JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA VOLUME 55 (1972) 39985—625 The Royal Society of Western Australia, Inc. Patron Her Majesty the Queen Vice-Patron His Excellency Major-General Sir Douglas Kendrew, K.C.M.G., C.B., C.B.E., D.S.O., Governor of Western Australia Council 1972-1973 President Vice-Presidents Past President Joint Hon. Secretaries Hon. Treasurer Hon. Librarian Hon. Editor R. M. Berndt, M.A.. Dip. Anth., Ph.D., F.R.A.I., F.F.A.A.A. A F. Trendall, B.Sc., Ph.D., A.R.C.S., F.G.S. G. A. Bottomley, B.Sc., Ph.D. G. M. Storr, B.Sc.. Ph.D. P. G. Quilty, B.Sc. (Hons.), Ph.D. P. G. Wilson, M.Sc. D. C. Lowry, M.Sc. Ariadna Neumann, B.A. A. J. McComb, M.Sc., Ph.D. S. J. Curry, B.A. B. J. Grieve, M.Sc., Ph.D., D.I.C., F.L.S. Sylvia Hallam, M.A. D. Merrilees, B.Sc., Ph.D. L. J. Peet, B.Sc., F.G.S. P. E. Playford, B.Sc., Ph.D. Josephine A. Springett, B.Sc.. Ph.D. J. C. Taylor, B.Sc., Ph.D., A.R.C.S. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDING 30th JUNE, 1972 Membership Fourteen ordinary members were admitted into the Society during the year. In the same period six people resigned and three with whom contact had been lost for some years, were re- moved from membership. Three deaths have been reported. Professor Teakle was elected as an Honorary Member at the 1971 Annual General Meeting. The mem- bership now stands at Ordinary Members 257, Honorary Members 6. Honorary Associate Mem- bers 2, Total 265. Council Ten ordinary and one special meeting of the Council were held during the year. Attend- ances were as follows: Dr. G. Storr (President) 10, Prof. R. M. Berndt 2, Prof. G. A. Bottomley 7, Dr. D. Bradshaw 4, Mr. S. J. Curry 9, Prof. B. J. Grieve 4, Mrs. S. J. Hallam 3, (Mr R. N. Hilton 1), Mr. D. Lowry 7, Dr. A. J. McComb 10. Dr. D. Merrilees 9, Mr. L. Peet 8, Dr, P. E. Play- ford 5, Dr. P. G. Quilty 10, Dr. B. P. Springett 1, Dr. J. A. Springett 3, Dr. A. Trendall 9, Mr P. Wilson 9. Prof. Berndt was overseas during the first half of 1972 and was granted leave of absence for this period. Mr. R. N. Hilton, who was due to take sabbatical leave from December 1971, served as acting Treasurer until November of that year after which the position of Treasurer was filled by Mr. D. Lowry. Dr. B. P. Springett resigned from the Council in February 1972, owing to other commitments The vacancies on Council caused by his resig- nation and the acceptance by Mr. Lowry of the Honorary Treasurership, were filled in March by Mrs. S. J. Hallam and by Dr. J. A. Springett Meetings Nine ordinary General Meetings were held during the year. The title of the lectures or films at these meetings were as follows: August “Archaeologists as Ecologists” by Mrs. S. Hallam. September “Rock Lobsters in the Pacific Islands” by Dr. R. W. George. October “The Corridor Plan for the region of Perth” by Dr. D. Carr. November “Current issues in conservation — The role of the University” by Dr. W D L Ride. December Film evening. March “Sea floor spreading and its relationship to Continental Drift” by Dr Peter Verrall. May Comments on the Corridor Plan for the region of Perth and an alterna- tive by Cr. Paul Ritter. “Environment 2000— Plan and cam- paign on the use of Garden Island” u Malcolm and Professor H. Marshall. June “Excavation work on the ‘Gilt Dragon’ ” by Mr. Jeremy Green. At the Annual General Meeting which was held on July 26, 1971 in the W.A. Art Gallery, Professor B. J. Grieve gave a lecture entitled ‘Survey of botanical progress in Western Aus- tralia’. The incoming President, Dr. G. M. Storr, was later installed in absentia by Lieutenant Governor, Sir Albert Wolff. Meeting Place Due to rebuilding operations at the W.A. Museum, General Meetings have continued to be held at the Institution of Engineers building ‘Science House’. Council has been conferring with the Museum authorities over the possi- bility of one of the rooms in the old Museum complex being converted into a lecture room which could be used by our Society and could be known as the ‘Royal Society Room'. Nego- tiations are continuing. Library The library is still housed at the W.A. Museum where, unfortunately, it is no longer accessible to members on the nights of General Meetings. One new exchange was entered into during the year, this was with the Bureau de Recherches Geologiques et Minieres for their Bulletin on General Geology. Two hundred dollars was spent on binding. Journal Four parts of the Journal have been issued during the year, these are volume 54 parts 2-4 and volume 55 part 1. Part 1 included a list of members of the Society. Revision of Constitution The Constitution, Rules and Regulations of the Society have been completely revised by Council. The draft of this revision will be subject to discussion before being voted upon by members. Garden Island A submission was made by the President, on behalf of the Society to the Commonwealth Committee on Public Works with regard to the Naval Developments on Garden Island. Hope was expressed that this development would be halted in the central and northern parts of the Island until the potential effects of the general disturbance is investigated. ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON CONSERVATION Report by Professor G. A. Bottomley, Acting Chairman of the Committee Attention throughout the year has been pre- dominantly on the long term development of the Metropolitan environment as foreshadowed in various planning proposals. Whilst prognosis is at best uncertain, there can be no doubt that conservation issues must be given due attention from the earliest planning stages: the Commit- tee has been fully aware of its serious responsi- bilities in this respect. Study of the ‘Corridor Plan for Perth’ (The Metropolitan Region Planning Authority, Perth, 1970) which had been taken up in early 1971 was continued over several meetings. A careful synthesis was prepared from the reports of our sub-Committees on: — (a) National Parks and Flora and Fauna Conservation. (b) Eutrophication of swamps and lakes. (c) Recreational fishing. (d> Air pollution. (e) Socio-cultural effects of the Plan, from which emerged a series of Recommenda- tions to the Council embodied in a Report running to twenty-five foolscap pages. This document was substantially endorsed by Council, transmitted to the Premier, Mr. J. Tonkin, and submitted to the Honorary Royal Commission of Enquiry into the Corridor Plan. In more recent weeks the Committee has com- menced examination of the Mr. Paul Ritter’s ‘An Analytical study of the Proposed Corridor Plan for Perth and possible alternate approach to a regional plan for the Metropolitan Area’. Advice to the Council has been tendered on developments at Garden Island, and with respect to enquiries from the Environmental Protection Authority’s Conservation through Reserves Committee. The composition of the Committee has varied throughout the current year. Professor R. M. Berndt being Chairman for the earlier meetings. Associate Professor G. A. Bottomley then becoming Acting Chairman for the balance of time, with the following serving or co-opted members: Mr. B. K. Bowen, Professor B. J Grieve, Mr. A. B. Hatch. Mr. C. F. H. Jenkins, Mr. J. H. Lord, Mr. J. F. Morgan, Mr. L. J. Peet Dr. P. E. Playford, Dr. W. D. L. Ride Dr. d’ Serventy, Dr. G. M. Storr, Dr. R. W. George Dr. E. P. Hodgkin, Dr. A. J. McComb, Dr. J A Springett. National Trust Our representative on the Council of the National Trust (Mr. C. F. H. Jenkins), has leported that the Trust has been active in opposing mining in National Parks and in seek- ing the preservation of the Canning and Swan River foreshores. In these matters its policy has been in line with that adopted by our Society. General The Society continues to be indebted to the State Treasury and the Government Printer for assistance in publishing the Journal, and to the Western Australian Museum for premises in which to hold Council meetings. G. M. STORR, President. P. G. WILSON, Joint Hon. Secretary . CONTENTS OF VOLUME 55 Part 1 (published 21st June, 1972) Paper Page 1. Spilitic pillow lavas at Mt. Hunt, Western Australia. By J. A. Hallberg 1 2. Erythrobatrachus noonkanbahensis , a Trematosaurid species from the Blina Shale. By J. W. Cosgriff and N. K. Garbutt 5 3. The taxonomic status of small fossil thylacines (Marsupialia, Thyla- cinidae) from Western Australia. By J. W. J. Lowry .... 19 Obituary — Eric Mervyn Watson 1903-1971 30 Part 2 (published 28th November, 1972) 4. The fungus Panus fasciatus (Pleurotaceae) characterised by micro- structure of sporophore and culture. By H. C. Broughton and R. N. Hilton 31 5. A new species of the genus Ramphotyphlops (Serpentes, Typhlopidae) from Western Australia. By J. Robb 39 6. Observations on the Indo-pacific species of Kraussia Dana 1852 (Decapoda, Brachyura). By R. Serene 41 Part 3 (published 16th April, 1973) 7. An archaeological site in the Chichester Range, Western Australia: Pre- liminary account. By C. E. Dortch 65 8. The genus Morethia (Lacertilia, Scincidae) in Western Australia. By G. M. Storr 73 9. Prehistoric mammal faunas from two small caves in the extreme south- west of Western Australia. By M. Archer and A. Baynes 80 10. Information on Western Australian earthquakes 1849-1960. By I. B. Everingham and L. Tilbury 90 Part 4 (published 16th April, 1973) 11. Hakea rubrifiora (Proteaceae), a new species from Western Australia. By B. Lamont 97 12. The mygalomorph spider genus Stanwellia Rainbow and Pulleine (Dipluridae) and its relationship to Aname Koch and certain other diplurine genera. By B. Y. Main 100 13. Mulga (North) chondritic meteorite shower, Western Australia. By W H. Cleverly 115 1. — Spilitic pillow lavas at Mt. Hunt, Western Australia by J. A. Hallberg* Manuscript received 27 July; accepted 21st September 1971 Abstract Spilitic pillow lavas form irregular zones with- in a sequence of unpillowed high-Mg basalts near Mt. Hunt, Western Australia. These pil- lows are strongly zoned, alkali-enriched and are petrologically and chemically distinct from the tholeiitic basalts which dominate Archaean vol- canic belts throughout the Eastern Goldfields region. It is suggested that the spilitic pillows were derived from lavas similar in composition to the high-Mg basalts of the Mt. Hunt sequence. Introduction Mt. Hunt is 19 km south of Kalgoorlie, to the east of the Kalgoorlie-Kambalda road. Williams (1970) has established the Mt. Hunt sequence as the type area for the Mulgabbie Formation. He suggests a correlation of the Mt. Hunt sequence with a volcanic belt passing through the Corsair, Golden Ridge and Duplex Hill dis- tricts. The structure of the area is complex and interpretation is hampered by poor outcrop in critical areas. Essentially, the sequence consists of several belts of NNW-trending, west-facing basalt with intercalated bands of contorted jas- pilite. A thick, conformable, west-facing lay- ered sill and several semi- conformable masses of serpentized ultramafic have been intruded along sedimentary horizons. Discordant porphyry dykes are common and the sequence has been highly folded and faulted, and in places sub- jected to deep weathering and lateritization. The massive basalt flows forming the bulk of the sequence are magnesium in nature <8% to 15% MgO > and show the various “quench” tex- tures and skeletal crystal forms which typify this group of basalts throughout the Eastern Goldfields region. Within the stratigraphically older high-Mg basalt flows to the east of Mt. Hunt are several highly altered variolitic hori- zons and patchy zones where pillows are devel- oped. The best exposure of these pillow lavas is in a small creek bed, 450 m due east of the Mt. Hunt trig point < Figure 1 » . The pillows range from 0.5 m to 2.5 m in length, and are moderately flattened in the plane of bedding. They are concentrically zoned with mottled greenish cores showing irregular fractures and variolitic margins with closely spaced joints perpendicular to the pillow outline. Dense chill- ed skins up to 5 cm in thickness surround the pillows. The matrix in which the pillows are set appears to have been a peperite of glassy pillow fragments with some sedimentary material. * Division of Mineralogy, CSIRO, W.A. Laboratories, Floreat Park, W.A. 6014. Petrology Chilled pillow skins are formed of a dense, felted, fine-grained mixture of chlorite, tremo- lite and clinozoisite. Variolitic pillow margins consist of numerous spherical varioles up to 1 cm in diameter set in a dusted mesostasis of chlorite, clinozoisite, albite and tremolite. The outlines of scattered pyroxene phenocrysts which have been replaced by uralite can occasionally be seen. The varioles contain radiating sheaves of partially saussiritized plagioclase (An 5 ) intergrown with elongate needles of uralitized pyroxene. A thin selvedge of granular pyroxenes replaced by uralite commonly surrounds the varioles. Pillow cores are filled with up to 65% ragged, randomly oriented lathes of plagioclase (An.s.as ) in a groundmass of chlorite, clinozoisite, tremolite and fine-grained opaques. The plagio- clase lathes are water-clear and w r ell twinned. The mineralogy of these pillow’s differs mark- edly from that of tholeiitic pillow's throughout the Eastern Goldfields, which are invariably composed of a pleochroic green amphibole and plagioclase with only trace amounts of chlorite, epidote, clinozoisite and quartz 'Hallberg, 1971). The composition of the plagioclase in the pil- lows at Mt. Hunt is more sodic than that in the normal tholeiitic pillows, which contain either a primary labradorite or andesine or a metamorphic oligoclase. There is no indication that the pillows at Mt. Hunt have undergone recrystallization during low-grade regional meta- morphism. Analytical Data Fresh samples of the core, margin and matrix of a well-formed pillow in the creek bed ex- posure were subjected to major and trace ele- ment analysis (Table 1). Results indicate that the pillow becomes enriched in Si and Na and depleted in K. Rb, Mg and Fe towards its core; the entire pillow' is enriched in volatiles. Ti, A1 and most of the less mobile trace elements show little variation across the pillow’. This zonation contrasts with the more uniform distribution shown by most tholeiitic pillow's in the Eastern Goldfields (Hallberg. 1971). The Mt. Hunt pillow r is also enriched in alkalis and volatiles with re- spect to the tholeiites as shown in Table 1. Perhaps the most unusual feature of the pillow is its high Cr and Ni contents which contrast with previously reported values for both tho- leiites and spilites. .11- 94443 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March. 1972 1 Figure 1. — Geological map of Mt. Hunt and vicinity. Area “A” is the creek-bed exposure of spilitic pillow lavas. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 2 TABLE 1 Analysis of spilitic pillow lavas from Mt. Hunt 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Si0 2 46.25 54.48 57.10 51.4 52.81 49.6 48.33 AI2O3 16.12 14.25 16.85 14.8 13.42 16.0 15.44 Fe 2 0.i 2.51 2.29 2.48 1.5 2.27 3.8 FeO 9.45 7.75 3.76 9.1 7.40 6.1 8.58* MgO 9.96 8.07 4.35 6.7 9.81 5.1 7.41 CaO 7.63 6.99 6.77 10.7 9.12 6.6 8.02 Na-.O 0.67 0.93 5.12 2.7 1.94 4.3 4.96 K2O 1.54 1.03 0.06 0.18 0.43 1.28 0.72 H 2 O + 3.72 2.98 1.92 1.0 1.79 3.4 H>0— 0.41 0.19 0.69 0.25 co> 0.33 0.35 0.10 0.1 0.25 1.63 Ti0 2 0.77 0.75 0.74 0.92 0.60 1.57 0.59 P2O5 0.11 0.08 0.08 0.13 0.12 0.26 MnO 0.28 0.23 0.14 0.21 0.16 0.15 Total 99.75 100.47 100.16 Co 90 71 59 59 65 Cr 817 891 841 395 901 Cu 103 97 82 98 67 Ni 285 222 280 161 243 Rb 66 41 4 9 8 Sr 90 95 92 105 176 Y 37 33 22 22 17 Zn 176 138 99 112 71 Zr 68 66 67 60 71 Q . 14.2 6.9 0.8 5.3 or 9.5 6.3 0.3 1.0 2.6 ab 5.9 8.1 44.5 23.5 16.4 an 38.1 32.8 23.4 28.0 27.3 | wo 0.3 1.0 4.3 10.4 7.5 di Jen 0.2 0.6 2.9 5.4 4.8 Us 0.1 0.3 1.0 4.6 2.2 hy J en 23.6 20.1 8.1 11.6 19.8 Ifs 13.8 11.6 2.9 9.9 9.1 ol [fo 1.5 1 fa 0.9 — — — — . mt 3.8 3.4 3.7 2.2 3.2 il 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.7 1.1 ap 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 1 matrix, spilitic pillow, Mt. Hunt, W.A. 2 margin, spilitic pillow, Mt. Hunt, W.A. 3 = core, spilitic pillow, Mt. Hunt, W.A. 4 average Eastern Goldfields tholeiitic basalt (Hallberg, 1971). 5 average of five high-Mg basalts, Mt. Hunt, W.A. 6 average spilite (Valance, 1960). 7 average of 53 spilites, Virgin Islands (Hekinian, 1971). CIPW norms calculated on a volatile-free basis. * Total Fe as FeO. Affinities In morphology, mineralogy and chemistry the Mt. Hunt pillows are similar to reported spilites. Vallance ( I960, p. 22) notes that “Variolitic tex- tures are common in many spilites . . and that “Amygdules and veins appear in almost all recorded spilites but unfilled cavities, on the other hand, are rare.”. Bailey et al. (1964) de- scribe similar pillows from the Franciscan For- mation of California and Hekinian (1971), highly variolitic pillows from the U.S. Virgin Islands. Amstutz <1967> and Hekinian (1971) list albite, chlorite, epidote, calcite and iron oxides as the major constituents of volcanic spilites. Spilites may contain a calcic augite or salite. Vallance (I960) maintains that the only distinguishing chemical characteristic of spilites is their high volatile content. In this respect it should be noted that the volatile content of the Mt. Hunt pillow is much greater than that of the average Coolgardie-Norseman basalt (Table 1). Spilites also tend to be enriched in alkalis (Amstutz, 1967). Chemically, the pillow from Mt. Hunt compares closely with spilite analyses reported by Vallance (I960) and Heki- nian <1971), as shown in Table 1, and with pillows from the Franciscan Formation (Bailey et al., 1964), as shown in Figure 2. On the basis of these similarities it is concluded that the pillowed units at Mt. Hunt represent true spilites. Figure 2. — Major oxide variations in spilitic pillow, Mt. Hunt. A = spilitic pillow. Mt. Hunt, B and C — spilitic pillows from the Franciscan Formation of California (Bailey et al. 1964), D — tholeiitic pillow, Norseman, W.A. (Hallberg, 1970). Solid circles indicate pillow cores, open circles pillow margins and x’s pillow matrices. Discussion Archaean spilites have been reported from Sweden and India (Valance, I960) and from South America (Williams et al., 1967). Although Archaean “greenstones” from Western Australia have been collectively referred to as spilites (Prider, 1948, 1961), this usage follows the assumption that all metamorphosed Archaean pillowed basalts are spilites, a supposition which is certainly not true for examples from Western Australia (Hallberg, 1970). The Mt. Hunt pil- lows may represent an isolated case of spilite development; a regional investigation of Archaean volcanic belts has disclosed no similar occurrence (Hallberg, 1970). Spilitic magmas, autometasomatism, reaction with sea water and post-consolidation alteration have been proposed as mechanisms for produc- ing spilites (Vallance, I960). Some indication of the nature of the magma from which the spilites at Mt. Hunt were derived is given by their high concentration of Cr, Ni and Mg. It is unlikely that Cr and Ni could have been added to the pillows by any of the mechanisms mentioned; it can therefore be concluded that these values reflect the composition of the melt from which the pillows formed. The Cr and Ni values for the spilitic pillows are identical to those in the associated high-Mg basalts (Table 1). It is therefore postulated that the pillows were Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 3 formed from a high-Mg basalt magma and that spilitization occurred during or after pillow formation. The association of high-Mg basalts, layered sills, intrusive ultramafics and pelitic sediments is believed to represent a sequence of oceanic crustal material (Hallberg and Wil- liams, unpublished data). That spilites can de- velop in such an environment is attested to by their presence in some Alpine sequences (Val- lance, I960). Perhaps the most important, and yet unanswered, question is why similar spilitic rocks have not developed in other volcanic belts in the Eastern Goldfields region deposited in similar environments. Acknowledgements The author is indebted to the Western Mining- Corporation for stimulating an interest in the area and providing information on the geology of Mt. Hunt. Acknowledgement is also made to Dr. D. R. Hudson and to Mr. D. A. C. Williams for their criticism of the manuscript. References Amstutz, G. C. (1967). — Spilites and spilitic rocks. In "Basalts” (Hess and Poldervaart, Ed.): 737- 753. Bailey, E. H., Irwin. W. P., and Jones. D. L. (1964). — Franciscan and related rocks and their sig- nificance in the geology of western Cali- fornia. Bull. Calif. Div. Min. & Geol. 183. Hallberg, J. A. (1970). — The petrology and geochemistry of metamorphosed Archaean basic volcanic and related rocks between Coolgardie and Norseman, Western Australia. Ph.D. thesis (unpublished), Univ. W. Aust. Hallberg, J. A. (1971). — Geochemistry of Archaean vol- canic belts in the Eastern Goldfields region of Western Australia. J. Pet. (in press). Hekinian, R. (1971). — Petrological and geochemical study of spilites and associated rocks from St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 82: 654-682. Prider, R. T. (1948). — Igneous activity metamorphism and ore formation in Western Australia. J. Roy. See. W. Aust. 31: 43-84. Prider, R. T. (1961). The “greenstones” of south- western Australia. J. Roy. Soc. W. Aust. 44. 1-9. Vallance, T. G. (1960). — Concerning spilites. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W . 55: 8-52. Williams, I. R. (1970). — Explanatory notes on the Kurn- alpi 1:250.000 geological sheet. W.A. Geol. Surv. West Aust. Record 1970/1. Williams, E., Cannon, R. T., and McConnell, R. B. (1967). — The folded Precambrian of northern Guyana related to the geology of the Guiana Shield. Rec. Geol. Surv. Guyana 5: 7-23. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 4 2. — Erythrobatrachus noonkanbahensis, a Trematosaurid species from the Blina Shale by John W. Cosgriff * and Neil K. Garbutt t Manuscript received 27 July, 1971; accepted 19 October, 1971 Abstract Erythrobatrachus noonkanbahensis, a new temnospondyl of the family Trematosauridae, is based on three skull fragments collected at a locality in the Lower Triassic Blina Shale of the Fitzroy Trough in Western Australia. A partial restoration of the skull accomplished from these fragments indicates that the taxon belongs to the group of trcmatosaurlds characterized by elongate, narrow skulls that includes Aphaner- amma, Gonioglyptus, Stochiosaurus and Want- zosaurus. Although it is clearly and equally distinct from all of these the general relation- ship suggests an early Scythian age for the new form. This age is consonant with the basal Scythian stratigraphic position of the Blina Shale vertebrate fauna established by a variety of fossil evidence. Introduction The three skull fragments that comprise the hypodigm of Erythrobatrachus noonkanbahen- sis are all extremely weathered, broken and incomplete. They were collected from the sur- face of the fossil locality. U.C.M.P. V6044 on Noonkanbah Station in the West Kimberley District < Cosgriff, 1969. fig. 1). The holotype, W.A.M. no. 62.1.46, and one topotype. W.A.M. no. 62.1.50, were found about 100 yards apart in July, 1960, by a joint field party of Western Australian Museum and the University of Cali- fornia, Berkeley. The second topotype. W.A.M. 71.6.22 was found by the senior author in July. 1965, during a field trip of the Department of Zoology and Comparative Physiology, Monash University, near the spot where W.A.M. no. 62.1.50 had been found five years before. W.A.M. nos. 62.1.46 and 71.6.22 are internal matrix casts from which most of the surface bone has been eroded. They retain, however, such features as traces of the sutures separating bones and casts of openings and foramina that project in relief from the core surfaces. W.A.M. no. 62.1.44 (fig. 1) is from the central region of a skull and includes partial casts of both orbits. W.A.M. no. 71.6.22 (fig. 2) is from the right posterolateral corner of a skull considerably smaller than that of the holotype. The other specimen, W.A.M. no. 62.1.50 (fig. 3) is an external impression from the palatal surface of the snout region of an individual somewhat smaller than that repre- sented by the holotype. The impression, retained on a piece of shale matrix, shows two pairs of parallel tooth rows and a few sutures. * Department of Biology, Wayne State University. Detroit, Michigan. t University College of the West Indies, Kingston, Jamaica. Although the three specimens derive from differ- ent portions of skulls not comparable in size and were found widely separated from each other there is little doubt that they are homotaxial. All are from elongate, narrow’ skulls. Such features as orbits, internal nares and interptery- goid vacuities closely match in general outline and relative size when compensation is made among them for overall size. In following pas- sages each of the specimens is described separ- ately, following which the restoration of the skull is discussed and compared with skulls of other trematosaurids. This report is the fourth in a series appearing in this journal dealing with the vertebrate fauna of the Lower Triassic Blina Shale. The first report (McKenzie, 1961) provides a detailed description of the lithology of the unit at _ the vertebrate localities, a map of certain localities and an analysis of the depositions! environment. The second (Cosgriff, 1965 > is a consideration of the rhytidosteid temnospondyl. Deltasaurus kim- berleyensis and the third (Cosgriff, 1969 > a consideration of the brachyopid temnospondyl, Blinasaurus hemvoodi. All three contain in- formation on the geographic and stratigraphic positions of all of the vertebrate localities, on the total fauna and flora of the unit and on the history of collecting at the localities. In addi- tion, the second report considers the nature of preservation of the vertebrate faunas recovered from Upper Permian and Low r er Triassic units found in other parts of the world. For more detail on the general geology and stratigraphy of the unit the reader is referred to Guppy et al. (1958), McWhae et al. (1958), and Veevers and Welles (1961). This report concludes studies on the Temno- spondyli of the Blina Shale fauna. Remaining undescribed vertebrate material in the W.A.M. and U.C.M.P. collections consists mainly of scanty, incomplete and poorly preserved fish remains but also includes some large chunks of bone, perhaps from an ichthyosaur, and some enigmatic bony plates whose allocation, even to class, is uncertain. Among the fish material are tooth plates of Ceratodus, skull parts of Saurich- thys and a coelacanthid and a trunk impression of an actinopterygian. Some discrepancy will be noted between these statements and the faunal listings provided by the author in the two pre- vious accounts. The 1965 paper (p. 89) notes the presence of “ . . . trematosaurids which are perhaps congeneric with Aphaneramma and Tertrema of the Posidonomya Beds,” and the Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March. 1972 5 1969 paper (p. 65) mentions “ . . . a capitosaurid, two trematosaurids.” The “Tertrema” of the 1965 report is actually W.A.M. no. 62 . 1 . 44 now described as the holotype of E ry throb atrachus noonkanbahensis, and the “ Aphaneramma” is W.A.M. no. 62.1.50, one of the topotypes of this species. The two trematosaurids mentioned in the 1969 paper are also these two specimens. The comparisons of the two with W.A.M. no. 71 . 6 . 22, found later, establishes the homotaxy of all three and, together, they seem sufficient to form the basis for the new genus and species. The capitosaurid noted in 1969 is a lower jaw which, on further analysis, seems to be referrable to Deltasaurus kimberleyensis. Order Temnospondyli This order constitutes the principal group of the Labyrinthodontia during the interval Car- boniferous through Triassic and has been ex- tensively reviewed and classified by Case (1946 ), Romer (1947), Save-Soderbergh (1935) and Watson (1919). The partial classification here adopted which concerns the Trematosauroidea is an amalgamation of Romer (1947), Save- Soderbergh (1935), Welles and Cosgriff (1965) and Cosgriff (1965 ). In this the suborders of the Temnospondyli are abandoned and the various superfamilies including the Trematosauroidea are placed directly under the order. Romer (1947) divided the contents of the order among four suborders, Ichthyostegalia. Rhachitomi, Trematosauria and Stereospondyli ; later (1966), he modified the classification considerably, re- moving the Ichthyostegalia to a separate order, demoting the Trematosauria to a superfamily (Trematosauroidea) of the Stereospondyli and retaming this last with the Rhachitomi^ as the only two suborders of the Temnospondyli. Welles and Cosgriff (1965), following Save-Soderbergh (1935), abandoned these last as formal group- ings, noting that: “ . . the line of separation between the two suborders based on the nature of the vertebrae is not so clear as was once supposed. Various members of the Stereospon- dyli exhibit intermediate conditions between rhachitomous and stereospondylous ossification.” This variation may be observed even among genera of a single superfamily as in the Capi- tosauroidea. Further, as both Save-Soderbergh and Welles and Cosgriff point out, the Triassic Stereospondyli seem to be a highly polyphyletic group possessing points of origin among a num- ber of different groups of Permian Rhachitomi. Superfamily Trematosauroidea The superfamily, as here considered, parallels Romer’s (1947) Suborder Trematosauria in being monotaxial, containing only the family Trematosauridae. Romer (1966), however, fol- lowed the author (1965) in part by removing the genera PeUostecja and RhyticLosteus from the Trematosauridea and placing these with Deltasaurus in the reconstituted family Rhyti- dosteidae (von Huene, 1920). The two classifica- tions diverge at this point, though, as Romer included the Rhytidosteidae as a second family of the Trematosauroidea and Cosgriff assigned it to a new superfamily, Rhytidosteoidea which appears to be closely allied to the Rhine- suchoidea. Definition. Romer, (1947, p. 314) provided a diagnosis of the Suborder Trematosauria which may be transferred to the Trematosauroidea and also applied to the Trematosauridae as the only contained family. Much of the diagnosis is differential in type including some characters that are typical of the entire Order Temnos- pondyli and some that are typical of the Trias- sic members of the order. The definitive characters of his diagnosis that serve to dis- tinguish the Trematosauroidea from the other superfamilies of the order include the following: ‘•Skull not depressed but relatively high and narrow; triangular in shape with pointed snout; frequently elongate both pre- and post-orbit- ally.” “Body of the parasphenoid developed as a broad and elongate plate extending backward below occipital region; fused basal articulation exhibits long suture between parasphenoid and pterygoid.’’ “Exoccipital-pterygoid contact present but not visible ventrally.” The diagnosis of the family provided by Save-Soderbergh (1935, p. 87) concurs with that of Romer in most respects although it expresses the above characteristics in different terms. One character listed in this that should be added to the above is: ’■Processus cultriformis of the parasphenoid very high and narrow.” All of these characters could probably be validated through quantitative comparisons among the superfamilies of the Temnospondyli. This, however, would be beyond the scope of the present paper and they are accepted for the present purpose of determining the taxonomic position of the new form from the Blina Shale. Family Trematosauridae The Trematosauridae, confined to the Lower Triassic (and perhaps, the uppermost Per- mian), occur in continental deposits of Arizona, Germany, Russia and South Africa and in marine or marginal deposits of Australia, Greenland, India, Madagascar and Spitzbergen. The family seemingly experienced a consider- able evolutionary radiation just before and dur- ing its short range in the stratigraphic record, m number of genera it is the largest of the Temnospondyl families of the Triassic. These genera although showing great diversity in skull shape and proportions obviously consitute a natural and well-defined group through the dis- tinctive features set forth in diagnoses of Romer and Save-Soderbergh. The osteology of the skull and the lower jaw of several of the better-known species has been thoroughly studied and well-documented by a number of investigators. A review of this work together with excellent summaries of the mor- phology of the species has been provided by Romer (1947). Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 6 Contents of the family. The species reviewed by Romer (1947) and considered by him to be valid taxa of the Trematosauridae include: Trematosaurus brauni ( Burrncister. 1849) from the middle Buntsandstein of Western Germany; Trematosaurus sp. (Sushkin, 1927) from Zone VI of the Cis-Uralian region of the U.S.S.R.; “ Trematosaurus ” kannemeyeri (Broom, 1909), Trematosuchus sobeyi (Haughton, 1915), Micro- posaurus casei (Haughton, 1925) and Rhytidos- teus capensis (Owen, 1884), all from the Cyn- ognathus Zone of South Africa; Aphaneramma rostratum (Woodward, 1904), Peltostega erici (Wiman, 1916), Peltostega wimani (Nilsson, 1946), Platystega depressa (Wiman, 1915), Lyro- cephalus euri < Wiman, 1914) and Tertrema acuta (Wiman, 1915), all from the Sticky Keep Formation of Spitzbergen; Lyrocephalus kochi (Save-Soderbergh, 1935) and Stocliiosaurus nielseni (Save-Soderbergh, 1935), both from the Woody Creek Formation of Greenland; Goni- oglyptus longirostris (Huxley, 1965) from the Panchet beds of Bengal, India; and Goniog- lyptus kokeni (Huene, 1920) from the Prion - olobus beds of the Salt Range of India. Most of these species are based on adequate cranial material but “ Trematosaurus ” kannemeyeria and Gonioglyptus longirostris are, as Romer notes, dubious taxa founded on very fragmen- tary specimens. The species of Peltostega and Rhytidosteus as noted in a previous section, have been removed from the family. Species that have been described since 1947 and that are added to the family in Romer ’s (1966) text include: Inflectosaurus amplus (Shishkin, 1960) from Zone V of the Cis-Ural- ian region of the U.S.S.R. and Wantzosaurus elongatus (Lehman, 1961 > from the Middle Sak- mena beds of Madagascar. This listing also in- cludes with question Laidleria gracilis (Hitch- ing, 1957) from the Cynognathus Zone of South Africa. Hitching placed this form in its own family under the Stereospondyli and the senior author (1965) suggested that this family, Laidleriidae, could be included provisionally in the Rhytidosteidae. Lehman (1966) added the following species from the Middle Sakmena beds to the family: Trematosaurus madagascariensis; Aphaner- amma sp.; Jfasaurus elongatus; and Lyrosaurus australis. Of these, only the first appears to be a valid taxon founded on adequate material. Ifasaurus elongatus and Aphaneramma sp., al- though trematosaurids without doubt, are based on skull fragments with a few distinctive feat- ures. Aphaneramma sp. resembles Wantzo- saurus elongatus. Lyrosaurus australis closely resembles Mahavisaurus dentatus, a form de- scribed and illustrated by Lehman in this paper which, however, he placed with question in the Rhinesuchoidea. Erythrobatrachus,* gen. nov. Type species. Erythrobatrachus noonkan- bahensis. Differential diagnosis. A long-snouted, slender- skulled trematosaurid (allied to Aphaneramma rostratum , Gonioglyptus kokeni, Stochiosaurus nielseni and Wantzosaurus elongatus) with proportionately small interpterygoid vacuities distinguishing it from all of these — length of interpterygoid vacuities as measured on midline only about three-fourths of length of posterior part of skull roof as measured on midline from level of anterior borders or orbits to posterior edge of skull roof. It is furter distinguished from A. rostratum and W. elongatus through being relatively short and broad in the region of the skull roof bounded by orbits, external nares and lateral skull margins — width of skull across anterior margins of orbits between eight- tenths and nine-tenths of length as measured on midline between anterior borders of orbits and posterior borders of external nares. It re- sembles A. rostratum and W. elongatus but dif- fers from G. kokeni and S. nielseni in showing very little increase in skull width posterior to the orbits-width of skull across posterior mar- gins of orbits about eight-tenths of greatest width of skull across posterolateral corners. Lateral margins of skull bulged outward in or- bital region following curvature of orbit lateral borders as in G. kokeni, a feature not observed in the other three species. Erythrobatrachus noonkanbahensis, sp. nov. Holotype. W.A.M. no. 62 . 1 . 46, an internal matrix cast of the central region of a skull. Type locality. U.C.M.P. locality V6044. Noon- kanbah Station. West Kimberley District, West- ern Australia. The approximate position is shown on a map in Cosgriff (1969, Fig. 1, p. 66) and it is the same locality as the site listed by McKenzie (1961, p. 73, Table II, ninth entry) as: “Bore G, Noonkanbah Station. 124° 45’ E.. 18° 20’ S.” To reach the site drive about 15 miles south from Calwynyardah homestead on the station road leading to Noonkanbah homestead to a spot where a fence and fence road cross the station road. Turn east onto the fence road and drive about 2 mile. The locality, which lies about 2 mile north of this point, is a low round- ed hill approximately 150 yards in diameter. To give another reference point, it lies about 1J miles N70E from Noonkanbah Station Bore no. 20 which is on the west side of the Calwynyardah -Noonkanbah Station road. The hill is capped with a remnant of the Quaternary Warrimbah Conglomerate and its flanks are covered with a scree of pebbles of varied lithology which become smaller in size and more widely spaced toward the base of the hill. Some of the pebbles closely resemble samples of the Blina Shale from the Erskine Range; some resemble samples of the Erskine Sandstone from this area: and some have been ferruginised beyond recognition. Horizon. Blina Shale, the upper portion of this unit, Otoceratan Division of the Scythian State. Topotypes. W.A.M. no. 71 . 6 . 22 an internal matrix cast of the right posterolateral portion of *Genus name from Gr. : erythro-red, plus, batrachos- frog; it is given in reference to the iron-stain colour of the specimens. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 7 a skull. W.A.M. no. 62 . 1 . 50, the Impression of the palatal surface of the snout region of a skull, broken off across the anterior margins of the internal nares. Diagnosis. As for genus. Description W.A.M. no. 62.1.46. The type specimen, pri- marily a matrix core, is derived from the cen- tral region of a skull. It is broken off through the centers of the orbits and immediately pos- terior to the external nares. The impressions of dermal bones are retained on the dorsal and palatal surfaces. Internal sutures are marked by serrate ridges in low relief. The matrix casts of the anterior portions of the orbits and inter- pterygoid vacuities and the cylindrical infill- ings of various small foramia project from the core surface. A fragment of dermal bone remains on each side of the core of the rostrum. The fragment on the left side is the more extensive and in- cludes parts of the maxillary and palatine bones. The palatal surfaces of these bones abut the edges of the core and enclose the entire left choana. A patch of eroded bone covered a small area of the dorsal surface anterior to the left orbit. This was removed in order to locate the internal sutures on this part of the core. The internal core rapidly narrows from the centers of the orbits to a constriction midway between the orbits and external nares. The specimen widens abruptly anterior to this con- striction but much of this width is contributed by the fragments of dermal bone on the sides of the rostral core. The rostral core, itself, gradually decreases in width anterior to the constriction. The constriction of the snout was probably reflected in a more moderate fashion, on the external surface of the original skull. Dorsal surface (fig la). The orbital casts have oval anterior borders. They lie close to the lateral edges of the core. The cast of the left orbit is more complete and has an everted rim. The dermal bone surrounding the left or- bit was 5-6 mm. thick. The frontal impressions are of nearly even width from front to back and are excluded from the medial margins of the orbits by the postfrontal and prefontal impressions. The frontal-nasal sutures are quite jagged. 3 Figure l.—Erythrobat radius noonkanbahensis, gen. et sp. nov., holotype, W.A.M. no. 62 . 1 . 46; a. dorsal view; b. ventral view. Abbreviations for Figure 1 and following Figures: Ec, Ecpt, ectopterygoid; Eo, exoccipital; f. foramen; f.p. parietal foramen; fl, descending flange of postfrontal; fo. st, subtemporal fossa; Fr. frontal; ip. v. interpterygoid vacuity; Ju, jugal; Mx, maxillary; max. t, maxillary teeth; n.e. external riaris; n.e, internal naris; Na, nasal; or, orbit; P, parietal; p.c, cultriform process of parasphenoid; pal. t. palatine tusk; Pf, post-frontal; PI, palatine; Pm. pre- maxillary; Po. postorbital; Pp. postparietal; Pr. Prf, prefrontal; Ps. parasphenoid; Pt, pterygoid; Qu. quadrate; Quj, quadratojugal; Smx, septomaxillary; Sq, squamosal; St, supratemporal; Tab, tabular; Vo, vomer. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 8 The nasal Impressions are broader than the frontal impressions. The internasal suture is off-set to the left of the interfrontal suture. The right nasal impression is laterally bordered by the impressions of the prefrontal, maxillary and septcmaxillary bones. The left nasal has the cylindrical infillings of two small foramina projecting from its surface. The prefrontal impressions form the antero- medial borders of the orbits. They have medial sutures with the postfrontal and frontal impres- sions and lateral sutures with the jugal and maxillary impressions. They have pointed an- terior borders which are level with the anterior terminations of the frontal impressions. Only the anterior corners of the postfrontal and jugal impressions are present on the dorsal surface. They are laterally bordered by the maxillary impressions. The postfrontaly im- pressions form the medial margins of the orbits. The jugal impressions form the lateral and anterolateral borders of the orbits. Narrow strips of maxillary impression lie along the lateral edges of the core. Two of these strips flank the prefrontals and jugals in the posterior portion of the specimen. A third piece of maxillary impression lies lateral to the right nasal impression. The maxillary impression of the left side has three large infillings pro- jecting forward along its lateral edge: these perhaps represent foramina for branches of nerve V2. The posterior apex of the right septomaxillary rests on the maxillary fragment and is medially bordered by the nasal impression. The septo- maxillary is never an extensive bone and the external nares must have lain close to the broken anterior margin of the core. Palatal surface (fig. lb > . Only the anterior portions of the interpterygoid vacuity cores are preserved. They are narrow with rounded an- terior borders. The dermal bone at the anterior border of the right vacuity was 1-2 mm. thick. The right choana is a symmetrical opening, 2.6 cm. long and 0.6 cm. wide across its center. It is enclosed within the fragments of the max- illary and palatine bones and lies close to the lateral edge of the internal core. The impression of the cultiform process of the parasphenoid runs up the center of the palatal surface. The termination is level with the anterior edge of the choana. The anterior portion of the cul triform process had a flat upper surface. Posterior to the region of the choana the upper surface becomes progressively more concave. Most of the left parasphenoid- vomer suture is clearly marked. Each vomer-palatine suture follows an irregu- lar course from the medial edge of the choana back to the antero-medial border of the inter- pterygoid vacuity. The impressions of the vomer and palatine bones are rippled and striated, re- flecting the texture of the upper surfaces of the bones. The impression of the left vomer extends down the length of the fragment lateral to the parasphenoid impression. The anterior and pos- terior edges of the impression are missing. It is flat-lying in the region medial to the choana. Posteriorly, the vomer impression narrows and becomes vertical on the medial border of the interpterygoid vacuity. The position of this por- tion of the vomer impression between para- sphenoid impression and interpterygoid vacuity shows that the cultriform process of the para- sphenoid was flanked by processes of the vomer bones. Two forwardly-directed cylinders of which the anterior is the largest protrude from the surface of the vomer impression just within the left vomer-palatine suture. One or both of these may correspond with the foramen of Lyro- cephalus euri which Save-Sdderbergh <1936, figs. 4 5 » labelled “the posterior opening in the vomer for the palatine nerve”. The anterior terminations of the palatine im- pression lie on the medial sides of the choanae. Posteriorly, the impressions are limited by the broken edges of the core and by the anterior corners of the ectopterygoid impressions. The lateral edges of the palatine impressions could not be located and the relationships with the maxillary impressions and the impressions of other bones of the skull roof are unknown. Each palatine impression has a small round protuberance posterior to the choana. These are infillings of foramina which may corres- pond to the foramina recti palatonasalis of Lyrocephalus euri and Aphaneramma rostratum, so designated by Save-Soderbergh (1936, figs. 4, 5 and 34). A small portion of ectopterygoid impression remains on each posterolateral corner of the palate surface. The left impression is the largest. It has a rounded anterior border with a tightly serrate suture on the palatine impres- sion. W.A.M. no. 71,6. 22. This specimen, a second matrix core, is derived from the right postero- lateral region of a skull. The individual repre- sented by this fragment was considerably smaller than the individual represented by the holotype. probably less than half its size. The fragment ends anteriorly at an irregular break that crosses the dorsal surface just anterior to the posterior margin of the right orbit and that crosses the palatal surface through the approxi- mate centre of the right interpterygoid vacuity. The broken medial surface is also quite irregular but, in general, slopes dorsolaterally so that the preserved portion of the palatal surface is more extensive than the preserved portion of the dorsal surface. The lateral and posterior edges are, for the most part, the complete, natural edges of the matrix core although the posterior portion of the lateral edge, the part bordering the subtemporal fossa, is chipped in a few places. The dorsal surface is entirely internal cast portraying the nearly smooth inner surface of the skull roof with sutures marked as a slightly raised ridges. The occipital surface contains only the right posterior cheek wall, largely com- posed of internal cast surface but retaining a part of the quadrate bone ventrally. The Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 9 palatal surface was originally covered by hematite-rich matrix. This was prepared off, revealing the nearly complete subtemporal fossa, the posterior half of the interpterygoid vacuity and large parts of the parasphenoid, pterygoid and quadrate bones. The latter are poorly pre- served and splintery. The medial surface is a break crossing the right lateral area of the braincase. Dorsal surface (fig. 2A). The smooth in- ternal cast surface curves sharply down from the broken medial edge to the lateral margins. The posterior margin, formed completely by the edges of the quadratojugal and squamosal bones, is slightly convex posteriorly. From this point, the dorsal surface narrows gradually forward to the posterior margin of the orbit. Only one complete and four partial impres- sions occupy the dorsal surface. The postorbital impression is of nearly even width from its smoothly curved border on the right orbit to its posterior termination. It ends at the medial break surface, probably just lateral to its ori- ginal sutural border on the postfrontal and supra temporal impressions. Laterally it ends with sutural traces separating it from the jugal and quadratojugal impressions. The squamosal is the largest impression, making up nearly a third of the dorsal surface of the specimen. It has extensive sutural con- tact with the quadratojugal, jugal and post- orbital as shown in the illustration. As with A B 12345 j 1 1 1 1 Figure 2 . — Erythrobatrachus noonkanbahensis , gen. et sp. nov., topotype, W.A.M. no. 71 . 6 . 22. A. ventral view; B. dorsal view; C. medial view; D. occipital view. the postorbital it has a jagged medial edge, be- ing broken off just lateral to its sutural union with the supratemporal and tabular elements. Only the posterior part of the jugal impres- sion is retained. It forms the lateral and part of the posterior margins of the orbit and, from these, extends back to a sutural trace separating it from the quadratojugal. Its medial edge on the subtemporal fossa is somewhat chipped. The surface of the quadratojugal, the only complete impression on the dorsal surface, ex- tends from the jugal sutural trace to the pos- terior edge and from the margin of the sub- temporal fossa to the squamosal sutural trace. A small corner of the postfrontal impression is probably present posterior to the orbit margin and anterolateral to the postorbital as this is part of the area of the skull normally occupied by the postfrontal in temnospondyls. However, a sutural trace dividing it from the postorbital is not retained. Palatal suface (fig. 2B). This surface, in a fair state of preservation, is broken off laterally just to the left side on the cultriform process and, anteriorly, through the centre of the in- terpterygoid vacuity. The two most prominent features of the pala- tal surface are the interpterygoid vacuity and the subtemporal fossa. The preserved part of the interpterygoid vacuity is long and narrow. It has a straight medial margin throughout and the lateral margin is very slightly convex in its anterior part. The posterior part of the lateral margin is slightly indented by the convex edge of the palatal ramus of the pterygoid bone. The width of the vacuity is 17 mm. at its broken anterior edge and only 7 mm. in the area where it is indented by the pterygoid. The subtemporal fossa appears as an ele- vated matrix platform due to the loss of most of the surrounding bone. It is long and narrow as is usual for the trematosaurids, measuring 39 mm. in maximum length and 13 mm. in maxi- mum width. The lateral border, formed by the quadratojugal and jugal, is nearly straight and the medial border, formed by the pterygoid, is slightly concave on its anterior half and straight on its posterior half. The anterior margin which lies about 10 mm. anterior to the posterior margin of the interpterygoid vacuity is evenly rounded. The posterior border is formed by a poorly preserved portion of the quadrate con- dyle and is inclined diagonally in a postero- lateral direction. Besides the quadrate the only bone preserved on the palatal consists of portion of the para- sphenoid and the right pterygoid. The para- sphenoid portions include the right lateral part of the basal plate and the posterior part of the cultriform process. The approximate position of the parasphenoid-pterygoid suture is indicated by a change in direction of bone grain and runs posterolaterally from the posterior margin of the inter pterygoid vacuity to the broken posterior edge of the specimen. The cultriform process, a very narrow structure as in all trematosaurids, is poorly preserved with edges that are discontinuous and indistinct in places. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 10 Occipital surface (fig. 20. The internal im- pression of the posterior cheek wall retaining a weathered remnant of the quadrate bone is the only portion of this surface retained on the specimen. In rear view this impression is tri- angular in outline with an apex at the locus of the missing otic notch and slightly concave in shape. It lies in a plane nearly normal to the dorsal surface of the specimen and slopes pos- teriorly, ventrally and laterally to the region of the articular surface of the quadrate bone. The lateral edge meets the dorsal surface im- pression at nearly a right angle and the medial edge is free, forming the lateral margin of the pteroccipital fenestra. The clearly marked trace of the squamosal-quadratojugai suture runs transversely across the middle of the impression surface. The remnant of quadrate bone is missing all of its surface and is nothing more than an irregular lump of ferruginized material occupy- ing the ventral part of the concavity of the cast surface. Medial surface (fig. 2D). The only feature identified with certainty on this surface is the impression of the descending flange of the right postfrontal bone. (See Save-Soderbergh, 1936, fig. 10 for a portrayal of this structure in Lyrocephalus euri.) It is a cylindrical, medially convex structure, 14 mm. in length and 8 mm. in depth. It slopes ventromedially from the edge of dorsal surface and ends in a straight free margin that lies 7 mm. directly above the dorsal surface of the cultriform process of the para- sphenoid bone. The space between the post- frontal flange and the cultriform process was occupied by an entirely cartilaginous spheneth- moid bone as no trace of ossification is retained in the area. Posterior to the postfrontal flange the medial surface of the specimen is badly eroded, con- taining a number of deep irregular pits (not shown in the figure). Some of these bay be, in part, impressions of the outer surfaces of such internal structures as the basisphenoid, epipter- ygo 4 d, prootic, opisthotic and exoccipital bones. They are, hov/ever, so weathered and incom- plete that attempts at identification and re- construction would be speculative at best. W.A.M. no. 62 . 1 . 50 (fig. 3). The impression is from an 8 cm. length of a very slender rost- rum anterior to the choanae; an unknown amount of the tip is lacking. It is 3 cm. broad at the posterior end and 1.4 cm. broad at the anterior end. The dentition and other features are hard to trace on the impression but stand out in clear relief on a latex peel. The anterior borders of the left choana indic- ates that this opening was oval in shape and slightly broader than the choana of W.A.M. no. 62 . 1 . 46. The edge of the right choana is com- pressed and pushed forward from its original position. Four rows of small, closely spaced teeth ex- tend forward from the choana to the anterior break on the edge of the fragment. The medial rows are on the vomer bones and border each other on the midline. The lateral rows are on the maxillaries (and, perhaps, in part, on the l 2 3 i i l i Figure 3 . — Ery throb atrachus noonkanbahensis, gen. et sp. nov., topotype W.A.M. no. 62 . 1 . 50, palatal view of latex peel. premaxillaries as well), and are separated from the medial rows by narrow fissures. These fis- sures probably represent the maxillary vomer sutures. The right posterior part of the maxillary re- tains an impression of the surface sculpture, a pattern of small, irregular pits. Restorations of the skull Comparisons among the three skull specimens indicate that they are homotaxial although the two tepotypes were clearly derived from indi- viduals considerably smaller than the animal represented by the holotype. Although each specimen comes from a different area of the skull the two topotypes each possess certain features that compliment or coincide with Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 11 / / f l I I I I J I I I l Figure 4 . — Erythrobatrachus noon kanbalien sis, gen. et sp. nov. Restoration of the dorsal surface of the skull, showing the topographical relationships of the two specimens, W.A.M. nos. 62 . 1 . 46 and 71 . 6 . 22, to each other. 1 i i t Figure 5 . — Erythrobatrachus noonkanbahensis, gen. et sp. nov. Restoration of the palatal surface of the skull showing the topographical relationships of the three specimens, W.A.M. nos. 62 . 1 . 46. 62 . 1 . 50 and 71 . 6 . 22, to each other. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 12 features retained by the holotype. Partial res- toration of the skull of Erythrobatrachus noon- kanbahensis are attempted (figs. 4-7) and the results show a long, narrow trematosaurid skull of the Avhaneramma type (Save-Soderbergh, 1936, figs. 31-33). The basic restorations (figs. 4 and 5) show the topographical relationships of the three specimens to each other in dorsal and palatal view and also the outlines of the original skull as extrapolated from this arrangement of the specimens. In devising these restorations W.A.M. 62 . 1 . 46 and W.A.M. 71 . 6 . 22 were enlarged X2 to make them comparable in size to the holotype. As shown in the figures there is a slight overlap of portions preserved on W.A.M. 62 . 1 . 50 with portions preserved on the holotype but no overlap in preserved portions between the latter and W.A.M. 71.6. 22, The more complete restorations (figs. 6 and 7) are attempts to portray most of the internal cast surface of an individual comparable in size to that represented by the holotype. These show such features as the restored shapes of the orbits, external nares, and also the traces of the sutures of the internal cast surfaces. The restoration of the palate also includes those portions of the maxillary and vomerine tooth rows retained as impressions on W.A.M. 62.1.50. The features of W.A.M. 62.1.50 that indicate that it is homotaxial with the holotype and that it should be positioned as shown in fig. 5 con- cern the trends of its lateral margins and the position of its internal nares. As observed on the holotype the rapid convergance of the margins of the cast surface in the region of the internal nares, matched by the angle at which the right internal naris converges on the skull midline, definitely shows that the original complete skull terminated anteriorly in a very long, slender, prenarial rostrum. This anticipated shape for the rostrum is realized closely by the impression surface of W.A.M. 62.1.50. With X2 enlargement of this specimen a nearly exact fit is achieved with the broken anterior edge of the holotype. This fit is further confirmed by the matching of the borders of the internal nares of the two specimens. As noted in the description the an- terior margins of both internal nares are pre- sent on the W.A.M. 62.1.50 impression. They have been somewhat deflected to the left through postmortem distortion of the specimen but, when restored to their natural positions, the right margin coincides with the anterior margin of the right internal naris of the holo- type and the left margin falls near the positon the anterior margin of the missing left internal naris of the holotype would have occupied. The features of W.A.M. 71.6.22 that indicate it is homotaxial with the holotype and that it should be positioned as shown in figs. 5 and 6 concern the relative sizes, positions and shapes of the orbits, interpterygoid vacuities and cul- triform processes of the parasphenoid bones. In this topotype a portion of the posterior margin of the right orbit is retained on its anterior break surface. With X2 enlargement it can be i Figure 6.— Erythrobatrachus noonkanbalicnsis, gen. et sp. nov. Restoration of the dorsal surface of the skull, based on the two specimens. W.A.M. nos. 62 . 1 . 46 and 71 . 6 . 22, and showing the restored outlines of the skull, restored shapes of the orbits and external nares and the traces of sutures on the internal cast surfaces. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. jb Part 1, March, 1972 13 ^PrrTN Figure 7 —Erythrobatrachus noonkanbahensis, gen. et sp. nov. Restoration of the palatal surface of the skull, based on the three specimens. W.A.M. nos. 62 . 1 . 46. 62 . 1 . 50 and 71 .6.22. and showing the re- stored outlines of the skull, restored shapes of the sub- temporal fossae, interpterygoid vacuities and internal nares. The sutures indicated on the postnarial region are from the internal cast surfaces but the sutures on the prenarial region are the actual external expressions. seen that this margin represents an orbit com- parable in relative size to the orbits represented by their anterior margins on the holotype. The orbits of the two specimens further correspond in that they occupy very lateral positions on the skulls, just internal to the margins of the core surfaces. In similar fashion the posterior part of the right interpterygoid vacuity pre- served on the holotype closely resembles the anterior part of the right interpterygoid vacuity preserved on the holotype. As seen in fig. 5 the interpterygoid vacuity portions of the two specimens possess very similar shapes, the one forming a nearly exact mirror image of the other. The medial margins of both are nearly straight and the lateral margins possess the same degree of convexity. Also, the width of this vacuity relative to overall skull width in the orbital region is nearly identical in the two specimens, W.A.M. 71.6.22 was positioned as shown in figs. 5 and 6 by aligning its cul triform process (which lies in the sagittal axis of the skull) with the cultriform process of the holotype and by placing its posterior orbit margin in such a position as to complete the oval shape of the orbit indicated by the anterior, medial and lateral margins of this opening on the holotype. The lateral margins of the composite restora- tions of the skull are shown in dashed line. These are drawn to follow the edges of the in- ternal cast pieces with a small amount of ex- tra width added to compensate for missing lay- ers of dermal bone. The final restoration (figs. 6 and 7) are at- tempts to summarize all that can be determined of the skeletal anatomy of the skull. They ac- tually represent composite portrayals of the inner and outer surfaces of the dermal bone layer of the skull. Some features such as the outer edges, the margins of the various vacuities and openings and a section of dentition on the palatal surface portray the outer surface of the dermal bone layer. Most of the sutures, on the other hand, are placed according to the trace of their inner surfaces on the core specimens, W.A.M. 62.1.46 and 71.6.22. Regarding some of the more notable features of the skull, their shapes and positions are based cn the speci- mens as follows: orbits, interpterygoid vacuities and cultriform processes on W.A.M. 62.1.46 and 71.6.22; internal nares on W.A.M. 62.1.46 and sub -temp oral fossae and quadrate regions on W.A.M. 71.6.22. The positions of the external nares are generally established by the fragment of septomaxillary bone impression retained on W.A.M. 62.1.46. They are given the long, oval shape seen in Avhoneramma sp. 2. (Save- Soderbergh, 1936, p.l 14, fig. 1 ) and other trema- tosaurids. The portions of the skull that are entirely hypothetical, being constructed from linear trends present on the specimens and from con- ditions in other trematosaurids include the snout tip, the tabular horns, the otic notches, the parietal foramen, the posteromedial portion of the palatal surface in the region of the para- sphenoid corpus and the exoccipital condyles. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 14 Almost all of the pattern of sutures shown is included only for aid in visualizing how the entire internal core surface of a skull of the species might have looked. The only sutures in- cluded which portray conditions on the outer surface of the dermal bone are the intervom- erine and vomer-maxillary in the region anterior to the internal nares. These are taken from palate impression, W.A.M. 62 . 1 . 50. The dotted lines lateral to the vomer-maxillary sutures indicate the aproximate boundaries between the sculptured bone of the sides of the snout from the smooth, tooth-bearing bone of the palate surface. In regard to all other sutures those that are shown in solid line are definitely estab- lished by the specimens and those that are shown in dashed line are either hypothetical or are taken as mirror-images from a definitely established suture on the opposite side of the skull. Not even the definitely established sutures are of use in taxonomic and comparative con- siderations as it is well known 'e.g. Save-Soder- bergh, 1936) that the internal traces of skull sutures differ considerably from their expres- sions on the outer surfaces of the dermal bone. Comparisons with related species of the Trematosauridae The narrowness of the skull, the attenuated rostral region and the slender cultriform process of the parasphenoid limit comparisons of the restorations of Erythrobatrachus noonkanba- hensis (figs. 6 and 7) to two temnospondyl families, the Archegosauridae of the early Permian and the Trematosauridae of the early Triassic. The referral of the new species to the latter family is assured, however, by the construction of the basal region of the palate surface, preserved on W.A.M. no. 71.6. 22. In this specimen, as in all trematosaurids and, indeed, all Triassic temnospondyls, the ptery- goid bones are solidly fused to the corpus of the parasphenoid through extensive sutural unions. In the archegosaurids. as in many other groups of Permian Temnospondyli, moveable joints are found in this region between the pterygoids and the basisphenoid and the former bones lack sutural union with the parasphenoid. An additional resemblance to other tremato- saurids and contrast of archegosaurids. posses- sed by E. noonkctnbahensis concerns the posi- tions of the orbits relative to the interpterygoid vacuities. In W.A.M. no. 62 . 1 . 46, as in other trematosaurids, the orbits lie close to the anterior margins of the interpterygoid vacuities. In archegosaurids. however, the orbits overlie the posterior portions of the interpterygoid vacui- ties. Possibilities for comparisons of E. noonkan - bahensis with other trematosaurid species are restricted by the incompleteness and poor pre- servation of the three specimens comprising its hypodigm. Only a few general characteristics established by the restorations of the skull < figs. 6 and 7) can be utilized in attempting to estab- lish the taxonomic position of the new form. These include, principally, the general shape and proportions of the skull and the relative Journal of the Royal Society of West sizes, shapes and positions of its larger open- ings — orbits, external and internal nares, inter- pterygoid vacuities and subtemporal fossae. Superficial features such as development and topography of the lateral line grooves, texture of sculpture on the skull roof bones and shape, spacing and arrangement of the tooth rows, features often of taxonomic value within tem- nospondyl families, are either entirely lacking or are too limited in extent of preservation on the three specimens to be of use in determining relationships. The pattern of sutures dividing the dermal bones of the skull are also useless in this endeavor as it is preserved only as internal traces on W.A.M. 62 . 1 . 46 and 71 . 6 . 22 and is very restricted in extent on W.A.M. no. 62 . 1 . 50. The trematosaurid genera divide roughly into three groups according to general skull shape: 1) those with extremely narrow, elongate skulls and a rostrum that is very extensive in the prenarial region, i.e. Aphaneramma, Goniog- lyptus , Stochiosaurus and W antzosaurus ; 2) those with moderately elongate skulls and a rostrum that is not extensive in the prenarial region, i.e. Inftectosaurus, Platystega, Micro- posaurus , Trematosaurus , Trematosuchus and Tertrema; and 3) an isolated genus, Lyroce- phalus , with a short, nearly triangular skull. A thorough review of the family, beyond the scope of this paper, might conclude by establishing subfamily rank for each of these three groups. Subfamilies corresponding to these groups for the most part were provisionally proposed by Save-Soderbergh (1935, pp. 35-87 and 200). It is obvious, without further elaboration, that E. noonkanbahensis clearly belongs to the first of the groups. The morphologic evidence avail- able, however, is insufficient for determining its exact phylogenetic position within the group. The few available characters that seem to have taxonomic significance do not conclusively show a closer relationship to any one of the genera Av h an e rarnm a . Gonioglvptus , Stochiosaurus and Wantzosaurus than to the others. These charac- ters, all of which are quantitative, are sum- marized above in the diagnosis of the genus Erythrobatrachus and below in Table 1. The interpterygoid vacuities of E. noonkan- bahensis are comparatively small relative to the length of the posterior portion of the skull roof. The length of the interpterygoid vacuities as measured on the midline is only about eight- tenths of the length of the skull roof as measured in the midline from the level of the anterior margins of the orbits to the posterior edge. In Gonioglyptus kokeni these linear measurements are approximately equal. In Aphaneramma ros- tratum the interpterygoid vacuities are about cne-fifth longer than the skull roof linear measurement and in W antzosaurus elongatus the interpterygoid vacuities are two-fifths longer. The skull of E. noonkanbahensis is relafively shorter and broader in the region bounded by the orbits, external nares and skull lateral mar- gins than is the case in A. rostratum and W. elongatus. In the Australian species the width across the anterior margins of the orbits is n Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 15 Table 1 Measurements and Indices Erythrobatruchus noonkanbahensis j Aphaneramma rostratum Save-Soderbergh 1936, figs. 31 Wantzosaurus elongatus Lehman, 1961, plates lb l Gonioglyptus kokeni Huene, 1920, figs. 6 and 7 Stochiosaurus nielseni Save-Soderbergh 1935, fig. 55 (A) Length from anterior margins of orbits to pos- terior edge as measured on the midline .... 124 mm. 60 mm. 69 mm. 122 mm. (B) Length of Interpterygoid vacuities as measured on the midline 97 mm. 67 mm. 97 mm. 118 mm. (C) Length from posterior borders of external nares to anterior borders of orbits as meas- ured on midline 79 mm. 57 mm. 81 mm. (T» W idtli across anterior margins of the orbits 68 mm. 32 mm. 40 mm. (E) Width across poster iolateral skull corners (greatest skull width) ... 99 mm. 60 mm. 73 mm. 62 mm. 115 mm. (F) W idth across posterior margins of the orbits .... 79 mm. 44 mm. 58 mm. 34 mm. 59 mm. B/A 0.78 1.18 1 .41 0 97 D/C 0.86 0.56 0 49 F/E 0.80 0.73 0.79 0.55 0 52 between eight- and nine-tenths of the length of the skull roof between orbit anterior margins and external nares posterior margins as measur- ed in the midline. In the Spitzbergen and Madagascar genera the width across orbit an- terior margins is only about half the length from orbits to external nares. One feature that may possibly indicate closer relationship of E. noonkanbahensis to A. ros- tratum and W. elongatus than to G. kokeni and 5. nielseni concerns the shape of the postorbital portion of the skull. In the Australian, Spitzber- gen and Madagascar species the skull increases relatively little in width from the level of the posterior margins of the orbits back to the posterolateral skull corners. In the species from India and Greenland, however, there is marked flaring in the postorbital region. As shown in Table I the width across the posterior margins of the orbits is between seven- and eight-tenths of the width across the skull corners in the first three but only about half in the last two. Comments on stratigraphic correlation and paleoecology The three fragments of Erythrobatrachus noonkanbahensis derive from the upper 10-15 feet of the Blina Shale exposed at V6044. They were found among scree consisting of ferrugin- ized rubble as well as fresh shale fragments. Overlying the Blina Shale slope and about 15 feet above the level on which the fragments were found is a residual rubble of Erskine sand- stone. On top of this rubble and capping the hill are remnants of Warrimbah conglomerate. This is the same sequence of rock units as at the Erskine range where the largest collections of fossil vertebrates were acquired. Rough strati- graphic correlation with the Erskine Range localities is provided by the fact that these lie within the upper 70 feet of the Blina Shale (McKenzie, 1961). The only other taxon so far identified among fossil material collected at V6044 is a lower jaw fragment of Deltasaurus kimberleyensis, U.C.M.P. no. 62158. Material of this animal is abundant at the Erskine Range localities (Cos- griff, 1965) and its presence at V6055 serves to strengthen the stratigraphic correlation of this locality with the Erskine Range localities indic- ated by the lithologic sequences. The presence of a slender-skulled, long-snout- ed trematosaurid in the upper portion of the Blina Shale is consonant with the assignment of this sequence of deposits to the Otoceratan divi- sion of the Scythian Stage, an assignment based on a variety of paleozoologic and paleobotanic evidence (Cosgriff, 1965 and 1969). Presently available information limits the range of this type of trematosaurid to the lower and middle portions of the Scythian. The range extends from Erythrobatrachus noonkanbahensis in the upper part of the Blina Shale which is Otocera- tan in age to Aphaneramma rostratum in the Sticky Keep Formation of Spitzbergen, a unit of Owenitan age (Kummel, 1961). Stochiosaurus nielseni and Wantzosaurus elongatus are both Gyronitan in age and, thus, fall in the middle of the range. The former derives from the Wordy Creek Formation of Spitzbergen (Trumpy, 1961) and the latter from the middle portion of the Sakamena Group of Madagascar (see Besaire, 1946 and Lehman. 1961). The stratigraphic posi- tions of these various species relative to each other in Spath’s (1935) sequence for the Scythian are shown in table 2, The one trema- tosaurid of the narrow-skulled, long-snouted group that cannot at present be accurately placed within this sequ nee is Gonioglyptus kokeni Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 16 Table 2 Stephanitan Columbitan •J Owenitan Aphaneramma rostratum X Flemingitan Gj ronitan Stochiosaurus . nielseni, \Y antzosaurus elongatus Otoccratan Erythrobatraeh us n oo n ka nbahens is from the Prionolobus beds of the Salt Range, India. Kummel and Teichert <1966) have recently investigated the Permain-Triassic sequence in the Salt Range and reviewed the older literature of the subject. As noted by them (op. cit., p. 304), Noetling (1901) included the Zone of Prionolobus rotundas in the Ceratite beds of the Salt Range sequence. In their new categorization of the sequence (op. cit., table I, p. 310) the ceratite beds are placed in the Mittiwali Member of the Mianwali Formation and occupy an approximate mid- Scythian position. Thus, although the beds containing Gonioglyptus kokeni have not been formally placed in one of SpatlVs divisions of the Scyth- ian, they are apparently within the strati- graphic range defined by Eryt.hr osuchus noon - kanbatiensis and Aphaneramma rostratum. The possibility of a faunal facies difference existing between the Blina Shale at V6044 and the unit at the Erskine Range localities is sug- gested by the fact that Erythrobatrachus noon- kanbaliensis is presently known only from the former and has not been identified among a large quantity of fossil vertebrate material col- lected from the latter. Although such a differ- ence is not substantiated by any lithologic or other faunal distinctions, the nature of occur- rences of species related to E. noonkanbahensis in other parts of the world provides a suggestion that this may be the case. Aphaneramma ros- tratum, Gonioglyptus kokeni, Stochiosaurus nielseni and W antzosaurus elongatus are all associated with marine invertebrates in the deposits in which they occur. This seems to indicate that they were inhabitants of near- shore fresh-water habitats such as deltas, estu- aries or lagoons or that they were, indeed, am- phibians adapted to an oceanic environment as Wiman (1916) postulated for the family Tre- matosauridae as a whole. Perhaps, therefore, the Blina Shale at V6044 was deposited in a more seaward area than the Blina Shale at the Ers- kine Range. Acknowledgements Part of the investigations reported in this paper were conducted in 1963 in the Department of Paleontology, University of California at Berkeley and we wish to thank Drs. J. T. Greg- ory, C. L. Camp and S. P. Welles of that department for a critical reading of portions of the descriptive part of this paper. Following the acquisition the second topotype, W.A.M. 71 . 6 . 22 in 1965 investigation of the species was resumed in 1969 by both authors at the Depart- ment of Biology, Wayne State University. We wish to thank Drs. W. D. L. Ride and D. Merri- lees of the Western Australian Museum, Perth, for loan of the material. Figures 1 and 2 were accomplished by Mr. Owen Poe of the Museum of Paleontology, University of California, figure 3 by Miss Joyce Wedgebrow of the Department of Geology, University of Tasmania and figures 4-7 by Mr. Garbutt. References Besaire, H. (1946). — La Geologie de Madagascar en 1946. Ann. Geol. Serv. Mines, facs. no. 12. Government general de Madagascar et d epend an ces. Broom, R. (1909). — Notice of some new South African fossil amphibians and reptiles. Ann. S. Afr. Mns. 7 : 270-278. Burmeister, K. H. K. (1849).— Die Labyrinth odonten aus dem bunten Sandistein von Bernberg, zoologisch geschildert. Erste Abthellung. Trematosaurus. (Fol., Berlin) Case, E. C. (1946). — A census of the determinable gene- ral of the stegocephalia. Trans. Am. Philos. Soc. 35: 325-420. Cosgriff, J. W. (1965). — A new genus of Temnospondyli from the Triassic of Western Australia, Jour. It, Soc. W. Aust. 48(3): 65-90. (1969). — Blinasaurus. a brachyopid genus from Western Australia and New South Wales, Jour. R. Soc. W. Aust. 52(3): 65-88. Guppy, D. J., Lindner, A. W., Rattigan, J. H. and Casey, J. N. (1958). The Geology of the Fitzroy Basin, Western Australia. Bull. Bur. Miner. Resour. Aust. 36: 1-116. Haughton, S. H. ( 1915) .—Investigations in South African fossil reptiles and Amphibia. 1. On a new species of Trematosaurus (T. sobeyi). Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 12: 47-51. (1925). — Investigations in South African fossil reptiles and Amphibia. 13. Descriptive catalogue of the Amphibia of the Karroo System. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 12: 227-261. Huene, F. von (1920 ) —Gonioglyptus, ein alttriassischer Stegocephale aus Indien. Acta Zool, 1: 465- 491. Huxley, T. H. (1865) — Indian pre-Tertiary Vertebrata. On a collection of vertebrate fossils from the Panchet rocks near Ranigung, Bengal. Pal. Indica (4) 1(1): 1-24. Kitching, J. W. (1958). — A new small stereospondylous labyrinthodont from the Triassic beds of South Africa. Palaeontologia African a. 5 (1957): 67-76. Kummel, B. (1961).— The Spitzbergen arctoceratids. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard 123(9): 499-532. Kummel, B. and Teichert. C. ( 1966 ) .—Relations between the Permain and Triassic formations in the salt range and Trans-Indus ranges. West Pakistan. N . Jb. Geol Palaont. Ab/i, 125: 297-333. Lehman, J. P. (1961). — Les Stegocephales du Trias de Madagascar. Ann. Pal. 47: 109-154. — (1966). — Nouveaux Stegocephales de Mada- gascar. Ann. Pal. 52: 117-139. McKenzie, K. G. (1961). — Vertebrate localities in Triassic Blina Shale of the Canning Basin, Western Australia. J. Roy. Soc. W. Aust. 44(3): 69- 76. McWhae, J. R. H., Playford, P. E.. Lindner, A. W.. Glenister, B. F. and Balme, B. E. ( 1958) . — The Stratigraphy of Western Australia. J. Geol. Soc. Aust. 4: 1-161. Nilsson, T. (1946).— On the genus Peltosteqa Wiman and the classification of the Triassic stegoce- phalians from Spitzbergen. I. Descriptive part. K. Svenska VetenskAkad. Hand!. (3) 23(3): 2-55. Noetling, F. (1901).— Beitrage zur Geologie der Salt Range, insbesondero der permischen und triassischen Abalgerungen. N. Jb. Miner 41: 369-471. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 17 Owen, R. (1884).— On a labyrinthodont amphibian (Rhytidosteus capensis) from the Trias of the Orange Free State, Cape of Good Hope. Quart. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 40: 333-339. Romer. A. S. ( 1947).— Review of the Labyrinthodontia. Bull. Mus . Comp. Zool. Harvard 99: 3-352. (19661.— “Vertebrate Paleontology" (Chicago, Univ. Chicago Press). Save-Soderbergh, G. (1935).— On the dermal bones of the head in labyrinthodont stegocephalians and primitive Reptilia with special reference to niotriassic stegocephalians from East Greenland. Meddr. Grnland. 98(3): 1-211. (1936).— On the morphology of Triassic Stegocephalians from Spitzbergen. and the interpretation of the endocramium in the Labvrinthodontia. K. Svenska VetenskAkad. Handl. (3)16; 1-11. Shishkin, M. A. (I960)— A new Triassic trematosaur, Infiectosaurus amplus. Pal . Zhurnal 2: 130- 148 (in Russian). Spath, L. F. (1935). — Additions to the Eo-Triassic in- vertebrate fauna of East Greenland. Meddr. Grnland. 98(2). Sushkin, P. (1927). — On the modifications of the mandi- bular and hyoid arches and their relations to the brainca.se of the early Tetrapoda. Pal. Zeit. 8: 263-321. Trumpy, R. (1961). — Triassic of East Greenland. (In Raasch. G.O. (ed.). “Geology of the Arctic”. 1: 248-254. Toronto). Veevers, J. J. and Wells, A. T. (1961).— The Geology of the Canning Basin. Bull. Bur. Miner. Resour. Aust. 60: 1-323. Watson, D. M. S. (1919).— The structure, evolution and origin of the Amphibia. The “orders” Rachitomi and Stereospondyli. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. (B) 209: 1-73, Welles, S. P. and Cosgriff, J. W. (1965).— A revision of the labyrinthodont family Capitosauridae and a description of Parotosaurus peabodyi n. sp. from the Wupatki member of the Moenkopi Formation of Northern Arizona. Univ. Calif. Publ. Bull. Dept. Geol. Sci. 54: 1-148. Wiman, C. (1914). — liber das Hinderhaupt der Labyrin- thodonten. Bull. Geol. Instn. Upsala 12: 1 - 8 . (1915). — fiber die Stegocephalen aus der Trias Spitzbergens. Bull. Geol. Instn. Upsala. 13: 1-34. (1916). — Neue Stegocephalenfunde aus dem Posidonomyaschiefer Spitzbergens. Bull. Geol. Instn. Upsala. 13: 209-222. Woodward, A. S. (1904). — On two new labyrinthodont skulls of the genera Capitosaurus and Aplianer amnia. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 2: 170-176. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 18 3. — The taxonomic status of small fossil thylacines (Marsupialia, Thylacinidae) from Western Australia By Jacoba W. J. Lowry* With an appendix on statistical methodology by D. R. McNeilt Manuscript received 17 August 1971; accepted 15 November 1971 Fossil thylacines from the Eucla Division of Western Australia have conspicuously smaller teeth than those of modern Thylacinus cyno- cephalus. With size of teeth the criterion, their taxonomic status Is assessed using statistical comparisons that include a test developed by McNeil (see the Appendix). The tests show that for the Eucla Division fossiL thylacines, the requirement of the "75 per cent rule" for subspecies Is not met at a 95 per cent level of confidence. The Eucla Division fossil thyla- cines are therefore referred to Thylacinus cynocephalus. The re-evaluation of the taxo- nomic status of fossil thylacines from south- western Australia, using the same tests, con- firms Ride's <1964) conclusion that there is no justification for recognizing these fossils as a new subspecies. However, the heterogeneity of the sample leaves the status of those fossils uncertain. Sexual dimorphism is marked in Thylacinus and a statistical method is used to separate some Eucla Division fossil thylacines into presumed males and presumed females. In the Appendix. McNeil shows that Ride’s (1964) method of applying confidence intervals to Mayr's (1969) test for subspecies is invalid. McNeil develops a valid statistical process for testing for subspecies, for both small and large samples. Introduction During 1966 my husband and I discovered the skeletal remains of eight thylacines (Tasmanian “tigers” or “wolves”' in a cave in the Eucla Land Division of Western Australia (Lowry and Lowry, 1967). These, and other fossil vertebrate remains were recovered for the fossil collection of the Geological Survey of Western Australia. Later examination suggested that the thyla- cines were very small compared with modern Thylacinus cynocephalus from Tasmania, and thus the question arose whether they repre- sented a different species or subspecies. To determine the taxonomic status of specimens from the Eucla Division, I have statistically compared selected dental characters with those of a sample of modern T. cynocephalus, and also a sample of fossil thylacines from caves in southwestern Western Australia. Ride f 1964 > showed that the fossils from southwestern Aus- tralia tended to be smaller than T , cynocephalus , but he considered them to be conspecific. During the course of my analysis it appeared that some of the statistical techniques used by Ride (1964) should be re-examined (see the ♦Honorary Associate. Western Australian Museum, Beau- fort Street, Perth 6000. tStatistics Department. Princeton University, New Jersey, U.S.A. Appendix), and hence a re-appraisal of the taxonomic status of the southwestern Australian fossils is given here. The analysis led to a con- sideration of sexual dimorphism in Thylacinus, which is discussed at the end of the paper, and a method of determining the sexes in a homo- geneous sample is given. The taxonomic assessment of fossil Thylacinus samples Previous taxonomic assessment of fossil Thylacinus Only one living species, Thylacinus cynoce- phalus (Harris) from Tasmania, is known. It was common until the beginning of the century, but it is now very rare, possibly extinct. On mainland Australia the genus is represented only by fossils. Size has been a major criterion in separating the described species. Thus Krefft (1871) des- cribed T. breviceps from Tasmania as a small species, with larger teeth than T. cynocephalus, and Owen <1845) considered T. spelaeus, an eastern Australian fossil of the Pleistocene, as simply a larger thylacine than T. cynocephalus. Another eastern Australian Pleistocene fossil, T. rostralis, was described by De Vis <1894) as also being larger than the living species. The Tertiary fossil T. potens Wocdburne from Alcoota, central Australia, is even more massive than both T. spelaeus and T. rostralis (Wood- burne, 1967). Other fossils from mainland Australia are mainly smaller in size than T. cynocephalus. The small thylacines from southwestern Aus- tralia mentioned above, which Ride (1964 ) con- sidered conspecific with T. cynocephalus , are considered to be of late Quaternary age (Merri- lees, 1968). Apart from the small thylacines recovered by Lowry and Lowry (1967), two further small examples have been recorded from the Eucla Division of Western Australia by Cook (1963) and Partridge (1967), with Partridge’s specimen being 3,300 years old. Small fossils have twice been recorded outside Western Aus- tralia. A single tooth, 4,000 years old, was found in an excavation in a rock shelter at Fromms Landing, South Australia 'Macintosh and Mahoney, 1964), and a small thylacine is known from Lake Mc-nindee, New South Wales < Wood- burne, 1967). Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 19 Size as a taxonoviic criterion in Thylacinus Previous workers have mostly used size as a criterion for distinguishing thylacine species, and the present study therefore is limited to a consideration of size. The size of an individual thylacine depends in part on its maturity, a problem avoided by measuring and analysing selected tooth dimensions, assumed to remain constant throughout an individual’s life. This choice is important because the individuals in the Euela Division sample show a great range in maturity. Furthermore, post-cranial remains are relatively scarce in the southwestern Aus- tralian sample, and no data on post-cranial remains of modern T. cynocephalus were avail- able. There appear to be certain short-comings in some of the previous analyses of size differences between thylacines from various localities. The species concept of the early taxonomists, even if not classically “typological ’, did not emphasize interbreeding populations and reproductive iso- lation, as does the “biological” or “evolutionary” concept prominent today (Mayr, 1969), and a concept of a range of variation within a given species was often neglected. For example, T. breviceps was based on a sample of two specimens, and both T. rostralis De Vis and T. breviceps Krefft were compared with a single specimen of T. cynoctphalus. As neither De Vis (1894) nor Krefft (1871) identify the specimen, it is not known if the same one was used on both occasions. Not surprisingly the validity of some of the spscies erected during that period has been questioned. Thus Stephenson (1963) considered that spelaeus should lapse into syno- nomy because he considered the differences in size between T. spelaeus and T. cynocephalus were negligible. This was demonstrated by Ride (1964), who showed that there was no statisti- cally significant difference between mean values of selected dental characters. The short-comings mentioned above can be reduced by taking large samples and analysing them statistically because “the erection of a taxonomic subspecies, species or genus by inferring the nature and limits of corresponding morphological groups from a series of given specimens is essentially a statisti- cal problem” (Simpson, 1943). Since natural populations of sexually repro- ducing animals can be expected to differ from one area to another, it is not enough to simply find statistically significant differences between populations to establish a new species or sub- species (Mayr, 1969). The problem of intra- specific variation is more acute when a time element is introduced. The early workers on Thylacinus do not seem to have considered the possibility of intra-specific evolutionary changes involving body size, yet during the Quaternary many mammals have shown fluctuations in size (Hooijer, 1949; Kurten, 1964. 1965, 1968), in- cluding much post-Pleistocene dwarfing. Because a short time is involved, Hooijer and Kurten believed that the differences between the large Pleistocene forms and some of the smaller modern forms are often no more than sub- specific. Thus size as a criterion for distinguish- ing between species of Quaternary mammals should be used with caution. The Quaternary fossil thylacines may in fact have represented populations of larger and smaller individuals of a single species, that existed on the mainland at different periods of time. Ride (1964) claimed that differences between the small sized south- western Australian fossils and T . cynocephalus were not great enough to warrant even sub- specific recognition, but since the Euela Division fossils appear to be even smaller, the possibility that they represented a subspecies of T. cynocephalus , rather than a new species, is considered. The recognition of subspecies in small samples Although the species category has objective reality (Simpson, 1943) the subspecies, like the higher categories, has subjective boundaries (Simpson, 1943; Amadon, 1949; Mayr, 1969). The subspecies category has been defined by Mayr (1969) as “an aggregate of phenotypically similar populations of a species, inhabiting a geographic subdivision of the range of the species, and differing taxonomically from other populations of the species”. Where there are clear-cut differences between two such popula- tions, the recognition of subspecies is quite simple, but where their intra-populational range of variation overlap, a “75 per cent rule” is often used to determine if enough difference exists to warrant recognition by name (Amadon, 1949 >. This rule or convention is subject to various interpretations, but it is usually required that 75 per cent of specimens in a sample from the proposed new subspecies must differ from “all” (97 to 99 per cent) specimens from all other previously recognised subspecies (Amadon, 1949; Mayr, 1969). The requirement of the rule is approximately met when 90 per cent (or more) is separable from 90 per cent (or more) of samples of all previously recognised subspecies (Mayr, 1969). It is also easier to calculate per- centage separation when overlap is symmetri- cal. The statistic Coefficient of Difference (abbre- viated to CD) proposed by Mayr (1943) and discussed by Mayr (1969) attempts to show whether the requirement of the 75 per cent rule has been met. It is based on the observation that the degree of overlap of two curves is re- lated to the difference of their mean divided by the sum of their standard deviations. With the aid of a table, CD can be used to show whether two samples are sufficiently separate for the populations they represent to be arbitarily accorded subspecies status. Mayr (1969 > gives a table of values of CD and the corresponding percentage separation. See also Table I in the Appendix by McNeil. The advantage of CD is its simplicity and ease of calculation, but the statistic assumes that the populations are normally distributed, and that values of sample statistics equal those of population parameters; hence calculated values of CD can at best only give an indication of magnitude of overlap between two curves. In borderline cases, or where these assumptions cannot be made, such as when samples are small, a more accurate test is required. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 20 Different authors require different values of CD to demonstrate subspecific separation, de- pending on their interpretation of the 75 per cent rule. Thus Mayr (1969) requires a value of at least 1.28, representing a separation of at least 90 per cent from 90 per cent, but others are more stringent, requiring up to 97 per cent separable from 97 per cent (Amadon, 1949), which is indicated by a CD value of 1.9. In his study of Thylacinus, Ride (1964) considered an intermediate value for CD of 1.5, representing a separation of about 94 per cent from 94 per cent, as adequate for the recognition of sub- species, but that a more stringent test should apply when samples are small, as were the fossil samples available to him. He therefore modified the statistic Coefficient of Difference as given by Mayr and others '1953) by calculating its 95 per centage confidence interval, and requiring a value of at least 1.5 for the lower limit. Since this paper is in part a continuation and rs-evaluation of Ride’s (1964) work on Thyla- cinus , it seemed appropriate to extend his statis- tical approach to the analysis of the Eucla Division thylacines, and to require a value greater than 1.5 for lower confidence limits, when testing percentage separation of the fossils from T. cynocephalus. However, McNeil (see the Appendix) shows that Ride’s (1964) modification is invalid, and gives the mathematical develop- ment of an accurate statistic to which confidence intervals can be applied. I therefore use this statistic and confidence interval, but follow Ride (1964) by requiring a value greater than 1.5 for the lower confidence limit to indicate adequate separation of samples to warrant subspecies recognition of the populations they represented. The 95 per cent confidence interval applied to the statistic developed by McNeil does not give as wide an interval as the one used by Ride (1964) ; hence I re-evaluate the taxonomic status of the southwestern Australian fossil thylacines. Also, a few more fossil specimens have been dis- covered since the publication of Rides (1964) paper. The use of normal statistics with samples of Thylacinus. Thylacinus cyocephalus from Tasmania shows strong sexual dimorphism, with males tending to have larger teeth than females (Ride, 1964). Thus the distribution of dental characters from samples of T. cynocephalus tend to be bimodal. I have therefore applied * 2 tests to the data from the sample of modern Tasmanian thyla- cines (the only one large enough for the mean- ingful use of this test) , to check whether frequency distributions depart statistically significantly from normality, thus rendering tests based on this assumption invalid. The probabilities are not significant, except for the length of the upper 2nd molar (M-) and the length of the lower 4th molar (M.). Hence results for these characters are doubtful. Description of the Thylacinus samples. The control sample of modern Thylacinus cynocephalus from Tasmania Dr. W. D. L. Ride (Director, Western Aus- tralian Museum) has kindly made available to me many data (largely unpublished) on modern T. cynocephals. These specimens are now lodged at widely separate institutions (see Ride, 1964), which prevented me from re-measuring them. To test my ability to reproduce Ride’s measurements I re-measured those fossils in the Western Australian Museum originally measured by him, and applied a t-test (Simpson and others, I960) to these paired data. The proba- bility that my measurements and Ride’s were the same ranged from greater than 50 per cent to greater than 70 per cent. Tooth dimensions are recorded to 0.1 mm, and since 0.1 mm amounts to only one or two per cent of the dimensions of the tooth measurements, I there- fore consider comparisons of Ride’s data with mine to be valid. Ride (1964» selected the data he published to exclude measurements from juveniles because some of the characters he used include bone and thus are affected by growth, but since I analyse only dental characters, I have included measurements from juveniles. Hence the values for calculated statistics that Ride (1964) records in his Tables 1 and 2 for the four dental characters I also use Thylacine Hole (31° 42' S; 127 44' E) is about 100 km west of Eucla, and lies on the Hampton Tableland, a semi-arid region characterised by grassy flats and tree-covered ridges. The cave has been described by Lowry and Lowry (1967) who recovered partial or complete skeletons re- presenting eight different thylacines. One of them, F6364, is a remarkably preserved carcase, from which hair and soft tissue has b:en dated (NSW 28c) at 4,650 ± 153 years BP (Lowry and Merrilees, 1969: Merrilees, 1970* Five specimens, F6353, F6354, F6355, F6357 and F6358, are nearly complete skeletons that include measureable teeth. One specimen, F6356, does not include teeth, and another, F6360, consists only of the pelvis and part of the vertebral column. Mea- surements from the carcase F6364 are not in- cluded in the statistical sample because they could not be made accurately without damaging the specimen. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 21 Figure 1. — Locality maps. The remains represented animals in their death positions, except F6360 which had been disturbed by water wash. All had probably fallen nearly 12 metres through the sole narrow chimney-like entrance into the cave, yet only one specimen, F6355, has broken bones, and even this may have occurred after _ death through roof collapse of the cave. F6358 is a juvenile with the basioccipital — basipresphenoid and basipresphcnoid — presphenoid sutures open, the upper fourth molars not erupted, and no per- ceptible wear on the teeth. In F6357 both these sutures are fused and the teeth are well worn. The other three specimens show intermediate stages of maturity. (ii) From Murra-el-elevyn Cave (N47) Murra-el-elevyn Cave (32 c 03' S; 126° 02' E) is about 6.4 km west of Cocklebiddy Motel, on the Hampton Tableland. A single specimen, 64.8.1, with adhering soft tissue dated CGaK 693) 3,280 ± 90 years BP (Partridge, 1967) was recovered from the cave. All teeth are present. (iii) From Roaches Rest Cave — diagonal length through protocone to metacone. (ii) Lower molars 1 to 4 (Mi to Mi) — length. (iii) Lower premolars 1, 3, and 4 (Pi, P :J and Pi) — length. Upper molars were measured along the longest diagonal crossing the protocone and metacone, and lower molars and premolars along the great- est length in an approximately anterio-posterior direction. For consistency right teeth were chosen where possible, although they tend to be a little larger than teeth from the left side. This difference is not significant however. Of 153 pairs of measurements, the mean value of measurements from the right side is 10.21 mm and from the left side 10.18 mm. Copies of the raw data, together with an explanation of their meaning and accuracy have bean lodged in the libraries of the University of Tasmania, Hobart, and the Western Australian Museum, Perth. Table 1 gives a summary of the dimensions of the dental characters tested, and shows that teeth from the Eucla Division fossils are gener- ally smaller than those of the southwestern Australian fossils, and conspicuously smaller than those of modern Thylacinus cynocephalus. Standard tests of comparison were applied to all the data, despite the questionable normality of the lengths of M 2 and Mi from the modern T . cynocephalus sample. Table 2 shows that results of standard tests applied to data from these two characters follow the same trends as those shown by the other characters, and hence can probably be accepted. Results of F-tests are given in Table 2, and show that the sample variances generally do not differ between the three thylacine samples, excepting variances for the dimensions of Pi and from the southwestern Australian fossils. Since in practice the t-test is a robust test (Simpson and others, 1960) it was also applied to these two characters. Results of the t- tests are given in Table 2, and show that there is no statistically signifi- cant difference between mean dimensions of dental characters of the southwestern Austra- lian and Eucla Division fossils at the one per cent level. All the tests between fossil samples and modern T. cynocephalus gave significant results at the one per cent level, except the mean dimension of the length of Pi of the Eucla Division fossils. It is therefore worth testing whether the requirement of the 75 per cent rule for subspecies is met. Table 1 Summary of dimensions of dental characters of the Thylacinus samples. Modern Thylacinus cynocephalus Southwestern Australian Fossil Thylacinus Eucla Division Fossil Thylacinus Character t Mean Observed Mean Obser .'ed Mean Observed X mm. Range mm. n mm. A' X mm. Range mm . n mm. v* X mm. Range mm. n mm. Vf M 1 11-6 1 0 - 1 - 1 2 - 7 (2-6) 60 0-61 5-3 10-3 9*5-121 (2*6) 12 0*72 7*2 10-2 9-5-110 (1-5) 7 0-52 5-3 M 2 15-1 13-0 10-6 (3-0) 61 0-88 5-8 13-0 11*4-15*9 (4-5) 12 1 -06 8*4 12-5 11-213-2 (20) 6 0-72 6-1 M 3 17 -S 15-4-20-2 (4-S) 54 1 • 23 6-9 15-4 13117-7 (4-6) 9 1 -25 8*4 14-6 13-7 153 (1-6) 6 0-77 5-5 Pi 6-2 5-3- 7-0 d-7) 63 0*42 6-9 5-6 4*9- 6-4 (1-5) 9 0-49 9-0 5*9 5 -5- 6-3 (0-8) 6 0-31 5-6 P 3 9-2 8- 1-10-1 (2-0) 64 0-46 5-0 8*1 7-1 9-1 (2*0) 11 0 • 66 8*4 7*8 7-0- 8-3 (1-3) 7 0-50 6-6 P 4 10-8 9-2-11 -9 (2-7) 64 0 ■ 59 5-4 10-0 8-7-12*1 (3-4) 13 1*05 10-7 9*7 8-9-11*0 (2-1) 6 0-82 8-8 Mx 9 '0 8-6-10-6 (2-0) 39 0-57 6-0 8*6 7 ■ 5 - 9 * 8 (2*3) 13 0-66 7*8 8*3 7*9- 9-0 (ID 7 0-45 5 • 6 M, 11-9 1 1 -0-13-2 (2-2) 41 0-53 4-5 11-2 10-2-12-6 (2-4) 11 0-75 6 • 8 10-4 9-9-1 1 -2 (1-3) 8 0-48 4-7 m 3 14-1 12-8-15-3 (2-5) 41 0 • 57 4-1 13*0 11 1-150 (3-9) 12 1-18 9-3 12-3 11-5-13- 0 (1-5) 7 0-67 5 • 7 m 4 15-8 13-9-17-2 (3-3) 53 0 • 92 5-8 14-5 12-8-16*9 (4-1) 12 1*32 9-3 13-5 11-8-14-2 (2-4) 6 0-95 7-3 t Characters are described in the text on page 23. t Coefficient of Variation corrected for small sample size using a correction developed by Haldane (1955). Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 23 Results of standard tests of comparison. r 2 §1 •S^ IS 53 in O S «| “3 3 £ li O c ccti is ii it u < t3 f-< * II I> CM M >.o A A A A A, X H H H H ‘ A ° A A A A ° A a X CO; CO lO CO and also a large observed range of variation (Table 1). The mean dimensions given in Table 1 mask the fact that there are four individual speci- mens from the southwestern Australian sample with tooth dimensions exceeding the mean values of the modern T. cynocephalus sample, and that there are five individual specimens with tooth dimensions below the mean values of the Eucla Division sample. Two of the large specimens came from Mammoth Cave, and thus are probably late Pleistocene in age (see above). Until more specimens that can be dated are found from both the southwest of Western Aus- tralia and the Eucla Division, there is no way of deciding between three alternatives: — (1) there were two species, a smaller and a larger in southwestern Australia; (2) the size range illustrates an intra-specific post-Pleistocene trend to size reduction in Thylacinus in south- western Australia, as seen in some other mammals (see above); (3) the southwestern Australian fossil thylacines were simply more variable than other populations. The taxonomic status of the thylacine tooth from Webbs Cave IN 132) The Webbs Cave tooth, 70.7.54, was not in- cluded in the Eucla Division statistical sample because the position in the tooth row of an isolated tooth is difficult to determine with cer- tainty, but Cook (1963) is probably correct in calling it a left upper 3rd molar. The tooth has a length of 12.8 mm, which is considerably smaller than the mean dimension of 14.6 mm for unper 3rd molars from the Eucla Division samule. but a t-test gives a probability of just Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 24 over 5 per cent that it could have come from the Eucla Division population. I therefore refer this molar, assuming it to be an upper 3rd molar, to the Eucla Division fossil thylacines, and hence to T. cynocephalus. Sexual dimorphism in Thylacinus Modern T. cynocephalus , as mentioned above, shows strong sexual dimorphism. Ride (1964) showed that tooth dimensions of modern thyla- cines of known sex tend to fall into two groups, with those of males being larger than those of females. Thus where the sex of an individual specimen is unknown, its possible sex could be determined by comparing its* tooth dimensions with those from other specimens from the same population. Table 3 Test for subspecies Character! Southwestern Australian Fossil Thylacinus Eucla Division Fossil Thylacinus CD CD,* CD civ M 1 0-97 0-68 111 0-74 M 2 116 0-85 1-51* 1 10 M 3 1-00 0-67 1-33 0-93 Pi 0-61 0-31 0-33 —0-02 P 3 114 0-83 1-46 1 07 Pi 0-58 0-30 0-86 0*49 M x 0-83 0-54 1*16 0-78 M 2 0-59 0-30 1*48 1-07 m 3 0-75 0 • 45 1-59* 1 -16 m 4 0-66 0-38 1-26 0*85 t Characters are described in the text on page 23. * Significant result. Table 4 Determination of sex in fossil Thylacinus from Thylacine Hole Ranks* Specimen Numbers 1 (small- est) 2 3 4 5 (larg- est) Scoref F6358 5 3 1 14 F6354 4 4 1 15 F6353 3 5 1 34 F6355 j 3 4 2 35 F6357 .... 1 1 1 3 3 33 * Rank columns record the frequency with which characters from each specimen were accorded a particular rank. t Score column records the sum of the products of the ranks and frequencies for each specimen, and is a numerical expression of the visual assessment of its size, relative to the other specimens. As with modern T. cynocephalus, the tooth dimensions of five specimens from Thylacine Hole also tend to fall into two groups, which could represent sexes. The following method considered all ten measured characters simul- taneously in establishing the grouping of the fossils. Dimensions of dental characters were ranked from 1 (smallest) to 5 (largest) and the “rank” columns in Table 4 record the frequency with which the dimensions of characters from each specimen were accorded a particular rank. The “score” column in Table 4 records the sum of the products of the ranks and frequencies, for each specimen. For example, F6358 ranked smallest for the dimensions of 5 characters, second smallest for the dimensions of 3 charac- ters and third in size for one character, and has a score of 5x1 -f- 3x2 T 1x3 14. This is a numerical expression of the visual observation that its teeth are the smallest of the five Thyla- cine Hole fossils. Table 4 records two specimens with small teeth (scores under 20) and three with large teeth (scores over 30). I suggest this grouping represents females and male respec- tively, from a population that on the whole had smaller teeth than the modern Tasmanian thylacine population. It is possible to argue that the fossils from Thylacine Hole represented two species, one with smaller teeth than the other, but this seems unlikely because modern Thylacinus is known to show strong sexual dimorphism (Ride, 1964 ), and also, the pattern obtained by rank- ing the dimensions of their teeth indicates that the ratios of tooth measurements within an individual specimen are similar for each of the specimens. A concept of two sexes in a single species is more consistent with this observation than one of two species that lived in the area. The best preserved fossil thylacine specimen from Thylacine Hole, F6364, was not included in Table 4 because only a few of its teeth could be measured without damaging the desiccated vibrissae, tongue and lips, but I have “ranked and scored” those measurements available from F6364 with corresponding measurements from the other tooth -bearing Thylacine Hole speci- mens. Its score groups with the two presumed females, and so the carcase probably represented a female. The determination of the possible sex of an isolated specimen is more complex because thylacine samples from various places on the Australian mainland all have teeth of different mean dimensions. Thus the suggestion by Partridge (1967), that the specimen from Murra-el-elevyn Cave, 64.8.1 might have repre- sented a female on the basis of its small teeth when compared with mean values for dental characters from the southwestern Australian fossils, cannot now be supported. Subsequent discoveries have shown that the teeth of all thylacines known from the Eucla Division tend to be smaller than mean values for teeth from the southwestern Australian fossils. Further- more, the method described above apparently can only be used with specimens from the same local population. When tooth dimensions of 64.8.1 are “ranked and scored” with the five Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 25 Thylacine Hole specimens, its score is found to lie exactly between those of the presumed males and females, and thus its sex remains uncertain. Similarly, the sex of the thylacine represented by 70.7.54, the Webbs Cave tooth (Cook, 1963), cannot be determined with certainty because dimensions of several characters from the one specimen need to be assessed simultaneously during the comparisons. However, assuming that the tooth is an M*\ it is the smallest I have measured, and hence may have represented a female, as suggested by Cook (1963). Acknowledgements I wish to thank Dr. W. D. L. Ride (Director, Western Australian Museum) for freely making available much original information on modern T. cynocephalus ; for explaining his measuring procedures; for access to Museum material; and for the use of Museum facilities. Thanks are also due to Dr. D. L. McNeil (Statistics Depart- ment, Princeton University) for kindly provid- ing the Appendix, and giving me valuable advice on statistical procedures. Dr. N. A. Goodchild (Institute of Agriculture, University of Western Australia) has also given me statistical advice. I would also like to thank Dr. D. Merrilees (Western Australian Museum), and my husband Mr. D. C. Lowry (Geological Survey of Western Australia) for their kind help and valuable criticism. References Amadon, D. (1949). — The seventy-five per cent rule for subspecies. Condor 51: 250-258. Cook, D. L. (1963). — Thylacinus and Sarcophilus from the Nullarbor Plain. The Western Australian Naturalist 9: 47-48. De Vis, C. W (1894). — A thylacine from the earlier nototherian period in Queensland. The Pro - ceedings of the Linnaean Society of New South Wales (2) 8: 443-447. Haldane, J. S. B. (1955). — The measurements of varia- tion. Evolution 9: 484. Hooijer, D. A. (1949). — Mammalian evolution in the Quaternary of southern and eastern Asia. Evolution 3: 125-128. Krefft, G. (1871). — Description of a new species of thylacine (Thylacinus breviceps). The Annals and Magazine of Natural History (4) 2: 296-297. Kurten, B. (1964). — The evolution of the Polar Bear. Ursus tnaritimus Phipps. Acta Zoologica Fennica 108: 30pp. (1965). — The Carnivora of Palestine caves. Acta Zoologica Fennica 107: 74pp. (1968). — “Pleistocene Mammals of Europe". (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London.) Lowry, D. C. and Lowry, J. W. J. ( 1967 ).— Discovery of a thylacine (Tasmanian tiger) carcase in a cave near Eucla, Western Australia. Helictite 5: 25-29. Lowry, J. W\ J. and Merrilees, D. (1969).— Age of the desiccated carcase of a thylacine” (Marsu- pialia, Dasyuroidea) from Thylacine Hole, Nullarbor region. Western Australia Helic- tite 7: 15-16. Lundelius, E. L. (1960). — Post Pleistocene faunal suc- cession in Western Australia and its climatic interpretation. Report of the International Geological Congress, XXI Session, Norden 1960 Pt. IV Chronology and climatology of the Quaternary. 142-153. Macintosh. N. W. G. and Mahoney, J. H. (1964). — A 4,000 year old Thylacine tooth (Dasyuridae) from shelter 2. Appendix 3 in Mulvaney, D J., Lawton, G. H., and Twidale. C. R. Archaelogical excavation of rock shelter No. 6. Fromm’s Landing. Procedings of the Royal Society of Victoria New Series 77: 497-516. Mayr, E. (1943). — in Oliver, J. A. The status of Uta ornata lateralis. Copeia 2: 97-107. (1969). — "Principles of systematic zoology.” (McGraw Hill, New York.) Mayr, E., Linsley, E. G.. and Usinger, R. L. (1953). — "Methods and principles of systematic zoology.” (McGraw Hill, New r York.) Merrilees, D. (1968).— Man the destroyer: late Quater- nary changes in the Australian marsupial fauna. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 51: 1-24. (1970). — A check on the radiocarbon dating of dessicated Thylacine (Marsupial "wolf") and dog tissue from Thylacine Hole, Nullar- bor region. Western Australia. Helictite 8: 39-42. Owen, R. ( 1845) ' "Descriptive and illustrated catalogue of the fossil organic remains of Mammalia and Aves contained in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England.” [Marsupialia: 291-3361 (Taylor, London). Partridge, J. (1967).— A 3.300 year old Thylacine (Mar- supialia. Thylacinidae) from the Nullarbor Plain, Western Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 50: 57-59. Ride, W. D. L. (1964). — A review of Australian fossil marsupials. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 47: 97-131. Simpson, G. G. ( 1943) .—Criteria for genera, species, and subspecies in zoology and paleozoology. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 44: 145-197. Simpson, G. G.. Roe, A., and Lewontin, R. C. (1960). — "Quantitative Zoology.” Rev. ed. (Harcourte: New York.) Stephenson, N. G. (1963). — Growth gradients among fossil Monotreme and Marsupials. Palaeonto- logy 6: 516-542. Woodburne. M. O. (1967). — "The Alcoota fauna.” (Aus- tralia) Bureau of Mineral Resources Bulletin 87. Appendix: Statistical Methodology for Subspecific Separation of Two Populations By D. R. McNeil The Coefficient of Difference Suppose we have two populations of individ- uals, and X is a characteristic (such as the height of an individual). Let Xi and X 2 repre- sent the characteristics for individuals from the first and second population, respectively. Suppose also that X. and X 2 are normally dis- tributed random variables, with expectations m, Hz and variances Mi- Appendix Figure 1. — Curves of the probability den- sities of the characteristic X. for the two populations, the variances ( ai 2 and a2 -) being unequal. One such measure is M 2 — mu the difference in the expectations of X for the two popula- tions. Another is the proportion of overlap be- tween the two populations, defined as the shaded area in Appendix Figure 1. If Zo is the point at which the two curves intersect, then the pro- portion of ov:rlap is obtainable by integration as a Zo -00 f 2 (z)dz + 00 Zo fi(z)dz, (4) F 2 (z 0 ) + 1 — Fi(z 0 ). A third measure of the difference between the two populations is the coefficient of difference M2 Ml (5) CD , (x) is the standardized normal cumula- tive distribution function, i.e., (x) —f (27 r) exp ( — iz 2 )dz. J -00 But in the case ai <7 2 a, the coefficient of difference is, using (5), M 2 — Mi (8) CD , 2(7 so that when the variances of the two popula- tions are equal, the proportion of overlap and the coefficient of difference are related by the formula (9) a 2$ (—CD). It may be noted that as CD increases from 0 to 00 , a decreases from 1 to 0. (This can be seen by inspection of Figure 1.) Thus, the larger the value of the coefficient of difference, the smaller the proportion of overlap between the two populations. Some values of a corresponding to various values of CD are given in Appendix Table 1. Thus a value of CD 1 corresponds to a 32% overlap, that is, 16% of the first population are indistinguishable from 16% of the second. A value of CD 2 corresponds to only 2.3% of the first population being indis- tinguishable from 2.3% of the second. A dis- cussion of the relationship between a and CD is also given by Mayr (1969. p. 190). Description of Ride’s Method In order to determine whether or not two popu- lations are sufficiently different to warrant separate classification, zoologists have suggested that the CD be used as a measure, but have disagreed on the value required. In practice, it is not possible to measure CD exactly, since one usually has only a small sample of observations of Xi and X 2 , and consequently any estimates of CD will be subject to sampling error. In a situation like this it is customary to obtain a confidence interval for CD. Such an interval can then be said to contain CD with a specified degree of certainty (usually 95%). If the inter- val obtained is wholly above the minimum value Appendix Table I Values of the proportion of overlay, 00 corresponding to the coefficient of difference, CD. €D .... ! 0-50 1-00 1 -25 1-50 1*75 2-00 2*25 j 2 ■ 50 2-75 3 -CO cc .... 0-62 0-32 0-21 0 13 008 0-040 0-024 0-012 0 • 006 0-002 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 1, March, 1972 27 of CD which is sufficient for separate classifica- tion of the populations, then one can say that that the populations are separate. The problem of obtaining a confidence interval for the coefficient of difference has already been considered by Ride (1964). who gives as a 95% confidence interval (CD,, CD 2 ), where [x 2 — t 2 s 2 n 2 1 — rxi 4- ti Si n t ] CDi = ; , [(ni — D^Si/Xii] -f- [(n 2 — l) ,; s 2 /X 2 il [x 2 -f t 2 s 2 n 2 ] — Lx i — ti Si ni '* 1 cd 2 . [(n t — l)*Si/Xi 2 l + l(n 2 — 1) s 2 /x 22 ] and: Xi and x 2 are the two sample means Si 2 and s 2 2 are the two sample variances n, and n 2 are the sample sizes ti and t 2 are the 0.975 quantiles of the Student t-distribution with n, — 1 and n 2 — 1 degrees of freedom, respectively *n 2 (* 12 2 ) mul V(V) are the 0.025 (0.975) quantities of the chi-squared distribution with n, — 1 and n 2 — 1 degrees of freedom, respec- tively. Ride suggests that if both CDi and CD 2 are 1.5 or greater the two populations warrant sub- specific separation, if neither reaches 1.5 it is probable that the populations are not subspecifi- cally distinct, while if CDi is less than 1.5 and CD 2 1.5 or more further data is necessary to reach a conclusion. The above procedure is invalid for two reasons : (i) Since the higher the value of the coefficient of difference, the more distinct are the two populations, a one sided confidence interval of the form (CD,, 00) is required. In statis- tical terms, one is testing the null hypothesis Ho: CD < 1.5 against the one-sided alternative H,: CD ^ 1.5, and the larger the value of the calculated coefficient of difference, the greater the evidence in favour of Hi. In practice, it is not possible to test H 0 against H,, since H 0 is not a simple hypothesis (including as it does a whole range of values of CD). There- fore one replaces this range of values by the largest allowable value of CD which is not sufficient to warrant subspecific separa- tion, namely 1.5. We then test H (1 : CD 1.5 against H,: CD > 1.5, and high values of the sample coefficient of difference, i.e. those in an interval of the form (CD,, go), are significant. (ii) In obtaining the upper and lower points CD 2 and CD,, Ride has stated that the lower point of the confidence interval for the ratio (fi 2 — mi ) / (a-, 4- ) is obtained by combin- ing the lower point for the numerator with the upper point for the denominator (and similarly for the upper point of the con- fidence interval ) . This procedure would be valid if x 2 — x, and s, 4 s 2 were perfectly negatively correlated with each other. To obtain a confidence interval for (m 2 — mi) / ( 0-1 + 2 Mi ni + n 2/ 2 fxz — y i and s --> a as m and n 2 -> oo, so that A A as ni,n 2 -> oo. Since -jCD — CJD[ / ^varCCD] J- J is asymptotically standardized normally distri- buted, an approximate (1 — a) % confidence interval for CD is (CD,*,oo), where (13) CD,* (ni + n 2 — 2) (m -f n 2 ) 4n, n 2 and 4 > , a is the 1 — a quantile of the stan- dardized normal distribution. In particular a 95% confidence interval is given by 0 () . y5 1.64. An indication of the exactness of the asympto- tic approximation (13) is given by comparing CD,* and CD, for moderate values of n, and n 2 . These values were checked and found to be in close agreement for the data analysed in Table 1 in the preceeding article. For example, for the characteristic M, t in the case of the two populations “Modern Thylacinus cynocephalus’’ and “Eucla Division Fossil Thylacinus " , it was found that at the 95% level n, 39, n> 7, A CD 1.16, CD, 0.76, CD,* 0.78. ^ fX2 fXl ECCD] -> = CD 2 submerged mycelium below point ( 2 ) , ( 4 ) aerial mycelium at the point of two weeks’ growth behind the margin, <5) submerged mycelium at the same point as <4) . Colour descriptions of hyphae and spores were made from water mounts without heat treat- ment. Mounts for measurements and detailed microscopic analysis were made in 10% potas- sium hydroxide and 1% phloxine, as used for sporophore material. Description of Panus fasciatus (Berk.) Pegler from Western Australia Culture WW1 was isolated frem sporophores growing on decayed wood collected in Tutan- ning Reserve, Western Australia, August 1966 UWA. Mycology Herbarium number 1250, Specimens sent to the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, were determined by Mr. D. N. Pegler as P. fasciatus (Berkj Pegler, a fungus collected in Tasmania and described by Berkeley as Lentinus fasciatus < Pegler, 1965 >. Culture XXI was isolated from an identical fungus collected from a fallen dead trunk of Eucalyptus marginata, Karnet, Western Austra- lia, August 1966. UWA Mycology Herbarium number 1260. Sporophores Sporophores tough when fresh, hard when dried. Pilei deeply infundibuliform, densely hispid with involute margins. Clay to Tawny Olive, diameter 1.2-3 cm, Gills deeply decurrent, crowded, entire along the edge, tinged pale purple when fresh but Light Mouse Gray when dried. Stipes, central, 1. 0-2.5 cm, densely his- pid and brown . Pileus with filamentous cuticle and white con- text. Dimitic: skeletal hyphae mainly in the trama (Fig. 2B ) and hyaline, thick-walled, septate, clamped, and occasionally branched, with nar- row lumen, 3 — 5 m wide, mean 3 ± 0,1 m. In contrast, generative hyphae thin-walled and, Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 31 /« «*» Figure 1 . — Panus fasciatus from Western Australia. Sporophores corresponding to culture number XXI. Figure 2 . — Panus fasciatus from Western Australia. Detail from sporophore corresponding to culture num- ber XXI. A. — Vertical section through gill showing irregular trama (tr) indistinct subhymenium, and a hymenium . Most of the basidia ob- served in sections were immature (Fig. 2D). Fertile basidia clavate and 20 — 36 X 4 — 7 m» mean 27 ± 0.1 X 6 =t 0.1 m- Basidiospores hyaline, inamyloid and oblong, with smooth walls, and 4 — 7X3 — 5 m, mean 5 ± 0.2 X 3 i 0.1 ft (Fig. 2E>. Cystidia originated from tram a 1 hyphae and could be differentiated into two main types. In the first type, the cystidia were few and scattered, had thick walls and obtuse apices. They could be described as metuloids, except for the lack of crystals on their surfaces. They measured 24 — 43 X 5 — 7 m mean 33 ± 2 X 6 ± 0.2 m (Fig. 2F). In the second type, the cystidia were similar in size but differed in shape and wall thickness. They were thin-walled, had acute apices and were quite numerous, slightly proliferating above the hymenial surface (Fig. 2G). They resembled setae except for their thinner walls. Cultures: macroscopic Both isolates had indented margins consist- ing of appressed and submerged mycelium. The rest of the mycelial mat was raised -woolly with small aggregates of mycelium appearing near and over the inoculum after two to three weeks of growth (Figs. 3, 5). The aggregates grew larger (Figs. 4, 6), and from subsequent devel- opment were found to have been fruiting body primorida. Plates were covered after three weeks' incubation. Colour developed after four weeks: Cream Buff, then Pinkish Cinnamon, deepening to Cinnamon Buff after exposure to light. The primordia were of purplish tinge, turning to brown when exposed to light. The reverse side of the mycelial mat changed slightly to Cream Buff, particularly under the intermediate zone and inoculum. Growth rate at 25° was the same in both isolates: 2.0 -2.9 cm/wk, mean -± 0.1. Reactions on tannic and gallic acid were strong with unsatisfactory growth of both isolates. Cultures: microscopic All hyphae examined were hyaline with thin walls or with thick refractive walls that stained poorly in phloxine. The advancing zone, aerial mycelium and submerged mycelium shared some hyphae in common. These were either thin- walled hyphae. clamped and occasionally branched (Fig. 7, al and a2, el and e2), or were wide, conspicuously clamped, with fairly thick, refractive walls characteristically branched from three clamp connections 'Fig. 7, d2 and fl) (1) Advancing zone (Fig. 7, al-d2). — Two principal types of hyphae were found in the ad- vancing zone of both isolates, XXI and WW1, They were: (i) Long, thin-walled, hyaline hyphae with '‘eyelet” type of clamp connections, 4-5 m, characteristically branched near a clamp connection and forming another clamp near the point of origin of the side branch; occa- sional in Voth isolates, (Fig l, al and a2). Thin- walled, hyaline hyphae, clamped and frequently branched, branches usually short and produced in close proximity to each other, 2-4 m wide; occasional in both isolates (Fig. 7, bl and b2) . Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 32 In addition, two more hyphal types were ob- served in cultures of isolate WW1. These were: — (iii) Long, thin-walled hyphae, clamped, 3-4 fx wide, with short side branches slightly naviculate in shape: rare, and arranged in a parallel fashion in the advancing zone (Fig. 7, c2). (iv> Large, thin-walled hyphae, 5-6 u in diameter, with conspicuous clamp connections and characteristically producing branches from three clamp connections (Fig. 1. d2>; rare. (2) Aerial mycelium (Fig. 7, el-j2>. — The aerial mycelium in both isolates, XXI and WW1. possessed five main types of hyphae. two of which were similar to those in the advancing zone (Fig. 7, el, e2, fl, f 2 , compared with al. a2 and d2>. The other hyphal types were; — ( i ( Long, narrow hyphae with highly refractive walls, bearing small clamp connections and branched, either opposite to a clamp connec- tion or near to a clamp, but more often simple branches were found 'Fig. 7, gl-g2i. In isolate WW1 only, this type of hypha occasionally was found to produce structures resembling ehlamy- dospores (Fig. 7. h2). but, unlike true chlamy- dospores, they were not divided from the parent Figure 3 (above ). — Panus fasciatus from Western Aus- tralia. Culture number XXI two weeks old, showing uneven margin and a raised woolly texture on the mycelial mat. Mycelial mat white. Figure 4 < below >, — Panus fasciatus from Western Aus- tralia. Culture number XXI four weeks old, showing that mycelium near and over the inoculum has become very dense. Fruit body primordia have developed near to the inoculum. Mycelial mat now cream buff and pinkish cinnamon. hypha by a septum near the base, (ii) Narrow, thick-walled hyphae, 1-2 u wide, with lumen almost obliterated, frequently branched, re- sembling fibre hyphae but, unlike them, having small clamp connections, rare in XXI. occa- sional in WW1 (Fig. 7, il and i2>. Clamp con- nections of the “eyelet 1 ' type were abundant in cultures of both isolates. Branching of the simple type was frequently found in XXI but occasionally in WW1, where branching near a clamp connection on the parent hypha and pro- ducing another clamp near the origin of the side branch, was slightly more frequent 'Fig. 7, jl and ,12 >. Hyphal diameter 1-5 m mean 3 ± 0.2 ^ for both isolates. (3' Submerged mycelium (Fig. 7, kl-m2». — Hyphae in this area were more intensively branched than In the other areas. Three types were recognised, two of which had been found in the advancing zone and aerial mycelium (Fig. 7. kl, k2 and 11. 12). The third type of hypha was narrow. 1-3 ^ wide, thin -walled and septate, with clamp connections and numerous short side branches often slightly hooked at the tips (Fig. 7, ml and m2'. The Figure 5 (above ). — Panus fasciatus from Western Aus- tralia. Culture number WW1 two weeks old showing essentially the same features as XXI. (cf. Figure 3). Figure Q ( below ) —Panus fasciatus from Western Aus- tralia. Culture number WWl after four weeks. Still showing features similar to XXI (cf. Figure 4» Journal cf the Royal Sscioty cf Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 33 Figure 7. Panus fasciatus from Western Australia. Culture numbers XXI and WW1. Details of hyphae from advancing, aerial, and submerged mycelium. Subscript 1 refers to XXI and subscript 2 refers to WWl. Advancing /.one. al-d2: bl-b2. hyphae with branches produced in close proximity; c2. hyphae with short side branches slightly naviculate in shape; d2, wide hyphae with conspicuous clamp connections characteristically branched at three clamp connections. Aerial Mycelium. el-j2: f2, hyphae irregularly enlarged; gl-g2 hyphae with highly refractive walls; h2. hyphae with terminal swellings resembling chlamydospores ichlamy’) except for the absence of a septum; i2. thick-walled '•fibre hyphae". Submerged mycelium. kl-m2: ml -m2, hyphae with short lateral branches straight or slightly hooked at the tips. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 34 Table 1 Comparison of sporoph ore microstructure of Panus fasciatus and Lentinus terrestris P. fasciatus (W.A.) P. fasciatus (N.S.W.) L. terrestris (N.S.W.) Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Basidia ... Basidiospores Skeletal hyphae (tenerative hyphae Metalloids 20-36 X 4- 7 4-7 x 3-5 3-5 2-4 24 43 x 5 7 27 ±0-1 ■ t; (M 5 t 0-2x3±0-l 3 ±0-1 2 ±0 1 33 • 2 ■ 6 -0-2 22-54 • 4 7 4 7 x 3-5 2-5 2-4 22 36 • 4 7 31 : 1. ■ 8 X 6 ± 0 • 2 18-40x4 9 6 -0-lx4±0-1 5-9 x 4-5 2 ±0-2 3-5 3 ±0-1 2-4 31 -II 7 Nil 29 ±1 - 2x6 ±0-3 6 ±0-5 X 4 ±0-2 4±0-2 3 ±0 1 Nil All measurement* in ^ . “eyelet” type of clamp connection was abund- ant in the submerged mycelium of both isolates. Hyphal diameter 1-6 p, mean 3 ± 0.2 p. for both isolates. Comparison of Panus fasciatus from Western Australia and New South W r ales Specimens of Panus fasciatus from Nambucca Heads, New South Wales, (DFP 5365) showed Figure 8 . — Panus fasciatus from New South Wales. Sporophore corresponding to culture number DFP 5365. Note growth from a pseudosclerotium. strong resemblances to those from Western Aus- tralia in the macro- and micro-features of the sporophores. They both had brown, densely hispid, deeply infunaibuliform pilei; decurrent gills with entire edges; brown, hispid stipes (Fig. 1 and 8). Microscopically they were similar in having a white context, filamentous cuticle, and an irregular, inamyloid trama consisting of skeletal and generative hyphae. The sub- hymenium was indistinct in both specimens and the hymenium consisted of essentially the same elements. These were clavate basidia; oblong, hyaline, smooth, basidiospores; metuloids and setae. There was a slight difference in size of these elements between the two specimens ‘Table 1), and the setae from the New South Wales specimen had thicker walls . Because of Cleland’s suggestion, supported by co-types in his possession, named specimens of L. terrestris were obtained from the Division of Forest Products, C.S.I.R.O., Melbourne for comparison with specimens of Panus fasciatus from Western Australia. The collection supplied was DFP 7396 collected on Mount Banda Banda, Wauchope, N.S.W., September, 1959. Lentinus terrestris showed differences from Panus fasciatus in the macro-and micro- features of the sporophores and in the macro- journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 36 /c rrt Figure 13 . — Lentinus terrestris Lloyd. Sporophores cor- responding to culture number DFP 7396. scopic and microscopic appearance of the cul- tures. Morphologically, L. terrestris differed from P. fasciatus in having pilei that were slightly de- pressed at the centres, gills that were dentate instead of entire, and large sporophores that were also hispid but with shorter abhymenial hairs. L. terrestris grew from a pseudo - sclerotium in soil. (Fig. 1 and Fig. 13). Microscopically (Fig. 14) both sporophores appeared similar but unlike P. fasciatus, the trama in L. terrestris was subregular (Fig. 14. A), although it was also composed of inamyloid, thick-walled skeletal hyphae. Generative and skeletal hyphae appeared similar in both species and were of similar size (Table 1». The sub- hymenium was indistinct and the hymenium was composed of essentially the same elements in both species. These were clavate -shaped basidia; hyaline, inamyloid, smooth basidio- spores, and setae. However, unlike P. fasciatus . L. terrestris had no metuloids. Basidia and basidiospores were larger in L. terrestris (Table 1) and the setae in L. terrestris had uniformally thick walls and were not thin-walled as in P. fasciatus from Western Australia. Cultures of L. terrestris (Fig. 15 and 16) dif- fered in texture, colour and growth rate from cultures of P. fasciatus. L. terrestris had a cot- tony mycelial mat which became woolly during later periods of incubation. P. fasciatus had a woolly texture throughout the whole period of incubation, with the mycelium becoming slightly appressed as the cultures grew older. Growth rate in L. terrestris was slower. The mycelial mat was Pale Pinkish Buff, Pinkish Buff or ba & Figure 14 . — Lentinus terrestris Lloyd. Sporophore cor- responding to culture number DFP 7396. A. — Vertical section through gill showed subregular trama (tr.) in- distinct subhymenium and hymenium consisting of clavate-shaped basidia (bas.) setae (set.) and para- physate hyphae (par.) Note absence of metuloids. B.— Generative hypha, thin-walled, clamped and branched similar to those of P. fasciatus . C. — Skeletal hypha. thick-walled and rarely branched, resembling those of P. fasciatus. D — Clavate basidium, larger than P. fasciatus. E . — Basidiospores similar to those of P. fasciatus except for the larger size. F. — Seta, thick- walled. Light Ochraceous Salmon in L. terrestris where- as it was Cream Buff or Pinkish Cinnamon in P. fasciatus . Reactions on tannic and gallic acid media differed from P. fasciatus only in that on gallic acid being weak. Microscopically, the hyphae in cultures of L. terrestris differed from P. fasciatus in the ab- sence of clamp connections (Fig. 17 compared with Fig. 7). the presence of dendritic hyphae (Fig. 17. c ) and in having true chlamydospores in the aerial and submerged mycelium in L. terrestris (Fig. 17, 1, compare with Fig. 7, h2). The general characters of the L. terrestris isolate, particularly the inamyloid spores and toothed gills, are consistent with its being re- tained in the genus Lentinus, differing from P. fasciatus even at this, the generic, level. Acknowledgements The work described in this paper was con- ducted during the tenure by Mrs. H. C. Brough- ton of a University of Western Australia Post- graduate Award. Thanks are due to Mr. E. W. B. DaCosta and Mr. N. E. M. Walters for supply- ing the New South Wales specimens of Lentinus terrestris and Panus fasciatus and for helpful discussion during visits to their laboratory in the Division of Forest Products. C.S.I.R.O., Mel- bourne. Identification of the Western Austra- lian specimen of Panus fasciatus from Tutan- ning was kindly provided by the Royal Botanic Gardens. Kew. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 37 Figure 15 (above ). — Lentinus terrestris Lloyd. Culture DFP 7396 two weeks old, showing white aerial mycelium, uneven margin and raised cottony-woolly texture. Figure 16 (below ). — Lentinus terrestris Lloyd. Culture DFP 7396 four weeks old, showing zones and radial striations on the mycelial mat. Colour developed over the inoculum, but no fruiting bodies even after exposure to light. References Cleland, J. B. (1934). — “Toadstools and Mushrooms and other Larger Fungi of South Australia." Government Printer. Adelaide, Davidson, R. W., Campbell, W.A. and B'eisdell, D. J. (1£33). — Differentiation of Wood-Decaying fungi by Their Reactions on Gallic or Tan- nic Acid Medium. ./. ayrtc, Res. 57 . 6-33 695. Lloyd, C. G. (1925 ). — Lentinus terrestris from Dr. J, B. Cleland Mycol. Notes 7: 1355. Nobles, M. K. ( 1965).— Identification of cultures of wood-inhabiting H.vmcnomvcetes. Can J. Rot. 43: 1097-1139. Pegler, D. N. ( 1965 ) .—Studies on Australian Agaricales Aust. J. Bot. 13: 323. Refshauge, L. D. and Proctor (1936).— The diagnosis of some wood-destroying Australian Basidio- mvcetes by their cultural characters. Proc. R. Soc. Viet. 48 (NS. Pt. 2) 105-123. Ridgway, P. <1912). — “Color Standards & Nomenclature," Washington. DC. n oP Figure 17 .— Lentinus terrestris Lloyd. Culture number DFP 7396. a-d. hyphae from the advancing zone: e-h, hyphae from the aerial mycelium; i-k, hyphae from the submerged mycelium; a. hyphae intensively branched; c and f, dendritic hyphae, observed in L. terrestris only; d, hyphae with highly refractive walls, and numerous short side branches; m-p. crystals. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July. 1972. 38 5. — A new species of the genus Ramphotyphlops (Serpentes: Typhlopidae) from Western Australia by J. Robb* Communicated by G. M. Storr Manuscript received and accepted 22 February 1972 Abstract A new species of Ramphotyphlops from West- ern Australia is described, and named R. lepto- soma. The new species is shown to most closely resemble R. minimus, but to be dis- tinguished from it by a number of characters. Introduction In September 1967 Mr. R. B. Humphries col- lected two specimens of Ramphotyphlops at “The Loop”, lower Murchison River, Western Austra- lia. The snakes were given to Dr. G. M. Storr of the Western Australian Museum at Perth, who kindly sent them to me for examination. The specimens, one male and one female, proved to be of a previously unrecognised species, and is named and described below. Ramphotyphlops leptosoma new species Holotype: R 29623 (male); “The Loop", lower Murchison River, Western Australia; 3rd Sep- tember 1967; collected by Mr. Robert B. Hum- phries. Paratype: R 29624 (female); same data as holotype. Diagnosis : A small, thin-bodied snake of the genus Ramphotyphlops having: (1) 16 scale rows at mid-body; (2) 660 to 665 dorsal scales; (3) prominent snout, with obtusely angular horizontal edge; (4) inferior nostrils; (5) complete nasal cleft; (6) pale coloration throughout with little contrasting darker markings. Description of species: Total length 250 to 282 mm; tail 4.5 times as long as broad in the male, and 2.5 times as long as broad in the female; diameter at mid-body 3.5 mm; dorsal scales (from rostral to terminal spine) 665 in the male, and 660 in the female; spine on tip of tail conical; 16 longitudinal rows of scales at all points posterior to head: four upper labials, first smallest and fourth largest; rostral very large, extending almost to the level of the eyes, rounded posteriorly, the portion visible from below broader than long, almost reaching nostril, concave at mouth edge; eye visible beneath * Department of Zoology, University of Auckland, New Zealand. translucent ocular and preocular scales; pre- ocular narrower than nasal or ocular, partly overlying eye anteriorly, its lower border in con- tact with second and third upper labials; ocular large, bordered above by supraocular and parie- tal, and posteriorly by two unmodified body scales, lower edge of ocular in contact with third and fourth upper labials; supraocular and parie- tal larger than unmodified dorsal scales; frontal smaller than unmodified dorsal scales: nasal divided by nasal cleft into small antero-ventral portion and large postero-dorsal portion; antero- ventral nasal in contact with first and second upper labials; postero-dorsal nasal extending on to top of snout between rostral anteriorly and preocular and supraocular posteriorly, in con- tact with prefrontal dorsally; nasal cleftextend- ing from lower border of nasal, in contact with second upper labial, through nostril, to meet lateral border of rostal on ventral surf ace : snout prominent, with obtusely angular horizontal edge, forming a ridge; nostrils inferior; five lower labials, the first and third smallest, fourth and fifth largest. Colour generally pale throughout, dorsal sur- face pale grey/brown, undersurface grey /white. Range: Known only from the Murchison River area. Western Australia. Relationships: In characters of bodily scala- tion and proportions R. leptosoma most closely resembles R. minimus / these being the only two Australian species so far described with 16 mid- body scale rows, and small, slender bodies. The two are distinguishable from each other on the basis of the shape of the snout (angular in leptosoma, blunt in minimus); size of the rostral (smaller in leptosoma than minimus > ; the dis- position of the nasal cleft (which reaches the rostral in leptosoma but not in minimus )* and the colour (fairly uniformly pale in leptvsoma, while minimus has an almost black head and tail or tail only, and yellowish browm body dis- tinctly marked with dark longitudinal lines). Acknowledgement I wish to offer my sincere thanks to Dr. G. M. Storr, of the Western Australian Museum for allowing me the privilege of examining and describing these specimens. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 39 A B C Figure 1. — Head of Ramphotyphlops leptosoma new species. A. — Dorsal view. B. — Ventral view. C. — Lateral view. F, frontal; Ip, interparietal; M, mental; N, nostril; Na, nasal; Nc, nasal cleft; O, ocular; P, parietal; Pf, prefrontal; Po, preocular; R, rostral; So, supraocular; 1-4, upper labials; I-V, lower labials. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 40 6. — Observations on the Indo-pacific species of Kraussia Dana 1852 (Decapoda: Brachyura) by R. Serene* Communicated by R. W. George Manuscript received and accepted 18 April 1972 Abstract Ten Indo-pacific species of Kraussia are dis- cussed and illustrated, and a key is provided for their identification. Five of the species are new, and described as K. pelsartensis and K. roycei from Western Australian waters, K. bongensis and K. wilsoni from the Sulu Sea area, and K. marquesa from the Marquesas Islands. Introduction The present observations refer to the study of the collections of Kraussia of the Western Australian Museum, and the National Museum of Singapore. Five species, two from Austra- lian waters, one from the Marquesas Islands and two from the Sulu Sea are new. With ten different species in hand an opportunity is pro- vided to review the situation of the Indo-paci- fic species of Kraussia and to suggest a key for their identification. None of the type material of the previously-described species has been examined. The genus Kraussia , with as type species Kraussia rugulosa 'Krauss 1843), includes in the order of my key the following species: rugu- losa (Kraus 1843), quadriceps Yokoya 1936, wilsoni nov. sp., pelsartensis nov. sp.. roycei nov. sp., 7 nitida Stimpson 1858, aff. nitida , marquesa nov. sp., rastripes Muller 1887, Integra (De Haan 1835 >, bongensis nov. sp. The species porcellana (White 1848) and pro- porcellana Ward 1936 are accepted as synonym of rugulosa . I am not sure of the position of hendersoni Rathbun 1902 as a valid species, con- sidering the confused situation of nitida. The single non west Indo-pacific species of the genus is K. americana Garth 1939. Specific characters (1) Chelipeds : The key of Balss (1922) men- tions as species with reduced fingers only Inte- gra and his key of 1938 mentions all species save rugulosa. The relative size of the two chelipeds one to another, and the relative size of the palm and the fingers in major and minor chelipeds must be distinguished. Three species, rugulosa, quadriceps . and wilsoni have the two chelipeds of nearly the same size with the palm and fingers somewhat dongate. Five suedes, pelsartensis, roycei , nitida, Integra , and bongensis have one cheliped clearly larger than the other, the major cheliped having the palm higher and the fingers shorter than the minor. The other two species, marquesa and rastripes , have the two cheliueds of nearly the same size with high palm and short fingers similar. The shape and proportion of palm and dactylus could slightly vary within * Singapore Museum. Singapore. one given species with the size of the specimen, but no sexual dimorphism seems to mark the chelipeds; those of females and males are identi- cal on all species. The extension on the palm of the black pig- ment or the fixed finger seems to be a specific character in some cases. On the superior border of the merus, a subdistal spine occurs some dis- tance from the distal margin on nearly all the species; a second, smaller spine generally occurs on the distal margin. (2> Measurements. — Rathbun <1902) gives a specific value to the fronto -orbital breadth in regard to the carapace breadth and the charac- ter is used in the key of Balss <1922>. Balss (1935) thinks that the proportion of the two breadths can considerably vary on specimens of the same species, but he expresses his views only in regard to the definition of hendersoni Rathbun 1902 and with reference to few speci- mens examined, which in my opinion are per- haps not conspecific. The breadth of the carapace is mentioned as specific characters in the key of Sakai (1939). Balss ( 1938 » considers also that the proportion of the breadth to the length of the carapace (elongation of the carapace) has a questionable value as a specific character. I have only used this character to separate roycei from pelsar- tensis , because it is such a clearly diagnostic feature. However, the views of Balss deserve new consideration. In my key, the measure- ments are those of the specimens illustrated in the present paper and are in millimetres; the carapace breadth of the carapace seem to be specific. How- ever, the rugae on the dorsal surface of rugu- losa clearly differ from those of other species. The smoothness of the dorsal surface of some species is conspicuous. (6) Third maxilliped . — The ratio of the total length of the third maxilliped to its largest breadth (ischium) is on rugulosa ; 3.14, quadri- ceps : 2.90. marquesa : 2.70. Integra : 2.60, rastripes: 2.57. These discrepancies are not sufficient for specific differentiation but could assist to improve the grouping of the species; the case of the elongate third maxilliped of rugulosa is the most significant. (7) Pereopods 2-5 . — The upper (anterior) oorder of the dactyli of pereopods 2-5 on all species tend to be proximally flattened, the two (anterior and posterior) margins of the upper border forming a kind of distinct carinas. Such a structure varies with the species on pereo- pods 2-4 and is always more developed on pereo- pod 5. Only on rastripes is it fully developed on pereopods 2-4 which, like pereopod 5, is sharply denticulate along the anterior and pos- terior margins of the upper border. On the ether species, the flattening of the proximal part of dactylus is always (at least on pereopods 3-4) short and the main part of the upper (anterior) margin is like the edge of a blade, generally concave, sometimes sinuous, sometimes straight, sometimes with a row of small denti- culations, sometimes smooth. These differences seem to have specific value. Comparison of the dactyli of pereopods 4 and 5 provide an accurate means to separate the species. The posterior margin of the dactyli is always like the edge of a blade and convex. The largest breadth of dactyli in relation to length could also sometimes give a specific discrepancy, but more observations are needed. (8> Male pleopod . — Pleopod 2 is short. Pleopod 1 has been illustrated by Sakai (1934, fig 17a, b) for integra and rugulosa . Stephensen (1945, fig. 33) for *> nitida , Barnard (1950, fig 360 and Buitendijk (1960, fig lb) for rugulosa, and Buitendijk (1960, fig la) for integra. All the ten species have pleopod 1 with the same elongate and slim stem. However their clear differences from one another in regard to the distribution of subdistal spines and setae and the shape of the apex provide the most secure specific character. The illustrations of pleopod 1 given by previous authors are gen- erally insufficient to allow positive identifica- tion. Several of the specific characters given in the following key and in the illustrations could present intraspecific variations which in some cases are sufficient to mislead identification. More exhaustive observation, taking into con- sideration the size and sex of the specimens, would probably define other new and secure specific discrepancies. It also will improve the grouping of the species; already rugulosa clearly seems to belong to a group quite separate from the other species. Note on the Illustrations As in many other cases, lack of illustration is the main obstacle to identification of the species of Kraussia described and recorded pre- viously. Special care has therefore been taken to illustrate the present material. The photographs and drawings are made by the author with a Projectina. On the drawings under the largest magnification (x450 on the screen), the lines representing the outlines of each apex correspond to the projection of a selected contour, which varies with the posi- tion of the pleopod on the slide. The selec- tion partly reflects the personal interpretation of the author for the shape of the apex; other observations could offer more accurate or dif- ferent interpretations. The setae of the apex are generally on the ventral side (at least the largest), and their origins are sometimes indi- cated on the drawings by dotted lines. In any case, the size of the specimen must always be taken into consideration when comparing draw- ings of pleopod 1. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 42 Key for the Indo-pacific Species of Kraussia 1 Lateral border of carapace denti- culate with 4 salient separate acute spines behind extraorbital angle. Dorsal surface of carapace with short transverse rugae. Front feebly prominent in regard to pre- orbital teeth which are salient and separated from frontal mar- gin by a deep incision (anten- nal sinus). Both chelipeds similar subequal with outer surface orna- mented with transverse rugae; fingers somewhat elongate (fixed finger a little longer than superior border of palm). Large gaping between fingers which at tip are rugulosa deeply hollowed. Size: 16.5x19 (Kraussl843) Lateral border of carapace always more or less regularly denticulate without distinctly longer and more salient spines; generally 1 but sometimes 2-3 notches marked. Dorsal surface of cara- pace granular or nearly smooth; sometimes granules arranged in short ripple-like transverse rows but not forming clear transverse rugae. Fingers of both chelipeds without hollowed tip 2 2(1) Pre-orbital tooth marked. Front quadrilobate 3 Pre-orbital tooth absent. Front bilobate 8 3 (2) Fingers of cheliped not remark- ably shortened. Both chelipeds nearly identically shaped, one be- ing only a little larger than the other. Palm not or very little swollen with outer surface nearly smooth. Cutting edge of fixed finger of cheliped with an elon- gated subdistal tooth, which is less marked on minor cheliped. Carapace punctate with small granules arranged in feeble and short transverse ripples near frontal and antero-lateral borders 4 One cheliped or both chelipds with remarkably shortened fingers and palm swollen 5 4 (3) Both chelipeds with palm and fingers similarly elongate; major cheliped a little longer than minor cheliped, but with less high palm. Fixed finger approximately as long as height of palm on minor cheliped, much longer than height of palm on major cheliped. On cutting edge of fixed finger of minor cheliped a well marked elongated subdistal tooth; nearly absent on major cheliped. Black pigment of fixed finger not extending on palm of cheliped. Frontal lobes rounded, deeply separated and strongly prominent beyond preorbital teeth. Dactyli of pereopods 3-4 sickle shaped with anterior border concave. Male pleopod 1 with apex bent laterally and a subdistal bunch of long setae, quadriceps Size: 17x19 Yokoya 1936 Both chelipeds of same length with palm clearly higher and fingers shorter than on quadri- ceps. One cheliped (major) with palm higher and finger shorter than the other (minor). Fixed finger shorter than length of up- per border of palm on major cheliped, longer than upper border of palm on minor cheliped. Black pigment of fixed finger a little extending on palm. Frontal lobes not deeply separated and slightly prominent. Dactyli of periopods 3-4 with anterior border straight. Male pleopod 1 with apex straight truncate without subdistal bunch of long setae. Size; 11x12 5 (3) Both chelipeds with palm nearly smooth; upper border of dactyli feebly carinate and granular on proximal part only Both chelipeds with palm orna- mented distally with a transverse row of large granules and at least on its distal part smaller granular ripples. Upper border of dactyli strongly carinate and granular a;ii 6 (5) Carapace remarkably broad with front-orbital breadth subequal to half breadth of carapace. Frontal margin with widely open median sinus. Major cheliped with strongly swollen palm and short fingers; length of fixed finger much less than half height of palm. Minor cheliped with slim elongate fin- gem regularly tapering; fixed finger bent downwards with length nearly equal to height of palm. Dactyli of pereopods 2-5 with anterior border nearly straight, flattened and acutely granular at least on proximal half. Apex of male pleopod 1 straight, without subdistal bunch of long setae. Size: 14.6x18 Carapace moderately broad with fronto-orbital breadth clearly less than half breadth of carapace. Frontal margin with nearly closed median sinus. Major cheliped with palm feebly swollen and fingers moderately elongate; length of fixed finger clearly more than half height of palm. Minor cheliped as in pelsartensis but with fixed finger not bent down- wards with strong subdistal tooth on cutting edge: dactylus broader and more canaliculate. Dactyli of pereopods 2-5 with anterior border sinuous without marked flattening and devoided of gran- ules. Apex of male pleopod 1 as a short beak bent at 45° with a subdistal bunch of long setae. Size: 13.2x14 7 (5) Both chelipeds clearly unequal; palm of major cheliped higher than that of minor cheliped; dactyli of at least minor cheliped not remarkably recurved: fixed finger of major cheliped clearly shorter than half height of palm, of minor cheliped clearly longer than half height of palm. No indication of black colour extending on palm. Frontal mar- gin with closed median sinus. A clear sinus on outer part of up- per orbital border. Dactyli of pereopods 2-5 sickle shaped with- out granules on anterior border. Male pleopod with apex bent at 50 and ornamented with a ore- apical bunch of long setae. Size: 98x10.8 Both chelipeds subequal: dactyli similarly and remarkably re- curved and strongly granular. Fixed finger in one cheliped shorter than in the other; its length approximately one-fourth of height of palm instead of one- third in the other. Black wilsoni nov. sp. 6 7 pelsartensis nov. sp. roycei nov. sp. aff. nitiaa Stimpson 1858 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 43 colour of fixed finger extending on palm. Frontal margin with a V-shaped open median sinus. No trace of sinus on upper orbital border. Anterior border of dac- tyli of pereopods 2-5 feebly con- cave (nearly straight) with gran- ules only on pereopod 5. Male pleopod with nearly straight apex and a few subdistal setae. Size: 12.7x14 8 (2) Dactyl! of pereopods 2-5 with upper (anterior) margin nearly straight, flattened with on each side a row of acute granules. Dor- sal surface of carapace nearly smooth, strongly and regularly convex in the middle. Antero- lateral borders of carapace regu- larly convex, thickly armed with acute granules without indica- tion of any notch. No indication of sinus on upper orbital border. Two chelipeds subequal with short fingers identically shaped. On both chelipeds length of fixed finger approximately one-fourth of height of palm. Male pleo- pod distally acuminate with a subdistal bunch of long setae, Size: 11.1x12.8 Dactyli of pereopods 2-4 with anterior border concave, flattened and granular only on short proxi- mal part; anterior border of pereopod 2 with a row of some acute granules, those of pereopods 3-4 without granules. Dorsal sur- face of carapace granular. Antero- lateral borders of carapace with a notch at some distance behind the orbit. Strongly marked sinus on upper orbital border. Two chelipeds slightly but clearly un- equal ... 9 (8) Frontal margin feebly undulate; dorsal surface of carapace slightly flattened. Both chelipeds with palm and fingers differently shaped. Major cheliped with palm higher, dactylus more re- curved, fixed finger shorter than marquesa nov. sp. rastripes Muller 1886 9 Figure 1. — Male pleopods 1 and 2 of K. rugulosa, WAM 262-70 of cl:16.0. cb:16.5. on minor cheliped. Length of fixed finger one-fourth of height of palm in major cheliped, one- third of height of palm in minor cheliped; black colour of fixed finger not extending on upper half of palm. Male pleopod with apex acuminate. Size: 16x19.5 .... Frontal margin straight; dorsal surface of carapace regularly con- vex. Both chelipeds with palm and fingers identically shaped; length of fixed finger one-fourth of height of palm; black colour of fixed finger extending on upper half of palm. Male pleopod with apex broadened as a round lobe. Size: 20x23 Integra De Haan 1835 bongenst nov. sp. Kraussia rugulosa (Krauss 1843) (Figs. 1, 2, 23 A) Platyonichus rugulosa, Krauss, 1843, p. 26, pl.l, fig. 5. Trichocera porcellana, White. 1848, p. 59. Kraussia rugulosa, Dana, 1852, p. 302, pi. 9. fig 1 — De Man, 1887. p. 343, pi. 14. fig. 2.— Borradaile, 1903, p. 270. — Rathbun, 1906, p. 876 (no material), — Steb- bing 1910, p. 310.— 1918. p. 54.— Balss. 1922, p. 98.— 1938, p. 27, fig. 10.— Urita, 1926, p 11. — Edmondson, 1925. p. 36.— 1946, p. 284, fig. 175.— Sakai. 1934, p. 305. text-figure. 76b— 1936, p. 139. text-fig. 65.— 1939. p 431, text-fig. 21.— Tweedie, 1947, p, 28.— 1950, p. 108.— Barnard, 1950. p. 195, fig. 36A, B. C.~ Buitendiik 1960, p. 253, fig. lb. Kraussia proporcellana, Ward, 1935. p. 10, pi. 1 , fig. 7 . Type locality: South Africa. Material — WAM.262-70, series of 6 speci- mens, largest male of cl: 16.5, cb:19.0, Loc: Fly- ing Fish Cove, Christmas Island, Coll: Mr. Powell, 23.6.1961, Det: proporcellana: NMS.1965. 10.10.3 male, Loc: Cocos Keeling, Coll: Gibson Hill, 1941, Det: Tweedie, 1950, p. 108: NMS.1965. 10.10.2, male of cl:10, cb:11.40, Loc: Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, Coll: Gibson Hill, 1940, Det: Tweedie, 1947, p. 281: NMS. 1965.10.10.1, Loc: Christmas Island, Coll: Ward, 1934, Para- type specimen of K. proporcellana Ward, 1934, Balss (1938, p. 28) corrected as rugulosa . Remarks: — The two chelipeds differ slightly; one has its palm a little longer and higher with rugae of the outer surface more marked than the other. The male pleopod is like that illus- trated by Barnard a 950* and has a distally broadened apex with a subdistal bunch of long setae: it also has some heavy short pre-apical spines which are not indicated on Barnard’s figure. Laurie (1906), examining the type of porcellana , stated it to be identical with rugu- losa as suggested by Dana <1852>. Ward (1934) separated proporcellana from rugulosa and con- siders porcellana as a distinct species. The syn- type of proporcellana deposited in the National Museum of Singapore does not present any dis- crepancy in regard to the present series and con- firms the views of Balss on the identity of the two forms. However, the comparison of the Type specimen of rugtfosa or a topotype from South Africa or material from Jaoan and Hawaii with the types of the species of propor- cellana and porcellana (the tw T o in the British Museum) could suggest that more than one species should be recognised. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 44 The recorded size of specimens are by D 2 Man (1887) 17.5x20.75; Sakai (1939) a male of 17x20; Barnard (1950) one male of 13x15 and one female of 11x12; Ward (1934) three specimens of 8.5, 10, 12 as carapace width. The species is recorded from South Africa 'Krauss, Stebbing, Barnard), Philippines (White), Hawaii (Dana, Rathbun, Edmondson >, Mergui Archipelago «De Man), Minikoi, Laccadives (Borradaile) , Gil- bert Islands, Ellice Islands, Samoa Islands, Marshall Islands (Balss), Christmas Islands in Indian Ocean (Ward), Tweedie, Cocos Keeling Islands (Tweedie), Timor (Buitendijk) , Japan, Formosa (Urita, Sakai). Kraussia quadriceps Yokoya 1936 (Pigs. 3, 4, 23B) Kraussia quadriceps, Yokoya, 1936, p. 143, fig, 9. — Sakai, 1939, p. 431. Type locality: Japan. Material. — WAM.266-70, male of cl: 17, cb:19, Loc: North Steamboat Island, Dampier Archi- pelago, N.W.A., 14 faths Hon. drge, Coll; Royce on “Davena”, Date coll: 27.5.1966; WAM. 273-70, male of cl:10, cb:11.5, Loc: 20 miles N. of Delambre Is., Dampier Arch., N.W.A., Source: B. R. Wilson on “Davena”, Date coll: 7/6/1960; NMS. 1970.1.3.1., female with cl: 12.00, cb: 13.00, carapace with only one cheliped and no other pereopod, Loc: Colombo, Ceylon, R. Serene coll. 1966. Observations. — The present specimens have: < 1 > the front salient with four lobes anteriorly rounded (the left is damaged on the illustrated specimen and deeply separated). — 2) the two chelipeds similarly shaped, with the palm and fingers elongate and smooth, but slightly un- qual; one cheliped is a little longer than the other with palm less high; the cutting edge of the fixed finger of shorter cheliped has an elongate subdistal tooth, which is very feeble on the other cheliped. Also, the cutting edge of dactylus of the shorter cheliped has a proxi- mal low tooth which does not exist on the other cheliped. — 3) a notch marking the posterior limit of the anterior third of lateral border and with a distinct tooth behind; a second notch situatsd more posteriorly is well marked. — 4> the dac- tyli of pereopods 2-5 sickle shaped and elongate with concave anterior border. Their identity with quadriceps appears valid. The low 7 elongate tooth of the cutting edge of the fixed finger is not indicated on the descrip- tion of Yokoya (1936), who only mentions: “thumb of chela normally w^ll developed.” The male pleopod 1 has its apex bent nearly at right angle to form a transverse beak and presents on one side a large bunch of very long setae. Examination of the type specimen for these Figure 2 —Kraussia rugulosa , WAM 232-70, male of cl : 16.5, cb:19.0. A. entire animal.— B, pereopods 4. 5 (ven- tral view).— C, right cheliped.— D, left cheliped. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2. July, 1972. 45 266-70 of cl :15.3, cb:16.6. characters of the male pleopod 1 and for the fixed finger would confirm or modify the pres- ent identification. On the largest sp cimen the dactyli of the pereopod 5 are missing on the two sides. Those of the smaller specimens (273) are illustrated as indicated on the text of the plate. The fronto-orbital breadth of quadriceps is com- paratively narrower than any other species of Kraussia and is clearly less than half of the largest breadth of the carapace. In all other species it is a little more than half. K . quadri- ceps was previously known by the single type specimen, a male of cl: 10.7, cb:11.3, from Japan. Kraussia wilsoni nov. sp. (Figs. 5. 6, 23C) Type specimen: Western Australian Museum, Perth. Type locality: off Siasi Island, Sulu Archi- pelago. Type material. — Holotype, WAM, 278-70, male of cl: 11, cb:12; Paratype, WAM. 143-71, female of cl:9, cb:10.5, Loc: North of Siasi Is., Sulu Arch., 20-22 faths., sponges, coral and sand. Coll: B. R. Wilson on “Pele”, 17/2/1964; WAM. 38-71, one female of cl: 8, cb:9, Loc: h mile from Don Can Is., Laparan Group, Sulu Arch., 30 faths., sand and lithothamnion. Coll: B. R. Wilson on “Pele'\ 21/2/1964. Figure 4 .— Kraussia quadriceps. WAM 266-70, male of cl:17.0, cb:19.0 A, dorsal view.— B, pereopods 4, 5 (of WAM 273). — C, right cheliped. — D, left cheliped. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 46 Diagnosis . — Carapace nearly smooth, punc- tuate with some granules on the area close to frontal and antero-lateral margins. Frontal margin consists of four round lobes, only a little salient beyond the inn r supra orbital angle which is blunt, like the extraorbital angle. Antero-lateral margin of carapace wi:h a feeble notch. Both chelipeds smooth with same length but one with palm higher and finger a little shorter than on the other. Both fingers rela- tively strong, normally developed, longitudinally carinate, their length clearly less <0.68 on major cheliped, 0.78 on minor cheliped) than height of palm; cutting edge of fixed finger of major cheliped with a low elongate subdistal tocth; cutting edge of dactylus with a proximal large low tooth. No clear tooth on cutting edge of fingers of minor cheliped. On both chelipeds brown colour of fixed finger extends a little on palm. Anterior border of the pereopods 2-5 nearly straight with a longitudinal row ? of small granul s. Granules a little acute and extend nearly all along on pereopod 2; feeble on pereo- pod 5 and limited to the proximal part on pereo- pods 3 and 4. Male pleopod devoid of any bunch of setae, with truncate apex, ornamented with subdistal acute spinules, larger and more numerous on outer side. Figure 5. — Male pleopod 1 of K. wilsoni, WAM 278-70 of cl :10.0, cb :10.8 Figure 6 . — Kraussia wilsoni , WAM 278-70. male of clrll.O. cb:12.0. A. dorsal view. — B, pereopods 2, 3. — C, major cheliped. — D. minor cheliped. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 47 r U i l * I I Figure 7. — Male pleopod 1 of K. pslsartensis, WAM 265-70 of cl :13.3, eta: 15.6. Observations . — The paratype (smaller female) has the pre-distal tooth developed on the cut- ting edge of the fixed finger of the two cheli- peds. Such a difference could be related to the different size as well as to the sex of the speci- men. On the small female (WAM38-71) the discrepances in regard to the holotype is more accentuated; the difference between the major and the minor chelipeds is strong: i\ the major having comparatively a palm higher and the fingers shorter; the tooth on the cutting edge of the fixed finger is particularly large. The minor cheliped is more elongate, with dactylus more deeply carinate and granular on superior border. The extension of the brown colour of the fixed finger on the palm is already marked. By the shape of its carapace and chelipeds, toilsoni is closer to quadriceps than to any other species, but it clearly differs by several charac- ters of the front, the chelipeds, the dactyli of the pereopods 2-5 and the male pleopod 1. The fron to -orbital breadth is clearly more than half the largest breadth of the carapace, instead of being clearly less on quadriceps. The species is dedicated to Dr. B. R. Wilson from the Western Australian Museum, who col- lected the Type mat: rial, as well as an import- ant part of the other material used for the pres- ent paper. Figure 8.- Kraussia pelsartensis. WAM 265-70, male of cl:14.6, cb:18.0. A. dorsal view. — B. pereopods 4, 5 (of WAM 270). — C, major cheliped. — D. minor cheliped. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 48 Kraussia pelsartensis nov. sp. (Figs. 7, 8, 23D) Type specimen: Western Australian Museum, Perth. Type locality: off Hummock Island, Pelsart group, Abrolhos. Material . — Holotype, WAM.265-70, male of cl: 14.6, cb:18, lacking pereopods 2-5 on left side, and pereopod 4 on right side, Loc: 3 miles, west Hummock Island, Pelsart Group, Abrolhos, 20 faths., Source: R. W. George on “Davena”. 2.6.1960; Paratypes, WAM.268-70, 2 males, one of cl: 14.5, cb:18, another of cl: 12, cb:14.5, Loc- Cape Vlaming, Rottnest Island, Source: B. R. Wilson, Date coll: 1/3/1962; WAM.270-70, male of cl: 13, cb;16. Loc. S.W. of Point Cloates, 113° 39' 30"E, 22 43' 30"S, Source: Ningaloo Exp:d., 7/9/1968; WAM. 274-70. 2 males, the largest of cl: 19.5, cb:ll, Loc: N.W. Rat Island, Abrolhos Group, Honolulu Dredge, 25 faths., coralline bank, Source: R. W. George on “Davena”, Date coll: 12/5/1960. Diagnosis. — Holotype. Carapace nearly smooth with some small flattened granules on the area close to the front and lateral border. Front quadrilobate with a deep open medium incision, little salient beyond the orbits. Inner supra orbital angle (preorbital spine) marked and well separated from the front by the antennal sulcus but not acute. A small concavity is pres- ent behind extraorbital angle on antero-lateral margin of carapace, followed posteriorly by a convexity and a notch. Both chelipeds smooth, differently shaped but with palm of same length. Major cheliped with a swollen palm, as high as half its total length; both fingers short; Figure 9. — Male pleopod of K. roycei, WAM 269-70 of cl : 13.2 , cb :14. Figure 10 . — Kraussia roycei, WAM 269-70, male of cl:l3.2 cb;14. A. dorsal view. — B, pereopods 4, 5. — C, major cheliped. — D. minor cheliped. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 55 Part 2, July. 1972. 49 fixed finger a little longer than on:-third of height of palm. Dactylus with some granules on the proximal third of its superior border and one large rounded tooth on its cutting edge; fixed finger with two molariform teeth on its cutting edge, proximal tooth much smaller. Minor cheliped with palm somewhat elongate, clearly less high than half its length; both fingers, elongate, som.what slim, tapering dis- tally with tips crossing and a gap between them. Fixed finger nearly as long as height of palm; dactylus much longer; fixed finger bent down- ward, a concavity marking lower border of palm. Dactyli of pereopods 2-5 have anterior border nearly straight < feebly sinuous), posterior borders convex; all anterior border of pereopods 2 and 5 denticulate; only its proximal half denticulate on pereopod 3. Denticles stronger on pereopod 5; pereopods 4 missing on both sides of holotype. On paratype (WAM.270-70) ant rior border of dactyli of pereopod 4 like on pereopod 3 of holotype but with denticle extend- ing a little over its proximal half. Male pleo- pod with apex straight and ornamented on outer side by a subdistal row of 10 large but rela- tively short acicular s:tae; outer side of stem with a series of strong short spines on distal fifth part of its length, inner side only orna- mented by some fine accicular spinules. Observations . — On the largest male of the paratypes and suggests that the two specimens belong to the same species. The material of Balss (1938) or a part of it could also belong to the present form, of which the identity with nitida Stimpson has still to be demonstrated. Kraussia marquesa nov. sp. (Figs. 14, 15, 23G and H> Type specimen: Western Australian Museum. Type locality: Anaa Atoll, Marquesas Island. Material . — Holotype < WAM. 264-70 > , male of cl. 12. 7 x cb:14; pereopods 2-5 left side missing, pereopod 2 right side separated but present, Loc: Anaa Atoll, Sta An IV T-V. depth 30-60 feet. Coll: Marquesas Exped. 1967, Date: 29.10.1967; ? NMS. 1969. 11.20.5, male of cl:15.33, cb:18.66, Loc: Puerto Galera, Mindoro. Philippines, Coll: Univ. Philippines. One cheliped missing, only two ambulatory legs present. Dry specimen now re-generated and maintained in a^ohol. Diagnosis. — (Holotype). Carapace strongly granular all ov:r; the margin of carapace with strong and acute granules. Front quadrilobate, salient beyond orbit and with an open deep median incision. Antennal notch well marked; no trace of sinus on upper orbital border. Lateral margin of carapace with feeble but clearly indicated lateral notch. Two chelipeds similar with high palm and short fingers. Fixed finger of right cheliped approximately one -third of "height of palm, of the left chelipzd one- fourth of the height of palm. Outer surface of the palm strongly granular with black pigment of fixed finger extending on palm. Dactyli of pereopods 2 and 5 with strong acute granules on anterior border; one row of gran- ules on that of pereopod 2 and two rows on that of pereopod 5; the dactyli of pereopods 3 and 4 sickle-shaped, and without granules on ante- rior border. Male pleopod 1 with apex nearly straight (a little bent) with a few subdistal long acicular setae and some strong short pre- apical spin is. Sakai (1939, 1965) as well as from nitida illus- trated by Balss (1938). The two chelipeds with high palm and short fingers, the black pigment of the fixed finger extended on the palm as well as the strong granulation of the carapace of marquesa are characters close to those of Integra and bongensis as described and illus- trated in the present paper. K. marquesa dif- fers from the two by the antennal sinus separ- ating the front from the inner supra orbital angle, and the absence of sinus on the supra orbital border. That sinus is on those species always well marked and continued on the dor- sal surface of the carapace by a longitudinal depression, distinctly indicated on the figure of Sakai < 1939, 1965) and very clear on the speci- mens of the present collection. The extension of the black pigment on the palm has, in my opinion, specific value as a character and must lead to a comparison of jnarquesa with hendersoni, a species separated from nitida by Rathbun G902) mainly on the basis of the black pigment of the palm and the different shape of the front. The specimen from Puerto Galera is identi- fied with reserve as marquesa. It strongly dif- fers from the holotype by its frontal border with median incision deeper and lateral lobes triangu- lar and deeply exacavatid, inner supra- orbital Figure 14.— Male pleopod 1 of K. marquesa, WAM 264 Observations. —By its chelipeds with very high ealm and short fingers, marquesa differs from nitida as illustrated by Stimpson (1907) and 70 of cl :12.2, cb:14. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 53 angle more acute, antennal notch deeper. (On the specimen the right inner supra-orbital lobe is broken). These characters agree with those described by Stimpson (1848, 1907), mentioned by Miers (1884), Henderson (1893), Alcock (1899), and illustrated by Henderson (1893, pi. 39, fig. 9), Stimpson (1907, pi. 10. fig. 4) and Sakai (1939, text-fig. 20, pi. 52, fig. 2 and 1965, pi. 49, fig. 2) for nitida. Also its carapace is broader and front nar- rower than on the hole type. Measurements of the carapace of the holotype ( 1 ) , the Puerto Galera's specimen (2) and the specimen identi- fied aff. nitida (3) give the following ratios: carapace breadth /carapace (1) (2) (3) length frontal breadth/carapace 1.14 1.19 1.10 length frontal breadth /carapace 0.40 0.38 0.40 breadth fronto-orbital breadth/cara- 0.35 0.32 0.37 pace breadth 0.55 0.53 0.55 The specimen of Puerto Galera has a car a- pace broader, and a front narrower, than the holotype of marquesa and the specimen of aff. nitida , which has the same frontal breadth as marquesa but a narrower carapace. Rathbun (1902) indicates that on nitida “the fronto-orbital width is nearly two-thirds the full width of carapace” and on hendersoni “only half as great as that of carapace”. By its nar- rower front as well as by the shape of its fron- tal margin the specimen of Puerto Gal era is close to hendersoni. The chelipeds of hendersoni are slightly but clearly unequal on the photo- graph published by Rathbun G906, pi. 14, fig. 2) and unfortunately the present specimen has only one cheliped. Besides, its male pleopod is so close to that of marquesa that at least provisionally it is considered as belonging to the same species. The name is a Spanish noble rank and recalls the area of the type material: Marquesas Island. Kraussia integra (De Haan 1835) (Figs. 16, 17, 18, 23 1) Cancer (Xantho) integer. De Haan, 1835, p. 65, pi 18, fig. 6. Actumnus integra, Richters, 1880, pi. 16, fig. 17, 18. Kraussia integra , Rathbun, 1906, p. 875, pi. 14, fig 3. — 1911, p. 211. — Balss, 1922, p. 97 (no material). — 1938, p. 29. — Gordon, 1931, p. 527 (in a list) — Sakai, 1934, p. 304, text-fig. 17a. — 1636. p. 137, pi. 14. fig. 1, text-fig. 64.— 1939. p. 429. pi 52, fig. 1.— 1963. p. 107, pi. 49. fig. 1. — Buitendijk. I960, p. 233. fig. la. Figure 15 . — Kraussia marquesa, WAM 264-70, male of cl: 12.7, cb:14. A, dorsal view. — B, pereopods 4, 5. — C, right cheliped. — D, left cheliped. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 54 Not Kraussia Integra, Borradaile, 1902, p. 270 nitida fide Rathbun 1902. Not Kraussia Integra, Alcock, 1899, p. 97 rastripes. Not Kraussia Integra, Tweedie, 1950, p. 108 = ras- tripes. Type locality: Japan. Material . — WAM. 134-70, male of cl: 15.33, cb: 17.33, another much smaller specimen, Loc: 7 miles 260 from Zal Island Pearl Bank, Sulu Arch., Col: B. R. Wilson on Pele Exped. 21/2/1964, 10 fathoms, lithothamnion and sand; WAM. 271-70, female of cl:12, cb:13, with only one cheliped. Loc: Stn. 2 E. of Cape Poivre, 20' 53'S, 115 20'E, Date col: 24/8/1966, Hab: sand flats with rocks and sponges under stones, inter-tidal; WAM. 275-70, male of cl: 10, cb : 11 and one female of cl: 13, cb:14, Loc: k mile S.W. of Don Can Is., Laparan Group, Sulu Arch,, Source: B. R. Wilson on “Pele”, Date coll: 21/2/1964, 30 faths., sand and lithotham- nion; WAM. 276-70, damaged male of cl: 9, cb:10.5 Loc: Sulu Archipelago, Source: B. R. Wilson on ‘Pele”, Date coll: 2/3/1964; WAM. 277-70, male of cl : 16, cb:19.5, Loc: 6-7 miles of Pearl Bank, Sulu Arch., 9-12 faths., coarse sand, Source: B. R. Wilson on •Tele”. Date coll: 21/2/1964. — Mariel King Memorial Expedition 1970: KR VI, north of Du Rowa Is., N. of Nuhu Rowa, Kai Islands, 5 32'S, 132° 41'E; H3-10, 20 faths., Figure 15. — Male pleopod 1 of K. intcgra WAM 277-70 of cl :17. cb : 19 .5 . Figure 17 . — Kraussia integra, WAM 277-70. male of cl: 16. cb:19.5, A, dorsal view. — B, pereopods 4, 5. — C. right cheliped. — D. left cheliped. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 55 Figure 10 . — Kraussia Integra . KR VI/H3-10, male of cl:9, cb:10, cheliped of juvenile. sand and rubble, Date coll: 10/6/1970: KN II, off Elat Bay, west coast Nuhu Tjut, Kai, 5° 40'S, 139° 59'E; H3-4, 27-35 fms., rubble, fan coral, some sand and gre:n algae. Date coll: 13/6/1970; CP II. off Tg. Tutuhuhur. Piru Bay. Ceram, 128* 8'E, 3° 15'S; H8-9, 20-26 fms., coarse sand, lithothamnion sand rubble, Date coll: 1/6/1970. The largest specimen (KR VI/H3-10) one male of cl:9, cb:10. Preliminary remarks. — Apart from the original of De Haan (1835, not seen) the single accurate description of Integra is that of Sakai <1939), It could be considered that no accurate illus- tration of the species exists in the literature at least in regard to the chelipeds, the best being those of Sakai <1939, 1965). A re -examination of the Type specimen or material from Japan would be essential to evaluate the present ob- servations. The only reference in the literature to the size of the species is a male of 18x22.5 given by Sakai (1939), who recorded a total of 16 specimens. Alcock (1899) quotes: ,l K. rastripes Muller” as a synonym of Integra and Balss (1922) kept the same standpoint. In fact, the description of Alcock corresponds to rastripes and not to integra. Some of the specimens of integra identified by authors referring to Alcock (1899) could belong to rastripes, as is further demon- strated for those of Tweedie (1950). Observations. — The frontal lobes are “shallow bilobate” like indicated by Sakai <1939). The sinus of the supra- orbital border is well marked. The carapace is granular all over, the granules arranged in small transverse ripples at least on th3 postfrontal and lateral region. The small specimens under 10 are smooth. The dac- tyli of the pereopods 2-5 are “blade shaped and recurved” as described by Sakai (1939). On the largest male (277), the two chelipeds are clearly unequal, and with a different shape. On the major cheliped the two fingers are shorter, the palm is higher than on the minor; on the major cheliped the palm is clearly longer than on the minor. Sakai (1939) writes: ‘Cheli- peds are subeoual in size but usually unequal in the shape of the fingers . . . the fingers of one cheliped are very often longer than those of the opposite cheliped; in a very young speci- men, the movable finger is usually very much more incurved inward than in the adult.” On a smaller male (275) of 10x11 the two chelipeds also are clearly unequal and very like the large specimen: the female of the same series (275) is damaged and has only one cheliped which has short fingers but is comparatively less swollen and more acutely granular than on the male. Another small male and Buitendijk (I960, fig. la). However I hold some reserve on the identity of the pres- ent material with integra. The species is recorded from Japan (De Haan, Balss, Sakai), China 'Gordon), Hawaii (Rath- bun), Gilbert Island (Balss) and Sulu Molucca Seas (present record). Mters (1884, p. 235) in recording specimens of nitida mentioned that in the British Museum, specimens from Philip- pines (Cuming collection) probably belongs to integra. It is, with nitida and rugulosa, the most recorded species of Kraussia. The speci- men ( WAM. 271-70 ) from the S. of Cape Poivre is the first record of the species in Australian waters. Kraussia bongensis nov. sp. (Figs. 19, 20, 23J, 24) Type specimen: Western Australian Museum. Type locality: Tawitawi Bay, Sulu Archipelago. Material. — Holotype (WAM.263-70A) male of cl:20, cb:23; Paratypes, WAM.263-70B, male of cl:15, cb:17; WAM.263-70C, male of cl: 14. cb:15, Loc: about 9 miles 130" from Bongae Light, Tawitawi Bay, Sulu Arch., Coll: B. R. Wilson on “Pele \ Date coll: 29/2/1964. Other speci- mens of the same loc: 2 males and 1 female, the largest of cl: 9.5. cb:ll. Diagnosis. — (Holotype). Carapace dorsally convex with fine small granular transverse ripples all over. Front bilobate, anterior margin of lateral frontal lobes straight, no trace of antennal sulcus. Antero -lateral border with a feeble concavity behind external orbital angle and posteriorly a feeble notch. Two chelipeds unequal and differently shaped. Major cheliped with palm higher and longer than that of minor cheliped. Length of fixed finger clearly more than on~ -third of height of palm on major cheliped, and clearly less on minor cheli- ped. Outer surface of both chelipeds similarly covered with salient granular transverse ripples and ornamented on distal part with black colour of fixed finger extending near upper border of palm. Dactyli of pereopods 2-4 sickle-shaped with anterior border concave with- out granules save on a very short proximal flat- Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 56 tening; anterior border of pereopod 5 entirely granular. Male pleopod with apex forming a lamellar broadening lobe with round distal margin; some subdistal long acicular setae and some stout pre-apical spines. Observations . — Only on the holotype is the black colour of the palm strongly marked. The male pleopod of the largest paratype has a larger number of subdistal setae and the apical lobe slightly differently shaped. On the smallest male the apical lobe is only developed as a straight small tongue not significantly broadening distally. The male pleopod provides the most signifi- cant discrepancy between bongensis and Integra. In addition, bongensis differs from integra by: (1) the frontal lobe with anterior margin straight instead of sinuous and median sinus closer.— x 2 > ?. marked small concavity immedi- ately behind the extraoroital angle. — (3) a less subquad ate outline of the carapace border and its dorsal surface more convex. — (4) the fingers of both chelipeds which are more incurved with a wider gap. — (5) the black colour of the palm extending higher. Figure 19— Male pleopod 1 of K. bongensis, WAM 263- 70 of cl :20, cb :23. Figure 2D . — Krcnssia bongensis, WAM 263-70. male of cl:20, cb:23. A, dorsal view.— B, pereopods 4. 5.— C. right cheliped. — D, left cheliped. Journal of the Royal Society cf Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 57 Figure 21. — Male pleopod 1 of K. rastripes, NMS.1969. 11.20.4 of cl :9, cb:10. Measurements taken on the carapace of larg- est males of Integra (1), bongensis (2) and rastripes (3) give the following ratios: carapace breadth/carapace 1 2 3 length frontal breadth /carapace 1.13 1.14 1.14 length frontal breadth/carapace 0.33 0.33 0.44 breadth fronto-orbital breadth/cara- 0.29 0.29 0.38 pace breadth 0.54 0.50 0.58 This demonstrates that only rastripes has a front clearly broader than bongensis and integra. The comparison of the present ratio with those given before for the aff. nitida-marquesa group confirm that the specimen of marquesa from Puerto Galera has a carapace broader than any other. Kraussia rastripes Muller 1887 (Figs. 21, 22, 23K) Kraussia rastripes, Muller, 1887, p. 480. pi. 4, fig. 5. — Borradaile, 1900, p. 576.— Balss, 1938, p. 28, fig. 13. Kraussia integra, Alcock, 1899, p. 97. — Tweedie, 1950, p. 108. Not integra (De Haan). Type locality: Ceylon (Trincomale) . Figure 22. — Kraussia rastripes, NMS.1969 11.20 4. female of cl:10, cb:12.40. A, dorsal view. — B, pereopods 3, 4, 5. — C, right cheliped. — D, left cheliped. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 53 Figure 23. — Frontal border of Kraussia: A, rugulosa. — B. Quadriceps. — C. wilsoni. — D. pelsartensis. — E, roycei. — F. aff. nitida. — G, H. marquesa . — I, \ Integra . — J, bongensis. — K. rastripes. Save for H. male of cl:15.3, cb:18.6 of marquesa ; all specimens are those illustrated in the previous photographs. All photographs with magnification approximately x 10. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2. July, 1972. 59 Material.— NMS. 1969. 11.20.4, male of cl:9, cb:10; NMS. 1969. 10. 10.4, female of cl:10.8, cb:12.40; NMS. 1969. 10. 10.5, female a little smaller, Loc: Cocos Keeling, Coll. Gibson Hill 1941, Det: as integral by Tweedie, 1950, p. 108. Remarks . — Tweedie (1950* expressed reserve in his identification by placing a ? on the label of the jar; the reserve is not indicated on his paper. The specimen agrees accurately with the description of Alcock (1899) for nitida but clearly differs from Integra. Tweedie (1950), referring for his identification as Integra to Balss (1938*, who does not give any illustration nor any comments on Integra, was probably re- ferring to the description of Alcock (1899). Muller (1886 * mentions the close relation be- tween his species and Integra but among the characters of rastripes he states that the pereo- pods 2-5 have on the anterior border of the propodi two or three rows and on that of the dactyli one row of acute tubercle-like saw- teeth (Sagezahne*. In the description of Inte- gra by Alcock (1899) the dorsal surface of the dactyli of ambulatory legs “abundantly and elegantly denticulate’’ correspond to rastripes and not to Integra , which according to Sakai (1939* has those dactyli “blade shaped and re- curved”. The name rastripes given to a single male of 13 x 15 has been correctly used by Borradaile (1900) for a female from Rotuma, and by Balss (1938), who examined 4 females and 1 male from the Hamburg Museum and one female from the Berlin Museum but gave the size of only one female of 12 x 14. I correct as rastripes the identifications of the Integra specimens of Alcock (1899) and Tweedie (1950*. Observations . — The species can be identified at first view by its subcircular carapace (“Pan- zer subcycloid", Muller) and strongly denti- culate ambulatory legs. The material of Tweedie <1950' was examined and found in full agreement with the descriptions and illustra- tions of Muller (1886) and Balss G938). K. rastripes diffzrs from Integra and bongensis by: (1) the dorsal surface of the carapace more convex and nearly smooth. — (2) the frontal border less salient beyond the orbit and form- ing a hemispherical curve with the antero- lateral border, which are without indication of any notch. — (3) the absence of sinus on the upper orbital border. — (4) both chelipeds equal and identically shaped; the length and height of the palm, the length and shape of the fingers are the same in the two chelipeds. — (5) the palm of the cheliped higher with granules larger but less numerous and more separated; similarly the granules in the dactyli are larger and more separated. — (6) the anterior border of the dactyli of the pereopod 2-5 nearly straight, all along flattened with on each side of the flattening a row of acute teeth. — (7* the male pleopod. As indicated before in the observations on bongensis, also the front of rastripes is broader than on these two species. K. rastripes is recorded from Ceylon (Muller), Rotuma (Borradaile), Gilbert Island, Pulau Island, Carolines Island, New Guinea (Balss), Andamans (Alcock), Cocos Keeling Island (Tweedie) . Remarks on the ecology, the ethology and the relationship of Kraussia I myself have never seen a living specimen of Kraussia; the present remarks only refer for ecology to the data of the present collection and some few authors; for the ethology to personal observations made on other groups of Brachyura. The species of Kraussia live on bottom of coarse sand around the rocky and coral area extending from the shores to the depth of 100m. They are digging crabs like the other Corystidea, the Gymnopleura, some Oxystomata, some Xanthidae, Goneplacidae and Pinnotheridae. Observations on the behaviour of these forms and on the ecological condition of their habitat (nature of the bottom, composition of the sand or mud by granulometry) will help to under- stand the function of their morphological structures. The vaulted carapace of Kraussia with the pereopods (when folded* partly fitted below the margins is somewhat similar to that of Calappa for example. It suggests that, like Calappa when it has dug, Kraussia hides its body under the sand in a oblique position, its anterior part at the level of the surface of the sand and the pos- terior part a little lower. During the examination of the present material in order to find morphological struc- ture which could provide characters for specific differentiation. I noticed on the ventral side of the posterior half of the lateral border of the carapace of Integra and bongensis a shallow, elongate and smooth depression. Situated be- tween the pterygostomian line and the edge of the border, this structure reminds me of a similar but more developed one which I recently observed on Guinotellus Serene 1971, a new genus of Xanthidae. This genus is briefly described from type material consisting of only one carapace without pereopod which was then the only available material; its relationship to Hypocolpus and Euxanthus is briefly mentioned by Serene < 1971 ) , The comparison of Kraussia (mainly Integra ) with large specimens of Guinotellus in good condition presently in hand demonstrates several close relationships between the two genera, and suggest that Gnmotellus could be a morphological link between the Euxanthoida ( Hypocolpus -Euxanthus) and the Thiidae ( Kraussia) , two groups with probably the same ethology. The relationship between Kraussia, Guinotellus and Euxanthus are supported by several morpho- logical structures, such as the lateral border of the carapace vaulted with the ambulatory legs when folded at least partly concealed; the chelipeds strongly fitted against the ptery- gostomian region: the third maxilliped, sternum and abdomen narrow; and the male pleopod 1 elongate and slim. But Euxanthus and Guino- tellus clearly differ from Kraussia by the orbito-antennal region and the presence at the anterior limit of the buccal cavern of a small but clearly marked margin, which does not exist on Kraussia. Other common characters like the occasional presence on the carapace of small, flattened (squamiform) granules arranged in transverse Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 60 lines Hike ripples) s:ems to be related to the ecology and ethology of the forms. It is per- haps also the case for the indication on Kraussia Integra and bongensis of a shallow ventral cavity under the margin of the posterior part of the lateral border, which on Guinotellus are so well developed in the anterior part. The function of these cavities is probably related to the wat' 1 * current running in the vault organized under the lateral margin of the carapace. Similarly, the notches of the lateral margins of Kraussia could be related to the passage (output or input) of such a water current. Without speculating further, I sum- marize my observations by bringing together the illustrations (Fig, 24) of the ventral side of the lateral border of Kraussia bongensis and of Guinotellus melvillensis Serene 1971. Acknowledgements I am indebt :d to B. R. Wilson, R. W. George and the Director of the Western Australian Museum for the loan of the main part of the studied material. I thank particularly R. W. George for his help in amending the manuscript. References Balss, H. (1922). — Ostasiatische Decapoden IV. Die Brachyrhynchen (Cancridea). Arch. f. Natargesch. 68A: (11) 94-166. fig. 1-2. pi. 1-2. (1935). — Brachyura of the Hamburg Museum expedition to South Western Australia 1905. Joum. R. Soc , West. Australia 21: 113-151. text-fig. 1-5, pi. 13. (1938) ,- -Die Decapoda Brachyura von Dr Sixten Bocks Pazifik-Expedition 1917-18. Goteborgs Kungl, Vet. Och Witterh-Samh. Handl . B 5. (7). 1-85. 18 figs., pi. 1-2. Barnard, K. H. (1950). — Descriptive catalogue of South African Decapoda Crustacea. Ann. South Afr. Mus. 38: 1-837, fig. 1-154. Borradaile, L. A. (1900). — On some Crustacean from the South Pacific. IV. The crabs. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 4: 568-596, pi. 40-42. ( 1902 ) .—Marine crustaceans — III. The Xanthidac and some other crabs. Professor Stanley Gardiner’s Fauna Geogr. Maid. Lacc. Arch. 1: (3), 237-271, text-fig. 41-60. Buitendijk, A. M. < 1960) — Brachyura of the families Atelecyclidae and Xanthldae (Snellius Exp.), Temminckia 10: 252-335, fig. 1-9. Caiman, W. T. (1900). On a collection of Brachyura from Torres Straits. Trans. Linn. Soc. London, series 2, 8: 1-50. pi. 1-3. Dana, J. D. (1852), — Crustacea. United States Exploring Expedition during the years 1838. 1839. 1840. 1841, 1842, 13: I. I- VIII and 1-685. Edmondson, C. H. (1925). Marine zoology of Tropical central Pacific Crustacea. Bull: Bernice P. Bishop Mus. 27: 3. (1946). — Crustacea-Brachyura in: Reef and shore fauna, of Hawaii (revised edition of 1933). Bernice P. Bishop Mus., Special Publ. 22: 267-382. fig, 163-185. Gordon, I. (1931), — Brachyura from the coasts of China. J. Linn. Soc. London 37: (254), 525-558, 36 text -fig. *Haan, W. de. (1833-1849), — Crustacea in: de Siebold, Fauna Japonicum sive Descriptio animalium, quae in itinere per Japoniam. jussu et auspicilis superiorum, qui summum in India Batava Impcrium tenent suscepto. annis 1823-1830 collegit, notis, observationibus et adumbratlonibus illustravit, p. I-XVII. I-XXXI. 1-244. pi 1-55, A-Q. Henderson, J. B. (1893), — Contribution to Indian Car- cinogy. Trans. Linn, Soc. London, Zool. ser. 2, 5: 325-458. pi. 36. Figure 24. — Above, Kraussia bongensis, ventral side of the lateral border of carapace. Below, Guinotellus melvillensis, ventral side of the lateral border of cara- pace with cavity of the subhepatical region. ♦Krauss, F. (1843). — Die Sudafrikanischen Crustaceen. Eine Zusammenstellung aller bekannten Malacostraca, Bemerkungeb uber decren Lebenweise und geographische Vernreitung, nebst Beschreibung und Abbildung mehrer neuren Arten. Stuttgart, p. 1-68. pi. 1-4. Laurie. D. (1906). — Report on the Brachyura collected by Prof. Herdman at Ceylon in 1902, in: Report to Colonial Government on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar, part V, 5, 349-432. pi. 1-2. Muller. F. (1886). — Zur Crustaceen fauna von Trin- comali, Verh. Naturf. Ges. Basel 3: 470-484 pi. 4-5. Rathbun, M. J. (1902). — Crabs from the Maidive Islands. Bull. Mus. Comm. Zool. Cambridge. 39: (5) 123-138, 1 pi. (1906). — The Brachyura and Macrura of the Hawaiian Islands. U.S. Fish. Comm. Bull for 1903, 23: (3), 828-930. pi. 1-24, 79 text-fig. (1910).— The Danish Expedition to Siam 1899-1900 V. Brachyura. Mem. Acad. Roy. Sc. Danem.. Cop., 7e ser,. 5: (4). 303-368, fig. 1-44, pi. 1-2. Sakai, T, (1934). — Brachyura from the coast of Kyusyu. (Contributions from the Simoda Marine Biological Station). Sc. Rep. Tokyo Bunrika Daigaku. Sect. B, 1: (25), p. 281-330. (1936). — Report on the Brachyura, collected by Mr. F. Hiro et Palao Islands. Sc. Rep. Tokyo Bunrika sect. B, 2: (37), p. 155-177, 7 fig-text., pi. 12-14. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 61 Sakai, T. (1939). — Studies on the Crabs of Japan. IV Brachygnatha Brachyrhyncha, Tokyo, p. 365- 741, 129 fig., pi. 42-111. ( 1965 1 . — The Crabs of Sagami Bay collected by H.M. the Emperor of Japan. Maruzen, Tokyo, p. I-XVI. 1-206 i English part), text- fig. 1-27. color plates 1-100. Serene, R. ( 1971).— Observations sur des genres et especes nouveaux ou mal connus de Brach- youres (Decapoda Crustacea) du Sud Est Asiatique. Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat.. Paris , 42 (5): 903-918. pi. 1-6. *Stebbing. T. R. R. (1910). — General Catalogue of the South African Crustacea for the Investiga- tion in South Africa. Anil. S. Afr. Mus. 6: (4). 381-593, pi, 15-22. (1918). — General Catalogue of the South African Crustacea (Part IX of South African Crustacea for the Marine Investigation in South Africa). Ann. S. Afr. Mus.. 17: (1), 23-46, pi. 1-8. Stephenson. K. (1945). — The Brachvura of the Iranian Gulf. Danish Scient. Invest, in Iran, Copen- hagen, part IV. p. 57-237, fig. 1-60. Stimpson, W. (1858). — Prodromus descriptions ani- malium evcrtebratorum quae in Expedi- tione ad Oceanum Pacificum Septentri- onalem, a Republic Federata missa, Cadwaladare Ringgold et Johanne Rodgers Ducibus, Observavit et descripsit. Part IV— Crustacea, cancroides and corystidae, can- cridae. Prod. Acad. Nat. Sc. of Philad. 10: 31-40 (29-37). Stimpson, W. 1 1907).— Report on the Crustacea ( Brach> ura-Anomura) collected by the North Pacific Expedition 1853-56. Smith. Misc. coll., Washington, 49; 1-240, pi. 1-26. Tweedie, M. W. F. 1 1947). —On the Brachyura of Christmas Island. Bull . Raffles Mus.. Singa- pore, 18, p. 27-42. fig. 1. (1950).— The fauna of the Cocos Keeling Islands. Brachyura and Stomatopoda. Bull. Raffles Mus.. Singapore, 22: 105-148, fig. 1-4, pi. 16. 17. Urita, T. (1926). — A check list of Brachyura found in Kagoshima Prefecture. Japan. Ward. M. ( 1935).— Notes on a collection of crabs, from Christmas Island Ind. Ocean. Bull. Raffl. Mus. Singapore, 9: 5-28, pi. 1-3. *White. A. ( 1847 (.—Descriptions of new Crustacea of eastern seas. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. London 20: 30-65. Yokoya, Y. (1936). — Some rare and new species of Decapod Crustaceans found in the vicinity of the Misaki Marine Biological Station. Jap. Journ. Zool. 7: (1), 130-146. * Not seen by present author, Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 2, July, 1972. 7. — An archaeological site in the Chichester Range, Western Australia: preliminary account by C. E. Dortch* Manuscript received 19 October, 1971; accepted 20 June, 1972. Abstract A rich archaeological site on a re-entrant in the Chichester Range, Western Australia was examined. Some Aboriginal stone artifacts were found in the dry bed of the water course, others on the surface of, and in situ within an adjoin- ing alluvial terrace, and others on higher ground above the terrace, The artifactual material, which consists largely of blades and points of the “leilira” type, and its provenance are briefly dis- cussed. Technological and morphological similar- ities which some of these artifacts have with analogous Levallois forms are noted. Introduction In 1967 M. G. Ridpath of the CSIRO Divi- sion of Wildlife Research discovered a rich archaeological site on the southern slope of the Chichester Range about 220 km. south of Port Hedland (Figure 1). Ridpath and his wife col- lected a number of stone artifacts from the surface and sent them with a description of the site and its location to the Western Australian Museum. He later informed J. Bywater and J. Wombey, also of the CSIRO Division of Wild- life Research, of the site’s location. In 1970 Bywater and Wombey collected artifacts from this site and found another site on the Cockeraga River on the opposite slope of the Chichester Range 10 km. to the north. They presented collections from both sites to the Western Australian Museum in 1970. In April, 1971 r while en route to East Kimberley, the writer, with W. Dix and M. Thompson of the Western Australian Museum, examined the site discovered by Ridpath and briefly visited the one on the Cockeraga River. The following report is based on their findings at the former site. The stone artifacts collected from both sites at various times are listed in the Western Aus- tralian Museum registry as follows: M. G. Ridpath Collection — A16643. J. By water and J. Wombey Collection — A21966, A21881. W. Dix, C. Dortch and M. Thompson Col- lection— B1 001 -B1003. * Western Australian Museum, Francis Street, Perth. The site and its locality The site is found on a shallow re-entrant in the hills of the Chichester Range about 6 km. south of the watershed. Its main feature is a Triodici covered alluvial terrace on the west bank of the water course. The re-entrant is one of a parallel series of water courses which rise in the Chichester Range and are tributary to the Fortescue River. The river, in this area roughly 15 km. south of the range and running parallel to it, has an underground flow as do the lower reaches of its tributaries. The water course on which the site is located is about 30 m. wide. At the time the site was visited it consisted only of a dry braided bed of sands and gravels, although a large pool was found a few hundred m. downstream. Artifacts made of black stone are scattered over the surface of the alluvial terrace on the west side of the water course as well as in the stream bed itself. Higher ground on the west side, which may be an older terrace, is also covered with artifacts made of the same stone. Very few artifacts were found on the east side oi the water course, which at this point con- sists of sandy hummocks covered with Triodia and small eroded depressions. Artifacts were found in situ in the vertical face of the alluvial terrace on the west side of the water course (Figure 2). The terrace, as seen in section, consists of reddish gritty earth interspersed with imbricated bands of sub- angular and angular fragments of stone and river pebbles. The upper part of the deposit is slightly weathered. The three artifacts found in situ were horizontally bedded, and one of them is imbricated with sub-angular fragments of stone (Figure 3), The artifact seen in Figure 3 is drawn in Figure 4A. From their rolled condition and position within the alluvial deposit, it is apparent that the artifacts found in situ are derived. All of the artifacts found on the surface of the ter- race as well as in the bottom of the torrent bed are rolled to a greater or lesser degree. The presence of rolled artifacts on the surface of the terrace, others in situ within the terrace, and still more lying on the bottom of the stream, suggests that re-sorting of the artifact-bearing gravels has taken place. The presence of the artifacts in the bed of the stream further sug- gests that the terrace is being seasonally eroded Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55. Part 3, November, 1972. 65 Figure 1. — Sketch map showing location of Chichester Range Sites Nos. 1 and 2. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November, 1972. 66 at present. However, the weathered surface of the terrace as well as its grass cover show that it has been in position for some time. The terrace extends 20-30 m. back from the present course of the stream. Its full length has not been determined; the part examined extended over 100 m. in length. No excavation of the terrace was carried out, nor was there time available to make a scale drawing of its section. The artifacts Nearly all of the artifacts are made of a black sedimentary stone which R. Peers of the Geological Survey of W.A. has identified as an extremely fine-grained cherty siltstone (perso- nal communication 28th July, 1971). Abundant nodules and fragments of this stone were found in the gravels of the terrace and in the bed of the water course. They are even more abundant at the second site on the Cockeraga River, where the stone occurs in a rich outcrop. The rolling or natural edge damage on the edges of nearly all of the artifacts in this col- lection is almost indistinguishable from retouch; that is, none is rolled to such an extent that the edge damage has gone past the critical flaking angle at which retouch becomes extremely difficult (Wymer, 1968, p. 14). However, these pieces are considered to be rolled and not heavily utilized or retouched for three reasons. First, nearly all of the artifacts are indiscrimi- nately chipped or damaged along their peri- pheries and on both faces. This is a feature typical of rolled assemblages. Secondly, the flake scars in question are often of a fresher patina - tion than the rest of the piece, indicating that a considerable period of time elapsed between the manufacture of the artifact and the time its edges were damaged. A third reason is the provenance of the artifacts. Many are located in the gravelly bed of an active water course; three specimens are in situ within an alluvial terrace, one of them (Figure 4A) being imbri- cated with the alluvial gravel (Figure 3). These then must be derived and almost certainly rolled, even though the larger group of arti- facts, those which were found lying on the terrace’s surface and on higher ground above the terrace, could be the remains of a camp. The rolled condition of the artifacts from the ter- race and the higher ground seems to indicate, however, that they are derived like the others. On the other hand, some of the artifacts (e.g. Figure 5B> have been definitely retouched, and it is probable that in many cases retouched or utilized edges have been obliterated or made unrecognizable by rolling. No attempt is made here to give a quantita- tive assessment of the artifactual material as none of the three collections at the site is the result of systematic sampling and because the assemblage is derived. The total collection of 453 pieces shows a marked homogeneity because nearly all of the specimens are made of the same kind of stone and because of the large numbers of points and blades of the “leilira” type. Although a detailed typological and tech- nological description will have to wait until more information is available, the following brief outline should give some idea as to the nature of the collection. Points and blades Large, finely made pointed blades of the “leilira” type are the dominant tool type among the collection of artifacts made by the three different parties which have visited the site. These implements form a continuum which extends from broad triangular points (Figure 4D > , through intermediate forms (Figure 4F>, to elongated pointed blades (Figures 4B and 40. There are also numbers of non-pointed blades (Figure 4E), which, according to traditional classification (e.g. McCarthy, 1967, p. 32), should bo included under the “leilira” type. The pointed blades (or “points”) have been manufactured by the same form of prepared core technique which has been described by Roth (1904, pp. 16-17) and Spencer and Gillen <1904. pp. 641-648). In brief this is a method of blade or point production in which two or more preparatory blades or flakes are removed in such a way as to cause the pro- jected blade to have more or less convergent edges and in most cases a pointed distal end. Figure 2.— Alluvial terrace at Site No. 1 showing artifacts in situ. The two artifacts are registered B1002 and B1003 in the Western Australian Museum collection. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 55, Part 3, November, 1972. 67 There are a few blades, including that one found in situ within the terrace (Figure 4A), which are made by a different method of pre- pared core technique from that described above. That is, the shape of the blade is pre-determined by centripetal flaking of the face of the core before it is struck off. Other blades have dorsal faces with bipolar flake scars which show that double-ended cores were being used. Flakes Most of these are thick, broad specimens with broad butts and wide angles between the plane of the butt and that of the bulbar face. There are a few flakes with centripetal faceting on their dorsal faces, which shows they were made by the second form of prepared core technique above. An illustrated specimen of one of these (Figure 5A> appears to have been retouched or notched prior to its being rolled. There are also many irregular flakes and fragments of flakes which could result from stone nodules and peb- bles being roughly shaped up or tested by the stone workers. Scrapers and other Tools These are not common in this assemblage. Most of the retouched pieces consist of flake scrapers or small irregular adze-like tools. Sev- eral denticulated or notched pieces, a burin and an alternately retouched burin-like tool were also found One of the more interesting pieces is a double-truncated flake which closely re- sembles the trapeze form of geometric microlith < Figure 5B>. Because of its large size, and be- cause it is abruptly retouched only at each ex- tremity and not along one lateral edge as well, it probably should not be considered as a geo- metric microlith but as a small double-ended scraping or adzing tool. No geometric microliths or backed blades or points have yet been found at the site. Cores The few cores which have been recovered from the site include those used to obtain pointed blades or points (Figures 5D and 5E). The flake Figure 3. Close-up photograph of artifact (B1002) in situ within the alluvial deposit and slightly imbricated with sub-angular stones. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November, 1972. 68 Figure 4.— Blades and points. Figure 4 A shows the same artifact shown in close up in Figure 3. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November. 1972. 69 Figure 5. — Flake tools and cores. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November, 1972. 70 cores collected are less typical and some are simply split pebbles from which flakes have been struck at random. Discussion The main purpose here is to note similarities which some of the artifactual material from this site have to analogous forms embodying some of the developed Levallois techniques associated with the industries of the Mousterian complex of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. First, however, it should be pointed out that there are only three or four cores which substantiate the similarities outlined below. Therefore this com- parison must remain tentative until a larger sel- ection of cores from this and similar sites can be examined. The points illustrated in Figures 4D and 4F are identical in appearance to typical Levallois points, while those in Figures 4B and 4C are strikingly similar to elongated Levallois points. The point core in Figure 5D is very similar, both in appearance and technologically, to a typical Levallois point core. These similarities are best seen by comparing the illustrations here to the type illustrations of Levallois points and point cores in Bordes’ classic work “Typologie du Paleolithique ancien et moyen,” In addition the blades and flakes made by the second form of prepared core technique men- tioned above have strong resemblances to those made on Levallois cores whose flaking faces have been prepared by centripetal or parallel flaking (see Bordes, 1950; 1961). The forms of the blade and the flake in Fig- ures 4A and 5A have been pre-determined by centripetal flaking before they were removed from the core. Unfortunately there is only a single core so far recovered from the site which can be associated with this second form of prepared cere technique. This specimen (Figure 50 is similar to a mis-struck Levallois flake core. The face uf the core has been prepared by sub-parallel flaking while the last flake removed has hinged out Despite Tie lack of more definite evidence which a large selection of cores would provide, it should be apparent that there is a strong sim- ilarity between the two manufacturing techni- ques here and some of the Levallois techniques. Knowledge of this occurrence at times seems implicit in the Australian literature (e.g. Mc- Carthy, 1967, p. 17). However, it is felt that these similarities should be more fully recog- nised in Australia and made clear to students elsewhere. Further work at the site discussed here and a programme of reconnaissance in the Chiches- ter Range and other parts of the Pilbara region should provide additional data to enable this comparison of these manufacturing processes to be extended. More definite evidence has already been recovered in the Old Valley in East Kim- berley, but the data are not yet available for publication. Conclusions and recommendations The finding of artifacts in situ within the alluvial terrace and on its surface, on higher ground above the terrace, and in the bed of the water course presents certain problems. For ex- ample, one cannot assume that these artifacts have a common origin: they may have been de- rived from several points upstream at different times. This is one of the reasons why the assem- blage is not being dealt with quantitatively here. Further field work at the site and in the local- ity should include the following. 1. Stone artifacts from open camp sites on undisturbed ground above the water course should be collected systematically in order to determine the range of artifact types and to gain some idea of their relative frequencies. 2. The length, breadth and thickness of the alluvial terrace should be determined. At least three strips five to ten m. wide each should be laid out at right angles to the water course at points along the terrace where it can be reason- ably certain that no collecting has taken place. The strips should each include the higher ground on the west bank, the surface of the terrace and its vertical face, the bed of the water course, and a small part of the east bank. All of the artifacts occurring within each of the strips should be collected and bagged separately ac- cording to the features upon or within which they were found. This sampling scheme should provide much more significant data than is presently available. 3. A small pit should be dug at any place along the terrace section where artifacts could be seen in situ. The main purposes of this trench would be to determine the feasibility of extended excavation of the terrace and to ob- tain a radio-carbon sample which could be re- lated f o the artifacts within the deposit. De- pending upen its breadth and depth the test pit could provide a great deal of information on the composition of the terrace and its relation to the present stream bed. Future field work should provide more points, flakes and cores associated with the two forms of prepared core technique above. The evident similarities of these manufacturing processes to analogous Levallois techniques are regarded at present as an extremely interesting case of in- dependent invention, and one which invites speculation on the evolution of stone working techniques in general. Acknowledgements The writer wishes to acknowledge the help given by several members of the Western Aus- tralian Museum staff in the completion of this report: Mrs Pearl Kaill, who advised on geo- morphological aspects of the site and also drew Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November, 1972. 71 the sketch map; M. Thompson, who did most of the line drawing illustrations; W. Dix, for his advice in the field and his photographs of the alluvial terrace; Mrs Vera MacKaay, for devel- oping the photographs; Mrs Sue Dyer, for typ- ing the manuscript and I. M. Crawford and D. Merrilees for advice on the text. The writer is grateful to Miss Robin Peers of the Geological Survey of Western Australia for her petrolog- ical analysis of the stone of which the artifacts are made and to M. Newcomer of the University of London for his advice on stone artifact tech- nology. References Bordes, F. (1950). — Principes d’une methode d’etude des techniques de debitage et de la typologie du Paleolithique ancien et moyen. L' Anthropologic. 54: pp. 19 - 34. Bordes, F. ( 1961 ) —“Typologie du Paleolithique ancien et moyen". Delmas, Bordeaux. McCarthy, F. D, 1 1967 > . — "Australian Aboriginal Stone Implements", Australian Museum, Sydney. Roth. W. E. (1904). — Domestic implements, arts and manufactures. North Queensland Ethno- graphy Bulletin No. 7. Spencer. B. and Gillen, F. J. (1904). — "The Northern Tribes of Central Australia", Macmillan, London. Wymer, J. (1968). — "Lower Palaeolithic Archaeology in Britain", John Baker, London. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November, 1972. 72 8. — The genus Morethia (Lacertilia, Scincidae) in Western Australia by G. M. Storr* Manuscript received 21 March, 1972; accepted 18 July, 1972. Abstract The seven species and subspecies of Morethia occurring in Western Australia are described and keyed, viz. M . taeniopleura ruficauda (Lucas & Frost), M . taeniopleura exquisita subsp. nov. t M. boulengeri (Ogilbyi. M. butleri (Storr), M . obscura sp. now. M . lineoocellata ( Dumeril & Bibron), and M. adelaidensis (Boulenger), Lectotypes are designated for Morethia anovialus Gray L = M. lineoocellata J and for Ablepharus lineoocellatus adelaidensis "Peters” I M. adelai- densis ( Boulenger ) ] . Introduction Following Boulenger (1887) most authors have placed all the skinks with an immovable trans- parent eyelid in the genus Ablepharus. This reliance on a single character brought together species from different continents with little or nothing else in common (Fuhn 1969a), and it genetically separated skinks that were very closely related (Greer 1967). Fuhn (1969b * has shown that the Australian skinks with ablepharic eyes fall into about nine groups, including the genus Morethia. For the skull morphology of Morethia and other ablepharic skinks, the reader is referred to Dr. Fuhn’s papers. This revision of the western species of Morethia has been greatly aided by Dr. Michael Smyth’s concurrent study of the South Aus- tralian species, all of which extend into Western Australia. I am indebted to Mr. A. F. Stimson of the British Museum for the loan of type specimens. Genus Morethia Gray Morethia J. E. Gray 1845. “Catalogue of the specimens of lizard in the collection of the British Museum", p. 65. Type-species (by monotypy ). — Morethia anomala Gray (ibid.). Diagnosis . — Small peniadactyl skinks with lower eyelid immovable and transparent; fronto- parietals and interparietal normally fused into a single quadrilateral shield; supranasal and postnasal present (except in lineoocellata , where they are often fused to nasal). Distinguishable from Cryptoblepharus by frontal much larger than (rather than subequal with) prefrontals and by palpebral disc not completely surrounded by granules. Distribution . — Throughout most of Australia. ^Western Australian Museum, Perth. Western Australia. Characters (additional to those in diagno- sis) .—Frontonasal in broad contact with rostral. Prefrontals usually separated, rarely forming a short suture. Frontal in contact with first 2 of 4 supraoculars. Usually one pair of nuchals. Ear lobules present (except in some races of taeniopleura ), first (i.e. dorsalmost) usually largest. Upper labials normally 7. third-last largest and subocular. Material. — M. t. taeniopleura (5 specimens), t. ruficauda (40), t. exquisita (40), boulengeri ( 12 ), butleri (28), obscura (180), lineoocellata (115), adelaidensis (71). Apart from type material borrowed from the British Museum, all specimens cited in the text are in the West- ern Australian Museum. Key 1. Back and sides glossy black with 2 or 3 prominent white stripes .... .... 2 Back and sides olive grey, olive brown or rufous brown, with or without black and white stripes, ocelli and spots 3 2. No vertebral stripe; usually no ear lobules taeniopleura ruficauda A white vertebral stripe and small ear lobules usually present taeniopleura exquisita 3. Subdigital lamellae obtusely keeled or smooth 4 Subdigital lamellae sharply keeled 6 4. Fourth supraciliary not smaller than third 5 Fourth supraciliary much smaller than thh’d boulengeri 5. Fifth supraciliary (like third and fourth ) penetrating deeply between supraoculars; supranasal often fused to nasal; dorsal ocelli and midlateral white stripe usually well developed lineoocellata Fifth supraciliary not penetrating deeply between supraoculars; supra- nasal always separate from nasal; dorsal ocelli and midlateral white stripe absent or weakly developed obscura 6. Supraciliaries normally 6 and forming straight-sided series butleri Supraciliaries normally 5, last three penetrating deeply between supra- oculars adelaidensis Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 55. Part 3, November, 1972. 73 Morethia taeniopleura ruficauda Ablepharus lineo-ocellatus var. ruficaudus Lucas & Frost, 1895, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic. (new ser.) 7: 269. Goyder River or Bagots Creek, Northern Territory (fide Coventry 1970: 119). Diagnosis. — The species taeniopleura is dis- tinguishable from other Morethio by its black or blackish, unspotted back and somewhat de- pressed head. The subspecies M. t. ruficauda is distinguishable from M. t. taeniopleura (Peters) of eastern Queensland by its four (rather than five) supraciliaries; subdigital lamellae obtusely keeled or narrowly callose (rather than smooth or broadly callose); and more strongly developed dorsolateral stripe (silvery white, rather than pale brown; as wide or nearly as wide as pale midlateral stripe, rather than much narrower; and extending for- ward beyond supraciliaries). Distribution. — Kimberley Division and north coast of North-West Division southwest to the De Grey. Extralimital in Northern Territory (except far north, where it is replaced by an un- described race). Description. — Snout-vent length (mm): 18-36 (30). Tail (% SVL) : 128-189 (154). Supranasal always and postnasal almost al- ways present, though occasionally fused to each other or merely separated by a shallow groove. Figure 1. — Photograph of species and subspecies of Morethia occurring in Western Australia. Left, top to bottom: taeniopleura ruficauda, taeniopleura exquisita, boulengeri, and butleri. Right, top to bottom: obscura, lineoocellata, and adelaidensis. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November, 1972. 74 Supraciliaries 4, second and third largest and penetrating deeply between supraoculars, third and forth forming a roughly linear junction with supraoculars. Ear lobules usually absent (three specimens have 2 or 3 small obtuse lob- ules). Midbody scale rows 26-30 (mostly 26 or 28, mean 27.4), Lamellae under fourth toe 16-21 (mean 18.6), narrowly callose or obtusely keeled. Head, back and sides glossy black. Tail red. White dorsolateral stripe often extending for- ward to snout and meeting its opposite number. White midlateral stripe narrowly or not edged below with black. Material. — Kimberley Division ( W.A.) : Kalum- buru (27972-8, 40497. 40951-6), Wotjulum (11213-7), Derby (20274-82, 20342), 12 mi. S of Derby (23009-10), Geikie Gorge (32153), Broome (27971, 40957), Frazier Downs (27965). North- West Division (W.A.) : De Grey Station <2126). Northern Territory: Katherine (23162), Wau- chope (34637), 26 mi. SW of Wauchope (24323), Dover Hills (40150). Morethia taeniopleura exquisita subsp. nov. Holotype . — R 37709 in Western Australian Museum, collected by Mr. John Wombey on 16 September 1970 at Tambrey, Western Australia, in 21 C 37'S, 117°36'E. Diagnosis . — Distinguishable from all other races of taeniopleura by whitish vertebral stripe. Distribution. — North-West Division, from De- puch Island and Marble Bar. south to the Cape Range, the middle Gascoyne and the upper Ashburton. Description. — Snout-vent length (mm): 15-45 (31). Tail (% SVL) : 155-211 (190). Supranasal and postnasal always present, though occasionally fused to each other. Supra- ciliaries normally 4, second and third largest and penetrating deeply between supraoculars, third and fourth forming a roughly linear junction with supraoculars. Ear lobules 0-4, small and obtuse, first usually largest. Midbody scale rows 26-32 (mostly 26 or 28, mean 27.2). Lamellae under fourth toe 17-24 (20.5), broadly callose to finely keeled. ■ T. RUFICAUDA □ T. EXQUISITA • BUTLERI o BOULENGERI V ADELAIDENSIS o Figure 2. — Map of Western Australia showing location of specimens of Morethia taeniopleura, M. butleri, M. Figure 3. — Map of Western Australia showing location boulengeri and M. adelaidensis. Drawn by Margaret of specimens of Morethia lineoocellata and M. obscura. H. Shepherd. Drawn by Margaret H. Shepherd. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November. 1972. 75 Coloration as in M. t. ruficanda with addition of greyish-white vertebral stripe. Material. — North-West Division (W.A.): Mar- ble Bar (18403-4); Mt Edgar (18398-402); Skull Springs, Davis River (39051); upper Cockeraga River (36595-6); 9 mi. S of Wittenoom (37088); Asbestos Creek (20015); upper Sherlock River (20014); Depuch Island (14574); Legendre Island <14332, 14360); Dolphin Island (14290-1. 14298, 37292-3); Rosemary Island (37393); Bar- row Island (27966-70, 40689-91); Exmouth (31440); Shothole Canyon, Cape Range (18405); Yardie Creek (the watercourse, not the home- stead) <21775); Manilla (5338); Chalk Springs, Ethel River, 30 mi. SE of Mt Vernon <22799- 800); Coordewandy (28383-5). Morethia boulengeri AblepiiarUs boulengeri J. D. Ogilby, 1890, Rec. Aust. Mus. 1: 10. Cootamundra. N.S.W. i H. J. McCooey). Diagnosis . — Six supraciliaries, first and third largest, last four forming a decreasing series, their junction with supraoculars roughly linear. Further distinguishable from M. batleri by smooth or obtusely keeled subdigital lamellae. Distribution . — Far eastern interior of Western Australia (vicinity of Warburton Range), east through South Australia, New South Wales and south Queensland to the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range. Description. — Snout-vent length (mm); 27-50 (40). Tail <% SVL) ; 137-177 (155). Supranasal and postnasal always present but either fused to each other or merely separated by shallow groove. Ear lobules 2-4 (usually 2), usually obtuse. Midbody scale rows 30 or 32 <30.7). Lamellae under fourth toe 18-23 (20.0), broadly or narrowly callose. Back olive green, variably marked with black (small spots or broken lines through middle of scales). Broad black upper lateral stripe. Mod- erately broad white midlateral stripe. Remarks . — I am grateful to Dr M. Smyth for the two specimens from Salter Springs and for their identification with boulengeri. the type of which he has examined. Material. — Eastern Division (W.A.): Warbur- ton Mission (22016, 22110-1); Ainslie Gorge (18296). South Australia: 116 mi. N of Cook (36656); Emu (36612-3); Leigh Creek (40570) ; Salter Springs (39795-6). Queensland: Alum Rock, near Amiens <18545); Fernvale (18544). Morethia butleri Ablepharus butleri Storr, 1963. W. Aust. Nat. 9: 46. Leonora. W.A. (G. M. Storr & R. E. Moreau). Diagiiosis . — Supraciliaries 6 (rarely 7), first largest, remainder forming a decreasing series, their junction with supraoculars nearly linear. Further distinguishable from M. boulengeri by sharply keeled subdigital lamellae. Distribution . — Arid and semiarid parts of southern interior of Western Australia, between latitudes 27°30' and 32°30'S, west to about the eastern edge of the Wheat Belt, and east to the western edge of the Great Victoria Desert and of the Nullarbor Plain. Description. — Snout-vent length (mm); 25-56 (46). Tail (% SVL): 134-169 (152). Supranasal and postnasal always present, though often fused to each other or merely sep- arated by a shallow groove. Ear lobules 2-5 (mostly 2 or 3, mean 2.6). Midbody scale rows 26-31 (mostly 28 or 30. mean 28.9), Lamellae under fourth toe 19-27 (22.4). Head and back dark olive-brown or olive- green, usually unmarked, rarely flecked with black. Tail red in juveniles, brown in adults. Broad black upper lateral stripe and white mid- lateral stripe variably developed — prominent, indistinct, or absent except anteriorly. Lips dark -spotted. Remarks . — In the far east of its range butleri approaches the closely related boulengeri in that the supraciliary -supraocular junction is not so linear, though it is the fourth (not the third) supraciliary that tends to protrude. Moreover. boulengeri in the far west of its range approaches butleri in the number and nature of subdigital lamellae, viz. 20-23 in the vicinity of Warburton Range, against 18-20 elsewhere, and here the subdigital calli are almost narrow enough to be called obtuse keels. However, it would be premature to treat these two skinks as races of one species. More needs to be learnt about their distribution in western South Aus- tralia, where Dr Smyth (pers. comm.) has examined a specimen of butleri from Ooldea. which is not far south and southeast of boulengeri localities. Material. — South-West Division (W.A.): Lock- wood Spring, Kalbarri National Park (37569); 19 mi. E of Kalbarri <33595); 26 mi, ESE of Kalbarri <33810); 7 mi. E of mouth of Hutt River (28003); 25 mi. E of Morawa (40958), Bonnie Rock (24872); Holt Rock (30941). Eastern Division (W.A.) : Rothsay State Forest (29606); Youanmi (21164); Kathleen Valiev (31672, 39697); Yamarna (18297, 20684); White Cliffs (20665-8); Laverton (18298); Mt Morgans <15686, 18339-44); Leonora (20615); Menzies (18324-5); 10 mi. E of Maroubra (34136); 29 mi. S of Karalee (36075); 12 mi. E of Zanthus <18307). Eucla Division (W.A.); 25 mi. W of Caiguna (24673). Morethia obscura sp. nov. Holotype . — R 16916 in Western Australian Museum, collected by Mr. John Dell on 7 November 1962 at 6 miles east of Kalamunda, Western Australia, in 31°58'S, 116°08'E. Diagnosis . — Supraciliaries 6 (rarely 5), fourth largest, last three forming a decreasing series, their junction with supraoculars roughly linear. Otherwise generally similar to M. lineoocellata and differing only in greater size, darker colora- tion, less distinct pattern, and invariable pres- ence of supranasal. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November, 1972. 76 Distribution . — Southern Western Australia: north on west coast to a little beyond the Murchison; east on south coast to Eucla; in- land to Morawa, Wongan Hills, Tammin, Cool- gardie and Zanthus; also many islands off lower west coast from Gun Island ( Houtman Abrolhos) to Garden Island (off Fremantle). Apparently absent from far southwest, i.e. south of Bunbury and west of Albany. Extralimital in southern South Australia. (17473, 18287, 36182); 25 mi. W of Caiguna 24674-5); 4-15 mi. SE of Cocklebiddy (24658- 62, 31890-1, 34471-5, 34486, 34551-2); Madura (26436); 27 mi. S of Madura (34442-4); 22 mi. E of Madura (36660); 20 mi. S of Mundrabilla (26435); Eucla (24618-9, 31874). South Aus- tralia: 4 mi. E of Wilsons Bluff (28131); Ceduna (24568-9); Smoky Bay (24556-62); 17 mi. W of Port Lincoln (27365). Description. — Snout-vent length (mm.i : 18-56 (43). Tail <%SVL): 126-189 (152). Supranasal and postnasal always present, though often fused to each other or merely separated by a shallow groove. Ear lobules 1-4 (2.3). Midbody scale rows 24-30 (mostly 26 or 28, mean 27.0). Lamellae under fourth toe 17-23 (19.3), smooth or obtusely keeled. Upper surface dark olive-grey or olive-brown. Back with or without small, usually indistinct, black-and-white ocelli or black flecks. Rarely any indication of a pale dorsolateral line. Broad black upper lateral stripe variably developed. Pale midlateral stripe usually absent or poorly developed (i.e. narrow, ragged -edged and suffused with grey). Material. — South-West Division (W.A.): Zuit- dorp Cliffs, 40 mi. N of Kalbarri (18597); Morawa (34004); Gun Island, Houtman Abrolhos (27190-2) ; No. 5 Island, S of Gun Island (30436) ; Pelsart Island, Houtman Abrolhos (27142, 27161- 70, 30438-9); Fisherman Island (18386-93, 39954); Long Island, Jurien Bay (18381); Escape Island, Jurien Bay (17889) ; 4 mi. E of Jurien Bay (30505); Cervantes Island <18384-5 >; Buffer Island (19154); Green Islets < 18382-3); 15 mi. N of Lancelin (18396); Lancelin Island (18384-5); 7 mi N of New Norcia (26051); Wongan Hills (4238); 8 mi. W of Bolgart (40959); Tammin (39087); Meckering <21748); Chidlows (21345); 6 mi. E of Kalamunda <16917, 19248, 19829, 22260-1, 34713, 39690) ; Wanneroo ' 14863, 34053 ) ; Crawley (18321-3); Spearwood (2768); Carnac Island (7255, 11995); Garden Island G3024, 18373-8, 35036-41); Cannington <18320); Glen- eagle (32471); Boddington (13560); Samson Brook Dam <18329); 5 mi. SW of Collie < 18317); 10 mi N of Tarin Rock <40051-3. 40096); Lake Varley (25988) ; 26 mi. SE of Newdegate <21736) ; Lake Magenta (21737); Jerramungup (18318); Toolbrunup (1385); Two People Bay < 18293-4); Cheyne Beach <36040, 36016); Chillinup (26685); Bremer Bay <33402-4); Fitzgerald River Reserve <36946 36995, 37200, 37210); Hopetoun (11010) ; 10 mi. N of Hopetoun <36249 *. Eastern Division (WA )* 17 mi. S of Karalee (33991) ; 13 mi. W of Boorabbin (40512-4): Coolgardie < 18295); 30 mi E of Kalgoorlie <7070, 12228); 18 mi. E of Zanthus (12236*. Eucla Division (W.A.): Mt Holland <33990); Daniell (30785); 22 mi. N of Esperance < 18292); Dalyup River (18289-90*; Shark Lake ( 18291); Esperance ( 10235-6. 11369. 11782 13397); 23 mi. E of Esperance (18288); Israelite Bay (18286, 33402-4); 4 mi. S of Mt Ragged (17617); Junana Rock < 17608-10 >; Pme Hill <17600-2, 22519, 36220-2); Coragina Rock Morethia lineoocellata Ablepharus lineo-ocellatus A. M. C. Dumeril & G. Bibron. 1839. “Erpetologie generate” 5: 817. New Holland. Morethia anomalus J. E. Gray. 1845, “Catalogue . . . specimens . . lizard . . . British Museum”, p. 65. Western Australia (John Gilbert). Diagnosis. — Supraciliaries 6 (occasionally 5, owing to fusion of first and second), third, fourth and fifth equal in size and penetrating deeply between supraoculars. Otherwise gener- ally similar to M. obscura and differing only in lesser size, paler and brighter coloration, more conspicuous pattern (especially strong develop- ment of midlateral stripe and dorsal ocelli), and tendency for supranasal to fuse with nasal. Distribution. — Midwest coast of Western Australia from Point Cloates south to Gerald - ton, and on islands from the Montebellos south to the Houtman Abrolhos; inland as far as Mt. Curious. Lower west coast of Western Australia from a little north of Perth south to Cape Leeuwin; also on islands (Rottnest and Garden) and sporadically inland as far as Canning Dam, Mooterdine and Rocky Gully. Description. — Snout-vent length (mm); 19-49 (35). Tail (% SV): 111-247 (172). Supranasal usually fused to nasal or merely separated by a shallow or incomplete groove. Postnasal usually present, though usually sepa- rated from nasal by only a faint groove. Ear lobules 1-3 (1.8). Midbody scale rows 24-31 (mostly 26 in south and 28 in north, mean 27.3). Lamellae under fourth toe 16-26 (19.7), smooth or obtusely keeled Head coppery brown. Back green, olive-grey or olive-brown, usually marked with black and white ocelli. Ocelli occasionally absent or modi- fied into black and/or white spots which may coalesce into longitudinal lines. White dorso- lateral line variable in development — often in- distinct or absent. White midlateral stripe usually well developed and margined with black. Remarks. — I have examined Gray's syntypes and have chosen one of them (British Museum 1946.8.15.75) as lectotype of Morethia anomalus. Material. — North-West Division (W.A.): Tn- mouille Island <37464); Barrow Island (28674); Point Cloates and Ningaloo <13185, 16860-D; 11 mi. SE of Ningaloo <16977-81) ; 24 mi. N of Car- narvon (18328 *; Bernier Island (11253. 13188-91, 20516-23. 34089); Dorre Island (13186-7); Dirk Hartog Island <12474); Gladstone <18330); Car- rarang <39030). South-West Division (W.AJ : Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55. Part 3, November, 1972. 77 Gee Gie Outcamp, 21 mi. NNW of Murchison House (34037); Mt. Curious (33440); Murchison House (29923); Kalbarri National Park <37615, 37635); Lockwood Spring, 20 mi. E of Kalbarri (33476-8); 19 mi. NNW of Ajana (33665); 25 mi. W of Ajana <29625); Port Gregory (18326 *; East Wallabi Island, Houtman Abrolhos < 18394- 5); 4 mi. S of Geraldton (18327); 12 mi. W of Muchea (12702); Morley Park (32370); Rott- nest Island (2015-6, 2560, 2861-3, 2994-6, 11009. 12750-1. 12758-61, 13770, 13797. 15201-2, 17130, 18345-72, 36156*; Bentley (29654, 32383); Apple- cross (21606); Spearwood (2769); Garden Island (28475-7); Point Peron (18319); Canning Dam (26483); Mooterdine (40960-1); Lake Clifton (18310-6); Wagerup (6491); Dunsborough (18308); Cowaramup (13734); Margaret River (7960-1 ) ; Karridale (27959-64); Rocky Gully (40962). Morethia adelaidensis Ablepharus lineo-ocellatus var. adelaidensis “Peters", Boulenger, 1887. “Catalogue . . . lizards . . . British Museum (Natural History)” 3: 349. South Australia (Gerard KrefTt). Diagnosis. — Supraciliaries normally 5, last three largest and penetrating deeply between supraoculars; subdigital lamellae sharply keeled; ground colour slightly rufescent; pale midlateral stripe wavy-edged. Distribution. — Arid southeast of Western Aus- tralia (Nullarbor Plain and vicinity), north nearly to latitude 29 C S and west nearly to Kal- goorlie. Extralimital in South Australia. Description. — Snout-vent length (mm): 17.5-53 (42). Tail (% SVD: 125-172 (153). Supranasal and postnasal invariably present but often fused to each other or merely sepa- rated by a shallow groove. Ear lobules usually hidden by projecting pre-auriculars; occasion- ally 1-3 visible. Midbody scale rows 26-31 (mostly 28 or 30, mean 28.9). Lamellae under fourth toe 17-23 (19.8). Dorsally olive-brown or olive-grey, variably tinged with rufous brown. Small black spots on back tending to form broken paravertebral lines. Pale dorsolateral stripe occasionally dis- cernible on body, reappearing above eye as well- defined curving line. Broad, dark brown upper lateral stripe ill defined. Whitish midlateral stripe usually margined below with dark brown. Under digits rufous brown. Remarks . — Boulenger ( supra cit.) ascribed the name adelaidensis to Peters. In the cited place < Mber . Preuss. Akad. Wiss. 1874: 375-6) Peters described Ablepharus ( Morethia ) taeniopleurus , which he briefly compared with “ Ablepharus < Morethia > anomalus < adelaidensis )” . This pass- ing mention of adelaidensis does not constitute a valid description. Nor do I believe it was Peters’ intention to introduce a new name here; I think this was simply his way of referring to Adelaide specimens of what he took to be Ablepharus anomalus. I therefore regard Boulenger as the authority for the name adelaidensis. According to Dr Smyth (pers. comm.) the specimens of “adel- aidensis” listed by Boulenger actually comprise two species. In order to stabilise the name, I have examined Boulenger’s two South Australian specimens and have chosen one of them (British Museum 64.10.27.9) as lectotype of Morethia adelaidensis < Boulenger ) . Material. — Eastern Division (W.A.): Randalls ( 18299-300 ) : Karonie ( 14234-8 ) ; Naretha (18301-6, 39712-3); 100 mi. N of Loongana (29459). Eucla Division (W.A.*: Seemore Downs (18331-8); Loongana (29430-1, 34502, 37671); Forrest (15817); 18 mi. NE of Forrest (15180); Eucla (24620-3); Mundrabilla (11001, 25470); Madura (25471); 20 mi. N and 24 mi. NE of Madura <29417-22,36166-7); Cocklebiddy (36554- 5 > ; 12 mi. SW and 14 mi. S of Balladonia ( 17386, 17417, 17419-20). South Australia: Koomooloo- booka Cave (25416-21); Pidinga (25422-4, 25428, 25469); Ceduna (25551); 6 mi. N of Kokatha (24506-9); Wingfield <39793-4). Discussion As in some other widespread but small genera, e.g. Nephrurus and Tympanocryptis , the various species of Morethia tend to have mutually ex- clusive ranges. In the Kimberley and North- west Divisions there is only taeniopleura. The arid and semiarid country further south is oc- cupied by butleri. which itself is replaced in the far east of the State by the closely related boulengeri. The ranges of the three species occurring in the south of the State, lineoocellata, obscura and adelaidensis, are respectively centred on the west-coastal plain, the precam- brian shield, and the halophytic country of the southeast. However, obscura has invaded the coastal plain in several places; it is also margin- ally sympatric with the southernmost popula- tions of butleri and adelaidensis. The fact that Morethia species are largely allopatric would suggest that they have evolved in situ : or in other words their ranges are much the same as when they were geographic races of a single widespread species. This might be taken as evidence that the various species are young, or have evolved too recently for their ranges to have changed much. Such a view would be supported by the great similarity in scalation between the species, only the supra- ciliaries showing any substantial differentiation. Moreover the relationship of obscura to lineoo- cellata and of boulengeri to butleri must be very close. Nevertheless I cannot believe that the radia- tion of Morethia is very recent. The differences in coloration between, say, taeniopleura, lineoocellata and adelaidensis are marked and manifold, and are in no degree bridged by geographic or individual variants. Moreover the genus itself is probably old. With its persistent Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November, 1972. 78 supranasals and postnasals, Morethia stands apart from other endemic Australian genera of skinks; at the same time it is not clearly related to any non-Australian genus. One is thus left with the probability that the restricted ranges of Morethia species are due tG ecological factors rather than lack of time for expansion. Each species, it seems, is so well adapted to a given climate-substrate type that its congeners are at a disadvantage within its range. In Nephrurus and Tyvipanocryptis , where interspecific differences in morphology are more trenchant, the case for invoking ecological factors is still more cogent. References Boulenger. G. A. (1887). — “Catalogue of the lizards in the British Museum (Natural History)” 3. (Brit. Mus.: Lond.). Coventry, A. J. (1970). — Reptile and amphibian type specimens housed in the National Museum of Victoria. Mem. Nat. Mus. Vic. 31 115-124. Fuhn, T. E. (1969a). — Revision and redefinition of the genus Ablepharus Lichtenstein, 1923 (Rep- tilia, Scincidae). Rev. Rouvi. Biol. Zoo! . 14: 23-41. Fuhn, I. E. (1969b).- The “polyphyletic” origin of the genus Ablepharus (Reptilia, Scincidae): a case of parallel evolution, Ztschr Zool. Syst. & EvoVforscli. 7 : 67-76. Greer, A. E. (1967). — A new generic arrangement for some Australian scincid lizards. Breviora No. 267: 1-19. Journal of the Royal Society cf Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November, 1972. 79 9. — Prehistoric mammal faunas from two small caves in the extreme south- west of Western Australia by M. Archer* and A. Baynes** Manuscript received 20 June , 1972; accepted 18 July, 1972. Abstract, Mammal faunas are reported from deposits in two small caves near Augusta, Western Aus- tralia. They are considered to have been ac- mulated by owls. Identifications by previous authors are discussed for certain species. The faunas are compared with previous records of both modern and fossil populations of each species in the area. A radiocarbon date (GaK-2949) of 430 ±r 160 years B- P. is reported for hair from the larger deposit, and the ages of both deposits are discussed. The youngest known fossil Sarcophilus specimen from the Australian mainland is reported. The first record of Rattus tunneyi in the extreme south- west is discussed, and it is concluded that the species extended its range into the area in the last 8,000 years. It is suggested that it reached the area via west coastal heath habitats, from the Swan coastal plain. * Western Australian Museum. ** Department of Zoology. University of Western Aus tralia. Introduction In 1968 our attention was drawn by Mr P. R. Lake to mammal bones (Western Australian Museum 67.8.5) which he had collected from small pockets in the vertical aeolian limestone face of the cliffs (Fig. 1) along the east side of Turner Brook, near Augusta in the Cape Leeu- win-Cape Naturaliste region of south-western Australia. Two of the pockets contained inter- esting animal remains, and results of work on these are reported in this paper. Because the pockets are too small to merit names they are referred to throughout as Cave 1 and Cave 3. They are registered as Au24 and Au25 respec- tively by the Western Australian Speleological Group (Mr P. J. Bridge, pers. comm.). The vegetation in the valley adjacent to the cliffs is peppermint woodland (see Fig. 1). On Figure 1. — The cliffs on the east side of Turner Brook. They rise to a height of 60 m. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November, 1972, 80 the higher ground this is replaced by shrubby heath. To the south the woodland gives way to heath and then mobile sand dunes near the sea shore which is about 1 km south of the caves. The geological nature of the cliffs and these pockets is not clearly understood. The calcare- ous aeolianite, of which the cliff is composed, is generally assumed to be Quaternary in age and to represent consolidated calcareous dune sands which have a coastal origin (Jennings 1968). There are no absolute dates available for the particular dune in which the cliffs occur. Jennings <1968) and Bain (1962) discuss the history of the cliffs and Jennings (1968* con- cludes that they may have been produced as a consequence of removal by Turner Brook of the mobile dune sands that settled across its course. He suggests that vigorous stream activity re- sulted in a steep dune face along the east bank of the stream valley, as well as a smaller dune face along the west bank. However this inter- pretation is complicated by our finding, near the base of the cliffs, what appear to be rounded heads of granite cobbles that resemble coastal cobble beds present and possibly forming along the beach a few miles north of Turner Brook. Further, from the loose sediments along Turner Brook in the vicinity of the cliffs we recovered fragments of marine echinoids, bryozoans. mol- luscs and benthic foramina. These observations suggest that the cliffs might be sea cliffs result- ing from a previous high stand of sea level. The ceilings of at least some of the small pock- ets in the cliff face are composed of what ap- pears to be cemented limestone rubble, rather than simple bedded aeolianite. Similar rubble occurs in several south-west caves such as Mammoth Cave. It is therefore possible that the cliffs and their small limestone pockets may have had a different origin than that suggested by Jennings <1968). The morphology of Cave 1 is typical of several pockets at various heights and positions along the face of the cliff. It is a wedge-shaped im- pression in the cliff face whose floor slopes steeply up and back into the cliff face to meet the ceiling at the rear of the pocket. There are many small horizontal solution cavities con- nected to the pocket. Bones occur in these small solution cavities as well as on the floor of the pocket itself. Cave 3 is a similar but much smaller pocket about 100 m upstream from Cave 1 and about 4 m vertically above the base of the cliff. The bone-bearing deposit in Cave 1 is prob- ably over 10 cm thick, and appears to have filled a natural depression in the floor of a horizontal solution cavity in the cave. Near the surface, the bone is abundant and there is relatively little limestone rubble. Below 8 cm the proportion ol limestone rubble increases rapidly. At about 10 cm the limestone rubble comprises almost all of the deposit and at this depth there are numerous spaces into which material has fallen from higher levels. For this reason we concerned ourselves with only the upper 8 cm of the Cave 1 deposit. The Cave 3 bone-bearing deposit had proportionately less bone and was slightly deeper. We collected a sample to a depth of 13 cm from the deposit in Cave 3. Material was collected from the caves on three separate occasions by scooping the bone- bearing matrix into cotton specimen bags using trowels and bare hands. Bones and mammal hair were sorted from the matrix in the labora- tory. After identification, estimates were ob- tained of the minimum number of individuals represented by counting left and right sides of skulls or dentaries etc. and treating the larger of the two figures as the minimum number of individuals. Mammal specimens were accessed in the palaeontological collection of the Western Australian Museum (71.11.199-327). Other cata- logue numbers (e.g. M8351) referred to in this paper are those of the modern mammal collec- tions of the Western Australian Museum. Cave names are used without apostrophes in accord with the policy of the Department of Lands and Surveys of Western Australia (e.g. Devil’s Lair becomes Devils Lair). Responsibility for the identification and dis- cussion of the mammal specimens is divided be- tween the two authors. Marsupial and bat specimens were identified by M. Archer. Murid specimens were identified by A. Baynes. The nomenclature used here is that adopted by Ride (1970). In the case of the dasyurids, the identifications are based on revisional work within the family Dasyuridae by M. Archer, to be published elsewhere. In the case of the murids, the nomenclature used by Ride (1970) is based upon the long term research of J. A. Mahoney who has identified large numbers of murid specimens which are lodged in the West- ern Australian Museum collections. These ser- ies are here considered to embody the concepts implied by the names used by Ride <1970) in all cases except one. The exception is Pseudo- mys praeconis. Until recently confusion existed in identifications of specimens from cave de- posits of this species and the very similar Pseu- domys nanus. However, A. Baynes has now carried out a study on the maxillae of these species (to be published elsewhere) on the basis of which they were separated. As a result it was found that most of the specimens from caves in the Moore River-Dongara region (in- cluding a series with 63.9.1 from Hastings Cave which Mahoney had tentatively identified as P. nanus), and all the specimens examined from the Cape Leeuwin-Cape Naturalist© region, grouped with modern specimens of P. praeconis. Pending further investigation they are recorded under that name. Methods of diagnosis of ro- dent species used by A. Baynes will be published in the form of a key to the rodents of south- western Australia. Faunas The species identified in the Cave 1 deposit within 8 cm of the surface, and the minimum Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November, 1972. 81 Eutheria number of individuals of each species repre- sented are listed below: Metatheria Dasyuridae: Sminthopsis murina G1 Antechinus flavipes 57 Phascogale tapoatafa 1 Dasyurus geoffroii 2 Sarcoptiilus harrisii 1 Peramelidae : Isoodon obesulus 7 Burramyidae: Cercartetus concinnus 8 Petauridae: Pseudocheirus peregrinus 1 Eutheria Vespertilionidae : Nyctophilus timoriensis 1 Muridae: Pseudomys shortridgei 140 Pseudomys praeconis 3 Rattus fuscipes 231 Rattus tunneyi 114 Rattus sp. * 26 * These do not represent a third species in this genus. They are broken or incompletely developed speci- mens which could not be assigned to either named species with certainty. The exact provenance of the single premolar that represents Sarcophilus harrisii is not cer- tain. It was collected from the foot of the cliff immediately below a small opening that leads back into the solution cavity in Cave 1 that contained the Cave 1 deposit. Bone material in the solution cavity was found scattered a.s far as this opening in the cliff face. There were other small bones lying with the S. harrisii tooth that resembled the material from the Cave 1 deposit. This suggests that a quantity of material including the Sarcophilus tooth fell from the deposit. In addition, there are numerous passerine bird specimens represented by skeletal remains. No attempt has been made to identify them. There are also insect remains which represent eleven families and four orders (pers. comm, from Mrs E. A. Archer, Western Australian Museum) and molluscan remains which represent one genus (pers. comm, from Mr G. W. Kendrick, Western Australian Museum). The species identified in the Cave 3 deposit within 13 cm of the surface, and the minimum number of individuals of each species are listed below: Metatheria Dasyuridae : Sminthopsis murina 5 Antechinus flavipes 24 Phascogale tapoatafa 1 Peramelidae: Isoodom obesulus 2 Burramyidae: Cercartetus concinnus 2 Phalangeridae: Trichosurus vulpecula 2 Petauridae : Pseudocheirus peregrinus 1 Macropodidae . Potorous tridactylus ** 1 Bettongia sp. i Setonix brachyurus 1 Muridae : Pseudomys albocinereus 3 Pseudomys shortridgei n Pseudomys praeconis 4 Rattus fuscipes 33 Rattus tunneyi 4 Rattus sp. * e Hydromys chrysogaster 1 * See comment below species list for Cave 1. The identification is based on a worn molar and mav not be correct. In addition there are mollusc specimens rep- resenting four species of terrestial snails, one of which is an evidently undescribed prosobranch (pers. comm, from Mr G. W. Kendrick) Species concepts Before proceeding with a consideration of the species contained within these deposits it is necessary to examine the concepts implied bv certain names used by previous authors in discussing relevant faunas. Many of the pion- eering studies on cave deposit faunas in West- ern Australia were carried out by E L Lundelius (1957, 1960. 1963, 1964 and 1966)' He deposited small samples of identified speci- mens in the Western Australian Museum. These were catalogued several years later. Generally only one specimen in each sample received a catalogue number. Most of the specimens are from Hastings Cave. Comparisons of specimens we collected from the same deposit with those attributed to Lundelius, perhaps erroneously re- veal disagreements in identification of some of the small dasyurid and murid specimens. Lundelius <1957) states that Sminthopsis furtipes is represented in cave deposits at Jurien Bay and Mimegara. However Lundelius (I960 P. 149) later qualifies this statement as follows: Unfortunately the identification of the species Sminthopsis and the genus Notomys is very uncertain at the present time because of the imperfect knowledge of the Recent species. There are two species of Sminthopsis present in Drover’s Cave [Hastings Cave, see Merrilees 19681. A small species which resembles 5. hi? tipes is abundant in the surface deposits of a number of caves north of Perth. A larger species whose affinities are unknown is abun- dant in the lower layer and is only doubtfully identified in the top layers.” In the Western Australian Museum collections there are seven “Sminthopsis” samples from Hastings Cave whose collection and identification is attributed on the labels to E. L. Lundelius. Re-identifica- tions of some of the specimens in these samples given below are based on concepts developed as a result of the revisional studies of the Dasyuridae by M. Archer. One sample (including 63.6.21 and 72.4.10) is identified by Lundelius as " Sminthopsis sp. small”. Specimen 63.6.21 represents S. murina and specimen 72.4.10 re- presents S. granulipes on the criteria used here A second sample (including 63.6.22 and 72.4.11) is identified by Lundelius as “Sminthopsis sp large”. Specimen 63.6.22 represents S. granulipes and specimen 72.4.11 represents Antechinus flawpes on the criteria used here. A third sample Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November, 1972 82 (including 63.6.15 and 72.4.12) is identified by Lundelius as “ Sminthopsis hirtipes”. Specimen 63.6.15 represents S. granulipes and specimen 72.4.12 represents S. murina on the criteria used here. Two other samples (including 66.1.30-34 and 63.2.26) are identified by Lundelius as "Sminthopsis murina". All of these specimens appeal to represent 5. granulipes on the criteria used here. Two final samples (including 63.2.27, and 66.1.40-48) have associated labels indi- cating they were identified by Lundelius as “ Sminthopsis crassicaudata” . All of the num- bered specimens in these samples are considered to represent S. murina except 66.1.41 and 66.1.45 which on the criteria used here are considered to represent S. granulipes. Cook (I960) states that his identification of S. crassicaudata from Devils Lair ( Nannup Cave of Cook 1960, see Merrilees 1968) in the Cape Leeuwin-Cape Naturalists region was based on comparison with specimens identified as that species by E. L. Lundelius. However, Cook did not designate the specimens he used, and Lundelius' published faunal lists from western coastal cave deposits do not include S. crassicaudata. Cook’s speci- mens (65.10.150-153) are considered to represent S. murina on the criteria used here. Because the specimens were accessed after Lundelius published his identifications it is im- possible to be certain that the specimens in these samples were among those referred to by Lundelius 1 1957 and I960). However, all of the specimens representing Sminthopsis species sub- sequently collected by us from Hastings Cave are considered to represent only S. murina and S. granulipes. Further, as a result of examination of modern and fossil dasyurids, it is possible to say that these are the only species of Sminthop- sis 'as presently understood) known to have in- habited the coastal plain south of the Jurien area. These re-interpretations are important be- cause inferences of past climates from fossil faunas by Lundelius (I960) are in part drawn from the presumed presence of the arid adapted S. hirtipes in the Hastings Cave deposit. Lundelius (1957. I960) recognizes four species of the murid genus Pseudomys in cave deposit faunas from the west coast of Australia: P. shortridgei, P. occidentalism P. albocinereus, and P. nanus. The samples of specimens lodged in the Western Australian Museum, labelled iden- tified by Lundelius as P. shortridgei (including 63.6.1D and P. occidentals (including 63.6.12) are in accord with the concepts of these species used here. In the case of P. albocinereus the sample consists of three specimens (63.6.16, 72.4.13 and 72.4.14), which w r ere collected, and apparently identified by Lundelius. Only 63.6.16 is judged to be P. albocinereus , 72.4.13 and 72.4.14 are considered to be juvenile P. occi- dentals on the criteria used here. This may result from misassociation of label and speci- mens, as Lundelius (pers. comm.) is confident he correctly separated these species. The samples (including 63.6.20 and 70.6.28) labelled identi- fied by Lundelius as P. nanus are among those indicated by the study referred to above to be probably P. praeconis. Lundelius (I960) lists two species of Rattus in faunas from west coast cave deposits. R. fuscipes he considered to be present in all those he reported on, i.e. between Cape Leeuwin and Jurien Bay. In addition he recognized a second species from the more northern deposits in this region which he identified only as Rattus sp. He deposited in the Western Australian Museum a single sample of Rattus maxillae (including 63.6.19) from Hastings Cave, which the label indicates he identified as R. fuscipes. All six specimens in this sample are considered to be Rattus tunneyi on the criteria used here. Re- search being carried out by A. Baynes on the fauna from Hastings Cave deposit show’s that R. fuscipes is indeed present, but the specimens are considerably smaller than both R. tunneyi specimens from the same deposit, and R. fuscipes specimens from the Cape Leeuwin- Cape Naturaliste region. As will be shown below, it is probable that the Rattus sample from Devils Lair examined by Lundelius (I960) included only R. fuscipes . Although Lundelius (1960) makes no comment on the relative sizes of the species he separates, it is possible that he iden- tified specimens in the northern deposits as R. fuscipes on the basis of larger size, and placed the small (true R. fuscipes) specimens under Rattus sp. Thus in Lundelius’ records from the Cape Leeuw r in-Cape Naturalist region R. fuscipes is probably correctly identified, whereas for deposits north of Perth Rattus species appear to be confused. Previous records in the region It is useful to consider whether the species have been collected live and what their known Table 1 The distribution of species which cccur in the Cave 1 and Cave 3 faunas Re- Pleisto- order! cene live Devils deposit from Cave 1 Cave 3 Lair in the , Mam- •egion moth Cave Sminth opsin ■murina i - 4 - A uterh in os flu vi pes Thus coyule tupootofa Dnsyurus (/eoffroi i Sarcoph i lm luirris i / fsOOdllH olil'sol IIS ( 'erru riel us rotiri n n us Trie /iukuiiis eul/ienthi I ‘se u dor he i ru x reyri o ox potorous friflaely/lvs fieUouyia peniciJfptu f’rllovyiu lesiieui ‘ Seloni r lira c/iyn rim \ yrlophilus H moriensis I •spud a w t/s ilhn >c i nere ox l feodum yx xhorlHdyei Pseudomys praeconis Putins fuscipes ... Roll us tunneyi Ilydromys chrysoyUSter -r + + = present. - = absent. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55. Part 3, November, 1972. 83 fossil record is in the Cape Leeuwin-Cape Natu- raliste region. This information is summar- ized in Table 1. There are only two relevant dated bone-bear- ing deposits in this region: the Pleistocene de- posit in Mammoth Cave (reviewed most re- cently by Merrilees 1968) and the deposit in Devils Lair (reviewed most recently by Dortch and Merrilees 1972 ). The ages of these deposits are discussed below. Other fossil faunas from this region reported by Glauert (1948), Cook (1963) and Merrilees (1968 and 1969) have not been radiometrically dated. Sminthopsis murina was reported by Short- ridge (1910) to occur live near Margaret River in the Cape Leeuwin-Cape Naturaliste region. Dortch and Merrilees (1972) recorded the spe- cies as a fossil from Devils Lair. Specimens (e.g. 68.6.286) known from the Mammoth Cave deposit are considered to represent this species. Antechinus fiavipes (e.g. M 2037) is known live from the Cape Leeuwin-Cape Naturaliste region. Cook (1963) considered a single fossil tooth from Strongs Cave possibly to represent Antechinus fiavipes. Dortch and Merrilees (1972) report fossil A. fiavipes from Devils Lair. Lundelius (I960) reports fossil specimens of Antechinus ? from Devils Lair. Specimens (e.g. 68.6.285) considered to represent A. fiavipes are known from the Mammoth Cave deposit. Sarcophilus harrisii has only been recorded live on the Australian mainland in Victoria, but there is some doubt about the interpretation of these records (discussed below). The species is known as a fossil from the Cape Leeuwin-Cape Naturaliste region, for example from Mammoth Cave (Merrilees 1968). Devils Lair (Lundelius 1960, Dortch and Merrilees 1972), Strongs Cave (Cook 1963), Brides Cave (Glauert 1948), and Labyrinth Cave (Merrilees 1969). Phascogale tapoatafa, Dasyurus geoffroii, isoodon obesulus, Trichosurus vulpecula, Pseu- docheirus peregrinus, and Setonix brachyurus have all been collected live from the Cape Leeu- win-Cape Naturaliste region (Shortridge 1910), and all are represented by fossils from Devils Lair (Lundelius 1960, Dortch and Merrilees 1972) and Mammoth Cave (Lundelius 1960 or Merrilees 1968). Cercartetus concinnus is represented by speci- mens (e.g. 10510) in the modern mammal col- lections of the Western Australian Museum from the Cape Leeuwin-Cape Naturaliste region. It was also evidently known to Aboriginals who inhabited the area within historic times (Short- ridge 1910). It has been reported as a fossil by Cook (1963) in the Strongs Cave fauna, and by Dortch and Merrilees (1972) from Devils Lair. Potorus tridactylus may now be extinct in the Cape Leeuwin-Cape Naturaliste region (Short- ridge 1910). It has been reported as a fossil for example from Strongs Cave (Cook 1963), Mammoth Cave (Merrilees 1968) and Devils Lair (Lundelius 1960, Dortch and Merrilees 1972). Because of the nature of the material (one molar) representing Bettongia sp. it has not been possible to determine which of the two living species known from south-western Aus- tralia is represented in the Cave 3 material. Bettongia penicillata has been collected live from the Cape Leeuwin-Cape Naturaliste region (Shortridge 1910). Although it occurs in the Devils Lair deposit (Dortch and Merrilees 1972), it has not been reported from the Strongs Cave deposit and is probably not represented in the Pleistocene deposit in Mammoth Cave (see Merrilees 1968). Bettongia lesueur has neither been collected live from this region nor been recorded from the Mammoth Cave deposit (Merrilees 1968). It is, however, recorded from Devils Lair (Lundelius 1960, Dortch and Merri- lees, 1972). Nyctophilus timoriensis has not been recorded live from the Cape Leeuwin-Cape Naturaliste region. The closest record (M976) is from the Pemberton area. Cook (1963) records the species as a fossil from the Strongs Cave fauna. Pseudoviys albocinereus is not known as a modern population from the Cape Leeuwin-Cape Naturaliste region. The closest records are from near Fremantle (Shortridge 1936), and the Chorkerup-Narrikup area north of Albany (e.g. M1732, M3417). However, it is represented in the Devils Lair deposit (Lundelius 1960, Dortch and Merrilees 1972). Pseudoviys shortridgei has not been collected live from the Cape Leeuwin-Cape Naturaliste region and is poorly known as a modern popula- tion in Western Australia. On the other hand it is generally abundant in prehistoric faunas from the west coast (e.g. Lundelius 1957), and the south coast at least as far east as Bremer Bay (Butler and Merrilees 1971). It is also known from the Devils Lair deposit (Lundelius 1960, Dortch and Merrilees 1972). Pseudomys praeconis is another species not known as a living animal from the Cape Leeuwin-Cape Naturaliste region, and indeed it has been regarded as confined to the Shark Bay region (see, for instance, Ride 1970). Lundelius (1957) reported P. nanus from Lake Cave. As shown above, this record probably represents P. praeconis . A single specimen is also listed by Dortch and Merrilees (1972) from Devils Lair. The importance of the records lies in the re- cognition of this species in the extreme south- west, indicating a much wider former distribu- tion. A substantial reduction in range of true P. nanus is also implied, casting doubt on the extension of range suggested by Lundelius (1957). Rattus fuscipes is still very common in coastal habitats of south-western Australia, and is well represented by specimens in the Western Aus- tralian Museum. Four (M835 1-8354) were Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November. 1972. 84 trapped by M. Archer and others along Turner Brook near Cave 1. This species is also generally well represented by specimens from the surface of many cave deposits in the Cape Leeuwin- Cape Naturaliste region. Lundelius (I960) re- corded R. fuscipes as the only species of Rattus in the Devils Lair deposit, and it was the only representative of the genus obtained from the same deposit by Dortch and Merrilees (1972). Lundelius (I960) also lists this species from the Mammoth Cave deposit, but the specimen (s) on which he based this record are not designated. There are two Rattus specimens (65.4.39-40) from the Mammoth Cave deposit in the Western Australian Museum; both are considered to represent R. fuscipes on the criteria used here. Rattus tunneyi (Fig. 2) is not known as a living animal from the Cape Leeuwin-Cape Naturaliste region, the closest record being that listed by Mahoney (1969) from “Perth — lakes”. It was originally described from northern Aus- tralia and for many years was only known from that part of the continent. The species is ap- parently absent from the Devils Lair deposit, but is known from the surface of deposits in four other caves in the Cape Leeuwin-Cape Natural- iste region: 70.6.87 from a cave near Mammoth Cave, 70.7.199 from Skull Cave, 71.6.26 from Yallingup Cave, and 72.2.1 from the Brides Cave doline. Hydromys chrysogaster is distributed in river systems of south-western Australia. Although live specimens were not reported from the Cape Leeuwin-Cape Naturaliste region by Shortridge (1936), the Western Australian Museum collec- tions include modern specimens (M6576, M6580, M6581 ) from the stream system which flows through Mammoth Cave, and fossil specimens . This greater diversity is principally due to the inclusion in the Cave 3 deposit of single specimens of larger mammal species typical of south-western faunas. It ee' ms probable that the differences in the faunas reflect the presence of different or ad- ditional owl predators in Cave 3. Not only the widespread medium -sized owl species, Tyto albci and Ninox novaeseelandiae. but also the much larger T. novaehollandiae and N. connivens are found in the extreme south-west of Australia (Serventy and Whittell 1967'. Either of the last two could be powerful enough to prey upon all the mammal species included in the fauna from Cave 3. Since the greater diversity of prey species is found in the smaller deposit. Cave 3, it is rea- sonable to assume that the owl predators which accumulated the fauna in the larger deposit. Cave 1. adequately sampled the small mammal species occurring in the area. It follows that the absence of Pseudomys albocinereus from Cave 1 reflects a genuine absence from the contempor- ary fauna. Species records of significance Sarcophilus harrisii has been recorded live from the Australian mainland only twice, in 1912 at Tooborac sixty miles from Melbourne, and in 1971 near Ballarat (noted in The West Australian for 25 May, 1971). Ride (1970) suggests that, although it is commonly thought that the Tooborac animal had escaped from captivity, there is no certainty that this was the case. The same comment could also apply to the specimen captured near Ballarat. Sar- cophilus harrisii has been reported from fossil bone deposits in Victoria te.g. Gill 1955), South Australia . However, there is no evidence that the species has occurred further east than this on the south coast either in historic or prehistoric times. It was not obtained by the early collectors working north from King George's Sound (but was collected at about the same time on the Victoria Plains — see Mahoney 1969 ). It was also not in a pre- historic fauna collected by Butler and Merrilees (1971) at Bremer Bay, which was radiocarbon dated using bone at 1190 =t 80 years B.P. It is therefore more probable that the species reached the Cape Leeuwin area from the Swan coastal plain population via the western corridor. From there it may have continued on to the south coast. Acknowledgements We would like to thank Mr P. R. Lake for originally bringing the Turner Brook fossil material to our attention. Mr P. R. Lake, Miss L. Gill (now Mrs W. K. Youngson), Miss E. A. Jefferys (now Mrs M. Archer) and Mr W. K. Youngson helped make initial collections. Miss E. A. Jefferys also helped with the sorting of the fossil material and the live trapping along Turner Brook. Dr D. Merrilees, Mr G. W. Kendrick, and Miss E. A. Jefferys, all of the Western Australian Museum, provided respec- tively potoroine macropodid, mollusc, and insect identifications. Professor A. R. Main. University of Western Australia, and Dr D. Merrilees kindly read and criticized a draft of this paper. Finances for the radiocarbon date were pro- vided by an Australian Research Grants Com- mittee award to Dr W. D. L. Ride, Director of the Western Australian Museum. During the course of work on this project M. Archer was supported alternately by an Australian-American Educational Foundation Fulbright Scholarship, a grant in aid from the American Explorers* Club, and a Research Assistant’s salary pro- vided by an Australian Research Grants Com- mittee award to Dr W. D. L. Ride. A Baynes held a studentship from the Science Research Council of London, and the research was also supported by the Research Grants Committee of the University of Western Australia. References Bain, T. (1962). — The geomorphology of the Cape Hamelin coastal limestones and sand dunes. Journal of the Western Australian Speleolo- gical Group 1962: 18-28. Butler. W. H. and Merrilees, D. (1971) —Remains of Potorous platyops ( Marsupialia, Macropo- didae) and other mammals from Bremer Bay, Western Australia, Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 54: 53-58. Calahy, J. H. and White. C. 1 1967)-— The Tasmanian Devil ( Sarccphitus harrisi) in Northern Australia in Recent times. The Australian Journal of Science 29: 473-475. Churchill. D. M. (1968).— The distribution and prehistory of Eucalyptus diversicolor F. Muell.. E. marainata Donn ex Sm.. and E. calophylla R. Br. in relation to rainfall. Australian Journal of Botany 16: 125-151. Cook. D. L. (1960). — Some mammal remains found in caves near Margaret River. The Western Australian Naturalist 7: 107-108. Cook, D. L. (1963).— The fossil vertebrate fauna of Strong's Cave, Boranup. Western Australia. The Western Australian Naturalist 8: 153- 162. Dortch, C. E. and Merrilees, D. (1972).— A salvage exca- vation in Devil’s Lair. Western Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 54: 103-113. Gill. E. D. (1955).-- Aboriginal midden sites in western Victoria dated by radiocarbon analysis. Mankind 5: 51-5. Gill, E D. (1971). — The Australian Aborigines and the Tasmanian Devil, Mankind 8: 59-63. Glauert, L. (1948).— The cave fossils of the south-west. The Western Australian Naturalist 1 : 101-104. Jennings. J. N. (1968). — Syngenetic karst in Australia. pp. 41-110 in Contributio?is to the study of karst by P. W. Williams and J. N. Jennings. Canberra: Australian National University Geography Publication G/5. Lundelius. E. L. < 1957).— Additions to knowledge of ranges of Western Australian mammals. The Western Australian Naturalist 5: 173-182. Lundelius, E. L. (I960).— Post Pleistocene faunal suc- cession in Western Australia and its climatic interpretation. Report of the International Geological Congress , XXI Session , Norden 1960. Pt. TV Chronology and Climatology of the Quaternary: 142-153. Lundelius. E. L. (1963). Vertebrate remains from the Nullarbor Caves. Western Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 46: 75-80. Lundelius, E. L. ( 1964).— Notes on the skulls of two Australian rodents with a key to the skulls of the rodents of south-western Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 47: 65-71. Lundelius. E. L. ( 1966 ) .—Marsupial carnivore dens in Australian caves. Studies in Speleology 1 : 174-180. Mahoney, J. A. (1969).— A re-identification of the Aus- tralian Murldae in the Leiden Museum listed by F. A. Jentink in 1887 and 1888. Zoo- logische Mededelingen 43: 279-286. Merrilees, D. (1968). — Man the destroyer: late Quarter- nary changes in the Australian marsupial fauna. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 51: 1-24. Merrilees, D. (1969). — A newly discovered bone-bearing deposit in Labyrinth Cave, near Augusta. Western Australia. The Western Australian Naturalist 11: 86-87. Ride, W. D. L. (1970 ).- A guide to the native mammals of Australia. Melbourne: Oxford University Press . Serventy, D. L. and Whittell, H. M. (1967 ). — Birds of Western Australia. 4th ed. Perth: Lamb Pub- lications. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55. Part 3, November, 1972. 88 Shortridge, G. C. (1910). — An account of the geographical distribution of the marsupials and mono- tremes of south-west Australia, having- special reference to the specimens collected during the Balston Expedition of 1904-1907. Proceedings of the Zoological Society oj London 1909: 803-848. Shortridge, G. C. (1936).— Field notes (hitherto un- published) on Western Australian mammals south of the Tropic of Capricorn (exclusive of Marsupial ia and Monotremata) , and re- cords of specimens collected during the Balston Expeditions (November 1904 to June. 1907). Proceedings oj the Zoological So- ciety of London 1936: 743-749. Thomas, O. (1907). — List of further collections of mam- mals from Western Australia, including a series from Bernier Island, obtained for Mr. W. E. Balston; with field-notes by the collector, Mr. G. C. Shortridge. Proceedings oj the Zoological Society of London 1906: 763-777. Wakefield, N. A. (1964). — Mammal remains. Pp. 494-498 in “Archaelogical excavation of Rock Shelter No. 6 Fromm's Landing. South Australia” by D. J. Mulvaney, G. H. Lawton and C. R. Twidale. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 77: 479-516. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November, 1972. 89 10. — Information on Western Australian earthquakes 1849-1960 by I. B. Everingham 1 and L. Tilbury 2 Manuscript received 20 June, 1972; accepted 18 July, 1972. Abstract To complement previously published data on the seismicity of Western Australia, earthquake data for the period 1849-1900 are summarised, and those for the period 1900-1960 reassessed. The first known earthquake report in Western Australia was during 1849 when Perth was noticeably shaken. The Geraldton. Barrow Range, and Roebourne regions have a history of seismic activity prior to 1900 although little activity has occurred in these areas since then. Of particular in- terest is an 1885 earthquake located off-shore near Geraldton which generated a minor tsunami thereby suggesting a magnitude of 6.5 or more Epicentres and magnitudes (ML) are esti- mated for sixteen earthquakes during the period 1900-1960- All but one of these were in the South-west Seismic Zone, to the east of Perth, where activity appears to have increased markedly since about 1940, A body wave magnitude of 7.1 is determined for the 1941 Meeberrie earthquake. This deter- mination tends to confirm macroselsmic evidence that this event is the largest known earth- quake to have occurred in Australia to date, and that the depth of focus is greater than normal for continental earthquakes. Introduction A description of the seismicity of Western Australia (Everingham. 1968a) revealed an in- adequate knowledge of earthquakes which oc- curred in the period prior to October 1959 when the Mundaring Geophysical Observatory com- menced seismological recordings with modern instruments. Prior to this the details of only one earthquake in Western Australia (at Meeberrie in 1941) were known, whereas subsequently over two hundred were located for the relatively short period October 1959-June 1965. No details of seismicity prior to 1900 were given in Ever- ingham’s report. In order to improve knowledge of earlier events further investigations were carried out, with the result that additional information was found to be available from three main sources. These were (a) newspaper and Meteorological Bureau reports of events which happened prior to 1900: (b) seismograms of the Milne Shaw seismograph operating at the Perth Observatory (station PER) during the period 1923-1960: and (c> intensity data contained in the Perth Obser- vatory files covering the period 1923-1960. 1 Bureau cff Mineral Resources, Geophysical Obser- vatory P.O. Box 323, Port Moresby, P.N.G. - Bureau of Mineral Resources P.O. Box 378, Canberra City. A.C.T. 2601. Data for the period prior to 1900 The earliest known reference to Western Australian seismicity is a legend to be found in a book of aboriginal legends named “An Attempt to Eat the Moon", by Deborah Muller-Murphy <1958). The legends pertain to the area in the vicinity of Busselton and the one of interest here, entitled “The Great Shaking”, gives a vivid description of earthquake (and perhaps volcanic and weather) effects which were accom- panied by changes in the topography and sea level. The existence of the legend suggests that a major earthquake which occurred unknown centuries ago was destructive enough to make a lasting impression on the local population. The only list of data on earthquakes that occurred before 1900 appears to be that published by the Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology (1929). Their volume gives very brief descrip- tions of earthquake reports during 1849-1927, those for the 1900-1927 events being much the same as descriptions extracted from Perth Ob- servatory files by Everingham (1968a). The first known map of earthquake reports in West- ern Australia also appear here. Although the first earthquake listed took place in 1849, the Bureau pointed out that the information was accumulated regularly only after 1878 so that further reports of 1829-1878 tremors may be discovered in the future. Newspapers were searched for references to events listed by the Bureau of Meteorology, and extracts from these references are listed in the Appendix. Where a newspaper report of a listed earthquake could not be discovered, the details given by the Bureau of Meteorology were used. Descriptions of three events not listed by the Bureau of Meteorology are also given in the Appendix; of particular interest is the descrip- tion contained in a log of Ernest Giles’ inland exploration journey of 1873. For this study no attempt was made to search for earthquake reports in every news- paper published before 1900. To locate reports in this manner would be extremely time- consuming and probably inefficient because of the difficulty in reading the archival microfilm copies of the newspapers and because of the haphazard way in which reports were included in these newspapers. Even when the dates of events were known, the authors often found it difficult to locate the reports in the newspapers. The earthquake which caused the highest felt intensities (probably Modified Mercalli (MM) Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November, 1972. 90 6 or 7) prior to 1900 were at Barrow Range (1873) and Geraldton (1885). A one metre drop in sea level reported to have been associated with the Geraldton event is a typical tsunami effect caused by submarine land-sliding or fault- ing and indicates an off-shore epicentre for the earthquake. A shallow earthquake with a mag- nitude (MS' of at least 6.5 would probably be required to cause such a sea-wave 5-8 4-7 4-6 4-5 4-5 (5-2) 4-8 NOTES : ML relative determinations from max. trace amplitude NS Milne-Shaw ML* magnitude estimated from intensity data. 32 • 2 accuracy 4 0 -25 . (33-5) accuracy ± 0-5 . recording at P E R . Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November 1972. 91 Figure 2. — Earthquakes in the active zone to the east of Perth recorded by the Perth Observatory Milne-Shaw seismograph, 1923-1960. files of earthquake reports and newspaper cut- tings. For example, Carrigy and Main, of the University of Western Australa, sent out a number of intensity questionnaires for earth- quakes which occurred at Bolgart <1952), Yeri- coin (1955) and Gabalong (1955) (see Figure 2), and replies to these clearly indicated the epi- central regions; in other examples the similarity of reports with those from areas which have been active since 1960 gave a good lead to the epicentral position. Moreover, it was possible to use the S-P time on the Milne-Shaw seismo- grams converted to epicentral distance (using recently determined travel-times), to roughly confirm the distance from Perth to the epi- centres determined from the felt reports. Fortunately many epicentres could be deter- mined fairly accurately because: (a) most of the events recorded at Perth were large enough to be felt clearly; ( b » the focal depths of local events are generally very shallow so that maxi- mum intensities are felt in very localised areas close to the epicentres; and (c) reports of frequent loud explosive sounds caused by after- shocks and foreshocks are commonly made from areas within a few kilometres of the main shock. In some instances the Perth Observatory wrongly reported that a local felt earthquake was recorded on the seismogram, e.g. a distant event recorded at the time a local tremor was felt at Albany on 2 February, 1937, was assumed to have caused the shaking of that town. In other instances recordings were weak or undecipherable and did not provide any additional information. The epicentres are listed in Table 1. Except for the 1946 event to the west of Yallingup all events were in the South-west Seismic Zone (the known NNW-SSE trending zone of activity, about 60 km east of Perth described by Ever- ingham, 1968a) and the positions of these epi- centres are shown in Figure 2. Magnitude determinations Magnitudes were estimated in two ways: (a) approximately from intensity information dis- cussed above; and (b) from the Milne-Shaw seismograms, assuming a nominal magnification of 250. Where there was sufficient information, the felt intensities for a given earthquake were com- pared with those experienced in recent earth- quakes of known magnitudes, and for which isoseismal maps have been drawn (see Evering- ham and Parkes, 1971). Four magnitudes estimated in this manner are included in Table 1 under the heading ML*. Because the periods of ground motions could not be measured on the Milne-Shaw recordings, the trace amplitudes could not be converted to standard Wood-Anderson amplitudes for deter- mination of local magnitude values. However, using the maximum trace amplitudes registered on the Perth Milne-Shaw seismogram and the nomogram of Gutenberg and Richter (1942), relative local magnitudes < ML) of eighteen events were determined. The level of these magnitudes was then adjusted so that the mean value of the four determinations from iso- seismals equalled the mean value of the relevant four determinations using the Milne-Shaw re- cords. Results are listed in Table 1. Magni- tude values are probably accurate to 0.5 units. Table 2 Meeherrie (1941) earthquake Determinations . Magnitude determined from Magni- tude (MS) Assumed focal depth (km) Remarks and reference surface waves 6-8 shallow Gutenberg and Richter (1954). Depth factor not included in magnitude formula. isoseismals .... (6-9*) 30 Bolt's (1959) depth, *Magnitude determined by Hveringham and Parkes (1971). isoseismals .... (7-7*) 60 Gutenberg and Richter's (1954) depth. Also approximate depth indicated by macro- seismic data (Everingham and Parkes, 1971). body waves 7-3 shallow Depth not critical. Body wave magnitude (mB) = mB (Ml'N) • 0-4 where mB (MI N) is determined using Evering- ham’s (1068b) curve B for attenuation function. ('(in- verted to MS via mB - 2-5 -f 0-63 MS. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55, Part 3, November, 1972. 92 It is suggested by Everingham and Parkes (1971) that the 1941 Meeberrie earthquake sur- face wave magnitude (MS 6.8) given by Guten- berg and Richter <1954) is too low because the earthquake focal depth was probably in the vicinity of the maximum depth (50 km) for which the method of surface wave magnitude determination is applicable. To throw further light on this suggestion, a body wave magnitude was determined from the Perth Observatory seismogram using the currently standard em- pirical method employed by the Mundaring Geophysical Observatory (Everingham, 1968b >. Table 2 lists the result along with other magni- tude determinations for the earthquake. The body wave magnitude, admittedly not very accurate because of its derivation from the Milne-Shaw recording, does tend to confirm that the magnitude determined from surface waves is too low. It is considered that in view of the evidence given in Table 2 a magnitude (MS) of 7.2 and Gutenberg and Richter’s (1954) focal depth of 60 km should be adopted for the Meeberrie earthquake. The 1941 Meeberrie event is apparently the deepest and largest known to have occurred in the Australian continent since instrumental re- cordings commenced in the early 1900’s. The 1968 earthquake at Meckering with MS 6.8 is the second largest to have occurred in Aus- tralia. It is unfortunate that for the one event <3 October 1959) which was recorded at both Mundaring and Perth Observatories before the Milne-Shaw seismograph at Perth was closed down, the recording from Perth was spoilt by traffic noise and a direct comparison of mag- nitudes determined from each instrument could not be made. Conclusions Pre-1900 newspaper reports of pronounced earthquakes at Geraldton <1885), Barrow Range (1873), and Roebourne (1888-1893) are interesting because there has been practically no evidence of activity in these regions since 1900. The areas should be considered as ‘active’ areas in earthquake risk analysis. The 1849 report of shaking in Perth is the earliest known report of a tremor, and in Perth the intensity to obovate <6:5>. apex rotund to acute, base decur- rent. cuneate to cordate, margins dentate, rarely denticulate or entire, sclerenchymatous, length 2.5 cm, breadth 1-3 cm. Inflorescence an axillary cluster of three flow r ers, two towards the leaf, the other towards stem; borne on previous season’s branchlets. Flowers with foetid odour. Scales at base of peduncle small and few, caducous. Torus straight. Peduncle 1 mm, glab- rous. Pedicels 4-7 mm, glabrous. Perianth tube revolute under the limb, 0.9 -1.4 cm to summit. Perianth segments linear, separating as they mature to recline upwards 20-30 from axis of pedicel, abaxial surface dull yellow, adaxial sur- face orange-red, margins red-black. Limb of upper segments reflexed, and of lower segments recurved, twisting during senescence, slightly concave, cream becoming red-black. Nectary truncate, 1.2 mm at widest diameter, concavity tinged red. Pollen sacs linear and parallel, with connective slightly exceeding anther. Pistil re- clined downwards 30-40 from axis of pedicel. Stipe obturbinate, with distinct longitudinal groove wiiich may continue through ovary and style, 1.6 mm long. Style crozier-like, filiform, slightly exceeding perianth, length 1.1 -1.7 cm, increasingly rose-red towards ovary. Pollen pre- senter obconical, straight; disc slightly convex. Fruit ovate (2.4-3:D, apex broadly acute, adaxial margin more rounded than abaxial, length 2-3 cm, breadth 0.8- 1.2 cm, width 0.8 cm, surface wrinkled, appendages, if present, re- stricted to edge of sutures, length 0.5-2 mm; apex of seed asymmetrically acute, base rounded, length 1.7-2. 2 cm; nucleus 6-8 mm; wing slightly decurrent along upper margin, length 1. 1-1.4 cm. Herbarium Material Holotype: 28 miles east of Cranbrook, north Stirling Range. 21 Oct. 1971, Lamont 1034 (UWA). Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4. December, 1972 97 (B^rxr w. z.t / to f 7 / Figure 1 . — Hakea rubriflora Lamont, sp. nov. A, — half-flower, x 4.5; B. — inflorescence in relation to axis, x 4.5; C, — limb of old perianth segment, x 4.5; D, — ovary, stipe, nectary, torus, adaxial view, x 14; E, — flowering branch, x 0.5; F, — stem, transverse section, x 14; G, — seed, x 0.9; H, sample of leaf shapes, x 0.6; J, — follicle, x 0.9 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 98 Isotypes: These have been deposited at the following herbaria: K (2 sheets), PERTH (2 sheets), UWA (2 sheets), AD (2 sheets), MEL (2 sheets). Other specimens: NE Kalgan R., S Stirling Rd, Aug., George 188; near Porongorup Range, Steenbohm ; Chillinup, E Stirling Range. Oct., 1928, Gardner 2161; Chillinup, E Stirling Range, Oct., 1928, Gardner and Blackall: Cheyne Bay turnoff, Hassell Hwy, Oct., Lamont and Newby: (PERTH), 43 ml peg, Chester Pass, Stirling Range, Oct., Lamont: 5 ml S Chillinup Pool. Pallinup R., Oct., Lamont and Newbey: 1 ml NW Boat Harbour, Cheyne Bay, Oct.. Lamont and Newby: (PERTH and UWA). N Kalgan R.. Albany-Borden Rd, Aug., Brittan; S Stirling Rd, Aug., Baird: junction S Stirling Rd and Albany- Borden Rd, Aug., botany students; Bremer Bay, Speck ; Arboretum, Ongerup. Oct., Lamont and Newbey; (UWA). Discussion As their fruits are similar, Hakea rubrifiora is most likely to be confused with H. pritzelii and red-flowered forms of H. prostrata (see Fig. 1). However, the orange-red perianth segments with red -black margins of H. rubrifiora, from which its name is derived, are quite distinct. In addition, the species has a three-flowered inflorescence, not 8 to 20 per cluster as in H pritzelii and H. prostrata: the pollen presenter is straight, not oblique; the stipe is obturbinate, not cylindrical; the leaves are decurrent, not auriculate and the base of the seed in H. rubri- fiora is unevenly rounded, not acute as in H. pritzelii and H. prostrata. At the young seedling stage H. rubrifiora may be determined by the large number of marginal teeth (10-20 per cm> with 1 mm and 0.5 mm long teeth generally alternating, the obtuse-angled stem and ap- pressed trichomes. Young seedlings of H. pritzelii and H. prostrata have less than 10 uni- form teeth per cm of leaf margin, the stem is evenly rounded and the trichomes are erect. Hakea rubrifiora is endemic to the South- West Botanical Province (after Diels and Pritzel 1905). The species covers a triangular area, the northern boundary extending from north-west of the Stirling Range to at least Esperance (250 miles), and the south-east boundary corresponding with the coastline east of Two Peoples Bay. H. rubrifiora is restricted to the sandplains where it occurs on soils which range from dry, deep fine sands to seasonally- waterlogged clay-gravel. It is usually codo- minant with other proteaceous scrub species (after Specht 1970) of similar size. Individual plants flower for little more than two to three weeks during the period August to October. Because of the shrub’s foetid odour when in flower it is known locally as the stinking Hakea. Acknowledgements Thanks are extended to Dr. N. M. Pritchard, visiting lecturer in the Botany Department, University of Western Australia, from the University of Aberdeen, Scotland, and to Mr. A. S. George of the Western Australian Her- barium for their assistance with the manuscript. This work was carried out during tenure of a Commonwealth Post-graduate Research Award in the Botany Department, University of Western Australia. References Bentham, G. (1870 ). — Flora Australiensis. 5 : 490-492. Diels. L. and Pritzel. E. ( 1905) Fragmenta Phytographiae occidentalis. Bot. Jahrb. 35: 55-662. (Engler, A. (Ed.) Engelmann, Leipzig). Specht, R. L. (1970). — Vegetation. In “The Australian Environment” 4th ed. Leeper, G. W. (Ed.) C.S.I.R.O. and Melbourne University Press). Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 55 Part 4, December. 1972 99 12. — The Mygalomorph spider genus Stanwellia Rainbow & Pulleine (Dipluridae) and its relationship to Aname Koch and certain other diplurine genera by Barbara York Main* Manuscript received 19 October 1971 ; accepted 20 June, 1972 Abstract The genus Stanwellia Rainbow and Pulleine is redefined and distinguished from other Aus- tralian diplurine spiders. Four already named species are attributed in the genus, two new species described and several unnamed popula- tions are discussed. Significance of the biology and distribution of the genus and its New Zea- land affinities are mentioned. The genus Aname Koch is discussed and the systematic position of species hitherto included in this genus reassessed. Introduction The genus Stanwellia, although common and widely distributed in South Eastern Australia, has received little mention in the literature re- cords of Australian Mygalomorphae. This is due in part to its confusion with the poorly defined genus Aname Koch. Aname has provided the dumping ground for numerous diplurine species, many of which properly belong in other genera (see Table 1). The uncertainty of generic placement of many Australian diplurines is because of the sexual dimorphism of adults, a feature common to all Mygalomorphae. The palp and modifications of * Zoology Department, University of Western Australia. Nedlands, Western Australia. the anterior legs of mature male Mygalomorphs have customarily been used in diagnoses of genera and species. However the bulk of My- galomorphs in museum collections consist of haphazardly or randomly collected specimens. Thus many earlier systematists have had little evidence on which to associate males and females. This has often resulted in species being attributed to the wrong genus and occasionally an incorrect specific association of a male and female. The author has been able to determine the correct relationship of males and females of many species and thereafter to establish generic distinctions, by the following methods. Immature males have been collected from burrows found in aggregates of specimens of which the identity of the females is known. These immature males, recognizable as such by the slightly swollen palpal tarsi, have then been reared to maturity in flower pots of soil. Secondly, pit-traps into which wandering males fall, have been set down in sites where females of known species have been observed. Thirdly, wandering males have sometimes been fortuitiously collected ‘on loca- tion'. Search has then revealed conspecific females in their burrows. Table 1 Species originally attributed to Aname Koch and their revised generic positions Revised generic position Species 9 Aname arborea Hogg 1901 9 Aname bicolor Rainbow 1914 9 Aname armigera Rainb. & Pull. 1918 9 Aname aurea Rainb. & Pull. 1918 9 Aname butlcri Rainb. & Pull. 1918 Aname coenosa Rainb. & Pull. 1918 Aname comosa Rainb. & Pull. 1918 9 Aname confusa Rainb. & Pull. 1918 9 Aname decora Rainb. & Pull. 1918 Aname fiavomaculata Rainb. & Pull. 1918 V Aname fuscocincta Rainb. & Pull. 1918 V Aname grandis Rainb. & Pull. 1918 9 Aname grisea Hogg 1901 Aname hirsute Rainb. & Pull. 1918 Aname intricate Rainb. & Pull. 1918 9 Aname macvlata Rainb. & Pull. 1918 9 Aname minor Kulcz 1908 Aname nebulosa Rainb. & Pull. 1918 9 Aname pallida Koch 1873 9 Aname pellucida Hogg 1901 9. Aname pexa Hickman 1929 Aname pulchra Rainb. & Pull. 1918 9 Aname robusta Rainb. & Pull. 1918 9 Aname tasmanica Hogg 1902 9 Aname villosa Rainb. & Pull. 1918 9 Aname platypus (L. Koch in Ausserer 1875) (i) Stanivellia grisea (Hogg 1901) Atrax bicolor (Rainbow 1914) (*) Dekana armigera (Rainb. & Pull. 1918) or (?) Aname armigera Dekana sp. prob. grandis'l Stanwellia grisea (Hogg 1901) Aname coenosa Rainb. & Pull. 1918 or Dekana sp. Dekana diversicolor Hogg 1901 (?) Stanwellia nebulosa Rainb. & Pull. 1918 Stanwellia hoggi (Rainbow 1914) Ixamatus ftavomaculatus (Rainb. & Pull. 1918) Ixamatus ju&corinctus (Rainb. & Pull. 1918) Dekana grandis (Rainb. & Pull. 1918) Stanwellia grisea (Hogg 1901) Dekana diversicolor Hogg 1901 (?) Chenistonia intricate (Rainb. Sz Pull. 1918) Chenistonia tepperi Hogg 1901 ? Ixamatus Stanwellia nebulosa (Rainb. & Pull. 1918) Aname pallida Koch 1873 Stanwellia grisea i Hogg 1901) Stanwellia pexa (Hickman 1929) Dyarcyops pulchellus (Rainb. & Pull. 1918) (f) Dekana grandis (Rainb. & Pull. 1918) Aname tasmanica Hogg 1902 Aname villosa Rainb. & Pull. 1918 Note: The types of all the above species (except Brachytliele platypus Koch. Aname bicolor Rainbow and Aname pexa Hickman) have been seen by the author. (*) Synonymy noted by Rainbow (1918) and Hickman (1964) (t) New combination; originally described as Arbanitis pulchellus Rainbow and Pulleine 1918 (i) Originally described as Brachytliele platypus L. Koch in Ausserer 1875 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4. December, 1972 100 Along with deliberate attempts to establish male/female associations of species on biological grounds, all extant types of Australian Mygalo- morphae have been traced and most of these have been examined by the author. As a result it has been possible to make valid groupings of species into genera, which may now be more clearly defined. Taxonomy of Diplurinae The main purpose of the present paper is to discuss Stanwellia as distinct from other diplur- ine genera. Diplurine spiders are distinguished from the other sub-families of the Dipluridae by having two pairs of spinnerets and the paired tarsal claws bipectinate. They are generally large, dark coloured spiders and live in burrows in the ground or sometimes in silk tubes in rotten logs or moss and friable bark on the boles of trees. The following genera have been recorded from Australia: Chenistonia , Dekana , Ixamatus, Aname , Stanwellia , Kiama and Sungenia. The genus Troglodiplura described from the dried fragments of a single specimen found in a Nullarbor cave is possibly a ‘fossil* genus. The present author tentatively regards Sungenia as a synonym of Chenistonia. Status of the genus Aname The holotype of Aname pallida Koch, which is the type species of Aname Koch, is lodged in the Hamburg Museum. Germany (sighted by the author in 1958). It was obviously a freshly moulted specimen when collected, hence the un- pigmented or “pale** colour. ANAME Koch 1873 Aname Koch. 1873. Die Arachniden Australiens, p. 465. Type species by original designation A. pallida Koch. 1873. ibid. p. 465-7. PI. xxxv, F.8 Type locality: Bowen, Queensland. Collector probably Amelia Diet- rich. Description of holotype of Aname pallida Although badly macerated the following fea- tures were recognisible: Carapace length 6.5 mm; procurved fovea; eyes on a pronounced tubercle set back from margin and anterior row distinctly procurved (fig. 1); sternum badly distorted, posterior sigilla away from margin, misshapen but broadly oval (fig. 2). Labium broad, anteriorly indented and without cuspules or spines; cuspules on maxillae; chelicerae with teeth on promargin of furrow only, no apical teeth (i.e. no pseudo-rastellum) . The palpal tarsus was swollen indicating that the specimen was an immature male; a pair of basal spines. Scopula present on palpal tarsus, and tarsi and metatarsi of legs I and II, a few scopulate hairs on tarsi III and IV. Spines. Tarsi of all legs without spines. I, Metatarsus ventral spines; Tibia ventral bristles. II. Meta- tarsus ventral spines; Tibia ventral spines and bristles. Ill, Metatarsus with spines on all faces; Tibia ventral and dorsal spines. IV Metatarsus with spines on all faces; Tibia ventral bristles and dorso-retrolateral spines; all femurs with dorsal bristles. Paired tarsal claws bipectinate. Abdomen macerated but appeared dorsally to have been of uniform colour. From the above, a diagnosis of the genus Aname can be made as follows: Carapace with procurved fovea; eyes on pro- nounced tubercle; labium broad and anteriorly indented, without cuspules; cheliceral furrow with teeth on promargin only; no pseudo- rastellum; posterior sternal sigilla away from margin (possibly variable); a proximal pair of ventral spines on palp tarsus; no spines on tarsi of legs; scopula on tarsi of palp and at least tarsi I and II. Relationship of Aname to other diplurine genera Thus Aname on the above characters can be distinguished from Chenistonia, which has a straight fovea and long narrow posterior sternal sigilla or Ixamatus, but in which the males have a tibial spur, thereby excluding them from Ixamatus. The recently described genus Kiama (Main and Mascord 1971) is distinguished from the Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 101 above genera as follows: from Chenistonia, Dekana and Aname by the absence of a tibial spur in the male and the presence in the female of several ventral spines instead of a basal pair on the palp tarsus; it differs from all the other diplurine genera in the deeply procurved U- shaped fovea and broad sternum with large, tear-drop shaped sigilla and from all genera (except an undescribed form in the MacPherson Range) by having no leg scopula in the female STANWELLIA Rainbow and Pulleine 1918 Stanwellia Rainbow & Pulleine, 1918. Rec.Austr. Mus. 12: 164. Type species by monotypy Stanwellia decora Rainbow & Pulleine 1918 r= Stanwellia hoggi (Rain- bow 1914). Figures 1-8. — 1. 2. Aname pallida Koch, Holotype. 1, carapace, note eyes and fovea; 2, sternum, damaged and shape distorted. 3(9), 4( '). 5a(9). Chenistonia. 3, scernum and labium; 4, right leg I, retrolateral view, note tibial spur; 5a, profile of eye tubercle. 5, 6, 6a. 7, 8, Stanwellia. 5, profile of eyes; 6, sternum and labium; 6a, labium of another specimen with more cuspules. 7, 9 palp tarsus, ventral; 8, S. decora Rainbow and Pulleine, lectotype, dorsal view of eyes [=5. hoggi (Rainb.)]. 7a, Chenistonia, 9 palp tarsus, ventral. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 102 Description Carapace long and narrow, roughly a truncated oval; caput low. Fovea shallow, straight or very slightly procurved. Eyes raised but not on a distinct tubercle, group broader than long (fig. 5). Sternum , long and narrow; sigilla usually small and submarginal < fig. 6). Labium broad, anteriorly straight or only slightly indented, usually with a few anterior cuspules (fig. 6, 6a>. Chelicerae with continuous row of teeth on promargin of furrow only, with a small basal group on retromargin; sometimes with teeth or stout bristles (like a rastellum) above fang base (fig. 29). Palp tarsus without spines (fig. 7), scopula present, claw with prolateral row of teeth only. Legs, no spines on anterior two pairs of tarsi. Scopula present on tarsi I and II and apical part of metatarsi I and II, usually present on tarsi III, present or absent on tarsi IV. Legs often with pattern of dark blotches or annula- tions. Abdomen usually with speckled pattern or irregular bands consisting of a dark, median branched area (approximating to the heart outline) with laterally, an irregular pattern of yellow patches. Two pairs of spinnerets, term- inal joint of posterior pair elongate and pointed. Tibia I of male with spines but no spur (figs. 9, 15, 19, 21, 26, 35 and 42. Palp tibia with few or no spines. Stigma broad and flanged, with embolus extending as a point at tip. No clear demarcation between stigma and bulb. Diagnosis No spines on female palp tarsus; eyes may be raised but not on a tubercle; posterior sternal sigilla small, often round, sub-marginal; truncate labium usually with cuspules; characteristic dark “smudges” or speckled pattern on legs in life. Male lacks spur on tibia I; stout, broad palpal stigma indistinctly demarcated from bulb. Female internal genitalia with either two large basal mound-like areas with ducts leading to small vesicles or a single basal area from which the vesicle stalks arise. Affinities Very similar to the New Zealand genus Aparua from which it is distinguished by the latter having a double row of teeth on the female palp claw. The genus has no close affinity with any other Australian genus. The present author recognises the following six species: Stanivellia hoggi (Rainbow), S. grisea (Hogg), S. pexa (Hickman), 5. nebulosa (Rain- bow and Pulleine), S. occidentalis sp. nov. and S. inornata sp. nov. Additional specimens, the specific status of which is undecided, have also been collected by the author from several local- ities. Stanwellia hoggi (Rainbow 1914) Chenistonia hoggi Rainbow 1914. Rec. Austr. Mus. 10: 240-2. Stanwellia decora Rainbow & Pulleine 1918. Rec. Austr. Mus. 12: 164-5. Aname decora Rainbow and Pulleine 1918. Rec. Austr. Mus. 12: 149-150. HOMONYM. Stenwellia decora Rainbow and Pulleine in Main “Spiders of Australia" (Jacaranda 1964, 1967). Types Holotype of Chenistonia hoggi Rainbow: female from North Sydney (Australian Museum K31010) . “Type” of Stanwellia decora Rainbow and Pulleine: Female from Stanwell Park, Australian Museum K40955, herein designated as the lecto- type. “Cotype” female, S. decora from Stanwell Park N.S.W., Aug. 1910, in the South Australian Museum, herein designated as paralectotype. Holotype female, Aname decora Rainbow and Pulleine. Clifton Gardens, Sydney (Australian Museum K 40923). Notes on synonymy Since by transferring the species Aname de- cora Rainbow and Pulleine to Stanwellia this name becomes a homonym of S. decora Rainbow and Pulleine, it should be replaced by another name. However since A. decora is here regarded as a synonym of S. decora this is not necessary. Although A. decora has precedence in the same publication over S. decora, under the provisions of Article 24a of the International Code for Zoological Nomenclature, it is justifiable to give priority to 5. decora. Furthermore both A. decora and S. decora are junior synonyms of Chenistonia hoggi Rainbow. Description of lectotype of Stanwellia decora Rainbow and Pulleine. Carapace , length 9.0 mm, width 7.7. Fovea slightly procurved. Eyes raised, length of group 0.85 mm, width 1.85 mm, anterior row almost straight in front, very slightly procurved (fig. 8). Chelicerae, left paturon with one small and nine large teeth on promargin, about 21 in basal posterior cluster. Labium, length 1.0 mm, width 2.0 mm, 2 cuspules. Sternum , length 5.0 mm, width 4.1 mm. Pos- terior sigilla small oval, submarginal. Legs: Scopula complete on all tarsi and meta- tarsi I and II, apical half of metatarsi III and a few apical hairs on metatarsi IV Leg formula 4 I 2 3 3.14 o .91 2.68 2.36 F P Ti Mt Ta Total Palp 5.0 2.6 3.5 3.4 14.5 mm I 7.6 4.6 5.3 5.0 3.7 26 . 2 mm 11 6.8 4.5 4.8 4.5 3.6 24 . 2 mm III 5.8 3.6 3.6 4.8 ! 3.5 21 . 3 mm IV 7 . 5 4.1 6.2 7.0 3.5 28.3 mm Width patella I at knee = 1 . 5, Tibial index = 15.15 Width patella IV at knee = 1.5, Tibial index = 14.56 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 103 1 .8 mn Figures 9-17. — 9, 10, 10a. ' S. hoggi (9. 10 specimen in Hope Museum). 9. right tibia I, ventral; 10. right palp, retrolateral; 10a (Kiama specimen) right palp (Australian Museum KAI ) . 11. 12, 13a b c. 14, 14a b, 15. S. Grisea (Hogg). 11, mid-dorsal abdominal pilosity (number of hairs and bristles in area 1.0 mm across), ( BYM 65/11); 12. dorsal abdominal pattern (BYM 65/32); 13a, b. c, ? internal genitalia (BYM 65/11, 65/16, 65/693 respectively ) - 14. • right palp retrolateral. 14a, tibia prolateral (BYM 65/27); 15. right leg I. prolatero-ventral (BYM 65/27); 16. 17 S. nebulosa (Rainbow). 16. abdominal pilosity (BYM 59/425); 17, 9 internal genitalia (BYM 59/425) Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 55 Part 4, December. 1972 104 Spines: Absent from all tarsi, including palp. Present on following segments: I, Metatarsus, 3 ventral; Tibia, 4 ventral, 2 prolateral; Femur, 1 dorsal. II, Metatarsus, 4 ventral. 1 prolateral; Tibia, 6 ventral bristles, 2 pro- lateral; Patella. 1 dorsal; Femur, dorsal ? ( detached ) . III. Metatarsus, 6 ventral. 6 dorsal, 2 prolateral. 1 retrolateral; Tibia, 6 ventral bristles, 2 prolateral, 2 retrolateral; Patella, 3 prolateral; Femur. 3 dorsal bristles. IV, Metatarsus, 7 ventral, 6 dorsal, 4 prolateral, 1 retrolateral; Tibia, 6 ventral, 2 retrolateral; Femur, dorsal bristles. Palp, Tibia, 4 apical spines, also 4 sockets where spines or bristles have been removed. Abdomen: Brownish colour w 7 ith yellow mottlings, about 12.00 mm long. Specimens exa mined Types and other specimens named by Rain- bow: Lectotype, Paralectotype and three other specimens labelled as Stanwellia decora by Rainbow: two Females (K40958) and one im- mature (K41456), all from Stanwell Park August 1908, (examined by present author in 1954 ) ; these specimens agree generally with the lectotype. Holotype of Aname decora Rainbow & Pulleine, and holotype of Chenistonia hoggi Rainbow. Other specimens: Males. Two previously un- identified male specimens in the Hope Museum. Oxford, collected from Sydney in 1869; one of these specimens with four labial cusps, ten ventral spines on tibia I (fig. 9) and palp with bluntly pointed stigma ; no spines on palp tibia. A male specimen (Australian Museum KA1 > collected by R. Mascord from Kiama, N.S.W., 22 June, 1965. The specimen w r as found wander- ing at night near burrows of Dyarcyops with which genus it was at the time identified. The specimen has a carapace length of 7.7 mm, marginal bristles present; labium with four labial cusps; abdomen with four pairs of yellowish blotches on dark brown background; colour generally dark brown with golden sheen. The palp tibia and stigma as figured (fig. 10a); right palp with no prolateral spines on tibia, left palp tibia with two delicate prolateral spines. Ten ventral spines on tibia I, but with different disposition on the left and right legs. Leg formula 4 12 3 3.36 3.07 2.87 2.66 Tibial index I 12.35; Tibial index IV 12.50 Stanwellia grisea also mention a specimen from “Scott’s Creek” of which the whereabouts is not known. Diagnostic description Female ; General appearance as in Fig. 43. Carapace length of paralectotype (Australian Museum K40926) 8.7 mm; leg formula; 4 12 3 2.71 2.27 2.27 1.94 Tibial index I, 15.78; tibial index IV, 15.38. In life specimens are a dark, dusty brown with golden hairs and a yellow, speckled pattern on abdomen dorsum, legs paler with dark smudges. Abdomen with dorsal pile of fine hairs (fig. 16). Internal genitalia as figured (fig. 17) ; similar to S. grisea and S. pexa. Male: Palp and tibia I as figured (figs. 18, 19 6 lectotype, figs. 20, 21 of BYM 54/547). Stigma long and bluntly pointed at tip; palp tibia with one large stout prolateral spine in mid region, one spine absent. Tibia I with eight ventral spines. Carapace length of lectotype 5.3 mm; carapace length BYM 54/547, 8.0 mm. The legs of the lectotype were damaged but the leg formula of BYM 54/547 is as follows; 4 12 3 3.93 3.60 3.52 3.10 Tibial index I = 11.11, Tibial index II =11.90. Specimens examined and localities Types as above and the following specimens collected by the author (except where other- wise stated) : Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 106 Figures 18-27. — 18-22, S. nebulosa. 18, 19, ' lectotype, 18, right palp, retrolateral ; 19, right tibia I, prolateral: 20. ‘ right palp retrolateral (BYM 54/547.); 20a, c, different aspects of stigma (fig. 20c shows the same aspect as in fig. 18), 20b prolateral view of tibia; 21 . ventral view right tibia I (BYM 54/547); 22a. b, longitudinal section of burrow, showing “open” position of ‘pebble’ in side pocket (a) and in ‘closed’ position lb). 23-27, S. pexa (Hickman), 23. 24a. ($ specimen from Queens Domain, Tasmania, V.V.H. BYM 70/38); 23. abdominal pllosity; 24a, internal genitalia. 24b, Z internal genitalia (BYM 54/65); 25. a, b. palp retrolateral view, a, stigma rotated, b, tibia prolateral aspect (BYM 54/66); 26, tibia I ventral ( BYM 54/66), 27, 9 internal genitalia (BYM 70/36) (Tasmania W. coast near mouth Arthur R., V.V.H.) Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 107 Females and juveniles: South Australia: 1, Aldgate; 3, Bute; 4, Blackwood (including 1 penultimate instar $); 8. Blanchetown; 1, Dublin; 3. Willunga Hill, Kuitpo; 1, Nairne; 2, Port Broughton, 8 miles south; 1. Port Germain Gorge; 1, Tar lee; 2, Tintinara, 2 miles south; 1, Mount Lofty; 2, Stirling; 6, Wirrega. Victoria: 3, Nhill, 10 miles west (east of Lowlait Ranges). One female forwarded by Professor Hickman. This specimen was collected by Dr. R. H. Pulleine and the locality given only as “South Australia”. Male: Specimen BYM 54/547 was collected as an immature specimen from Willunga Hill, Kuitpo, S.A.. on 18 December, 1954. The speci- men was not obviously a male and was kept for observation in a flowerpot of soil in which it made a characteristic burrow. It was found to be mature on 2 April, 1956. Natural History The spiders build a distinctive vertical burrow. The entrance may have a small collar of leaves but the upper section is mrwebbed. The lower half is silk-lined. A pear-shaped pebble made by the spider of compacted soil is attached to one side of the free, collar-like upper part of the silk lining. The pebble is so counter- weighted, that when the spider is disturbed and pulls on the silk collar, it falls across and blocks the burrow lumen (see figs. 22a, b). Rainbow and Pulleine (1918, pp. 82-3, pi. 20) originally described this curious structure, and Main (1964, 1967, pp. 44, 45) again figured and described it. Specimens in captivity have also been observed constructing the characteristic burrow. The species generally occurs in drier situa- tions than do the eastern species It extends from damp situations in gullies of the Lofty Mountains near Adelaide, eastward into the dry limestone soils of the mallee region of south- eastern S. A. and western Victoria and north- wards through the Flinders Range to Port Augusta. Stanwellia pexa (Hickman 1929) 9 Aname Pexa Hickman, 1929. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas- mania, 1929, 87-97. figs. 1-6. Types Queen Victoria Museum, Launceston, Tas- mania. Type locality. Prince of Wales Bay, Derwent Park ( not seen by the present author > . The male description precedes that of the female and is herewith designated as the lectotype, and the female as paralectotype. Hickman in his description of the female (Hickman, 1929) states the claw of the female palp “with a double row of teeth”. However, I noted that on a specimen sent by Professor Hickman to the British Museum (Natural His- tory) teeth were present only on the prolateral side of the palp claw (B. M. (N. H.) Register No. 1931. 70.30.51. Professor Hickman (in litt.) has now confirmed that his original statement was in error and that S. pexa has only a single row of teeth on the palpal claw. Female : Dark coloured and with conspicuous markings on legs, abdomen irregularly mottled oi banded. Sparse pile of fine hairs and bristles (fig. 23). Internal genitalia similar to S. grisea and S. nebulosa. The basal funnels may be large (fig. 24a) or small (fig. 24b). Specimens with carapace length up to 12.9 mm. Male: Palp and tibia I as figured (figs. 25, 26), specimen from Fisher Island 'BYM 54/66). The palpal stigma is generally relatively longer and more tapering than that of other species. Cara- pace length of mature males is variable: male type 7.0 mm. (Hickman 1929); male from The Domain, Hobart, Tasmania, 7.0 mm; of four males from Fisher Island, carapace lengths as follows: 8.7, 9.0, 9.7 and 10.00 mm. Leg formula and tibial indices of BYM 54/66. 4 12 3 3.57 3.36 3.26 2.84 Tibial index I 12.17, Tibial index IV = 12.82 Leg formula of male type [calculated from Hickman’s measurements (Hickman 1929, pp. 87-8)1. 4 12 3 3.26 2.87 2.78 2.43 Tibial index I, 14; tibial index IV, 14 (Hickman 1929). Specwiens examined and localities 19 British Museum specimen. 6 9 9 , 4^ $ Fisher Island (collected by V. N. Serventy); 2 9 9 from Queen’s Domain. Hobart and 1 $ from The Domain Hobart, Tasmania (collected by V. V. Hickman); 39 9 from north of mouth of Arthur River, west coast Tasmania (col- lected by V. V. Hickman), tentatively identified as S. pexa, internal genitalia of one specimen as in fig. 27 (BYM 1970/36). Natural History Hickman (1929) described the burrow as be- ing vertical with a collar of grass stalks at en- trance and with a swelling near base, the whole with only a sparse lining of silk. Burrows were up to 15.0 cms. deep and were in a bank about ten yards from the sea-shore in a patch of scrub. V. N. Serventy reported (personal communica- tion) that vertical and oblique burrows, all without any closure, were constructed by speci- mens on Fisher Island. Stanwellia occidentalis sp. nov. Types Holotype 9 , mouth of the Todd River north of Port Lincoln, Eyre Peninsula, South Aus- tralia, collected by B. Y. Main, 16 December, 1952 (BYM 52/533). Australian Museum No. K69302. Paratype 9 , Cummins Plains, east of Cummins, Evre Peninsula, S.A., collected by B. Y. Main. 16 December, 1952 (BYM 52/561). Specimen with young in burrow. Australian Museum No. K69301. Paratype 9 , Cummins, 8 .miles east, Eyre Penin- cula, S.A., collected by B. Y. Main 17 December, 1952 (BYM 52/575), South Australian Museum No. N19719. Description of holotype Female (fig. 28). Carapace glabrous, dark brown, almost straight sided. Legs pale coloured with dark brown blotches and annulations as Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 108 follows: I and II, femur with proximal and distal annulation; patella distal annulation; tibia, proximal and distal annulation; metatarsus and tarsus, pale with dark smudges ; III and IV. faint annulations on femur, patella tibia, pale col- oured metatarsus and tarsus. Carapace 3,9 mm long, 2.9 mm wide, caput 2.3 mm wide. Fovea almost straight, slightly procurved. Abdomen 6.0 mm long, 3.8 mm wide, almost straight-sided. Sternum 1.9 mm long, 1.6 mm wide, sigilla indis- tinct (fig. 29 >. Labium 0.5 mm long, 0.65 mm wide, 1 cuspule. Maxillae with about 16 cus- pules. Chelicerae. promargin of groove with 7 teeth, a basal outer cluster of about 15 granules. Rastellum of heavy teeth above base of fang, and around apical angle (fig, 29 > ; teeth not on a process. This rastellum is as pronounced as in many Ctenizidae, for example as in Dyarcy- ops. Spines . Palp, tibia 8 ventral. I, metatarsus 4 ventral, 1 prolateral: tibia, 3 retroventral. II. metatarsus, 5 ventral, 1 dorsal; tibia, 3 (bristle- like) ventral. III. metatarsus, 4 ventral, 5 dor- sal, 3 prolateral; tibia, 3 dorsal. 2 prolateral; patella, 3 stout prolateral (like a Ctenizid). IV, metatarsus, 7 ventral, 3 dorsal. 1 prolateral; tibia, 1 apical ventral. Scopula complete on tarsi I and II and palp and metatarsus I; apical hairs on metatarsus II, absent on third and fourth legs. Trichobothria few, up to 6 or 7 in dorsal irregular line on tarsus, metatarsus and tibia. Leg formula 4 12 3 2.46 2.35 2.1 1.74 Tibial index I, 14.28; tibial index IV, 15.78. Abdomen oval, almost straight sided with a dark median area, otherwise a uniformly mottled pattern of yellow flecks. Sparse pile of hair. Terminal segment of posterior spinnerets rela- tively short and pointed. Internal genitalia not dissected but can be distinguished through the integument as being of the dual ‘mound oi fu n ~ nel 1 type, i.e. with two clearly separated basal mounds. Genitalia of one paratype dissected (fig. 30). Carapace length paratype (BYM 52/ 575), 4.1 mm; paratype 1 BYM 52/561). 6.4 mm, this being the largest specimen of the species observed. Natural History The holotype was collected from a simple bur- row in a sea cliff, overlooking the mouth of the Todd River. The cliff face was overhung by shrubs. High tide washed the cliff base. A flimsy cocoon of eggs was found in the burrow. It contained eleven subspherical eggs, all at an early developmental stage, with diameter of 2.0 mm. . , - The Cummins specimens occured under mal- lee two in moss-grown creek alluvium, two un- der mallee litter; the “Coomunga Springs” spider was found with other mygalomorphs un- der an isolated clump of bottlebrush in a grassy, farm paddock; the Streaky Bay spider was un- der casuarinas. The silk-lined burrows have the mouth formed into a silk collar, which may be retracted to close the burrow. A soil plug may be placed beneath the closed collar thus effec- tively sealing the nest. In the sealed burrow of one paratype (BYM 52/561) was a cluster of fifty-five recently hatched spiderlings; these had no pigment and had carapace lengths of 1.1 or 1.2 mm. Adult Male unknown. Specimens examined and localities S.A. : $ , mouth of the Todd River north of Port Lincoln, Eyre Peninsula, (holotype); 2. Cummins, 8 miles east, (includes paratype, BYM 52/575); 1, Cummins Plains (paratype BYM 52/561); 1. ‘‘Coomunga Springs”, west of Port Lincoln. Immature males: 1, Cummins, 8 miles east; 1, Streaky Bay, east of; 1, Port Lincoln. W.A. : 2 juveniles and one immature 6 (?>, Porongorups Range (near Bolganup dam), (collected by J. Springett by sieving litter and humus); 1 juvenile 3 miles north of Mammoth Cave, W.A. The Western Australian specimens and other South Australian specimens all agree with the holotype in the presence of a definitive ‘pseudo - rastellum’. uniformly mottled abdomen, the dis- tinctive annulations on the legs, absence of scopula on third and fourth tarsi and fewer spines on the legs, especially of the third and fourth. It is the combination of these features and the small size which distinguishes occiden- talis from the other species. Stanwellia inornata sp. nov. Types Holotype, 9 , Rose’s Gap, Grampian Mountains, Victoria, collected by B. Y. Main, 28 November, 1965 (BYM 65/704), I Australian Museum No. K692991 £ Paratype (BYM 65/706), [Australian Museum No. K693001 $ Paratype (BYM 65/711), [National Museum No. K-251 Data for para types as for holotype. Description of Holotype Female: Carapace length. 8.8 mm, width 7.3 mm. Colour, uniform dusky brown, in life no pattern visible on legs or abdomen, generally brown and hairy-looking with golden sheen. Fovea almost straight. Anterior width of eye group 1.8 mm. Labium, length 1.1 mm. width 1.7 mm, 2 cuspules, sternum length 4.9 mm, width 3.8 mm, sigilla oval. Chelicerae with 9 teeth on promargin of furrow, basal cluster on outer margin extending up to about fourth in- ner tooth. Palp tarsi each with single basal fine tapering spine. Legs, scopula present on all tarsi and metatarsi I and II, a few apical hairs on metatarsi III. Scopula of tarsi III and IV divided by band of median bristles (fig. 31). Tarsal claws with 4 to 8 teeth in each comb of bipectinate claws. Leg formula: 4 12 3 2.57 2.55 2.31 2.23 Tibial index I, 14.6, Tibial index IV. 14.7 Spines. Distribution of spines as follows: No dorsal spines or bristles on femurs, I, Meta- tarsus, 2-1-2 ventral; Tibia, 3 apical ventral spines and 3 ventral bristles, 3 prolatero-dorsal. II. Metatarsus, 2-2-2 ventral, 1 prolateral; Tibia, Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 109 Figures 28-33. — 28-30, S. occidentalis Main. 28, dorsal view 9 (Holotype); 29, chelicerae, labium and sternum. (Holotype); 30, $ internal genitalia (Paratype, BYM 52/561). 31-35, 5. inornata Main. 31, left tarsus III, ventral; 32, 9 internal genitalia (Paratype BYM 65/711); 33, abdominal pilosity (BYM 65/705). Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 110 Figures 34-41. — 34-35, S. inornata ( •’ paratype). 34, right palp retrolateral, 34a. tibia prolateral; 35 right tibia I ventral. 36-41, unidentified Stanwellia specimens. 36a b, $ internal genitalia, 36a (BYM 65/41), 36b ( BYM 65/39); 37, abdominal pilosity (65/685); 38-41, $ internal genitalia, 38 (BYM 65/685); 39 (BYM 65/677); 40 (BYM 59/404); 41 (BYM 65/48). Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4. December, 1972 111 3 spines and 3 ventral bristles. Ill, Metatarsus, 2-2-1 ventral; Tibia, 7 fine tapering ventral spines, 6 dorsal, 4 prolateral, 1 re trolatero- ven- tral; Patella, 1 dorsal: 4 stout prolateral; 2 ret- rolateral. IV. Metatarsus, 2-1-1-2 ventral. 2-1-2 dorsal. 1 prolatero- ventral; Tibia, 2 spines and 4 bristles ventral, 2 prolatero-dorsal. Palp. Tarsus, 1 basal; Tibia. 2 apical ventral spines and 6 ventral bristles; 2 spines and 2 bristles prolateral. Par aty pe Female: Carapace length 8.5 mm, width 6.5 mm. Labium with 3 cusps. Internal genitalia consist of small basal, denticulate mounds con- nected by thin, bent tubes to globose vesicles (fig. 32). Paratype male: Carapace length 7.0 mm, width 5.8 mm. Colour generally a uniform dusky brown, no pattern apparent on legs or abdomen in life. Carapace with dense mar- ginal hairs. Generally hirsute, the hairs with golden sheen; abdomen with long fine bristles amongst the hairs. Palp as figured (fig 34 >; right tibia with three long fine prolateral bristles (fig 34a), left tibia with only two bristles. Tibia I with 7 ventral spines, 6 retro- latero -ventral, 6 prolatero-ventral (fig. 35). Leg formula: 4 12 3 3.5 3.48 3.16 3.16 Tibial index I 12.36. Tibial index IV 13.25. 5. inornata differs from other described males of Stanwellia in having more attenuated palpal- stigma and relatively longer, thinner legs and lacks a distinct mottled colour pattern. Specimens examined Three types as above and two other females [of which one specimen (BYM 65 705) has four labial cusps; and abdominal pilosity as figured (fig. 33)1, all from Rose’s Gap, Grampian Mts., Victoria. Distribution of S. inornata and S. grisea in the Grampian Mountains The occurrence of what appear to be two species in the Grampian Mountains is notable. 5. grisea occurs in the eastern gullies of the mountains, 5. inornata has been found only along a creek in Rose's Gap (but probably extends farther). This latter area has a sandy soil type and a heath vegetation understorey which is distinct from the plant associations of the eastern regions. At this same locality Aganippe was also collected. This ctenizid genus has not been observed in the wetter, east- ern localities of the mountain range. Unidentified Stanwellia specimens examined The following specimens were all collected by the author except where otherwise stated. 2 9 9 and 2 juveniles. Lakes Entrance. V. 1 9 Harris Creek. V. 3 9 9 and 1 juvenile. 30 miles from Orbost on Bonang Highway. The internal genitalia of two females (BYM 65 41 and 65 39 with two basal denticulate mounds as in figs. 36a and b. 19 Otway Ranges, V. This specimen (BYM 65/685) in life glabrous and a uniform, light tan colour, lacking dark smudges or annulations on the legs. Abdomen with short, thornlike bristles and long tapering bristles (fig. 37). Internal genitalia with large basal mounds (fig. 38). 5 9 9 Lake Mountain, V. One female (BYM 65/677) with internal genitalia as in fig. 39. 1 9 Mount Beauty, V. 9 9 9 Donna Buang, V; internal genitalia . BYM 65/685 (K69318). All other specimens in the author’s collection are lodged at the Zoology Department, Univer- sity of Western Australia. Acknowledgements For the loan of types I wish to thank Dr. H. Weidner of the Zoological Museum, Hamburg, Dr. O. Kraus of the Natural History Museum, Frankfurt, Dr. J. Proszynski of the Institute of Zoology of the Polish Academy of Sciences. For making types and other collections avail- able, for general help and offer of facilities, while visiting the respective museums, my thanks are extended to the following: Dr. G. O. Evans, K. H. Hyatt and the late D. J. Clark of the British Museum (Natural History); the staff of the Hope Museum, Oxford; the late A. Musgrave of the Australian Museum, Sydney, and H. Womersly and G. Grose of the South Australian Museum. Professor V. V. Hickman generously gave the author Tasmanian specimens and of- fered helpful information (in Litt.). Dr. J. Springett kindly donated some specimens. I very much appreciated helpful discussion on the relationships of diplurine spiders with R. A. Dunn, Honorary Arachnologist of the National Museum, Melbourne. For some transport in other states I must thank B. Malcolm, K. Main and M. J. Littlejohn. Some of the specimens on which this study is based were collected while the author was in receipt of a Research Grant from the University of Western Australia dur- ing 1952-1956. This grant also supported a visit in 1954 to the Australian Museum, in order to examine types. The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation assisted with field and travel expenses during 1952-1954. A grant from the International Federation of University Women (Alice Hamilton Fellowship for 1958) supported a visit to the British Museum (Natural History) in order to study types of Australian spiders. References Ausserer, A. (1875). — Zweiter Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Arachniden-Familie der Territelariae Thorell (Mygalidae Autor). Verh. zool-bot. Ges Wien, 25: 125-206. pi. 5-7. Forster, R. R. (1967).— The Spiders of New Zealand Part I. Otago Museum Bulletin No. 1. Forster, R. R. and Wilton, C.L. (1968).— The Spiders of New Zealand Part 2. Otago Museum Bulle- tin No. 2. Hickman, V. V. (1929). — Studies in Tasmanian Spiders Part IV. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania 1929: 87-122. (1964).— On Atrax infejisus sp. n. (Araneida: Dipluridae) its habits and a method of trap- ping the male. Pap. & Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas- mania 98: 107-112. Pis. 1, 2. Main, B. Y. (1964. 1967). -’‘Spiders of Australia,” Jaca- randa Pocket Guides. Main, B. Y and Mascord, R. (1971).— A new genus of diplurid spider (Araneae: Mygalomorphae/ from New South Wales. J. Entom. Soc. Australia (N.S.WJ: 6 (for 1969): 24-30. Rainbow, W. J. and Pulleine R. H. (1918).— Australian Trapdoor Spiders. Rec . Austr. Mus. 12 81- 169. PI. 12-24. Schiapelli, R. D. and de Pikelin, B. S. G. < 1962).— Impor- tancia de las aspermatecas en la sistematica de las Aranas del suborden Mygalomorphae (Araneae). Physis 23 (64): 69-75. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 114 13. — Mulga (North) Chondritic Meteorite Shower, Western Australia by W. H. Cleverly* Manuscript received 18 July 1972; accepted 22 August 1972 Abstract Further recoveries in 1970 and 1971 of the stony meteorites Mulga (south), Billygoat Donga, and Mulga (north) demonstrate the partial overprint- ings of their strewnfields, though the sequence of arrival is uncertain. A total of 781 fusion- crusted stones or fragments of Mulga (north) of aggregate weight 19.5 kg have been recovered from an elliptical strewnfield of dimensions 6.1 x 1.2 kilometres. Detailed field records of the circumstances of occurrence and sites were main- tained. The degrees of entirety of the stones and stages of development of fusion crusts have been de- fined and are described for individual stones by a system of code letters; textures and minor features of the crusts are briefly noted. The stones stably oriented in flight have been nom- inated and the criteria used are stated. The sphericities of individual stones, their weights, and where possible the weights when restored to a fully primary crusted condition have been determined. The degree of fragmentation does not appear to have been as great as for showers such as Holbrook. A complex series of aerial fragmen- tation events is indicated for Mulga (north) by the frequent occurrence of fusion crusts of various developmental stages on different facets of the one stone, re-assembled stones provide further evidence of the step-wise nature of the breakdown; the spalling of thin flakes from the surfaces also contributed. The applicability of the Gaudin relation to the size distribution has been examined, and an attempt made to isolate the products of the initial fragmentation for similar study. The field distribution has been treated only qualitatively but a detailed tabulation of the surface features, weights, and morphology to- gether with the co-ordinates of the sites of find of all pieces has been prepared as the basis for study of the field distribution and of the factors which could influence it. Introduction Details of the stony meteorites Billygoat Donga, Mulga (south), and Mulga (north), and of their recoveries during the period 1962-66 from a small area centred 95 km N.N.E. of Haig, Western Australia, are available in literature, but a brief summary is desirable before detail- ing the recent recoveries. In 1962, T. and P. Dimer found three small meteoritic stones close together about 11 km north of Billygoat (or Mulga) Donga, which is located ca. 30 r 08'S., 126° 22 'E. They lest two of the stones and the remaining erte became known as Billygoat Donga . With the advantage of hindsight, the Billygoat Donga II stone from the crater re- sembled Mulga (north), but it is difficult to be- lieve that a crater-like feature of the order of 10 m diameter could have escaped notice within the known strewnfield. A by-product of the search was the recovery of 102 australites (tektites), or about 19/square kilometre. Their total weight is 127 grams. Nearly all are fragments and several are clearly artefacts; all five of those selected for expert examination were confirmed as artefacts by C. E. Dortch (pers. comm.). Such artefacts were evidently discarded by itinerants or date from times of more humid climate because present sources of water are ephemeral. An occasional clay-floored donga* such as Billygoat Donga could hold shallow water only very briefly; no rock holes of significant water capacity are known in the area. Mulga (north) meteorite Reference will be made in the balance of this paper to Table 2 which, as reproduced, con- tains only those stones specifically referred to in the text and a few others illustrating types. It is neither practicable nor necessary to re- produce the full table of 781 items which is of interest principally to the specialist student of the mathematics of fragmentation and distribu- tion. A copy of the full table is available on application to the Director, Western Australian Museum, Perth, Western Australia. * The term donga is used on the Nullarbor Plain for shallow, sometimes extensive, sink features of the limestone surface. Many dongas contain growths of trees (Fig. 1). and being campsites favoured by itinerants, are often named by them, though few such names have official recognition. Table 1. Comparison between sped fie gravities of meteorites as found and values of unweathered types Range of mean weathering effect (Col. 4 minus Col. 3) and maximum individual effect Mulga (south) 3.333, 3.364 CBr Billygoat Donga 3.380, 3.434 ‘ CHv Mulga (north) 3.590, 3.600, 3.608, CBr 3.605, 3.602, 3.612, 3.604, 3.585 _ Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4. December, 1972 117 3.35 3.6—3 .8 0.25 to 0.45 0.47 3.41 3.5—3 .6 0.09 to 0.19 0.22 3.60 3.6—3 ;.8 0.00 to 0.20 0.21 Specific gravities of Meteorite and Type pieces in weight range 90-145 grams Weighted Range of specific gravity mean of | for unweathered preceding meteorites of same type column (Mason 1962) Table 2. Field numbers , classification, weights, orientation, sphericity, and coordinates of sites of find for some stones of Mulga (north) meteorite Field number Classification Weight g Weight as CP g Orientation Sphericity 1 Westing km i Northing km 3 FPU 77.4 0.70 3.76 0.61 27 CP 73.6 73 . 6 X 0.75 3.18 0.72 33 CPT 111.3 129.3 X 0.51 3.57 0.58 65 CPS 27.3 0.69 3.84 0.85 111 DPTU 336.4 340.1 X 0.78 2.75 0.91 118 CPS 87.3 X 0.61 3.04 0.45 128 CPS 169.1 X 0.69 2.15 0.49 135 CPT 22 9 0.60 3.21 0.39 139 FPUT 23.8 0.63 2.27 0.60 140 FTPU 4.7 0.78 2.28 0.61 141 CTP 4.2 0.53 2.28 0.60 146 CPT 22.1 0.42 3.93 0.78 149 FPTSU 99.1 0.51 2.89 0.44 150 DPSTU 58.9 0.71 2.91 0.43 155 FPUT 151.3 0 . 63 4.10 0.98 159 CPT 0.5 0.48 2.20 0.84 164 CP 205.9 205.9 x; 0.75 2.13 0.64 167 CP 188.1 188.1 X 0.69 1.88 0.77 174 CPT 60.0 61.5 0.69 3.51 0.37 176 FSUTP 56.4 0.53 3.52 0 . 40 199 FPSU 44.9 0.62 3.80 0.92 208 CTSP 188.3 0.73 1.55 0.56 209 CTSP 245.7 0.83 1.42 0.62 218 CPST 14.5 16.3 x: 0.68 4.22 0.71 245 CPT 4.8 4.8 X 0 . 57 4.81 0.71 260 CPS 7.2 7.2 X 0.71 4.98 0.58 309 CPST 5.0 5.0 X 0.69 5.06 0.65 321 CP 0.4 0.4 0.75 5.11 0.60 390 FPTU 4.8 0.72 5.47 0.52 448 DPU 0.4 0.4 0.60 5.64 0 . 56 469 CPT 5.5 0.51 4.63 0.29 473 DPTU 2.6 3.0 0.88 4.62 0.52 499 FPU 64.7 0.66 3.59 0.71 533 CPT 347.9 371.0 0.66 2.15 0 . 35 542 CP 533.4 533.4 0.77 2.06 0.73 638 CPT 8.7 9.3 X 0.61 5.25 0.88 677 CPT 64.7 64.9 X 0.66 3.79 0.19 758 CP 4.9 4.9 X 0.67 5.19 0.75 807 DPU 2095 2110 0.68 0.05 0.60 822 CPT 2.5 2.5 0.63 4.94 0.47 Field occurrence Stones are identified in Table 2 by their field numbers (column 1). .Most of the numbers missing from the full table are accountable either to other meteorites or to spurious mater- ial. In the field, fragments showing some de- gree of weathering and separated by distances of up to one or two tens of centimetres were regarded as products of disintegration and were recorded as a single stone. Likewise, when two or three fitting stones not showing advanced weathering were found up to a few metres apart, they were accepted as impact fragments and re- corded as one stone; the situation was especially clear when such a group was found relatively isolated from other stones. As a result of this recording procedure, both the number of stones and the amount of uncrusted meteorite surface attributable to impact or weathering have been minimised. More than 90% of the stones lay on the sur- face of the ground or were embedded only to the extent of inequalities of the contacting sur- faces. The remainder were embedded from one quarter to (rarely) as much as three quarters of their vertical dimension, and of those so em- bedded many are judged to have been oriented stones in flight position. The general shallow- ness of the embedding and some of the other features — such as the infrequent occurrence of regmaglypts — result from the generally small size of the stones. The survey of the strewnfield was made by prismatic compass and pacing, a method adopted initially of necessity because the writer was un- accompanied when the first 59 stones were found. Use of this procedure continued during later field trips because atmospheric refraction effects restrict so severely the times of the day when instruments can be used, and because the Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4. December, 1972 118 opportunities for field work in this area are very limited. The two original survey stations were supplemented during later searches to form a chain of 16 stations with a branch line of one or two stations to each side of the main line where required. Prom these stations all sites were paced in. The speedometer reading for a vehicle traverse along the main line of stations, after adjustment for known error, differed from the plotted length by 3%. A large overall error is therefore unlikely, and because the pacing was done by the same person on all five occa- sions, internal distances should be in proportion and any errors of the same order. Co-ordinates of individual sites of find (last two columns of Table 2) are westings and north- ings in kilometres from an arbitrary datum lo- cated 0.05 km east of the easternmost site (the heaviest stone) and 0.05 km south of the south- ernmost site (see Fig. 2). Because the axis of the strewnfield is approximately west-east and the direction of flight was eastward, the west- ings are in the form which has become conven- tional for the mathematical description of lat- eral distribution, while the northings are an expression of the distribution transverse to the axis. Co-ordinates have been rounded to the second decimal place (the nearest 10 m) and as a result of this, a few pairs of sites have identi- cal co-ordinates. It is believed that the stones were found close to their original points of fall. Ground slopes are generally very low and, to judge by the insignificant drift of weathering fragments from their parent stones, the amount of move- ment of the stones is likely to have been very small. The aboriginal inhabitants appear to have made no use of the stones. Features of individual stones Stones generally have the angular, faceted yet smooth form which results from fragmentation followed by development of fusion crust, but many stones also have surfaces free of crust or thinly veiled by crust. The degree of entirety of the stones, the stage of development of the fusion crust (s), and the relative areal abundances of the crust types are indicated by a system of code letters in column 2 of Table 2. The degree of entirety is expressed by either C, D or F. C denotes completely fusion-crusted stones, irrespective of the degree of development of the crust (s). D indicates stones with one, or occasionally more than one surface lacking crust, and having a profile such that a probable re- construction to fully crusted form can be made. This type of stone is generally much more than 50% of the mass of the original but lacks a “cap piece” or “edge piece”. F indicates fragments with at least one surface free of crust and whose profile does not allow a confident reconstruction of the shape; some of these are the type of fragment iacking from category D stones. The degrees of development of crust are in- dicated by P, S, and T. P indicates the primary crust of smoothly curved surfaces from which all except centimetre-sized inequalities have been smoothed out. It is close-textured or knobby, except for localised developments of scoriaceous or striated texture, particularly on stones which were stably oriented in flight (for textural terms see Krinov 1960). S denotes sur- faces of the second kind ranging from finely rippled surfaces with crusts which barely veil the roughness of the fracture to coarsely wavy surfaces which are not always clearly distin- guishable from primary crust, though the dis- tinction is easily made when the two types occur on different facets of the one stone. These crusts do not commonly develop knobby texture, presumably because some minimal degree of de- velopment is necessary before the superior re- fractoriness of disseminated metallic grains can be expressed in that way. T denotes tertiary crusts covering the developmental range:. — “smoking” of the surface, discontinuous films with mineral visible through gaps or through the crust, films through which mineral is only occasionally seen, complete crust which fails to hide the roughness of the surface and has an almost hackly appearance. Beyond this stage is the finely rippled crust of the secondary type. The nomenclature is similar to that of Foote (1912) for the Holbrook shower except that the hackly type is here placed in the tertiary cate- gory. In very numerous cases the creep of crust over the edge of a later fracture surface indi- cates that a tertiary crust should be sought and that, even if such a crust is not detected, the surface must have been produced by aerial fragmentation. The creep of fusion crust is sometimes observed in the direction away from the surface of lesser crust development, e.g. from tertiary over primary surface on stone No. 99. This results from the adoption of an appropri- ately oriented flight position following the later fragmentation. The letters P, S and T may be applied to different facets of the one stone representing surfaces produced by successively later frag- mentation events or surfaces developed simul- taneously on facets of an oriented stone enjoy- ing different degrees of protection during at- mospheric flight. The system is admittedly subjective but a degree of sureness is developed by familiarity with the material. During second and subsequent re-examinations, most of the surfaces initially classified as doubtful could be classified with confidence. It is important to appreciate that even if the surface types were classified per- fectly, there would be no implication that the surfaces of a given (say, secondary) type had developed following the same fragmentation event: rather, they are surfaces which have been exposed to similar sets of conditions pos- sibly as the result of quite a number of differ- ent events. U indicates uncrusted surfaces. By definition this letter cannot occur in combination with C and must occur with D or F. It might therefore appear unnecessary but it is required for the Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 119 following purpose. During a final review of the material the letters P, S, T and U were arranged in sequence of decreasing surface area. Each of the three types C, DU and FU can occur in seven combinations with crust types, e.g. CP, CS, CT. CPS, CPT, CST, CPST, but with the permuta- tions arising from surface abundances the num- ber of possible expressions is considerably in- creased. About 40 different expressions have been used. Regmaglypts, usually shallow and of small size (1-2 cm) are sparsely present on only about 3% of the pieces, usually stones of weights ex- ceeding 100 g or fragments which have clearly been derived from the larger stones. Most stones show surface cracking ranging from single cracks to a complete breadcrust pattern initiated during the cooling of the sur- face in the later stages of atmospheric flight. A gaping breadcrust pattern occurs seldom, us- ually on the weathered and swollen underpart of a stone which has been embedded in the ground. Because shape factors almost certainly affect the distribution, it is desirable that they be quantified, but such factors are difficult to assess. Stones which are stably oriented in flight- can be expected to fly more truly and further than those which tumble and to be less affected by transverse winds. Much the same is prob- ably true of stones whose shape approaches the equidimensional compared with those of com- parable weights which are tabular or otherwise inequidimensional. A stable flight orientation (shown by X in column 5 of Table 2 ) is indicated by the pre- sence of one or more of the following criteria: — 1. Roughly conical, pyramidal or wedged shapes embedded with point or edge down. Though the views illustrated in Fig. 3 have considerable similarity, they represent a wide variety of three-dimensional shapes. No. Ill (Fig. 3A ) is representative of the conical and pyramidal stones: No. 128 (Fig. 3D) is a split pyramid which has developed secondary crust on the broken surface; No. 33 (Fig. 3E) is a roughly tabular stone which, despite losses and development of tertiary crusts, appears also to have been oriented in flight: No. 167 (Fig. 3F> is typical of a variety of stones with lozenge - shaped sections; it is roughly triangular with point down in the third (unillustrated) dimen- sion; others with this type of section include more elongate and hence prismatic stones, which evidently had a leading edge in flight (e.g. No. 118). This criterion was not accepted as sufficient in itself because exceptions almost certainly occur. For example, the relatively thin, triangular No. 499 was embedded with the sharp- est angle of the triangle downward, but such is an unnatural orientation for a stone having so much surface. No. 164 is oval in plan view, loz- enge-shaped in section, and embedded in the Figure 3.— Sketches of Mulga (north) meteoritic stones. A.— Profile of No. Ill showing soil line, embedded por- tion shaded. B. — As for A, No. 677. C. — Base of No. 677 showing encroachment of scoriaceous crust from the sides. D.— As for A. No. 128. E.— As for A. No. 33. F.— As for A, No. 167. G.— Composite stone 390/469. restored parts indicated by broken lines, surface types lettered as in text. H. and J. Two views of composite stone 149/176 showing surface types. K. to M.— ' Three views of composite stone 208/209. which is roughly triangular in mid- section, showing surface types. The scale applies to all except G, for which a one-centimetre bar is shown Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 120 manner of Fig. 3F, but the best-developed reg- maglypts are on the surface found uppermost; it was probably oriented in flight but not in the position as found. 2. Regmaglypts of appropriate distribution, elongation, or alignment. The almost cuboidal No. 542 is shown to have been oriented by the regmaglypts and the distribution of scoriaceous crust rather than by its being embedded “edge on” 3. Textural types characteristic of frontal, lateral, and rear surfaces with appropriate dis- tribution < Krinov I960). In particular, small areas of scoriaceous crust to one side of surface irregularities or as a rim encroaching on one facet of a stone are common. Thus the flatly pyramidal stone No. 677 has regmaglypts on the front and a scoriaceous zone 5-10 mm wide rimming the flat base (Fig. 3 B, C>. Examples of more sharply defined scoriaceous borders are on the bases of the flatly conical No. 758 and the almost tabular No. 638. It is necessary to dis- tinguish this creep of crust from the much more general case when the stone was tumbling in flight. The regular width, and hence the appar- ently sharp edge of the overflowed crust on oriented stones is usually diagnostic. The striated texture (thin streams of melt glass) is occasion- ally detectable as a radial pattern on the apices of conical stones or over their lateral edges. Spattered droplets on the lee side of high points, as in the case of scoriaceous crust, occasionally provide additional evidence. 4. The combination of a primary crust with one of lesser development on a significant facet such as the base of a cone. Because there are other possible interpretations, such stones were not accepted as oriented without confirmatory evidence. From a consideration of the above criteria 116 stones have oeen nominated as oriented during at least some part of their atmospheric flight. On a further 27 stones the evidence was less convincing. The oriented stones comprise at least three classes; firstly, those of category CP; secondly, those whose orientation during the earlier stage of flight preceding a secondary fragmentation is indicated by regular but in- complete rims of scoriaceous crust terminated abruptly against facets of lesser crust develop- ment; thirdly, those which were oriented only after a secondary fragmentation as is shown convincingly in several cases by rims of crust and patches of scoria directed away from sur- faces of lesser crust development on to second- ary or primary crust. A fourth class of stones which were oriented before fragmentation and re-oriented afterwards is doubtfully represented by two examples. The various expressions of sphericity used in sedimentary petrology ( Petti john 1957) describe with varying degrees of success, the approach to spherical shape, i.e. to minimal surface area per unit volume. None of these expressions is highly satisfactory for angular fragments of low roundness. Thus when applying the Zingg sys- tem to angular objects the manner of taking the dimensions may require measurements be- tween diagonally opposite corners or obliquely inclined edges. Following are the results of measuring 100 Mulga (north) stones by this method: — Class I (tablets) 27 Class II (equidimensional) 53 Class III (prisms) 4 Class IV (blades) 16 Because the tabular specimens are partly accountable to flat “cap pieces” and to surface spalls, it is likely that the principal fragmenta- tions yielded fragments amongst which “equidi- mensional” shapes considerably outnumbered the others combined. Twelve of the sixteen CP stones included in the above sample belong to Class II. The method used to determine the sphericities recorded in column G of Table 2 was the ratio d,/d> where d, is the diameter of the sphere of equivalent weight (calculated from weight and density), and d> is the diameter of the circum- scribing sphere. The method has the merit of simplicity but does not distinguish between the broad classes of inequidimensional shape. Further, the largest dimension is not uncom- monly smaller than the diameter of the circum- scribing sphere, a situation which arises also, though in the writer’s experience not as fre- quently, in materials which have suffered some rounding by terrestrial erosion. The spericity values range from 0.42 to 0.88 but only 11 stones have values less than 0.5 and only a further 11 have values greater than 0.8. The mean value is 0.62. As had been antici- pated, the mean sphericity value for stones of category CP is distinctly higher, being nearly 0.70. Most of the common crust types and minor surface features have been mentioned inter alia above, and may now be summarised to- gether with some rarer features. Knobby and close textured crusts predominate; scoriaceous texture is of common occurrence but very lim- ited in area on any one stone; the striated tex- ture is uncommon and the net texture compris- ing two sets of crossing striae is rare; only a single good example of porous texture was ob- served occurring centrally to a rim of scoria- ceous crust on the rear surface of an oriented stone, an unusual location. Spattered droplets of glass occur but not in the abundance and size which constitutes warty texture, probably be- cause of the generally small size of the stones. Surprisingly for a meteorite with a pronounced degree of recrystallization (McCall and Cleverly 1968), chondrules are not uncommonly visible in the fusion crusts as rounded and more lustrous patches — the so-called “oily stains” — and they sometimes show some detail of their internal constitution. A good example is the large (nearly 5 mm) barred chondrule visible in the primary crust of stone No. 27. The weights of the stones (column 3 of Table 2) range from 0.2 g to 2095 g with frequency as follows: Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia. Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 121 >1000g 1 1000 to 100.1 g 31 100 to 10.1 g 253 10 to 1.1 g 442 1 to 0.2 g 54 Column 4 of Table 2 shows the weight of the stone when restored to category CP for a purpose explained in the next section. Such res- torations are not possible for stones of category F, nor generally possible for any stone which does not have primary crust as the most abund- ant surface type. i.e. has P as the second letter in the classification. Estimates become increas- ingly hazardous if more than two surface types are present. In practice, estimates could be made for some of the stones of categories CPS, CPT, DPU, DPSIJ. DPTU. and rarely for others. Esti- mates were made by completing the form with modelling clay, weighing the clay and applying a factor to correct its weight to that of meteor- ite. When completing the shape, advantage was taken of the observation that most of the me- teorite surfaces are flat or convex; when con- cave, they are usually only gently so. The weight of restored material was generally less than 10 'to of the weight of any individual and is collectively only 3% of the weight of all restored stones. Fragmentation If the pieces of Mulga ( north) of mean weight 25 g were derived from a single mass of more than 19.5 kg. aerial fragmentation was clearly a highly effective process. However, for the Hol- brook show r er (Foote 1912; Nininger and Nin- inger 1950) the mean weight of the known frag- ments is less than 14 g though the total weight is 235 kilograms. From the mathematical esti- mates of the number of fragments and total mass of the Pultusk shower umhs Diameter in <£> units (x) Figure 5. A. Simple frequency diagram for pieces of the Mulga (north) meteorite shower in

, with which, if the exercise had been successful, a compari- son would now be valid, but there is good reason to believe that it is not. For the sample to be fully satisfactory, it is desirable that only the largest products of the initial fragmentation should have been removed by secondary and later fragmentations. The removal of only the largest products from a Gaudin-distributed pop- ulation of sizes does not affect the slope of the line but simply displaces it towards the smaller sizes. Clearly, the reassembled stones considered above range down to quite small size and none of them even approaches the size of the largest stone recovered. A portion of the sample with unknown size distribution has therefore been removed by the later events. The difficulty might be resolved by completely reassembling all broken material, but despite repeated trials, the reassembled stones constitute but an insig- nificant fraction of it. Though the isolation of a sample of products of the initial fragmenta- tion might have been successful, it cannot be claimed that the sample is thoroughly satisfac- tory for use in this way. The curves 1 to 3 of Fig. 5B were commenced from the relatively low 1% level because of the large number of small pieces known. Curve 2 is not greatly steeper in the 0.1% -1.0% range than in the 1%.-10% range 'it requires 36 stones to attain the 0.1% level). It is likely that the lower portions of these curves w T ould not be significantly flattened by further collect- ing because there is no real difference between the lower parts of curves 1 and 2. There would be difficulty in detecting smaller material, par- ticularly when it might be widely dispersed by atmospheric winds and weathered. It would be doubtfully advantageous to collect in the more genial winter season because past experience has been that the area is usually densely covered by tufted grasses of knee height or higher. Field Distribution Only qualitative and semi-quantitative ob- servations are offered. A simple conception of an elliptical strewn- field is that fragmentation during oblique ap- proach results in an expanding cone of pieces which therefore meet the earth’s surface in an elliptical area. The combined effects of gravity and air resistance, invariably present., result in some grading in the direction of flight, heavier fragments in general travelling further whilst light ones are more readily drawn into the ver- tical with tree fall velocities. Other factors such as atmospheric winds also affect the distribu- tion. Shape factors can be expected to have an influence, including the degree to which winds can affect the distribution. Of particular inter- est in the case of Mulga (north) are the effects of multiple fragmentation events. These later events at somewhat lower levels and steeper angles of approach can be expected to yield smaller and more equidimensional ellipses with less evident grading in the forward direction. Finally, when fragmentation occurs during ver- tically downward flight, dispersal may be ex- pected over a circular area with grading (if any) a function of distance radially outward, and hence just as effective in the backward as in the forward direction. Depending upon factors which could influence the altitude, timing and energy expended in fragmentation events, the individual areas of dispersal could be completely or only partially superimposed on others, or could occur quite in- dependently at a distance. It seems likely that Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 125 with sufficient data a general mathematical ex- pression could be found to describe the distribu- tion in the case of a single event, but for a shower such as Mulga < north ) , the distribution would involve the integrated result of a whole family of such expressions. It is not possible to illustrate diagrammatic- ally the full details of distribution of Mulga (north) because of the combination of an overall dimension exceeding 6000 m with interfragmen- tal distances ranging down to less than one metre. Referring to the weight categories of Fig. 6 in descending order, 14 stones of the third category and 44 stones of the fourth category have been omitted from the figure (mostly from the western end); all 55 stones of weights 0.2- 1.0 g have been omitted. The general increase in fragment weight to the east is evident in the diagram but is not as marked as might be ex- pected for a relatively narrow ellipse. Multiple fragmentation and the loss of flakes from the surfaces are regarded as the two factors prin- cipally responsible for the large overlaps of the weight categories. The distribution of the component parts of one of the re -assembled stones shows that heav- ier fragments are not necessarily found further along the line of flight. The composite stone 155/139/140 can be restored to class CP with reasonable confidence. No. 155 weighs more than 150 grams. The balance of the original stone could not have weighed more than 90 g, i.e. if all of the missing material was incorporated with Nos. 139 and 140, and this fell more than 1.8 km further east. The generally tabular shape of No. 155 might provide a partial explanation, but it seems likely that for the later fragmen- tation events as distinct from earlier ones in more nearly horizontal flight, the fortuitous directions of scatter from the point of burst may have a decisive influence on the points of fall. Note: — Stone No. 140 was belatedly recog- nised as an impact fragment of No. 139 and so also most likely is No. 141, though it cannot be fitted. If the distribution of the oriented stones is to be used as an indication of the flight path, the ones most likely to be reliable are the 30 of category CP and 12 of other categories as follows:— CPT Nos. 69. 245, 341. 355. 370, 624. 634, 658, 815; CPS Nos. 260, 759; CPST No. 309. These 12 oriented stones require insignificant amounts of restoration, or in a few cases, have surfaces of lesser crust development attribut- able to sheltered location. This sample totalling 42 stones is rather inadequate for mathematical treatment, but from visual inspection of a plot of the sites there appeared no reason to change present concepts of the position of the axis of the distribution or the essentially west to east direction of flight. Indeed, for such a small number of stones, the plot has a surprising de- gree of resemblance to the general distribution. The general trends of the lateral distribution were determined by dividing the strewnfield into transverse strips 1 km wide, each strip overlap- ping its neighbours by 0.9 km, and plotting the Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 126 Figure 6. — Diagrammatic representation of the distribution of about 85% of the known pieces of Mulga (north) meteorite (for omissions, see text). Marginal figures along length and width of diagram are kilometres west and north respectively of the datum. numbers of stones or other statistics at ab- scissae representing the mid-lines of each strip. The number of stones in each strip is a maxi- mum near the western end of the strewnfield and declines rapidly eastward but with a dis- tinct reversal and secondary maximum at 3.9 km W, where dense crowding may be seen in Fig. 6; the curve has the same general shape if stones/ km- are plotted but the secondary maximum is less prominent. The weight of ma- terial in transverse strips is minimal near the western end and increases eastward, but with a marked inflection centred on about 4.8 km W to attain a maximum at 3.4 km W, and thereafter decreases rapidly; again, the asymmetry is re- tained on a weight/km 2 basis. The mean weight of stones in transverse strips is minimal at the western end and in- creases steadily eastward. It is valid in this case to consider the CP stones separately on the same basis because the removal of some stones — not necessarily the largest — by further frag- mentation does not affect the points of fall of other individuals. Stones requiring insignificant restoration may also be included in the sample but all others must be excluded because as com- plete individuals they would almost certainly have landed elsewhere. The resulting curves Kilometres west of datum Figure 7. — Mean weights of stones of the Mulga (north) meteorite found in N-S strips 1 km wide, each strip overlapping the neighbouring strips 0.9 kilometre. Curve 1 . — All stones; Curve 2— Completely primary-crusted stones. Only points not falling closely on the curves are shown in the figure. (Fig. 7) show clearly that there is a real differ- ence between CP stones and the general sample. The curve for CP stones suggests some form of logarithmic relationship between mass and dis- tance, but too much cannot be read into curves of means plotted at mid points. For the same reason, the complexities of the other curves cannot be interpreted as indicating two popula- tions, though that might well be true. Some limited trials were made with scatter diagrams for individual stones and the best of these appeared to be that of log weight against distance when confined to CP stones (c.f. Frost op.cit. p.228) , the “sorting factor” being from in- spection of the order of 1.5. The detailed treat- ment of the distribution has, however, been left to the mathematical specialist. Acknowledgments I thank M. K. Quartermaine and T. G. Bate- man whose energetic and voluntary search efforts were responsible for more than three quarters of the meteorite finds. I am especially grateful that they returned again to the area with me in 1971 whilst aware of the climatic conditions to be expected and of the severe lim- itations on water usage. W.A. School of Mines vehicles were freely used on field work, the three earlier visits being made while the School was a branch of the Mines Department of Western Australia, the two most recent visits since the School became a branch of the Western Australian Institute of Technology. Appendix- Weights, sites of find, and distribution in col- lections of the meteorites are given below. Some of the earlier recoveries made by School of Mines personnel have been either donated to or exchanged w T ith the Western Australian Mus- eum, and the later recoveries have been handed over in accordance with the Western Australian Museum Act of 1969 whereby the meteorites are Crown property and are vested in the Mu- seum. Mulga (south). See Table 3 .The second and sixth items of the table are in the W.A. School of Mines collection, the balance in that of the Western Australian Museum. Table 3 Weight and locality details of Mulga (south) meteorite Year of find W.A.8.M. Catalogue No. or field No. (brackets) Weight a Westing km Northing or Southing (S) km 1963 1 9584 . 1 59 . 5 ca.4 9 ca.0.7 8 ; 9584 2 52.6 ca.4 9 ca.0.7 8 1 9584 . 3 16 2 ca.4 9 ca.O 7 S 1964 9738 76 2 ca.4 0 ca.0.55 j 9739 26 0 ca.4 0 ca.O . 55 1 9740 28 5 ca.3 9 ca .0 18 9741 18.9 ca.4 5 , ca.O 8 8 ! 9742 20.2 ca.4. 5 1 ca.O. 8 8 1970 (110) 65 . 5 2.87 0 . 86 (179) 112.0 3.94 0 . 59 (323) 27.9 4 02 0.50 1971 (435) 26 . 8 5 . 06 0.41 j (449) 38.0 5 . 65 0.44 ( 460) 2 9 4 84 0.28 (468) 160 2 4 . 57 ; 0 . 21 (488) 32.6 4 25 0.25 (506) 73 . 5 4.69 0 . 32 (531) 1.5 2 22 0.40 (532) 13.6 2 22 0.40 (539) 19.4 1 '40 0.51 (558) 1.2 3 . 53 1.15 (595) 1.3 1 . 55 0.56 (667) 0.3 5 58 0 . 82 (690) 19.5 5 . 64 0.69 Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 127 Billygoat Donga. See Table 4. The main portion of the original stone found by T. and P. Dimer is in the W.A. School of Mines collection (9469), the other two pieces in the Western Australian Museum collection. Table 4 Weight and locality details of the Billygoat Donga meteorite Year of And W.A.S.M . Catalogue No. or field No. 1 (bracketed) Weight g Westing km Northing km 1962 9469 142 I ca.3.5 ca.7 1970 (225) 392 . 4 4.25 0.85 1971 (493) 98.4 4.42 0.69 Mulga (north). Full details of the material set out in the pattern of Table 2 are available on application to the Director, Western Australian Museum, Perth. Western Australia. Ownership follows: — Smithsonian Institution: Field Nos. 72-84. W.A. School of Mines: Field Nos. 1-5, 7-10. 12, 14-21, 23-36, 38-43, 45, 46, 48 (part), 49-59. Western Australian Museum: The balance of the material. Mulga (west). Field No. 430, weight 169.2 g, found at 5.29 km W and 0.19 km N in 1971 is in the Western Australian Museum collection. References Charles, R. J. (1956). — High velocity impact in com- minution. Mining Engineering 8: 1028-1032. Cleverly, W. H. (1965). — New discoveries of meteoritic stones north of Haig. Western Australia. Aust. J. Sci. 28; 126-128. Foote. W. M. (1912). — Preliminary note on the shower of meteoric stones near Holbrook. Navajo County. Arizona. Amer. J. Sci. 34: 437-456. Frost. M. J. (1969). — Size and spaclal distribution of meteoritic showers. Meteoritics 4; 217-232. Gaudin. A. M. and Hukki. R. T. (1944). — Principles of comminution-size and surface distribution Amer. Inst. Mining and Metallurgical En- gineers Tech. PubL No. 1779. Krinov. E. L. (1960). “Principles of Meteoritics”. (Per- gamon, London ) . Translation. Lang, B. and Kowalski, M. (1971). — On the possible number and mass of fragments from Pultusk Meteorite Shower, 1868. Meteoritics 6: 149- 158. McCall. G. J. H. <1968). — First supplement to Western Australian Museum Special Publication No. 3 Catalogue of Western Australian Meteorite Collections. Western Australian Museum. Perth, McCall, G. J. H. and Cleverly, W. H. (1968). — New stony meteorite finds including two ureilites from the Nullarbor Plain, Western Australia. Miner. Mag. 36: 691-716. (1970). — A review of meteorite finds on the Nullarbor Plain. Western Australia, includ- ing a description of thirteen new finds of stony meteorites. J. Roy. Soc. W. Aust. 53: 69-80. McCall. G. J. H. and deLaeter, J. R. (1965). — Catalogue of Western Australian meteorite collections. Spec. Publ. Western Australian Mus. No. 3. Mason, B. (1962). — “Meteorites”. (John Wiley, New York). Nininger, H, H. and Nininger. A. D. (1950). — “The Nin- inger Collection of Meteorites”. American Meteorite Museum, Winslow. Arizona. Pettijohn, F. J. (1957). — “Sedimentary Rocks". 2nd Ed. (Harper, New York). Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, Vol. 55 Part 4, December, 1972 128