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AS
RNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
itm
We have the pleasure to record an addition of forty-three
new members since our last report. _
We have again chosen Dr. Fletcher, of Ottawa, to
represent us at the meeting of the Royal Society in Ottawa
on May 26th, 1908.
REPORT OF COUNCIL ©
A large, double, upright case and a horizontal one have
been added to our museum, and are already well-filled with
specimens. We are glad to find that our esteemed Curator,
Col. C. C. Grant, is again enabled to take an active part in
the management of the museum. The cases have been
rearranged and the accomodation much improved.
We are indebted to the Dominion Observatory of Ottawa
for a very fine transparency of the noon, which now adorns
our rooms. Another interesting donation, by Mrs. John
Laing of Ancaster, is an old spinning wheel and reel brought
from Scotland nearly a century ago.
. It is with much pride that we record the successful
celebration of our Jubilee Year by the issue of a special
publication containing engravings of all our Past Presidents
~and Charter Members.
The museum has been regularly kept open to the public
during the session, and it is gratifying to note that the num-
ber of visitors has much increased.
All of which is respectfully submitted,
deco}... F111], j- 2.) BALLARD,
President. Recording Secretary.
ae ae
:
The Roman Occupation of Britain.
Read before the Hamilton Scientific Association,
January 17th, 1908.
BY PROF. G. OSWALD SMITH, M.A.
To one coming to the New World the land of Britain
teems with historical interest. As to the period of the
Roman occupation of Britain, it is a period that can hardly
be called a familiar one. Much of Roman influence in
Britain has been lost, as in the case of some other nations.
In France, Roman influence along certain lines has con-
tinued almost unbroken—bishoprics, for instance, were
established in certain towns which at the time were of
political importance. Those French bishoprics have re-
mained to this day, but such is not the case altogether in
Britain, although it is quite true that some of the English
bishoprics are in places which were permanent in ancient
times. Instances are continually occurring through which ©
Roman influence can be traced in modern France, but in
Britain, at the time of the English Conquest, they set out
ruthlessly to destroy almost everything ; many cities were
burned, and civilization had to begin anew on what has
proved a better and securer foundation. Comparatively
few traces of Roman towns have been left upon the surface..
For a time it would seem that most of the cities of Roman
Britain were abandoned, and altogether not much has been
discerned as they had no large and conspicuous buildings
as are stil] in existence in southern France, and doubtless
the English climate has, in the course of ages, caused
what remains there were, to undergo the process of decay.
Britain as a Roman province possessed features that were
common to the whole Roman system, as well as peculiarities
of its own. We know that the Romans imposed their
THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN
form of government upon the inhabitants, and from
Tacitus and others we have a fairly complete account of
the history of Roman Britain, and also during recent ex-
cavations in the great wall of Hadrian more evidences
have been brought to light, so that when we put together
these various sources of information we should have no
great difficulty in reconstructing the history of Roman
Britain. We may first trace the events following the con-
quest. Let us remember the length of time of the dur-
ation of the Roman Empire. Gibbon’s book, ‘‘ The Decline
and Fall of the Roman Empire,’’ which has become so
famous, is a little misleading because it gives the impression
that great nations soon pass from the period of their great-
est glory to their decline. On the contrary the Roman
Empire declined very slowly— It will be well if the British
Empire lasts as long as the Roman.
That Britain, which was held for upwards of 350 years,
was oule of the last provinces to be annexed by the Imperial
Roman seems to be apparent. The remains found at Stone-
henge were probably erected about 1000 B.C. by people
who were displaced by the Celtic Britains, whom Caesar
found on his first invasion. The story of Caius Julius
Caesar’s invasion commences about 55 B.C. He had been
engaged in the work of annexing Gaul to the Roman
Empire, and he crossed the Channel possibly because he
desired to make new conquests. In this connection it
must be remembered that the population of the south-
eastern part of Britain was closely akin to that of Gaul,
and they were not mere savages, but had reached an
advanced stage of civilization, and there had been an
emigration from Gaul to Britain a short time before. It
was not, however, until nearly a century later that Rome
acted further on Julius Caesar’s plan. In 43 A.D. the
Emperor Claudius finally decided upon the annexation of
of the island. The plan was not a new one, as ever since
Julius Caesar’s visit to the island it had been under discus-
-_ THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN
sion, and it had been urged that Britain, as an independ-
ent island, was too near the province of Gaul for their
peace, and commercial considerations, too, proved that
Britain was a country worth developing. So the Emperor
Claudius sent an expedition to Britain under the command
of Aulus Plautius, who crossed the Channel with four
legions—the Second, the Ninth, the Fourteenth and the
i Twentieth. It seems probable that the Roman fleet
directed its course to the Kentish cost and landed either at
Dover or Richborough. Advancing through Kent they
met with some resistance at the crossing of the Medway.
Plautius penetrated further, but being overcome in the
Essex marshes, where he lost a number of men, he sent
for the Emperor Claudius, as he was instructed to. do
should reverses occur. Claudius set out from Rome with
reinforcements and journeyed through Gaul to his assist-
ance. After a few victories Claudius rerurned to Rome,
and, leaving others to do the work, took unto himself all
the honors. Some advances were made which are attested
to by the fact that as early as A.D. 49 mines were worked.
The Romans subdued the Isle of Wight, and from 47 to 52
A.D. built a line of forts along the Trent, thus securing the
Midlands against north and south Wales. King Cunobelin
had died between 42 and 43 and his kingdom was divided
between his sons, Caractacus and Togodumnus. ‘These
princes were defeated by Plautius, and Togodumnus was
killed and Caractacus was captured and sent to Rome.
The period from 59 to 61 was marked by an advance in
that district known as modern Norfolk. Seutonius
- Paulinus was attacking the island of Mona, or Anglesea,
when Prasulagus, king of the Icent, died, leaving his king-
dom to be divided between his widow and two daughters
and the Roman Caesar, but the Romaus immediately
begau to act as though they had full possession. The
Iceni were defeated with heavy loss, aud to avoid disgrace
Queen Boadicea poisoned herself. The whole affair was
THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN
really a plot on the part of the emperor to annex the whole
of Britain, which shows Boadicea and Caractacus both to
us as types of heroic though savage patriots. Boadicea
was the mother of that race which was yet to be in Britain.
Paulinus quickly reduced the island to order, but for some
years after these events no advances of importance were
made. ‘The year 77 finally brought the people of south
Wales to order. In A.D. 78 Julius Agricola was appointed
to the command of the province. His tenure of service
lasted eight years, and was marked by a rapid civilization
in south and central Britain. Agricola successfully
attempted to complete the conquest of the island of Mona,
which had been begun by Paulinus. He then pushed
boldly forward against the Caledonians in the far north,
eventually defeating them in a great battle among the
Grampian Hills. While advancing, he was careful to
secure the country through which he passed, and with him
the work of the conquest may be said to be very complete,
though the country was hardly settled, but the work of
consolidation now began and continued for several years.
In A.D. 120, the Emperor Hadrian, in the course of
his journeyings through the provinces of the Roman
Empire, reached Britain and and advised the building of
the wall between the Solway and the Tyne. In speaking
of this wall of Hadrian’s;it was not a mere frontier
barrier against the country to the north of it, but it was
only part of a large system of fortifications to the south of
it. Parallel to its entire length ran a trench, while between,
was the wall with mile-castles built at intervals of about
one Roman mile, and buildings for the troops. The first
object in constructing Roman roads throughout Britain
was the marching of troops and the conveyance of stores,
as well as for the private citizens who could afford it.
There were four principle lines of roads: Watling Street,
which runs from London to Wroxeter; the Fosse Way,
connecting the sea-coast in Devonshire with Lincoln ; the
‘
eee Se woe
THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN
Ickneild Way, commencing near Bury St. Edmunds in
Suffolk and running to Gloucester; and Exning Street,
which ran through the marshy district of the east of
England. About 140 the Caledonians again gave trouble.
Shortly after that, about the middle of the second century,
the earth-works between the Firth of Forth and the Firth
of Clyde were constructed, and these were more in the
nature of a frontier limit. The Romans now finally
abandoned the idea of conquering the whole island. We
come now tothe reign of Arcadius. One, Carausius, was
put in charge, but instead of keeping to the business
before him he took advantage to set up for himself, and
secured the allegiance of the Britains from 287 to 293. By
297 Britain was restored to the Empire, and the Emperor
Constantius spent much of his time in Britain until his
death at York in 306. He was succeeded by Constantine
the Great, whose mother was a Briton, and who began his
victorious and successful career in the island of Britain.
During the remainder of the fourth century Rome was
slowly losing her hold. In frequent conflicts ground was
lost, and merely gained only to be lost again. Rudyard
Kipling in one of his books has a wonderful account of
that last struggle. In 410 Honorius wrote a letter to the
cities of Britain in which he commanded them to defend
themselves. Then began the long drawn out agony of the
English conquest. Roman rule in Britain was held by the
sword. ‘This was especially the case in the north and
west—three legions were permanently placed in the island.
The Twentieth legion had its headquarters at Chester ; the
Second legion at Richborcugh, and the Sixth legion, which
replaced the Ninth, which was nearly annihilated in the
outbreak among the Iceni, was stationed at York.
Numerous legendary stones have been discovered showing
that all three legions, or detachments of them, were em-
ployed in the construction of Hadrian’s wall. We also
find records showing that foreigners of many nations must
THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN
have served in Britain, for when Rome conquered a nation
she drew reinforcements from the conquered for fresh con-
quests. As this system prevailed in all the Roman
provinces, Britons often served in foreign lands under
Roman rule. There was a strongly fortified bridge over
the river Tyne, traces of the abutments and piers of which
can still be seen. A fragment of the earth-works, which
ran parallel to the great wall at a distance of from one
hundred yards to half a mile, is still visible, and also part
of the wall which has perished more from the hands of
man than from nature, as the stones of which it is con-
structed are being gradually carried away by the farmers
in that district for building purposes. We have to use our
historical imagination somewhat in constructing a Roman
camp. ‘The forum stood in the centre of the city forming
nearly a perfect square, and the basilica, or court-house,
with the curia or council-chamber on the west side, and on
each side of these were halls or rooms for conducting busi-
ness. An outer walk ran around the whole space occupied
by the forum and basilica. Within this were a succession
of offices connected with the forum, and in front of these
an inner walk. City life centred around the forum,
basilica, public baths and temples. Every city in the
Roman Empire was constructed upon the same plan, viz.,
with the public buildings in the centre. Some of the
Roman towns were London, Silchester, Chichester,
Chester, Colchester, Lincoln and Bath, which are in them-
selves a further proof of Roman manners and influence
long surviving because they have retained the Latinised
names of still earlier forms. The excavations at Bath have
led to the knowledge of the construction and arrangement
of Roman baths for health and luxury. It is doubtful if
Bath was ever a place of military importance, but rather a
health resort, and as such it has continued from the second
century to the present day. In many cases the walls
surrounding the towns were added at a later date for
THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN
additional protection. No doubt the houses had a fairly
large number of rooms, in some cases they had two sets of
apartments, for summer and winter respectively. The
floors of the rooms were often handsomely decorated with
well blended mosaics, no doubt they resembled those found
at Pompeii. Many very beautiful patterns have been
found at Silchester, Woodchester and the Isle of Wight.
There are traces of extensive iron works in Gloucester-
shire and Herefordshire, also mines of tin, lead and copper
in Somersetshire, Northumberland, Worcestershire and
Essex.
The importance of religion is very apparent. The
worship of Caesar was regarded politically as the bond of
imperial unity. The Romans were very, very tolerant of
the different forms of religion. The reason that
Christianity came into conflict with the Romans was that
they would not pay tribute to the Roman Emperor.
While Druidism as an institution had died out some time
before, it would seem that some local worship remained,
and there were other forms of worship—the worship of
gods and goddesses, and the mysticism of the eastern
religion—a kind of purified sun-worship which took its
origin in Persia, it really proved a rival to Christianity.
Christianity was probably introduced from France or Gaul
during the third century. ‘The official class was the very
last to accept Christianity. Distinctly Christian symbols
have been found inscribed on tablets in churches, and
sometimes in the stone work of buildings. Remains of
Roman-British Christianity are supposed to be seen in the
bricks built into St. Martin’s Church, Canterbury, also in
a church at Dover, and again at Brixworth. In all
probability the early civilization showed censiderable
material prosperity and a fairly high level of culture and
refinement, but Britain never reached the level of some of
the other Roman provinces, ;
THE ROMAN OCCUPATION OF BRITAIN
Views illustrating Roman life and influence in Britain
were thrown upon the canvas at appropriate intervals.
Some of them were as follows :
Remains of Roman gates and walls.
Remains of Roman baths.
Remains of Roman wall and camp.
Roman tesselated floors (restored).
Maps showing Roman roads.
A bronze Roman eagle found at Chichester.
Two views of cliffs of Dover showing Roman light-
house.
Roman ruins at Pevensey.
Picture of a Roman standard-bearer represented as
riding triumphantly over the body of an unfortunate
Briton.
The Sun’s Journey Through Space and
Distance From the Earth.
Read before the Hamilton Scientific Association,
February 14th, 1908,
BY Gu; PARRY aE ENS, BeR CAS:
A French philosopher said, ‘‘ when you are right you
are more right than you think,’’ aud nowhere is this pro-
found truth more forcibly illustrated than in astronomical
investigations. It has now been proved without doubt
that all the stars are endowed with proper motion. ‘There
appears to be no such thing in fact as absolute rest among
any oue of the myriad of bodies that compose the host of
heaven. Each moves in an orbit, the path of which is
influenced by the universal power of gravitation, which we
find reigns supreme, not only through the solar system,
but to the infinitely greater stellar universe beyond.
Circles, ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas, in fact every
one of the conic sections, all enter into the paths of some
of the mighty orbs around us. What complexity of motion
is here indicated by the side of which the most complicated
machinery of man’s invention are mere playthings. When
Copernicus, the founder of the present system of
astronomy, overthrew the alder conception of the earth
being the centre of the solar system and placed our sun as
the true pivot around which the earth and all the other
planets revolved, he considered the sun to be stationery.
However, the human intellect was gradually enabled to
separate the real from the apparent celestial motions. Then
when the great truth dawned that the stars were suns and
the sun only a star, and it was found that many of them
were possessed of real motion, the question naturally arose
whether according to the law of analogy the great central
e >
THE SUN’S JOURNEY THROUGH SPACE
sun of our system was not also moving in space like the
rest of the stars, or whether it was an exception to the
universal rule.
Here is, therefore, another grand problem presented
for solution by astronomy aud worthy of the highest effort
to uuravel its mysteries, whither are we going? Because
if the sun is moving, the earth and all the planets of our
little system are being drawn along with it. In embarking
on a journey we invariably desire to know where we are
bound for. In this particular case, however, we have
absolutely no choice in the selection of our travel, but con-
stituted as we are, it is some satisfaction to endeavor to
find out the far distant goal our sun is carrying us to.
It cannot be too clearly pointed out that the journey
we are now contemplating has nothing whatever to do
with the earth’s annual journey around the sun—which
constitutes our year. It is the far greater orbital move-
ment of the sun making up, in fact, its year, aS we are
accustomed to reckon time, that we have to do at present.
We know that once every year our earth performs a circle
within another vast circle, the circumference of which is
‘occupied by the sun and which is the one we are now con-
sidering. The last circle is so wide that even in travelling
a segment of it the sun appears to be moving in a straight
line, and no deviation whatever has yet been observed
during the short time man has been enabled to make
observations, as the sun’s path through space evidently
requires many centuries to assume any other than a
tangential motion.
To help us to understand this real movement of the
sun among the stars, let us compare the effect of distant
objects upon our senses as we approach them on the earth.
In walking through a forest, for instance, the trees in front
of our path appear quite close together as seen a long way
off, but as we approach nearer to them they spread out
until as we pass them they are actually on either side of
AND DISTANCEFROM THE EARTH
us, and then as we move on the same trees appear to come
together again from behind. Whichever way we turn our
steps the same effects are invariably observed among the
trees. So too with all other objects as we approach and
recede from them. The same effect’ has often been
strikingly exemplified in our own experience at sea by
night. In making port two harbour lights are usually
placed on the pier. Ata considerable distance out these
lights have apparently almost touched one another, but as
the good ship ploughed her wavy through the deep and came
nearer shore, the welcome beams spread further and
further apart until they appeared at last on our port and
starboard sides. ‘Then, as the vessel proceeded up the
harbour, the same lights appeared to gradually close up
again.
In order to determine the course of the sun’s voyage
through space, it will now be apparent that no evidence of
this motion can ever be obtained by observations of the
sun itself, nor; in fact, of any movement of the earth,
moon or planets, as they all travel together ina body. It
is only by endeavoring to find out if any such effect as we
noticed in the forest or on sea is observable when we look
right out into space at the far off stars, which do not
partake of any motion attributable to our sun, that we
can ever hope to find the secret of our destination, or what,
in technical language, is known as the ‘‘apex’’ of the
sun’s way.
It was the genius of Sir Wm. Herschel which first
applied this reasoning to determine the point. By classify-
ing the proper motion of all the stars as known to him in
1783, he found conclusive evidence of the direction of the
sun’s path as well as its velocity. The principle involved
is thus defined by Prof. Young: ‘‘On the whole; the
stars appear to drift bodily in a direction opposite to the
sun’s real motion. ‘Those in that quarter of the sky which
we are approaching open out from each other, and those
THE SUN’S JOURNEY THROUGH SPACE
in the rear close up behind us. The motions of the
individual stars lie in all possible directions, but when we
deal with them by thousands, the individual is lost in the
general and the prevailing drift appears.’’
The exact spot in the heavens to which the solar
system is moving, according to the elder Herschel, is
situated in Right Ascension 260° 34’ North Polar Distance
63° 43’. This is found to be situated in the constellation
of Herculis and close to a star of the 4th magnitude,
known as Lambda Herculis. The more recent researches
of such illustrious astronomers as Argelander, Madler,
Struve, Airy, Dunkin and others all agree in placing the
direction of the solar motion very near to this point. A
totally independent confirmation has also been given to
the above conclusions from spectroscopic observations by
Sir William Huggins. If there was some excuse for one of
Shakespeare’s cliaracters to say three hundred years ago:
‘““ Doubt thou the stars are fire ;
Doubt that the sun doth move,”
the revelations of modern science has swept away the
clouds of uncertainty in the matter.
After sifting all the intricate movements which pro-
duce what is known as star drift, it is possible to put our
finger with certainty upon so much of it which belongs
entirely to the speed of the sun. According to such high
authority as Sir Robert Ball, ‘‘every two days the solar
system accomplishes a stage of about a million miles in its
journey towards the constellation of Herculis.”’
We have now reached that stage in our consideration
of solar motion which opens up the question whether there
is a central sun around which our/own sun and others are
revolving. Let us say at once that here we are treading
on very uncertain ground, although the probabilities are
all in favor of such an arrangement from the present
knowledge we possess of the plan upon which the universe
has been built. The celebrated German astronomer,
AND DISTANCE FROM THE EARTH
Madler, announced to the world in 1846, it was his convic-
tion that our sun and planets were revolving round a great
centralsun. This he made out to be Alcyone, the central
star in the familiar cluster called the Pleiades, and he com-
puted it took 150,000,000 years to complete a single
revolution. This theory has been revived on several
occasions in later years, and many fanciful ideas as to this
star being the ultimate abode of bliss has been advanced,
but at present the least we can say regarding it is summed
up in the old Scotch verdict, ‘‘ not proven.’’
If the ancient Assyrian star-gazers had only been able
to hand down to us accurate charts of the constellations as
known in their days, our way would have been made much
clearer. Fortunately, at the present day, accurate maps
of the stars are in existence which will serve as a basis
for future generations to note the changes taking place on
‘the face of the sky, and such a problem as now confronts
us will undoubtedly be solved in course of time. Especial
mention must be made of the stupendous astrographic
survey and photographic map of the entire heavens which
was undertaken in the year 1887 by eighteen of the
priucipal observatories in different parts of the globe, and
which work is at present nearing completion. No less
than 20,000 plates have beet! exposed in this epoch making
work. When the whole chart is published it will remain a
permanent record of the exact position of the stars at the
close of the nineteenth century. Wecan safely prophesy
that a careful study of this great undertaking by
astronomers, centuries hence will yield up some of the
profoundest secrets of the stars which are at present so
jealously guarded by dame nature.
The determination of the sun’s distance may be
regarded as the laying of the foundation stone upon which
the whole fabric of astronomical science is built, and upon
which it is possible for its pinnacle to be reared to the
very heavens above. Without this knowledge of how far
THE SUN’S JOURNEY THROUGH SPACE
away the sun is from us, it would have been absolutely
impossible to tell the distance that separates us from any
of the millions of other worlds around us. We would forever
have remained in ignorance of their mass, which quantity
enables us to tell at present the very influence they exert
over their neighbors in space. If the sun’s distance had
not been ascertained, it would have been impossible for us
te tellits true size, neither could we have determined its
_weight or density. Moreover, without being aware of
the sun’s distance our knowledge also of the distance,
magnitude and weight of all the planets would have
remained forever unattainable. It is therefore at once
apparent how supremely important in all astronomical
questions is this unit of measurement of space—the
distance between the earth and the sun. There is little
wonder then that some of the greatest minds that ever
lived, from Aristarchus of Samos, who flourished before
the Christian era, down to the present day, have devoted
their whole talent and skill in endeavoring to solve, with
the least possible error, this grand problem of the sun’s
distance.
It is easy to tell the distance between two points on
the ground if we can put our chain measure across. ‘The
case, however, is very different when we attempt to
measure any inaccessible object when a river or other
obstacle bars our way. Here we have recourse to the
method adopted by the land surveyors who, by means of
an instrument for measuring angles and known as the
theodolite, can tell the distance an object is away in yards
or feet with the same degree of accuracy as if they had
been able to carry their chain measure accross the river,
for instance. This method depends upon certain well-
known properties of the triangle and fully described in
works on trigonometry from which it follows, if we know
the length of one side and two angles of any triangle, we
can then always calculate with certainty the other angle
AND DISTANCE FROM THE EARTH
together with the length of the remaining two sides.
In order to find out the distance of any object it is not
necessary to advance a single step towards it, but it is
essential to step aside to produce what is known as a base-
line sufficiently long to make the object appear to shift its
relative position, otherwise we cannot form a triangle
with its apex at the point to be measured and the other
ends resting on either side of the base-line, and the whole
success of our undertakitg rests upon this. Once these
three points are within the meshes of a triangle, the space
readily yields up its distance be it ever so remote.
If the object is near, a very short base-line will suffice
to produce a change of position or parallax, as astronomers
call it, and the further the object is removed the longer
must we travel in an opposite direction before any alter-
ation is apparent. In fact, two lines drawn from opposite
sides of the earth and meeting at the centre of the sun
would make no appreciable angle and only appear as
parallel lines. The extreme difficulty of the problem
encountered in finding the sun’s distance may be realized
from the conditions being identical toa surveyor with a
base-line of five feet being required to tell the distance of
an object ten miles away. In the case of our nearest
celestial neighbor, the moon, its distance is comparatively
so close to us that an observer in Hamilton and another in
South America will see it at the same moment of time,
projected in different parts of the sky, from which cause
its real distance of 238,000 miles is easily calculated; but
if the sun is viewed from even the two extreme ends of
our globe, its position in the heavens remains absolutely
unchanged. Accordingly in attempting to measure the
enormous distance of the sun astronomers have to resort
to one or other of three different methods which we will
briefly consider. :
The principal method in the past has been to determine
the distance of Mars and Venus, the two nearest planets
THE SUN’S JOURNEY THROUGH SPACE
to us, and from these results the solar parallax has
been indirectly worked out. This is known as the
trigonometrical method. It should be remembered that if
only the distance between any two planets is found, the
distance of all the others follows as a natural consequence
of the discovery of Kepler’s great law, that : ‘‘ The squares
of the periodic times are proportional to the cubes of the
mean distances.’’ ‘The task, therefore, is only to find out
the scale upon which the solar system has been formed, as
the relative position of every member is already very
accurately known.
As eatly as the year 1670 the French Academy of
Science sent out an expedition to Cayenne to take trigon-
ometrical measures of Mars in order to compare with those
nade in France, but the results were not very conclusive
owing to the inferior instruments then in use. Little
better results were obtained in 1752 at the Cape of Good
Hope by Lacaille, who fixed the sun’s parallax at 10”,
from which the sun’s distance would be 82,000,000 miles,
an amount we know to be very far out.
As Mars is particularly well placed, every fifteen
years, to make such observations on account of its close
proximity to the earth, full advantage has been taken of
such periods. Owing to the favorable conditions of the
year 1857 in particular, Dr. Gill succeeded in obtaining
excellent measurements of Mars in Ascension Island, and
deduced 8.780’ as the sun’s parallax, corresponding to a
distance of nearly 93,000,00c miles. Of recent years some
of the minor planets, which revolve between Mars and
Jupiter, have been utilized to arrive at the true distance of
the sttu, and many astronomers are of opinion the most
satisfactory results of all are to be obtained by a careful
exainination of these tiny worlds, invisible though they
are to the naked eye. y
The rare astronomical event, known as the transit of
Venus, is associated with some of the most noted attempts
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AND DISTANCE FROM THE EARTH
ever made to measure the sun’s distance. It occasionly
happens that Venus is situated exactly between us and the
sun, and appears to move across the solar disc as a round
black spot. ‘This phenomenon is called a transit of Venus,
and is visible at inost twice in a life-time. These remark-
able events take place at regular intervals of 8 years, 105%
years, 8 years and 121% years respectively, and they
always happen duriug June and December. We thus
fiud there was a transit of Venus in June, 1761, followed
by one 8 years later in June, 1769. Another did not
happen for 105% years, being in December, 1874, while
the last took place 8 years afterward in December, 1882.
Then follows a great gap of 121% years, as not a transit of
Venus will occur until June, 2004, to be succeeded by
another in June, 2012, and so on.
It became certain to Halley in the year 1716 that
advantage might be taken of these occurrences to deter-
mine the distance of the sun, and knowing that he could
not possibly live until 1761, the date of the next transit,
in order to verify his conclusions, he bequeathed the grand
problem of finding the sun’s distance by this method to
posterity. Enough has been said to comprehend that as
viewed from two widely separated stations on the earth,
Venus appears at such times to travel over the sun in
different parallels of latitude, so to speak, owing to the
effects of displacement caused by the postion of the
observers ; hence the problem here is to note the exact
time the planet takes to transit the solar disc as seen from
two stations whose distance is already known. The
angular diameter or apparent size of the sun being easy to
measure each day the sun shines, it becomes possible, dur-
ing a transit, to calculate the angular distance between the
two observed paths of Venus as it moves across the sun.
This minute quantity bears a certain proportion to the
whole diameter of the sun which, on being worked out,
yields the solar parallax and is, in other words, the angle
THE SUN’S JOURNEY THROUGH SPACE
which the semi-diameter or radius of the earth would sub-
tend as viewed from the centre of the sun. Once this ex-
act amount is found we have all the data required to
calculate with precision the distance between the earth
and the sun.
Although elaborate arrangements were made to observe
the transit of 1761 in different places, unfortunately
cloudy weather and other circumstances practically
defeated the first attempt. The transit of 1769 created
more enthusiasm and with it came a greater determination
to succeed. Special expeditions were accordingly sent out
by the governments of various European countries to wit-
ness the event. It was in this year that the famous Cap-
tain James Cook, the first man to sail around the world,
was sent to Otaheite in the Pacific Islands to observe the
transit of Venus, and a party of astronomers from Green-
wich were located at Fort Prince of Wales, Hudson Bay,
while many observers were stationed in remote parts of
the globe. After an exhaustive examination of all the
available results of these two great events, Prof. Encke, of
comet fame, determined the solar parallax to be 8.5776",
which gave 95,300,000 as the sun’s distance. This
amount was accepted for many years and became embodied
in all works on astronomy, but doubts as to its absolute
accuracy were raised in 1854 by the evidence of a new
method based upon gravitational principles, which we will
refer to later on.
No one will wonder at these discrepancies who realizes
the infinitesimally small quantities astronomers have to deal
with in computations of this kind. A hair-breadth of
difference in observation will throw out the result by many
thousand miles in actual measurements, and this fact only.
emphasizes the conclusion that, however perfect this theory
may be, yet in practice it taxes human ingenuity and refine-
ment to its fullest capacity. Test any of you should be
tempted to say, after listening to my remarks, like Mr.
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AND DISTANCE FROM THE EARTH
Gilbert’s Ferdinando said on another occasion, “‘ we know it’s
very clever, but we do not understand it,’’ let us endeavor
to convey a clear impression of this minute angular value of
the solar parallax, amounting to less than nine seconds of
arc, and to determine which astronomers have spent so
may years of diligent research aided by every known
optical device. How much, then, does a second of are
represent ? Of course the unaided eye is totally incapable
of estimating it. Prof. Pritchard, whose researches on
stellar parallax have made him famous, says: ‘‘It will
convey but little idea if we say it is the 324-thousandth of
a right angle, for the very numbers confuse the mind.
But what then isa second? It is equivalent to the angle
subtended by a ring one inch in diameter, viewed at the
distance of three miles and athird. The correction to be
made to the sun’s parallax is just one-third of this ; that is
to say, it is the error whicha rifleman would make who shot
at the right-hand edge of a sovereign placed twelve miles
off, and who hit it by mischance just on the left edge! It
is what a human hair would appear to be, if viewed at the
distance of over 150 feet !”’
Yet we know the distance of the sun far within the
limits of the proportion above indicated, and if the second
of arc is such a small quantity, what then must be the
labours of our astronomers who deal with a sub-division
again of the second referred to, into one hundred parts,
each of which division represents 100,000 niiles in the
determination of the sun’s distance.
The last two transits of 1874 and 1882 were very suc-
cessfully observed by astronomers of every nationality, and
aided by photography, which played such an important
part on these occasions, the results have confirmed the fact
that the sun’s parallax was smaller than hitherto estab-
lished. From acombination of the results of both transits,
Prof. Newcombe deduces a parallax of 8.776” correspond-
ing to 92,350,000 miles.
THE SUN’S JOURNEY THROUGH SPACE
Two other extremely delicate methods of finding the
sun’s distance are reserved for the mathematician, both of
which are based upon the subtle attraction of gravitation.
The first is called the lunar method of finding the sun’s
parallax, which depends ‘upon the ratio between the
diameter of the moon’s orbit and the distance of the sun,
It was this method that led Hansen in 1854 to throw doubt
upon the generally accepted value of the sun’s distance
of those days. The other method, founded upon the
same influence exerted by gravitation, enables the
astronomer, by observing the perturbations of the planets,
to compute the ratio between the masses and distance of
the whole solar family.
There still remains one other method of solving the
problem we are dealing with, and it is known as the
physical method, by which the velocity of light is made to
disclose the distance separating the earth from the sun.
Light travels at a speed of 186,327 miles a second, and we
have only to multiply these figures by the number of
seconds required by light to reach us from the sun to get
at its distance. After combining all the results of this
last method, which Prof. Young says outranks all others,
as it gives directly the distance of the sun and the parallax
only indirectly, he obtains 8.80” as the solar parallax, giv-
ing a final distance of 92,892,000 miles. We may there-
fore rest assured that for all practical purposes 93,000,000
miles is the limit we can obtain at present, and that, at
last, we hold securely in our hands the key which unlocks
the mysteries of the stars around us.
Synthesis of the Natural and the
Supernatural.
BY THE REV. JOHN MORTON,
HAMILTON, ONT.
Read before the Hamilton Scientific Association,
February 28th, 1908.
There are many signs that the long and sometimes
bitter war between the representatives of the natural on
the one hand, and of the supernatural on the other, is com-
ing toanend. ‘There is a growing conviction, among the
leaders on both sides, that they stand respectively, not for
contradictory, but for complementary aspects of the life of
the world and man. My purpose is to call your attention
to some of the signs of conciliation and to indicate the
point of view from which both aspects are seen by the
thoughtful man, to be parts of the larger whole. I cannot
indeed, in addressing a meeting of the members and friends
of a Scientific Association, forget that some of you may
still wince at the word supernatural. To your ears it does
not sing in tune with the word natural. But I would
venture to bespeak your consideration for it, even though
for a number of decades it has fallen into disrepute, and
been boycotted by those whose eyes have been opened to the
order of nature. The word, I would remind you, is itself
a child of nature, and the student of nature is bound in
honor to account for its genesis in experience, and its
potency in history ; for the larger scieuce knows that a
word, whose battle cry has been heard in every age, has its
roots in reality. ‘Thus the student of nature cannot escape
supernatural experience. Even in his personal experience
it faces him the moment he begins to reflect. The stretch
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
ing out of the hand to give a cup of cold water in, the name
of humanity is a natural act, but I venture to say that it
has never yet been fully explained on the principles of pure
physics. But he meets supernatural experience in every
page of the history of humanity. Religion is natural to
man; and I here mean by religion not merely the church,
its order of service and sacraments, though these also are
facts. I mean the experience and the idea of the supra-
sensible which has created and which preserves in life all
these. It is an idea, as the science of anthropology has
made clear, which is essential in man. ‘‘ It comes into
being,’’ says A. M. Fairbairn, of Mansfield College,
Oxford, ‘‘ without any man willing it, and as it began so
it continues. In the hour of revolt individual men may
have nothing to do with it, but instinct is stronger than
will, and religion in some form both of idea and usage
returns, be it as the memory of a dead woman as with Mill .
or Compte, or as an abstraction of Humanity loved of the
positivist, or of the unconscious, adored by the pessimist,
or as the unknown worshipped by the awe of the Agnostic.”’
Religion, which is supernaturalism at its highest, is thus
natural to man. Consequently the student of nature can-
not escape supernatural experience except by excluding
from his scrutiny human nature. Nor has he sought to
close his eyes to it. Asa matter of fact every distinguished
inan of science has dealt with supernatural phenomena, and
the same may be said of every thoughtful man. Their
treatment is varied and often contradictory. Some thinkers
conclude that there is a supernatural realm, but that it is, in
its nature, beyond our knowledge, and that therefore it is
the part of wisdom not to waste time upon it. Others have
held that the idea of the supernatural is a fiction which
has arisen from a superficial view of experience. It is,
however, beyond question that the great majority of
thoughtful men, whether distinguished or unknown, think
and fee] that there is something in the life of the world and
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SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
man which answers to the word supernatural. It is true
indeed, that, like every other fact of experience, it has
been misunderstood and misrepresented, but we may rest
assured that it could not have held its grip on mankind
in all ages unless there had been, beneath its mistaken
forms, a root of reason. It has a fascination for all, and it
is the impulse of the larger science to_find its place in the
unity of existence.
a
The quickened consciousness of the unity, underlying
and manifesting itself in all forms of life, is in evidence
everywhere. Intellectually it takes shape in an unresting
quest for ‘‘a monism, which constitutes and develops
undisintegrated by freedom or the aloofness of nature.’’
And the success of the quest is seen in the fact that, amid
the increasing complexity of life, the signs of its unity
become more than ever apparent. To begin at home, in
our own country there are many races and creeds with
innumerable conflicting interests, but a common ideal is
drawing them together. ‘The same essential unity is seen
in the classes and the masses ; for though their interests
are becoming no less, but ever more diversified, they are
learning from the discipline of the nature of things that
they are all members of one body, and that no one member
can say to another, ‘‘I have no need of thee.’’ And in
like manner the religious life and the secular life, the
church and the world, the supernatural and the natural are
coming to be seen as different aspects of man’s complex
existence. This reconciling spirit is felt by every one;
and it is known and deliberately cherished by those who
have been able to see, not only the ripples of the river, but
the direction of its course.
Lk.
The growth of a better understanding between the |
representatives of science and religion is known to us all.
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
They are not now two camps: they are one. In the past,
it is true, the feud between these two provinces of
knowledge was bitter. Supernaturalism, in generations
gone by, has been far from friendly to students of nature.
There is, I believe, a suggestion of this bygone distrust in
an unwritten rule of this Association. It is in the form of
an understanding that supernatural questions should be
excluded from our discussions. Such an understanding
suggests a time when the supernatualist was felt to be a
disturber in a gathering of students of nature. And asa
matter of fact he was. He stood aloof from the student of
_ nature, looked upon him not only as an enemy of God, but
of society, and took the stern measures of those days to
suppress him. Let one instance suffice to bring home to
us the uncompromising character of the enmity. On the
seventeenth of February, 408 years ago, Giordano Bruno,
an enthusiast in science, was burnt alive on the Campo di
Fiora, in Rome, because of his discoveries in science ; the
‘“head and front of his offending ’’ being his belief in what
was called, by his accuser, the abominable and absurd
doctrine of innumerable worlds and the rotatory motion of
our planet. And this was no exceptional instance of the
means taken to prevent the scientist from prying too
closely into the secrets of nature. Let us not, however,
be unjust to these old time representatives of the super-
natural. They were men of theirday. They hada zeal
for God, ‘‘ but not according to knowledge,’’ and some of |
them, at least, carried through these terrible deeds against
their own instincts of human sympathy, in obedience to
their consciences. Let us be thankful that we live under
happier skies. ‘There is a more enlightened conscience in
Italy to-day. ‘There, on the same Campo, eight years ago,
on the anniversary of Bruno’s martyrdom, a monument
was erected to his honor on the very spot where he paid
the price of enthusiasm for the truth of nature. And thus
once more, ‘‘ wisdom is justified of her children.’’ And this
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bitter feeling of the friends of religion to science is seen in
any direction we like to turn in the world of education. It
is very manifest in our theological colleges. They call to
their consideration of life and the world not only students
of the Bible, but also students of science. They thus
manifest the growing consciousness that supernatural
teaching, which stops short of the knowledge of the world
in which we live, is mischievous—the possession of fire
without the knowledge of how to use it. ‘‘ Two things are
necessary in order to attain any end,’’ said Principal John
Caird at a social science congress in Glasgow, ‘‘ the desire or
disposition to achieve it, and the knowledge how to
accomplish it. It is the function of religion to stimulate
the former; but that achieved, in order to any wide or
lasting result, it must call in the aid of intelligence, of
science, of the knowledge of human nature and human
society, to which only the most careful observation can
attain, and without which all fervor of religious zeal will
be comparatively useless—sometimes even dangerous and
noxious.’’ ‘This, uttered more than thirty years ago, is a
striking expression of the conviction which has come home
to this generation that religion and science must work
together in the creation of the ‘‘ new heaven and the new
earth,”’ ‘
Ill.
But it is important to note that this alliance is between
a purified supernaturalism and an open-minded science.
No doubt the word supernatural is still to many suggestive
of its old superstitious associations. We are shy of it.
It carries with it, in addition to its essential truth,
suggestions of the uncanny and the unnatural: invisible
persons, not in nature, but outside of it, and intruding into
it in ghostly fashion, sometimes for good and sometimes
for evil. Like many other words it needs to be born again.
It needs to have a rational soul breathed into it. Thus it -
*
2
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
will be transformed, and, when we hear it spoken, it will
suggest to us a Power which is as native to nature as
reason isto man. It will suggest to us the Power whose
activity is the creative energy of nature’s process, and
whose laws are identical with the laws of nature. The
word, so regenerated, will quicken within us the root of
reason, which has given it a central and potent place in the
mind, life, and speech of mankind. Every word, which
has had a long life, has roots struck down deep into the soil
of reality, however rotten many of its branches may have
been. Alchemy pointed to chemistry. Astrology held on
its way till it cast off its garments of darkness and put on
its trailing robes of harmony and light. And in the same
manner science and philosophy are gradually unfolding to us
the truth that, in human existence, there is no supernatural
without the natural, and no natural without the super-
natural. Carlyle saw this when he flashed from his forge
the glowing chapter, in Sartor Resartus, on Natural Super-
naturalism.
Science has done much during the last three hundred
years to bring a sane look into the eyes of the super-
naturalism of the middle ages. Up till the 15th century,
Lecky tells us, ‘‘a miraculous narrative was universally
accepted as perfectly credible, probable and ordinary.’’
And witchcraft was in those days as live an issue as
tubercular bacilli in Canada to-day. ‘The dread of it was
on the learned as well as the common people, the Christian
as well as the pagan, the reformed as well as unreformed
church. ‘To stamp it out, as I have said, the government
and the church united in terrible measures. Now all this
superuaturalism, divorced from the knowledge of nature,
has passed away, or is passing. It has come about,
through movements of thought, to which I shall refer in a
moment, that, when the word is used by intelligent men, it
no longer stands for tricksy spirits of the air which bewitch
the milk in the churn, blight the crops and turn all things
,
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
awry. It means a Power immanent in nature and yet
above it, which seems to see the end from the beginning,
and to be the identical Creative Energy at every stage of
the evolving process. Thus we have entered an age in
which the supernatural, in the world andin the progressive
life of man, is not looked upon as something unnatural,
but rather as the very nature ef nature. And hence the
modern supernaturalist wants to know the nature of
things. He does not, as did the supernaturalist of olden
days, burna Tyndall or a Spencer. He builds a college
for him that he may have the opportunity of studying
nature and of enriching life by the knowledge of it. In
the words cf Caird he calls in the aid of ‘‘ science and the
knowledge of human nature and human society ’’ so that
his supernaturalism will be neither noxious nor dangerous,
but the rich soil out of which springs up all that is healthy
in nature and holy in human life.
: Such is the friendly attitude of the new supernatural-
ism to science. And the repreeentatives of science have
reciprocated these friendly approaches. They are more
willing to admit, than they were in the middle of last
century, that there are elements in experience which are
not amenable to their chronometer or measuring line.
They can measure and number the notes of a master-piece
of song, but when they come under its spell, they are lifted
up into an element which knows no vibrations, and of
which, if they would speak at all, they must, like Tennyson,
take up their parable and say, ‘“‘ the tide of music’s golden
sea is setting toward eternity.’’ Soin art. They can
measure the height and angle of the spire which they see
against the sky, but they know that their instrument is
helpless when they try it on the boundless space in which
the spire is individualized. They know-also that when
they have made a methodical map of the movements of
nature—and their success here treads on the heels of the
supernatural—they. have still to account for the Energy
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
which is the creative cause of harmonious movements.
Tyndall, some forty years ago, in his famous address at
Belfast, inspired by the far shining light of evolution, was
carried on to say, in words which became historic, ‘‘ there
is in matter the promise and potency of all terrestrial life.’’
But even he, when pressed by Martineau to define his
terms, took refuge in the phrase, ‘‘ those mysterious things
called atoms,’’ thereby revealing his sense of an Energy
whose ways or laws are known to science, but whose
intrinsic nature is too fine to be touched by the instru-
ments of science. And this consciousness, in the years
since then, has become more distinct in the minds of men
of science. They see that, within and beyond the
evolutionary process, there is the evolutionary cause, and
that the latter is expressing itself through the former.
Thus the representatives of a purified supernaturalism and
an open-minded science are agreed that their respective
spheres of study are two aspects of existence as a whole,
that the one is never apart from the other, and that each
can be understood only through the other. They are
agreed also in the view that what we call the supernatural
is to be known through our experience of it in the sky, the
mountain, the valley, the river and ocean, and through the
history of man—in a word, through the whole volume of
nature, taking the word in the largest sense as inclusive of
all experience. And, on the other hand, they are seeing
that the natural cannot be known if we confine Onn.
attention to physical processes and leave out of account
those experiences which cannot be classified on the dead
level of the physical.
IV.
This happy vreapproachment between an intelligent
supernaturalism, and a science hospitable to all truth, has
been greatly furthered, strange to say, by the doctrine of
evolution. This hypothesis has supplied a point of view
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
from which the two apparently contradictory sides of exist-
ence are seen to be intrinsically one. When it came home
to us that the progressive development of the life of the
world and man is organic, it became clear that there is, in
spite of appearances to the contrary, no schism in the
body. Every member shares the common life. ‘‘In the
production of this needle, with which I prick this blister in
the palm of my hand, the whole universe took part,’’ said
a young student of science while he rested on the golf
grounds and chatted to his companion. In this new view
we see that life is more truly described as a growth than as -
a building. True this view is not, in the strictest sense,
new. It is new only in the sense that we are becoming
more conscious of it. It has been dimly present in all the
great theories of human existence, for though in actual
life man has always been distracted by the clashing
currents of experience, there never has been absent from
him the half-born feeling that these interacting forces
have their being in one Element. But in this generation
the feeling has become articulate. From the day we enter
school to the day we leave it, and in all our studies after-
ward we are looking at things in the light of the idea that
things hang together and that what is now is the fruit of
the past and the seed of the future. Let us therefore bring
this view of life before us, and try to discover, in the light
of it, the principle of unity in and through which the
apparently contradictory individuals, while retaining their
individuality, advance to a single goal. (a) Regarding
man’s development as revealed in history, Edward Caird,
late Master of Balliol, Oxford, says, ‘‘there is no idea
which is so potent in our day as the idea of evolution,
development, or organic growth. ‘The favorite method of
finding out what anything is, or at least what any living
thing is, is to ask how it came to be, to read its present
state in the light of its past, and to trace out the various
steps of change that link the form it has attained with the
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
earliest manifestations of life. Whether it be a plant, or an
animal, or a man, or a society of men, or even the human
race as a whole, we never think we know it thoroughly till
we have seen it in its whole history as a gradual process,
whereby without haste and without rest it has changed
from less to more, yet preserving through all the
revolutions of its being the characteristic quality or
tendency which distinguishes it from all other creatures in
the universe.’’ ‘This view of life ‘‘ carries us beyond the
superficial view of former days when we looked on history
as a chronicle of stirring events, and wonderful, but
incomprehensible revolutions of fortune.’’ This new -
knowledge of life makes clear to us also that ‘‘ the ‘child is
father to the man,’ and that from boyhood:to manhood and
from manhood to old age we detect the same individual
nature, and link each individual speech with that which
preceded it. In like manner. we have come fo look on
history, notas a play of chance and arbitrary will, but as
the development of one natural character through many
vissitudes which test and try, but never break the thread
of connection with the past, or prevent us from seeing that
they are all the same life.’’ (0) But the invisible, yet real,
thread of connection, which connects the human life of any
particular age with human life of all preceding ages,
revealing to us that thev are the same life, goes farther
back. It binds the life of man with the life of the world
in which he lives. Away back at the beginning of things,
as science, by its hypothesis of evolution, is making clear,
the creative Energy which, while more than nature, dwells
in nature, gathered together her innumerable host of
atomic workmen and formed, so to speak, the first labor
union, After years and years of organized and organizing
labor, she turned out as Keble, I think, says, this “‘ green
globe which floats through space ’’ and on an arc of which
we Canadians have our home and heritage. And she has
done more than this for us. She has created conditions in
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SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
which we, in alliance with her, can carry on our national
undertakings for the benefit of our people, and through
them for the good of the world. By her marvelous con-
tributions of water, descending valley and gravity, she has
given us the noble river St. Lawrence. By an age-long
and patient process of growing and decaying prairie grass,
she has made it possible to feed the world with the finest of
the wheat. By her cataracts, which blow their trumpets
from the steeps, she has put into our hands immeasurable
physical energy, and into our ears the awe-inspiring voice
of her waters. She has likewise, by her noble mountains,
sighing pines, her spacious lakes and her vast stretches ot
lone lands, made a background of glory and mystery, and
enriched our imaginations with treasures which are already
putting into our literature the soul of poetry. (c) But not
only has science, with its searchlight, turned backward,
given us an outline of the unbroken movement of the
development of the world and man, from the simple forms
of its beginning to the infinitely varied forms of the
present. She has also turned her flashlight on the future,
and we are beginning to see reflected from the past, in
vague outline, the course and end toward which existence
is travelling.
7 V
In the progress of nature there is, therefore, one
immanent and all encompassing Energy at work giving
unity and continuity to the whole, and the striking thing
is that as the diversity increases the informing unity
becomes more marked, for it is in human nature that nature
reaches its climax of individualism and separateness, and
yet, as we have seen, while in advancing civilization the
interests become more particularized, the common bond
between man and man and between man and lower nature,
comes into more distinct relief. If it be said that we are
reading into the book of nature a unity which does not exist,
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
my answer is that, if such should be the case, the whole
system of science breaks into fragments and all knowledge
is vain—a contingency we need not here take into con-
sideration. Assuming then the unity of existence in which
man finds himself inseparably implicated, our question is,
what does this unity tell of its inner principle? In other
words, what is the intrinsic character of the Energy which
is the same at every moment and point of the process, and
which gives the process its identity all through ?
(a) Observe first, in answer to this question, that
while the Energy and the process of nature are correlates
and never, in nature, apart, they are to be distinguished in
thought ; just as we distinguish between the creative
energy and the process of a speech. The speech, if speech
it be, is a unity in difference. It cannot be without energy
and process, but they are merely modes of a spiritual
monisin, which sees the end from the beginning and which
moves from intention to fulfilment. So the process of the
speech of nature is the mode of the organism’s creative
energy, and our question is: What is the nature of this
Energy? Here weneed to be wary and look before we
leap into speech. Let science guide us as far as itcan show
the way. Science proper deals, however, with process
alone. It gives us, so far as its observations have gone,
a methodical expression of nature’s movements, but the
question of nature’s Energy it hands over to philosophy
and religion. It is true indeed that no great student of
nature has been able to quench his interest in the hidden
(hidden at least to empirical eyes) Force whose laws of
action he describes. Every one of them has sought a
solution. To Spencer it was the ultimate element behind
the vast and varied counectionalism, real, but ‘‘absolutely
inscrutable.’’ To William James, of Harvard, its effects
are felt in consciousness, but in itself it dwells in the
subconscious realm and its nature can only be guessed at.
But when empirical science confines itself to its proper
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field, it treats of the forms, sequences, and orderly stream
of consciousness, and not of the intrinsic Energy which
gives the stream its unity and direction. But a complete
science, a science of the whole, cannot, and, as I have said,
does not rest there. By an intellectual necessity it raises
the deeper question. It asks: can we know the creative
Cause of the creative process? It comes even nearer home
aud inquires: have we immediately given in consciousness
anything more than mere intelligible sequences, forms and
processes? Have we any knowledge of an Energy whose
very nature it is freely to create, in the condition within
which it works, higher forms, and thus to be the principle
which gives a rational unity to the life of the individual
man and of the race? If so, itis likely the key by which
we are not only to interpret the rational movements of our
fellow men, but also the creative Cause of the intelligible
world.
(6) Turning to this question, it is undoubtedly true,
unless we discredit our surest knowledge, that we have in
consciousness just such free, formative energy. Yea, such
energy each man is, for to be man is to be mind, and to be
mind is to be concrete self-conscious spirit. and therefore
the creative cause of progressive ideals—a progression
unending while man remains man, for ‘‘ the margin of the
Ideal fades forever and forever as we move, but it fades not
before merely, but zzfo us.’’ It is needless to argue this.
To doubt it is to put in question our most intimate
knowledge, and therefore all knowledge. This would leave
us in the strange predicament of certainly knowing that
nothing can be certainly known. But though we need not
waste time in proving man’s consciousness of free formative
spirit, let us look at it as Wordsworth saw it in a ‘‘ child.”’
‘* Behold the child amid his new-born blisses :
A six years darling of a pigmy size.
See at his feet some new-made map or chart:
Sonie fragment from his dream of human life,
Shaped by him with newly learned art,’’
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
In these ‘‘maps and charts’’ ‘‘ shaped by himself with
newly learned art,’’ we see not only the creative spirit of
the child, but we see also in its beginning the formative
Energy of the rational process of history. This does not
mean, of course, as we shall see in a moment, that man
creates ideals real, beautiful, progressive, out of an
irrational environment as Nietzsche in some of his moods
seems to teach; on the contrary it suggests that he forms
them in an environment akin, in its nature to his own
spirit, and therefore that the all-incompassing and
immanent Energy of the developing life of the world and
man is spirit.
(¢) This view, as I read the signs of the times, is
the theory which, according to our leaders in science and
philosophy, best accounts for all the facts. It means this:
Before man appeared the creative Spirit was at work, so to
speak, alone, weaving the web of the world. But from the
hour when He carried his creative work on from nature in
its lower, to nature in its higher form ; that is from mere
nature to human nature, He had a ‘‘co-worker.’’ Man is
by his creative spirit a co-worker, and even his weight of
body and limb, which makes him less fleet of foot to follow
the creative ‘‘ gleam,’’ does not extinguish ‘‘ the kindly
light;’’ though, through the haze of his disregard, it
becomes to him not a kindly light, but a fierce glare which
gives him no rest till he follows it. And thus the primal
Spirit, in whom he has his being, so works that even the
laggardness, culpable though it be, is made to minister to
the end toward whtch the whole creation moves.
(2) The evidence that the Energy which gives
rational unity and progress to the life of the world, both in
its lower and higher form, is Spirit appears to have
triumphed, or to be triumphing, in the world of thought
to-day. Itiscumulative. The instinctive belief of man in
all ages and in all stages of development is a testimony to
it. Man has interpreted the energy of the wind that sways
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SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
the branches of the tree, the stream that seeks the sea, the
ocean with its mystericus reaches and its heaving bosom,
and the deep blue dome of the sky, and every living thing,
as kindred to the spirit in his own breast. This belief that
he was in the presence of spirits when he heard an echo in
the hollow, or saw the white breakers on the water, he did
not fully understand ; nor do we. He misunderstood it to
his own injury, but, as I have said, it could not have held
its place in the life of man so long had there not been in it
a root of reason. Further, our religion, which is this
instinctive belief at its highest power, brings home, in:con-
vincing form, what we may call unsurmountable evidence
that man, when he looks out on his object world, is face to
face with the glory of a Spirit ‘‘in whom all things con-
sist,’’ and in relation to whom the most enlightened men
aud women of this enlightened age can find no better way
of expressing their adoring trust than in these ancient
words, ‘‘the Eternal God is our refuge, and underneath
are the everlasting arms.’’ If man’s experience of fellow-
ship with the Spirit of all things be an illusion, the world
is ‘‘ rotten at the core’’—a conclusion not worth consider-
ing since science has put beyond question the fact that we
live in an intelligible world. Again experiences of our
deepest and highest poets are compelling testimony that
that the individual soul is ‘‘ not alone,’’ but is in company
with the Father of souls, and |
‘¢ Feels through all this fleshly dress
Bright shoots of everlastingtess.’’
We are all, at heart, poets. And in fellowship with nature
through her fleshly dress we are more or less conscious, in
our best moments, that we are meeting an answering Soul.
Nature takes us to her ample bosom and not only soothes
us, but lifts us up into oneness with herself. It has been
said by a recent writer that the human breast is the best
poltice for a broken heart; but the breast of nature is a
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
powerful rival. Nay, is not the human breast nature’s
‘best interpreter—her other self. Our late lauriate
expressed this when ke wrote,
‘‘The sun, the moon, the stars, the seas, the hills and the plains
Are not these, O Soul, the Vision of Him who reigns?
Glory about thee, without thee; and thou fulfillest thy doom,
Making Him broken gleams, and a stifled splendour and gloom.
Speak to Him now for he hears, and Spirit with Spirit can meet.”’
We, each of us, in our best moments feel this, though we
may not be able to express it in speech. Even asa brief
relief from the routine of life we know the value of fellow-
ship with nature. At the close of a summer day to sit in
your bower and feel the leafy arms of nature around you,
to climb the mountain and be enlarged by the view, to
walk in a forest of solemn pines, and not merely to see this
tree and that, but to feel the spirit of the weods. All this
soothes and helps to make us sane, as does the companion-
ship of a friend. Even if we are forbidden our run into
the country, we can go back in memory to the familiar
walks of former days, when
Meadow, grove and stream,
The earth and every common sight
To us did seem apparelled in celestial light,
The glory and the freshness of a dream.
I know nature has a majesty in her movement which, at
times, awes us. Her severity at other times stuns and ~
terrifies. Yet even inher severest discipline there is
moderation and mercy, for I observe with thankfulness
that when the agony reaches a certain intensity, she
graciously administers the chloroform of unconsciousness.
I have seen also that when the brave face death in some
noble cause, there is an elevation in their souls—the
elevation of fellowship with the Other and larger self—
which lifts them above the sharpness of death. An English
girl, a few hours before her death, at her home in a country
parsonage, asked for a pen, and unable to speak wrote
these words :
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
‘* No coward soul is mine :
No trembler in the world storm troubled sphere :
I see heaven’s glories shine,
But faith shines equal arming me from fear.”’
One is almost thankful for death since it calls forth such
heroic faith—a faith which does not cower in the presence
of the king of terrors, but stands up exulting in the
assurance of victory. It is not only heroic, it is an
experience which transcends physical nature. Nature, as
known to physics, cannot think either about itself or any-
thing else. It does not know, and cannot know, a remem-
bered past or an expected future. It cannot, therefore,
think of ‘‘glories beyond the world’s storm troubled
sphere.’?’ But nature at its highest—that is human
nature—can think. Not only is it true that man can think,
it is true also that while he remains man he must think,
and among the thoughts he cannot keep from arising with-
in him is, to say the least, the possibility of living ‘‘ beyond
this bank and shoal of time.’’ For whatever may be true
of individual men, or individual tribes, history has put it
beyond doubt that ‘‘ man sinks he was not made to die,’’
and remembering that this thought isa potent factor in the
process of development, it cannot be a mockery and
deception ; must on the other hand be in its essence a
prophecy of its fulfilment. Thus the soul of poetry, like
the spirit of religion, is conscious of fellowship with an
answering soul. Philosophy and science, too, are, in the
last few decades, looking in the same direction for a theory
of evolution which best accounts for all the facts. I have
spoken of the primal Energy, and of its explanation as
important in the discussion. Now philosophy is discover-
ing that the only satisfactory explanation of energy is to
be found in terms of spirit. ‘‘ How can we think, nay,
why must we think that there is in nature the power of
doing work which we name Energy?’’ asks A. M. Fair-
bairn, of Mansfield, Oxford, And he answers the question
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
thus: ‘‘If we explain it by our experience of resistance,—
i.e. by our knowledge that whenever we exercise effort
there is something without that resists us, presses against
us, overcomes our effort, or is overcome by it,—what does
this theory as as to the origin of the idea mean? Does it
not mean that in order to the knowledge of Energy without
we must posit free power within? We derive the notion
of energy, therefore, from our own couscious freedom—the
idea of causation in Nature is an inevitable deduction from
Will. In other words, a world of necessitated beings could
not form or conceive the notion of energy, for the
experiences which make the notion possible would be
absent. If, therefore, we speak of Energy and attempt to
interpret nature through it, what are we doing but con-
stituting nature in terms of personality, using the free
formitive spirit within us as the key to open the mysteries
or realities which exist without? We conclude, therefore,
that energy in nature is the correlate of freedom in man,
aud were he not free personal spirit he could neither think
nor speak of energy.’’ But not only do instinctive
faith, religion, poetry, and recent philosophy bear
testimony that finite spirits meet answering Spirit in the
object world ; modern science also, it is coming to be seen,
points to the same conclusion. ‘The presupposition and
inspiration of science is that the development of the life of
the world and man is intelligible. The ‘‘ flower in the
craunied walls,’’ in the-whole context of its correlations,
could, it is believed, be explained if we had insight and
comprehension enough. If, in tracing its life, through its
conditioning environment, to its ultimate creative cause,
we come to a point beyond our depth we do not despair, —
because science assures us of the universal rationality of
things. This means that we have found nature, so far as
we have scrutinized it, intelligible, and are satisfied that it
is intelligile all through. Now see what is implied in
nature’s intelligibility. We speak of intelligible words,
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
intelligible acts, intelligible movements of troops on a field
of battle ; we speak also of intelligible movements in the
life of a man or a nation, and in the processes of nature.
Now, in speaking. of words, process or acts, etc., as
intelligible, we mean that they are the expressions of
intelligence. Consequently, when we call the vast volume
of nature intelligible, our meaning is that it is the expres-
sion of Intelligence or Spirit. Thus science too testifies,
through its fundamental presupposition, that the conscious,
spiritual energy, which gives progress and unity to human
nature, is the same as that which gives unity to physical
nature. And so, unless I misread the trend of thought in
the last three or four decades, science, philosophy and
religion meet together, or are meeting together iu the view
that the One creative Energy, which constitutes and
develops nature both in its lower and higher forms, is, to
use the warmer word, the Eternal God ‘‘ in whom we live
and move and have our being.’’
VI.
And this leads me to the heart of our problem of
supernatural action. (a) The order of nature—using the
term in its largest sense as inclusive of man—is a dual-
hierarchy ; that in the form of physical nature, and that
in the form of human nature. In the former stage the
immanent Spirit works through unconscious instruments,
in the latter through the vehicle of conscious spirits. This
theory certainly satisfies the unity of life; but it seems, at
first sight at least, to leave no room for man’s liberty,
and thus it appears to cut the nerve of enterprise, to dull
the edge of conscience, and to make us feel that we are
chips adrift on the ocean of existence and not sailors loving
it, and uSing it as the element in which we are to steer our
barks to the shores where lie the richest treasures of life.
But this is only in seeming; for a careful scrutiny of
‘
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
nature, as it manifests itself i: consciousness, puts It
beyond rational doubt that there is, so to speak, a syner-
gism in spiritual or ideal growth. We freely form and
reform our creative ideals decause their primal Creator is
forming them within us. We work out our own salvation
because the universal Spirit is ‘‘ working within us to
will and to do of his good pleasure.’’ The nature of
this correlation of spiritual facts is a difficult problem ;
but, since the correlation belongs to a rational universe,
we need not despair of asolution. This, however, seems
to be clear. In the synergism the universal spirit is su-
preme. He does not, it is true, reduce the spirit of man
to a mere instrument, but sustains him in the status
of a conscious co-worker. He nevertheless, in the evo-
lution of history, so generates ideals within him that he
cannot altogether escape them, for to be man is to be
mind, and to be mind is to think, and to think is to
form, out of the element in which man lives, ideals—i. e.
‘‘the light that never was on sea or land,’’ that ‘‘lighteth
every man that cometh into the world,” ‘‘that is the
master light of all our seeing,” and that reveals our evil
and makes us ‘‘ tremble like a guilty thing surprised,’’ and»
gives us no rest till we arise and follow ‘‘ the gleam.”’
Every higher ought in the soul springs from the
primal spiritual Energy, without which we could not have
made it our own. It was first His, and even after it has
been received it is still His. So we may reverse the words
of Tennyson and say, ‘‘ Our wills are Histo make them
ours.’’ This law of spiritual development, by which we
make the higher will of another our own, is illustrated in
every life. I knew a man in whom, up to a certain time in
his life, the ‘‘ought’’ in his experience was as the command
of a sovereign, but his life was grafted on another life in
which was, so to speak, a sweeter sap, and from that time
the fruit of duty became the fruit of love. May I illustrate
this way of the Spirit by a simple incident from my early
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SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
student days when the creed which I had inherited was
still an unbroken, even, unchipped crystal. I was thrown,
in my Glasgow University time into the company of a young
minister who had felt the air of the modern uplands. In
conversation, to my astonishment, he expressed, in a
moment of confidence, a doubt as to the pre-existence of
Jesus. In my then untravelled inexperience I was shocked
aud said to him, ‘‘ Mr. H., suppose you were dying at this
moment, and, going into the presence of Jesus, found you
were wrong, how would you feel?’’ ‘‘I believe,’’ said
he, ‘‘ Jesus would not blame me for suspense of judgement
when, to me, the evidence is not quite clear. I would be
oi my knees at the Master’s feet, and I can imagine Him
with the kindness of His days in the flesh, putting one
open hand on one of my cheeks and the other on the other
cheek, looking with His fine eyes into my face and saying,
‘my little boy, what was that you were saying down
there?’’’ From this seed of truth there began to grow in
me the flower of an honest mind, and it has ever since been
growing in the air of the spiritual uplands in which my
friend lived. Thus, while I have been working out
Sincerity, my friend has been working in me, and the
Eternal Spirit in us both.
(6) But man not only shares the ideals of the Eternal -
Spirit, he is also a ‘‘partaker’’ of Divine Power to give
those ideals a local habitation and a name on the earth.
He is a ‘‘co-worker with God.’’ It is not possible for
him, it is true, to change the laws of nature, for these are
invariable, and it is well that they are so; otherwise we
could not lay our plans for seed time and harvest, rely on-
water power or electric energy to turn the wheels that
grind the grain, or have confidence that the flour will
nourish. But while we cannot change the laws of nature,
wecan, and do, change and readjust the order of nature.
We adjust the order to the accomplishment of higher ideals.
‘‘Life is one stupendous succession of interferences. We
4
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
never lift a finger, or doa stroke of work, or even think,
but that we interfere and change the current of things.
Fire burns, but we do not let it burn at its own sweet will.
“We control the burning, we imprison the burning, we turn
the burning to account. Water seeks its level, hut we do
not allow it to keep its level. Are we helpless in the
presence of lightening? Once a tyrant, electricity is now
our slave. He sheds radiance on the midnight streets. It
is only a question of knowing how to do things. We can
do anything with nature if we only know how.’’ Thus
man, in the measure in which he knows how, and under
the conditions in which he lives, is superior to nature’s
order. His life, looked at in the history of the United
States or our own country, from the days of the primeval for-
est tothe present time, is, to use the words of the writer just
quoted, ‘‘ one stupendous succession of interferences with
the order of nature.’’ He has transformed the old order
into a new and higher. He is therefore, in a true sense,
above nature, in other words supernatural. In this sense
he is the conscious vehicle through whom the eternal
immanent Spirit is progressively transforming the order
of the world.
The transcendent, or, in the sense explained, super-
natural work of man, is seen at home when we compare
the Canada of to-day with the Canada of four, or even one,
hundred years ago. ‘The heart of the early settler some-
times sank when he stood with his hand on the heel of the
handle of his axe, looking round on the giant trees and
thinking of the long task before him; but, by the
transcendent energy within his breast, he mastered his
feelings, and, having begun his great undertaking, he kept
at it till his ‘‘night came.’’ But his sons were bape by
his spirit, and so he and they have
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SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
The pathless forest is now a land of highways. The Indian
clusters of wigwams have given place to fair cities, some of
which begin to rival, and will, ere long, equal the leading
cities of the world. Our waterfalls are no longer allowed
to merely indulge in their titanic sport of roaring over the
cliff and plunging into the abyss beneath ; they are com-
pelled, by the cunning power in the breast of this being
who appears a lilliputian beside them, to put their
shoulders to the wheels of progress, and thus to send cours-
ing through the land the electricity which is to light our
cities, waim our homes, and do all manner of useful work.
Thus to know what we have done to shape a new order out
of the order found by the early settler, we have but to
look around. But to know what we are going to do, we
must take counsel of our dreams. We have the vision of a
fleet of fast ships which are to bring us in touch of all
ports. We see, also, fore-gleams of a time when the
racial and creedal divisions of our people will no longer
prevent them from feeling that they are of a common
origin, living a common life, and the heirs of a common
destiny. We see coming, too, a social order firmly knit.
with the puritan muscles of sobriety, integrity and
reverence : while at the same time it exults in the joy of
exhistence. We live in these supernatural dreams, or, if
you will, they live in us, inspiring us to bring them down
out of the timeless and set them in the order of time. And
I believe it is only sober truth to say no man can, as yet,
imagine either the vastness or beneficence of their achieve-
ments.
And the light of this transcendent dream of a new
order of society shines not only in the soul of our people,
but of mankind, and having absorbed those rays, mankind
cat never be as it was before. A significant sign of this is
found in the Hague Peace Conference. I know it has
been laughed at, and it may be true that among its mem-_
bers there have been representatives of nations who were
~
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
using it for their own ends; but, however, this may be, it
stands before the eyes of the world as the visible symbol of
a combined movement to bring peace on the earth. The
goal may yet be a long way off, but we must remember
that every great achievement is, at first, only an ideal or
prayer; and this we may affirm, that the soul of the race
will cease to be true to itself when it ceases to cherish and
labor for the fulfilment of this ideal. The individual may,
and does fail, for a time at least, to follow his or her “gleam,”’
but that the race should finally fail of its end is a pessimism
which caunot be entertained by one who believes that the
life of the world and man is a movement from intention to
fulfilment. And the facts of history are against such
pessimism, for the belief that all men ‘‘shall brothers be”’
is the ideal hearth of humanity. Its glow is beginning to
be seen and to attract the scattered family, to light up
their faces, to warm their chilly hands, and to make them
feel that they are children of the one Father, and joint
heirs, with the Chief among the brethren, of the privileges
of the home.
In view of these transcendent ideals and achievements
of man some principles come to light. To begin, it is
implied that man, while in the order of physical nature,
transcends, and uses it to realize his ideals. It appears
also, that his transcendence lifts him above the individuality
of things and of himself, so that while mankind is made up
of an innumerable number of individuals, manhood is one:
a unity realizing itself in difference. Further the unity of
the race is not a bond imposed, on an aggregate of
individuals, from without. It is, on the contrary, a
spiritual principle which belongs in common to every one
of the individuals. In one sense they are many, in another
they are one. Thus, man, being intrinsically a partaker of
transcendent or supernatural energy of spirit, achieves
supernatural ends, and cherishes supernatural ideals ;
therefore, it is natural for him to be the personal vehicle of
SYNTHESIS OF THE NATURAL AND THE SUPERNATURAL
supernatural work. The natural and the supernarural
meet in human nature.
Two questions, which have a fascination for lovers of
the occult, are suggested by this discussion, though here
they cannot be dealt with. The first may be stated thus:
Does the primal Creative Spirit, by special interposition in
His own order, raise it toa higher? The second is: Does
He interpose through other spirits than those in the flesh ?
In answer, which must be perfunctory, suffice it to say in
reference to the latter question, that the tendency of the
modern mind is to be incredulous of ghostly interference,
either in the physical or psychic order of nature. As to
the former query, observe that it is not: can the Primal
Spirit interpose? Itis: does He? Observation of nature
must decide. Now the outstanding stages in human
development, as every student of history knows, have been
associated with certain great personalities, who became the
embodiment and symbol of the ideal of a new and higher
order which had been gradually coming into the conscious-
ness of the community. Thus the development of human
nature, individually, socially, nationally and as a race has
been achieved through and by human personalities. In
other words, man, asthe personal vehicle of the progres-
sive ideal of humanity, has been, by virtue of his
implication in the Eternal, working out his perfection,
while the Eternal Spirit has been ‘‘working in him to will
and todo of his own pleasure.’’ And, let me add, the
Highest among men has been, is, and ever must be His
most powerful winsome and transforming personal vehicle
in creating the new heaven and the new earth.
Coincidences, Luck, Chance
BY J. DAVIS BARNETT, STRATFORD
Read before the Hamilton Scientific Association,
April 10th, 1908.
Travelling east of Toronto recently, I spoke to an
elderly man I thought I new. I found that I had his sir-
name, his professiou and his residence town absolutely
correct ; but nevertheless it was not my old acquaintance,
although some fifty years ago he had been a pupil at the
school of the man I had mistaken him for, and with whom
I was then chatting. .
When younger, and more fond of social functions than
I am to-day, I did not get a wedding invitation one year
until late in the fall; but, for that day, eventually got two
invitations, in different towus. When I arrived at the
earlier, I found the groom’s birthday and wedding-day
coincided. This cannot be counted asa ‘‘ coincidence ;”’
but that it was his sister’s birth anniversary, and that they
were not twins, can be.
The display of wedding presents was so large that it
was a matter of surprise that there was but one case of
duplication, but that was perfect. Reading the cards on
these duplicates I noticed the sirname was alike, the pre-
_ ceding initials were alike, but one was Mrs. and the other
Mr., and they came from towns far apart.
In the course of a long tramp in England five years
ago, my brother and I walked up Hay Tor (Dartmoor).
Being warm when the summit was reached, we wind-
sheltered under the lee of a large boulder, where, with the
sweep of a large prospect, neither person nor habitation
could be seen. Eventually the head of a man was seen,
following up our trail, and when he came close (to his sur-
COINCIDENCES, LUCK, CHANCE
prise), I addressed him by name. I had not seen him since
saying good-bye in Montreal thirty years before when he
was removing to England, and it was in this isolated, desolate
spot I met the only Canadian face I did meet in a pleasant
3,000 mile tramp.
It is purely an accident of railway life that, what
many visitors have said is the most complete collection of
Shakesperiana in the Dominion, should be located at
Stratford-on-Avon ; that the personal notice scrapbook of
M. Barnett, playwright and actor, should fall into my
hands, and that at points, some hundred miles apart, on
this continent I should pick up two Black-letter English
books, each containing the delicate autograph of White
Kennett, historian and bishop, noted as one of the very
early and enthusiastic collectors of Americana.
Do many of you recollect Lord Macaulay’s favorite
coincidence story, as quoted by that genial soul, Wm. J.
Thoms, editor of ‘‘ Notes and Queries,’’ and librarian to
the House of Lords? Macaulay wished to verify a quota-
tion from a commonwealth pamphlet before sending a
volume of his own writing to press. Not finding his own
copy of the booklet he applied to the British Museum, the
Bodleian and at Paris, then to the book-dealers of London
and Paris. all fruitlessly. Walking one morning before
breakfast, as was his habit, he stopped to examine the
stock of a small dealer in second-hand books, who was
putting outside, baskets marked all at 2d, 4d, 6d each.
Finding a book in the 6d basket that pleased him, he
tendered a half-sovereign in payment. The dealer, smiling,
said, ‘‘it is too early for me to change gold, if you have
nothing smaller, will you keep shop for me while I see if I
cannot get change?’’ The unknown would-be purchaser
said yes, and walked inside the deep, narrow, dark store,
and slowly continued his walk down to the brightest spot
in it at the far end, where a horizontal ray from the rising
sun, coming through a broken pane of a grimy end
COINCIDENCES, LUCK, CHANCE
window, fell diagonally on a side shelf and directly on a
copy of the rare booklet he practically despaired of ever
seeing again. Think of the many ‘‘ifs’’ that can be put
into the moralizing of this story. Thoms goes on to say,
that an endeavor was made to cap this story by a friend,
who said that, going to office one muddy morning, he
dropped a shilling on the edge of the Strand pavement.
Poking for it in the slime with the point of his umbrella,
and not seeing it, he went on to business, and thought no
more of it until going home at night, he bethought himself
and said, ‘‘I drop’t a shilling here this morning,’’ and
looking down at the spot he found twelve pence wrapped
up in brown paper.
In French history 1794 is properly called the period of
Robespierre. If to that date you add those same figures,
simply as detached numerals, 1, 7, 9 and 4, you get 1815,
the date of Waterloo. Treat that Waterloo date just the
same way, that is to 1815 add 1, 8, 1, 5, and you get 1830,
the date of the revolution. Treating 1830 the same way
you get 1842, the death of the Duke of Orleans. Now, if
this numerical scheme were a system of divination, the
next national important event would have fallen on 1857,
but it came in 1848. However, 1848 has its little date
legend. For Louis Phillipe came to the throne in 1830. He
was born in 1773, which, treated as astring of numerals and
added to 1830, makes 1848. His Queen was born in 1782,
which similarly added to 1830 makes 1848 ; and they were
married in 1809, which added to 1830 also marks the ominous
year 1848. Then note, Louis Napoleon became Emperor _
in 1852; add as numerals the date of his birth, 1808, and
you get 1869. Again, to 1852 add the birth year of the
Empress, 1826, and you get 1869; and they were married
in 1853, which added to 1852 also makes 1869, the date of
active friction that in six months culminates in his
disastrous war with Russia.
The Italian summary of Napoleonic coincidence
es » cede eek ae
Pr Py Cty eS ta in ee
}
COINCIDENCES, LUCK, CHANCE
relatiouship to letter,{‘M’’ is very full, and therefore
probably too long for this communication, yet what R. A.
Proctor (who has a good chapter on coincidences), thought
an extraordinary story should be given in a condensed form
‘‘Dr. T. Young was trying to interpret the famous Rosetta Stone.
Sir G. F. Gray offered to place in his hands the fruits of his
Egyptian finds, including a papyrus from Thebes. Before these
reached Young, a man named Casatie arrived in Paris, bringing
Egyptian MSS, among which Chamipollion noted one whose
preamble looked like the text on the Rosetta Stone. Dr. Young
then procured a copy froin Casati, and while trying to translate st
Sir Gray’s papyrus arrived, and to his delight he found it was a
translation of the Casatic MS. Young’s comment was: ‘ The most
extroadinary chance had brought unto me the possession of a docu-
ment which was not very likely ever to have existed, still less
probable to have been preserved uninjured nearly two thousand
years ; but that this very extraordinary translation should have been
brought safely to Europe, to England, and to me, at the very
moment when it was most of all desirable to me to possess it, as the
illustration of an orignal which I was then studying, but without
any other reasonable hope of comprehending it—this combination
would, in other times, have been considered as affording ample
evidence of my having become an Egyptian sorcerer.’ ”’
Rose Eytinge, the actress, says, six years ago in Lon-
don I knew two young men, modern editions of Damon and
Pythias. ‘hey had to part, and the evening before leaving
they supped with me. I rallied them on their melancholy
mood, and, merely to raise their spirits, without any
serious purpose, said, ‘‘ we shall all be supping together
some evening this month five years hence.’’ One twilight,
last summer, I was looking from the window of a Broad-
way hotel, when I saw Damon on the opposite side. He
recognized me, crossed over, sent up his card, and
eventually asked me to go with him to Delmonicos’, this
being his first visit to America. After giving our order, I
asked about Pythias, and he was in the act of telling me
that he had not heard from him for a long time, when we
saw a gentleman enter the room, with the air of one who
finds himself in strange quarters. It was Pythias, who
COINCIDENCES, LUCK, CHANCE
arrived that day by the Liverpool Steamer, Damon having
arrived by train that day from San Francisco. Neither
had any idea of the other’s whereabouts, and comparing
notes, we found it was just five years that month since I
said we would aJl be supping together. And we supped.
As might be expected, from an observing actress, her
coincidence list is a wide one; coupling the Mediterranean
aud Delmonico’s, Egypt and Michigan, Cairo and
Galveston (Texas). A South American specimen is good.
She was walking the Strand, London, with a friend who
described his narrow escape from a shark, while bathing in
the Amazon ; and he extolled the bravery of his compan-
ion, who did so much to save him. While expressing his
regret that he should never meet the brave fellow again,
he exclaimed, ‘‘ why, my goodness, here he is,’’ and at
once they were vigorously shaking hands. Lord Acton’s
favorite coincidence story was, that the three men executed
for the murder of Sir EK. Berry Godfrey, at the foot of
Greenbury Hill, London, were named Green, Berry and
Hill.
Does some one ask why dol repeat these idle tales?
Because stich stories were at one time considered occult
rather than idle. ‘To-day we are content if they prove
interesting enough to filla gap in talk, or cause a gentle
lift of the eyebrow. At one time they were considerd as in
some way the outcome of cause, or even in themselves
causal, and our altered relation to them—the only point I
wish to emphasize—is one of the signs of the times, an
actual mental asset, to be measured, priced, and its value
(as the commercial men say) extended in any twentieth
century intellectual stock-taking.
Change in the human common point of view isa subtle
but pervasive thing, almost as obscure and unnoticed as
the rate of travel of a glacier, and my object to-night is,
by noting the altered position of a few pegs, driven in on
the surface cf some of these human movements to thus
COINCIDENCES, LUCK, CHANCE
remind you, that seemingly hard crystaline things do flow,
and the greater in bulk they are, the more certain the flow.
I hope you noted, during this varied story recital, that
you did not, in any case, say to yourself, this event is pre-
dictive. No one said of any story, this shows the designing
hand of a Providence; this indicates malign purpose
thwarting us, or, this shows good and evil powers in active
antagonism. I felt sure that the utmost that these stories
would do would be to start the lowest form of wonder, and
this certainty about you is also one of the signs of the
times, a surveyor’s point of triangulation in chaining over
the direction we have moved in and are now moving.
Even the historical date stories had no foretelling
value; they are but curiosities, classable with the
arithmetical treatment of the year-date that amused people
in 1881. Read from right to left or left to right that date
comes out just the same. The first two figures (18)
divided by 2 gives 9 as a quotient; the last two (81)
divided by 9 givesg. ‘The total (1881) divided by 9 con-
tains 9 in the quotient, or multiplied by 9 contains two
nines. “Then 1 and 8 are 9; 8and 4 are. g.- If the first
two figures (18) be placed under the second two (81) and
added, theirsum is gg. If added asa string of numerals,
1-8-8-1, the total is 18 or two nines, and the first two
numerals is two-ninths of the last two. This date also
reads the same and has all these same irrelevant combina-
tions if turned upside down.
- However, these French dates would be likely to call to
your minds the thousand and one ways of getting the
prophetical number 666, and also the wealth of books,
dealing in prophesy, that English people alone have pro-
duced. I have an impression (exaggerated you may
say) that between 1860-80 one twenty-fifth of the books—
other than school books—ordinarily to be found in the sort
of second-hand book-store that never issues a catalogue,
were on the subject of prophesy—I mean, were attenipts at
COINCIDENCES, LUCK, CHANCE
the interpretation or foretelling of the future. And that
that literature is dead to-day—dead and gone—is another
sign of the spirit of the times.
I have not, in these stories, given any specimens of
geometrical and mathematical coincidences, but those who
are familiar ..with .C). Piazzi' Smyth's: svyork)<“} Oar
Inheritance in the Great Pyramid,’’ will remember that its
whole elaborate argument is based on what appears to be a
remarkable string of such.
The author to read, after you have got through with
the book of the Astronomer Royal for Scotland, is A. de
Morgan (Prof. of Mathematics) ; especially that rare and
racy book, compiled by his widow (principally from letters
to ‘‘the Athenzun’’), titled ‘‘ A Budget of Paradoxes,’’
and you will see that the coincidences are in the geometry,
rather than in the Pyramid, and that in rigid mathematics
there are as rich and unexpected fields of relationships as in
any other section of nature or life; but that they have no
significance outside that common relationship between all
number and form.
How many coincidences should be linked together to
produce on a normal mind the conviction of purpose or
design in them, is too large a subject for so brief a paper
as this; yet I observe that the puerile detached collection
of alleged single coincidences, forming the main part of
Mrs. H. Pott’s thick book, ‘‘ The Promus of Formularies
and Hlegances,’’ has, on some persons, a stronger influence
tending to prove the Baconian authorship of the
Shakesperian drama, than has the whole cumulative list
got by Dr. J. A. H. Murray (from material prepared for
his New English Dictionary), npon ‘‘ verbs in out.’’
In the printed Shakespearian works, ‘‘ verbs in out’?
occur at least 54 (I think 56) times. In 38 of these cases
Dr. Murray finds no earlier use of such word combinations,
and in g of these their use is confined to the so-called
Shakesperian works—that is no author, of the thousands
+
a
COINCIDENCES, LUCK, CHANCE
who were so carefully read for this Dictionary, has used
them ; so that whoever wrote the Dramas was apparently
and quite unconsciously in love with that form of verb.
Now, in the whole of Lord Bacon’s printed works
there are but 2 ‘‘ verbs in out ;’’ one being ‘‘ outshot,” a
street word in those days when most men were archers.
Are totals of 54 to 2 ‘‘ verbs in out’’ enough grouped
cases for to found a coincidence faith upon, that the two
sets of writings, with the hitherto unknown marked differ-
ence between them, cannot be by the same author, Bacon?
Single coincidences have been known to make a strong
impression on some types of people. May I quote John EH.
Purdon, A.B., M.D. (‘‘ mind,’ Dec. 1900, pgs. 163-4),
who says:
‘“We are generally accustomed to consider the fall of well
shuffled cards as little different in character from that of coins thrown
up at random, either singly and successively, or simultaneously in
large numbers. In fact, we incline to consider the fall of cards, as
regards dealing and drawing, as altogether a matter of “‘ chance.”’
There is no doubt that in a million deals the tendency to uniformity
would be strongly manifest, and the established laws of probability
would assert themselves. But the essence of the peculiar is that it is
the particular, and that it must be studied separately, not according
to statistical methods.’’
After quoting what seems to me, as a whist player,
only an ordinary whist experience, he goes on to say :
‘‘T would not feel justified in calling attention to this case if I
had not had some special experiences that support me in laying
stress on particular occurrences happening to myself, as when I saw
the remarkable fact of the turning up of the same three cards to me,
after a dispute among some young officers (in which I was in the
right), during which I threw down the cards indignantly, and called
for a re-deal, saying, ‘Let the cards settle it themselves.’ The
game was ‘ Spoiled Five,’ in which the five and knave of trumps,
and the ace of hearts, played in any order, must win. I held these
cards, but some stupid objection being made to my laying them
down on the table (done by me), on the ground that a gentleman
would not play out the hand on a certainty, the above extraordinary
event (of the same three cards coming to me) took place. It was a
COINCIDENCES, LUCK, CHANCE
true instance of magnanimity ; a spontaneous response by his higher
powers, to the appeal of outraged honor, on the part of a man who
would not maintain his rights in a vulgar squabble.”’
. Even such a believer in the occult, as Dr. Purdon
evidently is, incidentally says, that in cards, if you take
instances enough, the Laws of Probability will assert
themselves. So much is this so that to many of us to day
the marked feature of all games of pure chance is their
certainty, the sureness of the ultimate figures, the certainty
of the definite income to the Bank, where the Bank is
honest, as at Monaco. The percentage is sure, the results
foreseen, so that the balance was never found to be on the
left side of the page by Monte Carlo’s accountant.
The modern trained mind recognizes Law in this, sees
that something re-occurs regularly, and that something is
ig. the wame, 1s in ‘the so-called chance; so that you
will observe without changing the word we have trans-
posed the main thought that the word ‘‘ chance’’ now
conuotes. This is another part of our barely recognized
mental outfit, decidedly separating us from our grand-
parents. For us, what was an erratic perchance, now.
spells scientific certainty ; uniformity of result is seen
under a domino of lawlessness, and this is an item to be
remembered in our intellectual stock-taking. For, as Prof.
J. Venn (Cambridge Logician) says :
‘‘ The clear and adequate appreciation of this kind of uniformity
miay be regarded as the great logical achievement of modern times,
that is—our having a consciousness of average regularity—of
regularity in the long run, combined with absolute irregularity in
the details.”
I assume you all know the simpler proofs for this
belief, most easily seen by counting and tabulating the
results of the toss of a coin, the throwing of perfect dice,
and the turn-up of cards. In these easily grasped
experiments and illustrations the operation of the law can
be seen with the least qualifications the current least
influenced by cross flow ; but it is as certain in its action in
ip ae oe nl heen aint rp ear Aim Soe Nie aol si
Pe ae ey
Spt
COINCIDENCES, LUCK, CHANCE
matters of mixed skill and chance, and ultimately the
student sees it traceable in pure skill and throughout all
nature, so that by this avenue, through such a brain open-
ing, enters the idea (and ultimately the belief), that it
pervades all the phenomena of life, metital and physical.
This, I take it, is how the reasoning is done ; but in
practice the entry of the thought seems to have been made
as often through the avenue of Betting, thence up to
Insurance, which two opposite things seem as yet hope-
lessly mixed together in the minds of the masses. How-
ever, in the eyes of a ‘‘ real sport,’’ all Insurances that
_actually insure are dishonorable betting, because Insurance
is done on a known certainty—an average or long-run
certainty, a quality of certainty practically unknown when
many of us went to school. There some of us learned how to
work out permutations, but the ordinary idea we then got
was that some such results were possible ; not that they
were probable, much less was the idea brought home to us
that they were actually and operatively certain in daily life.
May I emphasize this recent view of long-run certainty
by briefly listing some modern Insurances, viz: Against
life, as twins and triplets, as well as against death,
accident, injury to person, and single blessedness. Against
plate glass fracture, burglary, fire, lightning, hail, wind,
flood, in fact against all forms of storm and wreck, includ-
ing explosions ; against property title transfer and other
legal errors, and many kinds of fraud and trust betrayal.
These things are now seen to keep proportion and bounds,
so that the losses they entail, being widely distributed, are
lightly borne ; and the possibilities of the future look less
malignant to us, as we recognize life to be the theatre of
causes and laws—a close spun web of interlacing effects, a
field of persistent regularity in births and deaths, sexes,
size of stature, number of men of genius (as Galton shows),
climate, temperature, electrical tension and discharge,
vegetable and animal growth. Such thoughts bring up
recollections of T. Buckle, whose ‘‘ History of Civilization
COINCIDENCES, LUCK, CHANCE
in England ’’ is for some of us the first axe-blazing, mark- -
ing out the first broad cart road into the wilderness, and I
yet retain a vivid recollection how the laughing incredulity
of an emotional Canadian family met the boyish emigrant’s
statement (which I had got from Buckle’s book) that in
England the total marriages per year per thousand were a
known and definite factor of the average price of corn
(wheat).
Like many other enthusiastic pioneers Buckle made
errors, and we, standing in the opened clearing, easily see
that they are errors. When he comes to such a matter as
murder and suicide averages, being foreknown with the
certainty of a chemical formula, we now see that for his
statement to remain true it has to be predicated that the
people themselves—and more especially their environment
—does not markedly alter. May I use a simple illustra-
tion? If you make a true die or cube of raw bone, and
properly mark its six faces, you will practically get ‘‘ ace
up’’ 100,000 times in 600,000 throws. But should this
raw bone be somewhat tuberculus, so that in drying out it —
did not condense evenly (not necessarily altering the truth
of the shape, yet slightly altering the centre of gravity) we
shall then see, that the expected proportion of it turning
up 1 to 6 will be altered ; and the rate of alteration possibly
influenced by the energy with which the die is thrown up,
or the distance it is allowed to roll. So among a people,
if they or their environment be altered, then it is certain
their resultant behaviour will be altered also. Hence, dur-
ing a wave of emotion—or, say epidemic sickness—it
would be foolish to predict the number per thousand of
suicides or murders.
Buckles’ actual relationship figures, at many points,
cannot now be quoted as accurate, because he did not see—
or allow for—the qualifying action and re-action of envir-
onment—that is, he was in time, pre-darwinian and did not
know that these neglected dice he was just learning to ob-
COINCIDENCES, LUCK, CHANCE
serve were oar altering their centre of gravity. Never-
theless, all interested in the record of mental progress, re-
vere the overworked student who died young, at Damascus,
with the moan ‘‘Oh, my book, my book, I shall never
finish my book !”’
Pardon this digression on Buckle, and permit me to
hark back to. chance—in its old sense of “ perchance.’ ‘i
I have tried to get information as to the numerical proba-
bilities of being correct in pure guess-work ; but apparently
this field is as yet, almost virgin ; or I have not looked in
the right spot for the results of such experiments, and the
whole matter is more complicated than it appears to be at
first sight, for there are at least two unknown factors
(possibly more) in the attempted solution of such equa-
tions ; (2) of variation in the thing to be guessed ; (0) of
idiosyncrasy in the guesser himself. May I illustrate the
latter point by saying that some years ago, a firm in Los
Angeles put a very large squash uncut in their store win-
dow, advertising a prize of $100 to the correct guesser of
its contained seeds. The only requisite being, to enter and
register, name, residence and guess number. There were
three correct SUeSSES ; (811) in the 7,70c who registered.
Most of us would, I think, infer that the squash was the
only tactor requiring consideration, but an analysis of these
7,700 guesses shows that the guesser is not an absolutely
free agent; unconscious as he may be of any bias or ten-
dency in himself; for, tabulating this long string of
guesses, it comes out clearly that this fairly representative
people had themselves an unknown preference for cer-
tain numerals. Ignoring the hundreds column and total-
ling the tens and unit column the choice in numerals stood
thus: First in rank O (used 2,102 times) ; then No. 7,
(1977); No. 9 (1650); No. 5 (1629); No. 3 (1463); and No.
I (1305); then follow the even numerals, No. 6 (1080); No.
2 (965); No. 8 (933); and No. 4 (831); which result shows
clearly our strong preference for the odd numbers and for
5
COINCIDENCES, LUCK, CHANCE
No. 7 ainong the odds. In fact the preference for No. 7
is so marked that the alliterative conbination No. 777 occurs
more often than all the combinations 770 to 779 added to-
gether, and it is seen that such similar alliterations occur
more often by sixty-seven per cent. than any other form of
combination ; so that noting the alliteration of despised No.
4, the number least desired of all the even numerals, it is
seen to occur twice as often as No. 443 or No. 445.
May I here digress again? so far as to say, that this
spontaneous reluctance to use No. 4 deserves a special in-
vestigation, in view of the way that number and its factors
is favored as called upon for heavy duty by those who an-
tagonize the introduction of decimal notation and metric
weights and measures.
Before leaving this to me, interesting questinn of pro-
bable correctness in guessing, will you bear with me while
I quote from some recent experiments by Prof. T. Werth-
eimer, Principal of the Merchant Venturer’s Technical
College, Bristol. His wish was to find the quantative or
measurable truth in the work of professional, and even
titled amateur ‘‘ dowsero’’ (water diviners) for dowsing is
yet a common and advertised business in England.
The whole series could not be here reproduced under-
standingly without wall diagrams, and apart from that
dificulty the locating of under-ground water is not easy to
test ; because, if the well you have put down prove dry,
the dowser can always say ‘‘ you did not go deep enough.’’
But the dowser’s alleged ability to recognize above ground
the fact of water flowing or not flowing through a pipe, is
more easily tested ; and with the help of Bristols’ W. W.
Engineer, a series of tests made by turning the city pres-
sure off and on through an opened three inch suburban
main, were carefully carried out, with a forty per cent.
success for the dowser’s trials. The Professor then carried
out a similar series of tests, or rather in this case, pure
guesses, with the help of eight of his students, young men
a *
, ee Se . 6 ee a Te ee or ure
re ee oe EE I Re NS ee
eS ee ee eee le ee re
i
_ *
i a eee
oA ee Tt
———
—_———
COINCIDENCES, LUCK, CHANCE
just ready to go up for their B. S. Exams.; and they to-
gether achieved a forty per cent. success in ten guesses
each, that is, they were right thirty-two times in a possible
eighty. This is the point for which I quote. and which I
wish to be remembered. But incidentally the whole series
shows that dowsers’ reports made after testing the same
piece of land did not agree among themselves, and I may
add what Abinus said in his quaint way in the year 1700.
‘I ween that no confoundeder thing is to be found in the world than
the divining rod business, for whatsoever is right and fit according to
one, the same is wrong and unfit according to others, until there is
no good to be presumed out of so great confusion.’’
The Professor’s further tests will be watched with in-
terest. As compared with Coincidence, Probability and
Chance, change in opinion and sentiment abont ‘‘ Luck ’’
commenced so early in historical time, that it leaves but
little variation to be noted in the present-day point of view,
and there is no appreciable alteration in the word’s meaning.
Of all the early ordeals (primitive testing for crime)
as by fire, boiling water, the balance, poison, wager of
battle, etc., etc., of attempts to foreknow ; those, by lot
drawing, the most crude form for testing one’s luck, I
know, seems to have been the first to weaken in the abor-
iginal faith. You now have to go far down in the social
scale to find one who will draw lots for proof, or who fully
believes in so trying his luck; and certainly no common
sense person trusts the man who has a conceited belief in
his own luck, a state of mind on our part for which the
new psychology has ample explanation. The one curious
point I notice about this weakening confidence in personal
good luck is, that apparently it does not at present decrease
gambling. I have no personal experience of its fascina-
tions, and therefore cannot ‘‘ speak by the card ’’ but when
a wave of moral legislation made the common old fashioned
sweepstake just as criminal as any other form of lottery, it
quite unexpectedly seems to have increased instead of de-
creased the mania for betting, by forcing the poorer to
COINCIDENCES, LUCK, CHANCE
stake their money in the same way as the well-to-do club
men staked theirs. In horse racing for instance, they had
after the passage of this statute to bet on a particular horse
or specified group of horses or stop gambling. This made,
or eventually seemed to make some call on their knowledge
judgment or shrewdness aud resulted in making. betting
sport more interesting to them. You see, the sweepstake
they had been used to, was a trust in sheer luck, whereas
the backing of some particular horse,or named group of
horses, turned out to be an attractive union of their good
judgment and their good luck, giving them apparently two
forces in their favor instead of one, and the same kind of
appeal to a mixed personal vanity. and luck, has been. the
stimulation of stock gambling, ever since the Joint-Stocks
Limited Liabilities Bill became law, and it opened the way
for produce gambling.
Stock and other quotation ser Hele racing calendars
and newspapers. came in only when the not rich man
wanted information to be used in supplementing his faith
in his luck. .
From the ethical side, the bright patra of the case
now is that, when the man has lost his money, he feels
that all the blame cannot be carried by ‘‘ his luck ;’’ some
of the fault isin himself, and in that way will ultimately
come gambling reformation, I expect. I have probably
taxed your good-natured patience to its limit, and will
stop, hoping that the effect of this Paper will be a sense of
encouragement in that. superstition is visibly narrowing,
the range of law widening, the province of fear lessening,
and that the happy progress of the world in these directions
is helped by such institutions as the Hamilton Scientific
Association,
The Petroleum Industry of Canada
BY NORMAN I. TURNER, M.A., BELLEVILLE
Read before the Hamilton Scientific Association,
March 13th, 1908.
The petroleum industry of Canada is one of the most
interesting and least known sources of her wealth, although
of small proportions as compared with the immense
developments in the United States and Russia, it has still
had a marked effect on the economic development of this
country.
During the year 1907 crude oil, to the amount of 788,
872 barrels, with a value of $1,057,088.00, was produced.
This amount is an increase of approximately $300,000 over
the previous year. During the last ten years the produc-
tion has ranged in value from $700,000 to $1,200,000. In
1899 the highest point was reached, namely $1,202,020.
Comparing these figures with those of other non-
metallic minerals, it is seen that the petroleum industry
ranks third in the list; coal first with approximately
$24,000,000, asbestos second with $2,500,cc0, and
petroleum third with $1,000,000, ‘These figures will con-~
vey in a small measure the importance of this industry.
The Canadian oil business is really the first of its kind
to be worked on a systematic commercial basis. The
previous oil industry was in Scotland, but the oil in this
case was not obtained from weils, but from the distillation
of oily shales which are found in that conntry.
Long before Col. Potter struck the first cil weil in
Pennsylvania, prospectors and oil men, mostly Americans,
were developing the Canadian fields. In fact, so great
was the yield of oil in this country that the United States
THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY OF CANADA
Government placed a heavy duty on Canadian oil,
which duty still remains, although it is many years since
there was any possibility of the Canadian oil competing
with the American product, in fact a large proportion of
the oil burned in Canada has been imported from the
United States.
Although ‘‘shows’’ of oil have been discovered in
Canada, fromthe Gaspe Peninsula on the Atlantic to the
Rocky Mountains on the west, the only really important
petroleum fields yet worked in Canada are those of
Lambton County in the south-west corner of Ontario.
Even these, despite the utmost activity of the oil men,
shave been unable to keep up the growing demand for coai
oil and the other petroleum products, and for years past
over thirty per cent. of the oil used in Canada has come
from the other side.
It was away back in the early sixties that petroleum
of Lambton County was discovered to be of commercial
value. Long before the white men ever visited the county
the Indians knew that it was rich in oil. It oozed up out
of the ground and floated down the streams. he Indians
used it as a medicine, and when the early settlers appeared,
three quarters of acentury ago, they did the same—the oil
being regarded as good for rheumatism. Many of the early
settlers made considerable money by gathering the oil off
the surface of the waters of Bear Creek and peddling it
around in small bottles as medicine. Their method of
gathering the oil was to float a blankent on the surface of
the water and let it absorb the oil, and then remove the oil
from the blanket by wringing.
These conditions did not last long however. The fame
of the oil soon spread, and it was not long before
prospectors and others figured out that there must be some
resevoir to supply this surface oil. A surface well was dug
about 1863 on the edge of Bear Creek, close to the present
site of the town of Petrolia, and a good supply of oil was
THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY OF CANADA
obtained. At first it was thought that it was all ‘‘ surface
oil,’’ which was then regarded as a very valuable lubricant.
Later, however, several adventuresome spirits resolved to
try deeper down, and with infinite pains and labor a hole
was drilled several hundred feet into the ground. The
result justified their work and a flowing well was struck,
flooding the district with oil, which ran away down the
creek.
News of the strike spread quickly and a terriffic oil
craze set in. Prospectors came from far and near, throngh.
the woods of the oil fields property was taken up in all
directicns, and hundreds of wells were soon under way.
There was any amount of excitment and industry, but very
little money in those days, but every one was confident
that they were on the edge of a bonanza, and worked with
feverish enery to get their wells down and watch the oil
waste itself away ou the ground or down the creek.
Putting down a wellin those days was a matter of
tremendous labor, and took several months, while to-day a
well is sunk 475 feet with little trouble in a week or less.
After the surface earth was bored through to the depth of
nearly a hundred feet, there was three hundred feet of
hard limestone and other rock strata to be drilled through
before the oil bearing strata was reached. This isa strata
of porous brown rock, limestone, from five to ten feet in
thickness, heavy with petroleum. To drill these wells in
the old days a heavy drill and sinker was hung in the well
from a long pole, and balanced over the hole on a fulcrum,
which gave strong leverage. The driller walked to the
end of the pole which pulled the drill up, and then jumped
off letting the drill go down with a bang, this slow process
was repeated until after months of effort the well was
finished. It was an infinitely tiresome process, but was
generally rewarded as almost every well flowed immense
quantities of oil, which was then very valuable indeed, at
one time going as high as eleven dollars per barrel.
THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY OF CANADA
After operations had gone on for some time at
Petrolia, it was discovered that there was a richer and
shallower pool a few miles away, at Oil Springs, and the
original fields were deserted in the general rush for the
new field. The first flowing well was struck on the 19th
of Feb., 1862, when Jas. Shaw, Esq., of Oil Springs, found
oil at a depth of 160 feet in what is now known as the
Upper Vein. ‘The well flowed 3,000 barrels per day, some
of those struck a short while later flowed as high as 7,500
barrels per day.
The production of oil became tremendous and the
price dropped from $10.00 per barrel to 20 cents. ‘There
was as yet little market for the oil, and no means of storing
it, while new wells were being drilled every day, flowing
thousands of barrels of oil. The whole district became
soaked in oil which floated down Bear Creek by the
millions of barrels, until the creek was inches thick with
the precious fluid. Finally the oil caught fire and for
miles it burned with inconceivable fury. It is estimated
that in this fire at least 5,000,000 of barrels were consumed,
the fire lasting for days. The oil flowed down to the
mouth of the river and was noticed on the navigable
portions of the Sydenham River, where vessels were
smothered with the tarry mess.
Nothing, however, could stop the speculative fury.
Drilling went on undisturbed, properties changed hands at
fabulous sums, and on all sides the most extraordinary
activity was manifest. Speculators flocked in and it was
not long before several small refineries were built, which
gave some small outlet for the immense production, despite
the fact that there was not a railroad within miles and the
oil had to be teamed out.
Fortunes were made one day and lost the next, and
there was all the ups and downs of a typical mining camp.
The population of Oil Springs grew to nearly 10,000, and
there seemed no limit to the wealth. Asan example, one
a SS ee
a eee ee eS ee
:
THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY OF CANADA
of the wealthy men of Canada, John B. Fairbank, came to
Oil Springs at that time with very little capital besides his
brains, secured a small lot and, of course, put up a drilling
plant and started to drill a hole in the ground. His
capital, however, was not as elastic as his spirit, and he
was “‘up against it’’ before he reached the bottom, so
much so that he lacked the cash to pay for the necessary
sharpening of his tools. From one blacksmith to another
he went to get his drill dressed, but they were all too busy
with cash trade to bother with him. At last one took pity
on him and fixed his drill, and shortly afterwards he struck
a well flowing five hundred barrels a day, oil being worth
from five to ten dollars a barrel. This was the beginning
of his fortune, and he did not forget the blacksmith who
helped him along. ‘The early days of the oil fields are full
of such cases as this one.
The wasteful extravagance of the early prospectors,
who apparently drilled holes for the mere pleasure of seeing
the oil flow away, produced its inevitable result. The
supply of oil began to fail, and big discoveries were made
at the older Petrolia field. |
With the discovery of these new wells, such as the
King Wells, in 1867, the excitement died down to a solid
business proposition. The speculative period, such as is
found in all mining camps, died out, and the oil men
tackled the problem in a business-like manner. The price
of crude oil now dropped to about twenty cents a barrel,
but as an offset to this low price means were found of stor-
ing the oil, and gradually the great waste was stopped.
The Petrolia field proved much more stable than the
Oil Springs field. The oil men learned economic methods
and recovered from their original madness, Wells were
drilled by steam power instead of the old kicking rig.
This slide shows the outfit used at present for drilling.
On the right is the steam engine that supplies the power to
raise the drill. The drill hangs down the centre of the tall
THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY OF CANADA
tressel work that you see. By this means the hole is put
down much faster and at considerably less cost per foot.
The average time now consumed in drilling a well is about
a week, and the cost a hundred dollars approximately.
It was found that the Petrolia field was much more
extensive than was at first supposed, flowing wells were
struck in all directions for atime. Railroads were built to
connect with the new centre of activity, and petroleum
refineries were built to handle the output. London was
for a time the centre of this busines, which, however, was
later transferred to Petrolia.
It was not long, however, before the wells ceased to
flow and pumping had to be resorted to. This meant, at
that time, that a separate steam engine had to be installed
for every well. This method was so expensive that for
years a well that was not good enough for ten or more
barrels a day was abandoned as worthless.
Production, however, increased by leaps and bounds,
and for years there was a big surplus in the thousands of
immense underground storage tanks. The oil became
almost a drug on the market. The production was still
further increased by the discovery of a methed of pumping
a large number of wells from a single pumping station by
means of ‘‘jerker rods.’’ ‘The rods were connected with
a large wheel which made them jerk up and down, and
this jerking motion was conveyed by means of triangles to
a walking beam over the wells, which worked the pumps.
In this way, to-day, as many.as three hundred wells are
connected up with one central pumping station. It’s an
odd sight in the oil district to see a perfect forest of tall
tripod derricks, as many as five or six toa single acre, as
far as the eye can see, each with its pump quietly working
away with a slow steady motion and no visible source of
power.
This discovery once again revolutionized the industry
by so reducing the cost of operation that almost any pro-
ee ‘RE pe RS
THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY OF CANADA
ducing well was worth pumping. The production naturally
increased and the price of crude oil remained low, and, for
a time, there was not much prosperity in the oil fields on
this account. However, the demands for all kinds of
petroleum products grew with amazing rapidity, and with-
in a few years all the surplus stores of petroleum were used
up and the demands of the refineries could not be met,
sufficient crude oil could not be produced. Every well
that would give any supply was utilized ; the price of oil
naturally rising with the increasing demand until to-day
there are thousands of wells being profitably operated
which do not average a third of a barrel a day.
It was very evident to all concerned that the supply of
oil was gradually falling away, andthe oil men lived in —
daily dread that it would cease altogether.
Again anew discovery came to their aid and a fresh
impetus was given the industry. It was found that the
detonation of a powerful explosive in the oil-bearing strata
of rock at the bottom of the well produced a fresh supply
of oil. After considerable experimenting it was found that
nitro-glycerine gave the best results. With feverish
energy, characteristic of the oil men, everyone wanted to
have wells ‘‘shot’’ at once. Factories for the manufacture
of this most dangerous fluid were established, and the first
‘‘slycerine men’’ grew very wealthy, as it was very
cheaply made and sold for twenty dollars a quart. ;
The system of shooting a well was very simple, con-
sisting merely in filling the well with water to hold the
force of the concussion, then the nitro glycerine was
lowered to the bottom of the well in long tin cylinders and
exploded by dropping a fuse. A moment later a shock
would be felt through all the 475 feet of rock and clay, and
in a few seconds a fountain of water, oil and shattered rock
would be hurled a hundred feet or more into the air.
The result of this is to so shatter the oil-bearing strata
and open up the crevaces, that not only wells were made
THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY OF CANADA
doubly valuable, but dry wells frequently became. pro-
ducers. Another unlooked for result of the use of nitro-
glycerine was the reviving of the Oil Springs’ field, result-
ing in the making of another crop of rich men. In the
previous rush to get away from Oil Spring, oil farms were
abandoned or sold for next to nothing. Those who secured
them were exceedingly fortunate. The wells were shot
and at once became large producers, and the field took its
place as a steady source of supply.
The nitro-glycerine trade is probably one of the most
dangerous in the world, and big wages have always had to
be paid the ‘‘shooters’’ who also made the chemical.
Considering the carelessness of the men and the enormous
quantities of the explosive used, very few accidents
occurred. It is generally understood that with nitro-
glycerine a man only makes one mistake. From time to
time the factories blew up, generally with loss in life and
nothing left to mark the place but a huge hole and few
scattered remains of men and boards in the distance.
The petroleum industry seems to have been a very
fortunate one. Some new discovery was always coming to
light just at the right time. Again we havea discovery
coming to its aid; this time not a method connected with
the production of the crude oil, but a method that made the
petroleum of itself more valuable. The tarry residue, after
the first distillation of the oil, was generally considered
useless except as a fuel. An old oil man, by the name of
John MacMillan, invented a process for the extraction of
paraffine wax and lubricating oils from the residue. This
immediately added to the value of the petroleum, as here-
tofore the tar had been wasted. This discovery made the
tar almost as valuable as the illuminating oil, thus doubling
the value of the crude oil.
With these various discoveries the oil business grew,
and gradually a feeling of confidence in its permanency
took possession of those interested in it. The fields were
THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY OF CANADA
extended in all directions till at the present time we have
not only two fields, but many others, such as the Bothwell
Oil Field, the Tillbury Oil Field and others.
Thousands were spent in prospecting and trying to
open up new fields, while others grew rich by succeeding
in locating fresh sources of supply in the old fields. To-
day there are probably close onto 12,000 wells being
pumped. Most of these, however, are small producers,
not averaging more than a barrel a day, but with oil at its
present price, $1.50 per barrel, and the reduced cost of
operation, a man who owns a dozen or so of these wells is
pretty well off.
The Dominion Government also gives the oil man
considerable aid at present with a bounty of one aud a halt
cents per gallon. In the year 1907 the government paid
out in crude oil bounties the sum of $414,157.89.
To-day a well can be put down in a week at an expense
of about one hundred dollars. Should it prove to be dry,
this is all that is lost, while if it is a producer another two
hundred dollars will case it and install a pump. Once the
oil is produced it is collected by means of tank wagons and
underground lead pipes to tanks, whence it is delivered to
the collecting agencies who give ‘‘ warehouse receipts ”’
for it and look after its subsequent delivery to the refineries.
These warehouse receipts are what the producer has to
show for his oil, and are sold by him as so much crude oil.
It is estimated that since the opening of the oil fields
more than thirty millions of dollars have been invested in
the producing trade, while many millions have been spent
in refining and other lines of the enterprise. One
peculiarity of the industry is that no sooner does a man
make a few hundreds or thousands of dollars out of his
wells than he proceeds to sink almost’as much money back
again into the ground.
For years the Canadian petroleum industry was heavily
protected by a tariff. The present government, however,
THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY OF CANADA
gradually reduced this until a few years ago it was removed
entirely, and in its stead a bounty of fifty cents per barrel
was given the oil men. This has worked satisfactorily
save for the fact that the Standard Oil Company has bought
out the largest refineries and to-day is the greatest power
in refining circles, thus to a large extent being able to
dictate the price of oil. In justice to them, however, it
must be stated that since they invaded Canada the pro-
ducers have obtained better prices for their oil.
Thus far I have been giving you a historic sketch of
the petroleum industry, and I shall now endeavor to
describe to you the industry as it is carried on at the
present day. |
First, however, I would like you to get a clear idea as
to just what petroleum is, what this oil, that has made so
many men rich and so many poor, is. You will observe
from the sample that is being passed around that it is a
dark, oily looking liquid with a very disagreeable odor. It
is slightly heavier than water, having a specific gravity of
.88 or thereabouts. The disagreeable odor is due to the
presence of a large percentage of sulphur in just what form
we have not been able yet to determine. This is a sample
of Canadian crude petroleum. It is readily distinguished
from the American crude oil by the fact that the American
oil has not disagreeable odor, it contains little sulphur. In
the early days of the industry this made the American
petroleum more valuable than the Canadian, as it: was
much easier to distill and refine on account of this sulphur.
At present, however, the difficulty has been overcome and
the sulphur does not offer any serious objection.
Crude petroleum, as it stands, is used quite extensively
as afuel. The International Harvester Works use a con-
siderable amount in their forges and furnaces. ‘The only
preparation necessary for this class of work is filtering.
A considerable amount of scientific discussion has
taken place as to whether petroleum owes its existence to
THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY OF CANADA
chemical action on mineral matter at a high temperature
in the depths of the earth’s crust, or whether it is formed
from the decomposition of organic remains accumulated in
sedimentary rocks. At present time the weight of
evidence is in favor of the latter conclusion, but whatever
its origin may be there are a number of conditions in
respect to its source and surroundings which must
imperatively obtain in order that an oil field of commercial
value should be found. 3
It is necessary that not only should the original
material exist in the locality in liberal quantities, but it
should be accumulated into pools in such manner that when
the bed is tapped oil will flow sufficiently free to be
remunerative. To fulfil these conditions it has been found
necessary that, over the rock containing the oil material
and that containing the porous matter in which it may be
held, an impervious dome-shaped roof of sufficient size and
thickness be formed to prevent the escape of the oil under
pressure during the ages through which it has been kept.
When the drill! hole reaches the resevoir of oil, if there
is a sufficient hydrostatic pressure under the oil, it is forced
up and becomes a flowing well, otherwise a pump has to be
used to get the crude oil to the surface.
The rocks of Southern Ontario, from Kingston to the
River St. Clair, may be said to be composed of those form-
ations belonging to the Upper and Lower divisions of the
Silurian system. They are composed of a number of
different formations from the Trenton in the east to the
Hamilton in the west, the strata dipping in nearly a
uniform manner towards the west, the outcroppings of the
underlying strata appearing under the overlying drift clay
at intervals along the route mentioned. In the uppermost
of these strata are situated the petroleum beds on the
summit of the anticlinal ridges parallel with the fields and
sloping in either direction. The adjoining synclinal
hollows in the rock being filled with a black shale, which
+.
THE PETROLEUM INDTSTRY OF ‘CANADA
indicates to the operator that the limit of the producing
field has been reached ; not that the black slate or shale
interferes with the oil strata, but it indicates the existence
of that part of the curve of the underlying dome which
covers the portion of the strata containing only water.
The wells of Petrolia are sunk to a depth of 485 fect,
and those at Oil Springs to about 370 feet, in either case
penetrating the upper part of the Coniferous formation,
which in these localities is composed of a porous dolomitic
limestone filled with petroleum, underlaid with a strata of
water under considerable pressure which assists in forcing
the oil out of the pores of the rock into the bore of the
well whence it is pumped to the surface. |
In sinking wells to these depths, several strata of shale
and limestone are penetrated, some of which are friable, or
contain water, in which case iron tubing is introduced into
the drill hole and the objectionable matter excluded and
the work proceeded with. In every case an upper strata
containing oil is found in the Petrolia region, which is
utilized. At Oil Springs, however, an immense accumula-
tion of oil was found in the overlying strata at a depth of
about 150 feet, but completely separated from “lower
vein’? and connected with a water pressure sufficient to
raise the oil with great force to the surface, from which
were derived the flowing wells of 1862.
The operation of sinking a well essentially consists 1n
the rise of a heavy bar of iron provided with a chisel
pointed extremity and attached with rods and cables to
power machinery, which alternately raising and dropping
the chisel cuts and pounds the rock into fine particles,
which are removed from time to time by passing a valved
tube to the bottom of the bore where it is filled and drawn
to the surface.
_A careful log or rec ord of the wells i is kept, that i is a re-
cord of the different strata, etc., through which the drill
THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY OF CANADA
passed in reaching the oil-bearing strata. The following
is the log of a typical well in the Petrolia region :
Sliriace Clay.) oes Le paee ee 100 feet
TOP Tock. 55.4 ole Pe eee 50 feet
soapstone.......... oa aaleew aWe Skate eee
Middle limes och 24 8 Sates - 15 feet
Lower soapstotie. :..........0s. 44 feet
Depth to lower lime 343 feet
Lower Mine io ceca! ome 6 peters --..145 feet
Total depthicyos6 o/s ea 478 feet
One hundred and ten feet of 454 inch casing used. Shot
15 quarts of nitro-glycerine.
On the completion of a well it is cased to carefully
shut off surface and other water. A charge of nitro-
glycerine is exploded at the bottom of the well to open up
the pores of the rock and clean out the debris caused by
drilling.
A pump is introduced and connections made with a
vibrating rod attached toa jerker constructed to pump a
number of wells, in some cases from 20 to 80 wells or more
being run from one set of machinery.
Small pipes are laid to each well to conduct the oil to
the central tank for delivery to the pipe line companies,
who draw the oil from the receiving tanks and store it in
their store-house tanks or transmit to the refiner.
The oil is nearly all conveyed to its place of final
disposal through underground pipes, by steam power
generated with the fuel formed from the refuse from the
material handled.
One of the necessities, from the want of which the
early oil operators suffered, was tanks in which to store
their oil pending the season of the year in which the bulk —
of it would be required. Naturally the Canadians erected,
in the first place, great wooden tanks which increased in
6
THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY OF CANADA
time to enormous proportions, some being as large as 24
feet in diameter and 20 feet deep. Large iron tanks were
introduced in 1865, twe of which had a capacity of 3,000
barrels, and these still remain as mementos of the time.
The iron tanks, however, were found to be too expensive,
and they subjected the oil stored to many sources of
danger, and vast improvements were found practicable and
of such a nature as no other part of the world has been
known to supply. The Erie clay, found in this region,
would almost appear to have been supplied for the express
purpose of oil storage. This clay is of a solid, tenacious
quality, free from seams or flaws, and easily removed.
When properly constructed tanks are sunk therein they
are cool, perfectly free from danger of loss by leakage or
evaporationer destruction by fire.
The tank is formed by excavating a circular hole about
thirty feet in diameter to a depth of about fifteen feet
through the top soil, Saugeen clay, which is somewhat
porous.
s
tech rigs a te Dg re ee eta
New Zealand
BY LYMAN LEE, B.A.
Read before the Hamilton Scientific Association,
May 7th, 1908
In conversation with a prominent member of this
Association some time ago, we came to the conclusion that
it would prove of educative value to the members if we’
could have a series of papers on the various parts of the
British Empire, and we both came to the decision that
New Zealand was perhaps the most interesting colony on
which to make the first experiment. I have never visited
this colony. My information is all derived from books.
In fact, this paper is chiefly a compilation from an interest-
ing and important book written by Prof. Frank Parsons, a
lecturer in the Boston University School of Law, and
called ‘‘ The Story of New Zealand,’’ and being a history
of New Zealand from the earliest times to the present with
special reference to the political, industrial and social
development of this Island Commonwealth. This book
was written in 1904. |
New Zealand consists of three islands, two large and
one small. Taking the islands as a group they are a little
larger than Great Britain. Their extreme length is about
1000 miles running almost north and south. They extend
from the 35th to the 48th degree south latitude.
A range of mountains extends along the western coast
of the middle island. There are ranges of lofty mountains
in the central part of the northern island and a number of
volcanic peaks, some active and some extinct. In this
middle region of the northern island there is a district
about 30 miles wide and roo miles long, which contains
many hot springs, geysers, pools of boiling mud, volcanic
NEw ZEALAND
cones and other manifestations of the under-world. Clouds
of steam and sulphurous fumes rise from the boiling pools,
and there are rumblings in the earth which show that the
central fires come close to the surface there.
The coast-line is irregular, many of the bays affording
excellent harbors, and along the south-west coast of the
middle island is a series of sounds indenting a mountainous
coast, aud surpassing in beauty and grandeur the famous
fiords of Norway. Rivers and waterfalls abound, and
many glaciers glisten among the peaks of the snowy range.
Noble forests fringe the coast of the nothern island, and
broad, rolling plains are a striking feature of the middle
island; rivers and lakes abound, and the whole scene
which meets the eye of the traveller is full of brightness
and beauty. Geologically New Zealand is one of the oldest
portions of land now forming any portion of the earth’s
surface. It has been repeatedly submerged and upheaved,
aud contains excellent deposits of coal, iron, gold, silver,
copper, chrome, graphite, lead, mercury, mineral oils,
sulphur, and zinc, besides limestone, granite, marble and
other building stones.
A little over 500 years ago the Maoris, a savage peopie
from the Islands of Polynesia, arrived at these islands in
their double canoes. A double cance consists of two canoes
joined by a structure or platform across the top of each.
By means of such canoes these daring and enterprising
people became the greatest navigators known until the
century of Columbus. They were a brown people, fair-
sized, heavily built, strong and athletic. They found the
country inhabited by aborignees, of which we know very
little. It is generally understood that the Maoris ate them
up.
In 1642, Tasman, a Dutch Sea Captain, sighted the
islands, anchoring in what is now called Golden Bay, near
the north-west point of the middle island. He tried to
land, but gave up the attempt on account of the hostile
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NEW ZEALAND
attitude of the natives. He was the first white man to see
these islands, as far®as we know. He reported his
discovery when he returned to Holland and the Dutch
authorities named the new country New Zealand, that is
New Sea-land.
Nothing further seems to have been known about this
country until a century and a quarter later when in 1769
Captain Cook came in ‘‘ The Endeavor’’ and landed on
the northern island at Poverty Bay, where the town of
Gisborne is now situated. He was the first white man to
set foot upon New Zealand soil. He shot a few of the
natives who opposed him, and they returned the com-
pliment by killing and eating the entire crew of his
companion ship ‘‘ The Adventure.’’ For the most part,
however, his relations with the natives were pleasaut. He
gave them some seed potatoes and the seed of cabbages and
turnips, and turned pigs and fowls loose to furnish them
with meat. From these pigs are supposed to have come
the wild pigs that are still shot in the forests. He sailed.
entirely around the group and passsed between the north-
ern and middle islands through what is now called Cook’s
Strait. He again visited the islands in 1773, 1774 and
1777. He wrote an interesting account of his observations
which attracted much attention. After that whalers and
traders began to visit the new country, and in course of
time a few settlers came and started the building of a
colony.
It is a curious fact that, at that time, this land was
almost entirely devoid of animal life, except in the sea and
air. Fish were plentiful and in great variety, and the same.
may be said of birds. There were no mammals except two
species of bat; no dogs, sheep, cattle, horses, wolves,
squirrels, rabbits, no wild beasts, no snakes, no venomous
reptiles or insects. It must not be inferred, however, that
conditions in New Zealand are in any way unfavorable to
the existence of animal life; on the contrary both domestic
NEW ZEALAND
and wild animals that have been introduced there have
multiplied and thriven in a remarkable degree. For
example, sheep flourish so that mutton and wool have long
been two of the leading exports ; and rabbits multiplied so
rapidly that they became a pest, and farmers had to fight
them with traps, poison and barbed wire fences, but now
they are turned to some account by exporting by the ship-
load their dressed bodies in a frozen condition to England.
Many excellent varieties of timber trees, such as beech,
pine and cedar, are found in the forests. Flax is a native
plant, from the fibre of which the Maoris made blankets
and clothing. American and European cereals, vegetables
and fruits have been introduced, and they flourish
remarkably. The water-cress, introduced by accident
probably, increased so fast that it threatened to choke half
the streams. The sweetbriar, another invader, grows
tall enough, it is said, to arch over the head of a man on
horseback, and has extended its domain so rapidly that it
has become one of the principal vegetable pests of the
country. The resin of the Kauri, a native gum tree, is
one of the chief exports. It is used in the manufacture of
oil varnishes and also as a substitute for amber. Insect
life is less prevalent than in Europe or America.
During the early years of the nineteenth century
whaling and trading vessels came in increasing numbers,
but no event of importance occurred till the arrival of the
missionaries in 1814. It became known that the Maoris
were a very superior race of savages and thus attracted
Christian missionaries. ‘The leader of these was Samuel
Marsden, the Chaplain of New South Wales. The apostle
to the Maoris was a plain, unassuming, kindly man, who
made no claim to scholarship, brilliancy, wealth or rank,
but had a practical knowledge of human nature and earnest
zeal.
While returning to Sydney from a visit to Eugland in
1809, he noticed on the ship a brown-skinned ragged man,
NEW ZEALAND
whose forlorn condition awakened his sympathy. Sick
and weak and racked with a violent cough, the poor man
seemed to have but a short time to live. Marsden did his
utmost to care for him, and through his kindness and help
the man recovered with a life-long gratitude in his heart to
the loving missionary. ‘This brown man was young
Ruatora, a Maori of high rank and a relative of two famous
chiefs, Te Paki and Hongi. He was returning from a five
year’s cruise in which he had been badly treated by
whalers and shipmasters. He stayed six months in
Marsden’s house in Sydney, when he went back to
New Zealand with some seed wheat and a considerable
knowledge of agriculture. The wheat, which was given to
the chiefs by Ruatora and sown, converted into bread and
eaten before the chaplain put his foot on the soil, was a
great factor in preparing the savage mind to listen to the
missionary. The missionaries took with them a horse and
some cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and poultry. From the
missionaries the Maoris learned better methods of
agriculture, and various simple arts and handicrafts, and
schools were opened for their instruction. A little later,
with the aid of philologists in England, the missionaries
reduced the Maori tongue to a written language which the
natives had not before possessed, and translated the
scriptures and other works into Maori.
By the year 1840 about one-fourth of the Maoris were
couverted to Christianity, and the conversion was so true
that they earnestly opposed cannibalism, slavery and tribal
warfare, although these institutions were all deeply
embedded in the habits and traditions of their race. The
progress of missionary work since 1840 has been very great.
During a period of fifty years no missionary lost his life by
the hand of a Maori, and during that time the race was
changed from cannibalistic savages to Christians. They
voluntarily liberated their slaves without compensation or
reward. Before their conversion to Christianity, in spite
NEW ZEALAND
of their cannibalism and incessant tribal wars, the Maoris
were one of the finest races of savages that have been
found, They held their land in comimon as the property of
the tribe, and agriculure, fishing and fowling were the
work of the community for the benefit of all.
In the wars with the whites in 1843 and 1845, and
almost continuously from 1860 to 1870, the Maoris fought
with courage and vigor. But they have long since given
up cannibalism and war. For over 30 years they have been
peaceful, law-abiding citizens. Both their men and women
are voters, six of the race are members of parliament, four
in the House and two in the Senate, and one is a member
of the Cabinet.
The first attempt to form a settlement in New Zealand
occurred in 1825, but it failed on account of the savagery
of the natives. I consequence of frequent visits of whal-
ing vessels to the Bay of Islands, a settlement grew up
there, and in 1833 Mr. Busby was sent there as British
Resident. A number of Eurnpeans, generally men of low
character, gradually settled in different parts of the country
and married native women. Ii 1839 a New Zealand
Company was formed in England for the purpose of colon-
izing New Zealand, and its first body of emigrants landed
in 1840, and this settlement has now become the City of
Wellington. From this time on settlements gradually
increased in number and in size, but there were many
difficuties with the natives, particularly concerning land
titles. In 1861 rich deposits of gold were discovered,
causing a rush and sudden increase of the population. In
1840 the white population numbered about 2,000 and the
Maoris something like 60,000. In 1853 the whites were
30,000 strong. In 1857 the natives and whites were
about equal in numbers. By 1874 the whites numbered
299,154 aud the Maoris only 45,470. In 1906 the whites
numbered 888,578, and in 1901 the Maoris 47,731.
In the early days the traders and settlers desired the
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NEW ZEALAND
protection of Great Britain, and the friends of colonization
in the British Isles were anxious that Great Britain should
take charge of New Zealand as a British Colony. The
missionaries, on the other land, opposed annexatiou at
first because they feared its effects on the natives and their
conversion. The strong influx of Europeans likely to
follow annexation, with the saloon, gainbling den and
other accompaniments of the early influx of Eurepeans, and
the cruel wars almost certain to result from the rapid settle-
ment of a country full of savages, were not calculated to
advance the interests of Christianity. Savagery and
cannibalism were sufficient obstacles without the white
man’s amusements and conflicts of trade and conquest.
The British Government not only regarded the opinions of
the missionaries as entitled to special consideration, but
had a further reason for being at least rather cool with
regard to taking New Zealand under the banner of the
Empire. When the friends of colonization sent a deputa-
tion in 1829 to the Duke of Wellington, their Prime
Minister, to urge the acquirement and settlement of these
islands, the Duke said Great Britain had colonies enough.
John Bull’s appetite for land was not as keen just then as
usual. For years this feeling and the opposition of the
missionaries kept the British Government from doing any-
thing except sending James Busby to the Bay of Islands in
1833. He was able to accomplish very little notwithstand-
ing all his efforts to establish some sort of stable
government.
Fears of French colonization and the ‘‘ land sharks ”’
were, however, powerful factors in hastening British
colonization. The ‘‘ land sharks’’ bought large tracts of
land for speculation. Many of the purchases were
imperfect or fictitious. Boundaries were inserted by
purchasers after the deeds had been signed in blank by the
sellers. The same land was sold three or four times. Some
purchases were airily defined by latitude and longitude.
NEW ZEALAND
Almost the whole area of good land in the middle island
was the subject of one professed sale. An Australian
politician, Wentworth by name, ‘‘ bought’ ths island at
a single stroke from nine wandering Maoris, picked up on
the streets of Sydney, who had no right to sell any part of
the alleged ‘‘purchase.’’ ‘The ‘“‘ Wentworth Syudicate’’
paid them a little over $1,000, or at the rate of about one
cent for each 200 acres of the area claimed.
By 1840 it was estimated that, exclusive of this middle
island claim and the claim of the New Zealand Company,
which I shall refer to in a moment, 26,000,000 acres or
more than a third of New Zealand had been acquired by
the ‘‘land sharks,’ a large portion of it having been
bought several times over from the Maoris by different
purchasers. Including the Wentworth and New Zealand
Company claims, the total purchases amounted te 82,000,-
000 acres, Or 16,000,000 more thai there were in the whole
country, including snow-capped mountains, glaciers and
pumice plains. Some strong authority was clearly needed
to deal with the conflict of titles, disputes with the natives
and other evils growing out of this land monopoly. The
New Zealand Company, under the leadership of Gibbon
Wakefield and inis brother, Col. Wakefield, were determined
to settle New Zealand whether the British Government
sanctioned it or not. In September, 1839, the Colonel
made extensive land purchases for the Company, at least
he thought he did, and the Company claimed twenty
millions of acres north and south of Cook Strait in what
are now the Wellington, Taranaki and Nelson Districts.
Fifty-eight chiefs signed the deeds of sale, receiving a lot
of muskets, powder, axes, blankets, pipes, tobacco, looking
glasses, soap, shaving boxes, handkerchiefs, jew’s harps,
calico, scissors and other goods amounting to $45,000.
The Maoris probably knew the sale was a fraud, at any
rate they had no right under Maori law or custom to.
alienate the heritage of the tribes. Very likely most of the
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chiefs did not undérstand how much land the Colonel
thought he was buying, and did not have any notion of
selling the vast area claimed by the Company. At the
ime, however, the Company did not appreciate the
difficulties of Jand purchase in New Zealand, and relying
upon the Maori deeds they organized a body of colonists
and landed them in January, 1840.
_ The settlers and traders and land sharks, the menace
of French interference, the change of heart among the
missionaries and the presence of the New Zealand Company
at last induced the Colonial Office to annex the islands.
In 1839 a royal proclamation was issued, extending the
political boundaries of New South Wales to include any
territory that might be acquired by Her Majesty in New
Zealand, and Captain Hobson arrived at the Bay of Islands
January 29, 1840, with a commission as Lieutenant
Governor under the Governor of New South Wales. The
history of New Zealand as part of the British Empire dates
from that day. The royal proclamation covered only such
_ territory as might be acquired in sovereignty by the Queen.
Ou February 5th, 1840, a week after Hobson’s landing, the
northern chiefs were gathered in conference at Waitangi.
and the question cf British rule laid before them. The
result was the Treaty of Waitangi in the following terms :
rst. The chiefs of New Zealand ceded to Her Majesty,
absolutely and without reservation, all their rights and
powers of sovereignty.
2nd. Her Majesty guaranteed to the chiefs and tribes
of New Zealand full exclusive and undisturbed possession
of their lands and estates, forests, fisheries and other
properties; but the chiefs yielded to Her Majesty the
exclusive rights of pre-emption over such lands as the
proprietors thereof might be disposed to alienate at such
price as might be agreed upon. |
3rd. Her Majesty gave the natives of New Zealand all
the rights and privileges of British subjects, |
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NEW ZEALAND
About fifty chiefs signed the treaty then and there, and
in six mouths it had been signed by 512. Only one chief
of first rank refused to sign. Te Hen Heu, who lived in
the volcano plantation near Lake Tuapo, in the plateau in
the middle of the north island. His tribe was simply let
alone until their opposition vanished. For the rest, the
Maori race accepted the Treaty of Waitangi, and well they
might, for while the supreme political authority passed to
Great Britain, the ownership of their lands was guaranteed
to them and to this day they regard that treaty as the
Magna Charta of their liberties. Some 60,000 or 70,000
Maoris were secured in their title to nearly 66,000,000
acres of valuable land.
British Sovereignty over the north island was pro-
claimed May 31st, 1840, and over the middle or south
Island, as it was then called, on the 17th of June 1840.
In September 1840, the Governor established his resi-
dence at Auckland and-it became the capital. For 24
years it held this honor and then the seat of government
was transferred to Wellington on account of its central
position, but Auckland is still the first in size and beauty
and second to na other New Zealand city in prosperity and
progress.
On May 31d, 1841, New Zealand was declared inde-
pendent of New South Walcs with Hobson as Governor.
He established effective government and had excellent
laws passed for the administration of justice and the regu-
lation of property and civil rights. In this he was mater-
ially aided by his attorney general, William Swainson, an
English lawyer of fine ability and remarkable freedom
from slavish subjection to precedent and technicality. He
framed the laws of the infant colony in simple, concise and
intelligible language, and swept away many cumbrances
English precedents and technicalities in conveyancing,
legal procedure, etc.
The most important matter which Governor Hobson
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NEW ZEALAND
and his council had to deal with was the land question.
Under the Treaty the Crown had the first right of purchase
from the Maoris. The justice or injustice of the claims of
pretended purchasers from the natives was in every case
inquired into very carefully and right was done as far as
possible. The New Zealand Company’s claim was cut
down from 20 millions to 283,000 acres.
Governor Hobson died September toth, 1843, He had
done his very best under most trying circumstances and
was universally respected.
Among the important factors in the early history of
New Zealand, a leading place must be assigned to the ideas
and doings of Gibbon Wakefield, the founder of the colony
and George Grey its greatest Governor, author of its con-
stitution and pioneer leader of what is called the Liberal
movement.
_ Gibbon Wakefield established the system and orgav-
ized and directed the company under the auspices of which
three quarters of New Zealand was colonized. His domi-
nant idea was ‘‘ scientific colonization ” careful selection of
emigrants, inducements to laborers and capitalists to go to
the new couniry in organized groups and sale of the land
under free selection at a uniform ‘‘ sufficient price’’ that
is, a substantial price sufficient to prevent speculation and
secure close settlement diversification of industry and
funds for emigration and public works. Instead of making
colonists out of convicts and treating a colony as a sort of
vacant lot on which to dump the refuse and waste of older
countries, Wakefield believed in choosing colonists morally
and physically worthy to be the founders of a new common-
wealth. In those parts of the colony where he operated
the high character of the settler:, the rarity of crime, the
good standard of education, the evidences of intelligence
and even of refinement have always been obvious enough
to strike even very hasty observers. In an evil hour
however, Captain Fitzroy, the seeond Governor waived
NEW ZEALAND
the Crown’s pre-emptive right in March 1844, and per-
mitted private purchase from the Maoris, subject to the
approval of the Government aud the payment to it of 10
shillings on each acre which was soon reduced to 2 cents
anacre. ‘I‘his was an evasion of the Land Sales Act of
1842 and the breaking down of the barriers established by
the ‘T'reaty. Fitzroy yielded to the clamor of speculators
and by his weak vacillating policy brought on sullen dis-
content among the settlers and war with the natives. His
administration culminated in conflict, financial barat
and general confusion.
Fitzroy was recalled and Captain George Grey was
placed at the head of the colony November 1845. At last
New Zealand had a real statesman at the helm ; a man of
strength, high character and resource, a gentleman, cour-
teous and tactful, a lover of the people, a commander of
ability, a governor of remarkable power and a statesman
of exalted purpose. He speedily ended the war, and not
only conquered the Maoris, but won their admiration and
their love, He protected their rights and had ordinances —
passed to prevent the sale of liquor and munitions of-war
to the natives. He subsidized native schgols, provided
savings banks and established hospitals and other charitable
institutions. He covstrneted trunk roads by military and
native labor. He repealed Fitzroy’s land regulations and
enforced the Crown’s pre-emptive right. He induced the
natives to sell some millions of acres in the north island
and nearly all the middle island whereby the Government
acquired a large estate that laid the basis for real progress.
In purchasing land from the natives for the State he intro-
duced the system of paying the money in instalments,
spread over a series of years. This kept the natives from
reckless dissipation and served as a security for their good
behaviour.
The greatest of all the many services rendered by
Governor Grey in his first administration, which lasted
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NEW ZEALAND
until the end of 1853, were his resistance to two unjust
acts of the Home Government consisting of a violation of
the land clause of the treaty of Waitangi and an unfair
constitution and the establishment of representative gov-
ernment on a just basis. He found the colony on the
brink of ruin and left it ina state of prosperity and pro-
gress, and although just at the end of his first term he
made the mistake of reducihg the price of public land from
#1 to ros. and under certain conditions to 5s. an acre,
which led to the purchase of enormous territories by run-
holders, speculatars and monopolists and the locking up of
large estates in few hands. Yet his motive was excellent, ;
even in these cheap land regulations which he. intended to
enable poor men to get farms, not forseeing the speculative
purchases and in spite of this mistake the Colony owes to
Earl Grey much that is best in its history.
The New Zealand Company and itssettlers at Welling-
ton, Anckland, Nelson, etc., were continually agitating
for representative government and in August, 1846, the
British parliament enacted a constitution for the Colony.
But it was ill-made and wholly unjust to the Maoris, who
far out-numbered the whites, and who by the Treaty of
Waitangi had been guaranteed all the rights and privileges
of British citizens, yet were practically excluded from any
share in the government by the proposed constitution and
the instructions sent with it. Sir George Grey with a
moral courage and good sense, which did him great honor,
succeeded in postponing the enforcement of this constitu-
tion for several years until a just and reasonable, and at
the same time practicable one could be adopted. In 1852
Britain sent over the seas another constitution affcrding
substantial self government, and leaving the right to vote
open to Maoris as well as white men. It established a cen-
tral government and six provincial governments, the lower
‘House in each case being elective under a franchise based
ona property qualification.
‘
NEW ZEALAND
The central government consisted of a Parliament and
and a viceroy or governor, appoiuted by the Colonial office
to be commander in chief of the Queen’s forces in the
Colony with the power to appoint such persons as the Crown
might desire to be members of the Legislative Council or
Upper House of Parliament, to dissolve Parliament at his
pleasure and to reserve bills for the consideration of the
Home Government. Though much in evidence in the early
years, the Governor has long since ceased to be active.
From 1868 the real executive has been the Prime Minister of
the Colony and his Cabinet and the Governor has become a
figurehead which the Colony pays for. ‘The central legis-
lative power was placed in a General Assembly, consisting
of the Governor, the Legislative Council (or Senate) and
the House of Representatives. The Upper House was
composed of such persons, not lessthan 10, as the Governor
under the Queen’s authorization might summon and they
were to hold their positions for life. The tenure now is 7
years and these appointments are now made on the
recommendation of the Prime Minister and his cabinet.
The total nuinber of the Upper House now is 44.
The House of Representatives is elective, only men
having a certain property qualification and residence were
under the Constitution allowed to vote or become members
of this House, and the Parliament was for a five year term
unless sooner dissolved by the Governor; but all these
provisions were subject to change, and have been changed.
No property qualification is now necessary to a vote, and
both men and women have that right. ‘The parliamentary
term is now only three years. Since 1902 there have been
80 members in this Honse, ihe European representatives
and 4 Maoris.
The General Assembly may make laws ‘‘not repugnant
to the law of England,’’ with a few specified exceptions
relating to duties on military imports, exemptions, bounties,
drawbacks or other privileges in respect to any imports or
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exports and charges on shipping at variance with treaty
between Great Britain and any foreign power. The
Governor was given power to reserve Bills passed by the
New Zealand Houses for consideration by the Home
Government. - But during the history of half a century of
vigorous legislation, including some of the most radical
measures the world has ever known, experience proves that
Great Britain is inclined to use this power very sparingly.
New Zealand is practically independent, except in respect
to international matters, and the little liberty she yields is
vastly more than compensated by the benefits of federation
in the British Empire.
The first parliament met in 1854 at Auckland. The
first session was stormy and lasted only for a few weeks.
Those who had drawn up the constitution had neglected to °
provide fora responsible ministry, that is a ministry that
could be brought to an end by vote of the House. A bill
was, however, passed for the establishment of a ministry
responsible to the House, and it received the consent of the
Home Government so that when the second Parliament
met in 1856 it took control of the Cabinet. When Sir
George Grey retired from the Governorship in 1868, the
real executive power passed to the ministry where it has
remaiued ever siuce. From about the middle of December,
throughout January, February and March, which are the
summer months in New Zealand, Parliament does not sit.
Most of the important laws are passed toward the end of ©
the session in September, October and November.
Having traced briefly the history of this interesting
part of the civilized world up to the inauguration of
responsible government, as it is impossible for me to give
any detailed account of the extetisive radical and progres-
sive legislation of the Parliaments of New Zealand in this
paper, I must content myself with briefly indicating the
character and scope of a small part of such legislation.
The Torrens System of land transfer has been
gradually introduced with most satisfactory results. The
NEW ZEALAND
post office, in addition to all the services we have, carries
on a parcel post business and the rates charged are said to
be less than half the charges made by our express com-
panies for similar services ; and the telegraph and telephone
are operated as public utilities by the Government. Mr.
Gladstone secured the establishment of the postal savings
banks in England in 1861, and four years later New
Zealand adopted the new idea, and since then almost every
country in the civilized world, except the United States,
has followed their example. In New Zealand in 1904 there
was a place of bank deposit for each 1,800 people, and the
total deposits in all sorts of banks was $140 for each
inhabitant as compared with $11o in the United States and
$125 in Great Britain. The nation also owns and operates
almost all railways. After an experience of over 30 years
the statesmen and people of New Zealand, rich and poor,
- Liberal and Conservative, are substantially a unit in favor
of national railways, and no proposition to turn the rail-
roads over to private corperations would stand the slightest
chance of acceptance.
In 1870 a Government Life Insurance Department was
established. The Department was popular from the start.
From the report of 1g01 it appeared that there were then in
force 42,570 Government policies covering $51,000,000 of
insurauce, or practically half the whole insurance business
of the colony. The government office has beaten the
private companies in fair competition. The government
bureau employs paid canvassers, has handsome offices and
issues attractive and skilfully worded circulars and adver-
tisements to invite the patronage of the people. The
government rates are lower than the premiums charged by
private companies, but the main elements of competition
are in the conditions in and behind the insurance. The
people prefer the government insurance not only because of
its cheapness, but because of its safety—the guarantee of
the government behind it and its freedom from all oppres-
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NEW ZEALAND
sive conditions, and, in fact, from practically ail
conditions of any sort. The conditions appear to be that
the premiums must be paid and the assured must not
commit suicide within six months after the insurance is
taken out. The policy is world-wide. ‘‘ The assured may
go where he will and do what he likes, get himself shot in
battle, smoke cigarettes, drink ice water and eat mince pie,
or commit suicide in the ordinary forms after six menths
and the money will still be paid to his relatives.’’ Even
the condition as to the payment of the premiums is not the
cast-iron arrangement it often is with us. If a man fails
to pay the department his premium when it is due, he does
not lose hisinsurance. The government pays the premium
out of the surrender value of the policy, and will do this
over and over again as long as there is any surrender value
left. The system is entirely co-operative. The profits of
the business goes to the insured. They are divided tri-
ennially. In five divisions of profits the total returned to
policy holders was about $35,000,000. There is a temper-
ance section established in 1882 in which total abstainers.
are insured in a group by themselves—a mutual society of
non-drinkers with their own bonuses. The government
will loan money on the policies at 6 per cent. below $500
and 5 per cent. beyond that sum. The funds of the
department are invested in mortgages on real estate, mun-
icipal bonds, good securities and loans on policies. The
department is free from any taint of the spoils system, and
even the competing private insurance companies admit that
it is well managed. Experts are in charge of the business
and they have made it a complete success.
A large portion of the advanced legislation of the
Colony has been enacted since 1890.
Under the Land and Income Assessinent Act of 1891, and
amendments thereto, the property tax is abolished and a
graduated taxation of land values and incomes established.
The avowed objects of the law are ‘‘ to tax according to.
NEW ZEALAND
ability to pay,’’ ‘“‘to free the small man’’ and ‘‘ to burst
up monopolies,’’ and its cardinal features are the exemp-
tion of improvements of smail owners and traders, and the
special pressure put on the big monopolists and corpora-
tions and on absentees. One of the great objects of the
law is to make it expensive and unprofitable to hold land
in large tracts for speculative purposes. ‘The land system -
of the country has been greatly effected with the ideas of
nationalization of the soil, leasing in perpetuity restriction
of area and of transfer, resumption and division of over-
grown estates, abolition of large holdings, close settlement
under improvement and residentiai conditions, co-operative
development of sniali farms, settleinents, suburban homes
for workingmen, easy access to the soil for ail, especially
for those of small means, preference for the landless,
gradual absorption of the unearned increment for the use
of the public—the land for the people in every way and not
for the few. There are three ways of overcoming land
mouopoly : (1) Confiscation. (2) Pressure through tax-
ation, etc. (3) Resumpiion or state purchase by agree-
ment or compulsion. New Zealand, while using the
second, relies largely on the third, which meets the need
more definitely aud certainly than any ordinary tax and
more justly than confiscation. ‘To meet the demand for
land and break up monopoly, favor the settlement of men
of small means and move toward the nationalization cf the
soil, the Ballance Ministry in 1890 agreed on the policy:
(1) Of putting pressure on the large holders through pro-
gressive taxation. (2) Of conserving the remaining public
lands for genuine settlement. (3) Of limitation of the
area of holdings and of the right of transfer. (4) Of
repurchasing and dividing large estates, and (5) of
establishing the true perpetual lease (with periodic revalu-
ations and no right to purchase the freehold), as the tenure
on which public lands and resumed lands should be taken.
The first of these aims was accomplished in 1891 and
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NEW ZEALAND
1892. ‘The second, third and fourth were carried out by
the land acts of 1892 and 1894, but the fifth was com-
promised after an earnest fight—leases in perpetuity (999
years) with no right of repurchase and no revaluations,
leases for 25 years, with right of purchase after 10 years
and the optional system with residential and improvement
conditions, being accepted by the government in place of
the desired perpetual leases in order to carry the other
provisions of the land acts. The legislation secured,
though not up to the ideal of its promoters, was neverthe-
less sufficient to turn the tide from concentration to
diffusion of the ownership and benefits of the soil, and win
the victory for the people in the great battle between the
‘settlers and the monopolists, which has been going on siuce
the foundation of the colony. The Land for Settlements
Act, of 1892, authorized the Governor to acquire any land
by contract with the owner, to be disposed of in lots not
exceeding 320 acres and only in lease in perpetuity at 5 per ‘
cent. rental, whether it was rural, suburban or town land.
Other resumption clauses were contained in the Land Act
(1892). But the lack of compulsory power made the
working of the law quite unsatisfactory. Nearly a million
acres were offered under it to the government in 1893, but
much of it was poor and unsuitable and the price asked for
the rest was usually excessive. It was not till 1894 that
the principle of compulsory purchase of large estates was
enacted into law, and the Ministry had effective means of
carrying out their purposes.
A ‘prescribed maximum ’’ area is fixed by the law in |
respect to each class of land, anda much smaller maximum
in the case of land within five miles of a city. If any
person or company has more than the prescribed area the
government can take, by compulsory process, the excess
above the prescribed area or the whole block, if the owner
does not want it divided. :
The lands acquired by resumption must be divided and
cannot be disposed of by sale, but only on lease in
NEw ZEALAND
perpetuity. ‘The rent is 5 per cent. on the land value, as
estimated at the beginning of the lease, and if at any time
for sufficient cause the lessee is unable to pay, the Minister
may remit a year’s rent. ‘he Consolidation Act of 1900
empowers the Commissioner of Crown Lands and the
Receiver of Land Revenue to grant at their discretion to
any tenant not in arrears a rebate of 10 per cent. on any
installment in order to encourage punctual payments.
Where tenants take lands with buildings thereon they have
to buy the buildings by halfi-yearly payments extending
over a term of years, and in the meantime pay interest on
their value at 5 per cent. The profit to the government
from land repurchase has been large.
Before 1890 the tide of population was from the
country toward the cities, but the land policy has turned
back the movement of the people toward the soil. The
holdings have increased over 60 per cent. Instead of one
man in four being the holder of farming lands, as was the
case in 1892, im 1904 One man in two was the holder of
rural lands. Many of the comparatively poor have been
the chief gainers by the land policy. In the year 1894 the
Government Loan Office was established through which
public funds are loaned to farmers, laborers, business men,
etc., and at low interest and on easy terms. The situation in
the early nineties naturally led the people and their
representatives to look to government lending as a means
of relief from and protection against excessive interest and
unreasonable conditions. In spite of falling prices and
industrial depression the banks and money-lenders would
not reduce the rates of interest, but rather increased them.
The farmers’ income was diminishing whilst his
interest was increasing. In this predicament it occurred to
him that the Government, his Government, the great firm
in which he had an interest which could borrow money at
3 or 3% per cent., could lend money to him at a more
yeasonable rate of interest. A law therefore passed author-
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NEW ZEALAND
izing the loaning of money on freehold or leasehold interest
cleared of encumbrances and free of any breach of
condition. The loans are secured by first mortgages of
lands and improvements. No loan can be for less than
$125 or more than $15,000, and the sum of the advances to
any one person must not exceed $15,000. ‘The interest
ranges according to the terms of repayment, from 4% to
5% per cent. with an increase of 4% per cent. if payment is
not made promptly.
In 1892 a law was passed to get rid of the difficulties,
injustice aud expense caused by legal decisions based on
_ technical defects. Cases are under this law decided on
their merits, and no man loses his rights because of any
technicality. ,
The electoral reforms so earnestly advocated by Bal-
lance, after being twice wrecked in the Upper House were
adopted in 1893. These reforms embodied the one man
one vote principle, equal suffrage for men and women and
compulsory voting. Under the compulsory voting provis-
ion if an elector, who is not a candidate at a general
election, nor prohibited by law from voting fails to vote,
his name is expunged from the voting list and unless he
appears and excuses the neglect to the satisfaction of the
Court he loses his vote at the next election. At the first
election at which women were entitled to vote held in >
November 1893, 90,290 women voted and 129,792 men. At
the election of 1899, 119,550 women and 159,780 men went
to the polls, 71 per cent. of the women of the Colony and
75 per cent. of the men. In 1902 about 95 per cent. of the
women were enrolled and 75 per cent. of those who were
registered voted. There is not even a whispered suggestion
to repeal the law giving women the suffrage.
New Zealand is the land of the eight-hour day. This _
does not mean that everybody works eight hours, but a _
very large part of the laboring classes have the eight-hour
day and from one end of the Colony to the other, eight
8
NEW ZEALAND
hours is recognized as the standard working day, both in
public and private service. This is due to the combined
force of industrial organization, public opinion and law.
Legislation in almost all lines is of a very advanced char-
acter and it would bea genuine pleasure for me, were not
this paper already too long to deal with many phases .of
of same but I must content myself on this occasion by
giving you some idea of the introduction and achievements
of industrial arbitration.
New Zealand is the first country to abolish strikes and
lockouts and establish judicial decision of labor difficulties
in the place of industrial war. This was accomplished in
1894. The law then enacted enables either party to an in-
dustrial difficulty to bring the matter into court and have
it decided by an award with the binding force of a judg-
ment of the Supreme Court, a law that has put an end to
the battles between capital and organized labor and has
produced continuous industrial peace. Either party may
demand a settlement by arbitration in place of conflict. It |
is mandatory arbitration, the administration of justice ex-
tended to labor disputes. The system rests upon two
broad facts. (1) That decision by reason is better than
decision by force and (2), that there are three parties in-
terested in every industrial trouble, labor, capital and the
public, and as the public always wants arbitration if either
of the other parties desires it also there is a majority Ole
to 1 in favor of peaceful settlement.
Local Boards of Conciliation were instituted with 4 to
6 members, half of them chosen by organized labor and
half by organized capital, with appeal to a central court of
arbitration of three members, one judge elected by the
- labor unions, another by unions of employers and the third
_ (who is president of the court and must be a judge of the
Supreme Court) appointed by the Governor who also fills
all vacancies if workers or employers fail to elect. Where-
ever the workers in any trade are legally organized (any
:
Re
S.
.
NEW ZEALAND
five can form a union and register without cost) the law
takes effect.
Any legal labor union (a union registered under The
Trade Union Act or the Arbitration Act or both) and any
employer or organization of employers may sue and be sued
under the Act, but only organizations registered under the
Arbitration Act can take part in electing the members of
the conciliation boards and the judges, and either party to
an industrial dispute may begin proceedings under the Act,
after which anything DARRALE
Engineer of Tests, Westinghouse Co., Hamilton
The electro-smelting of ores and the making of steel
in the Electric Furnace is a proces which has been receiv-
ing a great deal of attention in the last few years.
Numerous experiments have been made in Europe, and
later in America, to determine if the process could be made
a commercial success, and while it is regarded as a failure,
by some, on account of its not yet being able to fill all the
expected requirements, it has its advocates who pronounce
it, for a certain class of work, under certain conditions, a
decided success—one already worthy the attention of the
commercial man who is looking for a good investment.
Up to recently it seemed to be the prevailing opinion,
that so far asthe reduction of metals from their ores is
concerned, the electric furnace is not able to compete with
the modern blast furnace. Nor is it suitable for the
manufacture of steel for structural purposes or steel rails
on a large scale; but for special, high-grade steels it has
already proved its usefulness and established a strong
claim to a position in the industrial world.
The Electric Furnace was invented primarily with the
discovery that an electric current passing through a
medium produced heat, but imore particularly on the
discovery of the electric arc by Sir Humphrey Davy, who
succeeded in producing an arc temperature of 6000° F.
When we consider that a very high temperature is
absolutely necessary for smelting ores, but that it was
very difficult to obtain and regulate, it is no wonder that
SMELTING ORES BY ELECTRICITY
scientists have investigated so closely the adaption of the
electric arc for smelting. The blast furnace, after a hun-
dred years’ trial and improvement, is probably now as
nearly perfect or highly efficient as it ever will be; but it
has its limitations and its faults. Every ton of pig-iron
produced by the blast furnace requires nearly a ton of coke;
two-thirds of this is saved by the electric furnace.
In sections of the country where coke is expensive,
and where water-power for electric development is plentiful,
it would appear that there is already a very good reason
for the electric furnace. Especially does this seem so in
Canada (in Ontario and Quebec), where water-power is
abundant, and where suitable coke can be cheaply produced
from the refuse wood-cuttings from mills in our extensive
lumber districts. The control of temperature in the
electric furnace is ideal as compared with that of the blast
furnace, and moreover the heating is not necessarily
directly associated with the products of combustion.
There are many types of electric furnace, but they
may be roughly classified as the type requiring electrodes
and those not requiring electrodes, the latter being of the
induction type. The most important of these are the
‘Keller’? and ‘‘ Heroult’’ furnaces for the production of
pig-iron and steel, and the ‘‘ Kjellin’’ and ‘‘ Gin’’ for the
production of high-grade steel.
In 1904 the Canadian Government appointed a Com-
mission to proceed to Europe to examine the above
furnaces and their operations, and a complete description
may be found in the Report published by the Government.
The Keller Furnace, for the reduction of iron ores,
resembles, somewhat, an ordinary blast furnace in appear-
ance. It is of the resistance type, in whlch the
resistance of the charge to the electric current produces
heat in the charge. It consists of two iron casings of
Square cross-section, forming two vertical shafts which are
lined with dolomite or other refractory material. The
‘»
PB (
. SMELTING ORES BY ELECTRICITY
shafts communicate with each other at their bases by a
laternal canal, also lined with a refractory material, which
forms a basin or reservoir for the molten metal while
accumulating. The metal can be tapped off from this
reservoir after the slag has been withdrawn from tap-holes,
one at the base of each shaft, at a higher level than the
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a outside the furnace by a copper conductor, so that the
- electric circuit is not broken when the molten metal is
f | being tapped out. The two electrodes are supported one in
gs each shaft, and are connected, one to each side of the
q supply circuit. They extend vertically downward about
| two-thirds of their length into the shafts. The charge,
ey
crushed to pass through a two-inch ring, is fed in around
each electrode from the tap, and as it melts and descends it
may be renewed continuously. In starting, the charge is
introduced between the carbon-base block and the electrode
on each side. The current passes from the electrode to
the charge, to the carbon block, through the external
copper conductor to the other carbon block, to the charge
in the second shaft and to the second electrode. The
resistance offered to the current produces leat in the
charge which begins to melt, runs down into the reservoir
and soon conducts the current internally to the second
electrode. This continues until only a very small percent-
age of the current passes through the external copper
shunt.
The electrodes are gradually raised to their normal
position, and the charge is renewed until the space between
the carbon blocks and the electrodes, and between the
electrodes and the sides of the shafts are completely
‘occupied by the charge. The ingenious application of the
external copper shunt permits the continuous operation of
the furnace without excessive variation of the load upon
the alternator. The electrodes are approximately 3.3”
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SMELTING ORES BY ELECTRICITY
square x 55” long. The consumption of the electrodes is
usually slight on account of the low current density. The
cost of electrodes per ton of product in this furnace is
approximately .77 cents. It is believed that charcoal or
peat-coke could be successfully used in this furnace as the
reducing agent.
The electrical conditions in this furnace when smelting
under normal conditions are approximately as follows :—
Mean voltage 70 volts.
Meaii current 9900 amperes.
Power factor about 747%.
Mean K.P. 513.
The low power factor is accounted for by the iron
casing which forms a continuous magnetic circuit around
each shaft of the furnace, and which is highly magnetized
by the heavy current, giving to the circuit a very high
resistance.
In this type of furnace the energy absorbed per ton of
pig was found to be .475 E.H.P. years for the run with
furnace of 1,000 H.P. capacity with mean current of 11,000
amperes at 60 volts, and .226 EK. H. P. years for the run
with furnace of 308 H.P. capacity with mean current of
7,000 amperes at 55 volts—giving an average of .350 EH.
H.P. years. ‘The cost of producing one ton of pig by the
Keller process is estimated at $12.05, assuming electrical
energy at $10 per H.P. year and coke $7 per ton. This
cost wight have been reduced if some means were devised
to utilize the Carbon-Monoxide C.O. which was wasted.
The Heroult process for steel making permits the
purification of material used, and different grades of steel
can be made without difficulty.
The furnace for this process is of the tilting pattern.
It consists of an iron casing lined with dolomite brick, and
having magnesite brick around the openings. The hearth
is formed of crushed dolomite, carefully rammed on top of
the dolomite lining of the bottom of the iron casing. Two
SMELTING ORES BY ELECTRICITY
electrodes pass vertically downward through the roof of the
furnace. These are sometimes water-jacketed above and
below their passage through the iron casing. The elec-
‘trodes can be raised or lowered by hand or by an automatic
regulator. In this way the intensity of the current can be
closely regulated as the air-gap is increased or decreased.
The current passes through one electrode, through the
natrow air-gap, into and through the slag to the molten
metal ; thence along the metal to the slag and air-gap to
the other electrode. The energy contained in this furnace
in an ordinary operation is about 4,000 amperes at I10
volts A.C. The electrodes used are square prisms 14.5
inches to a side by about 68 iuches long. The estimated
cost of converting scrap into steel by this process, exclusive
of the cost of the scrap and metal, is about $14.50 per ton
of product.
Steel of a very superior quality can be made by smelting
together charcoal, pig and scrap in the Kjellin Induction
Furnace. As the name of the furnace implies, it operates
on the principle of magnetic induction—no electrodes being
required. Unlike the Heroult process of steel making, this
does not permit the purification of the materials which go
to make the steel, and the quality of the steel depends alto-
gether upon the purity of the component materials. In
this respect it is like the crucible steel process, but differs
from it in that no gasses are present to impair the quality
of the steel. Since there are no electrodes, there are no
impurities from this source.
The Kjellin furnace is simply a step-down transformer,
the primary of which consists of an insulated wire wound
around one leg of a laminated iron magnetic circuit. The
secondary consists of a single, continuous circular trough
(which contains the charge) outside of aud separated from
the primary, but concentric with it. This annular groove is
lined with magnesite or silicia brick, according as a basic
or acid lining is required for the groove which forms the
SMELTING ORES BY ELECTRICITY
crucible. The primary coil is insulated with mica and is
kept cool, by a jacket through which cold water is always
circulating, The primary is connected to the supply-circuit
delivering 90 amperes at 3,000 volts. It can be designed
for voltages tp to 5,000 or 6,000 volts. A current is in-
duced in the charge which forms a single turn. Its intens-
ity is 30,000 amperes at 7 volts, and the C2R loss pro-
duces the heat for smelting. The steel is tapped off from
the spout of the groove, but a certain proportion is always
left to maintain the secondary current. The temperature
of the steel when tapped is between 1,600 C. and 1,700 C.
The estimated cost of the production of a ton of steel by
the Kjellin process is $34.
The advantages of this furnace are: 1. It permits of
the use of high voltage direct on the primary winding.
2. There are no cables, connections or electrodes in the
secondary.
The disadvantages are: 1. Very low power factor,
due to the wide separation of the secondary and primary,
and the low resistance of the secondary.
In the Gin furnace, which is of the electrode type, the
trough in which the metal is held is doubled on itself sev-
eral times, so that there is formed a sort of huge incandes-
cent lamp, the gleaming molten metal forming the filament.
The Gin process cannot be successfully used for the extrac-
tion of iron from its ores; but where electrical energy can
be produced at a low price, it can be successfully used for
the production of higher grade steel from pig iron.
The Stassano process employs a furnace of the arc
type. In this process of the manufacture of steel or iron
by electricity, the charge is calculated beforehand, and in
the form of briquettes, is subjected to the radiation of heat
from an electric arc situated above the charge to be treated.
Nothing is added, so the calculations and output agree. It
is simply a matter of compounding the charge according as
it is desired to produce steel and iron. The furnace is
AS gh SURI PEDO A aly DEERE
SMELTING ORES BY ELECTRICITY
_ rotated while in operation to produce proper intermixture
of the melting mass, and in this way the heat is used to
better advantage. It is also claimed that the lining lasts
longer as a result of the movement. The furnace is of the
arc type, consisting of a cylindrical outer casing of iron
mounted on a conical roof. The axis of the furnace while
rotating makes an angle of 70° with the vertical. Three
electrodes project inward toward the centre of the furnace,
and they are connected to a three-phase supply circuit from
which they draw 400 amperes at about 90 volts per phase.
The distance between the electrodes is controlled by a
hydraulic regulator.
This type of furnace has been used up to 1,000 H.P.
capacity with an output of four to five tons per day. Four
electrodes were used and supplied from a two-phase alter-
nator, each arc consuming 2,450 amperes at 150 volts. The
electrodes are round, two inches in diameter, by four to five
inches long. The lining lasts under ordinary circumstances,
and some trifling repairs, for about 4o days.
A report of the results of tests made by the Canadian
Commission upon various processes in operation in Europe
is given below :
H.P. Year
Mean Per Ton Power
Process. Product. EHP. of Product. Factor. Frequency.
Heroult, Pig Iron, 248 7, 75 80
zi Soft Steel, 480 ye 38
ce Tool Steel, 462 BESS a3
- Structural Steel, 465 Ho 43
Keller, Pig Iron, 834 475 eee 50
es Pig Iron, 308 .229 56.4 a7
- steel, 240 i BE? 85 40
Kjelliu,. Steel, 195 .116 Oe: en he
ze Steel, 203 .145 64.9 15
Coke used in crucible melting in Sheffield probably
varies from two to three and a half tons per ton of steel
produced, and even in the large gas-fired furnaces of
SMELTING ORES BY ELECTRICITY
Germany and the United States probably one ton of slack,
costing not less than $2.50, is necessary. .
According to Harbord, cast iron produced in the blast-
furnace varies in price from gro to $12 per ton, With coke
at $7 per ton, and electrical energy at $10 per H.P. year,
the cost of production of pig iron per ton, by the electrical
furnace, is about $10.71. )
The following items of interest may be found in the
Canadian Commissioner’s report :
1. Steel, equal in all respects to the best Sheffield
crucible steel, can be produced, either in the Kjellin,
Herout or Keller process, at a cost considerably less than
the cost of producing a high-class crucible steel,
2. At present structural steel, to compete with Si-
emeus or Bessemer steel, cannot be economically produced
in the electric furnace, and such furnaces can be used com-
mercially for the production of only very high-class steel
for special purposes.
3. The reactions in the electric furnaces as regards the
reduction and combination of iron with silicas, sulphur,
phosphorus and manganese, are similar to those taking
place in the blast furnace. By altering the burden and
regulating the temperature, by varying the electric current,
any grade of iron, grey or white, can be obtained, and the
change from one grade to another is effected more rapidly
than in the blast-furnace.
4. Grey pig iron, suitable in all respects for acid steel
manufacture, either by Bessemer or Siemen’s processes,
can be produced in the electric furnace.
5. Grey pig, suitable for foundry purposes, can be pro-
duced.
6. Pig iron can be produced on a commierciai scale at a
price to compete with the blast-furnace only when electric
energy is very cheap and fuel very dear. On the basis of
electric energy at $10 per E.H.P. year, and coke at $7 per
ton, the cost of production is approximately the same as
the cost of producing pig iron in a modern blast-furnace.
SMELTING ORES BY ELECTRICITY
7. Under ordinary conditions, where blast-furnaces are
an established industry, electric smelting cannot compete ;
but in special cases, where ample water-power is available
and blast-furnace coke is readily obtainable, electric smelt-
ing may be commercially successful.
The Heroult process for the production of pig iron re-
quires a very simple furnace, which is described more fully
in a later part of this paper. ‘The electrode is connected to
one side of the circuit and the carbon bottom to the other
side of the circuit. The energy is absorbed by the resist-
ance of the charge, which is thereby heated to the temper-
ature required for reduction. The furnace is operated on
alternating current, and regulation is effected by adjusting
the electrode vertically as in the Keller furnace, and it 1s
possible to control the temperature of reduction within
narrow limits.
This type of furnace was used, early the present year,
at Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, when Dr. Haanel, Superinten-
dent of Mines, and Dr. P. Heroult, the inventor of the fur-
nace, made a series of experiments to determine the follow-
ing points :
1. The amount of electric energy required per ton of
pig iron.
2. Whether magnetite, our chief Canadian ore, could
be successfully and economically smelted by the electric
process. ,
3. Whether iron ores, with comparatively high sulphur
content, but not containing manganese, could be made into
pig iron of marketable composition.
4. Whether charcoal or peat coke, which can be
cheaply made from mill refuse, and other sources of wood
supply, useless for other purposes, could be used instead
of coke as the reducing agent in the electric furnace.
The furnace for the Soo experiments was designed by
Dr. Heroult, who also conducted the experiments. It con-
sisted of a cylindrical iron casing mounted vertically and
SMELTING ORES BY ELECTRICITY
bolted to a bottom plate of cast iron 48 inches in diameter.
The casing was made in two cylindrical sections to facilitate
repairs. ‘To render the inductance as small as possible, the
lines of magnetic force in the iron case were prevented from
closing by the replacement of a vertical strip of 10 inch
width of the casing by a copper plate. Carbon paste was
ramimed in the bottom of the furnace up to the lower part
of the crucible. The lining consisted of common firebrick,
which from the bottom of the crucible up for a distance a
little akove the slag level, was covered with carbon paste to
a thickness of a few inches. The lining of the furnace was
made the shape of two cones, set base to base, having
dimensions as follows :
Dimensions at bottom of crucible, 24 inches.
ii at widest parts. <= -.\32 =
= at topoffurnace,- - 30 “
Length, By Sa ee e e et re ell ne £6
The electrode was a square prism 16 in. x 16 in. by 6
feet long, The contact with the cables carrying the elec-
tric current to the electrode consisted of a steel shoe riveted
to four copper plates, which ended in a support for a
pulley. The electrode, with its contact, was supported by
a chain passing under the pulley, one end of the chain
being fastened to the wall, the other end passing over a
winch. operated by a worm and wormwheel. ‘This formed
a convenient arrangement for regulating the electrode by
hand. The energy was furnished by one phase of a three-
phase 400 K.W. 30-cycle 2,400 volt A.C. generator belted
to a 300 H.P. soc volt D. C. motor. A current at 2,200
volts was delivered to the primary of an O.I.S.C. trans-
former of 225 K.W., and stepped down to 50 volts. This
transformer was placed in a room adjoining the furnace
room. ‘The current of approximately 5,000 amperes at 50
volts was delivered to the furnace. The instruments used
were a voltmeter, armeter, power factor meter, and record-
i r , i
" _ » = 7” vor 5 ' ft ? = oe % oe Re Ae
RECAP ESL RRRA OP Cela
op wi
} eye EE PE Sg a Oey err ee
eee awe
ef ~
SMELTING ORES BY ELECTRICITY
ing wattmeter. The transformer and instruments were
manufactured by the W. E. & M. Company.
The materials of the charge, ore, flux and carbon were
crushed to pass througha 34-inch ring, and roughly mixed ;
150 casts were made, producing 56 tons of pig. The aver-
age conditions of ore run for the production of grey iron
was as follows :
Length ofrun,- - - - - - - - 12 hours.
Mean volts,- - --- - - - - 38.5 volts.
Mean current, - - - - - - 4,856 amperes.
Power tector’. 40 354) 54) 4 a. gn Gero:
Pig produced, - - - - - - = - 2,665 lbs.
Watts consumed, 38.5 x 4,836 X .gIQ=171,812.
EH: HP. consumed, >> 5.5 4 os =) (5 230.3.
Output of pig per 1,000 K.H.P. days, 11.57 tons.
E.H.P. years of 365 days per ton of pig, .236.
It was expected that considerable difficulty would be
experienced in the smelting of magnetite on account of its
conductivity. It was thought that, with the furnace in
use, 1D E _ electrode was immersed in the charge,
the current would disseminate itself laterally from the
sides of the electrode through the charge, preventing the |
current at the reducing and fusion zone from attaining
such density as would be required for the high temperature
necessary for reduction and fusion.
With charcoal as a reducing agent, no difficulty was
experienced, nor was the inductance of the furnace in-
creased by the presence of the magnetite. ‘The consump-
tion of electrode per ton of pig was 17.98 lbs. The power
factor, 91 9-10%, was very high, and this was due to the
construction of the furnace casing, which prevented the
closing of the magnetic lines of force.
The experiments indicated, that under normal condi-
tions, about 11.5 tons of pig were produced by an expendi-
ture of 1,000 E.H.P, days. ? :
SMELTING ORES BY ELECTRICITY
A summary of the results of the Soo experiments
follows :
1. Magnetite can be as economically smelted by the-
electro-thermic process as hematite.
2. Ores of high sulphur content, not containing man-
ganese, cati be made into pig iron containing only a few
thousandths of a per cent. of sulphur.
3. The silicon content can be varied as required for the
class of pig to be produced.
4. Charcoal, which can be cheaply produced from mill
refuse, etc., can be substituted for coke as a reducing
agent without being briquetted with the ore. |
4. A feroo-nickel pig can be preduced practically free
from sulphur and of fine quality from roasted nickeliferous
pyrrhotite.
6. Titaniferous iron ores up to about 5% titanic acid
can be successfully treated by the electric process.
When we consider that the modern blast-furnace and
the different methods of steel making are the result of a
hundred years’ experience, and that the electric furnace
has been invented in very recent years, and is, therefore,
yet in the experimental stages cf development, may we not
assume that some future improvements will make it a keen
rival of the older methods?
The following are significant facts :
The electric furnace is applicable to the smelting of
such ores as copper. It is very simple in construction.
The available temperature is 1,000 C. above that of the
blast-furnace, and the regulation of the heat supply is under
_ perfect control. Familiarity with handling heavy currents
and experience already gained in smelting, will aid materi-
ally in solving the difficulties encountered in the smelting
of ores, which up to the present time, have proven refrac-
tory to all known processes.
The electric-thermic principle is made use of in remoy-
ing the obstructions which form and cling to the inside of a
clic ni pia we
SS i ig a as ue
RSP Na ae i ie ae xy
fn ee
ok? Ute
y ce aes aa Pant ee
SMELTING ORES BY ELECTRICITY
blast-furnace, impairing its operation and endangering the
lives of. the attendants, and the furnace as well.
This ‘‘ seaffold,’’ as it is called, is formed of metal,
which on account of some cause, such as failure of the
draft through the tuyers, becomes chilled and adheres to
the sides of the furnace. ‘This ‘‘ scaffold’’ forms a projec-
tion from the side of the furnace above the reducing zone,
where it is very dificult to be reached by heat, and where
it cannot be removed by the ordinary operation of the
furnace.
On the contrary, when once started, the ‘‘ scaffold ”’
tends to increase by the adhesion of other molten matter
becoming chilled on its surface. If this continues, the
‘‘scaffold’’ becomes a support to the whole charge above,
with the result that it finally gives way, allowing the mass
of the charge above to drop through the base of the fur-
nace and probably killing the attendants. This accident is
very dangerous, comparatively frequent, and costly, especi-
ally to water-jacketed apparatus.
The means which have been most successfully em-
ployed to prevent the above danger, is that of using the
electric arc to fuse the chilled adhesions which can be
reached without interfering with the regular operation of
the furnace. For this service either D.C. or A.C. can be
used at a potential at from 75-50 volts and 500-1,000 am-.
peres,
With A.C., the proper voltage can be readily obtained
by a transformer situated near the blast-furnace. With
D.C., from a standard 125-volt supply by means of a water
rheostat in the circuit. One side of the circuit is clamped
to the outer casing of the blast-furnace and the cther to a
long carbon 1% inches in diameter, made for the purpose
by the National Carbon Co., or the International Acheson
Graphite Co. This electrode is supported in any coui-
venient way for handling, for example, by a long pipe, etc.,
9
SMELTING ORES BY ELECTRICITY
and is then applied to the chilled mass which it is desired a
to remove, the electric are fusing the metal.
Mr. Price, Chief Electrician of the Algoma Steel
Works, has been performing this operation by D.C.
Best results were obtained by connecting the furnace
casing to the positive side of the supply circuit. The cur-
rent was easily regulated by a water rheostat, and re-
mained very steady at about 600 amperes. 3
The Algoma Steel Company have recently purchased
from usa 75 K W., O.1.5.C., transformer, which they will
in future use for the above purpose.
Other processes closely allied to those dealt with in
this paper are those which deal with the production of cal-
cium, carbide, carborundum, graphite, aluadum, copper,
arsenic, molybodenum, tungsten, nickel, sodium, aluminum,
phosphorus, glass, calcium, strontium, corrundum or arti-
ficial emery, and zinc.
In the electric furnace, ores can be treated which could
not be economically treated in the past.
Ores of high sulphur content can be made into pig iron
containing only a few thousandths of a per cent. of
sulphur.
Titaniferous iron ores, containing up to 5 per cent.,
can be successfully treated. The silicon content can be ;
varied as required for the class of pig to be produced.
As reducing agent, it is not necessory to use coke in
the electric furnace, since charcoal and peat coke can be
satisfactorily employed.
An excellent summary of the present situation in the
application of the electric furnace for steel making and iron
reduction is given in two reports by Eugene Haanel,
and is published by the Canadian Government.
The first report of the Commission is on the different
processes employed in smelting iron cres and the making
of steel in operation in Europe, and the second report was
issued on the experiments made at Sault Ste. Marie, Ont.,
Sn ee ee See
‘ieee 2
ee i tl el lt rt tli ed
so
SMELTING ORES BY ELECTRICITY
under Government auspices in the smelting of Canadian —
iron ores.
Steel refining in the electric furnace is considerably
cheaper than the crucible process. The cost depends
largely on the degree to which the impurities are to be elim-
inated, and is relatively small if steel to be refined is sup-
plied to electric furnace in molten state from the open
hearth or Bessemer converter.
Hspeciaily in two departments of iron and steel indus-
tries has the electric furnace been commercialiy successful
and applied for various purposes. The production of ferro
alloys, such as ferro-silicon, ferro-chromium, etc., it is
specially adapted to the required work through the high
temperature available.
While in the manufacture of special steels, its value
lies in the ease of control and the possibility of preventing
iupurities in the finished product and the various alloys,
especially those of high percentage and low in carbon are
quite successfully produced.
The usual reducing agent is carbon. But silicon or
ferro-silicon or carborundum is also used for the production
of other ferro-alloys free from carbon.
BRIEF REVIEW.
Electro-chemistry embraces so many and varied indus-
tries to-day, that we meet almost daily new processes in
successful operation, so rapid is the progress in this branch
of the science, and present systems are being continually
improved and rendered more efficient. But fifteen years
ago many of its products were unknown, as carborundum.
A brief summary of the most important commercial
products of the electric processes can be given in a paper on
the subject.
Of these industries, that of greatest importance is
eopper refining. ‘The electrolitic copper produced during
1903 is estimated at 318,000 tons, of which the United
SMELTING ORES BY ELECTRICITY
States produced 86%. It is also known that the value of
American electrolytic refineries has doubled in the last six
years, althoug sh the exact figures are not available.
. he second in importance, no doubt, is the production
of aluminum. ‘This has been a staple article for a number
go
‘
of years.
Another extensive use of the electric furnace is in the
manufacture of calcium carbide. This, through contact
with water, gives off acytelene gas, and the rapid develop-
ment of acytelene gas lighting is largely due to the growth
of the calcium coe industry.
The carbide is produced by heating together in the
electric furnace a mixture of 65% lime with 357% carbon or
coke. This is being carried on in a large scale at the
Shawinigan Falls Carbide Co., near Montreal.
he to-day widely used abrasive carborundum was
discovered by E. J. Acheson, of the Acheson Graphite Co.,
Niagara Falls, Ont., while conducting some experiments
in the production of aluminum, which he developed through
later highly successful experiments. It had been noticed
that in the case of overheating of the carborundum fur-
naces, that some of the creiale next to the heating core,
and which were subjected to the highest temperatures,
were entirely converted into graphite. This suggested the
method, which as now followed, results in the production
of pure graphite, having only a fraction of one per cent. of
ash.
IA
association, among which are some very fine s
Report of the Section ie he Year Rading
FAay, 7 SG
To the President, Officers and Members of the Hamiution
Scientific Association :—
GENTLEMEN,—The members cf the Geological Section
of the Hamilton Scientific Association, in presenting this
report for the year ending May rath, 1908, desire to ex-
press their pleasure at being able to state that substantial
progress has been made in the year just closed by the
section in the study of geology and in the collection of
fossil specimens peculiar to the different rock formations
in this vicinity. An interesting discovery was made by
Mr. Horace Sayman of mineral tar, which he obtained
from an abandoned quarry, known as Carpenter’s quarry,
on the Barton and Glandford road, west of Dundas.
Through the indefatigible exertions of Cel. C. C. Grant
quite a large number of fossil remains have been collected
some of which have been placed in the museum of the
specimens of
Graptolite obtained from the city quarries, which no doubt
will prove to be when examined, new voretis, and very
probably, new species. Col. Grant has received fifteen
letters from the Curator of the British Museum of Natural
History, London, acknowledging the ee of more than
204 fossil specimens from the rocks at Hamilton and
shingle on the lake shore at. Winona and the Hamilton
Beach. Letters have also been received ne u the officers of
the Canadian Geological Survey, acknowledging the receipt
of fossil specimens for the Ottawa museum, and express-
i
REPORT OF GEOLOGICAL SECTION
ing the hope that they would be able to make quite a good
display of the fossils sent down to them from time to time
by Col. Grant when they complete the rearrangement of
fossils in their new cases, which are being built. The
collection of fossils from the Cambro Silurian shingle along
the shore of Lake Ontario, near Winona, was attended
with some difficulty, owing to the high water which pre-
vailed, being more than two feet higher this spring than
in former years, and the prevailing east winds with the
larger body of water has been making encroachment upon.
‘the shore land, washing away large quantities of earth,
thereby reducing the acreage of those whose farms reached
the shore line.
There must be some local cause for the high water on
the southern shore of Lake Ontario, because there appears
to be a difference, relatively speaking, between Ontario
and the Upper Lakes as to the height of water above the
ordinary lake levels at this season of the year.
The museum has been free of access to any one who
desired to visit it for the purpose of study, and quite a
number have availed themselves of the opportunity. ~The
section hopes to have a better arrangement of the fossils in
the cases. With a more correct stratigraphical grouping it
will be easier to trace those genera, species, or varieties which
have survived the period in which they were first discovered
and have passed up into more recent deposits, and it will
aid the student of biology in his researches in palaeozoic
life.
The section learns with deep regret that the local goy-
ernment has seen fit, without any apparent reason or com-
plaint known to the section, to cut fifty per cent. off the
yearly grant to one of the oldest, if not the oldest ‘scientific
institution of its kind in Canada, and one which has done
excellent service in the interest of scientific investigation
for many years, and which through the liberality of its mem-
bers has maintained an active existence. This action on
on ar pe Day ae
si ' “REPORT OF GEOLOGICAL SECTION
the part of the government seems to be a slap at_all and
sundry such institutions situated outside of Toronto.
The section has held several meetings, at three of
which papers of geological interest were read. Following
are the dates on which papers were read and by whom :
Nov. 29, 1907.-—Notes cn the Late Collecting Season,
by Cor, ©:°C. Grant.
Dec. 27, 1907.— Notes on the Late Collecting Season,
Continued, by-Col. B: C.- Grant.
March 27, 1908.—-Notes Geological and Antiquarian,
py Col, Gy C. Grain. |
Ao oN nie,
President of Section.
LATE COLLECTING SEASON
S ON THE
«4
¥
NOT
~
1Z€.
s actual si
third
. I—Two-
No
uarry
ity Q
red I do
1SCOV
the new C
as found in
te w
i
sence of Cellules st
s fine Graptol
.—Thi
I
No.
by Mr. N
€
am 1nc
ill undi
n Inocaul
Genera
wever wer
hol. In the ab
ined to repre
ic
ined to
e same
ara Shale
1
r three of tl
I
’
is
Two oO
asa
sent
a new
«
1
il1c
not feel
1
4
g to
hter branches ho
think it miay belon
shape with sl
and led 1
jag
jag
N
in
iced i
e not
lusion that they were members of the family
>
o
i
he conc
ie tot
Y
ive building bed.
1me€n OCcuUrs Oll a Dlassive
One spec
group.
E LATE COLLECTING SEASON
:
mex a
ls
A °
2 a
nn Ken
No. 2
© 1
a4
No, 2.—Acanthograptus (Spencer) Is perhaps a new species Ox
ig variety.
‘“
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
No. 3.—Acanthograptus also differ fromthe former, both are in
the upper glaciated chert and are not common. All fossils figured
in our proceedings are, we may add, supposed to be unknown to
science here.
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
FOES Re Soot a Oe ET eT ee ee eee
rs
4
a a es ee
No. 4
No. 4.—Only two specimens were seen in a quarry at the head of
‘‘ The Jolley Cut’’ possessing the stalk of a Callograptus. ‘The first
obtained led me to suppose it to be a connecting link with Dictyo-
nema as bars put in an appearance rarely at intervals. Perhaps that
may be owing to bitumenous inatter spreading from one branch to
the next.
ee ee Oe ee ee ee Oe ne ee Pees
;
- — ) as.
Notes On The Late Collecting Season.
Read before the Hamilton Scientific Association
November 29th, 1207.
COL} C.” Co GRANT:
The writer accidentally learned that another quarry had
been opened near the head of the Joiley Cut in March,
long before the snow disappeared. On arrival at the City
quarry, on seeing the appearance of things there, he erro-
neously concluded he must have been niustnformed, aud
thought it unnecessary to proceed beyond that. A visit
raid later on, when its correctness was fully e.tab-
lishet. Its position is next to the old Hancock quarry,
which ceased work for several years, but which was re-
opened last season in order to obtain some material for
building purposes from a small strip of limestone still re-
Maining. -ftwas iron this plate slareyin the fall, that
obtained the remarkably flue Graptolite whieh brought to
the notice of the Gesloniedl Sectiou—a circular form, re-
sembling Dictyonema retiformis, but without Pe.
Ss
be a
i
jab)
Oa
=
pee.
ped
—
(c
bars.
I noticed the glacial clay seemingly occurs merely in
patches in this new quarry, but only a few yards of over-
lying soil was removed from the front up to the date, 6th
April.
On quitting the quarry to-day, I concluded to have a
look at the low-lying fields close to the Corporation drain
in order to ascertain whether they were sufficiently dry for
examination. I found, however, they were not, except in
the higher portion, but I managed to pick up a fair speci-
men of Roemers ‘Tennessee sponge (Astylospongia inciso-
lobata), and a very singular Bryozoon, the only one of the
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
kind I have seen. In shape it resembles the tail shield of
an Acidaspis, but the parts corresponding to the spinal pro-
cess of the trilobite are covered with cell pores.
Nothing was found in the chert layers removed last
autumn in deepening the Corporation drain. Their exam-
ination was very superficial, yet I fear the non-fossiliferous
beds alone were then disturbed. It was also seen that in the
adjacent fields little inaterial was brought to the surface by
the late winter frosts. This was owing to the non-dis-
appearance of the snow covering during the entire season,
a circumstance not common in recent yeals.
On the whole I fear the prospect of a successful col-
Jecting season at this early stage is by no means a very
bright one. There are no fresh fields remaining for investi-
gation overlying the Niagara chert between Hamilton and
the Little Horseshoe Falls near Albion Mills (base of the
Barton Niagaras), and few sponges or sections seemingly
are now cbtainable in places where they were formerly found
in considerable numbers. Foreseeing their gradual disap-
pearance the writer secured many sections, beside the ones
in the City Museum. Near the mouth of the Corporation
drain, close to the road on the brow of the escarpment, a
clover field if ploughed up since I visited it late last autumn
may make matters a little brighter. It afforded me many
specimens formerly. Here I feel it necessary to state I never
considered the spenges or sections along there were depos-
ited in the same way as others nearer the city. The beds
there were unprotected by glacial clay. The thin soil and
weathering process rotted away the soft layers in which
they were embedded. ‘The plow and frost brought the
harder chert to the surface. Few if any fossils have been
brought to the surface by frost during the past winter.
This the writer ascertained by collecting small heaps of
chert flakes to mark certain places where specimens were
found, and burying ove or two others near them, in
swampy places chiefly. The latter he found undisturbed,
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
the snow lying on the ground during the entire season pre-
vented the frost from penetrating there. ‘The grass fields
were found in a similar condition to what they presented
in the autumn, aud furnished a fine specimen of a tabu-
lated coral, similar to the one figured in last year’s Proceed-
ings by our treasurer, Mr. Scriven. A fair number of
Brachiopods and Bryozoons were also obtained, and several
varieties of Hall’s Cladopora. Although this family group
(exceedingly numerous in our chert beds) is represented as
a coral by Rominger and other well-known Palzontolo-
gists, perhaps a close investigation may yet prove that
Prof. Foorde, formerly of the Canadian Geological Survey,
was not far astray when he claimed it as coming under the
head of Monticulipora.
The fields on the brow of the escarpment, between the
reservoir and the rock cutting were not visited until the
middle of May, the writer feeling too weak for a long walk
betore that. A portion of the field beyond the orchard,
which proved so rich formerly in sponges and sponge sec-
tions, had been freshly ploughed up before his arrival. The
soil overlying the chert is quite thin there, and the weather-
ing process evidently has laid bare organisms peculiar to
layers not represented nearer the city. No complete spouge
was discovered, and only two sections, which leads me to
think the field is now deficient in this material. Recollecting
a swampy part formerly produced some fine specimens of
Dr. Jaines Hall’s Lichenalia, I confined investigation to the
part in question, and despite the difficulty of distinguishing
the white Bryozoon on the weathered, colorless cherts, I
contrived to pick up on the surface no less than seven fine
samples in about an hour or a little more.
The present City quarry at the head of the Strongman
road, which produced so few fossils when compared with
the ones worked at the head of the Jolley Cut, appears to
be making up for its deficiencies by producing some well-
preserved remarkabie specimens lately. Just before I pro-
tha
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
ceeded to Winona and Grimsby on an annual collecting
tour, my friend, Mr. Nichol, the superintendent, called my
attention to one of the finest specimens of Graptolites he
had ever seen. On its production I found he was not far
astray when he stated it might be new to both of us. It
certainly is a magnificent one but difficult to classify, and
may belong to a new geuera. Perhaps some may look on it
as au intermediate form between Inocaulis and Acantho-
graptus. It comes from the inside of a thick limestone
layer, the second or third, I think, of the blue building
beds below the chert. We imay leave this question to some
Palzontologist who is particularly interested in the Hydro-
zoa family for final determination. Presumably this would.
prove satisfactory to all of us.
I remember setting aside, a few years ago, some
specimens which the crowded state of the museum cases
prevented me from placing in them until additional space
was provided. Among others that struck me, as far as I
could remember, was one Graptolite discovered in the
shales of a Jolley Cut quarry which bore a resembiance to
Mr. Nichol’s remarkable fossil. After a long search, it
turned up. Itwas looked upon at the time by myself and
others probably as a uew species of a narrow branched
Inocaulis. On comparing this one with the other, while
they belong to the same family, they may differ as regards
species ; the branches in my specimen are further apart and
more slender. It is far inferior in preservation, for a por-
tion is deficient.
Mr. Nichol’s splendid Graptolite unfortunately ap-
pears on stich a heavy limestone layer, that I fear for the
present it must remain in the same condition as when
obtained. An attempt to make it more portable may result
in its injury.
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
WINONA AND GRIMSBY.
The first thing I noticed at the fermer-place on arrival
there for the summer collecting tour, while standing on the
high bank above the lake, was that the water appeared to be
ae a of my arrival; thata large tree had
been washed ashore and embedded in the sand; that
another one in front of A. Wilson’s had toppled over and
was partly submerged in the lake since last summer, while
a third one, lying a little to the west then, had disappeared
altogether. On proceeding down the slip adjacent, I
ascertained a considerable amount of sand had collected
about the two former, and the latter had not actually dis-
appeared as I imagined, but was merely hidden by the
accumulated material which had gathered there. This was
renioved by the water of the lake in rough weather a few
days subsequently, and it was found a little to the west of
very low fo
yt
y,
the Park that the lake level appea oo higher, if anything,
than in former times.
Only when the water was perfectly calm could I cbtain
a few specimens (dry shed) frem the low glacial clay cliffs
near the ravine to the west of the camp. The majority
nh
were regular not polished or striated. Only in a few cases
they held common Hudson River fossils, and the embedded
shingle appeared to be far less numerous than in former
years 1n the glacial clay cliffs.
The way in which the sand, gravel, etc., collects in
places along the shore differs considerably, and is often
calculated to mislead one regarding the lake level. Less
than two miles to the east of the camp is a pond which
four years ago was fed by a stream from the lake eight
inches deep. Last year it disappeared altogether, giving
the locality the appearance of a recession of water level at
a short distance. Such is not the case, for not many yards
to the west, even when the lake was perfectly calm, I
noticed last June how rapidly the waters were encroaching
fog ena cele
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
landward ; indeed the process appeared to me to be so rapid
as to lead one to believe the low lying fields to the south
adjacent may be submerged before many years, unless a
shifting sand barrier is thrown up in front for their protec-
tion. People here are slow to believe that the land to the
north is rising. The conclusions of the United States
scientific men on the point admit of dispute.
On the receipt of a letter by the writer some years
since from one who published several interesting com-
munications regarding this slow elevation, Prof. Gilbert,
the well-known United States geologist, considering that
the Chicago canal lately opened, which conveys a portion of
Lake Huron water through the Mississippi channel, might
prove injurious to inland navigation, he was surprised to
find the water of Lake Ontario was actually higher than for
many years. It seems hard to account forthe circumstance
when we remember there was no unusual rainfall this year,
or deep snow last winter. The farmers who own property
near the Jake, and are now fully satisfied that its water is
rapidly encroaching on their land, have arrived at the con-.
clusion that it is at least five inches higher this yearin June
than it has been for several years, since their attention was
first called to the matter in question. ‘The writer has been
informed that in recent years the suggestions of England’s
field geologists regarding the rapid sea encroachment has
led to some attempt to arrest the progress.
I certainly was disappointed in not finding a few more
Ohio Orthodesmas on the lake shore last summer. There
was little change in the shingles from the previous years,
and my handi-work in the shape of broken material was
noticed for a considerable distance from the camp.
The writer called the section’s attention last session to
some species of Feldspar (Orthoclase) found in the glacial
drift at Winona. On proceeding last June to Grimsby
from the camp by a byroad near the Hamilton & Beamsville
railway line, he discovered a massive, erratic boulder close
10
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
to the place of this mineral. It is about three feet in
height, but this could not represent the thickness of the
bed originally, judging froin its present appearance of pure
Orthoclase. No other ingredient was noticed in it.
While I am almost certain fragments of Serpentine
found during the late collecting season there came from
glacial clay also, as lying loose close by, it cannot be actu-
ally claimed as derived from it perhaps.
While we were all satisfied regarding Dr. Spencer’s
views as to Burlington Heights representing the ancient
Lake Iroquois beach, when old members of the Geological
Section may remember considerable difference prevailed
among ourselves, an early paper by one of our members,
Wm. Kennedy, attracted much attention. He considered
the Grand River, which found its way from the direction of
Dundas, deposited at its mouth in the still waters of the
great lake the material which composes that vast accumu-
lation of water-worn limestone, shingles and sand which
runs through the city and displays itself as a gigantic ridge
at the Central School. Another expressed his opinion that
the Beach represented a glacial Moraine. A gentleman from —
Chicago supposed the chief part of the material (Hudson
River) was conveyed from the north shore bed of the lake,
forced by winds and currents to the head of the lake. None
of the foregoing theories satisfactorily account for the
presence of Archzean rocks. If a deep chanuel exists in
the middle of the lake resembling the Niagara gorge, as
stated, how could the material washed into it find its way
out? It seems impossible.
The writer thinks that the few places along the lake shore
near Winona containing fossils merely represent a remnant
of a glacial clay deposit extending continuously for miles.
At the pond to the east of the camp at a comparatively
receut time the waters of the lake burst through the barrier
washing away thie clay deposited, but leaving many of the
larger rock specimens scattered on the strand similar to the
a
ee a ae
Se a ey a IT ee ee Ee are ee
ee GP ee ea ae oe
;
RRS ee PES ang?
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
one imbedded which I extracted close by three years ago,
and which furnished me with a well-preserved Ohio Lamelli
branch (Orthodesma curvata). Visiting this particular
place, I ascertained the bank nearly up to the fence had
disappeared silice examined last year. During a closestudy
of the locality for several summers, I never noticed before
such a rapid encroachment as the water of Ontario has
made there on the land. Indeed, I felt inclined to think
that the slow rise of the northern shore may have increased
recently. While he never questioned the proved conclusions
of the professional men, the writer never for a moment im-
agined that the few isolated patches still remaining of
glacial clay could have produced more than a small portion
perhaps of the sands, shingle, etc.
We all know this deposit underlies Burlington Heights,
the ancient Lake Iroquois Beach, and no doubt the large
volume of water which formerly rushed down by Albion
Mills, Stoney Creek, Grimsby, etc., conveyed a considerable
portion of the material which contributed to build that vast
accumulation known to us as the Burlington Heights.
We may be unable to state positively how far the
glacial clay extended into Lake Ontario, but one thing may
be safely asserted, for thousands of years its waters have
been battering away at the clay cliffs on its southern shore,
combing out and spreading broadcast all the land ice
brought from the north, and what a vast collection of
igneous rocks, of granites, feldspars, green stones, accom-
panied it. Some years since the writer, while hunting for
Indian relics at Lake Medad, noticed an erratic boulder
there of Jaspar conglomerate, and on showing a fragment
to a Canadian gentleman, he quietly remarked, ‘ You will
find that rock in situ to the north of Lake Huron, and I
have seen it there.’’ So it must have crossed the frozen
lake if confined to this locality. Your collector considered
it unnecessary to extract more than a few Archzean speci-
mens from the glacial drift, since he has submitted already
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
several for inspection at a former meeting, obtained from
the deposit. The glittering red Orthoclase so often noticed
in beach shingle occurs also in the drift; but the Serpentine
is, I think, the first observed at Winona. Probably it
came from that also. Had it been where found detached
last year it must have been seen, yet it was not above high
water mark.
FOSSILS FROM DRIFT AND SHORE SHINGLE:
With regard to the numbers collected on the lake shore
last season, you may not notice any considerable falling off,
taking into consideration that only in a few places any fresh
shingle was exposed along the beach ; yet it must be ad-
mitted that very few rare fossils were secured in anything
like fair preservation. Without the original for compari-
son, the writer has often expressed his unwillingness to
name organisms from published figures, too often inaccur-
ately represented. I may not be far astray in considering
one of the best now submitted for your inspection as iden-
tical with the late Prof. Billing’s Lamellibranch Modiol-_
opsis Gesneri from the Trenton series at Ottawa, Corre-
sponding speciniens were placed and named in the City
Museum cases before our collection was broken up.
A Lingula was obtained under singular circumstances.
In extracting the cast of the valve of a shell in the Cambro
Silurian shingle it split across under the hammer, revealing
the fossil and mould underneath, embedded in the muddy
sediment which filled the interior of the dead bivalve. The
latter I sent to Ottawa, remarking I could scarcely separate
it from the Clinton Lingula oblata (Hall). The posterior
margin was incomplete, and on re-examination under the
lens it appeared to be nearly related to Lingula Kingston-
ensis (Billing’s). If it can be established, we may add it
to many other rare fossils of the glacial drift, which mem-
bers of the Geological Section discovered at the lake shore,
Winona,
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
While disappointed in not finding a few more of the
Ohio specimeus of last and preceding years, yet perhaps
the late summer visit to the lake shore, considering the cir-
cumstances, may not be thought unsatisfactory. I found
among the specimens brought in from Winona a fine slab
containing several members of James Hall’s Minute Brachi-
opod (Septobolus Occidentalis). ‘The doctor records it as
occurring in the Hudson River series. The writer supposes
it may be found also in the Trenton still lower, but as
other specimens were associated with fossils which are comes
nion to both, it must be admitted, the evidence on this point
is very unsatisfactory.
Two valves of the Trenton Lamelli branch, separated
(Modiolopsis Gesneri, Billing’s), in good preservation, were
obtained. It may be inferred that the one described was
the ouly one known to the Palzontologist, it appears to be
by no means rare in the shore shingle, or glacial clay, near .
Winona, but as a general rule it is difficult to extract it un-
injured. The specimen now produced is much superior to
any found previously.
An appropriate name for a Bellerophon extracted from
beach shingle was given by Sowerby to a Devonian form in
England many years ago. Probably it is known already
here or in the States, but I have not seen it figured or
described. There were two specimens on the slab, and
after I had secured the one, a young fellow who was with
me requested me to let him have the other if he succeeded
in getting it out, as he wished to show it to some friends.
We were all, he said, greatly interested in an astronomical
lecture given by Dr. Marsh some time back, a member of
the Hamilton Association. Under such circumstances, I
could not well refuse. His was far superior to mine.
The glacial clay furnished a fine specimen of an
Orthoceras, which may be an intermediate form between
Orthoceras Simulata and Oregulare. I forget the name
attached to the latter by American Paleeontologists, but the -
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
late Prof. EK. Chapman, of Toronto University, informed
me it was identical with one thus named in Europe. A
second slab was obtained from it with several others im-
bedded, but only a fragment was extracted. A third slab
revealed specimens of a Bryozoon, which represents perhaps
a Cambro-Sil (Lichenalia). One I sent to the Dominion
Survey Office at Ottawa, expressing this view.
GRIMSBY.
During my stay at Winona during the past summer,
only one visit was paid to the above mentioned locality,
although another was intended to ascertain the possibility
of making a fine specimen of the large Arthrophycus Har-
lani, detached from the upper Clinton band since last year,
sufficiently portable for conveyance to the railway station.
No crinoids were obtained, but I returned to the camp with
some interesting Niagara shale slabs, holding well-marked
Bryozoons, plates of Caryocrinus Dictyonella, together
with two good specimens of the small Arthrophycus, and
another which may be an intermediate variety perhaps. I
failed to extract a remarkably fine Platyceras, a shell which
appears to be exceedingly rare in our local Niagara rocks,
and which seems to be frequently found in the Niagaras in
the States. A large Platyostoma, under the hammer, got
lost among brushwood. I also failed to discover it, unfor-
tunately.
Disappointed in securing any well-preserved sponges,
or even sections, with few exceptions, after the snow had
disappeared, I thought it would meet the wish of the Geo-
logical Section to devote a separate chapter to the fossils
discovered later in autumn when the crops were gathered
in. As far as he can see, your collector has no other rea-
son for departing from his intention in former years, where
the whole season’s collection was submitted without any dis-
tinction. Perhaps at a future time members may feel in-
clined to join the section, who may be prevented from doing
OP ee ee he
a ey. a ee
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
so by their respective employments in the more busy spring |
months, and I believe it may be found, after all, judging
from the writer's experience during the past few years, to
be the better time for collecting upper chert specimens. In
a recent visit to the Hesse Spring Farm for the purpose of
obtaining a few Indian relics for the Dublin Museum, close
to the limekiln, on the surface of the field, I was rather
surprised to find a chert sponge section, as also a much
decayed slab from the lower Silurians, containing an
Aimbonychea and Monticulipora, and close beside lay a fine
specimen of an Indian fire stone. ‘The fossils were con-
veyed there in the Glacial Age evidently, the sponge frag-
ment occurring eighty feet perhaps above its natnral site.
several Archzeau weathered specimens were also noticed
piere:
AUTUMNAL COLLECTING SHASON.
Some years ago when the City quarry was worked -
during the winter, even when snow had to be removed to
get at the chert beds, I placed before a visitor a large num-
ber of Graptolites I collected there a day or two previously.
He evidently was surprised at the specimens obtained, and
remarked, ‘‘ Surely this cannot be the best time for collect-
ing?’’ No, it certainly was not. A coat of ice on the sur-
face of a layer frequently conceals the Graptolite under-
neath. On recalling the conversation lately, the writer
thought it advisabie to make a little distinction in the
spring aud autumnal searches for sponges, and flint-flake
fossils in the fields near the brow of the escarpment and
Corporation drain. I noticed last year more specimens had
been acquired when the crops were removed than before
they were planted.
In some of the well-known fields this year the nature
of the crops seenied more favorable for collecting than
usual, but I almost despaired of much success when recall-
ing the difficulty of failing sight. I thought it likely that
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
I might possibly obtain a few Lichenalias and sponge sections,
but concluded there was only a remote chance of getting
any complete sponges unless accidentally. Yet I was
agreeably surprised to find my anticipatious proved quite
incorrect. One of the fields near the Corporation drain.
furnished me, when the oats were removed, with two speci-
mens, not, however, completely weathered out of the flinty
masses in which they were enclosed; another field more
distant from the city, under a similar crop, furnished four
or five others, and the further end of the field, where pota-
toes were planted, yielded up two others in good preserva-
tion, which seem to differ from any Tennessee specimens
known to me. As these may possibly be unknown to
science, I sent them away to the British Museum for closer
examination. Subsequent to the discovery of the latter, I
was persuaded to give ‘‘ Specks,’’ discarded some time ago,
another trial. I-was not satisfied they would be of much
assistance in fossil hunting, but like a Canadian statesman,
in a weak moment I yielded, and the result proved more
satisfactory than was expected, for the first time I tried
them on I managed to pick up two exceedingly minute
Astylospongias, which never could have been found with-
out them perhaps.
Dr. Parks, of Toronto University, having informed
me he intended to study and publish a paper on the
Stromatopore family, the writer remembered a field on
the brow of the Niagara Escarpment, not far from the
railway rock cutting, where he obtained several years
ago specimens of a chert Stromatopora which he believed
might have been unknown to the late A. EK. Walker,
or Sir W. Dawson. On proceeding to the place indicated,
a good but not a perfect one was discovered in a portion of
the field planted with tomatoes. This as well as a few
others from the Clinton and Barton Niagaras, which turned
up unexpectedly, I forwarded to the Professor. He re-
ceived previously from Hamilton another member of the
ae oe ee pee
ROE es SOO EE ee ee PE Tee Loe ek eee Aw ee TT yt eS
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
group named by Dr. Spencer, F.G.S., Cannopora Walkeri,
which was formerly noticed as occurring attached as a
parasite to the upper surface of a Clinton Favosites Coral.
The writer was preveuted from examining a portion of
two fields where a late crop of Indian corn and potatoes
had been removed, owing to an accidental injury to his foot.
He found in one case the place where he fully expected to
secure a few complete sponges, had been freshly ploughed
up. In the other instance, quite a large quantity of the
leaves of the crop removed had been left where it was,
which rendered it impossible to detect fossils, except
by chance on the surface. In other cases the farmers were
as busy in turning up the soil as the writer in hunting up
the specimens.
NOTES.
The writer learns that when some denounced the issue
of the Text Book on Physical Geography by authority,
in 1904, as an attempt on the part of Infidels or Agnos-
tics to heathenize the children of the High schools of
both sexes by teaching, through astronomy and niodern
geology, principles of open infidelity, the matter was
brought to the notice of the Educational Board, apparently
by the Anglican Synod of Ontario, but it saw no reason for
suppressing and recalling the publication.
Since calling your attentiun to the address of Prof.
R. Lankaster, as President of the Society in Great Britain
for the Advancement of Science, I find the King has con-
ferred a title on him, although an advocate of Modernism.
The extract accompanying refers to the discovery of
the beautiful blue marble, named Sodalite, from Hastings,
Canada, a member of Feldspar family. Some time since a
gentleman showed me a specimen polished. The museum
should possess one also. |
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
CANADIAN BLUE MARBLE.
MAGNIFICENT LONDON PALACE TO HAVE SIXTY TONS
OF SODALITE: CORNICES.
The Princess of Wales has to her credit one of the
greatest sensations in building material in many years,
nothing less than the re-intreduction of ‘‘ blue marble’’ for
interior decoration. It is used in the outer entrance hall of
Brock House, the great Park Lane palace that Sir Ernest
Cassel bought two years ago from Lord Tweedmouth, and
that he has fitted up in marble and with a richness of detail
that even the Caesars never dreamt of. The work now
nearing completion makes London stare. ‘The main. stair-
case contains 800 tons of statuary marble from Sarravezza.
Michael Angelo, sent from the Vatican in 149c to prospect,
was amazed at the beauty of this material, and it is said his
report to the Pope deprecated its quality so that he might
obtain a monopoly of the mine for his own sculptures.
From that date all Angelo’s masterpieces were chiselled
from these Tuscany marbles.
! In contrast with this dazzling white marble is the
great outer entrance hall, pilastered with unique blue
marble, knowledge of which had lapsed for many years.
Credit for the rediscovery of this marble belongs entirely
to the Princess of Wales, whose attention was drawn to
some fragments of the blue stone presented to her at the
time of her voyage with the Prince to Canada.
When Marlborough house was undergoing overhauling
and improvements, the Princess showed her specimens to
Mr. Allom, expressing great enthusiasm as to their beauty
of color, and her desire to have the quarry found and the
beautiful blue Sodalite made use of. Mr. Allom set out to:
prospect for the blue marble, and with the able help of the
Geological Survey Department of Canada, discovered the
mine in Hastings County, in the centre of Ontario.
NOTES ON THE LATE COLLECTING SEASON
With a few friends Mr. Allom promptly bought the
mine outright, and the blue stone now beautifies many of
the Princess of Wales’ rooms. The peculiar hardness of
the mineral renders the work of cutting most dificult, and
much time and ingenuity, both here and on the continent,
have been expended, but at last the difficult process of
cutting and moulding appears to be solved.
At Brook House the same blue Canadian marble mixed
with pavonazzo will adorn the sumptuous outer entrance
hall when it is completed. Hundreds of men are now
working to get the necessary quantity of sixty tons cut and
moulded to form the cornices and pilasters of the apartment.
Nature informed its readers recently that the re-
mains of an immeuse Rhinoceros was just discovered in
Austria, with flesh and skin in fair preservation. It may
have been imbedded in glacial clay perhaps. }
Notes Geological and Antiquarian.
Read before the Hamilton Scientific Association,
March 2nd, 1908.
BY COLSICr ie Ghana:
Talk as we may, as members of the Hamilton Scientific
Association, of confining ourselves to the mere organic
remains of a Silurian district little known on the American
continent, assuredly the restriction was never intended by
the early liberal original framers of the rules of the Associ-
ation, still existing for the guidance of the members, and
which, as far as the writer can see, have never been can-
celled.
The Geological Section of the Association always
accepted that prominent assertion in every copy of our
Proceedings, that ‘‘ the writers were solely responsible for
statements published.’’ But even years ago we recognized
the fact, as Sir A. Geikie stated, that the flint-flake human
productions, Paleolithic or Neolithic specimens, should be
recognized also as scientific advance, inasmuch as human
productions wherever buried also revealed the past history
of life on earth, perhaps even better than many of the ele-
vated sea beds, where we have little difficulty in recogniz-
ing the coral and countless inhabitants which left their
remains for science to record the history. Neither can we
altogether separate Geology from the far more auicient
science, Astronomy, since we are compelled to acknowledge
that it alone possesses the key to the early creation of the
earth we inhabit.
Confined as our researches naturally must be, do we
not find, even in the very interior of our limestone used for
building purposes in this city, indelibly recorded by the
Great Creator far more reliable evidence than Pagan tradi-
NOTES GEOLOGICAL AND ANTIQUARIAN
tions, which in the dark days of Hebrew adversity pre-
ceded even with them that medieval Christianity which
science unquestionably accepts, while denounced as ‘‘ Mod-
ernism’’ by His Holiness the Pope himself, who claims
that even the advocates of heresy in the ancient days
among various Christian denominations also acquiesced in
the views he entertains. Well, after all, we must admit
the correctness of this assertion. Denial is impossible if
any reliance can be placed on the daily press of Canada.
Now let us take a subject which, as far as I can see, is
absolutely impossible to divorce or separate from Geology—
Botany. It possesses an older claim to scientific investiga-
tion regarding the origin of plant life. This locality cer-
tainly possesses probably a little known but very important
collection of early sea plants, ranging from the Medina
Grey Band to the Niagara Barton’s inclusive. As far as the
writer recollects, he called the attention of the Section to
this when the late Prof. Nicholson, in Zhe Palgontology of
Ontario, expressed a doubt he entertained regarding the
real nature of what I believe to have been imperfect speci-
meus from the Clinton rocks at Hamilton. Sir W. Daw-
son noticed the absence of bituminous matter which he
expected to find in the first fossilized remains forwarded
and shared, I think, in the doubts of the Toronto Professor,
but he changed his opinion when we were subsequently
enabled to furnish him with better specimens than the
ones he received previously.
Your collector, on subniitting some Clinton forms to
the late Dr. James Hall, of Albany, mentioned that a few
Canadian Palzobotanists had expressed doubts regarding
the true nature of the sea plant he described, and figured
under the name Buthotrephis. ‘‘ Well,” he remarked,
‘they never could have seen such ones as you gave me, or
the ones in the side case of the museum.’’ The writer
thinks the Doctor’s B. gracilis may merely represent a de-
tached branch of a plant such as we have here in our local
NOTES GEOLOGICAL AND ANTIQUARIAN
Clinton beds in a large flag. It has a conical root; a
flattened main stem which is furnished with numerous
alternating branches. ‘The latter are thick near the root,
but gradually get quite thin when they reach the top.
Had I not obtained the entire plant, and found only its de-
tached branches, I certainly would have no hesitation in
asserting they represented distinct species or varieties.
This, taken into consideration with the acknowledgment
we received from the authorities of the British Museum,
that specimens of fossil plants from Hamilton had arrived,
clearly establishes Dr. Hall’s claim as regards the original
sea plant he discovered in the lower Silurians of New York
State, y
Perhaps the late Sir W. Dawson was the first to recog-
nize marsh plants from the Clinton iron band of the escarp-
ment here.
It was not until the sedimentary Devonian rocks, three
miles in thickness, were deposited that we find positive
proof of the former existetce of true land plants.
The members of the Section may naturally see no
necessity for repeating things they are already acquainted
with. Admitting this, the object I had in view was to call
your attention to the gross ignorance of scientific facts
recently displayed at Toronto by some of the clergy of tis
enlightened Province. A report of the proceedings appeared
in a copy of Zhe World of that city and was furnished
probably by some cne who recognized the writer as one
who held similar views to the Rationalists of the Old
Country. A notification of an intended work on this very
subject was also received about the same time from an
English publisher, and to both I am gratefully indebted.
In submitting the extract I received to the Section, it
is unnecessary to refer to the theological views of some of
the members of the Bible League. The Rev. Geo. Jack-
son, of Shelbourne Street Methodist Parsonage, in a letter
to Zhe Toronto Globe, calls attention to the ignorance of his
‘
7
q
,
4
.
NOTES GEOLOGICAL AND ANTIQUARIAN
clerical brethren regarding’ that point. Heaven knows
Ontario possesses more than we want of ‘‘ Sham Parsons”’
or medical quacks without importing a fresh supply of
either from the United States.
One of the speakers at the meeting is reported
to have stated: ‘‘At the present day we are face
to face with one of the most interesting and suggestive facts
in the whole field of historic-scientific investigation,
namely, that no creature that wore the human form had an
existence on the earth earlier than from six to twelve
thousand years ago.”’ |
When the learned gentleman made such an assertion,
he betrayed his unbelief in what has been incorporated in
the authorized version of the English Bible of King James.
True, perhaps, to compromise matters with the Geologists,
he adds a paltry six thousand years to Archbishop Usher’s
calculation regarding the date of the Creation, but he
appears to be as ignorant of recent discoveries as other rev-
erend gentlemen who addressed the meeting. Has he
heard of the human skeleton now in the British Museum
lately found in Egypt, interred eight or ten thousand years
ago, with the stone implements he used in life lying beside
him ; of the scores of flint arrowheads, celts, etc., obtained
by the English general, Rivers, and American Antiquarians,
from the same country, antedating the time when Egypt was
possessed by a more civilized people? Has the learned gentle-
man heard of the recent discoveries in the caves of France
and Germaay, of the human remains found there, when
Africa and Europe were joined by land? Or has he learned
anything respecting the Mediterranean elevated Pliocene
sea beds, which the famous Italian Astronomer, Secchi, in-
forms us contained in an undisturbed bed the bones of an
entire family drowned at sea, apparently ?
No doubt the reader may remark an attempt on the
part of the Bible League at Toronto to re-open a question
which the author of 7ke Warfare of Science considered
settled long since.
NOTES GEOLOGICAL AND ANTIQUARIAN
The late Duke of Argyle asserted that Egypt displayed
from the earliest times no indication whatever of a Stone
Age, but reached a high civilization at once. Huxley
pointed out to him the erroneousness of this statement, and
the Duke admitted he was mistaken and was compelled to
withdraw it as is stated in Zhe Warfare of Science.
The writer remarks even already, when criticized for
inaccurate and reckless statements, some few of the speak-
ers at the meeting protest that the reports misrepresented
what they actually said. Perhaps the imported Professor
of the Boston University may also deny he uttered the
words we find recorded in Zhe Globe, a Toronto paper.
‘Tt has been claimed by many Scientists that man has been
on earth for periods variously estimated at from two hun-
dred thousand years to eight or nine million years. The
foremost scientists after investigations admitted that human
life came after the Glacial. period, and that this Glacial
period occurred at from seven thousand to twelve thousand
years ago.’’ |
Now, with the single exception of the late Sir W.
Dawson, of late years I have never known any leading —
Geologist to publish his belief that man first appeared on
earth at or near the close of the Glacial Age. But if our
ancient lake beach known as Burlington Heights (formed
since the Glacial period, overlying its deposits) was raised
in twelve thousand years, the writer would simply look on
it as just as miraculous as the Hebrew tales of Jonah’s
whale, or Joshua’s arresting the sun in its course.
There may be some truth in what the speaker men-
tioned, namely: ‘The secular press of the city (Toronto)
gave more space to a dog-fight than they would give to a
bible conference—if the statement proves true (we doubt it
however), the newspapers there appear to have formed a
more correct estimate of the orators than the large audience
the various churches brought together, which, we were in-
formed, were in entire sympathy with the speaker.
NOTES GEOLOGICAL AND ANTIQUARIAN
What else could we expect ? Natural history, etc., has
been long neglected, and the universities here teach a higher
class than he is likely to find in such a religious assembly.
instead of preferring vague charges aud appealing to iguor-
ace at public meetings, assailing others who are infinitely
superior to themselves as regards knowledge and true
Christianity, why, may I ask, do they never bring reliable
proof in refutation of the men conducting the excavations
in Egypt, Babylon, etc. Take, for instance, scientific
Americans and others.
‘« The oldest city in the world is ‘‘ Nippur,’’ the older
Bel of Babylon. The foundation was laid 7,000 years B.C.,
ruins lately unearthed.’’
‘‘KReypt has yielded another find to De Rustaffaell’s
researches. In the desert of Upper Egypt, on the left
bank of ‘‘the Nile,’ he found among the remains of
Paleolithic things flint factories, a number of crude,
weathered limestone vessels, resembling troughs. They
are certainly older than ‘‘the Neolithic Age,’’ which
covered a considerable period there before the advent of the
first dynasty.”’
It appears to me inexcusable for a clergyman of any
denomination, now, to be unacquainted with recent dis-
coveries in Egypt, Babylon and elsewhere. Chaldean
records plainly demonstrate that the Jewish people, who
attributed to Moses the writings of early times, borrowed
largely from the library of the last great Assyrian King.
Take, for instance, ‘‘ The Deluge.’’ In the original version
of ‘‘old Babylonian myths” it is distinctly recorded as ‘‘a
tale or story.’’ ‘‘Ishtar’’ (Venus) plays, we are told, a
prominent part in ‘“‘ The Flood.’’ In the Ninevite account,
Noah sent out the dove, swallow and raven. In this, no
doubt, ‘‘The League ’’ would simply find confirmation of
what is stated in ‘‘Genesis.” The writer received an
account of the French explorations (under De Morgan) at
the ancient City of Susa. He laid bare the ruins of several
11
NOTES GEOLOGICAL AND ANTIQUARIAN
4
cities, one above the other. Beneath all he found an older
settlement containing rude flint implements and pottery.
His most important find was a fine Stela of Naram-Sin, son
of Sargon, 3,800 B.C.
FROM MYTHS. OF BGYPT.”
German Savant says Old Testament was reproduced.
Berlin, July t0o.—’The theological world of Germany is
greatly moved by the appearance of ‘‘Heypt and the
Bible,’’ by Professor of Divinity Volter, who states that
the writers of the earlier books of the Old Testament only
reproduced Hgyptian Sagas and Myths, slightly altering
them to suit the tendencies of the Hebrews.
The history of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Esau, Joseph
and Moses, he declares purely Egyptian with exact
counterparts in Egyptian Mythology. |
eginning with Abraham, Volter shows that the story
of God visiting Abraham at Mamre and the cestruction of.
Sodan and Gomorrah have exact parallels in the Egyptian
Sagas. Abraham corresponds to the Sun-God. Nun’s
wife, Nunet, like Sarah, had her first child in her old
age. Both were children of promise through whom the
future world should be blest.
Note well that in the face of this extract and others in
my possession, one of the speakers of the League boldly
asserts: Egyptian excavations of late fully confirm the
truth of the earlier Hebrew writings.
NOTES
On comparing this Trilobite tail, obtained from a
Trenton limestone in ‘‘ the Glacial (Ene) clay,’’ Winona,
with rather an indifferently preserved tail shield of Chap-
man’s ‘‘ Asaphus Canadenses.” It appeared to me to
bear a nearer resemblance to the Utica Shale Trilobite than
to a platycephalus Trenton. Perhaps it might be owiug to
sight-failure on my part. |
NOTES GEOLOGICAL AND ANTIQUARIAN
Discovery of Barton Niagara beds west of Dundas, by
Horace Sayman. A visitor to the City Museum called
attention recently to some minerals he brought from rocks
west of Dundas—Mineral Tar, Galena, Pyrites. They
come from beds at or near the level of Carpenter’s Quarry,
abandoned many years ago on Barton and Glanford road.
I think no one expected that the Barton rocks would ever be
found there. The visitor brought no Fluor, which is
common in mineral quarry—Carpenter’s. The Tar slightly
differs, but I think I am right in assigning their position.
Report of the Astronomical Section
For 1907-08.
Nee
The officers of the Astronomical Society decided last
season that for several reasons it was not advisable to
attempt to reorganize the Society at that time. Con-
sequently the affairs of the Society are practically the same
as when last reported.
All constitutional requirements and Government
regulations have been complied with, so that the charter is
alive and ready for reorganization at any time.
Of course no fees have been collected, but it is hoped
that the members of this section have kept. up their mem-
bership in the Scientific Association.
The prospects are reasonably bright for a revival of
the interest in the Society next fall, and if this develops
the work of the Society will then be resumed.
G. PARRY JENKINS, iH) HA DARLING.
Acting President. Acting Secretary.
2
=
a
“7.
¢
Annual Report of Camera Section
May, 1908.
The Camera Club, since the equipment of ils new
quarters at 104 King Street West, has had a very busy and
interesting session.
While the cost of equipping our new Club Rooms has
been beyond our resources, a new interest has been created
in the work of the Club, and we are now in possession of
up-to-date rooms and have some inducement to offer in this
way to new members.
We are greatly indebted to a number of the older
members for donations towards the equipment of the
premises, and hope, when we have paid off all this expense,
to go on improving the surroundings and keep ourselves
up-to.date. ;
On October 27th the opening of the New Club Rcoms
took place, when an exhibition of lantern slides was given
in the Museum and attended by a large number of members
and friends.
This was followed by an adjournment of the meeting
to our new quarters, where a pleasant social hour was
spent and the serving of light refreshments added to the
evening’s entertainment.
During the past session three meetings have been held
each month, and many of the practical demonstrations have
been of exceptional interest to the amateur camerist and
greatly appreciated by our members.
In March we had an open meeting, when an interest-
ing exhibition of lantern slides was shown on tlie screen.
At the end of the same month the Exhibition of Prints
was held, and a large namber of people took advantage of
REPORT OF CAMERA SECTION
seeing these during the three days they were on view to
the public.
A number of new members have been added to the
Club during the year. Though many of these, having the
advantage since March 1st of getting their fees to cover the
period to June rst, 1909, date for the coming year.
At the Annual Meeting, held on April 13th, the
following officers were elected for the ensuing year :
President—C. A. Herald.
First Vice-President—B. H. Higgins.
Second Vice-President— George Lees.
Secretary—-Arthur Smith.
Jas. B. Bertram.
Committee—< Wm. Acheson.
3 E. G. Overholt.
An outing to Forks of Credit has been arranged for
Victoria Day, when it is hoped there will be a large turn-
out of members and their friends, as well as many of the
old members of the Club, this outing to be known as an
Old Members’ Reunion.
The Club now looks forward toa very great increase
in membership, and along with this an increased enthusiasm
and interest in the Art and Science of Photography.
SINCLAIR G. RICHARDSON,
Secretary,
aaa
Curator’s Report.
SEASON 1907-08.
Having so recently resumed the office and duties of
Curator, I regret I am unable ta call your attention to any
additions to the Museum cases presented during my
absence.
The Couucil. furnished lately some cases which were
much wanted. This will enable us to make a few necessary
alterations in-our overcrowded shelves.
A local museum, as was pointed out by our President,
Mr. Alexander, several years ago, should contain as com-
plete a collection as possible of the Fauna, Flora and Miner-
als of the locality. This ought to be the principal object in
view. Since the removal of the animals loaned to us
formerly, unfortuately we were unable to replace any of
them. I remember some time since pointing out to an
English visitor a rediculous blunder made by an English
Artist regarding ‘‘the Snapping Turtle.’? I could only
show him a very poor specimen of the one thing he had
never seell.
Any contribution of specimens of snakes, etc., would
be acceptable and thankfully received.
CHAS. COOTE GRANT,
Curator City Museum.
Hamilton Scientific Association.
Treasurer's Statement For Financial Year Closing
14th May, 1908.
RECEIPTS
PALACE ALON TOO 7. 405 o hese Lo ee eS BASRA Bettas ak MERE $ 67 03
RFOVETIMIENE NGRAIEE So scnces i.) Ege, eRe anes ON Rheem SURE im 400 00
Members: ghices ((resitlar):..508 eich Sebi Rive cel semi ae ee 104 00
Members’ Fees (Photographic Section) .......2... J.c6 0005: 4 29 00
RARER ENON Re ae cE CC em Mn tees. St BL mM ame alae Wy eRe a IO 00
Horticulimal Society aud-other rents! 0. Yo... ky sar ok oot OO
POY Mt SES VOOR) ee Sig tar Go Dek sin Rie Surciat td whee a gees 4 00
$630 53
EXPENDITURE
Pee Meroe MWSMIN he che Bees Es) beech has 3 Ge eRe $130 00
Rent or Dark Room to july,1st,) 1907 55:26.) Sed Leake 1EeG
panentof Room) and Music for opening night. 0.0... oi. jc neeen. 23 00
icAs/ Oe. caceount $14.80; amps. $2.3505... 2. cies ld, Sele 17.5
Camere P25 00, sClCAMING hs 25 6 hk Omsk Ole ep ake See 38 25
MSN Seen en BS ot eae elite nia Dateia's s alatc sue Siow a’ acl a tetate eee: 16 00
Praintine Annual Reports (on accoumt)§ 1) 26 eae nd souks 175 00
Bhiankineand: Mnoray ute sce ibs oe eee Coes weet Sie Sree heise 105 35
Gotase aid Stationery 400 sf uN Saucon ccustios cue h ae aes 225.50
Lecture cexpensesiand reports). ek Ma siud.c cee eee ee beaieel: 26 60
SMW EASE Be ee AS es SCOR Mesa ea Ola ce ava ale Maen ar ae 13 50
Sim Ly Accounts (67 Yaueey ie | TAY Contre wo alle Seve ata Oavate eis esate ees 14 10
$593 45
BAlaneCe Om Mama Hac; ahs A Lem ene eM aye 37 08
$630 53
P. lL. SCRIVEN, Treasurer.
This is to certify that we have examined the vouchers and
found them correct. May 13, 1908.
E. H. DARLING, Audii
: FH WINGHAM,| on srg a
R. J. HILL, President.
J. H. BALLARD, Secretary.
LIST OF EXCHANGES
I.—AMERICA.
(1) Canada.
Royal Astronomical Society of Canada........... loronto
Canadian Institute....... ahs ee a ads niis mmc Saran Toronto
Natural History Society. of Lorontoeccc:deeia tls s=. Toronto
Deparment OM Aericiliine ie 4 Sede fo a eit Toronto
Baipeatyer the University soos soi) 01s oe s30.6 Leek saci out Toronto
emia COUGAR AT wives! cee w atevehe: Solge Sar is Gale oy a Auer ita Toronto
Geolosicalmeunveyrot Canadas 4/15 fsccsh 4 oid atocds aie: Ottawa
Otiawa Field’ Naturalists’ Club: ....../... RIPEN ceed 8 Ottawa
Ottawa Witerary and: Scientific Society ...6......-> Ottawa
Royal Society of Canada...... Batata witla aia) shapers -.-- Ottawa
Weparimemenge Aeriouliure . ss) sic crea tami ate ela Ottawa
Entomological Seciety «co. 6 e350. F se see es seaman London
Kentville Naturalists’ Club..s..: 2. .s26 2. Kentville, N.S.
Murchison Scientific Society...... Siege eeaeeee oss... Belleville
Natural HNSHOTY SOCIELY, o/si0ia-0)s sj 6:0 aie diet eereere « »- Montreal
Library of McGill University......... shabapetags ... Montreal
Nova Scotia Institute of Natural Science..... aves Hbalibasz
Literary and Historical Society of Quebec.... .... Quebec
‘L’Institut Canadian de Quebec........ id og ea tas Quebec
Natural History Society of New Brunswick......St. John
Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society...... Winnipeg
Guelph’ Sciéntific Association. .isij-4..seeenes-s 2. Grtelpli
Oneen’s University «son cee. ese ees sleiaal tsa aieds sel NSStOn
Natural History Society...... Sista erdiigg wi Riad § Niagara
(2) United States.
Kansas Academy of Science...........02-. Topeka, Kan.
Kansas University Quarterly.... ........ Lawrence, Kan.
LIST OF EXCHANGES
American Academy of Arts and Sciences.... Boston, Mass.
Sy ORES Ks cove xis eign iebejanetneateiniane te eines .-.Cambridge, Mass.
Library of @berlin College............ eee»: Oberlin, Ohio
American Assoc. for the Advancement of Science ........
ares ines cues ecaleteke miegtee te tag eeoe.-palem, Mass.
Museum a Comparative Zoology....... Cambridge, Mass.
American Dialect Society..... .....0-. Cambridge, Mass.
United States Department of Agriculture
STGs aS Sa Sales aon te ensvahavere cain banaue wes Washington, D.C.
Biological Society of Washington...... Washington, D.C.
Philosophical Society of Washington... Washington, D.C.
Smithsonian Institute......cces ..ee.. Washington, D.C.
United States Geological Survey....... Washington, D.C.
American Society of Microscopists......e.-- Buffalo, N.Y.
Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences.........Buffalo, N.Y.
California Acadeiny of Sciences. ...... Sau Francisco, Cal.
California State Geological Society....San Francisco, Cal.
Sauta Barbara Society of Natural History
BREA sat Ha teye ean pata horus Nie wate eaten eNiat San Francisco, Cal.
Wniverstty.o: Calilomta s..sitsn cis Uelewele seen Deller wical:
Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences
AES ee sab s ilale tuisesiiecs Minmeapolic, Vinay
Academy. Natural Sciences. 2.2 22.2.5 .- Philadelphia, Pa.
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES si. wis ie wieic ie nde wueieiensione ost. WOuis Mie:
Missouri Botanical Gardens....... ES tenn St. Louis, Mo.
America Chemical Society...... ........New York City
New York Microscopical Society......- ...New York City
ne TAnnean : SOC 21. 4ehc 4 iiersrche tials ....-New York City
American Astronomical Society.... ...... New York City
American Geographical Society...... ss. New York City
New York Academy of Science........... New York City
aerey eootanical Chale. ccchete stearic oven ... New York City
Central Park Menagerie......2... sss ....- New York City
American Museum of Natural History .... New York City
SCICHE MGs A IMATICE. cis ois 6 04s exiles a's ba geval New York City
Cornell Natural History Society .\)... .s..s «. Ithaca NOY.
John Hopkins University ...... ccvecseses Baltimore, Md.
Se ee a
LIST OF EXCHANGES
Kansas City Scientistw. .....ce-.0:- ..-. Kansas City, Mo.
Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts and
WCULET Sw die nae ob ee ee ohare anee Madison, Wis.
Soc. of Alaskan Natural History and Ethnology
eS ener Sodus de Wein wae Olt way lasted
Wiiversity of Pent... 2) 2s BINS Es ... Philadelphia, Pa,
Beam lin. Tiastitutes ./o0: + vis 212 10 betti sila «fn 6 Philadelphia, Pa.
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Science.... Brooklyn, N.Y.
War Department........ sane ts secs ss Washimeton. OG.
Field Columbian Museunl.. .....-...--- ~»+, Chicapoy Tit,
Academy of Sciences....... ea eee Ml . . Chicago, ‘Til.
Agricultural College....-. ... Ser ae »«.- Lansing, Mich.
Colorado Scientific Society.....-...- ~see-- Denver, Colt
Museum of Natural History.......+e..-ee- Albany, N.Y.
State Geologist..... deg Wade greta soy lere wes caters Albany, N.Y.
Rochester Academy of Sciences......-. Indianapolis, Ind.
Indiana Academy of Sciences...... -...Indianapolis, Ind.
Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences.. Davenport, lowa
Pasadena Academy of Sciences...... wees se Pasadena, Cal:
U.S. Board of Geographic Names...... Washington, D.C.
Lloyd Liprary oc 6/7 .+ SSSR seveaisees Cincinnati, Ohio
Colorado College........ eae bal enpiesalataras Colorado Springs
Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee...... Milwaukee
(3) West Indies.
Institute of Jamaica....... orice seee +s Mingeston, jamaied
(4) South America.
The Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society of
British Guiana. ccereescesseseces ... Georgetown
II.—EUROPE.
(1) Great Britain and Ireland.
England.
Bristol Naturalists’ Society ...0...-+- ...-Clifton, Bristol
British Naturalists’ Club........22+. 0: Stes . &» Bristol
Literary and Philosophic Society of Leeds.......... Leeds
Conchological Society......-... efalo ella! eleva a ai Manchester
LIST OF EXCHANGES
Royal Society. ce. -s Pe aay ree er se re GA ey IE auc! Out
Reval Colonial Mas titute..c iia cidascdenekis bone: London
Society of Science, Literature and Art........c2 6: London
Greolomical Sactety cutee cee tals nee Oe aia sehr LU OIICON
Manchester GeolosiealSectety <2 2502. 5.25 oo Manchester
Mining Association and Institute of Cornwall...Camborne
Cardifli Photosraphice Society... o... .4.6. ee eas eee Canine
Owens College Conchological Society......... Manchester
Scotland.
Glasgow. Geographical Society ...... 01.500 site ees Glasgow
Pileseplier| Society... 0 624. 28 oe sae eee -.... Glasgow
Ireland.
Royal Irish Academy <<... .... pie ate tet gw nies nee eae Dublin
Royaliceolocical Society of Irelatd:.. 22-1. 5G Dublin
NGM ltsts SRICIG CMI D cc w cid sce ee bb aeele Seek eke Belfast
(2) Austria-Hungary.
mathropolasiseite (Gesellscligtt. . os ie samc ceimicee sy Vienna
i. K .Geolostsche Reichsanstalt....... s.s0. 5 see ae Vienna
Treutsehin: Scientific Society so. cc ces co ueels ws Trentschin
(3) Belgium.
Societe Geologique de Belgique........... Seesaw eee eemre
(4) Denmark.
Societe Royal des Antiquaries du Nord....... Copenhagen
(5) France.
Academie Nationale des Sciences, Belles Lettres
SHAPES ae cbheedie ds Aatis Saeki em ia eieee t Bordeaux
Academie Nationale Science, Art et Belles Lettres...Caen
Academie des Nationale Science, Art et Belles
NEU GECS ote ioCataheyvcis een crac aejaraiimisiiate’ & ecsjahe's Dijon
Boctere Geoogique du Norts.1..jepce ae caine we eee Lille
Saciete Geologique du Prances: iss siemies 2 s+ een ee ails
(6) Germany.
Nahe wiISSenSChALbhiCher Verifieses aacces see sues Bremen
Naturwissenschaftlicter Verein. .é4..a<0 << casa Carlsruhe
LIST OF EXCHANGES
(7) Russia.
Connie GCeolooiqwento cid vagscd quwiees t2 <6 St. Petersburg
Russich-Kaiserliche Mineralogische Gesellschaft
epobae eral Hes we aheke’ ohaterererciene vieaie geeks ast. Eeterspuin:
Ik ASia
(1) India.
Asiatic Societies of Bombay and Ceylon.........
A etatiG SOCtehy OF Bemgils a 1s. sft uiactis -setslelae aialet Calcutta
Geological Sunvey, of Madtas . o65 0. 2% clic seleteccrs oe Calcutta
(2) Straits Settlements.
The Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. .Singapore
(3) Japan.
EISArIC SOCICEY Of JAPAM nice uc cts asec sane es a eee LOKIO
iV. — APRICA.
(1) Cape Colony.
South African Philosophical Society............ Capetown
V.—AUSTRALIA.
(1) Australia.
‘he Acustraliam Museu... +o see5 4264. see ees oyaney
Royal Society of New South Wales.....- so.0.2%. Sydney
Linnean Society of New South Wales...... ...0-. Sydney
Royal Anthropological Society of New South Wales
Le A Ss ai eae pte pie eS Saictels i @Ris tle nace ey Oey
Australian Natural History Museum.......... Melbourne
Public Library of Vietoria....-. s Gieieleneie Diaetesea Melbourne
Royal society of Queensland: oi...) sere ale re Brisbane
Queensland Museum....... ssscsescenvene «ss. Brisbane
(2) New Zealand.
New Zealand: Institntes 32/28. ¢0 cue. shee es Wellington
(3) Tasmania.
Royal-Soctety of Tl asmiaiiigie. ga. 6 d4 6 sce ee ees Hobartown
; LYMAN LER, ‘zB. A, Chatman.
ADAM BROWN,” /) os
7 ‘Hon. President aid 1 Charter Member.
AS ALEXANDER, SS fects President,
MV Be B. WILTON,
as ‘Mice-Pres:, Past Pres, aha Chanter Sie é ap ;
2 MATTHEW LEGGAT,
2nd Vice-Pres; and Charter ‘Member. P
SO REV. ‘S$. LYLE, Past President.
ACERS NEIL, Past President,
‘DR. MORGAN, Past President.
J. M. DICKSON, Past President, <
GEO. Ly. JOHNSTON, B.A:, Past Ripe gh
oR, J. ILL, Past President,
COL. Cx Ce GRANT, Curator.
“PL. “SCRIVEN, Treasurer,
ae PARRY JENKINS, FR, A.S.,
- Siac d Secretary.
AMES GADSBY |
Se Ae He BAKER
1 J. M. windiaMs:
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7
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303 2404
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