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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

BOY@L SOCIETY

NEW .SOU Tre WME S,

FOR THE YEAR 1871.

ZO STs
‘OV ao 1939 ‘|)
| )

SUMED :
JOSEPH COOK & CO., PRINTERS, 370, GEORGE STREET,
OPPOSITE THE BANK OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

ee

1872.

Hopal Society of Aew South Vales,

I)
OFFICERS FOR 1871.

—<—

PRESIDENT :
HIS EXCHELLENCY THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF BELMORE.

VICE-PRESIDENTS :
REV. W. B. CLARKE, M.A., F.GS.
PROFESSOR SMITH, M.D.

HONORARY TREASURER :
EDWARD BEDFORD, ESQ.

HONORARY SECRETARIES:
REV. WILLIAM SCOTT, M.A. | CHARLES MOORE, ESQ.

COUNCIL :
H. C. RUSSELL, ESQ.

PROFESSOR THOMSON

DR. LEIBIUS
HOWARD REED, ESQ.
CHRIS. ROLLESTON, ESQ. | CHARLES WATT, ESQ.

FUNDAMENTAL RULES.

—~<+—

Objects of the Society.

1. The object of the Society is to receive at its stated meetings original
papers on subjects of Science, Art, Literature, and Philosophy, and especially
on such subjects as tend to develop the resources of Australia, and to illustrate
its Natural History and Productions.

President.
2. The Governor of New South Wales shall be ea officio the President of
the Society.
Other Officers.

3. The other Officers of the Society shall consist of two Vice-Presidents,
a Treasurer, and two or more Secretaries, who, with six other Members, shall
constitute a Council for the management of the affairs of the Society.

Election of Officers.

4, The Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secretaries, and the six other Members
of Council, shall be elected annually at a General Meeting in the month of
May.

Facancies during the Year.

5. Any vacancies occurring in the Council of Management, during the
year, may be filled up by the Council.

Fees.

6. The entrance money paid by members on their admission shall be
One Guinea; and the annual subscription shall be One Guinea, payable in
advance.

The sum of Ten Pounds may be paid at any time as a composition for
the ordinary annual payment for life. a

Vill.
Honorary Members.

7. The Honorary Members of the Society shall be persons who have
been eminent benefactors to this or to some other of the Australian Colonies,
or distinguished patrons and promoters of the objects of the Society. Every
person proposed as an Honorary Member must be recommended by the
Council and elected by the Society. Honorary Members shall be exempted
from payment of fees and contributions, they may attend the meetings of
the Society, and they shall be furnished with copies of transactions, and
proceedings, published by the Society, but they shall have no right to hold
office, to vote, or otherwise interfere in the business of the Society.

Confirmation of Bye-Laws.
8. Bye-Laws proposed by the Council of Management shall not be
binding until ratified by a General Meeting.

Alteration of Fundamental Rules.

9. No alteration of or addition to the Fundamental Rules of the Society
shall be made, unless carried at two successive General Meetings.

BYE-LAWS.

—

Ordinary Meetings.

1. An Ordinary Meeting of the Royal Society, to be convened by Public
Advertisement, shall take place at 8 p.m., on the first Wednesday in every
month, during the last eight months of the year. These Meetings will be
open for the reception of contributions, and the discussion of subjects of every
kind, if brought forward in conformity with the Fundamental Rules and
Bye-Laws of the Society.

Council Meetings.

2. Meetings of the Council of Management shall take place on the last
Wednesday in every month, and on such other days as the Council may
determine.

Contributions to the Society.

8. Contributions to the Society of whatever character, must be sent to.
one of the Secretaries, to be laid before the Council of Management. It will
be the duty of the Council to arrange, for promulgation and discussion at an
Ordinary Meeting, such communications as are suitable for that purpose, as
well as to dispose of the whole in the manner best adapted to promote the
objects of the Society.

Ordinary Members.

4, Candidates for admission as Ordinary Members to be proposed and
seconded at one of the stated meetings of the Society. The vote on their
admission to take place, by ballot, at the next subsequent meeting; the
assent of the majority of the Members voting at the latter meeting being
requisite for the admission of the Candidate.

New Members to be notified of their Election.

5. Every Member shall receive due notification of his election, together
with a Copy of the Fundamental Rules and Bye-Laws of the Society.

Introduction of New Members to the Society.
6. Every Candidate duly elected as Member should, on his first attend-
ance at a meeting of the Society, be introduced to the Chair, by his proposer
or seconder, or by some person acting on their behalf.

Annual Subscriptions, when due.

7. Annual Subscriptions shall become due on the first of May for the
year then commencing. The Entrance Fee and first year’s Subscription of a.
New Member shall become due on the day of his election.

X.

Members whose Subscriptions are not paid to enjoy no privileges.

8. Members will not be entitled to attend the Meetings or to enjoy any
of the privileges of the Society until their Entrance Fee and Subscription for
the year have been paid.

Subscriptions in arrears.

9. Members who have not paid their subscriptions for the current year,
shall be informed of the fact by the Treasurer. If, thirty days after such
intimation, any are still indebted, their names will be formally laid before the
Society at the first Ordinary Meeting. At the next Ordinary Meeting, those
whose Subscriptions are still due, will be considered to hare resigned.

Expulsion of Members.

10. A majority of Members present at any Ordinary Meeting, shall have
power to expel an obnoxious Member from the Society, provided that a
resolution to that effect has been moved and seconded at the previous Ordinary
Meeting, and that due notice of the same has been sent in writing to the
Member in question, within a week after the Meeting at which such
resolution has been brought forward.

Admission of Visitors.

11. Every Ordinary Member shall have the privilege of admitting one
friend as a Visitor to an Ordinary Meeting of the Society, on the following
conditions :—

1. That the name and residence of the Visitor, together with the name
of the Member introducing him, be entered in a book at the time.

2. That the Visitor does not permanently reside within ten miles of
Sydney, and,

3. That he shall not have attended two meetings of the Society in the
current year.

The Council shall have power to introduce Visitors, irrespective of the
above restrictions.

Management of Funds.

12. The Funds of the Society shall be lodged at a Bank, named by the
Council of Management. Claims against the Society, when approved by the
Council, shall be paid by the Treasurer.

Audit of Accounts.

13. Two Auditors shall be appointed annually at an Ordinary Meeting
to audit the Treasurer’s Accounts. The Accounts as audited to be laid
before the Annual Meeting in May.

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

Royal Society of New South caales.

Adams, P. F., Surveyor General.

Allen, George, the Hon., M.L.C., Toxteta Park, Glebe.
Allen, George Wigram, M.P., Elizabeth-street.
Allwood, Rev. Canon, King-street. j

Alierding, F., Hunter-street.

Armstrong, Walter Dickinson, Macquarie-street.

Baker, Thomas, Maryland, near Liverpool.
Bell, Edward.

Bedford, Edward, Castlereach-street.

Beg, Rev. Dr., Crown-street.

Beilby, H. T. , Macquarie- street.

Bell, ‘William, Pitt-street.

Belmore, His Excellency the Right Hon., the Earl of
Bensusan, S. L., George-street.

Berry, Alexander, North Shore.

Bennett, W. C., Department of Works.
Bode, Rev. G. C., Macquarie-street.

Boyd, Dr., Lyons’ Terrace.

Bradridge, Thomas H., Town Hall.
Brereton, Dr., O’ Connell-street.

Campbell, The Hon. Charles, M.L.C., Pine Villa, Newtown.
Cape, W. F., Pitt-street.

Cane, Alfred, Stanley-street.

Clarke, Rev. W. B., Branthwaite, North Shore.

Cox, Dr. James, Hunter-street.

Comrie, J ames, Northfield, Kurrajong.

Cracknell, E. C. , Telegraph Office, George-street.

>a

Cronin, J. D., Darling-street, Balmain.
Creed, Dr. Mildred, M.P., Scone.
Croudace, Thomas, Lambton.

De Lissa, Alfred, Pitt-street.
Deffell, G. H., Elizabeth-street.
Docker, the Hon. Joseph, M..C., Australian Club.

Elhott, FE. W., Pitt-street.

Fairfax, Alfred, George-street.
Fairfax, John, Herald Office.
Fairfax, J. R., Herald Office.
Faithful, G. £., Australian Club.
Flavelle, John, George-street.
Forster, R. M., York-street.
Fortescue, Dr., Hyde Park Terrace.
Forlonge, William, Civil Service Club.
Francis, Judge.
Fraser, Collin, M.P., Australian Club, or Bannockburn, New
England.

Gardiner, Martin, C.E., Gordon Terrace, Liverpool-street, Hast.
Garran, Dr. Andrew, Phillip-street.

Goodlet, J., 124, Erskine-street.

Gowlland, John, R.N., North Shore.

Goodchap, Charles, Civil Service Club.

Graham, Rev. John, College-street.

Gray, Samuel W., Wollumben, Tweed River, via Cassino.

Halloran, Henry, Colonial Secretary’s Office.

Hale, Thomas, Exchange.

Hill, F. W., General Post Office.

Hill, Edward, Rose Bay. (Life.)

Hill, Roland, Joint Stock Bank.

Holden, G. K., Land Titles’ Office.

Holt, the Hon. Thomas, M.L.C., the Warren, near Sydney.
Hordern, A., Darling Point.

Hovell, Captain, Goulburn. .
Horton, Rey. Thomas, Hopewell-street, Paddington.
Hunt, Robert, Royal Branch Mint.

Jaques, T. J.
Jones, Dr. Sydney, College-street.
Josephson, Judge, King-street.

Kean, William, Union Club.
Krefft, Gerard, Museum, College-street.

*=s

Xlil.

Lang, Rev. Dr. J. D., Jamieson-street.
Leibius, Dr. Adolph, Royal Branch Mint.
Lord, the Hon. Francis, M.L.C., North Shore.
Lucas, John, M.P., Camperdown.

Macarthur, the Hon. Sir William, M.L.C.

Macafee, Arthur H. C., York-street.

Manning, John Edye, Circular Quay.

Mansfield, G. A., Pitt-street.

Mayes, Charles, Pitt-street.

McDonnell, Wilham J., George-street.

McDonnell, William, George-street.

Metcalfe, M., Bridge-street.

Miles, Charles, 54, Upper William-street.

Mitchell, D. P., Cumberland-street.

Mitchell, James Sutherland, Tooth’s Brewery, Parramatta-street.
Morehead, R. A. A., 80, O’Connell-street.

Moriarty, Edward, Department of Works.

Moore, Charles, Director of the Botanic Gardens.

Morell, G. A., Phillip-street.

Murnin, M. E., Exchange, Bridge-street.

Murray, The Hon. Sir. T. A., President of the Legislative Council.

Nathan, Charles, Macquarie-street.

Paterson, Dr., Elizabeth-street, North.
Paterson, Hugh, Macquarie-street.

Pell, Professor, Sydney University.

Phillips, Captain, Pacific Insurance Company.
Pilcher, Charles Edward, King-street.

Prince, Henry, George-street.

Ramsay, Edward, (life) Dobroyde.
Reading, E., Phillip-street.

Reed, Howard, Potts’ Point.
Renwick, Dr. Arthur, Elizabeth-street.
Richardson, A, H., George-street.
Roberts, J., George-street.

Roberts, Alfred, Castlereagh-street.
Robertson, Thomas, Deniliquin.
Rolleston, Christopher, Auditor-General.
Ross, J. G., 193, Macquarie-street.
Rowe, Thomas, Pitt-street.

Russell, Henry, Sydney Observatory.

Scott, Rev. William, (life) Warden of St. Paul’s College.
Scott, J. H. L., Civil Service Club.
Senior, F., George-street.

XIV.

Smith, Professor, M.D., Sydney University.
Spencer, Walter W., Pitt-street South.

Tebbutt, John, Junr., Parramatta.
Thomson, the Hon. E. Deas, M.L.C., C.B.
Thomson, Professor, Sydney University.
Thompson, James, Treasury.

Thompson, H. A., Pitt-street.

Tooth, Frederick, Parramatta-street.
Tucker, William, Clifton, North Shore.
Tunks, William, M.P., North Shore.
Twynam, E., Goulburn.

Walker, William, Windsor.

Ward, R. D., North Shore.

Watt, Charles, Parramatta.

Walker, P. B., Telegraph Office, George-street.
Wallis, William, Bank Auction Rooms, George-street.
Weigall, A. B., Head Master Sydney Grammar School.
Willams, Dr., Macquarie-street.

Williams, J. P., New Pitt-street.

CONTENTS.

Paqg.
Opening Address by Professor Smith, M.D., Vice-President ... ... 1

Art. I.—Remarks on the Nebula around Eta Argus, by H. C.
TRUSseN AN SG vee lence eset seek ceatap al) Nu mo mLey

II.—Magnetic Variations at Sydney, by H. C. Russell, Esq.... 25

III.—Remarks on the Botany of Lord Howe’s Island, by
CharlessMoore sWsq ica palit arent eee;

LV.—New Guinea—a highly promising field for settlement and
colonization,—that such an object could be most
easily and successfully accomplished, by the Rev.

Drs WANG Sesscmsschy: satink wna MMe see Cr neehey

V.—On the Constitution of Matter, by Professor Pell.

ha SHG $e ee
i /

ae

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Royal Society of Now South Wales,

Opening Address to the Royal Society, delivered at tts
First Meeting, 12th May, 1871, by Professor
Smuth, M.D., Vice-President.

Your ExceLLency anp GentLtemMen,—As you did me the honour
last year of electing me one of the Vice-Presidents of the Royal
Society of New South Wales, it now devolves on me to give the
usual opening address at the commencement of a new session.
The first meeting last year was held on May 25th. It was pre-
sided over by Mr. G. R. Smalley, Government Astronomer, who
then announced that, in consequence of ill-health, he wished to
retire from the Vice-Presidency. Within six weeks thereafter
we had to lament his death. At the meeting held on August 3rd
the following resolution was placed on record :—‘ That the Royal
Society of New South Wales, at this, its first monthly meeting
after the death of the late G. R. Smalley, Esq., desires to express
its sympathy with his family, and to record in its minutes their
regret at his loss, and a deep sense of the valuable services which
he rendered to the society during his connection with it.” Mr.
Smalley was at one time in charge of the Magnetic Observatory
at the Cape of Good Hope, under Sir Thomas Maclear. He
afterwards taught mathematics in King’s College, London; and
arrived in this colony in January, 1864, as Government Astrono-
mer, succeeding the Rev. W. Scott. He at once became an

2 Opening Address.

active member of the Philosophical Society, and was mainly
instrumental (in conjunction with Mr. Bedford, our present
honorary treasurer,) in getting the name changed to Royal
Society. Some of us thought this designation rather too ambi-
tious, but I believe all are now satisfied that it is mfore appropriate
than the former designation. A strictly “ philosophical” society
might be expected to confine its attention to matters of specula-
tion and pure science, while in our circumstances it is expedient
to devote our energies more to applied science, and to matters of
obvious practical utility, not however refusing to entertain
questions of speculative philosophy when competent members
bring them under our notice. Following the example of the
Royal Society of England, we can embrace the whole range of
human knowledge and skill, avoiding only such topics as usually
end in angry controversy.

While a member of the Philosophical Society, Mr. Smalley
read the following papers :—‘“ On the theory of Encke’s Comet.”
“On certain possible relations between Geological changes and
Astronomical obseryations.” ‘On the present state of Astrono-
mical, Magnetical, and Meteorological Science, and the practical
bearings of these subjects.” ‘ Preliminary remarks on the Mag-
netical Survey of New South Wales.” And in the Royal Society
he read the following :—‘ On the Mutual Influence of Clock
Pendulums.” ‘On the value of Earth temperatures,” and the
opening address, session 1868. Mr. Smalley was elected one of
the Vice-Presidents of the Royal Society, in conjunction with
the Rey. W. B. Clarke, and continued to take a warm interest in
the society till his death in July last year.

Turning now to the progress and work of the Royal Society
during the year, I have to notice that we gained twenty-one new
members, besides several members of the former Philosophical
Society who now recognised us. In the previous year (1869)
there were only fourteen new members. But while we thus had
a fair addition to our numerical strength, there was no corres-
ponding addition, I regret to say, to our income. As a
consequence of this we were barely able to make ends meet, and
unless we find a material improvement this year, we shall be
reluctantly compelled to stop the publication of our transactions.

Opening Address. 3

Our affairs are conducted on a very economical scale, and a little
improvement on our annual income—which could easily be
secured if our members would only make prompt payment of
their subscriptions—would remove our anxieties, and enable us to
continue printing the papers read before the society as hitherto.

The following is a list of the papers read during 1870:— May
25. Opening address, by the Rev. W. B. Clarke, Vice-President.
June 15. “On Post Office Savings Banks, Friendly Societies,
and Government Life Assurance and Annuity Offices,” by C.
Rolleston, Esq. July 6. “ Remarks on the Report of the Water
Commission, with special reference to the George’s River
scheme,” by A. Garran, Hsq., LL.D. September 19. “ On the
Botany Watershed,” by E. Bell, Esq.,C.E. November 2. “ Notes
on the Auriferous Slate and Granite Veins of New South Wales,”
by H. A. Thompson, Esq., Mining Engineer. December 7. “ On
the Occurrence of the Diamond near Mudgee,” by Professor
Thomson and Norman Taylor, Esq. Two of the regular monthly
meetings were occupied by adjourned debates on the water ques-
tion, and four extra meetings were held on the same debates,
making altogether eight meetings devoted to the great question
of Water Supply of Sydney. This was indeed the chief business
of the year, and its popularity was indicated by the unusually
large attendance of members and visitors on the nights of its
discussion.

Dr. Garran, in his paper noted above which introduced the
subject, objected to the Upper Nepean scheme recommended by
the Water Commission on the ground of cost and lability to
damage from the great length and variety of the works, also
because it made no provision for intercepting storm waters, and
because, although an embankment eighty feet high was required
for the reservoir, only twenty-five feet of water would be avail-
able. He advocated the George’s River scheme on the ground of
nearness to Sydney, and consequent simplicity and economy of
works; also, because a more capacious reservoir would be
obtained, which would intercept storm waters when necessary.
He maintained that an efficient dam could be constructed of
loose materials, and at moderate cost, and that the salt water of
the estuary would soon be replaced by fresh. Other members

4 Opening Address.

during the debate supported these views. Some maintained that
the cost of the Upper Nepean scheme had been greatly under-
estimated, and that the water, although originally pure from that
source, would become contaminated by the Wianamatta shales
which it had to traverse. On the other hand, it was maintained
that an effective dam on George’s River would be a difficult and
costly work; that if the ordinary level of the water was raised so
much as ten feet, valuable land near Liverpool would be flooded ;
that the length of time required for washing out the salt was
hypothetical; that even after the salt water was displaced, the
quality of the water would never be equal to that from the Upper
Nepean; and that a gravitation scheme was much more desirable
than a pumping scheme. There was much incidental discussion
on various other points, such as the rate of evaporation in this
country, and the quality of water desirable for a town supply. In
regard to the former, the weight of evidence seemed in favour of
allowing four or five feet per annum; and in regard to the latter
it was agreed that while water could not be too pure and soft
for manufacturing purposes, yet for use as a beverage a moderate
proportion of lime might be advantageous.

Mr. Bell, City Engineer, in his paper on the Botany water-
shed, maintained that the Lachlan and Botany swamps were
capable of affording an ample supply of water to Sydney for
many years to come; that the loss by evaporation and otherwise
had been greatly over-estimated by the Commissioners, and that
nearly the whole of the rainfall could be made available by the
construction of certain reservoirs. He was inclined to think that
when it became necessary to supplement the Botany supply
from some other source, the best place to go to for this purpose
would be the Grose River. This paper caused a renewal of the
discussion on the Upper Nepean and George’s River schemes,
and on various points previously handled, such as loss by evapo-
ration, construction of dams, purity of water, and relative merits of
pumping and gravitation. On the whole, this prolonged debate on
the water supply, although useful in eliciting a variety of opinions
and in subjecting the various schemes to an ordeal of severe eriti-
cism, yet added little to the facts as set forth in the Report of the
Sydney Water Commission. It was admitted on all sides that
no better water could be brought to Sydney than what is at

Opening Address. 5

present supplied, and that its quantity might be increased by the
construction of suitable reservoirs ; but that a time would come
when its capabilities could be stretched no farther, and when it
would be necessary to try some other source. Opinions differed
much as to when this limit would be reached. Those who
believed that the time was distant advocated the expenditure of
large sums in order to develope the Botany scheme to the
utmost; but most who took part in the discussion were of
opinion that the Botany supply would in a few years be found
insufficient, and that therefore it would be inexpedient to spend
more money upon it. It was argued by some that it would be
better to give up the Botany stream entirely to manufactures,
and to make use of the sandy and barren area drained by it as a
meaus of disposing profitably of the city sewage ; while others
were disposed to maintain the Botany supply permanently, and
only to supplement it from some other source. In regard to
new sources, only three of those described in the water report
were brought under discussion, the Upper Nepean and Cataract
Rivers, recommended by the Commissioners; George’s River,
and the Grose. The chief objection urged against the Com-
missioners’ scheme was that it would be much more costly than
estimated, but this was not proved. On the other hand, the
construction of a dam across George’s River, and the purification
of the water were hotly debated, and no certain conclusions
could be arrived at; and as to the Grose, no champion has yet
undertaken to blazon its merits, or to demonstrate a cheaper

method of bringing its pure waters to Sydney than that indicated
by tne Commissioners.

It is, perhaps, unfortunate for Sydney that ever since the pub-
lication of the Report of the Commission, rain has fallen so
abundantly that the authorities have not felt the question of
water supply to be urgent. And yet itis just the time for calm
and careful deliberation, for when the pressure of a great drought
comes, as it certainly will come, and probably soon, the first
thought will be not to find out and adopt the best plan, but to
seize on the readiest. In view of the difficulties that surround
the question, and the magnitude of the interests involved, I think
the Government would act prudently if they were to obtain the

6 Opening Address.

opinion of one or more hydraulic engineers possessing a length-
ened experience in other countries; and as two gentlemen of
this character have arrived from India to give advice to the
Government of Victoria on the best mode of getting out of their
hydraulic difficulties, it wouid probably not be difficult, nor very
expensive, to get one or both of them to go over our contested
ground here, and give us the benefit of their matured judgment.

I may notice here that the gauging of the Nepean and Cataract
Rivers has been carried on since the date of the Commissioners’
report, and Mr. Moriarty has kindly furnished us with a table of
the monthly results, by which it will be seen that the reservoir
would have been superabundantly supplied throughout the period
indicated. It must be remembered, however, that last year was
unusually wet.

Montuty Torats.—NEPEAN AND Cararact RIVERS.

23 z A 2 S
al | 5 S
S 50 a 8 3 5
“aa E - wa Be? 33
© . S Si ,° OF i o8
ie o.8 | B bb
wee ae 23 £3 =
eo | @ e ec =
Millions of} Millions | Millions} Millions} Millions
1869. galls. | of galls. | of galls. | of galls. | of galls.
Septembentssnsecesteseeceare| 1,212 973 360 239 613
Octobenzrcs sca neeceen ome 1,091 | 960 372 131 588
INiewemibers j6tk es cisso. 2,995 1,796 360 1,199 | 1,436
Decembensay pees teat 770 770 372 “ihe 398
1870
AMAT Yarca acc csirsaseuesseaence 1,653 1,135 372 518 763
ING ATENY onooposcoganooq0Nn5o0 1,248 | 925 336 323 589
(Mla chidiee®: Mee ee Sie 52,083 2,393 372 49,690 | 2,021
rt ee a bl 2 Oia) VA 360 | 50,197 | 2,040
TN Ley A eB a GIN eae a 37,019 2,480 372 85,039 | 2,108
Pune es ea 12,701 | 2,400 360 10,301 | 2,040
Siig aie erased As asandnchaciess 9,792 2,447 372 7,345 | 2,075
INGE: PR ea anon 5,085 | 2,425 372 2,660 | 2,003
Septemberteer.cee-eeeeeeee ste | 2,142 1,889 360 253 | 1,529
Befigh erp pissccser. eka bssrdes hen 102! a leeotoH, 372) al AO17al eee
+ x x * * *
1871.
WA rly 2g) ER eel 22,156 | 1,604 360 | 20,552 | 1,244

+ Want of funds prevented continuing observations from October, 1870, to
April, 1871.

Opening Address. 7

When the report on the water supply was drawn up the Com-
missioners had no means of determining the rainfall towards the
sources of the Nepean, but they assumed that it would not be
less than in Sydney, giving at the same time reasons for believing
that it might be greater. After an abortive attempt to establish
a rain gauge near the head of the Cordeaux, in the beginning of
last year, I succeeded in starting one in that locality in July. I
now give the results for ten months, along with the returns from
the gauge at the University, and it will thus be seen that a great
deal more rain falls on the head of the Cordeaux than at
Sydney.

RAIN IN INCHES.

1870. Cordeaux. University.
DULY ae senciaantasockeore 4°10 tee 2°90
JAMIE aenbode Boudsoolee. — 2488) se 2°57
September =. .c..c--2: 2°34 Ae 1:41
October ced toes 1462 ate 5:14
iNovembena.cecenaece 13°92 se 6°62
December............... 11°78 Ran 9:00

1871.

CRIOITENS ee sgeccandeeceonn 11°37 ae 4°93
INEIDATEIAT cogoccccbecosbe 12°72 as 5:28
Marcle ep peers 8:18 see 8:24
Avril ce ctesdocnene oe 13°74 Ase 12°50

The consideration of water supply and rainfall leads, by an
easy transition, to the general méteorology of the colony, and to
the valuable paper thereupon contributed by Mr. Russell to the
recently published volume on the Industrial Progress of New
South Wales. Mr. Russell there shows (and I believe he is the
first to do so) that there are distinct indications of a period of
nineteen years in the rainfall of Sydney. I have carefully
examined his diagram along with the scanty notices found in
books and newspapers anterior to the regular record of rainfall,
most of these being quoted by Mr. Jevons in his paper on the
climate of Australia, and some being noted by myself while
searching for data for my paper on the “ History of the Water
Supply of Sydney.” Using all the facts available, I have con-
structed a number of tables, arranging groups of similar years
under the headings “ wet years,” “medium years” (being those
where the rainfall differs little from the mean); “ medium dry
years” (being those where the rainfall is under the mean, but
not much) ; and “ dry years.” A mark of interrogation implies

8 Opening Address.

doubt as to the character of the year. Brackets in addition, to
mark of interrogation imply that the character of the year is not
known. When the letter d (dry), w (wet), or m (medium) occur
after a year within brackets, it is meant that the year is exceptional
or contradictory to the series. It will be seen, on examining the
tables, that there are many of these exceptional years; and yet
so many fall regularly within the 19-year periods that we cannot
deny a certain amount of probability in Mr. Russell’s theory.
I cannot say, however, that I am satisfied with it; and by
prolonged observation it must stand or fall.

Wet YEARS.

1860 [1863 m] 1864 1867
1841 184.4 1845 1848
1822 ? 1825 1826 1829 ?
[1803 ?] 1806 [1807 ?] 1810?
[1791 a]
Mepium YEARS.
1857 1861 1869 [1874 P|
[1838 d] 1842 1850 1855
1819 w? [1823 d] 1831 ? 1836
1800 w ? [1804 ? | 1812 ? [1817 w]
[1798 ? ]
Mepium Dry YEarRs.
1859 [1871-2 ?]
1840 1852-3
[1821 ?] [1833-4 ?]
[1802 ? | 1814-15

Dry YEARS.

1858 1862 1865-6 1868 [1870w] [18732] [18752]

1839 [1843] 1846-7 1849 1861 1854 1856

1820 1824 1827-8 [18307] 1832° 1835 1837

[1801?] [1805 w] [1808-92] 1811 1813 [18167] 1818
1789 1792? [1794?] 1797

In Mr. Russell’s diagram of rainfall there seems to be an error
in marking the year 1848, for this year in the general table stands
at 59°17, making it almost identical with its 19th year (1867)
which was 59°63. And there is a slight error in the annual mean.
It should be 49:259, instead of 48-849. If we take the thirty
complete years from 1841 to 1870 inclusive the mean comes out
49°514.

Closely connected with the subject of rain is that of winds.
These afford a fine field of investigation for anyone that has a
taste for meteorological inquiries, and the requisite leisure. Very
little has yet beeu done. The daily returns from the stations

Opening Address. 9

scattered over this and the neighbouring colonies should be col-
lated and compared with the atmospheric temperature and
pressure at each place. Similar returns should be procured from
New Zealand and New Caledonia, and from the log-books of ships
navigating the intermediate seas. Daily wind charts ought to
be constructed, showing the direction and force of the wind at as
many points as possible, and including readings of barometer and
thermometer wherever practicable. If such laborious work were
continued for some years we should then be in a favourable posi-
tion for framing a theory of our winds, and for tracing the origin
and progress of storms. The summer and winter winds of Sydney
are on the whole so regular as to partake of the character of mon-
soons, and they ought to be as susceptible of satisfactory explana-
tion as are the monsoons of the India and China seas ; but so far as I
know such an explanation has not yet been given. As Sydney
lies outside the southern margin of the S.E. trades the normal
wind ought to be north-westerly, and the winter winds of Sydney
may be essentially of this character, although some modifying in-
fluence, which I am unable to indicate, causes them frequently to
come from W. and S8.W. When we go farther south, to Hobart
Town for instance, the north-west wind blows for three-fourths
of the year. The north-east wind of summer upon our coast is
more puzzling. May it be a compound of return trade wind and
sea breeze? The return trades ought to be north-westerly, and
a true sea breeze ought to blow from about H.S.E. The former
wind may give the northerly element to our summer wind, and
the latter the easterly element ; in other words, the return trade
instead of reaching the earth’s surface as a north-west wind gets
turned round by reason of the heating effect of the sun upon the
land, and strikes our coast from the north-east. What seems to
add probability to this is the fact that during the night in summer,
or rather towards morning, a land wind commonly blows from
west; this dies away by 9 o’clock, and is succeeded by the north-
east wind.

Lieutenant Gowlland has given a very good account of the
winds on our coast, and the following are extracts from his
paper :—“ The prevailing winds on the coast of New South
Wales may be said, as a general rule, to blow from the N.E.

10 Opening Address.

during the summer half of the year (from October to March),
from W. to S.W. during the autumnal and winter months (April
to October). +... 2. The sea*breeze from iN -E/durms
summer sets in gently in the early forenoon, preceded by a calm,
with a hot, sultry atmosphere. It gradually freshens towards
noon, and about the middle of the afternoon is at its height,
blowing a stiff double-reefed topsail breeze, and always accompa-
nied by a moisture in the atmosphere which is very disagreeable.
During the prevalence of N.E. winds ozone is
franifosteds in great intensity. . . . . . ‘Theynearly always
lull about sunset, and if not, may be expected to blow till mid-
night, and then drop suddenly calm. If the barometer has been
observed to fall during the previous twelve hours, they are
almost certain to be followed by a “ southerly burster.”
When the glass stands high and steady at from 30°20 to 30° 40,
about the fall of the north-easter, little fear may be entertained
of a “burster.”’ The wind in this case falls ight, veers round to
N.W. and W., and blows gently off the land during the remainder
of the night.”

The south-easterly wind that occasionally blows for a day or
two with fine weather in summer is probably the trade-wind
coming farther south than usual; but the violent easterly gales
that sometimes interrupt the normal winds for a few days, belong
probably to cyclones. Evidences of this may often be seen in
the telegraphic reports of winds and weather, published daily in
the newspapers.

The well-known “hot wind” is one of the most curious of our
metereological phenomena. Lieutenant Gowlland says of it,
“The wind usually commences in the forenoon, and blows more
or less violently until evening, sometimes lasting for two days,
after which heavy black banks of clouds, charged with electricity,
will be observed rapidly rising from the S.W. and southward.
The wind will then veer suddenly from the hot N.W. quarter in
a squall to S.W., accompanied with thunder, lightning, and heavy
rain, which will continue more or less violently from three to
twelve hours, finishing up from the southward, and clearing up
on the following day to the S.E. and eastward. . . . . The
temperature has been known to fall from 110 degs. in the shade

Opening Address. Tel

to 68 degs. in less than an hour.” I have noticed that unless the
barometer fall quickly and considerably the hot wind simply dies
away and is followed by moderate southerly or easterly winds
without thunder or rain.

Hot winds are scarcely known so far north as Brisbane. They
are not very frequent at Sydney ; and in a wet summer, like the
one just passed, they are rare, and of no great severity. At
Melbourne they are more frequent and more severe than at
Sydney. They are felt occasionally in Tasmania; sometimes at
Hobart Town without being experienced at the same time at
Launceston, as, for example, on November 11, 1865, when a
north-west wind at Hobart Town raised the thermometer to 95
dgrs., while there was no such wind at Launceston, and the
thermometer was only 69 dgrs. Strzelecki mentions that, on
one occasion, he experienced a hot wind at an altitude of 5000
feet on Ben Lomond in Tasmania, while it was not felt at an
altitude of 2000 feet on the windward side of the same mountain.
In this colony I have felt a hot wind on the Blue Mountains and
down to Penrith, while the usual sea breeze was blowing at
Sydney. Hot north-west winds occur occasionally at New
Zealand, but they are said to be confined to the Province of
Canterbury, where (at Christchurch) I experienced one on the
15th January, 1855. To reach that point it had to blow over the
snowy crests of the neighbouring mountains, and during this
wind nearly all the snow in sight from Christchurch disappeared.

In searching for an explanation of hot winds, we may consider
that in the summer season there, will usually be a current of
heated air rising up from the surface of Australia, causing
easterly sea breezes on the east coast and southerly on the south
coast. But occasionally this hot upward current is overpowered
and beaten back by the return trade wind, the normal direction
of which is from N.W., and which for a time takes the place of
the sea breezes. As tne hot wind generally blows strong, it
takes up impalpable dust from the earth’s surface, and this dust
absorbing the solar heat tends to raise still farther the tempera-
ture. The air becoming highly rarefied, causes the barometer to
fall, until after a time the equilibrium is restored by a rush of cold
wind from the south. More extended and accurate observations

12 Opening Address.

are yet required, however, before any explanation could be
accepted as satisfactory. On this subject Strzelecki remarks that
“no datum is as yet offered by which we could legitimately indulge
in atheory concerning the origin of this remarkable meteorological
phenomenon.” This excellent observer attributes to the hot
wind deleterious effects on the human constitution, partak'ng, he
says, “of the character of those produced in Egypt by the sirocco
or simoom; a feverish heat and determination of blood to the
head, and in those subject to disorders of the lungs a restramed
action in breathing, at times bordering on suffocation ;
relaxation of the muscles and vessels inflammatory atic aie:
tions of the glottis, and opthalmia.” And in the Hydrographic
Notices recently issued by the Admiralty, the hot winds are
said to “produce a disagreeable, dry, oppressive, enervating
atmosphere, which is frequently injurious to health.” I scarcely
think that general experience in Sydney would bear out these
opinions. Many people feel the north-east sea breeze much more
relaxing and depressing than the hot winds, which indeed to some
are more exhilarating than relaxing.

On the subject of the winds of this country, I have been
informed that the Rev. W. B. Clarke published some letters in
the Herald about thirty years ago. I regret that this informa-
tion came to me so late that I have had no time to look up these
letters, nor have I had time to consult Mr. Clarke himself, and
the state of his health prevents his being present with us to-
night. It is also to me a matter of regret that in the valuable
paper on the Climate of Australia, published by Mr. Jevons in
Waugh’s Australian Almanac twelve or thirteen years ago, the
chapter that he had written on the winds of Australia was
omitted for want of space.

There can be little doubt that all winds are caused by differ-
ences of atmospheric pressure, these differences being due chiefly
to unequal heating of the air, and to unequal distribution and
precipitation of water vapour; and it may be laid down as a
general rule that the wind blows from a region of higher pressure
to a region of lower. But Professor Buys Ballot of Utrecht has
shown that the course is not direct from the one point to the
other, but that (in the northern hemisphere) the wind blows to-

Opening Address. 13

wards a point on the right hand of the region of lowest pressure ;
and it would appear that the wind in approaching this region
tends to turn round it, or to become vorticose. One of my
correspondents in Scotland has recently sent out to me arule
laid down by Dr. Ballot, by which to forecast the direction of the
wind on any day, from barometer readings taken on the same
morning at a number of near stations. The rule is to stand with
the place where the barometer is highest on your right hand, and
lowest on your left, and you will have your back to the wind that
may be expected during the day. This rule may perhaps require
to be reversed in the southern hemisphere. The force of the wind
is said to depend mainly on the amount of difference in the barom-
etrical readings at near stations. Thus a westerly gale never
blows with any severity over the British Islands unless, at least
a few hours beforehand, the pressure in the north of Scotland is
half an inch less than in the South of England.

It must be apparent from these observations that no satisfac-
tory theory of our winds is likely to be attained without a much
more systematic and extensive collection and comparison of facts
respecting pressure, temperature, and winds than has yet been
attempted, and I commend this inquiry to some active member of
our Society who may be gifted with sufficient leisure and zeal.

Before concluding, [ wish to call your attention to a letter that
has been addressed to the President of our Society (His Excel-
leney the Governor) by the President of the Royal Society of
Victoria, on the subject of the approaching total eclipse of the
sun. It is as follows :—

Melbourne, 22nd April, 1871.

Stz,—A proposition has been brought before this Society for a joint expe-
dition from the several Australian colonies to Cape York Peninsula, to
observe the total eclipse of the sun which will take place on the 12th of De-
cember next. The scientific interest of this phenomenon is very great, and
the points to be determined are important. As far as is known, there will be
no further total eclipse of the sun readily accessible from Australia during the
remainder of the present century. The proposal is that a steamer should be
chartered to start from Melbourne about the 20th of November, and, touching
at intermediate points, to convey such persons as may desire to witness the
eclipse. It is expected that the total cost will not exceed £25 per head of
those who form the party. It is proposed that the expedition should be under
the charge of the Government Astronomer, so far as the control of the steamer
is necessary to prevent undue delay. A Committee of this Society has been

14 Opening Address.

appointed to make preliminary inquiries ; and I have to request that you will
have the goodness to make the proposal known, and to inform me how many
gentlemen from Sydney are likely to join it.
I have the honor to be, Sir,
Your most obedient Servant,

Rost. L. J. ELLERY,
President of the Royal Society of Victoria.

The President of the Royal/Society, Sydney.

Mr. Russell informs me that this eclipse will be total on the
east side of Cape York, latitude 13°3 S., at 2 o’clock in the after-
noon, and will last three minutes twenty seconds. The time
required for the voyage, and the expense, will, I fear, deter many
who would desire to witness this rare phenomenon; and ina
scientific point of view, it seems to me that late eclipses have been
so thoroughly investigated by telescopes, spectroscopes, and pho-
‘togravhy, that what remains to be done would require such
delicate instruments, and such experienced manipulators, as to be
beyond the reach of colonial appliances. Still it would be very
desirable that a party should be on the spot, equipped as effi-
ciently as possible; and it might not be too much to ask the
various Australian Governments to bear a portion of the expense.
The Home Government might have been applied to for the use of
one of Her Majesty’s ships to convey the party to and from Cape
York without charge; but if this has not been already done, it is
now probably too late. If any gentleman would desire to join the
expedition, as suggested by Mr. Ellery, he will please communi-
cate with the Secretary.

It now only remains for me to express my regret that, owing
to my approaching departure on a visit to America and Europe,
it will not be in my power to attend any more meetings of the
Society this year. I trust you will have a pleasant and profitable
session, and that members will not only countenance the meet-
ings, but bestir themselves to provide suitable business.

On the Nebula around Eta Argus. 15

ArT. 1.—On the Nebula around Eta Argus, by H.C.
JR DSSOU oI OS ole

(Read May 12, 1871.)

In the months of January and February of the present year I
surveyed carefully, with the fine refractor of the Sydney Observa-
tory, the stars and nebula about the remarkable variable Eta
Argus. The observations I have already printed and sent to Sir
John Herschel, who has shown the greatest interest in the
changes which have from time to time been reported in this
object, and whose beautiful monograph of 1843 enables us
now to trace some of the most wonderful changes that have ever
been witnessed by astronomers.

I then omitted some results of the survey, as I did not wish to
give anything as evidence which might be biassed by my personal
convictions. Upon these I bave based the few remarks I have to
make this evening. And, as the subject may be new to some of
the members of this Society, a few historical notes may not be
out of place.

In 1677, when observed by Halley, at St. Helena, Eta Argus was
of the fourth magnitude, thence to 1751 it does not appear to have
been observed, but in that year Lacaille called it second magnitude.
Another long interval and Mr. Burchell—1811 to 1815—noticed
that it was fourth magnitude. 1822 Fallows. calls it second
magnitude, and in 1827 Burchell noticed that it had increased to
the first. magnitude, and writing to Mr. J. Duncan, in 1827, says
“T am curious to know whether any one has observed that Eta
Argus which is marked as fourth magnitude, and, was always so
when I was in Africa, is now of the first maenitude, or as large
as Alpha Crucis.” No one, however, but himself seems to have
noticed it, and he did not publish the fact. When Sir John
Herschel went to the Cape in 1834 he began his observations on
Eta Argus, which was then about the second magnitude, and
continued so up to November, 1837; on the 16th of December,
when again examining the star, he was very much surprised to
find it had increased to the first magnitude, and was one of the
brightest stars in the heavens. ‘This, naturally, excited his
curiosity, and led him to watch it closely to the following April
(1838), when his departure from the Cape prevented further
observations of it. Up to the 2nd of January, 18388, it continued

16 Cn the Nebula around Eta Argus.

to increase, and was then equal to Alpha Centauri; after this it —
faded gradually, and on the 14th of April was about equal to
Aldebaran.

In 1843, Sir Thomas Maclear, at the Cape, observed it much
brighter than Alpha Centauri, and rather brighter than Canopus,
and on the 14th of March thought it almost equal to Sirius. As
Sir John Herschel estimated Canopus as double, and Sirius as
quadruple of Alpha Centauri, Eta was at that tite probably
triple Alpha Centauri; it then faded again, but in 1845 was
brighter than Canopus, and had been so for some time. These
observations proved the extraordinary fluctuations of the hght of
this star, and made it one of the most interesting objects m the
heavens and the observations of various astronomers since have
in no way tended to decrease the interest then excited. From
their published results I have, for convenient reference, drawn up
the attached lst. It contains the observations from which
Professor Loomis, in April, 1869, deduced the generally accepted
period of 67 years, and some additional ones.

Professor Wolf, in 1863, thought that a period of forty-six
years. would satisfy the observations; but Professor Loomis
found that subsequent observations, especially those of Mr.
Tebbutt, could not be satisfied except by assuming a longer
period, and gives the result of his investigation in vol. xxviii
Rk. A.S. notices. His diagram exhibits minor fluctuations of light
which may, perhaps, in some cases be accounted for by errors in
the observations, but not in all; and there can be no doubt that
Eta is subject to strange minor fluctuations of light in addition
to its periodical variation.

Sir John Herschel, (in 1843) (at page 36 of the Cape Observa-
tions) says, “ A strange field of speculation is opened up by this
phenomenon—the temporary stars heretofore recorded have all
become totally extinct. Variable stars, so far as they have been
attended to, have exhibited periodical alterations, in some degree at
least regular, of splendour and comparative obscurity. But here
we have a star fitfully variable to an astonishing extent, and
whose fluctuations are spread over centuries. Its future career
will be a subject of high physical interest.” Since 1845 Hta has
eradually faded, and is now (1871) only a 7th magnitude star ;
less than it has ever been observed before, and, perhaps, going
like all other temporary stars into darkness: certainly with its
fading hght throwing many dark shadows in the way of any
speculations on the constitution of temporary stars.

Of the nebula about it little notice seems to have been taken

for a number of years; the difficulty of drawing it would deter
most observers, and the differences observed naturaliy attributed

On the Nebula around Eta Argus. 17

to the difference in the instruments. The Cape drawing being
always received as its appearance in a large telescope; for this
drawing the observations extended over the years 18384, 5, 6, 7,
and part of 8, and nothing was then seen to lead to the supposi-
tion that any change was going on in the nebula or stars.

Itis not surprising, then, that Mr. Powell, who appears to
have been the first to notice change in the nebula, attributed it
to his comparatively small telescope, and did not then publish
his observations. Amongst his photometric observations of Eta
are found these notes about the nebula. March 23rd, 1860,
“nebula about Eta Argus magnificent; April 15th, 1860, nebula —
much fainter than formerly ; March 28rd, 1860, again, ‘ Eta is
in a rough sketch placed outside the bright portion of the
nebula.’ And the lemniscate is described as a channel. Several
entries follow, noting openness of the lemniscate on the south,
and greatly diminished brightness of the nebula. April 4th,
1862, Eta Argus beautifully round and clear out of the lemniscate
altogether ; two patches of nebula with passage between them to
the left, or preceding.”

These were not published till May, 1864 (R. A. S. notices),
after Mr. Abbott had published his observations ; to Mr. Abbott
is therefore due the credit of first publishing notice of a change
in the appearance of the nebula. He had been observing the
star for a number of years; but the first observation on the
nebula that I can find is dated May 22rd, 1863, and runs thus:
“ A drawing made of the object Eta Argus quite distinct within
the dark space.” This was given to the Royal Society of
Tasmania on the 9th June, 1863,in a paper on the “ Variable
star Hta Argus.”

A further remark occurs in that paper to this effect: “ Com-
paring thé present description with the Cape drawing, it will, I
think, appear conclusive that the apparition of the surrounding
nebula is also variable.” “The open space given in the Cape
monograph and also in the last addition of the outlines is some-
what in the form of a dumb-bell compressed in the centre and
surrounded with nebula, in the most dense part of which is
situated Eta Argus. The appearance of the open space now
assumes the form of a crooked. billet, wide in the centre and
open at both ends, with Eta Argus situated 1, + within the open
space or dark part, and surrounded with an almost innumerable
Suny of brilliant stars, some of a blue and some of a ruddy
colour.”

In May, 1868, some additional observations and a drawing by
_ Mr. Abbott were published in the R. A. S. Notices. Sir John
Hersehel was very much interested, and carefully compared the

18 On the Nebula around Eta Argus.

drawing with his own in every possible way; he could not,
however, identify any of the stars, and could make nothing of
the drawing.

In R. A. S. Notices for 1868, he remarks :-—“ It is much to be
wished that some southern observer, furnished with an equa-
toreally mounted telescope, would without further delay, set to
work and map down the stars visible within this most interesting
area, down, at least, to the 10th or 11th magnitude. Possibly, I
may have done Mr. Abbott injustice by assuming that his diagram
is intended to convey any delineation at all of the stellar contents
of his fields of view; or anything beyond the forms of the
nebulous masses as existing among scattered stars. But the
question once raised is of the last importance, and must be set-
tled. The question here is not one of minute variations in
subordinate features which may, or may not be attributable to
differences of optical power in the instruments used by different
observers, as in the case of the nebula in Orion (the only one at
all comparable with it in magnitude, complexity, and brightness),
but of a total change of form and character—a complete sub-
version of all the greatest and most striking features, which
reminds us more of the capricious changes of form and place of a
cloud drifted by the wind, than of anything before witnessed in
the Sidereal Heavens.”

In August of the same year, Lieutenant Herschel, having gone
out to India in charge of one of the Eclipse expeditions, took the
opportunity of observing HKta Argus nebula. At his father’s
request fifty of the principal stars were measured, and identified
with stars in the Cape Monograph without difficulty ; and several
drawings were made of the nebula, showing an enclosed space
near Eta, and other features much more like the Cape drawing
than Mr. Abbott’s. He remarked, also, the increased visibility of
the nebula, but said there did not appear to be any very remark-
able change in the distribution of the stars or nebula so far as
the part immediately around Eta is concerned. R. A. 8. Notices
for 1869.

In 1869 Mr. Le Seur turned the large Melbourne refiector
upon this nebula, and with the speculum, as it then was, could
not recognise any nebula immediately round Eta, which was con-
sequently thought to be in the dark space. I have not seen his
drawing, and cannot, therefore, say what features he noted ;
before he left he repolished the speculum, and the telescope
now performs much better. With it Mr. M‘George has been
able to see that Eta is still in the nebula; and in his drawing,
which includes only the nebulous mass in which the lemniscate is
situated, shows the very dense part near and north of Eta, the

On the Nebula areund Eta Argus. 19

enclosed space, and some remarkable minor details at a point
about 17 seconds preceding and 80 seconds north of Eta, which
are changing rapidly.

It thus appears that up to the end of 1870 no one had complied
with Sir John Herschel’s request, but that all the observers had
confined their drawings to the nebulous mass in which the
lemniscate is situated, and neglected the branches. My first in-
tention was to do the same, for the difficulty in representing such
a complicated nebula is very considerable, but I noticed such
changes in the branches that I was induced to examine carefully
all that is included in the Cape drawing, and to attempt to repre-
sent the greater part of it.

I determined last year to examine this object, believing that
when such a subject is under discussion, all who have the means
of furnishing information should do so, and because the Sydney
refractor is in defining and light-gathering power nearer to the
reflector with which the Cape drawing was made, than any which
has since been directed to the object.

From many trials on close double stars, I find this instrument
quite equal in defining power to the 18-inch reflector, but of
course not equal to it for revealing minute stars.

Unfortunately, in August last Eta Argus was too low down to
admit of any satisfactory observations, and I was obliged to defer
it to January this year; when I took every favourable oppor-
tunity of observing it, and completed the drawing early in March.
The observations were taken after the object had attained an alti-
tude of 50° up to 64".

Of the 108 stars in my list I was able to identify 104 with
those in the Cape list ; of the remaining 4—one, No. 25, is very
small, and forms part of a triangle close to Eta, in 1834-8 it was
probably hidden by the light of Eta; another, No. 32, is in the
dark enclosure, and very small indeed, I am inclined to think it
is variable, from comparisons made with four faint ones near Eta ;
another, No. 68, must, I think, have appeared since 1834-8, for it
is now a conspicuous star, about 10 magnitude, and I am
convinced could not have escaped Sir John Herschel’s wonder-
fully accurate survey ; and the fourth, No. 92, I have since found
is No. 142 H, an error of 10s. having occurred in recording the
right ascension, which should be 135 s. instead of 145 s.

Of the magnitudes of the stars, it is beyond doubt that several
of those in the Cape list have changed, and are therefore variable
as wellas Eta. Mr. Abbott speaks of change, but gives no par-
ticulars. Lieutenant Herschel also remarked it, but has not
given particulars. Mr. Tebbutt, whose accurate observations since

20 On the Nebula around Eta Argus.

1854 on Eta enabled Professor Loomis to correct the period of
its variation, noted change in some of the stars in 1868, and, in a
recent communication to the R. A.S8., notes particularly the
changes I have remarked in the largest stars, neither of us being
at the time aware of the other's results.

In 1834-8 No. 71 was 6 magnitude, No. 72,7 magnitude ; now
No. 72 is fully half'a magnitude larger than No. 71. So that at
least one must have changed ; and it is remarkable also that the
nebula kas almost faded from these two stars, as from Eta. No.
105 was 6 magnitude, and No. 101, 7 magnitude; now both are 7
magnitude, and equal to No. 71. -Yet all these stars are much
brighter than the other 7 magnitude stars of the Cape list, viz.,
Nos. 1, 2, 291, 300: magnitude of 51 R= 408, 59 R= 844, and
1215. I would not, however, lay too much stress upon this until
it is known whether all the 7th magnitudes in the Cape list were
equal, for, if not, it may be that only Nos. 71 and 105 have
changed.

As to the colours of the stars near Eta, they are, in my estima-
tion, pale indeed compared with K Crucis; and if in 1865 bright
enough to merit Mr. Abbott’s remark, “that although Sir John
Herschel has not overdrawn the beauty of K Crux, the object
Eta Argus is much more superb,” they must have faded wonder-
fully since, for I only remarked colour in two beside Eta, and
both were red. Dr. Wright, who has examined both objects With
an 83-inch Browning reflector, failed to detect anything striking
in those near Eta. I have measired several of the double stars,
and have not yet found any evidence of angular motion. During
my first evening’s observation I carefully measured the differences
in R.A. and declination of 54 stars from Eta, with a fine parallel
wire micrometer ; a sheet of paper four times the size of the Cape
drawing was then taken, and lines drawn on it to the same angular
scale, but twice the distance apart; upon this, the 54 measured
stars were carefully laid down, and the drawing of the nebula
then proceeded with. The sheet was kept on a desk near the
telescope, and as each outline was traced with the telescope
amongst the measured stars, it was laid down on the sheet.
When, in order to define the positions of particular parts, other
stars were required, these were measured, and the drawing pro-
ceeded with. The bright wires on a dark field of the micrometer
were also found very useful in guiding the eye, and in three

places used to measure the distance of the definite parts from
Eta.

The drawing was then reduced to its present size with propor-
tional compasses, and afterwards compared with the object under
different states of the atmosphere, with moon and without moon,

On the Nebula around Eta Argus. 21

and corrected until it was deemed a faithful representation of it
as seen now.

On comparing this with the Cape monograph startling differ-
ences are fornd; not so great near Eta as some observers have
thought, but far greater than any which astronomers have before
witnessed. In the nebula in Orion the changes are so small as
to be with difficulty made out; but here the densest part in
1834-8 is now one of the faintest, while close to this another part
of peculiar form has«become the brightest patch in the nebula.

Examining it more in detail, it is seen that the mass in which

the lemniscate (or dark enclosed space) is situated is in general
outline very much the same as it was thirty years since, and in
some of its marked features exactly the same; as for instance,
the definite outline beginning at 70 s.—240,” and running still
exactly as Sir John Herschel has described it amongst some
small stars; but round the border of the lemniscate great
changes in the relative brightness of the different parts of the
outline have taken place, and some slight changes in the outline
itself; the greatest being at 17 seconds preceding—100 seconds
where one point now occupies the space of two in the Cape
drawing ; and it is remarkable that it is just at this point that
the large Melbourne reflector reveals rapid change at the present
time; the nebula also seems much brighter at this point than it
was in 1834-8, judging from the parts which appear unchanged.

It is, however, at the south end and following side that the
most remarkable change has taken place, this end and haif the
side have now become so faint, that with small telescopes no
nebula is seen at all; while the other half of the same side has
so much increased in brightness that it is now the most marked
feature of the nebula, its outline on the preceding and north sides
being very like that in the Cape drawing, while the following and
south side of it form a curved line which seems faintly indicated
in the same drawing ; this is a very curious feature and seems to
indicate that this is a nebula seen upon the fainter one. It has
evidently become much brighter since 1834-8, and is, I think, one
of the principal causes of the increased visibility of the nebula,
being now always more conspicuous than any other part, and
visible when they are lost in twilight or haze. In other respects
this drawing seems to represent “the same object as the Cape
monograph, allowing for difference in the telescopes. The star
No. 11 (664 H) is just in the edge of the nebula; and about
midway between it and Eta is another star about 15 magnitude,
not in this drawing or in the Cape list.

_ Passing now tothe branches we find changeseven more surprising
than those already noted ; I think without a parallel, and pointing

22 On the Nebula around Eta Argus.

to the urgent necessity for carefully recorded observations of all
such objects, and if this square degree is to be taken as a sample,
promising more discoveries than have ever before been made in so
smallaspace. Atthespot + 40 seconds + 600 seconds in the Cape
drawing is a mass of nebula forming one of its marked features,
and particularly described by Sir John Herschel as so situated
with regard to certain stars, that the least change would be
apparent. Of this not a vestige is now to be seen; yet it was
about as dense as that near Hta. Again, about star No. 100
(1103 H) there was a decided condensation of nebula, now it is
not to be seen; and of the well-marked streams from stars Nos.
71 and 72 now nothing can be seen but a faint undefined haze,
much fainter than that now about Eta. The nebulous branch,
also, which terminated 150 sec. before Eta in the same parallel,
now extends to over 200 sec. Some changes have, I think,
taken place also at + 40 sec. + 1200 seconds ; but all is there so
faint that I am doubtful about it. The oval shewn in the north
extreme of the Cape drawing is still the same, limited by the
stars as it was then. In it I saw three minute stars; Sir John
Herschel records four seen with his reflector.

Taken as a whole, this object must have increased in brightness
very much, for it can now be seen in full moonlight; and in
1834-8 it was at all times invisible to the naked eye. This fact,
and the great similarity in outline between the Sydney and the
Cape drawing, have inclined me to think that, if the same
reflector could again be turned to this object, the lemniscate
would be found very little altered, and the apparent difference
quite as much, perhaps more, in the increase of light at two
points before indicated ; as in the loss of light in other parts.

Still a great change has taken place, and since Eta has only a
very small proper motion, which, with one exception, appears to
be common to the stars and nebula near it, and that the latter
presents no signs of resolvability, even in the large Melbourne
reflector ; but, as far as the spectroscope has yet been applied, is
gas, like the great nebula in Orion; J am inclined to think that
the mass surrounding Eta, and the lemniscate, is in reality two
or more nebulz in visual superposition; and that the force,
whatever it may be, which renders them luminous, is decreasing
in that in which Eta is seen, and increasing in that part north of
Eta whose peculiarity in form was before remarked; for it seems
more reasonable than to suppose that large nebula have had the
necessary angular motion to bring them visually over other parts.
A motion, be it remembered, so large that even astronomy pre-
sents us with no parallel; while, on the other hand, it is known
that several nebula have faded in a few years so much that they
could not be seen without the aid of very large telescopes. Of

On the Nebula around Eta Argus. 23

this character was one discovered by Mr. Hind in 1852 ; it was ob-
served rather bright by D’Arrest in 1853, by M. Auwers in 1858
fainter, and in 1861 he could not find it with the same telescope,
44-inch, or with a 6-inch. With the large refractor at Pulkowa
it was seen, but very faint indeed. Another one in Coma
Berenices, discovered by Sir William Herschel, was missed in
1862. D’Arrest having found two nebula which he thought new,
Sir John Herschel pointed out that his father found three in the
same place; subsequently M. Foucalt’s large reflector revealed
the missing object, but it was very faint indeed.

The extent of these faded nebula near Eta, if assumed to be at
the distance of the nearest known fixed star is so great; that
space for thousands of solar systems such as ours would be found
without the orbits of the most distant members overlapping ; yet
all has to our senses ceased to be in about thirty years—perhaps
had done so when the Cape drawing was made, with light which
may have been still streaming in from space.

What can be the constitution of such systems we naturally
ask P and science answers, wait! But before such facts, we
must speculate.

Are they gas which has ceased to shine and now forms a dark
veil obscuring the light of the stars? Are they inuumerable
suns, the centres of minor systems, which have used up all their
stores of meteoric and cometic fuel, and are now frozen in dark-
ness? Are they accumulations of meteors, such as we know are
revolving round our own sun and at irregular periods darkening
his surface, as in 1090, when it was during daytime dark for three
hours—1208, for six hours—1547, for three days—1706, dark
enough at 10 a.m. to light candles ; and 1777, when “ Messier”
saw innumerable dark bodies passing over the sun at noon? Were
they once incandescent, but now cooled down, still revolving
round their common centre of gravity, now more and now less
between us and it, making for us as the ages roll on a variable
star, hazy at its minimum, like Eta is at the present time, and
bright beyond measure at its maximum ?

Or; are they inexplicable difficulties in the path of astronomers
which no speculation will ever solve ?

List cF RECORDED MacnituprEs oF Era AR@vs.

So) CS)
S x S oe
= > 2 =
- a 5 S 2 3
1677 4, Halley 1858 2.3 Powell
1751 2 Lacaille (made in same year
1811 4 Burchell 2.1 by Abbott)
to 1859 3.1 Powell
1815 4, Burchell (made in same year

24 On the Nebula around Eta Argus.

List of Recorded Magnitudes of Eta Argus.—(Continued. )

mH cS 5 a A S)
1822 2 Fallows 2.7 by Abbott)
1826 2 Brisbane 1860 3.0 Tebbutt
WS 2s 1 Burchell (made in same year
1831 2 Taylor 3.3 by Powell, and
1832 2 Taylor 3.1 by Abbott)

(made in same year 1861 3.6 Powell
2. by Johnson) (made in same year
1833 2 Taylor 4.2 by Abbott)
1834 1.4 Herschel 1862 4.9 Tebbutt
to (made in same year
1837 1.4 Herschel 4.9 by Abbott)
1838 0.5 Herschel 1863 5.1 Tebbutt
1842 iL Maclear (made in same year
1843 0.5 Maclear 6.0 by Abbott, and
1845 1 Jacob 5.0 by Ellery)
1850 1 Gillis 1864 5.2 Tebbutt
1854 1 Tebbutt 1865 5.2 Tebbutt
(made in same year 1866 5.8 Tebbutt
1.2 by Powell) 1867 6.0 Tebbutt
1856 1.5 Powell 1868 6.0 Tebbutt
(made in same year 1871 7.0 Russell

1.0 by Abbott)

Nore appED, 4TH OcrosBER, 1871.

On the 5th of September, 1871, I examined this nebula with
the spectroscope; owing to its unfavourable position, there was
not sufficient light to enable me to make any measures, and the
bright lines could only be seen when the observing room was
perfectly dark: I was therefore obliged to estimate the position
of the lines. When the telescope was directed to the bright portion
of the nebula preceding y and divided by the line 460” north of
it, a bright green line, estimated to be the nitrogen line usually
seen jn nebula, and two fainter green lines on the violet side of it
were seen. On the Sth of September, I again saw these lines in
that part of the nebula, and in all the northern parts of the
nebula which were bright enough to give a spectrum, the same
bright green line was observed. I was unable to obtain any
spectrum of y Argtis itself.

EL, (Coe

ey South —
He L
nes 1440" +
.
.
S500 H I 1200"
. ?. |
> com *
' ‘ ;
oS I. tas
ee
°
e 5 és
°
[rae ° {— 720"
e .
°
. °
Z 480" +
a == ir iG ei
.
es } ests 2407+
ae = : St
oof cm
Aone . .
. We
i mss “4 _-!
ate 240"
1000 i)
hes 400"—
[zo00
.
zE0= a 720"
3000 in
360 — 960" —
7000 <= | — +
:
oO
. . a
1200" ° 1200"-|
0
| |
— — = a > J _— —= =
Aet0— +ih0" Following +1b0# ado® North I dbs {08 Preceding 200° 7)
HCRimall, Der 2 WT Leap h Ce Lath, Spay WS Wiles:

The Nebula about y Arg(s as seenin the 10 fee, Refractor of the Sydney Observatory

FEBRUARY, 197].
Sag

On Magnetic Variations. 25

Arr. IIl.—On Magnetic Variations in New South
Wales, by El. € #ixussell, Esq., BA

Read July 12, 1871.

From the foundation of the colony up to 1864, observations
on the variations of the magnet at Sydney had generally shown
a gradual increase of easterly variation ; it then appeared that
the maximum had been reached, and westerly motion had begun.
Subsequent investigation has shown that such is the case, and
that the westerly motion is at about the same rate as the easterly
motion had been.

I purpose stating briefly our present knowledge on this sub-
ject, and putting the information already obtained in a form
easily accessible, so that all who are interested in the magnetic
variations at any particular time may be able at once to see if
there are any records of the period, and what is the probable
‘value to be given to them; and if none are recorded, then to
find from the general curve the probable variation. It will of
course be understood that the curve only gives the probable
direction, and was formed by drawing lines from the several
observed points after they had been marked on the diagram.

From what is to be shown presently, it will appear that the
common practice of taking the average annual variation between
two periods, and thence calculating the variation at another
period, is by no means a safe one; and to assume that because
the variation at Sydney has changed from an easterly toa westerly
motion, therefore the same change has taken place all over Aus-
tralia, would be contrary to experience in other parts of the
world.

From the observations which have been made at London and
Paris, sinve 1580, it appears that although the variation at the
two places was decreasing, and the magnetic coincided with the
true meridian at London in 1657, the same coincidence did not
take place at Paris until 1669, or 12 years later. A similar —
difference is noticeable here, for while the easterly increase
ceased in Sydney in 1858-9, it did not cease at Melbourne until
1867 (8 years.)

Tt has also been shown that in Europe the variation may alter
as much as 18’ in one year, and at other times alter only 46’ in
35 years, or 13’ per annum; at London the annual change of

26 On Magnetic Variations.

variation became gradually accelerated from 73’ per annum, in
1580, to 137’ in 1723, and yet during this period, viz., at 1657, the
line of no variation was passed.

Again, in 1784 the variation at St. Petersburg ceased to move
to the west, at Paris the same thing did not take place until
1814, and at London until 1819, showing that the progress of
the change in the western variation is from east to west, or that
the change begins at the eastern station, a fact which so far has
been borne out here; the change at Sydney being eight years in
advance of Melbourne, and since this distance 64¢ of longitude
took 8 years, it is probable that about Wentworth the variation
has still an easterly increase.

It thus appears that in the Northern Hemisphere, 35 years
elapsed from the time greatest west variation was reached at St.
Petersburg till the same thing took place in London, which is
30° to the west, and here 50 years passed between the change at
London, and (making allowance for the difference of position
with regard to the North Pole) Sydney 29° west. The decrease
of variation and peculiarity of the Sydney curve from 1813 to
1823 was preceded by a similar motion of the magnet at London
from 1722 to 1773, so it would appear that great changes in the
magnetic variation take place at London from 50 to 70 years in
advance of Sydney, although the passing disturbances are simul-
taneous.

We are indebted to the Rev. W. B. Clarke for making the
first list of variations determined at Sydney and Parramatta, and
publishing it in the “ Australian Almanac” for 1858.

The first determination of the variation in Australia which I
find recorded, was made by Captain Cook at Botany Bay, on 29th
April, 1770. He then made it 11° 3’ east. There can be no
doubt from subsequent observations that this result is consider-
ably in error—probably too large by nearly 3°. In 1788,
Lieutenant Shutland, then in command of the Alezander, trans-
port, made the variation 8° 6’ east—a result which is probably too

- small by about half a degree. In 1793, Brewster made it 8° 46
east. In 1803, Flinders made it 8° 51’ east; the longitude, lati-
tude, and other results obtained by this observer are so good that
I am inclined to place much reliance upon this result (#linders,
vol. 1, p. 239). Brewster again, in 1813, observed at Parramatta,
and the result corrected to Sydney by the difference between the
two places, is 8° 51’ 34”, or a change of 34 seconds in a period of
ten years. Captain P. P. King, in his voyage to Australia in
1817, made the variation at Sydney 8° 42’ east. Surveyor-
General Oxley, in April, 1818, after determining the position of
Macquarie Lighthouse, South Head, states that all the bearings
are magnetic, and the variation 9° east. This is probably only an

On Magnetic Variations. 27

approximate result. Rowe, in 1822, made it 9° 6’ east, but the
three determinations made by this observer during the same visit
to Sydney differed nearly 2°, or from 8° 40’ to upwards of 10°.

Brewster, in 1822, during the month of October, made the
variation 8° 47' 48". Up to this date the time of day when the
observations were taken is not stated by any of the observers,
there is, therefore, an uncertainty amounting to several minutes
of arc in all the results.

In 1823, Mr. Rumker, at Parramatta, made the variation at
noon in April, 8° 47’ 41” east, which corrected to Sydney is
8° 51’ 41”, this result was obtained with a small magnetic transit
by Dollond. The transit could be converted at will to a telescope
for observing the sun on the meridian, or a microscope to observe
the end of the magnet. The supports of the transit turned on an
azimuth circle, and the true meridian was obtained by making
the wire bisect the sun at the instant of meridian passage, noting
the reading of the azimuth circle. Changing the instrument to a
microscope and observing the magnet, a second reading, giving
the magnetic meridian, and the difference by taking one from the
other, the variation. In 1823, probably with the same instru-
ment, Sir Thomas Brisbane made it 8° 45’ in Sydney; the date is
not given.

Brewster, 1824, during January and February, made it 8° 56
east. Dunlop, astronomer at Parramatta, at noon in April, made
it, when corrected, to Sydney, 9° 3’ 4” east for 1825, and 9° 21' 7”
east for September, 1832. In 1841, Sir J. C. Ross made the
variation on Garden Island (Sydney Harbour), 9° 57’ 19" east
(vol. 2 page 41), being a mean of results obtained from 21st to
the 28th July that year; there is strong probability that this is a
misprint for 9° 27° 19", for two reasons, first, because the first
result does not agree with any other results; and, second,
because a few pages further on he gives the variation as 9° 4.2’ east
at 30° 52’ south latitude, and 154° 8’ east longitude—that is 3
degrees east of Sydney less than at Sydney—while the variation
increases to the eastward of Sydney; assuming 9° 27’ 19" to be
the correct result, it agrees very well with those of Dunlop and
Admiral King.

Blackwood, in February, 1844, made it 9> 25’ east. Admiral
King, at Parramatta, using the same instrument that Dunlop
and Rumker had used, made it, when corrected to Sydney,
9° 42’ 52” east at noon in April, 1851, and 9° 47’ 56” noon in
April, 1851. Captain Denham, in 1857, made it 10°, in 1858 the
same; and the ship Novara, in 1859, 9° 59’ 54, in December.

Government Astronomer, 1864, 9° 49' 4” East
1866, 9° 4.2! 540,
1867, 9° 40 40",
1870, 9° 86 36", ;
1871, 9°35 0" ,, February.

28 On Magnetic Variations.

Diagram No. 1, was formed by projecting the whole of these
results, except the two first. It is at once evident that some of the
observations must have been in error, especially from 1813 to
1823, and again in 1841 and 1864. Between King and Oxley,
though only a year apart in time, the difference is 18’;. and
between Rowe and Sir Thomas Brisbane, there is a difference of
21’, though only a year apart; and there are two intermediate
results, both of which are probably good. In 1841 it is evident
that the assumed variation is the true one, and the same with 1864.

A mere inspection of the curve from 1818 to 1823, combined
with the fact that a mean of the different results then obtained
would put the curve just where we might expect, about
8° 50’, would seem to indicate that the curve should be so drawn;
but, I think it is better to retain the present curve, even though
it appears irregular; for there are the satisfactory results of
five observers for its present position, and only two for changing
it—one of these had in all probability no delicate instrument to.
determine the variation, and the other obtained three most un-
satisfactory results.

At the present time (July, 1871) the variation at Sydney is.
9° 35’ East, and the same variation would be found all along the
line joining Sydney and Cooma. Lines drawn on the map of the
colony parallel to this, represent lines of equal variation through-
out their length; approximately places one degree of longitude
from each other will differ 21’ in variation, the variation decreas-
ing to westward.

In other words, the variation is 21’ less for every fifty-eight
miles westward of Sydney.

The greatest diurnal range of the magnet occurs in February,
= Liga ; 3
and amounts to 13’, the magnet pointing 6 West of its mean
reading at 9 a.m., and 7, East at 2 p.m.

As a general rule, 7 p.m. to 8 p.m. is the best time to take
the variation, or get the true magnetic medium, because at that
time the magnet is quieter and deviates less than at any other time
in the day.

Diagrams 2 to 13.—I haye represented the average direction
of the magnet at each hour of the day in each month of the year.
The curves are formed from the results of hourly observations,
taken at Hobart Town from 1841 to 1848, and published in the
“ Philosophical Society’s Transactions for 1851” (paper by Lieut.
Colonel Edward Sabine, R.A.) From a number of hourly obser-
vations made here, I find the magnet follows a similar curve, and
I have given the results, because they will be useful.to indicate
the best time to take the variation; and in cases where the varia-
tion can only be observed at a particular time in the day, will

On Magnetic Variations. 29

afford the approximate correction necessary to reduce the obser-
vation to the true magnetic direction. As the results are the
averages for each month, they represent the direction for the
middle of the month ; the curve for any other time may be
obtained by taking a position between the preceding and follow-
ing curves, nearer “to one or the other in Eee to the num-
ber of days it is from them.

The black line through each of the curves marked “ variation ”’
is supposed to represent the mean direction of the magnet for
any year, and the curve shows the daily excursions of the needle
east and west of that line.

Remarks on the Botany of Lord Howe's Island, by
Charles Moore, Esq.

[Read before the Society, 18th October, 1871.]

In September, 1869, I made a Report to the Government on
the plants collected by me upon Lord Howe’s Island, in the
month of June previous. In that report the vegetation, as I
stated at the time, was necessarily but imperfectiy represented,
from the fact that I had only the very limited period of 3 days
allowed me for investigation, and that up to that time very little
indeed was known of the botany of the place, although the island
was discovered so long ago as 1788, and since that time has been
visited very frequently by those on board ships of war and
merchant vessels, as well as having been inhabited by both
Europeans ond others since 1833. It is strange, therefore, that
with so many advantages as these for making known its Flora,
greater results were not produced than have at least been
published. So far as I have been able to discover, up to the time
of my visit not more than about a dozen plants were enumerated
or described in any botanical work as natives of the island ; and
yet it is on record that McGillivray, the naturalist on board
H.MS. Rattlesnake, and Milne, botanical collector on board
H.M.S. Herald, visited the island officially at different times, and
made collections of dried specimens, and it is principally from
these sources that the very few plants described in the Flora
Australiensis were obtained. For these reasons, I was not pre-
pared to meet with a vegetation so new and varied in character
as to enable me to collect, durmg my short visit, about 120
species, the greater number of which were previously unknown.

30 annie ow Botany.

Since that time I have had several additional species to the
collection then made furnished to me by settlers, and during a
recent cruise of H.M.S. Rosario, my assistant, Mr. Carron, was
enabled, through the kindness of Commodore Stirling, the
Captain, and officers of that ship, to pay a second visit to the
island, he having accompanied me on the former occasion, and it
is partly with a view of bringing under notice the new plants
discovered by him, and those sent to me by one of the settlers
employed for the purpose, that I have been induced to prepare
the followmg brief remarks, which are simply intended as
supplementary to the report made by me to the Government.

I may state, that on the occasion of my visit at least two-
thirds of the island (which is scarcely 7 miles in length, by an
average of 1 mile in breadth) was very carefully botanically
examined by myself and those who assisted me. It was scarcely
to be expected, therefore, that after this, any very great number
of additional species would be obtained from any part which we
were enabled to reach, and such has proved to be the case, as
nearly all the plants new to my ¢ollection have been obtained
from the upper or mountainous region. Notwithstanding these
recentacquisitions, I donot yet by any means consider the collection
which has been made as a complete illustration of the Flora of
the island. Better opportunities must occur for further research
before a knowledge of the Botany of the place can be perfected.
It is only the plants of the lower and middle regions that are
known, the upper region is still a terra incognita to the botanist ;
and all that is known of its vegetation is from specimens pro-
cured by the settler previously referred to—a very illiterate man,
without any particular taste or other special qualification for
distinguishing one kind of plant from another. The specimens,
however, procured for me through the instrumentality of this
person, from the more elevated parts of Mount Lidgbird and
Gower, have proved so very interesting as to make it most desir-
able that both localities should be thoroughly examined by some
person well qualified for the work ‘This is the more necessary,
as specimens of several species obtained from these places are so
incomplete in their phytological characters as to render it impos-
sible to determine even the family to which they belong; and
our ignorance of these and some plants collected by myself must
remain until better materials for descriptive purposes can be
obtained. The additions which have been made since the publi-
cation of my former list consist of 7 Cryptogams, and about
22 Phanerogams. Among the former class (which are all ferns)
are a species of Adiantum (A. hispidulum)—a genus which I
stated in my report to be altogether missing on the island—and
two arborescent species; one an Alsophila, presenting the

Remarks on Botany. 3L

novel characteristic of having adventitious branches produced
from all parts of the stem—a rare peculiarity in ferns, and parti-
cularly so in the genus Alsophila, though it has been previously
observed by me in a species cf Dicksonia, inhabiting the northern
parts of this colony, though not nearly to such an extent as in
this case, which is altogether of an unique character—the other
a species of Cyathea, the stem of which attains a height of about
8 feet, with an average diameter of about 3 or 4inches. Its stem
and stipes are perfectly smooth and shining, and the fronds,
which have a wide-spreading, graceful habit, are large in propor-
tion to the stem. From the same locality as these are a fine
species of Lomaria, very conspicuous from the great size of the
lateral pinne, which are auricle formed, an Aspidium, a Tricho-
manes, and a Hymenophyllum. The latter class (the Phanero-
gamic or flowering plants) are interesting as affording in several
instances new links between those of the island and the plants
of this and the adjoining countries, as will be apparent from the
genera which are represented by these additions; viz., Lewcopo-
gon, Eugenia, Metrosideros, Pittosporum, Cupana, Panax, Meli-
cope, Pipturus, Passiflora, and Calophyllum,—the latter an exceed-
ingly pretty species of a genus (as the name implies) of beauti-
fully foliaged plants, hitherto supposed to be tropical, as this is
the first instance that any of its species have been found beyond
the tropics. None of these are strictly Australian, although all,
with the exception of Calophyllum, are found more or less in this
colony ; most of them have representatives in New Zealand, some
in Norfolk Island, and some also in New Caledonia.

| Howe’s N.S. New Norfolk
| Island. | Wales. Zealand. | Island.
CRYPTOGAMS. {————- — —
BRY ACER SPWIGeNS...0.- <0 nero ea aeees| 1 0° 0 0)
Lycopodiacee: Tmesipteris.............. 1 0) 1 1
JTGIGESS ANCVENA NUT oooeaaocosoodebobdcoace 1 5 6 2
a ANON ave, Soacodacacaacosus oboton de! 3 3 1 1
as ENG ONG HUA So pnasaboo: voadsobubedeD 1 2 4 2
a JAgya)GrablONes) Gobds4 costes oRuaodasobodel 3 7 9 5
= Cyatheaten seal ar a mamtne | mi il 4 (0)
as Davalliai i tee acanccsecrele tt 1 1 2 0
ey IDO EVAIWN 5c soa deocon adodounopccol 1 i 0 0)
5 Hymenophyllum................. 3 4, 15 0
Dat HELLY POlepISH eee cet seebseticee 1 i 3 0
a MOMALIA symone seen as seucae eee 3 4 11 0
os Marattiany erro pes teones spice 2 a) iH 1
5 INephrolepiserreeeeseeerecce: 1 2 ) 0
F oly podiums een seen 5 9 3 4
i eed ae aa oer anaiico babu sa Rn OSaGHEROhE 2 4 9 of
er Mrighomaneseseeeraneeeeoeees 2 3 5 2
17.—32. }14.—47. |14.—74. ) 9.—25.

32 Remarks on Botany.

Howe’s N.S. New Norfolk

Island. Wales. Zealand. | Island.

ENDOGENS. | | —— | ————
Graminacee: Chloris...........2....0.000- 1 2 (0) 0
i @ynodontteceeicsee eee 1 1 Ee 0
5 Wigitanian.-eeesen eee: iL 0) 1 0)
55 Spounitexce. cree seses sees 1 1 it 0)
5 Sporobolus:.e..--taaseeea 1 i al 0)
5p HPA. ao sc. souyeeseoeroneeees 1 iL 0) 0)
OnpnaRagias. (CHIE se onasoanoacsobsooH0 Gt 1 9 22 il
5 Tiamprocarya ssc: ssetestec. 1 if 4 0
Pandanaceé: Pandanus......... ........ 2 il 0 (6)
‘Palmaceely Kentia...s., scscnseeearecseseer L O 0) 0
Amaryllydacee : Crinum..............646. i 2 ) 0
Tridacewk: Mor ge8 eae epis cmon ee rssseesee oe: eel 0 0) 0
Orchidacee: Dendrobium................. 3 14 1 (@)
i Sarcochilus... PR ace 1 3 il 0
Juneacee: Flagellaria...............0..605 I 1 6) @)
3 DUNCUS etn eaceseishesctepesiene Meee 7 10 (0)
ISOLA. 2. Sy aE seonodcscoanssanennde 4: 1 2 (0) 0)
17.—23. |14.—46. | 9.—42. | 1—1.

EXOGENS.

Urticacee: Boehmeria................0000 1 0 (0) 1
$ Hlatostemma..,.............. 1 iL il 1
WM Ora ce® mUNCUB sey accdeseaashe Oe TC Ere 1 6 0) @)
Ry orig hte cee ccna eee: iL 1 0 iL
Euphorbiacee: Baloghia.............0.... ul iL 0 1
a Mnphorbiasssatess-es 2 1 (0) 2 2
A Hemicyclia,.....:..2.:..- iy 1 0) 0)
s Omalanthus.............. 1 1 0 0)
Santalace@: Exocarpus...........0...0+0. 2 2 1 al
Thymelaceez:: Pimelia................26005. 1 6 7 il
Laurinacee : Tetranthera................. 1 1 1 0)
Chenopodiaceae : Rhagodia............... u 3 (0) 0
Polygonacee : Muchlenbeckia............ 1 2 0) 0
Nyctaginacee: Boerhaavia............... 1 uf 0 0
- IPARONIA: s+. 1.5 seee eee iI 2 1 1
Piperacee: Peperomia.................++. 1 1 1 0)
rr PPE OR Sy «sade: sacanese Aen eal 0) i 4
Goodenoviaceeé : Scxevola..........0.6..005 1 4, 0 0
Myrsinacee: Aegiceras.............0.0006+ 1 1 0 0
n Miyirsin Ortaca: wise ett 1 2 0 il
Sapotacee: ACHYAas...........0:0.s-ss000 1 2 8) 1
Jasminace@: JasmMinumM..,.............000- Daal Sil 10) 2
i i sasiapeca age coghes Ta nee 3 1
Apocynacee: Alyxia.......... 2 2 0 2
iy OGhrOslasc se -cctkes oe oceres 1 2 0 0
Asclepiadacee : Marsdenia............... 1 5 0 0
Loganacee : Geniostoma.............0.... 1 a) 1 0
Convolvulacee@: Ipomea.................. 2 3 o 2 4
Solanacee: Solanum.................00.... 1 13 Bye | 1
Myoporacee : Myoporum................. it 5 a 1
Verbenace@ : Premna............0s0000cee- 1 @) @) 0
Labiate : Eranthemum...........00...405 bo OG he

Remarks on Botany. 33

Howe’s N.S. New Norfolk
Tsland. Wales. | Zealand. Island.

Exocews.— Continued.
AV SPUTERES, VBORBMWE \ssopoaoecsoesco 560860008
ny Leptospermum
5 Melaleuca! ht: eee tens
<5 Metrosideros..................
Ficoidee: Mesembryanthemum
Umbellifere : Apium
Araliacee: Panax

|

eee eee eect nes

wee e ences

OQOnNFOOCNFH

eter eee tee ete ne see res ane

Se ei

Rubiacee : Coprosma........2.10.-.2-6++:
45 Psyichobrialcacene meena:
BF an diaaect. cee eceneaeeetens
Gomposziny Cassinlarenscncsco eens eertes
5 Gnaphalvumeaseeeceeee ne
33 Oleariaye i ees Beh
ry Senecio

BENNHEWNHOWH SE
e
oor

He
—

Peete ec cer seer ee ses acenee

5 iWredeliia.. v.cccssee
Epacridacee : Dracophyllum

x Leucopogon
Leguminose : Canavallia

an Wolichostereccedee see

bs iBichward siav.-esseeeeeeeeeee

3 Guilandina

4
CORP MNF HOOWFOADYOWS

bo

NE RE WHE WTOBR HP WOH REP WOOOFORPNANN

Ce i airy

Magnoliacee: Orimys................2-++-
Menispermacee : Stephania
Cruciferae: Capsellaye.. i secsscseseeeslcet

. Lepidium

s Neneblenasn. pe seeeeeh es
Pittosporacee : Pittosporum
Guttifere : Calophyllum
Malvacee : Hibiscus

Peet tet eee see eeraes

See e ee senee

e
r= bo bo

5 Hvodia......... ne
5 Melicope

5 Xanthoxylon
Weivacews = Wy soxyloulrasscenccencer ee
Celastrinacee : Eleeodendron
Sapindacew: Cupania.............se0..0008

35 Dodonea

PPE NPE EN OH RE EHP EP EPR EEE EP EE PPE ROPE PE

12

| = ey ——

oer ee reo eee coeoeree

COHOHOHOROHOOCOSCO OOO OR SOOHROWSSONHOOHFOOSS

| WOSCOCONOCOFO

71.—82. '60.—225.'37.—175.| 29.—44.

From these tables it appears that of 17 genera of Cryptogamic
plants inhabiting Howe’s Island, 14 are found in this colony, 14
in New Zealand, and 9 in Norfolk Island; of 17 genera of
Endogenous plants, 14 are again found in this colony, 9 in New
Zealand, and only one in Norfolk Island; and of 71 genera of
Exogenous plants, 60 are found in this colony, 37 in New Zealand,
and 29 in Norfolk Island. There are, therefore, 105 genera on
Howe’s Island, represented by 135 species; 88 of the same
genera are found in this colony, represented by 318 species; 60
of the genera are found in New Zealand, represented by 261

34 Remarks on Botany.

species ; while only 39 of the genera are found on Norfolk Island,
represented there by 70 species.

This analysis indicates a closer affinity to the plants of this
colony, than to those of any of the other places named. The
relationship, however, is more in the genera than in the species,
which, as a rule, are widely different. This remark would equally
apply to any comparison which might be drawn with those of
New Zealand. Taken as a whole, the Flora of the Island is most
peculiar and very interesting, agreeing, as has been shewn, in
many respects with that of this country, yet presenting a marked
distinction in the total absence of Proteacee, and the extreme
rarity of Leguminose. With New Zealand it is more particularly
allied by Edwardsia, Metrosideros, arborescent Dracophyllums,
and other genera; with New Caledonia principally by its palms ;
and with Norfolk Island by the frequent occurrence of such
plants as Hibiscus Patersonu, Pisonia Brunoniana, Xanthoxylon
Blackburnia, Achras costata, and the curious little parasite Viscum
opuntioides, all of which are so largely represented on both islands
as to have led me to infer, formerly, that there was a greater
connection between the botany of the two places than is really
the case.

There are some singular features in the vegetation of this little
island, which afford abundance of food for reflection. Whence,
it may be asked, came that extraordinary fig tree, the single
species of its genus? Whence came those Palms, apparently
confined to this one locality? Whence came the settlers’
“Wedding Flower,” that beautiful iridaceous plant, and the
solitary representative of its family, all of which were specially
referred to and described in my previous report? And whence
came the other plants, of which we had no previous knowledge ?
Can it be that they were created for this place only? or,
were their seeds wafted hither from some unknown country,
through oceanic influence? Were they, on the doctrine of
chance, generated spontaneously ? or, were they brought in
embryo by some meteoric stone, as lately suggested might be
the case, by an eminent authority? These are all questions
which may occur in attempting to reason by what means this
island first became clothed with plants of such a novel and inter-
esting character.

As I neither believe in special creation, nor in the agency of
the ocean, except in cases such as the cocoa-nut and other similar
fruits, which are undoubtedly floated from one land to another,
nor in spontaneous generation, nor in the meteoric stone theory,
Iam constrained to adopt, as the only reasonable solution of the
difficulty, that this island, Norfolk Island, New Zealand, New
Caledonia, and the islands of the Western Pacific formed at one
time either a portion of this or another vast continent.

New Guinea. 35

New Guinea—a highly promising field for settlement
and colonization, and how such an object might
be most easily and successfully effected.

[Read on the 8th November, 1871.]

Nrw Guinea, with the single exception of this island-conti-
nent of Australia, is the largest island on the face of the earth.
From its south-eastern to its north-western extremity, it is
upwards of thirteen hundred miles in length, its breadth from
north to south is from three or four hundred to six or seven
hundred miles. It is, fifty thousand square miles larger than
France, even including the recently ceded provinces of Alsace
and Lorraine, and it is within a hundred miles of the Australian
land.

This great island was discovered by the Portuguese in the year
1511, and was revisited by the enterprising navigators of that
country in 1527; but Petermann, the eminent German geo-
grapher of Saxe Gotha, informs us that it was known and visited
for the purposes of trade at a much earlier period by the Arabian
traders of the Indian Archipelago; and the great empires which
the Portuguese found established in the western parts of the
Archipelago, when they commenced their career of ruthless
conquest in the east, render this allegation probable enough.

The first Englishman who visited the island, and who, I may
add, resided there for some time in Dorg harbour, in latitude
fifteen minutes south, on its north-west coast, was a Captain
Forrest, of the Honorable East India Company’s naval service,
a few years before Captain Cook discovered the east coast of
Australia, in the year 1770. His object was to search for plants
of the nutmeg tree of the Moluccas in New Guinea—an object
in which he succeeded—and to carry back with him on his return
voyage, alarge supply of the plants for the Company’s settlement
of Palemban, an island on the N. E. of Borneo. Captain Forrest
found the natives of a friendly character, and not only disposed
but accustomed to trade, in particular with the Malays and the
Chinese to the westward; and he pourtrays one of the most
remarkable features in their social system, which would assimi-
late them with the inhabitants of the Lake dwellings in Switzer-
land and other countries of Europe in the pre-historic ages of
man. But asa building of a precisely similar character to the
one described by Captain Forrest, on the north-west coast, has

35 New Guinea.

been found within a comparatively recent period, on the banks
of a river on the South-east coast, I shall defer any further
reference to it for the present. It is principally, however, to the
south and south-east coasts of the island that I would direct the
attention of the Society during our present meeting.

The first European navigator whoever saw the south-east coast
of New Guinea was Luis Vaez de Torres, when running across
the Pacific from Mexico or New Spain, to the Molucea Islands,
in the year 1606, in the Spamish frigate, Almiranta. What De
Torres took, however, for “the beginning of New Guinea,” as
he called it, was merely the eastern extremity of the Louisiade
Archipelago, an extensive group of Islands to the South-east of
New Guinea. But De Torres subsequently discovered and
passed through the Strait that now bears his name, and that
separates the mainland of Australia from New Guinea, at Cape
York.

The land which De Torres mistook for the east end of New
Guinea was afterwards designated by an eminent French navi-
gator, M. Bougainville, m the year 1768, the Louisiade Arehi-
pelago, in honour of the then King of France, Louis XV., the
bien aimé, or well beloved. The existence of the Strait, however,
was at that time unknown to European navigators, the Dispatch
and Report of Torres to the King of Spain being found untrans-
mitted in the Royal archives at Manilla, when the Philippine
Islands were taken and occupied for a time by the English, about
a century ago.

Captain Edwards, of H. M. S. Pandora, which was wrecked in
Torres Straits, when returning to England from Tahiti with the
mutineers of the Bounty in the year 1791, coasted along a por-
tion of the south-east coast of New Guinea, and named two of
its remarkable points Cape Hood and Cape Rodney, in honour
of two well-known English admirals. M. D’Urville, another
eminent French navigator, coasted along the south-east portion
of the coast of New Guinea, in the French discovery ships
I Astrolabe and La Zelee, in the year 1840,

Captain Blackwood, R. N., of Her Majesty’s Surveying ship
Fiy, while pursuing his important labours along the north-east
coast of Australia, and the islands in Torres Straits, m the years
1842, 1846, (of which a very interesting account is given by Mr.
Jukes, Naturalist to the expedition) examined, more or less closely,
about 140 miles of the south-east coast of New Guinea, com-
mencing nearly due north from Cape York, the north-eastern
extremity of the Austral land. There isa great bight on this
part of the south-east coast of New Guinea, like the Gulf of Car-
pentaria, on the north, and the great Australian Bight on the
south coast of this great South Land, and also like the Bight

New Guinea. 37

of Benin, on the west coast of Africa, the land suddenly trending
to the northward for more than two degrees of latitude, and
forming a deep gulf to the southward. Along this whole extent
of coast for 140 miles, the land is described by Mr. Jukes as
follows :—‘“ It was low, flat, muddy, covered with jungle and im-
penetrable forests, and intersected in every direction by a multi-
tude of fresh water arms and channels, uniting one with the
other, and forming a complete network of fresh water canals of
all sizes and depths, from a mere muddy ditch to a width of five
miles, and a depth of twenty to thirty teet. This coast was
fronted by immense mud banks, stretching from ten to twenty
miles out to sea, having at low water a general depth of about
twelve feet, and a few deeper places, and some sand banks much
shallower or quite dry. These mud flats gradually deepened
towards their outer edge to three and four fathoms, and then
more rapidly to six, ten, “Gfteen, and twenty fathoms.

Now this is precisely the formation of the delta of a great
river, and the only difficulty in the present case, is the supposing
a river larger enough to produce such a delta, to exist on an
island ike New Guinea.

From what we know of the rest of the island, however, the
existence of such a river becomes highly probable. A range of
high mountainous land runs along all the north coast, from
Dampier’s Strait to Geelesink Bay. High land also comes out
upon the south-west coast, about Triton Bay, where the Dutch
once formed a settlement near the 137th meridian. The hollow
between these two ranges would run towards the south-east, in
which direction, of course, their drainage would be deflected.
We have already seen reason to believe that the country is a hot
one; and the moisture, which does not fall as rain from the south-
east tradewinds as it passes over the flat land, is no doubt
caught, and precipitated in abundance on the south-east sides of
the mountains, and is thus sent down on to the flat, in the shape
of rivers. Whether these ever join into one stream, or whether
a number of them all run for the south-east, and thus unite only
in forming the delta of which we traversed the outer ledge, is, of
course, left open to conjecture. If they ever unite in one stream,
it will probably be found to be a very noble one for the size of
the island, winding, perhaps, through rich flats of tropical forests.
Whatever be the characters of the interior waters, however, they
must afford access for small crafts into the very heart of the coun-
try. Unlike the rivers of Australia, the estuaries of which are
always salt, and the rivers mostly trickling shallow streams,
running over rocks or sands, the rivers of New Guinea are so
full, and abounding with fresh water, as to influence the sea for
miles outside their mouths, and effect the salt water even from

88 New Guinea.

the flattest and most slugglish part of their course. Any craft
then, that can get across the mudflats off their mouths, need
never fear the being unable to find water enough for many miles
above them. No doubt some channels will be much more shoal
than others, but a small light steamer, drawing about six feet of
water, might probably penetrate for a couple of hundred miles,
over into the very heart of the country. We had no means
of judging which would be the best channel to take, except
that the large southern arm (in lat. 8° 45’) which Captain
Blackwood first visited, seemed both the largest and to have the
deepest water at its mouth. I know of no part in the world, the
exploration of which is so flattering to the imagination, so likely
to be fruitful in interesting results, whether to the Naturalist,
the Ethnologist, or the Geographer, and, altogether so well cal-
culated to gratify the curiosity of an adventurous explorer as the
interior of New Guinea. New Guinea! The very mention of
being taken into the interior of New Guinea sounds like bemg
allowed to visit some of the enchanted regions of the Arabian
Nights, so dim an atmosphere of obscurity rests at present on
the wonders it probably contains.”—Narrative of the Surveying
Voyage of H. M. 8S. Fly, commanded by Captain F. P. Blackwood,
R. N., in Torres Straits, New Guinea, and other Islands of the
Eastern Archipelago, during the years, 1842—-1846. By J. Beete
Jukes, M.A., F.G.S., Naturalist to the Expedition. Vol 1, pages
289, 291.

Captain Blackwood ascended the great river which he had dis-
covered on the south-east of New Guinea, and which he named
the Aird, from one of his officers, for about 20 miles. It was
about two miles broad at that point, and there were numerous
villages and a comparatively numerous population on its banks.
Every attempt, however, that was made to conciliate, and to
hold a parley with the natives, proved unsuccessful, and their
persistent efforts to overpower the Expedition by means of
arrows shot from their large and numerously manned canoes,
rencered it necessary, in the estimation of Captain Blackwood, to
resort to force for the defence of his party. In this collision,
several of the natives were unfortunately killed, and one of their
villages being taken, Captain Blackwood and his party went
ashore, to examine the place, and in particular a very large
building, which seemed tc be the habitation of the entire com-
munity, and which Mr. Jukes described as follows :—“ The house,
or whatever it might be called, was raised from the muddy ground.
about six feet, resting on a number of posts, placed irregularly
underneath it, most of which seemed to be stumps of trees, cut
off at that height, and left standing. The floor raised upon these
seemed to consist of poles fastened across a framework, on which

New Guinea. 39

were laid loose planks, made apparently of the outer rind of the
sago-palm split open, and flattened and dried. This floor was
perfectly level and smooth, and felt firm and stable to the feet. It
was about thirty feet in width, and upwards of three hundred feet
long. Mr. Walsh and I both stepped it from end to end, and I
made it 109, and he 110 paces long; both our paces were long
ones, and I know my own to be upwards of three feet. The roof
was formed of an arched framework of bamboo, covered with an
excellent thatch of the leaves of the sago-palm. It was sixteen
or eighteen feet high in the centre, from which it sloped down on
either hand to the floor. It was perfectly waterproof, as, though
it was still raining hard, not a drop came through. ‘The end
walls were upright, made of bamboo poles, close together, and at
each end were three door-ways, having the form of a gothic arch,
the centre being the largest. The inside of the house looked just
like a great tunnel. Down each side was a row of cabins: each
of these was of a square form, projecting about ten feet, having
walls of bamboo reaching from the floor to the roof, and accessible
at the side by a small door very neatly made of split bamboo.
Inside these cabins we found low frames, covered with mats,
apparently bed places, and overhead were shelves and pegs on which
were bows and arrows, baskets, stone axes, drums, and other
matters. In each cabin was a fireplace (a patch of ciayv), over
which was a small frame of sticks, as before mentioned, about two
feet high, three feet long, and a foot wide, as if for hanging some-
thing to dry or cook over the fire. A stock of dry firewood was
also observed in each cabin on a shelf overhead. One or two of
these fireplaces were also scattered about in different parts of the
sides of the house. Between each two cabins was a small door-
way, about three feet high, closed by a neatly made door or
shutter of split bamboo, from which a little ladder gave access to
the ground outside the house. At each end of the house was
the stage or balcony mentioned before, being merely the open
ends of the floor outside the end walls, on which the cross poles
were bare or not covered with planks. The roof, however, pro-
jected over these stages, both at the sides, and much more over-
head, protruding forward at the gable, something like the poke of
a lady’s bonnet, but more pointed. Inside, all the centre of the
house, for about a third of its width, was kept quite clear, forming
a noble covered promenade. It was rather dark, as the only light
proceeded from the doors at the end, and the little side doors
between the cabins. Near the centre, on one side, was a pole
reaching from the floor to the roof, on which was a kind of frame-
work covered with skulls ;—of these, Dr. Whipple brought away
four, two of which he gave Captain Blackwood, who has presented
them to the College of Surgeons.”’ *

* Mr. Jukes, whi supra Vol. I., pages 271—274.

40 New Guinea.

Now this very remarkable style of native building, indicative as
it is of the social system of New Guinea, is precisely the same as
Captain Forrest had observed and described among the natives of
Dorg Harbour, on the north-west coast of the great island, a
century ago. The only difference is that the building Captain
Forrest described in Dorg Harbour was partly built on piles in
the sea, into which one of its main entrances opened out into
pretty deep water. It was therefore a perfect specimen in actual
use of the Lake dwellings of Switzerland and elsewhere in Europe
in the pre-historic ages oi man. There was a still further differ-
ence in the two cases, for whereas the large building above
described was appropriated for the married families and the young
women and children, there was a separate and smaller building
in Dorg Harbour, as a sort of Bachelors’ Hall for the unmarried
young men of the community. The whole case, so well described
by the two navigators, is one of interest in connection with the
science of Ethnology, and the enquiries that are now im progress
into the condition and habits of certain of the earlier races of men,
and it is earnestly to be desired that the subject should be
followed up by further investigation in New Guinea.

In connection with this very interesting subject, I may observe,
that Mr. Jukes draws a comparison or rather contrast, between
the Aborigines of Australia and their congeners of the Papuan
race in New Guinea and the islands of the Western Pacific, in-
cluding the islands in Torres Straits, New Caledonia, the New
Hebrides, and the Fiji Islands. ‘‘ We remained three days,” he
tells us, “at Evans’ Bay [near Cape York] completing our water,
where we found a party of five Australians. These men were
very quiet and friendly, but contrasted most unfavourably for
themselves, with our friends, the Erroobians,” the inhabitants of
one of the islands in Torres Straits. It was now, indeed, for the
first time that I became fully aware of the great difference be-
tween the two races, which is both a physical and a mental one.
These fine men had the spare thin-legged, lanky build of all the
Australian people. Their colour was of a more sooty black than
the islanders, who are of a reddish or yellowish brown. The hair
of these Australians, however, was like that of the European race,
equally diffused, rather fine, and either straight, or commonly way-
ing in broad open curls. Among the islanders the hair invariably
grows in tufts or pencils. In their intellectual qualities and dis-
positions, they were still further removed from the islanders, and
muck below those of Murray and Darnley islands. Houscless and
homeless, without gardens or any kind of cultivation, destitute of
the cocoa-nut, the bamboo, the plantain, and the yam, as of
almost all useful vegetables, they pass their lives either in the
search for food, or in listless indolence. Instead of associating

New Guinea. 41

with us on something like terms of equality, bartering with us,
teaching us their words, and learning some of ours, laughing,
joking, and engaging in sports like our Erroobian friends, these
Australians sat listlessly looking on, standing where we told
them, fetching anything, or doing anything we ordered them
with great docility indeed, but with complete want of interest
and curiosity. In our endeavours to get words from them, they
merely repeated our sounds or imitated our gestures. When
they spoke, it was difficult to catch the sound, so different was
their speech from the clear, open enunciation of the Erroobians.
With the latter we often eat, as they were perfectly clean; but
these Australians on our shooting a kite or two, instantly seized
them, plucked off some of the feathers, and then warming the
body a little at the fire, tore it open, and eat it up entrails and
all. These Australians at Cape York precisely resembled those
of the rest of the continent as I have myself seen them, and as
they have been described by other voyagers. The Torres Straits
islanders on the contrary evidently belong to the great Papuan
race, which extends from Timor and the adjacent islands, through
New Guinea, New Ireland, and New Caledonia, to the Fi
Islands.

It is singular enough, that in Torres Strait, the line of
demarcation should be almost equally strong and precise between
two kinds of vegetation, and two groups of the lower order of
animals, as between two varieties of the human race. The dull
and sombre vegetation of Australia spreads all over Cape York
and the immediately adjacent islands. Wide forests of large but
ragged stemmed gum-trees, constitute the characteristic of this
vegetation. Here and there are gullies with jungles of more um-
brageous foliage, and some palms, but the mass of the woods are
arid, hot and dusty, the leaves not only small, but dry and
brittle, and the marks of frequent fires everywhere apparent in
calcined rocks, and blackened stems and fallen trunks. On the
islands of the northern side of Torres Strait, not a gum-tree is to
be seen, the woods are close, lofty, and afford the deepest and
most refreshing shade, often matted into impenetrable thickets by
creepers and undergrowth, but adorned with varied foliage, with
the cocoa-nut, the plantain, the bamboo, and other plants, not
only beautiful, but useful to man. On the New Guinea coast,
the vegetation is of the rankest and most luxuriant character,
even for the tropics. One vast dark jungle spreads over its
muddy shores, abounding in immense forest trees, whose trunks
are hidden by groves of sago-palms, and myriads of other heat
and moisture loving plants.

In the vegetable kingdom, a reason for the difference might be
sought in the variation of the climate. From the abundance of

42 New Guinea.

fresh water, and from the manners and habits of the people—such
as fire wood being stored in the houses, sticks laid across the
paths, to keep the passenger from the mud, as well as from our
personal experience, while there—the south-east coast of New
Guinea, has evidently a very moist climate. It is probable, I
think, that during the whole S. E. monsoon, or from the middle
of March to the end of October, the weather is rainy, and that
during the N. W. monsoon, which brings rain to the north coast
of Australia, the south coast of New Guinea may have its dry
season. Australia, on the contrary, has a remarkably dry climate,
and though there are frequent showers during the S. E. monsoon
on the margin of the north-east coast and about Cape York,
where the trade wind first strikes upon the land, it is probable
that in the interior (as it is certain that on the north coast about
Port Essington) no rain falls during the greater part of the year,
and heavy showers only during the remainder.

Not only, however, is this variation of climate not sufficient to
account for the utter difference in the vegetation of the two
countries, Australia and New Guinea, but I much question
whether the difference in the climate be not in great part the
result of the vegetation. The thick dark woods and jungles of
New Guinea, completely protect the soil from the sun, the broad
close leaves shelter even the steias of the trees, and all tend to
produce a coolness favourable to the precipitation of moisture
from the damp trade wind. The open and scattered woodlands
of Australia, on the contrary, offer no shelter to the ground from
the rays of the sun. The small, thinly disseminated leaves of
these evergreen trees, instead of giving shade, become themselves
as hot and parched as the rocks and sands beneath them. The
ragged strips of dry and resinous bark hanging from the trunks
of all the trees, are like tinder, ever ready to catch fire with a
spark, and the grass among the trees commonly resembles hay.
Everything absorbs the heat freely, and radiates it into the
surrounding atmosphere. Instead of being cooled then, and
precipitating its superabundant moisture, the sea air on entering
an Australian wood, has its temperature raised, and becomes
capable of licking up any drop of humidity it may find still
lingering there. For this reason, a current of air is seldom
perceptible in an Australian forest, which always feels hot, dry,
and oppressive. The immediate neighbourhood of Cape York
indeed seemed one of the comparatively favoured spots, where
frequent showers during the whole year permitted the existence
of permanent fresh water pools and green grass during even the
driest season.—Mr. Jukes, ubi supra, Vol. 1., pages 295, 301.

Captain Blackwood was followed in his survey of the south-
east coast of New Guinea, inthe years 1846—1850, by the late

New Guinea. 43

Captain Owen Stanley, R.N.,in H.M.S. Rattlesnake. Captain
Stanley took up the work at Cape Possession, on the east side
of the Great Bight, where it had been discontinued by Captain
Blackwood, and added, including the previous discoveries of
Captain Edwards, an extent of about 240 miles to our knowledge
of that coast ; his own sickness and death before the completion
of his voyage imparted an additional and melancholy interest.
to his valuable labours. This portion of the coast of New Guinea
is remarkably different from that surveyed by Captain Black-
wood; for whereas the line of coast surveyed by that officer is
low, swampy, and covered with dense forests, the whole coast
Ime surveyed by Captain Stanley is backed up, at a distance
of from twenty to fifty miles inland, by a noble range of lofty
mountains, that give rise to numerous streams, some of which
are known to pour down immense volumes of water into the
sea.

Of the mountains along this line of coast, the following are
those of greatest elevation :—

Mount Yule, 10,046 feet above the level of the sea.

Mount Owen Stanley, 18,205 feet __,, .

Mount Obree, 10,246 feet: Ps fs

Mount Suckling, 11,226 feet He i

Mount Brown, 7,947 feet i a
besides various others of lesser elevation.

In short, there is no country on the face of the earth more
admirably fitted for settlement and colonization, or that holds out
a higher promise for the future adventurer in that heroic work than
the south-east coast of New Guinea. I should not recommend
the formation of a settlement on any part of the low line of coast
surveyed by Captain Blackwood, as it is not likely, from its
physical character, to be salutrious for European life; but the
more elevated coast-line surveyed by Captain Stanley, backed up
as it is by the lofty mountain of the Owen Stanley Range, affords
the highest promise for successful colonization, on the part of
adventurers of our own Anglo Saxon race, matured and improved,
as they would unquestionably be for such a purpose, by Colonial
experience. I should desiderate indeed, above all things in the
department of geographical discovery, the fitting out of one or
two small steamers to ascend the river which Captain Blackwood
discovered in the Great Bight, to the head of its navigation ;
but I should not like to recommend a settlement for British
colonists, on any part of that coast. The coast-line of the Owen
Stanley survey, is unquestionably the proper field for British
colonization in New Guinea; and it will be a great re-
proach to our country if it shall not be occupied for that
purpose soon. For it is not to be supposed, in the present
condition of the great maritime nations of Europe and America,

44, New Guinea.

that if we allow so noble a field for colonization as that line of
coast presents to remain much longer unoccupied, it will not be
taken possession of for such a purpose by some other maritime
power. Prince Bismark, we know, from correspondence with a
fellow-countryman and admirer of his own in the Fiji Islands, is
on the look-out for a German colony somewhere for the new
Empire; and as we have heard recently of a Russian scientific
expedition to New Guinea, it is quite possible, and in perfect
accordance with the well-known practice of that great annexing
power, that the expedition in question may ultimately be found
to cover some scheme of future annexation by the Czar. The
Owen Stanley coast line is within two hundred and fifty miles of
one of our actual settlements, and communication could therefore
be kept up with it from thence by means of a small steamer with
perfect facility.

The eligibility of this line of coast for the establishment of
Christian missions, simultaneously with the carrying out of such
plans of colonization as might be deemed practicable and expe-
dient, is too obvious to require a more particular notice. Such
missions on the one hand, and such plans of colonization on the
other, might not only prove mutually helpful, but would in all
likelihood ensure proper treatment for the aborigines on the part
of the European adventurers, and shed a flood of light upon many
important questions in ethnology. Nothing, for instance, in the
whole field of speculation, can possibly be more interesting than
the fact that we have almost in our own immediate neighbourhood
in this colony a numerous people, dwelling in communities and
comparatively somewhat advanced in civilization, in precisely the
same social state and circumstances as those of the dwellers in the
mysterious habitations of the Lakes of Switzerland before history
began. To know something more about these mysterious people
would surely be worthy of a great effort on our part.

In regard to the prospect of valuable gold discoveries being
hkely to be made in that part of New Guinea, the late Mr. John
MacGillivray, the naturalist of Captain Owen Stanley’s expe-
dition, writes as follows :—

“That gold exists in the western and northern portions of
New Guinea has long been known; that it exists also on the
south-eastern shores of that great island is equally true, as speci-
mens of pottery procured at Redscar Bay (near Cape Possession
on that coast) contained a few small laminar grains of this
precious metal. Theclay in which the gold is imbedded was pro-
bably part of the great alluvial deposit on the banks of the
rivers, the mouths of which we sawin the neighbourhood, doubt-
less originating in the high mountains behind, part of the Owen
Stanley Range.”’*

* Narrative ofthe Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake, during the years 1845-1850,
Vol. II., page 69.

New Guinea. 45

In short, had we, the Britons of the nineteenth century,
possessed the same facilities for planting colonies beyond seas
as were enjoyed and exercised so ably and so successfully by the
ancient Greeks, I am confident that not only New Guinea, but
all the important group of islands in the Western Pacific would
have been colonized long ago; neither should we have lost Tahiti,
or New Caledonia. Unfortunately, however, like the dog in the
manger, Great Britain will neither undertake the great work of
colonization herself, nor permit it to be undertaken even by her
own people. The ancient city of Miletus, a seaport town on the
coast of Asia Minor, in all probability no larger than Sydney,
had planted not fewer than from eighty to a hundred colonies on
the seas that were then travered by the ships of the ancient
world. And if we had only the same colonizing power as Miletus,
T am confident that we should be equally successful in that heroic
work. But we are uniformly stopped at the very first by that
law and provision of our constitution that prohibits any British
subject from planting a colony in any vacant territory on the face
of the earth without the express consent of the Crown. And
this, we are all doubtless aware, it is not easy to obtain.

T addressed a letter on this very important subject by the
August Mail, to Mr. Cowper, the Agent General of the Colony
in London, of which I shall take the liberty to quote the following
passage :—

“Tam not quite aware what your duties are or will be, in
England; but there is one which I conceive you might discharge
effectually, not only for the benefit of all these Australian
colonies, but for the promotion of the interests of civilization and
Christianity throughout the vast Pacific Ocean.”

Then, after referring to the case of Fiji, and the Government that
has recently been formed in that group of Islands, as a matter of
necessity in the first instance, but with such promising results, I
proceed as follows :—

“Tt is discreditable in the highest degree, as well as absolutely
suicidal, for Great Britain, the mistress of the sea and the
soidisant nursing mother ‘and promoter of colonization, to
permit the present state of things to subsist any longer
in the Pacific. It was simply and solely the expenditure of
British money in the founding of this colony that has rendered
it practicable for any other Power in the world to plant colonies
in the Pacific. And why should we permit any such foreign
Power to enter upon our labours, as the French have been per-
mitted to do both in Tahiti and New Caledonia, and virtually to
reap where they never sowed. Had we in this colony possessed
the requisite power to anticipate their movements, does any
person suppose that they would ever have been allowed to set
foot in either of these islands ?”

46 New Guinea.

We have always a large floating population in all these colo-
nies, who are ready for anything in the way of colonization; and
‘it would be the easiest thing in the world to raise the requisite
funds for any feasible scheme of that nature, to be carried out
either in New Guinea or in any of the groups of islands farther
south. All that is requisite is to give us power to set up a Govern-
ment of some kind, and to establish our Coloniai land laws.
From the first I was one of the Provisional Directors of a@ pro-
posed Company, to form a colony in New Guinea, during the
regime of your predecessors, Martin and Parkes. There was no
lack at the time of adventurers ready to embark at once,—many
of them at their own charges—but on finding that a Government
could not be formed for such a community, nor the thing be per-
mitted at all under British law, the proposal fell to the ground.

Could it not be provided, then, either by an Act of the
Imperial Parliament, or by the sanction of Her Majesty’s Goyern-
ment in any other way, that in the event of any number of British
subjects—say not less than one, two, or even three thousand—
agreeing to go forth for the settlement of any island, or group of
islands, in the Western Pacific; under such terms as might be
mutually agreed on beforehand, and approved of by the Govern-
ment of any British colony, (especially on the condition of their
establishing such laws, in regard to the acquisition and proprietor-
ship of land, as are in actual operation in the British colonies) it
should be lawful for such a community to set up a government for
themselves, either with the consent and co-operation of the
native authority, if any such exist, or for themselves solely, if not.
We do not require annexation for such a purpose. Let the
people govern themselves when they can. If you could only
effect such an arrangement as this, it would give a wonderful im-
pulse to colonization in the Southern Pacific, and would greatly
benefit this colony.”

Mr. John Archibald Campbell, a surgeon well known in Sydney
about thirty years since, has, it seems, been proposing to form a
Company in London for the colonization of New Guinea, direct
from England. This, I conceive, would be a hopeless undertaking ;
but if any feasible scheme for the colonization of the south-east
coast of New Guinea—the portion of the coast being subtended
by the Owen Stanley Range of mountains—were proposed in this
city, and an assurance given that the adventurers should be per-
mitted by the Imperial authorities to form a government for
themselves, there would be no Jack either of capital or of men for
the carrying of it out in all these Colonies, with every prospect
of success. In the earlier days of British colonization, a scheme
of this kind was actually carried out in New England in America,
for, a Company having been chartered in Plymouth for the plant-

New Guinea. 47

ing of a colony in New England, the Directors simply resolved to
transfer themselves and their charter bodily to New England, and
the noblest colony or rather series of colonies that were ever
planted by man was the result. But the principles of coloniza-
tion, as Mr. Merivale, one of the highest authorities on the
subject, fully admits, were much better understood and much
better carried out in the 17th century than in the 19th—under
the Stuarts than under Queen Victoria. May we hope, however,
that a better state of things in this important respect shall
speedily be realized, and that such principles will be recognized
and established, with the concurrence of the Imperial Government,
as will make this city of Sydney, like the ancient city of Miletus
in the flourishing period of Grecian colonization, the mother city
of a whole series of flourishing colonies in New Guinea and in
the numerous and beautiful islands of the Western Pacific.

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Soseph Cook & Cou,
Printers,
370, George Street, Sydney.

Fon

On the Constitution of Matter, by M. B. Pell, B.A.,
Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Sydney, late Fellow of St. Fohn’s College,
Cambridge.

[Read, 6th September, 1871.]

In the following paper, an attempt is made to account for some
of the properties of matter upon mechanical principles. I
assume that solid bodies consist of isolated atoms, whose linear
magnitudes are so small compared with the distances between
them, that the atoms may be supposed incapable of giving or of re-
ceiving any energy except that of translation ; and that the mutual
action between two atoms is some function of their distance, and
acts in the line joining their centres of gravity.
__ Some writers, whose opinions are entitled to much respect,

have expressed an entire want of faith in the theory of isolated
atoms acting upon one another at a distance ; and some even hold
that such a state of things is inconceivable. This is one of
those half metaphysical questions upon which perhaps no two
men would be found to be exactly agreed ; but to me it seems no
more difficult to conceive that atoms should have been created
with the property of acting upon one another at a distance, than it
is to conceive that they should have been created, or have in any
way come to exist, or to have any properties at all. It may be
that the bodies of the solar system do not act upon one another
directly, but they appear to do so, and we are content to assume,
provisionally at all events, that they do really so act. There
should be no difficulty then in making a similar supposition
respecting the atoms of which matter is assumed to consist.

If matter does not consist of isolated atoms but is continuous,
any enquiry into its real nature would seem as hopeless as a
similar investigation respecting time or space. We could not
hope to give any explanation of the facts, for instance, that gold
is yellow and soft, and expands under the action of heat, except
that it consists of little bits, all of which possess those properties.
It will be time to confess that we are reduced to such a method
of accounting for the phenomena of nature, when every other
has been found to fail.

I have endeavoured to assume as little as possible respecting
the mutual action of two atoms, except that it must be such a

2 On the Constitution of Matter,

function of the distance as to satisfy the most obvious properties
of matter. Leaving out of consideration for the moment, all
theories except that of gravitation, let us consider what are the
facts. Let us consider the mutual action between two atoms or
molecules, or particles, or whatever they may be, of a substance
such as mercury, which is capable under ordinary circumstances,
of existing in the solid, the liquid or the gaseous state. As
mercury has weight, we can hardly doubt that at a sufficient
distance, two particles of that substance attract one another. At
some less distance they repel one another, whatever be the cause,
for the vapour of mercury, whether in vacuo, or when mixed
with the air, tends to diffuse itself. At a still less distance,
m the liquid state, the particles cohere slightly, or attract
one another, appearing to be in a relative position of unstable
equilibrium. At a slightly diminished distance, the mercury
becomes solid, and the attractive force considerable. The solid
mercury resists further compression, so that the action again
becomes repulsive.

During the last century, Boscovich propounded a theory of
alternate attractions and repulsions; but I am not aware of the
exact nature of his investigations or speculations, never having
had an opportunity of consulting his works. They do not appear
to have borne fruit, or to have been received with much fayour. It
is hardly correct however, to apply the word theory to these
attractions and repulsions; we should rather say that they are
obvious facts, requiring some theory for their explanation. One
theory may be stated thus: the action between two particles is
some function of their distance w, which for considerable dis-

tances is sensibly equal to = but for very small distances,

changes sign several times, becoming finally large and negative,
or repulsive. Let us consider whether there is any other
tenable hypothesis.

The Dynamical theory of Gases, due chiefly to the labors of
Claudius and Maxwell, helpsus somewhat. This theory may be
considered as established, and as forming the most important
addition which has been made to our real knowledge of the laws
of inorganic matter in this generation. Maxwell, for reasons
assigned, assumes that the gaseous molecules repel one another
according to a certain law which makes the force imsensible,
except at very small distances. The theory of elastic molecules
involves a similar assumption; for the elasticity of the molecules
must be caused by a repulsive action between their atoms ;
unless we are to accept an elastic molecule as a finality, beyond
which our enquiries into the nature of matter cannot extend.
The condensible gasesand vapoursso closely resemblethe permanent

. - ‘ —
ee ee

By Professor Pell. 3

gases in so many of their properties, that it is impossible not to
believe that they are governed by thesame laws. Ifthe molecules
of hydrogen repel one another at certain distances, we cannot
doubt that the same is true with respect to chlorine, and carbonic
acid gas, and steam. . Indeed it would be difficult to know
where to draw the line between hydrogen and the most refractory
solid. But if the molecules of carbonic acid gas be brought near
enough together, they undoubtedly attract, and at still shorter
distances again repel one another. If we assume the existence
of isolated atoms, there seems no escape from the doctrine of an
alternation of actual attractions and repulsions.

Sir Humphry Davy supposed that the repulsive forces
between the particles of matter might be of a nature analogous
to that which keeps the planets from falling into the sun, or to
what commonly goes by the name of centrifugal force. Except
that this view of the case is mentioned with approval by a recent
writer, I should not have thought it necessary to make use of any
arguments to shew that the complicated actions which take place
between particles of matter cannot be accounted for by Newton’s
Law of Attraction alone. That the particles of a solid body should
be not only kept apart, but in permanent general relative
positions, by centrifugal force alone, seems to me utterly incon-
ceivable, under any known mechanical laws. It may be demon-
strated moreover, assuming the theory of atoms, that the cohesive
forces of any substance, having any appreciable tenacity, are not
only greater, but many millions of times greater, than what
would be caused by Newton’s Law. It is so far certain then,
that that law is not absolutely universal, but is replaced or
supplemented by something totally different at very short
distances.

The atoms or particles of a solid body certainly seem to be in a
position of stable equilibrium, or rather to be vibrating about such
a position ; and there seems no good reason for doubting that such
is, not apparently only, but really the case, The following con-
siderations seem to me to show conclusively, that it cannot be
the law of nature that two atoms should attract one another,
for all distances however small. It seems natural to suppose
that the total quantity of heat, or energy in any solid body, or
collection of atoms, is finite, and capable of being expressed as
some function of the masses, velocities, mutual actions and
relative co-ordinates of the atoms. Now if the atoms attract
one another for all distances however smali, up to actual contact,
then the potential energy, or that due to any relative position of
the atoms, would depend partly upon the magnitude and internal
constitution of the atoms themselves, and would be, humanly
speaking, incapable of definite expression. If the atoms be sup-

4 On the Constitution of Matter,

posed to be mere points or centres of force, having inertia, but
no magnitude; then the potential energy due to the relative
position of the atoms of any solid body is infinite. - These
difficulties disappear if we accept the fact which stares us in the
face, that the final action between two atoms, when the distance
is diminished, is repulsive ; and that for any two atoms of a solid
body, there is a relative position of stable equilibrium short of
actual contact or coincidence.

Certain considerations in connection with the Dynamical
Theory of Gases, require us to suppose that the particles of a
gas are not atoms, but molecules, or collections of atoms. The
facts revealed by the spectroscope indicate also that the particles
of vapours, even in their most attenuated condition, have a com-
plicated constitution, and that they probably consist of a con-
siderable number of atoms. Presuming that the mutual action
of atoms is the cause of, and of the same kind as, that which
takes place between molecules ; that action may be rather rudely
represented by the annexed diagram. The abcissa represents
the distance betweentwo atoms, and the ordinate the force, the
positive ordinate representing attraction. Supposing one atom
fixed at O, A is a position of stable equilibrium for the other,
and corresponds to the solid state at the absolute zero of tem-
perature. B is a position of unstable equilibrium, and corres-
ponds to the liquid state. Distances greater than OB correspond
to the condition of gas or vapour. It is necessary to suppose

that in all cases, AB is small compared with OA, and that =

is large at the point A, but generally small at the point B. I do
not know that we have any means of forming an opinion as to the
relative magnitude of OC, but such a point as C must exist if
we assume the transition from Newton’s Law to that of
gaseous repulsion to be gradual. This necessitates the existence
of a maximum negative ordinate DQ. It may be remarked that
the distance OD would correspond to the saturation point at the
absolute zero of temperature ; for supposing a number of equidis-
tant atoms in a confined space, if the distances be intermediate in
magnitude between OB and OD, the equilibrium is unstable, but
for distances greater than OD, it is stable. For refractory solids
EP must be large, and DQ comparatively very small. For gases,
AB, or EP, or both, are probably very small, and DQ must be
very large, compared with its magnitude for non volatile sub-
stances,

If a small velocity be impressed upon the moveable atom in
the direction Oz, it will oscillate about A. If the initial velocity
be increased to a certain value, that is under the action of a
certain amount of heat, the atom will just reach B, and there

By Professor Pell. 5

remain. With a greater velocity it will pass beyond B, and the
solid connection between the atoms will be destroyed. It may
be seen without any mathematical investigation that the vibratory
motion about A produces two effects.

(1) It increases the mean distance between the atoms; that is,
it produces expansion.

(2.) It diminishes the cohesive force between the atoms; that
is, it produces softening.

If the initial velocity be sufficient to carry the atom to B, the
cohesive force is entirely destroyed, and the condition is that of
perfect liquidity; the mean distance between the atoms being
then OB. It may be observed that the greater the initial velocity,
and the more nearly in consequence the atom approaches B, the
position of unstable equilibrium, the greater is the proportion of
energy in the potential or latent state. If the atom just reaches
B, the whole energy becomes latent.

With reference to the obvious objections that the liquid state,
as thus represented, is one of absolute instability, and that the
whole of the heat appears to become latent, I must remark in the
first place, that probably the liquid condition cannot exist with
any permanence except under the combined effects of tempera-
ture and pressure ; and in the second place, I must anticipate so
much as to say, that I hope to succeed in shewing that it is pro-
bable that the atoms of a solid, under the action of heat, aggre-
gate themselves into molecules, and assume the liquid and
gaseous condition, at a far lower temperature than what could
correspond to the velocity necessary to the carry the atom from
Ato B. That velocity corresponds, not to the melting point of
the substance, but to the far higher temperature, higher perhaps
than any at present existing in the solar system, under which a
molecule would be resolved into atoms.

If x be the distance between the atoms, and f (#) the dynami-
cal measure of the attraction between them, the conditions which
have been stated may be approximately expressed by supposing

Ff (2) = (© — a) (8 — 2) ¢ (@)
where OA = a, OB = £8, and ¢ (a) is a function which does not
change sensibly within the small limitsz—2,%—£. Let
B—a=—h,«=a-+4z,h and z being supposed small compared

with «, then .
Ff (®) = 2 (h— 2° $ (@ + 2)
= z (h —z)* > (a) nearly
Put f'(«) = h’ @ (a) = m’, then

f (2) =mz(1 — se)

6 On the Constitution of Matter,

It must be observed that this is little, if anything, more than a
statement in a mathematical form of some of the most obvious
properties of ordinary matter. It remains to be seen whether
this statement or assumption is consistent with, and can explain
other and more recondite properties.

In order to satisfy approximately the condition that f‘(6) must
be very small, I have made it zero, giving to f(x) = 0, three
roots equal to 8. Any odd number of roots would apparently do
as well as 3, but there are good reasons for believing, as I shall
shew hereafter, that 3 is the correct index.

The equation of motion is

dz
dt SS F (2)
which may be solved approximately when 2 is small compared
with 4. Neglecting the last term the equation may be written—

az oe 3m (2 2)

When ¢ = 0 let z = a, v= 0, where = is small. For a first
h
approximation we have
Z = @ COS mt.
By the usual method of successive approximations, z may be

developed in terms of 5
J

involves no particular difficulty, so that it will be sufficient to
give the result, which, to the degree of approximation required

for the present purpose, is
z=a[A cosemt + Bp + C cos2emt + Dp’ cosdemt]

The process requires some care, but

where p = +
55 p*
Se
A Pres
3; 147 p?
al
teu d ies ED
=-5( Pp)
pis
a2
alge

e being a factor nearly equal to unity, which, as in the Lunar
Theory, it is necessary to introduce. In conducting the

By Professor Peil. 7

approximations the condition z = @ when ¢ = 0 is preserved
throughout. The last term is not made use of in the final applica-
tion of the result, but is required in the course of the approxima-
tions.

The temperature may be assumed to be proportional to the
average vis viva, or to

27

cm de?
| )a t
0 / acm : Fy
pares; 7 (A? + 4p? C*)

cm
which, neglecting higher powers of p

mh* ;
ae mee (1 - 2p + se. )
This is pee to +, the absolute temperature, so that we
may put
pi(l - 2p + Pyaar
16
where A is some constant. If M be the mass of an atom, H the

quantity of heat to each atom, J the mechanical equivalent of
heat,

where w is the velocity whenz = 0. It may be easily shewn
that
ub = mip A — 2p °F)

3 2
— 2p + £)
and approximately,
3
pa 2p+8e of) = an +
ee a oa & 21 Ar
2J9 16

If s be the specific heat at the temperature +, or the quantity
of heat necessary to raise a unit of mass through one degree,

Wry, 2d
2-83) > Big $4)

21 Ar?
16

8 On the Constitution of Matter,

If « be the specific heat at the absolute zero, —
, lar

is a eG TG g )ao (1+ £7)
2Jgc 21Jg¢
ee Nr ah} Amen?
The expansion is
27
“me
z dt
= = Bap
2a
m C

Bap 3p%h 147 p
=i? _“f - 2p + a)

=er(1+e47)

which is in accordance with the known laws of expansion, e and
e, being constants.

Suppose a solid body consisting of equal atoms, and let
x y 2 represent a very small displacement of an atom. There will
be 8v linear differential equations for the determination of such
quantities as x y z; and it may be shewn that
x = Dacos (ut+l),y= 3 bcos (ut+l), z= Ze cos (ut + J)
where » and J have 37 different values which are the same for
all quantities, such as « y z. The displacement being small, and
no change in the constitution of the body being supposed to take
place, terms involving e* or e* cannot, from the nature of the
case occur. The whole heat for this atom is proportional to

LEW (ae +P +c)

and the heat developed as temperature is proportional to one-half
the non-periodic terms in

d x\? dy\° dz\?
(a) + (ae) + Gi)
= FiW@+ +e)
It follows therefore, that for every atom, at very small tem-
peratures, one half the heat is developed as temperature, and the

remainder is latent. If then, there be two bodies, the masses of
whose atoms are M and M, respectively ; at the same small tem-

By Professor Pell. 9

perature, the whole heat per atom will be the same for both;
and if ¢ and co, be their specific heats at the absolute zero of
temperature, we have
Mo—M, oc,
which acords with what is called the constancy of the atomic heat
of simple substances in the solid state. For such substances we
should have Mc =x, wherex is constant. If it were possible for
two atoms M and M, to become united into a single atom, and s
were the absolute specific heat of the compound, we should have
(M + M,)s=x. But when two equivalents are chemically com-
bined it is found that (M + M,) s = 2x; andif there be p of one
and g of the other
(pM + gM) s = (p + q) x

This is what might be inferred from the above considerations, for

jc nial is the average mass of an atom of the compound, and

s, the average heat per atom to produce a rise of 1°

a,
fs the absolute zero, and therefore equal to x. .

This subject is very fully treated in a valuable memoir by Kopp
in the Philosophical Transactions. He points out that the cireum-
stance that x is nearly the same for most simple solids, does not
indicate necessarily that they are really simple, but that they are
of the same order of composition. There is some difficulty in the
theory however, for Kopp remarks, that the known change of
specific heat with change of temperature is not sufficient to
account for the observed differences in the values of x, even for
those substances which nearly satisfy the law. This difficulty
disappears, I think, wken we observe that the quantity estimated
and recorded as the atomic heat is

MiG (L, 4 en);
and although = is very small, it is different for different sub-
stances, and + being the absolute temperature is considerable. If
we had the means of reducing the observations with certainty to
the absolute zero, it is probable that the discrepancies would
disappear.

The most general case which I have yet attempted to investigate
in connection with the motion of atoms, is that of 7 atoms ina
straight line. This is far, of course, from being an arrangement
which the atoms of a molecule would really assume and main-
tain; but itis a theoretically possible combination, and having
some generality, its consideration may enable us to form by
analogy, an idea of the nature of molecular arrangements, and lead
the way to something better.

10 On the Constitution of Matter,

I undertook the investigation originally, for the purpose of
determining the laws of expansion and change of specific heat,
but I have been led to conclusions having reference to phenomena
of far greater interest and importance.

The law of force, which I have assumed, affords a
reasonable general explanation of some of the phenomena relating
to gases and vapours ; such as the change of specific heat with
change of temperature, and condensation at the dew point. It
points also to an essential distinction between gases and vapours
in the nature of the encounters between the molecules. J must,
however, defer the consideration of these and many other questions
to some future occasion, briefly stating the principle upon which the
change ofspecific heat, of which the absorption of heat in liquefaction
and in vaporization are particular cases, seems to depend. If any
system, not subject to loss of energy by friction or any similar
cause, be vibrating about a position of stable equilibrium, the
average proportion of the energy in a potential state, depends
greatly upon whether or not there is any position of unstable
equilibrium within, or nearly within, the scope of the motion.
When the system passes slowly through such a position, a large
proportion of the energy becomes potential; and if the motion
constitutes heat, a large proportion of the heat becomes latent.
The existence of the position of unstable equilibrium B, appears
to be the chief cause of the various changes which are observed
in the specific heats of solids, gases and vapours.

Let there be z equal atoms in a straight line, acting upon one
another according to the law already assumed, and slightly dis-
turbed in that line from their positiuns of stable equilibrium.
Let the displacements at time ¢, be represented by 2 2; ......

Bn fsa ecicee The equations of motion, to a first approximation, are
Me
ede Be
al d* ary

$ fi i a\? aH
or putting q for —3 \ 7, 2,

eee eeeree see rererne

fetter res eeererece

By Professor Pell. 11

Let these equations be multiplied by f, f. ...... els eae: respec-
tively and added together; and let all the terms disappear from
the resulting equation, except that involving z,. We must have

then
as: = Ween + Jaden

This gives us
f. = Acos(r§ +B)

where
g = 2 cos 6
#2 condition that x, disappears is
(2Zcos§-lfA=hf
whence B = - 364; and supposing f, = 1, we have
cos (r — 3)
Te cos 4 4

The corfficient of z, in the resulting equation is

Qycos Big l afh Safle 2 sin 7 @ sin 3 6

cos 3 4
and the equation is
2 sin 7 6 sin 4 6
cos 4 6
In a similar manner we obtain
, 2sin 2G sin 3 9 36
cos 3 6
and since
2 cos 6. @, = Lp. + Tr41
#, == Alcos (76) +B)
The first equation gives B — — 34 6, and therefore
x, = A cos (r — 3) 8
zw, = A cos 4
GOS] a) me

d cos 3 4
If we put = = y, we have
sin A pe § — 2cos 2) (2 cos § — 2 cos 4 y)
sea: (2 cos. § — 2 cos 2(n—1) y)
2sina sing) 4? 46 (= 4sin’ 46 +4 4 sin? y) (-4 sin? 3 6

cos 4 6
+ Angin? 24)... ceed.

12 On the Constitution of Matter,
2 2
And since 2 cos 6 = 4 (3,) +2, -4sin?}? es ie
m \dt
the equation for determining 7, becomes

a (da? : a? : a? ;
We Pl ee? BO0080 ea Bs J...... a + Ha) a
= 0... cee (2)
where p., = 2 m sin sy, s being any number from 1 to n — 1.

dx,
itt dt

@ = A+ 4 CO8Sp,t + ... + GCOS py b+ ...... G1 COS fn_, &

= 0 when ¢ = O, for all values of 7, we have

Where a @ ...... a, are arbitrary constants. It may be easily
shewn that a is the same for all values of 7, and since
roel
__ cos (7 5) ye
cos 34 6
and that, when operating upon cos ut, 6 =2syv
ISI CSR 1) 897

‘Ss

r

Pi cos sy COB peat (3)

s=1

If z. = O when ¢ = 0, for all values of 7, we find in the
same way

Jae CoC 1D) oo

8

2a— bt <>)

WN PR soon: 4
COS Sy Sea (4)

s=1
7 being the number of the atom, s the number of the term in
GANGUO. Dy hose e. arbitrary constants.
Suppose the initial conditions to be

da
= ip) ees r— OQ
- i @) dt

where ¢ is of any given form. For the determination of the

arbitrary constants, we have 7 equations of the form
Datars Pa p14) 6
g(r) =4a4+3 pes ACR arene BN ) 20 ae (5)

cos SY

5—1

It may be shewn that if p and g be any two integers

> ; cos (2r—1) py cos (2r—1) gy=0

r=1
except when p = q, when the sum is = If then the equations

of the form (5) be multiplied respectively by cos sy, Cos 3s y......

By Professor Peil. 13

cos(2r — 1) sv ...... and added together, all the terms on the
right hand side i annese except those involving a,, and we have

= 9 @ cos (2 r—1) sy = gs

2 cos sy
and adding together equations (5) as they stand
=o (r) =a
1 D) i 1 ee
2, = ~= (7) ie > =. . (¢ (r) cos (27 — 1) sy)
i “cos (or r—1) sy cosmst......... (6)
If the initial conditions be, 7, = 0, 2 5 $.(r), then from

equation (4)

Ase (a) SB ee SMO cos (2 r — 1) sy

COS Sy
These equations give as before
"a SL pss
ey a $1 (7) cos (2r — 1) OY eae ey

= ¢, (7) =2b
° — I a 2 ae!
i = g(r) t + Fs = > (6, (r) cos @r—l)sy)
cos (2r—1) sy ee

Ms
which completes the solution to a first approximation.

It may be observed that the formule given by Poisson for the
longitudinal vibrations of an elastic rod may be easily deduced
from the above results. It is remarkable also, that by putting
t =o,and x, = ¢ (7) in equation (6), a general analytical theorem
may be deduced, of which Lagrange’s theorem, that when

OE Cea
TEV WES
jn —

o (#) = - aS: (f ¢ (x) sin ~
is a ci case,

In order to determine how the system would vibrate if dis-
turbed, and then left to itself; suppose the first atom to receive
a blow i impressing upon it a velocity ma, which if the next atom
were fixed, would cause it to vibrate through a space @ nearly,
a being small compared with h. We have then ¢ (r) = 0,
$, (7) = ma when r = 1, and zero for all other values.

=o (7) cos (27 —1) sy =ma sinsy
>> Gn Qs —= ma

- “3 sin (2r—1) sy sin pst

s5—1

mat
N

Ly =

14 On the Constitution of Matter,

The nature of the vibrations will be the same, and the term
mat

, denoting the general motion of translation of the system,

be avoided, by supposing the initial conditions to be
$ ¢) =< Zsin 2Qr—l sy , og M=O

a s—n—l
then 2 => = sin (27 —1) sy cos p,t
ol
Since 2 mr = y, it is evident that
ep—r41 — — &

so that the motion is symmetrical about the middle point. Ifn be
an odd number the central atom will remain at rest. These con-
clusions hold for the higher approximations as well as for the
first.

The whole energy is a and the vibratory energy, which
alone is represented in the above value of z,, is Wd ma. The

heat developed as temperature for the +” atom is
GU inn peo RCAror oe __ ma (n—1)
Se 7 a C7) sy fae
and is the same for all, the mass of an atom being here supposed
to be unity.

Subject to no external disturbance whatever, any number of
atoms might vibrate together in the manner indicated, but this is
a condition which can never exist, for the atoms of a molecule of
vapour, even during the interval between its encounters, are
subject to acceleration or retardation, as the case may be, from
the action of the ether in which they must be supposed to be
immersed. A notion may be formed of the effect of an external
disturbance upon such a system as that under consideration, by
supposing an additional atom at the beginning of the series, con-
strained to move according to a particular law. Let x, be the
displacement of this atom, and suppose

Lo == @ cost
a being small compared with 2. The equations of motion are
qt = % + @2

(q— 1) % = 1

By Professor Pell. 15

1 sd?
h fi — 2 == ot — 9 y
where as before ¢ + ( ) cos 6

m

If these equations be multiplied by ffi f_ ........ respectively,
and added together, and all the terms disappear from the
resulting equation, except those involving «, and «,, we have

PATSOS |) 9 = ovens ebter
which gives f, = A sin (r § + B).
The condition 2 f, cos § =f, gives B = 0, so supposing f, = ],
we have

ee simbr'd
Ea sin 6

and the corfficient of x, is

@ ombesiyhas 2, as Ces ool

cos 4 6

bole

The equation is therefore

cos (7 + 4

Co aY Eu @icos we t
1
cos + 6

We have also
x, = Acos(r§ + B)
and the condition (2 cos 6 — 1) % = 4% 4 gives

BS as LS Ay ce et

x, = A cos (n —r + $) 4
x, = A cos ¢ §
Cus (Oa)

“2, = nh
cos 3 §
1
Lo C8 Weak & ae cos pt
cos (n + $) 9
If we put » = 2m sin y, then, when operating upon

cosut, §@= 2, and
a 08 (2n—2r4+1)
cos (2n+1)¥
The tendency to rupture is a function, not of the displace-
ments, but of the relative displacements of the atoms, represented
by

x“, =

cosut

_ 2asin (2Qn—2r4 2) Psinb ce
LES Sa aaa cos (22+1) i

16 On the Constitution of Matter,
If x be considerable, but so small that (2 +1) w is not

nearly equal to 5? sin ty will be small, and the relative disturbance

small compared with a for all values of 7. This shews that a
slow external disturbance, corresponding to a small value of p,
will cause a general oscillatory motion of the wholesystem, but
very little internal relative vibration of the atoms.

If (2 + 1) be equal to a or to any odd multiple of it,

2, — %,-, becomes infinite, indicating the well known change in
the form of the solution from A cos nt to Afsin wt. I will
defer the consideration of this particular case, and suppose

on + 1 to be nearly equal to some odd multiple of te 80:
y eq p 5

that cos (2x + 1) J is small, but @ so small that the character
of the vibrations is maintained. Since
Sin (27 —2 7+ 2) J) = cos 27 —1) f

nearly, the relative displacement is a maximum and large com-
pared with a for such values of 7 as make (2.7 —1) a multiple
of x or most nearly so; and this of course occurs at regular
intervals. If p be the whole number most nearly satisfying the
condition 2 p / =z, the atoms are arranged in groups of p each,
where p is a number depending upon the wave length of the dis-
turbance, and the nature of the system, and not at all upon a, or
the intensity of the disturbance. Suppose now a, or the
temperature to increase gradually ; the groups remain the same,
but become more and more isolated. Each group acquires an
oscillatory motion as a whole in addition to the vibratory motion
of its atoms amongst themselves ; and the time of this oscillation
corresponds nearly to the fundamental or lowest note of a group
of p atoms vibrating without restraint, for in that case

)
w= 2msin —" = 2msin b — p nearly

The disturbance a cos ztrepresenting the prevailing heat, », and
therefore also, for atoms of a given kind, has a certain very
limited range of yalue. We may suppose then that there is some

one particular value of { making m —= pan integer; and that

particular wave length corresponds exactly to the fundamental
note of the group, or molecule, of p atoms.

If we suppose now that @ increases until the maximum value of
therelative displacement exceeds a certain quantity, the severance
becomes complete. This does not necessarily take place at all

By Professor Pell. 17

points at once, for the weakening of the connection between the |
groups would impede the propagation of the disturbance. The
first group would first melt off; or if the temperature were
higher, would fly off as a molecule of vapour; and the next group
would then be directly exposed to the disturbance, and be melted
or evaporated in its turn. It should be observed that the energy
employed in severing the connection between the groups, does
not increase the temperature, but becomes latent. I must remark
here that the liquid condition would be better accounted for, and
some other phenomena perhaps explained, by supposing the
three roots equal to 6 of the equation f (7) = 0, to be replaced
by three roots nearly equal to each other; that is roots whose
differences are generally small compared withh. Ifit be objected
that I am assuming an unnaturally complicated and fantastic
law, I can only repeat that it is not assumed arbitrarily, but is
little more than a reflex of plain facts. If all the various phe-
nomena relating to inorganic matter, are to be accounted for by
the motions of atoms acting upon one another according to some
one law; and this assumption must be the foundation of every
such attempt as the present; it is hardly reasonable to suppose
that the law of action which is to be the cause of such a vast
variety of complex relations, should be of a very simple kind.

Having considered the motion of the system whilst being
heated as it were, let us now consider what would occur, if the
disturbance were to cease, and the system be left to vibrate of
itself. When » ¢ is any multiple of 2 7
; 7c 2u—2r+t)b ead a

cos(2n+1)p) ° dt

At any such instant let the disturbing atom be removed, and

we have for the subsequent motion, the initial conditions
: 2, OBC BR ap) ah pus
p (7) cos Qn 41) 0 » $i (*) 0

We suppose that the system is an aggregation of molecules,

formed as above described, under the action of the prevailing

heat; so that » is a multiple p v of p, and if 2 pW =m exactly,
we have

Ly

cos (2r — 1) = ie
enone (cya Os as eh, OP
cos cos vy

DD)

lp
Referring to equation (6), 3 ¢ (r) = 0
= ¢ (r) cos (2r—1 sy
To=1
pil Bie
~ cosvy

2 cos (27 —1) vycos 2r—1)sy

18 On the Constitution of Matter,

which vanishes for all values of s, except s = v, and in that case

: an

LS eee

2 cos vy ;
&, —= a cos) (2.7 — 1) viy cos nr

fy =2mMsnvy —A%msinp—p

4 0O8 2Qr—1)y

cos y

or the motion continues, in this case, to be the same exactly as
that impressed upon the system by the disturbance. The system
in cooling would radiate the same kind of heat as that which it
received ; “that j is, it would give back the fundamental note of its
molecules quite pure.

If it shall hereafter appear that we are justified in inferring
that atoms under any natural arrangement, under the action of
heat of a certain wave length, would behave in a manner
analogous to that which they appear to adopt when constrained to
move in a straight line, then I think it will be found that
we have fallen upon a principle of great importance in the
economy of nature. It may be briefly statedthus. The arrange-
ment of atoms in a molecule is caused by the prevalent heat, and
depends upon its wave length; and every molecule generated
under the action of heat of a certain wave length, radiates heat
of the same, or nearly the same, wave length. I do not consider
of course, that the existence of this principle is proved, or that
these investigations afford us anything more perhaps, than a hint
of the truth. Inthe further remarks which I shall have to make,
I shall however assume the truth of the principle which I have
stated ; but I hope that it will be understood, if I appear to
adopt too confident a tone, that I do so merely to avoid the
awkward recurrence of a hypothetical mode of expression.

Before indulging in any speculations, I must dwell a little
longer uponthe dry ‘forms. Weill endeavour toform some general
idea of the value of Y from the equations » —2m sin W,
2pv—7. p, we know, is very large, and m for ordinary solids
must also be very large, for the molecular forces are enormous in

ae, = cos pw et

relation to the masses upon which they act. If p~ — - then

p = 2; if y is greater than > p = 1, or the supposed molecular
arrangement would not occur. If there be any simple substance
for which is greater than 5 it must exist in the state of in-

dependent atoms and be incapable of assuming the liquid state,

By Professor Peil. | 19

except perhaps under great pressure. If heated it would pass at
once from the solid to the vapourous state. It would shew no
bright lines in the spectrum at any temperature. In a state of
vapour no heat could be consumed in internal vibrations, so that
Maxwell’s factor 8 would in this case be unity. I am not aware
that there is any substance possessing these properties, but at all
events we may presume from the complicated constitutions which
molecules appear to possess, that p is generally considerable and
) therefore small. The above equations give us

ES SS
p bo wb cot p

0 # represents the range of » in the prevalent heat, and for

heat of considerable intensity, Pile is small, and \ being small

ne does not differ much from aa If for any substance

&
were small enough, 8p might exceed unity, even within
the range of heat of considerable intensity, in which case
there would be different values of p for different wave lengths.
The molecular arrangements of such a substance would dis-
play great instability. A molecule formed under one wave
length would be decomposed, and otherwise arranged by heat of
a different kind. As we have every reason to believe that this
kind of instability does not exist in the case of simple substances,
we may infer that | is not very small: the general conclusion
being that for ordinary substances { is smal! but not very smail.

The particular value of Y which for any substance is equal to
= is not the one which produces the greatest effect in arranging

the atoms into groups. The greatest effect is caused by the value
of fy which makes (2 7 + 1) \ equal to an odd multiple of

5 ; and when z is large, such a value must exist. In this case
the expression for the relative displacement becomes infinite.
This does not indicate that there would necessarily be a
rupture of the system, but merely that the displacement cannot
be expressed exactly in the manner supposed. The best way of
stating the case is that a vibration of that exact wave length
cannot be propagated through the system at all. By the effect
of the factor c, by which in the second approximation, it becomes
uecessary to multiply p, the time of vibration and the wave
length are increased, so that if Y be continuous, this particular

20 On the Constitution of Matter,

vibration would be assimilated to, and fall im with that corres-
ponding to some smaller value of }. As a increases, this effect
increases and extends to values of ) nearly equal, within a certain
range, to the particular value in question.

The temperature of the 7 atom in the case under considers?
tion is

war cos (27n—2r+1)

49) cos" (22
A being some constant; and the average temperature is
ua d cos’ (2a—2r41) ph _ war
An co? (22+1)b Secor (2Qn4+]1)¥
nearly when z is large. The maximum temperature is
we a’ nr

4 cos (227+1)

There is thus a concentration of heat at the joints, so
that at those points a greater softening takes place than would
occur if the heat were uniformly distributed. This effect is in-
creased as the temperature increases, on account of the increasing
proportion of the heat, employed in softening the joints, which
becomes latent. The temperature therefore at which melting
occurs is much lower than what, if uniformly distributed,
would dissever the atoms.

The effect of radiant heat upon a system of m atoms, such as
that under consideration, may perhaps be represented by suppo-
sing the additional atom at the beginning of the series to be of
feeble power, proportional to Am*, when A is very small. Let z,
be the displacement of this atom, and

x, = a COS pt
The equation of motion for the first of the 7 atoms is

3
pe = m* (@, — 2) +A m* (a — %)
IR ae
or - =z +a A): oy —— Cees

neglecting A in comparison with 1, and putting

1 d\?
We (4) + 2 = q = 2 cos §, we have

By Professor Pell. 21

These equations giye -
2 sin » @ sin 4 6
cos (1 —r + 4) 4 ss

a, = =
cos + 6

n

2 COS (1 —r+%3)bcosput (8)
em ea ek ae
and the relative displacement is

x, —_—_> —«it—-. == — "
io : sin 2 6

Let » = 2 m sin f, then 6, operating upon cos pé, is equal to
2, and
' oe Aasin2 (1 —r) p cos wt
Dem ag Re sin 2 a

Now A, representing the ratio of the action ofan atom of ether
to the mutual action of the atoms of a solid body, is very small,
almost infinitesimal. The above coefficient of cos wt is therefore
wholly insignificant except when sin 2m is very small, or when
22 =a multiple of . In this case, as before explained, the,
quantity by which A is multiplied is large, but not infinite: for
as the amplitude of the vibration increases, the time of vibra-
tion is slightly increased, as indicated by the factor c, introduced
in the second approximation ; and yy is thus slightly diminished.
The only values of which produce any sensible effect are

x 24 32 UT :
pestis reese OS 2 eta —— pee , where v isan
2n 2n 2n ¥ 2n ois nea

integer; putting 6 = , we have, supposing the n atoms

2 sin n

to have been initially at rest, in their positions of stable

equilibrium,

__ 6 cos Cnr ae are l)y cos pt
smu y

where a ,a, are arbitrary constants, and », = 2 m sin SY.

Putting ¢ = 0

0=>a4, + 2.4, —

L, =m + Ba, COS p, t

bcos (2n—2r+1)vy
sin vu y

Equation (8) gives

cos (2m — 2741) sy

COS sy

1%, = As

22 On the Constitution of Matter,

whence it may be shewn that ,«,, and consequently ,a,, vanishes
for all values of s except s = v, and

sj oppalneamiel
cosuy smuy
a= bcos (tem Ot 1) ue eroen ss)
smu ¥
_ beos(Qn—2r4 1) ,
a ata (1 — cos ut)

If the disturbance be supposed to cease, it may be shewn, as
before, that the subsequent motion is represented by
bcos (22—27r4+ 1)
= sin
so that the system radiates the same kind of heat which it
absorbs. If be greater than 2m, x, is small, even in comparison
with Aa, when x is large; so that the system is incapable of
absorbing or transmitting any heat for which »% is greater than
2m.
Equation (8) gives
bcos (22 —1) fp
aor sin
So long as this coefficient is greater than a, the first of the 7 atoms
continues to be accelerated by the ether. When steady motion
is established, and the acceleration ceases, we have
beos (2n—1) __

COS we

r

(1 — cos pt)

: a
sin p
acos (2n—27r+ 1)
a cos (22—1) CC Su ea,
_ acos(2r—1) (1 — cos pt)
ae cos

The principle which I have stated, if established, would afford
some hope of our being able to understand the facts of
“Spectrum Analysis.” The fixed character ot the bright lines
makes it impossible to conceive that the energy due to the
translation or rotation of the vapour molecules can have anything
to do with their production. They must be caused by the
internal vibrations of something of which the molecule is
composed. A complete knowledge of the arrangement
and mode of vibration of the atoms of a molecule, would involve
a complete knowledge of the corresponding bright lines. We
may imagine that the molecule of the very simple structure which

By Professor Pell. 23

we have been considering, would give one bright line correspond-
ing to its fundamental note; and fainter lines would correspond
to some of the terms of the second and higher approximations.

Tt can hardly, I think, have escaped notice, that if the mean
translation velocity of the molecules of an incandescent vapour
become so great as to bear a sensible ratio to that of wave pro-
pagation, the ‘wave length of the light corresponding to any
bright line would be affected in a manner and degree depending
upon the direction of motion relative to that of the light observed.
As the temperature is gradually increased, this would have the
effect of thickening the bright lines, and finally of converting
them into a continuous spectrum. If as the temperature is in-
creased, a rupture or change of constitution should take place in
the molecules, we might expect a sudden change in the appear-
ance of the spectrum. In reference to this subject, I may re-
mark, although I express an opinion with much hesitation, know-
ing how much there is which has been written upon this subject,
which I have not had an opportunity of studying, that I believe
that the constitution of the luminiferous ether is such as to render
it incapable of propagating waves of less than a certain length.

I see some hope also of an explanation of what has always
appeared to me one of the greatest difficulties in connection with
molecular physics ; that the wave length’should be so nearly the
same for all kinds of heat. It is not difficult to conceive that the
molecules in the sun and elsewhere, whose vibrations are the
chief sources of heat, should have been so constituted ag to
vibrate nearly in the same time. The difficulty is to understand
why the molecules of bodies of all kinds and constitutions, being
heated and then left to vibrate in their own way, should all '
vibrate so nearly in unison. But if we hold that the arrangement
of atoms into molecules is caused by the prevalent heat and
depends upon its wave length, the difficulty disappears. Let us
suppose for « moment that the sun should radiate heat of one
uniform wave length only, aud that the values of m for all sub-

Tv
24
a whole number exactly. All the atoms under the influence of
the sun’s heat would be arranged into molecules, all having the
same fundamental note, and collections of such molecules after
being heated, would give back that note alone. No substance
having its atoms otherwise arranged could continue to exist, for
every ray of heat which it encountered would assist in decompo-
sing and rearranging its atoms according to the prevailing code.
There would be one uniform stability of molecular constitution,
and one uniform colour. appears to be ay nearly constant as

stances and combinations were such that were in every case

24 On the Constitution of Matter,

the necessity that p should be a whole number allows. If u
were not nearly constant for heat of considerable intensity, there
would be no stabilty in the constitution of matter; for an arrange-
ment made under one wave length would be liable to be
decomposed under another. Suppose, that.a mass of any
substance, such as iron, were brought from some other system, if
there is any such, where a much longer wave length prevails.
We should probably not recognize it as iron at all. If melted,
its atoms would be immediately arranged according to the
fashion of our system. It might perhaps be preserved in
its original state if carefully kept in a cool place. If
exposed to the heat of the day, it would probably be gradually
transformed, suffering disintegration in the process—it would
decay, in fact, much as a piece of wood does, and with more or |
less rapidity according to the degree in which its constitution
differed from our standard. Is it possible that organic compounds, -
which can be produced and exist under exceptional circumstances
only, which are so liable to decay, so sensitive to the action of
heat, and differ sometimes so entirely from inorganic substances
formed of the same chemical elements, may involve abnormal
molecular arrangements, not in accordance with the prevailing
wave length, and thus liable to decay when removed from the
local influences under which they were produced ?

The present uniformity of wave length, is a condition of dy-
namical equilibrium, which may have existed from the beginning,
but which may, I think, have been brought about by the opera-
tion of natural causes. Supposing a number of atoms, enough
to make a solar system, to have been created any where in space, |
but at such distances apart as to cause by their confluence, a suf-
ficient amount of heat to animate the whole. In the beginning
there would be a true chaos. There would be every variety of
wave length, and consequently every variety of molecular arrange-
ment, with no stability any where, but a continuous process of
composition and decomposition. But out of this chaos order
would be gradually evolved. The principle of natural selection
would begin to operate even at this early period. very radiat-
ing molecule would endeavour to impress its own constitution
upon others within its influence, to propagate its kind. In the
warfare among the molecules, every enemy conquered would be-
come the ally of the conqueror. The molecules distinguished by
numbers and_ strength of constitution, would gradually gain the
ascendancy by the destruction of weaker kinds; and any addi-
tional stability of structure which might accidentally arise
amongst themselves would be propagated and become general.
An ascendancy having once been gained, the process of reduction
to a common standard, would go on with an ever increasing ra-

By Professor Pell. 25

pidity, until the condition of greatest stability was attained. If
such a relation existed amongst the constants upon which: the
mutual action of the atoms depends, as to render it possible that
one uniform wave length should be attained, that would be the
final result. In that case there would be one uniform stability
of molecular arrangement; a hard uncompromising state of
things, without the possibility perhaps, of that continuous round
of composition and decomposition upon which the life of our part
of the Universe depends.

It may be, then, that chaos means diversity of wave length, and
that cosmos means variety in unity, and that absolute uniformity
of wave length would be universal death. It is a curious subject
for reflection, that the possibility of cosmos evolving out of chaos;
that is, the possibility that the material universe should become
fitted to be the abode of organic life, may have depended upon
whether or nota few constants were so arranged, in the beginning,
as to satisfy a simple mathematical condition.

Joseph Cook and Co., Machine Printers, 370, George-street, Sydney.

emebenicth commento oe es

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