledge of past voleanic action in this State have been made by various geological writers: the more important of these contributions are given in the list of references at the end of this address. Our knowledge of this subject for some few districts may now be said to be fairly complete; but for the State as a whole, our knowledge is still deplor- ably incomplete. Nevertheless, a summary of the existing knowledge should serve a useful purpose, not only as indi- eating what we do know, but also in drawing attention to the many gaps in our knowledge, and the large amount of research work still waiting to be done. I. The Ordovician Period. The earliest definite evidence we have of voleanic ac- ticity in New South Wales occurs in Ordovician strata in the central part of the State. This area extends in an east and west direction from Newbridge to Parkes, north- wards as far as Tomingly, and southwards as far as Carcoar; from many localities in this area andesitic lavas and tuffs have been recorded as occurring interstratified with strata of Ordovician age. HE. C. Andrews) has recorded the occurrence of Andesitic lavas, breccias, and tuffs of supposed Ordovician age on the Parkes-Forbes goldfield, and a series of similar voleanie rocks from the Cargo goldfield.©) J. B. Jaquet (47) has described the occurrence of augite-hornblende andesites at Carcoar, as- sociated with claystones, shales, and argillaceous sand- stones of supposed Ordovician age. The same writer has recorded the occurrence of very thick andesite flows at Cadia,‘‘7) 15 miles from Careoar. Here the andesites are associated with slates, tuffs, breccias, and beds of iron- ore of Ordovician age. The andesites at Cadia are highly altered, much of the augite being altered into uralite, and a considerable amount of chloritisation has taken place. 14 C. A. SUSSMILCH. At Forest Reefs, not many miles from Cadia, the writer has noted the occurrence of massive andesite breccias, ap- parently interstratified with Ordovician strata. From Blayney, about 15 miles from Cadia, L. F. Harper (4) has described the occurrence of a thick series of ardesitic lavas and tuffs, which he has doubtfully referred to the Silurian, but which may possibly be of Ordovician age. W. N. Benson“) has recorded similar andesitic lavas of probable Ordovician age from Newbridge. E. F. Pittman (58) has recorded the cecurrence of tuffs interstratified with Ordovician strata at Mandurama, on the Lyndhurst gold- field, but gives no information as to the composition of these tufts. While the actual geological horizon of some of the occurrences of voleanic rocks referred to above has not been absolutely determined, there can be no doubt that volcanic rocks, both lavas and tuffs, do occur in formations of Ordovician age at a number of places in this part of New South Wales, and that these rocks are for the most part andesitic in composition. Unfortunately, neither analyses nor detailed petrological descriptions of these rocks have been published. The Ordovician strata at all of the above localities are such as. would have been de- posited on a subsiding sea-floor far removed from any shore-line. These strata have a considerable thickness, but no measurements of their actual thickness have been made; also, the position of the voleanic rocks, whether high or low in the series, is still unknown. A more detailed knowledge of this Ordovician voleanicity is very desirable. II. The Silurian Period. Silurian voleanic rocks have been recorded from several localities in New South Wales, but speaking generally they are not common in formations of this age. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15 a. Cobar-Canbelego District —K. C. Andrews ) has de- seribed a thick bed of quartz-porphyry occurring in the Canbelego District, which he considers to be a lava flow of Silurian age, and to be a Rhyolite. He has traced this flow, with breaks, for a distance of.100 miles, and finds it to be associated with breccias and tuffs of similar acidic composition. Analyses of this flow are given in Table I. b. Orange District—The writer‘) has described rhyo- lite lavas and tuffs of Silurian age occurring at Gap Creek, in the Parish of Barton, County of Ashburnham. The rhyolite lava flow here is upwards of 200ft. thick, and is associated with tuffs which in turn are interstratified with mudstones and limestones of undoubted Silurian age. In some of the tuff beds there are ejected blocks of rhyolite ranging up to 8ft. in diameter. Not many miles from here, on the Cargo Goldfield, E. C. Andrews) found fine-grained tuffs interstratified with shales and limestones of Silurian age. From the same locality he also recorded a considerable thickness of andesites, trachytes, dolerites, and pitchstones, with associated breccias and tuffs, of doubtful age, but which he considered might be of Silurian age. e. Parkes-Forbes Goldfield—E. C. Andrews(®) has re- corded the occurrence here of andesitic flows and tufts, interstratified with sedimentary rocks of Silurian age. d. The Yass District—In 1911, A. J. Shearsby ‘!) de- seribed the occurrence of thick beds of quartz-porphyry ‘interstratified with fossiliferous shales, limestones, tufts, and breccias of Silurian age. He considered these to be contemporaneous rhyolite lava flows. The section at Yass is as follows :— Thickness. The Hume Beds to) eee OOO Meet The No. 8 Porphyry ey Ae 690 _s=é7» The Yass Beds .. . ds CUO), 8. The No. 2 Porphyry 5 en LOUD”. The Bango Beds... . ae 0 800); Mhe Now: Porphyry 3) 0...0)..>) 14200 The Jerrawa Shales .. .. .. ‘Ui anaen. 16 C. A. SUSSMILCH. Shearsby described the No. 1 Porphyry as being clastic in places, and columnar in part. The No. 2 Porphyry he described as being coarsely spherultic, and to have fossiliferous tuffs closely associated with it. He deseribed the No. 3 Porphyry as resting upon coarse to fine tuffs, and to be overlain by well-bedded tuffs and breccias. In a paper contributed to this Society in 1921, C. W. Mann (4) questioned Shearsby’s determination with regard to beds Nos. 2 and 3, and concluded that they were in- trusive into the Silurian strata. This conclusion has, however, not met with general acceptance; and it is still an open question as to who is right; but in any case, there are undoubted rhyolite tuffs and breccias interstratified with the Silurian strata. The writer described in 1915) the occurrence of a quartz porphyry near the Jenolan Caves, which he thought might be a contemporaneous lava flow; but evidence now available shows this to be a sill. Such information as is available, therefore, indicates that there was fairly widespread volcanic activity in the Silu- rian Period in New South Wales, and that the lavas and tuffs of this period are largely rhyolitic in character. Very little detailed investigation has, however, been carried out upon the volcanic rocks of this period. The eruptions took place in the sea, the lavas and tuffs being deposited upon a sea-floor which was fairly shallow, but which was under- going a slow subsidence. The Silurian strata have a thickness of from 6,000 to 10,000 feet. III. The Devonian Period. The Devonian strata of New South Wales appear to have been deposited in two distinct provinces, under two quite different sets of conditions. This applies to the voleanic rocks as well as to the ordinary sediments. These PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ee two provinces have been described in some detail by Dr. W. N. Benson,") who has named them the Buchan- Murrumbidgee Province, and the Tamworth Province respectively. A. The South-Eastern or Murrumbidgee Province.—This occurs in the south-eastern part of New South Wales. The strata occurring in it have been sub-divided as follows :— e. The Upper Devonian or Lambian Series. b. The Middle Devonian or Murrumbidgee Series. a. The Lower Devonian or Voleanic Series. Voleanic rocks occur in each of these sub-divisions. a. The Lower Devonian (Volcanic) Epoch.—The rocks of this series are entirely voleanic in origin. They outcrop extensively in the valley of the Murrumbidgee River, south of the town of Yass. This occurrence has been described by L. F. Harper,(?) who states that the series ranges from 1,000 to 5,000 feet in thickness, and consists of rhyo- lite lava-flows and tuffs. The rhyolites contain phenocrysts of quartz, orthoclase, and oligoclase, set in a ground-mass which in many cases shows fluidal, spherulitic, and perlitic structures. The ground-mass is in most eases a devitrified glass, and usually there is considerable secondary silici- fication. The tuffs are of similar composition to the lava-fiows. There can be no question that the Murrumbidgee vol- canie series is, as first suggested by A. J. Shearsby, (®) the equivalent in New South Wales, of the Snowy River Porphyries of Victoria. In both cases the eruptions ap- pear to have taken place on a land surface, along an approximately meridianal line extending from the Yass District southwards to the Victorian border, and from thence southwards through Victoria, parallel to and just west of the Snowy River. It is unfortunate that so little detailed information is available regarding this interesting B -May 2, 1923. 18 Cc. A. SUSSMILCH. and important series of Lower Devonian voleanie rocks; there is here a very important petrological field awaiting investigation. b. The Middle Devoman or Murrumbidgean Epoch.— Strata of this age, both in Victoria and New South Wales, occur in the same districts as the Lower Devonian voleanic series just described, and follow them quite conformably, the tuffs of the lower series merging upwards into the marine strata of the upper series. The Murrumbidgean series consists of coralline and brachiopodan limestones, tuffs, and tuffaceous shales of marine origin, and have, ac- cording to L. F. Harper, ) an aggregate thickness of about 12,000 feet. He states that at least 8000 feet of this thickness consists either of tuffs or tuffaceous sediments. The tuffs are rhyolitic in character, consisting of frag- ments of rhyolite, felsite, quartz, and felspar. Two rhyo- lite flows, each about 400 feet in thickness, occur near the top of the series. Tuffaceous rocks associated with marine sediments of Middle Devonian age have also been recorded by E. C. Andrews,'?) from Lobb’s Hole, near Kiandra. From the above facts, it would appear that at the close of the Lower Devonian Epoch, a subsidence began, which resulted in an extensive transgression of the sea over eastern Victoria and southern New South Wales, and that this subsidence was of such a magnitude as to allow of the accumulation of 12,000 feet of strata. The volcanic activity, which had been such a dominant feature of the Lower Devonian Epoch, still continued intermittently throughout the Middle Devonian Epoch, and was respon- sible for the deposition of enormous quantities of voleanic ash, which thus became interstratified with the Middle Devonian marine sediments. These two Epochs together constitute one of the great volcanic epochs of Australia. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 19 e. The Upper Devonian or Lambian Epoch.—Important erustal movements appear to have taken place in south- eastern Australia at the close of the Middle Devonian Epoch. In Victoria the Upper Devonian freshwater strata rest upon the upturned edges of the Middle Devonian marine strata, with a marked unconformity. In southern New South Wales no contact between Middle and Upper Devonian strata has yet been recorded, but the existence of an unconformity between them is indicated by (a) the striking difference of the marine faunas of the two formations, and (b) the fact that whereas the Middle Devonian strata are very strongly folded and tilted, the Upper Devonian strata are for the most part much less folded and tilted. The Upper Devonian transgression ex- tended over vast areas to the north and north-west of those reached by the Middle Devonian transgression. It would appear, therefore, that folding and uplift af- fected southern New South Wales at the close of the Middle Devonian Epoch, followed however later by subsidence and transgression of the sea, for the most part in regions not previously covered by the Murrumbidgean transgres- sion. This Upper Devonian transgression covered much of the south-eastern and central parts of New South Wales, and extended westwards past Bathurst, Orange, and Co- bar, into the trans-Darling country, almost reaching the South Australian border in that direction. In this shal- low, epicontinental sea was deposited a fairly thick series of conglomerates, sandstones, and mudstones, with, in some places, some limestones. In some localities volcanic rocks are associated with the marine sediments, but the volcanic activity appears to have been local rather than widespread. From the Yalwal District, E. C. Andrews,‘!) has re- eorded an alternating series of rhyolite and basalt flows, associated with the Upper Devonian strata which occur 20 c. A. SUSSMILCH. there. From the Upper Macquarie region, immediately to the west of the Blue Mountain tableland, L. F. Harper, (41) has recorded the occurrence of andesitic and rhyolitic lava flows and tuffs, associated with strata which he con- siders to be of Upper Devonian age, although he found no fossil evidence to actually prove this age. Considerably further to the west, on the Canbelego Gold- field, E. C. Andrews, noted the occurrence of tuffaceous sediments of Upper Devonian age. Neither analyses nor detailed petrological descriptions of any of these Upper Devonian voleanic rocks are available. B. The North-Eastern or Tamworth Province.—This provinee occurs in the north-eastern part of the State. The Devonian strata in this region form a continuous outcrop extending around the southern and western mar- gins of the present New England Tableland. Recent re- searches by Dr. H. C. Richards show that this belt extends into Southern Queensland. During the whole of the Devonian Period the sea which covered this area appears to have been very definitely isolated from those seas which covered other parts of New South Wales. In this region, also, voleanic activity was a very pronounced fea- ture, and it constituted a very definite petrographical pro- vince, as the lavas and tuffs deposited over the whole of this area are of similar types. The volcanic rocks of this area are, however, quite different from those of the Mur- rumbidgee province, already described. They consist of spilites, dolerites, and keratophyres, with corresponding tuffs; and these are associated with a great development of radiolarian rocks. This series of volcanic rocks has been very fully investigated by Dr. W. N. Benson, ‘") and the following facts and the accompanying rock ana- lyses are taken mainly from his published descriptions. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Dil, Dr. Benson has sub-divided the Devonian strata of the Tamworth province as follows— 1. Upper Devonian—The Barraba Series. 2. Middle Devonian—The Tamworth Series. 3. Lower Devonian—The Woolamin Series. These strata, which were deposited under marine con- ditions, have a thickness of from 15,000 to 20,000 feet, and a very considerable proportion of this thickness is made up of voleanic rocks (lavas, tuffs, and breccias). The voleanic rocks from a remarkable series of spilites, dole- rites, and keratophyres. Some of the spilites, and all of the dolerites and keratophyres have intrusive relations with the associated marine sediments; but it is considered that they were intruded during the Devonian Period into the still more or less unconsolidated marine sediments not far below the actual sea bottom; and as, moreover, exten- sive depositions of voleanic fragmental material of similar mineral and chemical compositions to the lavas took place at the same time on the sea bottom, the whole series is looked upon as a contemporaneous volcanic series. Vol- ecanic activity was strongly marked throughout the Lower Devonian Epoch, the lavas and tuffs being predominantly —spilitie and doleritic. During the Middle Devonian Epoch, voleanic activity was still very pronounced, but here the keratophyres assumed a greater relative importance. In the Upper Devonian Epoch, the voleanie activity waned considerably, but keratophyre tuffs were deposited exten- sively on the sea bottom. (a.) The Sprlites—These are strongly developed both in the Woolamin and Tamworth Series, the individual beds ranging up to 400 feet in thickness. At Bundook, a few miles north of the town of Gloucester, there is an occur- rence of spilites from 2000 to 3000 feet in thickness. Whether this occurrence is intrusive or is an actual flow OD, Cc. A. SUSSMILCH. or series of flows is not known. The predominant mineral in the spilites is an acid plagioclase (albite or acid oligo- clase); augite occurs in amounts varying from one-fifth to one-half that of the felspar. Ilmenite or titaniferous magnetite occurs in small but varying properties, and there is a little apatite present. In some few cases a little quartz is also present. Reference to the chemical analyses in Table I. shows that the chief chemical feature is the richness in soda, and the low alumina, potash, and lime. Some examples of this rock are porphyritic; vesicu- lar and amygdaloidal structures also occur. Pillow-struc- ture is commonly present. (b.) The Dolerites——These are always intrusive, but are considered to belong to the voleanic series. They differ from the spilites mainly in their coarser grain-size, their microscopic structure, and the absence of pillow-structures. Chemically, as may be seen from the analyses in Table I., they are practically the same. In some examples, sufficient quartz occurs to give quartz-dolerites. (c) The Keratophyres.—These and their tuffs are mode- rately abundant in the Woolamin Series, but have their greatest development in the Tamworth Beds. The nor- mal keratophyres consist almost entirely of acid plagio- clase, with a little magnetite, and more rarely a little augite. They grade, on the one hand, by increase of magnetite, into magnetite-keratophyres, and, on the other hand, with appearance of quartz, into the quartz-kerato- phyres; the magnetite-keratophyres, again, by increase of augite, grade into the spillites. The massive keratophyres occur mainly as intrusive sills, but tuffs and breccias of similar mineral and chemical composition are abundantly developed. By reference to the analyses, it will be seen that the keratophyres, like the spilites, are rich in soda, and poor in potash. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 23 (d) The Tuffs and Breccias—Fragmental material, analogous in mineral and chemical composition to the spi- lites, dolerites, and keratophyres, are abundantly developed throughout the series, varying from fine tuffs to coarse breccias. An interesting feature of the keratophyric tuffs is their intrusive relations in many places with the en- closing sediments. This interesting feature was first pointed out by Messrs. David and Pittman, and was later fully described and the cause discussed by Dr. W. N. Benson, (14), One very striking occurrence of fragmental rock in this series is the Baldwin agglomerate, which occurs just on the dividing line between the Tamworth Series with the overlying Barraba Series. This bed, which ranges up to 2000 feet in thickness, consists of rounded boulders of granite, quartz-porphyre, keratophyre, spilte, andesite, ‘augite-porphyrite, dolerite, radiolarian chert, and cherty tuffs set in a tuffaceous matrix of andesitic composition. An analysis of this matrix is given in Table I. IV. The Carboniferous Period. The Carboniferous Period, so far as the north-eastern part of the State is concerned, was one of the greatest periods of voleanic activity that New South Wales has seen. A thickness of nearly 20,000 feet of strata was de- posited during the period, and of this thickness a very considerable proportion consists of voleanic material. The Carboniferous System in New South Wales is divided into two series, viz.: (a) The Burindi Series, deposited under marine conditions; and (b) The Kuttung Series, deposited under terrestrial conditions. A. The Burindi Epoch. The Burindi sedimentation took place in a shallow sea, the floor of which was undergoing subsidence. The only complete section of these strata, yet published, oceurs in the Gloucester District,” TaspLE I.—ANALYSES. : Horizon. Rock-Nameg, Silurian .| Rhyolite do. sas do. Middle Devonian... Spillite do. do. do. ...| Dolerite do. ...| Quartz Dolerite do. ...| Matrix of Agglom’ate do. ses AOE eae do. .. | Magnetite Keratophyre do. ...| Keratophyre... do. ...| Quartz Keratophyre Burindi Series do. i. do. ane do. Kuttung Series .. | Andesite ve do. | Andesite Pitchstone do. ae do. do: ..| Quartz Andesite do. .| Rhyolite do. do. do. do. do. .| Soda Rhyolite Permo- Carboniferous Upper Marine Series do. : do. do. Upper Coal Measures Basalt LocaLity. .| Canbelago District do. . Nemingha ...| Nundle do. ...| Han ging Rock Tamworth... GO: ces Hydes’ Creek .| Nundle Nemingha... .| Gloucester District do. ee ll peicoinene ke do. ...| Currabubula .| Martin’s Creek ...| Gloucester District ms ...| Mount Bright, Polkolbin ...| Paddys Hill, Regieonde Terrace .| Bulladelah sie Z ...| Blow Hole Flow, Kiama District ...| Bimbo Flow, ..| Saddleback Flow, ...| Cambewarra Flow, .| Minnamurra Flow, SiO, |Al,0, | .--| 73°33 ..| 77°39 »+| 50°17 | 48°22 .-| 48°35 ..| 54°88 ..-| 52°88 .--| 56°06 .--| 56°95 ...| 60°39 no be ...| 69°82 74°56 "| 55°20 58°79 ...| 60°26 ...| 64°20 ah Ra" 76 (FTSZ 75°06 | 71°35 51°92 55°19 52°48 58°82 51°32 Taste II.—ANALYSKS. Horizon. Tertiary Period. Monadnock Basalts.. do. ie Plateau Basalts Oo. : oe Re a Alkaline Series do. Dolerite ; ...| Neph. Basalt .| Olivine Basalt ‘i Neph. Basanite -| Corundum Basalt .| Trachyte ...| Comendite ... .| Arfvedsonite Trachyte ...| Trachyte ...| Phonolite ..| Phonolitic Trachyte .| Comendite : _..| Bhyolite ...| Andesite ...| Lencite Basalt Rock-NamMkE. Olivine Basalt do. do. do. do. Basalt Soda 'rachyte a Nosean Phonolite .| Trachy- Andesite Orthoclase Basalt .. do. _..| Phonolitic Trachyte ...| Porph Olivine Basalt .| Pitchstone do. LocALITY. ...| Mount Tomah, Blue Mountains Bald Hills, Bathurst s Midderula (? flow) a ...| Mount pas Blue Mountains .| 48°92 Orange ..| Hill End . ...| Bowral ...| Robertson .. ...| Square Top, Nundle... ...| Billy Kings Crk., Connabarabran | Mount Lindsay (3000 ft.) ...| Mount Jellore near Mittagong Warrumbungle Mountains do. ; anion Weuntaines do. do. .| Canobolas Mountains a Lake Cudgellico . SiO, 46°42 w.| 44°67 .| 45°25 49°82 44°66 43°31 | 44°57 A756 48°27 47°50 66°68 | 74°12 ...| 65°90 ...| 60°73 ...| 60°32 ...| 58°95 ...| 51°88 ...| 64°63 ..| 61°27 -5| OlOS ..| 72°06 ...| 69°23 ..| 57°39 .| 49°26 .. | Mount. Lindsay, McPherson Re. ..| McPherson Range Springbrook Plat., McPher. Rg. do. 73°35 71°98 73°10 .| 54°10 | 44°68 Al, O; 17°42 21°38 15:13 17:53 14°87 13°37 16°68 15°30 15°20 18°02 14°19 14°53 12°39 16°74 18°16 ; 18°32 17°04: 14°20 16°55 16:00 22°46 18°86 14°58 16°88 18.56 Fe, Os Fe,03 nr 3°70 2°82 1°80 4°30 3°99 2°10 2°31 3°20 4°75 12-06 1°78 2°18 0°31 1°72 4°63 3°55 2°80 3°72 2°93 2°59 2°48 1-90 2°54 1-09 3°80 2°60 1°20 1°19 4°06 7:00 Paleozoic Volcanic Rocks. FeO | MgO | CaO |Na,O| K,0 \H,0+|H20 -| CO, | Ti0,| P,0,| ANALYST. 2°43} 0°59! 0-98] 2:71! 5:66] 1°41 | 0°09] trace | 0°23) 0-11! H. P. White 1:08| 0°17] 0°42] 1°72] 6°54] 2°14] 0:08] trace | 0°45] 0:06 do, 12:06| 3°49! 7°77| 4:12] 0°38] 1:12] 0°27] 0°21] 1°51] 0-18] W. N. Benson 9°25| 5°58| 8°81] 4:95] 0°44] 2:54] 0-15] 1°40] 2°68) 0°23 do. 10:27 | 4°78| 6°71] 4°63] 0°38] 2:00 |* 0°30 2°84| 0°35 do. 7-11! 3°73| 4°16] 6°01] 1°10] 1°76| 0°28]... 3°63 | 0°44 do. 3:02 | 4°93! 7°40| 3°95] 1°15] 2°53] 0°25] 0°20] ... 0:29 do. 2°68 | 4°58] 6°06| 3°71] 0°66] 2°50] 0°28] 0°24] ... 0:19 do. 6:00| 0°93] 2°30} 8°80! 0°38] 0°71) 0°38] O-91L| 0°89 | trace do. 3°50| 1°27] 1:53] 8°79) 0°46} 1°37] 0°20] 1°70} 0°80} 0:12 do. 3°44.| 1°18] 2°72| 5°05] 0°26} 1°25] 0°14] 0°38} 0°28{ 0:20 do. 0°54| 0°29] 1°86| 4°63| 1°67] 1°05] 6°55] 0:03] 0°25 | 0:03] W. G. Stone 0°36 | 0°29| 0°28] 4:91] 3°43] 0°91] 0°35] 0-01} 0°40) 0°04 do. 3°46| 1°10| 9:17| 4°80] 0°96] 1°25] 0°10] ... 1°17 | trace | W. R. Browne. 3°87 | 2°23| 6:18] 4°84| 0°68] 2°61] O°71| trace] 1°21] ... do. 4°87 | 3°09| 5°25] 4°23] 0-98] 2:22] 0°22] ... 0°84 | 0:29] W. N. Benson 2°52| 0°66) 3°14] 4°41] 3°52] 1°79] 0°31] 0°03] 0°65] 0°13) W. G. Stone 0°59| 0:18] 0°24] 0°86] 7°75} 1:00] 0:38] 0°03] 0°15] 0:03 do. 0-09 | 0:23| 0:22] 0:86) 7:19] 1:40] 0°36] 0:03] 0-02} 0-04|J.C.H. Mingaye 0:27| 0:09] 0:42! 6°88) 0°58} 0°62} 0°57 0:03 | W. G. Greig 0°36} 0°13] O°68| 2°24] 3°54] 1°87] 6°54 ie do. 4°68 | 4:09] 7:72] 3°38] 2°56] 1°35} 1:19] 0:02} 1:20] 0°54] J.C. H. Mingaye 3°94! 3°04] 4°68} 5:09] 4°10! 1°75] 0°99} 0:28] 0°89) 0°59] H. P. White 5:04 | 3°65| 7:66] 3°43] 2°53] 1°61] 0°59] 0°17] O°74| 0°42 do. 3:24} 2:26] 3:09| 4°67] 4:70/ 1°36] 0°81] 0:05] 1°78] 0°58:J.C.H. Mingaye 2°97| 2°58| 6:42] 3°97] 3:31] 2:89] 0°87] 0°10] 0°56] 0:42] H. P. White Tertiary Volcanic Rocks. FeO | MgO CaO |Na,0O| K,O |H,O+/H,O -| CO, | TiO, | P.O, ANALYST. 7-45] 6°61] 8:56| 3°61] 1°80] 0°34] 1°52] 0-04] 1°88] 0°87 | J.C. H. Mingaye 5:99} 9°58/ 10°24! 2°70! t:03| Wo-;7QY ... | trace | 0°22 do. 8°82 | 10:24 10°98] 3:36] 1:22] 0-09] 1:21! 0:06| 1°52] 0°52] H. P. White 7-11| 3:02) 5:26] 5:90] 2°35] 0:30] 1°31] 0:04] 2°01} 0°88 do. 7°44! 5°73) 7:26) 3:42! 1:80] 0°82] 1°56] 0-:09| 2°78) 0-59| J.C. H. Mingaye 8°01 | 13°84| 8°88| 3:15] 2°16] 0-23] 1°75)... 1°60 | 0°37 | H. P. White 9°00|10°56| 7:95} 2:94] 0-97] 0°88] 1°72} 0:03} 2:20] 0°65| D. Mawson 7°83 | 10°04] 10:00] 1°94} 1:39] 1°09] 8-21) G-01] 1:°:01/ 0:41| H. P. White 6:12| 5:44! 6:15] 6:40] 2°32] 2°20! 0:26 \absent] 2°40) 0°56) W. N. Benson Nig 1:17; 6:06] 3°73] 3°33] 0°52] 0°85! 080] 4°87 | trace | H. I. Jensen 12°15| 5°06| 7:47| 3°85] 1°58] 1°59] 0-33]... 3°08) 0°79) G. R. Patten 2°31 | 0°30| 1°88] 6:12} 4:02] 0:38) 0°83! 0:05! 0:20] 0:28] D. Mawson 0-21! O42] 0:30] 8°22) 5°07] 2°10! 2:22)... i .. | J.C. H. Mingaye 1:99} 0:06) 0°09] 6:35| 5°77] 0°43) 0:27 jabsent| 0°25 jabsent! H. I. Jensen 0°20) O-3L|} 0°10] 4°88] 6:21] 1°33] 0°72) trace | 0°60 labsent do. 1°96; O-OL| 1°12! 7:01 6°25] 1°31] 0°38 | trace | 0°25 jabsent do. 4°66 | 0°57 | 2:49] 4°51] 6°39] 1:28] 0°59! 0:06| 0°76 | trace do. 6°87 | 4°62] 6:36| 3:93] 3:27] 1:44] 0°58] 0:29] 3°54] trace do. 1:16| 0°16| 0-46} 5:23] 6°11] 1°35] 1°95/| trace | 0°58 labsent do. 4:04! 0°39} 1°93] 4:25] 6:31] 0°36] 0°64! 0°16] 1°02 do. 1:87 | 0°83] 4°63] 3°66] 3°93] 2:06] 1°08; 0°04] 4°71]... do. 1°71] 0-19] 0°18] 5:84] 3°69] 9°33] 0-21! 0:03! 0°12] 0:16] H. P. White 0°67 | 0°30| 0°44] 6°82) 3°95} (—-0°945 * O13) ... | H.I Jensen GO| 1-01 | 3°16) 6°71 |: 5:86} 0:49) O11) ... Portales do. 6°12) 3-71 | 7:40] 3°61] 2°21] 0°95) 1°64] 0-20] 1°85| 0°78! W. G. Stone 1°50 | 0:17) 1:03) 3:26| 4°87| 3°50] 0°35) ... nil 0:09 | J. O. H. Mingaye 1:08] 0°16| 0°64] 3:04] 5°07] 3:86) 1:02] 0:01} 0°13| 0:02 do. 1°43 | 0°43) 0:87] 4:03) 4°92] 0°54] nil ih 0:39] 0-11] G. R. Patten 7:43 | 4°43] 7°97] 3°81] 1°15] O88! nil on 2°35 | 0°46 do. 4°67 | 10°25 | 9:44] 1°56] 5°68] 0-77] 2°73] 0:20| 0°84] 0°66] W. A. Greig 26 C. A. SUSSMILCH. (a) The Gloucester District—The Burindi series here is about 10,000 feet in thickness, and consists of conglome- rates, mudstones, limestones, tuffs, and lava flows. Throughout the whole series, beds of tuffs occur interstra- tified with the other sediments, and many of these sedi- ments are tuffaceous. These tuffs appear, for the most part, to be keratophyre tuffs. The voleanic material is most strongly in evidence in the upper half of the series, and here there are three lava flows with an aggregate thick- ness ranging up to nearly 1000 feet. These lavas, as will be seen from the analysis on Table I., have the composi- tion of quartz-keratophyres; they consist very largely of quartz and felspar, and contain a very high proportion of albite felspar, and with little or no ferro-magnesian minerals. (b) The Clarence Town District—A similar series of Burindi Beds oceur here, but only the upper portion is exposed. Tuffs similar to those of the Gloucester District are abundantly developed, and here also there are three lava flows. In a previous communication by the writer, (65) they have been referred to as andesite, but as they are highly aphanitic, and as no analyses were made, it may possibly be that they also are keratophyres. (c) The Currabubula District —W. N. Benson,‘ has described the occurrence of tuffs in the Burindi Beds here, but has not recorded any lava flows. B. The Kuttung Epoch. It was during this epoch that the culmination of the voleanie activity of the Carboniferous Period took place. That part of the State which had been under marine con- ditions during the Burindi Epoch, now become dry land, and on this land centres of volcanic activity developed, from which immense quantities of lava and voleanie ash were ejected. In the southern part of the area, a continu- ee RIES. Dacite ate a ee ne arti _ a ae oe —_—_—_—— —— eee ite and Tuff _ —_—_ —_—_—— Ss ae le Andesite Pilate J. Section al Rhyolite ? Dacite Andesite GVIYWAL ANIAWAS ~\, ZININNAY YA Y-VI-VINY- ELV YU] Hypersthene Andesite 4 / N IN, YN uh) IM SISY Dacite NIAINI NY andesite NIATATANZ! ETL ALLL) eavorite === Andesite Tuff XIX7XINA| Andesite XINENUATT Andesite Tuff Andesite _ Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LVIL., 1928. Place 1. Seclion al Gilmore Range. (Osborme.) SECTIONS OF THE KUTTUNG VOLCANIC SERIES. Scale 1 inch equal 450 feet (approximate). Rhyolite Dacite~ co oooo SS Seclion ar Section al’ Rhyolite — ~ Glen — Oak > Section at (-M--m) nN Osborne. Marlins Creek, Keratophyr 0 0 0 0 0 Rhyolite ecooos Rhyolite ? Dacite ° ooo os | Conglomerate SeSuse Dacite Rhyolite coooeo Dacite SS = = — — _— Dellenite — — Andesite Dellenite Hypersthene Andesite Dacite Andesite Rhyolite Andesite Tuff XIXAXINAN Andesit EXPN AY Z| ADEESNe Andesite Tuff Andesite =| enute NININING| Andesite VANANANAS ny DN \. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 27 ous line of voleanic rocks extends from Port Stephens on the coast westwards past Clarence Town, Seaham, Pater- son, Eelah, and Hudson’s Peak, to Muswellbrook, and swings northwards from there to Scone and Currabubula, a distance of about 150 miles. Northwards of the Hunter River are voleanic rocks of similar age, which have been recorded at Stroud Road, Gloucester, and on the Drake Goldfield. These voleanic rocks have been studied in some detail in the Hunter River District, where the Kuttung Series has been sub-divided as follows (in descending order :— Pa aes The Main Glacial Beds.. .. 1840 III.—The Glacial Stage .. ; The Paterson Toocanites .. 290 | The Mt. Johnston Beds . .. 2100 II.—The Voleanic Stage The Mt. Gilmore-Martin’s Creek Beds .. .. .. .. 2600 (The Wallarobba Tuffs .. .. 800 I.—The Basal Stage +The Wallarobba Conglome- PACS chai isn ee aks 500 NOGA ws hi sen isi ee, ee RON Voleanic rocks occur to a greater or less extent throughout the whole series, but attain their maximum development in the middle or volcanic stage. (a) The Seaham-Paterson Area (Lower Hunter River Area).—The Wallarobba conglomerates have a more or less tuffaceous matrix, and contain layers of tuffs inter- tratified with them. The Wallarobba tufts, which follow them, have not been examined petrologically, but are either andesitic or keratophyre tuffs. With regard to the voleanic stage, the succession of strata is given for four lozalities in Plate I. This stage has its greatest thickness in the Mt. Gilmore Range, near Clarence Town, where the thickness is 2900 feet, and includes 13 distinct lava flows, with an aggregate thickness of 1,375 feet.6) Tuffs and tuffaceous conglomerates are inter-bedded with these flows. The sections at Glen Oak and Martin’s Creek are 28 Cc. A. SUSSMILCH. in general similar to that at the Mt. Gilmore Range, but the section at Helah is somewhat different, consisting very largely of lava flows only, and these include a much larger proportion of andesites than occur elsewhere, aggre- gating nearly 1000 feet in thickness. In the succeeding glacial stage there is a considerable development of tufts in the Mt. Johnstone Beds, followed by a final lava flow, the Paterson Toscanite, ranging up to 290 feet in thick- ness, while the succeeding Main Glacial Beds also contain some tuifs. The order of succession of the lava flows from the Kut- tung Series is generally as follows :— 1. Hornblende Andesite. 2. Hypersthene Andesite Glass. 3. Quartz Keratophvre. 4. Rhyolites, Dacites, and Dellenites. 5. Toscanite. And if we consider the volcanic activity as continuing on into the Lower Marine sub-division of the Permo-Carboni- ferous System, we get a final eruption of basalts, which oceurs not far above the top of the Kuttung Series. The succession at Eelah, as may be seen by Plate I., was somewhat different. There are also differences in the sec- tion described by Messrs. Browne and Walkom,'™)at Pokol- bin, some miles south of Eelah, who give the following suecession for that locality :— 1. Rhyolite. 2. Trachyte (? Keratophyre). 3. Trachyte-Andesites. 4. Dacites. These differences are probably due to overlapping of lava flows from different centres of eruption. The great thick- ness of andesites at Helah suggests that the andesites came mainly from that neighbourhood. Prof. T. W. E. David, (?) PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 29 has described a great mass of andesite occurring at Blair Duguid, some eight miles to the south-west of Eelah. This mass of andesite is now surrounded by the Lower Marine Series of Permo-Carboniferous age, and was at one time completely submerged by them. It no doubt stood as an andesitic voleano on the Kuttung land-surface, and. as this land subsided in the succeeding Lower Marine Epoch, it became an island, and was finally submerged under the Lower Marine Sediments; these latter, in the neighbourhood, contain conglomerates composed largely of andesite boulders. Eastwards, the andesites become progressively thinner; at Martin’s Creek they are 350 feet in thickness, while at the Mt. Gilmore Range they are only about 100 feet in thickness. In the Mt. Gilmore Range, on the other hand, the more acid lavas have their greatest thickness, and there was no doubt a centre of eruption somewhere hereabouts. At Paddy’s Hill, some three miles east of Mt. Gilmore, there is a rhyolite hill surrounded by the Lower Marine natrolite basalts. This, also, was a Kuttung voleano, later surrounded by the Permo-Carboniferous sea, and subsequently covered by Permo-Carboniferous sediments, and, like Blair Duguid, now again re-exposed to view by recent denudation. A number of analyses of Kuttung lavas are given in Table I., but no complete set of analyses of all the flows from any one locality has yet been made, and until this is done it will be difficult to correlate the flows from different localities, as the names now given to some of these flows may need revision when more complete chemical data are available. Dr. W. R. Browne is now engaged in making a detailed study of the Kuttung lavas of the Hudson’s Peak area, while Mr. G. Osborne is doing similar work from the Paterson-Seaham area. Their results will be awaited with much interest. 30 Cc. A. SUSSMILCH. (b) Muswellbrook and Scone.—At both of these locali- ties, the writer has noted the occurrence of acidie and sub-acidic lava flows interstratified with the Kuttung sedi- ments, which lie just east of these two towns. These lava flows are exactly like those of the Seaham-Paterson area. (c) Currabubula.—Messrs. Benson and Browne, 2°) have described the Kuttung series of this area, and have recorded the occurrence of a considerable development of keratophyre tuffs, but no corresponding lava flows. They have also noted the occurrence of sills of andesite intrud- ing the Kuttung series; both chemically and mineralogi- cally these are similar to the andesite lava flows of the Lower Hunter, and are considered to belong to the same series. These sills range up to 1500 feet in thickness; analyses of them are given in Table I. An interesting fea- ture here is the occurrence of several small flows of basalt and some basalt tuffs in the upper part of the Kuttung series. Dr. Benson has also noted the occurrence of some dacitiec lava flows still further north, at Nundle. (d) Gloucester District—The Burindi Series of this dis- trict has already been referred to on page23. The Kut- tung Series, which overlies the Burindi Series here, con- sists almost entirely of rhyolite lava flows, aggregating 1500 feet in thickness. No andesites appear to occur here. These rhyolites form the backbone of the ranges which oc- eur both to the east of the town (Mograni Mountain), and to the west of the town (Gloucester Buckets). From the analysis given in Table I., it will be seen that the lava here is a typical potash rhyolite. (e) Drake District—In 1908 E. C. Andrews, © described a series of voleanic rocks occurring in the Drake Goldfield, which he considered represents two periods of volcanic activity, as follows :— PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. aid (1) An older one, productive of whitish to grey fel- sites, purple and green lavas, tuffs and breccias. (2) A younger one, productive of blue and purple ag- | glomerates, breccias, lavas, and tuffs, associated with ma- rine sediments. He included both of these in the Permo-Carboniferous system, but is now of opinion that the lower series is probably of Kuttung age. The older or Kuttung Series consists of rhyolites and rhyolite breccias and tuffs, traversed by numerous quartz veins. Mt. Carrington, near Drake, is considered by Mr. Andrews to be a much-dismembered volcanic pile, later submerged and covered by the Lower Marine rocks. V.—The Permo-Carboniferous Period. Voleanie activity, which had been such a pronounced feature during the Carboniferous Period, still continued, during the succeeding Permo-Carboniferous Period, but with much less intensity, and at no one locality did it eontinue throughout the period, The subdivisions of the Permo-Carboniferous Period with the volcanic activity is shown in the following table in descending order :— Localities where Nature of the Epochs. Voleanic Rocks Volcanic Rocks. ms occur. Upper Coal Measures | Murrurundi Dist. Basalts. Illawarra Dist. 0. Lithgow and New-) Acidic Tuffs castle Dists. (Cherts). Dempsey Shales None. None. Middle Coal Measures do. do. Upper Marine Series | Illawarra Dist. Basalts & Latites. Lower Coal Measures | None. None. Lower Marine Series | Hunter River Dist.| Basalts. Drake Dist. Basic and_ Inter- mediate Tuffs and Breccias. It will be seen from the above that most of the volcanic rocks belonging to this period are basalts and latites. 32 Cc. A. SUSSMILCH. (a) The Lower Marine Epoch.—In the Hunter River District there occurs near the base of the Lower Marine Series a thick and persistent bed of basalt. In the neigh- bourhood of Raymond Terrace this flow (or series of flows) attains a thickness of about 1200 feet, and has tuffs and tuffaceous shales both above and below it. It extends from here westwards to Gosforth and Pokolbin, but with decreasing thickness, but still forms a prominent horizon in the Lower Marine Series. No analysis of this basalt is available, but Dr. W. R. Browne reports that the basic felspars in this rock at Gosforth are sodic, showing both albitization and scoletization, and concludes that the rock has affinities with the spilites. No pillow structure has yet, however, been recorded. Probably belonging to this horizon is a series of basalts and basalt tuffs and agglome- rates, occurring at Warragundi Mountain, near Currabu- bula. Messrs. W. N. Benson and W. BR. Browne, ®) have deseribed this occurrence, and suggest that Warragundi Mountain was a centre of eruption. As this basalt horizon occurs not very far above the top of the Kuttung Series, it is quite possible that this flow is really a continuation of the Kuttung volcanic series already described, and was the closing phase of that period of vulcanicity. From the Drake District E. C. Andrews, has de- scribed the occurrence of a series of andesitic breccias and tuffs and lavas, interstratified with strata containing marine fossils, and occurring at the base of the Lower Marine Series. These, also, follow closely upon the Kuttung volcanic series of that district, as described in the previous section. No other volcanic horizon has been recorded from the Lower Marine Series, nor have any volcanic rocks been recorded from the Lower Coal Measures. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 33 (b) The Upper Marine Epoch.—Although the Upper Marine Series have a thickness of about 6000 feet in the Hunter River District, they contain no volcanic rocks, but during this epoch a centre of vulcanicity developed in what we now eall the Ilawarra District. The upper part of the Upper Marine Series, in parts of the district, consist practically entirely of volcanic rocks, aggregating 1200 feet in thickness, and the volcanic rocks extend into the lower part of the Upper Coal Measures. These volcanic rocks have their maximum development in that part of the district adjacent to the town of Kiama, and the succession of rocks here is shown in descending order in the following table compiled by Mr. J. B. Jacquet.‘ :— Thickness, Feet. (Shales and Coal Seams.. 140-530 Upper Coal Measures .. Minnamurra Flow . .. .. 120 PERSE en arte cue. gees. Cons tO Cambewarra Flow .. .. 60-600 Saddleback-Dapto Flow .. 100-250 Jamberoo Tuffs .. .. .. 180-510 Upper Marine Series ..4;Bumbo Flow .. .. .. .. 80-500 Kiama: Tuts) 30) oay7 a 120 | Blowhole Flow .. Ga IAG eugene! Park Tuffs .. .. 40 Marine Strata .. .. .. ab. 2000 These volcanic rocks extend as far north as Wollongong, and as far south as Termeil, a total length of 52 miles. Most of the flows appear to thicken eastwards and to thin out westwards, indicating that the points of eruption were probably eastwards of the present shore-line. Mr. L. F. Harper (4) considers that there were at least three distinct centres of eruption—one at the southern end near Termeil, one in the neighbourhood of Kiama, and one near Port Kembla. Analyses of these flows are given on Table I., and it will be seen that for such basic rocks they are rather rich in alkalies, particularly potash; and the normative mineral composition of these lavas gives from 15 to 34 per cent. C—May 2, 1923, 34 ©. A. SUSSMILCH. of orthoclase molecules. Dr. W. R. Browne has pointed out that some of these rocks show evidence of albitization ; they should, therefore, be classed with the latites rather than with-the basalts. The petrology of this series has been fully described by Mr. G. W. Card.‘?8) No volcanic rocks appear to occur in the Middle Coal Measures, nor in the Dempsey Beds. (c) Upper Coal Measures.—The occurrence of basalts (latites) and tuffs in the Upper Coal Measures of the Southern Illawarra District has already been referred to. Basalts occur also in this series in the north-western coal basin at Murrurundi and at Gunnedah. From Murru- rundi, Mr. J. E. Carne,’?®) recorded the occurrence of basic lavas and tuffs 1200 feet in thickness, associated with the Upper Coal Measures. No detailed description of these voleanic rocks has, however, been published. : An interesting feature of the Upper Coal Measures is the occurrence of a number of beds of chert which have apparently a voleanic origin. These beds are well-developed in the neighbourhood of Neweastle, and also occur in the Lithgow District; the beds range from a few inches up to several feet in thickness, and are regularly interstratified with the other rocks of the coal-measures. Mr. G. W. Card, who has examined these cherts under the microscope, states that they consist of minute fragments of felspar and volcanic glass. This material is exceedingly fine, and may have come a very long distance; all that can be said is that during the Upper Coal Measure Epoch showers of the very finest voleanic ash fell at intervals into the coal- measure swamps, derived probably from some quite distant source. VI. The Mesozoic Era. Voleanie action, which had been so prevalent in New South Wales during the Paleozoic Era, appears to have PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 35 been almost entirely absent during the Mesozoic Era. The exception is the occurence of some tuffaceous beds in the Narrabeen Series, the lowest subdivision of the Triassic System. Two horizons of these tuffs ocecur—(a) The tuffaceous beds which oceur about 500 to 600 feet above the base of the Narrabeen beds; and (b) the Chocolate Shales which occur near the top of the Narrabeen Beds. (a) The Tuffaceous Sandstones——These have been ob- served mainly in boreholes, and the analysis quoted be- low is from a sample obtained from a borehole at Rose Bay, Sydney, about 1900 feet below the surface. The analysis indicates the tuffaceous nature of these beds. They are commonly slightly cupriferous. (v) The Chocolate Shales.——These form a characteristic and well-marked horizon near the top of the Narrabeen Beds, and occur throughout the Hawkesbury Basin. They have a deep chocolate-red colour, are very fine-grained, show but little lamination, and are regularly interstra- tified with fresh-water shales and sandstones. Their peculiar lithological characters are persistent throughout the whole area, and this makes them a very useful horizon for field-mapping. The two analyses given below, from localities nearly 40 miles apart, show also the persistent chemical composition. These chocolate shales are considered to be re-distributed tuffs, although the chemical composi- tion is not very strongly suggestive of a volcanic origin. Analyses of Chocolate Shale. Tuffaceous Sandstones. et Rose Bay Bore, Helensburgh. Long Reef. Sydney Narrabeen. (Depth, 1900ft.). BiG’. 5° .\. 36.42 38.98 61.65 AlzOa . .. 31.48 28.00 13.29 HesO, .. .. 15.50 14.39 2.94 MeO’... -.. 0.45 . 0.98 6.44 MgO .. 0.36 0.36 3.44 CaO... .. 0.60 0.15 1.64 ING Oa 0.24 0.08 2.44 Jc (0 seen 0.09 0.18 0.66 36 ©. A. SUSSMILCH. a ae Rose Bay Bore, one Reef, Sydney. Helensburgh. Nowrubess (Depth 1900 ft.) HsO wa 1.77 3.60 1.30 1S 04 On era ee 10.19 10.38 4.02 COs. ose — 0.22 0.90 INOa? oe 2 2.24 2.05 0.97 P20, ie 0.12 (?)1.06 0.05 COO schon as — 0.11 0.01 Analysts—E. G. Walton and E. S. Bonney, B.A. VII. The Cainozoic Era. Voleanic rocks of Tertiary age occur extensively in the eastern tableland belt of New South Wales. These volcanic rocks, according to the writer’s views, belong to at least three separate geological epochs, as follows :— Classification of the Tertiary Volcanic Rocks. The Leucite Basalts. Sub-Alkaline and Normal Basalts. Late Tertiary— Phonolites and Trachy-Andesites. The Alkaline Series | Alkaline Trachytes. | Rhyolites, Comendites, and Pantela- rites. Upper Miocene or Basalts resting upon the surface of Lower Pliocene— the East-Australian peneplain. The Plateau Basalts Lower Tertiary Basalts capping residuals of the Cre- (Up. Cretaceous)—The taceous Peneplain. Monadnock Basalts It should be understood that the above classification has not yet received general acceptance. Some previous writers, for example, were of the opinion that the Alkaline Series were of Kocene age, and older than the plateau basalts. In arriving at the above opinions as to the relative ages of the various Tertiary volcanic rocks, the writer has been guided to a considerable extent by physiographical evi- dence, as the palaeontological evidence is both limited anc indefinite. In Fig. 1, is given a section of Mt. Dangar and the adjoining portion of the Merriwa Tableland. The latter has here a general altitude of about 1400 feet, and is SSI) o1ozoe|eg AY fsyinay [ISSOJ Yai spvo'y doog J ‘sqeseq nvoqelg eyy, G fsoyipuomog 49 ‘fso3Ayoeay, oul[eA[V J ‘Soplsopuy pur sqzesegq pv ‘suIpIUNnOpY svjogouny ay? fo jand Huimoys qorv4gsig abun. LQ ey) Ut WOLQIAT dIQvULLULD.LODIGT —Z ‘Sq : soos oe oe RF Ws x «MK KK Sas Seana oe ee Ge ‘soansvo yy [ROD dodd() Wy ‘sozer9M0|Su0D pur souoyspurg oIssely, 9 S syeseq yooupeuoy g ‘szeseg nevoyw[g P “punyaqyy varrioayy ayz fo pund buimoys worjoogy oyjoummnubvig — | “Bq | — —— —_——— —_—_—_—— —_—_____ ——____ ——____. ———— a —_——— eS —_—_— _ Se a. a a. LS ee acre ere a ee 9 = eT = ees . ° aCe eG . ° Cina ROTTS Nel ew aS puryaiqey emia, 4esueg }UNOIA} 38 C. A. SUSSMILCH. capped by basalt over a very large area. It is proposed to call these basalts the Plateau Basalts, because both here and in many other places they form the surface layer of the present-day tablelands. The surface of the Merriwa Tableland, in common with the surfaces of the various. other tablelands in eastern New South Wales, is a pene- plain (the East-Australian Peneplain), which was elevated to its present position at the close of the Tertiary Period (the Kosciusko Epoch). This uplift varied in amount in different parts of the State, the Merriwa Tableland area being elevated only 1400 feet. Mt. Dangar is a monad- nock, rising about 800 feet above the level of the surface of the Merriwa Tableland, and is obviously a residual of the earlier tableland out of which the East-Australian Peneplain was cut. It also is capped by basalt, and this basalt, if part of a flow, must obviously belong to an earlier geological epoch than the plateau basalts. Many such basalt-capped residuals occur in the Blue Mountain Table- land, and for these basalt cappings the name ‘‘ Monadnock Basalts’’ is proposed. The Plateau Basalts are everywhere found to be tra- versed by a system of broad, shallow, mature valleys, from 200 to 300 feet deep. This feature is not confined to the basalt areas, but is found wherever undissected areas of the Hast-Australian Peneplain occur, quite regardless of what the surface rocks may be. These will be referred to as the Upland Valley System. Cutting back into the present-day tablelands, and cutting across both the Plateau Basalts and the Upland Valley System are the valleys and gorges of the present cycle of erosion. In Fig. 2 is shown a section of that part of the Orange Tableland, upon which the Canoblas Mountains stand. Here, again, may be seen the East-Australian Peneplain, with its veneer of Plateau Basalts and its Upland Valley System; but in PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 39 addition we have the voleanic pile of the Canoblas Moun- tains, with its alkaline lavas and tuffs deposited on top of both the Plateau Basalts and the Upland Valleys. This © alkaline series belongs, therefore, to a younger geological epoch than the Plateau Basalts. In this section, also, is shown a deep-lead containing fossil leaves and fruits, un- derlying (and therefore older than) the Plateau Basalts. Summarising these various features in descending chrono- logical order, we get the following :— Close of the Tertiary The Kosciusko Uplift. Period Late Tertiary The Alkaline Series. Lower or Middle Plio- The development of the Upland Val- cene : leys, following a sma!l uplift. Upper Miocene or The Plateau Basalts. Lower Pliocene Lower to Middle Ter- The cutting out of the East-Australian tiary Peneplain. Early Tertiary The Monadnock Basalts. Upper Cretaceous The cutting out of the Cretaceous Peneplain, followed by an uplift of from 600 to 800 feet. A. The Monadnock Basalts. These, as has already been explained, occur as cappings on residuals of the Cretaceous Peneplain. An important eroup of these residuals occurs on the northern part of the Blue Mountain Tableland. These include Kerry Moun- tain, Nullo Mountain, Mt. Coriaday, and Mt. Monundilla; the basalt cappings range from 100 to 300 feet in thick- ness. On the same tableland, but further to the south, is another group of these residuals. These include Mts King George, Bell, Tomah, Wilson, Irvine, and Hay. Here, again, the basalt cappings range from 100 to 300 feet in thickness. In several cases the basalts lie in definite stream channels, and overlie waterworn boulders, showing that in those cases, at least, the basalts are actual flows. The nature and arrangement of these occurrences indicate that this basalt at one time covered much more extensive areas than it does now. The basalt capping the Bald Hills near 40 C. A. SUSSMILCH. Bathurst also belongs to this series, and here also they overlie river gravels. Analyses of some of these basalts are given in Table IJ.; their petrological characters have been fully described by Mr. G. W. Card.‘%) B. The Plateau Basalts. These flows, naturally, have suffered much less denuda- tion than the Monadnock Basalts, and still cover extensive areas of the northern, central, and southern tablelands, while the many remnants still remaining in many localities where the tablelands have been extensively dissected dur- ing the present cycle of erosion, show that the extent of these flows was originally much greater than it is to-day. The usual thickness of the Plateau Basalts is from 200 to 400 feet, but in parts of New England, notably in the McPherson Range, at Guy Fawkes, and on the Barrington Tableland, the thickness ranges up to 1000 feet. The Plateau Basalts are typically fine-grained, olivine basalts, but in some localities, notably at the south-western corner of the Barrington Tableland, coarse-grained olivine dole- rites are interstratified with the ordinary basalts. There is, however, a probability, as suggested by Dr. W. N. Ben- son, of these dolerites being intrusive into the finer- grained flows. From the Bingara Range, Dr. Benson has obtained the following section :— Thickness Feet. Newer Basalte .. "£00.02 20 River Sands: and -Gravelsis4* 4ye40 eo See ee oe Older Basalts : a2! ais: sh csc terete Pon ey ee Sands, Clays and Gravels (with fossil fruits) .. 400 This section indicates that at least two different out- bursts occurred, separated by a period of quiescence; both flows, however, belong to the Plateau Basalt Series. Sir T. W. E. David has similarly recorded the occurrence of two PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 4] distinct flows at Emmaville, with an aggregate thickness of 300 feet, separated by 40 feet of voleanic ash. These flows overlie stanniferous deep-leads containing Tertiary fossil leaves. On the Central Tableland, notable occurrences of Plateau Basalts occur at Gulgong and at Forest Reefs. At each of these loealities the basalts overlie deep-leads containing fossil leaves and fruits. These fossil plants are important, as they are the only palaeontological evidence we have as to the actual age of our Tertiary volcanic rocks. There have been many differences of opinion as to the geological age of these plants; the question has recently been exhaus- tively studied by R. W. Wolcott,) and he places the age of them as being either Upper Miocene or Lower Phocene. This also fixes approximately the age of the Plateau Basalts as being about the same. The Plateau Basalts are extensively developed on the Bowral-Mitta- gong Tableland, notably at Robertson, at Exeter, and at Wingello. At the last-named locality, they overlie Tertiary leaf beds. Still further to the south, they are extensively developed on the Berridale Tableland, in the Cooma Dis- trict, and at many other places. Volcanic ash deposits are associated with the Plateau Basalts to a limited extent. Their limited occurrence at Kmmaville has already been referred to; they are, how- ever, more strongly developed at Guy Fawkes, and in the McPherson Range. It has usually been assumed that the Plateau Basalts re- sulted from fissure eruptions, and this may in general be true. Sir T. W. E. David has, however, recorded the existence of remnants of tuff cones in the Emmaville dis- trict, while the writer has noted the occurrence of several basalt necks in the Upper Hunter District, one near Gundy, one alongside the road from Denman to Merriwa, and 42 ©. A. SUSSMILCH. another near Merriwa, while Dr. Benson has recorded the occurrence of several basaltic necks in the Nundle-Tam- worth District. C. The Alkaline Series. Towards the close of the Tertiary Period, a number of isolated centres of voleanic eruption developed, from which a highly-interesting series of alkaline lavas was erupted. These eruptions built up groups of volcanic cones such as the Canoblas, Warrumbungle, and Nandewar Mountains. These occurrences of alkaline rocks are limited to the eastern tableland belt, and the eruptions appear to have immediately preceded the uplift of the tablelands (Kos- elusko Uplift); and they are localised at points adjacent to lines of crustal warping or faulting. The voleaniec rocks included in this series are nearly all highly alkaline, but. the latest flows are either sub-alkaline or normal basalts. The order of eruption of the lavas at the three above- mentioned centres was as follows :— Canoblas Mts. Warrumbungle Mts. Nandewar Mts. 1. Comendites. 1. Comendites and | 1. Comendites and 2. Alkaline Pantellerites Alkaline Trachytes 2. Aegirine- Rhyolites 3. Phonolitic Trachyte and 2. Alkaline Trachytes Phonolitic Trachytes 4. Andesites and | Trachytes 3. Phonolites Basalts. 3. Phonolites 4. Alkaline 4, Trachy-Andesites Andesites 5. Andesites and 5. Alkaline Alkaline Basalts Basalts The earliest eruptions brought to the surface a series of acid alkaline and sub-alkaline lavas, which built up steep lava cones. Then came showers of volcanic ash and frag- mental material, and this was in turn followed by the out- pouring of the alkaline trachytes, phonolites, and trachy- andesites in that order. Somewhat later, but without, ap- parently, any very great interval of time, these were followed by sub-alkaline andesites and basalts, and normal PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 43. basalts. These last flows not only partly covered the earlier alkaline rocks, but in places, notably at the Canoblas Mountains, spread out on to the surrounding older Plateau Basalts. In our account of the Geology of the Canoblas Mountains, Dr. H. I. Jensen and the writer made the mistake of concluding that the whole of the basalts there belonged to one series, and to be younger in age than the alkaline rocks proper. Some years later, when the writer visited the district again in company with Mr KE. C. Andrews, this matter was re-examined, and the conclusion arrived at that there were basalts of two ages present— (a) the Plateau Basalts, older than the whole of the alkaline series, and (b) a younger series of andesites and basalts, resulting from the final eruptions of the Canoblas Mountains. It is worthy of note that both at the Canoblas Mountains and elsewhere these latter basic rocks are in nearly all cases porphyritic in texture, whereas the Plateau Basalts are typically non-porphyritic in texture. Dr. H. I. Jensen coneurs with this conelusion, and con- siders that similar conditions exist at the Warrumbungle and Nandewar Mountains. He also considers that these younger rocks are basic differentiation products of a magma rich in Al;03, Na,O, and TiO.,, and poor in MgO and FeO; and that they are the last basic residuum of an alkaline magma. The petrology of the alkaline rocks of the Canoblas, Warrumbunegle, and Nandewar Mountains has been fully described by Dr. H. I. Jensen. The Macpherson Range.—The alkaline series are also developed in the Macpherson Range, along the eastern part of the boundary between New South Wales and Queensland. Dr. H. C. Richards ©*) — has sub-divided the voleanic series here as follows :— { Olivine Basalts. 3. The Upper Division { Andesites and Andesitie Basalts. | Basalts. 44 C. A. SUSSMILCH. 2 The Middle Series Rhyolites and Trachytes, and their fragmental equivalents. 1. The Lower Series—Normal and Olivine Basalts. The basalts of the Lower Series I take to be the equiva- lents of the Plateau Basalts of other parts of New South Wales. Dr. Richards points out that the nature of the contact between this series and the one above indicates a very considerable time interval between the two. ‘The Middle and Upper Series I consider to be the equivalents of the alkaline series already described from other parts of the State. The Middle Division consists mainly of alkaline and sub- alkaline rhyolite and pitchstone with a very subordinate amount of alkaline trachyte. Fragmental rocks of the same composition occur both above and below the lava flows. These rocks attain their maximum thickness on the Springbock Plateau, where their thickness is 1,000 feet. At Mt. Lindsay there is a thickness of about 900 feet of pitchstones and tuffs, and these rest upon a thickness of 1500 feet of basalts and tuffs belonging to the Lower Series (Plateau Basalts). The Upper Series consists of an alternating series of basalt and andesite flows. They attain their maximum thickness of 2,000 feet on the Lamington Plateau, where there are no less than twenty distinet flows. The above thickness, however, appears to be quite exceptional. The Bowral District-—Two large masses of alkaline rock occur here, rising above the general level of the tableland, viz., the Gib Rock and Mt. Jellore. The Gib Rock breaks through and rises about 800 feet above the surrounding basalt-ecapped tableland, and consists of a fine-grained alkaline syenite allied to Bostonite. This is probably a partly-denuded lava cone. Mt. Jellore is a similar lava cone, consisting of an alkaline trachyte. Analyses of these two rocks are given in Table II. ‘sill PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 45, It should be noted that while the alkaline series of voleanic rocks occur at quite a number of localities, the areas covered are so small relatively that the actual bulk of these rocks is quite small as compared with the bulk of the Plateau Basalts. Owing to their special petrological and chemical interest, they have received much more attention than the basalts, and this has given them a prominence which their relative quantity does not justify. : D. The Leucite Basalts—These rocks have been re- corded from*> a number of localities in the western districts of New South Wales. Professor T. W. HE. David, ° has recorded them from Byrock and El Capitan (Cobar District); Rev. J. M. Curran, ‘?) has recorded their occurrence at Harden; while G. A, Stonier (62) has recorded them from Lake Cudgellico, also from Bygalore. In each case the area covered by them ‘ is not large, but they are unquestionably flows. The age of these flows has not been determined, but they have always been considered to be of Tertiary age. The de- seription given by G. A. Stonier of the Lake Cudgellico occurrence suggests that it is not older than the Late Tertiary, and I have therefore provisionally placed them with the Alkaline Series. The Pleistocene Period. No voleanice rocks of Pleistocene age, with one possible exception, are definitely known to occur in New South Wales. Mr. L. F. Harper,“#) has suggested that all of the basalts of the Illawarra Tableland are of Pleistocene age, and mentions particularly those which occur at Sassafras, Wingello, Robertson and Cordeaux. The writer has ex- amined the occurrences at the first three localities, and is of opinion that all three belong to the Plateau Basalt Series, and are therefore of Tertiary age; their mode of occurrence, and the physiographical features occurring A6 ©. A. SUSSMILCH. both in the basalts and on the surrounding tableland are identical with those of the plateau basalts in all other parts of the State No opportunity has occurred for examining the igneous rocks which occur at Cordeaux; Mr. Harper‘*) describes these as being ophitic-dolerites and: to vary from aphanitic to phaneric in texture; some portions are almost gabbroidal in texture. His descrip- tion of the mode of occurrence implies that he considers it to be partly intrusive and partly effusive; this, taken in conjunction with the fact that the rock”is a dolerite (coarse grained in part), raises the question as to whether the whole occurrence may not be intrusive; it would per- haps be better to suspend judgment until more definite evidence is available. No other reported Pleistocene vol- canic rocks are known to the writer. VITI.—S ummary. From the information given in the preceding pages, it will be seen that while a large amount of information is now available in connection with the voleanic rocks of New South Wales, very much has still to be learned. Our knowledge of the detailed petrology and distribution of the voleanic rocks of the Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian Periods is quite limited. ‘We have a more de- tailed knowledge of the voleanic rocks of the Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous Periods, but for certain districts only. Similarly with regard to the Tertiary Period we have a fairly complete knowledge of the Alkaline Series, but a quite limited knowledge of the Monadnock Basalts and the Plateau Basalts. Owing to these very numerous gaps in our knowledge, it is impossible to put forward any generalizations of real value; nevertheless, there are some interesting features which might be briefly referred to The following table summarises the general features of New South Wales vuleanology :— PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 47 Summary of Volcanic Action. . Volcanic Period. Rocks. Cambrian None known Ordovician Andesites Silurian Rhyolites Lower Rhyolites Devonian Middle Rhyolites Devonian Upper Rhyolites and Devonian Basalts Lower Car-_ |Keratophyres boniferous (Burindi) Upper Car- Andesite to boniferous Rhyolite, acid (Kuttung) rocks prepon- derating Permo-Car- Basalts and boniferous Latites Triassic Basaltic (very limited) Jurassic None known Cretaceous None known Lower Basalts Tertiary Middle 'Basalts Tertiary Late Tertiary Alkaline Series and Basalts Conditions of Sedi- mentation. Marine Marine Terrestrial Marine Marine Marine Terrestrial Marine and Fresh- water Terrestrial Terrestrial Terrestrial mainly | Terrestrial Terrestrial Terrestrial Tectonic Conditions. Subsidence, with heavy sedimentation Subsidence, with heavy sedimentation Standstill, following uplift. Subsidence, with heavy sedimentation Subsidence, with mod- erate sedimentation Subsidence, with heavy sedimentation Uphft Intermittent subsid- ence, with alternat- ing periods of rela- tive stability and heavy sedimentation Standstill, with limited local subsidence Standstill, with limited local subsidence Standstill, with limited local subsidence Uplift and denudation Uplift and denudation Uplift and denudation A study of this table, taking the State as a whole, brings out the following features :— J. The vuleanicity, so far as we know, started with intermediate voleanic rocks in the Ordovician Period. the three succeeding Periods—Silurian, Devonian, In and Carboniferous—the rocks were dominantly acidic; while from that on to the end of the Teritary Period, the vol- canic rocks were dominantly basic. 48 Cc. A. SUSSMILCH. II While volcanic activity was more or less pronounced throughout both the Paleozoic and Cainozoie Eras, it was a quite unimportant feature during the Mesozoic Era. III. The composition of the volcanic rocks does not appear to have any definite relation to the particular tee- tonic conditions prevailing at the time of their formation; for example, acidic lavas are associated with conditions of subsidence in one period, and with conditions of uplift. in another period. IV. Pronounced voleanic activity does not appear to have been necessarily connected with heavy sedimentation, as during some periods it was associated with uphft and denudation; nevertheless, each period of extensive subsi- dence and marine sedimentation seems to have had more or less voleanic activity. V. Voleanie activity ceased somewhere about the end of the Tertiary Period. There are neither active nor dormant voleanoes in New South Wales to-day. VI. Both the plateau basalts and the alkaline volcanic series of the Tertiary Period occur in a region of epeiro- genic uplift and block-faulting, but the outpouring of these lavas does not appear to have closely followed a period of pronounced uplift, but rather to have followed a long period of denudation; the aggraded river channels covered by the plateau basalts rather suggest that the vuleanicity followed a small subsidence. That the Tertiary alkaline series preceded and did not follow the _ great Kosciusko uplift is indicated by the fact that, as pointed out by Dr. H. I. Jensen, these rocks in the Nandewar Mountains have been displaced by the faults of the Kosciusko Epoch. VII. The Tertiary Leucite Basalts do not occur in the region of mayor Tertiary crustal movement (the Eastern Tableland Belt) but appear to be limited in their occur- PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 49 rence to a relatively low-lying region (the Cobar Table- land), which appears to have been subjected to only relatively small uplifts during this period. This seems to parallel the occurrence of Leucite basalts such as those in the Malayan Are and in Japan, which in both eases have been erupted in regions in the rear of the lines of main tectonic movement. VIII. Eastern New South Wales has, throughout the Ter- tiary Period, been a very definite Petrographical Province ; the basalts of the plateau series are ali, so far as we know them, of a similar type; while the lavas of the alkaline series, as has been pointed out by Dr. H. I. Jensen ‘), show remarkable similarity for all the localities where they occur. This Tertiary Petrographical Province ex- tends well up into Eastern Queensland and southwards into Victoria. Similarly the north-eastern part of New South Wales was a very definite petrographical province, both during the Devonian Period and in the succeeding Carboniferous Period. REFERENCES. Andrews, E. C., B.A. 1. The Yalwal Goldfield—Mineral Resources, No. 9, Dept. of Mines, N.S.W., 1901. 2. The Kiandra Lead—Mineral Resources, No. 10, Dept. of Mines, N.S.W., 1901. 3. An Outline of the Tertiary History of New England— Records of the Geological Survey of N.S.W., Vol. VHI., Part HI., 1903. 4. The Geology of the New England Plateau, Part L., Physiography—Records of the Geological Survey of N.S.W., Vol. VIII, Part IV., 1904. 5. The Drake Goldfield—Mineral Resources No. 12, Dept. of Mines, N.S.W., 1908. . The Parkes-Forbes Goldfield—Do. No. 138, 1910. . The Canbelego Goldfield—Do. No. 18, 1913. . The Cargo Goldfield—Do. No. 19, 1915. . 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Nepheline on Post-Triassic Basalts of the Hawkesbury Sandstones Area. Records of Geological Survey of N.S.W., Vol. VII., Part III., 1903. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 53 Card, G. W., A.R.S.M., and Jaquet, J. B., A-R.S.M. 25. Geology of the Cambewarra Mountain, N.S.W. Records of the Geological Survey of N.S.W., Vol. VII., Part IIT., 1908. 26. Geology of the Kiama-Jamberoo District. Do., Vol. VIIL, Part I., 1905. Card, G. W., A.R.S.M., and Mingaye, J. H. 27. Analcite Rocks of the Sydney District. Records of the Geological Survey of N.S.W., Vol. VII., Part ITI., 1902. Carne, J. E. 28. Geology and Mineral Resources of the Western Ccal- field of N.S.W., Memoir No. 6. Geological Survey of N.S.W., 1908. 29. Kerosene Shale Deposits of N.S.W., Geology No. 3. Geological Survey of N.S.W., 1908. 30. The Tin-mining Industry. Mineral Resources, No. 14, Dept. of Mines, N.S.W., 1911. Curran, J. M. - 81. Geology of Dubbo. Proceedings of Linnean Society of N.S.W., Vol. X., 1885-6 (old series). 382. Leucite Basalts in New South Wales, Do., Vol. II., 1887. 33. Geology of Bathurst, Do., Vol. VI., 1891. 34. A Contribution to the Microscopical Structure of some Australian Rocks. Proceedings of Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XXV., 1891. David, T. W. E., K.B.E., C.M.G., D.S.O., F.R.S., D.Sc. 35. Geology of the Vegetable Creek Tinfield. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of New South Wales, No. 1, 1887. 36. Leucite Basalts: Records of the Geological Survey of N.S.W., Vol. I., Part III., 1887. 37. Notes on the Occurrence of Andesitic Lavas at the Canoblas Mts., N.S.W. Proceedings of Linnean So- ciety of New South Wales, Vol. V., 1890. 38. Volcanic Action in Eastern Australia. Proceedings of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. IV., 1892. 39. Geology of the Hunter River Coal Measures: Geology No. 4: Memoirs of Geological Survey of N.S.W., 1907. — 40. The Geology of Australia: Federal Handbook for Meet- ing of British Association, 1914. Harper, L. F. 40a. Geology of the Southern Coalfield. Geology No. 7. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of New South Wales, 1915. 52 Cc. A. SUSSMILCH. 41. Physiography of the Upper Macquarie District, New South Wales: Records of Geological Survey of New” South Wales, Vol. VIII., Page 4, 1909. 42. Geology of the Murrumbidgee District, near Yass: Records of the Geological Survey of N.S.W., Vol. IX., Page 1, 1909. 43. Age of the Illawarra Tableland Basalts: Proceedings of Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XLIX., 1915. 44, Report on the Blayney District: Ann. Report Dept. of Mines, N.S.W., Page 101, 1920. 45. Geology of the Hill End Goldfield: Mineral Rescues No. 27, Dept. of Mines, 1921. 46. The Lucknow Goldfield: Do., No. 30, Do., 1921. Jaquet, J. B., A.R.S.M. 47. The Iron-Ore Deposits of New South Wales: Memoirs of the Geological Survey of N.S.W., Geology No. 2, 1901. Jensen, H. I., D.Sc. 48. Geology of the Warrumbungle Mts., N.S.W.: Proceed- ings of Linnean Society, of N.S.W., Vol. XXXI., 1906. 49. Doz, Do. Do.,, Vol. SUX, 1907. 50. Geology of the Nandewar Mts.; Do., Vol. XXXII., 1907. 51. The Distribution of Alkaline Rocks: Do., Vol. XXXIII., 1908. 52. The Akaline Petrographical Province of E. Australia: Do., Vol. XXXIII., 1908. Jensen, H. I., D.Sc., and Sussmilch, C. A. 58. Geology of the Canoblas Mts., N.S.W.: Proceedings of Linnean Society of N.S.W., Vol. XXXIV., 1909. Mann, C. W. 54. Porphyry Intrusions at Yass, N.S.W.: Proceedings of Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LV., 1921. Taylor, T. G., D.Sc., and Mawson, D., B.Sc. 55. Geology of Mittagong: Proceedings of Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XXXVII., 1903. Mingaye, J. C. H. 56. Analyses of Leucite and Olivine Basalts: Records of Department of Mines, N.S.W., Vol. VII., Part 4. Osborne, G. D., B.Sc. 57. Geology and Petrography of the Clarence Town and Paterson Districts: Proceedings of Linnean Society of New South Wales, Vol. XLVII., 1922. Pittman, E. F., A.R.S.M. 58. Auriferous Ore-Bodies of the Lyndhurst Goldfield: Re- cords of Dept. of Mines, Vol. VII., Part 1. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 53 Richards, H. C., D.Sc. 59. The Volcanic Rocks of South-East Queensland: Proceed- ings of Royal Society of Queensland, Vol. XXVII., 1916. Shearsby, A. J. 60. On the Occurrence of Fossiliferous Tuffs and Lavas be- tween the Silurian and Middle Devonian of Cavan, Yass: Proceedings of Linnean Society of N.S.W., Vol. XXX., 1905. 61. Geology of the Yass District: Proceedings of Austra- lasian Association for the Advancement of Science, 1911. Stonier, G. A. 62. Occurrence of Leucite Basalts at Lake Cudgellico: Re- cords of Mines Department of N.S.W., Vol. III, Part 3. 63. Notes on the Gunnedah Coalfield: Records Department of Mines, N.S.W., Vol. II., Part IT. Sussmilch, CA 64. Silurian and Devonian Rocks Occurring to the West of the Canoblas Mts.: Proceedings of Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XL., 1908. 65. Volcanic Rocks of N.S.W.: New South Wales Handbook, Meeting of the British Association, Sydney, 1914. 66. An Introduction to the Geology of New South Wales: Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1922. 67. Geology of the Gloucester District of New South Wales: Proceedings of Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol, LV.,, 1922; Sussmilch, C. A., David, T. W. E., Browne, W. R., & Walkom, A. B. 68. Sequence, Glaciation, and Correlation of the Carboni- ferous Rocks of the Hunter River District: Proceed- ings of Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LIII., 1919. Sussmilch, C. A., and Stone, W. G. 69. Geology of the Jenolan Caves District: Proceedings of Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XLIX., 1915. Walcott, R. W. 70. Evidence of the Age of Some Australian Gold-drifts: Records Geological Survey of New South Wales, Vols [xX., Part, 2; 1920. Walton, E. G., and Bonney, R. S., B.A. 71. Analyses of Chocolate Shales and Tuffaceous Sand- stones from the Narrabeen Beds: Proceedings of Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XL., 1906. 54 J. READ AND J. G. BURROWS. NOTH ON THH DILUTION OF ETHYLENEBROMO- HYDRIN WITH WATER. By JOHN READ and GEORGE JOSEPH BURROWS. [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, June 6, 1923. | IN preparing aqueous solutions of pure ethylenebromohydrin for determinations of refractive index (Trans. Chem. Soc., 1920, 117, 1222), certain interesting thermal effects were noticed upon mixing the two liquids at the ordinary tem- perature. Thus, a marked fall of temperature occurred on adding water toa considerable excess of ethylenebromo- hydrin, whilst in the preparation of more dilute aqueous solutions of the substance the thermal effect was reversed. The results of further observations, made with a limited amount of ethylenebromohydrin, are recorded in this paper. Upon placing 10 grams of ethylenebromobydrin in a test- tube surrounded with cotton-wool and admitting water in successive small measured quantities from a burette, it appeared that a continuous negative thermal effect was produced until the attainment of a dilution of about 80 per cent., whilst at about 75 per cent. a positive thermal effect was manifested; this persisted to a dilution of about 10 per cent. Upon reversing the process and adding succes- sive small amounts of ethylenebromolhydrin to water, the initial positive thermal effect was followed in a similar way by a negative effect. DILUTION OF ETHYLENEBROMO-HYDRIN WITH WATER. 5D The data collected in an additional series of experiments, in which the liquids were mixed in small beakers surrounded with cotton-wool, are summarised in the appended table. In every instance, the solution was allowed to attain the temperature of the room before the addition of a further amount of either component. | Thermal Effects attending the admixture of Ethylenebromohydrin and Water. Approximate percentage of Alteration Series. [Original liquid] Added liquid bromohydrin in tem- perature Original | Final A | 20 c.c. of 5 Ce; of 100 94°60) | = "2-0" bromohydrin water IB 20 c.c. of DRCLC 2 OF S426: | 89024 |= 3° ITA water IC} The whole 2 c.c. of 89:4 |) 84-7 — 0:5° of I B water ID | The whole 2°exC., OF S477) 30-4 = 0°2° of I C water ILA 20 ce. of 2 c.c. of ) 15:0. | + 0°72 water bromobydrin Il B | The whole 2 c.c. of 15:0: |-26°1 + 0°4° of II A_ | bromohydrin PA 20 c.c. of 6 c.c. of 0 34°6 + 0°3° water. | bromohydrin TlIl B | The whole 2 Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1910 and 1911. © Weather Bureau Bulletin, 8, 1911. 7 Memoir I, Federal Council of Science and Industry, Melbourne, 1918. 60 GRIFFITH TAYLOR. Programme—lI propose to commence by a classification of the topographic units into which the area may be divided. A marked symmetry of structure is apparent in the Sydney region, and this is discussed in the second part herewith. Tben, will follow a study of type regions, of which Went- worth Falls, Jenolan, Mittagong, the Nepean Gorge, the Cattai outlet, Sydney Harbour, Broken Bay, the Narrabeen coast, Cronulla and the Bulli coast have already been investigated and illustrated by block diagrams. Some of these, together with other districts, are occupying tlhe attention of my senior students; and hence I hope that the whole region will soon be better known than any other in our Commonwealth. Main Contours—I have chosen as boundaries of the Sydney region the somewhat arbitrary limits shown in Hig. 1. On the south is included the Shoalhaven gorge and part of Jervis Bay; on the west the Great Divide is approximately the boundary, on the north the region ex- tends to Tuggerah Lakes, while the Pacific Ocean limits it to the east. The topography can only be accurately shown by contours in the north-east quarter, where the military maps now extend approximately from Camden to Lake Macquarie. Unfortunately this rectangle is incomplete in the north- -west (around Windsor), though no doubt military contours will be available here in the near future. For the remainder of the Sydney Littoral we have various railway levels and trigonometrical data, amplified by special contour maps of small districts (such as Wentworth Falls) made privately. Generally speaking, the 500 feet contour surrounds the central lowland which I name the “‘Wianamatta Stillstand.”’ Thence it runs south, near the coast, along the IHlawana Scarp; and north, somewhat further from the coast, from French’s Forest to Ourimbah. THE WARPED LITTORAL AROUND SYDNEY. 61 i (Sass SSS I —————— — | a eave, i i UJ — ever. : “Glenbrook *,, > ourimbah 5 => Shiga Fig. 1—Generalised orographic map. No contours are available for most of the area. IN} = —~ Fig. 2.—Salient Geological features, from the official map. The coal is Permo- Carboniferous, the granite somewhat older and the slates chiefly Silurian. 62 GRIFFITH TAYLOR. The laud rises in the southern half of the Stillstand fairly _ rapidly from 500 to 1000 feet; i.e., in about ten miles along the railway line from Picton to Bargo. The 1000 feet contour also forms part of the Illawarra scarp. On the north of the stillstand, however, the 1000 feet contour hardly comes into the region; but on the west there is a steeper grade than on the south (i.e., the rise of 500 feet occurs between Glenbrook and Valley Heights, a distance of about five miles). The 2000 feet and 3000 feet contours run approximately north and south in the western portion of the region, but we have no accurate data except along the southern and western railway lines. The highest point is probably Mount Bindo (4460) near the Jenolan Caves. Salient Geology.—Thanks to the efforts of the Geological Survey and of the Geological Department of the University of Sydney, the geology of the region is very well known. The map of the Sydney region (issued in 1903) has been very helpful inall geographical studies. I have illustrated _the chief features in the small sketch map, (Fig. 2) and it is here sufficient to epitomise what will be discussed in detail ‘later. It will be seen that the latest deposits occur in the central lowlands and that the oldest accompany the granites in the west. It is no less a geological than an ethical truism that the lowly are preserved, while the up- lifted are cut down. Thus the recent silts of the ‘Fossil Lakes’ along the Nepean are preserved, while the uplifted gravels, of somewhat similar age, at Glenbrook and the ‘Basin’ are being eroded fairly rapidly. So also on a grander scale the Triassic shales of the Wianamatta series present an unbroken surface in the ‘stillstand,’ but have largely vanished from the uplifted margins of this lowlying area. Inthe higher regions covered by the Hawkesbury sandstone as at Katoomba and Mount Victoria (3000 feet), THE WARPED LITTORAL AROUND SYDNEY. 63 we find pinnacles, narrow necks etc., which are wanting in the lower portions of the same Triassic layer nearer Sydney. Other factors of course are concerned in the question of the relation of topography to stratigraphy. Under the resistant Hawkesbury Sandstone with its marked vertical joints, are two series of much weaker sediments. The Narrabeen series (chiefly shales) has determined the topo- graphy very largely along the coast north of Sydney; while the weakness of the coal measures and marine series of the Permo-Oarboniferous has led to extensive “sapping’ beneath the Hawkesbury, This is a major factor in the evolution of the south coast plain and of the famous Blue Mountain Gorges. Chapter II. Classification of Regions. (See Fig. 3) A. The Botany Region of No Uplift.1—A study of the coastal features shows that Botany Bay is quite unlike any of the adjoining inlets, now invaded by the sea. Its plan is circular and its shores are low, onall sides passing gradu- ally into shallow water, except near the Heads and at the inlet of George’s River. Inland the topography is subdued and Oook’s river exhibits senile meanders. )) 5 99 ° ao) 6 7] $2 | of? |} sa 9 20 6 ” 4 "9 54 ” \ ] . 7) 21 i ” 1} ” of os) if ig 4 ” 22 74 ” 13 ” 52 ” ry) ” 1d: 99 23 8 ” 13 ” 64 ” ( aoe | nO. Be ia Or eu; 3 Es 2:6 POP AO 20? nak, 31 ,, 43, ( 99 26 7 99 3 >) 4 99 e Sikeerercomia ” 28 8 ” = ” (G ” 9 ” tet Pen ©O.—Fed on hay and drenched. Date put in pen—29th December, 1922. Date drenching started—4th January, 1923. Date. — Amount used to make Drench, January 4 to 17, 4 tb, S. glauca to make 4 fluid oz. per day. 18 to 295) 1 tb: is 5 4 bs 9 STYPANDRA GLAUCA A SUSPECTED POISON PLANT. 99 Amount of hay fed to each of Pens Cand D. (Pen D. are controls ). Date. Amount hay fed. Oy Consumed. remaining. January f 34 Ibs. 13 Ibs. 1? Ibs. ” 5 34 ry) 1 ” aa 9 9 6 3 ” t 9 23 ” ” (( 3 9) ey a 9 my) 3) 3h 9 3g 7) 99 9 4 9 hear 4 9 9 10 4i rr) 4 99 4 99 eek Go-28 es ay yee ee Total t A t per head Amount per head = No. of Sheep. ee maamieas “ eataaned: per aay-coneunied! A. 6 118 tbs. of S. 19-6 hb. ‘7 Ibs. glauca B. 2 112 tbs mixture DOG, 2 2 I 2 |90,, hay a5voR ene * Amount of hay fed with S. glauca from Ist to 8rd was substracted. No untoward symptoms of any kind were detected either during the experiment or after its completion. Summary of Feeding Experiments. Stypandra glauca has been fed to live stock to test its reputed poisonous properties. The plant was fed to animals of five species, viz., horses, cattle, sheep, guinea pigs, and kangaroo. The number of individual animals experimented with was 32, made up of 4 horses, 2 cows, 1 calf, 22 sheep, 2 guinea pigs, and 1 kangaroo. Experiments were carried out in five different months, January, May, June, September and December, and were Spread over three years. Material was obtained from three districts all of which, however, were on the western slopes. The longest period over which animals were fed exclus- ively on S. glauca, was 25 days. The largest quantity 100 MAX HENRY AND W. L. HINDMARSH. eaten in a short period was 14 fbs. consumed in 3 days by a COW. In.no instance were any symptoms of poisoning shown. Fodder value of S. glauca. With a view of ascertaining whether the plant might have any value in drought time if used as bulk fodder with concentrates, the Departmental Chemist, Mr. F. B. Guthrie carried out an analysis, the results of which were:— Moisture, etc. ... ... 27°90 per cent. Ash ud uae ose ee - Fibre uP ws 40°37 as. Ether Extract (Fat etc.) 3°17 Rs Albumenoids ... von Saas ah Carbohydrates... ... 16°39 Be Obviously, its feeding value could hardly be regarded as. high, owing to the large fibre content, but the experiment with Pen ‘‘A’’ at Bangaroo, showed that even when eaten as a sole diet in small amounts, it maintained animals in normal health although condition was lost. It may be pointed out that loss of condition would have accompanied the feeding with any plant in similar quantities. Criticism of Conflicting Reports. It may be permissible to offer some criticism of the Western Australian reports even though full details of the work done are not available. Unless stock are urged by hunger they will not, with some exceptions, eat this plant. freely. Now under conditions of drought, many very indi- gestible and innutritious plants are consumed by stock and cases of visual disturbance are very common in animals which have fora long period been so fed. It does not require the presence of any particular plant in the feed to produce this condition. Pregnant ewes are most frequently affected. For the amaurosis reported to have resulted on feeding the plant to rats, we have no explanation to suggest. In conclusion, we are unable to find any evidence that Stypandra glauca, as found growing in this State is harmful to live stock, but rather that the plant will support life for comparatively extended periods. RELATIONSHIP OF THE AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES. 101 RELATIONSHIP or THE AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES. By Professor A. L. KROEBER. (Communicated by C. Hepiey.) [With Plates II - IX and Text Figures. ] [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 6, 1923.] In 1903 I began a study of the relations of the Australian languages among themselves, primarily with a view to the question of their genetic unity. In this work I was assisted _ for nearly a year by Mr.C. H. Marks, Jr. The larger part of all the lexical data available being assembled in H. M. Ourr’s Australian Race,' the study was based on this work, supplemented by some twenty vocabularies published sub- sequently,” which contributed information on a number of important areas which Curr was forced to pass over in silence. The plan followed was this. The native terms for a number of fundamental concepts, chiefly nouns and mostly such as denoted body parts, were transcribed as well as might be into a standardized orthography. This procedure of course introduced an element of conjecture but seemed unavoidable in view of the phonetic inadequacy and diversity of the orthography in which most Australian vocabularies have been rendered. Forms which were patently similar were then reckoned as going back to a common origin, without any endeavour to explain differences through sound shifts or on the basis of a refined analysis of the original recorder’s peculiarities of transcription. This was asummary method: but the undertaking was a pioneer one, in which an over-accurate technique would have been 1 Four volumes, Melbourne and London, 1886-87. 2 See Fig. 3 and list of works supplementary to Curr, below. 102 A. L. KROEBER. sterile. All the occurrences ofa single stem and its variants were then plotted ona map. At first the several funda- mental stems for one concept, such as ‘‘eye,’’ were repre- sented by different colours on one map. It was soon found that for most concepts the distribution of stems was so irregular, and their number so great, that such maps yielded no very clear picture. The data for each concept were therefore entered on several maps, each of which showed the distribution of a single stem, or three, four, or five stems if the geographical range of these was comparatively narrow. A selection from these plots (maps 1— 48) is the basis of the discussions in the present paper. This method suffers, from a precise philological stand- point, through brushing over all finer detail. It cannot therefore be free from errors. In compensation, however, it should yield a perspective which with finer technique would be obtainable only through an almost lifelong pre- occupation with the subject. The plan also has this merit: if a stem occurs in all parts of the continent, even though it may be lacking from this or that individual dialect, the fact is driven home forcibly by the map. If on the other hand it is widely spread but wholly lacking from a certain area, or if, vice versa, it occurs only in a certain areas these tracts are made to stand out vividly. In this way it was hoped that if there proved to be among the languages. of the continent several stocks of distinct origin, or that if a single family had become diversified into several well differentiated branches, these facts would be revealed with convincingness. Some salient conclusions, at any rate, might be drawn; and preliminary as these might be, they would nevertheless furnish guidance in the chaos which has characterized Australian linguistics. ‘For years other duties prevented prosecution of the work, to which I was able to come back only from time to time. RELATIONSHIP OF THE AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES. 103 Schmidt’s Studies and Conclusions. _ In 1908 Father W. Schmidt published a preliminary classification of the languages of Australia.’ In 1912 he began in Anthropos an intensive study, the results of which appeared for a number of years. These articles in turn he revised and issued in book form in 1919.” Schmidt’s studies have been much more laborious and intensive than mine. He arrives at conclusions somewhat different from those which I had formulated. These conclusions seem to me to be at least in part the result of his method of interpretation. Our methods of attack are the same, except that he has been more painstaking and has concerned himself with a much larger number of words, besides having included eertain materials which the suspension of my work a number of years ago caused me not to reach. Schmidt reproduces the most important portions of his data in standardized orthography, and classifies the almost numberless dialects into groups. Up to this point there is no question that his procedure is more exhaustive than my rather cursory one. When, however, it comes to interpretation, Schmidt largely abandons the natural method of linguistic comparison, which regards similarities as prima facie evidence of genetic relationship, and sufficient dissimilarity as proof or at least presumption of lack of common origin. Instead, he has thrown himself into the arms of the “‘culture history method’”’ of Graebner—a theory which holds that there have occurred several distinct populational and cultural migrations into Australia. Schmidt analyzes his material to find evidence of these successive strata, each of which is Supposed to have brought with it one or more languages. He thus intermingles analysis of present phenomena with synthesis of hypothetical former ones, instead of proceeding 1 Man, viii, p. 184. # Die Gliederung der Australischen Sprachen, Wien, 1919. 104 A. L. KROEBER. via an analysis of existing conditions to a comprehensive synthetic understanding of them, and only then evolving inferences as to the past. In short, he partly explains the known present by the unknown past; which is also the method of Graebner’s ethnology. The result is that Schmidt often finds in a given language remnants of several stocks that no longer exist, and traces the borrowings and mixtures of constituents which we do not know as such and which he has scarcely begun to sub- stantiate. Another consequence is that he touches the problem of genetic relationship only obliquely. He does maintain that the languages of the larger southern portion of the continent are related and that those of the smaller northern area are distinct, not only from the southern family but also among themselves. Since however most of the southern languages are the product of varying degrees of admixture from three or four migrations, each of which brought its own distinct culture and speech, the relation- ship that Schmidt admits for these southern languages is evidently not of the kind which is usually understood by philological relationship: namely, a common origin with subsequent diversification. While this peculiar method of interpretation runs through ‘Schmidt’s work, it fortunately has not prevented him from establishing classifications on the basis of modern conditions. His coloured map summarizes these admirably. In other words, he is much too able a linguist to allow himself to fall completely under the sway of a historical theory. He does however considerably interweave his survey classifi- cation of the existing data with his hypothetical recon- struction. This circumstance has led me to reassemble and formulate my own findings after having laid them aside for a number of years under the impression that they had been superseded RELATIONSHIP OF THE AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES. 105 by Schmidt’s work. However rough my technique has been, Ibelieve I have at least approached the material objectively and without theoretic preconceptions. Wherever my find- ings agree with Schmidt’s they will therefore tend to rescue his from the cloud of hypothesis which hangs over his work. Where we differ, doubt will be more definitely established and renewed investigation stimulated. Evidences of Continental Unity. The first inference which the mappings seem to allow is that Schmidt’s fundamental separation of the north and south Australian languages is unnecessary. He has indi- cated this demarcation by ared line running across the map of the continent from latitude 17° on the east coast to 19° on the west,’ with a great southward indentation to latitude 28° in the centre to include the Arunta, and a few of the tribes on their northeast, with the northern group. ‘This line has this validity: speech to the south of it is obviously much more homogeneous than on the north. In the northern division even adjacent languages often differ profoundly. Why this is so, remains to be determined. It probably cannot be ascertained until information on the northern languages is a great deal fuller than at present. Nevertheless stem after stem is found with the same meaning on both sides of the line. The majority of the plottings show sucha distribution. In nearly a third of the cases the double occurrence is decisive. That is, a stem appears not only on both sides of the line but in practically every portion of both northern and southern Australia. Maps 1, 7, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 25, 28, 37, 40 illustrate this condition. It is not maintained tbat every stem plotted in these Maps occurs in every single north Australian dialect. In * In the 1919 reissue, a corrigendum to the map makes the line begin at latitude 15° on the east coast, soas to include Koko-Yimidir in the southern division. 106 A. L. KROEBER. so definitely established a family as Indo-European a stem has frequently disappeared from a whole division, or within a division from a language. Positive cases count much more heavily than negative ones in problems of this sort. The preponderance of weight which must be assigned to them is greater in proportion as the languages are imperfectly known. If all the knowledge we possessed of two such closely related languages as English and German lay in a few vocabularies recorded by travellers or non-philological residents, we should have to rate the words dog and hund as dissimilar stems for the same simple concept because weshould not know that each recurred in the other language with the special meaning of dogge and hound. If ever we come to have a fourthas much knowledge of the Australian languages as of the European ones, it may begin to be time to lay weight on missing stems. Until then a comparatively smal] number of positive similarities will go far in establish- ing a presumption of genetic relationship. To the foregoing may be added a number of further resemblances which are less widely distributed, but which involve stems that appear at least in several districts of both northern and southern Australia. These are plotted in maps 2, 4,5, 6, 8, 12, 16, 21, 27, 29, 31, 32, 34, 37, 38, 39, 46, 47. Admitting that the method used is somewhat in the nature of areconnaissance, we must nevertheless conclude,, it would seem, that the indications warrant a belief in the genetic unity of all the Australian languages. Grouping of the Southern Languages. When now the branches or subdivisions of this family are examined, it appears that the dialects of certain areas form much more consistent units than others. One of these units which began to stand out from the beginning of my com- parisons and plottings is the Narrinyeri of the lower Murray. © RELATIONSHIP OF THE AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES. 107 Maps 5, 12, 14, 22, 27, 32, 45, 48, show this asa more or less. isolated area. The same holdsof Schmidt’s Darling group, upstream from the last, as revealed by maps 10, 14, 22, 27, 35, 44, 46 and in a less striking degree by several others. A third though somewhat less distinctive group is that in Victoria adjoining the two last on the south: see maps 24, 36, 42, 43. Schmidt’s Yungar in the extreme south-west of the con- tinent forms a well marked unit which stands out with but little variation of limits in maps 6, 8, 19, 25, 34, 45. As regards the entity and boundaries of these four branches, my survey thus corroborates Schmidt’s findings exactly. On the whole it also confirms his great North Oentral and South Central groups, which embrace the region between two lines, one stretching between the mouths of the Murray and Mackenzie, the other between latitude 17° on the east coast and longitude 134° on the south coast. The North Central group especially, which embraces the heart of Queensland, I had early noted as a solid unit. It shows thus in maps 2, 4, 5, 14, 22, 31, 36, 40, 44, 47, 48. The limits are not so precise as in the fore- going units, but this is a’probable expectation for a larger area. The South Central group is considerably less defined on my maps. Itappearsas an area of moderate coherence nearly enclosed by the compact Narrinyeri, Darling, North Central, and Arunta groups. Ishould strongly incline to detach the Darling group from it. Schmidt’s large South-west has only the degree of coher- ence which so vast a tract, and that marginal to a core of desert, might be expected to possess. Asa unit, inclusive or exclusive of Yungar, it is far from impressive on my maps. Still, maps 2, 6, 20, 2L, 26, 31, 40 suggest its prob- — 108 A. L, KROEBER. able reality. Several of these cases are negative—that is, a widely spread stem is lacking for all parts of the South- west. Schmidt’s Yuin-Kuri group of the New South Wales coast does not give me the impression of being a true distinctive unit. The same seems to apply to his Wakka-Kabi group, north and north-west of Brisbane. I should incline to con- nect the inland Wakka with the adjacent North Central division, Kabi with the other coast languages. In fact the Kast Coast languages from 37° to 17°, or even beyond, seem to constitute a natural unit. This leaves, in southern Australia, Schmidt’s Wiradhuri- Kamilaroi of interior New South Wales as the only division of any size unaccounted for. I find it difficult to do any- thing with the languages of this area. Schmidt looks upon them as a mixture of three of his strata, which remain best represented in the Yuin-Kuri, East Coast, and Central divisions respectively. Translated into objective terms, this means that the Wiradhuri-Kamilaroi languages are difficult to separate from all of their neighbours. On this point of agreement we can rest. Schmidt may be right in his view that modern Wiradhuri-Kamilaroi is the result of an ancient mixture: he certainly has not proved it. This gives, for southern Australia, the following groups, in approximate order of the positiveness of their distinct- iveness: Narrinyeri; Darling; Yungar; Victoria; North Central; Hast Coast; South Central; South-west; Wirad- huri-Kamilaroi. (See Fig. 1). Grouping of the Northern Languages. For northern Australia the data are much scantier and the local diversity isusually greater, sothat a classification of any pretensions to permanent validity would be premature. Schmidt’s grouping seems a conveniently formal rather than a natural one and can therefore scarcely be historic- ally founded, He distinguishes languages that end in (1) |i RELATIONSHIP OF THE AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES. 109 ine? YOR re ice ey NORTH so eetsoutis | ae Via OF i" yok CULE! =e jee eee _{NORTH cewrral ARUN Al tana) (gia tenn ‘ / : \ ; ERAN NEE ay Sh Se ae aN j Ni . ° of : fs Ny ccs ‘ if \ SOUTHWEST ‘AMSOUTH CENTRAY (St. Brn fins mo Zn Nee 0 wi k') : . oe a Nel < « “TS | ae \\ ale \ A Fixe ] . ’ ey? Vv ve) DANY: ; op a ~ Sie, —-— 6 siete, A -« _ » WK 4 epee sa oh 8.8 WWARRINYERT “S: YNG Ap - ; j ae oa ~ “i eR. VICTORIA’ Ny Fig. 1. The principal divisions of the Australian family of languages, revised from Schmidt’s classification. consonants, (2) sonants, (3) vowels, but these are geogra- phically scattered. My distribution maps reveal several areas in which speech is comparatively uniform or at least sharply marked off from adjacent areas. One is the region of the Arunta, in which initial consonants have frequently been lost.* Another is the tip of Cape York peninsula, whose group of dialects is on the whole the most separate of any in Australia. In fact, a conservative attitude must leave it somewhat questionable whether they are part of the Australian family at all. kanga, kala, kata > kacha 2. kama 3. kapa EX 4. ngapa 6. bapa 5. ngadja 7. bara | 8. wara It may be added that types 2,3, 4, 5 all appear occasion- ally without initial consonant: thus amu, awi, uku, idyong. Now there is certainly no proof of the original identity of these eight type forms. It would be mere guessing to assert which one was original. The involved sound shifts, such as p> m>n-ng and k>ng and k> b> w, while authen- ticated in other languages, are as yet undemonstrated as at all general between the particular Australian dialects involved. And the vowels have been handled here in the RELATIONSHIP OF THE AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES. 115 most drastically schematic fashion. By the ordinary standards of philology, nothing more than a suggestion has been provided. But there neither exists the quality of material nor has it been subjected to an intensive enough analysis to apply to-day the standard of accuracy exacted in Indo-European and Semitic philology. In view of this present limitation on possible proof, I cannot but entertain a feeling of considerable probability that all these eight types of forms, and consequently all but a scattered and inconsistent minority of Australian words for water, go back to a common origin. At any rate, this seems amore simple inference than to explain these forms as due toa mixing of several stems that once were radically different because separate in origin. Very similar conditions, I believe, will be found to exist in the case of other stems, as soon as these are brought together ina purely empirical manner. A positive assertion of genetic relationship, then, would still be premature to- day; but its likelihood seems strong. It will undoubtedly be wisest to suspend judgment until the evidence is sifted more analytically. Yet ifan opinion is to be rendered now, it does appear that the assumption of the genetic unity of all the Australian languages is a safer one to make than the assumption that they are derived from several origins. Curr’s Classification. Something should be said as to Curr, the pioneer in this field, whose compilation Schmidt and I have used so largely. Ourr’s classification is not really a linguistic one. In spite of his three volumes of vocabularies, he institutes specific comparisons only between a few words in several dialects. What Ourr appears actually to have done was to plot the distribution of circumcision and subincision. The Central area or division in which these practices are found gave him by exclusion his Western and Hastern areas. For 116 A. L. KROKBER some reason his ‘Darling tribes’’ (inside the broken red line on his map) are included in the QOentral division although they do not circumcise. This exception appears to be made on account of a native myth that this group of tribes is descended from a single male immigrant. Although coming from a Central group, this man would have no. motive for mutilating his own sons, Curr reasons, so they never learned the customs which distinguish the other Central tribes! Fig. 3. Dialects from which vocabularies were used that are not in Curr’s work. Curr’s Western division includes and excludes parts of Schmidt’s and my Yungar and South-western groups. His Central Division lumps into one Northern Australia, Head of Gulf, South Central, Darling, Narrinyeri, Arunta, and most of the South-west. His Hastern division includes Cape York, Cape York South, North Central, Hast Coast, Wiradhuri-Kamilaroi, and Victoria. His classification is therefore not somuch actually incorrect as superficial. His. line between the Central and Hastern divisions is every- Journal Royal Socity of N.S.W., Vol. LVI1., 1928. Plate [1. Eye. Map 1, mil (crosses). Map 2, kur (hollow squares), til (triangles). Ear. Map 3, bina (hollow triangles). Map 4, wim (squares). Map 5, manga (triangles), nuri (hollow squares). Map 6, tulpa (circles), kulka (crosses), ink, Pray ved pee Journal Royal Society of N.S. W., Vol. LVIL, 1923. Plate [1T. Teeth. Map 7, yira (circles), Map 8, ngalko (triangles). Map 9, milka (squares). Map 10, nandi (hollow squares), karditi (hollow circles), nunathandra (crosses), abu (hollow triangles). Tongue. Map 11, taling (circles). Map. 12, mat (squares), pulpa (hollow circles), nabi (crosses), kaking (triangles), nandula (V’s). Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LV1II,1928. Plate IV. Beard. Map 13, nanka (circles). Map 14, talba (crosses), wakalka (hollow squares), wata (squares). Hand. Map 15, mara (crosses). Map 16, biri (squares). Foot. Map 17, tina (circles). Map 18, bel (squares), kwa (triangles). Tubs / roan ‘ i d + vais ) ran } — s ‘ P a “ x . , +a- 2 ‘ \ a i ‘ 4 2 ' 4 j : } j : ab aa A a ae ‘i Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,Vol. LVITI., 1923. Plate V. Blood. Map 19, kuna (circles), ngupa (hollow squares). Map 20, yalga (squares), dil (crosses), ma (hollow circles), arti (hollow triangles), yer-kura (triangles), Bone. Map 21, muku (circles), kwachi (crosses). Map 22, walpu (hollow triangles), pirna (squares). Map 23, direl (triangles), yarun (V’s). Map 24, kungun (hollow circles), nim (double crosses). Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LVIL., 1928. Plate VI. Head. Map 25, ka- (crosses). Map 26, ba-(V’s). Map 27, ta- (squares), yulka (hollow squares). Map 28, ma- (circles). Map 29, wal (triangles), ngal (hollow circles). Nose. Map 30, mula (circles), ae og —_ « Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,Vol. LVII, 1923. Plate VII. Nose (continued). Map 31, kang (squares), ningar (crosses). Map 32, djandji (hollow circles), runko (V’s), pultu (hollow squares), eye (triangles). Night. Map 33, malti (circles). Map 34, wanga (triangles),kitok (hollow squares). Map 35, tinka (crosses), wilcha (double crosses), kunda (hollow circles). Map 36, ngula (squares), porun (hollow triangles). Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LVII., 1923. Plate VIII. Excrement. Map 37, kuna (circles). Map 38, tala (squares), muna (crosses). Moon. Map 39, pira (circles). Map 40, kibun (hollow circles). Map 41, wilara (V’s), taranan (squares), yagin (double crosses), ankacha (double triangles). Map 42, mika (triangles), ngilan (hollow squares), yer (crosses). . —_— ‘ Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LVII., 1928. Plate 1X. Person, blackman. Map 43, karu (circles). Map 44, mari (triangles), wimbadja (hollow squares), dan (crosses). Map 45, yuna (squares), bangil (double crosses), bama (hollow circles), wortongi (V’s). Fire. Map 46, kun- (crosses). Map 47, wi (triangles). Map 48, buri (hollow triangles), maka (squares), turu (hollow circles), ngun (circles), uma (H’s), yanu (inverted V’s), mo- (V’s). eT. 5 oF * oh S 4 1 ae which possessed a pronounced odour of this alcohol, readily yielded a phenylurethane of melting point 111° C. Determination of Sesquiterpene.—The portion of oil from Gosford sample boiling above 105° O. at 10 mm. was redis- tilled several times over sodium when a small quantity was obtained boiling at 130—138° C. at 10 mm., of specific gravity t3° O. 0°9291, inactive, and refractive index 21° O, 1°4960. It gave the usual colour reactions with bromine vapour and acetic anhydride characteristic of sesquiter- penes from the Myrtacez. Phenol.—Small quantities of phenolic bodies were present. to the extent of about 0°57, which differed from similar constituents in the oil of C. viminalis in giving an indifferent. brown colouration with ferric chloride in alcoholic solution,. OALLISTEMON VIMINALIS (Sol.) Cheel. The botany of this tree which is closely related to C. lanceolatus and likewise called a “* Bottle Brush,’’ has been fully worked out by Mr. EK. Cheel of the National Herbarium,,. Sydney, for a description of which Mr. J. H. Maiden’s. ‘*Forest Flora of N.S.W., Vol. vil, page 15, should be con- sulted. ESSENTIAL OILS OF CALLISTEMON LANCEOLATUS AND C. VIMINALIS. 135 Itis a tall tree, growing from 15 feet to 60 feet in height, sometimes up to 75 feet, and 8 to 12 inches in diameter, and although it closely resembles C. lanceolatus it is readily distinguished from such crimson flowering species by its tree-like habit, and drooping willowy appearance, especially if examined in the field. It is not unusual for specimens of this tree to be confused with C. lanceolatus, particularly if compared with herbarium material, and on this account I have to express my thanks to the author of the species, who when recommending the writer to undertake the examination of its essential oil in 1918, kindly provided the authentic specimens for the purpose, and for his kindness in confirming the authenticity of the material examined. This tree is a denizen of the banks of rivers and creeks, and occurs widely distributed, extending from Gloucester in Northern New South Wales up through the coastal districts of Queensland. The leaves of the four consignments distilled were much narrower than the two lots of C. lanceolatus, which were somewhat broad. Leaves and terminal branchlets were obtained from Copmanhurst and Dalmorton of N. 8S. Wales in May and June 1920, and Dr. T. L. Bancroft of Hidsvold, Queensland, kindly furnished an excellent supply of material in September 1922. Mr. J. J. Jordan of Gladstone, Queens- land, in September 1921, kindly distilled 160 tbs. leaves on the writer’s behalf. In all 895 Ibs. weight of leaves were distilled with an average percentage yield of 0°2°%. The essential oil from the New South Wales material differs somewhat from the Queensland in containing d-«a- pinene in fair quantity, higher phenol content and much lower percentage of cineol, as well as an apparent absence of dipentene. This points to the tree in the former State being a form of the species, especially as the bark is differ- ent, being of a papery nature. 136 A. R. PENFOLD. The Essential Oils. The essential oils obtained from the New South Wales consignments were of an intense red colour with a pro- nounced amylic odour, followed by a secondary one of cineol. The sample of oil from Gladstone, Queensland, was also of areddish colour but much lighter, and strongly resembled a high cineol oil. These oils) were coloured red on account of the phenol present acting on the steel coil used in the condenser, which was subsequently replaced by one of pure tin. The oil from material supplied by Dr. Bancroft was, therefore, of a pale yellow colour. The principal constituents of the oil from the New South Wales form, so far determined, were d-a-pinene, cineol {about 30%), phenol (27%), together with sesquiterpene, and probably terpineol. (f-pinene and dipentene were not detected). A small quantity of amyl alcohol appeared to be present. The constituents identified in the Queensland oils (C. viminalis) were cineol (60—80%), dipentene, limonene, terpineol, sesquiterpene, and phenol (about 0°57). Experimental. 895 tbs. weight of leaves and terminal branchlets of the two forms procured from the districts mentioned, yielded on distillation with steam, the following crude oils, possess- ing the chemical and physical constants shown in table:— (See page 137.) On distillation the crude oils behaved, as follows :— N.S. Wales form (2 lots), both yieided 857% distilling below 185° O. (u.c.) at 768 mm. ) Eidsvold, Q., (100 c.c. distilled at 761°5 mm. gave :— 80% at 170 - 176° ©. sp. gr. +2" C. 0°9090, opt. rot. —0°4° and ref. index 20° C. 1°4609. 10% at 176—190° O. sp. gr. +3° CO. 0°9159, opt. rot. — 2°3° and ref. index 20° C. 1°4630. % OL vEgr-1 6094-1 mle QATJOVUL €€16-0 C0G6:0 ‘puv[susen’y MOA supuUrma “7A LLOV+1 SLOF-T LPL + oS Gl + 0688.0 0868-0 ‘ULIOJ SOTV AA YINOG MON $279U2I2a “OD ‘S[OA F.] de 7.69 =| 69-66 PE-L a]qnyos % OL "S[OA [-[ At sah, ANG he G-G a[qnyos 2 08 W %9E "S[OA C al (Eire = eh G25 [eet a[qnyos : % 08 WT L8e "SJOA 8-€ da78z | 19°8¢ 79-LT | eTqnjos poqjyeam TOTS | Gorey hyoor poyjeut a Prov o1OUT Feanot 1 901 eaten Sapna ‘TIO epn.co “ON. 2098 Ur [OSTID OD 00% qe Xopur OATZOVAJOY O14 BIOI Teo13dO 0 ont AVAvsls oytoeds Tro jo pats 98e]U9010g “SO 966 BIO! “SQ. 1G (qjo1oueg *1q) ‘puvjsusen?) ‘ploaspla =| G26 1/6/EZ ‘purlsuson?) ‘auoyspelty | 1261/6/92 ‘SOIBAA "SN ‘uoqrouljeqd | 0Z61/9/Zz “Be(EM CS N ‘sq. 98g |gsanquemdog | 0761/¢/9e SOABOT Aqtye00'T a7eq 138 Q A. R. PENFOLD. Determination of the principal Terpenes.—N.S. Wales: form. After removal of cineol in usual manner, the residual oil distilled at 156 — 160°O. at 764 mm., the distillate having: sp. gr. t3° CO, 0°8639, optical rotation + 31°2°, and refrac- tive index 20° OC. 1°4663. On mixing with an equivalent volume of l-«-pinene [a]p —50°18°, a copious yield of nitro- sochloride was obtained, which melted and decomposed at. 109° C., thus proving it to be d-o-pinene. Hidsvold, 25/9/22.' Removed the cineol from both frac- tions of oil distilling below 190° C., and redistilled the residual oil, collecting the portions which came over below and above 170° O. separately. The lower boiling distillate possessing an optical rotation of + 0°9° readily yielded a. nitrosochloride which melted and decomposed at 109° OC. That distilling above 170° O. with an optical rotation of about — 20° when dissolved in glacial acetic acid and bromine added, gave a tetrabromide of melting point 124° O. after recrystallisation from ethyl acetate, thus showing. the presence of dipentene with a small quantity of limonene. Determination of Cineol.—The cineol regenerated from the resorcin solution used in its separation from the ter- penes, possessed the following characters:—B. point 175 — 176° O. at 764 mm.. sp. gr. +3° OC. 0°9308, inactive, refractive index 20°O. 1°4575. Oonfirmation was obtained by the preparation of the iodol compound which melted at 112° ©. Determination of Sesquiterpene.—Too small a quantity of oil was available for the examination of this constituent,. its presence being merely determined in the portion of oil distilling above 200° O. by the usual colour reactions. characteristic of these bodies in Australian essential oils. Determination of Phenols.—Phenolic bodies were found to occur to the extent of 2% in the oil of the N.S. Wales form which gave a blood red colour with ferric chloride in alcoholic solution, thereby closely resembling, if not iden- CANCER OF THE EAR OF SHEEP. 139 tical with, tasmanol or phenols of that type. This group is at present under investigation by this laboratory as very little is known about them. In conclusion I have to express my thanks to Mr. J. J. Jordan of Gladstone for kindly distilling a quantity of the leaves of C. viminalis and forwarding the oil, to Dr. T. L. Bancroft of Hidsvold, Q., for the excellent supply of leaves kindly furnished at his own expense, and Mr. F. R. Mor- rison, A.T.c., Assistant Chemist, for his usual assistance in these investigations. CANCER OF THE EAR OF SHEEP: A CONTRIBUTION TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF CHRONIC IRRITA- TION AS A SECONDARY FACTOR IN THE OAUSATION OF CANCER IN THE LOWER ANIMALS, By SypnEY DODD, D.V.Sc., F.R.C.V.S., Veterinary School, The University of Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, August 1, 1923.) AMONGST the indirect causes of cancer formation in human beings, chronic irritation is accepted as being an established factor. As examples, there are the so-called occupational cancers, e.g., Chimney sweep’s cancer of the scrotum, multiple epithelioma of the skin in paraffin and aniline dye workers, X Ray cancer, etc. In other instances, cancer has been observed arising from the chronic irritation and inflammation brought about by such agencies as a jagged tooth, indolent ulcers, and in smoker’s cancer of the lips, pharynx and larynx, cancer of the skin in chronic eczema, etc. In veterinary pathology, however, chronic irritation is by no means universally accepted as giving rise to cancer 140 SYDNEY DODD. in the lower animals. The arguments are various but the principal one appears to be that there has been no direct ‘evidence brought forward to prove such contention, and, furthermore, that in parts which are notoriously the subject of chronic irritation, e.g., saddle and collar galls in horses, and in dogs, in countries where they are used for haulage purposes, the parts constantly rubbed by the harness, one ‘does not find cancer resulting. Moreover, the human ‘breast is a common site for cancer, and it is held by some human pathologists that the step between chronic mastitis and cancer is short. It is even stated that the proportion of cases of chronic mastisis in women developing into cancer is from 10-157.* Contrasted with this state of affairs in the human being, we have the well known fact that the Mammary gland of the cow is frequently the seat of injuries and that chronic mastitis from various causes is common. Yet cancer of the cow’s udder israre. It is from facts such as these that veterinary pathologists speaking generally, have preferred to consider as “ not proven,”’ the question of the natural production of cancer in the lower animals as a result of chronic irritation. So far as chronic irritation as a major factor in cancer formation is concerned, veterinary pathologists have been justified in refusing to indiscriminately apply the accepted findings relating to human pathology, (although the latter may be correct as regards man), to the lower animals without further definite evidence concerning the latter, that similar mechanical causes will produce similar effects in the same anatomical situations in different species, for, as has been pointed out by a number of authorities, it is | necessary to guard against false analogies when patho- logical processes are compared between man and the lower animals. In the case of cancer, the same cause may be in 1 Ewing, Neoplastic diseases, 1919. This statement is disputed. CANCER OF THE EAR OF SHEEP. 141 operation but it appears evident that the reactions of similar tissues in different species may not be in the same degree. Oonsequently what may eventually result ina malignant growth in one, will probably remain a chronic inflammatory lesion in another. It is perhaps desirable to point out that one is not referring here to the cutaneous. cancers artificially produced in some of the smaller animals by the application of tar, soot, paraffin etc. Furthermore, it is hardly necessary to state that it is realised no one maintains that chronic inflammation arising from any cause must inevitably be followed by cancer, since it is very obvious that the vast majority of cases of chronic inflammation either eventually recover if the irritant be removed, or never progress beyond that stage. As an illustration of the different reaction of the tissues of different animals, reference is made to the experimental production of *‘Paraffin cancer.’”’ It has been recently shown that epitheliomata couid be experimentally produced in mice by the application of coal tar to the skin, but it was unsuccessful in guinea pigs, rats and rabbits. It is not intended here to enter into a discussion as to why any particular site should be more susceptible to neoplastic formation in one species than another, but veterinary authorities have drawn attention to the peculiar differences in the relative frequency of malignant growths, especially the carcinomata, in certain situations in man and the domesticated animals. Reference has already been made to the mammary gland and the skin. Other examples may be given, e.g., the alimentary tract is one of the common sites of cancer in man. It is uncommon in the herbivora, and much less frequent in dogs and cats than man. Again, in horses and cattle, carcinoma of the nicti- tating membrane and the caruncle is relatively common, much more than other species including man. 142 SYDNEY DODD. It is difficult to draw any useful comparison between man and the domesticated animals as to the actual fre- quency of the epithelial cancers, since they mainly occur in adult and old age, and most of the animals used for human food are killed young, or in the prime of life. Only domestic pets are as arule kept until they reach old age. In view of the desirability of collecting as much direct evidence as possible as to chronic inflammation in the lower animals being followed by malignant growth, this contri- bution is made. The condition affecting the ears of sheep in Australia and termed by sheep men “‘cancer,’’ is fairly common. Although taking into consideration the millions of sheep in this country, the actual percentage is not a high one, (actual statistics do not exist), yet every year, especially during the shearing season when the sheep are observed at close quarters, it is generally possible to obtain several cases from various localities. Asa rule, in the ordinary course of events when such cases are detected by the owner, the animal, if the condition is advanced, is destroyed. ‘The carcase is not used for food. The slight cases are either not detected, or are allowed to pass without any action being taken. It is seldom that pronouncedly affected animals are seen at the public abattoirs, as the owner would scarcely care to pay freight etc. for an animal with the almost certainty of having the carcase rejected for human consumption. 2 As the question of the determination of the exact nature of the condition, whether merely one of chronic inflamma- tion, or whether the popular term ‘‘Oancer’’ was a scien- tifically correct one, was a matter of economic importance both from a meat inspection as well as a therapeutic point of view, the writer was invited by the Chief Inspector of Stock, during 1921-22, to make an examination of such CANCER OF THE EAR OF SHEEP. 143 affected sheeps’ ears as could be obtained, in order to ascer- tain the nature of the lesions. Up to the time of writing, forty-seven ears from the same number of sheep and from various localities, have been examined histologically, and it is felt that sufficient examples of the condition have been collected to justify one drawing conclusions that may have some value. A few of the cases, nine, were evidently of fairly recent origin, but the majority, viz. thirty-two, were clinically cancerous and six were intermediate. In noinstance was a history of the case sent with the specimen, merely a note saying that it was a specimen of cancered ear from a sheep. Some were obtained from sheep in the field, others at the time of shearing. It is necessary to state that no conclusions from this work can be drawn as to the relative frequency of malignancy occurring in the so-called “‘cancer of the ear’’ in sheep asa whole. Since although stock inspectors and sheep owners were requested to forward ears in all stages of the condition, the sender almost always took pains to obtain what he considered a good specimen of cancered ear. This as a rule being one in an advanced stage. The result of the microscopical examinations revealed the fact that nearly all the cases which might be termed advanced, showed more or less evidence of malignancy and that one was dealing with squamous celled carcinomata in different stages. The niné early cases showed nothing more than a chronic inflammatory reaction, Of the remain- ing thirty-eight cases, six, which may be termed intermedi- ate, showed great hyperplasia of the cutaneous epithelium, with longer or shorter papillary processes dipping down into the underlying structures, but no evidence of breaking away or unrestrained growth. Thirty-two were distinctly epitheliomatous. As the examination proceeded it became evident that the matter had assumed a more general 144 SYDNEY DODD. importance, since there appeared to bea definite answer to. the question ‘‘ Does chronic irritation in the case of the lower animals, ever lead to cancer formation ?”’ As already noted, no history was supplied with any of the specimens as to when and how the condition arose. It is only in isolated instances that it is possible to obtain a history in the case of sheep running in large paddocks, since attention is only attracted to the ear when it is exhibiting very visible changes, i.e. the condition has become well established. The early cases are as arule only noticed when the sheep are actually being handled, as in shearing. Speaking generally however, from one’s own observations. in the field and the information collected from others, one can obtain a fairly complete clinical picture, and by the examination of a number of sections from each of the forty- seven cases, one is able to construct a picture of the changes undergone by an affected ear from that of ordinary local chronic inflammation to that of very obvious malignancy. Finally, as will be seen, I was able to obtain a live sheep affected with ‘‘cancer of the ear,’’ and by keeping it under observation, was able to follow the clinical course of events of malignancy until metastasis had become well established. Clinical features and naked eye characters. Most of the specimens examined have been from adult sheep, but the condition is not confined exclusively to them. I have not however seen young lambs affected. Speaking generally, it may be stated that the actual starting point of the condition is either a wound or local necrosis. Most cases apparently commencing at the tip or around the free edge of the auricula. At times the point of origin appears to bean ear mark.’ At others the origin appears to be necrosis of the tip of the ear, the latter condition 1 Portions of the ear of varying shapes are removed from the edge at different parts for the purpose of identifying sheep of any particular owner. CANCER OF THE EAR OF SHEEP. 145 being commonly seen in sheep in Australia, and is due to a variety of causes. Undoubtedly, the vast majority of wounds inflicted on the ear, no matter by what agency, never pass beyond the stage of inflammation, acute or chronic, although many of them become secondarily infected with various organisms. Sometimes this secondary infection together with the con- stant irritation by flies etc., induces a low grade inflam- mation of the part. This inflammation is constantly being stimulated by the agencies mentioned, aided by the further injuries inflicted on the ear by the animal itself in its endeavours to allay the irritation or to shake off offending insects. Thus there is presented a very varying picture according to the length of time the condition has been in existence and to what extent secondary factors have been acting. In the case of the forty-seven ears examined, the very early lesions would naturally, in practice, be included among those that never pass beyond the ordinary stages of inflam- mation or necrosis and of course it is impossible to foretell what would have happened to those=particular ears had their possessors been allowed to live. In the case of the ears showing simple inflammation, the lesion presented the ordinary characters of a wound healing under scab. Where necrosis was the origin, the necrosed portion of the ear varied in extent. Sometimes the necrosed portion ran along the edge of the auricula for several inches but did not extend inwardly very far, the affected part having a dried, withered up appearance. The necrotic part and the adjacent tissues may become damaged from various causes and then the latter becomes inflamed. Secondary factors already indicated come into action and then the lesion, whether originating in a wound or from simple necrosis, becomes very much the same in J—August 1, 1923, 146 SYDNEY DODD. all cases. Ears examined at a later stage show evidence of chronic inflammation. The affected area has extended. The part is covered with a thick crust of scab and on lifting this, granulation tissue may be seen underneath. There is usually a little exudate present, at times yellowish, at others purulent. At an advanced stage, the clinical changes are very pronounced. The affected ear is swollen, at times so much that the meatus is obliterated. The swelling may extend for some distance around the base of the ear. The skin is firmly adherent to the underlying tissues. The tip of the ear is represented by a blackened mass often larger than a man’s hand, with many fissures in it from which oozes an exudate often purulent and at times mixed with blood. Some of these lesions are of the cauliflower type in appear- ance. Not infrequently fly larvee may be found in the fissures. If the scab, which at times appears like an ordinary blood clot and at others has a caseous crumbling character, is lifted, a granulation-like tissue is seen under- neath with ulcerating edges, the latter being elevated and firm. The naked eye appearances are often complicated by injuries inflicted on the ear by the animal in its endea- vour to allay irritation or to shake off offending insects. The extent and character of the lesion itself and the degree to which the adjacent tissue of the ear participates varies with each individual case and depends on the length of time the condition has existed and the injuries inflicted by the animal itself, or other agencies. In the final stages the animal becomes thin and cachectic. The wool is ragged and readily pulled out. In the majority of advanced cases the whole of the new growth cuts very firmly on section, sometimes like tendon. These latter appear to be the cases were keratinization is very extensive, rather than to a great excess of stroma. Re by CANCER OF THE EAR OF SHEEP. 147 The cut surface is of a dirty greyish-white colour except at the ulcerating edge, with small islands or strands of a lighter colour (epithelium) scattered throughout more or less abundantly. Occasionally with the scirrhous growths, after removal of the skin, portions may be flaked off, some- what like the layers of an onion. Central softening has been observed in one case, the part having a caseous char- acter. No tubercle or other bacilli could be demonstrated in the softened material. Histology. Sections of ears examined in the early stages present merely a picture of subacute. or chronic inflammation. The epithelium where present, showing little or no alteration. In the longer standing cases more pronounced changes are evident. The scab mass is thicker. Underneath this isa mass of granulated tissue, whilst deeper still is a varying amouut of fibrous tissue, more or less fully formed. At the edge of the ulcer and for some distance away from it, the epithelium has undergone great hyperplasia. The layer being of considerable thickness, with finger-like processes dipping down for varying distances into the underlying tissues. There is however at this stage, no sign of malig- nancy, i.e. the epithelium, although greatly overgrown, shows no sign of breaking away and assuming independent growth. In the advanced cases the changes in the auricula are pronounced, the epithelium, which is of the stratified, squamous variety, can at the extremity of the finger-like processes be seen rapidly invading the subjacent structures, In others the epithelium has broken away from the parent body and has assumed quite independent growth. The auricula is greatly thickened, the conchal cartilage being normal. The tissues external to the concha are more implicated than those of the internal surface. The edge of the lesion, i.e. that corresponding to the ulcerated sur- 148 SYDNEY DODD. face, is seen to be composed of more or less young fibrous tissue. Deeper down, the normal tissue has been replaced by epithelium and stroma. The epithelium varies very considerably. In the early stages of malignancy, the invading epithelium is not abundant, if one excepts the large down-growing papille from the surface. There are many signs of reaction on the part of the tissues in the form of numerous fibro-blasts around the young growing and infiltrating epithelium. More or fewer mono- and polymorpho-nuclear lecocytes are present near the ulcer- ated area, indicating secondary infection. The epithelial cells, which are the spinous cells from the malpighian layer are at first normal, but as the condition persists and the epithelium extends its field of growth, there is often con- siderable change in the cells. This being more frequently in the direction of size. Distortion of epithelial cells is rather common, especially at the edges of the young grow- ing epithelium. This is quite apart from those cells forming epithelial pearls and undergoing hornification. Giant cells varying in size and the number of their nuclei have been seen in sections from some cases. Keratinization appears to set in early. Even in some cases, where it was evident microscopically that malig- nancy had only been recently established, there was distinct evidence of pearl nest formation. In cases where the epitheliomatous condition had become the dominant one in the section, keratinization was very pronounced. At times the whole of a section has been composed of kerat- inized epithelium. The stroma also varies very considerably both in age and amount. At the apices of the young, burrowing epithelial strands are fibroblasts, sometimes scanty and at others abundant. No doubt this variation in amount is due to the varying activity in growth of the epithelium. CANCER OF THE EAR OF SHEEP. 149 Usually in this situation too are a number of leucocytes. In other places the stroma has the form of a spindle celled tissue. In older situations, fully formed fibrous tissue is present. The proportion of stroma to epithelium also varies very greatly. In places the former is abundant and the epithelial islands or strands scanty and small. In other situations the stroma is negligible, whilst enormous masses of stratified squamous epithelium with numerous “‘pear]s”’ either discrete or confluent, dominate the picture. At times secondary changes due to bacteria tend to complicate the histological view around the ulcerating area of the primary lesion. At the base of the ear in the cases where the burrowing epithelium has reached that locality, the picture becomes typically and purely carcinomatous. Secondary changes not having extended so deeply, the infiltration of the bur- rowing epithelium into the muscles of the ear, with their destruction, and the formation of the stroma of the neo- plasm is striking. A case of “‘cancer of the ear” in a sheep, accompanied by metastasis. It having been ascertained that a large proportion of advanced cases of “‘cancer of the ear’’ of sheep were epitheliomatous, it became of interest to find out whether the malignancy was a local one, or whether metastasis occurred? It was evident that the information required could not be obtained from the sheep owner, since that would imply a knowledge of what metastasis was, and also a greater degree of observation of individual sheep than is usually givenin Australia. The matter therefore resolved itself into one of personal observation. Consequently, through the Chief Inspector of Stock, I obtained a live sheep affected with ‘cancer of the ear’’ and kept it under ‘daily observation until it was killed. During this period 150° SYDNEY DODD. it was allowed to run at liberty in a small paddock with other sheep. The animal, aged about four years, was received on 10th March, 1922. The affected ear at that time showed a black locking scab mass about 3 x 2 inches in area, near the apex. The condition had evidently been existing some time. Indeed, the animal had been sent as a “good specimen.’”’ The tip of the ear had disappeared. On lifting the scaba slightly purulent, granulomatous mass was exposed, with ulcerating edges. The auricula was moderately swollen and slightly thickened near the lesion. The skin was attached firmly to the underlying tissues.. No treatment was attempted. During the succeeding three months viz. March, April and May, there was very little change in the appearance of the affected ear, save that the scab mass became alittle larger, the thickening of the skin around the lesion more pronounced, and there appeared to be a greater tendency for the part to bleed through the animal’s own actions. Appetite and condition were maintained, and there did not appear to be any great pain. In June (four months later) the whole of the auricula had become swollen and the granulating mass at what had been the apex, much more extensive (about 4 x 4 inches), ulcer- ation at the borders of this mass being pronounced, The edges were indurated. Bleeding from the part occurred very readily on manipulation. In July the ulcerated area had increased. The base of the ear had also become involved in the swelling. Bleed- ing occurred even when the animal shook its head to obtain relief from flies. Although appetite and condition were unchanged, the animal appeared less active than usual and. showed some evidence of pain in the affected ear. August 5th (5 months later) the affected ear had now assumed a repulsive appearance, and the growth was clinic- CANCER OF THE EAR OF SHEEP. 151 ally of a malignant character. There was a large cauli- flower-like mass, somewhat larger than the size of a man’s fist, bleeding very readily. Fissures of varying depth covered the surface of the growth, a considerable amount of exudate coming from them, at places somewhat purulent. The whole of the auricula was very swollen, the entrance to the external ear being almost occluded. The skin was firmly attached to the underlying tissues. The scab itself had assumed a more caseous or crumbling character, por- tions coming away very readily on manipulation. The ulceration had made more rapid progress. The animal’s appetite still remained good, but it was rapidly losing con- dition and the wool was commencing to fall out, leaving bare patches (cachexia). Flies were continually ovipositing on the ulcerated surface, and both the eggs and the larvee were difficult to remove from the deep fissures. They added to the animal’s distress. On this date the (unnamed) cervical lymphatic gland on the same side, which lies about midway between the atlantis bone and the point of the shoulder, showed signs of enlargement, being now about the size of a small cherry; it was also very hard and painless. The thick mat of wool on the animal prevented earlier recognition of the enlarge- ment of the gland. This gland increased in size with great. rapidity. In fact one could almost see a change every day, until August 20th, it had reached the size of a golf ball. It was quite circumscribed, very hard on palpation with no evidence of softening anywhere. There were no clinical signs of inflammation either of the gland or of the surrounding tissues, if one excepts the enlargement. The skin over the gland was intact. September.20th, the sheep was killed this day for humani- tarian reasons. The distress caused by the “‘fly-blown’”’ condition of the ear was great. It being impossible to keep 152 SYDNEY DODD. flies away or prevent them depositing their eggs in the fissures of the ulcerating growth. In addition to this the greatly distorted auricula, with its black cauliflower-like mass at the end, hung down the side of the animal’s face, and blood and exudate were constantly dripping down the latter. Appetite had been lost and the animal stood dejectedly in the paddock making little attempt to move. The fleece had become so ragged and removed in patches, that the animal had the appearance of a scabied sheep. Autopsy. Animal in very poor condition. Skin bare in patches. The wool in general very ragged and easily pulled out. The affected ear was almost hidden under a mass of what looked like scab and granulation tissue. This mass was about 4x5 inches in diameter. Deep fissures ran through it in all directions. Hrom these exuded a blood-tinged exudate. Many fly larvee were found at the bottom of the fissures, At the edges of this mass the skin was ulcerated and indurated. The rest of the auricula was so swollen and indurated that it had more of a solid cylindrical appearance than of its characteristic shape. The external meatus was practically occluded. The skin of the ear was firmly adher- ent to the subjacent parts. This thickening, induration and adherence of the skin extended for an inch or so around and from the base of the ear. ‘The unnamed cervical lymphatic gland was enlarged to about the size of a tennis ball and very firm. The skin over the gland had ruptured in one or two places. The gland cut more like soft horn. On section the cut surface was of a greyish-white colour and had a granular appear- ance. Near the centre was a rather caseous area about half an inch in diameter. There was no sign of inflam- mation. CANCER OF THE EAR OF SHEEP. 153 The prescapular gland on the same side was enlarged to about the size of a walnut and on palpation, several hard, nodular areas, about the size of a garden: pea were felt- No other lesions were seen. Histology. Sections taken from various parts of the ear showed a very similar histology, viz., large masses of stratified epi- thelium and a rather scanty fibrous stroma. In some sections, the whole mass had undergone hornification resulting from the fusion of large individual “‘pear] nests.”’ The masses were heavily impregnated with eleidin. In ‘such sections, the fibrsus stroma was practically absent. At the base of the ear, the condition was not in such an advanced stage, the whole of the original structures having not been entirely destroyed. Sections showed numerous strands, small islands and larger masses of stratified squamous epithelium, some of the later com- mencing to undergo keratinization, burrowing in a rather ‘scanty stroma. In places the latter was not fully formed and was represented by fibroblasts:and spindle cells at the apices of the epithelial strands. In these situations also, a few leucocytes were present. Remains of the normal structures, such as muscle etc. could be seen here and there. There was considerable departure from the normal epi- thelium. A few giant cells were present. The secondary growth (Cervical lymphatic gland). In this gland, practically the whole of the new growth had undergone hornification. Occasionally some of the keratin- ized masses were bordered by two or three layers of stratified squamous epithelium, with rather large cells. There was very little young, active epithelium present. ‘The fibrous stroma was scanty. No traces of the normal gland substance could be seen, the caseous material in the 154 SYDNEY DODD. softened area contained numerous desquamated epithelial cells but no bacteria. The tertiary growth (Prescapular lymphatic gland). Some parts of the gland were normal, but in others small islands and fine strands of stratified squamous epithelium were present, surrounded by a stroma of young fibrous. connective tissue. The epithelium was apparently very active and was infiltrating and destroying the gland sub- stance in its neighbourhood. In the foregoing case it was impossible to say how long the condition had existed before malignancy setin. Judg- ing from other examples, one can say that it must have been existing months if not years, purely as a chronic inflammatory lesion. It is however, probable that the growth had already assumed malignant characters when the animal was received in March. It was under observa- tion for a period of about six months. It is of interest to note that although the primary growth increased steadily from the time it first came under observation, no metastasis was seen until August Ist, but once that was established progress was rapid. Within twenty days the secondary growth had reached the size of a golf ball. In fifty-two days it was as large as a tennis ball, and metastasis was well advanced in the next lymphatic gland, viz. the pre- scapular. With regard to the condition of the secondary growth, viz. in the cervical lymphatic gland, keratinization is looked upon by some pathologists as evidence of recovery. But. in this case, even if the growth in the cervical gland were no longer active, it is evident that it was too late to be of any benefit to the affected animal, since metastasis had. already occurred in the next or prescapular gland. Attempts to transfer the growth by implanting fragments about the size of a lentil from the secondary tumour CANCER OF THE EAR OF SHEEP. 155 (cervical gland) failed. In two instances the graft took temporarily, gradually increasing in size to that of a large walnut, then they slowly retrogressed and finally dis- appeared. The transplanted growths were spherical, very firm, painless and quite circumscribed. Unfortunately, no tissue was removed from these grafts for histological examination, owing to the fear of setting up secondary inflammatory changes. No very great value can be attached to the results of this transmission experiment, since an insufficient number of sheep were used, and the histology of the secondary growth that was employed, showed sub- sequently that on account of extensive keratinization, the material was not suitable for grafting. Remarks. Sheep in Australia frequently receive injuries to an ear from various causes, e.g. by ear marking, or the necrosis due to a variety of factors. Undoubtedly in the great majority of cases, such injuries never result in more than a passing inflammation of the surrounding tissues. Ina certain number, however, the part from a variety of causes becomes chronically inflamed, and in some of these, the exact proportion being unknown, the continued irritation and stimulation of the epithelium arouses unrestrained growth of the latter and a typical epithelioma results. Thus the popular term “‘cancer of the ear’”’ for this condition in sheep is justified in some cases but not in all. The chronically inflamed condition may and probably does exist for a relatively long period as such, but once malignancy has set in the progress is rapid. Whether the malignancy would remain local in most of the cases where it had become established, or whether all cases would become metastatic if left to themselves, is difficult to say since sheep badly affected with “‘cancer of the ear’’ are usually killed when they come under observation in the field, but the case cited 156 SYDNEY DODD. in detail shows that metastasis can and does occur if the animal is allowed to live long enough. From a therapeutic point of view, it is evident that proper treatment of injuries to the ear would result in their stopping as cases of simple inflammatiou, but such individual treatment, merely to prevent something that might or might not occur at some such later date, is not one that would appeal to the average sheep owner in Australia. It is also quite possible that early cases of malignancy could be dealt with by amputation of the affected ear, but unfortunanely, in New South Wales at least, removal of a sheep’s ear is forbidden by law, since it would destroy evidence in the shape of the ear mark of ownership. It might be argued that such evidence in a case of “‘cancer of the ear,”’ is already obliterated; this is true, but the statement that the ear had been removed because of cancer might be readily made use of by an individual in unlawful possession of sheep. Krom a meat inspection point of view, action would depend upon whether the malignancy was local, or whether the growth had become metastatic and also on the general condition of the animal. The work has also shown that naturally acquired cancer arising from long standing irritation can and does occur in the lower animals and that the skin of the ear of sheep is one of the vulnerable sites for epithelioma formation. ESTIMATION OF CINEOL IN ESSENTIAL OILS. 157 THE ESTIMATION OF OINHOL IN ESSENTIAL OILS BY THE “COCKING ’”? PROOKSS. By L. S. CASH, B.Sc., and C. H, FAWSITT, D.Sc. [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, August 1, 1923. | THE newest method of estimating cineol as introduced by Cocking! consists in mixing 3 grams of the oil with 2°1 grams. of o-cresol and then determining the freezing point of this mixture. The authors have tried from time to time the various methods of estimating cineol in eucalyptus oil, viz. the “‘Scammell’’ phosphoric acid method as improved by Smith? and the resorcinol method. There is less difficulty to the novice in carrying out the Cocking method than the other methods, and it appears to be a method which gives results of greater accuracy than the others, provided the oil contains at least 65 per cent. of cineol. If an oil is suspected of containing less than 60 per cent. of cineol, it should be mixed with an equal or greater weight of cineol before it is examined by the Cocking method. In the following experiments pure cineol was mixed with definite quantities of other constituents commonly occurring in eucalyptus oils, and 3 grams of this (artificial) oil were then mixed with 2°1 grams of o-cresol in the usual way. The freezing points obtained are given below. Along with these figures are given figures for the density of the oils, also the viscosity of the oils compared with water taken as unity. 1 Pharmacy Year Book, 1920, p. 395. 2 Baker and Smith, “Kucalypts and their Essential Oils,’ 2nd Edition, 1920. 158 L. S. CASH AND OC. E. FAWSITT. Aaditionto Cinoot, | Eeteeutage | Freesing | Density. | Viensity 0 100 | 54:2° C.|. .0°920 2°80 Crude oil of Hucalyptus 95 52°7 0:917 3°14 radiata containing 90 50°5 0-914 ree originally no cineol. 85 49°0 0-912 sake 80 46°9 0:910 4°36 75 44°6 0:907 5:06 70 41°] 0:905 5:88 65 39°2 0:902 8 Pinene. 95 52°4 0:917 2°74 90 50:8 0:914 ae 85 48°4 073i 2°66 80 45°6 0:908 cA 75 42°4 0:905 2°37 70 40-0 0-902 ai 65 36°5 0-899 Crude oil of Hucalyptus 95 53°0 0-922 3°01 dives. 90 Delf 0:924 is 85 49°8 0:927 3°43 80 48°] 0:929 3°66 75 46:0 0:931 4:00 70 44+] 0:°933 4:27 65 41°6 0:936 High __ Boiling—Point 95 53:2 0:923 Ri Residues from the 90 51°5 0:926 3°43 oil of Hucalyptus 85 49°9 0:929 3°81 cneorifolia. 80 47°8 0:932 ee 75 46°6 0°935 4°53 70 43°9 0-939 sip 65 41:5 0°943 571 Crude oil of Encalyptus 95 52°8 0:920 Ske nova anglica. 90 51°4 0-920 3°10 85 49°4 0°920 = 80 47°6 0:920 3°40 7d 45°4 0:920 3°65 70 43:2 0:920 3°85 65 41:2 0-920 at 159 ESTIMATION OF CINEOL IN ESSENTIAL OILS. eee ! 5 @) | . l @ ) & | ; & ® { { : | 1 eel ee : g 8 owots th ie z x I ets bE ae = ae eae S , H ! rag Gnenel s: Q) H u i ¢é 7 E.RadiateiNumeroca)© pl be E Nova Aagliea x E. Dives © E. Cneo rifolia. B a It was hoped that if the freezing points for mixtures con- taining equal amounts of cineol were plotted against either the densities or viscosities of these mixtures, then the per- centage of cineol in an unknown mixture could be calculated more exactly than from the freezing point determination alone. In this regard the densities give better results than the viscosities and the curve shown has the freezing points plotted as abscisse and the densities as ordinates. It will be noticed that some mixtures containing a certain percentage of cineol freeze at a lower temperature than others. This difference may amount in extreme cases to 5 ©. Those mixtures which freeze at lower temperatures have however lower densities, so that the percentage of cineol in an oil should be capable of estimation with a maximum error of 2%. We desire to thank Mr. O. H. Fischer for carrying out some of the experimental work of this paper, and Mr. A. R. Penfold for giving us some oils used in the work. 160 H. J. HYNES. INVESTIGATIONS sy THE LATE C. O. HAMBLIN Into THE HELMINTHOSPORIUM DISEASE or WHEAT. By H. J. HYNES, B.Sc. Agr., Walter and Eliza Hall Agriculture Research Fellow, University of Sydney. With Plate X. [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, August 1, 1923.] In January 1922,) Mr. Charles O. Hamblin, B.Sc., B.Sc., Agr., late Principal Assistant Biologist in the New South Wales Department of Agriculture, drew attention to a serious disease in wheat, the cause of which he attributed toa fungus belonging to the genus Helminthosporium. This article is written in semi-popular style and gives a brief account of the history of the disease, the outstanding differ- ences from those caused by ‘Take All’’ (Ophiobolus), and recommendations for control. This is the first publication dealing with the Helminthosporium ‘‘Foot Rot” of wheat in Australia. At the time of his lamented death on the 1st October, 1922, Mr. Hamblin had work in hand relating to Helmin- thosporium which was of rather technical interest. With a view of making available to scientific workers the nature of this work Mr. Hamblin’s original manuscripts have been examined and revised and put into form for publication. This paper, then, brings up-to-date our knowledge of the Helminthosporium ‘Foot Rot’ of wheat so far as investi- gations in New South Wales are concerned. The Helminthosporium wheat disease in U.S.A. In the United States there are two ‘‘ Foot Rot’’ conditions in wheat attributed to Helminthosporium. HELMINTHOSPORIUM DISEASE OF WHEAT. 16} In the States of Illinois and Indiana a disease referred to as ‘Take All’’ (now known to be distinct from our Australian ‘‘Take All’’) has been found present on wheat.) The symptoms of this disease are, in addition to the basal browning and rotting of the stems, a very pronounced dwarfing and “‘bunchy”’ appearance in the early stages of the plants’ growth, due to the excessive number of spring tillers which develop in affected plants. Dr. fF. L. Stevens (3)and(4) of Tllinois has shown that Helminthosporium is a true parasite of wheat capable of producing a “‘Foot Rot’”’ condition in that state. McKinney, however, points out) that the form of Helminthosporium found associated with “Root Rot’’ plants in Illinois has not yet produced the characteristic field symptoms of the so-called **Take All”’ reported from that state. He further states that “there is a suggestion that the so-called ‘‘Take All’? in Illinois and Indiana may be an unusual manifestation of the Hel- minthosporium disease of wheat present in many sections of the States ... . further work is necessary before the cause of this disease can be definitely assigned to this organism.’’ McKinney proposes to substitute the name ** Wheat Rosette ”’ for the Illinois “‘Take All’’ condition. In addition to the Illinois °*Take All’”’ there is the Hel- minthosporium disease of wheat, widely spread throughout the United States, which formed the subject of investiga- tion by Mrs. L. J. Stakman at Minnesota. In her publi- cation she points out that whilst the Helminthosporium ‘*Root Rot’’ resembles somewhat the Illinois *‘ Take All’’ yet there are certain differences and it cannot be stated that the two diseases are identical. A point of interest here is that varieties of wheat like Turkey Red, Harly May and Red Wave which are immune to Illinois “‘Take All’ are distinctly susceptible to the Helminthosporium disease present in Minnesota and other parts. K—Augnst 1, 1923. 162 H. J. HYNES. Mr. Hamblin was consequently anxious to determine exactly the identity of the local strain of Helminthosporium and its relationship to the types isolated in the United States. Type cultures were forwarded to English and American workers for comparison. From extensive cor- respondence with workers abroad Mr. Hamblin was led to believe that the Australian Helminthosporium was very probably similar to the H. sativum described by Mrs. Stakman from Minnesota. Mr. R.J. Noble writing to Mr. Hamblin from Minnesota on November 28th, 1921, regard- ing the Australian strain, states ‘“‘the culture brought over is apparently H. sativum, the temperature range varying from 0 to 35° C. with an optimum temperature of 25 to 28° C. It is known to attack all cereals and 70 varieties of grasses.”’ Dr. F. L. Stevens also examined a culture of our Aus- tralian Helminthosporium. He states ‘‘while it is similar to the one I find here it differs somewhat. In particular the spores are shorter, thicker, more nearly oblong, less tapering. It is apparently a different sub-species or race at least.”’ Mr. Hamblin examined a culture of Helminthosporium forwarded from Mr. R. H. Massey, Government Botanist of the Sudan, and found that it closely resembled the Australian form. It appears that further investigation is needed to confirm the opinion that our Australian Helminthosporium is identical with the Minnesota form. Studies on the Morphology of the Fungus. The strain of Helminthosporium isolated was readily grown in culture on glucose agar and on corn meal agar. Mr. W. L. Waterhouse of the Sydney University recom- mended potato dextrose agar as being an excellent general culture medium; this was tried and found to be so successful that it was then exclusively used. HELMINTHOSPORIUM DISEASE OF WHEAT. 163 On this medium the growth of the fungus was found to be whitish in appearance for the first two days, changing to greenish-grey and finally to black in the centre by the fourth day when spores were freely produced. It was observed that the fungus growth, which was more rapid at a temperature of 25 to 26° CO. than at 32° O., was more or less tabular and flat, though the spores are to some extent borne on erect hyphee. The mycelium is hyaline to olive-brown or yellow-brown in colour, whilst the spores are mostly of an olive-brown tinge. The spores produced in culture were found to be very variable in size, shape and septation. Measurements of spores taken direct from diseased wheat plants indicated that they varied from 75 to 110 in length by 10 to 18» in breadth, with the maximum breadth usually toward the basal part of the spore. The ends of the spores are rather sharply rounded, occasionally unequal. The number of septa ranged from 1 to 11; some spores showed no septation; Y-shaped spores mentioned by Stevens) were fairly com- monly found in culture. The type of spore isolated from plants of Bromus inermis and spear grass afiected with Foot Rot was of the same general character as that from wheat. In one instance a small spore type of Helmintho- sporium (about 16°8 long, pale brown) was isolated from Canberra wheat; this type was also found on Bromus inermis in addition to the large ones mentioned above. Studies in Pathogenicity. Mr. Hamblin, as Principal Assistant to Dr. G. P. Darnell- Smith, Government Biologist, was actively engaged during his three year term of office in the general plant patho- logical work of the State Department of Agriculture. This short period together with the routine work involved did not permit Mr. Hamblin to proceed very far in his research on the “Foot Rot’’ problem; it is certain that his work in 164 H. J. HYNES. this connection would have been of a very high order had he been spared to carry out his investigations still further. He was, however, the first in Australia to prove that Helminthosporium was a potential parasite of the wheat plant. His work in this connection is borne out by his experiments, details of which are given as follows:— Demonstration of the parasitic nature of the fungus Helminthosporium. Twelve 4 inch pots containing good loamy soil were sterilized in the autoclave for 1 hour at a temperature of 115° 0. On the 10/12/21, each of six pots were then inocu- lated with one tube culture of the strain of Helminthos- porium obtained from a Cowra wheat (Marshall’s No. 3) in November 1920. The other six pots were treated as con- trols. All pots were then placed on earthenware crocks and each was covered with a pad of dry filter paper. The pots were watered at time of inoculation and thereafter at various intervals. On 29/12/21 there was evidence of mycelial growth on the soil of all six inoculated pots, whitish to brown in colour. On 7/1/22 pots were watered: and seed of Hard Federation wheat obtained from Cowra Hxperiment Farm was sown, three seeds per pot:— Controls. Inoculated Soil. 1 7 ' 2| Se untreated. =| sei untreated, 3 9 5‘ in 1000) for 15 min.; washed | 11; in 1000)for15 min; washed 6) in sterile water; sown wet. |12] in sterile water; sown wet. sf sterilized in HgC@l, (1 10] Seed sterilized in HgOl, (1 By 9/1/22 all seeds had germinated with the exception of one in pot 10. The seedlings were watered frequently. On 25/1/22 all the plants grown in inoculated soil (pots 7—12) showed tobacco coloured butts which indicated infection from Helminthosporium. eS nn HELMINTHOSPORIUM DISEASE OF WHEAT. 165 By 1/2/22 all the infected plants were dead. Mycelium and conidia of the fungus Helminthosporium were found on the plants in great abundance. Reisolation cultures were made. The control plants remained healthy for a fortnight beyond this stage when the experiment terminated. The treatment of the seed with HgCl, could not of course pre- vent the infection of the plants so treated. The fact, however, that these, equally with the untreated, developed the disease when the inoculum was added, shows that the added material was the infecting agent and that it was not resident in the seed experimented with. The conclusion which Mr. Hamblin draws from this experiment is that the strain of Helminthosporium isolated from Cowra wheat is capable of producing the ‘‘Foot Rot”’ disease in Hard Federation wheat and of killing the plants so infected when the soil is kept in adamp condition. This fungus must therefore be regarded asa true parasite under moist soil conditions. The Production of leaf-lesions. On 16/2/22 three 4 inch pots were taken in each of which 3 healthy plants of Hard Federation wheat were growing. Pot 1 was placed under a bell-jar and sprayed by means of an atomiser with a suspension of Helminthosporium conidia and mycelial fragments in sterile water, using the same strain as in last experiment. Pot 2 was similarly treated with water only to serve as a control. Pot 3 was treated in the same manner as Pot 1. Pots 1 and 2 were allowed to remain under bell jars in a well lighted position in a room while No. 3 was placed in a similarly well lighted room. 166 H. J. HYNES. On 21/2/22 the following observations were made :— Pot 1. Narrow dark brown necrotic lesions occurred on the leaves of one plant, ranging from 4 to $ inch in length. Similar lesions occurred on the other two plants near the base where the lowest leaf joined the leaf sheath. The plants in Pot 2 were healthy. In Pot 3 dark brown lesions, slightly yellow at the mar- gins, occurred on the leaves of the three plants, ranging from ;; to 4 inch in length. Conidia of the fungus were found on the lesions in great abundance. Tissue plantings gave typical cultures of Helminthosporium. On 21/3/22 the plants had been left in pots under the bell-jars for a month, and in the case of pots 1 and 3 they finally died. On these dead plants Helminthosporium was. found in abundance. In the case of Pot No. 2 (control) the three plants were fairly healthy. Spores of Alternaria -were found on dead leaves. Mr. Hamblin concludes, then, that with the humid con- ditions created under a bell-jar the Helminthosporium isolated from Cowra wheat can produce leaf lesions on Hard Federation wheat. This conclusion is important. because of the parallel with the symptoms of secondary infection (leaf lesions) recorded by Mrs. Stakman® ; these Mr. Hamblin had not observed in the field. A second method of inoculating leaves with Helminthosporium. In this experiment two pots each containing three plants. of Hard Federation wheat were used. (Pots labelled 1 and 2). All plants looked equally healthy and had made equivalent growth. On 16/2/22, on the plants in Pot No. 1 four leaf punctures (up to + inch in length), two per plant, were made with a HELMINTHOSPORIUM DISEASE OF WHEAT. 167 sterile needle. Portion ofa culture of the strain of Helmin- thosporium used in the foregoing experiments was then added to each puncture. One leaf on the third plant was painted with sterile water and then a portion of the culture added with a sterile flat knife without injuring the leaf. The plants were watered and the pot placed under a bell-jar. Pot No. 2 acted as a control; four leaf punctures, two per plant, were made as before but no inoculum was added, One leaf on the remaining plant was painted with sterile water—no inoculum was added. On 20/2/22, plants in pot No. 1 were examined. In the case of plants 1 and 2, leaf lesions were apparent with browning and death of the tissue at one of the punctures; on the other no injury was evident. The remaining plant (No. 3), where spores had been laid on leaf with flat knife, showed no signs of infection. By 21/2/22 on plant 1 the lesion had extended across the whole blade of the leaf in one case, while on plant 2 the lesion occupied only about half this area. No development on other spots was observed. On 20/2/22 plants in Pot No. 2 were examined. It was found that no growth of the fungus had taken place at leaf punctures or on leaf painted with sterile water. The punctures, moreover, did not cause the leaf to die as in Pot 1. On 21/3/22 the whole of the leaves of plants in Pot 1 were affected and browned. Helminthosporium was pro- duced in abundance on these leaves. In case of plants in Pot 2, no Helminthosporium was found but a small amount of the saprophyte Epicoccum was detected. The conclusion drawn is that infection with Helmintho- sporium can be produced by puncture and inoculation with the conidia and mycelium, but the result is not surprising in view of results obtained in the foregoing experiments. 168 wee H. J. HYNES. Infection and Seed Transmission of the Disease. In 1921 Mr. W. L. Waterhouse made available to Mr. Hamblin space at the University plant house. Here seed from diseased plants submitted by Mr. J.T’. Pridham early in the year was grown under controlled conditions. This gave rise to healthy plants in every case discounting the idea that the disease is seed borne. Hvidence on this point Mr. Hamblin did not regard as conclusive. Lack of facilities did not allow him to further pursue the question of the way in which infection normally occurs. His observations, however, led him to say “‘there is every indication that it is either by adhesion to the seed or by mycelial infection through the soil; however, it may take place by both methods.’’ Occurrence of the disease on wheats and other hosts. The occurrence of Helminthosporium was noted on plants other than wheat at the Cowra Experiment Farm in December 1921. Spores of the fungus were found abun- dantly on a crop ofSlav Rye, showing a “Foot Rot’’ con- dition very similar to that on wheat; spores were also found on Skinless Barley, Barley Grass (Hordeum murinum), Bromus inermis, B. sterilis, and Spear Grass. At Cowra Experiment Farm in 1921 Mr. Hamblin in company with Mr. J. P. Shelton examined a large number of wheat varieties growing in the breeding plots to determine whether Foot Rot was present. The following is a list of all varieties which were determined as infected, based on field examination; varieties on which conidia of Helmin- thosporium were actually determined by microscopic examination are denoted by an asterisk. Triticum vulgare. Allora Spring Anvil (bad) Alpha Argentine _ American 8 (not serious) Aurora HELMINTHOSPORIUM DISEASE OF WHEAT. 169 Triticum vulgare—continued. A. 88 (bad) Dindiloa Baroota Wonder Early Lambrigg Basil (not serious) Early Red Chief Bathurst No. 7 Eden (bad) Bathurst No. 17 Etawah (bad) Bayah Farmer’s Friend Biffen’s Red Fife (bad) Fenman Biffen’s White Fife *Federation (bad) Biffen’s 60/9 | *Firbank Biffen’s 60/14 Florence Billy Hughes Forelock Blount’s Lambrigg Gluyas Blue Wave *Gluyas (Bearded) Bobs (Fusarium probably also Golden Drop present) *Gresley Bomen (bad) *Hard Federation Bonus Heywood’s Booran Hoof’s Imperial (very bad) Bunge Hornblende Bunyip Hudson’s Early Purple Straw ~*Canberra Indian King Carrabin (not bad) John Brown (not serious) Cedar Jonathan ~*Clarendon Kanred (fair) College Eclipse (poor) Keswycke College Purple (fair) Kharkov Comeback King’s Red Cormie’s No. 3 King’s White Correll’s No. 8 Kota (fair) Currawa Little Joss ‘Currawa (early crossback 53, Lott’s White from) Magenis Darts Imperial (probably Majestic Fusarium also present) Major (bad) -Dawson’s Golden Chaff Major x Yandilla (fair) 170 H. J. HYNES. Triticum vulgare—continued. Marshall’s No. 3 (bad) Thew (very bad) Marquis (bad) Merredin Minister Nangeenan Narrogin Narrogin No. 7 Narrogin No. 9 Nungarin No. 24 (very bad) No. 76 (bad) Peace Hybrid Penny (very bad) (Thew x Florence x Huguenot)” Triumph Turvey (fair) Union 17 Union 28 (not serious) Union 66 Vanessa Wagga 8 Wagga 13 Wallace *W andilla *Waratah Purple Straw (appears resistant) Warden (bad) Pusa 6 P. 1066 Rattling Jack Red Glyndon Red Skin Red Wing (not serious) Roseworthy Rymer Sanger’s Prolific Steinwedel Sussex S.HJ. Talgai Abyssinian Acme Algerian Covelle Huguenot (bad) Kahle Warren (very bad) (Warren x Florence x Huguenot)* (Warren x Florence x Huguenot x Nyngan No. 2) (1 diseased) (Warren x Nutcut)’ : White Federation Wickepin Wilfred (very bad) Wilhelmina (good appearance) *Yandilla King (bad) Yeoman C. Zealand Zealand Blue (bad) Triticum durum. Kubanka (not bad) Marouani (fair) Marouani (a strain) Medeah (not bad) Mindum (fair) . Speltz Marz (fair) HELMINTHOSPORIUM DISEASE OF WEEAT, 17k Triticum monococcum *Kinkorn (one plant seen) Triticum dicoccum. Emmer (Beardless) Emmer Emmer (Blackwinter) Khapli Triticum compactum. American Club Clubhead Club Little Club Triticum spelta. Black Bearded Spelt (apparently clean) White Beardless Spelt Triticum dicoccum-dicoccoides. Synthetic Wild (bad) Wild Common (bad) In conclusion the writer desires to express to Mr. W. L. Waterhouse his thanks for very helpful criticism in the compilation of the matter; also to Messrs. J. T. Pridham and J. P. Shelton for assistance in classifying the varieties. of wheat. Summary. 1, The matter detailed in this paper is the work of the late Mr. O. O. Hamblin. 2. The strain of Helminthosporium isolated from Mar- shall’s No. 3 wheat at Cowra Experiment Farm in November 1920 is probably identical with the type isolated by Mrs. Stakman from wheat at Minnesota. 3. The fungus which grows well on potato dextrose agar at a temperature of 25° O. is at first whitish in colour changing later to black with abundant spore production. 4. Spores taken direct from diseased plants range from 75 to 110h by 10 to 18p in size with from 1 to 11 septa; a small spore type (16°8) has also been found. d. The strain of Helminthosporium isolated has been shown to be a parasite of the wheat plant in New South 172 H. J. HYNES. Wales, capable of causing a ‘‘ Foot Rot’’ condition and also causing secondary infection on the leaves. 6. Seed from diseased plants when sown gave rise to healthy plants. Infection probably occurs (1) by adhesion of spores to seed or (2) by mycelial infection through the the soil; probably in both ways. 7. In addition to wheat Helminthosporium spores have been observed on Slav Rye, Skinless Barley, Hordeum murinum, Bromus inermis, B. sterilis, and Spear Grass. 8. Field diagnosis of the ‘‘ Foot Rot’’ condition indicates that the very large majority of wheat varieties grown or being tested locally are susceptible to attack. Literature Cited. 1. Hamstin, OC. O.—“ Foot Rot of wheat caused by the fungus Helminthosporium,” N.S.W. Agric. Gaz. xxxiii: No. 1, p. 13, 1922. 2. Humpurey, H. B., Jonnson, A. G., and McKinney, H. H.— “Take All of wheat and its control,” U.S.D.A. Farmer’s Bull. 1226, 1921. 3. Stevens, F. L.—‘ Foot Rot of Wheat,” ‘‘ Science,” N.S. 51: p: 917, 1920. “The Helminthosporium Foot Rot of wheat with obser- vations on the Morphology of Helminthosporium and on the occurrence of Saltation in the Genus,” Illinois Dept. Registr. and Educ. Div. Nat. Hist. Survey, Bull. xiv, Art. V, p. 76, 1922. 5. McKinney, H. H.—“The so-called take-all disease of wheat in T]linois and Indiana,” Abst. in Phytopath. 11:1, p. 37, 1921. 4. 6. Staxman, L. J.—“A Helminthosporium disease of wheat and Rye,” Univ. Minn. Agr. Expt. Stn., Bull. 191, 1920. Explanation of Plate X. Photograph 1 and Photomicrograph 2 by W. J. Reay. Fig. 1. Growth on potato dextrose agar of the Helminthosporium isolated from Marshall’s No. 3 wheat. Fig, 2. Spores of the same fungus taken from culture ( x 145). Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,Vol. LVIT, 1928. Plate X. Fig. Z. ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 173. ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIO IONISATION. By HEpeGar H. Boots, B.sc., Lecturer in Physics in the University of Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 5, 1923. | A vAST amount of work has been done in the investigation of atmospheric ionisation, the two main divisions being that dealing with dust free air, and that dealing with dusty air. With the first division the name of Wilson is most intimately associated, with the second division the name of Aitken. Research in both branches has been carried out by many famous investigators, so that our knowledge of the subject to-day isdeep. Yet many problems—even stated problems —remain to be solved. The author has spent much time from 1919 to 1922 in investigations into dusty air effects, which have led to some interesting results and conclusions in connection with the large ion, and also have considerable bearing on the discussion of the last few years on the types of ions produced by bubbling air through water. Brief Resume of Earlier Work. ~The earliest work in connection with the subject that one can find is that of Ooulier,* in which he discloses the fact that small, sudden diminutions in pressure on an enclosed volume of air result in the formation of fog, that the process repeated several times removes the cause of the fog, and that if the air be filtered through cotton wool, no fog results on subsequent small expansions. Attempts to ‘‘ burn out’’ the nuclei led merely to increased fogs. 1 Coulier, Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie, Vol. xx11, 1875. 174 E. H. BOOTH. Whilst this work was proceeding in France, John Aitken? was experimenting on similar lines in Scotland. He pro- ceeded further than Coulier, and invented his ‘dust counter,’ by means of which he counted the number of particles present, insisting on the fact that the condensation nuclei were foreign to the air. Kiessling? was unable to clear his air by repeated small expansions, or by filtration. The important point to observe is that he ensured saturation of the air by bubbling through water, which, in light of subsequent work, is sufficient to render all his results unintelligible. R. von Helmholtz® attempted the further work of causing expansions of greater magnitude in dust-free air. Accord- ing to his paper, the supersaturation produced should have been tenfold. No condensation ensued, a result quite con- tradicted by later experimenters, and showing that his expansions cannot have been adiabatic, and consequently his supersaturation was not so great as he had estimated. A considerable amount of later work was then under- taken by Aitken,* and by Barus,°® a consideration of which is not essential to this paper. The Discovery of the Small Ion. From now on the work of condensation on dust particles runs side by side with the discovery of the negative and positive small ion, and the increased activity in research on dust free air. C. T. R. Wilson, then Olerk-Maxwell. student in the University of Cambridge, read his first paper 1 Aitken—“Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.,” Vol. 30 (1883), and Vol. 35 (1890). 2 Kiessling —“ Hamburger Abhandl der Naturwissenschaften,” 1884. 3 Helmholtz—“ Wied. Annalen,” Vol. 27 (1886). * Aitken—“ Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.” Vol. 36. “ Proc. Roy. Soc., Lon- don,” Vol. 5 (1892). 5 Barus— ‘U.S. Dept. Agric., Weather Bureau,” (1895). “‘ Phil. Mag.”’ Vol. 38 (1894). ““Condensation of vapour as indicated by nuclei and ions,” ‘Carnegie Institute, Washington. ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 175 on Atmospheric Ionisation before the Oambridge Philo- sophical Society, published in the “ Proceedings of the ‘Cambridge Philosophical Society,’’ Vol. 8, 1895. This was really only an introductory paper—his next paper, read before the Royal Society, on April 8th, 1897, and published in ‘‘ Philosophical Transactions,’’ Vol. 189, entitled °*Con- densation of water vapour in the presence of dust free air and other gases,’’ was far more comprehensive. In his first paper he announced his discovery that given an expansion of ae = 1°25 approximately, when Vi and V2 are the 1 volumes of the air before and after expansion, condensation takes place sharply in dust free air. This corresponds toa fourfold supersaturation. [Aitken (Kdin. Trans. 35) was able to remove all the dust particles from saturated air by EepPateky increasing the volume z% of the original amount ° — e —i.é. a 1°02. | Wilson, commenting on this clearing expansion = =1°02, states ‘‘An even smaller expansion was found a these experiments to be sufficient for that purpose”? .... “If after the dust has been removed in this way the successive expansions be made greater and greater, no visible effect is produced till ae ease is equal to about 1°252.”’ 1 In this paper Wilson finds, as previously noted, that unless the air were allowed to stand many hours the first expansion, however small, produced a fog. This repeated small expansion method was his first mode of * clearing ”’ the air. When Va exceeds 1°252, ‘‘a shower of drops is invariably 1 produced.”’ To see if these ions were produced spontane- ously in the air, or were in the nature of dust particles, repeated filtering was tried, without, however, affecting the result. But we must observe ‘If, however, the air 176 E. H. BOOTH. had to bubble through water on being driven back, quite a small expansion was sufficient to cause a shower, even some minutes later.”’ In this paper, Wilson misses the positively charged ion, to be discovered later; he tries the effect of greater super- saturation, and finds that he passes to heavy fog when the expansion reaches 1°38. For the author’s purpose it is necessary to draw attention here to Wilson’s added note ** When expansion results in a fog, it is of course necessary to get rid of all traces of it before proceeding to fresh observations. This was done by repeated expansions of moderate amount, as in the removal of dust particles.”’ Wilson’ published several further papers in connection with condensation on the small ion before recognising that he was dealing solely with the negative small ion; this work was in connection with X Ray ionisation, and ionisa- tion by active salts. He points out that the small ions must be of almost molecular dimensions. Professor J. J. Thomson pointed out the necessity of investigating the relative condensing powers of negatively and positively charged ions, in his paper ‘‘On the charge of electricity carried by the ions produced by Rontgen rays’’ (Phil. Mag. Vol. 46, 1898) which led to further investigations by Wilson, and his paper in Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 193, ‘‘On the Comparative Efficiency as Condensation Nuclei of Positively and Negatively Charged Tons.’’ Here we find the different supersaturation required for the positive small ion first recognised, and the final recognition of three different critical supersaturation effects :— Expansion Ratio. Supersaturation Lon. 1°25 4 Negative ion 1°31 6 Positive ion 1°38 8 Water molecules ? 1 Wilson—‘ Proc. Camb.Phil. Soc.,” Vol. 9, (1897); ‘‘ Phil. Trans.,’” Vol. 192, (1899). ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 177 Much other work in connection with atmospheric con- ditions was being done about this time by Professor J. J. Thomson himself, who had suggested much of the work, by J.S. Townsend, and by H. A. Wilson, with which this paper is not directly concerned. It is with the main line of investigation, from condensation in dusty air to the recognition of the various nuclei that we are mainly interested. The point of next interest was as to the charge carried by these ions—there was no question of a charge on the nuclei concerned in the eightfold supersaturation, but an investigation of the positive and negative charges on the small ions (four and sixfold supersaturations) was required. The velocity of the cloud formed when > = 1°25 or 1°31 1 could be followed when moving in different electric fields, affording a reliable method of calculation of the mean charge on each drop. The work of Prof. J. J. Thomson, published first in the Phil. Mag. Vol. 46 (1898) already referred to and later in the Phil. Mag. Vol. 5 (1903) is the classical determination, and led to the conclusion that the small ion, positive or negative, consisted of a small electri- fied group of molecules, without any foreign core, the charge being, as expected, 3°4 x 10-°. Later work has raised considerable discussion as to the actual construction of the ion, and more accurate determinations of the ionic charge have been made. Mobility. The work now swings on to the “‘mobility”’ of these ions, their mobility being the average velocity they attain when under a potential gradient of one volt per centimetre—and the later qualitative results lie mainly in this field, with the exception of important investigations by Prof. T. H. Laby on condensation in various vapours, referred to again later. L—September 5, 1223. 178 E, H. BOOTH. When a field is applied, it is noticed that the ions almost immediately attain a constant velocity, and that velocity is in accordance with the strength of the field. The fact that the positive and negative small ions have different mobilities was first observed by Zeleny, and recorded in the Phil. Mag. Vol. 46, (1898). If we refer to a laterand more complete paper by the same author in Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 195 (1901), we find that his measurements of mobility for the small ions may be tabulated, so far as this paper is concerned, as follows:— Mobility in dry air. Positive ion 1°36 Negative ion 1°87 Ratio of velocities 1°375 Mobility in wet air. Positive ion 1°37 Negative ion 1°51 Ratio of velocities 1°10 The unit being, of course, one centimetre per second per volt per centimetre. It is the condition in wet, or saturated, air that is of most interest to us, but the slowing down of the negative ion with increase in relative humidity, whilst the positive ion remains unchanged, has led to the conception of the negative ion as collecting more and more water molecules round it as they become available. Professor J. A. Pollock, in the Presidential Address before Section A of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, 1909, stated—‘‘The charged molecule will thus collect other molecules round it, but, as the effect of the charge on the outer members of the cluster diminishes as the collection of molecules increases, the growth will cease when the size is such that the attraction of the charge at the surface of the cluster, in grazing impact of ion and molecule, is just sufficient to hold the latter aS a permanent member of the ionic system.”’ ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 179 All readings quoted are for air, or for air and water vapour; the denser the gas employed, the less the velocity. Zeleny points to the smaller supersaturation required for condensation on the negative ion— It is interesting to note in this connection the recent results of O. T. R. Wilson, showing that in supersaturated air the water condenses more readily upon the negative ion.’’ The negative ion has a greater affinity for water molecules. (The ratio of velocities had been given by Zeleny in his earlier papers, but as the hygrometric state of the air was unknown, the results were indeterminate). This paper does not include within its scope a general discussion of the methods of ionisation, so passes over the extremely interesting work of John 8S. Townsend, collected in his book ‘* The ionisation of gases by collision,’’ and the lucid summing up of the situation by Prof. Bragg in his Presidential Address before the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, 1904, (Section A). The Langevin Large Ion. The next ion discovered in the atmosphere was announced by Langevin? in his paper ‘Sur les ions de I’ atmosphere.”’ He found, in ordinary atmosphere, an ion of mobility soo5- Papers published by Pollock in 1909 in the Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, and in the Phil. Magazine 1915, make a careful investigation of the mobility of the large ion under varying hygrometric conditions, and put forward suggestions as to its nature— a foreign nucleus, electrified, and surrounded by water. McLelland and Kennedy (*‘ The large ions in the atmos- phere,’’ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Vol. 30, 1912) also find the mobility of the large ion to be in accord- ance with that stated by Langevin, and give quite a con- + Langevin—“ Comptes Rendus,” Tome 140 (1905). 180 E. H. BOOTH. siderable amount of tabulated information as to the number present per c.c. under different weather conditions. We must note in connection with this that—‘‘On afew morn- ings during which there were ‘smoke’ fogs, the values were high, but decreased as the atmosphere became clearer.’’ It is also exceedingly interesting to note his further results, that after the large ions had been removed by an electric field (not by filtration), they reproduced themselves, though not to the same extent as before.’’ Pollock shows that if the air were cleared of dust, either by filtering or by a series of moderate or large supersaturations, the large ion did not recur. This has also been checked under varying conditions by the author. Obviously this would point to the idea, which is emphasised later, that the nucleus is a “‘dust’”’ particle, and that the ion is not necessarily electrified to exist—it picks up a charge later, and is consequently noticed—but is always. available as a condensation nucleus. In other words, the Langevin ion is always considered as an electrified particle, because it has always been its mobility that has been measured. Where ‘“‘dust’’ particles are referred to, the author means matter foreign to the gases or vapour concerned. The discussion as to the nature of the large ion is by no means finalised—beyond its mobility, and the fact that the number of large ions present varies inversely as the num- ber of small ions, nothing is fixed. As for the structure of the small ion, the outstanding point is only as to whether it consists of a group of molecules, or of one molecule, carry- ing a single charge. Wellish’ looks upon it as a single charged molecule, explaining the apparent “loading”’ in terms of the charge itself. 1 Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1998, and Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, 1909. 2 * is ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 181 Langevin looked upon the large ion as containing at least a million ions of molecular size. The ‘‘Intermediate’’ Ion. With reference to the ‘‘intermediate’’ ion of Pollock, published in the Phil. Magazine, Vol. 29, 1915, under the heading ‘‘A new type of ionin the air,’ all work inany way conclusive on various types of ion present in the atmo- sphere may be considered ended to the present. This ion has a mobility of ; approximately, depending, like the other ions, on the state of saturation of the air, and dis- appears if the vapour pressure exceeds a certain value (15 mm. Hg). This ion is supposed by its discoverer to consist of arigid core, enveloped by a dense atmosphere of water vapour. The possibility of an ion of this type had been pointed out previously by Sutherland.’ Ions Produced by Spraying. There now opens up the discussion of the effects produced when a gas bubbles through a liquid. A considerable amount of work has been done in this field, both as to the electrification effects produced, and as to the possible form- ation of ions. It is this latter series of investigations which concerns us. The work of earlier investigators had shown electrification effects produced when splashing or bubbling took place, so one is dealing here with the idea of charged “‘spray,’’ the drops composing the spray being of ionic dimensions. It will be noticed throughout previous work referred to in this paper that any bubbling or splashing caused compli- cations, the air being filled with minute drops, which cause condensation on the least supersaturation. The idea is that each small drop would act as a nucleus, just as the water molecule acts as a nucleus for the great supersatur- 1 Phil. Magazine, 1909. 182 E. H. BOOTH. ations. Associated with this work—that is, the attempt to locate definite new ions in spray—we find the names of McLelland, P.S. Nolan, J.S. Nolan, and Blackwood. J.S. Nolan’ finds no less than twelve distinct groups of ions, of mobilities 0°00038, 0°0010, 0°0043, 0°013, 0°046, 0°12, 0°24, 0°53, 1°09, 1°56, 3°27, and 6°25 cms/sec/volt/em. These ions carried both positive and negative charges, except the fastest, which was only found negative. It seems quite possible that the air was not ‘“‘dust free,’’ and that, although distilled water was employed, it may have abounded in foreign nuclei. He refuses to admit a blending from group to group, which might indicate the continuity in size of the droplets which might be expected. Later work’ leads to the same results with undried filtered air bubbled through mercury. It is claimed that these new ions have no nuclei—they are merely a grouping of water molecules. A further paper’ discloses mobilities of up to 27°0 cms/sec/volt/cm. Nolan next draws attention to the bubble ion of mobility 0°047, for which he deduces a corrected radius of 3°8 x 107 cm. approximately. He takes his ion of mobility 0°00038 (corresponding to the mobility of the Langevin ion) to have a radius of 4°16 x 10° cm.—this is his largest ion—and to the ion at the other end of the group of five he gives a mobility of 0°047, and a radius of 3°8x10%cm. The stable ion, as calculated by Thomson and by Langevin* has a radius of 5<10%cm. So Nolan takes his ion mobility 0°047 as being the stable ion. 1 J. S. Nolan, Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol, 90, (1914); Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. Vo). 33, (1916). 2 Nolan & McLelland, Ibid., 2nd paper. § Nolan, Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. 94, (1918). Conduction of Electricity through Gases, and Chaveau, ‘Le Radium,» 1912. ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 183 There does not appear to bea sufficient reason for taking this group of five ions separately—it would seem just as correct to take his next ion, 0°12 mobility, as fulfilling this **stable ion’’ condition, if worked out purely on a surface tension—vapour pressure balance. Hlectrification can make no difference in ions of this size, as will be seen later. In summing up and putting forward a theory as to the number of water molecules composing these ions, Nolan takes the stand that the small ion in dry air is the simple molecule (Wellish) or group of molecules of the gas, whilst in saturated air the small ion is this dry ion with water molecules tacked on, no other impurity being present. This certainly fits in with all experimental evidence, and is in accord with the views of most physicists. He also draws attention to the fact that in dry air the mobility (negative ion) is given as from 1°93 to 1°70 (apparently depending on the care with which drying is carried out) and in “‘wet’’ air is 1°5 approximately. This would seem to contradict the possibility of the existence of definite stable ions with mobilities between 1°5 and 1°93—yet Nolan’s ions are 1°49, 1°70, 1°94. Is not this middle ion, mobility 1°70, a “‘paper’”’ ion only, resulting from a mixture of ions with water molecule affinities satisfied to different degrees? Beyond this he proceeds by nine ion steps to the one previously referred to, mobility 27°0. In the ** Physical Review,’’ August 1920, Volume 16, Oswald Blackwood gives the results of his research into this type of spray ion, in an attempt made to repeat the Irish experiments. He was quite unsuccessful, finding a continuous band of spray ions, and no division into groups. He employed a Zeleny tube for mobility determinations, and would certainly seem to have had every opportunity of determining the series of lasting spray ions, if such were produced. 184 E. H. BOOTH. He also produced ions by employing a red hot platinum wire as an ioniser, and found that he got a continuous band effect, the mean mobility of the ions present in every case increasing with time since formation, ‘‘ indicating that the rate of condensation of water vapour is constant and independent of its (the drops) size.”’ He was working on small time periods only in his more precise work, up to 70 seconds. Figure 1 shows a com- parison of mobilities (mean) and age, the data being taken from Blackwood’s paper. If the curve be asymptotical to the line mobility =0, then the drops will grow to an infinite size. But it is more ei IN S N ° bya on rT " ef " ke c 4 ad a Lett ye FO AEESA ON Ee eS rely nig Igor ety Sey é oi ae AT a Soe cr rita ie ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 187 condensations being found on the way up to the fourfold supersaturation. The first Series of Investigations by the Author. The first investigation commenced by the author in the Physical Laboratory of the University of Sydney, at the suggestion of the late Professor Pollock, was to examine the nature of the nuclei in ordinary unfiltered laboratory air by means of small supersaturations, to find if any critical supersaturation could be found corresponding to any particular group of ions. Also, to determine the minimum expansion necessary to clear dusty air. H. Kennedy’ suggests “‘That the nuclei measured by Aitken were not dust particles in the form of solid matter in a very fine state of subdivision, but were identical with the large ions and the uncharged nuclei, from which large ions may be formed by ionising the air in which these nuclei occur.”’ This would demand a small critical supersaturation to bring them down. Kennedy finds that the charge on the large ions is variable, but the mobility constant. This would not affect the supersaturation required on a body of this size. The apparatus employed is of the type used by Wilson, as described in the Phil. Magazine, June 1904. Thisis shown in Fig. 2and Plate XI. The vacuum vessel A is connected through a stop cock to a vacuum pump, and is kept closed to the rest of the apparatus by the rubber stopper B, which is held against the vacuum chamber opening by the atmo- spheric pressure. A trigger and spring release C enable the stopper B to be jerked back suddenly, establishing communication between the vacuum vessel and the under surface of the piston D, which can be previously pushed up to any required height in the cylinder EK by blowing through 3) 1 “The large ions and condensation nuclei from flames, Irish Acad., Vol. 334, p. 58. Proc. Roy. 188 E. H. BOOTH. Ee = pa ILS) IPF sae & Release pus Hig. 2. the inlet F. This can be closed then by a stop cock. On top of the cylinder and piston is the glass expansion chamber G, sealed in position so as to be quite airtight. This expansion chamber is referred to by Wilson as the ‘‘cloud viewing chamber.’’ The pressure in the expansion chamber is read on the manometer gauge H. (Two gauges, water and mercury, are provided.) Full precautions are taken as to sealing all parts of the apparatus to prevent any possi- bility of communication between the expansion chamber and the outside air, by providing all flanges with rubber separators, the joints being again carefully waxed outside ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 189 that. The expansion chamber has a rubber pad at top and at bottom, being squeezed between the two by means of columns J. The piston rests on a rubber pad at the end of its stroke—this is essential, as otherwise the shock of . falling soon burrs up the edge of the piston, forming a leak to the vacuum chamber, and nullifying the whole experi- ment. Some difficulty was experienced in finding a rubber sufficiently soft to ensure a perfect seal being established by the piston at the bottom of its stroke, and which would not be cut through by the repeated blows with the sharp edge. Red rubber sheet, 7; inch thick, was found most suitable. As only small expansions were required, a small piston was employed (a false cylinder lining enabled this to be done) with a large expansion chamber. The chamber hada volume of 8,647 c.c., the piston having a diameter of 2°3 cms. The principle involved is, of course, an adiabatic volume change by the rapid pulling down of the piston, with the corresponding drop in temperature and consequent super- saturation. | It was readily seen that any splashing from the plunger would upset the experiment, so a splash glass was placed in the expansion chamber over the cylinder to obviate any errors due to this cause. The illumination was from an arc lamp initially, brought to a focus in the centre of the chamber, the light being admitted through asmall opening in a dead black screen, and viewed through another open- ing 20° off the direct line of light. The bright drops could be seen falling or floating against a black ground, and the intensity of illumination varied from the sides of the cham- ber where the cone of light was at its bases and thus a large *‘fleld of view’’ given, to the centre of the chamber where the field of view was small, but the illumination intense. A water bath was employed between lamp and chamber to absorb heat radiations. 190 E. H BOOTH. On filling the expansion chamber with air (either sucked in without filtering through a bye-pass on the pressure gauge tube, or merely collected on assembling the appar- atus), a very large number of dust particles could generally be seen floating in the cone of light. Immediate expansion on admission of fresh air could, in many cases, be taken up to a pressure change of 20 cms. H2O without formation of fog—the air obviously took some time tosaturate. At first considerable time was allowed for saturation. Later, moist filter paper on the sides of the apparatus where it would not affect the required dark background was employed to expedite saturation. Inall cases it was found that con- siderable time was required to ensure that the air would be saturated. After standing one hour, the least expansion found prac- icable with this apparatus (0°4 cm. H.O) was sufficient to cause a “‘coloured”’ fog. Standing for twelve hours was generally sufficient to clear the air of all visible particles—but an expansion of 2°0 cms. HzO even after that period was usually sufficient to cause fog. Standing for two days was sufficient to allow of expansions considerably greater than this being taken without the formation of fog or mist. It is to be observed that up to a limit (noted later) the expansion required to produce fog increases with increase in time of standing. Several series of experiments were taken both with this apparatus, and employing very large spherical glass flasks (12” radius) to see if any relationship could be worked out for the time taken to “‘settle’’—or disappear—by these large nuclei, and the condensation required to produce fog or mist, but no law could be determined. It probably depends on many factors such as size of chamber, area of surface exposed for settling, initial state of air, etc. ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 191 This would appear to contradict Kennedy’s statement that only the large ion has to be considered—unless he goes further, and looks on the large ion as capable of collecting more large ions, so as to form a series of very big ions, larger than any yet recognised in any work. But the pressure changes were found to be the minimum ones to cause the necessary supersaturation for the largest particles yet extant. We are forced to accept Aitkens original explanation, that these nuclei are actually foreign matter, or ‘‘ dust particles ’’ in the air, which take different times to settle. The experiment of clearing the unfiltered air by X Ray ionisation, and the application of an electric field was repeated as a test on the apparatus, and it was found that all particles could be readily removed, so that no conden- sation could be produced up to the limit of pressure varia- tion of the apparatus. For this purpose the top cover of the expansion chamber was constructed of a thin sheet of aluminium, and the chamber contained two insulated plates, distance apart 5°0 cms., and maintained at a potential difference of 480 volts by means of a set of small accumul- ators. The average time taken to completely clear the air by this method, starting with fresh air, was thirty minutes, With this apparatus, in very many cases it was noted that if the air were allowed to stand untouched sufficiently long—generally of the order of sixty hours or more—it was clear up to an expansion of 8cms. (AII pressure variations are in water units unless otherwise stated). If allowed to stand for longer periods, of the order of one week, expansions up to the limit of the apparatus as then adjusted (30 cms.) could be taken without any condensation occur- ring. The occurrence in the vicinity of 8 cms. was always rainlike; if rain occurred then, it was found to persist up to the maximum expansion taken. This is to be expected— 192 E. H. BOOTH. if the nuclei are present, the greater supersaturation will merely mean bigger drops if they exist alone. The number of drops was very variable. In few cases did the air clear on standing so that an expansion greater than 8 cms. was. required to bring rain; if it was clear to 8 cms. it was usually found to be clear to the limit of expansion (30 cms.) (In these few cases, an expansion of between 13 and 18 cms. caused rain.) An increase in rain was frequently noted from 13-18 cms. This was most pronounced—though possibly only by con- trast—if only a few drops occurred at 8 cms. As previous observers had definitely stated that the air could be cleared of all nuclei up to an expansion ratio of 1°25, by repeated expansions at 1°02, a large number of expansions at 25 to 30 cms. were taken, but rain was often obtained after the fog had been cleared. It was considered possible that some very small leak, insufficient to appreci- ably affect the pressure gauge, might be the cause of this. Consequently readings were now taken with the chamber pressure always in excess of the external atmospheric pressure, so that any leakage should be from the expansion chamber. It was found that this did not affect the result. It was now noticed that after this eccentric rain had once fallen, rain could be produced at any lower expansion, downto8cms. Below this, condensation was not observed. Immediately above it, rain fell. The effect died away in an hour or less. This appeared to point to condensations on invisible water nuclei, possibly formed by splashing, with the possi- bility that with this apparatus the higher condensation point (13 to 18 cms.) was governed solely by the expansion at which the piston descended with sufficient violence to project “‘splashes,’’ which would find their way unhindered into the upper chamber. ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 193 Oonsequently the bottom of the chamber was now closed bya screen of fine bolting, wetted, and placed about 5 cms. up the chamber. On the first run after the insertion of the bolting, the air was very dusty, and the chamber was filled with swirl- ing fog without any expansion being made. It was allowed to stand for two days, and an expansion of 2 cms. was still sufficient to cause fog. It was not found practicable to clear it by repeated small expansions of 2—3 cms., the air being too heavily laden. Neither wasit considered justifl- able to adopt the method latterly employed by Aitken,* and carry out a number of large expansions slowly, as it was considered that it left the state of the air too indeter- minate. After standing a further twenty-four hours, expansions up to the maximum (34 cms.) were taken without rain being obtained. The run was now repeated, with ionisation by X rays proceeding, and no effect was noted until an expansion of 17 cms. was reached, At this point a large splash was seen to strike the bolting. The expansion of 17 cms. was thereupon repeated, rain being the result, as was expected. The apparatus stood for one hour. A run through to 21 cms. was taken without X rays—no rain. With X rays on, after five minutes, with ionisation still proceeding, expansions of 21 and 22 cms. were taken—no rain resulted. (There was no field employed, the plates having been removed). It was subsequently found that the air could always be cleared by repeated expansions of 20 cms. unless splashing occurred. Oases of splashing were investigated. Any high expansion immediately after a splash, produced rain. Hxpansions immediately afterwards of 8 cms., 9 cms., and upwards produced rain, but 7 cms., produced no effect; several minutes elapsed between each reading. * Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, Vol. 37, p. 220. M-—September 5, 1923. irene ie 194 E. H. BOOTH. This clearly indicated that after splashing, and after waiting about three minutes for stabilisation, rain will occur at expansions of 8 cms, or greater, even in apparently dust free air. No leakage can have been possible, the . pressure in the expansion chamber being above atmospheric pressure. This was repeated on many occasions, it being found that the conditions given above were always repeated also. — No precise time intervals were measured between splash and subsequent readings, during this period of the research. It will be noted, also, that water pressure variations are given to the nearest centimetre only—the apparatus was so big for the small expansions taken, and the piston move- ment for the lower readings so small that, although records were keep throughout to the nearest millimetre, the order of accuracy was not nearly so great as would be indicated by that. It may be well here to investigate the possible effect of a different pressure range, or a different temperature. The expansion ratio is given by Ve _ Initial gas pressure _ B — 7 —S; V: Final gas pressure B — 7 = Be where B is the barometric pressure, 7 the saturation vapour pressure at the temperature of the experiment, and S; and Se the initial and final gauge readings. Taking a typical example of an 8 cms. variation, from 5 cms. above atmospheric pressure to 3 cms. below, where B = 76°6 cms. —_ — 19°66 Ve has ok = 6 eae aa 30 = 1°0079. 1 i eae BE . 766 i3°6 19°66 Taking atmospheric pressure as 760 m.m., and neglecting the partial pressure due to saturated water vapour, also - = Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,Vol. LV II,, 1923. Plate XII, S QO A *: / : inp } ¢ Fi : % 3 4 a i Re es i ete : . i x A Wee : Ae " gy } Aen . ‘ = + : i re . “\ j uM oy = “ 4 ‘ : oe , i sath 5 , r . ye 4 ow : / 2 Be , 7 * : r i = = ‘ i 3 “ fat j ; rath ‘i : . + Ls 1 f i af be - * to . he “we ~~ - ~ - 5 1 D i % a igeae b ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 195 taking a total pressure variation of 8 cms. without regard to sign, Vo 160 aia Teas 13°6 so any variation in pressure or temperature should not affect the pressure or volume ratio. On the other hand, if an error in reading of one centi- metre be made in the pressure change, Vo 760 : cen Osa ec 13°6 so it would appear illogical to take pressure or temperature variations into account, so long as the pressure change is measured as accurately as possible. Second Series of Investigations. Attention having now been directed to an apparently critical condensation point after splashing, as well as to the critical point on standing, a better apparatus was designed to deal with dusty or dust free air for small expan- sions, where accurate readings could be made, splashing would be cut out and bubbling substituted, and the history of the imprisoned air recorded in detail. The apparatus is shown in Plate XII. The air is drawn in from the laboratory through the tube A, and through the tube B which can be packed with 20 cms. of cotton wool to filter the air if desired. The flask C, radius 10 cms. holds ‘“‘distilled’’ water, which can be tipped or again dis- tilled in situ over to the bend D. E is the expansion chamber, a cylinder 38 cms. long and 4°5 cms. in diameter; ¥ is the cylinder, and G the piston, to produce pressure variations in EH; I is a water gauge and M an outlet or seal, normally kept filled with 20 cms. cotton=wool as a filter; N is a pinch cock closing this end of the tube; K is the vacuum flask, connected to a water vacuum pump; H 196 E. H. BOOTH. and L are the trigger and stopper arrangements by means of which the vacuum chamber is suddenly put into connec- tion with the bottom of the piston. The piston is of glass, being a 1 inch test tube, cut and ground so as to make an airtight contact with the rubber stopper at the bottom of the cylinder. A large number of test tubes were tried, and a selection made of those which fitted the cylinder smoothly, yet with a minimum of play between cylinder walls and piston. The lubricant was the water seal in the piston. Many pistons were broken by shock or cracked, or found to be badly fitting after usage and turning in the cylinder, so a suitable test tube was an article of value. The apparatus was made chemically clean before being set up, and distilled water was placed in the flask, the filter portions of the apparatus been packed with cotton wool. The air inside was cleared of dust particles by filtra- tion, being drawn from A through 15 cms. of this closely packed cotton wool, and thence through the remainder of the apparatus and out at N. A pressure difference of 20 cms. across the apparatus was found satisfactory. The piston was moved up and down at the same time in its cylinder, to ensure circulation and clearing of air in the cylinder above the piston head. It was allowed to stand for one hour to ensure saturation, and then tested up to 8 cms. expansion without condensa- tion ensuing. This portion of the research was an attempt precisely to fix the position of the permanent “splash’’ nucleus that had required an expansion of about 8 cms. with the other apparatus, and to show that it required a foreign nucleus. For that purpose, not only was it necessary to locate with this apparatus the condensation required on these nuclei, but it was also necessary to bubble through pure water, and to show that, allowing a few minutes for ageing, no nuclei larger than the small ion (1°25 ratio) would be present. _——— ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 197 A little water was distilled over from the flask to the elbow D. A test now showed that the minimum expansion that was given (2 cms.) caused fog. The condensation with expansions of so low a value would appear to be due to one of the following causes :— (a) the accidental admission of dusty air, (b) particles being given off on heating the flask to distil over the water. (c) the fact that with the apparatus as arranged, and only a small amount of water in the elbow, bub- bling is caused by the expansion, air being drawn through from the flask; since condensation is possible on small drops of water, which have not had time to settle or to evaporate before super- saturation is effected. (a) was guarded against, and does not seem probable. The explanation might lie in (b), but undoubtedly lies in (c). Whenever an expansion is taken immediately after bubbling condensation ensues on minimum supersaturation. To ensure pure water in the elbow, it was decided to try repeated distillation without ebullition according to the method of W. H. Martin.' Starting with a chemically clean apparatus, “‘distilled’’ water in the flask, and with clean air (tested up to 20 cms.) the flask temperature was maintained at 40°O. electrically, the elbow D being at 22°C., care being takento maintain all possible condensation points. before the elbow at the higher temperature. No water distilled over. Attempts were also made by maintaining the flask at 23° O., and later at 45° C., whilst the elbow was in an ice bath. This was equally unsuccessful, the total effect of twenty-four hours attempted distillation being one large drop, and a heavy dew on the inside of the tube. 1 Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 24, No. 6. 198 E. H. BOOTH. Repeated attempts were made whilst this was in progress to see if the temperature variations were affecting the air —no condensations were observed on expansions up to 20 cms, | It was now decided that the vacuum chamber and trigger release method was unnecessarily cumbersome for such small expansions and piston movements, and it was found that the piston could be sucked down with great rapidity by mouth, at the tube 8S. This method was employed in future (except for reversion as a check) and saved much Worry. | The distilling trouble was later overcome, but it was decided to postpone temporarily that portion of the work, and to proceed directly with the next portion outlined, to find what condensation nuclei were formed by bubbling through ordinary water. ; The method employed was to obtain clean air, and to test it up to 20 cms. This expansion produced no conden- sation effects even if the air had stood overnight to ensure initial saturation. (We also note the fact that, therefore, no ions ‘‘grew”’ in dust free air). Then water was poured over gently from the flask until the elbow was filled. A fresh set of expansions up to 20 cms. produced no effect. (Movement of the water in the elbow occurred, but, being filled, no bubbles passed). Filtered air was now drawn through, and blebbed past the water in the elbow. Within periods varying from 30 seconds to 17 hours afterwards, expansions were taken to find any critical point. Naturally particular attention was paid to the expansions. in the vicinity of 8 cms.—nothing was noticed here. On taking larger expansions, it was found in a large number of different and distinct runs that rain occurred at 12—13—14 cms. The expansion at 8 cms. was not reached under two ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 199 minutes after bubbling, as the run always started with the minimum expansion, and worked up by steps. These condensations were quite decided—tests were made to ensure against incomplete saturation, or for the _ effect of the small amount of air bubbled through on satur- ation. In every case it was a distinct rain—never very many drops—thin and difficult to observe on 12 cms. when it was noticed there, but larger drops on 13 and 14 cms. when it appeared there. Inno case, provided three minutes had elapsed after bubbling, was condensation noticed before {2 cms. To endeavour to reconcile this effect with the condensa- tion on 8 cms., found for splashing or as a critical point in standing air with the earlier apparatus, tap water was placed in the flask instead of originally distilled water. Filtered air was drawn through as usual, and the apparatus left to stand overnight. On testing in the morning for pure air expansions up to 11 cms. gave no effect, but rain occurred on the next expansion taken, 13 cms., although no bubbling had taken place. Hvidently the air had not been completely cleared of nuclei admitted during washing and repacking of the apparatus—but the appearance of rain under these con- ditions with this apparatus at 13 cms. is worth noting. Fresh air was drawn through for 30 minutes, care being taken to Sweep out the cylinder. On being examined 90 minutes later it was found to be clear to 17 cms. (the greatest expansion tested). After standing overnight, it was found clear of nuclei on the following morning. The water was then gently poured over into the elbow. The air was again tested to 17 cms. and found to be clear. Ten bubbles were passed, (by drawing filtered air through the water in the elbow). After one minute a run was started. Nothing was noticed till 13 cms., when rain occurred. (This was three minutes after bubbling). 200 E. H. BOOTH. The air was then cleared (up to 30 cms. the limit of test) by repeated expansions of 17 cms. With this apparatus, conditions of chemical cleanliness could be observed which were not possible with the earlier one. To test out the apparent discrepancy between the 8cms. and 13cms. critical condensations, the new apparatus was allowed to become dirty by permitting dust to settle on the sides of the expansion chamber. An attempt to clear the air by small expansions was unsuccessful, as after standing overnight a mist was produced on 4 cms. expansion (the lowest taken). A number of expansions of 19 cms. were taken to clear the air, and did so as far as the larger nuclei (below 6 cms.) were concerned, Repeated expans- ions of 9 cms. failed to clear. Specks were seen both rising and falling for some time after expansions, evidently drop- lets evaporating. Working with ‘“‘dirty’’ apparatus and dusty air is very unsatisfactory, although an explanation of the 8—13 cms. range might be concealed here. The only other explanation apparent would be that there is some apparatus constant. It was thought that possibly sucking the piston down by mouth did not give a true adiabatic effect—this was checked by arun employing the vacuum flask and trigger release again, and found to give the same results. Possibly the critical expansion required might be involved with the distance of the cylinder from the expansion chamber, and the diameter of the connecting tubes. This has not so far been checked. Occasional ‘‘freak’’ drops were noticed during runs. In one case the air was cleared by filtration, and after stand- ing overnight was found to be clear, except for one drop which fell through the cone of light on a 15 cms. expansion, and one which fellat 17 cms. These were not repeated on checking. The usual check run was taken, and after pass- ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 201 ing 25 bubbles was found to give rain, after stabilising, at 13 cms. This was quite an exhaustive run; rain came at 13 cms. and not below. Another possible source of error lies in the movement of water in the manometer tube. This was a fine bore glass tube, but it must be remembered that the actual volume change is small for a small expansion, so a small error due to surge of water in the manometer tube would be intro- duced. This condition would apply to both apparatus—but the working volume in the earlier type was much greater. Hixperiments were made bubbling unfiltered air through the water in the elbow. Results were very mixed. In every case there was an increased effect at 13-14 cms. amounting to a rain, but from 7 cms. up drops kept falling, and on several occasions there were distinct indications of a critical point below the 13 cms. one. But runs were so discordant that no statement can be made. The point of outstanding interest now was the question of the nuclei required for the 138 cms. condensation. The author was still impressed with the idea that a foreign nucleus was essential, as nothing of this nature “‘grew”’ in filtered air; these nuclei would surely be present, in the small number required to produce rain, in water distilled in laboratory stills and condensors. A further attempt was therefore made to distil water over actually in the apparatus, without ebullition. By reducing the internal pressure to 4 cms. Hg and maintain- ing the elbow in an ice bath, water came over from the flask and condensed in the elbow quite readily. The flask itself was heated electrically by a coil of high resistance wire, the average water temperature being 35° ©. A second coil maintained the cotton wool filter at from 70° — 100° C., to prevent condensation here. Precautions had to be taken to prevent the admission of air past the piston, or 202 E, H. BOOTH. the sucking of water out from under the piston, thus break- ing the seal. The manometer gauge had also to be closed off. The air was first rendered dust free by filtering, and checked. Water was distilled over to the elbow, washed round, and drained back into the flask. This distillation and washing was repeated three times. In the first experi- ments, it was found that condensation occurred on expan- sion of 12 cms., even without intentional bubbling—this is supposedly due to air given off by the water in the flask when the pressure was reduced to4cms. Hg. Little bubbles had been noticed at this time on the sides of the flask. Great difficulty was experienced in admitting filtered air after distillation, to avoid bubbling on the one hand, or the forcing of the distilled water back into the flask on the other. Filtered air must be admitted to both sides at once, slowly to ensure effective filtration, and at the same rate. This was effected by means of soft glass tubes, drawn out to fine capillary tubes of increasing bore, which were attached to the laboratory side of each filter. The move- ment of the water was watched, and little bits broken off each tube as required to balance the rate of admission. Throughout the processes of exhaustion, of distillation, and of readmitting air, the piston was held down on its rubber stopper by maintaining a partial vacuum < 3 cms. Hg under it. Runs were carried out as follows:— (A) Air was drawn through the filter. Stood for 30 minutes. Tested up to 30 cms.; no rain. (B) Pressure lowered to 3°5 cms. Hg, and maintained at. that for one hour, still connected to the pump. (C) Cotton wool filter raised to 100° O. by coil, and main- tained at that temperature. ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 203. (D) Flask heated by coil to about 35° O. (HE) HKlbow placed in ice bath. (F) Sufficient water distilled over in one hour to rinse elbow. Poured back into flask. (G) Step F repeated again twice. (H) Water distilled over to elbow for two hours, without ebullition. (1) Air readmitted through filters. In each case, the first run after fresh water had been put in the flask, gave rain on 12 — 13 cms. without any bubbling. This would point to the correctness of the theory that gases are given off from the laboratory distilled water, having a bubbling effect. Repeating with great care the above programme, and including prolonged initial boiling of water in the flask, standing to cool over night after the final distillation, gave air free from nuclei. Bubbling now past the water in the elbow gave rain on 13 cms. | It would not be practicable to say whether the number of drops after bubbling through this allegedly pure water was less than after bubbling through tap water. In each case the number was small, giving only a scattered shower through the cone of light. If this were taken as a positive result, it would tend to show that foreign matter does not compose the nucleus of those large ions, and that water molecules sufficed, as presumed by Nolan. But in view of the other evidence, the author is still convinced that it is a negative result— that it is not possible to have the water “pure’’ when we are dealing with a few nuclei which are so extraordinarily minute. Possibly the glass in the elbow itself, although 204 . E. H. BOOTH. carefully washed, gives off sufficient centres of condensa- tion to ensure the 13 cms, rain after bubbling through the water in contact with it. Further attempts are to be made, not only with water vapour, but with other chemicals. Interlocking evidence should be available from reference to the paper by Prof. T. H. Laby in “‘ Philosophical Transactions,’’ A, Vol. 208, giving the corresponding small ion condensation points for certain vapours, and the paper previously referred to, by Wellish “On the mobilities of the ions produced by Rontgen rays in gases and vapours.”’ Inspection of Experimental Results. The results of these experiments, then, so far are :— (1) Filtered air which is bubbled through water has, after ageing, a critical condensation point corresponding to the supersaturation associated with a pressure change of 12— 14 cms. H,O. (2) Experiments to show that this is due to nuclei taken up by the water, by employing water carefully distilled, have failed. This is looked upon at present as being a negative result. (3) There are indications of a critical point corresponding to a pressure change of 8 cms. water, if unfiltered air be employed for bubbling, or if unfiltered air is allowed to clear itself by standing. (The point of “‘apparatus constant”’ must be considered here). (4) ** Hrratics’’ are met with—occasional drops coming down from otherwise clean air on expansions greater than 13 cms. water, which do not repeat themselves on repetition of the expansion. (5) If expansions be made immediately after bubbling, the minimum supersaturation which it is possible to make with the apparatus ensures condensation on some nuclei. ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. A) 5. (6) There does not appear to be any simple law connect- ing time of settling and minimum expansion required to produce condensation in dusty air. The apparatus as at present designed does not permit a careful investigation of the supersaturation required at such low pressure charges. This will be further investigated. # * * # Taking a mean critical expansion of 13 cms. H,O, and noting that the order of accuracy is not affected by minor temperature or pressure changes, the type of nucleus required may be determined. A typical series gives the following conditions :— Temperature 25° C. Initial pressure 760 m.m. For 13 cms. H.O expansion. Wi 2767x136 = 13 Ve 76 xX 13°6 The refinements as to weight of piston etc. employed by Wilson are neglected here, as not affecting the result within the order of accuracy of the experiment. (NGS yaa 0 Now | Vv. Y= i, where V; and V2 are the initial and final volumes, 4, and 62 initial and final absolute temperatures, and y the ratio of specific heats. 1021 ) O41 39 1034 ~ 298 6, = 296° °5 absolute = 93° °5 OC. Temperature drop = 1°°5 0. The supersaturation corresponding to this drop in tem- perature may be determined from the equation given by Wilson Phil. Trans. A. Vol. 189). w2 0 Ve Where 8 is the supersaturation, 7; and 7. the pressure of saturated water vapour over a flat surface at the temper- ature 9; and 4 respectively. 206 E. H. BOOTH. 23°55 , 296°5 | 1021 21°52 ~ 298°0 ~ 1034 = 1°075 and change in vapour pressure equals 23°55 — 21°52 = 2°03 mm. Hg. To determine the radius of the nucleus which will be able to grow when the supersaturation corresponds to a pressure change of 13 cms. H,O, we may employ the equation :— Here § = rAd ht ~ > ROS tee iy EB given by Wilson’ when r is the radius of the nucleus of condensation, T is the surface tension, S the density of the nucleus, R the gas constant, and @ the absolute tempera- ture. R@ for water vapour at 25° O. = 1'4 x 10° c.g.s. units, T = 72 dynes /em., S (if water nucleus) = 1. 144 " 14 x 10° log, 23°55 21°52 = 124% 0-7 ems This is on a basis of the density of the nucleus being 1. * * x #* It may be shown from the full equation employed by Sir J. J. Thomson (Conduction of electricity through gases, p. 180). ae , ; e RO 108 ey aera where e is the charge on the nucleus, K the specific induc- tive capacity of the surrounding medium, the other terms being as before, that taking K = 1, ande = 4°7 x 10— (single charge) the neglect of the effect of electrification of this size nucleus is unimportant. That was to be expected, as experimental evidence showed that they were not all electrified, as they still per- 1 Phil. Trans., Vol. 189, p. 305. ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 207 sisted even if in a strong field, provided ionisation was not proceeding by some artificial method; also, there was no difference in critical condensation point which would tend to show a difference in behaviour in this regard between electrified and unelectrified particles. Pollock’ points out ‘It is not quite clear how the elec- trical charge of the ions is related to their diameter. The charge is, however, not necessary for equilibrium, and it is not unlikely that the conclusions as to the nature of the ions, only rendered possible by the happy chance of their electrification, may apply with perhaps little modification to many of the far more numerous class of unelectrified nuclei which exist in ordinary air.”’ Pollock worked out from a kinetic consideration (same paper) an approximate value for the radius of the ion of mobility s7oo in saturated air (the Langevin ion) as 4 x 107 . That is one third of the radius of the nucleus under consideration here. Two points may be noted—firstly, that the density of the ion has been taken as 1, and secondly that a value of 72 dynes/cm. has been taken for the surface tension at 25° O. 27T ROS log Pp Spe For r to equal 4 x 107-7, S must equal 3. There is no reason why this nucleus should not have a density of 3. The equation is r = How then can we view the large ion? Hither asasmall core of dense foreign matter, with a large number of water molecules tacked on to it, or as a larger core of less dense matter, with a few water molecules tacked on to it. Sir J. J. Thomson in the Physical Society Proceedings, Part I, Vol. 27 (1914), deduces a kinetic theory equation which enables the large ion to be calculated as 4°16 x 10-6, 1 Phil. Mag., Vol. 29, p. 524. 208 E. H. BOOTH. when Mililkan makes it 4°08 x 10-*.* An approximate value from these two sources then may be taken as 5 x 107~® ecm. Then the 13 cms. H.O nucleus is only one-third of this size, if composed of water, and if T = 72 dynes/cm. Thomson’ dealing with the effect of variation of surface tension with thickness of film involved, explains the con- densation on water molecules by means of an eightfold supersaturation on this basis. But here we are dealing with a nucleus ten times the radius of a water molecule (if r = 4 x 10-") or thirty times the radius of a water molecule (if r = 1°2 x 10~® cm.). It is unfortunate that information in connection with thin films of this order (a small fraction of a wave length), is not definite. If we examine the possibility of 8 cms. being a critical point, we find— Vi _ 76 xX 13°6-8 Vo Jouxi36 _ 1026 1034 1026 05 ane jae). ~ 998 - 6 = 297°°0 0. Representing a drop of 1° C. The radius of the nucleus concerned is— aes iy ; 23°55 R¢ S log, 29°18 = 1574 x 10F* lem. So that a relatively big difference in pressure change does not show sucha big difference in theoretical nucleus radius. The ‘‘erratics’’ would show radii of the order 1 x 10~ cms. r= *K * * k - J. 8. Nolan, Proc. Roy. Soc., A, Vol. 94, p. 124. * Conduction of Electricity through Gases, p. 184. ATMOSPHERIC DUST AND ATMOSPHERIC IONISATION. 209 The point has been raised that after an eightfold super- saturation, causing fog in dust free air, any expansion afterwards would produce rain, until the air was again cleared. A series of experiments on this showed that there was no definite condensation point for these nuclei—working with the Wilson apparatus, and taking big expansions, it was evident that these nuclei grew smaller and smaller, until the full expansion ratio 1°25 was again required to produce even a few drops (i.e., until the size of the small ions was reached). This would show that the water drop- let—for clearly no foreign nucleus could here be present— was not stable, but disappeared with time, gradually evaporating. The Langevin large ion, on the other hand, is persistent, and does not occur in dust free air. Once the air was cleared, and no bubbling or splashing occurred, there was no sign of any nucleus from the minimum tried up to the expansion required for the small ion. It is possible that the nucleus on which condensation ensues with the 13 cms. (radius 1°24 ay ELECTROLYTIC REDUCTION OF PIPERITONE. Qik the reaction being completed in 12—13 hours. If the amperage showed signs of falling off during the process of reduction, small quantities of 107% sulphuric acid, usually about 10 c.c., were added at intervals, until the total volume of acid added to the cathode compartment totalled about 70 c.c. After completion of reaction, the cathode liquid was poured into water, and the separated ketone purified by steam distillation, if desired. It distilled between 207 — 213° O. at 760 mm., over 90% boiling at 207 — 209° O. The chemical and physical constants were as follows:— Specific gravity #3° CO. 0°904 Optical rotation + 5°2° Refractive index 20° O. 1°4560 The oxime melted at 80° O., whilst the semicarbazone appeared to be a mixture of two isomers. On treatment with boiling ethyl alcohol a very sparingly soluble form was obtained which melted at 218—220° C., together with a more soluble one melting at 214-—215° OC. This lower melting point was probabiy due to the former being con- taminated with a more soluble isomer. The product of reduction is, therefore, apparently almost entirely isomen- thone. A sample of commercial piperitone (90% ketone) of optical rotation —49°45° yielded under the same conditions of reduction an isomenthone of optical activity +43°. The semicarbazone was found to consist largely of a form very soluble in ethyl alcohol melting at 113° O., together with a small quantity of the sparingly soluble isomer melt- ing at 218 - 220° O. Further data will be made available in our next paper. 218 M. B. WELCH. THE SECRETORY EPIDERMAL CELLS OF CERTAIN EKUOALYPTS AND ANGOPHORAS. By M. B. WELCH, B.Sc., A.1.C., Technological Museum. [With Plates XIII, XIV, and Text Figure. ] {Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, October 3, 1923. ] THE presence of a transparent elastic substance on the young shoots of certain species of the Corymbose group of Kucalypts and also in certain of the Angophoras is well- known, but no description of the responsible dermal glands has apparently been given. Glandular surfaces are not, however, confined to these particular EKucalypts, but also give rise to the glaucous waxy bloom on such species as E. pulverulenta, E. globulus, etc., and as De Bary") points out, this form of secretion is most common from such glandular areas. H. G. Smith®) has investigated the occurrence of the elastic substance in Hucalyptus corym- bosa, Angophora lanceolata, and A. intermedia, and from a chemical examination has found that it resembles in appearance and ordinary general character the caoutchouc or India rubber of commerce. As shown by Smith, the Secretion is confined to the very young leaves and shoots, gradually becoming less prominent as the leaf bud opens out and the leaves become larger, the abaxial foliar surface retaining the secretion for the longer period. In young leaves the rubber forms an entire covering both above and below the leaf, both lamina and petiole, and also extends along the upper portion of the stem. Maiden®) states under ‘‘Caoutchouc”’ that “it seems to occur in all members of the Corymbosze and Angophora,’’ and also records it in E. stricta, stating that it is possible that it may be found in other species of Kucalyptus. SECRETORY EPIDERMAL CELLS OF EUCALYPTS AND ANGOPHORAS. 219: In this investigation an elastic epidermal covering was found in the following species :— Angophora lanceolata Cav. Eucalyptus intermedia Baker A. intermedia DC. E. maculata Hook. A. Bakeri CO. Hall E. peltata Benth. Eucalyptus calophylla R.Br. E. santalifolia F.v.M. EK. citriodora Hook. HK. terminalis R.v.M. E. corymbosa Sm. EK. tesselaris F.v.M. EK. dichromophloia F.v.M. E. trachyphloia F.v.M. E. eximia Schau. BH. Watsoniana F.v.M. E. ficifolia F.v.M. No rubber has been detected in Angophora cordifolia. With the exception of E. santalifolia, all the species of Kucalyptus enumerated above, are members of the Corym- bosee or Bloodwood group, or closely allied thereto. It should be pointed out that even in the young shoots rubber is not always present, e.g. in a Seedling of H. citri- odora the young shoots were scabrous with numerous glandular hairs (fig. 3) which were persistent on the peltate leaves, but no evidence of rubber wasfound. In the case of normal shoots from a mature tree, however, the elastic secretion is undoubtedly present. Similarly in leaves of K. trachyphloia, glandular hairs are undoubtedly present, with an entire absence of rubber on the young shoots of seedlings, whereas in mature trees the normal foliage is. glabrous and rubber occurs. | In an examination of sections of the leaf bud of H. corymbosa (fig. 1) it is found that marked papillose epi- dermal projections occur, (text figure (a) and (b) ) which, however, do not develop in the very young leaves under about 0°3 mm.in diameter. The papille are very irregular in shape and size, often measuring up to 0°015 mm. in length, and are usually most prominent on the abaxial foliar surface particularly at the leaf margins and along the course of the 220 M. B. WELCH. principal veins. They are often less marked on the adaxial surface in very young leaves where the epidermal cells are smaller. In transverse sections of leaf buds of those Kucalypts in which rubber is not ordinarily detected, it is usual to find the leaves, even when of moderate size, in contact, the epidermal cells being more or less flat. In certain species such as E. Smithii or E. Moorei where the leaf margin is truncate the epidermal cells at that point are papillose. These projections mesh closely into the corres- ponding indentations in the opposing leaf margin, but there is no evidence of these cells secreting caoutchouc. Both the inner and radial secretory epidermal walls of the rubber-bearing species are thin, in the young leaves, growth being due to free anticlinal division. The cells average about 0°013 mm, in diameter on the abaxial surface, and about 0'010 mm. on the opposite face, when in leaf bud. The protoplasmic contents are somewhat denser than in the adjoining parenchymatous tissue, but although small el SECRETORY EPIDERMAL CELLS OF EUCALYPTS AND ANGOPHORAS. 221 globules are often present, no definite evidence of oils or starch was found. One of the most conspicuous features of the epidermis is the presence of anthocyanin. In the young leaf buds this is not present, but as soon as the leaves separate, as a rule it is particularly prominent. It is not always confined to the epidermal cells, occasionally in young leaves it also occurs in the mesophyll to a depth of one or two rows of cells, and it is common to find it also in the supporting tissue of the vascular bundles. With the disappearance of the elastic covering, there is a greater _ development of chlorophyll in the mesophyll and a diminu- tion in the amount of anthocyanin, though it is often present in the epidermis of older leaves which are appar- ently free fromit. In leaves of EH. corymbosa measuring 0°3 mm. in width, rubber was found to average 0°010 mm, in thickness, and was approximately evenly distributed on all surfaces. In slightly larger leaves measuring 0°8 mm. in width the secretion was found to be particularly thick, measuring up to 0°0185 mm. on the upper surface and 0°017 mm. onthe under side. There is very little variation in thickness of the layer on the margin and mid-rib of very young leaves. In both the above cases the leaves were stillin bud. The secretion becomes somewhat thinner in leaves as they expand from the bud, e.g. in a leaf 1°5 mm. in diameter, the thickness was 0°008 mm. on the under surface, somewhat thicker above, increasing to 0°018 mm. at the mid rib. In leaves 50 mm. in length the epidermal cells which contain anthocyanin measured 0°0185 mm. in depth, and the elastic covering was 0°01 mm. in thickness on the upper surface. In leaves 50 mm. in length, reddish in colour, the amount of the elastic secretion was practi- cally wanting on the under surface except along the position of the vascular bundles and even many of the smaller lateral veins, but measured 0°009 mm. in thickness above. Ina leaf of the same size but containing little anthocyanin and 239 M. B. WELCH. no elastic covering, chlorophyll being more marked, the outer epidermal wall measured 0°011 mm. in thickness above, 1.€., practically the same as that of the rubber-like secretion in the leaves already described. Similarly in mature leaves from the same branchlet, cuticular thickening of the epi- dermal cells averaged 0°008 to *°012 mm. in thickness. The elastic membrane is readily removed from the epi- dermal cells beneath, and on examination is found to show the imprint of the papillose projections. Treatment with chloroform causes partial solution and some alteration in appearance, but there is a very definite insoluble residue, which still shows the imprint of the secretory cells. This residue is insoluble in all ordinary solvents such as alcohol, ether, acetone, etc., and was stained yellow with iodine and yellow-brown with iodine and sulphuric acid. It apparently resembles cutin. As pointed out by Smith, l.c., there is undoubtedly a comparatively large quantity of wax present in the mature leaves, although there is no bloom such as occurs on the wax-bearing leaves of H. cinerea, etc. It therefore seems that there is a gradual transition from the elastic rubber like substance to the cutinised membrane, but with comparatively little alteration in thickness. The great variation in thickness of the caoutchouc is shown by the following measurement of the leaves of Angophora Bakeri; at edges = 0°03 mm., abaxial surface = 0°004 — 0°01 mm. adaxial surface = 0°011 mm. In the young leaves and stems on which rubber occurs, the outer surface of this layer is smooth, hence the glossy appearance. With the alteration of the rubber, the cuticle to some extent follows the outline of the epidermal cells beneath, becoming more or less papillose, but the epidermal projections are much less prominent than in the young foliage. Solereder“*) refers to the fact that these papillose SECRETORY EPIDERMAL CELLS OF EUCALYPTS AND ANGOPHORAS. 223 cells make the foliar surface dull, and adds that they are rarer in the upper epidermis than in the lower. In the case of such species as EH. corymbosa etc., however, the reverse is the case, the upper epidermis being decidedly more papillate, A comparison was made between the loss of moisture from the leaves of EH. Sieberiana and H. corymbosa, the former species not showing evidence of caoutchouc. A number of fresh leaves in different stages of growth were taken, the cut petioles being sealed with paraffin wax. These were weighed and exposed side by side to ordinary room temperatures, (about 15° O.) being protected from dust. They were again weighed after 24, 72 and 144 hours, the resultant percentage loss of moisture, calculated on the wet weight, being as follows:— 24 hrs. 72 hrs. 144 hrs. EH. Sieberiana (1) 43°6 50°9 52°7 (2) 35°9 52°9 54°5 (3) 23:3 54°6 56°5 (4) 17°7 51°9 59°8 E. corymbosa (1) 21°8 44°7 52°9 (2) 29°8 54°0 57°2 (3) 25°8 54°6 59°3 (4) 30°4 56°1 59°4 (5) 18°2 39°0 45°4 E. Sieberiana (1) Leaves 15-30 mm. long, anthocyanin present in epidermis. (2) Leaves 30-55 mm. long, antho- cyanin present. (3) Leaves 55-80mm. long. (4) Mature leaves. E. corymbosa (1) Leaves 15-30 mm. long, caoutchouc present, (2) Leaves 30—45 mm. long, caoutchouc present but thinner than (1). (3) Leaves 45—80 mm. caoutchouc on upper surface and little or none beneath. (4) Leaves 45-80 mm. caoutchouc very thin or none. (5) Mature 224 M. B. WELCH. leaves. Anthocyanin present in (1) (2) and (8), little in (4), and none in (5). Taking the youngest leaves of each species, the reduction of the moisture loss from 43°6Y% in EH. Sieberiana to 21°8% in H. corymbosa after twenty-four hours is particularly striking. In the slightly older leaves of E. corymbosa, in which the elastic covering is thinner, it is found that the moisture loss is higher, but still much below that from the corresponding leaves of E. Sieberiana. In the latter species it is noticed that there is a steady drop in the amount of transpiration as the leaves become older, and the outer epidermal walls become thicker, whereas in E. corymbosa the loss, although smallest in the mature leaf, is very little less than in the youngest members. Similarly, after 72 hours the amount of desiccation is least, with the exception of the mature leaves of EK. corymbosa, in the youngest leaves in which the rubber-like covering is most developed. After 144 hours the loss of moisture is practically equivalent in the young leaves of both species. The principal function of the caoutchouc is therefore probably to reduce trans- piration in the very young leaves, and being elastic would stretch readily as growth proceeds. In all species of Angophora so far examined the palisade mesophyll is confined to the upper surface only, and the stomata are on the abaxial surface. This is also charac- teristic of E. corymbosa, E. calophylla, E. dichromophloia, E. ficifolia, E. intermedia, E. trachyphloia, EH. hoema- toxylon, whereas the other species such as H. maculata, E. eximia, E. peltata, E. tesselaris, the leaves are isobi- lateral, yet the elastic substance is thicker on the upper surface. In EH. tesselaris, rubber was found in leaves up to 15 mm. in length, larger leaves up to 30 mm., were glossy, but no trace of an elastic substance was observed. In the case i : SECRETORY EPIDERMAL CELLS OF EUCALYPTS AND ANGOPHORAS. 225 of EH. santalifolia, only a trace of rubber was found. A leaf 20 mm. in length was 0°37 mm. in thickness, and on the upper surface was a thin elastic layer, but practically nothing was observed on the abaxial surface. In slightly more mature foliage there is a marked glossiness, becom- ing less so in older leaves which are coriaceous and isobi- lateral, with a thick cuticle. Haberlandt©®) advances the theory that the ‘‘lens action of epidermal papillae is primarily connected with the per- ception of photic stimulae.’’ Stahl has also advanced the theory that the papillose projections enable the plant to absorb oblique rays of light which would otherwise be lost. It seems obvious that neither theory explains the presence of the papillae in cases of the nature described above. It seems probable that they act, apart from their secretory functions, as pegs holding the elastic covering, particularly as they are well developed on the leaf margins and mid-rib, moreover they are not usually found, except in certain cases at the leaf margins, in species in which caoutchouc does not occur. Summary. Secretory epidermal cells occur in a number of species of Kucalyptus and Angophora, those species of the former genus which secrete caoutchouc being practically confined to the Corymbose,. The epidermal cells are marked by papillose projections which may act to some extent as pegs. The elastic secretion is especially prominent on the young leaves and stems while still in bud, measuring up to 0°018 mm. in thickness, but disappears in older leaves, remaining longest on the adaxial foliar surface. It is partly soluble in chloroform, but a residue is left which resembles cutin, and there is evidently a gradual change from the elastic rubber-like layer to the inextensible cuticularised epidermal wall of the mature leaf, which also contains a wax. The elastic covering acts as a very efficient check against transpiration, and this is probably the primary function of the secretion. O—October 3, 1923. 226 M. B. WELCH. I am indebted to Mr. J. H. Maiden, 1.s.0., F.R.S., and to Mr. H. G. Smith, F.c.s., for some of the st used in this investigation. References. 1. Dz Bary—Comparative Anatomy of Phanerogams and Ferns. Oxford, 1884. Smit, H. G.—On the Elastic Substance occuring in the shoots and young leaves of Hucalyptus corymbosa and’ some species of Angophora. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. xnu, 1908. 3. Maipen, J. H.—Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus, Vol. vi, 1922. 4, SOLEREDER—Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Vol. 11, English translation, Oxford Press, 1908. 5. HaBeRLANDT—Physiological Plant Anatomy. English trans- lation from fourth German edition, 1914. 6. Srany.—Annales du Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg, 1896. to Explanation of Plates and Text Figure. PuaTe XI1I. Fig. 1. Transverse section of portion of a leaf bud of Hucalyptus corymbosa Sm. showing papillose epidermal cells, particularly marked on the abaxial foliar surfaces. The innermost sections are in contact. showing that the elastic covering has not yet been secreted. In the outer leaves this secretion is not prominent owing to the rubber having been dissolved to some extent in the preparation of the sections, but a slight trace can still be seen. x 80. Fig. 2. Transverse section of leaf bud of Hucalyptus maculata Hook. It is possible to detect traces of the elastic covering on the leaves, particularly on the outer surfaces. x 80. PLatTE XIV. Fig. 3. Transverse section of leaf bud from seedling of Hucalyptus citriodora Hook. There is an entire absence of any elastic epidermal secretion in this case, but numerous glandular hairs are present, some of which are shown cut more or less trans- versely, near the actual leaf sections. In the normal foliage rubber occurs in the young leaf buds. x 35. Text Figure 1. (a)gPortion of transverse section of petiole of Eucalyptus corymbosa showing papillose epidermal projections. x 700. (b) Portion of transverse section of margin of young leaf of Eucalyptus corymbosa showing very prominent epidermal papille. x 700. Plate XIIT. Aa aiaihiiens ne wong nie pe 5 AOE 45, y 4 « A Nadya | Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,Vol. LVII., 1928. Plate XIV. - \ Fig. 3. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON BORERS. 227 NOTE ON THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON BORERS ATTACKING SHASONHD AND UNSEHEASONED TIMBER (WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE FURNITURE BRETLE Anobium striatum). By M. B. WELCH, B.Sc., Technological Museum. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 8, 1923. ] AT the present time the borer problem is of great import- ance, and it is thought that the following results of an investigation into one method of eradication which has _proved successful might be of interest. The usual method of treatment is by painting or spraying the timber with some deterrent liquid. It was found that in many soft woods particularly the softer pine timbers, as New Zealand White Pine (Podocarpus dacrydioides), the penetration of the most efficient liquid used was effective possibly up to an inch under ordinary conditions of application, whereas in sound hardwoods, as Eucalyptus spp., the degree of pene- tration was extremely low, except where sun cracks or crevices of any kind allowed the liquid to enter more freely. This penetration in sound hardwood was found to be only from ve" to ?”, except onend grain, where the vessels, being cut transversely, offered a readier means of entry, unless they are blocked by an ingrowth of thin walled parenchy- matous tissue or tyloses, which is by no means infrequent. It is thus obvious that even in moderate sized timber, the degree of penetration is not sufficient to assure the efficacy of any liquid deterrent. To make sure that cer- tain affected timber specimens in the Technological Museum which had been attacked by the Furniture Beetle (Anobium 228 M. B. WELCH. striatum) and the Powder Post Beetle (Lyctus brunneus) were freed from the boring insects, they were subjected to a process of steaming ina large digester for several hours. Although twelve months have elapsed since the treatment. was applied there has been no recurrence of the trouble. It must be understood, however, that steaming does not render the timber immune from further attack, and a sub- Sequent poisoning treatment was given which it is hoped will prevent any further ravages. Altson! mentions the use of temperature of 70° for two hours, giving an extra hour for each additional inch of timber above 1", as an effective remedy for the borer, but. so far as could be determined no test has been made as to. the actual temperature which was fatal to both beetles and larvee. For this reason a number of tests were made at different temperatures, exposing both beetles and larve for different periods of time to a moist atmosphere, such as would be set up during steaming. It was soon found that a comparatively low temperature for a short time is sufficient to kill the insects. The results obtained being as follows: Anobium striatum. No. Temp. °C. Time in Seconds. Lar vee 6 44 60 2 43 60 3 46 30 6 46 60 D 45 120 Beetles it 42 50 2 45 22 4 46 30 4 46 60 ) 45 120 In each case a number of the larvee or beetles were intro- duced into a moist atmosphere at a temperature of 42 — 1 Beetles Damaging Seasoned Timber, 1922. W. Rider & Son, London. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON BORERS. 229 46° CO. and after exposure for the length of time given in the third column, were removed to atmospheric tempera- ture and placed under observation for some days. In no case was any life detected subsequently, thus indicating that, in this particular series of experiments, possibly a slightly higher temperature was used than was absolutely necessary. Similar experiments carried out with the larve and beetles of the Powder Post Beetle (Lyctus brunneus) also showed that a temperature of 45° O. for approximately 60 seconds was in most cases fatal. Since both these borers attack only seasoned timber and as both, but in particular the Furniture Beetle, cause con- siderable damage to furniture, experiments were made with the object of determining the time occupied in raising the internal temperature of wood of dimensions such as are used in cabinet work to 45° C., when exposed to air at temperatures not greatly in excess of this. A piece of Queensland Maple (Flindersia Chatawaiana) 3” x 3” x 12” was exposed to an air temperature of 50° C. After two hours the internal temperature reached 45° Q. A similar piece in air at a temperature of 60° C. reached an internal temperature of 45° OC. in one hour. Since at these temperatures french-polish is not affected, it should furnish a ready means of treating small articles, although as already pointed out, it does not render the timber free from risk of reinfestation. The Shot-hole Borers, of which the principal are Platypus spp. and Xyleborus spp., cause very serious damage to unseasoned timber, especially to logs before cutting. These pin-holes in constructional timber are not detrimental to any great extent, but in cabinet timbers depreciate the value of the wood by over fifty per cent. At the present time a firm of timber merchants in Sydney is treating its 230 M. B. WELCH. logs with live steam in a wooden digester practically at atmospheric pressure, and it is claimed that the method is efficacious in exterminating the borer. In an examination I have made of the affected logs after treatment, no evid- ence of live borers was found. The exposure of timber to these temperatures for several hours is not sufficient to influence the strength of the material. Not only are the Shot-hole Borers destroyed, but also any Powder Post Borers, if present, though obviously the timber is not. rendered immune from future infestation. Tests made under similar conditions to those applied to the Furniture Beetle have shown that a temperature of 47° C. for one minute produced fatal results to both the beetles and larvee. No direct tests were made of the degree of heat capable of being sustained by the eggs, but since no insects have developed in timber already treated, it seems probable that they too were destroyed. Since the log retains sufficient moisture to enable these Shot-hole Borers to work for a considerable time, the damage varies directly as the length of time between infestation and conversion, whereas by early steaming a large amount of the damage can be unquestionably avoided. Summary. The application of heat to both seasoned and unseasoned timber affected with borers has proved a most efficient. remedy for the trouble. Exposure of both larvee and beetles of the Furniture Beetle (Anobium striatum) to a comparatively low tem- perature of about 45° C. for one minute in moist air, has in the majority of cases proved fatal. The treatment can be successfully applied to logs, sawn timber, and smaller made-up articles. Similarly, it has been found that the Powder Post Beetle and the Shot-hole Borers are unable to sustain temperatures. of about the same order. OCCURRENCE OF DOUBLE EMBRYOS IN WHEAT GRAINS. 231 NOTE on THE OCCURRENCE or DOUBLE EMBRYOS IN WHEAT GRAINS. By W, L. WATERHOUSE. The University of Sydney. With Plate XV. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 3, 1923.] In the course of investigations dealing with rust in wheat, very many germinations of wheat grains of different varie- ties are being carried out. In June 1923, amongst young seedlings of the variety of Triticum vulgare known as “ Yandilla King,’’ one was noticed in which two plumules very close together were emerging from the soil. The young plant was removed from the pot and examined. Both shoots arose from a single wheat grain. There were present six seminal roots. The plant was photographed and then replanted. Shortly afterwards, Mr. H. J. Hynes, Walter and Eliza Hall Agriculture Research Fellow of this University, found a second case of this nature. In germinations of the variety 99 of Triticum vulgare known as “‘Federation,’? one grain was present from which two shoots and six seminal roots arose (Plate XV). It was photographed and then re- planted. No attempt was made in either case to cut sections in order to determine the relation of the parts in these seed- lings. It was thought to be more important to try and grow the plants to maturity. Both plants are growing in an apparently normal manner, and it is hoped that they will 232 W. L. WATERHOUSE. mature grain and thus make possible a genetical study of this double embryo character. The seed of both the varieties was pure line seed supplied by Mr. J. T. Pridham of the N.S.W. Department of Agri- culture. It was grown and harvested at Oowra in 1921. The occurrence of two embryos in a wheat grain is apparently rare. It was not expected that so soon after finding the first, the second would appear. It is an occur- rence which will doubtless supply a full explanation of certain cases in which it has been stated that from a single grain of wheat, two distinct kinds of ears have developed. For this reason it has been deemed worthy of record before the genetical behaviour of the two individuals can be reported. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LV 11,1928. Plate XV. Photograph of germinating grain of ‘Federation” wheat having two embryos. x 2. “x METHOD OF COMPUTING THE TRUE ANOMALY. 233 METHOD OF COMPUTING THH TRUH ANOMALY IN AN ELLIPTIOAL ORBIT FROM VALUKHS OF THE MHAN ANOMALY. By C. J. MERFIELD, F.R.A.S. (Communicated by J. NANGLE, F.R.A.S.) [Read before the Royal Society of N. 8S. Wales, November 7, 1923.] “WHEN preparing an ephemeris of a celestial object from elliptical orbit elements, the general procedure is to find **Hy,”’ the eccentric anomaly from the well known equation M = HE —- e Sin E. or some formula depending on it. If we are computing an ephemeris giving values of ‘‘a”’ and ‘‘,’? say at four day intervals, it becomes a simple matter to estimate a value of “‘E,’’ after three or four values have been obtained, from which a correct value may be found by a process, not necessary to explain here. The solution of the above transcendental equation may be avoided by preparing a table of ““M”’ withthe argument ““H.’’ From such a table the angle ‘“‘H”’ corresponding to a given value of “‘M”’ may be interpolated. The true anomaly and radius vector may be found from Vr Sin gv = Sin > E)Y a(t + e) Vr Oos $v = (Cos $B) a — 2) wd in which “‘r’’ represents the radius vector, ‘‘v’’ the true anomaly, ‘‘a’’ the semi-axis major and “‘e’’ the eccentricity of the ellipse. The calculation of a table of the values of ‘‘H’’ can be avoided by the following method, and the true anomaly determined from ‘‘M.”’ For we have 234 Cc. J. MERFIELD. MI) dv Le 1 - e? awpvyi-e a 1+eCosv we fae tt can balee dv 1 nog erie y: a ie =-tan Sin wase - Sinvyire ad e + Cos v = + Cos » For numerical computation this equation (2) will be better in the following form A Se Sinv yil-ei. Sim oy a@ee, i i ode e(— + Oos v) (— + Cos v) S140 r= a (1- e*) Te aa 14 e(+ + Cos v) The angle represented by the first term of equation (2): or (3) may be taken numerically less than + 180 and will be in the same quadrant as ‘“‘v.’’ The second term must. be multiplied by the value of the radian. If a table be prepared from either equation (2) or (3) with the given values of ‘‘e’’ and “‘v,”’ the latter being taken at equal and suitable intervals, between the limits desired,. then the true anomaly can be readily interpolated for values of *‘ M.”’ Should ‘’H”’ be required for any purpose it may be found. from the equation engl Fyre / 1p Xe 4 ae, Oe cae pee It is to be noted that the first term of (2) or (3) represents. the angle “‘H.”’ When preparing an ephemeris from elliptical orbit ele- ments, the method here presented, will be found exceed- ingly expeditious; a table of ‘“‘M”’ is rapidly prepared. METHOD OF COMPUTING THE TRUE ANOMALY. 235 Example. v= 70° Log e = 9°4771213 Log (1—e7) = 9°8590414 » (1-e?) = 9°9795207 , te 0°5228787 Equation (3) Log Cos v = 9°5340517 pen (gee ras) tole 0°9888270 Zechs Table = 0'0424204 Log ( A + Cos v) = 0°5652991 99 9°3872074 Log first term = 9°9100861 =54°38925 », second ,, = 1°1453300=13°97430 Log r/a = 9°9166210 40°41495=M. The following short table has been prepared witha value of log e equal to 9°5697643 and ‘‘v’’ between the limits 40: degrees and 60 degrees, every fourth value being calculated. The values for the remaining arguments being determined by using Bessel’s formule for systematic interpolation to halves. Log e = 9°5697643. aM 1,a°M v fe 10 a 10"; de? 43 19°2721 + 4951 17°0 44 19°7689 4986 17°5 45 20°2693 5022 18°5 46 20°7732 5059 19°0 47 21°2810 5097 19°0 48 21°7926 5136 19°5 49 22°3081 5176 20°5 50 22°8277 5217 21°0 51 23°3515 5260 21°5 52 23°8796 5303 220 53 24°4122 5348 23°0 54 24°9492 5394 Dare 55D 25°4909 5441 23°5 56 26'°0373 - 5489 24°5 236 C, J. MERFIELD. Say M = 24° 20 50°9 = 24°°34747 0 4678°7 g = y a 7 v 52 + 5393 D2 °87896 = 52° 52) 44°°3 H) =-37" 12°55 26 Oppolzer’s values being 52° 52’ 44"°5 and 37° 12’ 55”°3. This table includes values of ““M”’ given in Oppolzer’s ‘Lehrbuch zur Bahnbestimmung der Kometenund Planeten’ page 392 or page 401 of the French translation. In a similar manner all the values of ‘‘v’’ tabulated by Oppolzer can be found from the above table. Very useful are the ‘Tables de Mouvement Képlérien’ par M. F. Boquet. I have only seen the first part, which contains values of ‘‘M’’ and log r/a for ‘te’? between 0°00 and 0°49. For many purposes these tables expedite the calculation of the true anomaly and radius vector. When greater accuracy is required, then the method here given will be found exceedingly expeditious. It materially reduces the numerical work in the calculation of an ephemeris from elliptical orbit elements. It has been used by the writer for some time past with much success. M. Boquet’s tables have been prepared from equation (1) by mechanical integration. Apparently the same process was used in finding values of log v/a from the equation d log = da s= sin v | (2+ Cos v) ' which can hardly be commended, for we have Sin v (1 - e?) ] a7 f iG dv=l _ Eee og t/a 1+ e Cosv 4 TE Tt Seo (1 — e?) 9 ~ pes e ‘S + Cos v) If values of ‘‘v,’’ accurate to within two or three seconds of arc, are sufficient then the tables of M. Boquet can be used with confidence. The interpolation is complex as for most tables of double entry. ESSENTIAL OIL OF DARWINIA GRANDIFLORA. 237 THH ESSHNTIAL OIL OF DARWINIA GRANDIFLORA AND THH PRESENCE OF A NEW ACKETIO ACID ESTHER. By A. R. PENFOLD, F.C.S., Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 7, 1925. | THE botany of this tall erect shrub has been fully described by Messrs. Baker and Smith in the Journal of the Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. L, (1916), pages 181—183. The distribution of the plant as then given was Berowra (R. T. Baker) and left bank of the Hawkesbury River opposite Milson Island (Dr. J. B. Cleland), since when it has been found in quantity in the upper reaches of Middle Harbour (M. B. Welch), and on the rocky ledges and in the ravines. on the steep sides of the creeks at Narrabeen, near Sydney (A. R. Penfold). In this connection see also paper by EK. Cheel entitled ‘‘Notes on the genera Darwinia, Homoran- thus and Rylstonea in. N.S. Wales, Queensland, and South Australia,’”’ published in the Journal of the Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. Lv1, (1922) pages 74-75. The trees at Middle Harbour were apparently of good age and about 15 feet in height, whilst the shrubs at Narrabeen were of more recent date and luxuriant growth. This shrub appears to be making its appearance in places around Sydney where it has not previously been observed. The essential oil of this plant was obtained by the writer in July 1916, and although the quantity of oil available was insufficient for a satisfactory examination, still it was observed that the fractions obtained on distillation pos- sessed high optical activity, especially the one boiling at 238 A. R. PENFOLD. 225 — 235° O. suspected of containing geraniol. It was decided to await further supplies of material when other localities had been discovered in order to pursue the obser- vation. Meanwhile, Messrs, Baker and Smith in raising the plant to specific rank (it was then D. tawifolia var. grandiflora, Bentham) obtained material from Berowra in November 1916 and described the essential oil thereof in December, 1916 (l.c., pages 183-186). Since that date the other two more extensive patches of the shrub at Middle Harbour and Narrabeen had been observed; these presented an opportunity for a more thorough examination of the essential oil, with the result that considerable data is now available respecting the chemistry of this interesting Myrtaceous shrub. The percentage yield of oil was found to be not less than 0°37%, varying up to 0°5% from plants obtained from more favourable situations (Baker and Smith found only 0°12), and whilst the presence of pinene has been confirmed, the writer was unable to prove that geranyl acetate was present, although suspected by Messrs. Baker and Smith on account of the ester being saponified by two hours contact in the cold, but which they were unable to confirm through lack of material. Their reasoning too seemed quite logical, especially as Darwinia fasicularis, a closely allied species, contains 60% geranyl acetate, and it has been the custom when dealing with essential oils of the Myrtaceee to consider an ester saponifiable by alcoholic potash solution at room temperature with two hours con- tact as geranyl acetate. Olose investigation, however, has shown, that whilst geranyl acetate may be present in small quantity, the principal ester saponifiable by alcoholic potash solution with two hours contact in the cold is the acetic acid ester of a highly dextro-rotatory alcohol closely resembling verbenol, which for the present is named DAR- WINOL, until such time as its identity is established or otherwise. This observation renders it imperative for the ESSENTIAL OIL OF DARWINIA GRANDIFLORA. 239 alcohols to be separated and identified in all future examin- ations of essential oils containing acetic acid esters saponi- fiable at room temperature. Repeated fractional distilla- tion of the terpenes revealed the presence of another, other than pinene, boiling at 175-177° C., which it has not yet been possible to identify. It yielded a dihydrochloride melting at 53—54° O., but insufficient was available for a thorough investigation, but as it has apparently been found in greater quantity in another essential oil at present under examination, its chemistry will be more fully investigated in conjunction therewith, and made available at a later date. One would have preferred before publication to have proceeded further with the chemistry of the ester and determined the constitution of the alcohol, but the area at Middle Harbour where the most extensive patch existed was completely burnt last summer, just after the collection of the 521 ibs. of material; here again, unfortunately, on account of the drought prevailing the ester content was lower than that of any other collection. Considerable time must necessarily elapse before more material is available. Essential Oil. Leaves and terminal branchlets for distillation were pro- cured from Berowra (28 miles north of Sydney), Middle Harbour and Narrabeen, near Sydney, at various periods, and were quite fresh when distilled. The oils in every instance were of a pale lemon colour, quite mobile, with a pronounced terpenic odour, followed by a secondary one of the ester. Altogether 1,165 Ibs. weight of leaves and terminal branchlets, cut as for commercial distillation, were distilled, with an average percentage yield of oil of 0°35 %. The principal constituents, so far identified, were found to be d-o-pinene, an unidentified terpene of boiling point 240 A. R. PENFOLD. 175-—177° O., an acetic acid ester not hitherto described, called darwinol acetate, a sesquiterpene and corresponding sesquiterpene alcohol, a stearoptene of M.Pt. 103 —104° O. (probably a phenol ether), and small quantities of isovaleric aldehyde, amyl alcohol, and an ester. Experimental. The leaves and terminal branchlets collected yielded on distillation with steam, crude oils, possessing the chemical and physical characters, as shown in table:— ; Specific : Date. | Locality. | Weis! of | vieldof Oil.| Gravity | ,Optical | 159 Cc meat 15 . / 23/7/1916 Berowra 40 ibs. | 0 15/9/1921 Narrabeen | 84 fbs. | 0 14/12/1921 Middle Har-| 80 bs. | bour and -| 034% | 0°9165 |+22°22° | 0 0 37%, | 0-9082 |+27-65° | | Berowra | 108 tbs. | 16/8/1922 | Narrabeen | 20 ibs. 23/10/1922 | Middle 521 ibs. Harbour 7/12/1922 | Narrabeen | 121 ibs. | 0°4% 0-9164 |+4+ 27:20° 19/5/1923 | Narrabeen ! 191 tbs. | 0°39% 0-9121 |+24°50° % | 0-9106 |+25-85° | 0:9013 |+18-25° Neuen he |p ollsielliaye ie gauge stor a oh eG Index 20° C. 80% alcohol. | 2 hours. 1} hours. cola hot [Constants taken on fractions only (i.e., first hour, second hour, etc.) ] 1:4739 | lin 43 vols. | 93-42 | 94:69 | 117-34 | 130-55 4805 Via pe 79:32 | 80-4 | 100-61 | 126-86 LATO les. eS wiv 92:34 | 95-13 ae 126:34 | 147984 Oe 63°63 | 66-81 71:66 | 86-92 | Te Vcr ia aad 97:04 | 99-36 es 122-74 | 1-4789)| Agr) po 86:12 | 86:87 | 97:4 | 114-56 | The following oils were examined in detail, viz:— 14/12/1921 (Middle Harbour and Berowra) and 23/10/1922 (Middle Harbour); of the former, 300 c.c. crude oil were treated with alcoholic potash solution at room temperature to decompose the ester, when subsequently 265 c.c. of oil were recovered, and distilled at 10 mm.:— ESSENTIAL OIL OF DARWINIA GRANDIFLORA. 24] Table ‘‘A.” Boiling Point porate saeratpe | eernas realy BC, Ga— 66°C. 74 c.<. 0-8615 + 30°2° 1:4661 SO iD", OU"; 0:8615 + 21:25° 1:4670 78— 82:5,, 20 5; 0-8618 45 101- 1-47.35 Sat? ,, Noy, 0:9318 + 21°1° 1:4859 2 =F 18; |, Me ae veh ay $8 = 1,21. ,.;, ies 0:9444 + 25:0° 1:4931 residue Giete With the latter (23/10/1922), it was decided to distil the crude oil, as obtained, at 10 mm. in order to obtain the ester in as concentrated a condition as possible. Accord- ingly 660 c.c. were repeatedly fractionated at 10 mm. with the following final result :— Table “B.” No. Becca | Quanity | Opeeel | uetiactiee | eter No. l 50— 60°C ,10 mm. 200 cc. |+ 23°85°| 1°4697 2 60-105 5; LOO 6 HEV ES 655) bk 4735 3 | 105-110 sp ZO ye lt QUAD: | 14820 ae 4 | 110-119 a TA eet goo | 14808 177 ily 1202125 ¥ 83.,,. |+ 21-55°|- 14864 147 6 | 125-145 a OD 5, ft Lok 1:4966 45°7 7 | 145-156 se Omens le 1:4967 | 34:5 residue Determination of Terpenes.—14/12/1921. The three main fractions (Table ‘‘A’’) boiling from 63° C. to 82°5° O. at 10 mm. (124 c.c. in all) were repeatedly distilled under reduced pressure and finally at 769 mm. with the following result :— Table “C.” MNo, | Bolling Point =| Volume PPOGS"G” | rotation | index, 20°C, 1 156 — 158° C. 23.c.c. | 0°8617 |+ 36°75°| 1:4659 2 1584 — 160 ,, 5? 7. 0-8621 |}+ 35:00°} 1:°4670 3 | 1604-166 .,, 28 , | 0°8614 |+ 30-727 1:4690 4 | 1664—170,, 8 ,, | 0°8599 }+ 22°25°| 1-4717 Br OO 276. 20 ,, | 0°8583 |+ 11°80° 1:4750 6 177 -182 _,, 16 | 0°8583 |+ 5°5° | 1°4769 P—October 3, 1923. 249 A. R. PENFOLD. d-a-pinene.—Confirmation that fractions Nos, 1 and 2 consisted essentially of d-a-pinene was obtained by shaking 32 c.c. with 67 grams powdered potassium permanganate, 800 c.c. water and 450 grams ice until the reaction was completed. On removal of manganese sludge, the liquid was steam distilled to remove unchanged terpene, and evaporated to a small bulk. It was then acidulated with dilute sulphuric acid solution and extracted with chloro- form. On removal of solvent about 15 grams pinonic acid were obtained distilling at 176—182° O. at 5 mm., which readily solidified on standing overnight. The crystals were separated and purified from petroleum ether when they melted at 70° O. The semicarbazone prepared therefrom melted at 207°O. 0°2504 gram of the acid in 10 c.c. chloro- form gave [a]a20° O. + 92°. Negative examination for other terpenes.—¥raction No. 3 was tested for 6-pinene without result, whilst Nos. 5 and 6 yielded negative results when examined for phellandrene, sylvestrene, terpinene, and dipentine. In fact every frac- tion on oxidation with potassium permanganate gave vary- ing amounts of pinonic acid recognised by its semicarbazone, melting point 207° O. The evidence pointed strongly to the presence of another terpene, not unlikely olefinic, but it could not be isolated in a condition of purity, although it was apparently con- centrated in those fractions distilling at 174—182° 0. A further attempt to isolate it ina purer condition was made by repeated fractional distillation of the lower boiling fractions of consignment 23/10/1922 (Table ‘‘B’’) which was much higher in content of terpenes. The following table ‘“‘D’”’ enables its concentration to be followed :— ESSENTIAL OIL OF DARWINIA GRANDIFLORA. 243 Table “D.” [ Frnction Voinme -) Sec,grartr] Option | Retracirg | 57-58°O.at20mm.| 28ce. | 0:8623 |+32-00°| 1-4659 | i586 46, | 0-8617 |4+29-85°| 1-4668 GAGS ‘ 49. | 0-8603 |+25-50°| 1-4686 eck, 65... | 08589 |+20-80°| 14702 1166 —171°C.at763 mm.| 12 ., | 0-8572 |417-15°| 1-4795 igi-i74 —_,, ib. | 0-8545 NH G-le° | pared Jee 77 |, Bd. | eO-Bale ole 285 az Other terpene.—The terpene, represented by fraction distilling at 174-177 ©., 51 c.c., on examination failed to yield any of the ordinary crystalline derivatives charac- teristic of such bodies, beyond a mixture of hydrochlorides when treated with dry hydrochloric acid gas in dry ether solution. On prolonged exposure and cooling a solid dihydrochloride was finally obtained, which when purified from ethyl alcohol melted at 53-—54°O. The small optical rotation shown by the fraction is probably due to contamin- ation with d-a-pinene, the pure terpene undoubtedly being quite inactive. . Determination of ester (saponifiable with alcoholic pot- ash solution with two hours contact at room temperature). The fractions of oil boiling at 110 —119° C. and 120 —125° O. at 10 mm. (Table ‘‘B’’) of ester No. 177 and 147 respectively, were mixed and subjected to repeated fractional distillation at 10 mm., when the following fractions were obtained :— Boiling point at | Spec. gravity Optical Refractive | Ester No. 10 mm. 15/15° Volume C. rotation |index, 242°C.| cold 2 hours 396 cc. | 1O8—113°C.| 0:9672 | 4+380°5°| 1°4742 216-2 28033 1134-116 ,, 0:9637 | +27°5° | 1°4770 204°3 It was not possible to concentrate the ester to a greater extent on account of the tendency to form constant boiling mixtures with the sesquiterpene and other bodies present in the crude oil. The two fractions were accordingly mixed, and the ester hydrolysed by means of alcoholic pot- 244 A. R. PENFOLD. ash solution at room temperature for two hours, and the acid and alcohol portions separately examined:— Acid.—The potash salts were separated, decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid solution and steam distilled. The volatile acids thus obtained were neutralised by means of ammonia solution and the silver salt prepared therefrom. 0°7784 gram yielded on ignition 0°5004 gram silver = 64°29%. (The silver salt of acetic acid yields 64°67% silver). The potash and ammonium salts on examination gave all the ordinary qualitative tests for acetic acid. The principal. acid of the ester is, therefore, acetic acid. Alcohol.—The crude alcohol separated after saponifica- tion of the ester was repeatedly distilled at 10 mm. when it was obtained in as pure a condition as possible by frac- tional distillation. A portion of same was purified through the phthalic acid compound. As thus obtained it wasa colourless, somewhat viscous liquid, of pleasant odour, strongly suggestive of geraniol, but somewhat finer and less sweet. It combined very slowly and with difficulty with phthalic anhydride, and not at all with anhydrous calcium chloride (i.e., under the same conditions that com- bination is effected with geraniol). Its chemical and physical characters were determined to be: — Boiling point at 10 mm, .. 108-—111° C. Specific gravity, 15/15° CO. ... 0°9559 Optical rotation oie ws Feo'o Refractive index, 20° CO. w» 1°4918 The results of combustion determinations were unsatis- factory, the figures for hydrogen being on the low side, but those obtained with the derivatives left no doubt at all as to the formula of the alcohol. (1) 0°1083 gram gave 0°3082 gram OO, and 0°1080 gram H,O C—77°62%, H—11°08%. ESSENTIAL OIL OF DARWINIA GRANDIFLORA. 245 (2) 0°1274 gram gave 0°3622 gram CO, and 0°1268 gram H,O ; O—77'°53%, H—11°06%. (3) 0°1021 gram gave 0°2926 gram CO, and 0°1016 gram H,O O—78°15%, H—11°05%. O10 HigO requires O—77°92%, H—11°69%. Molecular weight determination.—A molecular weight determination by the Landsberger boiling point method, using acetone as solvent, gave the following result — 1°2954 gramsin 31 c.c. acetone elevated the boiling point 06. M.Wt. = 154°6. OjoHis0 requires 154. Phthalie acid ester. heating the alcohol with phthalic anbydride between the temperatures of 98° OC. and 120° C. fora considerable period. Combination was very slow and imperfect, and the alcohol was easily decomposed if the temperature exceeded 120°C. The derivative, however, was obtained in white crystals, This derivative was obtained by sparingly soluble in petroleum ether from which it was purified. It melted at 107 - 108° C. Napthylurethane.—On allowing equimolecular weights of the alcohol and napthylisocyanate to remain in contact for several weeks combination was effected. On purifica- tion from ethyl alcohol it melted at 86 -87° O. 0°1020 gram gave 0°2902 gram CO, and 0°0694 gram H.O O—77°59%, H—7°56%. CioH; NHCOOO10Hi7 requires C—78°02%, H—7°74%. Phenylurethane.—The writer was not successful in obtaining a derivative by the use of phenylisocyanate. Oxidation.—On treatment of 20 c.c. alcohol with Beck- man’s chromic acid solution a small quantity of ketone was obtained, together with an acid or mixture of acids which readily formed a chromium compound. The former which possessed an odour much resembling menthone was purified by combining it with neutral sulphite solution and 246 A. R. PENFOLD. regenerating same by means of caustic soda solution, and finally steam distillation. It had optical rotation of +24° and refractive index, 20°C. 1°5008. It readily yielded a semicarbazone, which on purification from ethyl alcohol melted at 217-218 O. This derivative on combustion gave the following result:— 0°1126 gram gave 0°2602 gram CO, and 0°0912 gram H.O O—62°98%, H—9°00%. OnHigNsO requires O—63°15/%, H—9°097%. The ketone therefore appears to possess the formula O,HisO. Although the alcohol boils at the same temper- ature as geraniol and resembles it in some respects, its physical characters and general chemical deportment. readily differentiate it therefrom. Determination of total combined acids.—A small quantity of an oily acid appeared to be present in combination as an ester, as in the working up of the various fractions con- taining ester, the mixed potash salts on treatment with dilute sulphuric acid solution and steam distillation yielded oily droplets floating on the surface of the aqueous distill- ate. These oily globules were filtered off through a moist. filter paper, neutralised with ammonia solution, when the silver salt prepared therefrom was found to contain 33°65% silver. The aqueous distillate, freed as much as possible from the oily globules, was similarly treated. 0°3506 gram of silver salt gave 0°2262 gram silver =64°5%, thus proving the principal acid to be acetic. The oily acid was present in too small a quantity for definite identification, and although it possessed a butyric-like odour, the silver salt showed it not to be that acid. Determination of Sesquiterpene.—Fractions Nos. 6 and 7 (Table “‘B’’), together with the residues from the various fractions of high ester No., totalling 100 c.c., were mixed together and treated at room temperature with alcoholic ESSENTIAL OIL OF DARWINIA GRANDIFLORA. 247 potash solution to decompose any remaining ester. The ester free oil (96 c.c.) was fractionally distilled at 10 mm. and the portion distilling below 136° O. at that pressure repeatedly distilled over metallic sodium at 10 mm. until free from oxygenated bodies. Finally about 32 c.c. ofa colourless liquid, with a pleasant roselike odour, was obtained, possessing the following characters:— Boiling point at 10 mm. 130—133° O. Specific gravity 15/15° C. 0°9222 Optical rotation +176" Refractive index, 20° O. 1°5050 It did not yield any of the solid derivatives typical of _ sesquiterpenes, but gave the usual colour reactions with bromine vapour in acetic acid solution and sulphuric acid in acetic anhydride characteristic of such bodies as met with in essential oils of the Myrtacese. This sesquiterpene appears to be identical with that isolated by the writer from various Leptospermum oils, which for the present is assumed to be identical with eudesmene. Determination of Sesquiterpene Alcohol.—The fractions of crude oil distilling above 136° O. at 10 mm. were redis- tilled until finally a distillate was obtained boiling at 134—- 138° C. at 5 mm. possessing the following characters:— Specific gravity 15/15° ©. 0°9443 Optical rotation +7°6° Refractive index, 20° O. 1°4961 It failed to react with phthalic anhydride when heated on the water bath in benzene solution. On heating, how- ever, with an equal volume of 90% formic acid a sesqui- terpene was obtained, but not in sufficient quantity for a thorough purification. The small quantity available possessed the following characters :— Boiling point at 10 mm. 129—133° C. Specific gravity 15/15° ©. 0°9090 Optical rotation —21°5° Refractive index, 20° C. 1°5022 248 A. R. PENFOLD. It did not yield any of the usual sesquiterpene derivatives, except the colour reactions referred to under ‘‘ Determin- ation of Sesquiterpene.’’ This behaviour, however, was sufficient to show that the sesquiterpene alcohol was most probably that corresponding to the sesquiterpene occurring as such in the crude oil. Determination of Stearoptene (probably a phenol ether). The high boiling residues, i.e., those left behind after the separation of the sesquiterpene alcohol, solidified on cooling. After being spread ona porous tile the solid was collected, boiled up with ethyl alcohol, when upon cooling primrose yellow needles separated out. These melted at 103 —-104° ©., and were found to contain one methoxyl group. The molecular formula deduced from combustion results and molecular determinations appears to be Cyg3HigOu.* Other minor constituents.—In the course of the examin- ation of the terpenes small quantities of bodies with pro- nounced odours were detected in the portions distilling a little lower than d-o-pinene, but were not present in sufficient quantity for their identity to be confirmed. They were isovaleric aldehyde and amyl alcohol. In conclusion, I have to express my thanks to Mr. F. R. Morrison, A.T.c., Assistant Chemist, for his usual helpful assistance in these investigations. @ 1 See paper “ Preliminary note on a new stearoptene (probably a phenol ether) occurring in some essential oils of the Myrtacez, by A. R. Penfold, r.c.s. and F. R. Morrison, a.T c., this Journal, Vol. tv1, 1922, pp. 87-89. ACTIVE DEPOSIT IN HELIUM AND ARGON. 249 THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACTIVE DEPOSIT OF RADIUM IN HELIUM AND ARGON IN AN HLEOTRIC FIELD. By G. H. BRIGGS, B.Sc., Lecturer in Physics in the University of Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, Novenber 7, 1923.] Introduction. In a previous paper? the writer investigated the distri- bution of the active deposit of radium and thorium in electric fields in various gases and confirmed the conclusion of Wellish? that in air and carbon dioxide there is a definite limiting percentage of the active deposit of radium initially positively charged, and that the remainder isneutral. The term ‘‘initial’’ refers to the state existing at the instant when the deposit atom has reached the end of its recoil path. The writer extended the work and found values for the percentage of RaA, RaB, ThA and ThB recoil atoms initially positively charged in the following gases :—air, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, acetylene,ammonia, ethylene and hydrogen sulphide. The values for RaB were measured directly and values for RaA were calculated from the results for RaB and the values of ae where c and d are the activities found on the cathode and anode in a parallel plate exposure vessel when radium emanation is mixed with the gas under investigation and equilibrium is established between the emanation and its products RaA, RaB and RaC. The values found decreased in the order in which the gases are enumerated and it was pointed out * Phil. Mag., xli, p. 367, 1921. * Phil. Mag., xxviii, p. 417, 1914. 250 G. H. BRIGGS. that the stability of the gases for increase of temperature decreases in approximately the same order. A theory was. given to explain the results based on the assumptions that. the recoil atoms in their recoil path through the gas, dis- sociate the gas molecules, that at a collision at which dissociation does not occur the recoil particle has a large chance of becoming positively charged, and that at a collis-- ion at which dissociation does occur there isa large chance of this charge being lost. It was of interest, therefore, to- extend the work to monatomic gases, This has been done- in the case of helium and argon. Experiments in Helium. Helium was purified by circulation at atmospheric pres- sure for several hours round a closed path containing the exposure vessel, drying tubes and charcoal in liquid air. The purity of the gas was examined by the method described by Lord Rayleigh,’ in which the alternative spark gap in air is measured for two electrodes in the gas. These electrodes were 5 cm. apart. When the alternative spark gap fell toa minimum which was about 0°6 to 2 millimeters, the pressure was adjusted to the required value, the taps. leading in and out of the exposure vessel were closed and the active deposit allowed to accumulate on the electrodes. Radium emanation was supplied by a small quantity of radium in the vessel. Preliminary experiments in the parallel plate exposure vessel described in the previous paper showed that about 5 per cent. of the active deposit was not positively charged. Experiments were then made in cylindrical vessels to test for negative particles using the method described by Wellish. The vessels were 10 cm. long and 4°6 cm. internal diameter with a central electrode 1°7 mm.in diameter. The activity on the rod when positive was found to be 0°003 of the 1 Proc. Roy. Soc., Sept. 1920. ACTIVE DEPOSIT IN HELIUM AND ARGON. 251 total. This activity would be caused by neutral particles present to the extent of 3 per cent. It may be concluded therefore, that in helium asin all other gases investigated, negative particles are not present in sufficient numbers to be detected. In helium their presence to the extent of 1 in 1000 could easily have been detected. | The method which was described in the former paper for measuring the percentage of RaB initially positively charged in a gas is not sufficiently accurate when the values are in the neighbourhood of 100 per cent. Hence only the value a , Where c and d are the cathode and Cc anode deposits after a long exposure to the gas mixed with radium emanation in the parailel plate vessel described in the previous paper, has been directly determined. The effect of direct recoil to the electrode. The effect. of recoil on to the walls of the exposure vessel was negligible in the gases previously examined. However, in helium the activity reaching the anode by direct recoil from the gas is comparable with that due to the diffusion of neutral particles. It was found that the effect of direct recoil was best eliminated by making exposures at various pressures and plotting the observed values against the reciprocals of the pressures. The point 96°4 where the curve cuts the vertical axis in Fig. 1 is then the corrected value when the effect of direct recoil is eliminated, for the pressure corresponding to this point is infinite and the range of recoil zero. The experimental values found are as follows :— c-d Pressure in c+d Bo) 00 em. of mercury. 76°2 ae ae ae a EUs 3°92 (Oe ee se ive se vid 2°00 80°8 se os see oT ies O72 83°9 ee — = bie an 075 83°9 5a fe ate Bist wee 7°86 92°2 55 a oo sie we 0 O17. 3c ee sis ae: wet OL 95°0 Sb te Ane ae veor=e -OULO 252 G. H. BRIGGS. Fig. 1. At the highest pressure the value did not alter when the potential between the plates was changed from 400 to 5000 volts. It is concluded therefore that a= 6 is 0°964 for helium in the vessel used. This value represents the fraction of the active deposit apparently initially positively charged for an exposure in which radio-active equilibrium is established bet ween the emanation and the products RaA, B and ©, no account being taken of the fact that the value actually depends on the percentage of RaA and RaB posi- tively charged and on the efficiency of recoil of RaB from the plates. This efficiency, for the brass plates cleaned with fine emery paper, was previously found to be 0°878. Calculation of the percentages RaA and RaB initially Let positively charged in Helium. a = the fraction of RaA atoms initially positively charged, ACTIVE DEPOSIT IN HELIUM AND ARGON. 253 b = the fraction of RaB atoms initially positively charged, r = the efficiency of recoil of RaB from the plates, iver a met It was shown in the former paper that 2p—br a DSTUE () and values of p, a and b are there given for eight gases. In each case it was found that b is greater than p and p greater than a. The value of a for helium may be deter- mined in the following manner. From equation (1) when b = 0, a = 0°964, and when b =1, a = 0°936. Hence alies between these two values. If b = 0°964, then a = 0°939. So that unless helium is an exception to the rule noted above, the value of a lies between 0°936 and 0°939 and b lies between 0°964 and unity. It is of interest to compare these values with the results for other gases. The highest values previously found for RaA and RaB were those for air, namely 82°4% and 93% respectively, but there was evidence that the values for oxygen were slightly greater. The lowest values were found in hydrogen sulphide, zero and 54°97% respectively. Experiments in Argon. Argon was purified by sparking with oxygen for several Cc =— weeks. The mean value found for c was 79°59 per cent. Here also the value was independent of the voltage from 400 to 8000 volts. The test for negative particles showed that these were not present in sufficient numbers to be detected. The percentage of RaB initially positively charged was. measured by the method described in the former paper. It was found that the ratio of the percentage of RaB initially positively charged to the corresponding percentage for air 254 G. H. BRIGGS. was 0°88. It was previously found that 93 per cent. of RaB particles are initially positively charged in air. Hence the percentage for argon is 81°8. From this result and the value for p, it is readily deduced that the percentage of RaB initially positively charged in argon is 61°8. Discussion. This investigation shows that the theory very briefly outlined above, which has been given to explain the results published in the first paper is insufficient to account for all the facts, since neutral particles have been found to he. present in the monatomic gases examined. Two new possibilities are now suggested which may result in the presence of neutral particles: (1) that at a collision, if the mutual penetration or the closeness of approach of the deposit atom and the gas molecule is sufficient, the deposit atom may lose its charge, whether dissociation of the molecule occurs or not; (2) if Wertenstein’s conclusion, that recoil atoms are uncharged immediately after the expulsion of the alpha particle, is correct, it may happen that some of the recoil atoms do not become positively charged at any time during their recoil path. In either case the effect should be more pronounced in gases of high molecular weight. The penetration or closeness of approach may be expected to be greater with these gases and also fewer collisions are made before the translational energy of the recoil atom is reduced to that corresponding to the gas temperature. In argon only two head-on elastic collisions are required to halve the velocity of the recoil atom. Hence, the chance of the recoil atom acquiring a positive charge in argon, if initially unchanged, may be considerably smaller than in helium. If either suggestion is correct we havea possible explan- ation of the relatively large number of neutral recoil atoms ACTIVE DEPOSIT IN HELIUM AND ARGON. 255 in argon, and of the small though finite number present in helium. However, on the evidence available it appears that the ‘dissociation of the gas by the recoil atoms may play a very important role, particularly in the more easily dissociated gases, and there seems to be no reason to modify the theory originally given in so far as it applies to the operation of this factor. I wish to record my appreciation of the interest taken in the work by the late Professor Pollock, and by Professor O. U. Vonwiller, and also to thank Messrs. J. R. Duggan, R. J. Gillings, and S. L. Martin, who gave valuable help in the measurement of the percentage of RaB positively charged in argon. The expense of this research was largely defrayed by a grant from the McOaughey Research Fund. 256 J. K. MURRAY AND V. WESTON. NOTHS ON THE BACTERIOLOGY, TITRATABLE ACIDITY AND H-ION CONCENTRATION OF SOMH CREAMS. By J. K. MURRAY, B.A , B.Sc. Agr., N.D.D., Lecturer in Bacteriology, Hawkesbury Agricultural College. and V. WESTON, H.D.D., Advanced Student in Dairying, Hawkesbury Agricultural College. [Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, November 7, 1923. ] DURING recent years a considerable amount of attention has been devoted to the determination of the relationship between agar plate and microscopic counts of milk. In this paper an attempt has been made to obtain some similar data in the case of cream. At the same time determin- ations of the titratable acidity and hydrogen-ion concen- trations were made with the object of obtaining some comparative figures, and also of noting if there were any correlation between bacterial counts, titratable acidity, H-ion concentration and cream grade. Methods Employed. Sampling.—Oream samples, taken with the necessary precautions, were obtained from Oollege sources and from outside suppliers to the College butter factory; these samples consisted of fifty raw and seven pasteurised creams. They were taken during the five months commencing February (late Summer) and concluding in June (early Winter). The first raw sample taken was numbered one and the last, in June, fifty; pasteurised creams were numbered separately, Agar Plate Cultures.—In making dilutions for these cultures each flask or tube was shaken for five minutes in BACTERIOLOGY AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CREAM. 257 an endeavour to obtain a breaking up of the bigger bacterial groups and to secure regularity of distribution of the bacteria in the diluent. The work of G. S. Wilson” indi- cates that a good quality tap water is a satisfactory diluent for the conditions, and Ringer’s solution was not employed. Dilutions were arranged with a view of obtain- ing between thirty and four hundred colonies on each plate as recommended by R. S. Breed and W. D. Dotterrer) for milk analyses. Cultures were made in triplicate. It was realised that to obtain a great degree of accuracy, many more plates should be made from each sample. H.L. Reitz and H. A. Harding®) state “‘that the results of approxi- mately twenty-five simultaneous plate determinations should be averaged to give results which are satisfactorily accurate.’’ The number of simultaneous plates actually used in this experiment, while not excluding the possibilities of inaccuracy in individual creams, should, over a large number of creams, give results from which deductions may justifiably be drawn. The maximum variation permitted in recorded plates was fifteen per cent. The medium employed was a nutrient agar made from beef steak containing 1% Baker’s peptone, 0°5% common salt, 1°57% thread agar, and adjusted to a H-ion concentra- tion of pH = 7°0 by means of the colorimetric method described by Leon S. Medalia.“ Sterilisation was effected by autoclaving at 15ibs. pressure for fifteen minutes. Incubation was for three days at room temperature, which, towards the end of the series (Winter), was raised some- what by the use ofaradiator. In counting plates, colonies were divided into two groups, those of the Streptococcus lactis type (alluded to as “‘pinpoint’’), and others. Microscopic Hxamination.—The method employed was essentially that of J. D. Brew and R.S. Breed® and was as follows :—1/100 of a c.c. of cream was taken by means of a calibrated capillary pipette and deposited on a 50 x Q—November 7, 1923. 258 J. K. MURRAY AND V. WESTON. 114 mm. glass slide which was attached by rubber bands to a guide plate marked into areas of one square centimetre. Cream samples were evenly spread over such areas by means of a stiff platinum wire. Smears were dried on a level surface in a warm place protected from dust, flies, etc. The dried smears were immersed in xylol for two minutes, this time being found sufficient to dissolve out the butter fat. The smears were drained and dried and then immersed in 80% alcohol fortwo minutes. The slide was next flooded with an aqueous solution of methylene blue for a period of one minute, re-staining when necessary. A zinc-free methylene blue, as recommended by H. J. Conn, was not available until the latter half of the experi- ment. Pipettes were cleaned in chromicacid. The micro- scope, a Bausch and Lomb CCS 8, fitted witha1°9 mm. oil immersion objective, a 6°4 eyepiece, eyepiece micrometer disc (having an 8 mm. circle) was standardised to give a field of 1/6000 c.m.; the tube length found necessary was 177 mm. _ In fields containing high numbers of bacteria ten quarter fields were counted; careful searching was done to ensure that these were fairly representative of the smear. More fields could have been counted with advantage, but the time thus involved was not available. The factor for the ge Ae ee bedi field counts was thus 240,000 zug) Gnas pane Lacuna; were few bacteria per field, one hundred full fields were counted and the factor adjusted accordingly to 6,000. The microorganisms present in a field were recorded in bacterial groups of less than four, four to nineteen, twenty to forty- nine, and more than forty-nine; yeast-like cells were recorded separately but included in the total count. In those cases where there The relatively small amount of casein and albumen and the large proportion of butter-fat found in cream as com- pared with milk, may strengthen the criticism which has ae BACTERIOLOGY AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CREAM. 259 been urged against the method that the dissolving out of the fat may remove some bacteria by mechanical means; in some creams the butter-fat formed more than half (58%) of the cream. Brew and Breed) have stated that it is impossible to demonstrate that bacteria are removed mechanically in this way and that plate comparisons show that this loss, if any, is negligible. Titratable Acidity.—These determinations were made immediately before the making of the colorimetric tests for pH, smears and petri dish cultures. The ordinary factory method was used of pipetting 8°8 c.cs. of cream into an enamel dish, adding two or three drops of phenol- phthalein solution and titrating against decinormal sodium hydrate. The result was expressed in terms of lactic acid. The method has its obvious weaknesses, but it was desired to correlate, if possible, some other determinations with acidities as ordinarily obtained under factory conditions, Hydrogen-ion Concentration.—The colorimetric method suggested by Leon S. Medalia) was followed. ‘‘If highly coloured fluids are to be titrated they may be diluted with equal parts or more of distilled water, since the addition of distilled water does not change the H.I.O. materially.”’ In his method for the titration of culture media he recom- mends the dilution of the medium five times, and this degree of dilution was employed with creams and a powerful source of light used for illuminating the comparator block. Two cubic centimetres of cream were pipetted into each of three test tubes belonging to a series selected for uni- formity of colour, thickness of wall, and diameter. Hight cubic centimetres of conductivity water (obtained by pass- ing air free from ammonia and carbon dioxide through distilled water for twenty-four hours) were added to each and all thoroughly shaken. They were then placed in a comparator block and to the centre one 0°8 c.c. of the 260 J. K, MURRAY AND V. WESTON. watery solution of the appropriate indicator added and all shaken again. Test tube pairs of the indicator solutions prepared according to Medalia, were placed behind the outer tubes and two tubes of distilled water behind the centre one. The test tube pairs of indicator solutions were changed until the centre tube was matched or was intermediate in colour. The only indicators found necessary were :— Indicator Common Name Range cf log (H) or pH = O-carboxy benzene-azo-dimethyl Methyl Red 4°4 — 6°0 aniline Di-bromo-o-cresol sulphone Brom cresol 5°2 — 6°8 phthalein purple Di-bromo-thymol-sulphone Brom thymol 6°0 — 7°6 phthalein blue Medalia’s method seemingly lends itself rather to com- parative results than to exact determinations of the H-ion concentration of the undiluted creams. It does not seem possible to calculate the H-ion concentration for the undiluted cream and all the figures given under the head- ing of pH in the following pages are those obtained with five times diluted cream. Cream Grading.—Cream scoring forty-three points and above has been graded ‘Choicest,’ forty to forty-two ‘First,’ thirty-six to thirty-nine ‘Second,’ and below thirty-six ‘Third Grade.’ Grading was done by the College Instructor and Assistant Instructor in Dairying and one of us(V. Weston). Results Obtained, Counts of Micro-organisms.—A table is presented below showing in detail the results obtained from the agar cultures and the microscopic examination of the fifty raw creams, as well as their titratable acidities and H-ion concentra- tions. The creams are arranged in order of ascending titratable acidity. In the case of some creams the details BACTERIOLOGY AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CREAM. 261 are not complete. Counts of yeast-like cells are included in the total microscopic counts, and details of the number of these cells are tabulated below the table; their occur- rence ina count is indicated by a letter in the total column. Microscopic Counts.—The table shows that the highest total microscopic counts obtained were almost 1200 millions per c.c., and that four counts exceeding 1000 millions were obtained at an acidity of °385% and upwards. Counts exceeding 1000 million individual bacteria in groups of less than four were obtained in only two instances, the lower acidity being °45%. It is of interest to note that micro- scopic counts in the vicinity of 500 millions per c.c. were obtained from creams of an acidity as low as °12% and °125%. All creams (forty-three) of an acidity above °11% hada count in excess of 100 millions per c.c. Generally speaking the groups of fifty or more in the microscopic examination occur irregularly up to an acidity of °465%; above this percentage fewer creams contain bacteria in this group, though the cream with the highest titratable acidity possessed a remarkable number. The highest number of bacteria (241°68 millions) per c.c. in this grouping of fifty or more was in a cream of ‘37% acidity. The highest numbers of bacteria (over 300 millions per c.c.) in the group containing four to nineteen individuals were in creams of °26% and °12% acidity; the cream of °26% acidity also con- tained the highest number per c.c. in the twenty to forty- nine group, the count being almost 400 millions per c.c. This cream was characterised by the presence of an extra- ordinary preponderance of long-chain Streptococci—which apparently found the plate culture conditions (low incuba- tion temperature) unsuitable for their growth since they do not appear in the agar plate count. R.S. Breed and J. D. Brew™ found that 2°91% of 11,851 cans of milk graded by the microscopic method showed a predominant long chained streptococcus. q Table showing a comparison of the average plate and microscopic — Number Cream Sample Source Dell H.A.C. mixed B.A.C. Sellers H.A..C. Walden Welch Duffy Sellers Hy AG: Walden Welch Duffy Welch Sellers Welch H,A.C. Dell Duffy H.A.C. McMahon Walden Welch McMahon Welch H.A.C. mixed Welch Sellers Duffy Dell Welch Colonies on Nutrient Agar pH= 7°0 expressed in millions per c.c. Titratable Pin-point acidity colonies of expressed | pH* | streptococ- as lactic cus lactis acid % type ‘08 6°8 Zs ‘09 7:0 oe “LO 6°7 0°4 ‘10 6°8 Lg Be, 6°8 36:0 ‘T1 6°5 32°0 aL 6°8 1°3 "12 6°6 34-0 12 6°5 88°0 125 cio Ba AS 6°6 42-0 *135 6°5 70:0 "24 Sate ae 24 6°6 17°4 °26 6°5 | 154°0 *275 5:7 | 206°0 28 5°8 25°0 31 6:0 156°0 *32 5°7 84:0 *32 6°5 | 186°0 °33 5°4 | 843°0 34 5°6 | 210°0 °36 5°3 | 328:0 37 5°5 | 270°0 37 Te 259°2 °38 4:9 | 192°7. *385 239°6 “49 5°5 | 270°0 “41 5°2 | 480°0 “41 5°2 140°0 42 5°2 | 304°0 “42 of 333 °4 “42 0°3 | 400°0 "425 5*4 | 570:0 45 5°4 | 168°0 45 5°5 | 380°0 “465 5:2 | 502°0 47 5°4 92-0 “475 5°38 | 820°0 “48 5:0 144°0 “48 4°8 | 180°0 *495 5°4 sti Ol 5:0 | 542°2 “Ol we 624-0 “Ol 5°4 | 162°5 “04 5°4 | 380°0 "54 5°2 | 893°3 34 5°2 | 132°0 56 5°5 | 248°7 ‘61 | «+56 J 384-0 All other colonies 0°13 19°30 8°26 2°90 2°80 4°53 4°30 9°80 41°00 9°00F 1°93 0°80 10°80 1:00 150-00 93°50 7°00 56°00 5°30 0°85 240°00 0-77 288-00 41°00 29°30 36°00 0°28 12°30 64°00 2°20 94°00 4°00 1:10 100°00 242°66 270-00 37°80 1‘70 1:10 56:00 38°60 228-00 12°80 13°20 Total colonies 0:53 55°30 40°26 4°20 36°80 92°53 46°30 79°80 58°40 163°00+ 207°93 25°80 166°80 85:00 336'00 436°50 217-00 38400 275°30 260°05 432°70 240°37 558:00 521°00 169°30 340°00 333°68 412°30 634°00 170°20 474°00 506°00 93°10 420°00 386°66 450°00 580°00 625°70 163-60 436-00 431-90 460°00 261-50 | 397-20 24°5 e bo a _ > 8 & : : ee nee ego ee are tee ee reat em ee eee eee Cee sO Ce NRO: ie Se Oss WOBODMNWO” DOWANOMDWKFOHrAWOAWUNUWHOONHROANTNMHOMNIN: WW DROME: >) SS) | ped — — ONWFrFODFOWOONNFOOOrFB Ww > bo Te wR ON OOD, * pH of diluted cream; see notes under ‘‘ Methods employed.” + Large number of long-chained Streptococci shown in the microscopic 0°48 million yeast-like cells. a. Included in the total count are b. Cc. d. 0°24 0°48 0°24 33 a3 2% a [ Percentage of total formed by other than ‘pin-point’ colonies counts of creams whose titratable acidity lies between the limits given. Brew and Breed Method. Millions of micro-organisms contained. per c.c., in groups of: Percentage of Total count total count in millions formed by Less than Four to Twenty to | More than per €.c. groups of four nineteen forty-nine | forty-nine four or more 8°52 6:30 12°78 0:00 27°60 69:1 4°87 0:00 0:00 0:00 4°87 0-0 97°92 48°48 14°40 0:00 160°80 29°L 48°00 50°40 58°80 0:00 157°20 69°5 3°42 0:00 0:00 0:00 3°42 0:0 141°60 80:00 89-04 16°80 327°44 56°8 75°36 312°72 94.56 38°88 521°52 85°5 217°36 65°73 122-74 92-91 498-74 56:4 142°56 81°60 33°84 0:00 258-00 44-7 169°68 125°76 88°80 33°60 417°84 59°4 484°31 156°94 93:86 25:27 760°38 36:3 128 °64 19°44, 17°76 0-00 165°84 22 +4 162-00 318°72 395°52 78°00 954°24 83-0 521-28 35°04 28°56 0-00 584°88 10°9 436°56 35°28 5°04 0-00 477°36 a 8°4 291°12 67°20 121-92 97-44, 577°68 49°6 406°56 51°60 4°80 0-00 463°20 b 12:2 353°04 64°08 43°68 12-00 472-80 25°3 623°04 | 89°76 33°84 0-00 746-64 16°5 498°48 33°13 7°20 22°08 561°37 ¢ 11:2 436°08 19°44, 22°08 0:00 477-60 8°7 505°20 121°68 ~ 0°00 0:00 626°88 19°4 29412 142-69 215°27 241°68 893°76 67:1 686°40 98°88 62°88 0:00 84.8°16 19k 750-88 173:37 | 107-54 0:00 1031°79 27 °2, 906-96 54°96 8°16 0:00 970°08 6°5 420°48 57°84 24°24 13°44 516-00 18°5 890°48 31°44 0°00 0:00 421-92 7°, 351-60 48°72 26°64 0-00 426°96 17-7 532-00 101-46 135°66 147°25 916°37 41:9 521-76 70°32 19°20 0:00 611°28 14°6 795°84 91°68 13°44 24.60 925°20 d 140 680°88 81:60 52°32 50°34: 870°90 e 21°8 1060°32 86°40 22°08 24:00 1192-80 11:1 64704 130°32 42°72 15°84: 835°92 22°6 464°16 71°76 34°32 0:00 57696 f 19°6 799-2 81°60 48°00 0:00 .| 928-80 14:0 573°60 104°16 26°40 0:00 _ 704°16 18°5 826°56 51°36 0:00 0-00 877-92 5'8 508°32 45°84 29°04 0:00 583°20 12°8 745 °44 32°44 31°92 0-00 809°80 74, 1025:05 89°87 83°22 0:00 1198°14 14-4 692°64 | 116°88 34°32 24.0°00 1083°84 36'1 702-48 88°32 8:88 16°80 816-48 14:0 549-60 97°68 13°44 0:00 660°72 16'8 766°56 54°96 23°52 0:00 845°04 9:3 599-28 71-76 62°64 13°20 746:88 19°8 716°64 36:00 20°88 8400 986°40 & 27:4 examination of this sample apparently did not grow under the conditions. e. Included in the total count are 5°76 million yeast-like cells. td a9 oe) +9 6°72 »y 99 g. 9? >> 3) 128&°88 be) 3) 264 J. K. MURRAY AND V. WESTON. Agar Plate Counts.—The highest plate count obtained under the conditions was 634 millions per c.c. in a cream of °425% acidity. The variation in plate count is marked in cases. Thus at an acidity of °10% creams produced at the same season contained half a million and fifty-five millions of bacteria per c.c. This is probably explained by the different ages of these creams, the cream with the lower count being taken direct from the separator. At an acidity exceeding °32% only one cream out of twenty-nine had a count of less than 100 millions per c.c. and the average count for these creams, which include the great majority of those from outside suppliers, was over 370 millions per c.c. of which over 295 millions represent colonies of the pin-point type. Further figures are given in the next section. L. T. MacInnes and H. H. Randell"®) found the following counts in N.S. Wales creams having an acidity in excess of °43.% —108, 151 and 163 millions per c.c. Conn and Esten give a count for cream forty-eight hours old (acidity not stated) of 1023 millions per c.c., the cream being held at between 20° and 21° CO. and the medium lactose gelatin. Comparison of the Microscopic and Agar Plate Counts. —‘*Bacteria frequently exist in milk in clumps of twos, threes, fours, or even larger masses. Since these clumps cannot be perfectly separated into their component individuals by any known method of shaking or manipula- tion, the culture medium is always seeded with many groups of bacteria. As these grow they form a single mass, or colony, indistinguishable from colonies which have arisen from single individuals.’’—Breed, R. S. and Stocking, W. A. This factor, coupled with the inability of the whole of the bacteria to grow under any one set of con= BACTERIOLOGY AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CREAM. 265 ditions makes the plate count an imperfect method of determining the total number of individual bacteria in milk or cream. Actual microscopic examination of milk or cream smears, suitably stained, shows the individual bacteria present, though the method will suffer from the deficiencies of any staining process and may reveal dead cells. Ooncerning the matter of dead cells the following passage from J. M. Sherman and W. R. Albus!) is of interest—“‘Since the younger bacteria, like the young of. higher forms of life, are more susceptible to the hazards of their environment, it is not improbable that in the struggle for existence among the organisms there occurs a certain mortality among the young cells—an ‘infant mortality’ so tospeak. If such exists, another factor must be considered in the discussion of the relative merits of the direct and cultural methods of bacterial enumeration.’ G.S. Wilson) presented figures to show that there is a mortality rate of about 10% in young cultures. The marked increase of the total microscopic over the total plate count, and the somewhat irregular relation of the total counts to the titratable acidity is illustrated in Figure 1. The respective counts and ratios between them are discussed elsewhere. Correlations*—OCorrelation figures were found as follow: 43 f Titratable acidity and “less than 4’ microscopic count "793 = °036 Creams a a total rs » +1380 =°046 44 - - total plate count ... . 1102 =°051 Creams t - “pin.point”’ plate count ... °509=°075 The number of samples represented in the results on which the correlations are based is small. Nevertheless the correlation between the microscopic count and the titratable acidity is significant. * Correlation figures were kindly worked out by the Principal of the College Mr. E. A. Southee, 0.B.5., M.A. 007! 4 ‘syunoo o1doososot fq, ————=— ooll 0001 006 008 00z 009 I< 14 Of 6) x 6 8b rg '% ra) \ 4 \ 6t ++ \ / rag \ / t= CoE Er, ££ 7 ‘87Unoy ordoosouorpy jvj0,, pun OOS OOF wt ra] Cres OF x ce \ “i x as Nob | 80 | “pe xf sr } ae! |\9e f# ! | mL | 1\ ! NuZ ao \gzt \ ! S eke x he rex \/ lt Ae \, yl ! } 4 | Yoo 1 se eve | \! \ x £ oof 00c §£ Lt S$ 9/ 6¢ =» on t | Ny ! t { os | \ @ t ae | \ tf» ' {' ti 7 } Ae it TT 61K—-« + 7) es ee ay (1 > tA ' i) \lly et ex, ofS tl ' i | \l a! it ' { ' i] \! ae i! " |! x z aD] q 7010], ‘Aqiprop ayquinuyry buwnoyg—|{ ANS ‘sqgunoo ae[g —--~--—-— —‘o'o Jed stustueS10-o101f Jo suOTIITW 0Q! sf ¥4e gb Of \\kk s, s+ | ere yar, t Lhe arent ( Way tt ant eles gay el ! ! Nee a ! i | iN) 1, jx IN, 6€ iW] (| i] ! x } wy { ', ' i] i] ( 1] t 4 4 \ \ (ploy onory 7%) Agiproy eyqeqeaqy, BACTERIOLOGY AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CREAM. 267 The acidities of the creams in Table I fall somewhat. naturally into five groups, and an arrangement of average microscopic and agar plate counts within these groups is given in Table II which follows: Table II—A comparison of the microscopic and plate counts for certain ranges of titratable acidity. Titratable Total count in millions per c.c. acidity range, (acidity ex- Average Maximum Minimum RCs ce Rho a ee ee ET ae on of |Microscopic| Plate Microscopic Plate |Microscopic, Plate actic acid). method method method method method method ‘08 = -135/ 237-7 | 44:5 | 531-5 | 92-5 3-4 | 0-5 24 —-28 | 588-5 | 113-8 | 954-2 | 207-9 | 165-8 | 25:8 31 — -385| 670-0 | 283-4 | 1031-8 | 436-5 | 463-2 | 85-0 ‘40 — -495| 757-2 | 390-6 | 1192-8 | 634-0 | 421-9 | 93-1 ‘Bl — -61 | 893-4 | 419-5 | 1198-1 | 625.7 | 660-7 | 163-6 Millions of micro-organisms per c.c. Average Maximum Minimum a | pndividual Individual Individual acteria . : bacteria : : bacteria : P present in paupeint present in ee ap oe present in eee ae groups of less groups of less eonomes groups of less than four than four than four (microscopic (plate method)| (microscopic |(plate method)} (microscopic (plate method method) method) method) 90:9 38:0 217°4 88:0 yeu! 0:4 346°6 100°6 521°3 206-0 128:6 17°4 484°5 226°8 750°9 343°0 291° 1 84-0 631°9 305'9 1060-0 oO: 0 20156 92-0 124-7 398'3 1025:0 624-0 599-3 to2:0 An almost consistent increase is shown in bacterial num- bers as one moves from a group of low to another of higher acidity. There is a tendency for the numbers to fall off when the acidity reaches the vicinity of 57%; thisisa relatively higher figure than in milk since the proportion of water and non-fatty solids in cream is so much lower. This falling off is less marked in the microscopic count than it is in the plate one. Such may be due to the staining 268 J. K. MURRAY AND V. WESTON. and counting of dead cells in the microscopic method. The most notable increase in numbers occurs in the second acidity group, the first acidity group numbers being at least doubled in all but one case. The contrast between the maximum and minimum number of bacteria in an acidity group is marked in both methods of estimating the bacteria present. In one case the esti- mated pinpoint colonies per c.c. associated with a cream of °54% acidity are 132 millions, while the average estimate for these colonies in creams of ‘247% to °28% acidity is slightly over 100 millions. Itis worthy of note that in the case of this cream, as will be seen from Table I, the total count is large, 460 millions by the plate method and 845 millions microscopically. From a consideration of the number of bacteria (pinpoint colonies) which may be broadly taken as of the Strepto- coccus lactis type and the corresponding acidity, it is apparent that there is no definite individual relationship in creams between acidity and numbers of Streptococcus lactis cells. P. G. Heinemann‘ found “‘that the amount of acid formed during the souring process of the milk or cream is not solely dependent upon the number of bacteria present of the Streptococcus lacticus group. Temperature and the presence of other bacteria may influence the result.”’ Ratio of the Microscopic to the Agar Plate Count.—The ratios, calculated from Table I, are shown below :— a. The ratio of the total microscopic to the total plate count... she ss sits ee b. The ratio of the “‘less than four’’ groups in the microscopic count to the pinpoint colonies in the plate count... ae bio’ 2. QGthhee c. Ratio of the total agar plate count to the pin- point colonies . a de ve hora d. Ratioof the total to ene aes me four’’ groups in the microscopic count... ae won Ae BACTERIOLOGY AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CREAM. 269: a. Ratio of the total microscopic to the total agar plate count.—In the case of creams somewhat different results would be expected from those normal in milk owing to the much more advanced stage fermentation has reached—as indicated in the respective acidities. A. H. Robertson 2) | gives the milk ratio of the total microscopic count to the plate count, when incubated for five days at 21° O.,as2°5:1. The corresponding ratio calculated from the whole of the creams in Table lis 2°3:1. The ratio varies very consider- ably at different titratable acidities as shown in figure 2, Figure 2 shows that the ratios from 1:1 to2:1 are grouped between acidities of °32 and °547%. If the creams between an acidity of ‘08 and ‘267% be grouped and the average ratio be obtained, it is found to be 5°1: 1; the creams above ‘26% acidity give a ratio of 2°1:1. These differences in ratio are to be expected owing to the pre- dominance at the higher acidities of the Streptococcus lactis type which forms but short chains, while long chains and big clumps are common in creams of low acidity. There is, however, an absence of bacteria in groups of more than four in the cases of the two creams of lowest microscopic count (less than five millions per c.c.). This experience is somewhat paralleled by some results of J. D. Brew and W. D. Dotterrer(*)—"* Generally speaking, the ‘groups’ of bacteria appear to be of small average size in milk containing very few bacteria and to increase in aver- age size as the number of bacteria increases, reaching a maximum average size of twelve to fourteen individuals in milk containing less than a million bacteria per c.c. As the number of bacteria becomes greater than this the average size of the groups diminishes. Apparently this decrease in the average size of the groups in milk contain- ‘qgunoo oy¥ejd [e404 4q peptatp yunoo o1doosoJorur [RqOJ, 1 01 6 8 L 2 S > . (4 ! ‘(poqqturo useq sey %Qz. Aqtptoe ‘[: 9.9] o1jear 9u0—o40 N) ‘sues yonpraripuy UL JUNO) 0707,[ 10707, OF ordooso..0u yy 7090,7, {0 ovway burpuodsas10/ puo Appwoy agony, burmoyo—z oinsiq ‘(ploy omoey Z) Auproy eqeqeaqry, Number of times the ratio occurs. BACTERIOLOGY AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CREAM. 271 ing large numbers of bacteria is due to the increasing pre- dominance of the lactic bacteria.’’ In detail, with the creams arranged in the five acidity groups, the ratio of the microscopic to the plate count works out as follows: Table JII. tin fae ati al mi :, | Ratio of groups of less than Acidity Growp | Tcoune totaal plate count eka *038:—. °135 ara ea Ae re | "24 — +28 Dew aa | Patol Obi “385 24:1 PE | ‘40 — -495 Ose). Dell sel "Oly = 61 1:1 9-9-1 The frequency distribution of the ratios of the individual microscopic to the agar plate count is clearly indicated in Figure 3, prepared after the manner of A. H. Robertson?) Figure 3—Showing the {frequency distribution of the ratios of the individual microscopic to the agar plate cownts from forty-two samples of raw cream, plates incubated for three days at room temperature. aes A 6B -eofOtpQisia oye i spwinds Size of ratio, — ;: 1 pif bes J. K. MURRAY AND V. WESTON. The figure shows that the ratios of the total microscopic to the total agar count lie commonly between 1:1 and 3:1, the most frequent ratio being 2: 1. b. Ratio of the microscopic groups of less than four to the pinpoint colonies growing on agar.—In making the microscopic counts the groups of less than four were kept separate because it was thought that these groups might include the bulk of the Streptococcus lactis typeof bacteria. In the majority of creams this was apparently so, few rods or cocci of other types being found. There were, however, two creams exceptional in nature. They were numbers 2 and 39 shown in Table I; both contained a considerable - number of single rods—in cream No. 39 about one quarter of the less-than-four groups consisting of these bacteria. The ratio of the microscopic groups of less-than-four to the agar pinpoint colonies for the whole of the creams was 2:1. The “acidity group” variations from this figure are shown in Table III. This figure is of interest in view of the fact that the Streptococcus lactis type of organism commonly occurs in the diplo form. J. C. Baker, J. D. Brew and H. J. Conn,“) having inoculated a pasteurised skim milk low in bacteria with a culture of Streptococcus lactis, found the ratio of the individual microscopic to the plate count to be 1°8: 1. While pinpoint colonies were examined occasionally and proved to be typical of the common milk-souring organism, it is possible that some other than Streptococcus lactis colonies were included in the pinpoint colony count, par- ticularly in view of the period of incubation. c. Ratio of the total agar count to the agar pinpoint colonies.—This ratio averages 1°25:1. The counts on which the ratio is based are peculiar in that they do not show any marked increase in the percentage of pinpoint colonies at the higher acidities. BACTERIOLOGY AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CREAM. 273 Table LV.—Col/onies on Nutrient Agar pH = 7:0, expressed in millions per cc. of cream, Limits of titratable | Pinpoint colonies of | | Percentage that p in acidity expressed as the Streptococcus lactis) Total colonies | point colonies form lactic acid | type | of total count ! | 08 — 26% | 475 Shere 1 | 82°3 275 - 61 | 283-8 349-8 | 81+ There is, of course, a marked increase of both pinpoint and total colonies in the creams of higher acidity, but the proportion of pinpoint colonies does not materially alter in the two groups of creams. ‘This is contrary to expectation and may be explained by the fact that the method of incu- bation did not favour the other-than-pinpoint colonies. That there is a marked percentage increase in the content of the Streptococcus lactis type of bacteria in the higher acid creams is evidenced by details of microscopic counts which follow. d. Ratio of the total to the less than four groups in the microscopic count.—In Table V it will be noted that the percentage of organisms in groups of less than four in- creases from thiry-four in the case of the lower acid creams to eighty in creams of the higher acidities. Table V:.—Bacterial counts by the Brew and Breed microscopic method, micro-organisms expressed in millions per c.c. sen : | Percentage formed of Limits of titratable Present in groups of Total count of total count by groups acidity expressed as lesa thas il | h laehisracid ess than four all groups of less than four micro-organisms "08 -— :26% 129°6 327°5 39°5 J e— 0) 602°3 750°5 80°3 Comparison of H-ion concentration and titratable acidity of individual creams. As indicated, the determinations of H-ion concentration, expressed as pH, is for a diluted cream. The H-ion con- centration and titratable acidity figures do not run parallel, R—November 7, 1923. 274 J. K. MURRAY AND V. WESTON. a result which was to be expected from the well-known variation in the relative quantities of the organic acids present in cream fermentations. Table VI.—Corresponding Acidities expressed as lactic acid. pH* Individual Creams | Average Acidity | Minimum Acidity Maximum Acidity 4-8 | 48, 4-9 | +38, sik oa oe 5-0 | +51, -48, -495 -48 51 5-2 | +54, -54, -465, "42, 41. °4 1, “46 “4 "D4 5:3 | 475, °42, °36, "42 "36 "475 5-4 | +54, Bl, 495, “47, *45, 425, "Oa, “46 39 “D4 5-5 | +56, +45, -40, 37, 445 7 56 5°6 | °61, °34, 475 34 61 Df | con, "200; 30 275 32 D8 4°28, Aes 6-0 | +31, 6-5 | +32, +26, 12, ‘11, 20 ‘11 +32 6:6 | +24, +13, +12, 16 12 24 6-7 | 10, Bs Ea . 6:8 | +10, -08, -09 08 10 7-0 | -09, a * Cream five times diluted with conductivity water for measurements in this column, while numbers in other columns refer to undiluted creams. With creams diluted as described, the pH has not ex- ceeded 4°8 and the lowest H-ion concentration was pH = 70. If the acidity present were solely due to lactic acid, then a five times diluted cream of pH reading 5°4 would have an undiluted reading (calculated) of pH = 4°7. The relative amounts of individual organic acids present in cream vary with each fermentation and consequently preclude calculation of the undiluted hydrogen-ion concen- tration. Oreams with titratable acidities as different as °34 and °61% had the same pH. More remarkable, perhaps, is the BACTERIOLOGY AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CREAM. 275 fact that creams of ‘11 and °32% titratable acidity have the same pH; since at the lower acidity of ‘11% (ina cream derived from a Jersey herd) the amount of free organic acids which have resulted from fermentation must be very low. The highest titratable acidity was ‘61%; the cream was second-grade, contained the highest number of yeast-like cells (128 millions per c.c.) found in any sample, and con- tained 38% butter-fat. The lowest figure was °08 deter- mined in a cream derived from College milk and taken direct from the separator. A general relationship between pH readings and titrat- able acidity is shown in Figure 4. The average titratable acidities of creams whose pH readings are the same have been plotted. The average titratable acidity rises fairly regularly up to about °4%, when the graph becomes irregular, The considerable individual variation with creams of the game pH should not be lost sight of (Table VI). Comparison of Cream Grades and Titratable Acidity. Table VII.—TZable showing Cream Grades and Titratable Acidity expressed as Lactic Acid. Average | Average Grade Ae : Sis it ble} titratable Grade of Maric of Determinations of titratable acidity ex- asidity : acidity, Creams Creams pressed as percentage of lactic acid per grade| within a mark grade Choicest | 43 | -08, -09, -10 (2), -11 (2), -24,| -22 | -22 +26, +31, +32, 425, +45 First 42 | +12 (2), +13, -275, +28, »32, 36, | -37 -40, +465, +47 (2), 48, +495, ‘51 (2), +54 37 - 41 | +125, -24, 33, -37, 385. -42 31 35 40 "135, -41, °42, °48, °51, °56 1, Second 39 =| °38, °41, °54 “44 : 38 | +37, -42, -54, -61 48 37 | +34 34 |f 49 53 36 °45 °45 276 J. K. MURRAY AND V. WESTON, Figure 4.—Showing the average titratable acidity of creams whose pH reading is the same. 54 4% 03% 2% Average Titratable Acidity. 11% 7.0 i 6.0 2.0 4.0 pH Reading ( — log (H°) ) BACTERIOLOGY AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CREAM. 277 The table confirms the current opinion that there is no clearly defined relationship between acidity, as usually determined, and the quality grade of an individual cream. In particular instances, creams of as widely divergent acidities as °08 and °45% were of “‘Choicest ’’ quality, and °37 and °61% of ‘“‘Second’’ quality. In general, as indicated in the average for each grade, choicest creams are those in which little acidity has been formed; the average acidity of lower grade creams is higher than those of a better grade. In drawing conclusions from the figures it should be remembered that creams of high butter-fat percentage contain less of the other milk solids and of water than do those of lower butter-fat percentage. Oonsequently high butter-fat creams are poorer in the foodstuffs of the norm- ally predominant cream bacteria. In addition, owing to the lower water content, creams high in butter-fat require a lesser formation of acid to reach the same acid concen- tration in cream serum. Hydrogen Ion Concentration of Cream.—In Table I are given the Hydrogen-ion concentrations of the diluted cream samples, determinations being made by the method pre- viously described. Quite a number of factors influence the amounts of the proteins, and the proportions and composition of the mineral constituents present in cream, and these would have a marked effect on the H-ion concentration. Moreover, when it is remembered that the proportions of the various organic acids present in the cream vary with the types of micro-organisms predominating, or sharing in the fermen- tations, and that the dissociation constants of formic, acetic, butyric, lactic and other of these acids differ very considerably from each other, it is obvious that the pH of a cream is more closely related to the types of acids present 278 J. K. MURRAY AND V. WESTON. and their respective amounts than to the titratable acidity. Determinations of the amounts of the various acids present were not made and, consequently, it has not been possible to determine the pH of the undiluted samples. Since measurement of the pH might be indicative of the type of fermentation occurring, it was thought that there might be a correlation between pH and cream grade. This is apparently not so with individual creams as shown in the table below, but the average pH within a cream grade is. higher for higher quality creams. Table VIII.—TZable showing Cream Grade and Hydrogen Ion Concentrations. Grade Average Grade of Mar ot pH* Determinations pH” per ira Creams beg res pists in a grade: Choicest 43 | 7:0, 6:8 (3 samples), 6°7, 6°6, 6:4 6-4 6-5 (2), 6-0, 5°7, 5°4 (2) First 42 | 6°6(2), 6:5 (2), 5:8, 5:7, 5°5,| 5-6 5:4 (3), 53 (2), 5:2 (2), 5-0, 4:8 5-6 a. 41 | 5-4, 5-2 5°3 ‘ 40 | 6:5, 5-5, 5-2, 5-0 5:5 Second 39 | 04, 5°2, 4°9 5°2 =~ 38 D°6, 0:9, 9-3, De2 5:4 b4 bP) 37 5°6 5°6 36 || B25 5°5 * Determined from diluted cream; see notes concerning methods used. ‘** Streptococcus lacticus from milk was found’’ by O Svanberg”® “to have optimum growth between pH = 5°5: and pH = 6°4, and the growth rate decreased markedly when the acidity became lower.’’ Referring to Table IJ, it. will be seen that only one cream with a titratable acidity above °26% has a H-ion concentration lower than 6°4; and it was shown or page 273 that the increase in the groups. of less than four in the microscopic count was marked in creams having an acidity greater than that which cor- responds, as indicated above, to a pH of 6°4. Moreover, BACTERIOLOGY AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CREAM. 279 the creams with an acidity in excess of pH = 6°4 havea ratio of the microscopic to the plate count of about 2: 1 while those with an acidity less than that indicated by pH = 6°4 have aratioof5:1. These relations indicate the predominance of Streptococcus lacticus in the creams of higher H-ion concentration than pH = 6°4, presumably due to the increased absolute or comparative growth rate of this organism under such conditions of H-ion concentration, as found by Svanberg. Pasteurised Creams.—The results from the pasteurised creams are presented in the table given below: Table [X.—T able showing particulars of determinations made with pasteurised creams. : Agar plate count in millions per c.c. Titratable Grea gar p nm per c.c acidit i Sample | .,pressedas| PH* | grade | pinpoint | All other lactic acid ¥ marks colonies colonies Tota 101 ‘09 6-8 | 43 0:33 4:40 4:73 102 dl 6:8 1:70 | 26:90 | 28-60 103 ‘11 6-7 10°70 | 45°80.) 56-50 104 12 68], 1:87 5:93 7-80 105 13 Gp ree 1:67 | 25:80 | 27-47 106 13 Gm bie 3-70 | 24:30 | 28:00 107 14 6:6) eet 4:33 | 50-27 | 54:60 * Cream five times diluted with conductivity water. Counts of Micro-organisms.—The cream was obtained from a market milk depot, which separated its excess pasteurised milk. Microscopic Count.—From the work of HE. G. Hastings. and A. Davenport” it seems certain that the use of the direct microscopic count for pasteurised cream would not give reliable results. With reference to milk it is stated that ** [In the sixteen series of market milk counts tabulated, the post-pasteurisation counts vary from eighteen per cent. to eighty-three per cent. of the corresponding raw milk counts.’’ Microscopic counts of the creams were not. made. 280 J. K. MURRAY AND V. WESTON. Agar Plate Count.—The pinpoint colonies formed 11°7% of the total count. For creams from fresh milk some of the counts are high and indicate faulty pasteurisation or post-pasteurisation conditions, Titratable acidity, H-ion concentration and cream grade.—Considering the creams as a group the H-ion con- centration is lower for corresponding titratable acidities than the concentration at similar acidities in the case of raw creams. The number of pasteurised creams from which this conclusion is drawn are, however, few. All the pasteurised creams were of ‘“‘Ohoicest’’ grade while five out of the eleven graded raw creams with titra- table acidities below *14% (these acidities averaging slightly less than the pasteurised creams) were a cream grade lower, averaging 41 2/5 grade points. The writers of this paper wish to express their apprecia- tion of the assistance given by Professor OC. H. Fawsitt and Mr. Gilbert Wright, of the University of Sydney, and Messrs. Benjamin, MacGillivray, Dart and Scott of the Hawkesbury Agricultural College. Summary. (1) A comparison has been made of the individual micro- scopic count and the agar plate count of forty-two samples ofrawcream. In making the individual microscopic count separate details were kept of the bacteria occurring in groups of less than four, four to nineteen, twenty to forty- nine and fifty or more; yeast-like cells were counted separately but included in the total microscopic count. In plate counts pinpoint colonies of the Streptococcus lactis type were recorded separately from other colonies. Deter- minations of H-ion concentration (made according to a method suggested by Leon S. Medalia)“) have been com- pared with the titratable acidities and cream “‘grades.”’ BACTERIOLOGY AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIWS OF CREAM. 281 (2) The average individual microscopic count of the raw creams was 636 millions per c.c., and the average for the agar plate counts 283 millions per c.c. The highest indi- vidual microscopic count was 1198 millions per c.c. and the lowest 3°4 millions; the highest plate count, 634 millions per c.c., and the lowest 0°5 millions per c.c. (3) The average ratio of the individual microscopic to the agar plate count was 2°3: 1. With creams of acidity lying between the limits of ‘08 — °26% (expressed as lactic acid) the ratio was 5°7:1, and with creams of above an acidity of °26% the ratio was 2°1:1. The ratio of the less than four groups in the microscopic count to the pinpoint ‘colonies of the agar count was 2:1. Agar plates were incubated for three days at room temperature ina district whose mean annual temperature is 63°3° F. (17°4° C.) (4) Considerable differences of titratable acidity were found for a given H-ion concentration. The lowest H-ion concentration found in a five times diluted cream and -expressed as pH was pH = 7°0 and the highest pH = 4°8. (5) No individual relationship of cream ‘‘grade”’’ and -H-ion concentration was found. Literature Cited. 1. Witson, G. S.—Viable Bacteria in Young Cultures. Journal of Bacteriology, Vol. vi, No. 4, pp. 405 — 446, 1922. . Breep, R. S., and Dotrrerrer, W. D.—The Number of Colonies Allowable on Satisfactory Agar Plates. N.Y. Agr, Expt. Sta. Tech. Bul. 53, i916. 3. Harpine, H. A.—The Development of City Milk Supply Problems. Reprinted from Univ. Wis. Studies in Science, No. 2, pp. 41, 42. 4, Mepauia, L. S.—‘‘ Colour Standards” for the Colorimetric Measurement of H-ion Concentration pH 1-2 to pH 9°8, Journal of Bacteriology, Vol. v, No. 5, pp. 441 — 468, 1920. 5. Breep, R S., and Brew, J. D.—Counting Bacteria by Means of the Microscope. N.Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bul. 49, TOL. bo 282 6. 10. fd 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.. ie J. K. MURRAY AND V. WESTON. Conn, H. J.—An Investigation of American Stains. Report of Committee on Bacteriological Technique. Journal of Bacteriology, Vol. vi1, No. 1, pp. 127-148. . BREED, R.8., and Brew, J. D.—Control of Market Milk by Direct Microscopic Examination. N.Y. State Sta. Bul. 443, 1917. Abs. in Expt. Sta. Rec. Vol. xxx1x, pp. 383, 384, 1918. . MacInyes, L. T., and Ranpeut, H. H.—Dairy Produce- Factory Premises and Manufacturing Processes; the appli- cation of Scientific Methods to their Examination. Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., Vol. xxx, p. 259 e¢ seq. . Conn and Esten—The Ripening of Cream. Storr’s Agr.. Expt. Sta. Rpt., 1900, p. 13; quoted in Dairy Bacteriology,. Orla-Jensen. BREED, R.S8., and Stocking, W. A.—The Accuracy of Bac- terial Counts from Milk Samples. N.Y. Agr. Expt. Sta... Tech. Bul. 75, 1920. SHERMAN, J. M. and AtsBus, W. R.—Physiological Youth in Bacteria. Journal of Bacteriology, Vol. vit1, No. 2, pp. 127 — 138. HEINEMANN, P. G.—Relation of the Numbers of Streptococcus: lacticus to the Amount of Acid Formed in Milk or Cream. Abs. in Expt. Sta. Rec., Vol. xxx111, p. 675, 1915. Rosertson, A. H.—The Relation between Bacterial Counts. from Milk as obtained by the Microscopic and Plate: Methods. N.Y. Agr. Expt. Sta, Tech. Bul. 86, 1921. Brew, J. D., and Dotrerrer, W. D.—The Number of Bac-. teria in Milk. N.Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 349, 1917. Baker, J.O., Brew, J. D., and Conn, H.J.— Relation between. Lactic Acid Production and Bacterial Growth in the Sour- ing of Milk. N.Y. Sta. Tech. Bul. 74, 1919. Abs. in: Expt. Sta. Rec., Vol. xi, p. 681. SVANBERG, O.—On the Rate of Growth of Lactic Acid Bacteria at Different H-ion Concentrations. Hoppe-Seyler’s Ztschr. Physiol. Chem. 108 (1909), No. 3, pp. 120-146. Abs. in Expt. Sta. Rec., Vol. xuiv, p. 272, 1921. Hastines, E. G., and DAvENporT, A.—The Effect of Pasteuri-. sation on the Number of Bacteria in Milk when this is. determined by the Direct Microscopic Count. Journal of Dairy Science, 111, No. 6, pp. 494-501. Abs. in Expt. Sta. Rec., Vol. xuiv, p. 675, 1921. | ACACIA SEEDLINGS. O8o: ACACIA SEEDLINGS, Part IX. By R. H. CAMBAGE, F.L.S. [With Plates XVI - XIX.] [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, December 5, 1923. ] SYNOPSIS: VITALITY OF SEEDS IN SEA-WATER. SEQUENCE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF LEAVES. PERIOD BETWEEN FLowER Bubs AND FLOWERS. NuMBER OF PINNE ON ONE LEAF. DESCRIPTION OF SEEDLINGS. Vitality of Seeds in Sea-Water. A seed of Acacia penninervis var. falciformis from Jenolan Caves germinated when placed in boiling water and planted after having been immersed in sea-water for six years. This probably constitutes a record for this. experiment. I have previously recorded a seed of A. melanoxylon having germinated after five years in sea-water (Part VIII, p. 130), and a seed of A. Farnesiana after three and three quarter years (Part IV, p. 410), and now record a seed of A. podalyricefolia having germinated after having been four years in sea-water. Sequence in the Development of Leaves. In Part VIII (p. 130), it was mentioned that 104 species of Acacia had been found to commence in nearly every case with one simply pinnate leaf, while 17 had an opposite pair. The following eight may be added to the former list, which brings the total to 112:—A. anceps DO., A. Burrowi Maiden, A. humifusa A. Cunn., A. horrida Willd. (Africa), A. pseudeburnea (India), A. sericata A. Cunn., A. siculi- formis A. Cunn., A. viscosa Schrad. 284 R. H. CAMBAGE. To the 17 species commonly having an opposite pair of simply pinnate leaves the following four may be added:— A. Gilberti Meissn., A. leptopetala Benth., A. pentadenia Lindl., A. pulchella R. Br., making the total 21. Period between Flower-Buds and Flowers. Observations were made to ascertain the period between the time the flower-buds appear and when the plant is flowering. From the following list it may be seen that in some species the period is as much as nine months. These periods may fluctuate to the extent of a few weeks in different individuals under varying conditions. Date of Mlowarbude: Date of Flowering. Acacia Species. accola ... November July and August asparagoides ... wae, OO. June and July aspera ... ne vib pa Os August Baileyana se ae.) Oe July pycnantha uy te (AOe August cardiophylla ... December August cultriformis ... sear se CeCe September crassiuscula ... saad pss August decora ... ses seas ta RELOs August diffusa ... aA ian 1 Os June and July elongata... sia ses) re Os August flexifolia... ae son SOR July and August neriifolia vee geen August and September Tigens ... a sae =O). June and July rubida ... Lae i360 HOMO: August polybotrya 6] dow -edOs August spectabilis aie mies 24) Oe July and August amblygona .. January June and July decurrens var. normalis do. August doratoxylon do. September lineata do. August podalyricefolia ... do. June conferta... .. HKebruary April homalophylla .. April September ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 285: Number of Pinnz on One Leaf. In addition to those phyllodineous Acacias already recorded as having more than one pair of pinnee on one leaf (Part VIII, p. 131), A. melanoxylon may have ten pairs. Description of Seedlings. PUNGENTES—(Uninerves). ACACIA SICULIFORMIS A. OCunn. Seeds from Haglehawk Neck, Tasmania (Miss M. F. Oambage). (Plate XVI, Numbers 1 to 3), Seeds brownish-black, oblong to oblong-oval, 3 to 4 mm. long, 2 to 2°5 mm. broad, about 1°5 mm. thick. Hypocotyl terete, pink above soil, spreading into a flange at base, 1 to 1°3 cm. long, about 1°7 mm. thick at base, 1 mm. at apex. Cotyledons sessile, oblong-oval, 4 to 4°55 mm. long, 2°5 to: 3 mm. broad, upper side green to greenish-red, underside red, often with a raised longitudinal line. Stem at first slightly angular, becoming terete, green, glabrous. First internode ‘> mm.; second to fifteenth °5 to [ mm. Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 2 to 3 mm., green, glabrous; leaflets three to four pairs, oblong-acum- inate, 2 to 3 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside very slightly paler; rachis 4 to 5 mm., with terminal seta; stipules reduced to scales. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 3 to 5 mm., glabrous, with terminal seta; leaflets three to four pairs, oblong- acuminate, the terminal pair sometimes obovate, 1°5 to 3 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, upperside green; rachis 4 to 6 mm., with terminal seta; stipules reduced to scales. Nos. 3 to 7. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 4 to 8 mm., glabrous; leaflets three to five pairs; rachis 4 to 8 mm. 286 R. H. CAMBAGE. Nos, 8 to 10. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly bipin- nate, petiole 5 to6 mm., witha strong nerve near the lower margin, dilated above to nearly 1 mm. broad; leaflets four pairs. Nos. 11 to 30. Linear, rigid, pungent pointed phyllodes, o to 8 mm. long, about 1 mm. broad, the midrib just below the centre of the lamina. On plants six inches high the phyllodes may be 1 cm. long, 2°5 mm. broad, sometimes slightly recurved. CALAMIFORMES—(Uninerves). ACACIA EXTENSA Lindl. Seeds from Western Australia (EK. K. Pescott). (Plate XVI, Numbers 4 to 6). Seeds brownish-black, oblong, apex rounded, to oblong- oval, 4to5mm. long, about 2 mm. broad, 1 to1°5 mm. thick. Hypocotyl terete, brownish-red above soil, 1 to 1°8 cm. long, about 1°3 mm. thick at base, about 1 mm. at apex.’ Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong, apex rounded, 5mm, long, 2 mm. broad, upperside dark brown to brownish-red, underside pale brownish-red, remaining erect and soon falling. Stem angular, green, glabrous. First internode ‘5mm,; . second to fourth °5 to1 mm.,; fifth 1 to2 mm.; sixth and seventh 1 to 6 mm.; eighth 2 to 8 mm. Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, forming an opposite pair, petiole 3 mm. to 1°6 cm., sometimes with a faint gland, green, glabrous; leaflets two pairs, oblong-acuminate to almost oval, 4 to 7 mm. long, 1°5 to 4 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale pink; rachis 2 to 3 mm., with terminal seta; stipules reduced to scales. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1 to 2°8 chh., usually with small gland, glabrous, with terminal seta; leaflets two to three pairs, oblong-acuminate to obovate, 3 to5 mm. ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 287 long, 1°5to3 mm. broad, upperside green, underside paler; rachis 5 mm. to 1°1 cm.; stipules reduced to scales. Nos. 3to 5. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1°3 to 4°2 cm., usually with gland; leaflets two to three pairs; rachisOmm., to 1‘l1 cm. No. 4 may be 1, and No. 5 upto 1°5 mm. broad. In one case No. 4 appeared as an apparent tripinnate leaf, but with a terminal seta on each side of the base of the central pinna; an unusual occurrence. Nos. 6 and 7. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly bipin- nate, petiole 2 to 2°8 cm., usually with gland, dilated up to 2°5 mm. broad, the midrib below the centre of the lamina; leaflets three to four pairs. When Nos. 6 and 7 occur as phyllodes they may be up to 6 cm. long, and 4 mm. broad, tapering towards the base, midrib distinct, mucronate, with recurved point. Nos. 8 to 10. Linear phyllodes, slightly rigid, but not as much so as subsequent ones, 2°5 to 8°5 cm. long, 1 to 3 mm. broad. The early phyllodes are flatter and propor- tionately broader than later ones. UNINERVES—(Triangulares). ACACIA HASTULATA Sm. Seeds from Western Australia (EK. EH. Pescott). (Plate XVI, Numbers 7 to 9). Seeds pale brown, oblong, 2°5to3 mm. long, 1 mm. broad, about °8 to 1 mm. thick. Hypocotyl terete, green, mm. tol cm. long, 1 mm. thick at base, about °8 mm. at apex. Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong, apex rounded, 4 to 4°5 mm. long, 1°5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside paler, sometimes remaining until the phyllodes appear. Stem terete, green, pilose. First internode ‘5 mm.,; second to eighth °5 to 1 mm. 288 Rk. H. CAMBAGE. Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 3 to 6 mm., green, glabrous; leaflets two pairs, oblong-acuminate to obovate, 2 to 3 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, upperside green; rachis 2 mm. with terminal seta; stipules small, linear. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 4 mm. to 1°1 cm.,. with terminal seta; leaflets one to two pairs, oblong- acuminate to obovate, 1°5 to3 mm. long, 1 to2 mm. broad; rachis 2 to 5 mm. Nos. 3 to 5. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 4 to 9 mm.; leaflets two to three pairs; rachis 2 to 5 mm.; stipules linear, 1 mm. One No. 3 leaf developed as an abnormal tripinnate leaf, having the basal pair of leaflets transformed into a pair of pinnee, while the other or apical pair of leaflets remained intact. Nos. 6 to 8. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly bipin- nate, petiole 7 to 9mm., sometimes dilated to °5 mm. broad; leaflets two to three pairs. Nos. 9 to 15. MHastate-lanceolate phyllodes, tapering into a pungent point, 3 to 4 mm. long, the midrib conspicu- ous and situated just below the centre of the lamina, the upper margin angular and usually bearing a gland. The young plants bifurcate at an early stage. UNINERVES—(Brevifoliz). ACACIA ACINACEA Lindl. Seeds from Melbourne Botanic Gardens (Cultivated). (Plate XVI. Numbers 10 to 12). Seeds black, oblong to oblong-oval, about 4 mm. long, 2 mm. broad, 1°5 mm. thick. Hypocotyl terete, pinkish-green above soil, 1°3 to 1°8 cm. long, 1 mm. thick at base, about °8 mm. at apex. _ ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 289: Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong, apex rounded, 5 mm. long, 2°5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green. Stem terete, green, glabrous. First internode °5 mm. second 1 to2 mm.; third and fourth 2 to5 mm.; fifth to ninth 3 mm. to 1°3 cm. Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 3 to 6 mm., green, glabrous; leaflets two pairs, oblong-acuminate to obovate, 3 to6 mm. long, 2 to 4 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green; rachis 2 to 3 mm., with terminal seta. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 5 to 8 mm., green, glabrous, with terminal seta; leaflets two pairs, oblong- acuminate to obovate, mucronate, 3 to 6 mm. long, 1°5 to 2°> mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green, venation distinct on underside; rachis 4 to 6 mm., with terminal seta. Nos.3to5. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 6 mm. to 1°2cm., glabrous; leaflets two to four pairs; rachis 5mm. to 1°2 cm. Nos. 6 to 8. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 7 mm. to 1°3 cm., that of No. 8 being sometimes 1°5 mm. broad; leaflets three to five pairs; rachis 7 mm. to 1°4 cm. Nos. 9 to 15. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly bipin- nate, petiole 7 mm. to 1°3 cm. long, upto 3 mm. broad, with a strong nerve along or near the lower margin; leaflets four to five pairs; rachis 8 mm. to 1°1 cm. Nos. 16 to 20. Obliquely oblong or slightly falcate phyllodes, 1 to 1°5 cm. long, up to4mm. broad, often with a small marginal gland, midrib distinct and terminating below the centre, obtuse, with a small recurved point. UNINERVES—(Angustifoliz). Acacia viscosa Schrad. South Australia (Dr. R. H. Pulleine per J. H. Maiden). (Plate XVII, Numbers 1 to 3). S—December 5, 1923. 290 R. H. CAMBAGE. Seeds shiny black, oblong, 5 to 5°5 mm. long, about 2 to 2°5 mm. broad, 1 to 1°5 mm. thick. Hypocotyl terete, 1 to 1°8 cm. long, about 1°3 mm. thick at base, about °8 mm. at apex. Cotyledons sessile, sagittate, oblong, apex rounded, 6 to 7 mm. long, 2 to 2°5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green to reddish-green, with raised centre line, some- times remaining until the phyllodes appear. Stem terete, green to brownish-green; glabrous. First internode ‘5 mm.; second °5 to 1 mm.; third and fourth °5 to 5 mm.; fifth to eighth 2 to 8 mm. Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 2 to 5 mm., reddish-green, glabrous; leaflets three to four pairs, oblong- acuminate, apical pair often obovate, 3 to 5 mm. long, 2 to 2°5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale to reddish- green; rachis 3 to 5 mm., with terminal seta; stipules reduced to scales. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 7 to 9 mm., green, glabrous to pilose, with terminal seta; leaflets three pairs, oblong-acuminate, apical pair often obovate, usually mucro- nate, 2 to 4 mm. long, 1°5 to 2 mm. broad, upperside green; rachis 5 to 6 mm., with terminal seta; stipules reduced to scales. Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 7 mm. to 1°3 m.; leaflets three to five pairs; rachis 4 to 8 mm. No. 5. This may be a phyllode, or abruptly bipinnate, petiole 8 mm. to1°6 cm., sometimes dilated to 2 mm. broad, midrib slightly below centre of lamina; leaflets two to five pairs; rachis 5 to 6 mm. Nos.6to10. Lanceolate phyllodes, with recurved point, 2 to 3'5 cm. long, 3 to 6 mm. broad, tapering very much towards the base, often with small gland on upper margin, resinous, with distinct midrib, often with a second. and ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 291 finer vein above and extending about half the length of the blade but rarely traceable almost to theend, This feature also occurs in seedlings of A. stricta,* though the mature leaves have but one nerve. UNINERVES—(Racemos2). ACACIA SUBCHRULEA Lindl. Western Australia (Cultivated Centennial Park, Sydney, J. H. Maiden). (Plate XVII, Numbers 4 to 6). Seeds brown, oval, 4mm. long, 3 mm. broad, 1°5 mm. thick. | Hypocotyl terete, pale to brownish-red and red, spread- ing into flange at root, 1°3 to 2 cm. long, 1 mm. thick at base, about °7 mm. at apex. Cotyledons sessile, slightly auricled, oval-oblong, 5 to 6 mm. long, 3°5 mm. broad, upperside at first yellowish- green, becoming green, underside reddish-brown, with one or two raised lines. Stem at first angular, becoming terete in the lower por- tion, reddish in lower portion, greyish-green in upper por- tion, glabrous. First internode *5 mm.; second °5 to 1 mm,; third 1 to 2 mm.; fourth to ninth 1 mm. to 1°3 cm. Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 3 to 5 mm., red, glabrous; leaflets three to four pairs, oblong-acuminate, the apical pair obovate to obliquely oval, 4 to 6 mm. long, 1°5 to 3 mm. broad, midrib distinct, upperside green, under- side pale red, margins red; rachis 6 to8 mm., greenish-red, glabrous, with terminal seta; stipules reduced to scales. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 5 to 8 mm., red, glabrous, with terminal seta; leaflets three to four pairs, 2 to 4 mm. long, 1 to 2 broad, oblong to obovate, the apical pair usually obovate, the pinna often lyrate, upperside ? This Journal, Vol. ut, 150, (1916). 292: R. H. CAMBAGE. green, underside reddish-green to red; rachis 6 to 8 mm., red, with terminal seta; stipules reduced to scales. Nos. 3 to 6. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 5 mm. to 3°1 cm., sometimes dilated to 5 mm. broad in the case of No. 6,. often red, glabrous; leaflets three to six pairs, chiefly obovate, and in the case of No. 4 may be from 2 to 7 mm. long, and 1 to 4 mm. broad; rachis 6 mm. to 2°2 cm. Nos.7and8. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly bipin- nate, petiole 1°1 to 2°5 cm., sometimes dilated to 6 mm. broad, midrib distinct; leaflets four to five pairs; rachis. about 8 mm. Nos. 9 to 12. Lanceolate phyllodes, up to 4 cm. long, 7 mm. broad, mucronate, slightly glaucous. PLURINERVES—(Armatzee). ACACIA UROPHYLLA Benth. Western Australia (KE. H. Pescott). (Plate XVII, Numbers 7 to 9). Seeds shiny black, oblong to oblong-oval, 3 mm. long, 1°5 mm. broad, about 1 mm. thick. Hypocotyl terete, pinkish-green, suddenly constricted above the soil, 1 to 2 cm. long, 1 mm. thick at base, about. *> mm. at apex. Cotyledons sessile, oblong, apex rounded, 3°5 mm. long, 1°5 mm, broad, upperside light green, underside yellowish- green, remaining erect and soon falling. Stem angular, pilose to hirsute, brownish-green. First. internode °5 mm.; second about 1 mm.; third and fourth 1 to3mm.; fifth and sixth 1 to7 mm.; seventh to ninth 4mm. tol1cm. Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, forming an opposite pair, petiole 2 to3 mm. often channelled above, green, glabrous; leaflets two pairs, oblong-acuminate, 4 to 5°5 mm. long, 1°5 to 2°5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green; rachis 2 mm., with terminal seta; stipules small. ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 293 Nos. 2 to 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 3 mm. to 1°1 cm., sometimes with a small gland in the cases of Nos. 3 and 4, with terminal seta; leaflets three to five pairs, oblong- acuminate to oblong-oval to obovate, 3 to8 mm. long, 1°5 to 4 mm. broad; rachis 4 mm. to 1°1 cm.; stipules small. Nos. 5 to 9. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly bipin- nate, petiole 5 mm. to 1°6 cm., often with small gland, pilose, dilated in the case of No. 9 to 1°5 mm., with strong nerve along lower margin, the upper margin nerve-like; leaflets four to five pairs; rachis 4mm. to 1°7 cm.; stipules 1 to3 mm. Nos. 10 to 12. Ovate phyllodes, with two strong nerves confluent at the base and almost so at the apex, and with a third nerve above, extending to nearly the middle of the phyllode. The transition from leaf to phyllode is usually very sudden in this species, and leaf No. 6 may have a petiole less than ‘5 mm. broad, while No. 7 may be a phyllode 1°5 cm. broad. PLURINERVES—(Falcatz). Acacia BURROWI Maiden. Seeds from Hidsvold, Queens- land (Dr. T. L. Bancroft per J. H. Maiden). (Plate XVIII, Numbers 1 to 3). Seeds shiny black, oblong, 5 to 6 mm. long, 2 to 2°5 mm. broad, 1 to 1°5 mm. thick. Hypocotyl terete, pink to brownish-red above soil, 1°7 to 2°9 cm. long, 1°5 mm. thick at base, about °7 to °8 mm. thick at apex, spreading into a flange at base. | Cotyledons auricled, oblong, 7 mm. long, 2°5 mm. broad, upperside green to greenish-red, underside greenish-red to red, with one or more raised lines and protuberances. — * This Journal, Vol. wii, 227, (1919). 294 k. H. CAMBAGE. | Stem terete, brownish-green, hirsute to pubescent. First internode °5 mm.; second and third °5 to1 mm.; fourth and fifth 2 to 3 mm.; sixth to eighth 3 mm. to1 cm, : Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 3 to 7 mm.,. brownish-red, pilose to hirsute; leaflets two to three pairs, oblong-acuminate, 5 to 8 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm. broad, the apical pair usually smallest, midrib prominent on both sides,. upperside at first greenish-red, becoming green, underside deep red, margins sometimes ciliate; rachis 3 to 7 mm., pilose, with terminal seta; stipules small, acuminate. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 8 mm. to 1°3 cm., pilose, with terminal seta; leaflets two to three pairs, obliquely oblong-acuminate, 2 to 5 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside greenish-red, margins. red, mucronate; rachis 4 to 7 mm., pilose; stipules about 1 mm. long. Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 7 mm. to 1°6. cm., sometimes slightly dilated up to 1 mm. broad, and showing a strong nerve along the lower margin and one or two very fine veins above, pilose; leaflets three to five pairs, slightly smaller than those of No. 2, underside some- times reddish-green; rachis 4 to 9 mm. Nos. 5 and 6. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly bi- pinnate, petiole 2°4 to 3°5 cm., sometimes dilated to 5 mm. broad, tapering at both ends and especially towards the base, the lamina being divided into three almost equal parts. by two nerves, the lower one the more prominent, the rest. of the blade being finely striate with parallel veins, the margins ciliate; leaflets five to six pairs; rachis 8 mm. to 1 cm. Nos. 7 to 9. Narrow lanceolate, slightly falcate phyl- lodes, up to about 5 cm. long and 7 mm. broad, finely striate with parallel veins and three fairly prominent nerves, the ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 295 centre one the most definite and apparently corresponding with the lower nerve of Nos. 3 and 4, margins slightly ciliate. BIPINNATH—(Pulchelle), ACACIA PULCHELLA R.Br. Seeds from. Western Australia (EK. E. Pescott). (Plate XVIII, Numbers 4 to 6). Seeds shiny brown, obovate to oval, 2 mm. long, 1 mm. broad, 1 mm. thick. Hypocotyl terete, reddish-brown to red above soil, 1°5 to 3°5 cm. long, 1 mm. thick at base, about °5 mm. at apex. Cotyledons sessile, oblong to oblong-obovate, 2°5 to3 mm. long, 1 to 1°5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green to reddish-brown, soon falling. Stem green, pilose to hirsute. First internode °> mm.; second 1 to5 mm.; third 2to3 mm.; fourth to sixth 2 mm. to 1 cm.; eighth to tenth 4 mm. to 1°2 cm. Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, forming an opposite pair, petiole 2 to5 mm., green, glabrous; leaflets two pairs, linear, oblong-acuminate, 3 to 5mm. long, 1 mm. broad, upperside sometimes at first reddish-green, becoming green, underside pale green to reddish-brown; rachis 1 to 2 mm., with terminal seta; stipules small. Nos. 2 and 3. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 5 to 9 mm., glabrous to pilose, with terminal seta; leaflets three to four pairs, oblong, the apical pair sometimes obovate, 2 to3 mm. long, 1 to 1°5 mm. broad; rachis 3 to4mm., with terminal seta; stipules linear, 1 mm. long. Nos.4to8. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 5 mm. to 1°4cm., glabrous to pilose and hirsute, with terminal seta up to 1 mm. long; leaflets four to seven pairs; rachis 5 to 8 mm., glabrous to pilose. Nos. 9to11. Abruptly bipinnate, with only one pair of pinne, petiole 4 to 8 mm.; leaflets four to seven pairs; 296 © R. H. CAMBAGE. rachis 6 mm. to 1 cm.; an axillary spine may appear with Nos. 9 and 11. Nos. 12 to 14. Abruptly bipinnate, with one pair of pinnee, petiole 1 to 4 and rarely 6 mm.; leaflets 5 to 7 pairs; rachis 7 mm. to1cm.; sometimes with axillary spine. Nos. 15 and 16. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole ‘5 to rarely 3 mm., leaflets six and seven pairs; rachis 6 to 9 mm. Nos. 17 to 25. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole usually less than 1 mm.; axillary spines up to 8 mm., light reddish, sometimes in pairs. It is remarkable that the length of the petiole diminishes rapidly after leaf about No. 10 is passed, and after leaf No. 16 the petiole is so short that without care a bipinnate leaf might be mistaken for an opposite pair of simply pinnate leaves. The stems of two seedlings recently sent to me by Mr. W. M. Carne from Mount Henry, Canning River, Western Australia, are hirsute to pubescent, petioles and rachises hirsute, the margins and the undersides of midribs of leaf- lets sprinkled with hairs. BIPINNATH—(Pulchelle). ACACIA PENTADENIA Lindl. Seeds from Western Australia (EK. EK. Pescott). (Plate XIX, Numbers 1 to 3). Seeds shiny light brown, oblong to oblong-oval, about 3 mu. long, 1°5 to 2 mm, broad, 1 mm, thick. Hypocotyl terete, dark purple above soil, 1°6 to 3°3 cm. long, 1 mm. thick at base, about ‘6 mm. at apex, spreading into flange at base. Cotyledons sessile, slightl y auricled, oblong, apex rounded, 4mm. long, 2 mm. broad, remaining vertical, upperside green underside purple. ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 297 Stem at first angular, becoming terete, green, glabrous. First internode ‘5 mm.; second to fourth 4 mm, to 1 cm.,; fifth to eighth 4 mm. to 1°4 cm. Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, forming an opposite pair, petiole 4to5 mm., green, glabrous; leaflets two pairs, -oblong-acuminate, 3 to 5 mm. long, 1 to 1°5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside paler; rachis 1 to 2 mm., with terminal seta. No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole about 7 mm., pilose, with terminal seta; leaflets four to five pairs, oblong- acuminate, the apical pair obovate, 2 to5 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad; racbis 7 to 9 mm. Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 3 to 6 mm., often with gland on upper margin, pilose; leaflets six to eight pairs in the case of No. 3, eight to thirteen pairs in No. 4; rachis 9 mm. to 2 cm. Nos. 5 and 6. Abruptly bipinnate, with one or two pairs -of pinnee in the case of No. 5, two to three pairs in the case of No. 6, petiole 4to 7 mm. where there is only one pair of pinnee, where there are two or three pairs the common petiole may be 9 mm. to 1°7 cm., with gland at base of -each pair of pinne, pilose; leaflets eleven to twenty pairs; longest pinnee 1°5 to 3°5 cm. Nos. 7 and 8. Abruptly bipinnate, with two to five pairs of pinnee, the basal pair small, common petiole 8 mm. to -2°2 cm., with gland at base of each pair of pinnee, glabrous to pilose; leaflets up to from seventeen to twenty-six pairs, -oblong-acuminate to ovate; pinna 2°5 to 3°8 cm. On a plant fifteen inches high are leaves with seven pairs of pinnee, including the short basal pair, and up to twenty-nine pairs of ovate leaflets on one pinna; common petiole up to 7 cm., length of pinna up to6 and 7 cm.; two ‘to five pairs of leaflets on basal pair of pinne. 298 R. H. CAMBAGE. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Piuate XVI. Acacia siculiformis A. Cunn, 1, Cotyledons. Eaglehawk Neck, Tasmania, (Miss M. KF. Cambage). | 2. Pinnate leaf (detached), bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. 3. Pod and seeds. Acacia extensa, Lindl. 4. Cotyledons and tips of opposite pair of pinnate leaves. Western Australia, (E. E. Pescott). | 5. Opposite pair of pinnate leaves, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. 6. Seeds. Acacia hastulata, Sm. “I . Cotyledons and pinnate leaf. Western Australia, (KE. E. Pescott). 8. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves, phyllodes and root nodules. 9. Seeds. Acacia acinacea, Lindl. 10. Cotyledons and pinnate leaf. Melbourne Botanic Gardens,. (Cultivated). 11. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. 12. Pod and seeds. Puate XVII. Acacia vicosa, Schrad. 1. Cotyledons. South Australia, (Dr. R. H. Pulleine). 2. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. 3. Seeds. Acacia subcerulea, Lindl. 4, Cotyledons and pinnate leaf. Western Australia, (Cultivated,, Centennial Park, Sydney, J. H. Maiden). 5. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. 6. Pod and seeds. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LVIT., 1923. Plate XVI. ‘ oN ‘ : : Acacia iculiformis (1-3); A. extensa (4-6); A. hastulata (7 - 9) A, acinacea (10-12). Two-thirds Natural Size. \ oe Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LVI, 1923. Plate XVII. ee | Acacia viscosa (1—3); A. subcerulea (4-6); A. wrophylla (7 —9). Four-fifths Natural Size. oy Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LVIT., 1923, Plate XVIII, Acacia Burrowi (1-3); A. pulchella (4 - 6). Four-fifths Natural Size. “ is : . ‘ a) iP nN ‘ ~S = ae } ‘ e Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LVIL., 1928. Plate XIX. Acacia pentadenia. Nearly Three-fourths Natural Size. ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 299 Acacia urophylla, Benth. . Cotyledons and opposite pair of pinnate leaves. Western Australia, (E. E. Pescott). 8. Opposite pair of pinnate leaves, bipinnate leaves and'phyllodes. Seeds. Pratt XVIII. Acacia Burrow1, Maiden. . Cotyledons. Hidsvold, Queensland, (Dr. T.jL. Bancroft, per J, H. Maiden). . Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. 3, Seeds. Acacia pulchella, R. Br. . Cotyledons and opposite pair of pinnate leaves. Western Australia, (EK, E. Pescott). . Opposite pair of pinnate leaves, bipinnate leaves,and phyllodes. . Pod and Seeds. PuatTeE XIX, Acacia pentadenia, Lindl. . Cotyledons and opposite pair of pinnate leaves. Western Australia, (E. E. Pescott). . Opposite pair of pinnate leaves, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. . Seeds. 300 A. R. PENFOLD. THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF BACKHOUSIA ANGUSTIFOLIA, Parr I. By A. R. PENFOLD, F.C.S., Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, December 5, 1923. ] THE botany of this small myrtaceous tree is fully described in Bentham’s ‘‘Flora Australiensis,’’ Vol. 111, page 270. It iS a very pretty tree found only in the State of Queensland, fairly widely distributed, but abundant along the Dawson River and around Hidsvold. The investigation of its essential oil was undertaken at the suggestion of Dr. T. L. Bancroft of Hidsvold, Queensland, who kindly furnished at his own expense the excellent supplies of material required for its examination. This gentleman desired a knowledge of its commercial possibilities, but, so far, the author has not been able to suggest a means of utilisation. On account of the essential oil containing about 757% of a previously undescribed phenolic body of poor germicidal value the difficulty of finding an outlet for its commercial utilisation has been further increased. It is not improbable, however, that at a future date it will find use in pharma- cology, and experiments are now being instituted in that direction. The Essential Qil. The oil obtained by steam distillation from the leaves and terminal branchlets was heavier than water, highly refracting, of a bright brownish orange colour, with a peculiarily characteristic, but pleasant odour. As already stated the principal material used in the investigation was obtained from WHidsvold, Queensland, 585 Ibs. of dried ESSENTIAL OIL OF BACKHOUSIA ANGUSTIFOLIA. 301t material, containing 12% moisture, cut as for commercial distillation, yielded 1°05% oil. - Through the courtesy of Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.R.s. (Director of the Botanic Gardens and Government Botanist, Sydney) the author was enabled to examine the essential oil of a cultivated tree growing in the Botanic Gardens, Sydney, with very interesting results. A collection of leaves when freshly cut and distilled in November 1922 yielded 0°54% of bright yellow oil, heavier than water, and containing 607% phenol, whilst a second collection made from the same tree in September 1923 yielded only 0°23% of oil lighter than water and containing only 267% phenol. The variation was probably due not so much to the period of the year, but to the dry spell of weather experienced between the months named. The principal constituent was found to be an undescribed phenolic compound present to the extent of 75%, the remainder consisting of dextro-alpha-pinene, (-pinene, cineol, alcoholic bodies (alpha terpineol identified) sesqui- terpene, and a stearoptene (probably a lactone) of melting point 118—119° CO. The principal component is undoubtedly a very remark- able body, and one which at present is very difficult to place on account of its peculiar chemical deportment. Its chemistry is being fully investigated, as time permits, and as it appears to be a representative of the group of essential oil constituents to which Tasmanol* and Leptospermol?’ belong, a complete investigation of these two bodies is being carried out in conjunction therewith. A careful consideration, however, of its general behaviour so far observed leads the author to classify it tentatively as a phenol. ' This Journal, Vol. xuvit, p. 518. 7” Same Journal, Vol. xv, p. 49. 302 A. R. PENFOLD. Experimental. A total of 6405 tbs. of leaves and terminal branchlets, cut as for commercial purpose, yielded on distillation with Steam, crude oils possessing the chemical and physical characters shown in table:— Date. Locality. bs re Yield of Oil. are opie 150 C o10on. 27/11/1922 | Eidsvold, Q.|289 tbs. | 101% | 1-0414 | +1:55° 7/9/1923 ditto 296 ibs. 1:08 | 1:0272 + ‘0° (moisture re content ) both lots, 2 7.) Cultivated Material. 20/11/1922 | BotanicGar-| 284 ibs. 0°54 | 1:0042 - {2° dens, Sydney 10/9/1923 ditto 27 ibs. 0:237 | 0-9500 +0:°6° (leaves fresh, dis- tilled as soon as cut). ; es ee f Ester No. Eee a ace sc.| ‘rz aleohol, |4¢4N| coia ) Hot | acetylation| Contents 12 hours. | 14 hours.| 14 hrs. hot. 1:5086 | 1 in 1 vols. | 203:05) 203°55|216°64 | 225°71 | 75% gL hese pie aaa oe (2 198-30; 198°60/207-:09 | 254°14 | 757 1:4886 jiohie cls Le nen a) (L8T15 | 2iSe hs angie. 1:4790 eat os oe Bs skis 267% Fractional Steam Distillation.—An interesting example of fractional steam distillation direct from plant material was observed in the examination of the small collection of leaves of the cultivated tree from the Botanic Gardens, Sydney, as exemplified in the following table:— 28°5 Ibs. of leaves yielded 33 grams of oil heavier than water, and 37 grams lighter than water, a total of 70 grams. ESSENTIAL OIL OF BACKHOUSIA ANGUSTIFOLIA. 303 Light Oil. Heavy Oil. Specific gravity, t° O. 0°9795 1°0355 Optical rotation — 0°85" -1°6° Refractive index,20°O. 1°4808 1°4991 Solubility in 70% alcohol 1in1‘1 vols. 1 in 1°4 vols. Phenol contents 44% 807, The investigation of the crude oil was best conducted by first resolving it into ‘‘phenol’’ and “‘non-phenol”’ portions by means of 8% sodium hydroxide solution, the Queensland oil being used throughout the investigation :— Sample, 27/11/1922.—500 c.c. crude oil were shaken with 1500 c.c. 8% sodium hydroxide solution, and the unabsorbed oil, 140 c.c. separated. Sample, 7/9/1923.—1000 c.c. crude oil on similar treat- ment with 2000 c.c. 8% sodium hydroxide solution yielded 305 c.c. unabsorbed. The alkaline liquors were later worked up by acidulating with dilute sulphuric acid solution and separation and puri- fication of the liberated phenol. The unabsorbed portions, being somewhat turbid, were subjected to steam distillation when the suspended matter responsible for same was left behind in the flask. Subsequent examination showed it to be a non volatile stearoptene (probably a lactone) which had been held in solution by the phenol and thrown out when the latter was removed. The non-phenolic portions after steam distillation were almost colourless mobile oils resembling in general physical characters, odour, etc., cineol Kucalyptus oils. On exam- ination the following results were obtained:— Sample 27/11/1922. Sample 7/9/28. Specific gravity, +3° O. 0°9081 0°9034 Optical rotation + 6°1° + 8°25° Refractive index, 20° 0. 1°4655 1°4668 Solubility in 70% alcohol = 1 in 8 vols. COineol (Resorcin method) 507% 30% 304 A. R. PENFOLD. These on repeated fractional distillation gave the follow- ing fractions:— ineol Sample, 27/11/1922. | Volume.| Specie | Option [inde (Resort 163 — 166° C. (764 mm.) | 8 o.c.0-8889 | + 13-3” |1-4627 | 50 166 - 169° 123 ,, |0-8959|+ 10-5° |1-4623 | 60 .,. 169 - 173° 324 ,, |0-9017|+ 8-1° |1-4618 | 673, 178 170 29 ,, |0-9097|+ 5-0° 11-4617 | 874, gta 13 ,, 0-9129/4+ 39° |1-4621 | 90. ,, residue 8 ,, (0-9189|+ 25° |1-4700 75— 90°C. at 10mm.| 5 ,, |0-9130/4 34° |1-4671 90-108° do. 13. ,, |0-9184/4 0-8° |1-4748 Ose as sda, 5 ,, (0-9232|— 0+30°|1-4878 Sample, 7/9/1923. 63— 75° O. at 20 mm. 135. ,, |0-8965| + 10-35°1-4631 | 622 ,, 75— 85° do. 19 ,, (0:9074/+ 53° |1-4631 | 874... B= 200°" . do. 19 ,, |0-9116/+ 3-15°1-4674 100-106° do. 7 ,,|0-9156|+ 0-4° |1-4740 96- 100°C. at 10mm.| 9 ,, |0-9194]— 0-3° |1-4810 110-130° do. 5 ,, 10:9351|+ 35° |1-4972 (Specific gravities taken at 15/15° C., and refractive indices at 20° C.) Determination of Terpenes.—Fractions Nos. 1 and 2 of sample 27/11/1922 containing 50% and 60% cineol (resorcin method) respectively were mixed and the cineol removed by means of 50% resorcin solution. The unabsorbed oil was Separated and purified by steam distillation. On distillation the greater portion boiled at 156 —160° C. at 766 mm. had specific gravity +3° C. 0°8642, optical rotation + 21°, refrac- tive index, 20° C. 1°4660, and readily yielded a nitroso- chloride, which on purification melted sharply, with decomposition at 109° O. The first and second fractions of sample 7/9/1923, were also worked up in a similar manner, and the cineol free portion distilled with the following result :— Boiling Point at 766 mm. aye ee Optical rotation | Pefractive index 155)\=— 157° C; 0:8641 a 25°35 1°4662 158 —- 160° C. 0°8652 = ad « 1°4668 160 — 166° C. 0°8666 se ORT ADE 1-4671 ESSENTIAL OIL OF BACKHOUSIA ANGUSTIFOLIA. 305: a-Pinene.—The portion distilling at 155-157" OC. was oxidised with potassium permanganate by the method pre- viously described in this Journal, Vol. LVI, (1922), page 195. The crude pinonic acid isolated therefrom was converted directly to the semicarbazone, which on _ purification, melted at 207° O. The presence of a-pinene was therefore confirmed. b-Pinene.—The third‘fraction boiling at 160 — 166° OC. was oxidised with alkaline potassium permanganate’ when a small quantity of a sparingly soluble sodium salt was obtained. This on decomposition with dilute sulphuric acid and extraction with benzene yielded a solid acid of melting point 121°C. Repeated purification failed to raise the melting point and though lower than usual (127°C.) sufficient evidence was available to demonstrate the presence of £-pinene. Determination of Cineol.—The resorcin washings from the terpenes referred to above were subjected to steam distillation and the regenerated cineol purified by distilla- tion at 762 mm. It boiled at 175-177° C., had specific gravity +3° CO. 0°9289, was inactive, and gave refractive index 20° O. 1°4589. Its identity was confirmed by its behaviour with phosphoric acid and the preparation of the iodol derivative which melted at 112° C. Determination of Alcoholic bodies (alpha Terpineol).— The eighth fraction (sample 27/11/1922) was redistilled when a portion of 7 ¢c.c. boiling at 206—214° C. (u.c.) at 765 mm. was obtained. It had specific gravity, 15/15° O. 0°9180, was inactive, and had refractive index 20° CO. 1°4749. The fifth fraction (sample 7/9/1923) on redistillation gave a portion distilling at 96—100° O. 4$ ¢.c., possessing the following constants:—specific gravity 15/15° ©. 0°9184, optical rotation —1°3°, and refractive index 20° O. 1°4781. 1 Parry’s “ Essential Oils,” p. 37. T—December 5, 1923, 306 A. R. PENFOLD. These figures pointed to the fractions being mixtures of bodies, probably mainly alcoholic, of which alpha Terpineol was readily recognised by the preparation of the nitroso- chloride melting at 113° C. Determination of Sesquiterpene.—The quantity of high boiling constituents obtained was altogether too small for purificaticn. The general physical characters and the colour reactions obtained with bromine vapour and sulphuric acid in glacial acetic acid and acetic anhydride solution respectively readily demonstrated the presence of sesqui- terpenes, similar in nature to those usually obtained from essential oils of the Myrtacez. Determination of Stearoptene (probably a Lactone).— The residue left after steam rectification of the non-phenol portion of the crude oils was obtained as a brownish resin- ous powder. On boiling it up with absolute ethyl alcohol and filtering, yellow prismatic crystals separated out on cooling, which on purification melted at 118—119° O. 1500 ¢.c. of the crude oils gave about 4 grams of crystals. They were insoluble in cold 5 to 10% sodium hydroxide solution, but readily dissolved on heating, from which they were reprecipitated on addition of mineral acids. With ferric chloride in alcoholic solution a bright green colour resulted, which changed rapidly to a striking bluish-green colour. The formula appears to be CisHigO5 as indicated by the following combustion and molecular weight results, viz :— (1) 0°1190 gram gave 0°2851 gram CO, and 0°0636 gram H,O O—65'°34% H—5'93% (2) 0°1256 gram gave 0°3010 gram CO, and 0°0670 gram H,O O—65°36% H—5'93% O1sHigOs requires O—65°227 H—5°87 Molecular Weight Determinations. (a) A molecular weight determination by the Landsberger boiling point method, using acetone as solvent, gave the igs. ESSENTIAL OIL OF BACKHOUSIA ANGUSTIFOLIA. 307 following result:-—0°5494 gram in 20°5 c.c. acetone elevated the boiling point 0°22°C. M.Wt. = 271. (b) A determination by the cryoscopic method, using benzene, resulted as follows:—0°3481 gram in 9°8 grams benzene lowered the freezing point of the solvent 0°68° CO. M.Wt. = 2638. OjsHicsOs = 276. Determination of Phenolic Constituent.—The sodium hydroxide solutions containing the phenolic constituent were repeatedly washed with ether in order to remove all neutral bodies held in solution, from which it was subse- quently isolated by means of dilute sulphuric acid solution. The liberated phenol, which constituted about 75% of the crude oils, was taken up in ether, washed with dilute sodium bicarbonate solution, the solvent removed, and its purifica- tion effected by repeated distillation at 10 mm. As thus obtained it was a somewhat viscous liquid, almost colourless, though sometimes possessing a faint lemon tint, with a pleasant and characteristic odour, and giving with ferric chloride in ethyl alcohol solution a brilliant orange- red colouration, thereby strongly resembling leptospermol* It was optically active, being slightly levo-rotatory. On allowing it to remain in contact with metals, such as iron, copper, cobalt, chromium, cadmium, etc. it slowly attacked them giving highly coloured solutions. A peculiar feature of this constituent is that specimens isolated from the two Queensland consignments differed from each other in physical characters, with the single exception of boiling points which were identical in both samples. It was necessary, therefore, to separate this constituent from other specimens, and the sample obtained from the cultivated tree, as well as an old one in the * This Journal, Vol. tv, 1921, p. 49—51. 308 A. R. PENFOLD. Museum, which had been obtained from material supplied by Dr. Bancroft as far back as 1911, were used for this purpose. (This latter sample agreed well in chemical and physical characters with those of recent date, except that it was of a deep blackish-red colour through having been distilled through a steel coil). The following table gives. the constants of the four preparations:— d No. 27/1 1/acee, 7/9/1028. cops. (Old ii Boiling point, | 122-124° C.| 123 —125° C,| 123 — 124° G.| 122 -124° C. Specific gravity 1:1054 1:0900 1:0848 - 10885 Oe tes — 0°55 — 4:35 — 4°65 — 445° asa index 15288 1°5130 1:5084 15143 The last three agree fairly well among themselves, but the difference between these and the first is difficult of explanation, just at present, because although they all distil almost completely at 122—125° O. at 10 mm., there is no evidence available to demonstrate that they do not represent constant boiling mixtures of closely allied bodies. Meantime, the author prefers to consider the phenol of the second consignment as representing a chemical entity. Nos. 3 and 4 were not available in sufficient quantity for as much purification as was possible to give to No.2. All experimental data below were obtained with No. 2 sample, unless otherwise stated. The formula appears to be CjoHisO3 as indicated by the following combustion and molecular weight results:— (1) 0°1080 gram gave 0°2602 gram CO, and 0°0774 gram H,O O—65°70% H—7°96% (2) 0.1391 gram gave 0°3206 gram OO, and 0°0962 gram H.O O—65'94/, H—7 68% (3) 0°1150 gram gave 0°2780 gram CO, and 0°0814 gram HO C—65°93% H—7°86% ESSENTIAL OIL OF BACKHOUSIA ANGUSTIFOLIA. 309 (4) 0°1684 gram gave 0°4051 gram OO, and 0°1184 gram H2O O—65°61% H—7°81% O;0H 1403 requires O—65°93 7 H—7°69% Molecular Weight Determinations. (a) A molecular weight determination by the Landsberger boiling point method, using acetone as solvent, gave the following result:—1°1188 grams in 26 c.c. acetone elevated the boiling point 0°6° O. M.Wt. = 184. (b) A determination by the cryoscopic method, using benzene, resulted as follows:—0°4630 grams in 9°8 grams benzene lowered the freezing point of the solvent 1°27° ©. M.Wt. = 186. OjoHy0O3 = 182. Reactions.—The phenol is soluble in all ordinary organic solvents, and reacts acid to litmus. It is insoluble in cold sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate solutions, but soluble in both on heating to boiling, from which it is regenerated unchanged on addition of mineral acids. Pro- longed passage of carbon dioxide gas also partially liberates the phenol from alkaline combinations. It also reacts with semicarbazide acetate and hydroxylamine to form what appear to be ill-defined crystalline derivatives, but these will be dealt with in a subsequent communication. They may, however, be taken as evidence of the presence of a “carbonyl” group. Attempts to prepare a phenylurethane, benzoyl and acetyl derivatives and the introduction of methoxyl groups were unsuccessful. No evidence either of the presence of methoxyl or ethoxyl groups was obtained. It did not yield, under varied experimental conditions, any erystalline derivative with bromine. The following are the two best derivatives that have so far been observed :— Ammonium compound, CioHi7O3N.—It readily combines with ammonia to form a well defined crystalline body melt- ing at 185—137°O. The phenol of high refractive index 310 A. R. PENFOLD. (No. 1), however, forms a compound melting at 153° C., which differs from the three preparations of the other which all melt at the same temperature, and moreover, is different. in crystalline appearance. Preparation.—12c.c. phenol are covered with 10 —- 15 c.c.. water in a small porcelain basin and 20—25 c.c. concen- trated ammonia solution 0°880 added, when a white solid results. It is then warmed on a water bath with gradual addition of small quantities of water until complete solution is effected, when after the lapse of about half an hour the whole mass crystallises, especially if assisted with frequent. stirring. When cold the crystals are separated on a Buchner filter funnel, and dried on a porous plate. The crystals are purified by washing with petroleum ether (B.Pt. below 50° O.) in which they are insoluble, and recrystallised from: absolute ethyl alcohol. They are soluble in ethyl alcohol, acetone and chloroform, but insoluble in petroleum and ethyl ether. The ammonium compound is readily decom- posed by sodium and potassium hydroxide solutions, with evolution of ammonia and regeneration of the phenol unchanged. An estimation of its nitrogen contents was, therefore, most readily made by the decomposition of a. known weight with sodium hydroxide solution and the dis- tillation of the ammonia into standard acid, in a similar manner to that of an ordinary Kjeldahl determination :— (1) 0°8800 grams required 8°8 c.c. semi-normal acid to neutralise the liberated ammonia—7% nitrogen. (2) 0°7311 grams ditto 7°35 c.c. semi-normal acid—7°047/ nitrogen. CioHi;O3N requires 7°04% nitrogen. Copper Compound, (C1oH1203)2 Cuu—The phenol does not. liberate carbon dioxide from ammonia carbonate, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, nor from any of the com- moner metallic carbonates, but its affinity for copper is so. ESSENTIAL OIL OF BACKHOUSIA ANGUSTIFOLIA. olf great that it possesses the remarkable property of liber- ating carbon dioxide from copper carbonate at room tem- peratures. Preparation.—About 10 grams of the substance is placed in a small porcelain dish and a slight excess of copper car- bonate is stirred in. A vigorous reaction takes place immediately and carbon dioxide is rapidly evolved. Within about fifteen minutes the whole is changed to a dry solid of purple colour. It is removed from unchanged carbonate by boiling with ethyl alcohol, from which solvent it is crystallised. As thus obtained it is a purple coloured crystalline powder melting at 193—194° C., all specimens of the phenol yielding the same copper compound. The solution in ethyl alcohol is of an intense greenish-blue colour which matches that of an aqueous solution of mala- chite green dye. 0°7820 gram of copper compound when decomposed by boiling with dilute hydrochloric acid solution, the liberated phenol extracted by means of ether, and the copper pre- cipitated gravimetrically in the usual manner with sodium hydroxide solution, yielded 0°1467 gram CuO, equivalent to 14°92%% Ou. (CioHi203)2 Ou requires 14°89% Ou. Oxidation.—20 c.c. phenol were shaken with 60 grams. powdered potassium permanganate, 8 grams caustic potash, 1200 c.c, water and 1000 grams ice until reaction was completed. The potassium salts of acetic and carbonic acids were the only products that were isolated. On treat- ing the crude potassium salts with absolute ethyl alcohol almost pure potassium acetate was obtained after removal of solvent, and its identity established by the usual quali- tative reactions. Identical results were obtained with the two different specimens of phenols isolated from the Queensland oils. The silver salts were accordingly pre- 312 A. R. PENFOLD. pared from the volatile acids resulting from the oxidation of both specimens with the following results:— (1) 0°6252 gram gave 0°4038 gram silver—64'°59% - (2) 0°2486 gram gave 0°1608 gram silver—64°68% Silver acetate—64°67% The further work in progress on this interesting body will be published at a later date. My thanks are due to Dr. T. L. Bancroft of Hidsvold, Queensland, for his keen interest in these investigations and for his kindness in furnishing the excellent supplies of material; to Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.R.S., Director of Botanic Gardens and Government Botanist, Sydney, and Mr. H.N, Ward, Superintendent, Botanic Gardens, Sydney, for their interest in furnishing supplies of cultivated material; and finally to Mr. F. R. Morrison, A.tT.c., Assistant Chemist, for his assistance in these investigations, especially in regard to confirmation of combustion and molecular weight determinations of the new substances. NOTES ON WATTLE BARK. alo NOTES ON WATTLE BARKS, Part I. By M. B. WELCH, B.Sc, W. McGLynn, and F. A. COOMBS. F.C.S.’ [With Plates XX, XXI.] [Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, December 5, 1923. | SINCE the extraction of tannin from wattle bark has given tanners a considerable amount of trouble, it was considered that an examination of the bark structure in conjunction with estimations of the tannin and other contents, should be carried out. A number of samples of barks belonging to the Black or Green Wattle, Acacia decurreis Willdenow, group, which forms the principal source of bark in this State, have therefore been examined, and it is proposed in this introductory paper to deal principally with the nature and distribution of the tannins present and the bark anatomy. Although the problems connected with the leather forming properties of tannin and its extraction from wattle bark have received a great deal of attention from the Tanning School attached to the Department of Technical Education, Sydney, this does nor apply to the actual distribution of the tannin in the plant tissues. Since the ease of extrac- tion of the tannin depends on the readiness with which it can diffuse out of the tissues it is obvious that the structure of the latter is of importance. The term “‘ tannin’ is used to denote a number of sub- stances possessing somewhat similar properties, and occur- ring widespread throughout the plant world, being found in the roots, stems, leaves and fruits of the higher plants and even in the filamentous alge. 1 F. A. Coombs, Lecturer in Department of Tanning, Sydney Technical College; W. McGlynn, Department of Tanning, Sydney Technical College, M. B. Welch, Economic Botanist, Technological Museum. 314 M. B. WELCH, W. MACGLYNN, AND F. A, COOMBS. Zimmermann (1896) thus defines tannin: ‘‘all those sub-- stances which give a blue-black or green-black with iron salts, are commonly designated as tannic acids or tannin.. There belong here of the better known compounds, especi- ally pyrocatechin, pyrogallic acid, protocatechuic acid,. gallic acid.’’ As defined by Pfeffer, (1903) “‘tannin is a. technical term which has no precise chemical or physio- logical meaning, for the same microchemical tests with iron salts and potassium bichromate are given by various. phenols and phenol compounds, but not by others such as. phloroglucin, etc., which have a similar physiological: function.”’ Proctor (1,1919)on the other hand states that all ‘tannins. give a precipitate or turbidity with gelatine though the sensitiveness of the test is not the same for all tannins. Substances which are like tannins in most other respects. but which do not give the gelatine test must be regarded: as non-tans.”’ Tannins may therefore be regarded as products found to. occur in plant life, especially in the barks, fruit, wood and leaves. They possess an astringent taste, give greenish or bluish black colourations with iron salts, precipitate gelatine from its solution, give a slightly acid reaction, and combine with the raw hide to produce a leather which has. certain chemical and physical properties not common to all kinds of leather. The tannins are noted for their astringent properties. Villon (1901) describes astringency ‘‘as the property of shrivelling the tissues or shutting up the openings of cer- tain organs, as for instance, the papillee of the tongue, but. this is not peculiar to tannins, which however is the astringency par excellence; it is possessed by a large number of styptic salts, such as alum, sulphate of iron, sulphate of zinc, lead acetate and certain acids, such as. dilute sulphuric acid, dilute acetic, and gallic acid.” NOTES ON WATTLE BARK. 315: Astringency is a term used to describe the sensation caused by bringing the tongue in contact with certain sub- stances. Although the word is hardly known in the tan- ning industry, vegetable tannins which cause excessive contraction of the surface of the pelt are sometimes described as being very astringent. In the list of sub- stances mentioned by Villon, l.c., one notes that they possess acid properties and in some cases the power to precipitate gelatine from its solution. Substances which precipitate gelatine probably dehydrate wet animal skin (pelt). Tannins dehydrate pelt with the formation of leather; in this case dehydration of the skin substances is akin to precipitation from solution, and astringency is. probably the result of bringing an acid dehydrating sub- stance in contact with cellular or fibrous protein tissue. The dehydration or precipitation of gelatine from its solu- tion is probably caused by the mutual combination of groups. in the gelatine and in the tannin molecular aggregates; these groups being the cause of their solubility. That this. becomes a complex problem is apparent when we note (Proctor, 2,1919) that certain substances found as decompo- sition products of the tannins, catechol and pyrogallol, contain OH groups which have phenolic and alcoholic functions. The tannins occuring in the wattle bark and dealt with in this paper are only those capable of classification into that group which besides responding to the above definition, are absorbed by hide powder according to the regulations. laid down by the Society of Leather Trade Chemists.! Perhaps the commonest empirical test for tannins is the use of iron salts, producing certain colour reactions, but this has the disadvantage that the colourations are given by other substances, which do not behave as tannins. * Proctor. Leather Trades Pocket Book. 316 M. B. WELCH, W. MACGLYNN, AND F. A. CUOMBS. Potassium bichromate, first recommended by Sanio, was found to be the most satisfactory method of precipitating the tannin in the cells of the tissues in which it occurs. The brownish precipitate is insoluble in water, alcohol, etc. In concentrated aqueous solutions the penetration is quite satisfactory when the bark is treated in small pieces, measuring about 1 cm. square, and sections cut from treated material can be preserved in canada balsam, or glycerine. Zimmerman l.c., states that according to Nickel (1890) various compounds not related to tannins give similar precipitates with potassium bichromate, but it has been found in this research that bichromates give no pre- cipitate with the soluble non-tans left after a hide powder analysis of various samples of wattle bark, i.c., after all the tannins have been absorbed. This isa most important point since it can reasonably be assumed that the precipitate formed in the cells is due to the combination of the tannin and bichromate. As will be shown jater potassium bichro- mate has also the advantage of giving a precipitate in very dilute tannin solutions. Since pyrogallol does not occur in these tannins the insoluble precipitate in this case is not likely to be the oxidation product purpuro-gallol mentioned by Moeller (c.f. Zimmerman, l.c.). Chromic acid was not found to be so satisfactory as the bicbromate. The gelatine test is regarded by leather trade chemists as the most useful method of detecting the presence of tannin in dilute solutions, but owing to its viscosity it is obviously unsuited for microchemical work. The solution contains 10g gelatine and 100g salt in one litre of water. Proctor (1, 1919) states in reference to gelatine that a pre- cipitate is obtained in extremely dilute solutions of gallo- tannin, or fruit tannin, while the bark tannins give the test if the solutions are not too weak, pine bark and gambier being the least sensitive. Other micro-chemical tests for NOTES ON WATTLE BARK. alee tannins are described in the various text books on the subject, such reagents as osmic acid, chromic acid, ammonium molybdate, sodium tungstate, alkaline carbon- ates, methylene blue and certain alkaloids being found more or less satisfactory. It was found by experimental work that the gelatine and bichromate tests for tannin do not always give constant results. Apparently with some solutions the sensitiveness of the gelatine reaction with the tannins varies to a con- siderable extent. Weobtaineda turbidity with gelatine in a solution of one part of tannin in 100,000 parts of water, but with other solutions from different barks we were unable to get any reaction with a solution of one in 25,000. This apparently is in accordance with results obtained by Thomas and Frieden (1923) who found that the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution is an important factor, con- trolling to a certain extent the reaction of gelatine with tannin in dilute solutions, and probably our failure to secure recognition of tannin in solutions of one in 25,000 was due to the fact that, with dilution, the hydrogen ion concentration fell below the figure they give as the most suitable for the recognition of tannin in wattle bark. The authors found that the best ratio of tannin to gelatine is two to one, and when the hydrion concentration for wattle barks was adjusted to pH = 4°5 to 4, then it was possible to obtain a recognition of one in 200,000. Without adjusting the acidity they only obtained a recognition of one in 20,000 for the same solution. These variations in our results were not so noticeable with the bichromate test, a recog- nition of one part of tannin in 25,000 to 50,000 being obtained by adding a few drops of a saturated aqueous. solution of bichromate of potash to a dilute solution of the soluble matter obtained from various barks. The turbidity was only obtained after standing for some minutes in very weak concentrations. 318 M. B. WELCH, W. MACGLYNN, AND F. A. COOMBS. It is usually accepted that the tannin is more or less in solution in the cell sap and although after the death of the cell, diffusion may occur into the cell wall, it is normally confined within the protoplasmic membranes, and although the tannin undoubtedly possesses the property of precipitat- ing albuminoids it is obvious that it may not necessarily affect protoplasm. Lloyd (1922) puts forward the theory that two substances are present in the vacuole of the tannin cell, namely, the tannin itself, and another substance with the physical pro- perties of a gel. He also points out that after extraction of oak bark with alcohol the tannin cells are still filled with insoluble material which contains tannin, and he describes this mode of occurrence as the tannin mass, which consists of a complex of substances, tannin being one. Lloyd l.c., quotes Van Wisselingh (1910) as having confirmed the earlier research of Wigand in concluding that the tannin is an essential factor in plant metabolism, being concerned in the building up of cellulose. When the concentration is high, it seems that the view expressed by Lloyd l.c., is correct, namely that the tissues are approaching death and that the tannin does not again enter into the metabolism of the plant. The benefit obtained by a protective device consisting of an outer zone of cells containing a very high tannin concentration cannot be overlooked. (c.f.Stahl, 1888) In all the Acacia barks so far examined, it has been found that the tannin concentration undoubtedly reaches a maxi- mum towards the outer corky layers. Recent work seems to indicate that tannin is not always a protoplasmic poison, but where it is, it is probably held by a strongly adsorbing body, but where non-toxic, a weaker adsorbing body would allow of its more ready use. This body in certain cases being identified as a carbohydrate. (c.f. Lloyd, l.c.) NOTES ON WATTLE BARK. 319 The word “‘bark’’ is used here to define the whole of the tissues outside the woody cylinder of the tree, since this portion is always referred to when the term ‘“‘wattle bark’’ isused. The definition is more often given as that portion of the outer tissues consisting of the dried up, cortical, and sometimes vascular cells, cut off from the inner living por- tion by the phellogen or cork cambium, together with the outer corky layers, the whole being principally concerned in the reduction of transpiration, and the furnishing of protection against mechanical injury to the inner conduct- ing tissue. Dealing first with the anatomical structure it is found that the bark consists primarily of the secondary phloem, a broad zone of conducting tissue extending from the cambium, adjacent to the wood, as far outward as the cortical tissue, the latter being composed of acomparatively narrow area of thin walled cells or parenchyma, outside which is in older bark a narrow band of cork cells, or an epidermal layer in younger barks. The conclusion arrived at by Coester, (1894) namely, that the outer limit of the bast formed by a composite ring of sclerenchyma, (i.e., thick walled cells) is a characteristic feature of the Mimosez, in which group the Acacias are included, is in the majority of cases correct for the barks of the Acacia decurrens group. Incertain cases, however, the ring has been found to be broken, and therefore cannot be regarded as a specific character. Similarly it has been found that although the cork cells are usually developed superficially as pointed out by Coester, l.c., the phellogen not arising much below the epidermis yet in certain bark specimens examined, undoubted evidence was found that the cork cells may develop well within the sclerenchymat- ous ring, proving that a phellogen may subsequently arise in.a deep seated position. The cork cells are flattened 320 M. B. WELCH, W. MACGLYNN, AND F. A. COOMBS. radially with moderately thick walls, the actual thickness: of the periderm being small, as a rule not more than 0°2 mm. The outer bark surface is often scaly due to the separation of the masses of cork cells, caused by the in- crease in circumference of the growing tree. Both the sieve tubes and companion cells which occur in tangential bands between rows of phloem parenchyma cells, collapse within a short distance of the cambium. These areas of collapsed cells are persistent throughout the secondary phloem, (Plate XXI, fig. 4) and possess a strong affinity for stains, but the parenchyma cells remain un- changed except for an increase in size. The amount of space occupied by these collapsed tissues in a mature bark is unimportant and they can therefore have little effect upon the tannin content of the whole. The phloem parenchyma cells which contain a large per- centage of the total tannin measure about 0°037 mm. in length, being directed longitudinally, by about 0°01 mm. in diameter, and are almost circular in cross section. As they become further removed from the cambium, due to the growth of newer cells the increase in size becomes more marked, until finally they may measure 0°04 mm. in diameter often becoming flattened, with the longer axis directed tangentially. There is no proportional increase in vertical length. Of even greater importance in their influence on the tannin yield are the medullary rays, which are either uni- seriate or multiseriate, broadening considerably in the outer portion of the bark, with a considerable increase in the cell size to about 0°05 mms. in maximum diameter. Near the cambium the longest axis is directed radially; the older cells are flattened tangentially. The degree of development of the bast fibres is however of considerable importance in its influence on the tannin NOTES ON WATTLE BARK. 321 content, for several reasons. In the first place the cell walls are extremely thick, the lumen in the older cells. almost disappearing, and since the specific gravity of this lignified tissue is about 1°6, the insoluble matter in a com- paratively small amount of fibre is equivalent in weight to that present ina much larger amount of thin walled tannin bearing cells. Thus a bark containing eyen a moderate development of fibre has an increased percentage of in- solubles, and a lower percentage of total solubles, including tannin, on analysis. Secondly, since no tannin is shown by any microchemical test to be present in the cell wall or in the lumen of these fibre cells, they can yield practically nothing on extraction. In certain barks examined in which the tannin content was low the development of bast fibre was exceptionally high, and vice versa, in a bark showing a tannin content of 46°937%* the amount of fibre was extremely low. In the inner portion of the secondary phloem the area of the fibre groups in cross section may amount to as much as 50% in some barks. The diameter of the bast fibres is small, averaging about 0°009 mms., the maximum size of the groups being in the vicinity of 0°6 mm. ina tangential direction by about 0°1 mm. in width. More or less surrounding the fibre group is a single row of short thick walled crystal bearing cells the contents being apparently calcium oxalate. Surrounding the vascular tissue is usually a more or less complete chain of stone cells, (sclereides), irregular in shape with heavily lignified walls and containing no tannin. The cortical tissues outside this zone are tannin bearing, and usually chlorophyll is present. The outer corky cells of the periderm are small, with thick suberised walls, the bark of the A. decurrens group. The complete analysis was, tannin = 46°93%; soluble non tannins = 9°85%; insolubles = 34°45; moisture = 8°77%. U—December 5, 1923. 322 M. B. WELCH, W. McGLYNN, AND F. A. COOMBS. brown contents evidently consisting principally of phloba- phenes. The phelloderm is scarcely developed. It has been pointed out that in certain cases the phellogen may develop in a deep seated position, but this is rare. Even in barks of considerable thickness the epidermis may still be persistent insome cases. Occasionally arow of pockets containing what is evidently gum occur concentrically in the secondary phloem. The contents give no reaction with potassium bichromate when the tissue is treated in bulk ; they are then insolublein water. The cavity is apparently formed by the disintegration of the phloem tissues. A whitish glaucous deposit of wax is occasionally found in the barks of some trees. The powdery substance is partly soluble in 100 per cent. alcohol, and is soluble in chloroform. The distribution of the tannin is principally in the outer parenchymatous cells of the medullary rays, in the primary and secondary cortex, and also in the phloem parenchyma. Plate XX, fig. 1 shows a transverse section of a portion of the bark of Acacia decurrens measuring about 4 mms. in thickness. The bark was given the preliminary treatment with potassium bichromate before sectioning. It is seen that the concentration of tannin bearing cells with dark contents, reaches a maximum both inside and outside the narrow Clear band of stone cells occurring towards the outer edge. Plate XX, fig. 2, shows an enlargement of portion of the same section within the lower rectangle near the cambium. The tannin bearing cells of the phloem parenchyma are usually arranged in short chains at right angles to the medullary rays, the cells of the latter being somewhat elongated and also showing a reaction for tannin. These cells are in each case thin walled; the thicker walled bast fibre groups are already numerous and contain no tannin. NOTES ON WATTLE BARK. 323 The concentration of these darker cells increases with the distance from the cambium at the right hand edge of the figure. Fig. 3 (Plate XXI) also shows an enlargement of portion of the same section as Fig. 1 (Plate XX), but nearer the outer edge of the bark, as shown in the upper rectangle. The enormous increase in the tannin bearing cells is at once apparent, which, together with a considerable enlarge- ment in the size of the cells indicates a greatly increased tannin content. The particular portion shows by no means a maximum of tannin cells, as can be seen by an examin- ation of fig. 1. Running across the section is one of the considerably broadened multiseriate medullary rays, con- Sisting of comparatively large cells; on either side of the ray are the non-tan bearing cells of the bast fibre groups. A strip of bark was removed from the butt to the top of a tree about 25’ in height, and a series of six sections cut at regular intervals. The bark samples were given the preliminary treatment witha concentrated aqueous solution of potassium bichromate. An examination of the sections shows clearly that the amount of tannin is highest in the bark near the base of the trunk. Commencing at the bottom of the tree we have :— Section 1. Thickness of bark 5 mms. Inner portion of 0°9 mm. in width containing comparatively little tannin; outer portion contains a large number of tannin bearing cells. Section 2, Thickness of bark 4 mms. Inner portion 0°6 mm. in thickness containing little tannin. Section 3. Thickness of bark 4 mms. Tannin more evenly distributed through secondary phloem. Section 4. Thickness of bark 2°40 mms. Very little tannin in inner portion of 0°9 mm. Section 5. Thickness of bark 2°40mms. Tannin compara- tively evenly distributed in secondary phloem, but number of tan bearing cells fewer than in 1 and 2. 324 M. B. WELCH, W. McGLYNN, AND F. A. COOMBS. Section 6. Thickness of bark 1°9 mms. Comparatively little tannin in inner 0°6 mm. Much greater concentra- tion outside this limit. In all the above sections the greater concentration is. found in the cells of the medullary rays where they broaden out, especially in the cells just within the sclerenchymatous. sheath corresponding to the pericycle, and in the cells of the primary and secondary cortex, all these being filled with a dark brown precipitate. In many of the cells the contents appear vacuolated; in many cases starch grains are present. The cell walls are scarcely stained, a decided difference from what obtains in the spent bark. The Melbourne Board of Enquiry (1892) states that the best months for stripping the bark are September, October, November, and December, and also that while the bark strips easily after rain the quality is inferior. Hwart (1912) States that the best time for stripping is the spring or early summer when the sap is rising, since at that time not only does the bark come off more easily, but itis ina better condition for tanning. We are in accord with the statement that spring is undoubtedly the best time for stripping, more particularly on account of the fact that the removal of bark is much easier at that time. This is evidently due to the increased growth of new cells from the cambial layer, which being thin walled are therefore more readily separated. A_ similar explanation can apparently be given to the fact that the bark is more easily stripped after rain. As far as our investigation has gone there is no evidence to show that the quality of the tannins varies during the different seasons of the year, or after a wet period, except where large increase in new growth would augment the non-tans and insolubles, and thereby increase the risk of fermentation in the extraction vats and tan liquors. This increase in the other constituents might therefore lower the percentage of tannin in the bark NOTES ON WATTLE BARK. 325 although actually a slight increase in the total quantity of tannin may occur. So far we have not obtained any direct evidence that the percentage of tannin varies at different times of the year. Under normal conditions the amount of tannin in the bark of the tree is proportional to its age. This does not mean that old trees necessarily contain more, ora greater percentage of tannin than young trees, since the amount of fibre present is a factor, and thickness is usually more important than age in its influence on the tannin content. The lack of tannin in the freshly formed cells of the inner bark has been pointed out. (Plate XX, fig. 1). It is evident that the amount of tannin present bears a direct relation- ship to the age of the cells, since those nearest the cambium contain comparatively little tannin when compared with those nearer the outer cortex. If then it is correct that the percentage of tannin in the bark increases as the percentage of young cells in the bark decreases, then one would expect to find the greatest percentage of tannin at the end of a period of minimum growth, which would normally correspond to the end of the winter months, and therefore this should be the time tostrip the bark to obtain the highest yield of tannin. Probably the maximum increase in thickness occurs in the spring and summer whilst during the autumn and winter there is a greater increase in the tannin production. The evidence obtained microscopically as to the distribution was confirmed by the analysis of two samples of bark which were taken and the outer ross removed. Hach was then split parallel to the surface into two equal halves, and analysed with the following results: Young Tissue. Old Tissue. No. of bark 1 2 5 4, Tannin 17°92 17°02 27°11 29°24 Non-tannin 10°06 12°43 7°89 10°53 Insoluble 63°87 64°15 55°8 53°51 Water 8°15 6°4 9°2 6°72 100°00 =©100°00 100°00 100°00 326 M. B. WELCH, W. McGLYNN, AND F. A, COOMBS. It will be noted from the above figures that the older tissues contain the greater amount of tannin whereas the younger cells contain a higher percentage of soluble non- tans. This toa certain extent is similar to’results obtained when analysing samples of bark taken from different. parts of the tree; the bark at the butt with a maximum of old cells containing more tannin than the bark at the top of the tree, which contains a larger percentage of younger cells. These results seem to point to the fact that the new tannin-bearing cells contain certain substances that are not tannins but apparently change to tannins as the age of the cell increases. Williams (1915) states that ‘“‘the percentage of tannins in the thicker portions of the bark felled in winter is appreci- ably higher in most cases than in the case of bark of cor- responding thickness felled in summer. It appears as if there is a greater proportion of tannin in the lower portion of the tree during the winter months and this is what one might expect seeing that the sap is usually concentrated more or less towards the base of the tree in the autumn and winter months.’’ If this is correct one would expect to find the tannin in a plastic condition near the cambium whereas the concentration evidently reaches a maximum furthest from the actively conductive tissues of the secondary phloem. It seems probable that there is little alteration in its position once the tannin is elaborated. An attempt made to prove that the parent bodies of the tannins are found in the soluble non-tans was not successful. Wilson (1916) states that the soluble non-tans after heating changed colour, with the production of tannin. The wattle bark extracts we have examined also changed toa red colour upon heat- ing, but no indication of tannin was found in this solution with the gelatine test. NOTES ON WATTLE BARK. 327 In order to determine the amount of moisture in the bark as it occurs on the tree, samples were weighed immediately after stripping. When dry, after a long exposure to air, they were again weighed, and the moisture and tannin con- tents determined by the usual method. The results were as follows :— 1 2 3 4 5 Tannin 17°08 17°35 16°15 943 14°377 Non-tannin 4°29 4°53 4°62 4°91 5°967, Insolubles 22°34 24°55 24°78 28°09 27°057 Water 56°29 «53°57 54°45. 57°97 52°627% From the above figures it is possible to obtain some idea of the concentration of the solution of the tannins and total solubles in the cell, e.g., if all the water present acts as a solvent for this material we find that:— (1) (2) (8) (@ (5) Ooncentration of total solubles=27°5 29°0 27°6 19°4 27°87 is tannin =22°0 23°0 21°4 13°1 19°77 This assumption however is obviously incorrect. If we assume that the percentage of moisture in the cell walls is 50,* the concentration of the solubles is largely in- creased. Allowing then 50% of water in the insolubles, we find that the concentration of the total solubles and tannins. are as follows :— (D9) 3) @)0%) Ooncentration of total solubles=38'6 43°0 41°1 31°8 44°37 A tannin =30°9 34°1 32°0 21°5 31°37 These figures are very probably by no means the highest that can be obtained, but they are sufficient to show that a very high concentration is reached, if the tannin is wholly 1 This is a very conservative figure. Pfeffer l.c., estimates that the percentage of moisture in the cellulose cell walls is 70-90; in the ligni- fied walls, 50%. Inthe Acacia bark only a proportion of the cell walls are lignified, and moreover the amount of water in the other insolubles. present, e.g. starch, albuminoids, etc, would be considerably in excess. of this amount. 328 M. B. WELCH, W. McGLYNN, AND F. A. COOMBS. in solution in the cell sap. Under ordinary conditions such a solution would be extremely viscous. After stripping, the bark is air dried, the moisture con- tent being reduced from about 55 per cent. on the wet weight to normally about 10 per cent., by exposure to ordinary atmospheric conditions. ‘he moisture is probably present in the bark in three ways, (1) as free water in the cells, (2) as water present in combination with the cell contents, and (3) as moisture absorbed by the cell walls. In the air dried bark it is probable that the moisture is distributed between the cell walls and the cell contents, which in this case are principally tannin. The theory has been advanced that the contraction which occurs in drying, and the subsequent crushing of the bark, results in small cracks. No evidence has, however, so far been found that the rupture of the cell walls actually takes place, but it is a fact that the bark must be crushed before the majority of the tannin can be extracted. This crushing must how- ever rupture certain of the cells, and by reducing the size of the particles of bark, would allow the readier penetration of water and hence give rise to a more efficient extraction. An interesting feature connected with this work is found when extraction results with Adelaide and South African barks are compared. The former has always the appear- ance of a bark which has been stored, and thoroughly dried, since it is distinctly red—a sure sign of exposure. The South African bark is pale in comparison with that of Adelaide, and certainly does not appear to have been cut for any length oftime. The Adelaide bark appears to give up its tannin more readily than the South African bark. Some Australian tanners believe that the longer the period that is allowed to elapse after the time of stripping, the easier is the extraction of the tannin from the bark. [Coombs, 1919. ] NOTES ON WATTLE BARK. 329 Small pieces of the fresh bark were placed in potassium bichromate solution. Sections were also cut from fresh untreated bark, transferred to water, and then into a satur- ated aqueous solution of bichromate. It was found that the longer the preliminary treatment with water, the less pronounced was the reaction given by the potassium bichromate. The rapidity of the diffusion of the tannin from the cells is indicated by the fact that even after as short a period as five seconds in water, an appreciable difference could be found when compared with sections from material which had first been treated with the bichromate ‘solution. All sections were of uniform thickness. After five seconds the brown precipitate was most pronounced in the medullary rays, and also in the tannin bearing phloem parenchyma cells. After ten seconds a still further reduc- tion in the intensity of the colouration was observed, similarly after fifteen seconds. After six minutes the contents of the medullary rays, and also of isolated cells in the cortex, were stained. After thirty-six minutes the medullary rays were still distinct and also certain cells of the secondary cortex and phloem. After five hours a few cells of the the medullary rays were affected but there was comparatively little difference between this and the thirty- six minutes exposure. A section which after four bours in cold water was boiled and then transferred to bichromate showed bo reaction in the medullary ray cells, but certain of the cells in the secondary phloem became somewhat yellowish, and in places the cell walls were stained a light brown. Similar results were obtained by boiling sections ‘Cut from fresh bark. From these results it seems evident that the greater percentage of the tannin in the fresh bark is readily soluble in cold water, the rapidity of solution depending on the amount of surface exposed. There does not appear to be 330 M. B. WELCH, W. McGLYNN, AND F. A. COOMBS. any Clear evidence to support the prevalent idea that the- solubility of the tannin increases with the length of time bark is kept after stripping, but further work remains to be done on this subject. A portion of the spent bark after extraction of the tannin under ordinary commercial conditions was examined, after a further treatment with alcohol and chloroform, by means. of paraffin sections. Many of the cells of the outer expanded portion of the medullary rays were found to be wholly or partially filled with almost clear, colourless, amorphous, slightly granular contents, sometimes showing signs of striation. Numerous starch grains were present both in these cells and also in those apparently without other con- tents. In the tissue of the secondary cortex many of the parenchyma cells also possessed contents. The irregular branching groups of collapsed sieve tubes were decidedly coloured, being especially prominent in contrast with the lighter coloured surrounding cells. The most prominent portion of the medullary rays was nearest the cambium, the contents being light brown in colour; further out the cells of the rays were often devoid of contents, at other times containing an sane i mass. Here also starch grains were numerous. Similar sections treated with potassium bichromate gave the most pronounced colouration in the collapsed groups of sieve tubes and companion cells, these becoming brown. The more or less striated cell contents of the broad medul- lary rays, parenchyma, etc., were only slightly stained, and the cell walls were considerably more prominent. The innermost cells of the medullary rays showed a very pro-- nounced colouration, as also obtained in the adjacent parenchyma. ; With ferric chloride, the same changes were observed,,. the collapsed sieve tube areas, especially those near the NOTES ON WATTLE BARK. 331 cambium being stained to a bluish grey, though they show no tannin reaction in fresh bark. It seems evident, there- fore, that the tannin is absorbed by the cell walls during the diffusion of the contents in water, The walls of the heavily lignified bast fibre cells showed very little altera- tion. With iodine solution, the lignified tissues were stained yellow. With chlor-zinc-iodine, the contents of the parenchymatous cells became somewhat violet, the col- lapsed sieve tube areas, however, were scarcely affected. The probable presence of a cellulose-like body in the paren- chymatous cells seems to confirm the conclusion arrived at by Lloyd, l.c., as to the occurrence of an adsorption equi- librium between the tannin and a second body, in certain cases. As already pointed out no evidence was found of any rupturing of the walls of the cells in which the tannin occurs. It is proposed to make a thorough investigation both chemically and anatomically of the barks of the Acacia decurrens group in particular. In the very complete investigation made on the wattle barks (Maiden 1891), over thirty years ago, the Lowenthal method of analysis was used, and the results may differ from those obtained by the modern hide powder method. A close study of the seasonal variation, if any, in the tannin content, by obtaining a. series of bark specimens from the same trees will also be made. List of References. CorstErR, 1894—-Anat. Charakt d. Mimoseen diss., Erlangen and Miinchen. Coomss, F. A. 1919—Notes on Australian tanning materials. Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., Vol. 38, Ewart, 1912—On Wattles and Wattle Barks, Vic. Journ. of Agriculture, 1912. Lioyp, 1922—The occurrence and functions of tannin in the living cell. Trans, Roy. Soc., Canada, 1922. 332 M. B. WELCH, W. McGLYNN, AND F. A, COOMBS. MaipeEn, J. H. 1891—Wattle and Wattle Barks. Government Printer, Sydney. MELBOURNE BoarD oF INQuiry, 1892— Report on Wattle Barks. Government Printer, Melbourne. Nick, 1890—Die Farbenreaktionen der Kohlenstoffverbindungen IT, Aufl. Berlin. Prerrer, 1903—FPlant Physiology, English translation, Oxford Edition. Proctor (1) 1919—Leather Chemist’s Pocket Book. Procror (2) 1919—Leather industries Laboratory Book. SOLEREDER, 1908—Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, English translation, Oxford Edition. STAHL, 1888-—Jena Zeitschr. 12. Tuomas AND FRIEDEN, 1923—Jour. Soc. Leather Trade Chemists, Sept. 1923, p. 385. Van WiIssELineH, 1910—On the tests for tannin in the living plant, and the physiological significance of tannins. Proc. K. Wetemsch. Vitton, 1901—The Leather Industry. Wiuiams, 1915—A composition of Natal Wattle Bark. Dept. of Agric. South Africa, No. 72. Wixson, 1916—Journal of Society of Leather Trade Chemists. ZIMMERMAN, 1896—Botanical Microtechniqne, English translation. Explanation of Plates. PuaTe XX. Fig. 1. Transverse section of the bark of Acacia decurrens show- ing the distribution of the tannin after the precipitation with potassium bichromate. The tannin-bearing cells increase in number and size from the cambial zone at the bottom of the figure, towards the outer corky tissues seen at the top. x Le a Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,Vol. LVI, 1928. Plate XX. a xe ARDS A it Sul aa ni VAT a et ee. \ eye ae : es ; = F m4 : o one : : ‘ : 4 l « : : % an > : . Sess areas eS Bera : | Re tee Plate XXT. ty of N.S.W.,Vol. LVI, 1928. 1é yal Soc Journal Ro = Fig. Fig. Fig. NOTES ON WATTLE BARK. o00: 2. Transverse section of that portion of bark seen in the lower rectangle in Fig. 1, Towards the right hand edge are the newest cells of the secondary phloem, which are practically devoid of tannin, the latter becoming more pronounced in the older cells of the phloem parenchyma. Tannin is also present in the cells of the medullary rays, (running horizontally in the figure) at a very early stage, but the companion cells, sieve tubes and bast fibres show no evidence of it. x 95. PuaTteE XXI, 3. Transverse section of that portion of bark seen in the upper rectangle in Fig. |. This section shows the enormous development of tannin-bearing parenchymatous cells in the broader fan-shaped medullary rays, and in the phloem paren- chyma. There is no evidence of tannin in the bast fibre zones (seen as groups of small, clear thick walled cells), or in the collapsed sieve tubes and companion cells. x 95. 4. Transverse section of the bark of Acacia decurrens after removal of the tannin, “showing portion of the secondary phloem. The narrow, dark coloured areas represent the collapsed groups of sieve tubes and companion cells. The isolated bast fibre zones are separated by the medullary rays, which are seen as more or less regular bands of cells, and also by the phloem parenchyma cells. x 24. 334 R. H. CAMBAGE. PLANT INVASION OF A DENUDED ARHBA. By R. H. CAMBAGE, F.L.S. With Plate XXII, and Text Figure. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 5, 1923. ] WHEN constructing the railway deviation from Picton to Mittagong about five years ago, the Railway Department required a considerable amount of filling where the line crosses a gully at the 68 mile-post near Bargo, In order to obtain material for this filling an excavation from one to about four feet deep was made over an area of 8 acres which forms the segment of a circle of 18 chains radius, and having a chord of about 24 chains in length. This area, which remains surrounded with virgin forest, was at once securely fenced and made inac- cessible to stock, and the only possibility of this denuded enclo- sure becoming the home of plant- life will be by natural methods, with the possible exception that grasses may be introduced along the railway line from stock trains, and may spread thence on to these bare rocks when they are suffici- ently decomposed toreceive them. There is a slight slope towards —— the north from the adjoining bush “. land, so that seeds may at times be carried on to this area as the abouk 24 chains PLANT INVASION OF A DENUDED AREA. 335 result of heavy rain. Birds, and wind to some extent, will also act as conveyers of seed. The rock forming the present surface is a friable sand- ‘stone containing some shale bands, and is known as Hawkesbury Sandstone of the Triassic period. Iam indebted to Mr. J. C. H. Mingaye for the following partial analysis of a sample of this sandstone rock :— Silica dis we C8°U4 Magnesia ... o- OF29 Alumina* ... .. 13°48 Potash oe ceo, WOOT Ferric Oxide ee leo) Soda... See .. «=©0°19 Ferrous Oxide... 0°27 Titanium Dioxide... 0°42 Lime ase re od * Including any Phosphoric anhydride present. The annual rainfall in this locality is probably in the vicinity of 35 inches. As this denuded area and the adjoining forest are likely to remain in their present state for many years, the oppor- tunity is afforded of observing a natural invasion of plant life on an uninviting rocky surface, and an examination every few years should prove instructive. The following is a record of the plants found growing on this area on the 8rd November, 1923, at about the end of the first five years :— GRAMINEZ: Calamagrostis cemula Steud., Danthonia racemosa R.Br., Festuca myurus (naturalised). HAMODORACEZ: Heemodorum planifolium R.Br. IRIDACEAE: Patersonia sericea R.Br. (Wild Iris). OASUARINEH: Casuarina suberosa Ott. and Dietr. (Forest Oak). PROTEACEH: Petrophila pulchella R.Br., Grevillea spha- celata R.Br., Banksia spinulosa Sm. POLYGONACEH: Rumex acetosella L., (Sorrel, naturalised). LEGUMINOSH: Acacia juniperina Willd., A. suaveolens Willd., A. linifolia Willd., A. myrtifolia Willd., Mir- 336 R. H. CAMBAGE. belia reticulata Sm., Gompholobium grandifiorum Sm.,. Spheerolobium vimineum Sm., Daviesia corymbosa Sm.,. Dillwynia pedunecularis Sieb. (a prostrate form), D. floribunda Sm.? (not sufficiently developed for definite determination), Bossicea microphylla Sm, POLYGALACEH : Comesperma ericinum DO. HUPHORBIACE® : Poranthera ericifolia Rudge. THYMELHACEA: Pimelea linifolia Sm. MyYRTACE#: Hucalyptus eugenioides Sieb. (Stringybark),. E. hcemastoma Sm. (Brittle Gum), EH. Sieberiana F.v.M. (Mountain Ash), Leptospermum attenuatum Sm. UMBELLIFERA: Trachymene linearis Spreng. GOODENIACEH: Goodenia hederacea Sm. Oomposita: Olearia Nernstii F.v.M., O. microphylla Benth.,Hypocheris radiata L. (Dandelion, naturalised). From the above list it may be seen that about thirty- three species have established themselves on this denuded area. Practically the whole of these, as well as many others, were noticed on the adjoining land. The species most plentifully represented on the invaded surface are:—Patersonia sericea, Rumex acetosella, and Daviesia corymbosa. Already small accumulations of sand are beginning toform and a miniature sand-dune three to four feet across and about nine inches high, is held in position by a cluster of plants of Mirbelia reticulata. The tallest HKucalyptus is a seedling of E. Sieberiana, about one foot high, while a plant of Acacia linifolia, about six feet high, is the tallest on the area. I wish to express my thanks to Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.R.s., for assistance and corroboration in the identification of some of the plants. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,Vol LVIL,1923. Plate XAXIT. (Looking Westerly.) invasion, Denuded Area at Bargo, showing gradual plant OCCURRENCE OF GIBBERELLA SAUBINETII IN N.S.W. 337 ON THE OCCURRENCE IN NEW SOUTH WALES OF GIBBERELLA SAUBINETI, THE ORGANISM OCAUSING SCAB OF WHHAT AND OTHER OKREHALS. By H. J. HYNES, B.Sc. Agr., Walter and Eliza Hall Agriculture Research Fellow, University of Sydney. [With Plates XXIII-XXVII.] - [Received February 8th, 1924. | Introduction. OF late years considerable attention has been devoted to certain members of the genus Fusarium, a fungus causing foot-rot and head-blight of cereals. In the United States the total annual losses caused by the ravages of Gibberella Saubinetii (Mont.) Sacc., are heavy. In 1919,©” an epi- demic year, the losses in spring and winter wheat amounted to almost 80,000,000 bushels. In Russia the Fusarium blight is known to be one of the most destructive of the cereal diseases. As far as Australia is concerned, there is no record of any very serious damage to cereal crops being caused by any member of the Fusarium group. In 1896 McAlpine”? recorded a Fusarium ‘‘forming salmon-coloured patches on stems of wheat, especially at the nodes, and on ears.’’ Hamblin in 1921 found the genus Fusarium in association with certain foot-rot conditions of wheat but did not investigate the matter further. In the course of work dealing with Helminthosporium and Ophiobolus diseases of wheat, numerous tissue-platings * Numbers in brackets refer to literature citations. V—December 5, 1923. 338 H, J. HYNES. have been made from plants showing foot-rot and node- blight conditions. From these platings the genus Fusarium has been isolated so frequently that the writer considers that this fungus may be important in producing certain of the cereal foot-rots in New South Wales. In January 1922, Mr. W. L. Waterhouse, of the Faculty of Agriculture, Sydney University, collected oat stubble at the Grafton Experiment Farm, N.S.W., which showed a definite foot-rot condition; the main roots of a few of the plants were covered with a thin, whitish, mycelial weft. Associated with this foot-rot condition Mr. Waterhouse found numerous perithecia (Plate XXIII) which he con- sidered to belong to the genus Gibberella. From this material a culture was obtained on potato dextrose agar, showing typical Fusarium characters. In April of 1923 the perithecial material and Fusarium cultures were handed over to the writer for detailed study. In November of the same year Mr. Waterhouse found that certain plants of crossbred wheat (Canberra ‘9 :: 4 weeks; note the peri- 5. The two forms on potato mush agar after 4 weeks; note the perithecial formation in Form No. 2 on right half of dish. Puate XXVI. | 1. Control plants of Hard Federation wheat, 13 days old. 2. Plants of Hard Federation wheat showing seedling-blight, 13 days after sowing in soil inoculated with Form No. 1. Puate XXVIT. 1. Control heads of Federation wheat. 2. Heads of Federation wheat inoculated with Form No. 1; note lesions on the glumes, ee * Ready acknowledgment is made of assistance given in the photo- graphic work by Messrs. H. G. Gooch and W. J. Reay Plate XXJ1T. 1923. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,Vol. LVI, it " Ly ie } Rew Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LV IL , 1923, Plate XXIV. “as = . ' r * ay - + _ ° ly Rn tae: r \ k 5 % SE fe ade : mt z . . y, ‘ iN ’ SS 7a y)'s3 5) sae ae ae 2 — ‘ ‘ . ; ar PA shee ‘ é —— r cs eee ——— a 1 es ; F © es ~_ L p ~ Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.,Vol. LV II, 1923. Plate XXV. Journal Royal Society of N.S. W., Vol. LVIL., 1923. Plate XX VI. x y Che sai * ' ' ——— o>. > — Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LVII., 1923. Plate XX VII. ABSTRACT oF PROCEEDINGS ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS Ropal Society of Hew South ales. << +- MAY 2np, 1923. The Annual Meeting, being the four hundred and thirty- sixth General Monthly Meeting of the Society, was held at the Society’s House, 5 Elizabeth Street, Sydney, at 8 p.m. Mr. O. A. Sussmilch, President in the Chair. VWifty-eight members and two visitors were present. The minutes of the General Monthly Meeting of the 6th of December, 1922, were read and confirmed, The Oertificates of nine candidates for admission as ordinary members were read for the first time. Messrs. A. D. Ollé and R. W. Challinor were appointed Scrutineers, and Mr. EK. C. Andrews deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society:—Jack Keith Murray. Professor J. T’. Wilson was elected an honorary member of the Society. The President tendered the congratulations of the Society to Professor O. U. Vonwiller on his appointment to the ‘Ohair of Physics in the University of Sydney. It was announced that the following members had died during the recess:—Mr. Albert Bond, Mr. W. H. Kemp and the Honourable J. T. Walker. Letters were read from Mrs. J. T. Walker and the family of the late Mr. Dugald Thomson expressing thanks for the Society’s sympathy in their recent bereavements. lv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The Annual Financial Statement for the year ended 31st. March, 1923, was submitted to members, and on the motion of Professor H.G. Chapman, seconded by Mr. R. T. Baker, was unani GENERAL ACCOUNT. RECEIPTS. £ SS. \G.S ees. da To Revenue— Subscriptions ... ee sh ae »< O99 6 0 » Rents— Offices ... ; ses ... £426 16 2 Hall and aibeary ius rw 60 1b 26 ————— 587 11 8 », Sundry Receipts .. ice wee a aafe) (ulsetene ew », Government Sanit for 1922... oes ... 899 19 10 ———— 1701 0 9 5», Clarke Memorial Fund— Loan to General Fund - A as 849 O 2 », Donations to cost of alterations Sie ats 129 11 0 » Building Loan Fund— Balances in Savings Bank transferred ... 250 0 O ,, Balance—Union Bank of Australia Ltd.— Overdrawn Account, Head Office ... 3.8820 8 4. Less:— Petty Cash on hand... ae Ae” 6 aa — 3819 11 2 £6749 3 1 PAYMENTS. £ 9s. do 273s. £ 6 ude By Balance as 81st March, 1922... 2066 O 3 , Administrative Expenses— », Salaries and Wages— Office Salary & Accountancy Fees 243 15 0 Assistant Librarian ... woo!) 48750 0 Caretaker... ‘see ss .. 248 18 2 —— 540 18 2 » Printing, Stationery, Advertis- ing, Stamps, etc.— Stamps and Telegrams... 2 208 Hae 0 Office Sundries, Stationery etc. 413 5 Advertising Ain Me setele: al aL Printing ... se He ss. oo 15 9 —_——._ 1238 14 38 —— Carried forward ao .. 664 7 5 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. W—-December 5, 1923, Vv. PAYMENTS— continued £ s. d. £e se da = fs. -d Brought forward 664 7 5 By Rates, Taxes and Services— Electric Light ... se avo) 2 else OBO Gas ee ee a ste 10218 36 Insurance... es aaa we 06 18°°9 Rates ae = BAS eGo 2 ee Telephone... 2 sas ase elo Al ey ——_-——._ 288 10 7 », Printing and Publishing Society’s Volume— Printing, etc. ... Ree ... 240 10 3 Bookbinding _... Se ee AS TS — 282 3 7 », Library— Books and Periodicals... ig OU LS ae Bookbinding... eh aiden Ls 9 146 0 2 », Sundry Expenses— Repairs... 650 Mee sos poe La 89 Lantern Operato sas = 22.10°°6 Bank Charges ... ais oe OED 2 Sundries ... a Ei a.) peor ie Chairs and Matting... se Oodl ly AS Legal Expenses ... Jae f.0 pli, oO. 16 — 22118 8 Interest— ; Union Bank of Australia Ltd. 209 5 6 Clarke Memorial Fund ta oo. os 0 — 248 14 11 — 185115 4 4, Building Loan Fund— Repayment of Loan 100 14 O ,, Alteration to Premises 2730 11316 £6749 3 1 CLARKE MEMORIAL FUND. BALANCE SHEET, 31st Marcu, 1923. LIABILITIES, 2) 8205, 6 8.0. 2) Sand Accumulation Fund— Balance as at 3lst March, 1922 .., SL 20 Less: Loss on Realisation of War Loan Bonds _... 382 0 O TD 2k 0 Additions during the year— Interest, Government Savings Bank 10 3 9 » Commonwealth War Loan 20 O O » General Fund _... .. 29 9 5 69138 2 849 O 2 £849 0 2 Vi. ABTSRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. ASSETS. £ 8s. de Loan to General Fund ee a Be: aan a .. 849 O 2 £849 0 2 STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND Payments, 3lst Marcu, 1923. RECEIPTS. £ Sy edn tak. ad. To Realisation of War Loan Bond oe we a wa | 100) 30 0 », Government Savings Bank .,., Ae es we ee EO. (e », Interest War Loan Bonds _... re a5 a con ye . 'O », [Interest Loan to General Fund ae i aes ioe go eo £849 O 2 PAYMENTS, £982)