Mame Ne ne Melitta MO Ty eters Oh es ee a
‘ a ' 7 ans 3 : a = \ \ t
~ ag a Soe THE H
Cr
ONCRARY SECRETARIES. 56
3 OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN, =
ss re + “ oe
ag
BLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET, SYDNEY.
Toes
ISSUED AS A ©
OMPLETE VOLUME, MAY, 1929.
ae
CONTENTS.
VOLUME LXII.
Art, I1.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By Professor J. Dougnas Stewart, B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V,S.. a aes
Art. II.—The Chemistry of Western Astoteatan Sandalwaad Oil. = Part I. By A. R. Penrotp, F.A.C.1., F.C.S. “_ Anes ust 22nd, 1928.) ....
Arr. IlI.—The Occurrence of a ones of capes ‘a Ecce
dives, as determined by Chemical Analysis of the Essential
Oils. Part II. (With remarks on the Ortho-cresol method for estimation of Cineol). By A. R.-Penroup, F.A.C.L, F.C.S., and F, R. Morrison, A.A.C.I., F.C.S. (Issued July 4th. 1928.) -. .
_ Art. IV.—Some Ra hata: on es Woodiness or Bullet Dies: of Passion Fruit. By R. J. Nopuz, Ph.D., M.Se. [With Plates [- IV. | (Giewed October 29th, 1928.)... oes
Arr. V.— Brown Rot of Fruits, and Associated Diseases, in Aus-
tralia. Part I. History of the Diseases and Determination -
of the Causal Organisms. By T. H. Harrison, B.Sc.Agr,
[With Plates V - IX and one oe figure.) Tssued October -
29th, 1928.)... ive
PAGE
60 ~
712
79
99
Ary, VI.—Acacia Seedlings, Part XIII, By RB. HL ins aer
C.B.E.. F.LS., Bee Plates X - XIII. J Coates November 7th, 1928.) .. s
Art, VII.—The Geslony of Port Se ckuae Past L Phys and General Geology. By C. A. Sussmitcu, F.G.S., and Wm. Clark. PartIl. Petrography. ByC. A. SussMILoH, F.G.S., and W. A. Grea. [With Plates XIV XVI and two text figures.] (Issued November 29th, 1928.) 2
Art. VIII.—The Outbreak of Springs in Autumn. By R, H. CamBaae, C.B.E., F.L.S. . (Issued December 5th, 1928.)
Art. [X.—Description of Three New Species of Eucalyptus aay: One Acacia. By W. F. BLAKELY. oe Plates 1 (Issued Detobar 3rd, 1928.) x
Art. X.—The Chemistry of the Exudation coe Sin Wood of Pai taspodon Motleyi. By A. R. Penroup, F.A.C.L, F.C.S., and F. R. Morrison, A.A.C. L., F.C.S. Cane? January 30th, 1929.) Fy ae me ee
Art. XI.—The Essential Oil foes a Roisdin in the Pinwites Section from Fraser Island. 7 %y A. R. Punronp. F.A.C.I., F.C.S. (Issued February 7th34.529.) .. oa
Art. XII.—An Examination of Defective Gecnon: (Bacudebaiee Taxifolia). By M. B. Wxtcu, B.Se., A.I.C. a. Plates XXI-XXIII.} (Issued February 7th, 1929) .
Art. XIII.—On the Probable Tertiary Age of Certain ee South Wales Sedentary Soils. By W. R. Browne, D.Sc. (Issued February 12th, 1929.) _... ire oe wae ee va
152
168
192
_ 201
218 225 235
251
POUR N AL
AND
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
NEW SOUTH WALES
FOR
1925
(INCORPORATED 1881.)
ied: 1 xo:
EDITED BY
THE HONORARY SECRETARIES.
THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FORK THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN.
SYDNEY: PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET, SYDNEY.
ISSUED AS A COMPLETE YOLUME, MAY, 1929,
i nad i snl te 1
\ % / ke tM ‘ns
han
Phat
ART.
ART.
ART.
ART.
ART.
ART,
ART,
ART.
ART.
ART.
ART.
ART.
ART.
CONTENTS.
VOLUME LXIl.
I.— PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By Professor J. Dovuaguas STEWART, B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S. Hg eae
II.—The Chemistry of Western Aeaee an eee Oil. Part I. By A. R. Penroup, F.A.C.1., F.C.S. Moers Aug- ust 22nd, 1928.) :
III.—The Occurrence of a ae of varieties ‘of acai yutas dives, as determined by Chemical Analysis of the Essential Oils. Part II. (With remarks on the Ortho-cresol method for estimation of Cineol). By A. R. Penrouo, F.A.C.I., F.C.S., and F. R. Morrison, A.A.C.1., F.C.8. (Issued Tuly 4th, 1928.) . -
IV.—Some Bos « on ar Woodiness or Bullet ie of Passion Fruit. By R. J. Nopun, Ph.D., M.Sc. [With Plates [-IV.| (Issued October 29th, 1928.)... fea
V.— Brown Rot of Fruits, and Associated Diseases, in Aus-
traha. Part I. History of the Diseases and Determination of the Causal Organisms. By T’. H. Harrison, B.Sc. Agr. [With Plates V-IX and one teat figure. Issued October 29th, 1928.)...
VI.—Acacia Seedlings, Bart XIII. Be R. ce chee C.B.E.. F.LS., De Plates X - pan Snes November 7th, 1928.) ..
VII.—The cece of Port sésnicne Part IU eee and General Geology. By C. A. SussminicH, F.G.S., and Wm. Clark. Part II. Petrography. ByC.A. SussMILcH, F.G.S., and W. A. Greig. [With Plates XIV - XVI and two text figures. ] (Issued November 29th, 1928.)
VIII.—The Outbreak of Springs in Autumn. By R. H. CamBaa@e, C.B.E., F.L.8. (Issued December 5th, 1928.) ...
IX.—Description of Three New Species of Eucalyptus and One Acacia. By W. F. BLAKELY. ee Plates see (Issued October 8rd, 1928.)
X.—The Chemistry of the Exudation it tie Wood of Pen- taspodon Motleyi. By A. R. Penroup, F.A.C.L, F.C.S., and F. R. Morrison, A.A.C.I., F.C.S. a January 30th, 1929.)
XI.—The Tecate Oil es a roe in fe Panne Section from Fraser Island. By A. R. Penroup. F.A.C.I, F.C.S. (Issued February 7th, i929.) .. : oe
XII.—An Examination of Defective Oresn (peaseinga Taxifolia). By M. B. Weucn, B.Sc., A.C. [With Plates XXI-XXIII.} (Issued February 7th, 1929) ... is eh
XIII.—On the Probable Tertiary Age of Certain New South Wales Sedentary Soils. By W. R. Browns, D.Sc. (Issued February 12th, 1929.) ae iS: oa as ee
PAGE
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72
79
99
152
218
225
235
251
(iv.)
Pace Art. XIV.—The Essential Oil of a new species of Anemone leaf Boronia, Rich in Ocimene. By A. BR. Panroup, F.A.C.L, F.C.S. (Issued February 12th, 1929.) w. 2638 Art. XV.—On some Aspects of Differential Erosion. By W.R. Browne, D.Sc. ee ee teat Haute se lag aga 19th, 1929.)... ; 273 Art. XVI.—Further otee on the Gene Bomiae By B. Ben Os (Issued February 19th, 19239.) is 290 Art. XVII.—Alkalization and other Deuteric prisdennderat in ai Saddleback Trachybasalt at Port Kembla. By W. R. Browne. D.Sc. and H. P. Warrs, F.C.S. [With Plates XXIV, XXV and two ee ae an ei Nopeeee 19th, 1929.) : 303 Art. XVIII.—Notes on some Oxeanints of Tomats Pulp. By G. L. WuInpDRED, (communicated He Gilbert oo (Issued February 19th, 1929.) 341 ArT. X[X.—Notes on some Australian T oar of ane Monimiaceae. By M B. We cu, B.Sce., A.L.C. [With Plates co. (Issued February 19th, 1929. ) ie : 350 Arr. XX.—Note on a Fossil Shrimp from the Hadkoeuney ea stones. By CHARLEL CuiILTON, M.A., D.Sc., M.B., (com- municated by W. S. Dun). Bia Plate en (issued February 19th, 1929.) 366 Art, XXI.—Cyanogenetic Glucosidle in eatin Pinte. By H. Finnemonrg, B.Sc., and C. B. Cox, B.Sc. (Issued March 19th, 1929.).. uae 6c van sire a os | “OO0 ABSTRACT OF ee i,— XXV1,
PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION ...
XXV1. — XXXI1X.
PROCEEDINGS OF 'THE SECTION OF INDUSTRY xi. - xl. PROCEEDINGS Of THE SECTION OF PHYSICAL SCLENCE xlv. —li. Tirte Page, Contents, Novices, PUBLICATIONS, ... sa (i. - vi.) OFFICERS FOR 1928-1929) . (vii.) List or Members, Xe. (ix.)
InpDEx To VotumeE LXII.
lii.
NOTICE.
Tue Roya Society of New South Wales originated in 182] as the ‘Philosophical Society of Australasia”; after an interval of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the ‘¢ Australian Philosophical Society,” by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the ‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, it assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881.
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FE bequeath the sum of £ to the Royat Society oF New SoutH WaAtzgs, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall be an effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct to be paid within calendar months after my decease, without any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my estate as may be lawfully applied for that purpose.
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PUBLICATIONS. )
The following publications of the Society, if in print, can be obtained at the Society’s House in Elizabeth-street:—
Transactions of the Philosophical] Society, N.S. W., 1862-5, pp. 374, out of print. Vols. I—x1 Transactions of the Royal Society, N.S. W., 1867—1877,
99
“ xu Journal and Proceedings 9 re 1878, ,, 324, price 10s.6d. ” XII ” 29 ” ” 99 1879, 99 255, or) 5 XIV os ae <3 ‘5 es 1880, ,, 391, Es ” XV ey ” ” ” ” 1881, 99 440, 9 Ss XVI =p 53 3 4 a 1882, ,, 327, 2 9 XVII ” ” ” +9 9 1883, 9 324, ” ” XVIII ” ” ” ” ” 1884, 9 224, 99 99 XIX ” 99 ” 29 99 1885, 99 240, 99 99 XX 39 9 99 ” 99 1886, 99 396, 99 - XXI _ 3 a5 99 » 1887, ,, 296, » 99 XXIT 29 9 19 9 2? 1888, 93 390. ”” 9 XXIII 9 ” ” ” oe) 1889, 29 534, 9 on) XXIV 99 9 7) ” 9 1890, +) 290, ” ” XXV ” ” ” 29 +) 1391, 7) 348, 9 99 XXVI ” oo) ” 9 ”9 1892, 99 426, ” ” XXVII 99 ” 39 ” ” 1893, oe) 530, 99 ” XXVIII o) 7) ” oF) ” 1894, 99 368, 9 9 XXIX 9 ” 9 ” ” 1895, ” 600, ” ” XXX 99 ” ” ” 99 1896, 9 568, 9 99 XXXI 99 29 9 ” ”9 1897, 29 626, ” ” XXXII ” oe) ” ” +) 1898, ” 476, ”9 ” XXXII ” ” ” +) ” 1899, ”9 400, 99 9% XXXIV ” ye ” 99 9 1500, 9 484, 39 ” XXXV ” 9 99 99 99 1901, 9 581, 39 ” XXXVI ” ” ” ” ” 1902, ” 531, ” 2 XXXVIT 9 ” ” ” ” 1903, 9 663, 9° », XXXVITT 29 9 ” ” 29 1904, ) 604, 2” ” XXXIX oe) ” ” mh) ee) 1905, 99 274, ye) 9 XL 29 : ” ” 29 39 1906, oe) 368, 99 29 XLI 99 ” ” 9 99 1907, 99 377, 99 ee) XLII 2? 99 9 oH) oe) 1908, 99 593, ”9 99 XLIII +) 99 ” 99 ” 1909, oD) 466, 9 ” XLIV 9 oy) oo) ” Ly) 1910, 3” 719, 9 ”9 XLV 79 9 ” 9 ” 1911, 29 611, 99 oe) XLVI ye) 99 oe) oe) oy) 1912, 99 275, 9 99 XLVI 99 ” 9 ” 99 1918, 99 318, om) 9 XLVITI 99 99 ” 99 99 1914, 99 584, 9 ” XLIX 39 99 ” 7) 29 1915, 9 587, 9 ” L ey) oF) ” ” 29 1916, 29 362, oy) 99 LI 39 39 99 99 99 1917, 39 786, 99 9 LII ” oo) 9 9 ) 1918, 99 624, ye) 99 LIII 99 oe) 99 oe) 9 1919, oe) 414, 99 ” LIV 99 9 99 » or) 1920, ,, 312, price £1 ls. 9 LV 99 ” oI) ” 99 1921, 99 418, 99 9) LVI 99 99 99 99 99 1922, bP) 372, 99 ” LVII 99 99 99 ” 99 1928, oy) 421, 99 ” LVIII 29 9 ) ” oP) 1924, oy) 366, ”9 ” LIX ” 99 oe) oo) ”” 1925, ” 46S, ” 99 LX 9 99 7 3 ” 1926, ” 470, 99 9° LXI 99 be] 9 9 99 1927, 99 492, 99 ? LXII 29 bh 79 99 ae 1928, 99 458, 99
Aopal Society of Sew Sonth ales
Green Ee Es ys 2 @Oike “LO2S8-Lo2°-
Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HONOURABLE JOHN LAWRENCE, BARON STONEHAVEN, P.c., G.c.M.a4., D.s.0.
Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia.
Vice-Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY SIR DUDLEY RAWSON STRATFORD de CHATR, k.c.B., M.V.O.
Governor of the State of New South Wales.
President: W. POOLE, me, M.mst.c.£., M.1.’M.M., etc,
Vice-Presidents: R. H. CAMBAGE, c.3.u., F.L.S.* Prof. R. D. WATT, m.a., B.sc.
C. ANDERSON, .a., D.Sc. Prof. J. DOUGLAS STEWART,
B.V.Se., M.R.C.V.S.
Hon. Treasurer: Prof. H. G. CHAPMAN, m.p.
Hon. Secretaries: Prof. O. U. VONWILLER, | C. A. SUSSMILCH,
BSc., F.Inst.P, ’ F.G.S., F.S.T.C., etc.
Members of Council:
EK. C. ANDREWS, B.a., F.G@.s. Prof. C. KE. FAWSITT, p.sc., ph.v. G. H. BRIGGS, B.sc., php. G. A. JULIUS, B.sc., w.8.,.M-1.Mec.E. R. W. CHALLINOR, F.1.¢., F.c.s. J. NANGLE, 0.B.E., F.R.A.S.
EK. CHEEL. R. J. NOBLE, m.se:, Bsc. Agr. Ph.D. Prof. L. A. COTTON, m.a., D.Sc. Rev. E. F. PIGOT, sJ., B.a., M.B
*Deceased 28th Noyember, 1928
ihe i
he
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re ome
Png aU Ns hs Nae
«
fist OF THE MEMBERS
OF THE
AMopal Society of Act South Wales.
eee
P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society’s
Journal.
The numerals indicate the number of such contributions.
£ Life Members. Elected,
1908 1904 1898 1905
1909
1915
1919
1923 1878
1924 1919 1894 1894 1926
1919 1925
1908 1895
1909 1926 1923 1919
1923
Ps Bo
P 27
P2
| Abbott, George Henry, B.A., M.B.,Ch.M., 185 Macquarie-street;
p.v. ‘Cooringa,’ 252 Liverpool Road, Summer Hill. Adams, William John, M.1.Mech.E., 175 Clarence-street. Alexander, Frank Lee, William-street, Granville. Anderson, Charles, u.A., D.Sc. Hdin., Director of the Australian Museum, College-street. (President, 1924.) Vice-President. Andrews, Ernest C., 3B.A., F.G.8.. Hon. Mem. Washington Academy of Sciences, Government Geologist, Department of Mines, Sydney. (President, 1921.)
| Armit, Henry William, m.r.c.s. Eng., u.R.c.P. Lond., The
Printing House, Seamer-street. Glebe. Aurousseau, Marcel, B.sc., c/o Post Office, Manly.
Baccarini, Antonio, Doctor in Chemistry (Florence).
Backhouse, His Honour Judge A. P., m.a., ‘ Melita,’ Elizabeth Bay.
Bailey, Victor Albert, M.A., D.Phil., F.Inst.P., Assoc.-Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney.
Baker, Henry Herbert, 15 Castlereagh-street.
Baker, Richard Thomas, The Crescent. Cheltenham.
{Balsille, George, ‘ Lauderdale,’ N.E. Valley, Dunedin, N.Z.
Bannon, Joseph, Demonstrator in Physics in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘ Dunisla,’ The Crescent, Homebush.
Bardsley, John Ralph, ‘The Pines,’ Lea Avenue, Five Dock.
Barker-Woden, Lucien, F.R.G.s., Commonwealth Department of Navigation, William Street, Meibourne.
Barling, John, u.s., ‘St. Adrians, Raglan-street, Mosman.
Barraclough, Sir Henry, K.B.&., B.E., M.M.E., M. Inst. C.E., M.1I. Mech. E., Memb. Soc. Promotion Eng. Education; Memb. Internat. Assoc. Testing Materials; Dean of the Faculty of Engineering and Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Marmion,’ Victoria-street, Lewisham.
Benson, William Noel, p.sc. Syd., B.A. Cantab., F.a.s., Professor of Geology in the University of Otago, Dunedin, N.Z. en Sydney Ernest, B.sc.agr. 70 Young-street, Annan-
ale. Berry, Frederick John, F.c.s., ‘Roseneath,’ 51 Reynolds-street, Neutral Bay. Bettley-Cooke, Hubert Vernon, ‘The Hollies,’ Minter-street, Canterbury. Birks, George Frederick, c/o Potter & Birks, 15 Grosvenor-st.
lected.
1916 1920 1915 1913 1923 1905 1888 1893 1917 1926
1920
1922 |
1916 1926 1917
1891
1923 1919 1922
P4
PA
P4
Pal
P15
P 10
(X.)
Birrell, Septimus, cjo Margarine Co., Edinburgh Road, Marrickville.
Bishop, Eldred George, 8 Belmont-road, Mosman.
Bishop, John, 24 Bond-street.
Bishop, Joseph Eldred, Killarney-street. Mosman.
Blakely, William Faris, ‘ Myola,’ Florence-street, Hornsby.
Blakemore, George Henry, 683 Pitt Street, Sydney.
{Blaxland, Walter, F.R.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.p. Lond., ‘ Inglewood,’ Florida Road, Palm Beach, Sydney.
Blomfield, Charles E., B.c.e. Melb., ‘ Woombi,’ Kangaroo Camp, Guyra.
Bond, Robert Henry, ‘Eastbourne,’ 27 Cremorne-road, Cre- morne Point.
Booker, Frederick William, B.sc., ‘Dunkeld,’ Nicho!son-street, Chatswood.
Booth, Edgar Harold, M.C., B.Sc., F.Inst.P., Lecturer and Demon- stratorin Physics in the University of Sydney.
Bradfield, John Job Crew, D.Sc. Eng., M.E., M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. E. Aust. Chief Engineer, Metropolitan Railway Construction, Rail- way Department, Sydney.
Bragg, James Wood, B.a., c/o Gibson, Battle &Co. Ltd.,Kent-st.
Branch, Kenneth James F., 99 North Steyne, Manly.
Breakwell, Ernest, B.A., B.Sc, Headmaster Agricultural School, Yanco.
Brennand, Henry J. W., B.A., M.D., Chm. Syd., v.D., Surgeon Commander R.A.N. Ret., 223 Macquarie-street; p.r. 73 Milsons Road, Cremorne.
Brereton, Ernest Le Gay, B sc., Lecturer and Demonstrator in Chemistry in the University of Sydney.
Briggs, George Henry, B.8c., Ph.p., Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physics in the University of Sydney.
Brough, Patrick, M.a., B.Se, B.Sc, (Agr.) (Glasgow), Lecturer in Botany in the University of Sydney.
Brown, Herbert, ‘ Sikoti,’ Alexander-street, Collaroy Beach, Sydney.
Brown, James B., St. Andrew’s, Mont Victor Road, East Kew, H. 4, Victoria.
Browne, William Rowan, pD.sc., Assistant-Professor of Geology in the University of Sydney.
{Burfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, B.A., M.B., Ch.M. B.Sc, Syd., ‘Wyom- ing,’ 175 Macquarie-street, Sydney.
Buckitt, Arthur Neville St. George, u.B, B.sc., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Sydney.
Burrows, George Joseph, B.sc, Lecturer and Demonstrator in Chemistry in the University of Sydney; p.r. Watson-street, Neutral Bay.
Calvert, Thomas Copley, Assoc.M.Inst.c.E, Department of Pub- lic Works, Sydney.
Cameron, Lindsay Duncan, Hilly-street, Mortlake.
Campbell, Alfred W., M.pD., ch.m. Edin., 183 Macquarie-street.
Carment, David, r.1.a. Grt. Brit. @ Irel. ¥.F.A., Scot., 4 Whaling Road, North Sydney.
Carruthers, Sir Joseph Hector. K.c.M.G., M.1..C., M.a., Syd., LL.D., St. Andrews, ‘Highbury,’ Waverley.
lected 1903
1913 1909 1913 1925
‘1909 1876 1896 1920 1913 1928
‘1882 1919
‘1909 1892 1886 1921 1927 ‘1925
1912
‘1886
1928 1890
A919 1921 1921 1894
(xais)
P3) Carslaw, Horatio S., m.a., Se.b., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Sydney.
P 3| Challinor, Richard Westman, F.1.c., F.c.s., Lecturer in Chem- istry, Sydney ‘l'echnical College.
P 2| Chapman, Henry G., m.p., B.s., Director of Caxcer Research, University of Sydney. Hon. Treasurer.
P 16) Cheel, Edwin, Curator National Herbarium, Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
P 1| Clark, William E., ‘ Acacia,’ Cambridge-street, Epping.
P 20} Cleland, John Burton, m.p., ch.m., Professor of Pathology inthe University of Adelaide. (President 1917.)
Codrington, John Frederick, m.r.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.e. Lond, and Edin., ‘Roseneath,’ 8 Wallis-street, Woollahra.
P4| Cook, W. E., m.c.e. Melb., M.Inst.,C.E., Burroway-st., Neutral Bay.
Cooke, Frederick, c/o Meggitt’s Limited, 26 King-street.
P 3] Coombs, F. A., F.c.s., Instructor of Leather Dressing and Tanning, Sydney Technical College; p.r. Bannerman Crescent, Rosebery.
Coppleson, Victor Marcus, u.s., Chu ,r.rc.s., 225 Macquarie- street, Sydney.
Cornwell, Samuel, J.P., ‘Capanesk,’ Tyagarah, North Coast.
Cotton, Frank Stanley, B.sc., Chief Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physiology in the University of Sydney.
P 6| Cotton, Leo Arthur, m.a., D.Sc, Professor of Geology in the University of Sydney,
P1| Cowdery, George R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., ‘Glencoe,’ Torrington Road, Strathfield.
Crago, W. H., u.n.c.s. Eng., u.R.c.p. Lond., 185 Macquarie-st. tCresswick, John Arthur, 101 Villiers-street, Rockdale.
P 1] Currey, Geoffrey Saunders, 13 Princess-avenue, Homebush.
Curry, Harris Eric Marshall, c/o M. Barker, Esq., Kincumber, N.S. W.
Curtis, Louis Albert, L.s., F.t.s. (N.S.W.), v.p., Room 618, New Government Savings Bank, Castlereagh-street; p.r. No. 1 Mayfair Flats, Macleay-street,; Darlinghurst.
P 23) David, Sir Edgeworth, K.B.z., C.M.G., D.S.0, B.A., D.Sc, ¥.R.S., F.G.S., Wollaston Medallist, Emeritus Professor of Geo- logy and Physical Geography in the University of Sydney; p-r. ‘Coringah,’ Sherbroke-road, Hornsby. (President 1895, 1910.)
Davidson, Walter Charles, General Manager Clyde Engineer- ing Company, Granville.
Dare, Henry Harvey, M.E., M.Inst.C.E, Commissioner, Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Union House, George-street.
P 2) de Beuzeville, Wilfrid Alex. Watt, Forestry Assessor, Forest Office, Tumut.
Delprat, Guillaume Daniel, c.B.z., ‘Keynsham,’ Mandeville Crescent, ‘loorak, Victoria.
Denison, Sir Hugh Robert, x.B.z., 701 Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street.
Dick, James Adam. o.m.c., B.A. Syd., M.D., Ch.M., F.R.C.8. Edin., ‘Catfoss,’ 59 Beluore Road, Randwick.
Elected 1906 1913 1928 1908
1924
1924
1923 1919 1924
1918
1916 1908
1896 1887
1921 1910
1909
1922 1927
1923
1920 1888
1879 1920 1905 1904
1925 1918
P3
P'6
P 2
PZ
Pay
Pil
(xii)
Dixson, William, ‘ Merridong,’ Gordon Road, Killara.
Doherty, William M., F.1c., F.c.s., Second Government: Analyst, ‘ Jesmond,’ George-street, Marrickville.
Donegan, Henry Arthur James, A.s.7.c., Chemical Laboratory, Department of Mines, Sydney.
Dun, William S., Paleeontologist, Department of Mines, Sydney. (President 1918. )
Dupain, George Zephirin, a.a.c.1., F.c s., Dupain Institute of Physical Education, Manning Building, Pitt and Hay Streets, Sydney, p.r. ‘Symington,’ Parramatta Road, Ashfield.
Durham, Joseph, 120 Belmore Road, Randwick.
Karl, John Campbell, p.se. Pn.p., Professor of Organic Chem- istry in the University of Sydney.
Earp, T'he Hon. George Frederick, ¢.B.n., u.u.c., Australia House, Carrington-street.
Eastaugh, Frederick Alldis, a.r.s.m., F.1.c., Assoc. Professor in Chemistry, Assaying and Metallurgy in the University of Sydney.
fElliott, Edward, c/o Reckitts’ (Oversea) Ltd., Bourke-street, Redfern.
Enright, Walter J., B.a., High-street, West Maitland, N.S.W.
Esdaile, Edward William, 42 Hunter-street.
Fairfax, Geoffrey E., Hon. tu.p. (Toronto), B.a., S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street.
Faithfull, R. L., u.p., New York, u.R.0.P., u.s.A. Lond., c/o Iceton,,. Faithfull and Maddocks, 25 O’Connell-street.
Farnsworth, Henry Gordon, ‘ Rothsay,’ 90 Alt-street, Ashfield.
Farrell, John, a.t.c., Syd., Riverina Flats, 265 Palmer-street, Sydney.
Fawsitt, Charles Edward, p.sc., Ph,D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. (President 1919).
Ferguson, Andrew, 9 Martin Place, Sydney.
Finnemore, Horace, B.Sce., F.1.C., Lecturer in Pharmacy in the: University of Sydney.
Fiaschi, Piero, 0.B.E., mu.p. (Columbia Univ.), p.p.s. (New York): M.R.C.S. (Eng.), L.R.0.P. (Lond.), 178 Phillip-street.
Fisk, Ernest Thomas, Wireless House, 47 York-street.
Fitzhardinge, His Honour Judge G. H., m.a. ‘Red Hill,” Pennant Hills.
{Foreman, Joseph, m.x.c.s. Eng. u.R.c.P. Edin., ‘The Astor,” Macquarie-street.
Fortescue, Albert John, ‘Benambra,’ Loftus-street, Arncliffe.
Foy, Mark, c/o Hydro Office, 133a Pitt-street, Sydney.
Fraser, James, ©.M.G., M.Inst.C.E., Chief Commissioner for Railways, Bridge-street.
Friend, Norman Bartlett, 48 Pile-street, Dulwich Hill.
Gallagher, James Laurence, m.a. Syd., ‘Akaroa,’ Hllesmere- Avenue, Hunter’s Hill.
eer
Elected
1926 |
1921
1897 1922 1916 1922 1927 1923 1919
1880
1912 1892 1919
1916 1912 1887
1909 1916 1905
1913 1923 1918
1916 1914
1916 1919 1919 1884
1918
1921 11928
P5
P2
Ps
Pl P8
P5 Pt Pl
P2 Pi}
P2
(xiii. )
Gibson, Alexander James, M.E., M.Inst.c.E., M.I g.Aust., 906 Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street, Sydney.
Godfrey, Gordon Hay, m.a.. B.Sc, Lecturer in Physics in the Technical College, Sydney; p.r. 262 Johnston-street, Annandale.
Gould, The Hon. Sir Albert John, K.B., v.p., ‘ Eynesbury,’ Edgecliff.
Grant, Robert, F.c.s., Department of Public Health, 98 Mac- quarie-street.
Green, Victor Herbert, 19 Bligh-street.
Greig, William Arthur, Mines Department, Sydney.
Gunn, Reginald Montague Cairns, B.Sc., B.Sc.Agr., M.R.C.V.S. Lecturer in Veterinary Auatomy and Surgery in the University of Sydney.
Gurney, William Butler, Government Entomologist, Depart- ment of Agriculture, Sydney.
Halligan, Gerald H., u.s., F.4.s., Uplands,”’ Station Street. Pymble.
Hallmann, E. F., B.sc., 72 John-street, Petersham.
Halloran, Henry Ferdinand, t.s., 82 Pitt-street.
Hambridge, Frank, Adelaide Steamship Co. Chambers, Bridge- street, Sydney.
Hamilton, Arthur Andrew, ‘The Ferns,’ 17 Thomas-st., Ashfield
Hamilton, Alexander G., ‘Tanandra,’ Hercules-st., Chatswood.
Hamlet, William M., F.1.c., F.c.s., Member of the Society of Public Analysts ; ‘Glendowan,’ Glenbrook, Blue Mountains. B.M.A. Building, 30 Elizabeth-st. (President 1899, 1908).
Hammond, Walter L., B.sc., High School, Bathurst.
Hardy, Victor Lawson, ‘Tiri Mona,’ 11a Gordon-av., Randwick
Harker, George, D.Sc., F.A.c.I., Chamber of Commerce Building, 35 William-street, Melbourne.
Harper, Leslie F., r.a.s., Geological Surveyor, Department of Mines, Sydney.
Harrison, Travis Henry, Lecturer in Entomology and Botany at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond.
Hassan. Alex. Richard Roby, c/o W. Angliss & Co. Ppty. Ltd., 64 West Smithfield, London, E.C.
Hay Dalrymple-, Richard T., t.s.; 45 Bay-street. Double Bay
Hector, Alex. Burnet, ‘‘ Druminard,”’ Greenwich-road, Green- wich.
Henderson, James, ‘ Dunsfold,’ Clanalpine-street, Mosman.
Henriques, Frederick Lester, 208 Clarence-street.
Henry, Max, D5S.0., B.V.Se, M.R.C.V.s., ‘Coram Cottage,’ Essex- street, Epping.
Henson, Joshua B., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., 28 Barton-street, May- field, Newcastle.
Hindmarsh, Percival, m.a., B.se. (Agr.), Teachers’ College, The University, Sydney; p.r. ‘Lurnea,’ Canberra Avenue, Greenwich.
Hindmarsh, William Lloyd, B.v.se, M.R.c.Vv.s., D.v.8., District Veterinary Officer, Glenfield.
Hirst, George Walter Cansdell, B.Sc., Chief Mechanical Engi- neer’s Office, Wilson Street, Redfern.
Elected,
1916
1924
1901 1905
1920 1919 VSM) 1919 1913
1920 1923
1927
1923
1922 1904
1925 1917 1918
1909 1924 1911
1924 1924
1887 1919
1896
P3
IPs2
P15
P3
(xiv.)
Hoggan, Henry James, A.M.1.M.@., A.M.1.E. (Aust.). Manchester Unity Chambers, 160 Castlereagh-street; pr. ‘ Lincluden,” Frederick-street, Rockdale.
Holme, Ernest Rudolph, 0.8.u., m.a., Professor of English: Language in the University of Sydney.
Holt, Thomas 8., ‘Amalfi,’ Appian Way, Burwood.
Hooper, George, J.P., F.1.c. Syd., ‘Mycumbene,’ Nielsen Park,. Vaucluse.
Hordern, Anthony, c.B.z., 12 Spring-street, Sydney.
Hoskins, Arthur Sidney, Eskroy Park, Bowenfels.
Hoskins, Cecil Harold, Windarra, Bowenfels.
Houston, Ralph Liddle, No. 1 Lincluden Gardens, Fairfax-rd.,. Double Bay.
Hudson, G. Inglis, J.p., r.c.s., ‘Gudvangen,’ Arden-st., Coogee..
Hulle, Edward William, Commonwealth Bank of Australia.
Hynes, Harold John, B.sc., (Agr.), Walter and Bliza Hall Agri-- cultural Research Fellow, Biological Branch, Department: of Agriculture, Sydney.
Inglis, William Keith, M.D., Ch.M., Lecturer in Pathology in: the University of Sydney; p.r. 34 Wolseley-street,. Drummoyne.
Ingram, William Wilson, u.c., M.D., cn.B., 185 Macquarie-st., Sydney.
Jacobs, Ernest Godfried, ‘Cambria,’ 106 Bland-street, Ashfield.
Jaquet, John Blockley, a.x.s.M., F.G.s., Chief Inspector of Mines,. Department of Mines, Sydney.
Jenkins, Charles Adrian, B.£., B.Sc, 2 Ramsgate Avenue, Bondi Beach.
Jenkins, Richard Ford, Engineer for Boring, Irrigation Com-: mission, 6 Union-street, Mosman.
John, Morgan Jones, M.1I.Mech.&., A.M.1.E.E. Lond., M.1.E. Aust.,. w.1.M. Aust., Atlas Building, 8 Spring-street; p.r. Olphert. Avenue, Vaucluse.
Johnston, ''homas Harvey, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S., Professor of Zoology in the University of Adelaide.
Jones, Leo Joseph, Geological Surveyor, Department of Mines,. Sydney.
Julius, George A., Sir, Kt., B.8c., M.E., M.I.Mech.E., Culwulla: Chambers, Castlereagh-street, Sydney.
Kenner, James, Ph. D., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Technological, Chemistry in the University of Manchester.
Kenny, Edward Joseph, Field Assistant, Department of Mines, Sydney; p.r. 45 Robert-street, Marrickville.
Kent, Harry C., M.A., F.R.1.B.A., Dibbs’ Chambers, 58 Pitt-st..
Kesteven, Hereward Leighton, M.D., Ch.M., D.Sc., Bulladelah,,. New South Wales.
King, Kelso, 14 Martin Place.
Elected
1923 1920
1919 1877
1924:
1920 1916 1909 1883 1906
1924
1927 |
1884
1923 1921
1903
1919
1906 1891
1880 1922
1927 1916
1909 1924,
1880
P2 P9
(xv.)
Kinghorn, James Roy, Australian Museum, Sydney. Kirchner, William John, B.sc., “ Wanawong,” ‘I hornleigh-road,, Beecroft.
| Kirk, Robert Newby, 25 O’Connell-street
Knox, Edward W., ‘Rona,’ Bellevue Hill, Double Bay.
Leech, ‘Thomas David James, B.sc., Syd., ‘Orontes,’ Clarke-st., Granville.
Le Souef, Albert Sherbourne, Taronga Park, Mosman.
L’Estrange, Walter William, 7 Church-street, Ashfield.
Leverrier, Frank, B.A., B.Sc, K.c., Wentworth Road, Vaucluse.
“ingen, J. T., m.a. Cantab., x.c., e/¢c Union Club, Bligh-st.
Loney, Charles Augustus Luxton, M.Am.Soc.Refr.E., Equitable Building, George-street.
Love, David Horace, Beauchamp Avenue, Chatswood.
Love, William Henry, Bsc, ‘‘Lumeah,’ 9 Miller-street, Haberfield.
MacCormick, Sir Alexander, K.c.M.G., M.D., C.M. Hdin., M.R.C.S. Eng., 185 Macquarie-street.
Mackay, Iven Giffard. c.u.a., D.s.o., B.A., Student Adviser and Secretary of Appointments Board, The University, Svdney.
McDonald, Alexander Hugh Earle, Superintendent of Agri- culture, Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
McDonald, Robert, J.p., u.s., Pastoral Chambers, O’Connell-st; p.r. ‘ Lowlands,’ William-street, Double Bay.
McGeachie, Duncan, M.1.M.E,, M.1.E, (Aust.), u.1.m.m. (Aust.), ‘Craig Royston,’ Toronto, Lake Macquarie.
McIntosh, Arthur Marshall, ‘Moy Lodge,’ Hill-st., Roseville.
McKay, R. T., L.S., M.Inst.C.E., Commissioner, Sydney Harbour Trust, Circular Quay.
McKinney, Hugh Giffin, m.z., Roy. Univ. Irel., M.Inst.C.E., Sydney Safe Deposit, Paling’s Buildings, Ash-street.
McLuckie, John, M.a.; B.sc., (Glasgow), D.Sc.. (Syd.), Assistant- Professor of Botany in the University of Sydney.
McMaster, Frederick Duncan, ‘“‘ Dalkeith,’’ Cassilis.
McQuiggin, Harold G., u.B., ch.m., B.Sc, Lecturer and Demon- strator in Physiology in the University of Sydney; p.r.. ‘ Berolyn,’ Beaufort-street, Croydon.
Madsen, John Percival Vissing, D.Sc., B.E., Professor of Elec- trical Engineering in the University of Sydney.
Mance, Frederick Stapleton. Under Secretary for Mines, Mines. Department, Sydney; p.r. ‘ Binbah,’ Lucretia Avenue, Longueville.
P 1| Manfred, Edmund C., Montague-street, Goulburn.
‘Elected. 1920 1920
1908 1914 1926 1912
1922
1928
1926 1879 1922
1924 1924, 1879
1915
1923
1893
1917 1924 1891 1920
Pl
P13
P2
P4
P2
(xvi.)
Mann, Cecil William.
Mann, James Elliott Furneaux, Barrister at Law, c/o H. Southerden, Esq.. Box 1646 J.J., G.P.O., Sydney.
Marshall, Frank, c.m.c., B.D.s., 151 Macquarie-street.
Martin, A. H., Technical College, Sydney.
Mathews, Hamilton Bartlett, B.a. Syd., Surveyor General of N.S.W., Department of Lands, Sydney.
Meldrum, Henry John, B.a., 8.sc. ‘ Craig Roy,’ Sydney Road, Manly.
Mills, Arthur Edward, m.B., cn.m., Dean of the Faculty of Medicine, Professor,of Medicine in the University of Sydney ; p.r. 143 Macquarie-street.
Mitchell, Louis Ivan, Ph.D., Colonial Sugar Refining Co., Pyrmont. :
Mitchell, Ernest Marklow, 106 Harrow Road, Rockdale
Moore, Frederick H., Union Club, Sydney.
Morrison, Frank Richard, 4.a.c.1., F.c.s., Assistant Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney; p.r. Brae-st., Waverley.
Morrison, Malcolm, Department of Mines, Sydney.
Mullens, Arthur Launcelot, 65 Woodside Avenue, Strathfield.
Mullins, John Lane, u.t.c., M.a. Syd., ‘ Killountan,’ Double Bay.
Murphy, R. K., Dr. Ing., Chem. Eng., Lecturer in Chemistry Technical College, Sydney.
Murray, Jack Keith, B.A., B.sc. (Agr.), Principal, Queensland Agricultural College, Gatton, Queensland.
Nangle, James, 0.B.E., F.R.A.S., Superintendent of Technical Education, The ‘Technical College, Sydney; Government Astronomer, The Observatory, Sydney. (President 1920., Vice-President.
Nash, Norman C., ‘Ruanora,’ King’s Road, Vaucluse.
Nickoll, Harvey, L.8.c.P., L.R.C.s., Barham, via Mudgee, N.S.W.
tNoble, Edward George, L.s., 8 Louisa Road, Balmain.
Noble, Robert Jackson, M.Se., B.Sc.Agr., Ph.D., Agricultural Museum, George-street, North; p.r. ‘ Lyndon,’ Carrington- | street, Homebush.
f{Old, Richard, ‘ Waverton,’ Bay Road, North Sydney.
Olding, George Henry, *‘ Werriwee,” Wright's Road, Drum- moyne.
Ollé, A. D., F.c.s., ‘Kareema,’ Charlotte-street, Ashfield.
Ormsby, Irwin, ‘Caleula,’ Allison Road, Randwick.
Osborn, A. F., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Water Supply Branch, Sydney; p.r. ‘ Waugoola,’ Fern-street. Pymble.
Osborn, Theodore George Bentley, D.sc., F.LS., Professor of Botany in the University of Sydney.
Osborne, George Davenport, D.sc. Lecturer and Demonstrator in Geology in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Belle-Vue,’ Kembla-st., Arncliffe.
‘Elected 1880 | 1921 1928
1920 1909
1879 1881 1919 1917
1896 1921
1918 1927
1918 1893
1927 1922 1919
1909 1928
1920 1924 1928 11884 1895 1927 (1925
1907
(xvil.)
| Palmer, Joseph, 96 Pitt-st.; p.r. Kenneth-st., Willoughby.
Parkes, Varney, Conjola, South Coast.
Parsons, Stanley William Enos, Analyst and Inspector, N.S.W. Explosive Department, p.r. Shepherd Road, Artar- mon.
P 49| Penfold, Arthur Ramon, F.c.s., Curator and Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Harris-street, Ultimo.
P 2| Pigot, Rev. Edward F., s.J., B.A., M.B. Dub., Director of the Seismological Observatory, St. Ignatius’College, Riverview.
P 8| Pittman, Edward F., Assoc.R.S.M. L.S., ‘The Oaks,’ Park-street, South Yarra, Melbourne.
Poate, Frederick, F.R.A.S., L.S., ‘ Clanfield,’ 50 Penkivil-street, Bondi.
Poate, Hugh Raymond Guy, m.B., ch. M. Syd., F.R.C.8. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., 225 Macquarie-street.
Poole, William, m.z., (Civil, Min. and Met.) Syd., mM. Inst. C.E., M.I.M.M., M.I.E., Aust., M.Am.1.M.E., M. Aust. I. M.M., L.S., 906 Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street. President. (Member from 1891 to 1904.)
Pope, Roland James, B.a., Syd., M.D., Ch.M., F.R.CS.. EHdin., 185 Macquarie-street.
P2| Powell, Charles Wilfrid Roberts, a.1.c., c/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co., O’Connell-street.
‘Powell, John, 17 Thurlow-street, Redfern.
Price, William Lindsay, B.E.,B.Sc.,“ Malola,” Smith-road, Artarmon.
Priestley, Henry, mM.D., ch. M., B.Sc, Associate-Professor of Physiology in the University of Sydney.
Purser, Cecil, B.A., M.B., Chm. Syd., 185 Macquarie-street.
Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald, m.a., Cantab., m.a., Adel., F.R.A.I., Cantab., Professor of Anthropology in the Uni- versity of Sydney.
Raggatt, Harold George, B.sc., “‘ Meru,” Epping-av., Epping.
P 3| Ranclaud, Archibald Boscawen Boyd, B.sc., B.E., Lecturer in Physics, Teachers’ College, The University, Sydney.
Reid, David, ‘ Holmsdale,’ Pymble.
Reidy, Eugene Nicholas, a.s.t.c., Analyst, Department of Mines, Sydney.
Richardson, John James, A.M.1.E.E. Lond., ‘ Kurrawyba,’ Upper Spit Road, Mosman.
Robertson, James R. M., m.p., C.M., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., ‘Vanduara,’ Ellamang Avenue, Kirribilli.
Ross, Allan Clunies, B.Sc, 15 Castlereagh-street, Sydney. (Member from 1915 to 1924.)
P 1| Ross, Chisholm, u.p. Syd., M.B., Ch.M., Hdin., 225 Macquarie-st.
Ross, Herbert E., Equitable Building, George-street.
Ross, Ian Clunies, D.V.Sce., ‘‘ Lorne,” The Grove, Woollahra.
Roughley, Theodore Cleveland, Technological Museum, Sydney.
Ryder, Charles Dudley, D. Eng. (Vienna), Assoc.I.R.8.M,. (L.), Ass.A.C.1., F.C.8., (L.j, Public Analyst (by appoint.), 59 Patterson-street; Concord.
Elected 1922 | 1926
1920 1920 TOUS 1923 1918 1924 1927
1917 1900
1922 1919
1921 1917 1916 1921 1914 1920 1913 1900 1909
1916 1927 1919 1920 1918 1901
1919 1920
Pil
Pl
Pt
Pt
Po
(xviii. )
Sandy, Harold Arthur Montague, 326 George-street.
Saunderson, William, B.Sc. Dun,, F.C.S., Licentiate, College of- Preceptors England, c/o Imperial Service Club, 12 O’Con- nell-street, Sydnev.
Sawyer, Basil, B.s., ‘Birri Birra,’ The Crescent, Vaucluse.
Scammell, Rupert Boswood, B.sc., Syd., 18 Middle Head Road, Mosman.
Sear, Walter George Lane, c/o J. Kitchen & Sons, Ingles-st.,. Port Melbourne.
Seddon, Herbert Robert, p.v.sc,, Director, Veterinary Research- Station, Glenfield.
Sevier, Harry Brown, c/o Lewis Berger and Sons (Aust.) Ltd., Cathcart House, Castlereagh-street.
Shelton, James Peel, msc, B.Sc, Agr., Department of Agri-- culture, Canberra. .
Shearsby, Alfred James, 152 Bland-street, Haberfield.
Sibley, Samuel Edward, Mount-street, Coogee.
tSimpson, R.C., Lecturer in Electrical Engineering, Technical College, Sydney.
Smith, Thomas Hodge, Australian Museum, Sydney. Southee, Ethelbert Ambrook, 0.B.8., M.A., B.Sc, Principal, Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, N.S.W. Spencer-Watts, Arthur, ‘Araboonoo,’ Glebe-street, Randwick. Spruson, Wilfred Joseph, Daily Telegraph Building, King-st.. Stephen, Alfred Ernest, F.c.s., Box 1197 H.H.G.P.O., Sydney... Stephen, Henry Montague, B.a., LL.B., c/o Messrs. Maxwell and Boyd, 17 O’Connell-street.
Stephens, Frederick G. N., F.R.c.s., M.B., Ch.M., Captain Piper’s Koad and New South Head Road, Vaucluse.
Stephens, John Gower, m.B., Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown.
Stewart, Alex. Hay, B.z., ‘ Yunah,’ 22 Murray-street, Croydon
Stewart, J. Douglas, B.v.sc., M.R.c.V.s., Professor of Veterinary Science in the University of Sydney ; p.r. ‘ Berelle,’ Home- bush Road, Strathfield. (President 1927.) Vice-President...
Stokes, Edward Sutherland, m.s. Syd., ¥.z.c.p. Irel., Medical Officer, Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street.
Stone, W.G., Assistant Analyst, Department of Mines, Sydney.
Stump, Claude Witherington, M.D., D.Sc., Assoc.-Professor of Auatomy in the University of Sydney ; p.r. 40 Shirley-rd.. Wollstonecraft.
Stroud, Sydney Hartnett, F.1.C., Ph.c., c/o Elliott Bros., Ltd., Terry-street, Rozelle.
| Sulman, Sir John, Kt., Warrung-st., McMahon’s Point, North
Sydney. Sundstrom, Carl Gustaf, c/o Federal Match Co., Park Road, Alexandria.
P 12\tSussmilch, C. A., F.a.s., F.S.T.c., A.M.1I.E. (Aust.), Principal of
the East Sydney Technical College, and Assistant Super-- intendent of Technical Education. (President 1922. Hon. Secretary. . tSutherland, George Fife, a.R.c.sc., Lond., Assistant-Professor - in Mechanical Engineering, in the University of Sydney. Sutton, Harvey, 0.B.£.,M.D., D.P.H. Velb., B.Sc. Oxon., ‘ Lynton,” Kent Road, Rose Bay.
Elected 1919
1916 1890
1921 1892
1903
1924. 1919 1910 1910 1879
~~ bo co
P 4,
P5
(xa)
Swain, Herbert John, B.a. Cantab., B.sc, B.e. Syd., Lecturer in Mechanical Engineering, ‘echnical College, Sydney.
Tannahill, Robert William, B.Sc. Syd., ‘‘ Eastwell,” 40 Camma-- ray Avenue, North Svdney.
Taylor, Harold B., p.sc., Kenneth-street, Longueville.
Taylor, John Kingsley, Hawkesbury Agricultural College,. Richmond; p.r. 16 Ferrier-street, Rockdale.
tTaylor, John M., m.a., LL.B. Syd., ‘Woonona,’ 43 East Crescent- street, McMahon’s Point, North Sydney.
Taylor, Thomas Griffith, B.a., D.s-., B.8.. Professor of Geography in the University of Chicago.
Teece, R., F.1.A., F.F.A., Wolseley Road, Point Piper.
Thomas, David, B.E., Mim.mM, FG.S. 15 Clifton Avenue; Burwood.
Thomas, John, u.s., ‘Remeura,’ Pine and Harrow Roads, Auburn.
Thompson, Herbert William, ‘ Marathon,’ Francis-st.,Randwick
Thompson, Joseph, M.a., LL.B., Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt-st..
Thorne, Harold Henry, B.a. Cantab., B.sc. Syd., Lecturer in Mathematics in the University of Sydney; p.r. Rutledge-st., Eastwood.
Tillyard, Robin John, M.A., D.Sc. F.8.S., F.L.S., F.E.S., Chief: Commonwealth Entomologist, Canberra, F.c.T.
Timcke, Edward Waldemar, Meteorologist, Weather Bureau, Sydney.
Tindale, Harold, Works Engineer, c/o Australian Gas-Light Co., Mortlake.
Toppin, Richmond Douglas, a.1.c., Parke Davis & Co., Rose- bery.
Trebeck, P. C., ‘‘ Boera,’” Queen-street, Bowral.
Tye, Cyrus Willmott Oberon. Under Secretary for Public Works, Public Works Dept., Sydney; p.r. 19 Muston-st.,. Mosman.
Valder, George, J.p., 43 Albert-street, Mosman.
Vicars, James, m.u.. Memb. Intern. Assoc. Testing Materials;, Memb. B. 58. Guild; Challis House, Martin Place.
Vicars, Robert, Marrickville Woollen Mills, Marrickville.
Vickery, George B., 9th Floor, Barrack House, Barrack-street.. Sydney.
Vonwiller, Oscar U., B.sSc., F.tnst.P., Professor of Physics in the: University of Sydney. Hon. Secretary.
Wade, Rev. Robert Thompson, u.a., Headfort School, Killara. Waley, Robert George Kinloch, 63 Pitt-street.
Walker, Charles, ‘Lynwood,’ Terry Road, Ryde.
Walker, Harold Hutchison, Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt-st.. Walker, H. O., ‘ Moora,’ Crown-street, Granville.
‘Elected 1919| Pl 11903
1901 1918 1913 | P 4
1922
11921
1924, 11919
1919|P3 “1919
1876
1910 1911 | Pl
11920 |P 22
1920; Pl 1921 1881 1922 11909 | P3 11918 1892 | P2 11923
1927
(1921
1920
(xx.)
Walkom, Arthur Bache, p.sc., Macleay House, 16 College-st.
Walsh, Fred.,, 3.P., Consul-General for Honduras in Australia and New Zealand; For. Memb. Inst. Patent Agents, Lon- don; Patent Attorney Regd. U.S.A.; Memb. Patent Law Assoc., Washington; Regd. Patent Attorn. Comm. of Aust.; Memb. Patent Attorney Exam. Board Aust.; 4th Floor, Barrack House, Barrack-street, Sydney ; p.r. ‘Walsholme,’ Centennial Park, Sydney.
Walton, R. H., rc.s., ‘Flinders,’ Martin’s Avenue, Bondi.
Ward, Edward Naunton, Curator of the Botanic Gardens, Syd.
Wardlaw, Hy. Sloane Halcro, D.sv. Syd., Lecturer and Demon- strator in Physiology in the University of Sydney.
Wark, Blair Anderson, v.c., D.S.0., M.1.Q.¢., ¢/o hompson and Wark, T. & G. Building, Elizabeth-street; p.r. ‘ Braeside,’ Zeta-street, Lane Cove, Sydney.
{Waterhouse, G. Athol, p.sc, B.E., F.F.S., Curator of the Division of Economic Entomology, Canberra.
Waterhouse, Leslie Vickery, B.r. Syd., 6th Floor, Wingello House, Angel Place, Sydney.
Waterhouse, Lionel Lawry, B.r. Syd., Lecturer and Demon- strator in Geology in the University of Sydney.
Waterhouse, Walter L., M.C., B.Sc.Agr., DI.C., ‘Hazelmere,’ Chelmsford Avenue, Roseville.
Watkin-Brown, Willie Thomas, r.r.u.s., Lucasville Road, Glenbrook.
Watkins, John Leo, B.A. Cantab., m.a. Syd., University Club, Castlereagh-street ; p.r. 169 Avoca-street, Randwick.
Watson, James Frederick, m.B., ch.m., ‘Midhurst,’ Woollahra.
Watt, Robert Dickie, m.a., B.sce., Professor of Agriculture in the University of Sydney. (President, 1925). Vice- President.
Welch, Marcus Baldwin, B.sc., A.1.c., Economic Botanist, T'ech- nological Museum.
Wellish, Edward Montague, m.a., Associate-Professor in Math- ematics in the University of Sydney.
Wenholz, Harold, Director of Plant Breeding, Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
tWesley, W. H., London. Whibley, Harry Clement, 39 Moore-street, Leichhardt. {White, Charles Josiah, B.sc, Lecturer in Chemistry, Teacher’s College.
White, Edmond Aunger, M.A.I.M.E., c/o Electrolytic Refining and Smelting Co. of Australia Ltd., Port Kembla, N.S.W.
White, Harold Pogson, F.c.8., Assayer and Analyst, Depart- ment of Mines; p.r. ‘Quantox,’ Park Road, Auburn.
Whitehouse, Frank, B.v.se, (Syd.) ‘ Dane Bank,’ Albyn Road, Strathfield.
Wilkinson, Herbert oe B.A., M.B., Ch.M., Senior Lecturer and Demonstrator in Anatomy in the University of Sydney, p.v. 53 Liverpool Road, Summer Hill.
Willan, Thomas Lindsay, B.Sc, c/o Alluvial Tin Malaya Ltd., Ho Hong Bank Bld., Market and Beach Streets, Penang,
_ Straits Settlements.
Williams, Harry, a.1.c.,c/o Whiddon Bros.’ Rosebery Lanolines
Pty. Ltd., Arlington Mills, Botany.
(xx1.)
Elected
1924 Williams, William John, 18 Bridge-street, Sydney.
1923 Wilson, Stanley Hric, ‘Chatham,’ James-street, Manly.
1891 Wood, Percy Moore, u.R.c.p. Lond., M.R.c.s. Hng., ‘ Redcliffe,” Liverpool Road, Ashfield.
1906 |P 11) Woolnough, Walter George, D.Sc, F.a.s., ‘Callabonua,’ Park Avenue, Gordon. (President, 1926.) Vice-President.
1916 Wright, George, c/o Farmer & Company, Pitt-street.
1917 Wright, Gilbert, Lecturer and Demonstrator in Agricultural, Chemistry in the University of Sydney.
1921 Yates, Guy Carrington, 184 Sussex-street.
Honorary MEMBERS. Limited to Twenty. M.—Recipients of the Clarke Medal.
1918 Chilton, Charles, m.A., D.Sc, M.B.,¢.M., etc., Professor of Biology, Canterbury College, Christchurch, N.Z.
1914 Hill, James P., D.sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology, University College, London.
1908 Kennedy, Sir Alex. B. W., Kt., uu.D., D. Eng., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of Engineering in University College, London, 17 Victoria-street, Westminster, London S.W.
1915 Maitland, Andrew Gibb, F.a.s., Government Geologist of Western Australia, ‘ Bon Accord,’ 2 Charles-street, South. Perth, W.A.
1912 Martin, C. J., c.M.G., D.Sc., F.R.S., Director of the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, Chelsea Gardens, Chelsea Bridge Road, London, S.W. 1.
1894} M | Spencer, Sir W. Baldwin, k.c.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of Biology in the University of Melbourne, National Museum, Melbourne.
1928 Smith, Grafton Elliott, M.a., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.c.P., Professor of Anatomy in the University College, London.
1900 | M | Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William Turner, K.c.M.G., C.I.E., M.A., LL.D., Se. D., F-R.S., The Ferns, Witcombe, Gloucester, England.
1915 Thomson, Sir J. J., 0.mM., D.Sc, F.R.S., Nobel Laureate, Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, England.
1921 Threlfall, Sir Richard, c.B.u., M.a., F.R.S., lately Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney, ‘Oakhurst, Church Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham, England.
1922 Wilson, James T., .8., ch.m. Edin., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge, England. 81 Grange Road, Cambridge, England.
OBITUARY 1928-29. Ordinary Members.
Elected, Elected.
1904 Cambage, Richard Hind 1887 MacCuiloch, Stanhope H.
1876 Cape, Alfred John 1897 Russell, Harry Ambrose
1876 Darley, Cecil West 19138 Scammell, William Joseph
1922 Fleming, Edward Patrick 1899 ‘Teece, Richard
1881 Knibbs, George Handley 1917 Willington, William Thomas.
(XXL. )
AWARDS OF 'THE CLARKE MEDAL. Established in memory of
‘The Revd. WILLIAM BRANWHITE CLARKE, m.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., etc. Vice-President from 1866 to 1878.
To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the ‘Geology, Mineralogy, or Natural History of Australia. The prefix * indicates the decease of the recipient.
Awarded
1878 *Professor Sir Richard Owen. k.c.B., F.R.S.
1879 *George Bentham, c.M.G., F.R.S.
1880 *Professor Thos. Huxley, F.R.s.
1881 *Professor F. M’Coy, F.R.s., F.G.S.
1882 *Professor James Dwight Dana, LL.D.
1883 *Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.c.M.G., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
1884 *Alfred R. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
1885 *Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, 0.M., @.c.s8.1.,C.B., M.D.,D.C.L., LL.D.,F.R.S.
1886 *Professor L. G. De Koninck, m.p.
1887 *Sir James Hector, K.c.M.G., M.D, F.R.S.
‘1888 *Rev. Julian E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.S., F.L.S.
1889 *Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.R.s., F.R.A.S.
‘1890 *George Bennett, m.D., F.R.c.s. Hng., F.L.S., F.Z.S.
1891 *Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.R.s8., F.G.S.
1892. = Sir William Turner Thiselton Dyer, k.c.M.G.,C.I.E.,M.A., LL.D., Sc, D., F.R.S., F.L.S., late Director, Royal Gardens, Kew.
1893 *Professor Ralph Tate, F..L.s., F.a.s.
1895 *Robert Logan Jack, LL.D., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
1895 *Robert Etheridge, Jnr.
1896 *The Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, ¢.M.G., F.R.G.S.
1900 *Sir John Murray, K.C.B., LL.D., Se. D., F.R.S.
1901 *Edward John Eyre.
1902 *F. Manson Bailey, c.M.a.. F.L.S.
1908 *Alfred William Howitt, D.sc., F.G.S.
1907 Walter Howchin, r.a.s., University of Adelaide.
1909 Dr. Walter E. Roth, B.a., Pomeroon River, British Guiana, South America.
1912 *W. H. Twelvetrees, F.a.s.
1914 A. Smith Woodward, tu.D., F.R.s., Keeper of Geology, British Museum (Natural History) London.
1915 *Professor W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
1917 += Professor Sir Edgeworth David, K.B.E., ¢.M.G., D.S.0., B.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.G s., The University, Sydney.
1918 Leonard Rodway, c.m.a., Honorary Government Botanist, Hobart, Tasmania.
1920 *Joseph Edmund Carne, F.«.s.
1921 *Joseph James Fletcher, M.A., B.Sc.,
1922 Richard Thomas Baker, The Crescent, Cheltenham.
1923 Sir W. Baldwin -Spencer, K.c.M.G., M.A., D.Sc. F.B.S., National
* Museum, Melbourne.
1924 *Joseph Henry Maiden, 1.s.0., F.R.S., F.L.S., J.P.
1925 *Charles Hedley, F.u.s.
1927 Andrew Gibb Maitland, r.a.s., “Bon Accord,’ Melville Place, South Perth.
1928 Ernest C. Andrews, B.A., F.a.S., Government Geologist, Depart- of Mines, Sydney.
(xxi)
AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE.
Money Prize of £25.
Awarded,
1882
1882
1884 1886
1887 1888 1889
1889 1891
1892
1894 1894.
1895
1896
John Fraser, B.a., West Maitland, for paper entitled ‘The Aborigines of New South Wales.’
Andrew Ross, m.p., Molong, for paper entitled ‘Influence of the Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of wool.’
The Society’s Bronze Medal and £25.
W. E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper entitled ‘ Water supply in the Interior of New South Wales.’
S. H. Cox, F.a.s., F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Tin deposits of New South Wales.’
Jonathan Seaver, ¥F.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘Origin and mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the associated Minerals.’
Rev. J. E. Tenison- Woods, F.G.s., F.L.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to Australia.’
Thomas Whitelegge, F.R.M.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘ List of the Marine and Fresh-water Invertebrate Fauna of Port Jackson and Neighbourhood.’
Rev. John Mathew, m.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper entitled ‘The Australian Aborigines.’
Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Micro- scopic Structure of Australian Rocks.’
Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for paper entitled ‘The effect which settlement in Australia has pro- duced upon Indigenous Vegetation.’ |
J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper entitled the ‘ Timbers of New South Wales.’
R. H. Mathews, t.s., Parramatta, for paper entitled ‘The Abori- ginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in New South Wales.’
C. J. Martin, p.sc., m.B., F.R.S., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘'Il'he physiological action of the venom of the Australian black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus).’
Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The occurrence of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a description of the Deposits in which they are found.’
i
7, 4 =e <a
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
By Proressor J. DouGLAS STEWART, B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.
Delivered to the Royal Society of New South Wales, May 2, 1928.
During the past year the Council has held eleven meetings, of which ten were ordinary meetings and one a Special meeting to consider the terms of purchase of the Royal Society’s House. The average attendance at the Council Meetings was twelve.
At the eight monthly meetings of the Society twenty- three papers were read. They covered a wide range and added materially to scientific knowledge. In his Presiden- tial address last year Dr. W. G. Woolnough drew attention to the smallness of the attendance at the monthly meetings and made several suggestions ‘‘to promote greater interest and wider mutual understanding and appreciation’’. These suggestions were considered by the incoming Council, and after due deliberation it was decided that authors should read papers in abstract and, if possible, introduce into them a popular element to interest all members attending monthly meetings, fuller consideration of papers to be given at section meetings when desired; that abstracts be supplied beforehand to members desir- ing them so that they might be better able to discuss the paper; that a lecturette or demonstration of somewhat general character be arranged for each monthly meeting; and that the Executive Officers be empowered to arrange the business of the meeting. Consequently, in addition to the papers read, the. following lecturettes were given at the monthly meetings:—‘‘The Minute Sediment Test for
- A—May 2, 1928.
2 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
Milk’’ by Robert Grant, F.C.S., ‘‘ Agriculture and Research in Java’’ by Professor R. D. Watt, M.A., B.Sc., ‘‘Newton’’ by Professor O. U. Vonwiller, B.Sc., F.Inst.P., last year being the bi-centenary of the death of Sir Isaac Newton, and ‘‘Development of Liver Fluke’’ by I. Clunies Ross, B.V.Se., with cinema views by Visual Education Ltd. Several interesting exhibits and demonstrations were given also, including a photo-negative of the star cluster Omega Centauri and some plates made in preparation of the Great Photographic Star Catalogue by J. Nangle, O.B.E., F.R.A.S., cinematograph records of heart-beats by stetho- scope and hot-wire microphone by HE. H. Booth, M.C., B.Sc., F.Inst.P., and cinema views of the preparation of the Bio- logical Products, loaned by Messrs. Parke, Davis & Co. It would appear that the innovation was appreciated by members, as the attendance at the monthly meetings progressively increased during the year, and greater interest was manifested in the proceedings.
The sections of the Society held meetings as follows :— Geology 7, Agriculture 2, and Physical Science 7. Instead of holding meetings, the Section of Industry visited dif- ferent manufacturing establishments on seven occasions.
Four Popular Science Lectures were delivered during the year as follows :-—
June 16: “‘A Glance at Japan,’’ by R. H. Cambage, C.B.E., F.L.S.
July 21: ‘‘Harth Waves and Earth Ripples,’’ by Edgar H. Booth, M.C., B.Sce., F.Inst.P.
August 18: ‘‘Some Observations on Disease in Plants,’’ by R. J. Noble, B.Sc. (Agric.), Ph.D.
September 15: ‘‘What Makes a Good Food,’’ by Professor H. G. Chapman, M.D.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3
Also an interesting lecture was given by Dr. Rudolf Krahmann, Lecturer on KEngineering Science and Geophysics in the Technical University of Berlin, on Monday, 31st October, 1927, in which new applications of physical science to survey the earth’s crust were demon- strated and their limitations explained.
During recent years it has become abundantly evident that the increasing noise of the street traffic of Hlzabeth Street has made it desirable for the Society to acquire premises in some quieter locality, and as the Government made available a block of land situated at the corner of Gloucester and Essex Streets in the Observatory Hill area of the city, for the erection of a building to house scientific bodies, the Council entered into negotiations for the sale of the Royal Society’s House, which it has occupied since 12th May, 1875, and owned since 31st July, 1878. On the 21st October, 1927, the sale was effected under advan- tageous terms, chiefly through the good services of the Honorary Treasurer, Professor H. G. Chapman, to the Adult Deaf and Dumb Society for the sum of £28,000, and arrangements were made for the Royal Society to retain the use of the present building, excepting the first floor, until 31st December, 1928, on satisfactory conditions. The Council regarded the gift of the Government as a very fine contribution to science and expressed its appreciation to the then Premier, the Hon. J. T. Lang. Unfortunately, a delay, which was not anticipated, has occurred in the transfer of the new site, and a committee consisting of representatives of the Royal Society, the Linnean Society and the Institution of Engineers is giving the matter attention. The change in ownership of the Royal Society House has caused some unavoidable inconvenience to tenants, and the forebearance they have shown is greatly
appreciated. The plans for the proposed Science House are under consideration.
4 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
During the year twelve new members were elected;.
eight members have resigned and twelve have died. Among:
those that resigned were Professor J. Kenner, who accepted appointment to the Chair of Technological Chemistry in
the University of Manchester, and Mr. J. K. Taylor, whe
joined the staff of the Waite Research Institute, South Australia. Unfortunately, the list of deaths includes the names of our oldest member (1872), three out of the group: of six next oldest members (1876), two past Presidents,, our late Honorary Secretary, and other members eminent in science. The number of members of the Society is now 344.
Rogpert Houston Barr, elected 1918, died 18th Septem- ber, 1927. Mr. Barr was born in Scotland, and served his engineering apprenticeship with Vickers, Sons and Maxim, of Burrow-in Furness. He was a Whitworth scholar, and, coming to Australia in 1914, he built up an extensive practice as consulting engineer. He was also a member of the Institution of Engineers of Australia.
ANDREW JOHN Brapy, L.K. & Q.C.P. Irel., L.R.C.S. Irel. Elected 1876, died 25th August, 1927. Dr. Brady was an Ulster man by birth, and a graduate of the Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin. He came to Australia over fifty years ago and soon became identified with the Sydney Hospital as Resident Medical Officer (1875), and subse-
quently as Hon. Surgeon and Specialist. At the time of ©
his death he was President of the Sydney Hospital. For many years Dr. Brady had been recognised as one of the leading members of the medical profession in Sydney. He always manifested a keen interest in the affairs of the Royal Society.
ALFRED JOHN CAPE, elected 1876, died 29th April, 1928. Mr. Cape was one of the most notable members of the legal profession in New South Wales. He graduated as
i a i
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5
Master of Arts at Sydney University in 1867. He was one of the oldest trustees of the Sydney Grammar School, having been first nominated in 1877, and has laboured unceasingely to foster the traditions of the school.
Eustace WinuiAM FERGUSON, M.B., Ch.M., elected 1920, died 18th July, 1927. A son of the late Rev. J. Ferguson, formerly of St. Stephen’s Church, Phillip Street, Dr. Ferguson was born at Invercargill, N.Z., in 1884. He graduated with Honours, Sydney University, 1908, and joined the Department of Public Health in 1913. From 1915 to 1918 he served with the Army Medical Corps in France and Palestine. In 1920 he succeeded Professor Cleland as Micro-biologist of the Department of Public Health, and in 1926 was awarded the Diploma in Publie Health. In 1922 he was elected President of the Royal Zoological Society of N.S.W., and in 1926 President of the Linnean Society, N.S.W., of which he had been a member since 1909.
Dr. Ferguson was one of our most prominent naturalists and was a recognised authority on medical entomology. He contributed many papers to various scientific societies in Australia. Of late years he worked on the classification of the Australian Diptera—chiefly Tabanidae and Syr- phidae—and considerably advanced knowledge. Of especial value was his work in connection with the relationship of flies to the spread of disease. When attacked by his fatal illness he was actually engaged in writing an able presi- ‘dential address, ‘‘A Saul of Medical and Veterinary Entomology in Australia.’
RoBert GREIG-SMITH, D.Sc., elected 1899, died 6th August, 1927. Dr. R. Greig-Smith, Macleay Bacteriolo- gist to the Linnean Society of New South Wales, was born at Edinburgh in 1866, and educated at George Watson’s College. At the University of Edinburgh he won the
6 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
medal in Chemistry, the special prize in senior Botany, and first-class honours and prizes in other subjects. Im 1890 he took the degree of B.Sc., and was appointed Lecturer in Agricultural Chemistry in the Durham College: of Science. Later, he was Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry at the Royal (Dick) Veterinary College, Edinburgh. He studied Micro-biology in Edinburgh, Bonn, Neweastle-on- Tyne and Copenhagen. By vote of convocation he was awarded M.Se. (Durham), and in 1903 graduated as Doctor of Science at Edinburgh University, presenting a thesis on certain fermentations of saccharose. In 1906: he was President of the Pathological Club of Sydney, im 1907 President of Sanitary Science and Hygiene section of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, and in 1906-8 Chairman of the Sydney section of the Society of Chemical Industry. He was President of the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1917, and one of its Honorary Secretaries from May, 1925, to August,. 1927. He published numerous papers in connection with research in general, economic and pathological bacterio- logy. The services Dr. R. Greig-Smith gave in the advancement of science generally, and to the welfare of this Society, were of signal value.
LAUNCELOT HARRISON, B.A. Cantab., B.Sc., Syd. elected: 1919, died 20th February, 1928. Professor Launcelot Har- rison was the eldest son of the late Dr. Thomas Harrison, of Sydney. He was born at Wellington, N.S.W., and educated at the King’s School, Parramatta, where for two years he was head of the school and Broughton Scholar. In 1914 he graduated as B.Sce., Sydney University, with high distinction, and was awarded the University Medal and Professor Haswell’s prize in Zoology. In addition, he took Honours in Botany and the Dun Prize in Paleontology (1912). He acted as Demonstrator in Zoology and Botany,,.
SS ae
: ‘ 7
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 7
1913, and he was awarded the John Coutts Scholarship for Distinction in Science, 1914. In the same year he won the Exhibition of 1851 Science Research Scholarship, and proceeding to England, he gained the open Graduate Ex- hibition for Research at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. In 1916 he was awarded the degree of Bachelor of Arts (Research), Cambridge, and proceeded to Mesopotamia as Advisory Entomologist to the Expeditionary Forces there, with the rank of Lieutenant. The work he accom- plished in preventing the communication of insect-bearing diseases was of far-reaching importance, and he was pro- moted to the rank of Captain. While on active service in 1918 he was appointed Lecturer and Demonstrator in Zoology at the Sydney University, the duties of which he took up in July, 1919. In 1920 he acted as Professor in Zoology and was appointed to the Chair in 1928. He was President of the University Union, 1920-21, and took an active part in the University Science Society. During recent years he was elected President of the Royal Zoologi- eal Society, N.S.W., and at the time of his death he was President of the Linnean Society, N.S.W. Professor Harrison was an untiring worker with a genuine love of learning, and an enthusiastic teacher of striking per- sonality. It was in Mesopotamia that he contracted his fatal illness, and for several years he resolutely carried on, notwithstanding the pain and inconvenience he at times suffered.
THOMAS WILLIAM KEELE, L.S., M.Inst.C.E., elected 1876, died June 18th, 1927. For fifty-four years Mr. T. W. Keele was a member of the Public Service of New South Wales, during which time he filled many important engineer- ing positions in the Public Works Department. He was appointed a member of the Royal Commission on the Water Supply of Sydney in 1902, and originated the proposal of the construction of the Cataract Dam. He earried out
8 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
very valuable work in connection with many schemes for water conservation, water supply and sewerage, and was associated with the majority of large harbour works along the coast. On his retirement from the Public Service he was elected a member of the Water and Sewerage Board, and subsequently became President. He was also a mem- ber of the Sydney Harbour Trust.
ARCHIBALD LivEeRSIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., elected member 1872, and Honorary Member 1908, died 26th Sep- tember, 1927, in his 80th year. Professor Liversidge was born at Turnham Green on November 17th, 1847, and received his first instruction in science from private tutors. In 1866 he entered the Royal College of Chemistry and the Royal School of Mines, at which, in the following year, he won a Royal Exhibition and medals in Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Metallurgy. In his first year at the Royal College of Chemistry he was placed in charge of the chemi- eal laboratory at the Royal School of Naval Architecture for one term, during the illness of the lecturer, and pub- lished his first paper on ‘‘Supersaturated Saline Solu- _ tions’’. Professor Frankland was his teacher at the Col- ~ lege of Chemistry and at the School of Mines, the associate- ship of which he obtained in 1870, his teachers were Professor Tyndall in Physics, Sir Andrew Ramsay in Geology, Sir W. Warington Smyth in Mineralogy and Mining, Professors Willis and Goodeve in Mechanies, and Dr. Perey in Metallurgy. As a senior student he also did research work in Dr. Frankland’s private laboratory. In 1870 Liversidge was elected to an open scholarship in Science at Christ’s College, Cambridge. He was one of the first two students in the physiological laboratory just started by Professor Michael Foster, and during his first year at Cambridge he held the post of Demonstrator in Chemistry at the University Laboratory for two terms in the absence of Dr. Hicks.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. )
Liversidge thus seemed destined to a career of high distinction at Cambridge, but in 1872, before he was 25, he accepted the Chair of Chemistry and Mineralogy in the University of Sydney, N.S.W. He came out in Sep- tember, 1872, and from that time till his retirement with the title of Emeritus Professor, in December, 1907, his ‘services to science in Australia were of much value. Chief among them was the founding of the Australasian Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science in 1885 as a cen- tennial record of the progress of the colonies, and of which he was Hon. Secretary for many years and President 1888- ‘90. In 1874 he was made a trustee of the Australian Museum at Sydney, and during visits to Europe, America -and the East brought together the greater part of its non- Australian mineral and geological collections. Of the Royal Society of New South Wales he was Hon. Secretary for 13 years, 1874-1884, and 1886-1888, and served three terms of office as President, 1885, 1889, 1900, being also for many years the editor of the Society’s Journal. He originated the Faculty of Science at the Sydney University, 1879, and was Dean till 1904, and also a member of the ‘Senate. He founded the School of Mines in that University in 1890, also the Sydney section of the Society of Chemical Industry in 1902, and was the first Chairman. He was a member of the original board of three of the Sydney Tech- nological Museum and of the first Board of Technical Edu- cation in Sydney. Professor Liversidge made a chemical investigation of the Sydney water supply for the Govern- ‘ment in 1876. In 1888 he published a survey of the minerals of New South Wales, and he was the author of over 100 papers and researches published by the Royal Society, the Chemical Society, and the Royal Society of New South Wales.
a y
10 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
Professor Liversidge was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London as far back as 1882, and he was also am Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vice-
President of the Chemical Society, 1910-13, and of the Society of Chemical Industry, 1900-12, a member of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, the Physical Society of London, the Mineralogical Societies of Great Britain and France, and a member or corresponding member of various.
colonial and foreign scientific societies. He was Hon. LL.D.
of Glasgow University. Truly a wonderful record in the:
cause of Science. To the Royal Society of New South
Wales he was much attached, and his last service was to. bequeath to it all his medals and diplomas, together with
a sum of £500 to found a Research Lectureship in. Chemistry.
In his history of the Royal Society of New South Wales,.
Mr. J. H. Maiden wrote: ‘‘ We owe the acquisition of this
House to the Council of the day, and especially to the
then two honorary secretaries, Professor Liversidge and
Dr. Leibius, but the principal driving power was that of Professor Liversidge, who workd whole-heartedly for the: advancement of the Society from the very day he became: a member of it.’’ Mr. Maiden quotes Dr. Leibius as.
saying: ‘‘We never got a move on till Liversidge came.’’ (This Journal, Vol, Wilk roi3))
EBENEZER MacDona tp, J.P., elected 1878, died 4th July, 1927. Mr. MacDonald was well-known in commercial and
banking circles during last century. On his retirement he: lived in England, but kept in close touch with Australian.
affairs.
WinuiamM JOSEPH SCAMMELL, elected 1913, died 19th
April, 1928. Mr. Scammell was born in South Australia. and as a youth went to London to study Pharmacy. Later:
he became a member of the British Pharmaceutical Society..
i : : j ‘ f
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 11
GrorcE AUGUSTINE Taytor, elected 1925, died 20th January, 1928. The late Mr. George A. Taylor was noted for his versatility. He was one of the early workers in the development of wireless telegraphy, founding the Wire- less Institute in 1911, and the Association for the Develop- ment of Wireless 1922. The transmission of colour photo- eraphy by wireless also received his attention. He was among those who formed the New South Wales Aerial League in 1909. He was associate member of the Institute of Engineers, and Fellow of the Royal Geographical So- ciety and of the Royal Astronomical Society. He was owner-editor of ‘‘Building’’, and the success of this maga- zine encouraged him to further journalistic ventures, cover- ing a wide range.
JAMES TAYLOR, B.Sc., A.R.S.M., F.G.S., elected 1893, died 14th December, 1927, in his 78th year. Mr. Taylor was born at Oldham, England, and trained as an engineer; he was one of the earliest Whitworth Scholars in Engineering. He entered Owen’s College, Manchester University, of which he was Dalton Scholar in Mathematics. He then became assistant to Sir Henry Roscoe, and worked out some of the earliest formed compounds of the newly-dis- covered element vanadium. In 1880 he became associate of the Royal College of Mines in London, and in 1892 he was appointed Government Metallurgist of this State. In 1900 he resigned, and for many years was engaged in mining and metallurgical work in Australia. Mr. Taylor was also a member of the Chemical Society and the In- stitute of Mining and Metallurgy. He was for some time Lecturer in Metallurgy at the University ot Sydney.
WiuuiaAM WELCH, F.R.G.S., elected 1907, died 5th April, 1928. Mr. Welch was born at Portsmouth in 1850, and
for some years was attached to the Admiralty. He migrated to New Zealand, where he resided 22 years, during which
12 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
he founded the Museum at Palmerston North, and he was also instrumental in founding the Philosophical Society at Manawatu. Coming to Sydney, Mr. Welch took a keen interest in the affairs of the Royal Australian Historical Society. For fourteen years he acted as its Honorary Treasurer, and for some years carried out the indexing and tabulating of its historical results. He took an active part in raising funds for the building of an _ historical museum.
THE Maren MemoriAu.—It will be remembered that Professor Watt in his presidential address, 1926, suggested that an effort might be made to commemorate in a fitting manner the life and work of the late Mr. J. H. Maiden, who for many years was Director of the Botanical Gardens and Government Botanist of this State. With this object in view, a public meeting was called by the Royal Society, at which a Committee was elected and a subscription list opened to obtain funds. It was considered that a fitting way of perpetuating the memory of Mr. Maiden would be to erect a building to be known as the ‘‘Maiden Memorial Pavilion’’ in the Sydney Botanical Gardens, where he had spent so many useful and happy days. Subsequently a design for a suitable building was prepared by the Gov- ernment Architect, and the cost estimated at about £1,000. While response to the appeal for requisite funds has been fairly generous, the amount so far subscribed hardly reaches £350. Consequently the Committee has been com- pelled to ask the Government Architect for a further design, which has been approved tentatively. The pavilion it is now proposed to erect will cost something in the neighbourhood of £750, and with a view to expediting erection a special appeal to the friends and admirers of the late Government Botanist for further funds is being made.
THE Burrirr Prize—With reference to the generous donation of £500 by Dr. Walter F. Burfitt, a member of
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13:
this Society, it has been decided to use the capital sum for the foundation of a prize to be awarded annually by the Council at its discretion to a person resident in Australia or New Zealand who in its opinion has done meritorious. work in the cause of science.
CuARKE Mremorrau Mepau.—During the year Mr. E. C.. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S., delivered by invitation the Silliman Foundation Lectures at the Yale University, U.S.A. He also attended the second Empire Mining Congress held during August last in Canada, and represented this Society in October at the celebration of the centenary of the granting of a Royal Charter to King’s College, Toronto. Mr. Andrews has been honoured further by having the Clarke Memorial Medal awarded to him, in recognition of his past services in the advancement of science, more particularly in Geology.
The work of the Australian National Research Council, which deals mainly with matters relating to pure science, has proceeded throughout the year. As the result of several grants made to the Council by the Rockefeller Foundation, investigations are being carried out in regard to the aborigines of Australia and some of the native races of the Pacific. This Council also has in hand the making of arrangements for a Scientific Expedition to Mandated Territory and Papua, which it is thought will be made im 1929.
The fourth Pacific Science Congress is to be held in Java during May and June, 1929, and the Research Council has been asked to arrange for a suitabie delegation of promi- nent scientists from Australia.
The nineteenth meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science was held at Hobart in January, 1928, and was well attended. Many important papers were read, and much interest was taken in the
14 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
various discussions by the sections. The scientific insti- tutions and departments of the different States were well represented, and the President, Mr. Ko) By (\Cambace: C.B.E., F.L.S., 1s to be congratulated on the suecess attained.
Owing to the pressure of other duties, Mr. Cambage has been compelled to decline nomination as Senior Honorary Secretary of the Society this year, and the Council has placed on record its high appreciation of his services in this capacity. Mr. Cambage was first elected to the posi- tion in 1914, and, with the exception of a break of two years during the first of which he was President of this Society, and during the second President of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, he has continuously carried out the duties with great devotion and marked assiduity.
We congratulate Sir Richard Threlfall, K.B.E., upon the additional honour His Majesty the King has been pleased to confer upon him.
THE APPLICATION OF SCIENCE TO THE SHEEP INDUSTRY.
At the year of Federation, 1901, the National Debt of the Australian States represented a per capita liability of £53/13/9. On 30th June, 1926, the total Public Debt of Australia (Federal and State) represented a per capita burden of £167/9/8, a three-fold increase in a little over twenty-five years! In his Joseph Fisher Lecture, delivered at Adelaide last year, the Prime Minister, Mr. S. M. Bruce, P.C., stressed the necessity for prudent and efficient control of national revenue, a larger population, and increased production.
In order to provide more population, particularly in
rural areas where it is most needed, and to stimulate pro- duction, it is essential to encourage the development of
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15
our primary industries. Of these, pastoral production con- tributes most to our revenue, and the chief factor in our pastoral wealth is the sheep industry. For the season ending 30th June, 1926, the wool output was valued at £61,404,000,! and the 15% of the mutton and lamb treated that was exported during the same period came to £2,4380,465. Much further revenue is derived from other sources, but the figures given are sufficiently impressive to show the importance of our sheep industry.
Australia has long occupied the leading position among the sheep-raising countries of the world, not only in regard to the number of sheep she possesses, but also with respect to the quantity and quality of wool she produces. It is essential for her prosperity that this pre-eminence be main- tained by further development, and the directions in which advancement is desirable are many. They cover a wide range, from production to marketing, and the object of this address is to indicate some of the ways in which science can assist production by solving certain problems that are re- tarding progress.
As many of the problems of our pastoral industries are primarily due to the peculiar physiographical character- istics of Australia, it is deemed necessary to refer briefly to the more important in order that the exact nature of some of the difficulties our pastoralists have to contend with, may be better understood. An outstanding charac- teristic in the topography of Australia is the Great Pene- plain which forms most of Western Australa, the Northern Territory, and western South Australia, or more than half the Continent.2 It is essentially a rather low plateau about 1,200 feet above sea level, and on the whole poorly supplied with rainfall. In the eastern portion of the Continent more localised uplifts have taken place, leading to the formation of the belt of highlands which
16 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
extends from north to south along the coast. Between the western peneplain and the eastern cordillera is a region of lower land, that at Lake EKyre having sunk below sea level. As the result of this peculiar conformation, the majority of the permanently flowing rivers radiate from the plateaux to the sea and are relatively of no great size or leneth. The only big permanently flowing river of the Continent is the Murray, which by means of its. branches (the Murrumbidgee, Lachlan and Darling) drains the western side of the eastern plateaux in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, and flows through the south-east of South Australia into the Southern Ocean. Some other rivers such as the Georgina, Diamantina and Cooper, which traverse the low-lying central portion of the Continent, are normally dry, but in the wet seasons. they pour a considerable volume of water into inland lakes. and swamps.
About five-thirteenths of Australia lies within the tropics, and the ‘‘temperate’’ region is half as large again. In the latter, along the east coast the highlands reach alti- tudes up to a little over 7,300 feet. The extreme range of shade temperatures in summer and winter in a very large part of Australia amounts to probably only 81°, which relatively is not great. Along the northern shores the tem- peratures are very equable, but coming southward the extreme range increases gradually on the coast and in a more pronounced manner inland. In the interior of Aus- tralia during exceptionally dry summers the temperature may reach and occasionally exceed 120° F’. in the shade. It would appear that the hottest area is situated in the northern portion of Western Australia, avout Marble Bar, and that the coldest part of Australia is in the extreme south-east of New South Wales and the extreme east of Victoria. During a dry winter the major portion of the country to the south of the tropics is subject to ground
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. li
frost. On the whole, much of the climate is suitable for the breeding of sheep and the production of high-class wool.
With a land block of nearly three milhon square miles. surrounded by sea and possessing such peculiar topo- graphical features, as is to be expected, the distribution of rainfall throughout Australia is variable, both in degree and in incidence, and the rate of evaporation has a wide range. The wettest known part of Australia is on the north-east coast of Queensland, with an average annual rainfall of over 100 inches, while the driest part is in the region of Lake Eyre, where the annual average is only 5 inches, and where the fall rarely exceeds 10 inches for the twelve months. In general terms, approximately one- third of the area of the Continent, principally the eastern and northern parts, enjoys an average rainfall of from 20 to 50 or more inches, the remaining two-thirds averag- ing from 5 to 20 inches. The area receiving less than 10 inches is about 36% of the whole, or about 82% of the area of South Australia, 50% -.of Western Australia, 27% of the Northern Territory, 15% of New South Wales, and 12% of Queensland.
The average amount of yearly rainfall, however, gives no indication as to its reliability, since much variation may. occur from year to year. As examples of the extent of the variation that sometimes takes place, Barrow Creek with 39 inches in 1904 and 4 inches in 1925, Onslow with 27 inches in 1900 and but 3 inches in 1901, have been cited, and equally illuminating are the following records of a Queensland station:—1921, 1222 points; 1922, 100 points; 1923, 325 points; 1924, 8038: points; 1925, 299 points; 1926, 353 points; and 1927, 136 points.4 From the map shown by Professor Griffith Taylor,5 it will be seen that in the southern part, portion of the eastern part and in the extreme north of the Continent the yearly
B—May 2, 1928.
18 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
rainfall is reliable, while in the centre of Australia it is very unreliable. Between these two an intermediate zone, chiefly pastoral, exists, where the rainfall is again con- sidered unreliable. The fact that the rainfall in the major portion of Australia is unreliable must be recognised.
As the fluctuations in rainfall vary greatly, the dry spells resulting from diminished rainfall are inconstant both in extent and degree. Sometimes small areas are affected for short periods during which even neighbouring districts enjoy satisfactory rainfall; occasionally large areas, ex- tending often into adjoining States, are affected for long periods. When diminished rainfall becomes associated with continued high temperatures and drying winds, the con- dition known as ‘‘drought’’ becomes established, which, unfortunately, is not of uncommon occurrence.
Tur SHEEP INDUSTRY.
Its Growth—It would appear that sheep were brought to Australia either by the First Fleet or by some of the vessels that closely followed, as the number of sheep given in the live stock account of the new colony for year 1788 was 29.° During the first few years of settlement the number did not increase much, as the returns of 1791 gave it as 57.7 Evidently this supply was not considered sufficient for the food requirements of the growing settle- ment, and several consignments were brought from India and South Africa. As a result, the returns of 1795 show an increase to 832.8 It was during the previous year that the attention of Captain John McArthur had been attracted to the possibility of fine wool production in Australia by observing the improvement in the fleece of some lambs got by crossing the hair-bearing sheep from Bengal with a British breed brought by a transport ship from Ireland.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 19
This observation marked the initial stage of our wool- producing industry, but the foundation of the industry is ‘generally regarded as having been laid when the Spanish merino was introduced from South Africa in 1797, and their progeny demonstrated the practicability of producing in Australia fine wool of excellent quality. <A third signal event in early history was the crossing of the Blue Moun- tains by Wentworth, Lawson and Blaxland in 1813, and the subsequent discovery by Evans of the fertile plains beyond, which allowed expansion of settlement from the confined area of the County of Cumberland (N.S.W.). As a result, sheep increased rapidly in numbers—the 6,514 in 1813 became 119,777 in 1821—and, as the wool grown equalled that produced in Spain, much encouragement was given Officially to the new industry, especially by facilitat- ing land occupation. Incessant demand for fresh pastures led to extensive exploration. Occupation went on apace, the sheep population multiphed rapidly, and the great industry became well established, but not without receiving many checks, the chief causes of which were the devasta- tions wrought by drought, the slumping of values abroad and the overseas transportation difficulties of last century.
Distribution of Sheep.—The official returns for the year 1925 show that Australia then possessed 103,563,218 sheep, distributed, approximately, 52% in New South Wales, 20% in Queensland, 13% in Victoria, 7% in South Aus- tralia, 7% in Western Australia, and 1% elsewhere. The area of concentration in New South Wales commences above the 65° F.. isotherm, and runs south-west on either side of the 20 inch line of annual rainfall into Victoria.? East of the belt of highlands, where the average annual rainfall is 40 inches or over, very few flocks of any size are found, and on the other side of the range the sheep population diminishes gradually from the western slopes
20 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
through the inland plains towards the border of South Australia, the most sparsely populated area being the far north-west corner. Sheep runs in Victoria extend fairly well over the whole State, with the exception of the north- western corner of the mallee country in the north-west. Some degree of concentration has occurred in Queensland. about the Longreach district, and numerous sheep runs are scattered about a large area of country north and south of this centre, but they do not invade the wet coastal area in the east, or the tropical region much above the 75° F. isotherm in the north. During the year 1925 the Northern Territory contained only slightly more than 8,000 sheep. In South Australia the sheep concentration is greatest in the extreme south-eastern corner, the York Peninsula, and the southern drift of the River Murray, where the average rainfall is about 20 to 30 inches. From these areas it winds northward along the Lofty and Flinders Ranges, and markedly diminishes within the 10 inch rainfall boundary. Along the coast of the Great Australian Bight there are scattered sheep runs south of the 10 inch rainfall isohyet. In Western Australia the greatest concentration exists in the south-western corner of the Continent, whence occupation extends to a limited extent northward along the coast and even within the 10 inch rainfall line. It is of interest to note that while sheep are not numerous beyond the 75° isotherm in Queensland, several sheep runs have been established about Derby (W.A.), which is consider- ably above the 80° F. isotherm. Rainfall seems to have exercised a greater influence on distribution than heat.
Throughout Australia the Merino breed of sheep pre- dominates. In areas receiving from 20 to 10 inches (or even less) of rainfall per annum it is practically the only breed existing, but in areas of 20 to 30 inches of rainfall where mixed farming is practised, English breeds such as
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 21
the Leicesters, the Lincoln, Romney Marsh and several Down varieties are commonly crossed with the Merino to ‘supply the fat lamb and mutton trades. Of the 2,655,334 bales of wool sold locally during season 1925-6, 82.05% was classed as Merino, and 17.95% as coarse wool. Extension of Sheep Occupation.—It may be accepted that as the result of extensive exploration, both official and private, practically the whole of that portion of Australia suitable for immediate profitable occupation has been taken up. What is regarded as the arid region of Aus- tralia includes about one million square miles, or about 36% of the Continent, and offers but little prospect for successful occupation at present; some, such as the Arunta Land and the Western Desert, will always be unattractive owing to its scanty and irregular rainfall and poor land. Surrounding this arid region is the Pastoral Zone, where the rainfall ranges from 10 to 20 inches, and a large portion of this still remains unoccupied owing to the lack of one or more, or maybe all, the essential factors for profitable occupation, such as a not too erratic rainfall, a serviceable supply of water, a soil capable of growing edible vegetation, and reasonable facilities for transporta- tion. Over so extensive an area the relative importance of each of these factors varies considerably. In some parts the prospects do not appear encouraging; but in others, where the soil is sufficiently fertile to respond to the sporadic rains and a reasonable supply of water can be assured, extension of sheep occupation is regarded as practicable provided sufficient inducement is given by the State to wealthy individuals or companies by granting large holdings on long lease at a low rental. Sheep not “only require a better class of country than cattle, but their care and management entails more supervision and a bigger outlay of capital in effecting improvements.
22 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
Apart from increased facilities for watering, and addi- tional buildings (wool-sheds, etce.), more fencing is required, much of which may have to be netted. On many inland holdings the fight against rabbit invasion costs large: sums annually, and on some the dingo pest has to be com- bated at considerable expense. The occupation of this: class of country, which normally has a lght carrying capacity (1 sheep to 10 to 20 acres), is not only costly but it often proves decidedly risky during prolonged dry spells. For successful occupation it must be made safer, and much can be done in reducing liability to failure by organised scientific team work, in which the meteorologist, the engineer, the chemist, the botanist, the agriculturalist, and the veterinary scientist can all give valuable aid in overcoming the difficulties associated with providing ade- quate water and food supply, breeding the most profitable type of sheep for special areas, suppressing diseases and pests, and facilitating transportation by extension of rail- way systems or by opening up new roads and stock routes: When systematic scientific effort under central direction is properly organised the extension of the pastoral area of Australia into the drier regions will no doubt be materially advanced. The necessity for this extension, particularly in the eastern portion of the Continent, 1s becoming more apparent each year owing to the expansion of agriculture absorbing many of the original large sheep holdings in more favoured areas, and the profitable utilisation of its lands is a matter no Government can afford to neglect: indefinitely. Fresh country may be opened up by new railways, but for its development profitable occupation. must be reasonably assured.
Fortunately, in addition to the acquisition of further pastoral areas, a material increase in sheep population is. possible by the more intense occupation of the areas already in use. As previously pointed out, the greatest concentra-
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 23
tion of sheep population has taken place in areas receiving 18 to 30 inches of rainfall per annum, much of which is suitable for agriculture. In the early settlement of many countries the pastoral industry was all-important in stimulating occupation; then, as settlement advanced, erop-raising for a short time over-shadowed animal hus- bandry; but, as further development proceeded, the live stock industries again increased, and a sounder economic position ultimately became established by encouraging both the breeding of animals and the growing of farm crops. Australia has had a similar experience, and extension of the agricultural area, particularly by dry farming methods, has resulted in the maximum concentration of sheep population coinciding with the wheat belt where mixed- farming is carried on. In Australia mixed-farming usually means the growing of wheat and sheep. In areas distant from railway service, wool production is aimed at and the Merino predominates, but in districts where transportation is easier, and especially where additional fodder crops can be grown, the fat lamb and mutton trades are catered for by crossing the Merino with one of the British breeds. With the development of closer settlement this latter practice will increase, not only on account of the additional profit it yields, but also because the area of the farms. usually limits the number of sheep that can be carried throughout the year. With cross-bred sheep the natural increase occurs when feed is usually abundant, and after selling off the lambs, only the ewes and a few rams need be carried over for next season. Still, with wool at the present prices, the tendency is to breed as close to the Merino as possible. Of recent years the dual purpose Corriedale breed (Merino x Lincoln) has come into much favour in agricultural areas, Some ten to twelve million sheep and.
24 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
lambs are slaughtered annually, of which only about 15% 1s exported.
While recent advance in the control of parasitic affec- tions has made it possible to run more sheep than hitherto in areas having over 30 inches of rainfall per annum, it
is not lkely that the increase here will be of any great importance.
It is evident from what has been stated that, while extension of sheep occupation is possible by further invasion of the drier areas, greater increase in sheep popu- lation is more likely to be brought about by better utilisation of areas having an average rainfall of 12 to 25 inches.
Increase in sheep population alone, however, will not advance the prosperity of the industry very far unless certain conditions retarding progress are better controlled, and improved methods of production are more actively stimulated. The general advancement of the industry, therefore, largely depends upon finding ways for prevent- ing avoidable losses and for increasing production. From the following consideration of some of the more important problems and weaknesses of the industry, it will be seen that science must play an important part in future development.
THE CONTROL OF DROUGHT.
The term drought is a relative one. In Australia it is usually applied when the rainfall has been considerably below normal for fairly lengthy periods, and the pastures have become bare. Dry spells in moderation are not without benefit; they certainly enforce a rest period for the soil; they bring about the destruction of much coarse vegetation either by compelling stock to eat it or by induc- ing bush fires to consume it; they sweeten the soil by favouring aeration through the cracks produced on the
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 25
‘surface, and they have a controlling influence on the many animal diseases and parasites. The visitation of severe and extensive periods of drought, however, always consti- tutes a grave menace to prosperity. The primary effect is to cause a serious depletion of the live stock population. The drought of 1902 reduced the number of sheep by nearly nineteen million, and that of 1914 by three and a half million. During last year Queensland was in the grip of a drought said to be the worst experienced in that State for over twenty years; it affected an area of about ‘200,000 square miles, and the losses in sheep alone amounted to some five millions. Loss of stock 1s only part of the burden drought throws upon the pastoralist. The productivity of the animals which survive becomes lowered and the natural increase of the flock is seriously checked. A heavy outlay of money is incurred in the removal of the flocks to more favoured districts, or in the purchase and earriage of fodder where hand-feeding is resorted to. Further expense is entailed in re-stocking the holding after the drought breaks. Innumerable incidental expenses have also to be met, and should the resources of the afflicted pastoralist be unable to withstand the strain, his holding must be forfeited. In addition to the losses that fall ‘directly upon the pastoralist, there are those of the State to be taken into consideration, such as decreased revenue, diminished income tax, reduced earnings of railways, ete. Consequently each severe drought causes a condition of financial stringency which interferes to a greater or less extent with all commercial and industrial activities. It has been estimated that the recent drought in Queensland was responsible for a loss of about £12,000,000 to that State. Each State suffers a similar experience from time to time; sometimes two or more become affected concur- rently. If the losses directly traceable to the droughts that have occurred in Australia could be computed, the
26 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
aggregate sum would. be colossal. Control of the effects of drought is therefore a national matter, and to the sheep. industry it is regarded by many as being of paramount. importance.
The control of the effects of drought is in fact @ complex problem owing to the varying conditions that prevail, not only in different States but in the different districts of each State; measures of primary importance in one area often become quite subordinate in another. A review of past experience with droughts indicates that the losses decrease somewhat as settlement advances and local knowledge accumulates. Progress, however, has been slow and costly, and much time and money can be saved by more enterprise in developing the following safeguards:
Fodder Production and Conservation.—Notwithstanding the numerous droughts our pastoralists have experienced.
and the enormous losses they have suffered, each recurring
prolonged dry period still finds many unprepared to carry
their stock over the lean months. The uncertainty of the-
occurrence of drought, the fickleness of its intensity, and the indefiniteness of its duration undoubtedly induce some- pastoralists to take a risk and rely upon making up the- losses during good years—a practice that is apt to end in disaster. Bare pastures and dying animals invariably
lead to a revival of agitation for some national scheme for
fodder conservation to assure at a reasonable cost an adequate supply for starving stock. Many schemes have: been advanced, and the one which appears to have found most favour in New South Wales is that proposed by a Special Committee of representatives of the Government, the Chamber of Commerce, pastoralists, bankers and the meat industry, under which the necessary funds are to be. provided by the State issuing interest-bearing bonds to farmers and stock-owners, as well as to ordinary investors.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 27
To insure success, a Board representing all interests direct- ly concerned is to fix, from time to time, the purchase and sale prices of-the fodder and to control storage and distribu- tion. Based upon the fact that adequate supplies of fodder can be grown by farmers, provided at least some of the cost of production is recoverable and a profitable market ultimately assured, a less comprehensive scheme has also: been suggested to make fodder conserved in an approved manner on selected farms, a tangible asset upon which banking institutions might advance portion of the cost of production, or grant the ruling rate of interest on cost, during the period it is held in good condition, subject to: the right of calling it up for sale at a reasonable price when required for distribution. A third scheme suggested is the establishment of an insurance fund, to which all stock-owners will contribute an annual sum based largely upon the nature, character and location of their holdings, to secure when required a supply of fodder at fixed prices from reserves built up by judicious purchase. It is obvious, however, that any complete scheme for national conservation of fodder will require a big financial backing, and while several Governments have given the matter much consideration, none so far has taken definite action towards. providing the requisite funds. The view has been expressed that the large amount of public money that would be required to finance any national scheme might. be spent to better advantage in extending existing railway systems and improving the main roads: in this way not only will the transportation of stock and fodder during drought periods be facilitated, but further development of pastoral areas will be materially advanced. It is equally evident that until some national scheme of fodder conser- vation is put into operation stock-owners must fend for themselves, and provide their own fodder reserves.
28 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
In areas suitable for mixed-farming, or where the soil is fertile and a rainfall of at least 20 inches per annum is usual, the cultivation of fodder crops at least: sufficient for home consumption should be regarded by sheep-owners as an essential part of their business. For years the Depart- ment of Agriculture in each State has been encouraging this class of sheep-farmer to grow fodder crops, not only to supplement the natural food supply, but as an assurance against drought. The efforts of the Department have been supported by the activities of various organisations such as the Agricultural Societies and Bureaux, and much useful information has been disseminated as to which crops to grow, when and how they should be sown, cultivated and conserved. In addition to growing special crops for fodder conservation, farmers can convert the rank growth of their cultivation paddocks into silage with considerable profit to themselves. The advantages of conserving fodder in silo pits have been abundantly demonstrated, and the great value of silage for sheep, and more particularly lambing ewes, 1s becoming generally recognised. Improve- ment of the pasture lands by the application of artificial fertilisers and introduction of better grasses, clovers, etc., not only increases their carrying capacity but makes them tolerant to dry seasons. The striking success that has attended the creation of new varieties of drought-resisting wheat and the elaboration of new methods of farming, particularly in dry areas, clearly indicates the influence the development of agriculture must have on the welfare of the pastoral industry. In the past, effort has been somewhat concentrated on the production of wheat, but each year sees more attention being given to the improve- ment of other crops. An extensive field in the introduction and cultivation of new varieties of plants and cereals suitable as fodder exists, and is gradually being exploited.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 29
For instance, the best has not yet been obtained from lucerne cultivation, nor has most been made of the cotton bush crops, the decorticated seeds of which are useful as. concentrates. Consequently it would appear that, in areas eapable of agricultural development, the present difficulties of assuring fodder supply during drought periods will progressively diminish.
The position, however, is different with the holders of big sheep runs who are gradually being driven into the drier areas, inasmuch as they have to provide for large numbers of sheep, often running into many thousands, grazing on land unsuitable on the whole for agriculture. With them a prolonged drought is always a serious matter, but the resultant losses are dependent on many factors, such as the nature of the holding, amount of average rain- fall, extent of improvements, efficiency of ~management, accessibility to railway, etc. It may be accepted that pastoralists on the whole are not opposed to the principle of fodder conservation. A few who can afford to do so endeavour to build up reserves by purchasing hay and maize when the market price is low, and storing them at convenient sites. On a few big pastoral holdings an effort is made to grow some fodder crop on alluvial patches that can be irrigated, but the amount conserved rarely exceeds that required for preserving the stud sheep. On others, not so favourably placed, an attempt at cultivation is sometimes made on a small scale, and usually two out of every three crops sown give a return that proves helpful. Also the conservation during good seasons of natural grasses and herbage as hay and silage, is occasionally earried out. While considerable benefit has been derived from the treatment of specially selected paddocks, the extensive application of artificial fertilisers to the soil on these big pastoral holdings is not considered practicable.
"30 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
The general feeling among the big pastoralists appears to be that it is either impracticable or unprofitable to ‘conserve enough fodder to feed their large numbers of stock during long periods of drought; impracticable ‘pecause of the difficulty in obtaining the necessary labour in these remote parts just when it 1s required, and unpro- fitable because of the large amount of capital that would ‘be locked up for an indefinite period in an asset that often -depreciates in value.
The problem of acquiring fodder reserves for big pastoral holdings is obviously one of an economic nature, but it is equally obvious that the extent of the reserve necessary for the majority has a direct relationship to the manner in which the natural sources of fodder have been conserved by efficient management, subdivision of the hold- ing and distribution of water supply. In the semi-central pastoral zone, where the holdings are extensive, the heat great and the rainfall scanty, the carrying capacity is usually low, running from a sheep to ten to twenty acres or more, and the stock subsist largely on various low- growing shrubs and trees that have acquired a marked resistance to drought by morphological adaptation. Under occupation much of this natural source of fodder supply has become depleted, and as quite a lot of this class of country is suitable for wool-production, special effort must be directed towards the regeneration of the best of the native vegetation, and the augmentation of the natural supply by cultivation of drought-resisting grasses, fodder shrubs and trees. Of considerable value, therefore, are the ‘investigations being made at Koonamore (north-east of South Australia, 8-inch rainfall) upon an area of eaten-out -salt-bush 1,000 acres in extent, which has been given to the University of Adelaide as a vegetation reserve for research -~work. These investigations are being carried out under
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 31
the supervision of Professor T. G. B. Osborn, with the object of studying natural regeneration when all grazing influences, including those of rabbits, are removed. They are also designed to study the ecology of the area and particularly the autecology of species most valuable econo- mically. Later on, it is proposed to ascertain the effects of grazing of known intensity on the process of regenera- tion. This work has been in progress for over a year, and arrangements have been made for the active co-operation of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Its extension into other arid districts is under consideration by the Council, and pastoralists can well assist by making areas available. A considerable amount of information has already been collected by various botanists and agrostolo- gists as to the nature and habits of most of the drought- resisting vegetation which experience has shown to be serviceable for feeding stock. Some ten years ago a scheme was launched in New South Wales for the encouragement of land-holders to plant and cultivate indigenous fodder trees. A forestry nursery was established at Dubbo for the supply of seedlings, and in 1923 nearly 25,000 were distri- buted to farmers and graziers, together with instructions as to their cultivation. It is therefore evident that with development along these lines the problem of fodder conservation for even the large holdings in the purely pastoral zone must also gradually diminish in intensity.
Water Supply and Conservation.—The early occupation of pastoral country was determined by the evident natural supplies of water, and as settlement gradually extended from these favoured areas, water supply and conservation became one of the most important problems of the pastoral industry. Individual settlers endeavoured to overcome their own difficulties, but the toll of ever-recurring drought, and the necessity of assuring a satisfactory supply to encourage the occupation of vast areas of fertile
32 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
land devoid of permanent surface water, compelled the. various Governments to establish special services to acquire permanent supplies of water for stock, agricultural and domestic purposes. The work carried out by these services is important and extensive.
Of the big schemes for water conservation, the following must be mentioned:—In New South Wales, the construc- tion of the Burrinjuck Dam at a capital expenditure of about twelve million pounds, to supply the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area for growing crops, and to assure water supply to the lower river during drought periods; the construction of the Hume Dam, that has cost some nine millions, shared equally by the Commonwealth and States. of New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia; and the provision of a storage at Lake Victoria (N.S.W.) for the use of the South Australian river settlements during periods when the natural flow of the River Murray requires to be supplemented. In Victoria, the artesian supply having proved not as serviceable as that of the northern States, extensive schemes have been carried out with great skill to provide water for domestic and stock purposes, the capital expenditure on which at 30th June, 1926, was £7,276,000, the area of land artificially suppled with water being 22,500 square miles. The principal one is the Wimmera-Mallee system, which is said to compare favour- ably with any similar undertaking in the world. Others, also regarded as comprehensive, have been carried out, or are being contemplated. Queensland also has under con- sideration national work in irrigation, the most important being the Dawson Valley Scheme. The Goldfields Water Supply, of which Western Australia is justly proud, has supplied permanent water for stock in districts adjacent to the line of pipes leading from the Mundaring Reservoir to the eastern goldfields.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 33
Having completed the scheme for supplying water for domestic and stock purposes to an area of a million acres in Western Riverina, the Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission (N.S.W.) is now engaged upon the Gunbar extension to serve half a million acres north of the Murrumbidgee, from the vicinity of Griffith out to Booligal. The Commission has also a number of other projects under consideration, in connection with the Lachlan, Macquarie, Namoi and Peel Rivers. Of these, special mention might be made of the proposal to construct the Wyangala Dam across the Lachlan River, which has been recommended by the Parliamentary Stand- ing Committee, on condition that the vast area of Crown lands, over 800,000 acres in extent, between Euabolong and Roto, is made available for closer settlement. This scheme aims at settling some five hundred farmers by supplying domestic and stock water by a network of channels similar to the system so successfully adopted in Victoria.
In addition to these national undertakings, much has been accomplished by private enterprise, and on many holdings large sums of money have been spent in impound- ing water by the erection of dams across water-courses, and the construction of tanks to catch the ‘‘run off’’ from the plains. On highly improved holdings these reservoirs are numerous and the water is well distributed over the run by means of mechanical power and pipes, or by gravi- tation and open drains, to reduce the distance stock have to travel when they wish to drink. Travelling long distances to water not only lowers production, but during drought it leads to rapid:exhaustion. Where permanent provision has not been made or the supply has dried up, motor tractors for transportation of tanks filled with water are used with much advantage. Fencing the reservoir off
C—May 2, 1928. :
34 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
and conveying the water by mechanical means to troughs from which the stock drink has been found to be a much safer and more economical method than allowing the stock to have free access to the reservoir itself. It is also becom- ing recognised that the loss from evaporation can be materially lessened by increasing the depth of the tank and growing trees near-by.
The discovery of the artesian water supply, and the subsequent exploitation of the seven artesian basins, has made possible the profitable occupation of large areas of land for pastoral purposes. The return for year 1925-6 gives the number of existing artesian and sub-artesian bores as follows:—New South Wales 518, Victoria 367, Queensland 3,138, South Australia 144, Western Australia 230, and the Northern Territory 180, making a total of 4,577, yielding a daily flow of 459,594,000 gallons.!° While the great majority of bores have been sunk and paid for by the occupier, considerable assistance has been given by the Crown.'' In New South Wales, at the end of 1926, seventy-one trust districts had received assistance to serve an area of 4,354,545 acres with 2,803 miles of drains for stock watering purposes, and, in addition, twelve artesian well districts embracing an area of 324,947 acres had been helped. The total expenditure by the State on these trust and artesian well districts had amounted to about £239,000. The Water Conservation and Irrigation Com- mission, besides having two deep well plants sinking bores in trust areas, has thirty-five plants at work in shallow- boring in three districts, for settlers of moderate means, and up to 30th June, 1926, 1503 effective bores had been sunk, and many more have been applied for. Pastoral Queensland is largely served by the Great Australian Arte- sian Basin, the estimated yield of water from 1,362 flowing bores on 380th June, 1926, being 291,621,910 gallons per
FRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 39
diem. On that date fifty-two bore water supply areas were completed, comprising a total of 4,696,924 acres, over which water was distributed in 1,939 miles of drains. Five additional areas are in hand, including a further 611,791 | acres, and 361 miles of drains. A series of bores has been sunk in dry areas of South Australia for watering stock, and the yield from the flowing bores at 30th June, 1926, was 12,973,000 gallons per diem. In Western Australia the number of Government bores is almost equal to that of private bores.
From the above it will be seen that considerable progress has been made in solving the problem of water supply and conservation, and that while much has been accom- plished by private enterprise, comprehensive and costly undertakings have been carried out by the Governments. ‘The extent of these undertakings in the eastern States at ‘Jeast, is probably much greater than is generally realised.
While much of the artesian and sub-artesian water is ‘quite serviceable for both domestic and stock purposes, some of it, unfortunately, is so highly charged with mineral salts that it is unsuitable even for the use of stock. The chief salts are those of sodium, calcium, magnesium and potassium, existing as chlorides, sulphates, or carbon- ates. Silica is sometimes present, and occasionally traces of iron and aluminium are found. The standards for safe water adopted in the different States vary; apparently in each case it has been adopted independently, as the result of the experience of the official chemist. For example, the extreme limit of total dissolved salts which will not injuriously affect sheep, in grains per gallon, is regarded in Queensland and Victoria as 600, in New South ‘Wales as 1,350, in South Australia as 875, and in Wester1 Australia as 900. It is possible that a number of factors
36 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
has operated in the determination of these different stan- dards. At the Perth Meeting of the Australasian Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science (1926), the standard-. isation of methods for water analysis was urged by both Dr. E. S. Simpson (W.A.) and also Mr. R. Lockhart Jack. (S.A.). As the different mineral salts of water vary considerably in amount, and as it is recognised that inter- action influences toxic effect, Mr. R. Lockhart Jack further suggested, in the hope of getting a more comparable basis. for analysis, consideration of assigning factors to the various ‘‘assumed salts,’’ to reduce them to their equi- valent toxicity expressed as common salt instead of for the precisely determined ions and radicles. Of the various mineral salts, sodium chloride is common, and is usually regarded as the most harmful, partly on account of its. known toxicity in excessive doses, and partly on account of its association with ‘‘brackishness.’’ It is recorded,,. however, that sheep have lived for several weeks during the summer months on water containing as much as three ounces of salt per gallon, when they were watered at sun- down from freshly filled troughs. Management is there- fore an important factor, but the nature of the food and the distance the sheep travel to water, also have their influence. More definite knowledge as to the tolerance of sheep and other stock to the different mineral ingredients of bore water, both separately and in association, is un- doubtedly very desirable, and the investigations now being carried out by a special Committee appointed by the Australian National Research Council are bound to lead to a better understanding in the usage of bore water, and thus confer much benefit upon the sheep industry.
It will be seen from what has been stated that much has been done by both State and private effort to over- come the problem of Water Supply and Conservation.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. oT
With extensive areas made safer for stock occupation and thousands of acres made available for mixed-farming, considerable expansion of the sheep industry must take ‘place.
Weather Forecasting.—Not only are droughts irregular in their occurrence and duration, but they are often terminated by heavy rains resulting in extensive floods that cause much loss of live-stock and property. The ‘disastrous results of droughts and floods could be con- siderably reduced if it were possible to give sufficient ‘warning of their advent. While our meteorologists are becoming increasingly accurate in forecasting weather ‘conditions up to 36 hours, their prophecies usually decrease in reliability as this period is exceeded. In India, owing to its peculiar geophysical characters, advance has been ‘made in long-range prediction, but it is unlikely that much progress will be evident in Australia until many additions are made to our scientific knowledge. No doubt, the publication of accurate weather records by important countries in different parts of the world will prove helpful, but it would appear that any material progress must ‘depend upon long and intricate research. Of recent years the work carried out by the Observatories of the Smith- sonian Institution (U.S.A.) in connection with solar radiation has attracted much attention, and it is interest- ing to note that Clayton, of the Argentine Meteorological Service (S.A.) by the correlation of weather changes with ‘changes in solar radiation, has been enabled to extend the period of weather forecasting to seven days with, it is reported, satisfactory results. Should this aid be success- fully applied in other centres, a great impetus will be ‘given to the study of solar radiation in Australia, which ‘will be very gratifying to at least one member of our ‘Council (the Rev. E. F. Pigot) who for some years has
38 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
been carrying out, under great difficulties, research iw this subject at the Riverview College Observatory, Sydney. While many scientific fields may be exploited with advan- tage in weather forecasting, solar radiation seems to be: the one that offers the most fruitful results. The establish- ment of meteorological stations in Antarctica no doubt will be useful, and it is urged that even if the prospects. of ‘‘long-range’’ forecasting in Australia are regarded as remote, the development of a ‘‘longer range’’ than the present methods provide will be of distinct service to our pastoralists and farmers.
Facilities for Transportation—As droughts vary in range and intensity, it often happens that while the pastures in some districts are bare, those in others provide abundantly for the stock. Consequently many pastoralists,. whose holdings are not too far removed from a railway service, find it more economic to send their stock from the drought-stricken area to favoured districts, than to. build up large fodder reserves. The usual practice is to: relieve the holding by removing the flock sheep and to. hand-feed those reserved for stud purposes. Our railways. consequently play an important part during drought periods in transporting starving stock and carrying: supphes of fodder. In this way they also prevent the excessive depletion of pastures which results from con- tinued occupation during dry times. Practically all our railways are state-owned, and it is usual for Governments. to grant freight concessions to help stock-owners over their: difficulties. While acknowledging the great value of the present services, it must be recognised that still greater relief can be afforded not only by extending into new territory, but by looping up the radii and lnking up the termini of the numerous branches already constructed.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 39
An outstanding need for pastoralists of eastern Aus- tralia, and one that has been advocated for many years not alone by graziers, but by Railway Chiefs and Officers of the Defence Department, and also strongly supported by Professor Griffith Taylor, is the hnking up of the termini of the railway systems that radiate from the centres on the east coast. It has been asserted that the cost of construction of the lengthy portion that is to con- nect Camooweal (Qld.) to Bourke (N.S.W.) would have been largely repaid by the saving in live stock effected during the recent drought. As this particular construction interests more than one State, the assistance of the Federal Government has been invited, and it is understood that the matter is receiving favourable consideration.
Where railway service is at present remote, stock routes and ordinary roads must continue to serve trans- portation requirements. Over both of these some control is now exercised, but much room exists for improvement. Stock routes must be reasonably extensive, adequately watered and kept in good condition, or they fail when most needed; and roads serviceable at least under ordi- nary conditions are essential for the development of the far-off inland areas.
ImpROvED ANIMAL NUTRITION.
All observant stock-owners know that if animals do not receive sufficient nourishment, their growth becomes retarded, their productivity diminished and their fertility lessened. Also that animals in low condition are more liable to disease and parasitic infestation. Sufficient nourishment, however, does not merely mean plenty to eat, and it often happens that the food supply, while ample in bulk, is sadly deficient in one or more ingredients essential for the physiological requirements of the animal.
40 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
When Lavoisier in 1780 applied the balance and thermo- meter to investigations of the phenomena of life, the foundation was laid to the scientific study of the problems of nutrition. For over a century and a half these problems have engaged the attention of many bio-chemists and other scientists to whom we fully acknowledge our great indebtedness. The early researches were concerned mainly with the welfare of man, but as animals are usually kept for profit, their owners naturally desired to know in addition to the physiological requirements, the relationship between the cost and the feeding value of the various food-stuffs. In this connection Germany gave a valuable lead Mm 1864 when Dr. Emil von Wolff presented in Mentzel and von Lengerke’s Agricultural Calendar for that year, the first table of feeding standards based on the digestible nutriments contained in food-stuffs. The Wolff feeding standards were subsequently published annually down to 1896. From 1897 to 1906 they were presented by Dr. C. Lehmann, with some modifications, but in 1907 Dr. D. Kellner took charge and made an important advance by substituting tables and feeding standards based on the Starch Equivalent values deter- mined by careful experimental work, and by recognising the requirements for production over and above those necessary for maintenance. As the importance and eco- nomic value of standardising food-stuffs became recognised, other countries gave attention to the subject, more particu- larly perhaps, the United Kingdom, the United States of America and Canada. As a result many experimental stations have been established and well-endowed to work out the feeding value of available food-stuffs and to disseminate by popular bulletins the knowledge gained, much to the advantage of stock-owners.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 4]
Notwithstanding its importance to our greatest primary industry, Australia has certainly lagged behind in this branch of research, not so much from want of apprecia- tion, for in the curricula of our veterinary schools the principles and practice of scientific dietetics have always had a prominent place, and the urgent necessity for provision to carry out investigations in Australia has ‘been stressed on many occasions. Our chemists, especially Briinnich (Qld.) and Guthrie (N.S.W.) have made a considerable number of analyses of Australian fodder -erops, cereals, grasses and shrubs, and a certain amount of work has been done by the few bio-chemists we possess, but the progress made by this individual effort has been slow, and the results obtained are small when compared with those accomplished by the well-endowed and efficiently staffed institutes of other countries.
In the tables giving the composition of various food- stuffs, the percentages of digestible crude protein, carbo- hydrates and fat for tissue and energy supply are given, together with that of ash, and the nutritive ratios are stated to indicate dietary values; but rations based on this data alone often give a diet deficient in mineral matter -and vitamines, the dietary of importance of which recent ‘research in bio-chemistry and pathology has amply demon- ‘strated. In both man and animals a condition of depraved -or perverted appetite known as Pica has long been recog- nised. Pica is always a sign of disturbed or deficient nutrition, and is more common when great demands are ‘made on the animal’s system, as in the growing period -and during pregnancy and lactation. One manifestation -of this condition is earth-eating (geophagia); under natural conditions animals are known instinctively to seek localities where the surface soil is impregnated with “mineral matter, and to establish ‘‘lick holes.’’ In advanced
42 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
cases affected animals eat faeces (coprophagia) and the dried bones of dead animals (osteophagia); both these materials contain calcium and phosphorus. Osteophagia leads to other diseases which further lower production, and some may cause death. The most serious complication in cattle is a form of ‘‘Botulism.’’3*"™4 Theiler’s investi-. oations in South Africa showed that during the periods. osteophagia becomes prevalent—namely in the autumn and winter and in dry seasons—the native grasses are deficient in phosphorus, the ratio of starch equivalent to P.;O; decreasing from 100 to 1.07 to 100 to 0.36, and further that osteophagia could be controlled by supplementing the deficient vegetation either directly through the mouth: by feeding various phosphorus-containing compounds, or indirectly by applying phosphatic manures to the pastures.
In Australia Pica is not uncommon in all classes of stock. In some areas, particularly coastal districts, it is enzootic, frequently associated with osteophagia and osteo- malacia, the latter being well seen in cattle and horses. It may become manifest in sheep during dry seasons, when the nutritive value of the pastures diminishes. Guided by the results obtained by Theiler in South Africa, bone meal has been administered with good results, but bone meal contains calcium and other mineral ingredients as well as phosphorus, and apart from the benefits that may be derived from an additional allowance of calcium. when the pastures are deficient in its salts, it has been found that a balance consumption of lime leads to a better retention of the phosphorus.'5 Calcium and phos- phorus are but two of the number of mineral ingredients. vegetation derives from the soil, and a shortage of any may lead to mineral deficiency. In the North Island of New Zealand the cattle suffer what is known as “‘ Bush. sickness’’!°, the cause of which is ascribed to a shortage-
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 43
of iron, and the administration of citrate of ammonia and iron has been attended by marked beneficial results. Recent investigations in the mineral requirements of erowing animals make it increasingly evident that the adjustment of the proportions of the inorganic constitu- ents of a ration requires as much consideration as the absolute amounts of these elements in the diet. Hven though a mineral is present in a ration in sufficient amount for the animal’s requirement, the presence of other minerals in unsuitable proportions may lead to insufficient assimilation and retention. The inter-dependence of the different mineral elements is of importance; some, in proper proportions, will increase the assimilation of associated mineral matter; others, given in excessive amounts, will exert a depressing effect. As Orr points out,’? if the ration already contains sufficient of any mineral, the addition of that mineral can do no good, and indeed, may do harm. The surplus supply not only lowers the dietetic value of other ingredients, but the additional strain thrown upon the excretory organs may cause disease. This aspect of mineral nutrition is of considerable importance to our sheep-owners, owing to the tendency of recent years, especially during drought periods, to supplement the natural food by an allowance of mineral in the form of licks, without any exact know- ledge of the nature of the deficiency, which must of neces- sity differ in districts of varying geological formation. and rainfall.
The big sheep of to-day not only require more nourish- ment for maintenance than formerly, but the heavy fleeces. they now carry demand still more for production. To grow wool of uniform quality, sufficient nourishment must be continuously provided. While our best pastures so far have retained their high nutritive value, there is
44 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
evidence that others are decreasing in carrying capacity, especially during dry spells. Many factors have operated in lowering the nutritive value of pastures, and both remedial and preventive methods must be devised, but obviously much research will be necessary before the exact deficiencies can be properly dealt with. To be complete, it must include extensive soil and botanical surveys, ecological study of our vegetation, chemical examination of grasses, herbage, edible shrubs and trees, together with experimental feeding to determine nutritive values for both growth and production in different seasons. It is in this way that animal nutrition problems have been tackled successfully in other parts of the world.
In the past we have been guided largely by investigations earried out in other countries, and the time is long over- due for us to endeavour to work out our own problems under our own conditions. This fact, together with the extensive field that exists, led the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, soon after its establishment, to take the matter up. As a first step, a special Committee consisting of bio-chemists and veterinary scientists was appointed to report on the position, and it is satisfactory to know that arrangements have now been made for an extensive and fundamental investigation into problems associated with nutrition of stock in Australia.* Work is being carried out by the Council in co-operation with the University of Adelaide, and the Waite Agricultural Research Institute (S.A.). To commence with, the applied work will be limited mainly to sheep, considered as meat and wool producers, the investigations having been planned in two main divisions. Arrangements have been made for a fundamental investigation of the nutrition of animals, to be carried out under the control of Professor T. Brailsford Robertson, with the primary object of ascer-
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 45
taining the exact nature of certain deficiencies in leaf protein of those fodder plants upon which Australian sheep chiefly depend in times of drought. Afterwards, the investigations will be extended to other plants, especi- ally those which make their appearance after rain in arid regions, and finally to the pasture plants in the districts. that have more abundant rainfall. Investigations with laboratory animals will also be carried out in order to determine the effects of excess magnesium or potash upon the mineral equipment of the animal in other directions. The iodine content is also to be dealt with. Later on the fundamental work will be linked up with field investi- gations on sheep.
Further, with a view to extending investigations in the problem of mineral deficiencies of pastures, the Empire Marketing Board has made funds available on a contri- butory basis for research to be carried out in Australia. The offer was originally made to Professor A. C. V. Richardson, Director of the Waite Institute (S.A.) and has now been transferred to the Council. The general object of the work is to determine the role of mineral nutrients on growth, development and nutrition of stock. Special attention will be devoted to the effect of deficiencies. of phosphorus and calcium on pastures.
There can be no question as to the wisdom of the Council in undertaking this work. The problems are very complex, and as research is usually a slow process, spectacular results are not anticipated. The field, however, is so ex- tensive as to give rise to some misgivings as to whether the central organisation will be able to yield the best results within reasonable time, unless its work is supple- mented by State effort. In each of the States some scien- tific organisation already exists that is capable of render- ing valuable aid in developing and applying the scheme
46 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
of work, and the special training at headquarters of selected workers from the different States, in approved methods of investigation, would undoubtedly expedite results. Some such arrangement to assure extension of the field of inquiry and. correlation of results, will most probably be considered by the Council in due course, and it is of particular interest to note that the Council has invited Dr. J. B. Orr, Director of Research in Animal Nutrition at the Rowett Research Institute of Aberdeen, Scotland, Sir Arnold Theiler, Director-designate of the Bureau of Animal Health, London, and late Director of ‘Veterinary Education and Research, South Africa, and Sir John Russell, late Director-designate of Soil Science Bureau, London, to visit Australia, and after studying local conditions, to advise on the future development of research here. <A further benefit from the visit of these eminent scientists will be the active co-operation between British and Australian investigators in the study of animal nutrition and soil problems—a development that is receiving encouragement from the Imperial Bureau CU:
These projects will no doubt bring about a better under- ‘standing in the scientific feeding of animals in Australia, and much beneficial guidance will be given our stock- owners as to the nutritive value of both natural vegetation and supplementary sources of food supply. As a result our stock will grow better, produce more, and multiply ‘satisfactorily.
Woot PRODUCTION.
From historical records, it is gathered that the sheep first brought to Australia were of either the coarse-wool type or the hair-bearing variety. Of the early coarse-wool ‘sheep introduced, one lot brought from Ireland, and sub-
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 47
abgivently known as the ‘‘Irish Breed’? evidently played an important part, as the improvement in the fleece of an offspring of a hair-bearing Bengal ewe got by one of the rams drew the attention of McArthur to the prospects of growing. wool in Australia. From the evidence avail- able, this so-called ‘‘Irish Breed’’ seems to have been the ancient Northumberland or Teeswater breed now
known as the Wensleydale.
The introduction of the Spanish Merino in 1797 is generally regarded as initiating the fine wool industry of Australia. The term ‘‘Spanish Merino,’’ however, 1s a general one, as in the course of several centuries many types of Merino have been evolved in the different pro- vinces of Spain. It has been surmised that the Merinos imported from South Africa in 1797 were the Hscurial type, while those that came from the flocks of King George III in 1804 were the Negrette type. Other types have been evolved also in several countries into which the Spanish Merino has been introduced, such as the Ram- bouillet (France), Saxon, Silesia, Gadegast and Steiger (Germany), Vermont and Delaine (U.S.A.), ete. Of these, our sheep breeders imported those regarded as most ser- viceable, so that it may be claimed that in addition to the original Spanish types that came from South Africa and England, the best of the world’s fine wool producing sheep have been used in building up our present flocks. Consequently, although one refers in general terms to the pure Merino of Australia, it must be recognised that actually our flocks contain many strains of the different types of Merino. Individual flocks, by selective breeding for many years, have acquired definite characters, so that a number of sub-types has been evolved in Australia in which one or more of the imported strains at least pre-
48 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
dominate. For instance, the famous Wanganella sub-type was founded by using Rambouillet rams, especially one-
called Emperor, of the Paular strain, noted for size and
plainness of body, brought from France in 1862. The ereation of further sub-types must proceed to adapt our
sheep to the wide range of environmental influences that obtain in Australia, and while not detracting in any way from the merits of our leading breeders, the opinion is advanced that very material assistance can be given to their efforts by the application of more scientific methods.
It is true our breeders have increased the quantity of wool grown per sheep in a striking manner. In 18277 the weight of fleece from cross-bred ewes and wethers averaged 3 lbs., that of pure-bred Merino 2 to 24 lbs., and that of the ewes seldom exceeded 14 lbs.; while in 1927 the clip in New South Wales averaged 8.8 lbs. per sheep and the fleece of individual stud rams weighed over 40 lbs. This has been done by individual effort, but it has taken just one hundred years to accomplish it!
With this remarkable increase in the weight of fleece, the size of the sheep has gradually become greater, but the fineness of wool is not so marked as formerly. While the present type of sheep is the most profitable under existing market conditions, it is difficult to say how long the demand for strong wool will remain at the current high level. The market is always largely influenced by fashion, and as the textile manufacturers have to cater for the prevailing fashion, the tendency of the day is to establish a closer co-operation between the wool grower and the woollen textile manufacturer. It is of interest to note that the textile industry has generously founded a depart- ment at the University of Leeds to investigate its problems,
and much scientific research is now being carried out
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 4.9:
there that must have an important bearing on wool- growing in Australia. Unless research is carried out on similar lines in Australia to correlate results our position will indeed be invidious. That a wide and extensive field. exists here is patent to all who have given the matter serious consideration. ‘‘Bawra’’ classified the Australian wool production into 848 distinct types.?!
The benefits to be derived by the application of more scientific methods are many. The most generally recog- nised indications of wool value are fineness, length, density, strength, crimp, lustre, stretch, shrinkage, and uniformity, all of which are capable of definite measure- ment, except lustre, which fortunately is fairly evident to the sight. It is known that environmental influences do affect many of these characteristics; a breed of sheep producing fine wool under certain conditions may produce strong or medium wool under other conditions, and vice versa. Exactly which hereditary factors of our different types favour or retard the change-over have not been determined, but the solution offers a fruitful field for investigation. Hitherto sheep classers and wool buyers. have relied upon digital manipulation and the unaided eye in judging the character of the wool, and the expert- ness many have attained by long experience aided by natural aptitude is truly remarkable. But with this practice, the value of the judgment made always varies to some degree with the proficiency of the judge, and disagree- ment in estimation is not uncommon. Of recent years the requirements of the textile trade have necessitated the standardisation of essential properties of wool, and as a result, scientific apparatus and methods have been elabo- rated to give a more accurate estimation. Fineness of wool is one of the chief factors in determining its value, but as wool fibres vary in diameter from about 1/300th
D—May 2, 1928,
50 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
to 1/2000th of an inch, the necessity for accurate means of measurement is apparent. Several methods are now in use, of which the micro-metrical method combined with “‘frequency distribution curve’’ appears to be most favoured at the University of Leeds. The wool is examined microscopically and the diameter of the individual fibres read off by the aid of a micro-meter eye-piece with divisions of 1/10,500th of an inch. From the measurements made (over one hundred) the average diameter is obtained, and by grouping the measurements according to units of space and plotting the results the ‘‘frequency curve’’ is obtained which gives very definite information. From this and other data equally accurately determined, statis- tical methods of investigation may be carried out, and the true nature of the wool revealed, and its commercial value determined. So much progress has been made in this connection that it can be safely said that a student, by the use of scientific apparatus and the application of ‘statistical methods, can in a few weeks determine and value the characteristics of wool with at least the same degree of accuracy as that possessed by ordinary wool- lassers with years of experience behind them.
Further, to the breeder uniformity in fleece is of para- mount importance, and it is usually judged by examination made by sight and digital manipulation of the wool growing on different parts of the sheep’s body. Many breeders have acquired remarkable proficiency in judgment after years of close application ; others who lack natural aptitude find difficulty in becoming proficient, even after years of experience. An apparatus now exists that can be used with advantage by all, as it quickly reveals the degree of fineness of the individual fibres in any sample, and clearly shows up variations. Last year Dr. Henseler, Director of
| jean
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 51
the Institute for Animal Breeding and Biology of the Technical High School, Munich (Germany), demonstrated the value of his apparatus at the Veterinary School of the University of Sydney. The apparatus is of the nature of a projection lantern, the magnified wool fibres or hair being thrown on to a screen, furnished with millimetre division squares, from which critical examination is made. It was stated that the apparatus has proved of great assistance on the Continent of Europe in the purchase of rams for flock improvement, and various agricultural organisations are using it with much benefit to their sheep breeders. There is scope for similar assistance to be given ‘to our small sheep breeders, to shorten the road to success.
Enough has been stated to indicate the value of the appleation of scientific methods for the reliable analysis of wool. Of greater importance still are the benefits to be derived by the application of more scientific methods in the breeding of sheep. Many countries are alive to this fact and have not hesitated to seek the assistance of science ‘to increase production. The Peruvian Government, for instance, has enlisted the services of scientists to improve its native flocks and an experimental breeding farm has ‘been established at Chinquibambilla. Judging from reports to hand, the appeal to science has not been in vain, the fleece of experimental native sheep having been increased and improved by better methods of breeding. During 1926 Professor Alfred F. Barker, of Leeds University, was invited by the President to visit Peru and report upon the prospects of developing some 30,000,000 acres of wool-producing country.
It is very remarkable that in Australia organised study of the Animal Genetics is yet to be provided for. In my presidential address to the Veterinary Science section of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science
52 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
(1926), the necessity for making requisite provision was. stressed, and in the post-scriptum of his Peruvian report?? Professor Barker states ‘‘that it has been a disheart- ening experience to find that, notwithstanding the direct encouragement which the Universities of Edinburgh and. Leeds have given to Australia, for example, so far no work of this type has found an accredited place in the Austra- lian Universities; neither has there been in evidence, so far, that reciprocity and collaboration with the Home Universities which might lead to results industrially important and scientifically inspiring.’’ Also that ‘‘sheep- breeding and wool-growing present fields for research in Genetics and Heredity second to no other fields, and as. such should come within the activities of every University, and especially within the work of those Universities which are situated in the great wool-growing countries of the world.’’
These views need no endorsement, and it is hoped that. before long proper provision will be made in seasbeane for research in wool production.
CoNTROL oF PEsTs.
Numerous pests retard the development of the industry. Reference has already been made to the rabbit and dingo pests. In some areas noxious vegetation has taken posses- sion of many acres of good pasture land, and occasionally large tracts of country are laid bare by the visitation of hosts of caterpillars. The greatest of all the insect pests sheep-owners have to contend with is the ‘‘blow-fly’’ pest, depredations of which have run into millions of pounds sterling.
The State Departments of Agriculture have not been inactive in combating these pests, and while progress has been made, the success that has attended efforts to eradicate
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 53
the prickly-pear and the woolly aphis by parasitisation has attracted attention to the possibility of dealing with other pests in a similar manner, thus obviating the labour and expense connected with present methods. The discovery and propagation of parasites to attack and destroy certain vegetable and animal pests entail much exacting scientific investigation by specially-trained workers. Economic entomologists of proved value are much sought after, and it is pleasing to be able to record that the Council of Science and Industry has succeeded in engaging the services of one so eminent as Dr. Rh. J. ‘Tillyard, to co-ordinate the entomological efforts of the States and to elaborate new methods of attack. The parasitisation of the pupae of the blow-fly by the Chalcid wasp introduced by Froggatt has proved useful as a supplementary aid in controlling the propagation of this pest, and indicates the value more effective methods of biological attack may prove to the sheep industry.
THE CONTROL oF ANIMAL DISEASES.
The great majority of diseases affecting sheep in Aus- tralia have been introduced. Among the early importations disease other than Scab (Psoroptes communis var. ovis) was practically unknown, and as the hardships of trans- portation eliminated the weaklings, it may be taken that the survivors possessed a good constitution. Unfortunately, with subsequent importations, especially prior to the introduction of official supervision and quarantine regula- ‘tions, many diseases and parasitic affections were brought to Australia. Of the grave affections that were rife during last century Malignant Catarrh and Scab have been eradicated, while Anthrax has been controlled by preventive inoculation discovered by Pasteur and elaborated by McGarvie Smith an Gunn, so that its
54 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
occurrence is now but enzootic. Other introduced diseases: have become widespread, and they, together with a number peculiar to Australia, exact a very heavy annual toll from. the sheep industry by decreasing production and restricting markets abroad. To prevent this serious leakage of revenue, the encouragement of Veterinary Science has. become essential. Since the establishment of the first Veterinary College at Lyons, 1762, veterinary knowledge: has gradually accumulated, but marked progress has been made in its development as a science during the past thirty years. The curricula of the teaching institutions clearly indicate the wide application Veterinary Science has at the present day, and as each year records material progress in our knowledge of animal diseases, the field: is ever extending. Although Veterinary Science has. not received in Australia the encouragement it enjoys in many other countries, a useful organisation is being built up gradually. At the present time two Veterinary Schools. exist, the one in the University of Sydney and the other in the University of Melbourne, where complete courses. of instruction and training are given, extending over at least four academic years. The graduates find many avenues for employment, but so far the majority have been. absorbed in the veterinary services of the Federal Govern-- ment or of the States. The Federal service supervises the- importation of animals into Australia under the Quaran- tine Act, and the exportation of beef, mutton and lamb. under the Commerce Act. It thus carries out important. duties in safeguarding our flocks and herds from the intro- duction of further exotic disease, and in guaranteeing the wholesomeness of the meat produced to consumers abroad.. The State veterinary services are usually attached to the Departments of Agriculture, and they vary in their degree of development. Considerable advancement has been made
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 55D
during recent years in some, but the progress in others cannot be regarded as satisfactory. The best results only become possible when efficient field and research staffs act under capable administration. Advancement is most marked in the State of New South Wales, where the policy of appointing, as far as possible, qualified veterinarians as stock inspectors is proving very satisfactory, not only to the Department in providing highly-trained officers for the application of modern methods in the control of disease, but also to stock-owners, who derive much addi- tional benefit from increased accessibility of advice and assistance in connection with breeding, feeding, etc. The value of the field officers, however, is largely dependent upon the investigations carried out by the research staff in the elucidation of the cause of disease, and in the elaboration of effective measures of control. In each State some provision exists for investigating animal diseases, ranging from the rudimentary scheme of Tasmania to the establishment of experimental stations and research insti- tutes, of which that at Glenfield (N.S.W.) is the best. example. Research in animal diseases is also carried out at both our Veterinary Schools. Much valuable work has been done, and the economic importance of some of it, such as the control of fluke infestation of sheep, has been greatly appreciated by stock-owners. Still, it cannot be claimed that the best results possible have been achieved,. partly because in no instance has any one of the efforts had sufficient financial support for proper development,. and partly because of the shortage in highly-trained research workers, owing to the limited facilities that exist. for promising veterinary graduates to specialise in particu- lar subjects. The only assistance so far given for the latter purpose is that of the Walter and Eliza Hall Trust in providing for two Veterinary Fellowships, and.
56 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
the success attained by these Fellows clearly indicates the benefits that would be derived from pastoralists supple- menting the generous action of this Trust. The absence of proper organisation of veterinary effort also has had its effect. At the present time each State is endeavouring to work out its own problems in its own way, a process that is often both tedious and expensive. Some scheme to assure effective co-operation between the different widely- separated activities, as well as to provide for intensification of effort in desirable directions, would go far towards expediting results. Consideration has already been given to this matter, and the Council for Scientifie and Industrial Research is to be congratulated upon obtaining an organiser of Sir Arnold Theiler’s ability to advise it as to future plans for developing research in animal diseases. The field is certainly extensive, and as many diseases of grave economic importance, such as Caseous Lymphade- nitis and Braxy-like affections, prevail in more than one State, Federal guidance and assistance will no doubt be welcome.
ENCOURAGEMENT OF RESEARCH.
During recent years there has been manifested in many countries a keen desire to enhance animal production by the application of more scientific methods, and many schemes have been put into operation. The 17th Annual Report of the British Development Commission’3 indi- cates the wide range of action being taken in Great Britain. The Commission is now working in close co-operation with Empire Marketing Board, and augmented funds have been made available to existing research institutes for investiga- tions having an Imperial significance. During the last academic year (1926-7) some £140,000 was recommended by the Commission to encourage research in many direc- tions, and among the institutes in the United Kingdom
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 54
‘that received assistance were the Animal Breeding Research Department, Edinburgh University; the Animal Nutrition Institute of Cambridge University; the Rowett Research Institute, Aberdeen University; the Institute of Animal Pathology, Cambridge University ; and the Research Insti- tute—Animal Pathology, Royal Veterinary College, Lon- don. Further, at the Imperial Agricultural Research Conference held in London last year, the establishment of .a Bureau of Animal Nutrition at the Rowett Institute, a Bureau of Animal Health in London, and a correspondence -centre for Animal Genetics at Edinburgh University, were recommended to facilitate interchange of information concerning recent investigations in these subjects. The correlation and linking up of work earried out under different conditions at the various centres throughout the Empire must prove a powerful stimulus to future effort, but in order to be fully effective it is essential that each part of the Empire must add its quota. While it cannot ‘be said that Australia has pulled her full weight in the ‘past, the prospects for better fulfilment of her obligations in the future appear encouraging.
From the frequent references to the activities of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, it is evident that the Federal Government is manifesting a keen desire to assist the sheep industry in overcoming its problems But they are only part of a great number of problems -eonnected with primary industries as a whole which the Council has to consider, and it is questionable whether the funds placed at the disposal of the Council, originally regarded as ample, will be sufficient to meet the many -demands. Consequently the action being taken by the -wool-growers and wool-brokers to assist scientific research -is very welcome. It is proposed to found a fund by volun- tary subscription, on the basis of two shillings per bale of
58 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.
wool during the present clip, and to use the interest aceru-. ing from investment of the capital in encouragement. of research for the eradication of pests, the control of diseases,
and the elucidation of nutrition and other problems. As
an initial effort the objective of £200,000 aimed at is most praiseworthy, but as the interest on this sum will yield. not much more than £10,000 per annum, it is clear that
the capital sum will require to be considerably augmentcd. before the full weight of scientific help can be applied. A. further encouraging development is the additional pro- posal of the Pastures Protection Boards in New South. Wales to devote £2,500 of their funds for five years in. subsidising the Veterinary School at the University of Sydney, and the Veterinary Research Station at Glenfield,
in order to. encourage the development of Veterinary Science and to stimulate research in animal diseases. Hach. of these proposals is to be commended as a splendid example- of an industry manifesting its willingness to provide means. for the investigation of causes that retard its development,
and as contributions to the funds will be largely influenced by the results obtained, it becomes incumbent upon the scientific institutions appealed to for aid to show a keen and active interest in the welfare of the greatest cf our- primary industries.
REFERENCES. Official Year Book, Comm. of Aust., No. 20, p. 622. . Official Year Book, Comm. of Aust., No. 20, p. 75. Official Year Book, Comm. of Aust., No. 20, p. 52. . Grazier’s Review, Vol. 7, No. 12, p. 1332. . Agricultural Climatology of Australia—Taylor, p. 333.. . Historical Records of Australia, Series 1, Vol. 1, p. 52. . Historical Records of Australia, Series 1, Vol. 1, p. 300.. . Historical Reeords of Australia, Series 1, Vol. 1, p. 508.. . Thomas, Proce. Roy. Soe. Vic., 1922.
10. Var. 12. 13.
14. 15. 16. 1%. 13. 19. 20. 21. 22.
23.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 59
Official Year Book, No. 20, p. 829.
H. H. Dare, Water Conservation, N.S.W., 1926.
Henry and Morrison, “Beeds and Feeding,’’ p. 110.
Phosphorus in the Live Stock Industry, Jour. Dept Agric., South Africa, May, 1924.
Seddon, Jour. Comp. Path. and Ther., Vol. XXXV.
Biochemical Journal, Vol. X XI., No. 4.
Annual Report, Dept. Agric., N.Z., 1927.
Orr, Trans. High’d Agric. Soc., 1927.
Jour. C.8.1.R., Vol. 1, No. 1.
Commission on Wool Industry, 1805.
Burfitt, ‘‘The Founding of the Wool Industry,’’ p. 32.
Report, Central Wool Com. for 1919/20, p. 7.
Barker, ‘‘Prospective Development of Peru as a Sheep-breeding and Wool-growing Country.”’
Jour. C.9.ER:, Vol. 1, No. 3:
60 A. R. PENFOLD.
THE CHEMISTRY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SANDALWOOD OIL, PART TI.
By A. R. PENFoLD, F.A.C.1, Fie;s)
Curator and Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 6th June, 1928.)
Late in the year 1925 the author commenced an in- vestigation into the chemistry of Western Australian Sandalwood oil with a view to identifying the alcoholic constituents of this well-known essential oil. Despite the fact that several chemists have already shown the alcohols to possess certain differences from the well-known East Indian oil, quite a number of writers still persist in definitely expressing the sesquiterpene alcohols present as santalol. (See H. V. Marr, Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 22 (1928), page 138.) The need, however, for the present investigation was made imperative by the divergent results published from time to time by various chemists, institu- tions, and manufacturers. Since Messrs. Schimmel & Co. (Annual Report, 1921 Edition, pages 39/41) and the Imperial Institute (Bulletin, Imp. Institute, 1920, 18, 163) examined the oil, the Western Australian manufacturers have made marked advances in the preparation for the market of an article containing not less than 90% sesqui- terpene alcohol; in fact, almost invariably in the neigh- bourhood of 95-96%. The earlier results, therefore, are of negligible value at the present time as they were obtained upon samples containing only about 75-76% of sesqui-
WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SANDALWOOD OIL. 61.
terpene alcohols, and these were very much inferior to: the excellent quality of oil now marketed. The production, however, of these high-grade oils does not necessarily mean that, even allowing for the chemical and physical constants. being in agreement with the Hast Indian oil, that this. Australian oil is identical in chemical composition, and I am able to show under ‘‘experimental’’ that such is not the case.
I am fully conversant with the fact that the Australian. oil has been found to be equally efficacious and in some. instances superior to the East Indian in pharmacology, but this investigation is concerned with its chemical composition.
The commercial oils were first examined on account of their economic importance, and also because the contro- versial articles appearing in the current literature refer only to this product. At the same time, convincing evidence has been obtained which shows that the elucida- tion of the composition of Western Australian Sandalwood oil will be accomplished only when specimens of wood from various parts of the trees occurring in the different locali- ties of W.A. and carefully checked botanically are distilled, and the oils obtained therefrom carefully examined. Through the courtesy and assistance of Mr. S. L. Kessell, Conservator of Forests, Western Australia, who has evinced considerable interest in the problem and furnished the necessary supplies of material for examination, this work has been put in hand, but naturally some time must elapse before the investigation is brought to completion.
The object of this paper is to summarise the present state of knowledge regarding the chemistry of the com- mercial oil and the reasons for the divergent analyses. published to date. The paper by Mr. Horace Finnemore
62 A. R. PENFOLD.
eontributed to the Science Section of the British Pharma- ceutical Conference, 27-31st July, 1925, (see ‘‘ Perfumery and Essential Oil Record,’’ August, 1925, page 254-256), Summarised very succinctly the knowledge of the chemistry of Australian Sandalwood oil as at July, 1925. The further paper by Professor Emile Perrot entitled, ‘‘The Sandal- woods of Australia and their Essential Oils,’’ published in the ‘Bulletin des Sciences Pharmacologiques,’’ Nov. 1927, does not in my opinion show any distinct advance in knowledge of its chemistry over and above that given in Mr. Finnemore’s paper.
It was found in the present investigation that the Western Australian oil reacted just as readily with phthalic anhydride in benzene solution on the water bath as the santalols of the East Indian oil, and appeared to be of a primary character, contrary to the experience of Messrs. Rao and Sudborough (Jour. Ind. Inst. of Science, 5, 1923, 163-176). This divergence may be ex- plained by reason of the fact that Messrs. Rao and Sud- borough made no reference to the presence of santalol in the oil examined by them (I have not had access to their original paper, my information being gathered from the abstracts), whereas the writer found these alcohols to be present to the extent of 40-45% in the commercial samples kindly furnished by the various West Austrahan manufac- turers. Curiously, however, the santalols were not detected in oils of our own distillation. This observation is being followed up, and will be dealt with in a subsequent paper. Messrs. Rao and Sudborough separated two alcohols which they designated as a and 8 Fusanol, which, with the exception of variation in boiling point possessed constants not far removed from each other. As a matter of fact they appear to approximate very closely to the santalols.
WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SANDALWOOD OIL. 63
The author’s experience seems to show that it is not altogether advisable to characterise alcohols of this nature by optical activity alone, as the figures given for a and 8 Fusanol are +5.7° and +2.6° respectively. A laevo- rotatory alcohol has been isolated with a specific rotation of —70.4°, being the principal component of a sandal- wood oil obtained from the species Santalum lanceolatum, which is used by the West Australian manufacturers to bring the optical rotation of their oils up to the require- ments demanded by the B.P. for the East Indian oil.
I have been successful in characterising some of the various alcohols present by the preparation of the respective allophanates, that of the santalols melting at 162-1638°, whilst the other alcohols, for which the term Fusanol might be retained, yield similar derivatives melting at 148-152°. ‘On the other hand that from the laevo-rotatory alcohol referred to above is a most beautiful crystalline derivative of melting point 114°. With the exception of santalol none of these other alcohols yielded santalenic acid. <A dextro-rotatory alcohol of apparently a secondary character ‘was also isolated in small quantity from the Western Australian oil, but it did not yield a crystalline allophanate.
In order that the preliminary results recorded herein may be of practical value, commercial samples of East Indian oil were examined at the same time and under similar conditions. The chemical and physical characters of the respective commercial oils of the W.A. manufacturers are in close agreement, and my experimental work leaves no doubt at all that these oils differ in chemical composition from the East Indian oil, although the santalols are present to the extent of about 45%.
64 A. R. PENFOLD.
Owing to the divergent views prevailing amongst
distinguished botanists in regard to the botanical deriva-
tion of this oil, I am omitting in this paper any reference to their controversial views. The work of Sprague and. Summerhayes published in Kew Bulletin of Miscelianeous.
Information, No. 5, 1927 (‘‘Perfumery and Essential Oil
Record’’, July, 1927, page 51) seems to have established the:
fact that the tree yielding the principal supplies of West Australian Sandalwood oil of commerce is Kucarya spicata (Sprague and Summerhayes) (Syn. Fusanus spicatus, R.. Br.; Santalum spicatum, A.DC.; S. cygnorum, Miq.).
No valid reason has been advanced as to why the Australian oil cannot find a market on its own intrinsi¢ merits as the product of HKucarya spicata. The B.P.
authorities should undoubtedly make provision for it in
the B.P. under its own generic name, as it is futile to
include it under the same heading as the oil of Santalum album, more especially as the chemical and physical characters of the Australian oil can be made similar by the addition of the distillate of Santalum lanceolatum.
Experimental.
All the specimens of Australian oil examined were commercial samples drawn from bulk by the various West Australian manufacturers, whilst the East Indian lots were purchased in the open market. In every instance they were very clear and bright, moderately viscous and of a bright yellow colour. The chemical and physical constants of each are given in the following table :—
65
WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SANDALWOOD OIL.
MN{DIOIIUD] ULNjIDjUDS
pyorigs DisDINT
uUindg)]d Un] DIJUDS
Unqg]d UN] DIUDS
WNIDIOIIUD] WNjDJUDS WNIDIOIIUD] ULNIDIUDS piongds vtsvmngy pypnigs vksvmngy
pyprigs viapmngy
py col 0641
8 702 $°80¢
bS0¢ 9°V0C 9°26 3261 9°S0¢
£6 Oe
oe c él
v8 nice 16 601 vel
‘uorzye[AJOIV | “des yoy |‘oumnjoa Ag |*yysIam Ag
‘UISIIO [eOIUL}IOg
Jayye ‘ON 1318]
smoy §1 “ON To1Say
—TIO [elsomuio*)
—IO [epseuu05)
GL st SSOE Ti “ofVS 9r60 | OP ‘0d POM Ora a Oieg (OLOG Ts) are | SSVOOM came ee eo Winer OSH “PYT OD 8 “a Aq poysruiny SSO] WOI} Whosny [eolLsojou ye, AoupAS Ur Poy]sstp IO cv oT ZOOS Li!’ cZ2:8L = 822005 >= 9 ac ON eee ea Ee 0'V etl CUS TI oS Zh = |) O8Z0 0a) 2 = * SN eee LY oT SOOT BS OV = | "6c60 0) SSO NSUUlE eS Veal ooN\ acy. aaa | S805 1] «£57— |~ 82900 | -V -ON PElUTEhY se SLY Ja LOE cad b= 29960 | -¢ ON UUlETShY 1s97M Sp rT CoUG T= 657 = 4) 2296107) 9 °C ONS EES area 0'¢ cl SEOs Lil oot Sue CO9GI0N)| «at ON Bellershye ea “STOA "STOA {oyooTy att sD gly ‘poururexd sajdures YOL UL AyTIqnyos
E—6 June, 1928.
66 A. R. PENFOLD.
On fractional distillation, at 1-2 mm., of West Australian samples nos. 1 and 2, and East Indian no. 1, the following results were obtained :—
W.A. Owl, No. 1. 400 c.c. crude oil.
“a: : 15 20 20 M.Pt. of Boiling Point. Volume. di4 i Ue allophanate
110-140° 46c.c. 0.9388 —84° 14970 157° 14% 140-145° 62. ec, 0.9595 —7.2° 1.5081 153° 17% 1454-1464° 40 cc. 0.9627 —7.6° 1.5051 153° 123% 1464-147° 142c.c. 0.9627 —8.0° 1.5058 142-145° 10%
Yield of Sere
* 150-156° 40c.c. 0.9750 — 10°. 1.5089 — 3% 156-158° 20 ¢.c. 0.977 —J10:8~ arog — a Viscous residue LDS,
W.A. Owl Sample No. 2. 100 c.c.
104-130° (3 mm.) 20 ¢.e. “093872 — 4.55° 1.4992 130-147° (3 mm.) 17 ce; = 9582 — 4.5° E5031 148-154° (3 mm.) D3 @.c. + 0.9691 — 3.8° 1.5068 Residue 1.5142
The East Indian oil distilled under similar conditions gave the following results, viz. :—
No. 1 sample, 200 c.c.
135-141° (1-2mm.) 35¢.. 0.9690 — 15.9° 1.5040 141-145° (1-2mm.) 150¢.c. 0.9785 — 17.2° 1.5064 Residue 15;¢.¢; 50.999 — 24° 1.5150
The foregoing results clearly show that there exists a considerable difference in the alcoholic components of the West Australian and East Indian oils.
The three samples of oil referred to above were then treated with equal weights of phthalic anhydride and benzene on a boiling water-bath, using 100 gram lots in each case. All the samples thus treated returned 70% of alcoholic constituents when isolated from the phthalic acid esters. Combination was effected after one hour’s treat-
WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SANDALWOOD OIL. 67
ment, although two hours’ heating was given in each ease. The following results were obtained when the regenerated alcohols were subjected to fractional distillation under reduced pressure.
W.A. Oil, No. 1.
Boiling Point. Volume. diz an n> a fa 130-146° (1-2mm.) 10 ¢.c. 0.9622 —5.5° 1.5041 146-149° s 10 ¢.c. 0.9608 —6.1° 1.5050
150-154° =, «3S 40 ee. 0.9602 —7.6° 1.5058
Duplicate result. Below 151°(3 mm.) 6c.¢. 0.9615 —6.0° 1.5050 254-155°:(3 mm. )- 40 ¢.¢. 0.9622 —8.5° 1.5067 151°
W.A. Oil, No. 2. 135-154° (3mm.) 14¢.c. 0.9865 Inactive 1.5060 162° 154-156° (3mm.) 50c.c. 0.9660 —3° 1.5068 152°
East Indian Oil, No. 1. 140-150° (8mm.) 8c.c. 0.9793 — 14.4° 1.5055 150-155° (1mm.) 18¢.¢c. 0.9774 —19.6° 1.5064 162-163°
Oxidation of Crude Oils.
(a) The chemists of the Imperial Institute (Bulletin, Imperial Inst. 1920, 18, 163) found that the Australian oil yielded only 8% santalenic acid as against 20% obtained from the East Indian oil on oxidation with potassium permanganate, using Chapman’s process. (The particular sample of oil examined contained only 76-78% sesquiterpene alcohols.) The author repeated this work and obtained similar results, but the amount of tarry products formed with the Australian oil made it very difficult to estimate and purify the santalenic acid. A modified process of oxidation with potassium permanganate was adopted, which not
68 A. R. PENFOLD.
only gave considerable increased yields of san- talenic acid, but the latter was obtained free of tarry products upon treatment of the West Australian oil. The process was as follows:— 00-grams of powdered potassium permanganate (70-grams required for the Australian oil) are placed in a winchester with 700 ¢.c. iced water, 300-grams ice and 20 «ec. of the Sandalwood oil and the mixture transferred quickly to a shaking machine when the oxidation is completed within a few minutes. The following average results: were thus obtained :—
20 c.c. of the East Indian oil yielded 6-7 grams of crude santalenic acid,
20 c.c. of the West Australian oil gave 2.5 to. 3.9 grams do. Computing from this basis, the Australian oil is considered to contain about 40-45% of Santalols. The santalenic acid obtained in every instance when purified from ethyl alcohol or acetone and water, melted sharply at 76°-76.5°.
(b) The Australian oil when oxidised with chromic acid in glacial acetic acid solution alongside of the Hast Indian oil yielded small quantities of aldehyde, the semicarbazone of which melted at 230°, thus affording confirmation of the presence: of santalol.
Preparation of the Allophanates.
A study is being made of the action of cyanic acid upon the various alcohols with a view to their definite identifi- cation. The work is not yet completed, but sufficient data is available to show that the W.A. alcohols are a mixture of isomeric sesquiterpene alcohols with the santalols. The Kast Indian alcohols yielded a fine crystalline derivative melting at 162-163°. The Australian oil yielded a mixture
WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SANDALWOOD OIL. 69
from which on repeated fractional crystallisation a definite fraction of melting point 162° was obtained, identical with santalol allophanate. A mixed melting point showed no depression. The remaining fractions varied in melting point from 148° to 152°, being probably mixtures with gantalol allophanate of M.Pt. 162-163°. The laevo-rotatory alcohol to be described under Santalum lanceolatum yielded a very beautiful derivative of melting point 114°. Combustion and molecular weight results confirmed their identity as allophanates. Determination of a Secondary Sesquiterpene Alcohol possessing Dextro Rotation.
All commercial samples of the Australian oil were found to contain a small quantity, not above 10%, of an alcohol ‘which combined with phthalic anhydride only when heated in an oil bath at 140°. The uncombined oil remaining after the separation of the phthalic acid ester of the alcohols which combined with the anhydride in benzene solution on the boiling water bath was again heated with this reagent in an oil bath at 140° The regenerated alcohol for which a high degree of purity is not yet claimed, was found to possess the following chemical and_ physical
characters. Nona No. 2. Boiling point (1 mm.) 145-154° = 146-150° Specific gravity 33° .. 0.9939 0.995 Opucal rotation -. .. + 184s aes Refractive Index, 20°. 1.5106 1.5100
Neither sample yielded a crystalline allophanate when treated with cyanie acid. Oils from Wood of own Distillation.
The oil from wood of Hucarya spicata when. treated with phthalic anhydride in benzene solution on the boiling ‘water bath, yielded 50% of alcohols possessing the following characters :—
70 A. R. PENFOLD.
B. point (4-5 mm.), 160-161° ; specific gravity, 0.942; optical rotation, +4.9°; and refractive index, 1.5039 at. 20°,
The oil from wood of Santaluwm lanceolatum gave 70% of an alcohol on similar treatment possessing the following constants :—
B. point, 163-165° (5 mm.); specific gravity, 0.9474; optical rotation, —66.7°; and refractive index, 1.5074 at 20°. The above laevo-rotatory alcohol gave combustion and molecular results approximating to a formula C,;H.,0. On treatment with cyanic acid an excellent yield of erystalline allophanate melting at 114° was obtained.
As a result of the examination of the above oils distilled from the woods in this laboratory, it is evident that the West Australian oil contains a sesquiterpene alcohol of similar formula to santalol having the following approxi- mate constants :—
B. point, 160-161° (4-5 mm.) ; specific gravity, 0.942- 943 ; optical rotation, +5°; and refractive index, 1.50380 at 20°. A mixture of this aleohol with the santalols would result in a Similar mixture of alcohols as occurs in W.A. Sandal- wood oil with a specific gravity of 0.962. This particular alcohol has not yet yielded a crystalline allophanate nor santalenic acid on oxidation.
Distinction between Australian and East Indian Oils by means of Colour Reaction for Sesquiterpenes.
Small quantities of sesquiterpenes are present in the Australian oils as is evident by the violet red colour re- action obtained with bromine vapour when the crude oils: are dissolved in acetic acid. This colour reaction for ses- quiterpenes in Australian essential oils is a very commom one, and has been much referred to in the author’s com-
WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SANDALWOOD OIL. 71
munications to this Society. The East Indian oils, however, do not give this colour reaction when tested under the same conditions.
Although the colour obtained is not a very intense one on account of the small quantities of sesquiterpenes present, yet at the present time it offers a ready method of rapidly differentiating the two oils if a quick test be required. The author is very diffident of colour reactions, but has found the present one to be reliable. |
In conclusion, I wish to express my best thanks for valuable assistance rendered by the various firms engaged in the Sandalwood oil business, such as Messrs. Plaimar Ltd., Perth, Braddock & Co. Ltd., Perth, and W. K. Burnside Pty. Ltd., Melbourne.
I am also indebted to the Assistant Economie Chemist, Mr. F. R. Morrison, F.C.S., A.A.C.I., for assistance in this investigation.
72 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON.
THE OCCURRENCE OF A NUMBER OF VARIETIES OF EUCALYPTUS DIVES AS DETERMINED BY CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE ESSENTIAL OILS. Parr EH, (With remarks on the Ortho-cresol method for estimation of Cineol) By A. R. PENFoLD, F.A.C.1., F.C.S. Curator and Economic Chemist, and
I’, RK. Morrison, A.A:C.1,, here Assistant Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 4th July, 1928)
Eucauyptus Dives. var. ‘‘C’’,
In our Part I. communication to the Society on the 1st June, 1927 (this Journal, Vol. LXI., page 63), reference was made to the commercial distillation of this form of Eucalyptus dives, at Tumbarumba, N.S.W. We questioned the advisability of its distillation on account of the varia- tion in composition of the essential oil due to the periodic occurrence of phellandrene, which rendered it unsaleable as a pharmaceutical oil.
The position with regard to the exploitation of the species, at the time of publication, was a serious one, as the distillers had been forced to close down for the reasons set forth. It was apparent that a field inspection was urgently desired, and accordingly we visited the Tumbar- umba district in October, 1927. Previous field experiences enabled us to select belts of country which would be reasonably safe to work as phellandrene and piperitone
EUCALYPTUS DIVES. 73
could not be detected upon erushing the leaves between the fingers, the exquisite aroma of the blend of cineol-terpineol- citral which emanated therefrom being a characteristic feature of the majority of leaves from selected fields.
Representative samples of the leaves and terminal branchlets were personally collected from a series of belts of country which were examined in the Tumbarumba district in order to check the field observations, and the results set forth in the table afford such confirmation in quite a remarkable manner. ‘This visit, which occupied but a week-end, enabled the distillers to recommence operations, and to provide an excellent source of oil of the Eucalyptus Australiana type, for which there is a steadily increasing demand. It is the Eucalyptus oil par excellence for pharmaceutical purposes.
There is a considerable enquiry for high grade water white oils from EH. Australiana and other species yielding oils similar in physical properties and chemical composition, and the economic aspect of the observations recorded in this paper are of far-reaching importance. It is only a matter of time when this type of oil must replace the ‘*Mallee’’ oils altogether for medicinal purposes.
Many samples of the oil of EH. dives and its varieties have been examined since 1917, but not one from this district had been found to be free of cineol and to contain piperitone and phellandrene in abundance, thus approxi- mating to the composition of the oil of the normal E. dives. This fact was difficult of explanation up to the time of our field inspection, but a cursory examination of the first belt of country examined soon revealed trees of the type. We view this detection of the Type E. dives in this district as an observation of great importance, as otherwise it would be difficult to be convinced of its relationship to variety
74 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON.
‘‘C’’, particularly on account of the wide divergence in composition of the respective essential oils.
Many of the observations made in the course of the selection of suitable areas for commercial exploitation are worthy of record. Mention was made in our Part I. paper of a clump of 5 trees near Goulburn, 2 of which consisted. of the normal E. dives, and 3 of Variety ‘‘B’’.
Similar instances were noted at Tumbarumba, an example: at School Hill being most striking. A sample of oil had. previously been distilled from the leaves and terminal branchlets selected from a clump of seven trees, and on. examination had been found to contain a small quantity of phellandrene, thus rendering an otherwise excellent oil valueless for medicinal purposes. The particular belt of country known as the School Hill was found to be in general a very excellent field, the leaves being longer and broader and the trees heavier in leaf than those in other areas. Moreover, from the leaves on crushing emanated. the excellent aroma of cineol-terpineol-citral.
It was, therefore, very difficult to account for the adverse report, and a special search was made for the patch of trees from which the leaves had been selected. They were subsequently located, and found to be botanically identical. The first six examined were found to be true to H. dives, var. ‘‘C’’; the seventh, however, was found to: be rich in phellandrene (piperitone and piperitol could. also be detected, but very little cineol), and to be approxi- mately the variety ‘‘B’’. It is a remarkable fact that if the leaves of the first six trees only had been distilled the oil would have been very favourably reported upon, whereas, the admixture of the leaves from the seventh tree resulted in the oil being condemned on account of the presence of phellandrene. (See result in Table.)
!
EUCALYPTUS DIVES. 71>
Again at Mannus Hill, on the left hand side of the road a number of trees of the type were found growing distri- buted amongst a preponderance of trees of variety ‘‘B’’ and variety ‘‘C’’, whilst on the right hand side trees of variety ‘‘B’’ were found distributed throughout a belt of variety ‘‘C’’, which predominated. It was a strange experience to crush the leaves of a tree and to note the pronounced piperitone-phellandrene odour, and to compare it with that from a tree but three feet away, the leaves of which, when similarly treated, exhaled the refreshing aroma of cineol with a little citral.
Unfortunately, these most interesting areas of country had, of course, to be rejected as being of no value for commercial distillation at the present time. Other areas. of country near Rosewood and Glenroy in the Tumbarumba district consisting almost entirely of variety ‘‘C’’ were selected and recommended for commercial distillation. Summarising the Tumbarumba district as a whole, we can state that the belts of H. dives are the diametrically oppo- site of the better known belts of the type. The latter contain but a small percentage of trees of variety ‘*A’’ and variety ‘‘B’’ as compared with many of the former, which consist almost entirely of variety ‘‘C’’, with a small percentage of trees of variety ‘‘B’’ and the normal type.
Many analyses made since the reopening of the field in October last on samples representing tons of oil procured from the selected fields have shown phellandrene not to be detected according to the B.P. test, and the cineol content to vary from 60% to 70%. Abundant evidence has thus. been provided for the justification of our recommendations based upon field observations.
Determination of Cineol.
Opportunity was taken to determine the cineol contents.
of the oils by the new ortho-cresol method proposed by T.
‘poyjew JOsat9-0yJIQ = 4
*poyjJoUl UIDIOSOY =,
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"M’'S'N ‘“Bquanivquiny, Woy GSATIAINVA SLI GNV SHAIC SALdA TVONA— ATE,
EUCALYPTUS DIVES. 17
Tusting Cocking (Paper read before the British Pharma- ceutical Conference, 1920; see ‘‘Perfumery and Essential Oil Record’’, August, 1920, page 281). The method has: since been reported upon by the Essential Oil Sub-Com- mittee to the Standing Committee on Uniformity of Analytical Methods and the findings published in the ‘“Analyst’’ for May, 1927.
As a result of our own work we must admit that the method is an excellent one, and in our opinion should certainly be adopted by the B.P. Authorities as a standard method. In a series of experiments conducted with various. commercial Eucalyptus oils very good agreement was. observed when the method was tested against the older and better known phosphoric acid process. It is necessary to. point out, however, that abnormal percentages of cineol were found with oils of the EH. Australiana type, which, of course, includes H. dives, var. ‘‘C’’, due to the presence of a-terpineol. Mr. T. Tusting Cocking in his original paper mentioned that alcohols and esters gave high results, but looked upon the variation as negligible for B.P. oils. In our opinion, the variation is too great to be overlooked, and we would suggest that the determination be made on the portion distilling below 190° when applied to oils of this type, in order to ensure accurate results.
A comparison of the results as set forth in the following table exemplifies our contention in a striking manner, © V1Z. :—
E. dives, var. §*C’’. Crude Oil.
Cineol contents
Congealing Cineol contents. by Cresol Point method, using” Phos. portion of oil. (UES=Bs acid Cresol distilling Method). method. method. below 190°. Sample No. 1 —17° 57-58% 67.5% 59% (Nichol’s Country) Sample No. 2 ailim 62-63% 71.4% 64%
(Commercial)
78 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON.
Determination of a-Terpineol.
The presence of a-terpineol was confirmed by distilling 200 ec. of H. dives oil, var. ‘‘C’’ (see table), and examin- ing the portion distilling above 190°. After further distillation, 16 ¢.c. were obtained boiling between 95-110° at 10 mm., and possessing the following constants, viz. :—
dks, 0.9383 ; a%° + 0.3°; n® 1.4780.
These figures indicate a high content of a-terpineol. ‘The alcohol reacted very readily with both phenylisocya- nate and napthylisocyanate, giving good yields of the respective phenylurethane and napthylurethane melting respectively at 113° and 148°. The constituent accompany- ing the cineol in the fraction distilling below 190° could not be isolated for identification, as on treatment with 50% ‘aqueous resorcin solution the whole went into solution. The additive compound of cineol and resorcin was separated and purified and found to be a jae stable combination. It melted at 83°.
The two samples of oil of var. ‘‘B’’ examined were found to be low in piperitone. It is as well to make mention of the fact that in such instances the corresponding alcohol | is present. Puiperitol is very difficult of separation and identification in the absence of large quantities of crude oil, but is readily detected by its characteristic odour, and consequently we are able to satisfy ourselves of its presence ‘when handling comparatively small quantities of oil and leaves.
In conclusion, our thanks are due to the Forestry ‘Commission of New South Wales and its officer, Mr. Boyd, for providing facilities for the field inspection at Tumbar- umba, and to Messrs. F. Heinecke and M. Kinstler for -assistance and interest during the visit.
WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 79
SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE WOODINESS OR BULLET DISEASE OF PASSION FRUIT. By R. J. NOBLE, Ph.D., M.Sc., B.Sc. Agr., Biologist, Department of Agriculture, Sydney. (With Plates I-IV)
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 4th July, 1928)
Commercial production of passion fruit (Passiflora edulis, Sims) in N.S.W. is limited practically to the coastal areas. The vines are grown in plantation blocks or are interplanted with citrus in the early years of the establish- ment of citrus orchards. Many growers have relied upon the crop as their main source of income until their citrus areas have approached the stage of profitable production. There is keen demand for passion fruit on the local market, but in spite of favourable prices for good quality fruit, and in spite of the fact that there are large areas in the State which are suitable for passion fruit production, the supply of fruit is still unequal to the demand. Several attempts also have been made to establish a passion fruit pulp industry and guaranteed prices have been offered to growers for the regular supply of fruit, but these efforts have proved abortive.
The records on production of the crop in N.S.W. have been compiled annually by the Government Statistician for the past 15 years, and this information is shown | graphically in text Fig. 1. It will be noted that, although there was a general increase in the number of vines in bearing from 1921-1925, there was not a comparable ‘mcrease in production during this period. In 1924, 221,178
80 R. J. NOBLE.
vines and in 1925, 219,188 are recorded in bearing, and
the peak in production was reached in 1925, when 73,079
bushels of fruit were harvested. This figure, however, does. not greatly exceed the 58,901 bushels which were harvested in 1920 from 95,257 vines.
The average annual yields per vine have been calculated from the data on production for the past fifteen years and are shown in the following table :—
Passion Fruit Production in N.S.W. Average Yield per Vine—1913-1927.
bushels. bushels. bushels. P98" 2. “use TOTB oy. AE 1923 °°) ao MODAL oy foil POM bly - 43 1924... 80 1915 obe 48 EO2Os 161 1925)... 488 L9G. L220 746 OA hy) 48 1926. |. A agate VOUT. 5). Ad hO22 See aR 192%. 39'S
There are records of production in individual planta- tions in which the yield has exceeded 2 bushels per vine, but the average yield for the State for the past five years is only .31 bushels per vine, thus indicating that there is considerable room for improvement in the methods of production.
It will be noted from the above table that relatively high average yields were obtained during the five-year period prior to 1920. This may have stimulated interest in the erop and thus partly explain the increase in the number of vines planted during the period 1921-25. Subsequent yields, however, have been disappointing, and a decrease in the number of vines planted is now recorded.
Although the passion fruit will thrive on a variety of
soil types in this State, the best returns under local conditions only have been obtained when proper attention has been paid to suitability of location, cultural details,
tte
WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 8]
addition of adequate and suitable fertilisers and pruning. There are instances, however, in which the vines have received apparently suitable treatment and yet have failed
to produce satisfactory returns. Under average conditions
it is considered that the vines are most productive during the first 3 or 4 years of growth. After this period most vines are obviously unproductive and are removed. There are commercial plantations, on the other hand, in which aig: Thousands
90 220 80 200 70 180 60 160 50 140 40 #120 30 100
20 80
10 60
fe) 40 , Ma 4 15 16 17 "16 '19 "20 ‘ell ‘22 '23 "24 '25) "26 127
Passion Fruit Production in New South Wales from 1913=[927. A.—Production in bushels. P.—Total Vines in bearing.
the vines are 8-10 years old and are still in a state of profitable production. There are isolated instances, also, of individual vines 15 to 20 years of age which are still producing fruit. In contrast to the above, vines may become entirely unproductive in their first season of growth.
Although lack of attention to cultural details is partly responsible for the relatively poor yields which are now
being obtained, it is considered that the present unsatis- F—July 4, 1928.
82 R. J. NOBLE.
factory position is mainly due to the incidence of disease. Two diseases of passion fruit are of special importance in this connection: (a) Brown Spot caused by the fungus Gloeosporium fructigenum Berk, and (b) Woodiness.
It is difficult to suggest which disease has been respon- sible for the most serious losses, but it is considered that satisfactory control of these diseases would result in a considerable improvement in production in this State. There is no doubt that the Woodiness disease is mainly responsible for the relatively short period of productive- ness of vines under local conditions.
History of the Disease.
The Woodiness disease has lone been known as a disease of passion fruit in N.S.W. Allen! in 1901 described several features of a deterioration disease in passion fruit, and a few months later Cobb*® published a more complete descrip- tion of the trouble and also stated that the disease was known to have occurred in the State prior to 1893, and was even then a matter of serious concern to growers. The disease is now known to occur throughout the eastern States of Australia, but apparently causes most serious damage only in N.S.W.
Symptoms of the Disease.
The Woodiness disease of passion fruit was thus named by Cobb (loc. cit.) in allusion to the condition of the fruits which are produced on diseased vines. The condition is most commonly observed during the cooler months of the year, although severely diseased plants may be observed at any time of the year. Individual vines only may be affected, or the disease may affect all the vines in a plan- tation. The Winter crop of fruit is more severely affected with Woodiness than is the case with the Summer crop. It has also been observed that slightly affected vines which
WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 83
‘previously had produced woody fruits may subsequently produce normal fruits during the warmer months. Such vines, however, are not as productive as those which have not been affected with the disease.
(a) The Fruit.
Fruits which are ripened on normal vines are dark purple in colour, somewhat ovoid in shape, and are generally symmetrical in appearance. On drying slightly these fruits become shrivelled in a characteristic manner (Plate 1, Figs. 1 and 2).
Woody fruits, on the other hand, are generally mis- sshapen and deformed. Such fruits are often undersized and when not obviously malformed may be somewhat spherical in appearance. This symptom has given rise to a second common name by which the disease is known, viz., ““Bullet’’. The surface of the fruit may be smooth as in the case of normal fruits, but more generally it is charac- terised by the development of cracks and occasionally by the development of irregularly shaped areas of tissue which appear to have burst through the skin of the fruit (Plate 1, Figs. 3 and 4). The colour of the woody fruits may be almost normal, although generally such fruits develop an_ abnormal purplish colouration in contrast to the natural colour of healthy fruits. Woody fruits are characteristic- ally hardened, offer considerable resistance to pressure, and, in contrast to normal fruits, are not readily cut through. Such fruits on drying do not shrivel uniformly ain the manner described for healthy fruits. When abnor- mal fruits of this type are cut through, the tissues of the pericarp or rind are noticed to be abnormally thickened (Plate 2, Fig. 5).
Each seed in a normal fruit 1s surrounded by a bright yellow-coloured arillus which in the mass constitutes the
84 R. J. NOBLE.
edible pulp of the fruit and which possesses a characteris- tically piquant flavour.
Woody fruits, on the other hand, contain a much anit quantity of pulp, which is somewhat orange in colour and through which the black-coated seeds are more readily observed. The flavour of the pulp of such fruits is insipid and undesirable. In some cases the woody fruits may be practically devoid of contents, although superficially there may be little to distinguish them at times from the fruits. of a normal plant. Many of the seeds of a diseased fruit are undeveloped. Although the abovementioned features. refer particularly to the mature fruits, symptoms of woodiness also may be observed in fruits which are in the early stages of development. Such fruits are deformed, the pericarp shows signs of abnormal thickening, and many may fall from the vine before reaching maturity
Histological studies of the pericarp of abnormal fruits indicate that it differs materially from that of a normal fruit. In transverse section the pericarp of a normal fruit is seen to be composed of (a) an outer epidermal layer one cell wide, and then a subepidermal layer three cells wide, immediately underlying which is (b) a hypodermal band of small, rounded, thick-walled sclerenchymatous cells approximately three cells wide, and then (c) a much wider section of parenchymatous tissue which also includes the vascular elements (Plate 2, Fig. 6). In abnormal fruits extensive changes are observed to have occurred in the tissues which constitute the innermost section of the pericarp. The cell walls of this altered tissue are thickened and pitted, and the cells are either devoid of or almost devoid of normal contents.
Tests with an alcoholic solution of phloroglucin followed by hydrochloric acid, and tests with usual staining reagents, indicate that these cells are strongly lignified.
ee
WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 85
The lignification may be restricted to cells adjacent to the hypodermal layer of sclerenchymatous tissue or it may extend throughout the whole of the inner portion of the pericarp (Plate 2, Fig. 7).
(b) The Foliage.
The foliage of diseased vines is also abnormal. Such vines have a general appearance of unthriftiness and appear also as if suddenly checked in growth. The leaves of the terminal shoots may be stunted and are frequently eurled, twisted and deformed. Changes may occur in the chlorophyll-bearing tissues which result in the development ~ of a yellowish green chlorosis, or there may be formed a definite mosaic of abnormally light green and dark green areas on the leaf. The tissues of the leaf between the veins may be raised or sunken, thus giving the leaf a puckered or crinkled appearance (Plate 3, Figs. 8 and 9; Plate 4, Fig. 10). Light yellowish green spots may develop on older leaves which previously were full-grown and otherwise quite healthy in appearance. The stems of affected plants, particularly in the region of terminal shoots, may develop mottled dark green areas which are in marked contrast to the normal green colouration of healthy plants. These foliar symptoms have been observed under ‘field conditions both in seedlings and in aged vines.
Nature of the Disease. _ Many different theories have been advanced as to the ‘causal nature of the disease. Allen’ suggested that the disease was most serious in vines which were planted in exposed positions in which they were subjected to high winds. Frosts and cool nights at the time of setting of the fruit were considered as a possible cause of the disease, particularly on vines impoverished through age or lack of adequate fertilisers. Insufficient moisture and the influence ‘of hot and dry summers were also considered of impor-
86 R. J. NOBLE.
tance. The same writer? has also stated that ‘‘plants: raised from seed from selected vines and planted out with every care have been known, owing to hail followed by drought, to have developed ‘‘bullet’’ at a very early stage: and never to have made a payable return’’. Cobb® has reiterated and discussed these possibilities, and has also figured an undetermined fungus which he had found in: association with diseased fruits.
In the present study, although the characteristic features. of the disease did not indicate that the condition was due to the action of a parasitic bacterial or fungus organism,, tissue platings and other observations were made to provide: further information in this respect. In no instance was. any organism isolated which suggested a causal relationship: in this connection.
Infection Experiments.
The foliar symptoms of diseased plants indicated that: the ‘‘ Woodiness’’ disease might be due to the action of a virus. In November, 1926, a series of inoculation experi- ments were initiated with a view to determining whether this was the case. Water infusions were prepared from. diseased leaves, and from fully-developed and partially-. developed woody fruits, and small quantities of this. material were inoculated into the stems of healthy plants, but in no case did disease develop. In view of subsequent tests it is possible that the temperatures experienced during the incubation period of the tests were unfavourable for the development of symptoms.
The results of the first series of successful experiments. in this connection are indicated below. As in previous instances, seed was obtained from normal fruits and the test seedlings were raised in an insect-proof glass-house. Plant tissue infusions were prepared from leaves and fruits:
WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 87
of diseased vines. The tissues were cut up finely, covered with tap water, and the extract was then decanted and used as inoculum.
The method of inoculation was similar to that described by McKinney.’? A few strands of sterile cotton wool were soaked in the tissue extract and were then placed in the axil of a leaf of the plant, and then inserted in the vascular region of the stem by means of a needle. Special precau- tions were taken to avoid contamination in the separate test series. Check plants comprised uninjured seedlings, seedlings in which the stems were punctured with a sterile needle, or in which were inserted strands of sterile cotton wool soaked in water.
Nine seedlings were inoculated on the 13th April, 1928, in the manner described above, using leaf tissue extract as inoculum. Ten days later the first signs of disease were noted in the developing leaves of three plants. On the following day all of the nine plants were showing definite signs of infection. The leaf blades in all cases were very much curled downwards, the tips of the young leaves being pressed up against the base of petioles. Further changes developed in these plants within the following two weeks. Elongation of the stems was checked; some of the newer leaves became chlorotic, while others developed marked mosaic mottling and others showed puekering of the tissues between the veins and other distortions of the laminae.
Five weeks after commencement of the test it was noticed that small yellowish spots were developing on the mature leaves of the inoculated plants. Six check plants in this test and thirty-six untreated plants growing under the same conditions remained healthy. The check plants were still healthy two months later (Plate 4, Fig. 11). Similar results were obtained in a further test with diseased leaf tissue collected from vines in another locality. Four
88 R. J. NOBLE.
plants were inoculated on the 7th May, 1928, and pro- nounced symptoms of disease were noted fifteen days to twenty-four days after inoculation. Four check plants remained healthy. |
Tests with water extracts of the tissues of woody passion fruits also produced similar results. Six plants were inoculated with the water extract from woody fruit tissues on the 4th May, 1928, and definite symptoms of disease similar to those already described were noted in all six plants twenty to twenty-seven days after inoculation.
Four check plants remained healthy. Further tests are
in progress with filtered extracts derived from the tissues of diseased plants.
During the course of field studies on the disease it was observed that certain plants of another species, viz., Passiflora coerulea Linn, showed a diseased condition of the foliage which resembled somewhat a mosaic condition occasionally seen on the commercially cultivated vines of Passiflora edulis. A plant tissue extract was prepared from the foliage of these abnormal plants and was used in an infection experiment with seedlings of Passiflora edulis. Six plants were inoculated on the 13th April, 1928, and marked symptoms of disease similar to those described in previous tests were observed on four plants thirteen to twenty days after inoculation. Six check plants remained healthy. All check plants throughout each of these series of tests have remained in a healthy condition and are still normal.
Masking of Symptoms.
It will be noted that the incubation period varied con- siderably in respect of the several infection experiments reported above. In some plants definite signs of infection appeared 10 days after inoculation, and in other cases infection was not recorded until 27 days after inoculation.
WOODINBESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 89
In the first series also it was observed that, although marked foliar symptoms of disease had appeared in all inoculated plants eleven days after inoculation, the new growth which thad developed 30 to 40 days after inoculation was appar- ently normal. Subsequent growth in these plants has since developed diseased symptoms similar to those which had first appeared in the plants.
No facilities were available for maintaining uniform temperature conditions during the progress of these tests, but thermographic records were maintained throughout this period. No definite correlations can be made between the development of symptoms and the prevalence of definite temperatures, but it is significant that temperatures in -excess of 80° F. were experienced prior to and during the ~ period in which normal leaves were developed on plants ‘which were known to be infected with the disease. The ‘variation in the incubation period reported in the later infection tests is considered to be mainly due to the influ- ‘ence of the air temperatures to which the plants were ‘exposed. |
Similar phenomena have been observed under field conditions. New, apparently healthy shoots have been produced on diseased vines at various periods throughout the year. As previously indicated also, the disease is typically one which is most serious during the Winter months, and plants which have produced abnormal fruits -during this period may produce normal fruit during the ‘Summer months.
DISCUSSION.
It is considered from the evidence reported above that ‘the Woodiness disease of passion fruit can be attributed to the action of a virus. The virus has been proved to be ‘present in the leaves and shoots of vines which have pro- -duced woody fruits, and these fruits have also been proved
90 R. J. NOBLE.
to contain the virus which, on inoculation into healthy plants, has resulted in the development of the characteristice foliar symptoms of disease. A number of the inoculated test plants are being retained to determine whether the- disease will be developed in the fruits which they may develop at a later period. It is considered, however, that the disease is of sufficient importance to justify an. announcement of the results which already have been. obtained.
A Mosaic disease of Passionflower in England is listed by Bewley,5 but no further information as to its character: has been available to the writer.
The general foliar symptoms of plants in the present study are characteristic of those which have been discribed in a large number of cultivated plants known to be affected. with a virus disease.
In the infection experiments it was noted also that the symptoms of the disease in the inoculated plants varied from time to time in different plants, and at the conclusion of the tests some plants were observed to be very much. more severely affected with the disease than was the case with others. Although this may be explained in part on the basis of partial masking, it is possible that the virus. used on the tests was a mixed one, but further data is required before this aspect of the problem can be: elucidated.
Lignified cells or stone-cells are known to occur normally in a wide variety of plants. Artschwager3 mentions that the presence of such cells in potato tubers may be regarded as a normal varietal characteristic. Their occurrence in certain varieties of pears is also a well-known phenomenon, although their excessive development in these fruits may result in the production of a diseased condition known as Lithiasis, which generally is attributed to the incidence of unfavourable environmental conditions.
WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 9]
The occurrence of lignified cells in tissues which do not normally contain them, however, may be due to the influence: of diseases of the virus type. Artschwager,‘ in studies on the changes which develop in potatoes affected with phloem necrosis, has described an abnormal tissue development which consisted of a progressive legnification of cells im the phloem region, and he records also a conclusion reached by Quanjer (loc. cit.), that the hgnification of the cells of the phloem is a dependable diagnostic symptom for the identification of leaf-roll, a serious virus disease affecting this crop.
The extensive lignification of the tissues of the pericarp of woody passion fruits would appear also to be another definite manifestation of the effects of a virus disease.
The masking of symptoms such as has been noted in the case of the Woodiness disease is also a characteristic feature of many virus diseases affecting cultivated plants, and this phenomenon has been recorded by a number of observers.
Johnson® has shown that manifestation of symptoms in several different types of plants affected with virus diseases. depended on the air temperatures to which they were exposed. Critical temperatures varied according to the type of plant under investigation. Tompkins,'3 in a series. of temperature control experiments, demonstrated that relatively short exposure to air temperatures in excess of 24° C. was sufficient to mask development of symptoms of mosaic in potatoes. Subsequent exposures to low tempera- tures enabled mosaic symptoms to appear again. Wilcox™ also records a masking effect of high temperatures in rela- tion to development of mosaic symptoms in raspberries, and quite recently Plakidas’ has recorded that strawberry Xanthosis (Yellows) is due to the action of a virus, the effects of which are masked by exposure to temperatures
92 R. J. NOBLE.
above 80° F. (24° C.). Elmer’ has reviewed the results of previous workers in this connection, and, in a discussion of the results of his own experiments with tomatoes affected with mosaic, suggests ‘‘that plants growing in optimum environmental conditions for vegetative growth will exhibit symptoms after a shorter incubation period following mosaic infection than will plants that are not making a vigorous growth’’.
The maskine of symptoms of the Woodiness disease under commercial conditions is of special practical signifi- cance. Passion fruit plants may be affected with the virus and may show but little signs of infection during the Summer months. These vines may be pruned severely in October or November with a view to the production of a heavy winter crop. Such action, however, might be quite disastrous owing to the high proportion of woody fruits which may develop in this crop, whereas a more profitable return might have been obtained from the vines had they been allowed to mature the summer crop in a normal manner.
Two other destructive plant diseases recently investi- gated in Australia have been proved to be due to the action of parasitic viruses, e.g., Bunchy Top in bananas and Spotted Wilt of tomatoes. Both of these diseases, however, could only be reproduced consistently in infection experiments by means of an appropriate insect vector.
Magee? demonstrated that Bunchy Top was transmitted by means of the banana aphis (Pentalonia nigrovenosa Cql.), and Pittman,” in trials with a number of potential carriers of the virus of Spotted Wilt, showed that this disease was transmitted by means of the rose thrips (Thrips tabaci Lindeman).
WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 93
In the case of the Woodiness disease it has been shown that, under suitable conditions, the virus which causes the diseasé may be transmitted mechanically.
Under field conditions it is possible that the disease is: transmitted in a number of different ways. The rubbing of the shoots of diseased vines against the adjacent shoots of healthy vines may be a prolific source of infection. Growers may unwittingly transfer the disease during pruning operations, and particularly when rubbing off the laterals in the early stages of growth of vines when the latter are being trained on to the supporting wires. Insects which feed on the diseased vines and then migrate to healthy vines may occasionally also result in transmission of the disease, although further information in this respect is not yet available.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CONTROL OF THE DISEASE.
The present status of this investigation makes it possible for several suggestions to be made in reference to control measures :—
1. Seedlings should not be raised in proximity to diseased vines. Severely diseased seedlings frequently have been observed in such locations.
2. Only healthy seedlings should be planted out. Symp- toms of the Woodiness disease can be readily detected in seedlings in the Spring, and any diseased plants should be immediately removed and destroyed.
3. Careful systematic inspections should be made of the vines in young plantations, and any vines which are stunted in growth or which show signs of foliage abnormality of the types already described should be removed and destroyed.
4. Very careful observations should be made of vines at the time of pruning, particularly in the first season of
94
R. J. NOBLE.
erowth. It is most likely that infection may be carried on the hands of those working among the vines, and care should be taken to wash the hands well in soapy water after dealing with a diseased vine and before working with healthy vines. Field evidence supports the view that replacements can be safely made shortly after removal of diseased vines.
When the plantation is more than one year old, the vines generally have become entangled with one another on the wires. The removal of a diseased vine then becomes a matter of extreme difficulty, and it is ques- tionable whether this is desirable. Removal can hardly be effected without injuring the shoots of adjacent vines in the row and thus increasing risks of infection. If there are but few of such vines present it would pro- bably be preferable to cut them off at the roots and then to remove the vines several weeks after they had dried out. Removal of the diseased vines in this con- dition then would be less likely to result in infection of the adjacent vines. However, when infection is widespread throughout a plantation, all vines should be destroyed as soon as practicable; but if the crop indications are such that an immediate return appears possible, efforts should be made to concentrate on the Summer crop from such an area. A plantation in this condition should not be pruned with a view to forcing a Winter crop, as such a crop would be practically value- less. Neglected plantations and even isolated vines showing evident signs of deterioration constitute a very real menace in the perpetuation of the Woodiness disease, and every effort should be made to destroy vines in this condition.
It has been demonstrated that the Woodiness disease may be transmitted mechanically; thus it is possible
WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 95
that a number of agencies may be concerned in the transmission of the disease under field conditions. Although the passion vine is not normally subject to serious visitations by insect pests, insects may at times be concerned in the transmission of the disease. It is generally impracticable to apply sprays effectively to vines growing under commercial conditions, owing to the impossibility of obtaining satisfactory distribu- tion on the dense mass of foliage. As a measure of good cultural procedure, however, all weeds which might act as harbours for insect pests should be kept down as much as possible.
SUMMARY.
. Passion fruit production in N.S.W. is an industry of special local importance, but although satisfactory returns occasionally have been obtained by individual growers, the returns in most instances are disappoint- ing. The position is well illustrated by the data on production for the State.
The average annual yield per vine for the 5 years’ period 1923-1927 was .31 bushels. Records from individual plantations have exceeded 2 bushels per vine.
There is an increasing demand for the fruit, but the returns obtained by growers have resulted in discour- agement, and the industry as a whole is in a somewhat languishing condition.
This condition is considered to be due mainly to the incidence of two diseases which affect the crop, viz., Brown Spot caused by the fungus Gloeosporium fruc- tigenum, and a disease known as Woodiness or Bullet. The latter disease has been the subject of the present study.
96
R. J. NOBLE.
Woodiness was known to occur in N.S.W. prior to 1893, and it is still a serious limiting factor in production.
Symptoms of the disease may be recognised in the general deteriorated appearance of affected vines, in abnormalities of the shoots and foliage, and in the woody character of the fruits.
Many theories have been advanced as to the nature of the disease, but infection experiments have demon- strated that it is due to the action of a parasitic virus which, under appropriate conditions, can be transferred mechanically.
Symptoms of the disease may be masked during the incidence of air temperatures above 80° F., thus indi- cating a possible reason for the prevalence of the disease under field conditions during the cooler months of the year.
A number of suggestions are made with a view to mini- mising losses experienced as a result of the occurrence of the disease.
LITERATURE CITED.
Allen, W. J. 1901. The deterioration of passion vines and fruit. Agric. Gaz. N.S.W., 12:248-250. 192%. The passion fruit.
N.S.W. Dept. of Agriculture Leaflet 7 pp. Artschwager, Ernst. 1924, Studies on the potato tuber. Jour. Agric. Research, 27:828.
1923. Occurrence and significance of phloem necrosis in the Irish potato. Jour. Agric. Research, 24:237-245.
Bewley, W. F. 1923. Mycological Report. Eighth Ann. Report Cheshunt Exper. and Res. Stat. Herfordshire (1922): 24-45. (Abstracted in Rev. Appl. Mycology, 2:489).
10.
ALS
ie
13.
14.
WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 97
Cobb, N. A. 1901. Woodiness of passion fruit. Agric. Gaz. N.S.W., 12:407-418. Elmer, O. H. 1925. Transmissibility and pathological effects of the
Mosaic disease. Iowa Agr. Exp. Stn. Research Bul. 82, pp.
39-91. Johnson, James. 1922. The relation of air temperature to the mosaic
disease of potatoes and other plants. Phytopathology, 12:438-440.
Magee, C. J. P. 1927, Investigation on the Bunchy Top disease of the banana. Commonwealth of Australia, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Bul. 30,
64 pp. McKinney, H. H. O27. Quantitative and purification methods in virus studies.
Jour. Agric. Research, 35:13-38. Pittman, H.. A. 1927. Spotted wilt of tomatoes. Commonwealth of Australia, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Jour., 1:74-77. Plakidas, A. G. SP Strawberry Xanthosis (Yellows) an insect-
borne disease. Jour. Agric. Research, 35:1057-1090. Tompkins, C. M. 1925. Effect of intermittent temperatures on potato mosaic. (Abstract.) Phytopathology, 15:46. Wilcox, R. B. 1926. Observations on masking of raspberry mosaic
by high temperature. (Abstract.) Phytopathology, 16:80.
G—July 4, 1928.
98
Plate 1.
Fig.
Plate 2.
Fig.
Plate 3.
Fig.
Plate A.
Fig.
Fig.
Po NM a
10:
It.
R. J. NOBLE.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Normal mature passion fruit.
Normal mature passion fruit after slight drying.
Woody passion fruit.
Woody passion fruit showing cracking of the rind. (All natural size.)
Upper: Woody passion fruit cut across. Lower: Normal passion fruit cut across.
x=
xs Transverse section of outer portion of pericarp of normal passion fruit. x55.
Transverse section of outer portion of pericarp of Woody passion fruit. x60.
Terminal shoot of passion vine severely affected with the Woodiness disease. 3.
Terminal leaves of passion vine, (left) healthy, (right) affected with the Woodiness disease. x %.
Mature leaf of passion vine affected with Woodi- ness, showing puckering of tissues between the veins. 2.
Passion vine seedlings 2 months after commence- ment of an infection test. (Left) Check healthy. (Right) Three plants affected with the Woodiness disease. Xd
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928. Plate I,
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Plate IT.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXI1., 1928.
20
% e - OIL LTS.
Journal Royal Society of N.S. W., Vol. LXII., 1928. Plate IIT.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIL., 1928. Plate IV.
Fig. 10.
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 99,
BROWN: ROT OF FRUITS, AND ASSOCIATED DISEASES, IN AUSTRALIA.
Part 1. Hisrory oF THE DISEASE AND DETERMINATION OF THE CAUSAL ORGANISM.
By T. H. Harrison, B.Sc.Agr. (With Plates V-IX and one Text-figure.)
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, August 1, 1928)
INTRODUCTION.
Brown Rot is a limiting factor in production of drupe and pome fruits in many parts of the fruit growing world, including the temperate eastern and south-eastern fringe of Australia.
This is due to the following facts :—
(1) It has enormous potentialities for wholesale destruction of fruit approaching maturity in the orchard, in transit, in the markets and in the retail shops.
(2) It is associated with serious twig blighting of susceptible varieties of several fruits.
(3) It is associated with ‘‘blossom blighting’’ and resultant crop shrinkage or failure.
(4) Under certain conditions, it is extremely diffi- cult to control.
Brown Rot is a disease which cannot escape detection, and hence we find that, as early as 1796, Persoon (34) wrote of this disease causing rotting of English plums, peaches and French pears in Europe. Throughout the 19th century, other pathologists drew attention to the disease. ‘Contributions were made by Ehrenberg, 1818 (18),
100 T. H. HARRISON.
Bonorden, 1851 (7), Hallier, 1876 (22), Schroter, 1893: (42), Frank and Kruger, 1899 (20), Sorauer, 1899 (44), and Woronin, 1900 (53) in Europe: and by Peck, 1880: (33), Smith, 1889 (43), and Pollock, 1900 (36) in America.
Early in the 20th century came a new era of Brown Rot: study. In 1902, Norton (29, 30) in America, rediscovered the apothecial stage of the responsible organism. Since: then many authors have assisted in accumulating the present considerable store of knowledge concerning the organism and the disease it causes. A few of the more: important were Aderhold and Ruhland, Eriksson, and Wormald in Europe; and Norton, Reade, Pollock, Matheny, Jehle, Bartram, Conel, Valleau, Cooke, Brooks and Cooley, Willaman, Ezekiel, Barss, Roberts and Dunegan, and Rudolph in America.
The object of this paper is to present certain fundamental considerations in connection with Brown Rot in Australia.
HIstTorRIcAL—THE DISEASE IN ANSTRALIA.
From the earliest days of settlement in this 140 year old colony, fruit growing has occupied a prominent position. With the first fleet, Governor Phillip brought to these shores fruit trees which he obtained from England, Rio de Janiero, and The Cape. Surprising was the facility with which the introduced fruits grew in the new country, where practically no indigenous edible fruits existed. Stone fruits apparently thrived, for in 1803 Caley (8) reported ‘‘the fruit that had succeeded beyond expectation was the peach’’. In 1807 Luttrell (28) wrote that the principal fruits growing included peaches, apricots, nectarines and plums. In the early twenties of last century Alan Cunningham was so impressed with the excellence of the peaches and the ease with which they could be grown, that he seattered seeds in suitable positions on his exploratory trips inland. At this time commercial fruit growing was
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 101
mainly restricted to the Ryde and neighbouring districts along the Parramatta River, within easy reach of the only market—Sydney. As settlement spread, and transport facilities increased, the area devoted to fruit growing extended. By the ’eighties, fruit growing was well dis- tributed over the County of, Cumberland and in its neigh- bourhood, as far as Kurrajong and Penrith on the west and Gosford on the north—approximately within a 45 miles radius of Sydney.
During this developmental period many orchards, of stone fruits particularly, were planted by hard-working men. Not only was good land cheap, abundant and easy to obtain, but labour costs were low. In many eases, how- ever, the orchardist had little or no knowledge of fruit growing, and paid no regard to the limitations of a purely local market. As a natural consequence production out- distanced demand to such an extent that many of the orchards, particularly the older ones, became unprofitable. In many cases these orchard lands were bought by specu- Jators, companies, ete., for subdivision purposes. The result ‘was the same. Not only was no attention given to the trees, but the fruit, in many cases, was not harvested.
Into this chaotic state of affairs the Department of Agriculture was born in 1890. One of its earliest actions ‘was the appointment of Dr. Cobb as consulting pathologist for fruitgrowers and other farmers. In 1897 Dr.:Cobb (9) drew a vivid picture of the menace that over 10,000 acres ‘of abandoned orchards situated within 25 miles of Sydney ‘were to the healthy trees of the genuine fruitgrower in New South Wales. Dr. Cobb recognised that the climate of Sydney, with its rainfall of 48 inches well distributed through the year, was ideal for the development of fungi causing fruit diseases. His appeal for the destruction of ‘the trees was without avail, for no legislation existed to
102 T. H. HARRISON.
enforce the destruction of the trees in these areas. In fact not until the enlightened days of 1924 (4) was adequate: provision made for registration of all orchards and the: destruction of neglected trees.
The Introduction of “Brown Rot.”
The neglected and abandoned orchards contained a large: quantity of stone fruit trees. To the ideal propagating eround thus provided the Brown Rot organism was in-. troduced in the nineties of last century. McAlpine (28) was the first in Australia to recognise the disease. He collected infected apricots from near Melbourne, Victoria, in 1896. In 1898 Allen et al. (8) published a brief description of the disease. This is the first one published in Australia, but it is not clear from the context, that the- disease had been seen in this country. In 1902 McAlpine: (28) published a popular account of the disease and a technical description of the fungus responsible. He stated. that the organism was found on peaches, plums, apricots. and cherries, and that it caused not only rotting of the fruit but also blighting of the twigs and withering of the blossoms. He recognised that warm, moist weather favoured the development of the fungus.
The next mention of the disease is by Cobb (10), who. in January, 1904, wrote, ‘‘The Brown Rot has come under notice in this State (N.S.W.) from time to time for a number of years, but it seems that it is only during our: moist seasons or in moist districts that it is to be feared.’”’ It appears to have been common on all stone fruits, for he- stated, ‘‘The disease appears with us to be quite as common on the cherry as on any other fruit, and the damage done: is quite considerable. ”’
For the next few years nothing was written of the disease, but with characteristic virulence it made its. presence felt in 1908. Froggatt (21) in 1909 wrote, ‘‘ This.
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 103
disease appeared very suddenly in many different districts just before Christmas (1908) . . . and there was a wide- spread infestation all through the orchards along the Hawkesbury River. Early in January the trees were covered with dead branches and dried-up fruits, but the disease had stopped spreading due to excessively hot weather just after the New Year. The nectarines suffered particularly . . . a number of trees had died. Peaches were affected in the same manner though less severely, while in the Japanese plums the fruits only were rotted.’’
In the late summer of 1910 Johnston (25) wrote, ‘‘The commonest fruit disease in our markets just now is the 3rown Rot, produced by . . . Monilia fructigena. This parasite occurs on the following fruits in New South Wales, viz., peach, nectarine, ordinary plum, Japanese plum, cherry, apple and pear, especially on the first four named.”’ Photographs of progressive stages of the rot in peaches and nectarines are shown. The epidemic is ascribed to ‘“warm, moist weather which prevailed.’’
The next mention of the disease is by Allen (2), who in January, 1912, wrote, ‘‘This fungus disease has shown up earlier this season and in a more virulent form than for
2,
many years.’’ A strong warning is issued to growers about the necessity for thorough treatment to check the disease.
Season 1913-14 was exceptionally dry and thus we find that Brown Rot was innocuous, but in season 1914-15 a serious epidemic was experienced. Darnell Smith (15) wrote in 1915, ‘‘There is no doubt that Brown Rot is the most serious disease of stone fruits in this State as it is in the rest of Australia and elsewhere. . . . While every season there is more or less rot present, the season just closing, owing to exceptional weather conditions, has been a very disastrous one for many orchardists. Peaches, plums, nectarines and cherries have all been severely
104 T. H. HARRISON.
attacked. In one orchard it is estimated that 1,200 cases of cherries were lost. . . . During the months of Decem- ber, 1914, and January, 1915, there was a succession of hot, humid days with occasional showers and cloudy days.’’ Meteorological data are presented from which it is seen that the spring months, September and October, had 7
inches rain above normal and that in December 43 inches
rain above normal fell. In the same season in Victoria specimens were received from many different fruit growing centres, but it was not until 1918 that a serious epidemic swept through the orchards south of the Divide in Victoria. In that year in two orchards alone in one district near Melbourne £7,000 worth of peaches were destroyed and the local peach cannery was not able to operate. Other serious epidemics in the southern State occurred in 1922 and 1923, when losses experienced were exceptionally heavy in cherries and plums. In 1924 the first epidemic occurred in districts north of the Divide, but the disease had first made its appearance there in 1921.*
The history of the disease in N.S.W. continues as follows: Spinks (45) in 1917 wrote, ‘‘The season 1916-17 will long be remembered by fruit growers as one of the worst experienced—due to heavy crops, low prices and ‘Brown Rot’. . . . Fully 30% of the season’s crop was lost in consequence of the ravages of ‘Brown Rot’.’’ Season 1917- 18 was also favourable to Brown Rot, for Darnell-Smith (16) in 1918, in giving notes on some experiments for the control of Brown Rot in transit, remarked, ‘‘ Fortunately, as far as the experiment was concerned, Brown Rot was very prevalent.’’ The next season 1918-19 was very dry. During the six months, August to January, only 5 to 7 inches of rain fell, of which less than 24 inches fell during
* From a report by Mr. S. Fish, Asst. Pathologist, Dept. of Agric., Victoria.
aoal ecaiil
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 105
-the eritical months of December and January. Brown Rot, although present, did practically no damage. In 1919-20, however, favourable conditions for the fungus returned ‘once more. During the critical months 8 to 10 inches of rain fell and extensive damage resulted. It is estimated that in some districts that year the losses amounted to 50% of the stone fruit crop, while apples, pears and quinces were also attacked. The next season (1920-21) was one of phenomenal rainfall. During December and January 16 to 19 inches of rain fell. Fruit, which was cracked by the rain, was readily attacked by the Brown Rot organism, -and losses in apricots, plums, nectarines and peaches were -again very heavy.
In the spring of 1921 the apothecial stage of the causal -organism was, for the first time in Australia, found near Sydney (28). The season which followed was at times ‘very favourable to Brown Rot. Abnormally moist weather ‘was experienced during the latter part of December and -early January. At this time much of the early stone fruit crop was approaching maturity. In many eases orchardists in the neighbourhood of Sydney lost heavily. These three “seasons of heavy Brown Rot losses were followed by several years with very little damage resulting from Brown Rot.
With season 1927-28 a return to conditions favourable ‘to Brown Rot was experienced. Heavy losses of fruit in the orchard, in transit and in the markets have ‘occurred. In many orchards the twig-blighting has been particularly severe fin nectarines and peaches and to a lesser extent in apricots and plums. It is obvious that the severity of Brown Rot infestation in fruit growing -areas of N.S.W. depends on prevailing climatic conditions. ‘The results of an attempt to correlate climatic conditions -and Brown Rot infestation will be published later. The rainfall registrations quoted above apply only to the fruit growing areas within approximately 45 miles of Sydney, New South Wales.
106 T. H. HARRISON.
Present Geographical Range in Australia.
From information gathered from many sources the: present approximate distribution of Brown Rot in Austraha has been determined. In Queensland Brown Rot occurs. ‘‘in the Stanthorpe district, the only locality where tem- perate fruits are grown to any extent’’.* In New South Wales it appears to be present wherever stone fruits are: erown throughout the coast and tableland areas. <A de- tailed survey is at present being attempted. Brown Rot is apparently absent from the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area. In Victoria it is found in fruit growing areas both north and south of ‘‘The Divide’’, the extension in Victoria of the Main Dividing Range of Eastern Australia. In Tasmania Brown Rot, although present, appears to do but little damage
possibly because most of the stone fruits are grown only to a limited extent. In South Australia it does not now appear to exist, although McAlpine (28) recorded having specimens from there. On 30/11/’27,
Mr. Geo. Quinn, Chief Horticultural Instructor, Depart-. ment of Agriculture, South Australia, wrote, ‘‘As far as.
J am aware the Brown Rot of stone fruits . . . is not found in this State’’. This has been verified by the Plant Pathologist to the Waite Research Institute and to the Department of Agriculture in South Austraha. In Western Australia the disease does not occur. Mr. W. M. Carne,
Govt. Botanist and Plant Pathologist to Department of
Agriculture, wrote on 15/11/’27, ‘“‘I am glad to report that this disease is not known here’’. The manner in
which Brown Rot is restricted to the eastern and south-.
eastern portion of this continent is illustrated in the text
figure.
* From information supplied by Mr. J. H. Simmonds, Plant Pathologist, Queensland Department of Agriculture and Stock..
107
FRUITS.
BROWN ROT OF
AFPagy OHNE LS
ONYISNASNO
WITYYLSNY
WIIWYULSNY
HLNOS WINWULsSny
NYSLSaM
AvOLIvYSl
NYBHLYON
Map showing the approximate geographical range of Brown
Rot in Australia, as determined in 1928.
108 T. H. HARRISON.
Host Range.
From the fruit growing districts of New South Wales the Brown Rot organism has been isolated by the author from the frwts of apple, apricot, blackberry, cherry, nectarine, peach (commercial), peach (ornamental), pear, plum (English and Japanese and prune), and quince. Artificial infection of the fruits of grape, loquat, per- ‘simmon and tomato has been produced. The organism has been isolated from twigs of apricot, nectarine, peach, plum ‘and quince, and from the blossoms of apricot, nectarine, peach and plum. Cankers have been noted on limbs of
‘apricot, nectarine and peach. A brief statement of the
relative severity of Brown Rot and associated troubles on ‘various hosts in New South Wales follows :—
Apples—In the main pome fruit areas of the Table- ‘lands, Brown Rot is not a serious disease. On the coast, chowever, in some varieties of apples such as Carrington, and Trivett’s Seedling, the losses may be very heavy. As much as 50% loss has been noticed. These varieties are grown to a limited extent for the early market and are very popular in householders’ gardens around Sydney. The excessive shade and moisture, so often present there, favour the disease. Blighting of spurs on which fruits have been rotted is not uncommon. |
Apricots.—This crop is very susceptible on the coast of New South Wales. Should favourable weather conditions occur early enough, Brown Rot will totally destroy the erops. In 1919-20 the author saw approximately 500 bushel eases destroyed in one orchard alone, and again in 1927-28 approximately 800 cases in another orchard in a separate district. Twig-blighting does occur, but is usually not so serious in apricots as in certain varieties of peaches and
nectarines.
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 109
Blackberry.—This berry is not grown commercially im N.S.W., but the plant is prevalent as a weed of neglected areas of coast and tablelands, in many cases occurring along creek banks, in depressions, etc., in rough country. The fruit ripens in early autumn at a time when the air is thick with spores of the Brown Rot organism. On two separate occasions in 1922, the author found numerous specimens of infected fruits which were covered with pustules. Cultures of the common Brown Rot organism were easily obtained.
Cherry.—The author has had little personal experience of the effects of the disease on cherries. Darnell-Smith (15) reeords that heavy losses occur, while Johnston (25) makes a similar inference. Officers of the Fruit Branch of the New South Wales Department of Agriculture regard Brown Rot of cherries as the most serious fungus disease of that crop. As cherries are grown in colder and relatively drier climates (e.g., Orange, Young, N.S.W.) favourable conditions for development of the disease are of rare occurrence, but the very nature of the fruit and its method of production make for rapid spread of the disease. Specimens received for cultural purposes showed the typical pustules.
Nectarine—The experience in the coastal districts of N.S.W. is that this crop is very susceptible to Brown Rot damage. Several writers have mentioned this fact (15, 25, 28). In season 1920-21, the author inspected a block of 50 eight year old nectarine trees from which the whole crop was destroyed by Brown Rot. During seasons 1923- 24, 1924-25, 1925-26, while little damage was done, Brown Rot eould always be found in nectarines. In 1927-28 the author inspected an orchard in which Cardinal nectarines were attacked by Brown Rot just as the fruit was matur- ing. Not only was the whole crop destroyed, but the trees
110 T. H. HARRISON.
were so badly twig-blighted as to give the impression of having been ‘‘fired’’. All the trees in the orchard were cut back to main trunk limbs. Blossom-blighting has been noticed in this crop and cankering of the limbs invariably follows severe twig-blighting.
Peach.—This is one of the most popular of stone fruits in New South Wales, where conditions are almost ideal for its growth. In the coastal districts of New South Wales, fruit-rotting, twig-blighting, blossom-blighting and eankering are at times severe. Numerous instances of ‘severe losses have been recorded in both N.S.W. and Victoria. In 1927-28 heavy losses occurred. In two orchards the author saw 12 year old trees of Brigg’s May and Hale’s Early lose 80% of their heavy crop to Brown Rot. These trees were so badly blighted as to necessitate eutting back to foundation leaders.
Peach (Ornamental)—In many gardens of coastal N.S.W. the beautiful double flowering peach (Prunus chinensis var. and P. persica var.) grows to perfection and often a fair crop of poor quality fruits is formed. These, left to mature, drop from the tree and are commonly affected by Brown Rot—the organism developing in typical manner thereon. Twig-blighting, ascribed to other causes, is at times severe in these trees.
Pears.—Brown Rot is not serious on pears in Australia. Instances of infection are not uncommon in householders’ ‘gardens, but of rare occurrence in commercial orchards. The author has on many different occasions isolated the typical Monilia from pears that have been damaged by mechanical agencies. Twig-blighting, cankering, or blossom- blighting has not been observed in N.S.W.
Plums.—Both English and Japanese varieties are grown fairly extensively in areas affected by Brown Rot in N.S.W. ‘The losses sustained from Brown Rot are at times severe.
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. L1t
In seasons 1919-20 and 1920-21 the author saw many in- stances in which the whole crop of several varieties (Lutherborough, Burbank, Angelina, Black Japanese) growing in stone fruit orchards was destroyed. In other eases, while losses in the orchard were moderate, fruit was destroyed before reaching the markets or before being eonsumed. In 1928 the author inspected an orchard where there were growing 60 aged plum trees (Shiro variety). The trees each bore 10 to 12 cases of fruit and were breaking down with the crop. Owing to a glut in the market the fruit could not be profitably marketed at its correct stage. Before the fruit was harvested, conditions favourable to Brown Rot developed, and the whole crop was destroyed. Many other instances of extensive damage were noted. Twig-blighting occurs, the spurs being killed back, but the effect is neither so noticeable nor so disastrous as it is in peaches or nectarines. Blossom-blighting has been observed in nature on several occasions and induced by inoculation.
Quince.—While this fruit is not grown extensively on a commercial scale in N.S.W. it is very popular with coastal orchardists and householders. The fruit is susceptible to Brown Rot infection, particularly when damaged by Codlin Moth or mechanical agencies. A loss of 20° of fruit is not uncommon, particularly in householders’ allot- ments. Twig-blighting occurs, but does not appear seriously to aifect the tree.
THE Funeus Causing Brown Ror or FRuits. (a) In Other Countries.
Wormald (52) states that ‘‘it is now recognised that there are at least four different Brown Rot fungi (either species or biologic forms) each of which is responsible for considerable damage to the world’s fruit crop”’.
112 T. H. HARRISON.
These are :— Sclerotinia fructigena. S. cinerea forma pruna. S. cinerea forma malt. S. fructicola (S. americana).
Persoon (34) in 1796 gave to the organism causing
Brown Rot the name Torula fructigena, but in 1801 (35) changed this to Monta fructigena. This held until Schroter (42) in 1893, on the basis of work done by Woronin (54), but without having seen the perfect stage, named the fungus Sclerotinia fructigena. Aderhold and Ruhland (1), in 1905, validated the name.
Bonorden (7) discovered in 1851 a second fungus caus- ing Brown Rot of fruits to which he gave the name Monilia: cmmerea. Schroter (42) assumed that this also was a Sclerotinia, but it was not until 1921 when Wormald (50) described the apothecial stage of Montlia cinerea (f. prunt) that the assumption was proved correct, and the name S. cinerea validated. The classic studies of Woronin (53) in 1900 clearly differentiated between the two foregoing species.
Despite this, apparently most pathologists throughout the world used the name S. fructigena for the organism causing Brown Rot of fruit. Hence we find Norton (29, 30) in 1902 in America using that name for the fungus we now know to be WS. fructicola = S. americana.
The name S. fructigena was used generally in America until Matheny (27), Valleau (46), Conel (11), Bartram (5), and others, working with fresh material, confirmed the claim made in 1905 by Aderhold and Ruhland (1) that the common American Brown Rot fungus was more closely akin to S. inerea than to 8. fructigena. In fact, Sclerotima fructigena has not yet been found in America (52). Thus from about 1914 onwards, we find that throughout
“a
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 113
American literature the name given to the common Brown Rot fungus of America was S. cinerea.
Wormald (49, 50) in 1919 and subsequently, proved con- clusively that there occurred in England both Sclerotinia ‘fructigena and S. cinerea. He divided the latter into two distinct biologie forms which he designated S. cinerea forma pruni and S. cinerea f. mali. He also showed in 1917 (47) that the common American fungus, while closely related morphologically to 8S. cinerea, was culturally dis- tinct. For this fungus, common throughout the American fruit growing regions he later (49, 50) proposed the name S. conerea f. americana.
Norton and Ezekiel (32) and Ezekiel (19) in 1924 con- firmed Wormald’s observations, but considered that the American fungus was sufficiently distinct morphologically to justify specific rank. They proposed the name 8. americana (Wormald) Norton and Ezekiel (82).
The separation of S. cinerea and the common American fungus has been simplified by the recent discovery of the true S. cinerea of England and Europe on the Pacific coast of North America. There it has been possible to study the two fungi under identical environmental conditions. (6, 40, 19). It is now accepted that the common American fungus is a species distinct from S. cinerea,
While confirming the cultural and morphological differ- ences existing between the common American fungus and S. cinerea, (39) Roberts and Dunegan (40) consider that the correct name for the American fungus is S. fructtcola (Wint.) Rehm.
In the opinion of the author, the evidence adduced by them is sufficient to prove their contention. The first valid name applied to the apothecial stage of the American Brown Rot fungus should be universally adopted when describing that fungus. Throughout this paper, therefore,
H—August 1, 1928.
114 T. H. HARRISON.
the name S. fructicola (Wint.) Rehm will be used in preference to S. americana (Worm.) Norton and Ezekiel.
Thus apparently within a quarter of a century the same fungus was successively called Sclerotinia fructigena, S. cimerea, 8. americana and BS. fructicola. That real con- fusion existed in the minds of American pathologists is demonstrated by the fact that in 1920 Mr. W. L. Water- house, of Sydney University, received from an American University a culture of the American fungus under the name of Sclerotinia fructigena. In 1922 Dr. R. J. Noble obtained from the same source the fungus under the name S. cinerea.
(b) In Australia.
It is to be expected that a similar state of confusion would exist in Australia. The name Monlia fructigena Pers. is used by McAlpine (28) who remarked that the most striking symptom was the rotting of the fruit “with the ash coloured spores produced on the surface’’ and ““Tufts compact, pulvinate often confluent and forming vonecentric rings’’. Cobb, 1904 (10), Froggatt, 1908 (21), Johnston, 1910 (25), and Allen, 1912 (2) all used, without discussion, the name Monilia fructigena, although Johnston (25) stated, ‘‘On the surface there appear more or less concentric areas covered by a greyish substance which. . . is seen to be made up of spores . . . of the fungus’’. Darnell-Smith (15) in 1915 called attention to the con- fusion then existing in the literature of the world in the words ‘‘There has been some confusion in Europe and America as to the exact species of Monilia causing Brown Rot’’. After tabulating the differences between Monilia cinerea and Monilia fructigena he decided to retain the name Monilia fructigena ‘‘for the present’’ until such time as ‘‘pure culture work’’ following the discovery of the apothecial stage in Australia ‘‘had cleared the matter up’’.
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 115
In publications of the Victorian and Queensland Depart- ments of Agriculture the name Monilia fructigena has also
‘been used until quite recently, for the Brown Rot fungus.
In 1921 (23) the author discovered the perfect stage of the Brown Rot fungus common in Australia. He compared briefly the strain of Sclerotinia obtained from a single ‘ascospore with a type culture of the American Brown Rot fungus, then in the possession of Mr. W. L. Waterhouse, University of Sydney. This type culture, obtained from U.S.A. in 1920, was labelled Sclerotinia fructigena. The two fungi were very similar and hence the author reported (23), ‘‘Already there are definite indications, however, that the organism producing the apothecium is Sclerotinia fructigena’’. He also stated, ‘*. . . Further studies are in progress’’.
It soon became evident that neither of the two organisms ‘was Sclerotima fructigena. In 1922 Mr. W. L. Waterhouse wrote to Wormald (52): ‘‘Mr. Harrison is now satisfied that the ascigerous strain he has is S. cinerea. The culture obtained from America and labelled 8. fructigena is quite certainly wrongly named’’. In 1923 the author read a paper before the Pan-Pacific Congress in Sydney. In this paper*™ he stated: ‘‘From a comparison of several New South Wales forms of Monilia with one American and three English forms it is possible to say that the organism re- sponsible for Brown Rot and associated troubles in New South Wales is Sclerotinia cinerea (Bon.) Schroter’’. No distinction was made at that time between S. cinerea and S. fructicola (8S. americana). From that time the name S. cinerea has been used in Departmental publications of Australia for the common Brown Rot organism. The author has been prevented by teaching duties from pre-
*Title only “Brown Rot of Fruits in Australia” in Proc. -Pan-Pac. Sci. Congress, 1923, p. 154.
116 T. H. HARRISON.
viously publishing the results of further studies mentioned above. Recently an opportunity has occurred of continuing the Brown Rot studies and it is with the object of clearing the stage for further results that this paper is now published.
The Identity of the Australian Brown Rot Fungus.
It can be seen that the first problem to be investigated,. in 1921 and subsequently, was that of the correct deter- mination of the species of Sclerotinia responsible for Brown Rot in Australia. Two strains, one ascosporous from apricot. and the other conidial from apple, were grown on each. of the following media:—Maize meal agar, prune juice: agar, malt extract agar, potato dextrose agar, on prunes,. on pear, apple, potato and quince plugs—five tubes of each being observed at short intervals for four weeks. No: difference was noted between the two strains used. A summary, made in April, 1922, of the results is as: follows :—
‘“The characteristic features of the local Brown Rot. - fungus are (1) mycelial growth is sparse, (2) conidial’ production is abundant. The tufts are at first grey, but as: the conidia mature the colour changes to light fawn and later to a bright fawn. (The colour is between Ridgway’s Tilleul-buff and vinaceous buff. Plate 40.) The pustules: are small—of the pinhead type—and often so abundant as: to be confluent and commonly arranged concentrically. (3) Nigrescence of the medium varies in intensity, but always develops quickly after inoculation.’’
At that time it was further recorded, ‘‘the conidial crowth is that of a typical Sclerotinia so closely resembling Matheny’s description of the American S. cinerea as to justify grouping our form with the American form.’’
These observations and a study of the literature available: indicated that our Brown Rot fungus was not S. fructigena,,
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. T17
«lespite the fact that it agreed closely with a culture so labelled. The following steps were taken to prove this:—
Cultures of Sclerotinia fructigena and S. cinerea were obtained through the courtesy of Mr. W. L. Waterhouse from Dr. Wormald, of Wye, Kent, England. In a series of experiments, both ascosporous and conidial strains of the fungus were compared with these.
A selection of the experiments follows :— Experiment No. 1. Prune Inoculation.
Boiling water was poured over prunes which were -allowed to soak for 20 hours. The prunes were placed on cotton wool, moistened with distilled water, in the bottom of each of several Erlenmeyer flasks. The flasks were plugged with cotton wool and autoclaved at 15lb. pressure for 20 minutes. This resulted in the cotton wool being ‘saturated with prune extract.
Inoculations were made as under and controls established ‘on 15/4/’22—the inoculum in all cases being derived from fresh cultures on potato plugs. _
Flask No. 1—Inoculated with Monilia fructigena (Eng- land). )
tp , 2—Inoculated with S. cinerea. (England).
5 , o—Inoculated with the local Brown Rot fungus
(Conidial strain).
aA , 4—Inoculated with Monta fructigena and Sclerotinia cinerea on opposite sides of each prune. ?
be , 9%—Inoculated with Monilia fructigena and the
local Brown Rot fungus as in 4.
Beh » 6—Inoculated with Sclerotinia cinerea and the local Brown Rot fungus as in 4.
118 T. H. HARRISON.
Detailed observations were made at frequent intervals: and final conclusions recorded when the experiment had been in progress 20 days.
A summary of the behaviour of the various organisms. is as follows :—
Sclerotinia cinerea.—A slowly formed white cobweb-like mycelial mat and ashy grey small conidial tufts were produced in abundance on the older preparations. Nigres- cence absent.
Momlia fructigena.—Much more vigorous in growth than S. cinerea. A great mass of aerial hyphae, at first loose, then later dense, was produced over the surface of the prunes and cotton wool. OConidial tufts, large, buff- coloured and dome-shaped, were abundantly developed om all the prunes. Nigrescence absent.
Local fungus.—This spread very rapidly and was very distinct from the former two in the following particulars: (1) it showed extreme reduction of mycelial growth, (2) it produced abundance of conidial tufts—the whole surface of affected areas being covered with small tufts, which were almost confluent and arranged concentrically, (3) it induced the production of excessive nigrescence in the medium, the prunes and surrounding cotton wool being turned jet black.
Experiment No. 2. Sub-cultures. The three fungi—Monilia fructigena, Sclerotuma cinerea
and the local Brown Rot organism (ascosporous strain )— were grown on each of the following media :—Prune juice agar, prune, pear, apple.
The inoculum in each case was obtained from fresh cultures on sterile potato plugs. Duplicate inoculations: were made in April, 1922. A summary of the notes recorded. is given on page 119.
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119
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS.
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120 T. H. HARRISON.
Experwment No. 3. Inoculation of Fresh Apples. Unblemished Cleopatra apples were surface sterilised by
wiping over with cotton wool saturated with 95% alcohol, then rinsed in freshly distilled water.
With a sterile scalpel, cuts were made in the sides of the apples and into these was placed the inoculum which was obtained from pure cultures of each organism growing on prunes in flasks.
The apples were inoculated as follows on 29/4/’22 :— Apple 1—Local Brown Rot fungus (Conidial strain): (M)
on both sides,
» 2—Monilia fructigena (F) (England) on both sides.
» o—NSclerotinia cinerea (Y) (England) on both sides.
» 4-8. cinerea (Y) and Monilia fructigena (F) on opposite sides.
> oO—NS. cinerea (Y) and local fungus (M) on opposite sides.
5, 6—Local fungus (M) and Monilia fructigena (F) on opposite sides.
Controls were established.
Detailed observations of the rots were made at close
intervals until 12/5/’22 when the experiment was dis- continued. |
The controls at this time were still healthy. A summary of the observations follows :— (1) The local Brown Rot fungus produced a black rot with small greyish to fawn pustules pro- duced along the cut surface of the fruit and to
a small extent over the rotted areas (Figs. b. and 3, Plate 4).
ERRATA.
On Page 120, last line, for Figs. b and 3, Plate 4, read Figs. b and c, Plate VIII.
On Page 12], 5th line, for Plate 4 read Plate VIII.
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BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 121
(2) Monilia fructigena produced a more rapid brown rot with abundant large buff-coloured dome-shaped pustules arranged in zones all over the surface. Some nigrescence later (Fig. b., Plate 4).
(3) Sclerotinia cinerea produced the slowest brown rot, with ash-grey conidial tufts along the cut surface, but no nigrescence.
Experiment No. 4. Fresh Apples. This experiment varied only from No. 3 in that each of the three fungi :— Sclerotinia cinerea (England) (Y) Monilia fructigena (England) (F) Local Brown Rot organism (M) ‘was inoculated into each of three apples at approximately equal distances around the girth. Controls were established and frequent observations made.
It was hoped by this means to reduce to a minimum the influence of varying environmental conditions.
The three fungi behaved as in the previous experiment. ‘They are vividly distinct when grown alongside one another on the same apple.
Experiment No. 5d. Tomato Inoculation. The tomatoes selected were firm, red and unblemished. They were surface sterilised by bathing in alcohol and ‘washing in distilled water.
They were inoculated by inserting loops of conidia into cuts made in the surface. The inoculum was obtained from fresh potato plugs. Two tomatoes were inoculated with the local Brown Rot organism (M), two with Monilia
122
T. H. HARRISON.
fructigena (F) and two with Sclerotinia cinerea (Y).. Controls were established.
Detailed observations of each tomato were made at close:
intervals and the following final conclusions drawn :—
(1) All three strains of organisms will produce a
(2
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firm rot in tomatoes. In all eases this rot is:
brown at first. The rot caused by the local organism finally turns black, but that caused by the other two remains brown.
All three strains produce, on the tomato, the
fruiting bodies typical of the strain. The local organism (M) produced abundance of fawn-
gsrey pustules over a dark surface. There was: no surface mycelial growth. Monilia fructigena (F') produces abundance of large buff pustules
accompanied by a mass of aerial hyphae. Sclerotinia cinerea (Y) produces the distinct
ash-grey conidial tufts accompanied by a fine
mycelial mat over the infected area.
Experiment No. 6.
Persimmon Inoculation.
Persimmons (Diospyros kaki var.), just ready to eat, were sterilised by bathing in 95% alcohol and washing in distilled water. With sterile scalpels the letters M, F and Y were made in the sides of the sterilised persimmons and into the cuts were inserted loops of conidia taken from: fresh cultures on prunes.
The persimmons were inoculated as follows :— (1) both sides with the local organism (M); (2) both sides with Mona fructigena (F) ; (3) both sides with Sclerotinia cinerea (Y); (4) opposite sides with the local organism (M) andi
Momla fructigena (F) ;
_ ——
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 123:
(5) opposite sides with the local organism (M) and Sclerotinia cinerea (Y) ;.
(6) opposite sides with Monilia fructigena (F) and. Sclerotinia cinerea (Y).
The inoculations were performed and controls established on 18th May, 1922. Detailed observations were made periodically.
The following briefly summarises the results :—
All three strains used will infect and grow on ripe persimmon. The rate of growth is extremely slow. Hach strain fruits abundantly on this medium.
(1) The local organism (M) fruited typically. The conidial tufts were small, fawn coloured and very abundant.. Extreme nigrescence was produced.
(2) Monilia fructigena (F) produced an abundance of large, loosely packed, dome-shaped, light buff pustules. A much slower nigrescence was produced. The firm nature: of the rot produced is striking, for, in many cases, the uninfected part of the fruit and the controls were shrink- ing while the infected part retained its shape.
(3) Sclerotinia cinerea (Y) produced no nigrescence and was much slower in rotting the fruit. Ash-grey tufts were: produced in abundance along the cut surface and over the infected area.
It can be seen that the foregoing experiments established definitely that the common Brown Rot organism found in Australia was neither Sclerotinia fructigena (Pers.) Schrot. nor 8. cinerea (Bon.) Schrot. (English form).
Its behaviour in the inoculation experiments and its: growth in culture indicated that it was identical with the American organism (8S. fructicola).
A series of experiments was conducted to determine this: point. A selection of those experiments follows :-—
124 T. H. HARRISON. |
Expervment No. 7. Quince Inoculation. Quinces, of approximately the same stage of maturity -and as free from blemishes as possible, were selected. They were surface sterilised by bathing in 95% alcohol -and washed in freshly distilled water. Twenty-four were then inoculated with the local Brown Rot organism (Ascospore strain).
Twenty-four with the American organism, S. fructicola.
Twenty-four with Monilia fructigena from Wye, Eng- land.
Twenty-four with Sclerotinia cinerea from the same source.
The inoculum was obtained from 10 days old cultures on potato plugs and consisted of a loop of conidia in each ease.
A wedge of quince was cut out with a sterilised scalpel and the inoculum placed beneath this wedge—the wedge being lfted momentarily with a sterilised needle. Two inoculations were made on each quince. When inoculated, the quinces were placed in a saturated atmosphere in the glasshouse.
The inoculations were performed and controls established ‘on 22nd May, 1922.
Detailed records of the progress of the rots were kept. ‘The following summarises the information thus obtained:
All the inoculations were effective, resulting in typical brown rot lesions.
Local Sclerotinia.
The rot developed quickly, and nigrescenece was very marked, developing rapidly. Grey to fawn conidial tufts were very abundant. These were mostly small, and at times confluent, in some cases arranged in well defined
ERRATA,
On Page 125, 2nd line, for Plate 4 read Plate VIII. Same Page, 17th line, for Plate 4 Fig. a, read Plate VIII. Fig. a.
be)
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 125-
zones. They appeared very soon after rotting commenced.. (Plate 4, Figs. d.e.)
American Sclerotima. This was inseparable under the conditions of the experi- ment from the local Sclerotinia.
Sclerotuna cinerea (England).
The rot was not so rapid as above. Nigrescence was absent, the rotted fruits remained entirely brown. Tufts. of aerial hyphae developed some time after the rot com- menced, but no conidia were produced until the rot was. well advanced. The sparse conidial tufts were ash-grey.
Momlva fructigena (England).
The rot developed very rapidly, but nigrescence was not so intense as that produced by the Australian Sclerotinia. Very large aerial hyphal masses were produced. These soon were covered with the buff coloured conidial tufts. (Plate 4, Fig. a.) The nature of the mummified fruit produced is interesting. Those of the Australian and American strains were hard, dense black and much shrivelled—deeply furrowed and ridged. Those of both Sclerotima cinerea (England), and Monilia fructigena were not nearly so Sshrunken—the outline of the quince being maintained. The brown colour of the S. cinerea mummy readily separated it from that of M. fructigena, which was black.
Experiment No. 8. Blossom Blight.
In September of 1922, an experiment was conducted to determine the relative virulence of the Australian strains of the Brown Rot organism and the American Sclerotima, in attacking plum blossoms.
Conidia for the inoculations were obtained from young cultures on potato plugs. Two strains of the local organism
126 T. H. HARRISON.
(one ascosporous and the other conidial), and one Ameri- can strain were used. Three methods of inoculation were employed.
(1) Loop.—tn this method a sterile platinum loop, after being dipped in sterile water, was brought into contact with tufts of conidia, and the resultant loop of spores transferred to the stigma of the flower.
(2) Prick.—In this method the ovary was pricked with ‘a sterile needle, which was placed in sterile water, touched on conidial tufts and inserted into the opening previously made at base of ovary.
(8) Spray.—l10 ees. of sterile water were added to a tube containing a heavily sporulating plug of potato, and the resultant spore suspension transferred to a small bottle containing 40 ecs. sterile distilled water. A scent spray previously sterilised by immersion in 90 per cent. alcohol was used to convey the spores to blossoms.
The clumps of flowers were selected as far apart as pos- sible to offset the danger of contamination. Immediately after inoculation, each clump was enclosed in waxed trans- lucent paper bags, and a label attached to the base of the clump.
All possible care was taken to perform the inoculations in as aseptic a condition as possible. Controls were established.
Detailed observations were made periodically.
Briefly, the results were as follows :—
(1) Loop inoculation.
All three strains caused blossom blighting. No difference could be noted between the strains in their ultimate effect, although the Australian strains were more rapid in their action. Conidia were produced on rotted blossoms which were browned. From 80 to 100 per cent. of the flowers in various groups became infected.
hel
bo |
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 12
(2) Prick inoculation.
The same effect was produced in this case as in that of ‘the Loop inoculation, except that the percentage of infec- tion was higher. Conidial production was variable.
(3) Spray inoculation.
Infection in this instance was from 60 to 80 per cent., but possessed the same features as those of Loop inoculation.
Controls in all cases were healthy, setting fruit in a
normal manner.
Experiment No. 9. Apple Inoculation.
Trivett Seedling apples carefully selected as being of approximately the same state of maturity were picked and very carefully handled to avoid bruising. These were sur- face sterilised with 95 per cent. alcohol and rinsed in distilled water.
The apples were inoculated by inserting conidia beneath a wedge of apple cut out with a sterile scalpel and lifted momentarily with a sterile needle. The inoculum in each ease was obtained from fresh cultures on sterile potato
plugs.
Two strains of the Brown Rot organism were used, e.g. :
(1) The American Sclerotinia.
(2) The Australian Sclerotinia—An ascospore strain obtained in September, 1922, from an apothecium arising from apple mummies.
With each strain twenty-four apples were inoculated and placed in a saturated atmosphere in the glasshouse. Con- trols were established. Observations were made at close
intervals until the infected apples were completely rotted and mummified.
128 T. H. HARRISON.
A summary of the result is as follows :—
(1) American Sclerotina—tIn every instance inocula-
tion was successful, and the apples were completely rotted
in 8 days. The rot was firm and at first brown. Nigres-
cence did not develop to any extent until the fruit was com- pletely rotted. Small, rounded, grey to fawn, well defined
pustules were fairly abundant over the rotted areas. At | times these were confluent, especially around the margins: of the wedges removed for the purposes of inoculation. As. the apples mummified they became black and the conidial.
tufts assumed a bright fawn colour.
(2) Australian Sclerotunia—The local strain differed only from the above in the greater abundance of conidial
tufts. These were arranged in concentric rings over the
whole surface of the rotted fruits.
DISCUSSION.
Concurrently with the experiments described above, the Australian and American strains of Sclerotima and many local Monilia strains were sub-cultured some hundreds of
times on different media.
Apothecia of the Australian organism were also available
in large quantities, and the author was enabled to obtain measurements of asci and ascospores.
As a result of the correlation of all available data, the
author was convineed that the Brown Rot organisms
common in America and Australia were identical.
At that time (1922 and 1923), the author considered that while American pathologists recognised certain differences between the American form and Sclerotinia cimerea, the feeling was against the use of the term, SV. cinerea forma americana, as throughout the American literature the name S. cinerea was retained. Even in 1924 Roberts and Dunegan (39), after careful consideration of
Petes 4
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 129
all available information, preferred to adhere to the name Sclerotinia cinerea (Bon.) Schrot, for the American Brown Rot fungus.
Consequently, in 1923, the author felt justified in stating ‘<The organism responsible for ‘Brown Rot’ and associated troubles in New South Wales (Australia), is Sclerotinia cinerea (Bon.) Schrot.’’
At a meeting of the Pan-Pacifie Science Congress in Sydney that year, he demonstrated the close connection existing between the Australian and American Sclerotima, and the dissimilarity of both these strains to Sclerotina cinerea and Sclerotinia fructigena of England,
Confirmation of the identity of the Brown Rot fungi common in America and in Australia has recently been given by Wormald (52). He stated ‘‘The Brown Rot fungus generally distributed in the fruit-growing regions of Australia would appear, therefore, to be S. americana.’’ Further, through the courtesy of Mr. W. L. Waterhouse, the author has been enabled this year (1928), to study Ezekiel’s type cultures of the American fungus.
A series of comparative inoculations has been made. The observations made leave no question of the co-specifie nature of the American and Australian Brown Rot fungi.
The position in regard to the nomenclature of the Aus- tralian fungus has changed since 1923. Pathologists are now agreed that the common American Brown Rot fungus is a species distinct from Sclerotinia cinerea (Bon.) Schrot. As indicated elsewhere, the author considers that the correct name to apply to the former species is S. fructicola (Wint.) Rehm.
To this species, therefore, must now be referred the Brown Rot fungus common in Australia. I- August 1, 1928.
130 T. H. HARRISON.
In fact, it would appear that at present S. fructicola is the only species of Brown Rot fungi to have gained en- trance to Australia.
The author has obtained large numbers of specimens of ‘‘Brown Rot’’ from Queensland, Victoria, Tasmania and New South Wales. Thousands of instances of natural in- fection (both fruit and twig), have been studied in the field. A large number of cultures have been obtained from the full range of hosts and from fruit districts having widely dissimilar climatic conditions.
In no instance up to July, 1928, has the author found 8S. fructigena or S. cinerea in Australia.
THE APOTHECIAL STAGE OF BRown Ror Fune!
Apparently the first apothecia of the Brown Rot fungi were found by Rau ‘‘On peach mummies at Bethelehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., in 1883,’’ but ‘‘the identity of this material with the ascogenous stage of the American Brown Rot fungus’’ (20) common at present, was not established until 1924 (89), although Pollock (36) in 1909 had indicated that this was so.
Roberts and Dunegan (39) conclude: ‘‘It therefore seems certain that in 1883 Rau collected and Winter described the species of Sclerotima which Norton in 1902 showed to be the ascogenous stage of our common Brown Rot fungus.’’
Norton (29, 30) in 1902 found numbers of apothecia in a Maryland orchard, U.S.A. Since that time in U.S.A. the material has been recorded at intervals arising from mummies of apricots, cherries, nectarines, peaches and plums. Apothecia are apparently common in America, and at times produced in large quantities.
In Europe, in 1905, Aderhold and Ruhland (1) found apothecia which they showed to be the perfect stage of
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. ey!
Monilia fructigena. The material has been found since at intervals, but apparently is not nearly so common nor £0 ‘abundant as that of Sclerotina fructicola. Apothecia of S. fructigena have not yet been reported from England.
In England, however, in 1921, Wormald (50) found apothecia arising from mummified plums. ‘These he proved to be the perfect stage of Monilia cinerea (Bon.). Apparently these are neither common nor abundant, for Wormald (52) stated, ‘‘ Although the ascigerous stage of S. americana has been found on many occasions and in great quantity, this stage of Sclerotima cinerea has been found very rarely.’’
In New Zealand apothecia of the Brown Rot organism there present were discovered in 1922 by Cunningham. ‘They are apparently abundant.
Apothecia, at times in large quantities, have been found in New South Wales, Australia, in 1921, 1922, 1923, and 1924.
THE APOTHECIAL STAGE IN AUSTRALIA. Occurrence OA. In November, 1921 (28) the author recorded the ‘discovery, on September 22, of two apothecia arising from mummified apricots in an orchard near Sydney, N.S.W.
He showed that this was the perfect stage of our common Brown Rot fungus. On that occasion, time did not allow of searches for further specimens being made.
The summers of 1919-20 and 1920-21 were exceptionally favourable to Brown Rot incidence on the Coast. Conse-— quently Brown Rot mummies of most stone fruits were abundant in orchards during springs of 1921, 1922 and subsequently.
132 T. H. HARRISON.
1922.
Between llth and 16th September, 1922, showery weather conditions prevailed, approximately 2 inches of rain being recorded in the period. The following days. were warm with a heavy fog in the early mornings over the valley mentioned below.
On 17th September, 1922, a search was made for apothecia in a neglected stone-fruit orchard at Beecroft, near Sydney, N.S.W. The orchard was approximately 3 miles distant from where apothecia were found in 1921.
The orchard nestled in a valley with heavy timber on northern and western sides. It was thus protected from the effect of drying westerly winds.
Large numbers of apothecia, developing from plum mum- mies, were found. A particularly favoured spot was on the southern side of a large packing shed. Apparently in this spot the mummies were protected from the drying effects of the afternoon sun.
It was noticed that the apothecia arose from mummies in all positions. An apparent necessity was that the mummies be at least partly buried in the soil, and in such a situation as to assure a slow drying after rain.
Apothecia arise from the underside of the Sclerotium. This may be a mere fragment or a complete mummified fruit, with seed capable of germination. The stipe curves to reach the surface when the cups slowly expand. On one Sclerotium there were counted 57 stipes, each tipped with an immature apothecium.
The method of expansion and conditions governing pro- duction of the apothecia are treated at length by Norton et alia (31) and by Cunningham (13, 14).
On 20th September, 1922, many apothecia were found in the same orchard arising from mummies of peach and plum.
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 133
‘On this occasion photographs of the apothecia in situ were ttaken by Mr. W. L. Waterhouse (Fig. f, Plate V; Figs. a and b, Plate VI).
The neglected conditions of the orchard, typical, at that time, of many within a short distance of Sydney, is shown in Fig. d, Plate VI.
At the University on 19th September, 1922, apothecia were found arising from mummies of apricots, peaches, plums and apples. These mummified fruits had been col- lected from orchards near Sydney during the summer of 1921-22.
These fruits had been partly covered with soil in shallow earthenware dishes (seed pans), and exposed to normal ‘climatic conditions since that time.
Apothecia of S. aestivalis (Pollock) on the date men- tioned were also present on many of the mummified fruits. A paper dealing with S. aestwalis (Pollock), will be published later.
Time was not available in which to make a search for the apothecia in other localities or districts.
1928: With the beginning of the month of September rain ‘began and continued showery until the morning of 7th, -approximately 2 inches rain being reported.
On 9th September an attempt was made to find apothecia in the same orchard in which they had been so abundant in 1922. At this time, however, only a few mature ‘apothecia were available, the majority being in the ‘‘stipe’’ ‘stage.
The next four days were warm ‘‘spring’’ days, with ‘some winds and rapid drying conditions unfavourable to -apothecial development.
134 T. H. HARRISON.
In pockets of soil, and where mummies were protected by weeds or by the large packing shed previously mentioned,. mature apothecia were abundant on 13th September.
These apothecia arose from mummies which had not been disturbed for at least 2 years. In positions other than those: mentioned the apothecia did not mature—no progress had been made since 9th September.
1924.
This year September rains were late. The beginning: of the month was dry, but on 22nd and 23rd approximately an inch of rain fell. An opportunity of searching for: apothecia did not occur until 28th September, when on the: southern side of the packing shed, in the same position as in 1922 and 1923, many mature and shrivelled specimens. were obtained.
It is interesting to note that in this year the fruit had set. in the orchard where the search was made, before the rains necessary for apothecial production were received... In the previous years, however, blossoming and apothecial production were coincident. Norton et al. (31) diseussed the production range of apothecia, and suggested that apothecial production may also be correlated with seed vermination. The evidence submitted by them certainly supports this suggestion. The author has found apothecia. arising from Sclerotia, which enclosed germinating seed. (Fig. a, Plate V), but this state of affairs was exceptional. In December, 1921, apothecia of Sclerotinia aestivalis Pol-. lock were very abundant. In many eases these arose from. mummies from which seedlings were appearing. At that time, apothecia of S. fructicola could not be found. It™ would appear, therefore, that, in New South Wales, there is not a very definite correlation between the time of apothecial production and of germination of seeds.
ir BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 135
1925, 2926, and 1927.
Apothecia were not observed during these three years. Other work prevented a search being made for them. A study .of the rainfall records shows, however, that 1925 and 1927 were too dry at the crucial period for apothecia to be developed. In 1926 sufficient rain fell towards the end of September to make apothecial production possible, and apothecia were probably produced in that year.
Under the conditions prevailing in the vicinity of Syd- ney, New South Wales, it would seem that apothecia are fairly common in the spring, providing that mummified fruits are left undisturbed for several months prior to heavy rain and provided that rapid drying out of soil and/or mummy is prevented by natural or artificial means.
The author’s experience is that apothecia are absent from well cultivated orchards. During the period 1922- 24, a careful, but fruitless, search was made for apothecia in orchards in which mummified fruits were abundant, but. which had been tilled during the winter.
In each of the years 1922, 1923, and 1924, at the time apothecia were collected, natural cases of ‘‘blossom blight’’ in plum trees were noticed. Apothecia (Figs. g and h, Pl. V) were found arising from mummies produced from newly-formed fruits. Bunches of immature fruits infected with Brown Rot have been collected (Fig. e¢, Pl. VI). This illustrates that the fungus may infect immature fruit and there multiply.
The Apothecia.
The general shape and manner of production of the apothecia is illustrated by photographs in Pl. V. These agree closely with published photographs of the apothecia found in America and with descriptions by Norton (30, 3o1), and others.
136 T. H. HARRISON.
In view of this, a full description of the apothecia found in Australia is unnecessary. The shape was usually erateri- form at maturity, but sometimes flattened or slightly recurved; the margin was sometimes broken.
The length of the stipe measured from base of the cup to the sclerotium ranged up to 37 mm. The width of cup varied tremendously—the largest measured 23 mm. in diameter.
Rhizords were common and especially noticeable in young specimens.
Ascei. These agreed closely in shape with descriptions pub- lished by Norton et al. (31), Matheny (27), Reade (88), Wormald (50), and others.
Camera lucida drawings were made (Fig.a, Pl. VII) and measurements obtained. The following table will show variation in size determined by various authors, all of whom used fresh material.
Table 1.—Size of Asci and Ascospores of S. Fructicola and S. Cinerea.
caer
: wie , Ascospores in Author. Organism, Asci in Microns. Wicrene! 1. Bartram (5)..|S. fructicola. 150.4 x 8.8. 10.1 x 7.1. 2. Valleau (46) |S. fructicola. 102-166 x 3.5-5.7. 5.6-8.9 x 2.9-3.8. 8. Matheny (27) |S. fructicola. 135-190 x 6.9-10.5,|10.5-14.5 x 5.2-7.5, (Peach) mostly 163 x 8.9. mostly 12.5 x 6.2. 4, Matheny (27) |S. fructicola. 135-173 x 6.8-10.8,|9.8-14.2 x 5-7.4, (Plum) mostly 151 x 9.4. mostly 11.8 x 6.3. 5. Pollock (86)..|S. fructicola. 130-179 x 9.2-11.5. |11.4-14.4 x 5.7. 6. Jehle (24) ..|S. fructicola. 136-188 x 7.8-10. 10.6 x 5.8. ‘7. Wormald (52)|S. cinerea. 172 x 9.975. 12.5 x 6.2. ‘8. Harrison ....} Australian Sclero-| 116-190. 10.5-16.3 x 5.75-8.2 (present tinia from plum,/]Av. 155 x 10. Av. 12.8 x 6.9. author) Beecroft, Sept. 1922,
100 measured.
The table shows also how well the Australian Sclerotinia agrees with the American Sclerotinia fructicola. Ascospores. | The plates and descriptions given by Reade (38), Ma- theny (27), Norton (30), and Wormald (50), amply cover
—
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928.
Plate
Plate V1,
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXI1., 1928.
4 2
a
©.
& s
Journ! Ro yal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928.
Plate VII.
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. [37
‘the details of shape and arrangement within the ascus of ‘these spores.
The size of spores is given in above table (No. 1). Didymous spores rarely occurred. All spores were sur- rounded by a gelatinous sheath. Camera lucida drawings -of spores are given (Figs. a, ec, Plate VII).
Germination of the Ascospores may take place within ‘the ascus (Fig. e, Pl. VIT) or upon the moist surface of the apothecium.
It may occur in distilled water within 2 hours. The germ tube is usually pushed out from the side and nearer ‘one end than the other. The germ tubes are usually straight for a considerable distance (Fig. d, Pl. VII).
Paraphyses were found to be identical with descriptions published by Reade (38), Matheny (27), and Wormald (50).
The size was found to be 118-200 pw x 2.32-4.65 » with an ~average size of 159 x 2.5 » (Fig. b, Pl. VII).
The Momlia Stage. Comdia.
As stated previously in this paper, the conidia agree ‘closely in manner of production, size and colour of tufts, -ete., with those of Sclerotinia fructicola (Figs. ec, Plate “VII; Figs. e, d, Plate VIII).
Measurements made in 1922 are as follows :—
Lot 1.—From mature tufts on infected peach. hange: 10:9’ to 21.7 » x 6.7 to-14.9 ‘ps. mverages 15.9 x x 10.2 wp. Lot 2.—From potato plug culture of single spore strain isolated from Trivett Seedling apple. Range: 10 » to 20» x 6.6 » to 14.9 p. Average: 14.3 w x 9.7 yp.
138 T. H. HARRISON.
Lot 3—From Quince. Strain obtained from single: ascospore from Apricot, 1921. Range: 11.5 to 19.2 » x 9.6 to 13.4 p. Average: 15.9 » x 9.7 p.
In all cases 100 spores were measured in distilled water.. The range given apphes only to the spores measured.
The following table gives a selection of conidial measure-. ments of S. fructicola and 8S. cinerea published by various. authors.
Table 2.—Size of Conidia.
Author. Source of Material] and Fungus. Size in Microns.
{
|
| ES Matheny. S. fructicola. Average of large number of | 14.7 x 9.9.
measurements from various hosts.
Ezekiel. S. fructicola. (S. americana s 22.) 14.5 x 10.8.
S. fructicola. (S. americana s 465.) 14.9 x 10.6. Reade. S. fructicola. mostly 17 x 11.. Wormald. S. fructicola on Peach from Ontario. UGt5, x, Wz. Wormald. S. cinerea. Winter conidia General 115) x8
S. cinerea. Summer conidia Average. LS x se Saccardo. S. cinerea. 15-17 x 10-12.
It would appear that while it is recognised that the: conidia of S. fructigena are uniformly larger than those: of both S. fructicola and 8. cinerea, conidial size in itself is of little taxonomic value in separating S. cinerea from S. fructicola or in separating the various physiologic forms. of S. fructicola. The range of size quoted by various. authors for conidia of 8. fructico’a is so great as to include both summer and winter conidia of S. cinerea.
The figures given for the size of conidia of the Austra-. lian organism, however, agree well with the general aver-. age size of the conidia of S. fructicola.
Disjunctors are absent. Under certain conditions it is. possible for some conidia in a chain to be separated from the next ones by a small platform of tissue. This may be due to the formation of two abstricting walls instead of one. This state of affairs is quite exceptional.
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 139°
Germination of Conidia.
Conidia germinate very quickly in presence of moisture. In most weather sporelings are often abundant over the surface of infested fruits. They may even germinate before being abstricted from the chains.
Wormald (47) and Ezekiel (19) have noted that the conidia of 8. fructicola germinate in a manner quite distinct from those of S. cinerea. The former fungus produces lone straight sparsely branched large celled germ tubes. The latter germinates to give a much branched crooked germ tube with small cells.
Conidia from a large number of cultures of the Aus- tralian organism were germinated in the manner used by Ezekiel (19). At the same time conidia of S. cinerea from England, and of the typical American fungus, were germi- nated under identical conditions. Cultures of the latter fungus were obtained from Mr. W. L. Waterhouse, who had received them from Dr. W. N. Ezekiel, under the label S. americana, form 1 (S. 22), and so on.
The main features noted by Wormald and by Ezekiel were confirmed. Germination from both ends of the conidium are not uncommon. One germ tube usually precedes the other by a few hours. Representative germinations are depicted in Plate IX.
Microconidia were abundant in many cultures. They were circular and highly refractive, 2.5-3.4 microns in diameter.
Apothecia from Apple. Although Brown Rot caused by Sclerotinia fructicola is not uncommon on apples in America, it would appear that the apothecia of that fungus has never been authentically
recorded arising from mummified apples.
240 T. H. HARRISON.
Norton et al. (31). state, ‘‘Demaree (17) in 1912 de- scribed a Sclerotinia on Maryland apples, which may be Sclerotinia aestivalis Pollock (37) ;’’ and later, in the same bulletin, state, ‘‘ Although the Brown Rot is frequent on certain summer varieties of apple, Sclerotima apothecia are rare on apple mummies. In addition to Demaree’s Sclerotinia noted early in this bulletin, apothecia doubt- fully associated with apple, have been found a few times in Maryland apple orchards.”’
Towards the end of the summer, season 1921-22, the author collected from an orchard at Pennant Hills, near Sydney, N.S.W., mummified fruits of apple—Trivett Seedling variety. The author had witnessed in the seasons, 1919-20 and 1920-21, the progress of the rot in the fruits of this variety and had obtained therefrom typical Monilia cultures. In many cases the mummified fruits when col- lected were bearing the small fawn-coloured spore masses so typical of the local Monilia. Other mummies when col- lected from the ground beneath the same tree were producing apothecia of S. aestivalis.
These mummies were placed in large open earthenware dishes (Seed pans), partly covered with soil and exposed to normal climatic conditions at the University.
On 19th September, 1922, apothecia were found arising from some of the mummified fruits. These consisted of the small flattened apothecia of S. aestiwalis and of the larger crateriform apothecia similar to but smaller than those usual for S. fructicola. Photographs were obtained (Biel a, Plate V).
Microscopic study of the Asci and ascospores showed that the latter apothecia were undoubtedly those of S.
fructicola.
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 14}
Single ascospore isolations resulted in a typical Moniha growth. Under the accession number 200 it has been in culture since that time.
An extensive series of observations made of its behaviour on fruits and on artificial culture media did not enable the author to separate this ascosporic strain from those derived from apothecia of plum and apricot.
Moreover, cultures of two strains of Sclerotima derived from apple and plum apothecia respectively were sent to Dr. Wormald by Mr. W. L. Waterhouse. After an investigation, Dr. Wormald decided that the two cultures sent to him were identical and, therefore, discarded the one which had been obtained from plum. It is, therefore, the culture from apple which has been considered typical of the Brown Rot fungus present in Australia.
The author, therefore, considers that here is a valid case of the apothecia of Sclerotima fructicola arising from. mummified fruits of the apple.
The specimens have been preserved and are still in good. condition.
Brown Rot 1n NEw ZEALAND.
Australia and New Zealand are vitally concerned with: each other’s fruit diseases. Their relative proximity and their isolation from other fruit-growing centres make it necessary for each to know exactly what diseases are pre- sent and to define the causal organisms.
Brown Rot has been present in New Zealand for at least 23 years. Heavy losses to fruitgrowers have occurred through the destruction of both stone and pome fruits. In view of this, and of the fact that the climatic conditions of New Zealand somewhat approximate those prevailing in England, it is of extreme importance to Australia that the species of fungus causing Brown Rot in New Zealand should be correctly determined.
142 T. H. HARRISON.
The author therefore wishes to present the following ‘statement :—
Cunningham in 1922 (138) and in 1915 (14), from a consideration of both the Monilia and Sclerotinia stages, retained the name of Sclerotinia cinerea (Bon.) Schrot for the organism responsible for Brown Rot in New Zealand. In the latter publication (14) Sclerotinia americana (Nor- ton and Ezekiel) is given as a synonym. As far as the author is aware, there have been published no taxonomic -or cultural details dealing with the New Zealand Brown Rot organism. Wormald (52), however, obtained cultures from apricot, peach and plum mummies, and from peach twigs sent from New Zealand. Studies showed that ‘‘in every case these were Sclerotinia americana.’’ He con- eluded, ‘‘This species is probably, therefore, the fungus responsible for the greater part, if not the whole, of the Brown Rot damage in New Zealand.”’
The Sclerotinia Stage—In 1922 the author was enabled, through the courtesy of Mr. W. L. Waterhouse, to examine peach mummies bearing apothecia, received by the latter from Dr. K. N. Curtis, of Cawthron Institute, New Zea- land. These apothecia were collected at Stoke, near Wellington, New Zealand, on September 29, 1922, and preserved in 70 per cent. alcohol. They were, in shape, colour, and size, identical with those collected in New South Wales during 1921 and 1922. Measurements of Asci were made in October, 1922. Portions of apothecia were taken through a range of alcohols to distilled water, in which the material was teased out and lightly tinted with Gentian Violet.
All the measurements obtained were less than those obtained from fresh apothecia, but a study of the following table appears to indicate that preserved material is -shrunken.
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 143
All authors mentioned in the table used preserved mate- rial. The difference in the treatment given that material would possibly be sufficient to explain the variation in measurements recorded.
Table 3.—Size of Asci of Sclerotinia Fructicola Obtained by Using Preserved Material.
Author and Date. asamiee ene eeunee et (i) Size, of «Asoiin Microns, Aderhold and Ruhland Sclerotinia fructicola from 89.3-107.6 x 5.9-6.8. (GISIOS)) ee ee Norton, Kansas, U.S.A. Winter (1883) .. .. ..| Sclerotinia fructicola (Ci-4 130-160 x 8-8.5.
boria fructicola) from Rau, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Dunegan (1924) .. .. ..| Sclerotinia fructicola (Win- 117-161 x 5.7-9.5. ; ter’s type material). Harrison (1922) .. .. ..| Sclerotinia fructicola from 13516) xX. 7.8,
Wellington, N.Z.
The photos and descriptions of the New Zealand apo- thecia, published by Cunningham (138, 14), could well apply to the apothecia so abundant in America and in Austraha. The very abundance of the apothecia in New Zealand is a further indication of the identity of the fun- gus present there with that present in America and Australia.
The Monilia Stage.
Cunningham (14), in support of his claim that apples and pears are not natural hosts for the fungus, wrote, ““Brown Rot appears in the flesh . . . . and gradually spreads until, in time, the whole fruit becomes infected, when it turns quick black. Few or no tufts of conidia are produced on the surface of such fruits.”’
Karlier in the present paper the author summarised the results of an apple inoculation experiment as follows: “The local Mona produced a black rot with small greyish to fawn pustules produced along the cut surface of the fruit and, to a small extent, over the rotted areas;’’ while in the same experiment S. cinerea produced ‘‘a brown rot.’’ In fact, nigrescence seems always to be absent from media inoculated with Sclerotinia cinerea.
1 ae T. H. HARRISON.
It would seem, therefore, that from the last mentioned’ statement of Cunningham, it is possible to conclude three: things, viz., (1) the New Zealand Brown Rot fungus is not S. fructigena, (2) it is not S. cinerea, (3) it is apparently,. therefore, S. fructicola.
Cunningham (14) describes the ‘‘small scattered grey tufts’’ so typical of the last fungus, and a photograph of conidial masses is published. |
The facts presented by him are entirely in agreement: with the published descriptions of the Monilia stage of S. fructicola, and with its appearance in Australha, with the possible exception that he does not mention that the conidial tufts assume a fawn tint on maturity. Climatic: conditions may prevent this in New Zealand.
In January, 1928, the author received from Dr. Cun- ningham cultures labelled ‘‘Brown Rot, Apricots, Welling-- ton.’’ The macroscopic appearance of this fungus, when esrown on Potato Dextrose Agar slopes and plates, is cer-- tainly that of S. fructicola and not that of 8. cinerea.
Conidia from the New Zealand fungus have been ger- minated under identical conditions with those of S. fructi- cola obtained from American and Australian sources and with those of S. cinerea. The New Zealand fungus is. inseparable from S. fructicola by this means, but very distinct from 8S. cinerea.
Cultures and mummified fruits have also recently been. received from Dr. K. N. Curtis. The cultures thus ob- tained made available five ‘‘strains’’* of the New Zealand. Brown Rot organism. These have been grown side by side
with the local ‘‘strain’’ of Sclerotinia, with Ezekiel’s six
* Throughout this paper the word “strain” is used in the same sense as that defined by Wormald (52)—i.e., a pure line, which may or may not be identical with others.
Seecoanatl
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928,
Plate VIII.
4 - “ 7 * = i
—
rie
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Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIT, 1928. Plate IX
S
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 145
biologic forms of S. fructicola and with S. cinerea from England.
The observations made, as well as the facts presented above, support the contention of Dr. Wormald that the fungus commonly responsible for Brown Rot in New Zea- land is ‘identical with that occurring in America and in Australia, and therefore should be called Sclerotinia fructicola (Wint.) Rehm.
Acknowledgments.
The author is indebted to all those from whom cultures, specimens, information or assistance were received, and to the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Sydney, in whose laboratories the work was prosecuted in 1921, 1922, and early 1928.
Finally, it is a special privilege gratefully to acknow- ledge the inspiration, assistance and kindly eriticism so generously given at all times by Mr. W. L. Waterhouse, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Sydney.
SUMMARY.
1. Brown Rot of deciduous fruits was introduced to Aus- tralia in the nineties of last century. It was. first recognised in 1896 by McAlpine, in Victoria. Its subsequent history is traced.
2. The disease is at present well established in most of the temperate fruit-growing regions of the south-eastern fringe of Australia. It is not known in South Australia or in Western Australia.
3. The host range in Australia is given—the organism causes fruit-rotting, twig-blighting, blossom-blighting, and cankering of stone fruits particularly.
4. The history of the nomenclature of the organisms. re- sponsible for Brown Rot of fruits in other parts of the world and in Australia is traced.
J—Angusi 1, 1928,
146
2.
2?
T. H. HARRISON.
A series of comparative experiments was conducted. Standard cultures of S. cinerea, M. fructigena, and SV. fructicola were compared with the Australian Brown Rot fungus. Full details are published.
. Apothecia are recorded from apple, apricot, peach, and
plum during the years 1922, 1923, and 1924. Complete taxonomic details are presented.
. The conclusion is reached that the organism respon-
sible for Brown Rot in Australha is S. fructicola (Wint.) Rehm.
. The production of apothecia of S. fructicola from apple
is discussed.
. The organism responsible for Brown Rot in New
Zealand is also considered to be 8S. fructicola.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
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ibid 15; 1, 1904. Conet, J. L.: A study of the brown rot fungus in the vicinity of Champaign and Urbana, Illinois. Phytopath., 4; 93-101, 1914. Cunnincuam, G. H.: Occurrence of apothecia of brown rot in New Zealand. N.Z. Jour, Agr., 25; 177, 1922.
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BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 147
The significance of apothecia in the control of brown rot of stone fruits. N.Z. Jour. Agr., 25; 225, 1922. Fungus diseases of fruit trees in New Zealand and their remedial treatment. Auckland, New Zealand, 1925. DaRNELL-SMitTH, G. P.: Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 26; 591-598, 1915. = pid. 29; 664, 1918. Demarer, J. B.: A Sclerotinia on apple. Science, n.s. 35; pp. fi-15, 1912. EuRENBERG, C. G.: Sylvae mycologicae berolinensis. Berlin, 1818. EzexieLt, Water N.: Fruit-rotting Sclerotinias II. The American Brown Rot Fungi. Univ. of Maryland Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull., 271, 1924. Frank, B., and Krucer, F.: Ueber die gegenwartig herr- schende Monilia—Epidemie der obstba4ume. lLandwirtsch. Jahrb., Bd. '28; 185-216, 1899. Froccattr, W. W.: Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 20; 202, 1909. Ha.iier, E.: Eine Pilzkrankheit des Steinobstes. Wiener- Obst und Gartenztg, p. 1272, 1876. Harrison, T. H.: Note on the occurrence in New South Wales, Australia, of the perfect stage of a Sclerotinia causing brown rot of fruits. Journ. and Proc. Roy. Soc. N.5:.W., vol. 55; pp. 215-219, 1922. JEHLE, R. A.: The brown rot canker of the peach. Phyto- path 3; 105-110, 1918. JOHNSTON, T. Harvey: Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 21; 194, 1910.
LuTRELL, —: in Australian Encyclopaedia, part 1, p. 493.
MatHeny, W. A.: A comparison of the American brown rot fungus with Sclerotinia fructigena and Sclerotinia cinerea of - Europe. Bot. Gaz. 56; 418-482, 1913. ©
McAtring, D.: Fungus Diseases of Stone Fruit Trees in Australia, and Their Treatment. Dept. of Agr., Melbourne,
“evactoria;. p. 53, p. 85, 1902.
Norton, J. B. S.: Sclerotinia fructigena, Sci. 16; 34, 1902. ——: Sclerotinia fructigena, Trans. Acad. Sci., St. Louis, 12; 191-197, Pls. 18-21, 1902.
Norton, J. B. S., e¢ al.: Fruit-rotting Sclerotinias 1. Apo- thecia of the brown rot fungus. The Univ. of Maryland Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 256, 19283.
Norton, J. B. S., and EzexieL, WALTER N.: The name of the
American brown rot Sclerotinia (Abst.), Phytopath. 14; 31- a2, 1924.
148 33.
34, 35. 36. 37. 38.
39.
40.
Al. 42.
43.
44,
45. 46.
AT.
48.
AQ.
50.
oil:
52.
T. H. HARRISON.
Peck, C. H.: Report of the Botanist, N.Y. State Museum. Nat. Hist. Ann. Rpt. 43 (1889); p. 52, 1890.
Prrsoon, C. H.: Observationes mycologicae. Lipsiae, 1796.. : Synopsis methodica fungorum. Gottingae, 1801.
Potiock, J. B.: Sclerotinia fructigena in Europe and America;. Mich. Acad. Sci. Rept., 11; 49-53, 1909.
— —: A new species of Sclerotinia. Mich. Acad. Sci.. Rpt. 11; 53, 1909.
Reape, J. M.: Preliminary notes on some species of Sclero- tinia.e Ann. Mycol., 6; 109-115, 1908.
Roserts, J. W., and Dunecan, J. C.: The Fungus causing the common brown rot of fruits in America. Jour. Agr. Res., 28; 955-960, 1924.
————_ and —————_:: Critical remarks on certain species: of Sclerotinia and Monilia associated with diseases of fruits. Mycologia 29; 4, pp. 195-205, 1927.
Saccarpo, —: Syllagoe fungorum.
Scuroter, C.: Kryptogamen—Flora von Schlesien, 3 Pilze;. 67, 1893.
Situ, E. F.: Peach rot and peach blight. Journ. Myc. 5;- 123-134, 1899.
Sravuer, P.: Erkrankungsfalle durch Monilia. Zeitschr. f.. Pflanzenkr. Bd., 9, pp. 225-35, 1899.
Spinks, W. H.: Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 28; 310, 1917.
VALLEAU, W. D.: Varietal resistance of plums to brown rot.. Jour. Agr. Res. 5; 365-395, 1915.
WorMALbD, H.: A blossom wilt and canker of apple trees. Ann. Appl. Biol., 3; 159-204, 1917.
—: The “brown rot” diseases of fruit trees, with. special referenee to two biologic forms of Monilia cinerea Bon. 1. Ann. Bot., 333° 361-404, 1919.
: The brown rot diseases of fruit trees, with special. reference to two biologic forms of Monilia cinerea, Bon. II.. Ann. Bot., 34; 148-71, 1920.
: On the occurrence in Britain of the ascigerous. stage of a brown rot fungus. Ann. Bot. 35; 125-185, 1921.
: Further studies of the brown rot fungi I.—A. shoot-wilt and canker of plum trees caused by Sclerotima cinerea, Ann. Bot., 36; 305-3820, 1922.
: Further studies of the brown rot fungi. II.—A contribution to our knowledge of the distribution of the species of Sclerotinia causing brown rot. Ann. Bot., 41; 287-299, 1927.
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 149
53. Woronin, M.: Uber Sclerotinia cinerea and Sclerotuma fructs- gena. Mém. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, 8¢ sér., vol. x., No. 5, Phys.-Math., pp. 1-38, 1900.
54, —__———:: Uber die Sclerotienkrankeit de Vaccinium-Beeren. Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, Sér. 36; No. 6, 1888.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate V.
a. A peach mummy bearing exceptionally large apothecia. The seed within the sclerotium has germinated. The scale is in millimetres. Collected at Beecroft, Sept., 1922.
b. Typical apothecia from a plum mummy. Note the curved stipes, due to the apothecia coming from beneath the mummy, which was partly submerged by soil. Collected at Beecroft, September, 1922.
e«. A very large apothecium from a plum mummy. _ The scale is in millimetres. Collected at Beecroft, Sept., 1922.
d. A group of apothecia from a plum mummy. These apo- thecia were collected when in the stipe stage and their development studied. Collected at Beecroft, Sept., 1922.
e. Apothecia on an apple mummy. The crateriform apo- thecium opposite the arrow on the left is that of S. fructicola and the smaller flattened ones on the right are those of S. aestivalis. Collected at the University, Sept., 1922.
f. An apothecium, in situ, arising from a submerged plum mummy. The cup always opens just above ground level. Photographed at Beecroft, September, 1922.
g & h. Apothecia from plum mummies which were derived from newly-formed fruits. Collected at Beecroft, Sep- tember, 1922.
Photographs by Mr. W. L. Waterhouse or by Faculty of
Agriculture, Sydney University. Plate VI.
a. A group of apothecia, in situ, attached to a partly exposed plum mummy. The weed is Hypochaeris radicata L. Photo- graphed at Beecroft, September, 1922.
b. Small apothecia arising from a submerged sclerotium. Photographed, in situ, at Beecroft, 1922. The coin (3d.) has a diameter of 25 mm.
. A cluster of Japanese plums infected by Brown Rot while still less than half grown. The small pinhead-like tufts are typical of S. fructicola in Australia. Collected at Pen- nant Hills, January, 1922.
150 T. H. HARRISON.
d. A plum tree typical of those in the neglected orchard’ where the apothecia were abundant in Sept., 1923. The tree was in flower at the time when the apothecia were collected.
Photographs a, b and d by Mr. W. L. Waterhouse.
Photograph ¢c by Faculty of Agriculture.
Plate VII. a. Typical asci from an apothecia of S. fructicola from plum: mummy. Collected at Beecroft, Sept., 1922. b. Paraphyses. ec. Ascospores. d. Germinating ascospores—in distilled water for various: periods. e. Ascospores germinating within the ascus. This phenome- non was abundant in material kept under moist conditions. f. A gelatinous sheath surrounds the germ tubes. All the above were drawn, at magnification of approximately 900, with aid of camera lucida.
Plate VIII.
a. Monilia fructigena of England on quince 8 days after inoculation. Photographed 29/5/’22.
b. A Trivett Seedling apple showing Monilia fructigena om the right and the Australian Brown Rot organism (5S. fructicola) on the left.
c. A Trivett Seedling apple with Monilia fructigena on the left and the Australian organism (S. fructicola) on the right.. Note the large white fluffy masses of hyphae which pre- cede conidial production in Monilia fructigena and the entire absence of surface mycelium in S. fructicola.
d. Typical fructifications of S. fructicola, in Australia, om quince, 11 days after inoculation.
e. The fructifications of S. fructicola at close range on the same quince as in d, taken 8 days after inoculation.
Photographs taken by Faculty of Agriculture.
Plate IX. Germinating conidia of S. fructicola, drawn with the aid of “camera lucida”; in hanging drop of potato decoction for 24 hours at temperature which varied from 15-10°C. a. From culture No. 200, obtained from single ascospore of an apple apothecium, Sept., 1922. Length of germ tube approx. 140 w xX 490.
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 151
. From culture No. 8 from New Zealand. The length of germ tube is 200 » and from the conidium to the branch is approx. 50 p. X 350.
From culture No. 200. Note the double germination and the branching of the germ tube at 230 pm from the co- nidium. x 300.
. From culture of S. fructicola received from Ezekiel under name S. americana form I. (S22). Note the double ger- mination and the branching at approx. 50 pw. x 500.
As d, with dichotomous branching at a distance of approx. 15 w from the conidium. x 500.
. As b. Dichotomous branching has taken place at 65 wp. x 350.
As d. Note the development of several branches, the nearest of which is approx. 70 » from the conidium. approx. 600.
As d. Showing double germination of conidium.
As b. Showing double germination and branching. The longest germ tube is approx. 240 pm long and the branch is being sent out at approx. 35 mw from conidium. xX approx. 400.
152 R. H. CAMBAGE.
ACACIA SEEDLINGS PART XIII. By R.: H. CAMBAGE, C.B.E., F.L:S. (With Plates X. to XIII.)
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Aug. 1st, 1928.)
bY NOP SIS: VITALITY OF SEEDS IN SEA-WATER. DESCRIPTION OF SEEDLINGS. Vitality of Seeds in Sea-Water.
In Part VI of this series* it was mentioned that four pods of Acacia Farnesiana, containing seeds, had floated in sea-water for ten to twelve weeks before sinking. At the end of seven and a half years these seeds were examined, when more than half were found to be decaying. From among those which looked to be well preserved, one was placed in boiling water and planted, after which it readily germinated.
Recently a seed of A. melanoxylon, collected at Jenolan ‘Caves, and left in sea-water for ten years, germinated after having been placed in boiling water and planted.
In 1856, Charles Darwin tested many seeds of various genera, but not including Acacia, in sea-water, but the best result he obtained on that occasion was in the case of Apium graveolens (Umbelliferae), six seeds of which germinated after having been immersed for 137 days.t
James Salter records the germination of many seeds of various genera taken from the mud of the Thames in 1843,
*This Journ. 1920, 54, 146.
~Journ. of the Proc. Linn. Soc. London, 1857, I, 130. See also “‘Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific between 1896 and 1899’ by H. B. Guppy. Plant-Dispersal, 1906, 2, 22.
ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 153
‘but although some of these seeds were probably lying in the mud under the salt water for some considerable periods, there is no certainty as to the length of time they were Immersed.t The genera referred to were Centaurer, Epilobium and Lysimachia, and it is stated that no plants -of these species were growing previously within from two to ten miles of the spot where the mud was spread.
Description of Seedlings. CALAMIFORMES— (Uninerves). ACACIA ERICIFOLIA Benth. Seeds from Wongan Hills, Western Australia (W. M. Carne). (Plate X, Numbers 1 to 3.)
Seeds dark brown to black, oblong to obovate, 2 to 2.5 ‘mm. long, about 1 mm. broad, 1 mm, thick.
Hypocotyl terete, brownish-red to reddish-brown, 1.3 to ‘2 em. long, about 0.6 mm. thick at base, 0.56 mm. at apex.
Cotyledons sessile, oblong, apex rounded, 3 mm. long, -about 1.5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale ‘green to brownish-green, sometimes with raised line along centre.
Stem terete, greenish-brown, pilose. First internode 0.5 -mm.; second and third 0.5 to 1 mm.; fourth to sixth 1 to -38 mm.; seventh to tenth 2 to 5 mm.
Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 2 to 4 mm., glabrous; leaflets two pairs, obovate, 2.5 to 3 mm. long, ‘1 to 2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green; rachis 1.5 to 2 mm., with termina! seta.
No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 4 to 9 mm., glabrous, -with terminal seta; leaflets two pairs, obovate, 1.5 to 3 mm. long, 1 to 1.5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside paler ; rachis about 2 mm., with terminal seta.
-£“On the Vitality of Seeds after prolonged Submersion in the Sea,’ by James Salter, M.D., F.L.S. Journ. of the Proc. Linn. Soc., 1857, I, 140.
154 R. H. CAMBAGE.
Nos. 3 to 5. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 7 mm. to 1.3 cm., sometimes slightly flattened in the case of No. 5, elabrous; leafiets two to three pairs, oblong-acuminate to obovate; rachis 4 to 5 mm.; stipules acuminate, 1 mm.
Nos. 6 and 7. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly bi- pinnate, petiole up to 1.1 em. long, up to 1.5 mm. broad). olabrous; leaflets two to three pains; rachis 3 to 5 mm.
Nos. 8 to 15. Usually thick phyllodes, cuneate, obtuse: or very shortly acuminate, tapering from near the apex to the base, the midrib sometimes showing slightly under. pocket lens, 1 to 2 em. long, up to 5 mm. broad near apex. The terminals of later phyllodes are more tapering.
in this Journal (1926, 60, 85), reference is made to the nocturnal movement of seedling leaves of this species. species.
UNINERVES— (Racemosae ).
ACACIA CAESIELLA Maiden and Blakely.* Seeds from: Burrinjuck (E. C. Andrews and J. W. Campbell). (Plate X, Numbers 4 to 6.)
Seeds black, oblong-oval to obovate, about 4.5 nim. long,. 2 to 3 mm. broad, about 1.5 mm. thick.
Hypocotyl red, constricted above soil, expanding into flange at root, 2 to 3 em. long, 2 to 2.6 mm. thick at base, 0.7 to 1 mm. at apex. |
Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong, about 5 to 6 mm. long, 2.5 to 3 mm. broad, upperside at first red, becoming green, underside red, becoming revolute in one day and later cylindrical.
Stem terete, reddish-brown, hirsute to hoary, silky towards the summit. First internode 0.5 mm.; second to: fifth 0.5 to 0.8 mm.; sixth to tenth 0.8 to 1.5 mm.
*This Journ., 1926, 60, 180.
ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 155:
Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 3 to 6 mm., slabrous; leaflets three to four pairs, oblong-acuminate, the apical pair often obovate, 5 to 6 mm. long, 1.5 to 2 mm. broad, upperside reddish-ereen, underside red; rachis 6 to 8 mm., with terminal seta.
No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 8 mm. to 1.1 em.,. pilose, with terminal seta; leaflets three to five pairs, oblong-acuminate, 3 to 6 mm. long, 1 to 3 mm. broad; rachis 7 mm. to 1 em., with terminal seta.
Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 9 mm. to 1.7 em., pilose; leaflets three to eight pairs; rachis 7 mm. to 2.1 em. |
Nos. 5 to 7. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1.5 to 2.5 em... No. 7 being sometimes 2 mm. broad, hirsute; leaflets six to eleven pairs; rachis 1.5 to 2.5 em.
Nos. 8 to 10. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly bipin- nate, petiole 1.7 to 2.1 em. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, with a strong nerve just below the centre of the lamina, hirsute ; leaflets eight to ten pairs, often mucronate; rachis 1.2 to 1.8 em.
Nos. 11 to 20. Lanceolate, slightly faleate phyllodes, 1.5 to 2.7 em. long, 4 to 5 mm. broad, the midrib prominent on both sides, with a small gland towards the base on the upper margin, minutely hoary.
PLURINERVES— (Microneurae ). ACACIA HOMALOPHYLLA A. Cunn. ‘‘Yarran’’. Seeds from Gunnedah (J. H. Maiden). (Plate X, Numbers 7 to. 9.) Seeds dark brown, oblong-oval to almost orbicular, 3 to 5 mm. long, 2.5 to 3 mm. broad, 1 to 1.5 mm. thick. Hypocotyl terete, green to reddish, 1.5 to 2 em. long,. 1.5 mm. thick at base, 0.8 to 1 mm. at apex.
156 R. H. CAMBAGE.
Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong-oval, 6 to 7 mm. long, 4 to 5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green, becoming slightly revolute, and doubling downwards beyond the middle.
Stem terete, greenish-brown, pilose. First internode 0.5 mm.; second 0.5 to 1 mm.; third 1 to 2 mm.; fourth 3 mm. to 1 em.; fifth to seventh 5 mm. to 1.4 em.; eighth to tenth 8 mm. to 2 em.
Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, in one case an opposite pair appeared, petiole 3 to 4 mm., glabrous; leaflets three to four pairs, rarely one, oblong-acuminate, the apical pair sometimes obovate, 4 to 7 mm. long, about 2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green; rachis 3 to 9 mm., with terminal seta.
No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 7 mm. to 1.1 em., green, glabrous, with terminal seta; leaflets two to four pairs, oblong-acuminate, the apical pair sometimes obovate, 3 to 5 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, upperside green; rachis 4 to 7 mm., glabrous, with terminal seta.
Nos. 3 to 5. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 8 mm. to 3.5 em., faintly pilose; leaflets three to six pairs; rachis 6 mm. to 1.6 em.
Nos. 6 to 9. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1.2 to 6.6 em. long, 1 to 5 mm. broad, usually with a very definite mid- rib and several much finer parallel veins, faintly pilose; leaflets three to six pairs, rarely seven; rachis 6 mm. to 1.5 em.
Nos. 10 to 17. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1.7 to 6.5 em. long, 3 to 7 mm. broad, with a definite midrib and a vein on each side of it less prominent but more definite than the numerous other parallel veins, faintly pilose or hoary; leaflets four to six pairs; rachis 6 mm. to 1.8 em.
ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 157
Nos. 18 to 25. Lanceolate-faleate or linear-lanceolate, very brittle phyllodes, from about 4 to 7 em. long, obtuse and often with a fine point, venation similar to Nos. 10 to 17.
PLURINERVES— (Nervosae ). ACACIA HARPOPHYLLA F. v. M. ‘‘Brigalow.’’ Seeds from Eidsvold, Queensland (Dr. T. L. Bancroft). (Plate XI, Numbers 1 to 3.)
Seeds grey, irregularly oblong to oblong-oval, with raised lines or corrugations on both sides, 1 to 1.5 em. long, 4 to 6 mm. broad, 1.5 to 2 mm. thick.
These seeds, with their irregular, often shrivelled-looking shape and fairly soft testa, differ from all other Australian Acacia seeds so far seen.
Hypocotyl terete, red above soil, 3 to 5 em. long, about 2 mm. thick at base, 1 to 1.5 mm. at apex.
Cotyledons sessile, deeply auricled, oblong-ovate, about 1.6 em. long, 7 mm. broad, upperside green, underside vellowish-green to pale green.
Stem terete, greyish-green, glabrous to minutely hoary. First internode 0.5 mm.; second 1 mm.; third 2 to 4 mm.; fourth to eighth 5 mm. to 1.5 em.
Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, forming an opposite pair, petiole 4 to 6 mm., glabrous; leaflets four to six pairs, oblong-acuminate, 4 mm. to 1 em. long, 1 to 3 mm. broad, upperside green, underside paler; rachis 1 to 1.7 em. with terminal seta.
No. 2. lLinear-lanceolate phyllode, 3 to 7 cm. long, 2 to 5 mm. broad, with a fairly definite central nerve, and many finer parallel ones.
Nos. 3 to 8. Linear-lanceolate falcate phyllodes, sparsely covered with a fine tomentum seen under a pocket lens, but
158 R. H. CAMBAGE.
not so dense as on later phyllodes, 4 to 12 em. long, 4 mm. to 1.2 ecm. broad, with numerous fine longitudinal veins, and one or two more prominent than the rest showing in Nos. 3 to 9.
PLURINERVES— (Nervosae ). Acacta conrusaA Merrill.* The species is a native of Formosa. Seeds from Hongkong Botanic Gardens (Cultivated, H. Green). (Plate XI, Numbers 4 to 6.)
Seeds brown, oval to oblong-oval, areola distinct, 5 to 6 mm. long, 3.5 to 4 mm. broad, about 1.5 mm. thick.
Hypocotyl brownish-green, spreading into flange at root, 2 to 3 em. long, about 2 mm. thick at base, 1 mm. at apex.
Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong-oval to almost oval, about 7 mm. long, 4 to 5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green.
Stem terete, greenish-brown, glabrous. First internode 0.5 to 1 mm.; second 1 to 3 mm.; third and fourth 3 mm, to 1 em.; fifth and sixth 6 mm. to 1.5 em.
Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, in a few cases form- ing an opposite pair, petiole 4 to 7 mm., brownish-green, glabrous; leaflets one to two pairs, oblong-acuminate, 6 mm. to 1.3 em. long, 3.5 to 5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside paler, venation distinct on underside.
No. 2. Obovate-lanceolate phyllode, obtuse, often mucronate, 1.5 to 3 em. long, 3.5 to 9 mm. broad, with a central nerve, and usually a finer one on each side of it not confluent at the apex.
Nos. 3 to 10. Oval-lanceolate to lanceolate phyllodes, obtuse, often mucronate, 2.5 to 7 cm. long, 8 mm. to 1.5 em. broad, with about five distinct nerves mostly confluent at the apex and with sometimes one or two finer veins not
*Philipp. Journ. Sci., 1910, 5, 27.
ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 159
reaching the apex. Later phyllodes are lanceolate-falcate
and longer.
This is the fourth seedling described in this series where the No. 2 leaf is usually reduced to a phyllode, the previous eases being A. alata, A. Cambager* and A. harpophylla (supra).
J ULIFLORAE— (Stenophyllae).
ACACIA MERINTHOPHORA Pritzel.t Seeds from Wongan Hills, Western Australia (W. M. Carne). (Plate XI, Numbers 7 to 9.)
Seeds light brown, oblong-obovate, 2.5 to 3.5 mm. long, 1.5 to 2 mm. broad, 1 mm. thick.
Hypocotyl terete, brownish-red above soil, 1.5 to 2 em. Jong, 1 mm. thick at base, about 0.5 mm. at apex.
Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong, about 4 mm. long, 2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside brownish-red to greenish-brown.
Stem terete, greyish-green, glabrous. First internode 0.5 mm.; second and third 1 to 2 mm.; fourth to eighth 2 mm. to 1 em.
Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 2 to 4 mm.; leaflets two pairs, 2 to 4 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, oblong to obovate, upperside green, underside brownish- green; rachis 1.5 to 2 mm., with terminal seta.
No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 2 to 5 mm., glabrous, with terminal seta; leaflets two to three pairs, oblong to obovate, 2 to 4 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, rachis 2 to 3 mm., with terminal seta.
No. 3. This may be a phyllode, or abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1 to 1.8 em. long, up to 1 mm. broad; leaflets two to three pairs, rachis 1 to 4 mm.
*This Journ., 1926, 60, 96. +Engler’s Bot. Jahrb., 1905, 35, 307,
160 R. H. CAMBAGE.
Nos. 4 to 6. Linear phyllodes 2 to 7 em. long, up to: 2.5 mm. broad, with central nerve.
Nos. 7 to 9. Linear phyllodes, 5 to 11 em. long, up to 1.5 mm. broad, with definite central nerve, and one or two finer ones on each side, often with hooked points.
J ULIFLORAE—(Stenophyllae). ACACIA LINOPHYLLA W. V. Fitzgerald.* Seeds from Gascoyne River, Canarvon, Western Australia (E. C. Andrews). (Plate XII, Numbers 1 to 3.)
Seeds brown, irregularly oval to almost quadrangular, areola depressed, 5 to 7 mm. long, 5 to 6 mm. broad, about. 3 mm. thick.
Hypocotyl green to brownish-green, 1.5 to 3 em. long, 3 mm. thick at base, 1.5 to 2 mm. at apex.
Cotyledons oblong to oblong-oval, auricled, about 1 to 1.2 em. long, 6 to 6.5 mm. broad, upperside green, under- side pale green.
Stem terete, brownish-grey, glabrous. First internode 0.5 mm.; second 1 mm.; third to sixth 2 to 5 mm.
Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, forming an opposite pair, petiole 4 to 8 mm., green, glabrous; leafiets three pairs, oblong-acuminate to obliquely-ovate, 4 to 6 mm. long, 1.5 to 3 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale to yellowish-green; rachis 7 to 9 mm., with terminal seta.
No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1.5 to 2.2 em., with terminal seta; leaflets three pairs, oblong-acuminate, 2 to 4 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad; rachis 4 to 8 mm., with terminal seta.
Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, or No. 4 may be a phyllode, sometimes with two pairs of pinnae, petiole 2 to
*Journ. W.A. Nat. Hist. Soc., 1904, 16.
ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 161
3 em., sometimes up to 1 mm. broad; leaflets two to three pairs; rachis 1 to 2 mm.
Nos. 5 to 15. Linear phyllodes, about 3 to 13 em. long, flattened, sometimes up to 1.5 mm. broad in the case of Nos. 5 to 8, Nos. 9 to 15 narrower, with a few closely- packed veins seen under pocket lens, stipules up to about 2 mm.
Phyllodes on mature trees are terete.
J ULIFLORAE— (Falcatae). ACACIA ARGENTEA Maiden.* Seeds from Eidsvold, Queens- land (Dr. T. L. Bancroft). (Plate XII, Numbers 4 to 6.) Seeds brown, oblong, 3 to 4 mm. long, 1.5 mm. broad, 1 mm. thick.
Hypocotyl terete, pink to reddish, spreading into flange at root, 2 to 2.5 em. long, about 1.5 mm. thick at base, 0.5 to 0.7 mm. at apex.
Cotyledons sessile, sagittate, oblong, 5 mm. long, 1.5 to 2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside red.
Stem at first angular, becoming terete, greenish-red, hirsute to pubescent. First internode 0.5 mm.; second and third 1 to 2 mm.; fourth to sixth 2 to 5 mm.; seventh to tenth 4 to 7 mm.
Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 2 to 3 mm.; leaflets two pairs, oblong-acuminate, 4 to 6 mm. long, 1.5 to 2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green; rachis 2 to 3 mm., with terminal seta.
No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 3 to 4 mm., glabrous, with terminal seta; leaflets two to three pairs, oblong- obovate to obliquely obovate, 3 to 4 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, upperside green; rachis 3 to 5 mm., with terminal Seta.
*Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, 1918, 30, 41. K—Angust 1, 1928,
162 R. H. CAMBAGE.
Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 5 mm. to 1.2 em., hirsute; leaflets three to six pairs; rachis 4 mm. to 1.2 em.
Nos. 5 to 7. Abruptly bipinnate, sometimes with two pairs of pinnae in the ease of No. 7, petiole hirsute, 8 mm. to 4.8 em. long, up to 2 mm., 4 mm., and 7 mm. broad in the cases of Nos. 5, 6 and 7 respectively, usually with a strong nerve along or near the lower margin and several very fine veins above in the cases of Nos. 6 and 7; leaflets five to nine pairs, margins ciliate; rachis 7 mm. to 1.7 cm.
Nos. 8 and 9. These may be phyllodes or abruptly bi- pinnate, petiole hirsute, 5 to 6 em. long, 7 to 8 mm. broad, with two fairly distinct nerves, the main one below the centre of the lamina, the other, and sometimes a fainter one from the base to the middle, above, and numerous very fine parallel veins; leaflets seven to eight pairs; rachis about 1 em.
Nos. 10 to 14. lLanceolate-faleate phyllodes, venation much as described in the cases of the petioles of Nos. 6 and 7, 5 to 7 em. long, and up to 1 em. broad, minutely hoary, with a somewhat silvery sheen.
BIPINNATAE—(Botryocephalae).
ACACIA MOLLIssIMA Willd.* Sydney Black Wattle. Seeds from Milton, New South Wales. (Plate XIII, Numbers TSO 8.)
Seeds dull black, oval to oblong-oval, 4 to 5 mm. long, 2, to 3 mm. broad, 1.5 10,2) mma, ‘thick.
Hypocotyl terete, reddish to red, 1.5 to 5 cm. long, about 1 mm. thick at base, 0.7 mm. at apex.
Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong, soon becoming revolute and eylindrical, about 5 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm. broad, upperside green to reddish-green, underside pale green to reddish.
— = = = =. — <= — ene
*Bnum. Hort. Berol. 1053.
ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 163
Stem terete, reddish-green, pilose to tomentose. First internode 0.5 mm.; second 0.5 to 1 mm.; third 1 to 5 mm.; fourth and fifth 3 to 9 mm.; sixth and seventh 5 mm. to 3.0 em.; eighth and ninth 1 to 4.5 em. The longest inter- nodes were found on natural seedlings.
Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 3 to 5 mm., reddish-brown, glabrous; leaflets three to five pairs, oblong- acuminate, 4 to 7 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside reddish-brown, margins reddish; rachis 3 to 9 mm., with terminal seta.
No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 3 to 8 mm., with small gland, reddish-brown, glabrous to pilose, with terminal seta; leaflets five to six pairs, oblong-acuminate, the apical pair often obovate, 4 to 5 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside reddish-green; rachis ‘6 mm. to 1 em., with terminal seta.
Nos. 3 to 5. Abruptly bipinnate, sometimes with two pairs of pinnae, petiole 5 mm. to 2.3 cm., with gland on upper margin, pilose; leaflets seven to ten pairs, similar to those of No. 2; rachis 1 to 3 em.
Nos. 6 and 7. Abruptly bipinnate, usually with two or three pairs of pinnae, petiole 1.5 to 2.8 em., with one or sometimes two glands on upper margin, pilose; leaflets about twelve to twenty-two pairs, up to 6 mm. long, about I mm. broad; rachis 1.5 to 3.3 em.
Nos. 8 to 10. Abruptly bipinnate, with from three to ‘six pairs of pinnae, petiole 3.4 to 4.5 em.; leaflets up to twenty-four pairs, flat, oblong-acuminate, apical pair obovate, margins ciliate, 7 to 8 mm. long in central portion of pinna, about 1.5 mm. broad; rachis 2.7 to 3.5 em.
This species flowers in about November, and takes twelve months to ripen its pods, whereas A. decurrens, of
164 R. H. CAMBAGE.
which A. mollissima has been regarded as a variety, flowers: in August, and ripens its pods by the end of the following December.
GUM MIFERAE.
AcAcIA HorrRIDA Willd.* LExtratropical South Africa. Seeds from the University Grounds, near Melba Hall, Melbourne. (Cultivated.) (Plate XIII, Numbers 4 to 6.)
Seeds brown, oblong-oval, areola distinct, 5 to 6 mm. long, 3.5 to 5 mm. broad, 1.5 to 2 mm. thick.
Hypocotyl terete, pale green, 1.5 to 3 em. long, about 1.7 mm. thick at base, 1.5 mm. at apex.
Cotyledons fleshy, deeply auricled, petiolule 2 to 3 mm. long, oblong to ovate-oblong and oblong-oval, 8 mm. to 1 em. long, 5 to 7 mm. broad, upperside at first yellowish- green, becoming green, underside pale green.
Stem terete, greyish-brown, glabrous. First internode 0.5 mm.; second 2 to 4 mm.; third to sixth 2 to 6 mm.; seventh to tenth 4 to 7 mm.
Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 4 to 6 mm.; slabrous; leaflets four to five pairs, oblong-acuminate, 4 to: 8 mm. long, 2 to 3.5 mm. broad, upperside green, under- side pale green; rachis about 1 cm., with terminal seta.
No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, in one case an abnormal leaf was simply pinnate, petiole 4 to 6 mm., with terminal seta; leaflets two to five pairs, oblong-acuminate, 3 to 5 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad; rachis 5 mm. to 1 em., with terminal seta.
Nos. 3 to 6. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 5 to 7 mm., glabrous; leaflets five to nine pairs; rachis 1 to 2 cm.; stipules linear, up to 4 mm.
*Seae “Revision of the Suborder Mimoseae.’”’ By George Bentham, F.R.S..,. Trans. Linn. Soc. London, 1875, 30, Part III, 507.
ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 165
Nos. 7 to 10. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 6 to 9 mm.; leaflets six to nine pairs; rachis 1.4 to 2 cm.
Nos. 11 to 16. Abruptly bipinnate, sometimes twice pinnate in the case of No. 13 and upwards, petiole 6 mm. to 1 em., often with a gland at the base of each pair of pinnae; leaflets eight to ten pairs; rachis 1.3 to 2.1 em.; Stipules spinose, up to 8 mm.
A pot plant about 4 feet high produced leaves with from one to four pairs of pinnae, and from eight to fourteen pairs of leaflets, with usually a gland or nectary at the base of each pair of pinnae, and sometimes with a pair of glands (laterally) at the bases of the second and third pairs of pinnae but not of the basal or apical pairs; the ‘common petiole being up to 4 em. long and almost square in cross section; spines up to 2.5 em. A spine on the parent tree measured 6.3 cm. long.
So far I have not seen glands or nectaries occurring in pairs on a phyllodineous Acacia, but A. D. Hardy records its occurrence on A. decurrens of the Bipinnatae section.*
During the winter months the leaflets of A. horrida remain partly closed up even during a sunny day, and show much more evidence of leaf sleep than do those of most species of the Australian subgenus Botryocephalae.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate X. Acacia ericifolia Benth. 1. Cotyledons, Wongan Hills, Western Australia (W. M. Carne). 2. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. 3. Pod and seeds.
*See “The distribution of leaf glands in some Victorian Acacias,” by A. D. Hardy, F.L.S., Vict. Nat., 1912, 29, 26.
Also ‘ ‘Obscevation on the function of Acacia leaf glands,’’ by Reginald Kelly, 1b., 1918, 30, 121.
166 R. H. CAMBAGE.
Or
Oe
er)
Acacia caesiella Maiden and Blakely.
. Cotyledons, Burrinjuck (HE. C. Andrews). . Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phylodes. . Pod and seeds.
Acacia homalophylla A. Cunn.
. Cotyledons and pinnate leaf, Gunnedah (J. H. Maiden).. . Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. . Pod and seeds.
Plate XI. Acacia harpophylla F. v. M.
. Cotyledons, Eidsvold, Queensland (Dr. T. L. Bancroft). . Opposite pair of pinnate leaves and phyllodes. . Pod and seeds.
Acacia confusa Merrill.
. Cotyledons and pinnate leaf, Botanic Gardens, Hong-
kong (H. Green).
. Pinnate leaf and phyllodes. . Pod and seeds.
Acacia merinthophora Pritzel. Cotyledons, Wongan Hills, Western Australia (W. M. Carne).
. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. . Portion of pod and seeds.
Plate XII. Acacia linophylla W. V. Fitzgerald.
. Cotyledons and pair of pinnate leaves, Gascoyne River,
Western Australia (E. C. Andrews). Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes.
. Pod and seeds.
Acacia argentea Maiden.
. Cotyledons, Eidsvold, Queensland (Dr. T. L. Bancroft). . Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes. . Pod and seeds.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928. Plate X.
Acacia ericiafolia (1-8); Acacia caesiella (4 - 6); Acacia homalophylla (7-9). Three-fifths Natural Size.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIT,, 1928, Plate XT.
SEO
Acacia harpophylla (1-3); Acacia confusa (4- 6); Acacia merinthophora (7-9). Nearly Three-fourths Natural Size.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIT., 1928. Plate XII,
FE FESS EIS LEOE a eee a. ae seanatenaestaeseaaasaiaaaaencmees eee een
ae si
Acacia linophylla (1-3); Acacia argentea (4-6). Three-fifths Natural Size.
“ Se ON Sai -
Fi
ei
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXI1., 1928.
Acacia mollissuma (1-3); Acacia horrida (4-6). About Half Natural Size.
Plate XLII.
~ - - ‘ é y “ ¢ ae % \ » : r “ - ° ae i aces Ate pi? 8
ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 167
Plate XIII. Acacia mollissima Willd. . Cylindrical cotyledons and pinnate leaf, Milton, New South Wales. | . Pinnate leaf and bipinnate leaves. . Pod and seeds.
Acacia horrida Willd.
. Cotyledons and pinnate leaf, The University Grounds, near Melba Hall, Melbourne (Cultivated).
. Pinnate leaf and bipinnate leaves.
. Pod and seeds.
168 C. A. SUSSMILCH AND WM. CLARK.
THE GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS.
Parr [.—PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GENERAL GEOLOGY. By C. A. SuSSMILCH AND WM. CLARK.
Part [I.—PETROGRAPHY. By C. A. SussMILcu, witH ANALYSES By W, A. GREIG. (With Plates XIV-XVI and two Text-figures.)
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Sept. 5, 1928.)
The area described in this paper comprises the whole of the parish of Tomaree (County of Gloucester), together with part of the adjoining parish of Sutton. The north head of Port Stephens, which is part of the parish of Fens, is also included. Brief reference to some of the geological features of this area is made by Sir T. W. E. David in his memoir on the Hunter River coalfield,! and part of the area is shown in his geological map.
Part I.—PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GENERAL GEOLOGY. A. PHYSIOGRAPHY.
This region consists of a prominent group of isolated hills on the southern side of Port Stephens, rising above a Swampy sand flat, the latter being elevated but little above sea level excepting where it is covered in part by low sand dunes. The hills are the summits of partly- buried ridges, consisting of lava flows of Carboniferous age. 7
When the submergence took place in late Pleistocene times which drowned the shore line and produced the inlet of Port Stephens, these ridges were partly submerged, only
GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 169
the higher points remaining as islands; silting followed the subsidence, and the thickness of the silts, as shown by the bores put down near Anna Bay, is not less than 190 feet, thus indicating a subsidence of at least that amount. A more recent elevation of from 15 to 20 feet has lifted the area above sea level and produced the swampy plain, above which the one-time islands now rise ‘as hills. Two of these hills, viz.. Yacaaba (north head) and Point Stephens, are joined to the mainland by narrow ‘sand spits which are sometimes awash at high tide. The islands which adjoin the entrance to Port Stephens, namely, ‘Cabbage Tree Island and Boondalbah Island, are similar peaks which have not been rejoined to the mainland.
The majority of the hills above referred to rise to a ‘general elevation of about 400 feet above sea level, and this level would appear to be an erosion level, corresponding in altitude to one which occurs in the Hunter River Valley, and which one of us (C.A.S.) has referred to elsewhere cas the Charleston level.2 Three of the hills, however, rise cabove this level, namely:
Yacaaba (North Head), altitude 717 ft. Tomaree (South Head), altitude 540 ft. Ghan Ghan (Trig. Station), altitude 527 ft.
Similar isolated hills occur to the north and west of Port Stephens, such as Mt. Karuah (807 ft.), Mt. Gundain (833 ft.), Mt. Carrington (875 ft.), and Mt. Nerong (1,000 ft.). The whole region, therefore, appears to have been .a Tertiary peneplain which was uplifted to form a table- land about 1,000 feet in altitude at the close of the Tertiary period, the various hills of to-day being residuals of this ‘tableland.
Port Stephens is a typical drowned valley with its long axis (13 miles) in an east and west direction. It is divided into two unequal parts by the convergence of its north
170 C. A. SUSSMILCH AND WM. CLARK.
and south shores at Soldiers Point, where the normal width of from 3 to 5 miles is reduced to less than a quarter of a mile. The narrowing at this point is due to the presence of massive acid lava flows forming a ridge striking approximately N.N. West and S.S. East.
Before the subsidence took place, which produced Port Stephens, this ridge formed the divide between the water- Sheds of the Karuah and Myall Rivers. The drowning submerged a col in this one-time divide and allowed the waters of the Karuah River to flow into the eastern part of Port Stephens, which is the drowned valley of the Myall River. Previous to this, the Karuah River continued its southern course and joined up with the Hunter River system. To-day there are only low-lying alluvial flats between the western part of Port Stephens and the Hunter River estuary.
Throughout the whole district raised beaches occur, both on the sea coast and on the coast of Port Stephens itself. These latter, at many places, form distinet contour lines around the water front. An interesting raised beach is that which occurs at the north end of Morna Point. A photo of this beach is givenin Plate XIV. Here well-rounded boulders of Rhyolite occur up to an elevation of 20 feet above present high water mark. There are also included pebbles of chert, pumice and kerosene shale. Large trees (eucalypts and banksias) are now growing on this raised
beach.
The Rhyolite boulders, particularly those at the back of the old beach, are quite kaolinised, indicating the long lapse of time since they were placed there. Associated with the pebbles are numbers of large gasteropod and
pelecypod she:ls, also for the most part quite decayed.
GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 171
B. GENERAL GEOLOGY.
The rocks of this region belong mainly to the Kuttung Series of Carboniferous age; but, as already pointed out, these are covered to a considerable extent with recent superficial deposits. The general structure is that of a large plunging anticline, the horizontal axis of which pitches to the south. The rocks consist mainly of a series. of massive lava flows, apparently separated from one another by weaker sedimentary strata. A section of
these strata, in descending order, 1s as follows :—
Thickness.
Cherts and Tuffs (thickness unknown). Rhyolite flow (Morna Point Fiow) .. .. .. 300 feet Petree Tbe MMUCOPLCTIS )'.. oc ee a TOS, Tuff ne eas): Gt BE een, MOP? as Tutffaceous Conglomerate with small Rhyolite
Flow (No. 2 flow) hiss, tbsll AGeen eta eo OO ats Tut Me te ell ete tt Viecety, (pare pt Rae een | On as femme (ONO, 1 flow)-<...).... «6 .. 91% 44~-,165.,,, Tuffaceous Sandstone with fossil plants .. ... 600 ,, Soueiomerates and'tulfs* 2... \..) s.... 800. ,, PMA KEHO, OUUCTODS) 2. a... <6 je. ge .se dl 3804,, Mipeecmime sNTOWS: 6. ee es we ny a OOO, PMemRNO OUUCTOPS) “oh. len << wer. we ity of) OOO 4 iemime Wlows: 6.2 ce ok. out a ay ce 400. 4; SIME MEMEL TION OMGCEODS, ips | -2)s ew Seed. yah tone OU. fs, Toseanite (Nelson’s Head Flow) Aisa: ar hoe cA 0 ee Conglomerate (with large boulders) Bead OOO: © ie, Pemeemies (NO.4 2 HOW jee ak, i) beet) els years 20) 5 Conglomerate i 5 hs a a Sees me NOM OW). ) 3. sy ee tee one LOOSE),
Conglomerate (thickness unknown).
Rotal” >. . 6/315 feet
172 Cc. A. SUSSMILCH AND WM. CLARK.
The above figures must be taken as mere approximations as the incompleteness of the section makes the determina- tion of actual figures impossible.
1.—The Andesites. Nelson’s Bay.
A well-defined flow of andesite (No. 1 flow) outcrops at intervals along the south shore of Port Stephens from Nelson’s Bay to Corlette Point. This flow strikes about EK. 20° N. and dips 8. 20° E. at an angle of about 20°. The section adjoining the steamer jetty at Nelson’s Bay, in descending order, is as follows :—
Conglomerate (with very large boulders) .. 100 feet Amdesite (No. 2 flow) ..°..4 \¢.')..0 42) a Conglomerate SO eo Qo ea Andesite (No. 1 flow) .. «.: .. 41... . oe
Here the No. 1 andesite flow occurs right at sea level. The lower part is quite glassy, the glassy phase merging upwards into a lithic variety. The rock is a hornblende- pyroxene-andesite and is described in detail in a later section. The full thickness of this flow is not exposed,
but it is at least 100 feet thick. The No. 2 flow is similar -
in character to the No. 1 flow. The lower andesite gives a continuous outcrop westwards from the jetty to the eastern end of Dutchman’s Beach, then follows a sand flat, followed by a smaller outcrop at the western end of Dutchman’s Beach. From this point westwards nothing but sand can be seen until Corlette Point is reached. Here the andesite flow may be seen resting upon a bed of conglomerate, both dipping southwards. It is uncertain as to whether this flow represents the No. 1 or the No. 2 flow at Nelson’s Bay. If it is the No. 2 flow, then the No. 1 flow will be found here, not far below sea level,
underlying the conglomerates above referred to.
GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 173
Tomaree or South Head.
A small outcrop of andesite occurs here at sea level on the west side of the headland, striking north and south, and dipping easterly. It is immediately overlaid by a massive toscanite flow.
Yacaaba Headland (North Head).
Here also, just at sea level, is an andesite flow outcrop- ping along the northern shore of the headland. This flow strikes E. 25° N. and dips 8S. 25° E., with a massive toscanite flow resting immediately above it. As the andesite flow extends below sea level, it 1s impossible to determine its true thickness. An interesting feature here is the occurrence of a bar of toscanite cutting across the andesite flow and containing fragments of andesite. The andesite occurring at the three abovementioned localities are probably all parts of one and the same flow, but it is difficult to reconcile the strike at Tomaree with that at Nelson’s Bay and at Yacaaba headland.
Point Stephens Headland.
Point Stephens headland is an island consisting entirely of andesite, joined to the mainland by a narrow sandspit which is awash at high tide. A small outcrop of Andesite also oceurs on the opposite mainland at the northern end of Fingal Head. This andesite is similar in character to that occurring at Nelson’s Bay. If part of a flow, it is higher in the series than the Nelson’s Bay flow. The shape of the outcrop, however, and the relation to the adjoining rocks is not suggestive of its being a typical sheet. We suggest that it may be, probably, an andesite lava cone extruded at the same time as the Nelson’s Bay flow, and afterwards surrounded and covered by the later toscanite and rhyolite flows and their associated sedimentary rocks, but the available evidence does not admit of proof one way or the other.
174 C. A. SUSSMILCH AND WM. CLARK.
A similar andesite voleaniec cone of Kuttung age, sur- rounded and covered by younger strata, and since partly re-exposed by the partial removal of the overlying strata, has been recorded as occurring at Blair Duguid, in the Hunter River Valley.s
2.—The Toscanites.
Numerous and massive flows of -toscanite occur throughout the district, but as the outerops of these are isolated from one another by sand flats or by water, and as there has been, in places, considerable displacement of outcrops by faulting, it is somewhat difficult properly to eorrelate the various outcrops. There would appear to have been at least two distinct toscanite flows or groups of flows. These two groups are referred to respectively as (a) the Nelson’s Head-Yacaaba flow and (b) the Soldiers Point-Ghan Ghan group of flows.
(a) The Nelson’s Head-Yacaaba Flow. Nelson’s Head.
The whole of Nelson’s Head consists of toscanite extending from low water mark to the top of the hill on which the lighthouse stands. The strike is about E. 20° N. and the dip to the south. On the northern face of the headland the rock at sea level is entirely glassy for a thickness of from 10 to 15 feet. Upwards, this glassy phase merges into a lithodal phase, the latter continuing to the top of the hill. The base of the flow is below sea level, but the thickness is not less than 100 feet.
Fly Pont.
This is a low headland occurring to the west of Nelson’s Head. A similar occurrence of toscanite occurs here, with a glassy selvedge at the base of the flow, but this glassy phase is less well marked, and the flow, as a whole, is not so thick, much having probably been removed by denuda-
GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 1795
tion. The base of the flow here is, however, exposed, and at low water a bed of conglomerate may be seen underlying the toscanite. This is similar in character to the con- glomerate which overlies the andesite at Nelson’s Bay. A dip fault probably occurs between Fly Point and Nelson’s Head, which has displaced the strata to the north on the east side of the fault.
Yacaaba Headland (North Head).
The sequence of strata in this headland is given in fig. 1. It will be seen that the Toscanite flow here rests directly upon the andesite flow and has a thickness of about 1,000 feet. The toscanite flow here has a glassy selvedge at its base similar to that at Nelson’s Head. The most interesting feature here is a dyke or neck of toscanite
SEA LEVEL
Fig. 1.—Sketch section through Yacaaba Headland. A, Limestone with associated Tuffs; B, Conglomerates; C, Andesite; D, Toscanite. H, Fault. which cuts through the underlying andesite flow. In the toscanite are numerous rounded fragments of a more basic rock which is much altered but which appears to have been derived from the Andesite. Whether neck or dyke, this would undoubtedly appear to be an opening through which the overlying toscanite found its way to the surface.
As has already been pointed out, this toscanite overlies the andesite at Yacaaba and Tomaree. No andesite is exposed at Nelson’s Head or Fly Point, but may well be below sea level at these points.
No outerop of this toscanite flow can be found imme- diately above the andesites which extend from Nelson’s
176 Cc. A. SUSSMILCH AND WM. CLARK.
Bay to Corlette Point. The flow may have pinched out ‘in this direction, or if it occurs, its outcrop is covered by recent sand deposits. The fact that the flow is about 1,000 feet thick at Yacaaba Head and only about 40 feet thick at Fly Point suggests that it thins rapidly in a westerly direction. The great thickness of toscanite at Yacaaba may, of course, be due to the coalescence of the Nelson’s. Bay flow with some of the overlying toscanite flows of that locality.
(b) The Soldiers Point-Ghan Ghan Toscamtes (No. 2 Belt).
Lying to the south of Nelson’s Bay and extending from the sea coast westwards to Scamander Bay there is a belt of isolated hills all consisting of toscanite. The strike of this line of hills is approximately east and west. After crossing Scamander Bay, this toscanite belt is picked up again on the western side of the bay at Round Head, and continues from there in a north-north-west direction to Soldiers Point, as may be seen from the map. The various islands adjacent to Soldiers Point, including Middle Island, consist of the same rock. ‘Toscanite also occurs on the north shore of Port Stephens opposite to Soldiers Point, very massive outcrops occurring here on either side of Fame Cove. This great belt of Toscanite undoubtedly includes a number of separate lava flows. At its eastern end the double line of hills suggests at least two massive lava flows. Throughout the whole belt the rock from all the outcrops is similar in character and looks lke a typical Quartz-Porphyry. It also closely resembles the toscanites occurring at Nelson’s Head and at North Head. The numerous outcrops in this toscanite belt are separated from one another by sand dunes and sand flats, and no associated sedimentary strata are visible, so that no direct observations of either dip or strike could be made.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIT., 1928. Plate XIV.
Fig. a. Raised Boulder Beach (Present day beach centre-left), Morna Point.
Fig. 6. Raised Boulder Beach, Morna Point.
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GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. LE
3.—The Rhyolites.
These lava flows outcrop in the southern part of the area mapped and form a belt whose outcrop curves sympa- thetically with that of the No. 2 toscanite belt. Outcrops occur on the sea coast (a) at Fingal Head and (b) at Morna Point, and further outcrops occur at Bob’s Farm on the east side of Tilligherry Creek, and at The Gibbers on the west side of Tilligherry Creek. Snapper Island, in the west part of Port Stephens, is probably a continua- tion of this belt.
Fingal Head.
At the northern end of Fingal headland there occurs an outcrop of andesite, previously referred to. Im- mediately overlying this is a rhyolite lava flow, the outcrop extending from here to the southern end of Fingal Head, a distance of about 160 chains. The actual thickness of this flow cannot be measured, but it is something more than 200 feet.
Morna Point.
The outcrop here is exactly similar to that at Fingal Head, and this outcrop appears to have been separated from that at Fingal Head by a large dip-fault which has heaved the strata on its east side to the north. The rock both here and at Fingal Head is indistinguishable in hand Specimens from the toscanites already referred to. At Morna Point the rhyolite flow appears to be dipping a little east of south.
Bob’s Farm (Fenningham’s Island).
Between here and Morna Point is an extensive swampy sand fiat with no outcrops. The outcrop at Bob’s Farm occurs at the western edge of this flat and at the eastern side of Tuilligherry Creek, and the rock here has been quarried for road-making purposes. At this locality the
L—Septemter 5, 1928,
178 Cc. A. SUSSMILCH AND WM. CLARK.
rhyolite is underlain by well-stratified tuffs and cherty shales, the latter containing the fossil plant Rhacopterts. Underlying this again is another rhyolite flow. The Girbbers.
This locality occurs on the other side of Tilligherry Creek, immediately west of Bob’s Farm, and gives one of the best geological sections of the district. (See fig. 2.)
The details of this section in descending order are as follow :—
Thickness. Rhyolite (No, 3 flow) ..2. ox 12 90) 2sUeeas Tufts SS aes am re Le Cherty shales ah baer wan eee eee Tuttis and Conglomerates... .. ..) 2 gels BRhyolite (No. 2 flow) ..., ... .: ... 220 se Tuffs and Conglomerates .., ... 1. sco je eee Tuffs Je a a tae Sy es oral eee Rhyolite (No. 1 Ane SE i: ele ec ee Tuffaceous sandstones with fossil Ante so vat NOOO T Conglomerates wes ty cele vubeng — U/dley Walelee. © | 2S aaanmees Cae
Total thickness .. 2,270 feet
It will be seen that there are three distinct rhyolite lava flows here. The whole succession of strata at this locality is very similar to that which occurs in the Paterson district. The top rhyolite flow would be the equivalent of that
which occurs in the railway cutting at the Paterson railway station.
4.—The Sedimentary Rocks. The Burinds Series.
Strata of Burindi (Lower Carboniferous) age are extensively developed in the Pindimar district on the northern side of Port Stephens, but these will not be described here; the occurrence of probable Burindi strata
GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 179
occurring at Yacaaba headland might, however, be referred to here. These are shown in the section in fig. 1. These strata strike EH. 35° N., have a steep dip, and consist of a massive bed of conglomerate overlying a thin bed of tuffaceous limestone. The lmestone is very impure, contains crinoid stems, and is lithologically similar to limestones which occur in the Burindi series in other parts of the district. The conglomerates which overle the lime- stone are very massive and are crowded with pebbles from 6 to 8 inches in diameter. This conglomerate may possibly be the equivalent of the Wollarobba conglomerate which. in another part of the district, occurs at the base of the Kuttung series. Strike faulting has brought these beds against the toscanite, which is relatively higher in the series,
: SEA LEVEG eS or eae
m7
PigeegSesH Conciomersien; D, Toftaccona Seniatones: H, Conglomerates: H, Alluvium. The Nelson’s Bay Conglomerates.
These are associated with the Andesites which occur at Nelson’s Bay, already referred to. They show very little stratification and contain well-rounded boulders of all sizes up to 3 feet or even more in diameter. These boulders consist mainly of granites of various kinds, Quartz- Porphyry and Felspar-Porphyry. The material in which the boulders are embedded is very largely tuffaceous. At Corlette Point similar conglomerates occur, associated with the andesite there, but the boulders are relatively fewer in number. These Nelson’s Bay conglomerates are very similar in their lithological characters to the conglomerates which are associated with the andesites on the same horizon in the Kuttung series at Martin’s Creek, near Paterson.
180 Cc. A. SUSSMILCH AND WM. CLARK.
The Gibbers.
Particulars of the sedimentary rocks occurring here have already been given when referring to the rhyolite of the same locality. The occurrence in these of the fossil plant Rhacopteris (Aneimites) inequilatera proves that those strata belong definitely to the Kuttung series. These strata, with their associated rhyolite flows, correspond in character and horizon with what one of us (C.A.S.)3 has previously described as the Mt. Johnson series in the Paterson district, and they are quite similar to them in their lithological characters.
The Anna Bay Bores.
Some years ago several bores were put down in the southern part of this region for the purpose of prospecting for coal. Details of the strata penetrated by these bores are given by Sir T. W. E. David in his monograph on the Hunter River coalfield.t_ No. 1 bore, which is 24 miles west of Morna Point, after passing through 192 feet of recent alluvial deposits, penetrated 126 feet into a Quartz Felspar-Porphyry. This is evidently the Morna Point Rhyolite flow; the angle of its dip is given as 23°. The No. 2 bore, after passing through 192 feet of recent deposits, penetrated 257 feet of cherty shales alternating with tuffa- ceous conglomerates and tuffaceous sandstones. These strata dip 8.S.W. at an angle of 22° and apparently overlie the top rhyolite flow. The cherts contain the fossil plant Rhacopteris.
5.—Geological Structure.
Reference to the map will show that the outcrops of the Kuttung Series form a great curve, convex to the south. In the western part of the area the strike of the strata is approximately N.N.W., and the dip westerly; from Corlette Point to Nelson’s Bay the strike is nearly east and west, and the dip southerly, while in the eastern part
GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 181
of the area the strike is E. 20° N. to H. 30° N., and the dip S. 20° EK. to 8. 30° E. It is evident, therefore, that the general structure is that of a great plunging anticline, the axis of which strikes approximately north and south, with a pitch to the south. This conforms to the general geolo- gical structure of the carboniferous formation right along the southern margin of New England from the Pacific coast to Scone.
The probable existence of faults has been referred to (a) at Nelson’s Head between West Point and Fly Point, (b) between Fly Point and Nelson’s Head, and (c) between Morna Point and Fingal Head; on the accom- panying geological map these faults have been joined up as shown, but, of course, this joining up is, to a large extent, conjectural. These faults are all dip faults. The existence of a strike fault has been suggested as occurring at North Head, as shown in fig. 1. This strikes about E. 30° N.
II.—PETROGRAPHY.
The Kuttung lava flows fall naturally into three distinct groups: (a) the andesites, (0) the toseanites, (c) the rhyolites, extruded (with perhaps one exception) in that order.
1.—The Andesites.
These are all hornblende-pyroxene-andesites, and they may be divided into two varieties: (a) the glassy variety, (b) the lithoidal variety.
a. The Glassy Andesite.
This occurs at West Point, Nelson’s Bay, where it is found at the base of the lowest andesite flow; there is a similar occurrence at Corlette Point.
Megascopic Characters.——The fresh rock is black in ‘eolour with a resinous lustre, and shows abundant pheno- erysts, of felspar, hornblende and pyroxene.
182 C. A. SUSSMILCH AND W. A. GREIG.
Microscopical Characters.—The ground mass shows well- marked flow structure, with some spherulitic structure present in places, and in this groundmass is set an abun- dance of phenocrysts of plagioclase, hornblende and pyroxene, with a few crystals of quartz and biotite; the two latter are very rare. Occasional small areas occur which show hyalopilitic structure and smaller phenocrysts than in the average rock. In such areas the felspars are lath-shaped, with their long axes in the direction of flow. The plagioclase in general is tabular in habit and almost quite fresh with a composition close to Ab, An;. The hornblende also is quite fresh and frequently twinned. The pyroxene is less abundant than the hornblende. It. oceurs both as occasional phenocrysts and as quite small crystals included in the felspars. It is weakly pleochroic and has parallel or low extinction angles. It appears to be hypersthene. The iron ores are moderately abundant and occur both as inclusions in the larger phenocrysts and in the groundmass. An occasional small erystal of biotite may be seen, but this mineral is rare. Apatite is present as occasional small needles included in the felspar. In spite of the fact that the norm shows 31.2 per cent. of quartz, only very few phenocrysts of this mineral have been seen in the slides.
A noticeable feature of the glassy andesites is the remarkable freshness of all the phenocrystic minerals. This is in marked contrast with the condition of the similar minerals in the lithoidal variety of andesite.
b. The Lithoidal Andesites. These Andesites are similar in their characters from all the localities from which they have been found in the Port Stephens district.
Megascopic Characters.——In hand specimens the rock is. dark blue in colour, showing abundant phenocrysts of
GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 183
felspar, with less abundant phenocrysts of black ferro- magnesian minerals,
Microscopic Characters——The groundmass is eryptocry- stalline and very fine-grained. Traces of what appears to have been a flow structure occur in places, but there is no evidence to suggest that the groundmass, as a whole, was originally glassy.
The following minerals are present in order of abun- dance :—(1) Plagioclase, (2) Hornblende, (3) Pyroxene, (4) Magnetite.
The plagioclase phenocrysts are tabular in habit, and abundant. Albitization is well marked, alteration having taken place along irregular lines and cracks. Occasionally some chloritization has taken place, but is not common. The hornblende shows undoubted resorption, and the margins of the crystals all have a very dark zone, probably due to the development of minute erystals of iron oxide. This is particularly noticeable in the microslides of the andesite from North Head. The pyroxene crystals are entirely replaced by chlorite, and it is now impossible to determine their true nature. An occasional phenocryst of quartz has been seen in some of the slides.
An analysis of each of the two varieties of andesite is given in Table I; the specimens selected for analysis came from West Point, Nelson’s Bay. An important difference between the two rocks as shown by the analyses is in the relative proportion of the alkalies and lime. This is shown in the following table :—
Port Stephens. Martin’s Creek. Glassy Lithoidal Glassy Lithoidal Variety Variety. Variety: Variety. CaO ee... 6.38 4,28 4.11 3.14 Nes Oar 2.20 3.39 3.99 4.41
OS See 0.66 3.02 M2 3.92
184 C. A. SUSSMILCH AND W. A. GREIG.
The lower percentage of alkalies in the glassy rock is very marked. This is particularly so in the case of the potash, and, in order to make sure that no mistake had been made, the potash and soda in the glassy rock were re-determined. The percentage of lime, on the other hand, is noticeably higher in the glassy rock. The corresponding constituents of the glassy and lithoidal andesite from Martin’s Creek+ are given for comparison. These show a similar variation between the two rocks, but not to such a marked extent.
The norms of the two Port Stephens rocks, as calculated
from the analysis, are as follows :— Glassy Variety. lLithoidal Variety.
01 Ala ee ro 31.20 19.86 Orthoclase <..2 2) 08 Soe ees) WAM IGG <5 o's SRR A tees 18.34 28.82 PAMOFGNICC: ~ 02.2 = oe ee 29.74 17.79 Femic Minerals .... 7.92 8.01 Tiron Ores. ac) s «ee 4.14 4.17
On account of its alkaline content the glassy rock gives a much lower percentage of albite and orthoclase than does the lithoidal variety, and a correspondingly higher percentage of quartz.
2.—The Toscanites. These, like the andesites, fall naturally into two
varieties: (a) a glassy variety, (b) a lithoidal variety.
a. The Glassy Toscanite.
This has been found only at the base of the oldest toscanite flow, and in each of the three localities at which it has been found, namely, Fly Point, Nelson’s Head and Yacaaba Head, it occurs just at sea level. The occurrence at Nelson’s Head ean be taken as typical of all three locali- | ties, and it is this rock which has been analysed.
SiO, Al;0O, Fe;0,
reO
MgO
CaO Na,O
K,0
H;0 (100°c) -H,0 (100°c+) CO, TiO,
ZrO, P.O,
SO;
Cl F S (FeS,) Cr,05 N10+-CoO MnO BaO SrO* i, Ov V30; CrO
Less O=Cl1
Sp. Gr.
GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS.
Table I. Analyses of Port Stephens Rocks, by W. A. Greig.
III.
Glass
IV.
Tos- canite
We
Tos-
canite
VI.
Toscanite
VII.
185
VIII.
Toscanite] Rbyolite | Rhyolite
—_—————$-——. | [| | Sitar a oF
71°72 | 73°90
_ SS | L______. f EE
a | SSF eS OO
I. II. eeae Andesite 63°17 | 63:92 15.10 | 1537 2°20 2°90 2°16 2°34 2°35 2°60 6°38 4°28 2°20 3°39
066 3°02 0°47 0:41 4°73 1-65
Absent! Absent 0 50 0:05 Absent} Absent 0°14 0°16 Absent! Absent 0-11 0:07 Absent; —
s) Absent 0:10 0:07 0°03 0 04
Absent | Absent Present] __,, Tracet e Absent Pe 100°30 | 100°27
02 01
100°28 | 100°26
27524) 2°694
11°50 2°30 0°63 0°41 2°56 3°40 2°53 0°35 4°51 Absent 0°15 Absent 0:03 0:06 0°10 Absent
0°11 0°05 Absent Present Absent
3)
100°41 0-2
3°50 4°04
Localities.—I.
*Spectroscopic Reaction.
and IL.,
VIII., Morna Point.
West Point, Nelson’s IV., Fly Point; V., Nelson’s Head; VI.,
73°64
3°42 4°59
Bay ;
73°90 11°95 1°70 0°99 0°55 1°50 3°10 4°74, 0°21 1°37 Absent 0°20 Absent 0°05 Absent Tracet
Absent
0:06
0°06 Absent Tracet Absent
100°38
100°38
2°613
73969) 74°74 12°65 11°89 1°85 1°50 0°40 0°27 0°50 0°83 0°64 0°74 3°18 2°96 5°07 5°23 0°45 0°60 1°33 1°14 Absent | Absent 0:20 0°17 Absent} Absent 0:07 0-02 Absent 0:02 Tracet 0°10 = Absent Absent ; Tracet | Tracet 0°04 0:07 Present) Absent Absent | Present ” Absent 100°34 | 100°28 *02 100°34 | 100°26 2611 2°600
III.,
fLless than 0°01%
Nelson’s Head; Round Head; VII., Fingal Head;
186 C. A. SUSSMILCH AND W. A. GREIG.
Megascopic Characters—The rock is black in colour when fresh, with a vitreous lustre, and contains an abun- dance of phenocrysts of quartz and felspar.
Microscopic Characters.—The groundmass is quite glassy and displays a well-marked flow structure. In this ground- mass there is set an abundance of large phenocrysts of quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase and biotite. The quartz. phenocrysts are relatively large, show marked corrosion, and are frequently cracked and broken, but show no strain structure. The plagioclase is tabular in habit, is perfectly fresh and free from alteration, and displays well-marked albite twinning. It is an acid oligoclase with a composition of about Ab,» An;. Some of the plagioclase crystals are fractured. The orthoclase is quite fresh, but is less abun- dant than the plagioclase. Biotite is not nearly so abundant as the other minerals, and is also quite fresh.
b. The Inthoidal Toscanite.
This is the dominant lava of the district, individual flows ranging up to at least 1,000 feet in thickness. From all the many occurrences the rock is quite similar both in its megascopic and microscopical characters.
Megascopic Characters—The colour of the mass varies. from pale pink to slate blue, according to the state of preservation; except where the rock has been quarried, it is difficult to obtain really fresh samples. This rock is. crowded with phenocrysts of quartz and felspar, the latter’ usually being red or pink, or more rarely white. In hand specimens the rock looks like a typical quartz-phorphyry.
Microscopical Characters.—The groundmass is variable, usually eryptocrystalline to glassy, and some specimens, notably some from Soldiers Point, have a micro-crystalline geroundmass which consists of an aggregate of small erystals of quartz and felspar, sometimes showing micrographic
GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 187
structure. Flow structure similar to that which occurs in the glassy variety is present in many specimens, and in some of the slides the rock appears to have been originally glassy and to have subsequently become more or less devi- trified. At Nelson’s Head there is no sharp line of demar- cation between the two varieties, the glassy variety merging upwards into the lithoidal variety. The phenocrysts. consist of quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase and biotite similar to those occurring in the glassy variety, except that all the minerals other than quartz show considerable alteration. The orthoclase is much kaolinized. The plagioclase exhibits. saussuritization and, much more rarely, ‘aolinization; in some slides the centre zones of some few crystals have been replaced by chlorite, but this is not common; the biotite is commonly bleached. The question as to whether the alteration of the felspars in the lthoidal lavas of the Kuttung series is deuteritic or not has been fully discussed by G. D. Osborne+ when describing these lavas from the Paterson district, and this question, therefore, will not be discussed here; but it is worthy of note that the alteration of the felspars in the lithoidal toscanites is in marked contrast to their freshness in the glassy toscanites. Com- plete analyses of the two varieties of toscanite are given in Table I, together with two partial analyses. It will be seen that the glassy variety is lower in soda and potash, but higher in lime than in the lithoidal variety, but it is. only in the case of the potash that the difference is well marked. The norms of the two varieties, as calculated from the analyses are as follows :-—
Glassy Variety. lLithoidal Variety.
UT) a 36.96% 34.44% WriMOClaSe sk... 15.00% 27.84% BCS ls ws sieve eee 28.82% 26.20% PeMOrtMIGe ok 8.62% 4.73% Femic Minerals ..... 2.74% 2.96%
ton Ores i... 26.6... 2.96% 3.00%
188 C. A. SUSSMILCH AND W. A. GREIG.
It will be seen that in both cases the plagioclase (oligoclase) preponderates over the orthoclase. The magmatic name of the glassy variety in the American classification is Tehamose. It might be pointed out, how- ever, that this rock falls almost on the border line which separates the orders columbare and britannare in that classification, and consequently it is very close to toscanose, the magma to which the lithoidal variety belongs. Both magmas are domalkalic and sodi-potassic. Some petrolo- gists would prefer to call these rocks Dellenites on account of the acid nature of the plagioclase. The lithoidal variety is not far removed from the Rhyolites (Liparose).
3.—The Rhyolites.
The main rhyolite flow (No. 3 flow) occurring at Fingal Head, Morna Point and Tilligherry Creek is indistinguish- able in hand specimens from the toscanites. Under the microscope also the two rocks are quite similar, the only noticeable difference being a higher proportion of ortho- clase in the rhyolites. Two analyses of the rhyolite have been made, one taken from near the base of the flow at Fingal Head, the other taken from near the top of the flow at Morna Point. These analyses are shown in Table I. ‘The norms, as calculated from these two analyses, are as
follows :— Fingal Head. Morna Point.
Mwart,. Age see ee 34.14% 34.86 % Wrthoclase Weg een ee 29.46% 30.58% BASIE i.e aiavcsets oe wearer eee 27.24% 25.15% PNMON EGE! see oe ane Maes ee 3.05% 3.61% Meme Mamerals .. 9.3205... 2.89% 2.10% ron/Oxides: |. ¥ os: 4... eae LT a7 1.92%
In the American classification the magmatic name would be Liparose, almost on the border line between Liparose and Omeose. In comparing these norms with that of the
GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 189
lithoidal toscanite, the only difference is a small increase in the proportion of orthoclase as compared with plagioclase in the rhyolites. |
The other rhyolite flows occurring below the main flow at Tilligherry Creek have not been analysed, no specimens sufficiently fresh for that purpose being available. The No. 1 flow, which is pink in colour, consists mainly of a felsitic groundmass through which are scattered a few felspar phenocrysts. In the microslides the groundmass is seen to be eryptocrystalline, but part, if not all, of this sroundmass appears to have been originally glassy, with well-marked flow structure. The few felspar phenocrysts are much altered and consist mainly of plagioclase, although orthoclase is also present. The true nature of this rock has not been determined, it has only been placed with the rhyolites provisionally. The No. 2 flow from Tilligherry Creek, although somewhat finer grained, is in all respects similar to the main rhyolite flow (No. 3 flow), and does not need separate description.
4.—Sequence of Eruption of the Flows.
This is left somewhat in doubt owing to the uncertainty as to the true nature of the mode of occurrence of the andesite which occurs at Stephens Head. As has already been pointed out, this occurrence may be either:
(a) A lava cone of the same age of extrusion as the andesites at the base of the series, and which was. subsequently surrounded and finally submerged by the later toscanite and rhyolite flows, or
(b) A lava flow poured out after the toscanites, but before the rhyolites.
If the first interpretation is the correct one, then we have in the Kuttung Series of the Port Stephens district a series of lava flows beginning with andesites, followed
190 C. A. SUSSMILCH AND W. A. GREIG.
‘by toseanites and a final outpouring of rhyolites. The rocks analysed are arranged in this order in Table I, and an examination of the analyses will show the following points of interest :— |
1. The silica percentage shows a progressive increase ranging from 63.17 per cent. to 74.74 per cent.
2. The soda percentage remains fairly constant, but decreases shghtly towards the end of the series.
3. The potash shows a progressive increase ranging from 0.66 per cent. at the beginning of the series to 5.23 per cent. at the end of the series.
4. The basic oxides (CaO, MgO, and FeO) all show progressive decreases from the beginning to the end of the series.
These facts would indicate that at the beginning of the Kuttung vulecanicity in this district the feeding reservoir contained a magma of andesitic composition, but that, as a result possibly of gravitational sinking of the more basic minerals, as cooling and crystallisation progressed, the magma in the upper part of the reservoir became pro- gressively more acid, and thus the eruption of andesites was followed later by the eruption of toscanites, and these later were followed by the eruption of the rhyolites. It is worthy of note that, soon after the close of the Kuttung period of vuleanicity, an extensive series of basic lavas (natrolite basalt) was erupted in this same district and forms part of the Lower Marine Series which overlie the Kuttung Series. These basalts may be taken to represent the basic portion which accumulated in the lower part of
the magma reservoir, whose final eruption completed the
cycle.
If, on the other hand, the andesites of Stephens Head xepresent a lava flow poured out after the toscanites, then
S jie
byal Society of V.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928. Plate XVI,
Hawks Nest
SS a) Cabbage Tree yes Island
= - > NORTH HEAD
(Yacaaba) Bent
Boondelbah N HO
Island al Bay <=) SOUTH HEAD i Y (Tomeree)
ab ion hS
@ Shark. oN STEPHENS
~ 3 S aS
; Oe pt
Burind/ beds and Wallarabba conglomerates. Andesites and associated strata Toscani€es a Rhyolites and associated strata paren Recent alluvium and sand dunes. ———— faults
: SCALE OF MILES 0 ye) 1 2 4 Ken. Craigie.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928.
7, ae) North Arm ach eS TEA GARDENS O Co ‘ i , OQ ue Ls SS UE 5O Duck Hole GreenPt. Gardenl. ———>=/* %, XG y
Riv?
BAROMA PT
Fame Cove se ii FAME ?——<———>
NORTH P®
oe OneTreel.8 —. SOLDIER PT N. = NORTH HEAD oaky | STEPHENS 3 (aeaaba) a - KANGAROO Pt kh, / /_.NELSON HP te SOUTH HEAD 2, CORLETTE te (Tomeree) ROUND HP gb Ye ; aN jLSON BAY = Uo i Ganghan Hill @ Shark. ASSL ane
! POINT STEPHENS fesse ® Pig Island +
[acne AnnaB ch eos SSR a aaa, meen tt -AO}-=> Seca
4 Mi ay ‘ 3tFE ttt H aad
Toscani€es
; - ———— Faults Bight MORNA POINT d SCALE OF MILES castle fo} 2 1 2 New
jes Cabbage Tree POR push &® Middle |
Plate X VI,
Island
Little Bl.
PACIFIC
Burindi beds and Wallarabba conglomerates. Andesites and associated strata
A ~Ahyolites and associated strata L_] Recent alluvium and sand dunes.
4
Ken. Craigie.
Geological Map, Port Stephens District,
Senekeeey
cert
eS orm ate teenagers copie a arenes co
*
TNR ic ee
epee an
Sere
r) 4 be E
lc caeceenle a ae mel
oe
ta
st er
suas minabaeeaiberahee’
sie agscee ps eme pein nee ART
GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. roy
we get the following order of extrusion for the Kuttung lavas: (1) andesites, (2) toscanites, (3) andesites, (4) rhyolites. This is a similar order of extrusion to that which occurs in the Kuttung Series at Eelah. So far as the Port Stephens area, however, is concerned, we are of opinion that interpretation (a) is the correct one and that the lavas became progressively more acid as they were erupted.
REFERENCES.
1.—Geology of The Hunter River Coal Measures of N.S. Wales, by Prof. T. W. E. David, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Memoir No. 4, Dept. of Mines, Sydney, 1907.
2.—Outline of the Main Topographic Features of N.S. Wales, by C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S., F.T.C.(Syd.). Proc., Pan Pacific Science Congress, Australia, 1923.
3.—Sequence, Glaciation and Correlation of the Carboniferous Rocks of The Hunter River District, N.S. Wales, by C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S., F.T.C., and Prof. T. W. E. David, C.M.G., D.S.0., B.A., F.R.S. Proc., Royal Society of N.S. Wales, Vol. LIII., 1919.
4.—Geology and Petrology of the Clarencetown-Paterson District, Part IV., Petrography by G. Osborne, B.Sc. Proc., Linnean Society of N.S. Wales, Vol. L., p. 2, 1925.
5.—On the Hypersthene-Andesite of Blair Duguid, near Al- landale, N.S. Wales, by W. R. Browne, D.Sc., and H. P. White, F.C.S. Proc., Royal Society of N.S. Wales, Vol. LX., 1926.
192 R. H CAMBAGE.
THE OUTBREAK OF SPRINGS IN AUTUMN. By R. H. Campacg, C.B.E., F.L.S.
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Sept. 5, 1928.)
The outbreak of springs in New South Wales between the months of February and June usually passes unnoticed excepting during drought seasons, when various reports of the occurrence are made to the press; but if an increased flow of water is observed in any of the streams after even a very slight fall of rain, this increase is generally attributed to the rainfall and no remarks are made. The theory advanced in this paper is that at least ninety per cent. of these outbursts or stimulated flows which occur when no rain falls are caused by a decrease in evaporation or lowering of atmospheric temperature, and that the phenomenon is in evidence after the heat of summer has passed, or after a sudden drop in temperature for a few days, but is more noticeable in the absence of rainfall.
A short note which I contributed on the subject was published in “‘The Surveyor’’ in June, 1897,* and in September, 1897, the late W. E. Abbott read a valuable paper on the question before this Society.t In both of these contributions the cause of the outbursts was attri- buted to diminishing evaporation. The object of the present paper is to record the result of further investiga- tions into the matter.
*“The Surveyor,” 1897, 10, No. 6, 144.
+ This Journal, 1897, 31, 201. See also “Report on the Water Resources of the Hunter Valley,” 1908, by J. B. Henson, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. (Hunter District Water Supply and Sewerage Board). The report was received after this paper was read.
OUTBREAK OF SPRINGS IN AUTUMN. 193
My first observation on this subject was made in December, 1890, where there was a small swamp in the Walcha district, and every morning a little stream was flowing freely from it, but by each evening all water had disappeared from the tiny stream. I have noticed the same feature many times since then, and similar observa- tions have been made by bushmen on innumerable occasions. During a dry period in 1897, my assistant, Mr. R. G. Wilson, drew my attention to the fact that all the cases of increased flow which we had noticed during our survey- ing operations in the Bathurst to Harden district originated in swamps. |
It does not appear that barometric changes of pressure cause these outbursts of springs, for, as Mr. Abbott points out, this would require a high pressure at the source of the spring and a low pressure at its outlet. It would not be possible to get this difference of pressure in such a short distance as that comprised in the length or width of one of these water-supplying swamps, which are often only a few hundred yards or, at most, a few miles in extent.
The theory that the dry weather cracks the ground and releases impounded water is by no means universally accepted, because in an ordinary case the ground will not erack while it remains moist. Mr. Abbott cites the case of a surface dam, and states that while it contains any water the outside of the dam will not crack, even in dry, hot weather.
On the other hand, Mr. E. T. Webb, of Bathurst, wrote to me in April, 1923, as follows:—‘‘In a dry time some years ago a crack came in the ground on the side of a hill about 8 miles from the town, and after a time moisture came up through the crack, and when the moisture had softened the ground the water commenced to run—this in
M—September 5, 1928.
“194 R. H. CAMBAGE.
hot weather, and in a place where there had been no spring before.’”’
I do not know the local conditions surrounding this ease, but it is conceivable that a slight earth movement or partial landslide on the side of a hill might result in releasing some water, or cause its course to be diverted.
Mr. Webb also wrote: ‘‘Now my theory is this, that in different localities the nature of soil and subsoil is different and therefore different causes operate. Here it is prin- cipally granite country with clay subsoil; hence, as a spring gets weak the small particles of granite which are coming along the channel gradually stop the opening until no water will percolate through; the water then commences to accumulate at the back until the pressure is sufficient to clear the opening.”’
No doubt something of this nature happens at times, but only in a small way, and is of a local nature; whereas an increase in the flow of various streams appears to be more or less of a regular character during some portion of the autumn. In reply to my question in March, 1928, the manager of Springfield, in the Orange district, stated that the water generally increases in Lewis Ponds Creek in or about May, even if no rain falls.
I was informed that without any rain having fallen the ‘water commenced to flow in Molong Creek near the town of Molong, on the 9th or 10th April, 1923. Prior to this the creek had stopped running owing to dry weather.
Springs and their Variation.
On the western slopes of New South Wales, where many of these springs occur, there are three different sets of conditions. One is in the northern portion where the steeply-dipping rocks convey the rain-water westerly to a
OUTBREAK OF SPRINGS IN AUTUMN. 195
great depth, where it is overlain by impervious strata, and impounded. This artesian water is reached by boring, ‘when it comes to the surface as the result of pressure.
The second condition is found towards the foot of the western slopes, where rain-water disappears by soakage in fairly level country with a considerable amount of alluvium, and this water may not find an outlet, but as sub-artesian water may be brought to the surface by windmills or other methods of pumping.
The third case, which is that now under consideration, is where the rain or snow falls on elevated country and then finds its way into the soil which acts as an under- ground reservoir, which in ordinary years is kept practi- eally full. The small outlets through which the water escapes are called springs, and while there is a quantity of water in the soil or reservoir these springs may continue to flow, even if no rain falls. Near the outlet the ground becomes spongy, and the water, to some extent by capillary attraction, rises to the surface and forms swampy areas of various dimensions. As the summer advances and evapo- ration increases, there often comes a time when the evapo- ration, which may continue day and night, claims all the water on the surface, and leaves none to flow into the stream below. The spring is then said to be dry.
There are two conditions which may operate to start the spring flowing again. One is the falling of sufficient rain to replenish the reservoir so that it will be able to force out more water than can be at once evaporated, in which case some will flow away, and the occurrence will eall for no public remarks. The second ease is one that may happen with or without rainfall, and is caused by a lowering of atmospheric temperature with a consequent diminution of evaporation. When the outburst happens
196 R. H. CAMBAGE.
in drought time, as the result of diminishing evaporation. only, there is considerable comment, and the phenomenon is regarded by some casual thinkers as an indication that the drought will soon terminate, and by others that it will continue. The little rills which issue from the various. springs and other moist places all unite, and cause a defi- nite flow in the streams into which they drain, and this. flow sometimes continues for very many miles.
Should an intermittent spring, fed by rainfall and with- out a storage reservoir, be situated a great distance from its source of supply, the water might take some months following an underground course to reach the outlet, in which case it is possible that the outbreak would occur during a dry period without being the result of diminished evaporation.
Evaporation.
The late H. C. Russell, F.R.S. carried out a consider- able amount of investigation on the question of evapora- tion in New South Wales, and records an instance at Lake George in March, 1885, where in three days, while a nor- therly wind was blowing, the lake lost one and a half inches by evaporation.* Lake George is given as roughly 20 miles. long and 5 miles wide.
Mr. Russell carried out various evaporation tests at Sydney during the year 1885. ‘‘Two dishes, each 8 inches deep and 2 feet on each side, that is, exposing 4 squars feet of surface, were used for the purpose of testing the amount of water evaporated from soil, grass covered and bare . . .The evaporation from these dishes was tested by weighing once a day.’’** The daily mean in inches for the year was, grass covered 0.083, bare earth 0.071, water 0.100.
* This Journ. 1885, 19, 24. * “Rain and River Observations made in New South Wales, 1885,” by H. C. Russell, C.M.G. (Government Printer).
OUTBREAK OF SPRINGS IN AUTUMN. 197
Mr. Russell wrote:—‘‘The amount of evaporation de- pends very much upon the state of the soil; if it is wet on the surface the evaporation goes on from it much faster than from water; but as the ground dries the condition is reversed and the earth evaporates less than the water
. .The grass brings the subsoil water to the surface and aids evaporation in very dry weather, so that the evapora- tion from grassed soil is more regular than from bare soil, and in the course of the year it loses more than the dry earth by 20 per cent.; but in comparing it with water it evaporates 14 per cent. less.”’
The total evaporation for Sydney in 1885 is given as 36.514 inches, the monthly mean being 3.043. The lowest is given as 1.669 for July, and the highest as 4.683 inches for January.
The mean monthly evaporation at Bourke was 5.174 inches for the months April to December (inclusive), 1885, the lowest being 1.963 for July, and the highest 9.308 inches for December, the average evaporation per day being given as 0.169.
Atmospheric Effect on Flow from Springs at Kosciusko.
On the 16th and 17th February, 1920, two small swamps were noticed to be feeding tiny rills which were finding their way along the gutter on the roadside a short dis- tance above the hotel, at an elevation of a little more than 5000 feet above sea-level. From sunrise until about 2.30 p.m. the sun shone full upon the road, but after this the springs and small streams came within the shadow of the mountain. The effect of diminishing evaporation was very clearly manifest on the flow of water as soon as it came within the shadow.
In the case of No. 1 stream, which was the more feeble of the two, it was found to extend 66 yards along the roadside from its source at 2.45 p.m., while at 5.45 p.m.
198 R. H. CAMBAGE.
its length was 76 yards, but during the night, and at 7.30’ a.m. the following morning it reached 92 yards from its source, and disappeared in the sand near a gully into which it doubtless found its way. During the whole of the following forenoon the length of the little rill was. gradually shortened by evaporation, until again it reached only about 66 yards from its source.
No. 2 stream was fed from a little swamp about 50 feet by 20 feet, and extended 160 yards from its source at 2.30% p.m., while at 7.20 a.m. the following morning it reached 252 yards, or an additional 92 yards, and disappeared. under a culvert. The evaporation from the heat of the sun operated on it so that by 10.5 a.m. it had receded 56: yards, and 88 yards by 12.25 p.m. and the volume in the little stream itself was much reduced.
Atmospheric Effect on Flow at Mittagong.
Water is impounded under large masses of basalt on the: Mittagong Range, and finds its way out at various points. where it forms swampy areas and springs. In May, 1923, a farm on the side of the range was visited, and it was. found that the water for the stock was brought about 300: yards in a pipe one and a half inches in diameter from one of these springs which was open to the full rays of the sun. The farmer’s statement was that during the sum-.
mer months there was usually a full flow throughout the
night and in the morning, but this would decrease towards the afternoon of a moderately hot day and perhaps cease at about 5 p.m., while on a very hot day the flow would. cease altogether at about 2 p.m., though it would probably
start again sometime during the evening. On one exceed--
ingly hot day the water ceased and did not flow again un-- til the following morning, when the weather was much cooler. This variation in flow clearly seems to be in res-- ponse to variation in evaporation.
= Ita cealal
OUTBREAK OF SPRINGS IN AUTUMN. 199
In June, 1923, it was found that the water from this spring had continued to run, day and night, since early in April, but as evidence that a spring without being re- plenished is not inexhaustible, the volume had become so reduced owing to continued dry weather that a one inch pipe was sufficient to carry off the water in June.
An Outburst at Bathurst in Dry Weather.
On the 25th February, 1923, a message was sent from Bathurst to the Sydney press as follows:—‘‘ What are re- garded as signs of a continuance of the drought is the fact that in several portions of the Bathurst district springs have broken out and are running strongly. Vale Creek, which has been dry since last storm has now two inches of water running, as the result of the springs.’’
As it was thought that this outbreak of springs was con- sequent upon a fall of temperature having occurred some little time earher, I recently obtained, through the kindness of Mr. KH. W. Timcke, acting Meteorologist in charge of the Sydney Weather Bureau, the Bathurst temperature figures for the period in question, and they disclose a fall of 16 degrees from the 15th to the 16th February, 1923. When it is remembered that some days would elapse from the time the spring began to flow until it reached and was noticed some distance down the ereek, it seems fair to as- sume that this particular outbreak was the result of a fall of temperature and a diminution of evaporation. How long this flow continued I am unable to say, but the re- turning heat probably soon terminated it.
It may be noted that on the 16th February, when the maximum temperature fell from 89 to 73 degrees, and the minimum fell as low as 47 degrees, the wind was from the east, and would contain more humidity and less evapora- ting properties than a wind coming to the Bathurst district from the west or north.
200 R. H. CAMBAGE.
The temperatures in question are given below.
Bathurst Minimum Maximum
February, 1928. Degrees. Degrees. Wind 9 a.m. 12 50 88 calm clear 13 56 83 east light clear 14 ays) 90 east light clear 15 59 89 calm cloudy 16 ayy) 73 east light overcast 17. AT 86 calm few clouds 18 54 94 calm cloudy 19 De 95 calm clear 20 56 90 calm clear 2il o4 98 east light clear 22 64 96 calm cloudy 23 Be 101 calm fine 24 64 102 ealm fine 20 67 98 calm fine
On the 17th April, 1923, a message was sent to the press from Bathurst stating that ‘‘Springs have broken out at the head of the Fish River, and a strong stream of clear water is now running into the Macquarie’’. An examina- tion of the temperature figures at the Sydney Weather Bureau shows that the average maximum temperature at Bathurst from the first to the 17th April, 1923, was 72 degrees, but that on the 8th and 9th April the maximum was 64 and 65 degrees respectively. This fall in the tem- perature was probably responsible for the stream which a week later had reached the Macquarie.
There seems nothing remarkable in the fact that springs may start to flow on or after about the middle of April even in a drought period, for the rate of evaporation has eonsiderably diminished by this time, and, even without any rain having fallen, it is not unusual to see a creek, which heads in a swamp, flowing more freely in May than in March.
It does not appear that the outbreak of springs in dry weather has any bearing on the duration of a drought.
NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 201
DESCRIPTION OF THREE NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ONE ACACIA. By W. F. BLAKELY.
Assistant Botanist, National Herbarium, Sydney. (With Plates XVII.-XX.)
“(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Oct. 3, 1928.)
EUCALYPTUS JOYCEAE, N.Sp.
Arbor ad 20-60 pedes alta, nonnumquam duabus aut pluribus -stirpibus a basi emergentibus; cortex asper, per pedes plures ‘persistens, levis et deciduus in superiori trunco et in ramis; folia juvenilia pluribus parvibus opposita, orbicularia, elliptica -vel late lanceolata, breviter petiolata, 4-5 x 2.5-4 cm.; folia adultiora alternata, petiolata, lanceolata vel obliquo-falcata, -eoriacea, frequentibus glandulis punctiformibus, 6-18 x 2-3 cm.; -vernatio subconspicna, venae laterales ex angulo 30-40° surgentes a costa media; inflorescentia umbellis axillaribus 7-15 florum; gemmae clavatae, acutae, pedicellatae; calyx calathi- formis circiter 3 mm. altus; operculum conicum vel fere rostratum; antherae reniformes; capsulae pyriformes vel fere pilulares, truncatae 5-7 x 6-8 mm.; ligum durum, fulvum vel ‘badium.
A tree 20-60 feet high, sometimes Mallee-like, with two or more stems branching from the base, 1-2 feet in diameter. Barks persistent, light grey, coarsely flaky- fibrous for 6-12 feet, then smooth, deciduous, white or mottled on the remainder of the trunk and branches, and with the characteristic marking of EH. haemastoma or E. micrantha.
Juvenile leaves rather thin, the first three or four alter- nate, sueceeded by three or more pairs in the opposite ‘Stage, obicular, elliptical to broadly lanceolate, very shortly petiolate, 4-5 em. long, 2.5-4 em. broad; venation somewhat
202 W. F. BLAKELY.
fine, the numerous lateral veins much branched, especially in the orbicular leaves; intramarginal nerve distant from. the edge.
Intermediate leaves broadly lanceolate to obliquely- lanceolate, acuminate, shortly petiolate, 7-13 em. long, 4-8: cm. broad; venation moderately distinct on both surfaces, the lateral veins 18 to 23 on each side of the prominent midrib, somewhat irregular and diverging at an angle of 40-50° with the midrib; intramarginal vein distant from the slightly thickened revolute margin.
Adult leaves alternate, moderately thick, glossy, with numerous oil-dots, petiolate, lanceolate to obliquely-falcate- lanceolate, acuminate, 6-18 em. long, 2-3 em. broad; vena- tion somewhat distinct, the lateral veins rather fine, mak-. ing an angle of 30-40° to the midrib; intramarginal vein usually distant from the edge.
Inflorescence in axillary umbels or sub-paniculate owing to the suppression of the upper leaves; peduncles slightly compressed, somewhat slender, up to 2 em. long. Buds. clavate, acute, 7-15 in the head, distinctly pedicellate, the pedicels at first shghtly angular, but as the fruit develops: becoming rather slender and terete, 5-7 mm. long. Calyx somewhat goblet-shaped, about 3 mm. deep, 4 mm. across. the top; operculum conical to almost rostrate, sometimes. longer than the calyx-tube. Filaments white, all antheri- ferous. Anthers small, reniform, usually with a terminal oland.
Fruit pedicellate, pyriform to nearly pilular 5-7 x 6-8 mm. truncate, slightly contracted at the top. Dise usually forming a thin downward sloping reddish ring over the basal portion of the valves, but sometimes almost flush. with the edge of the ecalycine ring; valves usually 4,. invariably inclosed owing to the declivity of the capsular dise, which is most marked in some specimens.
NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 203:
Timber brown to reddish brown, darker than that of E. piperita and E. Considemana, moderately hard and interlocked, with the characteristic gum veins of the above species. On the whole, it is harder and probably more: durable than the timber of its congeners. For fuel pur- poses it is better than the timber of EF. piperita.
Type from about one mile south of Kariong Trig Wondabyne, New South Wales (D. W. C. Shiress and Wit /B.).
The tree in the field conveys the impression of being intermediate between E. haemastoma and E. piperita, as: it partakes of the cortical characters of both species, while the buds and fruits resemble those of the former, and the timber approaches more closely to that of the latter.
E. Joyceae is unique in that it connects the Pepper- mints with two Renantherous White Gums with red timber, namely, H. haemastoma and E. micrantha, which. were tentatively placed in the Renantherae, apparently without any very close affinities, especially as regards the timber. But E. Joyceae appears to bridge the gap, not only in the colour of the timber, but also in other morpho- logical characters, which, when carefully studied in conjunction with those of its allies seem to define more clearly its natural genetical relationship with the above- mentioned groups.
Named in memory of my adopted daughter Joyce, who,. before her untimely death, assisted me in many little ways with my botanical work.
Range.
It appears to be confined to the Hawkesbury sandstone, between Parramatta and Gosford, singly or in small clumps, but, so far, I have not succeeded in finding its. optimum. It is, however, more plentiful on the northern.
"204 W. F. BLAKELY.
‘side of the Hawkesbury River than on the southern side, and I predict that when it is better known its range will probably extend as far as Brisbane, Queensland.
The localities south of the Hawkesbury are—Parramatta, “**Half-barked variety of White Gum’’ (Rev. Dr. W. W. Woolls). The fruits are broad and truncate, with a well- defined disc. Near the Suspension Bridge, North Sydney (D. W. C. Shiress). Stony Creek Road, about half-way between Pymble and De Burgh’s Bridge (C. T. White cand W.F.B.). When Mr. White’s attention was drawn to the tree, he intimated that it resembled a tree growing around Brisbane. About one mile east of Wahroonga Railway Station, on the edge of the shale, where it grows into shaft-like trees, in association with EH. micrantha, E. Sieberiana, FE. corymbosa, and E. resinifera (W.F.B.) ; ‘near the old Wool-wash, Spring Gully Creek, 1 mile east of Hornsby, and about + mile north of Junction Road; also 4 mile west of the latter locality; between Collings Street and Junction Road (W.F.B.). On the track to ‘Gibberygong Creek, Kuring-gai Chase, near the descent ‘to the Bogey Hole (W.F.B.). Hill 60, about 1 mile north -of Cowan; also on the east side of Cowan Tunnel, and on the top of the Tunnel (D. W. C. Shiress and W.F.B.) ; near the 26-mile post Cowan, twin trees 30 feet high, one foot in diameter. Bark rough at base for 6-10 feet, then ‘smooth and blotched like the bark of E. haemastoma, for -which it could easily be mistaken were it not for the ‘rough, flaky bark at base, and the Peppermint-like odour of the leaves when crushed. The fruits are larger than ‘the type, and about the same size as those of the co-type.
Localities North of the Hawkesbury.—Two trees found by D.W.C.S. and W.F.B. at the head of the long swamp, ‘two miles north of Wondabyne; and two more on the ‘rocks overlooking Mooney Mooney, about 4 mile north of
NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 205-
the first locality. There is also a large tree in an open gully, about 3 mile north of the second locality, and two: more trees, one on each side of the Wallaby Rocks, + mile: east of the latter locality. All are small trees except one, with a little rough bark at base, and with the upper por- tion of the stems and branches smooth and white. About one mile south of Kariong Trig., on a rather exposed plateau about 700 feet above sea level, are nine trees, ranging from 40-60 feet high, and from 12 to 24 inches. in diameter, all of which have rough bark at base and smooth bark on the branches. These may be regarded as. the Type (D.W.C.S. and W.F.B.). On the Woy Woy- Gosford Road, about one mile from the junction of the new Wiseman’s Ferry Road; also by the side of the new Sydney-Neweastle Road, about one mile below the junction. of the former road.
A little below the junction of the old Wiseman’s Ferry Road and the old road leading to the Industrial Home for Boys, Penang Range, near Gosford, are six trees ranging from 25 to 60 feet in height, and from 9-24 inches. in diameter. They have the characteristic persistent rough bark at the base, smooth upper stems and branches as the Kariong trees. The largest, and probably the oldest, tree appears to be a very great age, and has indications of having weathered many storms and bush fires. In fact, nearly all the trees of H. Joyceae are severely charred and burnt to almost a shell at the base, and in some cases the original tree is burnt right out, and from the thin shell fresh shoots have sprung up and developed into: lofty trees.
About 8 miles from Gosford, on the top of Penang Ranges. This specimen is recorded in error by J. H. Maiden in Proce. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., Vol. XXV., p. 109: (1900), as EH. stricta, and as EH. Consideniana, Maiden,.
206 - W. F, BLAKELY.
le, Vol. XXIX., p. 477 (1904), and is figured in error under H. Considemana in the Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus, Part X., Plate 46, figs. 9a, 9b, and referred to on page 314 as follows—Penang , Mountain, Gosford (J.H.M. and J. L. Boorman), ‘“*Very like a Peppermint in appearance, only the bark is not so stringy —more flaky, white smooth limbs. A fair-sized tree and scarce (Andrew Murphy).’’ Co-type. At the bottom of page 315, Mr. Maiden, when discussing EH. Sieberrana and E. Consideniana, again refers to it, 1e., ‘‘The Penang fruits are not perfectly typical; they show more than ordinary resemblance to H. Sieberiana.’’ The fruits are not quite ripe, hence the very sharp rim which is due to the undeveloped state of the capsular dise. 3 Affinities.
1. With E. haemastoma Sm.
Trees of EH. Joyceae could very easily be mistaken for E. haemastoma, as the cortical characters of the upper portion of the trunk and branches of both species are almost identical, except that the markings of EH. Joyceae are less blotchy and greener, and are usually in broad irregular stripes, which is mainly due to the fact that the smooth bark decorticates annually in broad ribbons 2-10 feet long. While the bark of E. haemastoma. sheds in small, broad flakes, rarely exceeding 12 inches long; it is also different in texture, being soft and brittle.
The juvenile leaves of both species are broad, but those of EL. haemastoma are much broader and coarser than the leaves of EH. Joyceae; while there is also an almost total absence of aromatic oil in the leaves of the former, it is always markedly present in leaves of the latter.
The adult leaves of both present the same general facies,
but the leaves of EH. Joyceae are, on the whole, smaller and less coriaceous than those of HE. haemastoma, and, on
NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 207
the other hand, they are furnished with more oil dots than the leaves of its ally.
The buds of EL. Joyceae differ from those of HF. haemas- toma in being more acute or rostrate. As regards the fruits, they are somewhat similar in size and shape in both species, but the capsular dise of HE. Joyceae is invari- ably more oblique, while the pedicels are frequently longer and more slender than those of H. haemastoma.
The timber of EH. Joyceae is brown to reddish-brown, hard, and close grained; that of H. haemastoma is red, moderately soft and brittle.
2. With E. piperita Sm.
Some trees of EH. Joyceae, especially those with the rough, persistent. bark extending almost to the large branches would pass for this species. But an examination of the buds, fruits, juvenile leaves, and a closer scrutiny of the cortical characters of the latter will readily show that, although at first sight they appear to be alike, there is a marked difference between them when they are care- fully investigated.
For instance, the persistent bark of H. Joyceae is more coarsely fibrous and of a yellowish-grey colour, while the smooth deciduous bark is whiter and sheds in longer and broader strips. The juvenile leaves are at least a size larger, more broadly lanceolate, and thicker than those of L. pyperrta. The buds of #. Joyceae are relatively larger, and the fruits also differ in shape, size and texture from those of its ally.
3. With H. Bottw Blakely.
The large fruits of this species somewhat resemble those of #. Joyceae; and there is also a general similarity in the juvenile and intermediate leaves. On the other hand,
208 W. F. BLAKELY.
E. Bottu grows to a much larger tree, and its persistent rough bark usually extends well out on the branches.
4. With E. Consideniana Maiden.
E. Joyceae is not unlike E. Considenana as regards size and habit, but the persistent, rough bark of the former does not extend to the tips of the branches like that of the latter. The timber of H. Joyceae is darker and harder, while the buds are more acute, and the fruit is thinner and slightly different in shape. The juvenile leaves also differ from those of EL. Considemana in being less glaucous.
Description of Seedlings.
Hypocotyl slender, terete, purple-brown. Cotyledons reniform, somewhat unequally lobed, tapering into a long petiole, 7 x 5 mm., dark green above, purple-brown beneath.
Ist pair of leaves opposite, petiolate, oblong-lanceolate, 2 em. long, 9 mm. broad, dark green above, purple-brown beneath; veins obscure. 2nd pair of leaves opposite, shortly petiolate, oblong, or nearly so, 4.5 x 2 em., light green above, pale beneath. 8rd pair of leaves opposite, curved inward with shorter petioles than in the preceding pair, oblong-lanceolate, 7.5 x 2.3 em.; venation obscure above, prominent beneath. 4th pair of leaves similar to the 3rd pair, but much longer with a broader base, 9.7 x 3.5 em.; upper surface dark green, veins obscure; lower surface pale green; lateral veins conspicuous, diverging at an angle of 35-40° to the midrib; oil dots copious.
Ist pair of alternate leaves lanceolate, petiolate, 12 x 3.8 em.; venation and colour the same as the 4th pair. 2nd pair of alternate leaves lanceolate, petiolate, 13 x 4.3 em.; upper surface dark green, veins distinct, midrib, lateral veins and margins a warm reddish-brown; lower
NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 209
surface light green; veins prominent, green, diverging at an angle of 30-40° to the midrib; intramarginal vein 3-4 mm. from the margin.
Internodes terete, except at their junction with the leaves, purple-brown, ranging from 3-5 em. long.
At 4 inches high E. Joyceae is almost identical with E. anomala, but after that, the leaves of the last-men- tioned species become more sharply lanceolate and sessile, and they also continue in the opposite stage for a greater number of pairs than H. Joyceae, which does not appear to exceed four or five pairs at most.
The seedlings of HE. Joyceae have fewer opposite leaves than those of E. piperita; they are, however, larger, and broader, also less glaucous and more lanceolate than those of the latter species.
EUCALYPTUS ANOMALA n.sp.
Arbor 25-35 pedes alta; cortex pallide cinereus, rude diffissus et fibrosus, persistens inferiore trunco, at supra laevis candi- dusque; folia juvenilia opposita saltem decem paribus, late lanceolata, sessilia vel amplexicaulia; folia adultiora, petiolata, lanceolata vel obliquo-lanceolata, acuminata, crassa, coriacea, 5-19 x 2-3 cm.; venatio aliquantulum inconspicua, venae laterales tennissimae, divergentes angulo 35-40° a costa media; umbellae axillares vel pseudo-paniculatae; gemmae 10-20 in umbella, pedicellatae, clavatae, fere omnino obtusae; tubus calycis sub- calathiformis, 4-5 mm. diametro; operculum scutellariforme, apiculatum; antherae omnes fertiles, parvae, reniformes; capsulae subpyriformes, pedicellatae 7-8 v 6-8 mm.; lignum pallidum, fissile.
Trees 25-30 feet high, 9-12 inches in diameter, with a rough coarsely fibrous light-grey bark on the lower por- tion of the trunk, the upper portion smooth and white, which decorticates annually in long narrow ribbons.
Juvenile leaves opposite for six or more pairs, cordate- lanceolate to lanceolate, sessile to somewhat amplexical, eto x 3-7 em;
N—October 3, 1928.
210 W. F. BLAKELY.
Adult leaves alternate, petiolate, lanceolate to obliquely- lanceolate, acuminate, thick, coriaceous, 5-19 x 2-3 em. Venation somewhat obscure; lateral veins very fine, di- verging at an angle of 35-40° to the midrib; intramarginal vein usually distant from the margin.
Inflorescence 1n axillary umbels or forming moderately large pseudo-panicles owing to the suppression of the upper leaves, as is often seen in EF. haemastoma and E. umbra. Peduneles compressed, dilated and thickened at the top, 10-20 mm. long. Buds 10-20 in the umbel, pedi- cellate, clavate, almost obtuse; pedicels slightly angular, up to 7 mm. long. Calyx somewhat goblet-shaped, about 3 mm. deep, 4-5 mm. broad. Operculum shorter than the ealyx-tube, apiculate, scutelliform, with a minute internal appendage suspended from the top. Filaments numerous, white, except at the extreme base, which are a pale purple, all antheriferous. Anthers small, reniform, the broad papery cells usually tipped with a minute globular gland.
Fruit pedicellate, shortly pyriform, 7-8 x 6-8 mm., truncate or more or less slightly domed; dise reddish, moderately broad, forming a shghtly thickened ring around the base of the valves, and extending almost over the tips in a very thin layer; valves usually four, en- closed; pedicels conspicuous, slightly compressed and wrinkled, 5-9 mm. long.
Timber pale, close-grained, fairly hight, slightly darker than that of H. umbra when fresh but apparently of the
same texture.
It is an interesting species from a taxonomic standpoint, as it appears to form a natural connecting link between the Stringybarks, and the Gums belonging to the Renan- therae section.
NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 211
The field and botanical characters of H. anomala so elosely resemble those of H. Joyceae that Mr. Shiress and myself for some time failed to distinguish the difference between them, except that the venation of the leaves of E. anomala was somewhat finer, and the leaves possessed a slightly different perfume to those of E. Joyceae. Seeds of both species were sown to ascertain whether there wou'd be any marked difference between the young plants. When the seedlings had reached a height of five inches, the leaves of those of E. anomala were found to be totally different from those of EF. Joyceae, both as regards size and shape, and in being opposite for a greater number of pairs. They also showed a marked affinity with those of FE. umbra and E. acmenioides, two members of the Stringy- bark series, while the seedlings of FE. Joyceae displayed a striking resemblance to EL. pipertta on the one hand, and HE. haemastoma on the other, and may be described as being intermediate in character between the two species.
Renge.
So far it is known from Bywater, near Brooklyn, Hawkesbury River, where it grows in association with EL. umbra, E. haemastoma and E. punctata; on the southern side of Sugarloaf, about five miles north of Brooklyn; also about one mile due east of Cowan Railway Station, New South Wales (D.W.C. Shiress and W.F.B.).
Affinities.
A close examination of the botanical characters and its appearance in the field seem to suggest that it is a natural hybrid between FE. haemastoma and E. umbra, and it may be described as a rough-barked haemastoma, or a partly smooth-barked wmbra.
The persistent rough-bark is very different both in general appearance and in texture from that of EZ. wnbra. While the smooth bark, although deciduous at one period
212 W. F. BLAKELY.
of the year, is unlike the bark of EF. haemastoma in that it exuviates in long, narrow ribbons, and not in short, broad pieces like the last named species. The venation of the leaves is intermediate between that of H. haemastoma and E. umbra; while the buds and the fruits resemble those of the former species. The juvenile leaves, how-. ever, are of the HE. wmbra type, and, therefore, sharply separate it from EL. haemastoma, placing it without doubt in the Stringybark series, notwithstanding the difference: in the texture of the bark, and other morphological. distinctions. Description of Seedlings. Hypocotyl slender, terete, purple-brown.
Cotyledons oblong-reniform, almost uniform without any depression in the centre as 1s the case with many cotyledons. belonging to the Reniformae Section, 8 x 5 mm., trinerved, dark green above, purple-brown beneath.
1st pair of leaves opposite, petiolate, narrow-lanceolate: to acute, 2.5 x 1 em., dark green and obscurely veined above, purple-brown beneath. 2nd to 6th pair of leaves. opposite, lanceolate to cordate-lanceolate, sessile to amplex- ical, 9-14 x 3-6 em., dark green above, pale green beneath; veins moderately fine, the intramarginal vein slightly remote from the edge. Internodes elongated, terete, except the broadly dilated portion close to the leaves, reddish to a deep purple-brown.
In all stages up to 4 inches they are almost inseparable from those of EH. Joyceae; after that they resemble the seedlings of HE. wmbra and E. acmeniordes.
EucALypTus WaARDII, n.sp.
Arbor erecta, Stringybark, 60-70 pedes alta, 1-2 pedes dia- metro; cortex crassus, fibrosus, ad parvos ramos persistens; folia juvenilia 2-3 paribus opposita, angusto-lanceolata, breviter petiolata, 3-12 x 1-2 cm., pallide viridia, glabra, nitentia; folia.
NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 213
- adultiora alternata, petiolata, lanceolata vel falcato-lanceolata, acuminata, 8-20 x 2-4 cm., obscuro-viridia; venae laterales a costa mediana angulo 45° diver gentes; inflorescentia umbellis exillaribus 7-14 mediocrium alborum florum; gemmae pedicel- latae, fasciculis stellatim radiantibus, pedunculo subtereti 10-14 mm. longo; calyx cyathiformis, 4 x 3 mm.; operculum plerumque rostratum, 4-5 mm. longum; anterae reniformes; capsulae ovales vel pyriformes, pedicellatae, 8 x 8 — 9 x 10 mm. solidae, parvum aditum praebentes; discus bene finitus, ex parte supra valvas capsulae profunde inclusas extendens.
An erect Stringybark, 60-70 feet high, 1-2 feet in diameter; bark thick, furrowed, fibrous, persistent to the small branches, branchlets sub-terete.
Juvenile leaves (not seen from the base of the tree but from the fruiting branches only) opposite for the first two pairs, narrow-lanceolate, faleate-lanceolate to acumi- nate, shortly petiolate, 3-12 x 1-2 em., light green, smooth and shining without the slightest trace of stellate hairs.
Intermediate leaves (not seen from young saplings, but from branch suckers only) alternate, narrow lanceolate or obtuse-lanceolate, shortly petiolate, shghtly oblique, 9-10 x 3-4.5 em., ight green with a somewhat obscure venation.
Adult leaves alternate, petiolate, lanceolate to falcate- lanceolate, acuminate, slightly oblique, 8-20 x 2-4 em., dark green and glossy on both surfaces, moderately thick. Venation somewhat obscure, the very fine lateral veins diverging at an angle of 40-50° to the midrib; intra- marginal nerve distant from the margin. Oil dots small, Copious.
Inflorescence in axillary umbels of 7-14 white flowers. Buds pedicellate, subfusiform, hight green, radiating in stellate-like clusters on sub-terete peduncles 10-14 mm. long. Calyx wine-glass shaped, 4 x 3 mm. Operculum acuminate to rostrate 4-5 mm. long. Filaments white, flexuose, nearly all fertile; anthers reniform, usually erowned with a large globular gland.
214 W. F. BLAKELY.
Fruit oval to pyriform, distinctly pedicellate, 8 x 8 -— 9 x 10 mm. thick, contracted at the top into a small orifice ; dise forming a well-defined ring inside the calycine border, and which extends partly over the small, somewhat deeply enclosed valves of the capsule. Timber pale, very fissile.
Range.
Confined to the Port Jackson district so far as we know at present.
Gladesville (J. L. Boorman); Lane Cove River near Killara (J. H. Maiden, Dec. 1898). The late Mr. Maiden suggested that it might be a natural hybrid between EL. pilularis and E. eugenioides. Near the old Wooi-wash,. Spring Gully Creek, Hornsby (Ray Fogarty, E. Stanton and W.F.B., June 1928). The type. On the Galston Road 14 miles from Hornsby (D. W. C. Shiress and W.F.B., July 1916). One mile 8.W. of Parramatta (R. H. Cambage,. Mareh, 1901, 5:).
Named in honour of my esteemed friend and colleague, Mr. E. N. Ward, Curator, Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
Affinities.
1. With E.entgra R. T. Baker. Both species are some- what alike in carpological characters, but the fruits of E. mgra are much thinner than those of HE. Wardu; the buds of the former are also smaller and less rostrate, while the juvenile leaves are narrower; and there is a marked difference in the perfume of both species.
2. With E. eugeniordes Sieber. It is readily distinguished from this species by the large subpyriform fruits, and in the more rostrate buds. |
3. With L. Muelleriana Howitt. The fruits of HE. Wardit resemble those of its ally both as regards shape and sculpture, but on the whole they are smaller, while the buds are totally different, being rostrate and not clavate like the buds of HE. Muelleriana.
NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 215
UNINERVES (RACEMOSAE).
Acacta LUCASII, n.sp.
Frutex humilis ramis cinero-tomentosis, germinibus juvenili- bus dense cinereo-ferrugineis; phyllodia uninervia, ovata vel elliptico-lanceolata, undulata, breviter petiolata, subrigida, hirsuta, scabra, marginibus nervum flavescentem simulantibus, 2.5-38 cm. longa, 9-18 mm. lata; inflorescentia praebens capita pedunculata vel racemos supra phyllodia prominentes; capita dense villosa 12-20 flores comprehendunt; calyx parvus, sinuose lobatus, hirsutus, duplo brevior corollae attenuatae; petala 5 ex parte conjuncta, angusto-lanceolata, hirsuta, solida, incurva; legumina breviter stipitata, dense ferrugineo-tomentosa, ob- longa, obtusa, 2-4 cm. longa, 1 cm. lata; semina breviter ob- ligua; funiculus filiformis, in arillum candidum navicularem desineris.
A small shrub, branches hoary-tomentose, the young shoots and pods densely hoary-ferrugineous, phyllodia uninerved, ovate to elliptical-lanceolate, undulate, shortly petiolate, somewhat rigid and more or less hirsute and scabrous, the yellowish nerve-like margins conspicuous, and furnished with a small basal gland, 2.5-8 em. long, 9-18 mm. broad. Stipules small, black-pointed, semi-rigid, moderately persistent and partly hirsute.
Inflorescence in pedunculate heads or more frequently in flexuose, pubescent racemes exceeding the phyllodia. (Perfect flower-heads not seen.) Heads globular, densely villose, of 12-20 moderately large flowers.
Calyx small, sinuately lobed, hirsute, scarcely half the length of the attenuated corolla. Petals 5, united near the centre, hirsute, narrow-lanceolate, thick, incurved. Ovary densely tomentose. Bracts spathulate to diamond-shaped, concave at the back, with glandular, hirsute hairs con- cealing the calyx.
Pods shortly stipitate, densely ferrugineous-villose, oblong, obtuse, with thickened nerve-like margins, 2-4 em. x 1 em. or larger. Seeds slightly oblique, jet black, ovate.
216 W. F. BLAKELY.
Funicle filiform for about half its length, finally terminat-
ing in a white, navicular arillus nearly the length of the seed.
Named in honour of my friend and colleague, Mr. A. H. 8S. Lucas.
Range. Bumbury Creek and Green Hill, 8 miles towards Wadbiliga, Tuross River district, New South Wales (Miss M. A. Harnett, 16th January, 1928).
Near A. podalyriaefolia in the phyllodia, but totally
distinct from it in the 5-merous flowers, densely ferru- -
gineous-tomentose or villose young shoots and pods. The pods are remarkable for their rich vestiture, which is a striking contrast against the light green phyllodia with their yellowish margins, and thereby A. Lucasw is readily distinguished from all the Eastern species.
Acacia KYBEANENSIS Maiden and Blakely ; this Journal 1927, 60, 188.
Pods not previously deseribed.
Pods oblong, moderately straight, distinctly stipitate, apiculate, glabrous, slightly glaucous, the valves thin, scarcely coriaceous, 3.5-5.5 em. long, 1.5 em. broad. Seeds oblique or nearly so, ovate, jet black; funicle white, filiform for about half its length, then thickened into a carnose navicular aril nearly the length of the seed.
The broad pods connect it with A. podalyriaefolia. Tuross River (Miss M. A. Harnett, December, 1927).
I wish to express my thanks to Dr. G. P. Darnell-Smith, Director, Botanic Gardens, Sydney, for his advice and interest in this paper.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX1/., 1928. Plate XVIT,
Re
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frm nen
E’. Joycee Blakely,
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928 Plate XVIII.
j i
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: | |
EF. anomala Blakely,
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX11., 1928. Plate XIX.
H. Wardii Blakely,
os
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928 Plate XX.
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Acacia Lucasii Blakely,
NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 217
EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Pian XevVE, Eucalyptus Joyceae Blakely. 1. A large juvenile leaf.
bo
. Buds and fruits, all from one mile 8. of Kariong Trig. The type.
3. Fruiting branch, 8 miles from Gosford on the top of Penang Ranges (Andrew Murphy). Co-type.
Puate XVIII. Eucalyptus anomala Blakely. 1. Young buds; la, fully developed buds and flowers. 2. Fruiting branch.
3. Juvenile leaf. All from Bywater.
lean uwoyp.S B:G Eucalyptus Wardu Blakely. 1. Portion of a fruiting branch producing a sucker with | two pairs of opposite leaves.
2. Buds. d. Fruits. All from the same tree, Spring Gully Creek, Hornsby. |
PATH eX Xe Acacia Lucasu Blakely. Portion of a branch showing phyllodia and pods.
218 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON.
“THE CHEMISTRY OF THE EXUDATION FROM THE WOOD OF PENTASPODON MOTLEYI.”
By A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.L, F.C.S. Curator and Economic Chemist, and F’. R. Morrison, A.A.C.1., F.C.S. Assistant Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 5th Dec., 1928.)
Mr. C. E. Lane-Poole, Inspector-General of Forests, Aus- tralian Forestry School, Canberra, in a communication dated 28th November, 1927, enquired if the Sydney Technological Museum would undertake the examination, with special reference to its economic utilisation, of a cer- tain oil which exudes from a tree occurring in New Guinea, and identified as close to Pentaspodon Motleyi. In com- plianee with this request, the examination was readily undertaken, and a quantity of the oil, which previously was obtainable in very limited quantity and difficult to procure, was made available. As a matter of fact, Mr. Lane-Poole reports that the quantity supplied, about 2 pints, took him four years to obtain.
The botanical description and general characters of the tree yielding this remarkable exudation are given in Mr. Lane-Poole’s Report, ‘‘The Forest Resources of the Terri- tories of Papua and New Guinea,’’ 1925, page 109. (This: publication is printed and published for sale by the Com- monwealth Government of Australia).
The following interesting and necessary particulars which furnish an account of the physical characters and source of the exudation are extracted therefrom, viz. :—
CHEMISTRY OF PENTASPODON MOTLEYI. 219
“The wood of this large tree, 8 feet girth, bole 80 feet, 120 feet over all, contains an oil in such abundance that it may be collected in conveniently placed receptacles, much as resin is collected from the Maritime Pine, only the cut must reach the heart. In many cases the flow is very heavy, and in one instance a gallon of oil was collected in three hours. In such cases it is probable that reservoirs of oil have been formed in hollows caused by rot, and the axe has tapped a crack that has piped off the supply. While a microscope may yield some explanation of the formation of the oil in the wood, a lens shows no special canals or vessels as one would expect to see. The oil is heavy and misty brown in colour; it re- sembles motor lubrication oil as used for cylinders. It has a smell which is hard to describe, though somewhat familiar—- somewhat fishy linseed oil is the nearest I can get to it.”
We can confirm the physical characters so aptly described by Mr. Lane-Poole. To all intents and purposes, the oil, on account of its dark brown colour, viscosity, odour, etc., might easily be mistaken for a commercial boiled linseed oil.
Referring again to the origin of the exudation, Mr. Lane- Poole, in a private communication, states :—
“Microscopic examination shows that the medullary rays have canals, and these, even from dried specimens of the: wood, still store their quantity of oil. This is clearly visible with the liberkuhn method of illumination. I am sending yow a sample of the wood, so that you may examine it, also you. will see that the oil exudations are visible to the naked eye.”
Mr. M. B. Welch, B.Sc., A.I.C., Economie Botanist at the- Sydney Technological Museum, who examined the small sample of wood referred to above, furnished the following: report thereon, viz. :—
“The wood has been examined microscopically, and Sudan III. and alkannin both show the presence of oily bodies in the cavities of the sparsely distributed medullary secretary passages, in the cells of the thick walled protective sheath surrounding the canal, and to a slight extent in some of the wood parenchyma adjoining the canal, but nowhere else. The canals observed varied from 18-55 yy in diameter. The con-- contents were practically all soluble in 95% alcohol.”
The very small original sample of exudation secured by Mr. Lane-Poole was submitted to Mr. T. G. H. Jones, University of Queensland, Brisbane, and his report is pub-.
220 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON.
ished in the ‘‘ Forest Resources of Papua and New Guinea,”’
1925, pages 168-169. Unfortunately, the quantity avail- able did not enable this chemist to make more than a pre- liminary examination, and beyond the statement that it consisted of unsaturated acids possessing a molecular weight of about 400, no other data has been published.
The present investigation of the larger samples submitted has shown the exudation to consist approximately of about ‘90-95°% of acid bodies possessing unusual characters. The ‘erude oil is non-volatile in steam, and we were unable to effect its distillation under reduced pressure (1 mm.) with- out decomposition. Consequently, it is very difficult to pro- duce evidence as to whether the principal component is a ‘chemical entity or a mixture. For the purpose of this ° -announcement it is regarded as a single acid. Evidence is adduced under ‘‘ Experimental’’ which shows the principal acid to be mono-carboxylic with two hydroxyl groups, and to possess the molecular formula C,,H,,0,. It gives a beautiful violet colouration with ferric chloride in alcoholic ‘solution. Unfortunately, no crystalline or solid derivatives (except the silver salt) could be prepared.
The original objective of the investigation was to ascet-
tain if the oil possessed any economic value. Consisting essentially of an acid or acids of high molecular weight, it yielded soaps with alkalies, which technically possessed ‘special merits on account of their valuable emulsifying pro- perties. At present, no other commercial use can be sug- gested. Its economic utilisation depends entirely on the possibility of supplhes being obtained in commercial quan- ‘tities. At present the prospects of its availability in large quantities at a cost which would enable it to compete with rosin or similar products is not promising, judging from Mr. Lane-Poole’s report. However, very little is known of the extent of the natural products of New Guinea in its pre- -sent undeveloped condition. |
CHEMISTRY OF PENTASPODON MOTLEYI. 221
Experimental. The two samples of oily exudation received gave the fol- lowing chemical and physical constants on examination:: Sample No. 1. Sample No. 2.
Specific Gravity, res 1.011 1.01 Refractive Index, 20°C .. 1.5280 1.5295 mei Number ..,... ... 139.08 138.24 Saponification Number .. 142.09 146.64 Solubility in 70°% Alcohol
@oyaawmeieht) 2. ..' .. 2.6 vols. 2.5 vols. Acid Number after acety-
leeomye ae Pe s LO207 102.53 Iodine Number (Wijs) ... —— 192
Chloride in ethyl aleohol jprecipitate forming on
Reaction with Ferric (Deep violet colour with solution .. standing.
It was found early in the investigation that the crude oil was soluble in 8% aqueous sodium hydroxide solution, and, therefore, in order to determine if the constituents were of a variable nature it was treated with 1% aqueous. solution ammonium carbonate, 5°94 aqueous sodium ear- bonate, and 8% aqueous sodium hydroxide solutions respec- tively. The best procedure was to dissolve the erude oil in approximately four times its volume of ether, and to treat repeatedly with the reagents mentioned.
Ammonium Carbonate Extract—On acidification with dilute sulphuric acid, extraction with ether and removal of solvent, only 0.8% of a dark brown viscous residue was obtained. It gave a faint violet colouration with ferric chloride in alcoholic solution much resembling the crude
oil and main component, and was found to possess an acid number of 114.2.
Sodium Carbonate Extract —Shaking at room tempera- ture with this reagent failed to remove more than a trace of acid bodies.
222 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON.
Sodium Hydroxide EHxtract—On treatment with this reagent the greater part of the oil went into solution. On acidification with dilute sulphuric acid, extraction with ether, and removal of solvent, 93°94 of a dark reddish brown viscous oil, much resembling the crude exudation, was recovered. |
Neutral Residue.—The main ethereal solution on removal of solvent yielded 5% of a yellow viscous oil with an acid number of 11 and refractive index of 1.5330. It did not give a colour reaction with ferric chloride in alcoholic solution.
Examination of Principal Acid Constituent. Soluble in 8% sodium hydroxide solution.
This component, which constituted over 90% of the crude ‘exudation, was found to possess the following chemical and physical characters, viz. :—
Specific Gravity, LO aaa: Veet 1.0132 Refractive Index. 20" 4G) i" hss 1.5270 Solubility in 70% alcohol (by weight) 3.3 vols. Acid Number). 0) a Se
Do. after acetylation |... > .ovWdi@een Saponitication No. 2.2. 08) Fe Te
Do. after acetylation .. .. 203.24 Iodine Number (Wijs) 30° .. 32° 28 Molecular weight for monobasic acid
ealeulated from Acid Number .. .. 3885.
Colour Reaction.—A very striking violet colour reaction ‘was obtained when a drop of ferric chloride solution was added to a dilute alcoholic solution of this acid. A similar ‘eoloured precipitate separated on standing.
Molecular Formula.—the following results were obtained on combustion, viz. :— (1) 0.1068 gram gave 0.2902 gram CO, & 0.0919 gram H,O C= 7417... B= oo2
CHEMISTRY OF PENTASPODON MOTLEYI. 233
(2) 0.1040 gram gave 0.2824 gram CO, & 0.0884 gram H,O C0 Ee a
(3) 0.1154 gram gave 0.51386 gram CO, & 0.0970 gram H,O C= (267. = oa.
C,,H,,0, requires C = 74.28%. H = 9.23%.
Molecular Weight Deternination—A molecular weight determination by the Landsberger boiling point method, using acetone as solvent, gave the following result, viz. :— 1.5416 grams in 21 ¢.c. acetone elevated the boiling point 0.42°
(average of 8 readings). M.Wt. = 384 C,,H,,0, required M.Wt. = 388
Silver Salt—The silver salt was prepared by neutralisa- tion of the acid body with dilute ammonia solution and pre- cipitation with silver nitrate solution. 0.7658 gram silver salt gave on ignition 0.1650 gram silver = 21.55% silver. The silver salt of C,,H,,0, requires 21.82°% silver.
Copper Salt——On trituration of the acid with excess of copper carbonate no action appeared to take place at room temperature, but upon heating at water bath temperature a vigorous reaction resulted. The green copper salt was extracted by means of acetone, and was found upon removal of the solvent to be a very viscous and sticky green paste which would not solidify.
0.5722 gram of copper salt gave 0.0544 gram CuO on inition — 9 517 Cud. The copper salt of a monobasic acid of molecular formula, C,,H,,0, would yield by calculation 9.44% CuO.
Presence of ‘‘CO”’ and “‘OH”’ Groups.
The presence of ‘‘carbonyl’’ groups could not be detected by the use of hydroxylamine or semi-carbazone salts. The solubility, colour reaction, and general chemical deport- ment, so far observed, point to the presence of one
224 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON.
‘“carboxyl’’ group and two ‘‘hydroxyl’’ groups in the mole- cule of this acid. The presence of the latter was demon- strated by the reactions with phenylisocyanate and particu- larly with napthylisocyanate, but no definite crystalline derivatives could be isolated from the reaction mixtures.
Action of Bromine.—Treatment with bromine at —20° in both dry ether and carbon disulphide solutions respec- tively yielded sticky masses which could not be induced to erystallise.
jiu
THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA. 225
THE ESSENTIAL OIL FROM A BORONIA IN THE PINNATA SECTION.
FROM FRAZER ISLAND, QUEENSLAND.
(Together with a resumé of the essential oils from other closely allied pinnate leaf Boronias.)
By A. RK, PENPOLD, H/ACCN., FIC.S: Curator and Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 5th Dec., 1928.)
Shortly after the publication of a joint paper with Mr. M. B. Welch, B.Sc., A.I.C., Economie Botanist, Techno- logical Museum, Sydney, on the Botany and Chemistry of Boronia pinnata (Smith) and Boronia thujona (sp. nov.) (This Journal, Vol. LV. (1921), pages 196-209), material from a pinnate leaf Boronia from Frazer Island, Queens- land, was kindly furnished by Mr. C. T. White, F.L.S., Government Botanist of that State. It has been known up to the present as the ‘‘Thin-leafed’’ Boronia pinnata from Frazer Island.
The examination of the essential oil from but a pound weight of the leaves and terminal branchlets revealed a striking difference between it and the oils from closely allied Species. Supplies of the leaves and terminal branchlets in quantity were accordingly procured through the good offices of the Queensland Forest Service for the express purpose of examining the essential oil. The leaves, on crushing between the fingers, emitted the powerful and eharacteristic odour of safrol. Mr. C. T. White, F.L:S., Government Botanist of Queensland, and Mr. E. Cheel, Curator of the National Herbarium, Sydney, have given
much attention to the study of this thin-leafed form of O—December 5, 1928.
226 A. R. PENFOLD.
Boronia pinnata, and both are of the opinion that it is pro- bably a form of either Boronia thujona (Penfold and Welch) or of Borona Muellert (Cheel). It is necessary at this stage briefly to review the scattered data on the characters and chemistry of these closely allied species of Boronia in order that the points of difference between those already described and this new form may be clearly demonstrated.
In the first instance, a paper entitled ‘‘On the Essential Oil of Boroma prnnata, Sm., and the presence of Hlemicin,’’ by H. G. Smith, F.C.S., was published in the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria,’’ Vol. XXXII. (new series), part 1, 1919, pages 14-19. The species of Boronia referred to therein as B. pinnata, Sm., was later shown by Mr. E. Cheel to be identical with B. pinnata var. Muelleri, Bentham. This worker considered it to be worthy of specific rank and accordingly named it Boronia Muelleri, sp. nov. (See this Journal, Vol. LVIII. (1924), page 147). Leaves and terminal branchlets were kindly furnished in 1925 by Miss C. C. Currie, of Lardner, Victoria, through the Forestry Commission of Victoria, and the results obtained in the examination of the essential oil confirmed those obtained by the late H. G. Smith in the paper referred to above. (See under ‘‘ Experimental.’’)
Although Mr. HE. Cheel finds difficulty in separating this species, B. Muelleri, from B. thujona by any well-defined botanical characters (see paper, ‘‘Notes on Boronia in the pinnate section, with a description of a new species,’’ by E. Cheel, this Journal, Vol. LVIII. (1924), page 148), the writer, who has handled the material in bulk for oil distilla- tion, has been able to discern a marked difference in general appearance, both in disposition of foliage and flowers. As a matter of fact, it is the most abundant flowering pinnate leaf Boronia I have as yet observed, the long terminals being especially heavily laden with blossom.
THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA. 227
Referring now to the thin-leafed Boronia from Frazer Island, the Queensland Forest Service, in a letter under date 25th August, 1927, furnished the following particulars regarding its habitat which were supplied by the officer responsible for the collection of the material forwarded for oil distillation purposes.
“On Fraser Island Boronia pinnata occurs in moist gullies and on the edges of fresh water swamps and creeks, where plenty of moisture is obtainable, but where the sun has play upon its foliage. The soil is composed of sand and rotting humus. It there grows in association with Leptospermum Liversidgei, Banksia latifolia and grasses and shrubs found in this type of country. The associated trees are Broadleafed Tea tree (Melaleuca leucadendron) and Swamp Mahogany (Eucalyptus robusta). The Boronia varies in height from two to six feet with a maximum stem diameter of one inch at ground level.”
The habitat of Boronia thujona is very similar, but it has been observed to attain a greater height, sometimes up to 12 feet from the ground, with a stem diameter of 2ins. at ground level. The writer suggests that the Frazer Island Boronia be considered as a form of: B. thujona until such time as botanical science is able to bring forward morpho- logical or other evidence that will differentiate it from the
closely allied species or forms.
Although the essential oil is particularly high in content of safrol it is a species quite distinct from Boronia safrolifera, which is easily determinable by botanists (see this Journal, Vol. LVIII, 1924, page 146 and pages 230- ‘233, papers by Cheel and Penfold, respectively).
The essential oils of the various species in the pinnate section show a remarkable diversity in chemical composi- tion, particulars of which are given in the summary at the
end of this paper.
1228 A. R. PENFOLD.
The Essential Oils.
Pinnate Leaf Boroma from Frazer Island, Q. (B. thujona, var. ‘*A.’’)
Two hundred and twenty-two and a half pounds weight of leaves and terminal branchlets were kindly furnished through the courtesy of the Queensland Forest Service. On distillation with steam, yellow oils, heavier than water, highly refracting and fluorescent, and smelling strongly of safrol, were obtained in a yield of 0.5 to 0.6% (second con- signment ignored on account of loss of oil during drying and transit). The chemical and physical characters are shown in table I.
The principal constituents, so far identified, were found to be safrol (75-80% ) and [-limonene, with small quantities of phenolic bodies, sesquiterpene, and a paraffin of M.Pt. 65-66°.
Experimental.
The two principal distillates gave the following results
on distillation, viz. :—
17/9/1923. 80 ¢.c., after removal of 0.61 gram phenolic constituents, commenced to distil at 70° (20 mm.), 20% distilled below 107° (10 mm.), and 75° distilled between 108°-112° (10 mm.).
24/7/1925. 100 ec. crude oil after removal of 0.1 gram phenolic constituent yielded 11% between 70° (20 mm.) and 107° (0 "mmo yes. between 70°-106° (10 mm.), 80% between 106°=11.2> 9110 mame),
Determination of Linonene.—The lower boiling fractions of the above distillates were subjected to repeated fractional distillation over metallic sodium with the following results :—
229
THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA.
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%ES'0
"SqIOL | SZ61/L/FZ
‘sqteze | ¢z61/T/cI
‘SqIoL | e26t/6/L1
‘1lO JO Petz
*sOAvO'T yo a6 FU SIOM
230 A. R. PENFOLD.
(17/9/23 Lot. Boiling Point, 66° - 72° (10mm) ; d42°, 0.852 = ae = esto 5 ne LAS
24/7/25 Lot, Boiling Point, 174° - 177°(767mm); d}3", 0.85125. Ga, — Aor) er al Aa a
aM Both fractions, after being saturated with water, and dis- solved in four times their volume of glacial acetic acid, were treated with bromine at —20°. On standing overnight in the ice chest, characteristic crystals of limonene tetra- bromide separated, which, on isolation, drying and recrystallisation from ethyl acetate, melted sharply at 104°.
Determination of Safrol.—The fractions distilling between 106°-112° were placed in a bath of solid carbon dioxide, and the frozen mass transferred to a Buchner filter funnel surrounded with a mixture of ice and salt. The crude safrol thus obtained was further purified by redistil- lation. It gave the following constants on examination, VIZ. :—
B.pt. 109°— 110° (10mm); Melting point +11°, d32°, 1.1045;:
20° kd 20° aXe 4-0"; one, dubge2.
The filtrate from the solid safrol was found to be free from methyl eugenol, and to consist mainly of safrol with a little sesquiterpene.
The identity of this phenol ether was confirmed by boiling - ona sand tray, for a prolonged period, 30 c.c. of the purified safrol in 200 ¢.c. of ethyl alcohol containing 8 grams of sodium in solution. The iso-safrol obtained gave the fol- lowing results on examination, viz :—
B.pt. 1203° — 122° (10mm); d24°, 1.123; n°, 1.5740
On oxidation with chromic acid in glacial acetic acid. solution solid heliotropine was obtained, which, on purifica- tion through the bisulphite compound, melted sharply at 37°.
THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA. 231
Determination of Minor Constituents —The residues from the distillation of the Safrol fractions were found to con- tain small. quantities of sesquiterpenes, just detectable by the well-known colour reactions with bromine in acetic acid solution and sulphuric acid in acetic anhydride solution.
Phenolic Bodies—The first consignment examined yielded 0.6 gram crude liquid phenol removed from 80 c.e. oil by means of 8°4 sodium hydroxide solution. It pos- sessed a refractive index of 1.51380 and gave a brillant orange red colouration with ferric chloride in alcoholic solution, and formed an ammonium salt melting at 132°- 133°. It bore a close resemblance to the remarkable con- stituent isolated from the oil of Backhousia angustifolia by means of 8°4 sodium hydroxide solution and tentatively termed a ‘‘phenol’’ (see this Journal, Vol. LVII, 1923, pages 300-312).
The last consignment, 24/7/’25, yielded only 0.1% crude liquid phenol, giving an indifferent colour reaction with ferric chloride in alcoholic solution, and apparently was in no way related to that isolated from the first distillate.
Paraffin —The residues from the distillation of the frac- tions rich in safrol were found to contain small quantities of paraffin, which, on purification from alcohol, melted at 65-66°.
Boroma pinnata (Smith).
Previous attempts to determine the identity of the prin- cipal terpene were unsuccessful (see this Journal, Vol. LV. (1921), pages 199-200), but recently a small yield of limonene tetrabromide of melting point 104° was obtained from the terpene fraction. This offers confirmation of the identity of the principal terpene with limonene, which body was thought to be present, though no evidence in support could be secured.
232 A. R. PENFOLD.
Boronia thujona (Penfold & Welch).
Further supplies of the leaves and terminal branchlets from numerous localities have been examined since the publication of this species (see this Journal, Vol. LY.
(1921), pages 200-208), and the results obtained have in ©
every instance confirmed those originally published. A consignment of leaves from Pymble, N.S.W., gave the highest yield obtained to date with fresh material, viz., 0.8%. The author had the pleasure of examining the shrub in the field, both at Woodburn and Wardell, Richmond River district, New South Wales, in May, 1924, where the plants were found to be in all respects similar to those growing in the neighbourhood of Sydney. The late W. Bauerlen collected a specimen of this Boronia at Wardell as far back as the year 1893. It was of interest to observe all three species, B. pinnata (Smith), B. safrolifera (Cheel) and B. thujona, growing in close proximity to one another at Broadwater, Richmond River, N.S.W.
Boroma Muelleri (Cheel).
Great difficulty was experienced in securing further sup- plies of the leaves and terminal branchlets of this species, but a small quantity was received on the 9th November, 1925, from Miss C. C. Currie, Lardner, Victoria, through the good offices of the Victorian Forestry Commission. The material received was in full bloom, being the most heavily blossom laden pinnate leaf Boronia, especially at the ter- minals, which I have handled to date. The flowers were much paler in colour than those of B. thujona.
Experimental.
Sixteen lbs. weight of leaves and terminal branchlets on steam distillation yielded 0.6% of highly refracting and fluorescent oil, yellow in colour, and heavier than water. It gave the following results on examination, viz. :—
dis°, 1.0265 ; ans +1.50° ; cee A. 5150.
Soluble in 0.8 vol. 80° alcohol, ste No. 20.5.
Ester No. after acetylation, 34.7.
233
THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA.
CHILE TAuqoW x0 sousseid ey} 04 elauaord eup ‘jusosaaony A[su014s o10M Sotoeds anoj ie WIOIJ S[IO 9],
‘ozo ‘uTgesed ‘sorpoq o1jousqd ‘euodseyinbses ‘euououy, “(%og— Gz) oases
uyeaed pus auedzeymnbses (%og—08) euolny,y, g pue v
aqeyoor [AURIS puv joruvases ‘ouould-v-p “(%06— OL) UloIME |
ulered ‘ouedsoqyinbses ‘oueurd-v-p ‘oueuowr1y]
*‘squUON4Iysuog
0929'T oe Tl — 04 0} GSZG'T o98 — 9S0'T %9'0 04 S°0 ShSP'l | obS'9G — ZS16.0 04 04 04 9ZSP'T oot ie 1ZI6o0 | %8'0 4 9°0 OSIS'T Sse te ¢9Z0'T 0} 03 04 'eZI19'T OG Leas LETO'T | %LS°0 04 8E°0 CZ8P'I | 83st — L168°0 04 04 04 ZOLP'I oLb- | P8280 | XT'0 04 Z0'0 |" 024 oe? otP | TO PIOLA
CO ‘puspsy negate WOIJ) V5, TBA is “-nuolny, DiwoL0g
~ (TA pue plojuez)
puoiny, DiUoLog
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WAIN VwU0L0g
(q310I1g)
pyouurd viwo10g
-Soroedy JO oUIBNT
‘VINOYOd HO SHIONdS — WOUA STIO TVILNASSA AHL dO AUVNWOAS—'I Tava
Dot A. R. PENFOLD.
23 ¢.c. on distillation under reduced pressure gave the following results, viz :— Commenced to distil at 55° (8 mm.). 2 c.e. distilled below 130° (6 mm.). 20 c.c. distilled between 130°-149° (5 mm.) principally at 140°-144° (5 mm.).
dis? ae 0°
D The first fraction had 0.9236 + 7.6° LA ya2 andthe second G2. “Ra i05385 +0.6° 1.5212
Determination of Elemicin.—The presence of this phenol ether in quantity (in the crude oil equal to about 90%) was confirmed by oxidation of 16 ¢.c. with alkaline potas- sium permanganate according to the procedure outlined in the author’s paper on the ‘‘Essential oil of Backhousia myrtifolia’’ published in this Journal, Vol. LVI. (1922), page 128. The crystals of trimethylgallic acid, weighing 6 grams, were recrystallised from ethyl alcohol, when they melted at 169-170°. Titration with semi-normal alkali solution showed the acid to be monobasic, with a molecular weight of 213. C,,H,,0; requires 212. The ether soluble acid, weighing 2 grams, was recrystallised from ethyl alcohol and melted at 119°-120°. It proved to be trime- thylhomogallic acid, as titration with semi-normal alkali solution showed it to have a molecular weight of 227. C,,H,,0; requires 226.
The above results confirm those published by the late H. G. Smith in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, Vol. XXXII. (1919). The quantity of Elemicin in the later distillation, 90%, was much higher than that referred to in the above publication, 70%. My thanks are due to the Botanists and to the Forestry Departments men- tioned in the paper for valuable advice and assistance in the identification and procuring of the plant material examined, and to Mr. F. R. Morrison, A.A.C.1., F.CS8., Assistant Economic Chemist, for much assistance in the chemical examination of the essential oils.
DEFECTIVE OREGON. 235+
AN EXAMINATION OF DEFECTIVE OREGON (PSEUDOTSUGA TAXIFOLIA). M: B. WELCH: B:Sce., A.I.C.,
Economic Botanist, Technological Museum. With Plates XXI-XXIII.
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 5th Dec., 1928.)
Oregon or Douglas Fir, Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Lam.) Britton (P. Douglasti Carr), is usually regarded as a strong: tough wood and is used extensively in building construc- tion for scantlings, scaffoldings, ete. Recently an Oregon back stay of an electric derrick crane, which was being used in demolition work, broke suddenly and without warning, whilst under load, resulting in a very serious accident. The defective timber was submitted by the Seaffolding and Lifts Branch of the Department of Labour and Industry of New South Wales for examination. Since Oregon is: used so largely for purposes in which it is subjected to: heavy loads, it was thought advisable to examine the wood fairly thoroughly in order to determine, if possible, the: eause of failure. The wood appeared to be quite normal and its external appearance gave no indication of its brittleness.
The broken wood showed a typically brash failure which was almost without splinters and unlike the ‘‘long-fibre: break’’ usually obtained for Oregon. Brashness or brittle- ness is a most serious defect in timber, since under load the wood is liable to fail suddenly and the absence of warning often results in serious consequences ; the wood is especially’ hable to rupture under sudden or impact loads.
236 M. B. WELCH.
The following mechanical tests were made :— Static bending tests.
Static bending tests on 3” x 3” x 36” span, centre load. ‘The test pieces were cut to this size to include as much as possible of the cross section of the beam, which measured 7.6” x 6.6.” Four test pieces were therefore obtained.
it EK D rpu.. LOW. ae 1 7000 1,700,000 32.4 6.3 24 14.9 2 9000 1,660,000 33.0 8.5 24 15.1 3 8600 1,730,000 33.1 8.0 20 14.6 4 8000 1,720,000 34.4 Ou 26 14.6
Mean 8150 1,703,000 33.2 8.0 25 14.8
f = Modulus of Rupture in lbs. per sq. in.
E = Modulus of Elasticity in lbs. per sq. in.
D Weight per cubic foot at time of testing; air dry volume and weight.
|
Y.p.1. = Average number of growth rings per inch. ‘L.W. = Percentage of late or summer wood in the erowth ring. M = Moisture percentage on the dry weight.
‘The proportional limit was not clearly defined in tests. ‘The failures were carroty and the wood failed in tension without warning.
Two static bending tests were made on the full-sized ‘timber with a span of six feet, centre loading.
f E rp. Lowe |
1 4890 1,570,000 Max.10 ) 14.5 26.2
2 7680, 570 COON Nin | 5a 15.0
Mean 6285 — 1,570,000 8.5 assay spel
The proportional limit was not defined. The failures -~were sudden, partially in tension and horizontal shear, and ‘definitely indicated the brashness of the wood.
DEFECTIVE OREGON. 237
Additional static bending tests were made subsequently, on 2” x 2” x 28” span*. It will be noted that the moisture content has decreased.
W. W.to f1 a E Vile Dey) eps ewe MM. fa50 7930 1,870,000 1.58 2.08 32.0 80 243 138.0: 7980 8820 1,890,000 Sie, 2b Sw oes, » 90" | 28:4 F128 7350 7480 1,810,000 1:63 "1945 32-6 §8.0 28:0) 12.2 7140 «F715 ~=61,580,000 1.79 2.40 31.3. 65 24.8. 12.7
W450 7990. 1,790,000 1.72 2.25 -81.9 74 264 12.7
ee
ng = Fibre stress at proportional limit in lbs. per square inch. W.toP.L. = Work to proportional limit in inch lbs. per cubic inch. W. to M.L. = Work to maximum load in inch lbs. per cubie inch.
For comparison the results of the following static bending tests are given, made on small clear specimens from the Technological Museum.
3” x 38” x 86” span centre load.
a E D. TDs L.W. M. 1 11,620 2,260,000 34.7 16.0 39.6 1224. 2 12,660 2,330,000 Bia 20.5 36.9 12.6: 3 18,580 1,670,000 Base 1270 34.5 11.3 4 13,060 2,010,000 BVA 145) 28.6 10.9 5 10,520 1,800,000 36.5 6.5 38.4 12.4 6 8,400 1,770,000 Bore 4.0 35.8 11.9: 7 7,660 1,330,000 26.4 4.0 25.2 12.0:
Mean 11,070 1,800,000 30.0 11.0 31.4 11.9
es —— eee ————e
The following static bending tests were made on 2” x 2” x 28” span clear specimens.
* Tests marked * have been made in conformity with the specification adopted for testing small clear specimens of timber and described in U.S.D.A. Forest Service Bull. 108, and subse- quently in Projects I. of the Canadian Forest Product Labora- tory and also of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Forest Products Research, of Great Britain, 1928..
“238 M. B. WELCH.
f E D Pupil. M Maximum .. 14,730 2,350,000 35.6 35 14.2 Dinimum., 3,800 1,290,000 24.8 17 9.8
Mean 12 tests 11,520 1,790,000 31.9 22. 1 vane
Canadian’ and American®) mean tests for static bending tests on 2” x 2” x 28” span air dry clear specimens are as
follows :— W.to W. to
fel f E P.L. M.L. D+ r.p.i. L.W. M. Mountain (1) 8,460 18,340 1,664,000 2.44 8.40 31.4 26.2 25.0 9.5 Mountain (1) 9,540 13,620 1,806,000 2.86 11.80 338.2 17.4 32.0 10.7 ‘Coast (1) 8,990 14,050 2,142,000 2.20 9.90 33.4 1333 38.0 11.1 Wyoming (2) 6,900 10,300 1,460,000 1.83 6.5 338.6 22.0 27.0 9.4 ‘Oregon (2)10,600 14,000 2,210,000 2.94 8.4 38.1 13.0 35.0 6.2
U.S.A. (3) 5,065 6,777 1,858,000 —— 31.0 12.2 41.0 14.9
(1) Some Commercial Softwoods of Canada. Forest Service Bulletin No. 78, Dept. of Interior, Canada, 1927.
(2) Mechanical Properties of Woods grown in U.S.A. Newlin and Wilson, U.S. Dept. of Agric. Forest Service, Bull. 556, 1917.
‘(3) Mean figures for 5” x 8” beams. Tests on Structural timbers. Cline and Heim, U.S. Dept. of Agric. Forest Ser- vice, Bull. 108, 1912.
+ Corrected to 12% moisture.
Impact Tests.
Izod impact tests were made in conformity with the British Engineering Standard Association Specification for Aircraft Material.
Energy absorbed
in foot Ibs. E Wale M Maximum Se mice ane S 9 — Minimum Sacer 2 7 — Mean 6 tests .. .. 8.3 7.8 hoy ‘Tests made on Oregon in stock gave the following results:
Tp. M D
“Maximum 2s) 280 tty lbs. 935 9 (1nd ai Ae ine Minimum PUR IME MRAM. Af 5) ame nnn IE 9 8. ey ee
“Mean (12 tests) .. 230.,,.,, 22, 10,624) eeu
9713300 Ibs. ,,
DEFECTIVE OREGON. 939
*Compression parallel to grain.
C1 C E cpa. M Maximum ... 5,500 7430 1,250,000 9 — Mommum .. 3,875 6230 833,000 6.5 —
Mean (6 tests) 4,685 6695 999,000 85 12.7
C1 = Fibre stress at limit of proportionality in lbs. per square inch.
C = Maximum crushing strength in lbs. per square inch.
Canada (l.c.) .. 4220 7600 2,229,000 19 10.4
meses, (.c.) .. 7290 8885 — 17.5 ee:
*Compression perpendicular to grain. Fibre stress at hmit of proportionality in lbs. per sq. in.:
Lost. ommum .. 2... 1440 8.5 — fom .. wl 1325 6.0 —
Mean (5 tests) .... 1370 ead) era A M@amada (l.e.) .. .. 997 19 10.4 eee ic.) ous 860 17.5 diate Tension parallel to gran.
Area Breaking Load in
in sq. in. lbs. per sq. in. Ppa. M
i 0.7651 3850 9:0 14.1 2 0.7548 6995 9.0 12.8 3 0.7466 7640 1.0 14.1 4 0.7698 8060 10.5 29
Mean 6636 9.0 13.5
Koehlert gives the following mean figures for tension parallel to grain.
1. 16,200 lbs. sq. in. M2417, D = 33 Ibs. ee M—25.07, D = 30 lbs.
+ Koehler Properties and Uses of Woods, 1924.
240 M. B. WELCH.
*Tension perpendicular to grain. T(a) T(b) r.p.l (aye 2 pate
Maximums):.. 52%) 300 470 7.5 9 —~
Minimum. i 115 272 6.5 6.5 —
Nean- Gi tests). 24) A777 305 ee 7.8 12.7 T =Tensile strength in lbs. per sq. in.
(a) = Plane of failure radial. (b) == Plane of failure tangential.
(a) & (b) Canada (l.c.) i a OO 19 10.4 U:S.A. (Le.) JIL et eo) 1% 7.8 * Hardness. H(a) H (b) H(e) Maximum.) ss O00 610 660 Nomimnaume 9 tr. 08 DOU) 780
Mean (7 tests) .. 548 (5tests) 589 (7 tests) 716 H =Load required to imbed a 0.444 inch ball to half
diameter. (a) — Radial surface; (b) = tangential surface; (c) = end.
surface. Canada (le.) .. 683 691 799 U.S.A. (Le.) ae (a) & (b) 575 670. *Shearing Strength parallel to grain.
rp (a) (b) (a) (b) M
Maximum .. 1490 1420lbs.persq.in. 8 10 — Minimum ... 812 1030>,. ,,..,..5. Gene
Mean (6 tests) 1190 1266 ,, ,, 5, 5 (ogee (a) Plane of failure radial. | (b) Plane of failure tangential.
Canada (l.c.) .. > (a) &(b) 1271 19 10.4 USA, Che.) Poo. 6a) Galas) 1140 W3 5 TS
DEFECTIVE OREGON. 241
*Cleavage. pl.
S(a) S(b) (a) (b) M Maximum pte cee Bo) 140 SA). 80.0) — Minimum fer se 1720) 160 6.0 ~~ 6.5 — Mean (6 tests) .. 141 52 ee © ne 12.7 S = Splitting Strength in lbs. per in. of width. (a) = Plane of failure radial. (b) = Plane of failure tangential. Canada (l.c.) .. -(a) & (b) 265 19 10.4 U.S.A. (l.c.) .. Cleavage tests for air dry wood not
given.
One of the most important requirements in a timber which is subject to loads is toughness}. The term is apphed to a number of different properties of wood, but can be regarded as the reverse of brittleness ; it is indicated by (a) the ability of the wood to absorb energy in impact tests, (b) the work to maximum load in static bending tests.
An examination of the results of the static bending tests shows that the modulus of rupture is small in comparison with the other tests on small clear specimens, but the figure is not abnormally low. The most striking result is the small interval between the proportional limit and the ultimate load, which is a definite indication of brittleness. Further, although the resilience of the wood is normal, the ‘‘work to maximum load’’ is very low, indicating again a brittle timber. Similarly, the impact tests, with an
+ Den Berger, Mechanical Properties of Dutch East Indian Timbers, No. 12. Proefstation v/h. Boschwezen, 1926, refers to a tough wood as “one that will not rupture until it has de- formed considerably under loads at or near its maximum strength or one which still hangs together after it has been ruptured and may be bent back and forth without breaking apart, and which gives way only gradually and gives warning of rupture. It is able to store a considerable amount of energy and has a remarkable shock resisting ability.”
P—December 5, 1928.
242 M. B. WELCH.
energy absorption of 8.3 foot lbs. in comparison with 23.0 foot lbs. for normal Oregon, clearly show the brashness of the wood.
Except that the wood failed, almost without warning and with no defined lmit of proportionality, the large beam tests did not reveal any serious lack of strength, in compari- son with large beam tests made in U.S.A.
The stiffness of the wood, indicated by the modulus of elasticity, was not low in comparison with many other of the test results.
Tests made in compression parallel to the grain showed
‘that the wood was not particularly weak in this regard, and that there is a very appreciable difference between
‘the limit of proportionality and the ultimate load, although.
less than that given for the Canadian tests.
The strength in compression perpendicular to the grain was higher than the means given by other authorities and seems to indicate that the ability of the tracheids to with- stand lateral crushing is not weakened, however brittle the ‘wood might be.
As Record* states, the tensile strength, parallel to the grain, of a wood is about three times its strength in com- pression, but the results of the tests show that there is practically no difference in the figures for tension and compression obtained for the defective Oregon, whilst the results given by Koehler (l.¢.) clearly show the very great superiority in tensile strength of normal Oregon. It is easy to understand, therefore, that whilst with normal wood it is possible to bend it considerably before failure takes place on the tension side, in wood which has the tensile strength approximately equal to the compressive strength, very slight bending is sufficient for the wood to fail on the tension side and the wood is therefore brittle.
* Record, Mechanical Properties of Wood, 1914.
huge
DEFECTIVE OREGON. 243
The results of the tension perpendicular to the grain, with a radial plane of failure are low and indicate a small degree of lateral cohesion between the tracheids or that the eell walls are easily split when subjected to a transverse pull. The greater strength in tension in a radial direction, j.e., with a tangential plane of failure, is apparently due to the action of the medullary rays.
The hardness tests, whilst lower than the Canadian tests, care close to those for the U.S.A. wood, for the side, and higher for the end, and show that the wood was not soft or spongy. As pointed out by Record (l.c.) resistance to indentation is largely dependent on density.
The results of the shearing tests parallel to grain are quite normal and do not indicate any weakness in this Tespect.
Strength to resist splitting, as indicated by the cleavage tests, is comparable with tension perpendicular to the grain. ‘The results of this series of tests (1.e., cleavage) are also low in comparison with the Canadian figures.
Weight.
One of the most important factors influencing the ‘strength of timber is weight. In practice, weakness in timber is usually associated with a low density and relation- ships have been established between the various mechanical properties of wood and specific gravity® ft.
The density of the defective wood, about 33 lbs. per cubic foot, is not low and compares closely with the average figures given for the material tested in Canada and U.S.A., and it also approximates to the mean of the specimens
* The relation of the shrinkage and strength properties of wood to its specific gravity. Newlin and Wilson, U.S. D.A. - Forest Service Bull. No. 676, 1919.
+ Den Berger (l.c.) outlines the various theories in reference ‘to the mechanical properties—-density relationship.
244 M. B. WELCH.
tested for comparison. There was no evidence of compres- sion wood, which is comparatively weak. Den Berger (l.¢.) has pointed out that specific gravity does not give any clue to the phability or toughness of the wood and this is borne out by the result of the impact tests.
Rate of Growth.
From a large series of tests on structural sizes made in U.S.A.¢ the optimum rate of growth for Oregon was found to be 24 rings per inch, but considerable variation in strength was found, and the conclusion was reached that ‘‘yines per inch are not a reliable index to the mechanical properties of timber, especially structural timbers contain-
ing knots and other defects.’’ Further, in particular ref- erence to Oregon, the following conclusion was made that,. ‘‘in general, rapidly grown wood (less than eight rings per inch) is relatively weak. <A study of individual tests
upon which the average is based shows, however, that when it is not associated with ight weight and a small proportion
of summer wood, rapid growth is not indicative of weak
wood’’.*
In the crane backstay the maximum number of rings.
per inch is 10, and the minimum 5, the mean being 8.5, which, though showing comparatively rapid growth, is not
exceptionally fast. The American Society for Testing
Materials has adopted as a standard for the best grade,
known as Dense Douglas Fir, that it shall have an average: of not less than 6 rings per inch and at least 4 summer or
late wood, or if the rings are wide the summer wood must constitute at least 4 of the ringt. Tests (5), (6) and (7)
+ Tests on Spruce timbers. U.S. D.A. Forest: Service Bull.. No. 108.
* Properties and Uses of»Dougias Fir. U.S. Forest Service Bull, No. 88.
+ Basic Grading Rules and Working Stresses for Structural
Timbers, Newlin and Johnson, U.S. Forest Service Circular No. 295: 1923:
—
DEFECTIVE OREGON. 245
made on 3” x 3” x 36” clear specimens were selected from rapidly grown material; (6) and (7) with 4 r.p.i. are com- parable in strength with the results for the small clear specimens from the defective wood. Both (6) and (7) were cut from near the heart, and showed brittle failures. Although the position of the heart is not regarded as affect- ing the strength in structural sizes, provided the weight is normal, it is commonly found that wood near the heart, either due to very rapid growth or incipient decay is hable to be brittle. The inner side of the crane section was cut approximately 3 inches from the heart.
Slow growth also frequently results in a weak timber, one of the Museum test pieces with 35 r.p.i. had a density of only 25.4 Ibs. and gave a modulus of rupture of 8,800 Tbs. per square inch.
Late Wood.
The percentage of late or summer wood in the growth ring has an important bearing on strength since a low percentage usually indicates brashness. The average figure of 26°94 obtained is rather lower than the specification for ““dense’’ Oregon of 33%, but 1s not low enough to account for the brittleness of the wood. Forsaith,* in his investiga- tion of brashness, found that it was increased by a decrease in the amount of late wood, by a decrease in the thickness of the tracheid wall, and by an increase in the number and size of the bordered pits. He found also that fibre or tracheid length was unimportant in determining brashness. Since obviously increased cell wall thickness must result in increased weight, if the weight is normal one would not expect to find thin tracheid walls. Observations made on
the radial thickness of the tracheid wall are as follows :—
* Forsaith, C. C., The morphology of wood in relation to ‘brashness. Jour. Forestry, xix, 237, 1921.
246 M. B. WELCH.
oe , \ Hark. Woode— Portion of beam near heart ee Wood
2
D
a (Early Wood = 2 — 3y Middle of beam .. bate Woostains (Early Wood = 2
(Late Wood = 5 - 8 p It is evident that the cell wall thickness is comparable with
the ordinary wood. The length of the tracheids is very
Museum 3” x 3” test No. 1
variable, but the majority were between 2.4 — 5.0 mm., which is also normal for Oregon.
Moisture.
Although wood dried to a very low moisture content is: liable to become brittle, the moisture content of the crane material is normal for air-seasoned material and cannot have had any effect in bringing about the extreme brash-. ness of the wood.
A microscopical examination showed no evidence of fungal attack nor was the wood discoloured in any way. Although wood may become brittle in areas adjacent to: those in which the hyphae are actually present, the fact that test pieces from all parts of the beam showed similar brashness does not suggest the possibility of a fungal origin of the trouble.
Robinsont, who has made a very careful microscopical study of the initial causes of failure in timber, found definite indications of minute slip planes, in the cell walls,. especially in compression. These gave cellulose reactions. with various reagents. He further concluded that the for- mation of these slip planes preceded the buckling or erinkling of the tracheids.
+ Robinson, W. The microscopical features of mechanical strains in timber and the bearing of these on the structure of the cell wall in plants. Trans. Roy. Soc., London. Vol. 210, 49, 1920.
DEFECTIVE OREGON. 247
From the photomicrographs of sections from the com- pression side of the failure it is apparent that there is no sion of buckling of the tracheids. Although aniline chloride, followed by aniline blue, indicates minute lines on the cell wall, apparently corresponding to the slip planes described by Robinson, these appear just as numerous in wood which, as far as is known, had not been subjected to any severe strains. Chlor-zinc-iodine and iodine and sul- phurie acid gave no appreciable darkening of the tissues in the vicinity of the zone of failure.
Nothing unusual was observed in the number or distri-
bution of the bordered pits.
The failure appeared to be almost transverse in the late wood, the tracheids being broken almost at right angles. In places the fracture followed the rays; in others it occurred along the grain in the middle of the late wood. Many of the tracheids showed a break inclined at an angle of about 45°, the plane of maximum shear, whilst others were inclined at greater or lesser angles to the longitudinal
direction.
The extreme weakness of the wood in tension, which approximates that in compression, evidently accounts for the lack of buckling of the fibres in compression, since the failure apparently occurred first on the tension side.
In the position in which the wood was used it was sub- jected to variable eccentric loading and the compressive and tensile stresses alternated from side to side, with the alteration of the position of the jib. The wood was appar- ently subjected to loads approaching, if not exceeding, the elastic limit and the continuous reversal of stresses suggests the possibility of fatigue.
248 M. B. WELCH.
Although fatigue is not usually regarded as seriously affecting timber, Siminski, according to an abstractt, has proved that wood previously subjected to compression is rendered weaker in tension and that reversal of stresses materially lowers the resistance of the wood to rupture. On the other hand, repeated impact tests were made on wood at the Forest Product Laboratory, Madison**, in which the specimens were stressed to a little above the elastic limit; the wood was then subjected to a static bend- ing test and the results in comparison with similar speci- mens which had not been subjected to impact showed no significant change in the properties of the wood.
There seems to be no reason why modification of the tissues of the wood should not occur as the result of severe stresses, ultimately resulting in weakness or brashness. The subject appears to be worthy of further investigation.
I am indebted to Prof. H. P. Brown, of the New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse University, for the above references.
Summary.
Tests showed that the wood was extremely brittle and failed without warning. Whilst the strength in compres- sion is normal it is extremely weak in tension parallel to the grain.
The ability of the wood to absorb energy is very small, rendering it unfit for the purpose for which it was used. Although the rate of growth is faster than the optimum for Oregon and the percentage of late wood is rather less than is permitted in first-grade timber for structural pur- poses, the density of the wood is normal. It is suggested,
+ Siminski I Vestnik Ingenerov, No. 4, April, 1927. Abstract seen in Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 49, 802, 1927. Original not available.
** Moore and Kommers. The Fatigue of Metals, Chap. X., 1927.
DEFECTIVE OREGON. 249
however, that wood of rather slower growth and cut further from the heart should be used for purposes where it is known that the member will be subjected to severe stresses.
Microscopically, there appears to be no reason to account for the brashness, which is apparently due to some inherent quality of the wood or possibly to a state of fatigue brought about by continual reversal of stresses near the elastic limit.
In conclusion, I am indebted to the Mechanical Engineer- ing Department of the Sydney Technical College for mak- ing the large beam tests; to this Department and to Wing- ‘Commander Wackett, R.A.A.F., Experimental Station, Randwick, for the use of the necessary machines; and to Mr. F. B. Shambler, of the Museum Staff, for his assist- ance in the making of the tests and for the two photographs
illustrating the fracture and cross section of the wood.
250
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
M. B. WELCH.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Transverse section of timber, showing nature of wood and distribution of growth rings.
Original failure of the crane backstay. The right is the compression side of the member. The brittleness of the wood is indicated by the ‘*short-fibred’’ break.
Radial longitudinal section, showing break on compression side; the fracture is frequently transverse in the late wood. x 114.
Tangential longitudinal section, showing break on compression side. x 1134.
Radial longitudinal section of break on compres- sion side, showing inclination of fracture of the tracheid walls. The spiral bands are normal in Oregon. Note absence of buckling of the tracheids. x 125.
Similar section to above at junction of early and late wood. The transverse fracture of many of the late wood tracheids is apparent. In the spring or early wood the failure frequently but not always follows the line of the bordered pit. Fine markings can be observed on the walls of some of the late wood tracheids. X 125.
Tangential longitudinal section of break on com- pression side in early wood, showing irregular fracture of the tracheids; these commonly occur at the same inclination as the spiral tracheid thickenings. x 128.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928. Plate XX1.
Bigs:
fx
Plate XXII.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIT., 1928.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Plate XXIII.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXI1., 1928.
Fig. 5.
Pig (.
bo Or
TERTIARY AGE OF SEDENTARY SOILS.
ON THE PROBABLE TERTIARY AGE OF CERTAIN. NEW SOUTH WALES SEDENTARY SOILS.
By W. R. Browne, D.Sc., Assistant-Professor of Geology, University of Sydney.
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1928.)
In his presidential address to this Society in May, 1927 —a noteworthy contribution to Australian geological litera- ture—Dr. W. G. Woolnough advanced a bold, but interest- ing and stimulating, generalization as to the origin of the: various hard surface-cappings, comprised by him under the name of duricrust, which are such a common feature in certain parts of our continent. Some of the conclusions he expressed in regard to the origin and date of formation of the duricrust might well be extended to other surface accumulations which are still unconsolidated, in other: words, to some of our present-day soils.
The residual sedentary soil is the result of rock-weathering’ om situ. Asarule, but a small thickness of the surface-rock is affected directly by the atmospheric agents of weathering, but, indirectly, through percolating water-solutions and the: gases they contain, rocks may be influenced chemically for considerable depths below the surface, and it is to this chemical weathering that the sedentary soil is mainly due, the percolating solutions having removed. the readily soluble rock constituents, leaving the oxidised and hydrated insoluble residues as a discompacted or potentially incoherent mass.
In general there is a tendency for the products of weath-. ering to be removed by erosion, this tendency increasing, in the case of normal! water-erosion, with the surface relief,.
Dia2 W. R. BROWNE.
and there is pretty general agreement that the accumula- tion of a deep mantle of soil and subsoil is not favoured by youthful topography. In regard to the conditions most favourable for such accumulation, however, there does not appear to be the same unanimity among geologists.
Barrell™, in his classic paper on ‘‘Rhythms and the Measurement of Geological Time,’’ challenges what he evidently regards as an accepted view, that peneplains should be covered with a very deep residual oxidised soil. On the contrary, he declares, a peneplain should possess a relatively thin regolith, since beneath its surface there should be practically no groundwater circulation, and for effective rock-decay this circulation is imperative, otherwise the solutions soon get saturated and chemical action ceases. According to Barrell, in a region of considerable relief, where the circulating ground-water has greater rapidity of movement, a greater volume of rock is likely to be affected.
Van Hise), discussing the physiographic conditions fav- ouring chemical weathering, points out that where the elevation is slight the water-table, the downward limit of effective weathering, may be very close to the surface, so that the depth of decomposition is very restricted; at the same time decomposition will be very thorough. Since in regions of high relief disintegration and erosion may go on too rapidly to permit much decomposition, Van Hise con- cludes that the most favourable topographical conditions for the accumulation of decomposed rock material are those of moderate elevation and continuous moderate slopes.
Woolnough in his presidential address emphasises very strongly the connexion between peneplanation and deep decomposition, 2nd even goes so far as to declare that *‘one essential criterion of a high degree of perfection of pene- planation is that the rocks of the area show evidence of
TERTIARY AGE OF SEDENTARY SOILS. 253
very deep and very complete chemical alteration by meteoric waters.’’ Woolnough’s argument is that only when a region is in an advanced stage of peneplanation will mechanical transport of weathered material cease, while at the same time the sluggish lateral circulation of surface waters will involve ‘‘deep saturation of the subsoil and long- continued contact between rock-minerals and meteoric waters.”’
There is thus evident quite a marked conflict of opinions in regard to the question of the conditions favouring deep decay.
It is clear that in a peneplain the water-table will be close to the surface, and, if the contention of Van Hise be accepted that the belt of weathering extends only down to or a little below the water-table, then it is difficult to see how any considerable thickness of decomposed rock-material can accumulate. On the other hand it is certain that, where there is appreciable relief, not only will the proportion of meteoric water soaking into the ground be considerably _ lessened, but the removal of the products of weathering will proceed rapidly through erosion, and the net rate of accumulation of weathered material will be slowed down: at some critical degree of relief the products of weathering will be removed by erosion as fast as they are formed.
The accumulation of residual sedentary soil, then, de- pends on the ascendency of chemical weathering over mechanical erosion, but whether the maximum resuit will be attained when the relief is moderate or when it is negligible it would be very difficult to say, especially as other factors besides physiography come into play.
The inference, however, may safely be made that low physiographie relief is favourable to the accumulation of much residual sedentary soil and decomposed rock, and, modifying Woolnough’s thesis slightly, we may say that
254 W. R. BROWNE.
where thick layers of soil, subsoil and decomposed rock are found, that fact is in itself evidence of very mature physio- ‘graphic conditions having prevailed during their formation. If therefore we find such accumulations in areas of present- ‘day marked relief or of youthful or early-mature dissec- tion, it is a fair inference that we are dealing with fossil weathering, as it were, and with fossil soils, not now in a state of active formation, but produced in, and surviving from, the closing stages of the last preceding cycle of erosion.
For many years past the writer has at times encountered ‘what have seemed to be evidences of such sedentary soils in various parts of the uplifted and dissected peneplain of central-eastern New South Wales. Mr. E. C. Andrews(‘3) has pointed out that this region, in common with the rest of Eastern Australia, was a peneplain, or at all events an area of low relief, in late Tertiary times, and that by a series of ‘differential uplifts in the late Pliocene period, during what he has called the Kosciusko epoch, it was raised to varying heights above sea-level, since which time the plateaux formed have been suffering dissection. In some places, as round about Sydney and in the Blue Mountains, the present drainage-system is fairly complete, through the evolution of new streams or the rejuvenation of old ones. Elsewhere rejuvenation has not proceeded so rapidly, and above the rejuvenation-limit of the streams areas are to be found, which, though high above sea-level, stil! preserve almost intact the mature topography and gently undulating physiographic features of their late Tertiary days.
On the flat tops of the residual surface of the plateaux, and on the very gentle slopes of the former mature valleys, there are to be found the soils, sometimes of quite notable depth, whose formation the writer considers took place ‘before the Kosciusko uplift; instances of these will now be given.
TERTIARY AGE OF SEDENTARY SOILS. 255
Around Sydney the dominant geological formations are the Triassic Hawkesbury Sandstone and Wianamatta Shale. Where the former occurs as ridges forming water-partings between adjacent streams the soil-covering is usually but scanty, the sand having been displaced down the valley- slopes by gravity and sheet-wash erosion, or altogether removed by the streams. But where there are flat tops, however narrow, to these ridges, a laver of sandy soil and subsoil may be apparent, sometimes three feet and more in depth, grading down through decomposed sandstone into the solid rock. The depth of the soils would appear in some degree to vary according to the extent of flat country, and in places, as about St. Ives and French’s Forest, where considerable flat and relatively still undissected areas occur, the soils are of extensive distribution and substantial depth. An interesting feature is sometimes to be noticed near the boundaries of Hawkesbury sandstone and over- lying Wianamatta shale. The shale may have completely disappeared as such, and the soil rests on sandstone, but this soil is of a clayey or loamy character quite unlike that derived from the sandstone, and is characterised by the presence of little flat fragments of rather ferruginous sandy shale. This soil is regarded as an inherited type, representing the weathering-product of a former thin layer of shale which has now completely disappeared.
The Wianamatta Shale itself around Sydney occupies perhaps mainly the lower-lying areas, where uplift has been small and relief is still but slight. Here there has been weathering to considerable depths, as may occasionally be seen in railway-cuttings and in other excavations in the more southerly suburbs, where the deep iron-stained clayey soils and subsoils are usually very characteristic. On the higher lands the shale soils are perhaps shallower, but in flat or gently sloping situations the thickness is greater, and the soil, particularly, it would appear, near the base of the
256 W. R. BROWNE.
formation, is of a dark red colour and very ferruginous. A common characteristic of these dark shale soils is the presence of irregular nodules of ironstone, sometimes up to: a couple of inches in diameter, but generally smaller. These may be quite thickly embedded in the soil, or where the finer-grained soil has been washed away they may form a thin capping of the so-called ‘‘ironstone gravel.’’ There is little doubt that these nodules have been formed in the soil itself, and their significance will be referred to pre- sently. A good place in which to study an occurrence of this kind is on the road from Pymble to St. Ives, near the Pymble golf-links; the ‘‘ironstone gravel’’ has been ob- served at Roseville and elsewhere.
Recently, under the guidance of Mr. G. D. Osborne, B.Se., the writer has had the opportunity of examining some of the dissected plateau surface about the suburbs of Arnecliffe and Earlwood, to the north-west of Botany Bay. The peneplain has been uplifted here to a height of about 150 feet above sea-level, and has been dissected by Cook’s River, Wolli Creek and their tributaries. The area in question is composed of Hawkesbury Sandstone, and in numerous places on the level upland surface—in fact everywhere except on the gentle slopes near the tops of the valley-walls whence erosion has removed it—may be seen a variable thickness of rather sandy soil, containing, or under- lain by, abundant irregular nodules of brown ironstone, sometimes aggregated into a solid layer on top of the sand- stone. In certain places the soil resting on the sandstone is very dark red in colour and contains the little flat flakes of rock described above as characteristic of the shale soils. Where only nodules or flat flakes are found on the solid rock the evidence is very clear that a layer of soil has disap- peared. According to Mr. Osborne the ironstone nodules are universally distributed over the plateau surface around these suburbs.
TERTIARY AGE OF SEDENTARY SOILS. 257
On the Blue Mountains, about Leura particularly, some- what similar phenomena have been observed. On the flat tops of the sandstone plateau depths of soil of a couple of feet and more may be encountered. It is essentially sandy, somewhat mealy in texture and feel, and brownish in colour through iron-staining, and it merges imperceptibly into decomposed sandstone. Sometimes the decomposed rock is to be distinguished from soil only by the existence in it of bands of little quartz pebbles representing pebble-layers in the original rock which are still in place. The mealiness and the greater depth of decomposition as compared with the Sydney sandstone, are in all probability the result of a higher felspathic content of the sandstone, due to Leura being much nearer than Sydney to the original granitic source of supply for the clastic material.
The sandstone is intersected with highly irregular layers rich in iron oxide, averaging about an inch in thickness. The ferruginous material has been deposited in the pores of the sandstone and forms a resistant cement. On the weathering of the sandstone into sedentary soil these layers are broken up into fragments and remain embedded in the soil, and where the soil is dug up, or where it has been eroded along street gutters, smooth rounded or kidney- shaped nodules of a yellow-brown colour may be seen, which, on being broken open, are found to consist of frag- ments of the ferruginous sandstone layers which have been completely invested with a coat of iron hydrate. There seems no reason to doubt that these nodules, like those at Pymble, Arncliffe and elsewhere, have been produced in the soil, in this case by deposition round a nucleus of ferruginous sandstone.
The country about Penrose, Wingello and Tallong, in the southern part of the Central Tablelands, is in part dissected by the tributaries of the Shoalhaven River, but there are
Q—December 5, 1928.
258 W. R. BROWNE.
considerable areas, above the rejuvenation-limit of the streams, which are almost in their pre-uplift condition of late maturity, and these are covered with an extensive mantle of sandy and gravelly soils, overlying sandstones of Triassic, and conglomerates and sandstones of Upper Permo-Carboniferous age. Though in the depressions this soil may be in great measure alluvial, by far the greater part is sedentary. Some of the country is covered with flows of Tertiary basalt, and there is evidence that some of this was poured out over sandy soil resting directly on the older sandstones, just as in the case of the silicified Tertiary sands at Ulladulla described by Miss Ida A. Brown, B.Se. In railway-cuttings the gradation from soil into rotten, and from that into fresh sandstone, is well dis- played. At Tallong, and particularly at Wingello, the writer was much struck by the resemblance of the soil con- ditions to those prevailing in the Blue Mountains, thick deposits of white sand often constituting a surface-layer, the bleaching being probably due to the action of organic acids produced from decomposing vegetation. At Wingello, though definite proofs were not found, it appeared to be the case that the deposits of Tertiary pisolitic laterite or bauxite were in part resting on this sandy soil, and in the neighbourhood of Penrose Mr. G. F. K. Naylor, B.Sce., pointed out a thin bed of dark red ferruginous shale con- taining Tertiary fossil leaves, which was underlain by compact sandy soil.
At Ulan, about 25 miles north of Mudgee, there are coal-measures resting directly on granite, and overlain by Triassic sandstones and conglomerates. The country is less than 2000 feet above sea-level, and is drained by the River Goulburn, which here flows in a mature valley per- haps 300 feet below the plateau-level. The country is of moderate relief, and the surface of the plateau is nearly
TERTIARY AGE OF SEDENTARY SOILS. 259
flat over large areas. A noteworthy feature of the Triassic country in places is the thick covering of sandy soil, very similar to that found in some of the localities described -above.
That the soils to which allusion has been made are of ‘Tertiary age is the conclusion to which the writer has been impelled, partly from the theoretical considerations put forward in the early part of this paper. The areas deseribed were all affected by the Tertiary peneplanation, cand before the Kosciusko uplift were in a state of advanced ‘maturity or senility; the probability must therefore be recognised that a thick mantle of decomposed rock and sedentary soil covered them before the uplift. Since that time in a number of the places described there has been no considerable change in the local base-level of erosion, and removal of the products of decay by ‘surface-erosion is proceeding but slowly, hence it is reasonable to expect to find considerable quantities of Tertiary regolith still re- maining. At the same time in the instances cited the present-day relief is sufficient to ensure good underground circulation, and good surface drainage, so that the stream- erosion could easily keep pace with current weathering. The existing accumulations of soil, representing the excess of material produced by weathering over that removed by erosion, are therefore not to be attributed to present-day weathering activity, but are more reasonably interpreted as relics of the Tertiary regolith.
But it may be objected that while such soils may have persisted till the present day in inland areas as yet not reached by rejuvenation, such a thing would be impossible ‘about Sydney and the Blue Mountains, in view of the state of dissection attained by the uplifted peneplain, and the likelihood of all unconsolidated deposits having been swept away long ere this. It must, however, be remembered in
260 ‘ WwW. R. BROWNE.
this connexion that since Pleistocene times, when most of the existing dissection was accomplished, there has been a considerable diminution in the rainfall and a corresponding shrinkage of the streams. Any parts of the plateau area, therefore, which were untouched by erosion during the more pluvial period, may easily have survived till the present, and where the actual soil has been swept away the original subsoil and decomposed rock may exist to-day as soil.
Of course, too, the soils dealt with are in the main sandy, and as such would be less liable to surface erosion than more compact types: in other words their porosity has been a chief factor in their survival. As a matter of fact the fine-grained clayey soils have in many eases almost com- pletely disappeared through sheet-wash erosion from the flat or nearly flat plateau surfaces.
Again, the frequent occurrence of ferruginous nodules and of hardpan in the soils of the plateau areas is of sig- nificance. The deposition of material of this kind is to be regarded as a manifestation of bad underground drainage, combined with an alternation of wet and dry climatic periods. The lack of drainage ensures that the stagnant soil-water will be saturated with mineral matter, which is deposited in the soil or subsoil as nodules or hardpan during periods of drought. Woolnough has shown the probability that conditions favouring such deposition existed during our last great peneplanation, possibly during the Miocene period, and although the Miocene climate in Eastern Australia may not have been tropical, with alternations of dry and wet seasons (as he postulates for Western Australia), still it must be remembered that our coast-line was then much further to the east than at present, and that therefore the region of Sydney and the Blue Mountains may have been subject to occasional droughts such as afflict our present inland areas; these irregularly recurring
TERTIARY AGE OF SEDENTARY SOILS. 261
ary spells would act in the same way, though not to the same degree, as the regular dry seasons of the tropics, in promoting hardpan formation.
Since both the climatic and the physiographic conditions obtaining at present must be regarded as utterly unfavour- able to the deposition of hardpan, its widespread distribu- tion in the soils, both sandy and clayey, must be taken as indicative that these soils are Tertiary, and where the iron- ‘stone nodules are resting as a ‘‘gravel’’ directly on the rock-surface of the plateau they are to be interpreted as survivals, through superior grainsize and weight, from sandy or clayey soils which are now no more.
Much of the nodular material is loose and unconsolidated, ‘being in that respect unlike the more compacted and often very solid laterite of Western Australia, and although in places, as about Waterfall and National Park, it may occur as a somewhat compact, rather sandy, aluminous ironstone, it is doubtful whether this was ever formed right at the sur- ‘face; rather is it to be regarded as a kind of nodular hard- ypan formed like the ironstone ‘‘gravel’’ below the surface ain the subsoil or the deeper parts of the soil, the upper parts of which have now largely disappeared through sheet- “wash erosion.
The Wingello bauxites, or laterites rather, are possibly to be placed in a different category.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to explain these plateau ironstone ‘‘gravels’’ and hardpans on any other hypothesis than that they are remnants of the regolithic mantle of a ‘Tertiary landscape.
In the foregoing observations only those areas have been dealt with which have come under the writer’s personal notice, and it is of course not suggested that all our sedent- ary soils are Tertiary. In fact, physiographic and other
262 WwW. R. BROWNE.
conditions eminently suitable for the accumulation of soil- material in place exist at the present day, as for example:
(1) in some of the less elevated, physiographically mature parts of the State west of the Main Divide, where the rainfall is not too low;
(2) in those parts of our coastal regions which have: been worn down to a low level since the Kosciusko uplift, or have never been raised much above sea- level; and
(3) on the floors of the broad valleys of rivers such as the Wollondilly, Cox, Hunter, and others, scooped out and widened since the Kosciusko: uplift.
Nevertheless it seems not improbable that the suggestions. made as to the date of formation of certain soils may have a very much wider application in this State; for, since the prolonged period of Tertiary peneplanation and low physiographic relief must have left its legacy of deep: decomposition over a very large area, it is to be expected that the residual deposits will still appear as sedentary soils: and areas of deeply decomposed rock, not merely in those portions of the State which have suffered little from eleva- tion, but also on the less dissected portions of the highlands.
REFERENCES: 1. Barrell, J.: Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 28, 1917, pp. 759-60. 2. Van Hise: A Treatise on Metamorphism, Mon. U.S. Geol. Surv., 47, 1904, pp. 532-4. 3. Andrews, E. C.: Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia.. This Journal, 44, 1910, p. 420. 4. Brown, Ida A.: This Journal, 59, 1925, p. 387.
THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA. 263
THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW SPECIES OF ANEMONE LEAF BORONIA RICH IN OCIMENE,
By A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.L, F.C.S. Curator and Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1928.)
The botany of this new species, Boronia dentigeroides, is fully described by its author, Mr. E. Cheel, in the current issue of the Society’s Journal.
It is a tall Rutaceous shrub, varying from 2 to 3 feet in height, with anemone-like leaves and pink flowers, growing abundantly in the Braidwood district of New South Wales.
This plant bears a strong superficial resemblance to the closely allied species Boronia dentigera (Muelleri) and B. anemonifolia (Cunningham), both of which are described botanically in Bentham’s ‘‘ Flora Australensis,’’ Volume 1, page 321. These two species are widely distributed, grow in elevated sandstone country at not less than 2,000 feet above sea level, are difficult of collection, being upright sparse shrubs, with little foliage. B. dentigeroides, on the other hand, whilst possessing similar foliage, has a more spreading habit, and is in fact a larger plant.
Leaves and terminal branchlets of the new species for
investigation of the essential oi! were obtained from the
Little River, Monga, near Braidwood, growing out of
264 A. R. PENFOLD.
pockets in basaltic rock. The greatest quantity, however, was secured from the summit of Sugar Loaf Mountain, also at Monga, where it was found growing in fairly luxuriant condition in association with Eriostemon Coxii amidst a rugged quartzite outcrop. (This Journal, Vol. LX. 1926, pages 331-344.) The leaves of the plant are very small and sticky, and on crushing in the hands yield a pleasant characteristic ester odour, which is not readily described.
For purposes of comparison leaves and terminal branch- lets of Boronia anemonifolia were collected from a number of mountainous localities in New South Wales, such as Blackheath, Bundanoon and Hill Top.
The oil of Boronia dentigeroides differed from that of B. anemonifolia in the following particulars :— B. anemontfolia B. dentigeroides
Yield of oil eb eae, ORO bomye 13: tos2ve Hister/Nog, iP Behe 54-128 15-84 Pinene Sermuts eh Ut) 157% under 30% Owimene.’ Yar i. nie: Hracevonlay 75-80%
The oil of B. anemonifolia is of special interest on ac- count of the high content of ester, but the publication of its chemistry, together with that of B. dentigera, is reserved for a future publication.
The essential oil of B. dentigeroides is of a very remark-
able character, as although the leaves are comparatively.
small, the yield of oil is especially high for such a plant. The occurrence of the olefinic terpene, ocimene in quantity, is particularly noteworthy, although it has been recorded before by the author in papers dealing with the essential oils of Homoranthus. (This Journal, Vol; Livi 1922 pages 193-201, and Eriostemon myoporoides, Vol. LIX, 1925, pages 206-211.)
THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA. 265
BORONIA DENTIGEROIDES (Cheel).
The essential oils varied in colour from almost water white to a pale yellow, were extremely mobile, and pos- sessed a pleasant odour, not easy to describe, but quite characteristic.
Altogether, 453 Ibs. weight of leaves and. terminal branchlets, cut as for commercial purposes, were subjected to steam distillation, the average yield of oil being 1.5%.
The principal constituents which have so far been iden- tified were found to be ocimene, d-a-pinene, d-limonene (total terpenes, 90%), darwinol, and the corresponding caprate, isovalerianate, and acetate, ethyl formate (?), and isovalerianate, together with small quantities of sesquiter- penes, phenolic bodies, and paraffin, of m.pt. 64-66°.
I wish to direct attention to a distillation of oil made in this Museum on the 26th September, 1898, which is in- eluded in the table, under ‘‘Experimental.’’ The oil was stored away in a cupboard in the dark, and the chemical and physical constants were not determined until the 30th September, 1920, 22 years later. These results are recorded in the table, as they show no variation from the constants of later distillaticns which were determined immediately the oil was obtained from the leaves. This is very re- markable, because ocimene is a terpene which readily resinifies, and, moreover, much more stable oils undergo a change in much less time.
Experimental.
Four hundred and fifty-five lbs. weight of leaves and terminal branchlets collected from Monga, New South Wales, yielded, on distillation with steam, crude oils pos- sessing the chemical and physical characters as shown in table, viz. :—
A. R. PENFOLD.
a
e
266
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ON 40980) BN ag Ay1Iqurog *(J4HHO) SHCIOUADILNAGC VINOYO
THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA. 267
The erude oils of every consignment were subjected to fractional distillation, but for the purpose of this paper it will be sufficient to publish those necessary to follow the identification of the various constituents, viz. :—
28th August, 1925. 800 cc. distilled at 20 mm.
Boiling Point. Volume. @t$ = = af Tuas Below 70° .. .. T5e.c. 0.8448 +21.75° 1.4707 . 20.76: W-1s° ». .. 192ce. 0.8392 +16.4° 1.4749 ite. 272.c.e- 0.8886 Verso" \) 91-4798 T30° 4. .. S80cc. 0.8330 449° 1.4822 S0-82° .. .. 86cc. 0.8401 + 425° 1.4826 82-85° See. 018411 Ys Big?) 14836
up to 95° (5mm) 2b ce. 0.8748 j= 3:38° 1.4820 172.74. 96-115° (5mm) 86c.c. 0.9868 -+10.1° 1.4760 174.43: Residue th ae BHORCHC hes “tes Burs:
17th August, 1927. 400 e.c. of first fraction distilled at 20 mm.
o29 20
Boiling Point. Volume. One 5 ny
Below 66° .. 16 c.c. 0.8498 +27.55° 1.4698. 66-70° .. roid LAC OM E 0.8415 +20.4° 1.4744. (sae 166 c.c. 0.8518 = OLS, 1.4804 77-80° ... 59C.c. 0.8301 + 4.6° 1.4840:
Determination of Terpenes.
Fractions Nos. 2, 3 and 4, ex 800 ec. lot (28/8/’25), were mixed together and redistilled many times over metallic sodium at 774 mm., using a 12 pear column, with. the following result, viz. :—
Boiling Point. Volume. dts an ns il 120-140° ICSC. (odour of volatile sulphur 1.43802' compounds) 2 140-156° ANCLC: 1.4521 3 156-160° SHIGE oe 0.8524 +31.7° 1.4677 4 160-166° 38 C.C. 0.8536 +82.05° 1.4702 5 166-175° 48 ¢.¢c. 0.8532 +25.5° 1.4770 6 175-180° 5S C.C. 0.8514 +15.2° 1.4939 i 180-185° 25 CC. 0.8514 +12.4° 1.4990 8 185-187° 30 Cic, 0.8479 + 8.5° 1.5020: 9 187-189° 33 C.C. 0.8388 + 3.85° 1.5155.
“268 A. R. PENFOLD.
d-a-pinene. 32 ¢.c. of above fraction No. 3 was oxidised with potassium pe-manganate (see this Journal, 1922, 56, 195), and the crude pinonie acid separated as described in that paper. The acid distilled at 165 at 2 mm., and solidified immediately when placed in the ice chest. The crystals were separated, and on purification from petroleum ‘ether (b.p. 50-60°) melted at 70°; 1.0714 grams in 10 e.c. chloroform gave a reading of +9.625°, [a] +90°. The semicarbazone melted at 207°.
d-limonene. 4 cc. of each of fractions Nos. 7, 8 and 9 ‘were separately dissolved in dry ether and amyl alcohol, and treated with bromine at —20°. Small quantities of erystals which separated overnight from fractions Nos. 7 and 9 were pumped off on a Buchner filter funnel, dried and erystallised from ethyl acetate. Typical erystals of limonene tetrabromide were obtained, melting at 104°.
Ocimene. The marked change in boiling point and re- fractive index of the various fractions distilled at atmo- ‘spheric pressure confirmed the presence of the olefenic terpene, ocimene, as such behaviour is typical of its con- version into allo-ocimene under the conditions described. It was necessary, however, to utilise fraction No. 4 ex 400 e.c. lot of first fraction (17/8/’27) for experiments to con- firm the identity of this interesting and fairly widely dis- tributed terpene, ocimene.
The usual method of reduction by means of sodium and ethyl alcohol proved unsatisfactory. As a matter of fact, the large number of collections of leaves of this species made during the years 1922-1927 was occasioned through my inability to prepare the typical derivative of ocimene, dihydromyreene tetrabromide. From a study of its chemical and physical constants and general deportment I was quite satisfied that the principal terpene was identical with ocimene, but every year from 1922 to date attempts
THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA. 269-
were made to obtain the necessary confirmatory evidence, . but without success. It was not until early in 1928 that suecess attended these persistent efforts. The presence. of pinene and limonene in association with ocimene un- doubtedly mitigated against it.
The best and most successful method for the reduction of ocimene to dihydromyrcene was found to be the electro- lytic method, using nickel as a cathode, referred to in paper, by the writer and F. R. Morrison, entitled ‘‘Pre- liminary Note on the Electrolytic Reductions of Piperitone’’ (this Journal, Vol. LVII. 1923, page 215-217).
The yield of dihydromyrcene was poor, due to lack of precautions for preventing loss of terpene with the gaseous spray from the cathode compartment. The product, how- ever, was of a high degree of purity, as is evident from the. following chemical and physical constants, viz. :—
Equal volumes. Boiling Point. di2° ae 68-70° (20 mm.) 0.7883 1.4462 (24°) 70-71° (20 mm.) 0.7957 1.4507 (24°)
Both fractions gave excellent yields of dihydromyrcene: tetrabromide, of melting point 88-89°, when examined ac-- cording to the method described in this Journal (Vol. LVL.,. 1922, pages 199-200).
Determination of Esters.
Low Bowling Ester. The first fraction ex 800 «ee.. (28/8/’25) was treated with aqueous potassium hydroxide: solution in order to decompose the small quantity of ester present. It was not possible to isolate and identify the small quantity of water soluble alcohol, but it appeared to: be ethylic alcohol on account of the very definite iodoform reaction. It is well known, of course, that the preparation of this derivative is not conclusive evidence of the presence of this aleohol. The volatile acids were liberated from the-
270 A. R. PENFOLD.
alkaline liquor by means of dilute sulphuric acid and sub- sequent steam distillation. The qualitative reactions showed the presence of formic and isovaleric acids.
High Boiling Ester. Fraction No. 7, 28/8/’25, Ester No. 174.48, was heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide solution in order to decompose the ester. The oily layer was separated, washed, dried and heated with phthalic anhydride in benzene solution on the water bath for a prolonged pericd. The phthalate was separated, and on decomposition with alkali in a current of steam yielded 4 ee. of a viscous water white alcohol. This liquid possessed the following chemical and physical characters, viz. :— B.pt., 108-110 (10mm); a}3° 0.9459 ; af’, +30.2° ; m2", 1.4890.
It yielded a napthylurethane of melting point 86-87°. ‘The preparation of this derivative is confirmatory of its identity with Darwinol, containing a small quantity of geraniol (see this Journal, Vol. LVII., 1923, pages 238, 244-245).
The shghtly lower physical constants were found to be due to a small quantity, under 10%, of geraniol, whose presence could only be established by the detection of citral on oxidation with chromic acid solution.
Acids in combination with Darwinol, etc. The alkaline liquor resulting from the decomposition of the esters was, after evaporation to a small bulk, acidulated with dilute sulphurie acid and subjected to steam distillation. The volatile acids were obtained both as an oi! and in aqueous solution, and examined separately. The silver salts were ‘prepared and gave the following results on ignition, viz. :—
Oily acid. 0.3436 gram silver salt gave 0.1604 gram silver— 46.67%.
THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA. 271
Aqueous acid. 0.5644 gram silver salt gave 0.3257 gram silver— 57.92%.
The second portion of original distillate, 17/8/’27, Ester No. 64.27, was similarly treated, and the silver salts ob- tained therefrom gave the following results on ignition, V1Z. :-—
Oily acid. 0.0382 gram silver salt gave 0.0142 gram silver— 37.2%. The silver salt of capric acid requires 38% silver.
Aqueous acid. 0.5586 gave 0.3234 gram silver—57.89%.
From the above results and the qualitative reactions for the water soluble acids of both isovaleric and acetic acids, the deduction is made that the acids present in com- bination are identical with capric, isovaleric and acetic
acids.
Determination of Sesquiterpenes.
The high boiling fractions, after removal of the alcohols reacting with phthalic anhydride, were found to consist largely of sesquiterpenes, boiling approximately between 120-130° at 10 mm., and possessing the following chemical and physical characters, viz. :—
t#° 0.9433 to 0.950, af + 13° to 15°, m5,” 1.4880.
The quantities were obviously too small for purification, but evidence of the presence of sesquiterpenes was obtained by the well-known colour reactions, with bromine in acetic acid solution and sulphuric acid in acetie anhydride
solution.
Oie2 A. R. PENFOLD.
Determination of Minor Constituents.
The presence of small quantities of phenolic constituents occurring to the extent of about 0.3%, and a paraffin of melting point 64-66°, was determined. .
My thanks are due to Mr. H. Cheel, Curator of the National Herbarium, Sydney, for information on the botany of the anemone leaf Boronias, especially B. dentigeroides, and to Mr. F. R. Morrison, F.C.8., AVA.CUL) Aserctant Eeonomie Chemist, for much assistance in the chemical investigation of the essential oils.
ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION. 273
ON SOME ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION.
By W. R. Browne, D.Sc., Assistant-Professor of Geology, University of Sydney. (With five text-figures.)
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1928.)
Introduction.
Physiographic form is a function of many variables, some mutually related, others entirely independent of each other. Among the more important of these in the case of normal river-erosion are geological structure and the petro- eraphical character of rock-masses, the former including folding, faulting and jointing, the latter comprising mainly chemical composition, mineral constitution and texture. To some extent the factors belonging to either of these groups may act independently of each other, or of those in the other group; folding, faulting and jointing, for example, may affect rocks of widely different petrological characters. On the other hand, there may be physiographic forms due to the co-operation of one or more factors from each group.
The more the writer sees of the physiography of this State the more he is impressed with the very close de- pendence of physiographic form on the structures, and particularly on the varying composition, of the rock-units; and he is inclined to regard differential erosion as a prime cause of most of the small-scale, as well as of a good many of the larger-scale physiographic features. This view ap- pears to harmonize with the experience of other workers, and helps to emphasize the importance of geological as a sound basis for physiographic study.
R—December 5, 1928.
274 W. R. BROWNE.
It is proposed in this paper to consider differential erosion from two aspects, first as a factor in the evolution of topographic forms resembling those produced by fault- ing, and secondly in its relation to what may be ealled antecedent deep weathering.
Fault-Scarps and Erosion-Scarps.
There is a tendency—a very natural one—for the physiographer to assume, as a first hypothesis anyway, that notable and abrupt differences in surface-elevation, especially if the bounding scarp is approximately linear or regular, are due to faulting of such recent date that the country on the upthrow side has not yet been completely dissected. But experience has shown that such physio- graphic criteria of recent faulting, while admittedly of the greatest value in many eases, require to be used with the greatest caution, and may at times actually be misleading, since physiographic effects very similar to those produced directly by faulting may result from fluvial erosion acting on rock-units of unequal resistance, which are in contact as the result either of normal processes of rock-formation or of faulting during some previous cycle of erosion.
We have in this State examples of fault-scarps, whose existence has been proved. Of such are the Kurrajong fault-scarp, recorded by Professor David, and the Mundi- Mundi scarp, in the Barrier Ranges, described by Mr. E. C. Andrews) ; and Professor Griffith Taylor has given good reasons for regarding the ridge forming the western boundary of Lake George as due to a geologically-recent fault). But there are also examples of physiography which might be, and in some instances have been, inter- preted as the direct result of faulting, on the physiographic evidence alone, but which either are definitely known to
be due wholly or mainly to differential erosion, or are best explained on that hypothesis.
ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION. 275
Examples of Fault-Line Scarps.
‘The operation of differential erosion following on fault- ing to produce what W. M. Davis has called a fault-line scarp) is well illustrated along the valley of the Hunter River. For much of its course this valley is bounded on the north and east by hard Carboniferous rocks, while the valley floor is cut mainly out of soft Permo-Carboniferous sediments, and in many places the eastern valley wall is quite steep and scarp-like. As a matter of fact the junction of Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous rocks is along a fault-plane (Figs. 1 & 5). A powerful overthrust from the north-east brought the hard rocks up into apposition with
N.E. S.W. Mr. Tanqorth Carboniferous
Triassic lavas , tufts Sandstones Hunter & conglles.
!Permo-Carbs. sediments
"* Horizontal scale: t= 6 miles . Vertical scale : 1'= about 4og0' ~.* -
Fig. 1.
Sketch-section across Hunter Valley, with fault-line scarp on one side and erosion-scarp on the other.
the softer ones, this was followed by peneplanation, then by uplift of the peneplain and differential erosion of the softer beds on the downthrust side of the fault. Though the eastward limit of erosion has been set roughly by the fault-plane, the present erosion-slope is thus not a proper fault-scarp at.all, but is in the nature of a resequent fault- line searp. -About halfway between Muswellbrook and Scone the fault-plane is crossed by the Hunter River, and the work of G. D. Osborne has shown that about Scone the overthrust ts succeeded by a normal fault, which con- tinues northward for a considerable distance, certainiy as far as Murrurundi, and possibly much further. The
276 W. R. BROWNE.
present writer considered that the scarp existing along the line of this fault might be a revealed fault-scarp ®, one which after its formation had been buried beneath a basalt- flow and had later been revealed by the erosion of the basalt; but while this may be true to a certain extent, erosion has undoubtedly cut down well below the level of the fault-plane as originally exposed, and it is perhaps better to regard the scarp, as it exists to-day, as a resequent. fault-line scarp, in part at all events.
The Hunter Valley furnishes at least one other example of a scarp which is in some degree a resequent fault-line scarp. To the west of Cessnock the broad low-lying plain which has been carved by the Hunter and its tributaries is. bounded for a space by the inlier of Carboniferous and pre-Carboniferous rocks forming the ridge extending from Mt. Bright to Mt. View, and rising to a height of nearly 1700 feet above sea-level. This ridge is bounded to the east by two normal step-faults, probably of late Permo- Carboniferous age, which have brought Permo-Carbon- iferous rocks against granodiorite overlain by siliceous. Kuttung lavas™. On the eastern side river-erosion has. removed the later sediments to a very considerable extent, so that the valley is now to all intents bounded, in places with a very abrupt scarp, by the more westerly of the old fault-planes.
Examples of Erosion-Scarps.
But differential erosion may give rise to the appearance of youthful faulting, even when it has not worked along an old fault-plane, and examples of this are numerous in our own State. The broad flat Hunter Valley, already referred to, is bounded on its right or southern bank from Denman for nearly 50 miles by a scarp running about south-east, breached at intervals by tributaries of the Hunter, and their tributaries. A similar scarp runs in a
ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION. 277
general N.N.E. direction from the Hunter-Goulburn junction as far as Wingen and beyond, forming the right bank first of the Hunter and then of its meridional tributaries, Dart Brook and Kingdon Ponds. The steep eliffs forming these escarpments rise abruptly from the plain, and give one very strongly, even from a short distanee, the impression of -being structural in origin, but they are in fact due to sapping of the sub-horizontal hard ‘Triassic sandstones which form them, consequent on the erosion of the softer underlying coal-measure rocks (see Migs. 1&5).
The same thing is true of the scarps bounding our coastal plateaux to the north and south of Sydney. Here the steep ¢eliffs are in places quite a considerable distance from the sea-coast, and are fronted by coastal tracts which are very maturely eroded, and even senile in places. Typical country of this kind may be seen to the west from Morrisset, Wyong and other places between Gosford and Neweastle, as well as in the Illawarra district. At first glance the eliffs might easily be taken for fault-scarps—indeed the Illawarra cliffs were so interpreted originally—especially as highland and fronting lowland show much the same degree of dissection, but geological mapping has shown the plateau surfaces to consist of hard, level-bedded and vertically jointed Triassic sandstone, which toward the east has been eroded by sapping of the softer underlying rocks now forming the coastal lowlands.
In all these cases there is a close correlation between rock-resistance, structure and physiography, such as is con- sidered to be a useful criterion in the distinction between fault-line scarps and fault-scarps‘®); here, however, it is due entirely to differential erosion, without any co-opera-
tion whatever from major differential earth-movements.
278 W. R. BROWNE.
So far we have been considering the behaviour of super- posed rock-masses of different resistances; but steep slopes,, simulating very closely the appearance of fault-scarps, especially in regard to linearity, may occur where the more- and less resistant rock-masses are in apposition, with vertical or sub-vertical planes of junction.
According to Mr. E. C. Andrews) the New England Tableland is composed of a number of separate plateaw areas at different levels, varying from about 2600 to 4800: feet above the sea. These were formerly ascribed to differential elevation of an original peneplain surface, but Mr. Andrews has shown that the lower plateau-levels occur: in areas of slates and relatively basic plutonic rocks, while: the higher levels consist almost entirely of siliceous rocks, and he considers the present physiographic arrangement to be probably due to differential erosion during a series of cycles.
The sub-meridional valley of the River Murrumbidgee from a little way north of Cooma to its junction with the Cotter in the Federal Capital Territory is bounded on the: west by highlands, rising to a maximum elevation of 5000 feet some miles back from the river, whereas the country to the east may be 2500 feet lower. The marked difference- in level on the two sides of the river has been attributed to faulting of recent geological age along the course of the river 1), but detailed geological mapping has failed to- reveal any such fault, and on the other hand has shown that the high land is composed of a gneissic granite with. a contact which is vertical or dips steeply westwards, the invaded rocks being Ordovician (?) schists and slates, and. Silurian shales and quartzites (Fig. 2). The boundary between intrusive and invaded rocks runs parallel to and almost along the river bank, and there is at least a strong probability that the physiographic phenomena are due:
x
7 Yi ¥ d
Greissic , Granite
ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION. 279
entirely to differential erosion. The writer hopes to be able to treat this matter of the Upper Murrumbidgee physiography in more detail at a later date.
The sure methods of stratigraphy, as Andrews has called them, and of detailed geological mapping, are probably the best means of detecting the presence of faults, whether indicated physiographically or not, and there is no doubt that the same methods may likewise serve at times to demonstrate the absence of faulting, even where physio- eraphy would seem to suggest its presence.
Murrumbidgee Quartz-
Granite
eh Silurian : Horizontal Scale:1”22miles Vertical Scale: 1"=about 2000'
Big. 2. Sketch -section across Upper Murrumbidgee Valley at Michelago.
Variability in Physiographic Behaviour of Rock-Masses.
Apart from the effect of recent dislocations, unevenness in topography may be considered as due ultimately mainly to differences in the resistance of rock-masses to mechanical and chemical weathering, as well as to actual river-erosion. In the general case chemical weathering plays a subordinate part in comparison with mechanical, but its importance increases with the decrease of physiographic relief, and in the case of rocks like tuffs, which are often porous, and composed of minerals very susceptible to decomposition, its influence may transcend that of mechanical weathering. Nevertheless it may be assumed that in general the relative rates of erosion of rock-masses are determined not so much
280 W. R. BROWNE.
by their decomposability as by their susceptibility to mechanical weathering and erosion.
There are, however, puzzling variations in the behaviour of a given rock from place to place, even in situations where the present-day erosional environments appear to be identical. The changeable behaviour may be quite correctly in each ease ascribed to differential erosion, but obviously this process has not operated in the same way in every instance, and some more specific explanation must be sought.
Granite is a rock which, though chemically somewhat weak, has normally a high resistance to mechanical weathering, and hence it might be expected to wear much better than ordinary sedimentary rocks, which are liable to disintegration or decomposition, and which,'in any ease, owing to the association of weak and strong strata, are generally of very inferior resistance. Even hard siliceous rocks like quartzites and rhyolites, intrinsically strong in virtue of their composition, are often closely jointed and readily fractured by weathering, and might for this reason, and through the weakness of associated rocks, be expected to suffer erosion at a greater rate than granite, which is usually homogeneous to great depths and intersected only by widely-spaced joints.
But while, as is to be expected, we often see granite making the uplands, with rocks of inferior resistance form- ing the valleys and lowlands, occasionally the reverse is found, granite being at the lower level. And these con- trasted effects are displayed whether the associated rocks are older or newer than the granite; in other words the granite may tower over, or may lie at a lower level than, either older or younger rocks, and that, too, quite in- dependently of the relative inherent resistances of the
ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION. 281
rocks concerned to mechanical erosion. The topography in which granite forms the uplands may, in the light of what has been said, be regarded as normal, and for that in which granite forms the lowlands many explanations may suggest themselves, as for example the prevalence in the granite of joints or cleavage, the extent of the granite outcrop, and perhaps also the original relative positions, in a vertical sense, of the rock-masses before the commencement of the present cycle of erosion. But there is another factor which, so far as the writer 1s aware, has not hitherto been stressed in geological writing, and which may, it seems, be of con- s'derable importance in certain cases. Antecedent Deep Weathering.
It has been stated above that in the erosion of a region chemical weathering plays only a subordinate part, that is, ehemical weathering during the currency of the erosion. But the foundations of decay may have been deeply laid in a rock-mass long before the date of its attack by river- erosion. It has been shown by various writers that under conditions of low physiographic relief deep and thorough decomposition of the surface-rocks may be effected. The feeble surface-drainage is unable to cope with the task of removing the products of weathering, while at the same time the propoztion of meteoric water that sinks below the surface is high, and this percolating water exeris a solvent action on the rocks, causing their decomposition as far down as the leve! of the water-table.
The greatest depth to which thorough decomposition may extend is uncertain. Merrill?) records depths of decom- posed rock of the order of 300 and even 400 feet in favour- able situations, but this is not necessarily the maximum possible. The decomposing effect of the percolating waters is necessarily selective, inasmuch as some rocks in virtue of inherent characters are more liable to attack than others.
282 W. R. BROWNE.
Granite, for example, and basalt, and other igneous rocks: except the very siliceous ones, are decomposed much more, and to a much greater depth, than the majority of the sedimentary rocks, which, as Merrill points out, are them- selves largely the insoluble residues from decomposition, and therefore no longer subject to chemical weathering.
If now we imagine a region, which has for long been in the last stages of a cycle of erosion, to undergo uplift, so that the peneplain or low-level region of very mature topography and of heterogeneous rock-composition becomes. a plateau, the new and the rejuvenated streams will attack the more deeply and thoroughly decomposed rock-masses,
and cut down through them with relative rapidity, leaving
the less decomposed masses in relief. The differential rate of erosion is thus at first dependent not on the relative resistance of the various rock-units to mechanical weather- ing and erosion so much as on their differential yielding to antecedent deep weathering, that is, deep chemical weathering during the concluding stages of the immediately preceding cycle of erosion. And it may even be that in the early stages of the new cycle the drainage-pattern may show some of the characteristics of maturity, since the courses of the new streams will have been determined not altogether by slope but in part by the directions of easiest erosion.
If uplift has been considerable, so that the old water- table is a long way above the new base-level of erosion, then it may happen that the rivers will have cut their way through the entire thickness of the decomposed rock before reaching a state of grade. Vertical corrasion will then continue through the fresh rock, but its rate will be very considerably diminished, and, if it happens that the more deeply decomposed rock-mass is really of superior resist-
ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION. 283°
‘ance to mechanical weathering and erosion, the tables may gradually be turned, the highlands will be brought low,. and the lowlands, through their slower rate of erosion, will in process of time become relatively elevated.
A corollary to the proposition here enunciated is that the water-table level of the readily decomposable rocks during the old cycle of erosion will tend to become the level of temporary formation of broad fiat-floored valleys during a comparatively early stage in the new cyele. The water-table is usually taken to be about the downward limit of weathering, below which, in the groundwater region, or belt of cementation, constructive rather than destructive chemical work is carried on. If now we take the case of a chemically weak but mechanically resistant rock like granite, during the uplift following peneplanation it would be rapidly eroded to the lowest level of decay, that is, to its former water-table level. Thereafter erosion of the granite, though not entirely stopped, would proceed with extreme slowness, and a kind of temporary base-level of erosion would be established. The valley would therefore widen and the lowlands extend, until a considerable area had been reduced to approximately the same level, the while the main stream was cutting a notch into the hard granite floor. The process would thus in a way be analogous to that of benching, where the erosion of softer horizontal beds resting on harder produces an approxi- mately uniform surface at the level of the harder strata, and it is conceivable that the appearance of valley-in-valley structure might be produced without any actual inter- ruption in the process of erosion.
The foregoing discussion has centred largely around the behaviour of granite under certain given conditions. This is natural, first because differential erosion in its relation to physiographic relief is studied better in rock-masses.
284 W. R. BROWNE.
with approximately vertical contacts, as in the case of a bathylith and the invaded rocks, than in those whose boundaries are more nearly horizontal; and secondly be- cause granite is a rock of wide distribution, and possesses the two qualities of chemical weakness and physical re- sistance. But of course the same principles apply in the ease of any rock-masses of contrasted characters. Illustrative Examples.
Examples of the varying behaviour of granite and other similar rocks are readily found. Perhaps the most common ease of all is that in which the granite forms the uplands, while sedimentary rocks form the valleys, and of this many instances might be quoted. A very fine one is illustrated in a section across the country to the east of Michelago, in the Upper Murrumbidgee Valley (Fig. 2). The Tindery Range, up to 5000 feet in height, owes its superior elevation to the granite of which it is made, the lower ground to the west, drained by tributaries of the Murrumbidgee, being composed mainly of Silurian shales, quartzites and tuffs. A smaller intrusion of granite forms a parallel ridge, but cat a lower level, a few miles to the west, while nearer the Murrumbidgee the Silurian sedimentary rocks are injected ‘by elongated masses of granite-porphyry, and these form ‘conspicuous ridges where they are widest; in this last case the erosion has been differential as between rock-masses ‘which are both fairly immune from chemical weathering, but of very different degrees of resistance to mechanical weathering and erosion. Further to the west, on the left bank of the Murrumbidgee, gneissic granite, instrusive into Ordovician rocks, causes a further abrupt change in the topography, as explained above.
The inlier of Blair Duguid near Allandale, in the Lower Hunter Valley, illustrates the operation of another factor which makes for differential erosion. Here a mass of
ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION. 285,
Carboniferous andesite, once an island in the Permo- Carboniferous sea, forms a series of low hills flanked by tuffs and tuffaceous conglomerates of Permo-Carboniferous age, under which, without a doubt, the andesite was formerly completely buried. The area is at present in a state of advanced physiographic maturity.
The andesite, though a fairly easily decomposable rock, is but slowly eroded, while the younger sedimentary rocks are both more easily decomposed and more easily dis- integrated. On the whole it appears in this instance that the relatively rapid removal of the tuffs and conglomerates has been due to their greater susceptibility to chemical weathering.
Permo-Carbs conglte
Upper Devonian quart zites , fuffs de.
Granite
A ah nd uy o af \ / ih / y, \ y ite) jae Fig. 3.
Diagrammatic-section at Sodwalls, showing relations between granite and sedimentary rocks.
For examples of the effect of antecedent deep weathering we turn to the western granite areas. The country about Rydal and Sodwalls, about 30 miles on the Sydney side of Bathurst, is composed of granite intrusive into Upper Devonian quartzites, slates, tuffs, &c., locally contact-altered to hornfels; these are overlain by remnants of Permo- Carboniferous conglomerates. The granite in general forms gently undulating, low-lying country, contrasting with the high ground made by the other rocks (Fig. 3). Railway-cuttings and other excavations show decomposed sranite to depths of 30 feet and more, this material form-
‘286 W. R. BROWNE.
ing knolls which are clearly remnants of masses once much greater in extent and thickness. This region formed part of the Great Australian Tertiary peneplain, and one can imagine it at that time with a flattish or gently undulating surface cut out of Upper Devonian sediments, granite and Permo-Carboniferous sediments—a set of conditions favourable to differential deep decay of the granite. During one of the minor uplifts which, according to Andrews‘!?), characterized late Tertiary times, the streams on rejuvenation would rapidly scoop out most of the de- composed granite, forming wide-flung lowlands, leaving the less decomposed sedimentary rocks standing in relief. Later, of course, there was the great Kosciusko uplift which raised the country to its present level of about 3000 feet, but rejuvenation has not yet modified very materially the late Tertiary topography.
The same principle with modifications is illustrated on a smaller scale in the neighbourhood of Hartley, just west of the Blue Mountains. Here the valleys of the Cox and of its tributary, the Lett, have broad fiat floors, cut in- differently out of granite, Upper Devonian quartzites, hhornfelses and felsite, and Permo-Carboniferous shales, conglomerates and grits; within this mature valley, which is 800 feet below the plateau level, the Cox has entrenched itself to a depth of more than 500 feet (Fig. 4). Acecord- ing to F. A. Craft™*4) the present state of affairs was brought about by an uplift, followed by a pause of sufficient duration to enable the river to attain maturity and cut out a wide flat valley, through which it was meandering when further uplift caused it to become entrenched. Now where the entrenched stream is flowing through the hard Devonian rocks it is in a steep-sided youthful gorge, but further up-stream the valley, where it is cut through granite, is markedly less youthful, and in places approaches
ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION. 287
maturity. The Devonian rocks, though hard and siliceous and fresh, are much jointed, and break readily into smallish fragments which form talus-slopes, unlike the granite, which is very massive, and jointed only on a large scale; but an examination of the country forming the broad upper valley, where all the rocks are at the same level, reveals in road-cuttings and quarries an appreciable depth of decomposed granite, with occasional masses of fresh rock embedded. An obvious explanation of the physio- graphy of the entrenched valley is that this granite was decomposed to a much greater degree than the associated rocks during the period of stillstand preceding the second
Mr. York E.N.E W.S.W. Triassic [== Sandstones BRE Cox R. ; Permo-Carboniferous an Granite: : Sua MIL DOTA SPORE ES NS ATOR SE eR ST ak tig aN LALOR a / er Se S.L. ' N\ 7, a \ ! ae W7 . y : PP’ evorfian Horizontal scale: s*s abt 1§ mls, Vertical scale: 1's abt 2000" Poe i ; Fig. 4.
Sketch-section across Cox Valley at Hartley.
uplift, when the broad flat valley was an area of low relief and gentle slope, and that since this second uplift the entrenched valley has proceeded with comparative rapidity towards maturity where cut in the soft, decomposed granite.
The writer has not sufficient detailed knowledge of the granite-areas of New South Wales to make possible an extensive examination of the hypothesis (suggested in the first instance by a perusal of Dr. Woolnough’s presidential! address to this Society®) of antecedent deep weathering as set forth above. The hypothesis is, however, put for- ward in the hope that it may in some instances be found to provide a more precise and satisfying explanation of
288
W. R. BROWNE.
anomalous physiographic behaviour in rock-masses, which is now reasonably and correctly, but somewhat vaguely, attributed to differential erosion.
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REFERENCES.
An Important Geological Fault at Kur- rajong, N.S.W. This Journal, 36, 1902, pp.359-370.
The Geology of the Broken Hill District. Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Geology No. 8, 1922, p.24.
The Lake George Senkungsfeld. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 32, 1907, pp.825-345.
Nomenclature of Surface Forms on Faulted Structures. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 24, 1913, p.206.
The Carboniferous Rocks in the Muswell- brook-Scone District. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. W., 53, 1928, pp. 588-597.
Notes on the Physiography and Geology of the Upper Hunter River. This Jour- nal, 58, 1924, p.140.
The Geology of the Eruptive and Asso- ciated Rocks of Pokolbin, N.S.W. This Journal, 45, 1911, pp.379-408.
The Recognition of Fault-Scarps. Journ. Geol., 36, 1928, p.306.
New England Tableland. N.S.W. Hand- book, B.A.A.S., 1914, pp.508-511.
Notes on the Physiography of the South- ern Tableland of N.S.W. This Journal, 43, 1909, pp.331-354.
The Physiography of the Proposed Fede- ral Territory at Canberra. ' Common, wealth Bureau of Meteorology, Bull. No. 6, 1910.
Rocks, Rock-Weathering and Soils, pp. 271-2.
Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia. This Journal, 44, 1910, pp.420-480.
The Physiography of the Cox River Basin. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 53, 1928, pp.207-254.
Presidential Address, This Journal, 61, 1927, pp. 17-53.
Scale
? 8 {6 Miles.
i LECEND
pencrer = -
———awerris Creek—— Carbonifergus Permo-Carbs : " Hawkesbury Tertiary
Sandstone Basalt
AXA eK oc ontass VA AN ArH ‘ os icles SAS RS Sy, np a am EN ee oes A Fw a phy, R A oe Maccurunds L$ BX» SSnEeER ESS Cg 88 |) nae EY 6060 6° «ce SO WN, 5%"7 ; ERIN. | EES RN SX Sia es ge AAV On. KX eeleraencs ee eateraeh BO TR OREN ERR : KON WOK sl RR Me BRO Oo MSG ‘ casa ice ar AN eee SRA MG OOS A oe HE PR OA THU UR ROC IR RRL aS? 2 Ss O69 Daehn e CR LEE TT LL ST ER, SSK RRR N ER on ize) KLRD BKK KK te, WW Bea Soa SSSI ae BBY BE Noereneens : i 4 - ‘f = a sossctoneeseennne M AMacdueen =~ Sa Oe ENE Tate Sati aa ae ONY OES ) HV arkville— A &
litrees
We Singlétén’ : Ne . < \
Dec ae ace “Belford Beauxtgn a 6: ewe certo: Mel ie, Ns ED SY
OL Ores Lem On 1On ger WO Ly Oy ESF er) es ec 868 Oy So Be ed ee oe st Re De ee
eee 0:1) Wy en” 016 eS
ieee evnahi fac) | ayna an
Fig. 5. Map showing the geology of part of the Hunter Valley. (Reproduced from this Journal, 58, 1924, Pl. VI )
S—December 5, 1928.
290 EDWIN CHEEL.
FURTHER NOTES ON THE GENUS BORONIA.
By EpwIN CHEEL, Curator of the National Herbarium, Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1928.)
The following notes are a continuation of those already published in the Journal and Proceedings of this Society (42), and are based mainly on specimens contained in the National Herbarium, Sydney, together with a few received from the National Herbarium of Melbourne and the Government Botanist of Queensland.
A brief summary of the species dealt with is as fol- lows :— Boronia anemonifolia A. Cunn. Discussed in conjunction with the following :— i dentigera F. v. M. Regarded as a variety of B. anemonifolia by Bentham, and now rehabilitated to specific rank. 5 dentigeroides, sp. nov. os variibilis Hook. {f. Regarded as a variety of B. anemom- folia by Bentham, and now rehabilitated to specific rank. o anethifolia A. Cunn. Regarded as a variety of B. anemom- folia by Bentham, and now raised to specific rank. i bipinnata Lindl. Regarded as a synonym of B. anemonifolia, var. anethifolia, by Bentham, but raised to specific rank. . rigens, sp. nov. Previously included under B. polygalifolia as a variety, but regarded as distinct and raised to specific rank.
a nana Hook. Included as a synonym under B. polygalifolia, var. trifoliata, by Bentham, but considered distincé.
< falcifolia A. Cunn. Showing a wider geographivel range.
. Gunn Hook. Regarded as a variety of &. j;innata by ‘Bentham, but considered to be distinct.
’
. citriodora Gran. Regarded as a variety of :3, pimnata by
Benthair, but considered to be distinct.
FURTHER NOTES ON BORONIA. 291
Boronia anemonifolia A. Cunn.@?) Cunningham’s original description is in Latin, and may -be translated as follows :—
“Leaves petiolate, trifoliate, and leaflets narrow-cuneate, with 2 or 8 teeth on the margins or entire; petioles somewhat chan- “nelled. Peduncles one-fiowered, solitary in the axils of the leaves. Filaments somewhat glandular, obtuse at the apex, anthers of _a chalk-white colour.”
The habitat given is ‘‘ Verge of the Regent’s Glen, Blue Mountains.’’ Bentham, gives a compound description and records it for all States except South Austraha. It is ‘very doubtful, however, if the Canning River, W.A., plants belong to this species, or to any of its supposed varieties or races as enumerated. Mueller,{4) under B. polygalifolia, includes this as a synonym, but, as pointed out by Bentham, (8) it has been subdivided into three, which may be con- sidered as tolerably distinct races, viz.,
(a) B. dentigera. (b) variabilis. (c) anethifolius.
My own view is that B. anemonifolia A. Cunn., B. anethi- fola A. Cunn., and B. variabilis Hook., are distinct species, and I accordingly suggest the rehabilitation of these three together with B. bipinnata of Lindley to specific rank again, as originally proposed by their respective authors. Specimens of typical B. anemonifolia are represented in the National Herbarium from the following localities :— Hill Top, Mittagong, Berrima, Yerranderie, Tallong, Barber’s Creek, Badgeries Crossing and Mount Wilson.
Boronia dentigera F.v.M.(33)
Mueller’s original description of this species is as follows: “Branches nearly terete, spreading, hirtellous; leaves thick, glabrous or pubescent, divaricate, trifoliate; leaflets ‘cuneate-linear, trilobulate at the summit; peduncles
292 EDWIN CHEEL.
axillary, solitary, one to three-flowered, shorter than the leaves, bearing in the middle a pair of leafy bracteas as: well as the subulate-lanceolate sepals slightly hirtellous or pubescent; stamens all fertile with ciliated filaments. Seed asperous.”’
The habitat given by Mueller is: ‘‘On sandhills near the La Trobe River and in McCrae’s Island. Also near the Pendland Hills, according to Mr. Dallachi.’’
Bentham ®) includes this under B. anemontfolia as a variety, and cites Cynanothamnus tridactylites Bartl. in Pl. Preiss. II, 227, as a synonym. I have not seen the Western Australian plants quoted by Bentham, so cannot say definitely if it really belongs to the present species,,. but I doubt very much if it is the same species. The: Tasmanian specimens collected by C. Stuart and quoted by Bentham) and Rodway?) are B. variabilis Hook.. Baker ®) and Maiden and Betche‘?!*) followed Bentham in regarding this as a variety of B. anemonifolia, but the structural character of the leaves and hispid sepals, as well as the distinct geographical range, seems to warrant it being regarded as specifically distinct. The whole plant is. decidedly more hispid than B. anemontfolia and the flowers. are different.
Specimens in the National Herbarium, Sydney, are from: the following locality: Conjola (W. Heron). In addition to the specimens collected by the late Baron F’. von Mueller: on the La Trobe River, there are also specimens collected. in 1895 by Miss M. Wise from the same locality.
Boronia variabtlis Hook. f.4) (B. anemonifolius var. variabilis Benth. ), Maid. et Betche. (242) ) The original description of Hooker“) is in Latin, which. may be translated as follows—‘‘ Plants erect, glabrous or:
FURTHER NOTES ON BORONIA. 293
pubescent, branches and branchlets more or less studded with warty oil-glands; petioles terete or plain, thick, leaflets oblong or obovate-lanceolate, the tips rather broadly obovate-spathulate, retuse, distinctly merved and covered with prominent-raised oil-glands; flowers on short or
occasionally long pedicels.”’
There appears to have been a certain amount of con- fusion concerning this species, as will be seen from the following remarks of Hooker’?)—‘‘The last collection received from Mr. Gunn, so rich in good specimens, enables me to correct my ideas respecting B. variabilis, and to refer the varieties a and y to B. tetrandra Lab., notwithstanding the flowers are octandrous. The name variabilis will be confined to the var. 8, which has the leaves very generally bi-pinnate, the leaflets oblanceolate or cuneate, entire or trifid, marked with evident glandular dots. The branches have two opposite lines of hairs.’’
Hooker !8) repeats his original description, giving the habitat as ‘‘Northern parts of the Island, near the coast; Woolnorth, Hunter’s and Flinders’ Island in Bass’ Straits, Gunn (FI. Oct.).’’
Hooker 8) further states that its distribution is in New South Wales and south-eastern Australia, and gives the following additional description—‘‘A tall, handsome species, 2-4 feet high, exuding copiously a balsamic gum that smells of turpentine and somewhat of Mangos (Gunn). Branches and branchlets usually pubescent and covered with tubercles, each containing an oil-gland, but sometimes smooth. Leaves pinnate; petioles stout, 4-2 inch long, often flat and dilated, leaflets two or three pairs, more or less obovate-lanceolate to obovate-spathulate, membranous or coriaceous, their apices acute, blunt, rounded, retuse, or in broader leaflets bi-trifid, studded with large glands,
294 EDWIN CHEEL.
very variable in length and breadth, 4-3 inch long, generally with an evident prominent midrib. Flowers very numerous, pink, variable in size, similar to thosc of B. pilosa. Narrow-leaved states closely resemble B. anethi- foka A. Cunn. of New South Wales. The membranous: state of this, with spathulate, broad, retuse, or lobed leaflets, looks quite distinct from any of its congeners, but Gunn’s suites of specimens show that it passes directly into the following (B. Gunnu and B. citriodora) ; it is the B. dentigera of Dr. Mueller, and is also found in south-eastern: Australia.’’ These latter remarks apply to B. dentigeroides,. described in this paper, rather than to B. dentigera of Mueller.
Hooker, l.c., also gives two varieties, as follows :— Var. a; foliolis obovatis submembranaceis obtusis retusis 2-3 fidisve (Gunn, 666). Var. y; foliolis lanceolatis apices versus latioribus: acutis mucronatis acuminatisve (Gunn, 214).
From an examination of the specimens in the National Herbaria, Sydney and Melbourne, I find the following may safely be regarded as distinct and referred to this species— River Mersey (Stuart), labelled B. polygalifolia var. pinnatifolia, with a footnote in Mueller’s handwriting: ‘‘This is Hooker’s B. variabilis.’’ King Island, ex. Herb.. Melbourne, labelled B. polygalifolia var. anemonfolia; also collected by P. R. H. St. John, in November, 1887,. labelled B. pinnata, and by Strong ex Herb. Royal Society of Tasmania, labelled B. polygalifolia, and by the late Mr. E. Betche as B. polygalifolia var. anemonfolia; Tasmania, without specific locality (W. H. Archer) ; Lindisfarne, near Hobart (Rev. H. M. R. Rupp, who remarks: ‘*Grows to: 6 feet. Mr. Rodway says it is a form of B. anemontfolia,.
but it is unlike any varieties I have seen in N.S.W.’’).
FURIHER NOTES ON BORONIA. 295
Labelled B. anemonifolia var. variabilis (B. variabilis 2) by the late Mr. E. Betche. Boronia anethifolia A. Cunn.“?
The original specimens were collected by A. Cunningiiam in 1825 on the western branches of the Hunter River and Wellington Valley. A description is given in Latin,‘ which may be translated as follows:—‘Branches quad- rangular; leaves bi-pinnate, glabrous, leaflets linear- lanceolate, entire, the margins more or less revolute and verrucose or rugulose with the raised oil-glands; cymes in the axils of the leaves shorter than the leaves.’’
Then we have a further description by Lindley in Latin, which may be translated as follows :—‘‘ Branches angular, glabrous, resinose-scabrous; leaves bi-pinnate, petiole articulate and winged, leaflets linear, acute, covered with prominent oil-glands; panicles arranged in small eorymbs shorter than the leaves; sepals subrotundate. Interior of New Holland, lat. 284° S., 1827. The flowers are small and closely collected on the short panicles, which are not half the length of even the uppermost leaves.’’
Bentham) unites this with B. anemonifolia A. Cunn., as a variety, quoting both the above references, and states that it is ‘‘the common form in the interior of Queensland and New South Wales.’’
From an examination of a fine series of specimens in the National Herbarium, Sydney, I have failed to see the resemblance to anemonifolius, as the leaves are more com- pound, and leaflets narrower and more acute, and thus more closely resemble B. variabilis, as stated by Bentham, but in B. anethifolius there is no semblance of pubescences or hairs, the whole plant being perfectly glabrous, whereas, in B. anementfolius, B. variabilis, B. dentigera and B. bi- pinnata, they are all more or less pilose or hispid.
296 EDWIN CHEEL.
Distribution: N.S.W.—Yerranderie, Warragamba River, Burragorang, Wolgan Valley, Denman, near Merriwa, Mount Danger, near Gungal, Goulburn River, Murrumbo, Quirindi, Howell and Stanthorpe. The latter station is just over the border of N.S.W. in Queensland. EHidsvold, Fraser Island. ,
Boronia bi-pinnata Lindl. @*)
The original specimens were collected in sub-tropical New Holland by Lieut. Col. Sir T. L. Mitchell in 1846 (No. 387), and described by Lindley‘?4) as follows—‘‘ We here met with a new species of Boroma, resembling B. anethifolia, of which many varieties afterwards occurred. It grows about 2 feet high, and had solitary pale purple flowers.’’ In a footnote a Latin description is given, which may be translated as follows :—‘‘Glabrous or pilose, leaves bi-pinnate, leaflets linear to sub-terete, flowers sub-solitary, axillary and shorter than the leaves.’’ Bentham ®) included it as a synonym under B. anemontfolius var. anethtfoltus. Maiden and Betche®) recorded it from Stanthorpe, Queensland, as B. falcifolia, with the following remarks :—
“These inland specimens are very different-looking from the specimens of the Northern Coast district from the Hastings River to Byron Bay, but cannot be separated even as a variety. In the coast specimens from the Hastings River to Byron Bay the flowers are mostly crowded in the axils of the upper leaves, so as to appear almost terminal, and the leaves are strictly 8-foliate; while the Stanthorpe specimens are more sparsely flowered, the flowers extending down sometimes nearly to the base of the branches, and the leaflets are frequently again tri- foliate, all 3 or the upper ones only. It is an erect shrub, about 2 feet high.”
It is quite distinct from both B. anethifolia and B. falcifolia in that the whole plant is more or less distinctly pilose, whereas both of the above species are quite glabrous.
Specimens are represented in the National Herbarium from the following localities :—Bismuth, A. McNutt, July, 1913;
FURTHER NOTES ON BORONIA. 297
Torrington, J. L. Boorman, October, 1911, and January, 1916; Hidsvold, Dr. T. L. Bancroft; Fraser Island, F. M. Bailey. There are also specimens collected by Dr. Leich- hardt without specific locality being mentioned, labelled B. tetrathecoides, which really belong to this species.
Boronia rigens Cheel sp. nov.
(B. polygalifolia var. robusta Bentham and Cheel.‘!) )
This is described as a variety of B. polygalifolia by -Bentham,‘®) but as the plant has a wide distribution and is so distinct from polygalifolia, and rarely found in association with that species. I prefer to regard it as an independent species, and have accordingly proposed the specific name ‘‘rigens’’ as Bentham’s varietal name robusta is inappropriate and somewhat misleading, as the plant is rather stunted in habit, and rarely ever exceeds 1 foot in height.
The original specimens were collected in the Port Jack- son district by Sieber (No. 283). It is also recorded by Bentham‘®) from the Blue Mountains and Moreton Island.
The following is Bentham’s description :—‘‘Leaves 3- foliolate as in the last var. (trifoliolata, now nana), but stems stout and more shrubby, attaining 2 feet or more.’’
Distribution: — Sydney district from Randwick to Berowra in the north, to Cataract and Barber’s Creek in the south, and Mort’s Gully, Lithgow, in the west. There are also specimens from Moreton Bay, Queensland, labelled B. polygalifolia var. ternatifolia and Medway Rivulet, also as var. ternatifolia, collected by Mr. Calvert, from the National Herbarium, Melbourne, which really belong to this species. Specimens have also been sent to me from the National Herbarium, Melbourne, from Mount Abrupt, collected by H. B. Williamson, labelled B. polygalifolia var. trifoliolata, by the late Baron F. von Mueller, and
298 EDWIN CHEEL.
from Mount Compass on the Mount Lofty Range, collected by H. Griffith ex Herb. of M. Black. The latter is listed under the name of B. polygalifolia in South Australian works and is referred to in my previous paper (this Journal, p. 409) under B. oppositifolia from Mount Lofty and Onkaparinga in Scuth Australia. It seems very doubtful if either B. polygalifolia or B. oppositifolia are to be found in South Australia. It is closely related to B. hispida, but may be distinguished by the leaflets being more sub-eylindrical and the sepals being glabrous, whereas those of B. hispida are flat and obovate and the whole plant is more hispid.
Boronia nana Hook.)
(B. polygalifolia var. trifoliolata Benth.: Maiden and Betche. 4) ) The original specimens of this species were collected by R. C. Gunn (No. 894) ‘‘on the top of Rocky Cape, Van Dieman’s Land.’’ The deseription of Hooker ™) is in
Latin, which may be translated as follows :—
“Stem short, from which arise numerous glabrous branches. Leaves opposite, shortly petiolate, 3-foliate, the leaflets rather thick, linear-lanceolate, acuminate. Penduncles solitary in the axils of the leaves with a solitary reddish flower, pedicels angu- lar, slightly exceeding the leaves. Sepals 4, same colour as the petals, ovate-acute; petals 4, ovate, obtuse, twice as large as the sepals. Stamens 8; filaments erect or slightly incurved, 4 long alternating with 4 shorter, ciliate. Anthers cordate, ovarium distinctly 4-lobed; style short, pilose.”
Hooker adds: ‘‘I quite agree with the discoverer of this, Mr. Gunn, in considering it an entirely new species. The tallest of the numerous stems never exceed those now figured, and all the specimens possess ihe characters here given. It is among the smallest, if net the very smallest,
of its kind.’’
FURTHER NOTES ON BORONIA. 299
Boronia falcifolia A. Cunn.“*) Mueller. @42
The original specimens were collected by A. Cunningham at Moreton Bay. It has since been collected at Wide Bay and Port Macquarie, vide Bentham.'8) Specimens in the National Herbarium are also represented from the follow- ing localities:—Richmond River, Port Stephens, Evans Head, Byron Bay, Wallis Island and Bulladelah. Accord- ing to Bentham, ®) it was recorded by Endlicher“*) under the name B. paletfolia, through a misreading of Cunning-
ham’s label.
Boronia Gunnii Hook. f.]8)
This species was originally regarded by Hooker“) as B. tetrandra var. grandiflora, and afterwards as a variety of that species. In 1860 Hooker described it as a distinet species. Mueller*4) included it as a synonym under B. pinnata, but Bentham'®) regarded it as a variety of B. pinnata.
Although there is a superficial resemblance between this and B. citriodora, it is clearly distinct from B. pinnata, and cannot be regarded as a variety of that species, which is not found in Tasmania or in Victoria.
From B. citriodora it may be distinguished by the leaflets being more crowded and the lowest pair being more distant from the stem, and the distinctive odour being somewhat like that cf tansy or rue, as observed by Hooker.
The original specimens were collected at South Esk in Tasmania by R. C. Gunn (No. 8), 17th December, 1844. We have also specimens represented in the National Herbarium collected at Launceston by S. G. Hannaford in 1865, and by W. H. Archer from Tasmania without specific locality being mentioned. A specimen from Launceston, near George’s Bay, Tasmania, was collected by A. Simpson (ex Herb. Brisbane) and from Cataract Gorge on basaltic
300 EDWIN CHEEL.
formation by Rev. H. M. R. Rupp. In Victoria it has been collected at Portland by J. Staer and H. B. William- son and at Glenelg River by C. Walter, also by C. D. D’Alton without specific locality being mentioned. Bentham also records it from Port Dalrymple, from specimens collected by R. Brown. The latter specimens I have not seen.
Boronia citriodora (Gunn MS.) Hook. f.@®) p. 68. Lemon Plant.
B. pinnata var. citriodora Benth. )
The original specimens were collected at Fatigue Hill, llth February, 1845, by R. C. Gunn (No. 667) "and described as a distinct species by Hooker.“8) Mueller (#4) regarded it as a variety of B. pimnata, and this was followed by Bentham.)
Specimens in the National Herbarium, Sydney, are represented from the following localities :—Tasmania, with- out specific locality, W. H. Archer, labelled B. pilosa; Mount East Field, J. H. Maiden, March, 1906, also common around Lake Fenton at alt. 4000 ft.; Mount Roland, near Sheffield, R. H. Cambage (2578), alt. 3800 ft., February, 1911; also-T. Carter, A. H. S. Lucas and A. BR. Pentold; Pellior, E. D. Briggs, Herb. Morris 1337; Cradle Valley, G. Weindorfer, December, 1914; Plateau and summit of Mount Barrow, County of Dorset, Rev. H. M. R. Rupp (No. 37) with the following note: ‘‘Since my last list was made out I have been looking at No. 37 more closely, and it does not seem to correspond with my specimen of B. Gunnw from Cataract Gorge. It is more like the form citriodora, of which I have a specimen from Cradle Moun- tain. In the Barrow plant the citron-scent is noticeable, but with it there is also distinctly the sage scent which is so strong in the Gorge B. Gunnw.’’ Plentiful in the neigh-
FURTHER NOTES ON BORONIA. 30T
bourhood of Cradle Mountain, Tasmania, Mr. Thomas. Newman, of Monia, vide Penfold, Journ. and Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., LIX (1925), 35.
The essential oil, according to Penfold (1.e¢.) 1s of a fine rose-like odour, resembling citronellol.
Boroma dentigeroides Cheel sp. nov.
(B. anemonifolius var. dentigera Maiden and Betche Census. (1916) 114; Baker, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., XXIV (1899) 487, but not of Bentham.)
Fruticulus ad 1-5 ped. alta, similis B. dentigera F.v.M., foliis bi-ternatis, foliolis applanatis apice dentatis.
Plants forming slender shrubs from 1 to 5 feet high, similar in general appearance to B. dentigera F.v.M., but the leaves are more compound, being twice ternate, and the leaflets more or less flattened and dentate at the apex. Flowers normally in pairs in the axils of the leaves or rarely reduced to a solitary flower as in B. anemonifolia and B. dentigera; sepals glabrous; petals twice the length of the sepals, creamy-white in the early stage of develop- ment, tending to a rich pink colour when fully developed.
Specimens in the National Herbarium, Sydney, are from the following localities :—Braidwood, W. Bauerlen; Clyde Mountain, near Nelligen, J. L. Boorman; Belmore Falls, W. Forsythe; Menangle, Mr. Harper; Timburra (Stuart) ex Herb. Melbourne, labelled B. polygalifolia var. anemoni- folia; Flinders’ Island (Gulliver), labelled B. anemonifolia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1.—Andrews, Bot. Reposit., t.58 (1799-1811). 2.—Bailey, F. M., Q’ld. Agric. Journ. XXVII (1911) 250. 3.—Bailey, F. M., Queensland Flora 1 (1899) 186. 4.—Baillon, H., Nat. Hist. Pl. IV (1875) 398, 4&8. 5.—Baker, R. T., Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W. XXIV (1899), 4387. 6.—Baker, R. T., Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W. XXI (1896), 485. 7.—Bartling, F. G., Pl. Preiss, I 165 (1844-45) and II 226
(1846-47). 8.—Bentham, G., Flora Australiensis, I 807 (1868).
302 EDWIN CHEEL.
9.—Cheel, E., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (1900) 542.
10.—Cheel, E., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (1920) 473.
11.—Cheel, E., Journ. & Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W. (1924) 145: 12.—Cheel, E., Aust. Nat. (1913) 205.
18.—Cunningham, A., Field’s New South Wales, p. 3380 (1825).
Pamiibaveyeat | A., Huegel’s Enumer. Plant Nov. Holl. p. 16
1837).
15.—De Candole, A. P., Prodr. I, p. 722 (1824).
15a.—Don, G., General History of the Dichlamydeous Plants, i, plage (1831),
16.—Gay, J., Mem. Mus. Par., VII (1821) 450. '
17.—Gay, J., Monog. des. Lasiopetalees (1821) 20.
18.—Hooker, J., Flor. Tasm. I, p. 66 (1860).
19.—Hooker, J., Icones Plant t. 270 (1840).
.20.—Hooker, J., Icones Plant t. 722 (1848).
21.—Hooker, J., Comp. Bot. Mag., I, 277 (1835).
22.—Hooker, J. Bot. Mag. t. 17638 (1815).
23.—Hooker, J., Bot. Mag. t. 4052 (1814).
24,—Lindley, J., Mitchell’s Trop. Aust., p. 225 (1848).
25.—Lindley, J.. Paxton’s Mag. Bot. XVI, 227.
26.—Maiden, J., and Betche, E., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (1896).
27.—Maiden, J., and Betche, E., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (1898).
28.—Maiden, J., and Betche, E., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (1908).
29.—Maiden, J., and Betche, E., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (1904).
30.—Maiden, J., and Betche, E., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (1905).
31.—Maiden, J., and Betche, E., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (1906).
.81a.—Maiden, J., and Betche, E., Census of N.S.W. Plants (1916).
32.—Moore, C., and Betche, E., Handb. Fl. N.S.W. (1893).
33.—Mueller, F. von, Trans. Vict. Inst. I (1855) 32.
34.—Mueller, F. von, Pl. Indig. to the Colony of Vict. (1860-62).
34a.—Mueller, F. von, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. V (2nd ser.) p.- 16 (1890).
.85.—Persoon, C. H., Syn. I (1805), 419.
36.—Sieber, Franz Wilhelm, Sprengel’s Syst. Cur. Post. (1827) 148.
37.—Smith, J., Ree’s Encyclop. No. 6 (1819).
38.—Smith, J., Tracts rel. to Nat. Sci., 1798.
39.—Sprengel, C., Systema Vegetabilium, IV, Cure Posteriores (1827), 148.
40.—Venienat, Malmaiscn (1808).
41.—White, C. T., and W. D. Francis, Bot. Bull. XXTI (1919) 3.
4la.—White, C. T., and W. D. Francis, Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld. XXXV (1928) 66.
-42.—Cheel, E., Journ. & Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. (1927), 413.
43.—Rodway, L., Tasm:z nian Flora (19038) 22.
-44,—Linaley, J., Bot. Reg. 1841, No. 47.
45.—Hooker, J., Journ. Bot. 11, 255 and 419.
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 303
ALKALIZATION AND OTHER DEUTERIC PHENOMENA IN THE SADDLEBACK TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA.
By W. R. Browne, D.Sce., Assistant-Professor of Geology, University of Sydney, and He Ps Wire, eis)
Chief Chemist, N.S.W. Geological Survey Laboratory. (With Plates XXIV, XXV, and two text-figures.)
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1928.)
Introduction.
In the Geological Survey Memoir dealing with the Southern Coalfield@ there is an account of the very in- teresting series of lava-flows and associated tuffs which form such an important part of the Upper Marine Series of the Permo-Carboniferous System along the coast, and appear also in the overlying Bulli Coal-Measures. Mr. G. W. Card, A.R.S.M., has given careful petrographical de- seriptions of specimens collected from the various flows, and, relying chiefly on pecularities of chemical composition revealed by analyses, has grouped the wl ole series broadly with the latites, ranging from normal latites or trachy- andesites to olivine-latites or orthoclase-basalts.
The member of the series to which attention is specially devoted in the present paper is that commonly known as the Saddleback dolerite, which outcrops at intervals over a distance of more than twenty miles, from the neighbour- hood of Port Kembla south to Broughton Head. Messrs. Jaquet and Harper, who are responsible for the field-work on these rocks, discuss, in the Memoir referred to, the
304 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
question as to the exact mode of occurrence of this Saddle- back rock, and appear to find difficulty in determining whether it is a flow or a sill, but eventually decide in favour of the former alternative, the point of eruption being placed some distance east of the present coast-line off Port Kembla. The average grainsize of the rock is certainly somewhat coarse for a flow, and there is evidence, to be detailed presently, that parts of the mass are intrusive towards the rest, but the field-occurrences have not been studied in sufficient detail by the present authors to permit of a definite expression of opinion as te the mode of occurrence of the rock-mass as a whole.
Description of the Field-Occurrence in Port Kembla Quarry.
Extensive outcrops of this rock occur at Port Kembla, where it has been quarried for the breakwater and for road-metal. The examination, some years ago, of a thin section of the rock from the Port Kembla Government Quarry prompted one of us (W.R.B.) to visit the place, and the evidences of magmatic alteration of the original rock appeared so convincing that it was decided to investi- gate and place them on record.
An interesting section is afforded by the north-western wall of the quarry near the end furthest from the entrance, and to the right of one walking towards this distal end; the stone is now being quarried along part of this face, and when the quarry was visited last, in June, 1928, the section, though still available for study, had lost_some of the features discernible on the occasion of the original inspection.
The main portion of the face is composed of the normal Saddleback type of rock, with its characteristic black colour, resinous lustre, and abundance of glassy-clear tabular phenocrysts of plagioclase. Towards the south-
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 305
west end this passes gradually into a type in which the felspars are greyish-white and somewhat opaque and less lustrous, the groundmass being dull and of a greyish colour, with dark augite phenocrysts showing out on it quite con- spicuously. The third type, next encountered, has a dense stony-looking groundmass of blue-black colour, against which semi-opaque greyish-white or pinkish opaque plagio- clase phenocrysts stand out strongly, but no augite pheno- erysts are visible. In places the groundmass becomes of a chocolate-brown colour, and finally this passes, generally fairly abruptly, into the fourth type, in which the pheno- erysts are embedded in a groundmass which is pinkish- ereen to pink or greyish-pink according to the intensity of alteration; for this pale rock is quite evidently due to the local and irregularly arranged alteration of the third type. The junctions between the two types are not quite sharp, and here and there phenocrysts of felspar may be seen projecting from one type into the other; in places cracks appear to have served as channels for the altering solutions, and the pink rock appears as tongues penetrating into the other. A noteworthy feature of the third and fourth types is the presence of many rounded or irregular vesicles and larger cavities wholly or partially filled with calcite and quartz. All these features are shown in Plate XXV.
The absence of gradation between the second and third types is marked, the rocks being generally distinguishable by differenees in texture and colour. Until recently there was a section visible in the quarry-wall which showed a recognizable boundary between the two types, marked in places by an ill-defined band, about an inch wide, along which the rock was largely devoid of phenocrysts, and close to which there was a local tendency to fluxional arrangement of the phenocrysts of the intrusive rock. The impression given in the field, as well as by a study of slides,
T— Dec mber 5, 1928.
306 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
is that this third type was injected into the normal rock at a time when the former was still at such a temperature that a certain amount.of commingling along the junction was possible.
The relations of the different phases are shown very roughly in the sketch-section (Fig. 1), which is not drawn to scale. From this it will appear that the intrusive type and its alteration-products are confined to the lower part of the quarry-face. From the place where they are first seen, where the intrusion has an upward bulge, they may be traced in a south-westerly direction for about 100 yards to the southern corner of the quarry, and on the southern wall they bulge up again, though they never reach right to the top of the quarry-face.
In a few places the grainsize of the groundmass of the altered normal rock is notably finer than usual at its junetion with the intrusion. This is noticeable even in the field, and was rather puzzling at first, seeming to indicate a gradual passage into the intrusive rock, but thin sections showing the actual contact prove it definitely to be an intrusive one; in any case the finer grain is only local, and elsewhere the normal grainsize is maintained right to the contact.
It is of cvuurse impossible to tell how far the quarry- floor is above the base of the rock-mass, and what is the downward and lateral extent of the intrusive mass, but we understand that a trial bore put down on the quarry-floor encountered quite a considerable thickness of pink rock.
The entirely irregular incidence of alteration on the normal rock may be noticed in abandoned quarries and other excavations about Port Kembla, but owing to surface- weathering of the outcrops it is hard to determine whether
the intrusive type appears as well as the normal rock.
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 0207
Petrography. (a) General.
It is advisable at this point to give some petrographical details of the various rocks concerned. For purposes of convenience they have been divided into two main groups, the normal and the intrusive, and these again have been subdivided according to the varying degrees of alteration into the fresh normal and the altered normal types, and into the dark and light intrusive types, but it must be understood that these subdivisions are made purely for
Fig. 1. Diagrammatic sketch-section along the wall of the Port Kembla Quarry. Length of section about 100 yards, height about 20 feet. A—Fresh normal rock. C—Dark intrusive.
B—Altered normal rock. D—Pink intrusive.
convenience of reference. The first or fresh normal type is the ordinary Saddleback rock, with very constant petro- logical characters, while the second represents its local alteration in situ; the alteration, however, is by no means constant, but varies in degree from place to place though it is essentially the same in kind. The intrusive rock, though evidently. co-magmatic with the normal type, is a separate entity; it is everywhere altered to some extent, and the degree of alteration is expressed by reference to the varying shades of colour, the third type being the dark
308 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
or less altered, and the fourth the light or more altered, phase of the intrusive.
(b) The normal rock.
The first or fresh normal type, as collected in the Port Kembla quarry, conforms well to the general description given by Mr. Card, consisting as it does of porphyritic plagioclase, augite and magnetite, with olivine pseudo- morphs, in a somewhat orthophyrie groundmass composed essentially of little stout plagioclase prisms, with abundant oranules of augite and magnetite, innumerable tiny needles: of apatite, and a quantity of interstitial green chlorite sporadically distributed: orthoclase also occurs throughout the rock. The tabular plagioclase phenocrysts, up to about half-an-inch in length and often containing inclusions of eroundmass, have a composition about Abs,Aneo, and since the average composition of the felspar, as calculated from the norm, is close to Ab;,An4, it follows that the plagioclase of the second generation, which like the phenocrysts shows. some zoning, must be as acid as andesine.
Orthoclase forms, as Mr. Card has pointed out, un- twinned narrow borders or outgrowths to the plagioclase phenocrysts, the outer margin being irregular and dented. by the erystals of the groundmass (Plate XXIV., fig. 1), and orthoclase may also be represented by some of the un- twinned prisms of the groundmass, besides serving as an investment and interstitial filing round some of the little plagioclase prisms.
The place of olivine is taken largely by green to brownish-green iddingsite, generally associated with a dense green chloritic or serpentinous substance, and with some granular quartz and a little carbonate ; no unaltered olivine is visible. Augite is in general so fresh throughout the rock that little green pseudomorphs in the groundmass:
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 309
are taken to represent olivine of a second generation, though they may represent an original rhombic pyroxene. Of the interstitial materials chlorite is the most abundant, often enclosing apatite needles; orthoclase and a little quartz have also been detected.
The presence of iddingsite in this rock is worthy of remark. As far back as 1923 this mineral was regarded by one of us (W.R.B.) as a product of deuteric alteration of a Permo-Carboniferous basalt from the Maitland dis- trict’), and the same mineral has since been recorded as replacing olivine in the Prospect teschenite), and hypersthene in the Allandale andesite), in circumstances pointing to deuteric formation, the associated minerals being chlorite, calcite, albite and zeolites. This view as to the deuteric origin of iddingsite is confirmed by the work of Ross and Shannon‘), and it may be taken for granted that the presence of this mineral in a rock is a sign of late-magmatic alteration.
Taken by itself, then, this Port Kembla rock would be regarded as one which towards the end of its period of erystallization had suffered deuteric alteration to a certain extent. The formation of orthoclase was probably the penultimate event and the alteration of olivine with inter- stitial deposition of chlorite and quartz the ultimate event in the consolidation of the rock.
In regard to its classificatory position the rock stands on the border-line between the trachyandesites and the trachybasalts. Muineralogically and texturally it has much in common with the shoshonites, a fact which has been pointed out by Miss Ida A. Brown ®?) for the co-magmatic intrusive rocks at Milton.
A number of slides examined for the purpose of studying the alteration of the normal rock show some differences in
310 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
texture put have much in common. Progressive alteration is noticed as the intrusion is approached, but the most marked effects are not apparent except in specimens taken within distances of a few feet from the contact. Beyond this contact-zone of most intense alteration there is a good deal of similarity in the phenomena observed, the differences being in degree rather than in kind. In the rocks showing the intermediate stage of alteration augite is fresh and olivine is represented by clear brownish-green iddingsite. The chief interest centres round the alterations of the plagioclase phenocrysts. These, as a result of partial alteration, present a mottled or irregularly chequered appearance, albitization having proceeded along cracks, and being quite irregular in its incidence.
As a matter of fact the determination of the replacing felspar is very difficult: it has an index of refraction dis- tinctly less than that of Canada Balsam, and in places where it cuts across the twin-lamellae of the replaced fel- spar it is untwinned, so that orthoclase is suspected, especially as it has straight extinction in many cases where the basic felspar is cut normal to (010). However, albite twin-striations have been definitely observed in a number of cases, and the mineral is undoubtedly the soda-felspar. The proportion of albitized material varies in different specimens; 1t shows a marked though not a steady increase as the intrusion is approached. The surface of the pheno- erysts is to a greater or less extent spangled with tiny flakes of sericite, and in some cases with grains of calcite and saussuritie material, but the sericite by far is the most abundant, though the quantity of it varies a great deal in different specimens. The sericite is confined for the most part to the albite areas, and as a rule the albite is to some extent kaolinized (Plate XXIV., figs. 2 and 3).
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 211
In the groundmass augite is not so plentiful as im the unaltered rock, and it may disappear altogether, but there is much more chlorite; these circumstances, together with the presence of abundant tiny granules resembling sphene, would indicate that much of the original augite has been altered, though the phenocrysts are still quite fresh, except for an occasional carbonate-filled crack. The felspar of the groundmass is considerably altered; the nature of the alteration cannot always be made out, but albitization and sericitization have been observed, and an occasional feature is the presence of a narrow zone of chlorite between the core and peripheral zone of the felspar erystals. Idding- site is still the main alteration-product of olivine, but occasionally with some chlorite and a little carbonate and quartz. The iron-ore of the phenocrysts may acquire a rim of leucoxene, proving its titaniferous character.
In specimens taken from near the intrusive contact cer- tain features of the alteration become intensified. There is more albitization of the phenocrysts, and at the im- mediate contact labradorite has been completely converted into soda-felspar. Sericite is on the whole not abundant, and it may be practically absent, but kaolin may be present. Augite has suffered a marked change, being completely converted into granular carbonates with a little quartz. The iddingsite after olivine has given place largely to a green, pleochroic, uniaxial chlorite with very low negative birefringence; in some cases the two minerals appear together, in others chlorite alone is visible (Plate XXIV., fig. 4).
In the groundmass chlorite is still abundant, but side by side with it there is an increasing proportion of calcite in little patches, doubtless representing pyroxene.
In some places on the quarry-face the altered normal rock is mottled with black rounded spots which are seem
312 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
in thin section to be composed of aggregates of green verimicular fibrous chlorite, which ramify into the surround- ing rock. The possible significance of these is discussed in another section.
The altered normal rock may become, as noted above, much finer-grained than usual in places; in these fine- grained phases magnetite assumes rod-like forms in the groundmass, and the orthoclase rims to the plagioclase phenocrysts do not appear to be present. These pheno- mena are doubtless due to local more rapid erystallization than usual.
(c) The wmtruswe rock.
The intrusive rock, while exhibiting within itself eertain slight variations, is clearly marked off texturally from the normal types. No unaltered examples of this intrusive rock have been found; in every slide examined every one of the principal original minerals has been completely replaced. The felspar phenocrysts, presumably basic in the first instance, are now of pure albite, and these through shght kaolinization show out grey, opaque white or creamy-white against the blue-black stony groundmass. In thin section these albite phenocrysts are seen to be sharply bounded, showing no trace of an orthoclase border. Some kaolin appears on them, also a little calcite, but sericite is never conspicuous, and may be absent.
The former augite phenocrysts are represented by car- bonates, with a little chlorite and quartz, or in some cases by a pale green chlorite which is in process of alteration to carbonate. Olivine erystals have been replaced by iddingsite, and this is now completely pseudomorphed, but with a retention of the original platy structure, by chlorite which in its turn is being encroached on by carbonates. The cracks and boundaries of the original crystals are indicated by haematite (Plate XXIV., figs. 5 and 6).
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 313
The groundmass is microporphyritie in felspar, little laths averaging about .15 mm. long being embedded in an exceedingly fine-textured matrix mainly of microlitic fel- spar and magnetite dust. Of the microphenocrysts some, probably the majority, are certainly albite, but some with Carlsbad twinning and straight extinetion may be ortho- clase, while the microlites, which in places show a sheaf- like or sub-variolitie arrangement, have a slightly weaker double refraction and are probably in part at least of potash felspar, a conclusion which is likewise reached on chemical grounds, as shown below.
No pyroxene is visible in the groundmass, but scattered little patches of calcite probably take its place. The mag- netite dust, while uniformly distributed, is also segregated in little irregular patches associated with carbonates, either clustering about phenocrysts or else surrounding what look like irregular vesicle-fillings of chlorite.
In certain slides of this third type and in some of those eut from the normal rock right at the contact iron ore surrounds, and fills cracks in, the original olivine, and gradually spreads until there are phenocrysts of rather spongy magnetite with the outward form of olivine. These iron ore pseudomorphs, as well as the lttle segregated masses in the groundmass, would appear to be due to an introduction of iron by magmatic solutions connected with the intrusion.
The dark, or least altered, phase of the intrusive rock grades into a rather chocolate-brown-coloured type, with pink felspar phenocrysts, the change in body-colour being due to oxidation of the iron ore into haematite or a hydrous oxide, which now appears as a pigment right through the body of the rock, except for a few phenocrysts of leucoxenised ilmenite. Chlorite has completely disappeared from the rock, its place being taken by carbonates.
314 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
'The change from chocolate-brown to a brownish-pink or greenish-pink colour comes for the most part fairly abruptly, and is accompanied by the almost complete dis- appearance of iron oxide, and by the sudden access of carbonates of iron, magnesia and lime. The albite pheno- erysts have survived intact, save for some kaolinization, and some phenocrysts of iron ore still remain. Ferro- magnesian minerals are replaced by aggregates of quartz, carbonates, albite and a little almost colourless chlorite. The groundmass has been encroached upon more and more by the carbonates, till in the extreme case it consists of a mass of carbonates and kaolin with the little micro- phenoerysts of albite embedded in it, and a little limonite, representing all that is left of the iron oxide; in some places carbonate pseudomorphs of felspar microlites may be seen. The extreme alteration of the intrusive has thus been essentially a process of carbonation.
Filled vesicular cavities, either spherical or irregular in Shape, are a common feature of the chocolate-brown and pink phases of the intrusive, also irregular drusy cavities, sometimes upwards of six inches in length, in which calcite crystals and quartz prisms up to three-quarters of an inch long have been observed, as well as massive calcite, some of which gives a reaction for iron.
Under the microscope the small cavities in the chocolate- brown rock are seen to contain quartz, albite, siderite, calcite (and probably dolomite), and chlorite, the order of deposition being siderite, albite and quartz, calcite, chlorite. The chlorite is practically colourless, and of low refraction and birefringence. In the pink phase chlorite is neglgible, albite in tiny clear twinned prisms is the cavity-lining, and siderite and calcite fill the central parts, the carbonates appearing in places to be invading or re- placing the albite. In one shde of the chocolate-brown
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 315
rock the cavities contain much of a mineral of moderate refraction, with a pale yellow colour, straight extinction, slight pleochroism, and bright polarisation colours. It is in aggregates of very tiny rosettes, and gives a marked flame-reaction for potassium, so is probably sericite or a sericitic phlogopite. It is bedded on tiny quartz-erystals, and has siderite and calcite as associates.
The mode of formation of these abundant cavities calls for some consideration. It is sufficiently remarkable to find them in an intrusive rock such as this, and an examina- tion of them, both megascopie and microscopic, suggests that they are not ordinary vesicles or steam-holes. They are often highly irregular in shape, though generally curved as to their boundary-walls, and there is a marked absence of orientation of the felspar-microlites of the rock parallel to these boundaries; indeed the microlites even give the impression in places of being cut off abruptly at a cav- ity. On the other hand the walls of the cavities are smooth, differing in this respect from shrinkage-cavities, into which the ends of crystals often protrude. The impression gained is that these cavities may have been dissolved out of the solidified rock, in much the same way, perhaps, as the ‘‘kluften’’ of the Alpine granites, described by Koenigs- berger, which are believed to have been formed by magmatic solutions, and afterwards filled with deuteric deposits. There are some indications that in certain cases the cavities may be enlargements of spaces once occupied by olivine or augite, minerals which are susceptible to attack by magmatic solutions.
It seems probable that the chlorite-filled cavities asso- ciated with the magnetite segregations in the dark phase of the intrusive may have been formed in this way, like- wise the larger, chiorite-filled cavities of the altered normal rock,
316 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
Mazmatic Relationships of Normal and Intrusive Rocks.
It has been assumed above that the porphyritic albite of the intrusive rock replaces an original basic plagioclase. In the absence of any traces of plagioclase apart from albite in the rock this assumption is ineapable of direct proof, but there are certain circumstances which render it exceedingly probable. In the first place the albite phenocrysts and the pseudomorphs after olivine and augite occurring in the dark intrusive are absolutely identical in all respects with those found in the altered normal rock near the contact; it is reasonable to conclude therefore that the original rocks suffered the same alterations, and that the fresh intrusive was mineralagically identical with the fresh normal rock. In the second place a study of the analyses of the two rocks shows their close chemical ‘similarity, except in regard to the relative proportions of soda, potash and lime, suggesting that there has been a rearrangement of these in the intrusive rock, such as would result from albitization. Again it is shown in a later section that the assumption of a molecular replacement of original basic plagioclase by albite would give to the in- trusive rock a quantitative mineral composition very close to that of the normal rock.
Although albite has been regarded as capable of primary erystallization from a basic magma“® %), it seems justifiable, in view of the circumstances just enumerated, to consider that the normal and intrusive rocks were solidified from the same magma, from which basic plagioelase, augite, olivine and iron ore had erystallized before eruption; and that the differences in texture are probably due to differ- ences in the conditions of erystallization, which caused the orthoclase in the one case to mantle the plagioclase and in the other to form a felt of laths or needles in the ground- mass.
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 917
Chemical Composition.
In Mr. Card’s original study of these South Coast lavas the reliance on chemical analyses of the rocks was em- phasised, and chemical data have proved very essential in the present investigation, in the form of four analyses: made by one of us (H.P.W.) of selected types, together with three analyses originally made in connexion with. Mr. Card’s investigation, and quoted from the Southern Coalfield Memoir. These are contained in Table I. The three analyses of the fresh normal Saddleback rock demon- strate the striking uniformity of the chemical composition of the rock over large areas, the slight differences being evidently due in large measure to different degrees of alteration, since in no case has an example of the rock been found perfectly free from deuteric effects.
Mr. Card has pointed out that though the percentage of alkahes, and more particularly of potash, is low for normal latite, the rock has affinities with the latite series, and undoubtedly it should be placed near the basic end of this series, or among the orthoclase-basalts.
There are close chemical resemblances to the shoshonites. of Iddings, especially in the unusually low value for magnesia, but the potash is rather lower than in the
analysed examples of these types.
The norm of the Port Kembla rock (No. 2) is:
OUartT” se. Soe «ARGS Orthoclase .. .. .. 14.46 UGC S st ee a ee A ANOrunite, 2.) 3. alee Zoic DiOPSIGe ws cc «ck eee SS Hypersthene .. .. .. 6.52 Me ReLIEG 22%... scutes yl OeeO 1569 2) CUO A aeRO oe Fen A023 PENA ELLE sly os 1.34
and the C.I.P.W. classification II. "5. 8. "4. Andose.
318 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
TABLE I, ibs 2. 3. 4, 5. 6. 7. 8. S10, .. 52.86 52.72 52.48 51.06 51.96 5134) 507550.
Al;Os ..° 17.28 16.19 17.32 18.66 15.64 14.78 18ibo sl4eom FeOs.. 410 480 4.380: 4.15 5.50 130°" "4s" wales
FeO .. 4.59 414 5.04 4.91 3.510) 26:39) (i4iseeeGi2G MgO .. 3.84 - 412 .3.65 83.550 2.04 . 2.75.3 pommel CaO .. 4.62 -8.10 7.66 5.64 5.30) (3:5250 fo Gleeoeae Na:O ..° “3:29 3.381 3:48 °° 3:75° 5.00 649 ocgomemoron KO...) 2:75 2.45 ©2523 3.84. 3/840 “SISbe Warszeeieos HeO+,. 1.48 #156 .1.61. 2.88 1.51. (\de64, 2:s6qpever HoO—. 0.91 0.92 0.59 0.18 0.57 0.30 -0.18 30 COz .. 0:04 0.07 O17 0.386 422 8:70 W0-sGen aero T1053) 1.10°° 1.20 °O0:74 - 050% 1.200 rete Ores ZrOe .. abs. abs. abs. abs. — — — — P20; .. 0.48 048 042 0.41. 0.44 20.54) s)0 Ares eOs VW20; 2. 0:03" 0:02" 0103) “trace: tracem = — — i303. . abs. -abps. 0:09 saps. — — — — Cl .. trace trace ‘trace trace — — — —. Ss 22 Jabseye abs: yeabsemaeabs: — — — — Gr:@:; .) “abs. “abs. tracey” aps: — — = — NiO .: trace trace abs abs. “abs: — ae os CuO .. — — trace — abs. — — oe MnO .. trace 0.07. -0.81 - 0.09 0:13 —O020) “00S, 20m ‘Bad... OCL 0105 “0:06.; 01035) teace — 0.03 = SrO” ¢. spec-tr. spec.tr: abs. abs. — — — iO: acs. do. abs. abs. spec.tr. spec.tr. — — rsa
99.78 100.20 100.44 100.06 100.36 100.80 99.48 98.49
ipp.er.... 2.010 Z2.1(4 2.189" 22.708. 2. en -2.00m
. Saddleback Flow, Mullet Creek.
. Saddleback Flow, Port Kembla Quarry.
. Saddleback Flow, 3 miles N.W. of Jamberoo.
Altered normal rock, much sericitized, Port Kembla Quarry. Dark intrusive rock, Port Kembla Quarry.
. Pink intrusive rock, Port Kembla Quarry.
. Analysis No. 4 recalculated for comparison with No. 2.
OAAA Rw DY
. Analysis No. 6 recalculated for comparison with No. 5.
Analyses by H. P. White. Nos. 1, 2 and 3 quoted from Mem. ‘Geol. Surv. N.S.W. Geol. No. 7, p.302.
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 319
The appearance of quartz in the norm of a rock con- taining olivine has been commented on by Mr. Cara. It might be accounted for in part by oxidation of some ferrous to ferric oxide, a thing which has apparently taken place; in this case iron which would, if in the ferrous form, use up silica to make femie minerals, is made into magnetite, thus setting free silica for normative quartz. Also there is a little interstitial primary quartz actually present in the rock. But even when all allowances are made there is still an excess of silica, and this is most reasonably explained as due to actual introduction by per- eolating magmatic solutions.
The specimen of the altered normal type chosen for analysis was one showing a fair degree of albitization and much sericitization. An inspection of this analysis (No. 4) and that of the fresh rock indicates certain changes, but for strict comparison some adjustment has to be made.
It is clear that Merrill’s well-known basis of comparison for the analyses of fresh and weathered rocks is not suit- able here, since in this method it is necessary to assume that either alumina or iron remains constant, an assumption for which there is no warrant in the present case. Since the volume of the rock apparently remains unchanged, a comparison may be made on the basis of specific gravities, as suggested by Lindgren,“ and as was done in our paper on the Allandale hypersthene-andesite. The recalculated analysis of the altered normal rock is given in column 7 of Table I, and it indicates, when compared with analysis 2, losses for silica, lime and magnesia, and gains for soda, potash and alumina; iron has remained practically constant. Since the original chemical composition of this altered rock was in all probability closely comparable with that of the fresh normal rock, this increase in alumina must be due to the fact that the loss of alumina involved in the replacement
320 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
of labradorite by albite was more than offset by the sub- sequent formation of sericite, which is richer in alumina than any felspar. Various conjectural equations have been written to explain the formation of sericite from felspar, and in most of these it is assumed that alumina remains constant throughout the process and that the — felspar is replaced by sericite and quartz. But considera- tion will show that where, as here, sericite alone replaces. an equal volume of albite, it is necessary to assume not merely a possible substitution of potash for soda, but also an actual addition of alumina, which must have been supplied by the magmatic solutions. Indeed it is hard to see how the sericite which often spangles the plagioclase of igneous rocks could have been produced by weathering. as is sometimes assumed, since ordinary groundwater solutions are not likely to contain the necessary alumina.
The suggestion that the lower silica and higher alumina in the altered normal rock are due to the introduction of sericite into the altered rock receives a certain measure of support from the consideration that the analysis of this heavily sericitized rock is higher in alumina than any of the analyses of the fresh Saddleback rock, and is the highest in this constituent of all the new analyses here presented. And it is, perhaps, more than a coincidence that in the case of the two Allandale rocks the altered rock shows, with increased soda and potash, higher alumina and lower silica than the fresh one. In our Allandale paper no attempt was made to explain these facts, but a re-examination of the micro-slides shows that the import- ance of the formation of sericite in the altered Allandale
rock was not properly appreciated.
The low percentage of CO, in the altered normal rock shows the small part played by carbonates in the alteration.
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 221
The norm calculated from No. 4 analysis is:
Orthoclase.. ..... 0. - 22.24 IDICCW AS a A Sell. cate ol ee Anorthites 45.852. 4.5 23.0% Hypersthene Sip ite cab ARS 4,92 Oliva nenen rey see aise 6.37 Masnetite ....4.) ccs - 6.03 Thmenite 408 ote es 1.06 HPA patater . 266 alk 1.01
The classification is therefore II. 5. 8. 3(4). Shoshonose.
This is of interest, as showing the ease with which a magmatically-altered igneous rock fits into the C.I.P.W. classification, the sub-rang Shoshonose containing 82 analyses in Washington’s Tables. The average plagioclase of the rock, according to the norm, has a composition about Ab;zsANy., and, as some of the lime of the normative anorthite is really contained in augite, the actual average composition is more acid than this, as compared with Ab;; An,; for the felspar of the fresh rock. Further, in the fresh rock normative orthoclase forms a little over 22% of the total felspar, as compared with 29% in the altered rock. These figures serve to emphasise the two most important processes which haye contributed to the altera- tion, namely, albitization, and the addition of potash, largely in the form of sericite, though some must be in orthoclase in isomorphous mixture with the albite.
It is distinctly unfortunate that no specimens of the intrusive rock are.to be found free from magmatic altera- tion. An analysis (No. 5 in Table I) was made of the freshest material available, that with the blue-black sroundmass.
The calculation of a norm for this rock would serve no useful purpose, but a calculated partial minera! constitution shows the following weight-percentages:
U—December 5, 1928.
O22 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
Orthoclase .. .. .. 19.94% Albite sce. 6.) hedge oN 412 7H ol eee eT anette 1.00 Calcite 5 ens ee Sree Magnesite .. .. .. 92
This leaves about 27% for chlorite, iron ores, kaolin, ete. It may be that a small correction is needed for the lime combined as sphene, but there is no warrant given by the microscope for combining any lime as anorthite. The albite phenocrysts are free from sericite, and as they give a strong flame-reaction for potassium this element must be a component of orthoclase in solid solution in the albite; however, there is much more of it present than is capable of existing in this way, so that there must be a good deal of orthoclase present among the microlitic felspar of the groundmass, as was suspected from the microscopical examination.
Of the pink, or most altered, phase of the intrusive a specimen was selected for analysis as free as possible from cavities. Comparing the analysis (No. 6), recalculated on the specific-gravity basis (No. 8), with that of the dark phase of the intrusive, we note a gain of magnesia, soda and carbon dioxide, and a loss of silica, alumina, iron, lime and potash. Here, as before, the gains and losses are to be attributed to the destructional and depositional activities of the magmatic solutions. The carbonates form- ing a large portion of the groundmass indicate the desilica- tion and carbonation of bases, and some of the carbonates so formed have been deposited, while others have been removed in solution. Some of the silica and calcite have been eventually deposited in the larger cavities, and this probably helps to aecount for their diminution, and the potash dissolved cut would likewise migrate. Iron has changed largely into the ferrous condition as the result of carbonation, and some of it may have migrated. The
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 323
loss of iron, however, may be more apparent than real, since it was pointed out that the analysed sample of the dark phase of the intrusive contained much segregated magnetite which may have been introduced during alteration. The gain of soda and carbon dioxide and the loss of potash are probably the most striking effects of the alteration, and these are emphasised in the following mineral constitution, calculated from the analysis:
@OURELZ ca eh Re. Sessa 5.40 Orihoclases am... <.ees G8 WNW OVE Some arama rumen eer 51514 |. Abels (ales shoe OL 1.34 MeN Ite eas wesc | al 6 oe 1.67 Siderite AG. Gs. so 5s 9.16 Me TIESIte. c/a Mao kk 5.80 Calcibeyes. i. baw. a yeodees 5.00 CORR ot 0 Bre. rrene 6.71 ACMAMLe es cr sm. seks 12S RBM cee tet: ne 24 EVVIQLOLP ce. Aub? bie, 6 eae 1.01
This list should be reasonably correct, so far as the major items are concerned, but possibly the combinations of iron and of titania should be somewhat modified.
The predominating position of albite shows the stability of this mineral under the conditions prevailing, for the phenocrysts have remained unaltered, and new albite has actually been deposited, not merely in cavities, but along with carbonates in the groundmass and in the olivine and augite pseudomorphs. Flame-reactions show that the albite phenocrysts contain much potash, and the small proportion of orthoclase in the altered rock must be contained almost entirely in solid solution in the albite. The original ortho- clase of the groundmass has disappeared, its place being taken by carbonates and albite. The principal processes, then, concerned in this alteration have been albitization, carbonation (involving desilication), and kaolinization
324 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
(involving hydration), with solution and removal of potash and other bases.
So far we have compared the normal rock and its altera- tion products among themselves, and quite separately from the intrusive rock and its variations, but, in view of the probability that normal rock and intrusive were originally of the same chemical composition, the comparison may be extended. For this purpose the analyses of the dark and pink intrusives have been recalculated on a specific-gravity basis, the fresh normal rock being taken as standard, and the results are given in Table IT.
To facilitate comprehension the variations are expressed eraphically in fig. 2. Probably it would have been better to take as abscissae measured distances along a line on the quarry-face, but as the analysed specimens were not arranged in linear fashion that was not possible, and so specific gravities have been used instead, the diagram thus incidentally emphasising the decrease in density with increase of alteration.
TABLE II. A. B. C. D.
STOW a tie. 8 BERT 50.75 51.1 49.65 ALO; ) ee lowle 18.55 15.41 14.29 HesOstz 2 4.80 4.13 5.42 1.26 HEO ha Sae%: 4.14 4.88 3.46 6.18 Total Fe 9.60 9.55 9.26 8.13 as FeO; ..
WeOo ke. a 4,12 3.08 PVA 2.66 @aOrt) kets 8.10 5.61 5.22 3.40 Nias Olen ee Sok 3.13 4,93 6.28 KE Oars 2.45 3.82 3.29 ioe 50. See 2.48 3.04 2.05 1.88 COm ee ke 07 .36 4.16 8.41 MOS ieee ee 1.20 15) 1.18 1.06 Sonos lees 2a 2.758 2.402 26813:
Analyses Nos. 2, 4, 5, and 6 of Table I re-calculated on the basis of specific gravities, the fresh normal rock being taken as the standard of reference.
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 220
326 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
Perhaps the most marked feature of the graph is the rise of carbon dioxide, and to a less extent of soda, towards the most altered end; then there is the general sympathy between alumina and potash, with the sharp rise at first more accentuated in alumina on account of the formation of sericite, and the subsequent decline towards the right, to be correlated with the rise of the carbon dioxide, magnesia and soda curves. The second and last points on the potash and alumina curves are perhaps in some degree complementary, since the orthoclase dissolved out from the light intrusive may in part have been deposited in the altered normal rock as sericite. The very close sympathy between silica and lime is probably not a simple effect, but due to a number of interacting circumstances. The silica- curve is, aS 1s natural, somewhat antipathetic to that for earbon dioxide, but does not decline very sharply, possibly because some of the silica displaced by carbon dioxide has. been redeposited as quartz.
Other correlations will suggest themselves.
Further Deductions from the Analyses. There are a few other interesting and important points which emerge from a detailed consideration of the mineral constitutions derived from the analyses.
The calculated percentages of felspars in the fresh normal rock are: By Weight By Volume
Orthoclase ss. 955.5 same 14.438 15.76 Je ori We peemee ara hoe wot 27.71 99.51 VA mort htte “2 a) e Sek eee 222.0 22 Oh
For the dark intrusive the corresponding figures are: Orthoclaseray, (i eee HOLST 21.37 PANIOTEC ayes) (cinc geia laine 41.77 43.81
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 327
These figures of course can only be an approximation to the truth. Now if the reasonable postulates be granted that in the intrusive rock albite replaces, volume for volume, a more basic felspar, and that in the fresh normal rock the orthoclase exists entirely as a separate original mineral, then the following facts are significant:
(1) The total volume-percentage of felspar in the fresh normal rock is 67.54 while the corresponding figure for the intrusive rock is 65.18.
(2) Since we know that the albite of the intrusive rock contains potash, and since Vogt has shown that albite may take up about 12% of orthoclase into solid solution, if to the 41.77% by weight of pure albite in the intrusive rock we add its saturation amount, 5.70%, of orthoclase, the remaining amount of orthoclase, representing that of primary crystallization occurring as microlites in the groundmass, is 14.17, which compares very closely with the 14.48 of original orthoclase in the fresh normal rock.
(3) Ii we convert the weight-percentages 41.77 and 5.70 into volume-percentages, the volume of plagioclase in the intrusive rock is represented by 49.94, as against 51.78 for the plagioclase of the fresh normal rock.
Further, in the pink intrusive the orthoclase of the groundmass has been almost completely replaced by earbon- ates, etc.; the orthoclase present in the rock must there- fore be contained practically entirely in solid solution in the albite. Now the calculated weight-percentage of albite in the rock is 54.86, and to saturate this 7.48% of ortho- clase is required. The actual calculated weight-percentage of orthoclase for the rock is 7.76.
It would appear then that the intrusive rock before magmatic alteration had substantially the same total quantity of felspar and the same proportions of orthoclase
328 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
and plagioclase as the normal rock, and that its original plagioclase was replaced by albite containing in solid solution the greatest possible proportion of potash felspar.
Zonal Arrangement of the Alterations.
Series of specimens have been collected along lines more or less normal to the line of contact on the quarry-face between the normal rock and the intrusive, and it has been found possible to establish in a general kind of way zones of alteration. Naturally enough the lines of equal change are by no means concentric with the intrusion, for the quarry-wall gives merely an adventitious section, by no means normal to the very irregular contact, and in any case it is not to be expected that the altering solutions would spread upwards and outwards uniformly; still the degree of change in the normal rock is to some extent a function of distance from the contact.
It has been mentioned above that, even in the freshest typical normal rock as found in the quarry, the olivine is replaced by iddingsite and interstitial chlorite is present; this condition is apparently universal in the Saddleback rock wherever found, and it may be regarded as a regular feature. This qualification being understood then, it has been established that fresh normal rock occurs horizontally and vertically and in intermediate directions away from the intrusion, and, as explained above, the gradual altera- tion may be plainly traced as one gets closer to the contact with the intrusive rock.
Under the microscope the fresh normal rock is seen to be free from albite, sericite, and carbonates; the augite is fresh, and the olivine is represented by iddingsite; closer in augite remains fresh, but albite and sericite appear. fairly rapidly, both showing in a specimen collected only a foot away from the perfectly fresh rock. Still further in,
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 229
albite increases, carbonates develop along cracks in the augite, and iddingsite begins to pass over into chlorite.
The following table epitomizes the alterations, the speci- mens being taken from the zone of altered normal rock in a straight line more or less at right angles to the contact on the quarry-face:
Speci- Distance
men from State of State of State of No. contact Olivine. Augite. Plagioclase. in jit. al 5s Iddingsite Fresh; a little Much albite carbonate in and sericite. cracks.
ZB 23 do. do. Much albite, but less ser- icite than in
(1). 3 13 Iddingsite and Entirely do. do. chlorite. carbonated. 4 0 Chlorite and a do. All albite; little carbon- very little ate. sericite.
The distance from the contact at which alteration com- mences in the normal rock varies; traces of alteration have been observed 20 feet away, but on the other hand fresh rock has been collected within 10 feet ‘of the intrusion.
In the intrusive rock the plagioclase is all albite, and sericite is absent or practically so, except for that which was found in the vesicles of one specimen; in the freshest rocks chlorite and carbonates are present, but not much Kaolin. In the most altered phases carbonates and kaolin both increase, orthoclase and chlorite practically disappear, and albite becomes more abundant. |
Origin of the Solutions.
Much has been written concerning the origin of the albitizing solutions which have affected basic lavas. Some writers have ascribed the alteration to percolating scround- water solutions, while others have looked to sea-water as
330 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
the source of the soda introduced into submarine flows. Neither of these sources is possible for the South Coast lavas, inasmuch as: (1) The alteration is quite irregular in its incidence, and has even proceeded from below upwards; (2) Much potash has been introduced as well as soda; and (3) The alterations have occurred in terrestrial as well as in submarine flows. It is more in accord with the facts to regard the solutions. as having been an integral part of the original magma, and the alterations as being deuteric, as has been assumed
above.
In the ease of the so-called fresh normal rock the alterations that are apparent, such as the iddingsite change and the chlorite deposition, were evidently effected by residual solutions, ejected as part of the magma, and remaining fluid after it had almost completely solidified ; the intrusive rock, too, was probably in its turn affected by its own residual’ solutions. But superimposed on these effects are others of a much more radical character, and these latter, it 1s believed, are to be attributed to the independent injection of magmatic solutions following the consolidation of normal and intrusive rocks. These solu- tions were essentially, then, of the nature of post-volcanic emanations, though at Port Kembla they were injected, and may never have reached the surface.
History of the Alterations. We are now in a position to attempt to sketch the course of events leading to the formation of the Port Kembla
rocks as they exist to-day.
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 2b
The original basic magma must have been poorer in magnesia than the normal basaltic type, but richer in both. soda and potash, as well as in the mineralisers, water and carbon dioxide. Physical conditions in the magma were such that the mineralisers were able to segregate or distil off to a very large extent from the rest of the magma, carry- ing with them much soda and potash; this is virtually equivalent to the separation of the original magma into: two partial magmas, the lighter and more fluid one being of course by far the smaller in volume. After partial crystallization of olivine, augite, magnetite and plagioclase, a large-scale eruption of the lower magma took place, form-. ing the normal Saddleback rock; this suffered some altera- tion from residual solutions before final consolidation. Closely following this carhe further small eruptions from. the same magma through the normal rock, and these cooled with a different texture owing to different conditions, and suffered somewhat from the effect of residual solutions. Partly along the channels followed by the second eruption the upper and very fluid magmatic fraction was now in- jected. It was probably sco fluid that, instead of forcing an intrusive entry, it was able, under pressure, to impreg-- nate the already consolidated rocks, and so its progress was effected not by a process of displacement but rather by metasomatic replacement of its co-magmatic predecessors. It would seem as if there had actually been a further partial segregation or separation in this fluid magma before injection, for the first invading solutions appear to have been relatively poor in carbon dioxide or rich in silica; at all events carbonation was not one of their functions. The most noteworthy change was the replacement of more basic plagioclase by potash-bearing albite; this change was complete in the intrusive, and in the invaded rock at the
immediate contact, but decreased in intensity as the solu-
332 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
tions spread outwards. The effect of this on the solutions themselves was to diminish their soda and potash and silica content and to enrich them in lime and alumina, and they were enabled to convert the olivine and much of the pyroxene of the groundmass into chlorite. The farthest limit of penetration of these solutions is indicated by the incipient albitization of the plagioclase phenocrysts of the normal rock.
A body of carbonating solution was now forced upwards and outwards, converting nearly everything in the intru- sive rock into carbonates and kaolin, and possibly dissolv- ing out irregular cavities wherein was deposited much of their dissolved mineral content: during this period also there was active deposition of albite. Carbonation affected the intrusive rock only in part, its incidence being deter- mined to some extent by the presence of cracks which acted as channels; and the invaded normal rock was affected only within a limited range.
The sequence of events may perhaps be interpreted otherwise, in terms of temperature. The original solutions contained both silica and carbon dioxide, but in the pneumatolytiec stage, when temperature was high, the former was the more powerful acid-forming radicle; later, in the hydrothermal stage, when temperature was much lower, carbon dioxide was the more powerful, and dis- placed silica from combination.
With the exception of soda, potash was carried farthest of all the dissolved material, and it was at the last deposited in great abundance as sericite. This may have crystallized from the first invading solutions after they had been en- riched in alumina and depleted in silica, in which case it may have formed simultaneously with the replacing albite with which it is so closely associated. In this connexion
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 0920:
it may be significant that practically no deposition of sericite took place while the solutions were passing through the intrusive rock, and that the heaviest sericitization is found in those altered portions of the normal rock farthest away from the contact. Alternatively the sericite may have been deposited from the later solutions, the potash being in part derived from the orthoclase of the pink intrusive which. was destroyed by the carbonating solutions.
The final depositions were those in the cavities and vughs, and these consisted mostly of carbonates, and of quartz, representing the silica displaced from combination by the more powerful carbon dioxide.
Conditions of Eruption.
Mr. L. -F. Harper has inferred, principally from the directions of thinning of the lava-sheets, that the main centres of eruption of the South Coast lavas were three, two of which were to the east of the present coast-line, off Port Kembla and off Kiama respectively. With the excep- tion of the topmost, the lava-fiows and tuff-beds are inter- bedded with marine sediments, but there is nothing to tell us definitely whether the principal vents from which they were extruded were terrestrial or submarine. The sedi- ments are of the nature of mudstones, with occasional pebble-bands, and the contained fossils are of shore-living types, so it is evident that shallow-water conditions prevailed.
Attempts have been made to establish genetic relation- ships between the character of the magma erupted in a region and the nature of the contemporaneous crustal movements, but this is hardly the place to examine in detail these relations for the South Coast lavas. However, it may be noted that the sea-floor was gradually sinking, though not at a rate much exceeding that of the deposition of lava
“334 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
and ash and mechanical sediment, and that eventually the marine gave place to freshwater conditions without any change in the general character of the erupted rocks.
It is of interest to note that the absarokites and shoshonites and banakites of Yellowstone Park, U.S.A.,“) with which the South Coast series have very close affinities, were ‘poured out sub-aerially, apparently in connexion with the building up of a Tertiary mountain-range. There is some evidence that these American lavas suffered deuteric altera- tion, '®) and it would be interesting to know whether this ‘phenomenon occurred on an extensive scale and whether the results compare at all closely with those described above. It is also perhaps worthy of mention that no examples of pillow-structure have been recorded in any of the South Coast lavas.
Deuteric Alterations in Other Lavas of the Series.
The examination of field-exposures and thin sections of ‘a number of other rocks of the South Coast series makes it clear that magmatic alteration has been very common in them. In the disused quarries as well as in the surface- outcrops of the Saddleback rock about Port Kembla, many evidences of albitization and carbonation may be seen, though none so good as those in the Government Quarry. Specimens of the same flow from Dapto show precisely the features of the altered normal type, and these have likewise been observed near the top of Curry’s Hill, ‘Gerringong, where the fresh normal type also appears. As a matter of fact all the flows of the series which occur at Gerringong and on the Curry’s Hill section show som alteration. The Cambewarra flow is in places thorough!y albitized and has amygdaloidal phases in which the eavity- fillines are largely chalcedony; below the Saddleback flow, and separated from it by the Jamberoo tuffs, is the Bumbe flow, which here is mostly of a grey or brown instead of a
+ oe
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 339
black colour; it has chloritic pseudomorphs after augite, and albitic replacements of the plagioclase phenocrysts. Underlying this markedly porphyritic phase of the Bumbo flow is a dense, fine-grained phase, not unlike the Cam- bewarra rock in appearance, which is amyedaloidal, the vesicles being filled with soft, green, chloritic material, between which and the ecavity-walls are to be found
occasional tiny flakes of metallic copper”); this rock is
albitized, and like the chlorite the copper is probably magmatic, either having been held in solution till the deuteric stage was reached, or else dissolved out of the ferro-magnesian minerals and re-deposited.
The Blowhole flow appears to be unaltered for the most part, but at the top it passes into an amygdaloidal phase, which is albitized and has its vesicles filled with radiating natrolite.
Indeed, the perusal of Chapter IV of the Southern Coal- field Memoir makes it clear that deuteric activity has been very widespread through this series of Permo-Carboni- ferous lavas, for there is scarcely a description of one of the flows, terrestrial or submarine, but contains some reference to the aiteration which the minerals have under- gone and to the presence of chlorite, calcite, chalcedony and other substances not of primary crystallization.
Zeolites and allied minerals have been reported from a number of the flows; for instance, prehnite and zeolites are mentioned as occurring in the Saddleback flow, and stilbite in the Cambewarra flow. Nevertheless minerals belonging to the group of the zeolites are notably absent from the more massive types of rock, in contrast with other deuterically-altered basic lava-flows which have been examined, and which contain analcite, natrolite and other hydrous silicates filling interstitial spaces between the
336 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
felspars, and even replacing the latter partially or completely.
The erystallization-temperatures of the zeolites are pro- bably lower than those of any of the substances found in the Port Kembla rock with the exception of calcite, and as this is present in plenty, the general absence of zeolites in the non-vesicular rocks, either as replacements or as interstitial fillings, would appear to indicate that no mate- rial from which zeolites might be made was left in the solutions at the lower temperature at which calcite formed ; this may have been because of a lack of water sufficient to permit of deposition of silicates within the temperature- range of the zeolites.
Comparisons with Deuterically-altered Basic Rocks elsewhere.
The alterations described for the Port Kembla rock, and for the South Coast lavas generally, have naturally much in common with those suffered by basic rocks elsewhere. The altered phases differ from typical spilites in many respects,“*) as for example in containing pseudomorphs after olivine and in being relatively rich in potash; never- theless the presence in both of much albite and of chlorite and carbonates replacing the ferro-magnesian minerals, shows that while the composition of the original magmas differed, and to some extent also the deuteric solutions, yet these latter had sufficient in common, in the way both of composition and in mode of operation, to produce some- what comparable results.
H. C. Sargent has deseribed from Derbyshire a series of Lower Carboniferous submarine lavas for which he suggests the name potash-spilites.“3) It appears that the relatively unaltered rocks of the series contain iddingsite after olivine, and in some cases may contain original ortho-
clase, and the alteration of the series has given rise, along
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 207
with much that is typically spilitic, to deuteric orthoclase. With Dr. Bemrose’s descriptions of the unaltered types) no analyses were published, but it would seem that the presence of primary orthoclase links these rocks with the orthoclase-basalts, so that chemically they have something in common with the South Coast lavas. The deuteric solutions affecting the Derbyshire rocks were, however, essentially potash-bearing and devoid of soda, for the analyses quoted by Sargent show an antipathetic relation between the alkalies.
The Permian lavas about Exeter in the same county, described by Teall,“5) are of latitic character, and the presence of iddingsite and carbonates in some of these betokens a certain degree of deuteric alteration. The only one of these basic types analysed contains 7.03% of K:O, 0% NazO and 3.76% COs It would appear, therefore, that deuteric alteration by carbonating solutions rich in potash has occurred.
Very closely comparable with the phenomena appearing in the Port Kembla rocks are some of those described by Bailey and Grabham as occurring in the albitized Carboni- ferous basic lavas of Arthur’s Seat, Edinburgh.“® In these rocks there are vesicle-fillings and little veins of pris- matic albite in association with chlorite and calcite. The albite replacing more basic felspar is invariably spangled with tiny flakes of sericite, and in one instance is accom- panied by small veins and patches of anorthoclase. No analyses of these rocks appear to be available for com- parative purposes.
Alkalization. An important part of all deuteric alteration of basic rocks, and acid ones too, is the introduction of alkalies. The examples quoted make it clear that the altering solu-
V —December 5, 1928.
338 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
tions may be rich in soda or potash or both, depending no doubt on the chemical peculiarities of the original magma. Further, the nature of the minerals formed may vary according to circumstances; the soda may appear in albite or in zeolites, and the potash in felspar or in sericite.
Now there are in existence such terms as albitization, analeitization and sericitization to express special results of the introduction of one or other of the alkalies, but it would appear that there is need for another term, of more general significance, that would apply particularly to the ease of rocks like those of Arthur’s Seat and those of Port Kembla, where both alkalies have been introduced, or where more than one new mineral has been produced. To meet this need the term alkalization 1s proposed. Albiti- zation, sericitization, ete., would then be regarded as special manifestations of alkalization, which itself is one phase or manifestation of deuteric alteration.
Summary.
(1) A microsecepical and chemical examination of the Saddleback trachybasalt exposed in the Government Quarry at Port Kembla, and of a co-magmatic rock intru- sive into it, indicates that there has been considerable deuterie alteration of both the intrusive and the invaded rocks.
(2) The alterations may be divided into: (a) those pro- duced by residual solutions, consisting mainly of iddingsiti- zation and chlorite-deposition, and (b) those produced by post-voleanie solutions, comprising the formation first of albite and chlorite and later of albite, sericite, rhombo- hedral carbonates, kaolin and quartz.
(3) The post-voleanie alterations are disposed in roughly concentric zones, the greatest alteration being within the intrusion.
ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 399
(4) The introduced bases include soda and potash, the
former entering into albite and the latter into sericite and
into orthoclase isomorphously contained in albite.
(5) It is shown that deuteric alteration is a common
feature of the South Coast Permo-Carboniferous lavas, and
comparisons are made with other basic rocks elsewhere
which show similar alterations.
AlG,
) tarper, L. F., &
Card, G. W.
a Browne, W. R...
idem
. Browne, W. R., &
Waites. cE.’ P-
fioss, C..8., &
Shannon, HE. V...
. Brown, Ida A. ..
. Koenigsberger, iy
. Benson, W.N. .. . Wells, A. K. . Lindgren, W. : Iddings, J. P.
. Dewey, H., &
Mlett, J. S.
s pargent, H.C. ..
» Bemrose, H. H..:. y leateder Jo .cn.
Bailey, E. B., & Grabham, G. W.
References. Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Geology No. T1915, Chaps ly. This Journal, 56, 1922, pp.278-284. ibidem, 58, 1924, pp.240-254. ibidem, 59, 1925, pp.3872-387.
The Origin, etc., of the Mineral Idding- site. Proc. UsS7Nat. Musi; 67, art. 7, ppal-19:
(a) Geology of the Milton District. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 50, 1925, pp. 461-2. (b) ibidem, p. 457.
Neues Jahrb. fur. Mineral., etc., Beilage Band, 14, 1901, pp.117-118 (ref. cited by J. L. Gilson in Amer. Mineralogist, 12, 1927, p.3i0:)
Proc. luinn. Sce. N.S. W., 40, 1915, p60;
Geol. Mag., 60, 1923, p.70.
Mineral Deposits, p.848.
U.S. Geol. Surv. Monograph 32, Pt: 2, Chap. IX.
British Pillow-Lavas. Geol. Mag., N.S., Dec: 5, 8, 1911, pp202-209.
Quart.-Journ. Geol. Soc: 7a, 1917, pp. REZ).
ibidem, 50, 1894, pp.603-644.
The Geology of the Country around Exeter. Mem. Geol. Suzv., Gt. Brit., 1902.
Geol. Mag., N.S., Dec. 5, 6, 1909, pp: 250-256.
340 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.
Explanation of Plates. Plate XXIV. Microphotographs.
Fig. 1—Fresh normal Saddleback rock. Note plagioclase phenocrysts with orthoclase rim intergrown with the ortho- phyric groundmass, also small zoned plagioclase phenocryst. Crossed nicols. x 203.
Fig. 2.—Basic plagioclase phenocrysts of the normal rock, showing partial alteration. The dark, irregular patches across the crystals are of albite at extinction, and the lighter mottlings on it are of sericite. Crossed nicols. x 223.
Fig. 3.—Phenocryst of basic plagioclase in normal rock, showing albitization but no sericitization. The lighter patches. on it are of albite. Crossed nicols. x 20.
Fig. 4—Iddingsite pseudomorphs after olivine, in process of alteration to chlorite. The lighter areas near the cracks repre- sent the residual iddingsite, whose cleavage is well shown. The lower dark patch in the photograph is iron ore, the upper a hole in the slide. Crossed nicols. x 223.
Fig 5.—The dark phase of the intrusive rock. The albite phenocrysts are clouded with kaolin, and an iddingsite pseudo- morph, changed to chiorite sheathed with haematite, may be seen near the middle of the picture. In the microporphyritic groundmass the segregations of magnetite round chlorite-car- bonate patches are well shown. Ordinary light. x 193.
Fig. 6—A phenocryst in the dark intrusive rock. It was originally of pyroxene, with olivine inclusions. The latter have been altered to iddingsite and then to chlorite, while the host has changed to chlorite. Around and through the phenocryst the chlorite may be seen in process of alteration to carbonates. Ordinary light. x 20.
Plate XXV.
Photograph of a specimen showing junction between the chocolate-brown phase and the pink phase of the intrusive rock. Two tongues of the latter are seen penetrating the former, the channel followed by the altering solutions possibly being repre- sented by cracks which are shown in the photograph. Rounded and irregularly elongated cavities filled with calcite and quartz are to be seen, the biggest coinciding approximately with the position of one of the tongues of pink rock. A number of calcite-filed cavities are faintly discernible in the pink rock. Greatest length of specimen: 62 inches.
Journal Royal Socrety of N.S.W., Vol. LXITI., 1928. Plate XXIV.
LH. Gordon Gooch
= . i) : b ‘ “a ‘ r ~ \ . wt < SG aa = . by 3 = i 5 t a a 4 - ™ * 5 Coe a = 2 tea 9 ‘ bs t ' “f "7 { = \ 7 = U t 7 4 * a ; ed ye Sa "i ~ ae ¥ Bye Ses 7 Che ey a -~ =. rs ; 2 _* eae = 3 am " “ 439 <a =) iy x by ‘: + ‘ e am cgi tens S ; ; b TT: i) ? Cake 5 ; 5 aN i} oy : alge BS . A es a = ( ,
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. EXIT, 1928. Plate XX V.
[H. Gordon Gooch
Caiala sy Stated eerie)
a ame
i
ah fA eeeat aa ewe ve
ORGANISMS OF TOMATO PULP. 341
NOTES ON SOME ORGANISMS OF TOMATO PULP.
By G. L. WINDRED. (Communicated by Gilbert Wright. )
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1928.)
Introduction.
The manufacture of tomato products is now quite an important business in this State. Whereas, formerly such products were mostly imported from the United States and England now the local production is gradually supplanting such imported goods and with more inquiry into canning and preserving methods there is no reason why we should not be wholly self-supporting in this direction. Indeed, there may be opportunities to export surpluses.
In the manufacture of tomato-pulp, the tomatoes are first thoroughly washed as it has been found that this process gives a better product due to a decrease in mould growth compared with those that are untreated (1). Rotted por- tions are also cut out and the tomatoes drained of surplus water. The treated tomatoes are then put through a machine which removes the skin, pulps the tomatoes and passes the resulting pulp to a large wooden vat where it is heated by steam pipes. This vat is exposed to the air and is shallow, so that a large proportion of the pulp comes into direct contact with the air. Now, when large quantities of tomatoes are being put through the pulping machine, the pulp only remains in the vat for a short time before it is drawn out with buckets and poured into kerosene cans and sealed. Consequently, the temperature of the pulp in the
342 G. L. WINDRED.
vat varies considerably in these rush periods and may not rise high enough to kill off vegetative forms of microorgan- isms which may be present.
After the pulp is sealed in the bulk cans these are stored for further use. Usually, no provision is made for. cooling these stacks of cans and often the temperature of the stor- age rooms is considerably above normal, so that an oppor- tunity is provided for the growth of microorganisms, either from spores or from vegetative cells, which have escaped being killed in the heating vat. It is during this period of storage that losses due to spoilage occur and these losses are by no means shght. A rough estimate shows from 5 to: 15 per cent. spoilage, or even more in warm weather.
For the most part spoilage is manifest by a ‘‘sliminess’” of the pulp and by the bursting of the cans, the latter being the more important. The object of this investigation has been to find the origin of such spoilage.
Tomato-pulp has a very ‘rich flora of microdrganisms. including moulds, yeasts and bacteria, all of which, especi- ally the last group, bring about profound changes in the pulp, rendering it, in many eases, unfit for homan consump- tion. Although a good deal of work in this direction has: been done in the United States, as yet little has been done: here. It has been the aim of the investigator to make counts of the microorganisms occurring in the pulp and also to identify them if possible, especially that organism causing ‘‘sliminess.”’
The material was collected in a sterile aluminium ladle and placed in sterile flasks. Samples were taken of the unheated pulp immediately after it left the pulping machine. Other samples were taken from the heating vat at various levels, from burst cans and from slimy cans. All
the samples were subsequently stored at room temperature.
ORGANISMS OF TOMATO PULP. 343
Standard media were used throughout the investigation. Unconcentrated tomato-pulp, heated to 100°C. for one half- hour on three successive days, was used for inoculations.
Quantitative Determinations.
Counts were made both by the dilution method and by a direct method formulated by B. J. Howard (1). In making counts by the dilution method, standard agar medium was used and the plates inoculated at 32°C. for 48 hours. Dilu- tion of 1:10,000, 1:100,000 and 1:1,000,000 were plated, there being six plates to each dilution. Only the plates which showed not more than 200 colonies and not fewer than 50 colonies were counted. The average was taken for each set of dilutions. The following table shows the results
of the counts :—
Counts of Microorganisms in Tomato Pulp.
Sample. Description. Dilution Method. Direct Method. Bact- Moulds Yeasts Bact- Moulds Yeasts eriain in in eriain % of per1/60
Millns. Millns. Millns. Millns. Fields e¢.mm. perce. perce. perce. per cc.
i Unheated Pulp .. 40 16> 10 92 65 20 Br wheated: Pulp .. .. 4.0 i 0 21 — — 3 Pulp from good can _ 6 3 1 rir — = Ae eeslumy Pulp, .. .. 400— 130, 82 1600 81 154
5 Pulp from burst can 274 23 OF e100 — a
*From pulping machine.
== Brom vat.
These counts agree fairly well with those made in the United States although the direct method shows slightly greater numbers. Samples (4) and (5) would be quite unfit for human consumption.
The higher counts by the direct method are probably to be accounted for by the fact that in this method all cells in the field are counted, regardless of whether they are dead or alive, whereas in the dilution method, only the live cells
produee colonies.
344 G. L. WINDRED.
It will be noticed that there is a striking decrease in “numbers in the heated pulp and the 4,500,000 per c.e. prob- ably results, for the most part, from the subsequent germi- nation of the spores. The rise to 6,000,000 in sample (3) may be similarly accounted for or may be due to contact with unsterile surfaces as would be presented by the buckets and the containers. With such numbers of bacteria as occurred in samples (4) and (5) it is only to be expected that profound changes would occur in the pulp, spoiling it for further use.
Qualitative Determinations.
From the plates used in the counting by the dilution method, nine different colonies were selected for identifi- cation. Standard agar slopes were made from the colonies and after incubating at 32°C. for 24 hours were replated in order to test purity of the cultures.
A pure culture of each organism having been obtained, the cultural, morphological and biochemical characters of each were studied according to the procedure advised by the Society of American Bacteriologists. The organisms were named according to the scheme set out in Bergey’s Manual (2) further corroboration being obtained from the more detailed descriptions in the Journal of Bacteriology (3).
The following organisms were identified :—
1. Bacillus vulgatus Flugge. megatheritum De Bary. niger Migula.
. graveolens Gittheil. ellenbachiensis Stutzer.
. atterimus Leh. and New. subtilis (Ehrenberg) Cohn.. mycoides Fliugge.
. Aerobacter cloacae.
CMI wh wh by bu by by ty ty by
ORGANISMS OF TOMATO PULP. 345
It will be noted that none of these are known to be pathogenic, and also, that all except Aerobacter cloacae are spore formers and therefore quite capable of withstanding the temperature of the heating vat and so of being able to germinate when the temperature of the pulp falls, which is after the cans have been sealed. It is also significant that all of them produce acid from carbohydrates and as will be seen later this has a bearing on the bursting of the cans. Now since Aerobacter cloacae does not produce spores its presence in a sample of heated pulp has to be accounted for. Members of this group have been found in pasteurised milk so that it is capable of withstanding fairly high tem- peratures. Otherwise it may gain access to the cans by leaks in faulty cans, or may enter before the can is sealed and after it has cooled considerably.
Slime Production.
Pulp which has become slimy has a very characteristic appearance somewhat resembling a thick starch paste but more coherent. When the slimy condition is at its maxi- mum and most viscous, it is not possible to lift it up with a fork or glass rod as it slips off or breaks away. The cohesion is sufficient, however, to allow slime-threads of about 10 em. to be drawn out.
An organism was isolated from a sample of slimy pulp and numbered 10. Small portions of the slimy pulp were plated by the usual methods and with the exception of a few colonies of a mucor species, which always seems to be associated with the slimy condition, the bacterial colonies were all of the same appearance. Thus the slimy pulp was practically a pure culture of No. 10.
After the isolation of this organism and its transfer to standard agar slopes a test tube full of sterile pulp was inoculated with a heavy dose of organism. The slimy condi-
346 G. L. WINDRED.
tion appeared in 72 hours at room temperature (18°C.) After a period of about 17 days the condition began to dis- appear (of course the duration of the sliminess would depend on many factors such as temperature, mass of pulp, amount of inoculum, ete.). With the gradual disappear- ance of the slime, a layer of clear amber coloured liquid appeared on the surface of the pulp. At the end of 32 days the sliminess had quite disappeared and the layer of clear liquid occupied about one quarter of the test-tube. The sedimented pulp became much lighter in colour and had a flocculent appearance. There was a very noticeable sour odour following the disappearance of the slime, other- wise the material remained differentiated into clear super- natant fluid and flocculent ‘‘precipitate’’ till the end of the experiment, i.e., for six weeks, without marked change. On plating out some of this material the same colony for- mation was noticed as at first and on re-inoculating some sterile pulp with this inoculum the slimy condition was again produeed. Thus it is highly probable that this organism, No. 10, is the cause of the sliminess. However, since no capsule or envelope could be demonstrated round the organism it is assumed that it is not the organism itself which brings about the slimy condition, but rather some product of its metabolism.
The following is a brief deseription of No. 10:—
Morphology.—Long rods with rounded ends, measuring 4u by .754 on an average. Shadow forms common. Arranged singly or in long chains.
Spore-formation. Forms spores early, central in position and sometimes excentric. Cause slight bulge in organism. Average measurement of 1.54 by .du.
Mobility.—Very active in young cultures. Flagella peri- trichous and numerous.
ORGANISMS OF TOMATO PULP. 347
Agur Slope.—Moderate growth with a well defined ridge. Tends to spread giving in older cultures a rhizoid appear- ance. Opaque, raised, smcoth, membranous, moist and pure white.
Agar Colonies.—Rapid growth. Different forms, some round and regular, others amoeboid. Surface smooth, moist, glistening, raised, opaque and pure white. A ridge appears near the periphery giving a shallow crater-like appearance.
Gelatine Stab.—Growth best at the top. Line of puncture filiform. Liquefaction infundibuliform. Medium liquefied fairly rapidly.
Broth.—A fragile pellicle formed with shght turbidity near surface. Clears by sedimentation. Long chains.
Potato.—Creamy-white profuse growth, spreading, raised, glistening, very rugose, slimy, membranous consistency. Decided odour.
Glucose Agar.—Rapid growth, filiform but spreading. Flat, dull, rugose, opaque, cream, butyrous.
Gram Stain.—Positive.
Glucose Broth—Acid, no gas.
Lactose Broth.—Alkaline, no gas.
Sucrose Broth.—Aeid, no gas.
Milk.—Rapid casein digestion with clear, amber-coloured fluid in upper part of tube.
Intmus Milk.—Slightly acid in 48 hours with slight coagulation followed by digestion.
Pigment.—None.
This description resembles closely that of Bacillus rumi-
natus Gottheil except that it forms long chains in broth and milk. Also, in agar colonies, no shell-like periphery
348 G. L. WINDRED.
was observed as has been attributed to B. ruminatus. In all other characters, however, it resembles fairly closely this Species and may be a variety of it.
Many cans, both the large kerosene cans and the smaller sizes show a swelling due to increase of internal pressure. At times this pressure increases to such an extent that the can bursts, and in the case of the large bulk cans, with such a force that the whole stack may be thrown down. A large proportion of kerosene-cans of pulp burst, owing, probably, to the fact that they are not so well made as the smaller two-pound tins.
The gas may be produced in two ways: (1) by the action of the Coli group of organisms on the carbohydrates of the pulp thus liberating CO, and H,, and (2) by the action of the acid juices on the metal of the container (4).
In the first case when tins of sterile pulp were inoculated | with a vigorous culture of Aerobacter cloacae and incubated at 37°C. the cans became swollen and burst in 17 days. Since this organism produces both CO, and acid in the pulp, the pressure caused by the CO, is augmented by the hbera- tion of hydrogen by the action of the acid produced on the metal of the container. This pressure is sufficient to burst open the seams of a two-pound ean.
In the second ease all the organisms isolated produced acid so that if any great number of organisms remain in the ean after processing there is the possibility of them produc- ing enough acid to attack untinned portions of the ean and thus liberate hydrogen. The pulp itself shows an acidity of 0.45%, calculated as citrie acid, so that together with the products of the bacteria present a considerable acidity may develop, which, if not sufficient to produce enough gas to
burst the can, may bulge the ends of the ean considerably.
ORGANISMS OF TOMATO PULP. o49
Summary.
Great losses occur due to microbial spoilage of tomato- pulp. Counts of organisms in five samples of tomato-pulp were made including material from burst cans and slimy pulp. Very large numbers of bacteria were present in the last mentioned samples. Ten organisms were isolated from pulp, nine of which are spore-formers, the remaining one being Aerobacter cloacae.
An organism which causes sliminess in the pulp resembles Bacillus rununatus Gottheil very closely. Characteristics of the organism are described.
Gas production causing bursting of the cans is due to two causes, (1) the action of acid on the metal of the con- tainer, and (2) the production of CO, by bacteria.
(Communicated by Gilbert Wright.)
This investigation was carried out in the Faculty of Agri- culture, University of Sydney, under the direction of Mr. G. Wright. Acknowledgments are due to Professor R. D. Watt for reviewing the manuscript.
LITERATURE CITATIONS. (1) HOWARD, B. J.—Microscopical studies on tomato products. ess Dept. Aor, Bul. 581, 1917. (2) BERGEY, D. H.—Manual of determinative bacteriology, 1923. 1st ed. Baltimore. Williams and Wilkins Co. (3) LAURENCE, J. S., and FORD, W. W.—Aerobic, spore- bearing, non-pathogenic bacteria. Jnl. Bact. (Balt.), Voll. INO. 3, pp. 213-519,. May, 1916: LAUBACH, C. A., and RICH, J. L.—Aerobic, spore-form- ing, non-pathogenic bacteria. Jnl. Bact. (Balt.), vol. I, No. 5; pp. 493-5382, Sept., 1916. (4) BIGELOW, W. D.—Springers and perforations in canned foods. Nat. Canners’ Res. Lab. Cire. 1-L, 1922. (5) CRUESS, W. V.—Commercial fruit and vegetable products, 1925, ist. ed. New York, McGraw Hill Book Co.
300 M. B. WELCH.
NOTES ON SOME AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS OF THE MONIMIACEA. M. B. WELCH, -B:Se,, AGN.
Economic Botanist, Technological Museum. (With Plates XXVI.-XXIX.)
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1928.)
Several Australian genera belonging to the Moninuacee, a family principally occurring in tropical and subtropical regions, yield useful timbers. Of the eight Australian genera* recorded by Bentham, two are woody climbers, whilst several are too rare to be of commercial importance. The Australian representatives are chiefly confined to the eastern rain forest areas of the mainland, with one genus, Atherosperma, occurring in Tasmania.
The following anatomical descriptions apply to specimens of the various woods in the Technological Museum collection.
DORYPHORA SASSAFRAS, Endlicher.
Sassafras, Grey or Black Sassafras.
A medium-sized tree found in the brush forests and on alluvial pockets in gullies, throughout eastern New South Wales and extending into southern Queensland. The wood is very close textured, almost ‘‘pine-like,’’ and pale yellowish in colour, becoming darker on _ exposure. ‘Occasionally dark, irregular streaks are present, especially near the heart, which is occasionally almost jet black. The freshly sawn wood, or even a fresh surface on seasoned wood, usually possesses a pleasant safro!-like
* Bentham, G. Flora Australiensis, Vol. 5, p. 283, 1870.
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 301
odour, but this is soon lost on exposure. The wood is not particularly durable, but is apparently immune from attacks by borers, whilst it is said to resist white ants. It works easily, is not fissile, but is inclined to be woolly. The wood is usually without distinctive figure. The weight is moderate,
from 30-40 Ibs. per cubic foot. Average laterai hardness = 975 lbs.t
Uses—Available in fairly large quantities and chiefly used for broom handles, brush stocks, stained for cheap furniture, toys, flooring, lining, case material. It is very suitable for automatic turnery. It has also been used for clothes-pegs and tallow cask staves.
Source of material examined: Museum collection; trade supplies.
Macroscopical Characters.—Pores very small, indistin- oulishable with the naked eye. Soft tissue not apparent. Rays easily visible on end section or on a radial face, some- what lehter in colour than ground tissue. Growth rings not distinct.
Microscopical Characters. — Pores evenly distributed, usually single or in small groups of 2 or 3, frequently showing partitions due to sealariform bars, occasionally in rows, but more usually separated by very much compressed tracheidal cells; irregularly polygonal or rounded in out- line; radial diameter 45-140u, mean 90; tangential diameter 35-110u, mean 65y; length of vessel segments, 900-2500-; walls 234; end perforation strongly scalariform, bars numerous, up to 100, with correspondingly very taper- ing segment end; lateral pits few, small-bordered, circular, irregularly arranged, or numerous large, simple, oval or slit-like and scalariform in contact with rays, inter vessel
+ Hardness figure is the load required to imbed 0.444” ball to half depth.
352 M. B. WELCH.
pits scalariform bordered; average number per sq. mm. 65; tyloses not observed. Wood fibres very variable in shape and size, thick-walled, often very long, measuring from 1000-2800; average diameter 30y, walls 7-llp; pit open- ings slit-hke, more or less bordered; transition observed to more copiously pitted tracheidal cells, especially in contact with vessels; frequently septate. Wood parenchyma scanty, diffuse, often appearing as heavily-pitted, septate, prosenchymatous units; usually present in radial rows. which correspond to the attenuated ends of the rays, but are not continuous when seen in transverse section. Rays strongly heterogeneous, uniseriate or usually biseriate or triseriate, up to 554 in width and 2000, in height, ends tapering to narrow cells corresponding in width to the vertical elements of the wood; thus the normal width of a horizontal ray cell is about 40u; at the ends of the ray the cells usually become almost square and may become drawn out to a vertical height of as much as 300» and 20-30» in width, or two multiseriate portions may be linked with a single row of vertically elongated cells; 3-5 per mm. of transverse section.
Aqueous extract very light brown, very little alteration with ferric chloride, caustic potash, turbid with lead acetate.
When burnt, smoulders to greyish-white ash with small
amount of unburnt carbon.
ATHEROSPERMA MOSCHATUM, Labillardiere. Tasmanian Sassafras.
A large tree, up to 100 feet in height, found in moist gullies principally throughout Tasmania and also in southern and eastern Victoria and in the south-eastern part of New South Wales.
ny
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 355
The wood is almost white to light brown in colour, but often with dark streaks or zones near the heart, close- textured, often resembling European Maple or Sycamore, Acer sp. It is without odour, although the bark is very aromatic; works easily and cleanly, and is altogether a very useful timber. There is usually no pronounced figure, although on a tangentially cut or ‘‘backed-off’’ surface the variation in density in the growth ring causes a slight ‘‘ribbon grain.’’ The wood is tough, not fissile, not durable in exposed positions, and is lable to attack by the Furni- ture Beetle, Anobium domesticum.
Average lateral hardness = 10385 lbs. Weight = 87-41 Ibs. per cubic foot.
Uses.—An excellent timber for automatic turnery, e.g., small handles, ete., and is probably the best Australian wood for eclothes-pegs. It has been used for interior fittings, cabinet work, brush stocks, light handles, wooden screws, cask staves, wooden buckets, finishing lasts, carving.
Source of material examined: Museum collection; trade supphes. |
Macroscopical Characters.—Pores very small, not distin- sulshable with naked eye. Soft tissue not apparent. Rays fine, evenly distributed, easily visible on end or radial surfaces, appearing somewhat darker than the ground tissue. Growth rings not prominently defined. Sapwood not defined.
Microscopical Characters. — Pores evenly distributed, frequently single or in groups of 2-4 irregularly arranged, not in radial rows, irregularly polygonal in outline; radial diameter 35-854, mean, 554; tangential diameter 30-55n, mean 45; length of vessel segments 900-1500; walls 2-3 in thickness; end perforation very oblique, strongly sealari- form, not always at end of segment, and sometimes extend-
W-— December 5, 1928.
3D4 M. B. WELCH.
ing for half its length; bars up to 100 in number; lateral pits elongated, elliptical or slit-hke, often scalariform, small, circular-bordered and few in number in contact with fibres; tyloses not observed; average number per sq. mm., 155. Wood fibres rather thick-walled, véry irregular in size and shape; average diameter 22; 900-2000n in length; wall 5-8; pits small, slit-like, borders usually very distinct ; very rarely septate. Wood parenchyma scanty, diffuse, chiefly present as non-continucus radial lines corresponding to attenuated ray ends. Rays usually heterogeneous, outer cells often elongated but not so prominently as in D. sassafras, at times almost homogeneous, uniseriate to multi- seriate, as many as 5 cells in width, maximum width 70p; up to 1200 in length but normally not more than 900,; oceasionally ends of rays multiseriate and middle reduced to one cell in width; ray cells frequently with dark granular contents; 4-7 per mm. of transverse section. Growth rings indistinct and due to radial compression of a few rows of wood fibres.
Aqueous extract very pale yellow, often turbid due to starch; usually greenish colouration with ferric chloride; darkened with caustic potash; little alteration to marked turbidity with lead acetate.
Shavings burn to greyish or white ash; smoulders slowly with medium amount of unburnt carbon.
DAPHNANDRA MICRANTHA, Bentham. Yellow-wood, Satin-wood, Yellow or Grey Sassafras, Yellow Box, Socket-wood, Butter-wood.
A moderate-sized tree found in the coastal brushes of northern New South Wales and extending into Queensland. The wood is greyish-yellow to yellow in colour, becoming brown on exposure ; close-textured, resembling D. sassafras, but is usually less aromatic in odour, works more cleanly
alll
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 355
‘and is usually rather harder and heavier. It is tough and non-fissile. Usually no pronouneed figure.
Average lateral hardness = 1045 lbs.; weight 28-45 lbs. per eubie foot.
Uses——Turned articles, small tool handles, door knobs, brush stocks, broom handles, flooring, lining, interior fittings, case material.
Source of material examined: Museum collection; ‘Queensland Forest Service.
Macroscopical Characters.—Pores very small, not distin- guishable with the naked eye, but easily seen with pocket magnifier. Soft tissue not apparent. Rays fine, but distinct and easily seen on end or radial surfaces, lighter in colour than ground tissue. Growth rings not prominent, usually seen as fine lines. Sapwood not defined.
Microscopical Characters.—Pores very evenly distributed, frequently single, or in small groups of 2-5, irregularly rounded or polygonal in outline; radial diameter 20-75z, mean 5d; tangential diameter 20-654, mean 50; length of vessel segments 750-1400; walls 2-34 in thickness; end perforations very oblique, scalariform, bars numerous, up to 50; lateral pits elongated, elliptical or slit-like, often Sealariform ; vessel-fibre pits small, circular, sparsely dis- tributed; tyloses not observed; average number per sq. mm., 100. Wood fibres thick-walled, very irregular in size and shape, average diameter, 30%; 1200-2100» in length; walls 7-11ly; pits slit-like, borders small; fibres occasionally septate. Wood parenchyma scanty, diffuse, in thick-walled, heavily-pitted septate prosenchymatous units; principally seen in transverse section as discontinuous radial rows due to ray ends. Rays diffuse, heterogeneous; outer cells elongated but much less than in D. sassafras or A. moschatum; usually multiseriate, from triseriate up to six
356 M. B. WELCH.
cells in width; diameter up to 110y; length up to 2.0 mm. ;. 3-4 per mm. of cross section. Growth rings marked by radial compression of a few rows of wood fibre cells.
Sections cut of the outer part of the wood showed a considerable amount of starch to be present, not only in the rays and longitudinal parenchyma, but also in the thick-walled wood fibres. There seems no doubt but that these cells are used for food storage.
Aqueous extract lemon yellow; very little darkening | with ferric chloride or caustic potash; slight turbidity and precipitate with lead acetate.
Shavings burn to greyish or white ash, the amount of smouldering and unburnt carbon varying from large to: medium with different samples.
DAPHNANDRA REPANDULA, F. v. Mueller. Sassafras or Grey Sassafras. A moderate-sized tree found in the brush forests of northern Queensland.
The wood is yellowish to brownish-yellow in colour, close-textured and resembles D. micrantha.
Average lateral hardness = 1075 lbs. Weight about 40) Ibs. per cubic foot.
Uses.—Similar to D. micrantha.
Source of material examined: Queensland Forest Service.
Macroscopical Characters Similar to D. micrantha.
Microscopical Characters.— Pores evenly distributed, usually irregularly rounded in shape or occasionally angular; single or in irregular groups of 2-5, often in short radial rows or separated by very compressed fibre
tracheids; radial diameter 50-110u, mean 65; tangential diameter 35-90, mean 60,4; length of vessel segments 900-
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 357
2100; walls 2-234; end perforation often extremely oblique, scalariform, bars up to 60; lateral pits scalariform, sometimes oval in contact with ray cells, rounded, small and seattered in contact with mechanical tissue; the vessels are often fusiform and differ lttle in size and shape from the larger wood fibres (fibre tracheids) ; tyloses not observed ; average number per sq. mm., 90. Wood fibres thick-walled ; irregular in size and shape; average diameter 30u; length 1500-2700; walls 5-74; pits slit-like, borders very small and at times apparently simple; occasionally septate. ‘Tracheids occasionally present measuring up to 2000u in length, with numerous small bordered pits. Wood parenchyma scanty, diffuse, septate-prosenchymatous, often ‘seen in transverse sections as discontinuous radial rows due to ray ends. Rays diffuse with tendency to become aggregate; heterogeneous, with considerably elongated end ‘cells much more strongly developed than in D. micrantha, the uniseriate portion sometimes extending a _ greater length than the multiseriate part’; usually multiseriate up to 5 cells in width or 75y; occasionally biseriate; up to 3.0 mm. in length; average number per mm. of cross- ‘section, 4. Growth rings not pronounced, due to radial
compression of a few rows of cells.
Aqueous extract pale yellow, similar to D. micrantha in behaviour with ferric chloride, caustic potash and lead acetate. |
Shavings burn to small greyish ash, medium amount
unburnt carbon.
DAPHNANDRA AROMATICA, Bailey. Sassafras or Grey Sassafras.
A moderate-sized tree found in the brush forests of
northern Queensland.
358 M. B. WELCH.
The wood is yellowish-brown in colour, close-textured, and resembles D. micrantha, except that the Museum specimens: are softer.
Average lateral hardness = 560 Ibs. Weight 30-35 lbs. per eubie ft.
Uses.—Similar to D. micrantha.
Source of material examined: Queensland Forest Service..
Macroscopical Characters.—Practically similar to D. micrantha, but pores rather larger and just visible with naked eye in Museum specimens.
Microscopical Characters.—Pores very evenly distributed,,. comparatively even in size, irregularly polygonal; usually single, occasionally in small irregular groups, radial dia- meter 65-1502, mean 90u; tangential diameter 55-1004 mean Tou; length of vessel segments 1200-2000; walls 2-34; end perforations very oblique, strongly scalariform, bars up to- 80; lateral pits, elongated, often scalariform, fibre-vessel pits scattered, circular, bordered; vessels frequently re- semble tracheids in size and shape; tyloses not observed ;, number per sq. mm. 65. Wood fibres moderately thick- walled, irregular in size and shape, average diameter 35p; length 1000-2600u; walls 4-6; pits usually narrow elliptical with distinct borders, but occasionally border not distinct. Wood parenchyma not abundant, diffuse, appearing im radial rows in transverse section due to elongated ray ends ;. rays diffuse, heterogeneous, the uniseriate elongated end cells considerably extended; variable in shape, often with multiseriate ends and uniseriate in middle; up to 4 cells or 60» in width and 1500 in length; 3-5 per mm. of cross section.
Aqueous extract pale yellow, similar in behaviour to: D. mocraniha.
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 359
Shavings smoulder to smail greyish ash and large amount of unburnt carbon.
MOLLINEDIA HUEGELIANA, Tulasne.
A small tree, not common in the brushes of eastern New South Wales and Queensiand.
fhe wood is yellow brown in colour, often with irregular dark streaks, close textured, moderately hard, tough and non fissile. It possesses a prominent ray figure when quarter Cite
Average lateral hardness = 13880 lbs. Weight about 45 Ibs. per cubic foot.
Uses.—Rarely seen on the market except in mixed brush- woods. Should be suitable for ornamental turnery, small cabinet work and similar purposes.
Souree of material examined: Museum collection.
Macroscopical Characters.—Pores indistinguishable with naked eye. Soft tissue not apparent. Rays very prominent on end or radial surfaces. Growth rings scarcely defined. Sapwood not defined.
Microscopical Characters.—Pores evenly distributed, single or in groups of 2-5, sometimes in radial rows; usually irregularly rounded in shape; radial diameter 22-754, mean oom, tangential diameter 30-754, mean 55yu; vessel segments 660-1400 in length; walls 3-4.5u; end perforation not so oblique as in D. sassafras, sealariform. bars up to 25; lateral pits small rounded or oval, bordered, more crowded than in other species, larger and often scalariform in contact with rays or vessels; tyloses not observed; average number per sq. mm. 59. Wood fibres very thick walled; average dia- meter 30p; length 1000-2200y; walls 5-13y; pits indistinctly bordered, openings slit-like ; septate fibres not seen, but occa- sionally fibres divided into two distinct cells by a transverse
360 M. B. WELCH.
wall. Wood parenchyma diffuse, in heavily pitted thick walled prosenchymatous units; or seen in transverse section as radial rows corresponding to ray ends. Rays heterogene- ous; diffuse with tendency to become aggregate; multiseri- ate up to 300 in width and 15mm. in height. Rays per mm. of cross section, 1-3. Growth rings not prominent, indicated by somewhat greater thickening of cell walls.
Aqueous extract very pale yellow; very little darkening with ferric chloride or caustic potash; slight turbidity and precipitate with lead acetate.
Shavings smoulder to brownish or greyish white ash, with medium amount of unburnt carbon.
HEDYCARYA ANGUSTIFOLIA, A, Cunningham. Wild Mulberry.
A medium-sized to small tree found in creek beds and guilies in Victoria and eastern New South Wales.
The wood is yellow to greyish-brown in colour, close-tex- tured, soft and easily worked, and when of low density inclined to be spongy. Distinct ray figure when quarter- eut. Average lateral hardness = 495 lbs. Weight 22-30 lbs. per cubie ft.
Uses.—Rarely seen on the market, suitable for small cabinet work.
Source of material examined: Museum collection.
Macroscopical Characters.——Pores practically indistin- guishable with naked eye. Soft tissue not apparent. Rays prominent on end or radial surfaces, appearing darker than ground tissue. Sapwood rather paler than heartwood but not sharply defined. Growth rings not prominent.
Microscopical Characters——Pores fairly evenly distri- buted, irregularly polygonal in outline, single, or in irregu- lar groups from 2-7, or in short radial rows; radial diameter
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 361
35-105u, mean Tou; tangential diameter 35-854, mean 60y; vessel segments 500-9002; walls 2-3», end perforation oblique, scalariform, bars up to 20 in number; lateral pits large oval or elongated, often becoming scalariform ; vessel- fibre pits small rounded or oval; tyloses not observed ; average number per sq. mm. 30. Wood fibres comparatively thin walled, average diameter 304; 750-1700» in length; walls 3-54 in thickness; occasionally septate; pits small, usually with small borders, occasionally divided into two distinet cells by transverse walls. Wood parenchyma dif- fuse, or in thick walled septate parenchymatous units, cor- responding in size and shape to the fibrous elements; numerous transition stages observed between fibre and parenchymatous cells. Rays heterogeneous, aggregate, oblique sections of vessels or fibres frequently appear 1iso- lated in a tangential section of a ray; multiseriate, up to 390 in width and 3.5 mm. in height; ray volume often very high, especially in specimens of wood with low density ; number per mm. of cross section 1-2.
Aqueous extract brownish in colour, brownish or greenish eolouration and precipitate with ferric chloride; brown with caustic potash; slight precipitate with lead acetate.
Shavings burn to black residue with little smouldering
and no light coloured ash.
The following key is given for the identification of the woods :— (a) Rays large and prominent on end or radial face. (b) Rays often exceeding 10 mm. in height = Mol- linedia Hwegeliana. (b,) Rays never exceeding 10 mm. in height = Hedy- cayra angustifolia.
(a,) Rays small not prominent on end or radial face.
Ld
362 M. B. WELCH.
(c) Pores very small, numerous, over 125 per sq. mm., wood pale coloured = Atherosperma mos- chata.
(c,) Pores small, less than 125 per sq. mm. wood yellow.
(d) Rays not exceeding 3 cells in width = Doryphora sassafras.
(d,) Rays often exceeding 8 cells in width. Daphnandra spp.
Points of difference between the various species of Daphnandra are given under the descriptions for the indi- vidual species. There are decided variations in ray widths, pores per sq. mm., and pore size, but insufficient samples were available for examination to state definitely whether these characters are constant.
Summary.
The genera Doryphora, Atherosperma and Daphnandra belonging to the Atherospermew* furnish close textured ‘“pine-hke’’ timbers usually without any characteristic figure, whilst in the Momimiew, Hedycarya, Mollinedia and Kibara possess woods with large prominent rays. Unfor- tunately, no authentic timber specimens of the last genus. were available; the wood is comparatively rare and is not available commercially.
The woods are pale in colour, the whitest being Athero- sperma moschatum. Mollinedia Huegeliana is the heaviest and hardest of the group. The growth rings are not defined nor is there usually any distinet sapwood. Dark, occasion- ally almost black, streaks and zones have been observed in Doryphora, Atherosperma, Daphnandra and Mollinedia. The cell walls become dark yellow-brown in colour and the
*Bentham and Hooker, genera Plantarum, vol. 3, p. 139, 1883.
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 363°
rays and parenchymatous cells filled with a dark substance. The cause of the stain is apparently fungal.
The vessels are in all cases evenly distributed, with decidedly scalariform end perforation, and show extreme elongation, the segments reaching a length of 23 mm. in D. sassafras. The inter-vessel pits are typically scalariform and bordered. The smaller vessel-fibre pits are usually few and scanty in the Atherospermew. The maximum average pore number of 155 per unit area occurs in Atherosperma moschata and the minimum of 30, in Hedycarya angusti- folia. Tyloses were not observed.
Typical tracheids are rarely present, the mechanical tis- sue consisting principally of wood fibres (fibre tracheids), usually with very thick walls and more or less developed bordered pits. Solereder* states that the prosenchymatous eround-work of the wood bears simple pits in Hedycarya and Daphnandra, indistinctly bordered pits in Mollinedia and typical bordered pits in Atherosperma and Doryphora. In the material examined bordered pits undoubtedly occur in the fibre tracheids of Daphnandra, but the borders are less distinct in Hedycarya. The degree of development of the border varies considerably in the one species and this feature does not seem to possess any very Important diag- nostic value. Septate wood fibres were found in all genera except Mollinedia. Septate wood fibres with simple pits, recorded by Solereder (l.c.) as occurring in all species, were not found, although prosenchymatous, septate, thick walled, sumply pitted wood parenchymatous elements are present ; these undoubtedly show close affinity between the wood parenchyma and the fibre cells. Further in Daphnandra micrantha, a considerable number of the thick walled fibre
* Solereder, Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. English Translation, Vol. 2, p. 701, 1908.
“364 M. B. WELCH.
cells contained numerous starch granules; although food storage is supposed to be the function of living cells, there was nothing to distinguish these cells from the typical wood fibres. The fibres reach a considerable length in some spe- cies e.g. 2,800 in Doryphora sassafras and over 24 mm. in Daphnandra repandula and D. aromatica.
The wood parenchyma is usually rather sparsely distri- buted, but due to the considerable elongation and attenu- ation of the ends of the: medullary rays, the outer cells correspond in shape and size with the normal vertical parenchyma, and thus bring the rays into very intimate contact with the other elements of the wood.
The rays are heterogeneous, with the end attenuation especially developed in Daphnandra aromatica and Dory- phora sassafras and least in Mollinedia Huegeliana. In Mollinedia and Hedycarya the rays reach their maximum width of about 300u, whilst in the other genera examined rarely exceed 100u. The maximum height of 15.0 mm. is found in Mollinedia. The rays do not appear to be more than triseriate in Doryphora and Atherosperma, but ocea- sionally attain a width of six cells in Daphnandra.
In conclusion I wish to acknowledge the help given by Messrs. D. Cannon and F. B. Shambler of the Museum Staff in the preparation of the specimens.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
Fig.1.—Doryphora sassafras. Transverse section of wood show- ing even pore distribution; the transverse septa seen in many of the vessels are due to the scalariform bars. The wood fibres are very thick walled. The vessels are frequently only separated by considerably compressed fibre cells. x 37.
Fig. 2—Atherosperma moschatum. Transverse section of wood showing even distribution of very small pores. The discontinuous nature of the radial rows of vertically elongated parenchyma due to the attenuated ray ends is clearly indicated. KOSH
Plate XX VT.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIT., 1928.
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NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 365
Fig. 3—Daphnandra micrantha, Transverse section of wood showing even pore distribution and manner of grouping. The wood fibres are extremely thick walled. Near the bottom can be seen the few rows of radially compressed cells indicating the boundary of the growth ring. Aan
Fig. 4—Daphnandra repandula. Transverse section of wood showing pore arrangement and their irregular size and shape. The wood fibres are thick walled and also irregular in size and shape. Near the bottom is an indication of a growth ring boundary. Kook
Fig. 5.—Daphnandra aromatica. Transverse section of wood showing comparatively large pore size and their even distribu- tion; the scalariform bars are frequently visible in the vessels. The wood fibres are comparatively thin walled. x 87.
Fig. 6—Mollinedia Huegeliana. Transverse section of wood showing small scattered pores, and very thick walled fibres. The large multiseriate rays are prominent, whilst the discontinuous radial rows of parenchyma are visible. Xo
Fig. 7—Hedycarya angustifolia. Transverse section of wood showing frequent radial arrangement of pores. The vessels and fibres are thin walled. Wood parenchyma is fairly abundant. The large multiseriate rays are also prominent. os
366 CHAS. CHILTON.
NOTE ON A FOSSIL SHRIMP FROM THE HAWKES- BURY SANDSTONES. ,
By CuHas. CHILTON, M.A., D.Se., M.B., C.M., Professor of Biology, Canterbury College, N.Z. (Communicated by W. 8S. Dun.) (With Plate XXX.)
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1928.)
Towards the end of 1926 I received from Professor Leo Cotton, of Sydney University, a specimen of a fossil shrimp ‘with a request for its examination and the information that it came from a shale band about the middle of the Hawkes- bury Sandstones. The specimen was obtained by Mr. Wil- ham Hatcher from the Brookvale brick quarry and was lent by him to Rev. R. T. Wade for the purpose of deserip- ‘tion.
A brief preliminary examination seemed to indicate the absence of a carapace and to show that the animal probably belonged to the Anaspidacea while in size and general ap- pearance it reminded me of Anaspides, a freshwater shrimp belonging to that group and still ving in the streams and lakes of Tasmania. I had formed this tentative conclusion before I was definitely aware that the Hawkesbury Sand- stones are freshwater deposits containing remains of plants, freshwater shells, fish, insects, ete. But the specimen had ‘to be laid aside at the time owing to other work. I have now mace a further inspection of it and though owing to its state of preservation I am unable to supply much infor- mation as to its structure there seems nothing inconsistent ‘with the opinion first arrived at.
NOTE ON A FOSSIL SHRIMP. O67
The specimen (see plate XXX.) is about two inches in length and has been flattened dorso-ventrally so that the fossil consists only of a rather faint, flat impression showing the outline of the body and some of the appendages, mostly indistinctly. There are no hard parts of the actual animal preserved and it seems possible that the integument was thin and non-calecareous as it 1s in the existing Anaspides tasmaniae (Thomson).
The six segments of the abdomen can be made out fairly distinctly, the first five being subequal in length, the sixth longer and slightly narrower and followed by very indis- tinet indications of the tail fin. (The distinct rod-like strue- ture to the right of the tail fin is, I think, no part of the animal but some extraneous substance.) The animal appears to have been slightly tilted over to the right and the lateral portions, or epimera, of the three anterior segments of the abdomen show distinctly on the left side and the impressions seem to indicate that in the living animal they were pro- duced downwards about as far as they are in Anaspides tasmaniae. Anterior to the abdomen there are on the left side indications of three well marked and distinct segments, the posterior one shorter than the two in front of it and considerably shorter than the first segment of the abdomen. These three segments appear to be the posterior segments of the thorax and the facts that they are free and that there is no indication of a carapace form the chief reasons for supposing the animal to be a member of the Anaspidacea.
This supposition seems to be supported by one or two other points that can be made out. Along what appears to be the posterior margin of the sixth abdominal segment are remains of a transverse row of about six minute teeth-like structures which seem to correspond to the row of setae
found in Anaspides tasmaniae as figured by Thomson
368 CHAS. CHILTON.
(Trans. Linn. Soe. Zool. vol. VI., plate 25, hey ojwand Geoffrey Smith (Q.J. Micros. Sci.-vol. 58, p. 521, text figure 30). Similar setae fringe the posterior margin of the telson in Anaspides and other genera but the end of the telson is not visible in the fossil under examination.
Only a few of the appendages are preserved with any degree of distinctness. The two on the left at the anterior end doubtless represent the antennae, the first showing the joints of the peduncle, the inner, shorter, flagellum and part of the outer flagellum. Similarly in the second there are indications of peduncular joints and, much more distinct, of the basal joints of the multiarticulate flagellum, but there is no sign of the squame. On both sides there are impres- sions of three pairs of thoracic appendages, one, probably the first, being a little stouter than the others. The anten- nae and the thoracic appendages show some resemblance to those of Anaspides but it must be pointed out that no sign of the exopods and branchial epipods associated with the thoracic appendages of that genus can be made out.
From the foregoing account it will be seen that our knowledge of the animal preserved in this fossil is very imperfect and that it would be absurd to attempt to give any diagnosis of its genus and species. If it must have a name as a matter of convention I suggest that it may be referred to as Anaspides (?) antiquus.
Journal Royal Society of N
.W., Vol. LXIT., 1928, Pilate XXX,
Photo by H. G. Goocu. Magnification x 2
CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES. 369
CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES IN AUSTRALIAN PLANTS. By Horace FINNEMOoRE, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C. and CHARLES Bertram Cox, B.Se. (Syd.), Research Officer, C.S.LR.
Accepted for Publication December 5, 1928.
At the Hobart meeting of the Australian Associaticn for the Advancement of Science an account was given by one of the present writers (H.F.) with Walter Charles Gledhill, of the examination of some sixty species of Acacia for eyanogenetic glucosides, and the occurrence of these was recorded in four species, viz., Acacia glaucescens, A. Cheelit, A. doratoxylon and A. Cunningham.
The present account describes the isolation of the glucoside from the two first-named species and its identification with sambunigrin, C,, H,; NO., which was first isolated from Sambucus nigra, the European elder, by Borquelot and Danjou.?
Extraction of the Glucoside.
In our first experiments we followed the time-worn method of extracting the leaves with aleohol, evaporating the extract to a syrup, re-dissolving this in water, and attempting to purify the product by precipitating the tannoid and other impurities with lead acetate followed by lead subacetate. A complex syrup was obtained from which
1 Aust. Journ. Pharm. 1928, N.S. 9, 174. 2 Compt. rend. 1905, 141, 598-600.
X ~December 4, 192.
370 H. FINNEMORE AND C. B. COX.
the pure glucoside could not be separated in quantity, although it was present and showed evidence of crystallisation. We, therefore, decided to try liquids of more limited solvent power, and on extracting the erushed leaves in a Soxhlet apparatus, firstly with petroleum ether to remove fatty matter, then with ether, an abundance of erystalline matter slowly separated during the extraction in a practically pure condition. On washing with solvent to temove mother liquor and recrystallisation from a mix- ture of ethyl acetate and chloroform, the glucoside separated in long, colourless, silky needles, having no odour, but a taste at first sweet and then bitter. On further recrystal- lisation it melted at 152°.
(a) 0.1964 gave 0.4090 CO, and 0.1027 H.O. C = 56.78 : H = 5.81.
(b) 0.1625 gave 0.3380 CO, and 0.0848 HO. C = 56.72 : H = 5.80.
Ci. Hi, NO, requires C = 56.96 : H = 5.76.
0.4768, dissolved in 50 @.e. absolute alcohol gave in a 2-dem. tube at 24°a, —1.41° whence [4]> = — 73.9.
The acetyl derivative was prepared by heating 1 gram of the purified glucoside with 10 grams of acetic anhydride and 2 grams of sodium acetate for 45 minutes. After allowing the mixture to cool, water was added and warmed on a water bath for 30 minutes to decompose excess of acetic anhy- dride; the acetyl derivative separated on cooling in small colourless needles, which after twice ecrystallising from dilute alcohol melted at 125°.
0.1255 gave 0.2578 CO. and 0.0617 H.O. C= 56.95 : H = 5.55.
CusHi, (COCH,). NO: requires GO ='57,02 Eo
0.4146 dissolved in 50 e.e. absolute alcohol gave in a 2-dem. tube at 23° «, —0.89° whenee [vo]? = — 53.6.
CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES. 371
These figures agree with those obtained for sambunigrin, the glucoside of Sambucus nigra, and there can be no reason- able doubt as to the identity of the two. For comparison the constants of the two substances and their acetyl deri- ~vatives are set out below.
The figures for acetyl-sambunigrin are those found for the synthetic product prepared by Emil Fischer and Berg-
‘mann.3
Sambunigrin Glucoside from A. glaucescens
MEAEDOM .., ss ss 56.88 (a) 56.78
(b) 56.72 Hydrogen ... .. 5.83 (a) 5.81
(b) 5.80 ‘Optical Rotation .. [gq]15 — 76.3 [a]24 — 73.9 Melting Point .. Sinters at 149° Melts at 152°
Melts at. 151°-152°
Tetra-acetyl Sambunigrin Tetra-acetyl derivative of Glucoside from A. glaucescens
‘Optical Rotation.. [q]22 — 52.5 li@l23: == bar6 Melting Point .. >= 26° 125°
Amount of HCN in Acacia glaucescens.
In the table A are collected some figures showing the ‘amount of hydrocyanic acid present in this plant. It is too early to say what, if any, significance is attached to the distinct fall in the amount observed in the Spring.
Acacia Cheelu, Blakeley.
We have also isolated sambunigrin from Acacia Cheelu ‘by the process described above.
Euphorbia drummondu, Boiss.
Probably few plants in Australia have been the subject ‘of so much controversy as to their toxicity to stock as Euphorbia drummondi, the Milk Weed. Maiden‘ reviewing the available evidence stated that thousands of people -con-
3 Ber. d. d. chem. Ges. 1917, 50, 1047. 4 Agric. Gaz. N.S.W. 1897, 8, 18.
372 H. FINNEMORE AND C. B. COX.
TABLE A. Amount of HCN in Acacia glaucascens (phyllodes.)
o &D ae noe. m1 ,3°S ar 2a ll Siecle ee oo]! Reference! gource, | Date | Date |SESRISSES (833 5|8S2'5| Number. Collected | Received.i|, 2 adie, “Sila Bolazos & 0.9, (98 ROAD BSS ob a, ATS ar ane 1 eal bae=A 8 P.I. 1] Glenfield | Nov. ’27| Nov. ’27 0.22* Paleoe ip cae 27/3/28 | 62.5°| 0.12 | 0.82 | Not done Pol. 121 a Ase 7/6/28 | 45.0 | 0.20 | 0.37 sis PI. 199 és ay 18/7/28 | 49.8 | 0.21 | 0.42 | 9.41 P.1. 454 * 24/9/28 | 5/10/28 | 31.0 | 0.08 | 0.12 | 0.12 |
*Determination not carried out until Jan., 1928.
sidered it poisonous, and on the other hand quoted the opinion of the late Mr. Edward Stanley5, Chief Government Veterinarian of N.S.W., who, after a considerable number of experiments on sheep, failed to produce any poisonous symptoms whatever, and concluded that the reported deaths were due to indigestion or to diseases such as anthrax. In support of the view of the harmlessness of this plant is the: common experience of pastoralists of its use as fodder, constituting as it does in certain circumstances, the only food available. In such eases, sheep feeding on it in quan- tity are subject to the possibility of developing hoven: through gorging, just as may happen through the ingestion: of excessive amounts of any other harmless green crop.
Other writers in later years have referred to the uncer- tainty regarding this plant and have stressed the real need for more exact data.
In these circumstances the Poison Plants Committee of the C.S.1.R. decided to undertake its systematic collection and examination, particularly, in the first instance, for ©
5 Agric. Gaz. N.S.W. 1896, 7, 619.
CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES. ole
hhydrocyanic,acid. Dr. H. R. Seddon, Director of Veterin- ary Research, arranged through his Stock Inspectors to collect samples from as wide an area of this State as pos- sible, and in order that there should be no possibility of loss of this volatile acid during transit to the laboratory, it was decided to have the fresh samples placed immediately after collection in bottles securely fastened with india- rubber stoppers.
Dr. Seddon has already reported’ that one of these samples proved fatal when fed to a sheep, and the symptoms shown were those of prussic acid poisoning. The contents of the stomach were submitted to us by Dr. Seddon, and were found to contain hydrocyanic acid, as did the original speci- men of the plant after merely macerating with water, show- ing that it also contained the enzyme necessary for hydroly- sis of the cyanogenetie substance. In the original scheme of collection Dr. Seddon arranged to cover 35 areas coin- eiding with the same number of Pasture Protection Dis- tricts of N.S.W., and although during the past season we examined 113 specimens from these localities, from only one of these, viz., Brewarrina, which includes Bokhara, have we obtained samples containing hydrocyanic acid; in all, 11 positive specimens were collected. During the present season, however, positive samples have been obtained from Dubbo and Merriwa, so that as the area of collection is extended it may be found that the poisonous samples are not so limited in distribution as at first seemed to be the Case.
The Brewarrina plants were collected between the 24th April and 28th July, 1928. Previous to the 7th June the eyanogenetic substance in the plant was associated with sufficient enzyme to ensure its decomposition when moist- ened with water, and differed in this respect from the four
6 Journ. C.S.I.R. 1928, 1, 268.
374 H. FINNEMORE AND C. B. COX.
species of Acacia mentioned above which contained little, if any, enzyme. Samples collected on 10th July, however, ° were found to be deficient in enzyme and only developed their total amount of hydrocyaniec acid after enzyme from. almonds had been added.
The amount of hydrocyanic acid obtained from these 11 specimens varied between 0.041 and 0.103 per cent., or 2.8 to 7.2 grains per lb., of the air-dried material; particulars. are given in the following table.
TABLE B. Amount of HCN Euphorbia Drummondi (whole plant)
| digit oee, 48 oe Reference | Date Date |SEOb OZ Gao aa) oA as Nene Source. | Collected.| Received. LE aS ohh) 80.8 © op O85 elo Sale, el ay aed a8 a eee ote ea eeeee P I. 60 | Brewarrina | 24/4/28 | 27/4/28 | 61.0 | 0.038 | 0.085 |) {o) S+- 3 P.I. 61 | Bokhara i. » | 65.5 | 0.036 | 0.108 | 853 rae p, P.I. 96| Brewarrina | 8/5/28 | 24/5/28 | 23.5 | 0.066 | 0.086 REE j<=} q Heo P.I. 97 | Bokhara _ i 23.5 | 0.058 | 0.077 | J
P.I. 138 | Brewarrina | 7/6/28 | 15/6/28 | 44.9 | 0.055 | 0.097 | 0.099*
P.1. 139| Bokhara ‘ be 39.4 | 0.053 | 0.088 | 0.091* P.I.195| Bokhara _| 10/7/28 | 13/7/28 | 3.0 | 0.039 | 0.041
PT. 196| Brewarrina e 5% 21.8 | 0.046 | 0.059
*After drying for 386 days.
The problem whether there is any ascertainable botanical difference between the samples containing hydrocyanie acid and those which do not is being undertaken by Dr. G. P. Darnell-Smith, who has kindly examined all the above
specimens as to their identity.
CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES. 375
Goodia lotifolia, Salish. : _ In a series of Botanical Notes published in 1895 the late Mr. J. H. Maiden’ included a note entitled ‘‘Is Goodia poisonous to Stock?’’, and although he did not attempt to answer this question in the affirmative, he adduced evidence to show that the plant was under strong suspicion, but that Opinion was divided on the subject.
Goodia is a genus of the Leguminosae, only two species of which, G. lotsfolia (Salisb.), syn. G. medicaginea and G. pubescens have been recorded. Indeed, the latter is thought by some botanists to be a pubescent form of the first. They are confined to Australia and occur as tall shrubs, the former growing to the size of a small tree and is the only one occurring in this State. In Tasmania it is known as the clover tree, from the similarity of its delicate leaves to clover. In Queensland its aboriginal name is Booroo-molie.
Some of the foregoing particulars are due to Mr. Maiden, who gave an account of an enquiry from Bega respecting this shrub, known locally as the Indigo, the foliage of which was frequently fatal to stock traveling from Monaro to the coast. Large quantities at that time grew on the main road between Colombo and Nimitybelle. The same enquirer stated that cattle ate this plant greedily, and suffered from what was termed black scour—the tongue became black, the hide acquired a bluish tint and appeared rough and bound, the cattle became weak and emaciated, and eventually died. The form G. medicaginea has also been suspected in West Australia, twenty-five head of cattle dying from stoppage of the bowels. Another case of pois- oning occurred in South Australia, and a correspondent from Yorketown submitted to the Agricultural Bureau of
7 Agric. Gaz. N.S.W. 1895, 6, 306.
376 H. FINNEMORE AND C. B. COX.
that State a specimen of a plant supposed to be poisonous, which was identified by the General Secretary of the Bureau as a species of Goodia and pronounced to be quite harmless. Mr. Maiden quotes the evidence of several South Aus- tralian observers who had fed this plant to animals without ill effect.
Such were the conflicting views of the toxicity of the Goodias when a specimen of G. lotifolia gathered near Middle Harbour in August of this year, just before flowering, proved to be _ strongly cyanogenetic. <A quantitative estimation of the amount of hydrocyanic acid showed that the fresh leaves gave 0.23 per eent., which is equivalent to 0.57 per cent. calculated on the air-dried leaves. This amount is larger than that recorded in any Australian plant with the excep- tion of Heterodendron olewfolia found by Petrie to contain 0.328 per cent.2 That this specimen is not unique in being ecyanogenetic is shown from the fact that plants col- lected from such widely separated localities as the Botanic Gardens, Sydney and Melbourne, Mount Lindsay (Queens- land), Kangaroo Island (South Australia), and Braid- wood (N.S.W.) were all strongly cyanogenetic.
It is of interest to record that specimens obtained from the Herbarium of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney, through the courtesy of Dr. G. P. Darnell-Smith, and from the Her- barium of the Technological Museum, Sydney, through the kindness of Mr. M. B. Welch, all failed to develop hydrocyanic acid when treated, as were the fresh plants, with water alone, or even when emulsin derived from sweet almonds was added. Whether a cyanogenetic gluco- side had ever been present in these Herbarium specimens is
BR Pree Tinn. Soc. NS\W. 1920) 45) 447) 9 We are indebted to Mr. J. C. White, Queensland Government Botanist, for kindly locating this specimen.
CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES. 377
unknown, but it seems likely that our failure to detect it ‘was due to its loss during keeping. In confirmation of this _ -view we may quote one experiment in which it was found that after drying the leaves in the air for one month the amount of hydrocyanic acid had fallen from 0.57 to 0.18 ‘per cent. :
Poranthera microphylla.
In the course of investigating as many plants as possible for hydrocyanic acid, this plant also was found to be eyanogenetic. So far as is known it has not proved fatal to stock, and being small and sparsely distributed it would not seem to be dangerous. Indeed the collection of a few pounds for analysis requires much patience. Many samples grow- ing near Middle Harbour have been examined, always with a positive result. One quantitative examination showed that the whole plant yielded 0.018 per cent. of hydrocyanic acid calculated on the fresh, or 0.051 on the air-dried material. All Herbarium specimens have so far proved negative.
Poranthera corymbosa alse yields a very faint positive reaction.
Eucalyptus corynocalyc.
In times of drought this tree, known as the Sugar Gum, which is practically free from volatile oil, is fed to stock, and fatal results have been observed. A specimen from South Australia, for which we are indebted to Professor T. G. B. ‘Osborn, was nearly dry when received. It yielded 0.179 per -eent. of hydrocyanic acid. A specimen from an ornamental grove growing in a street at Ashfield, for which we are indebted to Mr. E. Cheel, was also positive, as were eight Herbarium specimens from the Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
Further investigation of these plants is proceeding.
378 H. FINNEMORE AND C. B. COX.
The authors acknowledge with grateful thanks their indebtedness to Professor. J. C. Earl for placing the faci- lities of his laboratory for the analysis of sambunigrin at their disposal, and to the Council for Scientific and Indus- trial Research for a grant to the Poison Plants Committee that has enabled one of them (C.B.C.) to collaborate in this work.
Department of Materia Medica and Pharmacy, The University, Sydney.
ABSTRACT of PROCEEDINGS
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
Ropal Society of Hew South Gales.
<+-
MAY 2, 1928.
The Annual Meeting, being the four hundred and seventy-sixth General Monthly Meeting of the Society, was held at the Royal Colonial Institute, 17 Bligh Street, Sydney, at 8 p.m.
Professor J. Douglas Stewart, President, in the Chair. Forty-three members were present.
The Minutes of the General Monthly Meeting of the 7th December, 1927, were read and confirmed.
It was announced that the following members had died during the recess:—Robert Houston Barr, Alfred John Cape, Launcelot Harrison, William Joseph Scammell, George Augustine Taylor, James Taylor and William Welch.
Letters were read from Mrs. Harrison, Mrs. Balfern, Mrs. Scammell, Mrs. Florence Taylor, Mrs. James Taylor and Mrs. W. Welch, expressing thanks for the Society’s sympathy in their recent bereavements.
The certificates of two candidates for admission as ordinary members were read for the first time.
The following gentleman was duly elected an honorary member of the Society :—Grafton Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P., Professor of Anatomy in the University College, London.
iv, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
The Annual Financial Statement for the year ended 31st March, 1928, was submitted to members, and, on the “motion of Professor Chapman, seconded by Mr. Andrews,
was unanimously adopted.
GENERAL ACCOUNT.
RECEIPTS. Sy ase To Revenue— Subscriptions Rents— Offices eke Re tee IG in
Hall and Library ..266 5
Sundry Receipts
Advance on Government Subsidy for 1927
Interest — Government Bonds and Stock
_y, Donations— Walter Burfitt Prize Mund ea. yet hs O0 eno Add—Interest sol Pete 20) alee
H. Minton Taylor and JiJd. Mulligan <.
_, J. H. Maiden Memorial Fund
», Clark Memorial Fund— Loan to General Fund
_, Investment Fund
» Royal Society House— Proceeds of Sale .. Less—Commission
d.
& Ua:
709 16
842 6 90 _0
200 0
ie)
AS
510 11
250 0
28000 0 430 0
ad. 2
0 7 4 0 0
1885 9 0
760
75
72
189 0 0
27570
£30552
19 8
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
PAYMENTS.
By Balance—81st March, 1927
ase
,, Administrative Expenditure—
Salaries and Wages— Office Salary and Ac-
countancy Fees
Assistant Librarian. .
Caretaker
Printing, Stationery,
Advertising & Stamps Stamps & Telegrams Office Sundries, Sta-
tionery, etc. .. Advertising Printing
Rent, Rates, Taxes and
Services—
Rent <.) |.’. Electric Light .. Gas
Insurance .. Rates .. Telephone ..
Printing & Publishing Society’s Volume—
Printing, ete. Bookbinding
Library—
Books and Periodicals
Bookbinding
Sundry Expenses— Repairs ve Lantern Operator Bank Charges .. Sundries
201 15
53 0
se Oe
40 0
9 15
10°..7
81 4
oO 6
66 13
Ze
saute ie
o Ona T
15: 1
348 6 48
4 5
95 3
2.12
21 13
0 5
665) 97
d.
S
jo)
oOo S&S w
10
CO OD
sed: o220 {9 Va 6. Bb 7elG, 2 396 14 10 99 9 5 90707 da
Vv. £ Si dk 980 15 11
1908 12 8
vi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
», Lnterest—
Union Bank of Australia Ltd. ..
Clarke Memorial Fund .. Building Loan Fund Maiden Memorial Fund
» Building and Investment Loan Fund
» Building and Investment Fund » Government Bonds and Stock .. », Balance— Union Bank of Australia Ltd. Cash on hand ..
. 1049
3
als 12
1053 £30552
4 1 1958
Compiled from the Books and Accounts of the Royal Society of New South Wales, and certified to be in accordance therewith. (Sgd.) HENRY G. CHAPMAN, M.D., Honorary Treasurer. (Sgd.) W. PERCIVAL MINELL, F.C.P.A., Auditor.
Sydney, 19th April, 1928.
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 31st MARCH, 1928.
LIABILITIES.
Sundry Creditors— Weldon & Wesle RGN cet em eee
Investment Fund— Clarke Memorial Fund Walter Burfitt Prize Fund Investment Fund
Building and Investment Loan Fund ..
J. H. Maiden Memorial Fund Accumulated Funds ..
ASSETS.
Cash— Union Bank of Australia, Lid. Petty Cash See asics | IGS
Government Bonds and Stock Sundry Debtors— For Rents » Rete ke For Subscriptions in arrears ..
11 12
4910 378 342
30455
£36195
527
Ns 8:
Dee 13 0 14 2 Ef age tl
12 11
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
Library— Se Insurance Valuation a: ; 8060 0 Office Furniture—Insurance Vialnatione 139) 20 Pictures—lInsurance Valuation aK: Ae 180 O Microscopes—Insurance Valuation es 120 0 Lantern—Insurance Valuation Bie on goa 40 0 £36195 17 CLARKE MEMORIAL FUND. BALANCE SHEET AS AT 31st MARCH, 1928. LIABILITIES.
Accumulation Fund— SS edn teas: Balance as at 3ist March, 1927 :~ 1097 3 3 Additions during the year—
Interest and General Fund .. AS eT) ——_ 1169 10 £1169 10 ASSETS. Transferred to Investment Fund 5 cate en ees rel OF iQ) £1169 10
STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31st MARCH, 1928.
RECEIPTS. = Ss To Interest—Loan to General Fund .. .. .. .. 72 7 S72 407
PAYMENTS. ibyplteane to General Bund .. .. wih] se we Sel Qind S120 7
INVESTMENT FUND. BALANCE SHEET AS AT 31st MARCH, 1928
ee Seen won Bese Balance as at 8lst March, 1927 .. .. 1000 0 Additions during the year— Mie. oubSeriptions .. «2 =~. -.. 189 0 0
Transfer from General Fund, as per minute dated 28th March, 1928 2041 9 9
Transfer from Clarke Memorial
Bandy! ete), 5 ee GOT ORS Transfer from Walter Burfitt Prize Fund .. ois ae ue OO) mM oO ———— 3910 11 £4910 11
Y— December 5, 1928.
0
0
d. 0
9 9
Vill, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
So isvid.
Commonwealth and New South Wales Government Bonds ee rr rim SIT £4910 11 9
Compiled from tne Books and Accounts of the Royal Society of New South Wales, and certified to be in accordance therewith.
(Sgd.) HENRY G. CHAPMAN, M.D., Honcrary Treasurer. (Sgd.) W. PERCIVAL MINELL, F.C.P.A., Auditor. Sydney, 19th April, 1928. On the motion of Professor Chapman, seconded by Mr. Challinor, Mr. W. P. Minell was duly elected Auditor for the current year.
The Hon. Treasurer announced the receipt of a gift of £250 from Messrs. J. J. Mulligan and H. Minton Taylor.
The President announced that an intimation had been received that the late Professor Archibald Liversidge made a bequest to this Society of £500 to found a Research Lectureship in Chemistry. Conditions governing the lectureship as provided by Professor Liversidge are set out in the Annual Report of the Council for 1927-28.
The Annual Report of the Council was read, and on the motion of Mr. Cambage, seconded by Mr. Sussmilch, was adopted.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1928-29. (1st May to 23rd April.)
The Council regrets to report the loss by death of twelve ordinary members. Eight members have resigned, and six members were removed from the roll owing to non-payment of subscriptions. On the other hand, twelve ordinary members have been elected during the year. To-day (28rd April, 1928) the roll of members stands at 346.
During the Society’s year there have been eight general
monthly and eleven Council meetings. :
e ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 1X.
Sale of Royal Society’s House.—On 21st October, 1927, ‘the Council sold the Society’s House to the Adult Deaf ‘and Dumb Society, but have arranged to retain possession of the building with the exception of the first floor until ‘81st December, 1928.
Science House.—Diseussion of the question of building ‘a Seience House to house the various scientific bodies of Sydney has been continued with the Linnean Society of New South Wales and the Institution of Engineers, Australia, but final arrangements have not yet been made. ‘The Government of New South Wales has notified the Society by letter dated 28th July, 1927, that it has decided to make available free of charge a block of land for the purpose of a Science House at the corner of Essex and Gloucester Streets. Arrangements in regard to this matter have not yet been finalised.
Four Popular Science Lectures were given, namely :—
June 16—‘‘A Glance at Japan,’’ by R. H. Cambage, Cb aH., 1.1.8. ’
July 21—‘‘ Earth SENS and Earth Ripples,’’ by Edgar feoasoorm MG. B.Sc.; Flnst:P.
August 18—‘‘Some Dine on| Disease in Plants,’’ by oh. J: Noble, B.Sc., Ph.D.
September 15—‘*‘ What Makes a Good Food,’’ by Professor eG. Chapman, M.D.
OmyOctober Gist, 1927, a lecture was given by Dr. Rudolf Krahmann, Lecturer on Engineering Science and Geophysics in the Technical University, Berlin, entitled: “«Subterranean Survey by Geophysical Methods.”’
Meetings were held throughout the Session by the Sections of Geology, Agriculture and Physical Science.
The Section of Industry during the year devoted its attention to visiting several industrial establishments.
X. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
Twenty-three papers were read at the monthly meetings: and covered a wide range of subjects. In most cases they were illustrated by exhibits of interest.
Lecturettes were given at the monthly meetings in August, September, October and December, by Professor O. U. Vonwiller, Mr. Robert Grant, Professor R. D. Watt and Mr. I. Clunies Ross respectively. At the November meeting a cinema demonstration was given on the prepara- tion of biological products.
The Annual Dinner took place at the Union Refectory, Sydney University, on 28th April, 1927, when we were honoured by the presence of His Excellency Sir Dudley Rawson Stratford de Chair, K.C.B., M.V.O., Governor of New South Wales, Professor F. P. Sandes, M.D., Ch.M.,. B.Se., Acting Director of Cancer Research, Sydney University, and the Presidents of several societies.
The Council has awarded the Clarke Memorial Medal to Ernest Clayton Andrews, B.A., F.G.S.
An intimation has been received that the late Professor Archibald Liversidge made a bequest to this Society as set out in the following extract from the Will dated 16th
August, 1925 :—
9. (A) I BEQUEATH five hundred pounds to each of the
four following Institutions, namely, The University of Sydney aforesaid, The Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney, aforesaid, The Australasian Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, Sydney, afore- said, and The Chemical Society of London, to found a Research Lectureship in Chemistry in connection with each of these Institutions. (C) AND I DECLARE that the bequests made by this Claim are not intended to supplement the emoluments. or add to the duties of any member of the ordinary or permanent teaching staff of any institution (including the said College) mentioned in this Clause.
10. I make the above bequests for the encouragement of research in Chemistry not in ignorance of the fact. that there are already in existence other Lectureships
Adi
12.
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xs
in Chemistry but because there are none such as I contemplate, namely, for the express encouragement of research and for the purpose of drawing attention to the research work which should be undertaken and because having regard to the vastness of the subject I wish the subject to be elucidated by as many workers as possible and feel that the friendly emulation of the lecturers holding the various lectureships above-men- tioned may be of benefit.
I DIRECT that the lectures to be given by the persons holding the said Lectureships respectively shall not be such as are termed popular lectures dealing with generalities and giving mere reviews on their subjects nor such as are intended for the ordinary class or lecture room instructions of undergraduates but shall be such as will primarily encourage research and stimulate the Lecturer and the public to think and acquire new knowledge by research instead of merely giving instruction in what is already known AND I DIRECT that the Lecturers appointed shall be the most suitable and eminent men procurable in their respective branches of knowledge.
I HEREBY lay down the following rules in connection with the said Lectureships, not with the intention of imposing any legal and binding restrictions or obliga- tion in regard thereto but merely as an indication of my wishes—
(a) NO lecturer shall hold office for more than one year but after intervals of two or more years during which time he shall not have held any of the Lectureships founded under this my Will in any of the said Institutions he may be re-appointed from time to time if then still considered by the Institution the most suitable person obtainable.
(b) The remuneration paid to each Lecturer shall not be less than Ten pounds nor more than Twenty- five pounds for each lecture delivered by him and if the annual income of the Lectureship is insuf- ficient the lectures can be given in alternate years.
(c) The number of lectures in each course shall ordin-
arily be one or more but not more than three.
(d) If possible the Lectures shall be delivered in the
evening at the Institution receiving the legacy to found the lectureship and if that Institution does not itself possess a sufficiently large room then in some other suitable and conveniently situated building. a
X11,
13.
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(3)
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
The lecture hall (under suitable regulations) be open to the public free or at a nominal fee to cover incidental expenses such as the hire of the hall.
If possible the lecture shall be published in a cheap: form so as to disseminate the information for the: benefit of such of the public as are unable to attend and the Lecturer shall in every case be required to present to the Institution concerned a correct and complete copy of his lectures for the above purpose.
The Lectures shall be upon recent researches and discoveries and the most important part of the Lecturer’s duty shall be to point out in which directions further researches are necessary and how he thinks they can best be carried out.
If for any reason the whole of the interest on any of the above bequests cannot be utilised as above prescribed in any year or years the unexpended part thereof shall be invested and added to the sum originally bequeathed.
Christ’s College, Cambridge, may in their discre- tion arrange for their lectures to be delivered. during the meetings of the Summer School for Teachers in the long vacation.
The said Institutions may appoint delegates to form committees or confer by correspondence to carry out all or any of the above objects with a. view to preventing overlapping and generally carrying out my intentions in regardi to the said lectures.
I DECLARE as follows:—
(i)
(1)
In the case of any infant legatee under this my Will. or any Codicil hereto my Trustees in their absolute discretion may pay his or her legacy to any parent, guardian or guardians of his or hers and the receipt of any such parent, guardian or guar- dians shall be a completed discharge to my Trus-- tees for the legacy.
In the case of any Institution, College, Society or body (whether or not incorporated) to which or to whom any legacy or property is bequeathed or given by this my Will or any Codicil hereto the receipt of the Secretary, Treasurer, Bursar or any other officer for the time being of such Institution,,. College, Society or body shall be a complete dis-- charge to my Trustees for the said legacy or
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xitie
property and shall free them from all further con- cern with the trusts or application thereof
(iii) THE foregoing legacies and annuities shall rank and be satisfied in the following order of priority that is to say FIRST the said specific legacies and annuities bequeathed by Clauses 3, 4, and 6 hereof with the death duties in respect thereof; SECONDLY the pecuniary legacies bequeathed by Clauses 5 hereof with the death duties in respect thereof (all ranking pari passu inter se), and THIRDLY the pecuniary legacies bequeathed by Clauses 7, 8, and 9 hereof with the death duties in respect thereof (all ranking pari passu inter se).
At the last Annual Meeting in May, 1927, it was announced that Dr. Walter Burfitt would donate £500 to be devoted to the establishment of a ‘‘ Walter Burfitt Prize’’ to be awarded from time to time by the Council of the Royal Society of New South Wales at its discretion to a person residing in the Commonwealth of Australia or the Dominion of New Zealand for meritorious service in the cause of science. The prize to be awarded for
either pure or applied science. Since that date the amount, £500, has been received.
Sir Richard Threlfall, G.B.E., an honorary member of this Society, has been created a Knight Grand Cross of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire.
The donations to the library have been as follows :— 1265 parts, 56 volumes, 46 reports, 7 maps and 4 catalogues.
It was announced that the Council had awarded the Clarke Memorial Medal to Mr. E. C. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S., and the President then made the presentation. Mr. Andrews expressed his appreciation of the Council’s action in making the award.
The President announced that the Maiden Memorial Fund was about to close, and that the committee would be glad to receive any further contributions in order that
X1v, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
action might proceed towards the erection of a Maiden Memorial Pavilion in the Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
The following donations were laid upon the table :— 395 parts, 27 volumes, 9 reports, 1 calendar and 1 catalogue.
The President, Professor J. Douglas Stewart, then delivered his Address. There being no other nominations, the President declared the following gentlemen to be officers and Council for the coming year :— President: W. POOLE, M.£., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.M., ete.
Vice-Presidents: R. H. CAMBAGE, c.3.£., F.L.s. ; Prof. R. D. WATT, M.A., B.Se.
C. ANDERSON, m.a., D.sSe. Prof. J. DOUGLAS STEWART, B.V.Se., M.R.C.V.S.
Hon. Treasurer: Prof. H. G: CHAPMAN, a1p.
Hon. Secretaries:
Prof. 0. U. VONWILLER, C. A. SUSSMILCH, F.a.s. B.sc., F:Inst:P.
Members ef Council: KE. C. ANDREWS, B.A., F.G.S. Prof. C. E. FAWSITT,
D.Se., Ph.D.
G. H. BRIGGS, B.se., Ph.D. iQ Al JULIUS:
_ W. CHALLIN R, B.Sce., M.E., M.I.Mech.E. x cn Ne J. NANGLE, 0.B.E., F.R.A.S.
| R. J. NOBLE,
EK. CHEEL. M.Se., B.Se.Agr., Ph.D. Prof. L. A. COTTON, Rev. E. F. PIGOT, M.A., D.Sc. Side BeAr MAB.
Professor J. Douglas Stewart, the out-going President, then installed Mr. W. Poole as President for the ensuing year, and the latter briefly returned thanks.
On the motion of Sir Edgeworth David, a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to the retiring President for his valuable address.
Professor Stewart briefly acknowledged the compliment.
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XV
Professor Chapman moved that the meeting place on record its appreciation of the debt which the Royal Society of New South Wales owed to the retiring Honorary Secretary, Mr. R. H. Cambage, for the work done during his long term of office, pointing out that the excellent position in which the Society found itself that day was due in no small measure to the able administration, wise counsel and untiring efforts of Mr. Cambage.
JUNE 6, 1928. The four hundred and seventy-seventh General Monthly Meeting was held at the Royal Colonial Institute, 17 Bligh Street, Sydney, at 8 p.m.
Mr. W. Poole, President, in the Chair.
Twenty-four members and eight visitors were present, including Mr. A. Broughton Edge, of London, Director, Imperial Geophysical Experimental Survey, who was ‘welcomed by the President.
The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
The certificates of five candidates for admission as ordinary members were read: two for the second and three for the first time.
The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :—George Walter Cansdell Hirst and Theodore George Bently Osborn.
A letter was read from Mrs. Cape, expressing thanks for the Society’s sympathy in her recent bereavement.
The President announced that the following Popular Science Lectures would be delivered this Session :— June 21—‘‘Science and Industry,’’ by Assoc.-Professor
eA Hastauch,, AR.S.M., EEC.
July 19—‘‘ Australian Butterflies,’’ by G. A. Waterhouse, D.Se,,'B.E.
XVI. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
August 16—‘‘Elements of Geophysical Prospecting,’’ by EK. C. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S.
September —‘‘Some Problems of the Grazing Industry in Arid Australia,’’ by Professor T. G. B. Osborn, Disc.) F.L:8.
THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ: ‘“The Chemistry of Western Australian Sandalwood Oil,’’ Part I by A. Rk. Pentold) i -C;s}
Remarks were made by Messrs. W. M. Doherty, H. Finnemore and R. Grant. EXHIBIT: Sir Edgeworth David gave an account, illustrated with shdes and exhibits, of the recently announced discovery of Pre-Cambrian fossils in South Australia.
A lecturette entitled ‘‘Solar Radiation in relation to Sun-spots and Weather,’’ was given by Mr. C. A. Sussmilch. The President announced that the general monthly meetings for the remainder of the year would be held in the Hall of No. 5 Elizabeth Street, Sydney. JULY 4, 1928.
The four hundred and seventy-eighth General Monthly Meeting was held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth Street, Sydney, at 8 p.m.
Mr. W. Poole, President, in the Chair.
Twenty-eight members and four visitors were present.
The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
The President tendered a cordial welcome to Dr. C. M. Yonge and Mr. F. 8S. Russell, of the British Great Barrier Reef Expedition.
The certificates of three candidates for admission as: ordinary members were read for the second time.
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XV1l.-
The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :—Walter Charles Davidson, Allan Clunies Ross and Frederick Abbey Wiesener.
The President announced that Dr. G. A. Waterhouse would deliver a Popular Science Lecture entitled ‘‘Aus-. tralian Butterflies,’? on Thursday, 19th July, 1928.
It was also announced that Sir John Russell, O.B.E., D.Se, F.R.S., Director of Rothamsted Experimental Station, would deliver a lecture on ‘*‘ Recent Developments
9?)
in Soil Seience,’’ in the Veterinary School, University of
Sydney, on Tuesday, 10th July, at 8 p.m. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ:
1. ‘*The occurrence of a number of varieties of Hucalyptus dives as determined by chemical analysis of the Kssential Oils,’’ Part II, by A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.L, HeCyowwana b. KR. Morrison, AvA.C.1., F.C.S.
Remarks were made by F’. R. Morrison, Professor Fawsitt, Messrs. E. Cheel, R. W. Challinor and R. T. Baker.
2. ‘‘Some observations on the Woodiness or Bullet Disease Orolassion Mruit,’’ by R. J. \Noble, Ph.D., M.Se, B.Sc.Agr.
Remarks were made by the President. LECTURETTES :
1. “‘Virus Diseases in Plants’’ (supplementary to the above paper), by R.-J. Noble, Ph.D.
2. ‘‘Some Recent Discoveries concerning the Star Sirius,”’ by di. Nangle, O.B.E., F-R.AS.
EXHIBIT: Mr. F. A. Coombs exhibited tanned skins of sharks of: various kinds found in local waters.
‘XVill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
AUGUST 1, 1928. The four hundred and seventy-ninth General Monthly ‘Meeting was held at the Royal Society’s House, 5 Elizabeth ‘Street, at 8 p.m.
Mr. W. Poole, President, in the Chair.
Twenty-five members and two visitors were present.
The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and ‘confirmed.
The President tendered a cordial welcome to Mr. G. W. English, Mineralogist in the University of Rochester, New ‘York, U.S.A.
The certificate of one candidate for admission as an ordinary member was read for the first time.
On behalf of the Council, the President gave notice of the following motion to be submitted at the next ‘general meeting :—
‘‘That the funds of the Society shall be lodged at a bank named by the Council of Management. Claims against the Society when approved by the Council shall be paid by cheque signed by two of three members nominated ‘by the Council for that purpose.”’
The President announced that Mr. E. C. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S., would deliver a Popular Science Lecture entitled ‘“Hlements of Geophysical Prospecting,’’ on Thursday, 23rd August, 1928.
A letter was read from Professor Grafton Ellhot Smith thanking the Society for electing him an Honorary Member.
It was announced that the Council of the Royal Society had adopted the following conditions for the award of the Walter Burfitt Prize :—
1. The Walter Burfitt Prize shall be awarded at inter-
vals of three years to the worker in pure or applied science, resident in Australia or New Zealand, whose
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS X1X..
papers and other contributions published during the: past three years are deemed of the highest scientific merit, account being taken only of investigations. described for the first time and carried out by the author mainly in these Dominions.
2. The prize may be awarded to two authors working in collaboration.
3. The prize shall consist of a medal and a sum of £0);
and that the Council had decided that the Australian. National Research Council, New Zealand Institute, the Royal Societies of the various States and other scientific bodies in Australia and New Zealand should be invited to submit the names and publications of workers whom they deem worthy of consideration and that scientific workers. generally should be invited to submit their publications. directly, while the Royal Society might award the prize to a worker whose name has not been submitted to it; and further that the first award should be made in May, 1929, for work published during the three years ending on 31st December, 1928, and that nominations and publications. should be submitted to the Royal Society not later than 28th February, 1929. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. ‘‘Brown Rot of Fruits and Associated Diseases in Australia,’’ Part I, by T. H. Harrison, B.Se.Agr.
Remarks were made by Dr. Dixson. 2. ‘‘Acacia Seedlings,’’ Part XIII, by R. H. Cambage, CsB bee WAS: EXHIBIT: Exhibit of Tables of Metrology and of Ancient Weights and Measures, prepared by Mr. T. Ranken and presented by him to the Royal Society of New South Wales.
“XX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
An enlargement of the Society’s portrait of the late Lawrence Hargrave, prepared by the Government Printer, through the efforts of Mr. A. R. Penfold, was exhibited to members. The President spoke briefly on the outstand- ing importance of Mr. Hargrave’s contributions to the -development of aviation. |
SEPTEMBER 5, 1928.
The four hundred and eightieth General Monthly Meet- ing was held at the Society’s Rooms, 5 Elizabeth Street, at 8 p.m.
Mr. W. Poole, President, in the Chair.
Thirty-three members and one visitor were present.
The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and -eonfirmed.
The certificates of four candidates for admission as ordinary members were read: one for the second and three for the first time.
The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society :—Stanley Wiliam Enos Parsons.
The President, on behalf of the Council, moved the alteration of Rule 36, of which notice had been given at the previous meeting, namely :—
That Rule 36 be altered to read as follows :—
‘“The funds of the Society shall be lodged at a bank named by the Council of Management. Claims against the Society when approved by the Council shall be paid by cheque signed by two of three members nominated by the Couneil for that purpose.’’
This was seconded by Mr. Olle and carried unanimously, thirty-three members present voting. The President announced that the resolution would be submitted for con- firmation at the next annual meeting.
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XX.
The President announced that Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Se., F.L.S., would deliver a Popular Science Lecture entitled ‘‘Some Problems of the Grazing Industry in Arid Australia,’’ on Thursday, 20th September, 1928.
THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: 1. “‘The Geology of Port Stephens,’’ by C. A. Sussmilch, HeGas. W. Clark’and W-"A. Greig.
Remarks were made by Professor Cotton and Mr. G. D.
Osborne.
2. “The Outbreak of Springs in Autumn,’’ by R. H. Cambage, C.B.E., F.L:S. Remarks were made by the President.
LECTURETTE AND EXHIBITS: Professor O. U. Vonwiller gave lecturettes with exhibits
on (a) ‘‘The Knipp a Ray Track Apparatus,’’ and
(b) ‘‘Some Pin-hole Phenomena.’’ It was shown that, with a pin-hole placed close to the eye, it was possible to view objects at a very short distance giving greatly increased magnification and, if the pin-hole were small enough, resolving power sreatly in excess of that of the unaided eye. Laike- wise it was possible to obtain photographic enlarge- ments with the plate of the camera placed at the focal plane, the lens being stopped with a very small pin-hole and the portion of the plate to be enlarged being placed a very short distance beyond this, a magnification of 40 or more being readily obtained with satisfactory detail.
Mr. E. Cheel exhibited abnormal specimens of waratah flowers.
The medals of the late Professor Archibaid Liversidge bequeathed to this Society were exhibited to members, and the President spoke of his work for the Royal Society and his continued interest in it after leaving Australia.
XXII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
OCTOBER 3, 1928.
The four hundred and eighty-first General Monthly Meeting was held at the Royal Society’s Rooms, 5 Elizabeth Street, at 8 p.m. | Mr. W. Poole, President, in the Chair.
Twenty-three members and four visitors were present.
-
The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and
confirmed.
The certificates of four candidates for admission as ordinary members were read: three for the second, and one for the first time.
The President announced that a ceremony to commem- orate the 200th Anniversary of the birth of Captain James Cook had been arranged by the Royal Australian Historical Society with co-operation of other bodies to take place at the Captain Cook Statue in Hyde Park on 27th October, 1928. He announced further that the next general monthly meeting of the Society would be a Cook Memorial meeting, details of which would be arranged and communicated later.
THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ:
‘*Description of three new species of Eucalyptus and one new Acacia,’’ by W. F. Blakely.
Remarks were made by Mr. Cambage.
LECTURETTE: Professor J. C. Earl gave a lecturette (illustrated with lantern slides) on ‘‘Glucose and Substances related to it.’’
EXHIBITS: 1. Sir Edgeworth David exhibited some specimens of fossil remains of highly organised animals recently discovered by him in South Australian Pre-Cambrian rocks.
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XX1ll.
2. Mr. R. H. Cambage exhibited several plants of Acacia rubida which, although ultimately a phyllodineous species, were flowering while wholly in the bipinnate stage and before any phyllodes had appeared. The plants were collected in a sheltered valley at Mittagong, and he had previously recorded the occurrence of this feature from Woodford in a_ similar. situation. (‘‘Dimorphie foliage of Acacia rubida, and fructifica- tion during bipinnate stage,’’ by R. H. Cambage, these Proceedings, 1914, 48, p. 136.)
NOVEMBER 7, 1928.
The four hundred and eighty-second General Monthly Meeting was held at the Royal Society’s Rooms, 5 Hliza- beth Street, at 8 p.m.
Mr. W. Poole, President, in the Chair.
Highty-three present, including many visitors.
The President announced that the formal business of the ordinary general monthly meeting would be deferred until the December meeting.
The reading of papers accepted for this meeting would likewise be postponed until that meeting.
It was announced that apologies for absence were received from the Governor-General, the Lieutenant Gov- ernor, the Premier, the Chief Justice and many others.
The business of the evening was the celebration of the bi-centenary of the birth of Captain James Cook.
Addresses were given as follows :—
Surveying and Charting.—The President (Mr. W. Poole, M.K., M.Inst.C.E.).
Mr. Walter Gale, F.R.A.S.
Geographical Discoveries—Sir Edgeworth David, K.B.E., C.M.G., F.R.S.
Z—December 5, 1928.
Astronomy
XXIV, ABSTRACT OF PRCCEEDINGS.
Hygiene—Professor H. G. Chapman, M.D. Tahiti to Botany Bay—Mr. R. H. Cambage, C.B.E., F.L.S.
Latter Days of Captain Cook and Recent Hawanan Celebrations — Sir Joseph Carruthers, K.C.MG., WACO IR DEB.
On behalf of the Society the President thanked the speakers for their contributions to the evening.
DECEMBER 5, 1928. The four hundred and eighty-third General Monthly Meeting was held at the Society’s Rooms, 5 Elizabeth Street, Sydney, at 8 p.m.
Mr. W. Poole, President, in the Chair.
Twenty-six members and two visitors (Professor Goddard of the University of Queensland and Mr. J. H. Steers of the University of Cambridge) were present.
The Minutes of the general monthly meetings of 3rd ‘October and 7th November, 1928, were read and confirmed.
The President spoke of the loss sustained through the death of Mr. R. H. Cambage. He gave a short outline of the part Mr. Cambage had taken in the management of the Royal Society and asked the meeting to endorse the following motion earried at the Council meeting on 28th November.
‘‘That the Council of the Royal Society of New South Wales records its high appreciation of the valuable services rendered to the Society for over twenty years as President, Honorary Secretary and member of Council by the late Richard Hind Cambage, Vice-President, who died on November 28th, 1928. His untiring zeal for the welfare of the Society, his continuous efforts to inerease its utility and his splendid gifts of organisation have been of inestimable worth to the Council in the direction
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXV
of affairs. His equable spirit, his generous mind and his warm nature endeared him personally to all who
laboured with him as friend and colleague. His wide understanding of the relations between plants and their surroundings, his genius for observation, his rare botanical skill, have enriched the science of botany in Australia and added lustre to his fame.’’
This was done, those present standing in silence.
The certificate of the following candidate was read for
the first time:—Henry George Pyke, Chemical Testing Assistant of the New South Wales Government Tramways.
at
The President nominated Mr. E. C. Andrews’ to preside the ballot box, and members elected Messrs. R. W.
‘Tannahill and H. G.. Farnsworth to act as serutineers, ‘when the following gentleman, whose certificate had been
read a second time, was duly elected an ordinary member
“of
1.
3.
4
O.
the Society :—Victor Marcus Coppleson.
THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ: ‘The Chemistry of the Exudation from the Wood of Pentaspodon Motleyu,’’ by A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.L., F.C.S., and F. R. Morrison, A.A.C.I., F.C.S. ‘‘The Essential Oil from a Boronia in the Pinnate Section from Fraser Island, Queensland,’’ by A. R. Pentold, F.A.C.L, F.C:8. ‘‘An Examination of Defective Oregon (Pseudotsuga Haxijoua),’ by M. B. Weleh, B.Sc., A.1.C. Remarks were made by the President. . ‘On the Probable Tertiary Age of Certain New South Wales Soils,’’ by Assist.-Prof. W. R. Browne, D.Sc. ‘‘The Essential Oil of a new species of Anemone leaf Boronia, rich in Ocimene,’’ by A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.L, JTOaSE
XXV1. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
6. ‘‘On some Aspects of Differential Erosion,’’ by Assist.- Prof. W. R. Browne, D.Sc.
7. ‘‘Further notes on the Genus Boronia,’’ by E. Cheel.
8. ‘‘Alkalization and other Deuteric Phenomena in the Saddleback Trachybasalt at Port Kembla,’’ by—Assist.- Prof. W. R. Browne, D.Sc., and H: P. White heer:
9. ‘‘Notes on some Organisms of Tomato Pulp,’’ by G. L. Windred (communicated by Gilbert Wright).
10. ‘‘Notes on some Australian Timbers of the Mont- miaceae,’’ by M. B. Welch, B.Sc., A.I.C.
11. ‘‘Note on a Fossil Shrimp from the Hawkesbury Sand- stones,’’ by Charles Chilton, M.A., D.Sc., M.B. (com- municated by W. 8. Dun).
LECTURETTE: .
‘““Recent Researches on the effects of radiations used in the
treatment of cancers,’’ by Prof. H. G. Chapman, M.D.
Remarks were made by Mr. A. D. Olle and the President.
EXHIBIT: The Prize Design of ‘‘Science House.’’
GEOLOGICAL SECTION.
Aa ivi ale, «Lh erase rmmlerie
ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
GEOLOGICAL SECTION.
Annual Meeting, April 20, 1928. Professor Cotton was in the chair, and twelve members and nine visitors were present.
The Chairman weleomed back Mr. E. C. Andrews from his trip abroad.
Mr. C. A. Sussmileh was congratulated upon his appoint- ment as Principal of the East Sydney Technical Covens: and Assist.-Supt. of Technical Education.
Mr. E. C. Andrews and Mr. G. D. Osborne were elected Chairman and Hon. Secretary respectively for the vear.
EXHIBITS:
1. By Dr. A. B. Walkom: Fossil plant from Brookvale Quarry, which was probably Neocalamites, showing strong nodal divisions.
2. By Mr. L. L. Waterhouse: (a) Hawkesbury sandstone from North Curl Curl Head containing shale fragments, which were sometimes ferruginous, and possessed joint- ing independent of the including sandstone.
(b) Specimens of cemented ilmenitic sand and associ- ated fulgurites, from the same locality.
Mr. E. C. Andrews gave a brief account of his recent visits to some of the American Universities, and also of his experiences in Canada, while attending the Second Empire Mining Congress at Montreal.
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS,
May 18, 1928.
Mr. Andrews was in the chair, and ten members and
four visitors were present.
The following resolutions were carried unanimously, on
the motion of Dr. Browne and Mr. Poole:
b>
Or
That this Section desires to place on record its appre- ciation of the long and valuable services rendered by Mr. G. W. Card, A.R.S.M., as Curator of the Mining Museum over many years, to geological science in N.S.W.
That the members desire to acknowledge gratefully their indebtedness to Mr. Card for so constantly sending exhibits to the meetings of the Section, thereby increasing very materially the interest and value of these meetings.
That the Hon. Secretary be instructed to convey the foregoing resolutions to Mr. Card, with the cordial greetings and good wishes of the Section.
EXHIBITS:
. By Mr. Morrison: (a) Crystals of tantalite from Western
Australia; (b) Perthite from Broken Hill; (¢c) Photo- graphs of prismatised sandstone occurring at the Giant’s Castle, Lane Cove, and in a quarry 14 miles south of Gordon.
. By Dr. W. R. Browne: Specimens of decomposed
Tertiary basalt from Wingello, N.S.W. These occur in association with basalt, and possess a characteristic violet colour, a feature recorded in connection with basalt in similar association in other parts of the world.
By Mr. H. G. Raggatt: Specimen of analcite-dolerite
from a sill of probable Tertiary age which intrudes the Upper Coal Measures at Broke, N.S.W.
By Mr. C. A. Sussmilch: (a) Suite of specimens from the Albury district, comprising phyllites, schists, granite with schist inclusions, and pegmatite; (b) Granite from the Hume Reservoir Area.
By Mr. A. J. Shearsby: Photographs of cylindrical econecretionary formation in the sandstone at Mosman.
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXX1.
A discussion upon ‘‘The Occurrence of Bands in Coal Seams, and their bearing on the origin of Coal, with special reference to the Neweastle Coal Field,’’ was opened by Mr. L. J. Jones.
Mr. Jones described clearly the occurrence of well- defined bands in the Borehole Seam in the Newcastle- Wallsend district, emphasising the uniformity of thickness of the bands and the sharp boundaries existing between band and coal. He pointed out that the coal was cften laminated, and concluded that all the phenomena observed could be explained only by assuming the coal to have originated by deposition of plant-material transported from some source, the bands then being due to special variations in the conditions of deposition.
Professor Browne commented upon the features which had been stressed by Mr. Jones, and thought the textural variation to be seen in the bands might be the result of the showering of tuff upon coal-measure swamps, but considered that careful microscopic examination was necessary before any conclusion could be reached. ;
Messrs. Andrews, Harper, Morrison, Raggatt, Sussmilch
and Osborne made brief contributions, and it was decided to continue the discussion at the next meeting. June 29, 1928. Mr. Andrews was in the chair, and thirteen members
and three visitors were present.
It was unanimously resolved to send a letter of sympathy to Mr. W. S. Dun on account of his severe illness.
EXHIBITS: 1. By Dr. W. R. Browne: (a) Specimens of tuff from the Permo-Carboniferous marine beds at Twin Trig., near Tallong, N.S.W., and from Bundanoon; (b) Siderite in mamillary form with fibrous radial structure, from basalt, Lismore, N.S.W.; (¢) Specimen of common opal collected about 60 miles south of Dubbo. 2. By Mr. L. L. Waterhouse: (a) Two specimens of opal- bearing jasperoid quartzite from Tallong; (b) Speci- mens of bismuth-ore from a contact zone between
XXXII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
granite and limestone, at Riddell’s Mine, Duckmaloi,. near Oberon, N.S.W.
3. By Mr. M. Morrison: Specimen of bright shale, not unlike: bitumen, which by analysis appears to be a high-grade eannel coal. Locality, Newnes, N.S.W.; (b) Coals with bands from the Clarence River Series (Mesozoic).
4. By Mr. H. F. Whitworth: Celestine occurring in the- gypsum beds cf Ivanhoe, N.S.W.
0. By Mr. Clark: Waterworn kerosene shale from Morna Point, also photographs of raised beach at same place..
6. By Dr. A. B. Walkom: Two coal balls, of calcareous concretionary character, containing well - preserved plant-fossils, one ball from Belgium, and the other from. the Lancashire Coal Field; (b) Coorongite from Kangaroo I., S.A.; (c) Fossil plants from Yalwal.,. N.S.W., viz.: Protolepidodendron yalwalen:e, Proto- lepidodendron lineare, and Lepidodendron clarkei (?). The study of these confirmed the assigning, by Mr. Andrews, to the Yalwal beds of a Devonian age.
7. By Mr. G. D. Osborne: Specimens: of basalt and. basaltic pumice from the Toowoomba district. Also, in collaboration with Mr. Waterhouse, photographs of the Toowoomba Quarry, which has been reserved in the interests of science.
The discussion commenced at the previous meeting was.
continued.
Mr. Harper described some of the features in the seams. of the Southern Coal Field, and concluded that these were: evidence of the accumulation of coaly material in swamps in which there were channels of drainage alternating with. sand bars built up by the wind.
Dr. Browne reported having examined some of the mate- rial of the bands microscopically, but found it very difficult to make much out of the slides. He felt sure that if the coal were transported, then there would be a certain amount. of detrital material present in the coal. apart from the: distinct bands.
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXlll..
Mr. Morrison reported the occurrence of a band in the: Western Coal Field, with a thickness of one inch, which was persistent over an area 50 miles in extent.
Mr. Sussmilch said that the association of kerosene shale, which had developed im situ, with the coal seams was a point in favour of the “Growth-in situ” theory.
Dr. Walkom thought the band referred to by Mr. Mor- rison could not have originated by any of the ordinary methods of mechanical sedimentation. He explained that the advanced decay of woody tissue of plants produced a. series of ulmins, leaving unaltered spores, etc. Thus in a deposit of coal produced by the accumulation of transported material, one would expect to find a smaller percentage of spores than in the case of the plants decomposing i situ,
Mr. Waterhouse mentioned the vossibility of the bands: developing at times when conditions were special, caused by the incursion of the sea into the coal swamp areas.
Professor Cotton, Messrs. Andrews, Poole, Whitworth, and Dr. Brennand also spoke briefly, and Mr. Jones replied to many points raised in the whole discussion.
July 27, 1928.
Mr. Andrews was in the chair, and eleven members and’
SI1x visitors were present.
The Chairman welcomed Mr. Letchworth English,
Mineralogist from the F. A. Ward Foundation of Natural Science in the University of Rochester, U.S.A.
1.
EXHIBITS: By Mr. M. Morrison: (a) Spotted and banded sedi-. mentary rock from Kimberley, W.A.; (b) Crystal of rhodonite, in association with sulphide ore, from Broken: Hill, N.S.W.
. By Mr. H. G. Raggatt: Schists, probably andalusite-
bearing, from Anembo, 15 miles south of Captain’s. Flat, N.S.W.
. By Dr. A. B. Walkom: (a) Specimens of Lepidodendron
collected by Dr. Woolnough from 65 miles south of: Bermagui. These have affinities with Protolepidodendron and may be from an extension of the Yalwal beds ;,
XXXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
(b) Small branch of Lepidodendron with leaves attached, collected by Mr. Sussmilch, at Arden Hall, Upper Hunter District, N.S.W.; (¢) Specimen of un- usual Lepidodendron from the Karuah River District.
4. By Mr. G. D. Osborne: Conularia from the Upper Marine Series at Branxton, N.S.W.
Assistant-Professor Browne opened a discussion on ““Tertiary Igneous Activity in N.S.W.’’
DISCUSSION :
Dr. Browne dealt with the rocks in a comprehensive review, discussing their distribution, petrology and tectonic relationships, and instituted comparisons and contrasts with Tertiary rocks in other parts of Australia and elsewhere. He pointed out that there was a wide area covered by the rocks, which occurred as extrusions and intrusions, showing a great variety of type. Thus there were rocks ranging from ultrabasic to acid, with much variation in texture. The basalts are all olivine-bearing, and nearly all contain analcite, or nepheline or a zeolite. They are distinctly alkaline, the intrusions being, in general, more alkaline than the extrusions. The silica percentage ranges from 38 per cent. to 74 per cent., reaching the latter figure in the rhyolites. A consideration of the norms of the analysed rocks showed that only four of the basalts were ealcic. Some of the intrusive masses are members of the quartz- dolerite group. The basalts are not related closely to the Plateau basalts, in the sense given to that term by Washington. The relations of the N.S.W. rocks to the Tertiary igneous rocks of Victoria and of Queensland are not very well known.
The absence of major intrusions does not imply neces- sarily that such do not exist at deeper levels of the crust.
Mr. C. A. Sussmilch pointed out that on physiographic grounds the strongly alkaline lavas were to be considered younger than the two main groups of basic lavas.
Professor Cotton spoke regarding the relationshiv be- tween the distribution of the Tertiary lavas and the tectonic structures of the eastern margin of the continent, particularly between Central Eastern Queensland and South-eastern New South Wales. He also referred to some Tertiary necks in the New England district.
Mr. Osborne discussed the relations between the trends of the dykes and the directions of jointing and faulting in the Sydney-Blue Mountains region.
‘The discussion was then adjourned till the next meeting.
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXV.
August 31, 1928. Mr. Andrews was in the chair, and eight members and one visitor were present.
EXHIBITS:
1. By Mr. T. Hodge Smith: (a) Lithiophilite, a phosphate of lithium and manganese; also a new mineral, hydro- thorite, a hydrous silicate of thorium, and in addition the caesium-beryl, vorobyevite: locality, Wodgina, W.A. (b) Galena with hedenbergite, from Broken Hill.
The discussion on ‘‘ Tertiary Igneous Activity in N.S.W.’’ was continued.
Dr. Walkom pointed out that the division of the basalts into “Older” and ‘“‘Newer” received no support from a consideration of the floras of the “deep leads.” He also drew attention to the occurrence of the alkaline masses of the Glass House Mountains, to the east of the main line of uplift in Eastern Australia.
Mr. Smith referred to the Kyogle district where the volcanic succession seemed to fit in with Prof. Richards’ classification of the Queensland flows. He also suggested correlation of some of the Tertiary flows by means of the deuteric minerals present.
Mr. Andrews drew attention to the relations between the distribution. of the flows and the margins of the old stable blocks of Palaeozoic rocks. It seemed as if the leucite lavas were poured out on the old blocks while folding around the margin of these went on, and while the areas of crumpling were characterised by volcanic vents giving
forth ash and lava. The plateau basalts flooded the old stable blocks.
Professor Browne replied to many points raised, and short contributions were made by Prof. Cotton and Mr. Poole.
September 28, 1928. Mr. Andrews was in the chair, and ten members and
two visitors were present.
The Secretary announced a proposed excursion to Norton’s Basin on Saturday, October 20th, 1928.
0,0, cil ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
EXHIBITS:
1. By Sir Edgeworth David: Casts of Eurypterid remains from the Adelaide (Lipalian) Series of Pre-Cambrian age, The remains were of the nature of claws and spines, probably representatives of the Merostomata.
2. By Mr. L. L. Waterhouse: A series of specimens from the Bald Hills, Cathurst, illustrating the occurrence of flows of basalt overlying Tertiary drift, which in turn lies on decomposed granite, the last-named no doubt having been weathered in Tertiary times.
3. By Mr. G. D. Osborne:_(a). Specimens of yoleanie ime from the Narrabeen Series at Long Reef, N.S.W.; (b) Specimens of sandstone, altered sandstone with much coaly material, and sandstone with pronounced slickensides, from the neighbourhood of the Basin voleanie rock, Nepean River.
Professor L. A. Cotton addressed the section on “‘ Causes of Diastrophism and their Status in Current Geological Thought.”’
This lecture was along the lines of the Presidential Address delivered by Professor Cotton to Section) C of the A.A.A.S. at the Hobart (1928) Meeting, which address has been published in the report of that meeting, pp. 171- 218.
The address was discussed by Sir Edgeworth David and Mr. Osborne, and a reply made by Dr. Cotton.
October 26, 1928, Mr. Andrews was In the chair, and nine members were present. A letter from Mr. G. W. Card returning thamicemamadl greetings for the letter conveying the resolutions of May 18, was read.
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXVI,
The Secretary reported that a very successful excursion had been held on Saturday, October 20, to the Basin, near Mulgoa. About thirty-five members and friends attended, and the trip was made in cars kindly made avaiable by some of the members. The physiography. and general geology of the very interesting region near the Basin were studied.
NOTES AND EXHIBITS:
Mr. Andrews gave a brief report upon a recent trip which he and the members of the Artesian Water Con- ference had taken in the Broken Hill-Grey Range-Tibboo- burra region. He exhibited many specimens to illustrate his remarks, including a scratched boulder from (?) Lower Cretaceous Glacial beds.
2. By Sir Edgeworth David: Casts of appendages of EKurypterids from limestone in the Adelaide Series. Also, on behalf of Miss D. R. Taylor: (a) Crustacean remains from the Carboniferous Calciferous sandstone of Gullane, Scotland; (b) Beautifully preserved ammonite from the Oolite of Radstock, England.
3. By Mr. Poole: Panoramic photographs of the Basin Area, Nepean River, showing features examined on the excursion held on October 20.
4. By Mr. Osborne: (a) Crystal of quartz, showing ‘*shadow-erystal’’ nucleus; (b) Composite crystal of quartz showing successive growth-zones; (¢) Coral sand- rock from Norfolk Island sent by Mr. Card.
A committee consisting of Prof. Cotton, Dr. Walkom and Messrs. Dun and Shearsby was appointed to enquire into the matter of the delay in the reservation of the Hatton’s Corner site.
PAPERS: Two papers of mineralogical interest from current literature were presented in abstract, as follows:
XXXVIIL. _ ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. '
1. “‘The Geology of the Platinum Metals,’’ by J. H. L. Vogt. Presented in abstract by Mr. G. D. Osborne, and discussed by Sir Edgeworth David and Mr. Andrews.
2. “‘The Natural History of the Silica Minerals,’’ by Austin F. Rogers. Presented by Mr. T. Hodge Smith and discussed by Sir Edgeworth David and Mr. Osborne.
November 30, 1928. Mr. Andrews was in the chair and eight members and. two visitors were present. The Chairman referred to the sudden death of Mr. R. H. Cambage, which had occurred three days previously, and
the following resolution was carried in silence:
“That the members of the Geological Section desire to record their deep sense of the loss sustained by the death of their beloved friend and colleague, Mr. R. H. Cambage, and extend to the bereaved relatives their heartfelt
sympathy.”
A cordial welcome was extended to Mr. F. G. Forman, of Western Australia, who exhibited two samples of natural oil obtained by him from seepages in the Kerema District, Gulf Division, Papua.
Mr. E. C. Andrews initiated a discussion upon ‘‘ The
Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion.’’
He gave a brief summary of the outstanding features of the earth’s surface as a foundation for an enquiry into the relation of intrusions and extrusions of magma through the earth’s crust. He drew attention to the lines of mountain ranges on the earth and their relation to vol- canoes and bathylites. Mr. Andrews considered that the mountain belts were essentially geanticlinal units in a series of earth undulations or waves, and explained his view of the migration of magma during the activity of these undulations.
He believed that the intrusive igneous rocks came into their places of crystallisation by a process akin to “sweating” through the country rocks. He stressed the
~~
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXIX.
facts that most intrusions showed no feeders, and he thought that the characteristics of form and origin of ore bodies could be a guide to the study of intrusives.
Dr. Browne did not see eye to eye with the Chairman in regard to the matter of the analogy between ore bodies and igneous masses. He considered that the former were very specialised units whose behaviour was probably quite > different from that of bathylites. He found difficulty in understanding the mechanism of the undulations or waves which Mr. Andrews had! described.
Mr. Osborne gave a separate contribution to the discus- sion by presenting a summary of the views of some of the geologists of the British Survey regarding the “cauldron-subsidence” phenomena to be observed at Glencoe and in N.E. Ireland.
Mr. Andrews replied to some points raised, and the dis- cussion was adjourned until the next meeting.
Aa—December 5, 1928.
SECTION OF INDUSTRY.
ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
SECTION. OF INDUSTRY.
Officers—Chairman: A. D. Olle, F.C.8.; Honorary Secretary: H. V. Bettley-Cooke.
As in 1927, the activities of the Section consisted of visits to industrial establishments.
In all cases manufacturers gave a cordial welcome to members and went to considerable trouble in explaining their processes and in preparing exhibits.
The following visits were paid :—
May 15th, 1928—British-Australian Lead Manufacturer’s Works, Cabarita.
June 19th, 1928—Goodyear Tyre and Rubber Co. (Aus- tralia) Ltd.
July 17th, 1928—Nestle’s Chocolate Factory, Abbotsford.
August 21st, 1928—General Motors (Australia) Pty. Ltd., Marrickville.
September 18th, 1928—Australian Glass Manufacturers Co. Ltd., Dowling Street, Waterloo.
October 9th, 1928—Messrs. Elliott Bros. Chemical Works, Balmain.
November 27th, 1928—Messrs. Parke Davis & Company Works, Rosebery.
December 11th, 1928—Sydney Harbour Trust Operations on the Harbour.
Billy eka
SECTION OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
iA m . : ' oe A lh P fe NX ’ . i ; as ee - * . i =, j ! x 2 iY | 5 : é ft e . eter Lae - os! ye ig ) \ = so < ' ‘ Gilet pacha yameityste - Rae : : ( ; : —s ' ie f < j : : 4 l y ay 7 a P:. ‘te
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ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
OF THE SECTION OF
PHYSICAL» SCIENCE.
Seven meetings were held during the year. The average attendance was fifteen. At the May meeting the following officers were elected:
Chairman—Assoe. Professor Wellish, M.A.
Honorary Secretary—G. H. Briggs, B.Se., Ph.D., F.Inst.P.
Committee—Associate Professor Bailey, M.A., Ph.D., Bainsie., Major KE. Ey Booth, MC Be. F .Inst.P., Professor Madsen, D.Sec., Rev. Mather Pivot. -S.J., Boal) MB. Mra Je I Richardson, A.M.I.E.E., Professor Vonwiller, Bec, Ho linstie:
April 18th, 1927. Professor Bailey in the chair.
Mr. J. C. Jaeger read a paper on ‘‘The Motion of Electrons in Pentane.’’
A sketch of the theory and experimental procedure involved in Professor Bailey’s original 3-slit apparatus was given. In the work on pentane, readings were taken in this apparatus at values of z/p of 2.5, 5, 10, 20, 40 for the determination of / and a. Experiments were then made at the same values of z/p in a Townsend diffusion apparatus for the determination of W. The values of a are low and decrease with increasing z/p as in air, and the probability h shows a similar rapid decrease at low values of z/p. The k, z/p curve is nearly linear and of compara-
XI Vitt:. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.
tively small slope, while the values of W show a rapid initial rise. These peculiarities cause a maximum of Xd at a low value of z/p. The same effect is shown by the other polyatomic gases yet investigated CO., NO. and C.H,, to the last of which pentane is specially similar. It was suggested that this effect is connected with the
formation of ions.
Mr. J. D. McGee, M.Sc., read a paper on ‘*The Attach- ment of Electrons to Molecules of Ammonia.’’
An outline of the theory of a three slit apparatus designed by Professor Bailey was given. In this apparatus the distance between the plates can be varied from 2 to 4 ems. Experiments with ammonia were made in order to check the previous work of Professor Bailey and Mr. Higgs using the older apparatus. Hydrogen was found in the gas which they had used. With a fresh supply of pure ammonia observations were made from z/p = 7 to z/p = 82: and the values of a and k determined. It was found that k& increased very.rapidly from k = 3 at z/p = 7 tok — 60 at z/p == 14. Over the same range a/p also increased rapidly from 0.006 to 0.125.
From these results it was deduced that unless the drift velocity of the electrons decreased rapidly over this range, the probability of the attachment of an electron to a molecule of ammonia must increase over this range. Hence it appears that the probability of attachment is not in- dependent of the velocity of the electron as was assumed by Loeb.
May 16th, 1927. Professor Wellish in the chair. An address was given by Professor Madsen, D.Se. He discussed—
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. x]ix..
(1) the research in wireless being carried out in Great Britain by the Radio Research Board;
(2) work on geophysical prospecting by Eve, Edge and Bieler, and
(3) legal definitions of standards in various countries.
Professor V. A. Bailey, M.A., Ph.D., F.Inst.P., described a rapid method for determining the pulsation © and damping coefficient of free oscillations in any electric net- work containing inductanees, resistances and capacities. At any part of the network ‘an alternating sinoidal e.m.f. of pulsation w and zero amplitude is introduced and the equations for the currents in different parts of the network are written down with the assistance of Kirchhoff’s rules, but replacing the operator d/dt by wj as in the method of complex operators.
The condition that these currents be different from zero, as they must in the ease of free oscillations, is equivalent to an equation A (wj) = 0 where J is the determinant formed by the coefficients of the currents in the above equations.
Each root w of this equation then gives the & and pu of one of the free oscillations through the relation w= 2 + pj.
In many special eases the above process is equivalent to either of the following :—
(1) If the network can be regarded as a single eireuit with impedence operator z; then the equation in w will be 2 = 0.
(2) If the admittance operator y between any two points in the network can be determined the equation in w will be given by y = 0.
The use and value of the method was illustrated by application to several standard cases.
4, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS,
June 20th. Professor Wellish in the chair.
Major E. H. Booth, B.Se., F.Inst.P., gave an address on ““Geophysical Methods of Prospecting.’’
July 18th. Professor Wellish in the chair.
Mrs. G. H. Briggs gave an address on ‘‘ Recent Develop- ments of Quantum Theory.’’
September 19th. Professor Wellish in the chair. Mr. W. G. Baker, B.Sc., B.E., read a paper on ‘‘ Radio Broadcast Transmission in the Neighbourhood of Sydney.’’
Measurements of signal strength were made by L. 8. C. Tippett, B.Sc., B.E., and W. G. Baker, BSc, Baby receiving the signals on a loop interval tuned by a variable condenser. The voltage in the loop was measured by a Moulin type thermionic voltmeter. The observations were restricted to a distance of about 20 miles from the station 2FC and were made along seven directions radiating from the station, open spaces being chosen at each point.
The results, illustrated by a polar diagram, show in general a much more rapid fall off to the north, over the wooded country, than to the south. The absorption co- efficient was measured in each direction and by making use of Sommerfeld’s theory the conductivity of the ground was deduced.
By integrating the power radiated over a hemisphere and taking into account the absorption it was deduced that 82% of the 5000 watts input to the station is radiated.
October 17th. The business of the meeting was a demonstvation of experiments with diodes and triodes by Professor Bailey.
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. le
In an introductory address Professor Bailey outlined the methods and theory of the maintenance of oscillations by valves and also the rectification of alternating current.
The experiments shown were—
(1) A triode oscillating simultaneously at a high and a low frequency. The former oscillation being shown by a neon lamp while the audible frequency of oscillation was altered by a variable mutual inductance.
(2) A short wave oscillator producing waves of about 3 meters wave length.
(3) A tuning fork maintained in vibration by a 3 electrode valve, telephone electro-magnets in the plate and grid circuit being placed on either side of the prongs of the fork.
(4) High frequency induction furnace consisting of a
— eoil of thick copper wire of about 20 turns and 4 em. diameter through which high frequency oscillations pass. A piece of iron rapidly became red hot when held in the coil. The same oscillating system was used to show electrodeless discharges. in vacuum tubes.
(5) Short waves were set up on a Lecher system, the wave length being about 5 to 10 metres, and an application to ‘the calibration of a wavemeter by counting beats between the harmonies was de- seribed.
The experiments were illustrated by diagrams of the electrical circuits and were greatly appreciated. November 21st, 1927. Professor Wellish in the chair. Mr. R. W. J. Mackay, B.Sc., B.E., gave an address on ‘* Electrica! Relays.”’
INDEX.
A Page Page Abstract of Proceedings i-xxvi | Andrews, E. C., Awarded the Geology oe se) XR VIIR-XL Clarke Memorial Medal ... xiii Industry... ... xli-xlvi | Animal Diseases, ‘I'he Control of 53 Physical Science ... xlvi.li} Annual Dinner ... es. x Acacia alata sah aa. we 159 Financial Statement FU hg argentea bec Lae 229 LOL Report of the Council .. viii bipinnatae ... Dee ... 162 | Anobium domesticum ... .. 3853 caesiella itd dae ... 154} Apothecia .., 135 calamiformes st ... 153 | Application of Science ‘to the Cambagei... us log Sheep Industry _... pra centaurer ... oe ... 153 | Asct ar Ae ain ... 136 Cheelit ER ... 869,371 | Ascospores Abe 43 i wlSe .confusa 5a ee ... 158 | Atherosperma . . 350 Cunninghanit pen i OOO moschatum, Labillardiere .. 352 decurrens x. .. 163,165 | Atmospheric Effecton Flow from Description of one New Springs at Kosciusko hedeal (S76 Species of... i -« 201 at Mittagong ... 198 doratoxylon ... ... 009 |} Australasian Association for the epilobium ... Sic ... 153 Advancement of Science ... 13 ericifolia ... oe ... 153 | Australian National Research Farnesiana ... ee ... 152 Council 13 glaucescens ... .. 869,371 | Australian Timbers of the Mon- graveolens ... va ue Loe imiacez, Notes on Some .,. 359 gummiferae ... Ree ... 164 harpophylla ... 7 ame Oy B homalophylla Ae ... 155 | Bacillus atterimus ee we O44 horrida <7 wwe > 16-4, 165 ellenbachiensis a we. 844 juliflorae... ee o. 209 graveolens ... mia oe B44 linophylla ... ma sar 160 megatherium... be wee B44 Lucasii n. sp. a ... 215 mucor . A me . 845 lysimachia ... as ... 153 mycoides ne he .. B44 melanoxylon ... ae si. LOZ NAGE 0 dae ee ... B44 merinthophora ade 159 ruminatus ... .. 847, 348 Mollissima ... ar 162, 164 subtilis ine a we 344 plurinerves ... sup .. 155 vulgatus .. 844 podalyriaefolia ts ... 216 | Backhousia angustifolia. .. w. 231 racemosae ... wile ways LO myrtifolia ... % woe 2O4 rubida Xxill. | Banksia Latifolia Ws lad Seedlings, Part XIII. ... 152 | Barr, Robert Houston ..., cae uninerves... 5 . 154] Blakely. W. FE.
Address, Brecidentil by or. Description of Three New Douglas Stewart ... nis aati Species of Ee and Aerobacter cloacae 34.4 One Acacia ... . 201 Alkalization and other Deuteric Booroo-molie Se: .. 875 Phenomena in the Saddle- Boronia anemonifolia 362, 264,
back aaa at Port 290, 291, 292, 294 Kembla sis . 303 var. anethifolius ... 296 Anaspidacea aie oo woe COU var. dentigera ... ... 801 antiquus 686 cee jc. 108 var. variablis ... was 20a Anaspides .. ... 866 anethifolia .. 290, 294, 295 tasmaniae (Thomson) 24 Od bipinnata 290, 294, 295, 296
Andesite ... ee bite ace tne, var, citriodora... we. 300
INDEX,
Page | Boronia citriodora 290, 294, 299, #00 dentigera 268, 290, 291, 294, 301 dentigeroides 264, 265, 290, 294, 301 falcifolia 290, 296, 299 Further Notes on the Genus 290 Gunnit 290, 294 hispida 2» 298 Muelleri 226, 232 Nand ... 290, 298 apmositifolia .. Perer4o sc) palerfolia . 299 pilosa... 294 pinnata "295, 226, 207, 294, var. citriodora .. . 200 polygalifolia... a joe var. anemonifolia . 294 var. pinnatifolia . 294 var. robusta pare 4576 var. ternatifolia 4 2OW var. trifoliolata 1298" Rich in Ocimene, The Es- sential Oil of a New Species of Anemone Leaf . 268 rigens... 290, 297 safrolifera .. 227 tetrandra .. 293 var. grandiflora tee OO tetrathecoides ‘av 297 trifoliata : ... 290 thujona e220 226,221, 232 variabilis 290, 295 Brady, Andrew John ... 4 Brown Rot of Fruits, and Dssoc- lated Diseases, in Australia 99 Browne, W. kK. On Some Aspects of Different- ial Erosion ... 2723 On the Probable Tertiary Ace of Certain New South Wales Sedentary Soils... 251 Browne, W.R.,and H. P. White Alkalization and Other Deu- teric Phenomena in the Saddleback Trachybasalt at Port Kembla ... 803 Burfitt Prize Walter 12, She efi Burindi Series (179
Cc Cambage, R, H.
14, xv, xxlv
Acacia Seedlings. Part XIII. 152 The Outbreak of sigere in Autumn , dehy lice Cape, Alfred John hohe eh Centaurer .. . 158
‘Chemistry of the
lili.
Page Cheel, Edwin as 290 Further Notes on the Genus Boronia . 290 Chemical Analysis of the Essen- tial Oils. The occurrence of a number of varieties of Eucalyptus dives as deter- mined by was NS Exudation from the Wood of Pentas- podon Motleyt, The... ere: Chilton, Chas. Note on a Fossil Shrimp from the Hawkesbury Sandstones 366 Clark, Wm., W. A. Greig and C. A. Sussmilch The Geology of Port Stephens 168
Clarke Memorial Medal 13 Conglomerates 179 Conidia ; 137 Control of Animal Diseases 53 Control of Drought 24, Control of Pests... 52 Conularia .. XXXIV: Cook, Bi- -Centenary of Captain James ar eRe Xa Cox, C. B. and H. Uiinneuinee Cyanogenetic Glucosides in Australian Plants ... 369 Cyanogenetic Glucosides in Aus- tralian Plants «a7 O09 Cynanothannus tridactylites ... 292 D Daphnandra aromatica, Bailey... 357 micrantha, Bentham .. oo repandula, F. v. Mueller ... 356 Defective Oregon (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), An Examination of siete 232 Description of Three New Spec- ies of Eucalyptus and One Acacia 201 Differential Erosion, Some Ase pects of ev 2S Diospyros kaki . 122 Disease of Passion Fruit, Some observations on the Woodi- ness or Bullet eS)
Diseases in Australia, eown Rot of Fruits and associated 99
Doryphora sassafras, Enilicher 350 E
Edge A. Broughton xv
Encouragement of Research 56
liv. INDEX.
Page Page English, G. W. xviii | Fodder Production and Conserv- _ Epilobium = . 153 ation . 26. Erosion-Scarps ... . 274 | Fossil Shrimp from the Hawkes-
Erosion, On some aspects of
differential i Hee PATER: Essential Oil from a Eorouia in the Pinnate Section ... 225
of a New Species of Anem- one Leat Boronia Rich in Ocimene, The
Tbe occurrence of a number of varieties uf Eucalyptus dives as determined by chemical analysis of the 72
263
Eucalyptus acmenioides... 211, 212 anomala n. sp. 209, 211 Australiana hci TALE Bott .. ... 2075-208 Consideniana 208, 205, 206, 208 corymbosa : ... 204 corynocalyx .. 377 Description of three New Species of =. 201 dives .. (ay 74, 15,11, 15 dives as determined by chemical analysis of the Essential Oils 72 eugeniordes ... i Jeo de haemastoma 201, 203, 204, 206, 207, 210, 211, 212
Joyceae n. sp. 201, 203. 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 211, 212 micrantha 201, 203, 204 Muelleriana ... vole nigra ... hoo pilularis w. 214 piperita 203, 207 punctata abril resinifera ... 204 robusta ee ral Sieberrana 204, 206 stricta . 205 umbra ae 210 212 Ward n. sp. 212, 214 Eucarya spicata ... 64, 69
Euphorbia drummondi, Boiss ... 371 Facilities for Transportation ... 38 Fault-Line Scarps . 275
Fault-Scarps and Erosion-Scarps 274 Fereuson, Eustace William ... 5 Finnemore, H. and C, B. Cox Cyanogenetic Glucosides in Australian Plants ... . 869
bury Sandstones. Note on a 366
Fusanus spicatus ... 64: G Geology of Port Stephens, The 168 Gloeosporium fructigenum . 85 Glucoside, Extraction of the ... 868 Goodia lotifolia, Salisb ... 375, 376 medicaginea ... . 875 pubescens . 375:
Greig, W..A,, C. A. Sussmilch and Wm. "Clark The Geology of Port Stephens 168 Greig-Smith, Robert... .. 0,6
H
Hargrave, Lawrence xx Harrison, Launcelot te 7 Harrison, T’. H.
Brown Rot of Fruits and As- sociated Diseases, in Aus- tralia .. 99
Hedycarya gnoustifolia, ae Cun: ningham ... 360 Heterodendron olecfolia... . 376 Hypochaeris radicata . 149 Improved Animal Nutrition 39 K Keele, Thomas William eS Kabora ( .. : . 362 Krahmann, Rudolf bas sot ipa L Lepidodendron clarke XXxiil. Leptospermum Liversidget same Liversidge, Archibald ... 8, 9, 10 Medals of the late... . xxl
Research Lectureship ; Vili, X, xxi
Lysimachia wo. 153 MM MacDonald, Ebenezer ... se LOWS Maiden Memorial re 12, xiii Medal, Clarke Memorial eaale Melaleuca leucadendron .. 4 Members, List of (IX) Merostomata XXXVI. Microconidia , 189)
INDEX. lv, Page Page Mollinedia ae alta Tulasne 359 Penfold, A. R. Monilia. ... spot a) The Chemistry of Western cinerea ae mi eee? Australian Sandalwood Oil, f. pruni ... sated UP Part I. = po kon)
fructigena 108, 112, 114, 115 118, 120, 121, 122, 128, 124, 125
Monimiacee ... 800 Monthly Meetings of the Royal Society of N.S.W xvi
Morrison, F. R. and A. R. Penfold The Chemistry of the Exud- ation from the Wood of Pentaspodon Motleyi .. 218 The occurrence of a number of varieties of Eucalyptus dives as determined by Chemical Analysis of the Essential Oils. Part II.... 72
N Noble, R. J. Some observations on the W oodiness or Bullet Disease of Passion Fruit an Neocalamites nes Hb xxix.
oO
Obituary—
Barr, Robert Houston 4 Brady, Andrew John 4 Cape, Alfred Cape.. : 4 Ferguson, Esutace Woltiawn 5 Greig-Smith, Robert 5,6 Harrison, Launcelot Oa Keele, Thomas William Ths to Liversidge, Archibald MacDonald, Ebenezer 0) Scammell, William Joseph 10 Taylor, George mis ee 11
Taylor, James fe 1] Welch, William as Sh, 12 Outbreak of Springs in Autumn 179 Officers for 1928-29 aes 30 ce XL, Oregon, An examination of de- fective . 235 Oil, The Chemistry of Western Australian Sandalwood ... 60 Oils, Oxidation of Crude meOt P Paraphyses hi ae eral ost
Passion Fruit, Some _ observ- ations on the Woodiness or Bullet Disease of ... Wi at
Passiflora coerulea deh se OS edulis... me a 7Y, 88
The Essential “Oil ‘from a Boronia in the Pinnate Sec- tion. From Frazer Island, Queensland .. 225
The Essential Oil of a New Species of Anemone Leaf Boronia Rich in Ocimene... 263
Penfold, A. R. and F.R. Morrison
The Chemistry of the Exud- ation from the Wood of Pentaspodon Motleyi #. 218
The occurrence of a number of varieties of Eucalyptus dives as determined by Chemical Analysis of the
Essential Oils. PartII.... 72 Pentalonia nigrovenosa ... wee Oe Pentaspodon Motleyi ... oo LS Pests, the Control of ... aa lay? Petrography ah : ..s 168
Physiography and Genera! Ge- ology of Port Stephens 168 Popular Science Lectures ‘ix, XV
Poranthera corymbosa ie Oud microphylla ... ay soe Presidential Address by J. Douglas Stewart... ae a Protolepidodendron lineare XXXlll. yalwalense ae XXXiil. Prunus chinensis ... ie ... 103 persica es se ERO Pseudotsuga Douglasii se ... 285 taxifolia Bas oe ... 285
R Ranken, T., Tables of Metrology and of Ancient Weights and
Measures _... x1x Research, Encouragement of ... 56 Rhacopteris a oe aaa
(Anemites) inequilatera .. 180 Rhizoids ... wes ... 186 Rhyolite ... at Bag. es Royal Society’s House ... Seah. Rule 36 xviii, xx Russell, Sir John a iV
s Sale of Royal Society’s House... ix Sambucus nigra .. . 871 Sandalwood Oil, The Chemistry of Western Australian ...69)
lvi. INDEX. Page : Page: Santalum album ... . 64) Taylor, George Augustine 11 cygnorum... ... 64] Taylor, James... NOT fc lanceolatum .. 63, 64, 69, 70 | Tertiary Age of Certain New spicatum sy. .. 64 South Wales Sedentary Soils 251 Scammell, William J oseph 10 | The Chemistry of Western Aus- Science House ... ix tralian Sandalwood Oil 60° Science House, Exhibit ‘of the Thrips tabaci its ave 92 Prize Design ..xxv1 | Tomato Pulp, Notes on some Sclerotinia 113, 115, 116, 130, 141 Organisms of . B41 aestivalis 133, 184, 140 | Toscanite ... . 174 Americana .. 112, 114, 125, Torula fructigena eid V2: 127, 128, 129, 142 | Trachybasalt at Port Kembla, apothecia 140 Alkalisation and other Deu- Australian ... 127, 128, 186 teric Phenomena in the cinerea 112-118, 121-125, 128 Saddleback ... vo 803: 181, 138, 189, 142, 144, 145 forma Americania . 118 forma mali peel V forma prunt .. 112} Variability in Physiographic fructicola 112-114, 129- 131, Behaviour of Rock-Masses 279 134, 186, 137, 140, 141, 144, 145 fructigena 112-117 merea . 112 Ww Sedimentary Rocks . 178 | Walter Burfitt Prize Xili, xviii
Sesquiterpenes, Distinction be- tween Australian and Hast Indian Oils by means of
Colour Reaction of . 70 Sheep Industry,The Application
of Science to the epg leh Shoshonose : ne eal Smith, Grafton, Elliot . = i Soils, On the Probable Tertiary
Age of Certain New South
Wales Sedentary i251.
Springs in Autumn, Outbreak of 192 Stewart. J. Douglas
Presidential Address.. ti
Sussmilch, C. A., Wm. Clarkand W.A. Greig The Geology of Port Stephens 168
T Tables of Metrology and of An- cient Weightsand Measures xix
Water Supply and Conservation 31 Weather Forecasting 37 Welch, M. B. An Examination of Defective Oregon Pseudotsugataxifolia 235. Notes on Some Australian Timbers of the Monimiaceze Welch, William . White, H. P. and W. Re ‘Browne Alkalization and other Deu- teric Phenomena in the Saddleback Rai ekiesil. at Port Kembla ‘°... 2. 303: Windred, G. L. Notes on Some Organisms oe Tomato Pulp aa Woodiness or Bullet Disease of Passion Fruit. Some ob- servations on bie Wool Production yen wale
300: if:
34]
SYDNEY : Frep. W. WuHitTe, PRINTER, 344 Kent STREET.
1929.
CONTENTS,
é Pace . XIV.—The Essential Oil of a new species of Anemone leaf _- Boronia, Rich in Ocimene. By A. BR. Punroup, F.A.C.L.,_ F.C.S. (Issued February 12th, 1929.) oe ww. 263
ArT. XV.—On some Aspects of Differential Erosion. By W. R. . Browns, D.Sc. Wek = teat pee ——s gale
19th, 1929.)... ; 273 Art. XVI.—Further sakes on the Banna Bor onia. By B, Giant: Be, (Issued February 19th, 1929.) ... Be i wes ae
Art. XVII.—Alkalization and other Deuteric oe in the
_ Saddleback Trachybasalt at Port Kembla. By W. R. Browne. D.Sc. and H. P. Warts, F.C.S. [With Plates XXIV, XXV and two text Paes J tiesved pees 19th, 1929.) ae 303
Art. XVIII.—Notes on some igshine of Tost Pulp. By G. L. WInpRED, (communicated 2 Gilbert een): Piro (Issued February 19th, 1929.) —... a 341
. XLX.—Notes on some Australian Timbers of the Monimiaceae. By M. B. Wetcu, B.Sc., A.LC. [With Plates se Sie ne feaned February 19th, 1929, Sauer wn in vet 350
Arr, XX.—Note on a Fossil Shrimp from the Hawkesbury Sand: stones. By CHaruss Cuitton, M.A., D.Sc.,-M.B., (com- municated by W. S. Dun). [With Plate XXX. | Cssued February 19th, 1929.) ... — 366
Arr. XXI.—Cyanogenetic Glucosides in becieaien Pints By H. Finnemwore, B.Sc.,.and C. B. se B.Sc. (Issued March
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_- Trrity Pace, Contents, Notices, PUBLICATIONS, ... wo ee vB) OFFICERS FOR 1928-1929) 5 ae Pare ee oe wee (vii.)
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