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JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOL. XXII
1906

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL
GARDEN.

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY
OHAPEL HILL, N. 0.

,6 ns

&L!'

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

CONTENTS.

VOL. XXII.

1906.

“Physiological Economy in Nutrition.” — Isaac H. Manning 1

Corundum and the Peridotites of Western North Carolina. A

Review — J. H Pratt and J. V. Lewis 8

Notes on the Geology of Currituck Banks. — Collier Cobb 17

The New Orleans Meeting of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science and the American Chemical Society.
—Chas. U. Herty 20

The Cement Gold Ores of Deadwood, Black Hills, South Dakota. —

J. H. Pratt 23

Chemical Research in America. — Francis P. Venable 29

The Coral Siderastrea Radians and its Postlarval Development. — H.

V. Wilson 41

The Source of the Sun’s Heat. — John F. Lanneau 45

Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Meeting of the North Carolina
Academy of Science Held at Raleigh, N. 0. , May 18 and 19,

1906 57

The Building and Ornamental Stones of North Carolina. A.

Review. — Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist 63

Where the Wind Does the Work. — Collier Cobb 80

Chloral— a— Naphthylamine and Chloral— /J— Naphthylamine.—

Alvin S. Wheeler and V. C. Daniels 90

Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 95

Molecular Attraction. VI. — J. K. '.'ills 98

MAY, 1907

NO.

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TO BE ENTERED AT THE POSTOFTICE AS SECOND CLASS MATTER

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Bpjipp!j Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society,

H. V. WILSON, President.

' .-\r * ’ ‘ •!- • < <>l' .- " • ./»/ "■

ARCHIBALD HENDERSON, Vice-President.

A. S. WHEELER, Rec. Sec.
*

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F. P. VENABLE, Perm. Sec.

I

Editqrs of the Journal:

, v- . W. C. COKER,

, - - y ■ } v ;.. • /• •. . .

J. E. LATTA, ARCHIBALD HENDERSON.

a««y s|

The Foundations of Geometry — Archibald Henderson, PH.D,;..,. 1

A New Color Test for the Lignocelluloses — Alvin S. Wheeler. 24

Notes on the Geology of Core Bank, N. O.— Collier Cobb 26

Note on Electrical Ageing of Flour — J. W. Gore....... 29

Industrial and Scientific Aspects of the Pine and Its Products —

Charles H. Herty, PH.D .... 30

- •••:* Ti.-V^'Av ... .......

Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society — Quarterly. Price,
$2 00 per year; single numbers 50 cents. Most numbers of former vol-
umes can be supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Editors, at

University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. O.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

The study of the historical development of mathematics,
and in particular the study of geometry, leads one to the con-
clusion that the great roles in the drama of science have been
played by two inter-related, yet widely differing, forces —
intuition and logic. Huxley once laughingly said of Herbert
Spencer that his idea of tragedy was a deduction killed by a
fact. Some of the greatest pants in the drama of science
have been played by intuition; but that drama becomes a
tragedy when intuitional prevision is annihilated by the inex-
orable irony of fact. The most epoch-making discoveries find
their origin in the fortunate conjunction of intuition and
experience. And the whole history of science is the history
of the struggle of man’s intuition, fortified by experience, to
read the inscrutable riddle of Nature.

I venture to assert that nowhere is this struggle more suc-
cinctly and definitively illustrated than in the story of man’s
• effort to formulate the hypotheses which constitute the foun-

MAY, 1907

VOL. XXIII

NO. 1

THE FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY.

LIBRA
NEW Y
BOTAN5
CARD!

BY ARCHIBALD HENDERSON, PH.D.

Printed May 13.

>»

55

2

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

[May

dations of geometry. For precise reasons, the names of
Euclid and Newton stand above all other names in the fasti
of mathematics; and the reasons are strikingly similar in the
two cases. In writing of The Wonderful Century , the nine-
teenth, Alfred Russel Wallace says of all time before the
seventeenth century: “Then, going backward, we can find

nothing of the first rank except Euclid’s wonderful system of
geometry, perhaps the most remarkable mental product of
the earliest civilizations.” In modern times, Newton’s colos-
sal figure occupies the centre of the stage, looming large, as
he himself explained, because he stood upon the shoulders of
giants. Like Euclid, his claim to pre-eminence rests less
upon the discovery of new principles than upon the immeas-
urably greater service of the universal formulation and
grounding of mathematics. Newton brought all natural phe-
nomena under the reign of universal law, Euclid reduced
all geometrical knowledge to system.

“It is certain,” says Philip Kelland, “that from its com-
pleteness, uniformity and faultlessness, from its arrangement
and progressive character, and from the universal adoption of
the completest and best line of argument, Euclid’s Elements
stand pre-eminently at the head of all human productions. In
no science, in no department of knowledge, has anything ap-
peared like this work: for upwards of 2,000 years it has com-
manded the admiration of mankind, and that period has sug-
gested little toward its improvement.” Indeed it is no cranky
enthusiasm, but absolute conviction that prompts the mathe-
matician to say that geometry is ultimately fundamental for
the progress of science and thea dvancement of humanity. It
is continually bringing to pass those epoch-making events in
the history of science whereby what one day seems to be the
purest science becomes the next a vitally important piece of
applied science. Such events enable us to realize that pure
science and utilitarian science are not differentiable, butat
bottom and in essence one and the same thing. “I often find
the conviction forced upon me,” said the brilliant English

igoy~\ Henderson — Foundations of Geometry. 3

geometer H. J. S. Smith, “that the increase of mathematical
knowledge is a necessary condition for the advancement of
science, and, if so, a no less necessary condition for the
improvement of mankind. I could not augur well for the
enduring intellectual strength of any nation of men, whose
education was not based on a solid foundation of mathemat-
ical learning, and whose scientific conceptions, or, in other
words, whose notions of the world and of the things in it,
were not bound and girt together with a strong framework of
mathematical reasoning.”

In that charming book, cast in the dialogue form and enti-
tled Euclid and his Modern Rirjals , by the Rev. Charles L.
Dodgson, the brilliant “Lewis Carroll” of Alice in Wonderland
fame, Euclid confesses with reluctance that some secret flaw
lies at the root of the subject of parallel lines. Probabilities,
not certainties, are all that he has in vindication of his belief.
Here we lay our fingers on the rift in the lute; in this con-
fession, we catch a glimpse of that ignis fatuus that mathe-
maticians have pursued in vain for well-nigh two thousand
years. Professor G. B. Halsted cites Sohncke* as saying that
in mathematics there is nothing over which so much has been
spoken, written, and striven, as over the theory of parallels,
and all, so far (up to his time), without reaching a definite
result and decision. It is impossible, says the great Poincare,
to imagine the vast effort wasted in this chimeric hope, this
evanescent dream. Indeed, it was not until the nineteenth
century that the truth began to dawn upon the minds of
men; and almost simultaneously from the distant frontiers of
Europe, at Kazan on the Volga and at Maros-Vasarhely in far
Erdely, there came the startling generalizations that have ten-
ded to revolutionize our conceptions of geometry, and thrown
doubts upon the very nature of the space in which we live.f

* Encyclopcedie der Wissenchaften und Kunste; Von Ersch und Gruber,
Leipzig, 1838, under “Parallel.”

tOompare The Value of Non-Euclidian Geometry, by G. B. Halsted;
Pop. Sci. Monthly, vol. 67, pp. 639-646. At the outset, I wish to acknow-

4

Journal of the Mitcheee Society.

[May

In order to make the matter clear to “the man in the

»

street,” it is necessary to speak, not so much as a mathema-
tician as one who knows, let us say, no more of mathematics
than is taught in the Freshman year in the college or university.
We recall that Euclid uses three terms in laying the foundations
for his geometry: Definitions (’o/aoi), Postulates ( airo^ara ),

and Common Notions (icoivot em>nu). He defined his elements:
point, line, etc.; he assumed that you can draw a straight
line from one point to another; and he laid down as accepted
such statements as “Things equal to the same thing are
equal to each other,” etc. For Euclid’s Common Notions
later geometers substituted the unfortunate term — unfortun-
ate, as we shall subsequently see — Axioms. This word Axiom
(Greek, aino/m) is used by Aristotle to mean “a truth so
obvious as to be in no need of proof” — virtuall}T in the modern
sense of a “self-evident truth.” Euclid used only five Postu-
lates and thirteen Common Notions, none of which chal-
lenged doubt save the celebrated “parallel-postulate.” Indeed,
all were very simple except this fifth postulate,* which excited
suspicion, not only on account of its cumbrous form, but be-
cause it is used only once — to prove the inverse of a proposition
already demonstrated — the seventeenth. “It requires,” says
Staeckel, “a certain amoutit of courage to declare such a
requirement, alongside the other simple axioms and postu-
lates.” The Swiss mathematician, J. H. Lambert, f averred
that Proklos, Euclid’s first commentator (410-485 A. D. )
argued that the parallel-postulate was demonstrable, because
it was the inverse of the seventeenth proposition.
Euclid’s twenty-seventh proposition: that straight lines

ledge my general indebtedness to the writings of Professor Halstsd, to
which I occasionally refer.

*Also given in various editions of Euclid as a Common Notion — elev-
enth, twelfth, or thirteenth.

tLambert’s Theory of the Parallel Linen was not published until 1786
twenty years after it was written and nine years after his death, by Bern-
ouilli and Hindenberg in the Magazin fur die reine und angewandte Matlie -
matilc.

igoy\ Henderson — Foundations oe Geometry.

5

making with a transversal equal alternate angles are
parallel, is easily demonstrated. But in order to prove its
inverse: that parallels cut by a transversal make equal
alternate angles, he is forced to resort to the following pos-
tulate axiomatically stated (Williamson’s translation, Ox-
ford, 1781):

11. And if a straight line meeting two straight lines makes
those angles which are inward and upon the. same side of
it less than two right angles, the two straight lines being
produced indefinitely will meet each other on that side
upon which the angles are less than two right angles ( Fig .
i. Angle A + Angle B less than i8o° ).

The points to be observed in connection with this postulate are
two in number. First, “no one had a doubt of the external
reality and exact applicability of the postulate. The Euclid-
ian geometry was supposed to be the only possible form of
space-science, that is, the space analyzed in Euclid’s axioms
and postulates was supposed to be the only non-contradictory
sort of space.” Second, the postulate was neither so axiom-
atic nor so simple as the proposition it was used to prove;
and hence the world of mathematicians concluded, with
Proklos, that this postulate could be deduced as a theorem
from the other assumptions and the twenty-eight preceding
theorems. And so, for hundreds and hundreds of years, the

6

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

[May

mathematical world exhausted itself in the effort to prove
Euclid’s celebrated parallel-postulate. Ptolemy, the great
astronomer, wrote a treatise purporting to prove it; and
Nasir Eddin (1201-1274), whose work on Euclid in Arabic
was printed at Rome in 1594, sought to dispense with the
problem of parallelism, by taking his stand upon another pos-
tulate: that two straight lines which cut a third straight
line, the one at right angles, the other at some other angle,
will converge on the side where the angle is acute, and diverge
where it is obtuse. Other mathematicians, notably John
.Wallis whom I claim as an ancestor, sought to turn the flank
of the difficulty by identifying the problem of parallels with
the problem of similitude. In general, we may say that the
problem was attacked from three sides.

First, there were those who sought to substitute a new
definition of parallels for Euclid’s, which reads (I, Def. 35):

“ Parallel straight lines are such as are in the same plane,
and which being produced ever so far both ways do not
meet”

To cite a few classic definitions, Wolf, Boscovich, and T.
Simpson use the following: “Straight lines are parallel

which preserve the same distance from each other.” But
this is begging the question, asHalsted has remarked, since it
assumes a definition, viz.: “Two straight lines are parallel

when there are two points of the one on the same side of the
other from which the perpendiculars to it are equal;” and at
the same time assumes a theorem: “All perpendiculars from

one of these lines to the other are equal.” Those geometers
who assume that parallel lines have the same direction are
guilty of a petitio principii, in assuming (Varignon and
Bezout) the definition that “parallel lines are those that make
equal angles with a third line,” and also in assuming the
theorem that “Straight lines that make equal angles with
one transversal make equal angles with all transversals.”

The second method of attack, far more logical, was to pro-

ipo?] Henderson — Foundations of Geometry.

7

pose a substitute for the parallel-postulate, such as “Two
straight lines which intersect cannot both be parallel to the
same straight line” (Ludlam), and “Any three points are col-
linear or concyclic” (Bolyai). And the celebrated Hilbert, in
his Vorlesung ueber Enklidische Geometric , (winter semester,
1898-9) cites the following theorems:

1. The sum of the angles of a triangle is always equal to

two right angles.

2. If two parallels are cut by a third straight line, then

the opposite (corresponding) angles are equal.

3. Two straight lines, which are parallel to a third, are

parallel to each other.

4. Through every point within an angle less than a

straight angle, one can always draw straight lines

which cut both sides (not perhaps their prolonga-
tions).

5. All points of a straight line have from a parallel the

same distance.

His comment is, “Finally we remark, that it seems as if
each of these five theorems could serve precisely as the equiv-
alent of the Parallel Axiom .”

The third class of investigators consisted of those geom-
eters who foundered upon the rock of the attempt to deduce
Euclid’s parallel-postulate from reasonings about the nature
of the straight line and the plane angle, helped out by
Enclid’s other assumptions and his first twenty-eight theo-
rems. Euclid took pains to prove things which were more
axiomatic by far — for instance, that the sum of two sides of
a triangle is greater than the third side — a thing which any
ass knows. To give one illustration of the many so-called
proofs, take the most plausible one, exposed by Charles L.
Dodgson, in his Cunosa Mathematical Part I. pp. 70-71, 3rd
edition, 1890:

“Yet another process has been invented —quite fascinating
in its brevity and its elegance— which, though involving the

8

Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ May

same fallacy as the Direction-Theory, proves Euc. I, 32.
without even mentioning- the dangerous word ‘Direction’.

“We are told to take any triangle ABC; to produce CA to
D; to make part of CD, viz., AD, revolve, about A, into the
position ABE; then to make part of this line, viz., BE, revolve,
about B, into the position BCF; and lastly to make part of
this line, viz., CF, revolve, about C, till it lies along CD, of
which it originally formed a part. We are then assured that
it must have revolved through four right angles: from which
it easily follows that the interior angles of the triangle are
together equal to two right angles.

“The disproof of this fallacy is almost as brief and elegant
as the fallacy itself. We first quote the general principle
that we can not reasonably be told to make a line fulfil two
conditions, either of which is enough by itself to fix its pos-
ition: e. g., given three points X, Y, Z, we can not reason-
ably be told to draw a line from X which shall pass through
Y and Z; we can make it pass through Y, but it must then
take its chance of passing through Z; and vice versa.

igo 7] Henderson — Foundations of Geometry. 9

“Now let us suppose that, while one part of AE, viz., BE,
revolves into the position BF, another little bit of it, viz.,
AG, revolves, through an equal angle, into the position AH;
and that, while CF revolves into the position of lying along
CD, AH revolves — and here comes the fallacy.

“You must not say ‘revolves through an equal angle, into
the position of lying along AD,’ for this would be to make AH
fulfil two conditions at once .

“If you say that the one condition involves the other, you
are virtually asserting that the lines CF, AH are equally
inclined to CD — and this in consequence of AH having been
so drawn that these same lines are equally inclined to AE.

“That is, you are asserting, ‘A pair of lines which are
equally inclined to a certain transversal, are so to any trans-
versal.’ [Deducible from Euc. I, 27, 28, 29].”

Thousands of mathematicians have tried in vain to prove
something that only a genius could see was indemonstrable.
The history of the evolution and exfoliation of that fertile
idea is of very great interest to the mathematician of today,
especially in view of the fact that beyond contradiction the
most original researches of the last quarter of the nineteenth
century pertain to the non-Euclidian geometry.

The most notable attempt to demonstrate Euclid’s parallel-
postulate that has been preserved to the world is embodied in
a book entitled Euclid Vindicated from every Blemish, by
a Jesuit priest named Hieronymus Saccheri (1667-1773).*
He was in close association with the great Italian geometer
Giovanni Ceva (through his brother Tommaso), whose name
a celebrated theorem bears; and by purely geometrical meth-
ods in Euclidian style, he sought to apply the reductio ad
absurdum method to the problem of the parallel-postulate.
His method is essentially as follows: At the end-points of a
sect AB erect two equal perpendiculars AC and BD on the

*Euclides ab omni naevo vindicatus ; sive conatus geometricus quo stabili-
untur prima ipm universae geometriae principia. Auctore Hieronymo
Saccherio Societatis Jesu, Mediolani.

10

Journal of the Mitchell Society. [. May

same side of AB. Join C and D by a straight line; and it
easily follows that the angle ACD is equal to the angle BDC.
Now there are three possibilities: (1) The angle ACD is
acute; (2) the angle ACD is obtuse; (3) the angle ACD is a
right angle. He undertook to prove the absurdity of the first
two possibilities so as to leave only the third possibility, viz.,
that the two angles ACD and BDC are each right angles.
He pursued the lines of argument, following from the first
two assumptions, at some length — for his book was more
than a hundred pages long; but was doubtless amazed to dis-
cover that for quite a time he was unable to involve himself
in any logical contradiction. In the event, certain of his con-
clusions were erroneous, and led him to believe that he had
actually proved the parallel-postulate. What he really did
do was to identify the assumption of the right angle with the
parallel-postulate, thus showing the two to be mutually inter-
changeable postulates.

In 1766, Johann Heinrich Lambert wrote his theory of par-
allel lines, in which he starts from the notion of the sum of
the angles of a triangle being equal to 180 degrees. If the
sum is equal to 180 degrees, the triangle is a figure in a
plane; if the sum is greater than 180 degrees, the triangle is
on a sphere; if the sum is less than 180 degrees, the triangle
is on the surface of an imaginary sphere (radius equal to the
square root of minus one)— Lobatchevsky — Bolyai “imaginary
geometry,” so called because its trigonometric formulas are
those of the spherical triangle if its sides are imaginary. As
to the third hypothesis, Lambert naively said: “There is
something attractive about this which easily suggests the
wish that the third hypothesis might be true.”*

France contributed little to the solution of the problem;
recognition, however, should be given to Legendre, who stud-

♦Compare The Philosophical Foundations of Mathematics, by Dr. Paul
Carus; The Monist, vol. 13, pp. 273-294; 370 397; 493-522, to which I am
indebted. I once had the pleasure of hearing Dr. Carus lecture on this
subject before the Mathematical Club of the University of Chicago.

Henderson — Foundations of Geometry.

11

ied the problem -all his life. By the aid of the principle of
continuity, the so-called Theorem of Archimedes, he did prove
two well known theorems:

1. In a triang-le, the sum of the three angles can never be

greater than two right angles.

2. If the sum of the three angles is equal to tvro right

angles in one triangle, it is equal to two right
angles in every triangle.

But Euclid’s geometry can be built up without the contin-
uity assumption; and only a short time ago, there was proved
by Dehn, something that might have been inferred, viz., that
Legendre’s first theorem does not hold, i. e. not without the
continuity assumption.*

In addition to Legendre, there was one other Frenchman,
Joseph Lagrange, France’s greatest mathematician in his
day, who attempted to prove Euclid’s parallel-postulate.
Toward the end of his life, so the story runs, Lagrange com-
posed a discourse on parallel lines. He began to read it in
the Academy, but suddenly stopped, and, in confusion, stam-
mered: “II faut que j’y songe encore” — “I’ll have to think
about it a while longer.” He stuck his manuscript in his
pocket, sat down, and never recurred to the subject.

The first distinct epoch in the history of the non-Euclidian
geometry begins with the time of the great German mathe-
matician, Karl Friedrich Gauss. He is in no sense entitled to
credit as a discoverer in this line, although for many years he
occupied himself with the problem. The researches he
claims to have made on the subject have not come down to
us; but he was closely associated, according to abundant testi-
mony, with Schweikart and Bolyai, two of the three indepen-
dent discoverers of the non-Euclidian geometry. The publi-
cation in 1900 of the eighth volume of Gauss’ Collected Works
shows, from a letter to Bolyai, the elder, a Hungarian mathe-

♦CJompare The Foundations of Geometry, by David Hilbert; Translation
by E. J. Townsend, Open Court Publishing Oo., Chicago.

12

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

[May

matician, that in 1779 Gauss was still hopelessly attempting
to prove that Euclid’s was the only non-self-contradictory
system of geometry, and also the system of our space. Bol-
yai, the elder, submitted to Gauss, in 1804, a pseudo-proof of
the parallel-postulate, but Gauss immediately detected the
fallacy. When Bolyai, the elder, submitted a second pseudo-
proof to Gauss, in 1808, he never replied. Bolyai’s words,
accompanying one of these pseudo-proofs, are pathetic in
their earnestness and yearning: “Oft have I thought, gladly
would I, as Jacob for Rachel, serve in order to know the par-
allels founded even if by another. Now just as I thought it out
on Christmas night, while the Christians were celebrating the
birth of the Saviour in the neighboring church, I wrote it
down yesterday, and I send it to you enclosed herewith.”

On November 23, 1823, Bolyai the son, called Janos, wrote
a letter to his father, professor of mathematics at Maros-
Vasarhely, in which he announces his discovery of the non-
Euclidian geometry — a letter full of youthful fire and enthus-
iasm, from which I quote:

“I intend to write, as soon as I have put it into order, and when
possible to publish, a work on parallels. At this moment it is not
yet finished, but the way which I have hit upon promises me with
certainty the attainment of the goal, if it in general is attainable.
It is not yet attained, butl have discovered such magnificent things
that I myself am astounded at them.

“It would be damage eternal if they were lost. When you see
them, father, you yourself will acknowledge it. Now I cannot say
more of them, only so much: that from nothing I have created another
wholly new world. All that I have hitherto sent you compares to
this only as a house of cards to a castle.”*

His results were printed as an Appendix to his father’s
work, entitled Tentamen Juventutem Studiosam in Elementa
Matheseos Purae , Elementaris ac Sublimioris , Methodo In -
tuitiva , Evidentia — que huic Propria Introducendi. The two
dozen pages contributed by the younger Bolyai have been some-

*The Science Absolute of Space, by John Bolyai, translated by G. B.
Halsted; Introduction, pp. XXVII, XXVIII.

Henderson — Foundations of Geometry.

13

what exaggeratedly characterized as the most remarkable two
dozen pages in the history of thought. When this work at last
reached Gauss, he wrote to his pupil and friend, Gerling: “I
hold this young geometer von Bolyai to be a genius of the
first magnitude.” Bolyai called his work, The Science Abso-
lute of Space, independent of the truth or falsity of Euclid's
Axiom XI ( which can never be decided a priori). And later,
we read on the title page of the elder Bolyai’s Kurzer Grund-
riss: “the question, whether two straight lines , cut by a third,
if the sum of the interior angles does not equal two right
angles, intersect or not? no one on the earth can answer with-
out assuming an axiom (as Euclid the eleventh).” The work
of Bolyai, the younger, which makes all preceding space only
a special case, only a species under a genus, and requiring a
descriptive adjective Euclidian, was rescued from oblivion,
after thirty years, by Professor Richard Baltzer, of Dresden;
and J. Hoiiel, of Bordeaux, following in the steps of Baltzer,
inserted extracts from Bolyai’s book in his Essai Critique sur
les principes fondamentaux de la Geometrie elementaire.
Indeed, this scientist mastered the principal European lan-
guages in order to make known to his contemporaries the
most celebrated mathematical works.

There is another name which deserves to become conspic-
uous in the history of non-Euclidian geometry; but not until
1900 were the facts in connection with his independent dis-
covery accurately known. In a letter to the elder Bolyai,
written October 31, 1851, Gerling, a scholar of Gauss and
Professor of Astronomy at Marburg, wrote as follows: “We
had here about this time (1819) a law professor Schweikart,

who had attained to similar ideas, since without help

of the Euclidian axiom he developed in its beginnings a geom-
etry which he called Astralgeometry. What he communi-
cated to me thereon I sent to Gauss, who then informed me
how much farther already had been attained on this way, and
later also expressed himself about the acquisition, which is
offered to the few expert judges in the Appendix to your

14

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

book.” On the publication of volume 8 of Gauss’s Collected
Works , in 1900, light is at last thrown upon Schweikart’s
discovery. Here we find Gerling’s actual letter to Gauss,
written in 1819, in which he says, among other things:

“Apropos of the parallel-theory, I learned last year

that my colleague Schweikart had written on paral-
lels He said that he was now about convinced that

without some datum the Euclidian postulate could not be
proved, also that it was not improbable to him that our geom-
etry is only a chapter of a more general geometry.”* En-
closed in this letter was a paper by Schweikart, dated Mar-
burg, December, 1818. From this we learn:

“There is a two-fold geometry — a geometry in the nar-
rower sense— the Euclidian, and an astral- science of
magnitude.

“The triangles of the latter have the peculiarity,
that the sum of the three angles (of a triangle) is
not equal to two right angles.

‘ This presumed, it can be most rigorously proven:

(a) That the sum of the three angles in the tri-
angle is less than two right' angles;

(b) That this sum becomes ever smaller, the more
content the angle encloses;

(c) That the altitude of an isoscles right angled
triangle indeed ever increases, the more one length-
ens the side; that it, however, cannot surpass a cer-
tain line, which I call the constant .”

It can be easily proved that if this constant is infinitely
great, then, and then only, is the sum of the three angles of ;
every triangle equal to two right angles.

That the doctrine made converts in high places is evidenced ;
by Bessel’s letter to Gauss, Feb. 10, 1829: “Through that
which Lambert said, and what Schweikart disclosed orally, it

*Gauss and the non-Euclidian Geometry ; 'by G. B. Halsted; Science, N. S.
Vol. XII, No. 309, pp. 842-846, Nov. 80, 1900.

/0O7] Henderson — Foundations of Geometry. 15

has become clear to me that our geometry is incomplete, and
should receive a correction, which is hypothetical, and if the
sum of the three angles is equal to one hundred and eighty
degrees, vanishes.

“That were the true geometry, the Euclidian, th q practical,
at least for figures on the earth.”*

The third name most closely associated in the popular mind
with the discovery of the non-Euclidian Geometry is that of
Nicolai Ivanovich Lobatchevsky. This brilliant genius,
afterwards dubbed by Hoiiel the modern Euclid, was born in
the year 1793 near Nijni Novgorod on the Volga. He stud-
ied under the great Bartels, was graduated with distinction,
became professor of mathematics, and finally rector, of the
University of Kazan. The manuscripts of certain of his
works were lost, but fortunately there remains the world-
famous Geometrical Researches on the Theory of Parallels .f
While both Gauss and Lobatchevsky' were students of Bar-
tels, there is even less reason to believe that Gauss contrib-
uted to Lobatchevsky’s, than that he assisted in Bolyai’s, dis-
covery of the non-Euclidian geometry. In his New Elements
of Geometry , we find Lobatchevsky’s clear enunciation:

“The futility of the efforts which have been made since Euclid’s
time during the lapse of two thousand years awoke in me the sus-
picion that the ideas employed might not contain the truth sought
to be demonstrated. When finally I had convinced myself of the
correctness of my supposition I wrote a paper on it (assuming the
infinity of the straight line) .

“It is easy to show that the straight lines making equal angles
with a third never meet.

“Euclid assumed inversely, that two straight lines unequally in-
clined to a third always meet.

“To demonstrate this latter assumption, recourse has been had to
many different procedures.

£ *The Philosophical Foundations of Mathematics, by Paul Carus; The
Monist, vol. 13. p. 280.

tCompare the English translation by G. B. Halsted, published by the
University of Texas, Austin, 1891.

16

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

[May

“All these demonstrations, some ingenious, are without exception
false, defective in their foundations and without the necessary rigor
of deduction.”

Lobatchevsky classifies all the co-planar lines through a
given point A with reference to another co-planar line BC
not passing through A, under two heads — cutting and non-
cutting (Fig. 3). The transition from the non-cutting lines,

FIG 3.

such as EA and GA, to the cutting lines, such as FA, is
marked by one line HA — the boundary line between the two
classes; this he entitles the parallel line . From the assumpt-
ions, there arises the necessity of making a distinction of
sides in parallelism, and hence there must be two parallels,
so-called, one on each side. One logical consequence of this
is that “if in any rectilineal triangle the sum of the three
angles is equal to two right angles, this is also the case for
every triangle” — one instance is the criterion for all.

of] Henderson — Foundations of Geometry. 17

As Poincare, perhaps the world’s greatest living- mathema-
tician, recently said, in his review of Hilbert’s Grundlagen
der Geometrie\

“Lobachevski succeeded in building a logical edifice as
coherent as the geometry of Euclid, but in which the
famous postulate is assumed false, and in which the
sum of the angles of a triangle is always less than
two right angles. Riemann devised another logical
system, equally free from contradiction, in which the
sum is, on the other hand, always greater than two
right angles. These two geometries, that of Lo-
bachevski and that of Riemann, are what are called
the non- Euclidian Geometries. The postulate of
Euclid then cannot be demonstrated; and this impos-
sibility is as absolutely certain as any mathematical
truth whatsoever.”*

Limits of space forbid more extended treatment of the
work of Schweikart, of Bolyai, and of Lobatchevsky. By no
means secondary in interest to the investigations of these
men are the researches of Riemann upon the Elliptic Geom-
etry; Cayley’s projective theory of measurement, and the
Absolute, leading through Klein to the non-Euclidian geom-
etry; the hypotheses advanced by Clifford to explain the
nature of the space in which we live; the popular expositions
of Helmholtz; and Lie’s great group-theoretic structure
built upon the hypothesis of Zahlenmannifaltigkeit. Nor can
I enter, at this place, into any discussion of the recent move-
ment toward the treatment of geometry as a whole from the
purely synthetic standpoint, inaugurated by Pasch, carried
on by Peano, Pieri, and Veronese, and crowned by the mas-
terly work of Hilbert. These modern investigators in what
has been fittingly termed abstract mathematics have exhibited
the potency of symbolism in removing from attention the

•Compare The Value of Non-Euclidian Geometry , by G. B. Halsted;
Pop. Sci. Monthly, vol. 67, pp. 642-3.

18 Journal of the Mitchell Society. \_May

concrete connotations of the ordinary terms of general and
mathematical language. And yet, as Professor E. H. Moore
has pertinently suggested, “the question arises whether the
abstract mathematicians in making precise the metes and
bounds of logic and the special deductive sciences are not
losing sight of the evolutionary character of all life-processes,
whether in the individual or in the race. Certainly the log-
icians do not consider their science as something now fixed.
All science, logic and mathematics included, is a function of
the epoch — all science, in its ideals as well as in its achieve-
ments One has then the feeling that the carrying

out in an absolute sense of the program of the abstract math-
ematicians will be found impossible. At the same time, one
recognizes the importance attaching to the effort to do pre-
cisely this thing. The requirement of rigor tends toward
essential simplicity of procedure, as Hilbert has insisted in
his Paris address, and the remark applies to this question of
mathematical logic and its abstract expression.”*

Perhaps a not unnatural confusion may arise in the mind
of the layman in regard to the ultimate meaning, the far-
reaching significance of these discoveries. As Artemus
Ward used to say, “Why this thusness?” Indeed so revolu-
tionary have many of the new theories and discoveries ap-
peared that their authors, in more than one instance, have
hesitated long before giving them to the world. The pio-
neers in science sometimes dread, not inadvisedly, the pos-
sibility that their startling and epoch-making hypotheses and
investigations may lead them to be dubbed sensationalists
and fakirs. Compare, for example, the letter Gauss wrote to
Bessel, Jan. 27, 1829:

“I have also in my leisure hours frequently reflected upon another
problem, now of nearly forty years standing. I refer to the founda-
tions of geometry. I do not know whether I have ever mentioned
to you my views on this matter. My meditations have also taken

*0n the Foundations of Mathematics , by E. H. Moore. Presidential ad-
dress, Am. Math. Soc. , Dec. 29, 1902. Science, March 13, 1903, pp.401-416.

ipoy] Henderson — Foundations of Geometry. 19

more definite shape, and my conviction that we cannot thoroughly
demonstrate geometry a priori is, if possible, more strongly con-
firmed than ever. But it will take a long time for me to bring my-
self to the point of working out and making public my very exten-
sive investigations on this subject, and possibly this will not be done
during my life, inasmuch as I stand in dread of the clamor of the
Boeotians, which would be certain to arise if I should ever give free
expression to my views.”

As that wayward Irishman, Bernard Shaw, has said, the
prime and indispensible quality of the pioneer must be his
willingness to make a fool of himself — at first! And it mat-
ters not in what sphere, whether art, literature or science, the
great thing, as Henrik Ibsen says, is not to allow one’s self to
be frightened by the venerableness of the institution.

Now that the truth in regard to many of the mooted ques-
tions which pertain to the foundations of geometry has at
last been daringly disclosed, the first question that naturally
arises is : Has Euclid’s fame suffered by the discovery ? One

might be led to think so if dependence were to be placed in
Clifford’s characterization of Lobatchevsky’s celebrated mon-
ograph as “Euclid without the vicious assumption.” Such a
remark is not only misleading: it displays a fundamental mis-
apprehension in regard to the Euclidian and non-Euclidian
geometries. The real truth of the matter is that Euclid’s
genius today shines forth more resplendently than ever ; the
almost flawless perfection of his work is only thrown into
clearer perspective and higher relief. From the purely philo-
sophical, the metaphysical point of view, the discovery of the
non-Euclidian geometry is of vast interest ; for it gives rise
to endless speculations in regard to the character of space —
even of inter-stellar space. Are the three angles of a trian-
gle equal to two right angles if the sides of the triangle are
the distances from the earth to the remotest fixed star ? In
the realization that Euclidian geometry is only a chapter in a
more general geometry, fitly entitled Pan-Geometry, and the
consequent almost infinite extension of the domain of research
consists the great value of the discovery to the mathemati-

20

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

\_May

cian. Most interesting- comparisons between the different
types of geometry flow from a study of certain surfaces.
Since the sum of the three angles of a spherical triangle is
greater than two right angles, it is evident that the charac-
teristic geometry of the sphere is Riemannean ; it has been
known, since Eobatchevsky and Bolyai, that the characteris-
tic geometry of the orisphere is Euclidian; since Beltrami, that
of the Euclidian pseudo-sphere is Lobatchevskian.* Such
generalizations as Barbarin’s Theorem, for example, link to-
gether the various types of geometry in a most succinct and
illuminative fashion, exhibiting with great clarity their fun-
damental distinctions and similarities. Text books in non-
Euclidian geometry are now being written ; Professor Hal-
sted entitles a popular article Ihe Non-Euclidian Geometry
Inevitable. The first step toward the popularization of non-
Euclid ian geometry is the clear enunciation, at the proper
place in our ordinary text-books of geometry, of the principle
on which the Euclidian geometry rests : that from the stand-
point of pure logic the parallel-postulate is a mere choice be-
tween alternatives. “In all the books put into the hands of
students,” as M. Barbarin has said, “the hypothetical and
wholly factitious character of the Euclidian postulate (should)
be put well into relief.”!

The second great gain from the discovery of the non-Euclid-
ian geometry is the possibility of the formulation of the prin-
ciples of the general geometry. It is most instructive and
stimulating to the mathematical student to see the theories of
Euclidian geometry emerge as special cases of the more gen-
eral and comprehensive theories of Pan-Geometry. The

*If we consider the tubes or surfaces equidistant from a straight line,
and make that distance infinite, we have theorispheres; the pseudo- spheres
are surfaces of revolution which have for meridians a tractrix or line of
equal tangents. A pseudo-sphere finds its approximate counterpart in na-
ture in a morning-glory whose stem is infinitely prolonged; for a figure,
cf. Elements of Trigonometry, by Phillips and Strong, p. 126.

t On the Utility of Studying Non-Euclidian Geometry , by P. Barbarin; Le
Mathematiche, May, 1901.

/p<?7] Henderson — Foundations of Geometry.

21

general geometry contains many propositions common to all
the systems, which should be enumerated in the same terms
in each of these. Sometimes a modification in the form of
statement, veiling the special property of the figure in the
particular type of space, would result from a generalization
of the theorems for the general geometry, in which case such
special properties should be clearly indicated. Thus, to state
an illustration cited by M. Barbarin,* that of the convex quad-
rilateral inscribed in a circle, in Euclidian geometry, the sum
of two opposite angles is constant and equal to two right angles',
in non-Euclidian geometry, this sum is variable. Notwith-
standing this, the two forms may be reconciled, since in
both cases the sum of two opposite angles equals that of the
other two , and this is sufficient for a convex quadrilateral to
be inscriptible. Such generalizations often lead to a com-
plete redistribution of values, and so clarify the processes of
Euclidian geometry in the most distinctive way. Professor
E. Study has said :

“The conception of geometry as an experimental science is only
one among many possible, and the standpoint of the empiric is as
regards geometry by no means the richest in outlook. For he will
not, in his one-sidedness, justly appreciate the fact that in mani-
fold, and often surprising ways the mathematical sciences are in-
tertwined with one another, that in truth they form an indivisible
whole.

“Although it is possible and indeed highly desirable that each sep-
arate part or theory be developed independently from the others and
with the instrumentalities peculiar to it, yet whoever should disre-
gard the manifold interdependence of the different parts, would de-
prive himself of one of the most powerful instruments of research.

“This truth, really self-evident yet often not taken to heart, ap-
plied to Euclidian and non-Euclidian geometry, leads to the some-
what paradoxical result that, among conditions to a more profound
understanding of even elementary parts of the Euclidian geometry,
the knowledge of the non-Euclidian geometry cannot be dispensed
with.

*On the Utility of Studying non-Euclidian Geometry , 1. c.
t Ueber Nicht-Euklidische und Linien-Geometrie, Greifswald, 1900.

22 Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ May

Lastly, the discovery of the non-Euclidian geometry virtu-
ally fixes upon the Euclidian geometry its practical and em-
pirical character. “In connecting a geometry with experi-
ence,” to cite the view of the most confirmed of non-Euclid-
ians, “there is involved a process which we find in the theo-
retical handling of any empirical data, and which therefore
should be familiarly intelligible to any scientist. The results
of any observations hold good, are valid, always only within
definite limits of exactitude and under particular conditions.
When we set up the axioms, we put in place of these results
statements of absolute precision and generality. In this ideal-
ization of the empirical data our addition is at first only re-
stricted in its arbitrariness in so much as it must seem to ap-
proximate, must apparently fit, the supposed facts of experi-
ence, and, on the other hand, must introduce no logical con-
tradiction. Thus to-day the ordinary triply-extended space
of our experience may be purely Bolyaian, or purely Eu-
clidian, or purely Cliffordian, or purely Riemannian.”* To
put it extravagantly, the non-Euclidian geometer, like a crou-
pier, cries out to his audience: “Here are three assumptions

in regard to the angle sum of a triangle; from not one of the
three do any logical contradictions follow; which one will you
take ? Messieurs, faites vos jeux /” The result is, not that the
mathematical world singles out one to the exclusion of the
others — but studies all three, their inter-actions, inter-relations,
and mutual dependencies. And yet if the “man in the street”
impatiently cries out: “I am not interested in what may be

the possible nature of space in the vicinity of Mars, or even the
possible character of geometrical figures on the planet Jupiter,
or in the tortuous reasonings of a mathematical Alice in Won-
derland. Tell me, what is the character of the space I occu-
py, the nature of the physical world in which I live and move
and have my being?” And the answer of mathematicians
throughout the world, with certain distinguished exceptions,

*The Appreciation of non-Euclidian Geometry, by G. B. Halsted; Science ,
March 22, 1901, pp. 462-465.

i<)oj\ Henderson — Foundations of Geometry. 23

would doubtless be: “Although it can never be mathematically
demonstrated, our space I believe to be Euclidian space be-
cause of the testimony of experience.” The three angles of
a triangle can never be mathematically demonstrated to be
equal to two right angles; nor can experience ever give the
absolutely exact metric results desiderated. And yet, this
thing amounts to what we crudely call “moral certainty”,
viz. that the “practical geometry”, as Bessel rightly called
it, within reasonable limits of error — for which we must
always allow in this imperfect world — , and for limited por-
tions of space, is Euclidian. So, after all, it seems that
we are forced to the conclusion that the axioms of geom-
etry, although they are, abstractly speaking, assump-
tions, are, practically speaking, deductions from expe-
rience. Only as suppliants at the feet of Nature her-
self can we ever hope to penetrate to the heart of her mys-
tery.

.

A NEW COLOR TEST FOR THE LIGNOCELLULOSES.

ALVIN S. WHEELER.

The lignocelluloses give a number of color reactions, the
most valuable being the reaction with phloroglucinol in
hydrochloric acid solution. The rich reddish violet color is
very pronounced. The salts of anilin give a golden yellow
but the color is not sufficiently dark to allow them to com-
pete with phloroglucinol. However, I have observed that
the salts of the nitranilines produce a color which is very
striking, a rich blood red color. As phloroglucinol solutions
are said to deteriorate with age, I have kept for one year
exposed to full daylight a hydrochloric acid solution of
phloroglucinol and also one of paranitraniline. The phenol
solution became brown, showing some decomposition and on
applying it to pine sawdust the violet color was not fully
developed instantly but in a few minutes became as dark as
that made by a fresh solution. The nitraniline solution was
perfectly stable and gave its reaction as quickly as a fresh
solution. So far as a year’s time is concerned the new
reagent has no real advantage over the old.

The red color is produced by the salts of the ortho, meta
and paranitranilines but the meta compounds are much
inferior, the color being pale in comparison. The ortho and
para compounds give the same deep color. Paranitraniline
is to be preferred since it is more readily obtained. Different
salts of this amine such as sulphate, nitrate, hydrobromide
and hydrochloride were tested but no difference was noted.
The hydrochloride was adopted for use. This salt, dis-
solved in pure water, only gives a yellow color, but on stand-

24

[May

1607] Wheeler — Color Test for Lignocelluloses.

25

ing for some hours the red color develops. Since the best
results are obtained when free acid is present, various
strengths of hydrochloric acid were tried from one-half to a
twelve per cent, solution but no important difference could
be observed. It is convenient to use an acid of specific grav-
ity 1.06. A study of various concentrations of the parani-
traniline in acid solution revealed no differences of conse-
quence. It was observed that in all cases hot solutions pro-
duced much quicker results than cold ones. In fact hot solu-
tions seemed to give the full depth of color instantaneously.

The reagent was applied to a wide variet}^ of woods, to
jute, to oat straw and to many samples of paper. A No. 1
book paper showed numerous small red fibres, indicating
adulteration with mechanical wood or else incomplete con-
version of the lignocellulose. A yellow paper containing
five per cent, of mechanical wood gave a deeper color, like-
wise a salmon pink paper. A very deep blue paper made of
sulphite cellulose showed scattering red fibres which were
easily seen. A sample of white paper made from bleached
sulphite gave no trace of color.

i A striking lecture experiment is carried out by projecting
a quantity of the hot solution against a large sheet of paper
made of mechanical wood, such as newspaper stock.

In conclusion, the reagent is made by dissolving two grams
I of paranitraniline in one hundred cubic centimeters of hydro-
| chloric acid, either of specific gravity 1.06 or a 4N solution.

1 When used hot, a blood red color is instantaneously
obtained with lignocelluloses.

University of North Carolina,

February 21 , 1907.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF CORE BANK, N. C.

BY COLLIER COBB.

The storm of October 17th, 1906, cut three inlets across
Core Bank, just below Cedar Island Inlet (closed since 1805)
and near the site of Old Drum Inlet (closed in 1822), and
revealed the fact that the beach sands and dunes (Columbia)
rest upon a clay foundation (Neocene), which in its turn is
underlaid by Tertiary shell-rock, exactly similar to the shell
rock occurring- at various points in Currituck Sound and
already noted in this Journal.* Among- the forms observed here
were Turritella , Lunatia , Glycymeris , Tornatellaea , Nucula ,
Lucina , Corbula , Proto car dia , Modiolus , Area , Ostrea. These
were in most cases packed tog-ether in the shell-rock, and a
few sharks’ teeth were included. The upper portion of this
rock was made up almost entirely of the shells of Tellina.
After the storm the entire bank in the region of the new-
formed inlets was black with magnetic sands, heavily ripped,
their thicknes being- in some cases as much as three inches.

Numerous water-worn shells of Cardium , Anomia , Exo -
gyra, Serpula , Gryphaea, of species identical with those
found by the writer on Currituck Banks, were washed up by
the storm, as were also the bones of fishes, all these being
Cretaceous fossils. Many coral fragments were also found.
The Captain of the Core Bank Life Saving Station, Willis,
sailed through one of the inlets and found six feet of water
in its shallowest part. On December 16th, 1906, I walked
across all three of the inlets at low water in company with
Captain Wm. T. Willis of the Core Bank Life Saving Station,

*Vol. xxu, No. 1, 1906, pp 17-19.

26

[May

igoy] Cobb — Geology of Core Bank. 27

and Mr. R. C. Holton of Atlantic, the washing- up of sand
from the sea and the southward movement of the dunes hav-
ing nearly filled them.

The Tertiary shell-rock was encountered in Core Sound
between Core Bank and Cedar Island, and between Core
Bank and the mainland. There is thus no longer any ques-
tion as tto the origin of Core Bank or of Currituck Bank, for
they are both essentially parts of the mainland. Currituck
Sound was formerly a river that flowed into the Albemarle or
Caroline River before the present Albemarle Sound was
formed by the drowning of that valley; and Core Sound was
for the greater part of its length a southern tributary of the
large river made up of the Pamlico and the Neuse, and pass-
ing to seaward through the present Ocracoke Inlet. The
Albemarle River passed through the present fresh ponds just
south of the Kill Devil Hills, and the margin of the conti-
nent was some three score miles eastward of its present posi-
tion.

Then came the subsidence which drowned out the lower
river valleys producing the estuaries and sounds already men-
tioned, and this subsidence may still be in progress in the
region to the north of Cape Hatteras.

Since that subsidence, however, there has been an uplift of
the land from Cape Hatteras southward, which, in all proba-
bility is still going on. As the dunes advance towards the
sound side they depress by their weight the swamp muck in
which the trees of that side grow, and these are left exposed
on the seaward side when the dunes have passed. This com-
pression of the muck, which is common from Hatteras Island
northward, may easily be mistaken for subsidence of the
land.

But on the land opposite Core Bank, successive strata of
muck, filled with well-rounded wind-blown sands rise twenty
feet above Core Sound at Atlantic. Kitchen middens, too,
mark this line of elevated shore, the heaps being composed
mainly of oyster shells with an occasional bit of broken

28 Journal of the Mitchell Society. \_May

Indian pottery, and an occasional stone cleaver. Similar
evidences of recent elevation have been observed by the
writer at various points from Cape Hatteras to Cape Sable.

Note — This paper was presented, with lantern illustrations, before Sec-
tion E, of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
New York, December 31st, 1906, and an abstract appears in Science N. S.
vol. xxv, p. 297, Feb. 22, 1907.

NOTE ON ELECTRICAL AGEING OF FLOUR.

J. W. GORE.

The Alsop Process of Ageing flour was described in the
Electrical World of December 8th, 1906, which is now in use
in many mills in the United States and also in foreign
countries.

The apparatus consists of a 500 volt Shunt Wound dynamo,
with an induction coil in series with it, and an air pump.

The circuit is automatically broken at each stroke of the
pump; the break is between two copper electrodes, and the
resulting arc is drawn out until broken.

The air through which this flaming Electrical discharge
. passes is forced by the air pump through the flour as it comes
from the mill.

i A 1^ kw dynamo is sufficient for a mill of some 30 to 40
barrels daily output.

It has been the practice of millers and warehouse men for a
long time to age fresh flour by storage, thus fitting it better
for bread and yielding a higher grade product. By Alsop’s
I process these beneficial results are obtained in a few moments,
j The conclusion is that the active elements in the atmos-
phere which improve the bread making qualities of the flour
, when stored, are plentifully produced by the flaming
discharge of Electricity between Copper Electrodes.

I 1907]

29

INDUSTRIAL AND SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF THE
PINE AND ITS PRODUCTS.*

BY CHAS. H. HERTY, PH.D.

Consideration of the annual production of volatile oils shows
at once the great preponderance of spirits of turpentine over
all others combined. Each quart of spirits of turpentine rep-
resents approximately one year’s output of this product from
one tree. At least nine-tenths of the world’s supply of this
substance comes from our Southern States, for the production
of which not less than one hundred and twenty millions of
trees are annually subjected to turpentining. Two millions
of acres of virgin timber are annually brought into operation
to supply the place of exhausted timber. Millions of pines
which have never been turpentined are felled each year by the
mills in Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. Every winter the
entire turpentine producing section is swept by ground fires
which destroy most of the seedlings, and thus make impos-
sible reproduction on any large scale. The annual revenue
from the naval stores industry can be conservately estimated
under present prices at not less than forty millions of dollars.
Surely such a situation justifies and demands systematic
experimental work in the hope of conserving this valuable
native resource.

EFFECT OF TURPENTINING ON LUMBER.

The pine has a two-fold commercial value, first, as timber,
second, as a producer of the oleo-resin, “crude turpentine.”

♦Reprinted from The Chemical Engineer, March, 1907.

80

[May

ipoy] Herty— The Pine and its Products. 31

For many years it was believed that timber which had been
turpentined, commonly called “bled timber,” was inferior to
“unbled” for construction purposes. A thorough investiga-
tion of this question in 1893 by the Division of Forestry of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture showed the fallacy of this
belief, and now no distinction is made. Indeed in France
timber from trees which have been turpentined is preferred
for all purposes where strength and elasticity are demanded.

* CRUDE TURPENTINE.

Previous to the last twelve years no systematic experiments
had been carried out in this country on the production of crude
turpentine. The records of the U. S. Patent Office as far
back as 1869 show various inventions designed as substitutes
for the “box,” this being a deep hole cut in the base of the
tree, having a capacity of about one quart and serving to col-
lect the crude turpentine which flows from the scarified trunk
above. None of these devices however gained permanent
favor among turpentine operators. In 1894 W. W. Ashe, of
the N. C. Geological Survey, began a comparative study of
crude turpentine collected by the “box” system, uniformly
practiced in this country, and by the “cup” or Hugues system,
practiced in France. These experiments were planned with
care, and although carried out on a small scale gave interest-
ing results. They were discontinued after one year.

In the hope of accomplishing something toward the conser-
vation of the pine forests of Georgia I began during the sum-
mer of 1901 field experiments on the production of crude
turpentine by the pine. With an apparatus somewhat similar
to that used in France, but essentially modified to suit our
system of scarification or “chipping,” various studies, both
qualitative and quantitative, were made in the pine forests of
the southern part of the State. Many of the specimens col-
lected were afterwards examined in the chemical laboratory.
The striking character of the results obtained aroused the
interest of the U. S. Bureau of Forestry, and during the fol-

32

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

[May

lowing winter I was led to accept a commission in the Bureau
for the purpose of carrying out on a commercial scale the
experiments already begun.

As introductory to the discussion of that work let me
explain briefly the operations commonly in practice in the
turpentine woods. During the winter the “boxes” are cut in
the trees. In early spring the weekly scarification or “chip-
ping” begins. It is necessary to renew this wound each week,
as the flow of crude turpentine practically ceases after seven
days. Chipping extends each year about eighteen inches up
the tree, the depth of the cut being about one inch and the
width, on an average tree, fourteen inches. When the boxes
fill, usually every four or five weeks, the crude turpentine is
removed to buckets, then to barrels and hauled to the still.
During the year some of the product remains sticking to the
exposed “face” of the tree. This is collected in the fall and
distilled, although it has a much smaller percentage of spirits
of turpentine than the “dip” from the boxes. Lastly a space
around each tree is cleared of all combustible material as a
protection against the annual ground fires.

The basis of my work was the conviction that the pine is
not so much a store-house but rather a factory for the pro-
duction of crude turpentine, and that timber which is not
boxed should produce more than timber whose vitality is di-
minished by the cutting of the box. Comparative experiments
were carried out in 1903 at Ocilla, Ga., on thirty thousand
trees. In these experiments both the “box” and the “cup
and gutter” systems were used under conditions as nearly
identical as possible. The results showed an even greater
difference in favor of the unboxed timber than was expected,
while the qualitative results previously obtained by Ashe
were confirmed. The immediate commercial introduction of
the cup and gutter system was assured by the financial gain
from the increased output, the improved quality of the rosin
and the protection given to the trees against wind and fire.

For the production of crude turpentine it is necessary to

■goy~\ Herty — The Pine and its Products. 33

wound the tree. If the tree is girdled it dies. What then is
the limit of wounding to which it is necessary to subject the
tree in order to get the most profitable yield, and beyond
which it is unsafe to go ? It had been proved at Ocilla that
the box was an unnecessary wound and that by its elimina-
tion the yield could be increased. The next step then was to
make comparative tests bearing upon the extent of the wound
given in “chipping.” For the past two years such experi-
ments have been conducted in Florida by the U. S. Forest
Service, and by the courtesy of the Service I am enabled to
tell you that results already obtained show that shallow chip-
ping produces as much or eventually more crude turpentine
than the customary deep chipping, while at least one year in
three can be gained in the usual rate of ascent of the tree
without diminishing the output. Still other experiments
yielding most valuable results are in progress, all bearing
upon more conservative wounding of the tree. None of these
experiments are extreme, but all are rational modifications of
present practices which will carry conviction when the details
are published.

Of an entirely different character from the experiments
just mentioned, but of great scientific and practical value,
are the recent studies of Prof. A. Tschirch, of Switzerland, on
resin secretion. By the use of the microscope and suitable stains
he has proven that the seat of resin production is in a'muci-
laginous layer lining the inner walls of the resin ducts. In a
later study, carried out upon a large number of trees, he has
further demonstrated that while there are a limited number
of “primary” resin ducts present in the untapped pine, by far
the greater flow of resin proceeds from secondary ducts
formed in the outer sap wood after the wounding of the tree.
The resin from the “primary” ducts is a physiological pro-
duct, that from the “secondary” a true pathological product.

While many chemical studies have been made of the pro-
ducts obtained by distillation of crude turpentine, only one
detailed investigation is on record regarding the nature of the

34

Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ May

oleo-resin secreted in the Longleaf pine. Tschirch and Ko-
ritzschoner have shown that this oleo-resin consists of

Palabienic Acid — CI3H2002 5 per cent.

7 Palabietic Acid — C JH3002 — 6 “ “

a and/? — Palabietiolic Acid — 0i6H24O2 — 56 “ “

Spirits of Turpentine 20 “ “

Paloresene 10 “ “

Impurities, Bitter Principle and Water 3 “ “

No study has been published of the oleo-resin from Pinus
Heterophylla, or Cuban pine, which occurs so frequently in
the Florida forests and from which therefore so large a pro-
portion of the present supply of spirits of turpentine and
rosin is prepared. Such an investigation has been begun in
the laboratory of the University of North Carolina.

Many interesting new lines of investigation in this field
suggest themselves if the chemist instead of waiting for
specimens to reach the laboratory will study and note the
changes at the tree. When the oleo-resin first appears it is
a perfectly clear liquid. In the case of some pines it remains
thus for weeks and then slow crystallization of the dissolved
acids begins, with others the crystallization begins within a
minute after the drop appears. Evidence already in hand points
to the probability that the clear liquid issuing from the
resin ducts is a supersaturated solution. To what is this
condition of supersaturation to be ascribed ? Again, the flow
of resin is relatively rapid during the first forty-eight hours
after wounding, then quickly diminishes and practically
ceases after seven days. Is this cessation to be explained by
the plant physiologist or by the chemist ? Has the inner lin-
ing of the resin duct lost its power of production, or has the
duct been closed by oxidation, or crystallization of the oleo-
resin which it exudes ? If chemical, can it be prevented by
some simple means ? A practical solution of this problem
would be a great blessing to the turpentine operator in these
days of scarcity of labor and would do more than anything

iq 07] Herty — The Pine and its Products.

35

else for the preservation of our pine forests. Still again —
what is the chemistry of “scrape” formation ? Why the va-
riation in the amount of scrape formed in pines of different
species and even among those of the same species ? These
are a few of the many problems in this untouched field
awaiting the skill and patience of the investigator.

<

DISTILLATION.

Crude turpentine is of very little commercial use. It must
be separated by distillation into its constituents, spirits of
turpentine and rosin. In this country distillation is carried
out in large copper stills heated by direct fire. During distil-
lation a current of warm water is let into the still. The steam
produced by the water added during distillation materially
lowers the temperature and lessons the time necessary for the
complete removal of the spirits of turpentine. An interesting
study of this subject from a physico-chemical standpoint has
been made by Prof. Vezes, of Bordeaux. By distilling at this
lower temperature the possibility of destructive distillation of
the rosin is avoided. The vaporized spirits of turpentine and
the steam are condensed in a water jacketed copper coil and
collected in a suitable vessel where separation takes place
owing to the difference in specific gravities and the mutual
insolubility of the two liquids. On completion of the distil-
lation the cap of the still is removed and the excess of water
boiled off to prevent opaqueness in the rosin. The molten
rosin is then run through an opening near the bottom of the
still into strainers lined with cotton batting through which
it filters into a vat. After partial cooling the rosin is dipped
into barrels where it slowly solidifies.

During the summer of 1903 I had opportunity to study the
systems of distillation practiced in France. Three types were
found, first distillation by free flame and addition of water,
as in this country, second by steam alone in steam jacketed
stills, and third by a system of “mixed injection,” i. e. free

36 Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ May

flame and addition of water tog-ether with steam injection.
The cost of a plant for distillation by steam alone is far greater
than that of the simple plants in this country. After careful
study ‘of these systems I am convinced that if a skillfull
“stiller” is in charge, as good results are obtained here as with
the best of the French steam stills, but the personal equation,
which plays no role in the steam still, is of prime importance
with us. Perhaps the best of these for our conditions would
be that of mixed injection, for the extra cost of installation
and operation is not great and the personal element of the
“stiller ” is entirely eliminated.

SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE.

The chief constituent of spirits of turpentine is pinene,
Ci0Hi6. Many battles have been waged over the structural
formula of this compound. At first it was classified among
the open chain hydrocarbons but later was shown to be a ring
compound. Of the many formulas proposed that of Wagner
is most in accord with the reactions of the substance.

H

l

C

Some of the work upon American spirits of turpentine has
been in vain, because investigators failed to take into account
the facts that in our turpentine orchards more than one species
of pine is turpentined and that the crude turpentine from each
is indiscriminately mixed when collected. Recognizing these

igo 7] Herty — The Pine and its Products. 37

facts J. H. Long- in 1893 secured specimens from identified
individual trees, distilled the volatile oils from each and con-
cluded that while American turpentine rotates the plane of
| polarized light to the right the variations in the amount of
rotation in different specimens is due to admixture of the laevo-
rotatory oil from Cuban pine with the dextro-rotatory oil from
theLong leaf pine, and as the latter tree generally predominates
the resultant oils are more or less dextro-rotatory. New light
has been thrown upon this subject by an investigation carried
on during the past year in the chemical laboratory of the
University of North Carolina in collaboration with the U. S.
Forest Service, by which the results of this study are to be
published shortly. Through the courtesy of the Service I am
, enabled to refer to some of the results of special interest in
this connection. During the past season, at regular intervals
of four weeks, the crude turpentine has been collected sepa-
rately from seven Longleaf and seven Cuban pines. A study
of the oils distilled from these specimens has shown a marked
variation in the rotation of polarized light. The variation
exhibits itself not only in the oils from the two species of
pines, but even among those from the same species. The
Longleaf pines generally yielded dextro-rotatory oils. One,
however, yielded a laevo-rotatory oil, while another scarcely af-
fected the plane of polarization. The Cuban pines gave gen-
erally laevo-rotatory oils but through wide variations, one of
them effecting only a very slight rotation. In the case of
each tree, however, the rotation of its oil was found to be
practically constant throughout the season.

The rapid rise in the price of spirits of turpentine during
the past few years has led to frequent adulteration and the
offering for sale of many substitutes. The producer, tempted
by the great difference in price of spirits of turpentine and
kerosene, has frequently mixed the two. The remedy was
peculiar. Seeking to advance the price by producing less
spirits of turpentine, the operators soon found that their suc-
cessful effort to curtail had been fully off-set by the addition,

38

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

[ May

at many stills, of kerosene sufficient to keep the output at its
former figures. The most prominent producers then led the
fight for “ pure spirits ” laws and in the largest producing
States effective legislation on this subject has been enacted.
Similar laws have recently been passed in New York State.

Mineral oil constitutes the chief adulterant of spirits of
turpentine. While such an addition may not materially lower
the solvent power, it diminishes the oxygen carrying power
directly in proportion to the amount present, since American
petroleum is composed almost wholly of saturated hydrocar-
bons. So skillful has become the art of adulterating with
petroleum products that detection by the ordinary physical
tests can be evaded if the adulterant is not present in too great
quantity. But by polymerization of the ter penes with con-
centrated sulphuric acid, Herzfeld’s method, adulterations
even as low as one to two per cent, can be detected with cer-
tainty. Especially is this true if after successive polymeriza-
tions the oils, distilled with steam, be examined with the re-
fractometer, as recommended by McCandless.

No discussion of spirits of turpentine would be complete
without embracing that form now legally designated as “wood
spirits of turpentine.” It is no new thing that a volatile oil,
various heavy oils and charcoal can be obtained by destructive
distillation of “ fat lightwood.” More than forty years ago
extensive plants for such distillation were in operation in North
Carolina. But the low price of spirits of turpentine made
these financial ventures unsuccessful. A few plants continued
operations on a small scale, but the matter dropped out of
public notice for a long while. With the recent rise in price
the subject was again agitated. By the aid of clever promo-
tion, by the exhibition of actual results obtained, but from
raw material above average richness, by frequent reference to
latter-day success in saving and utilizing by-products and
finally by that sweet vision of pestiferous stumps removed
from the cotton rows, great enthusiasm was raised, and at
one time unlimited capital was available for destructive dis-

igo7~\ Herty — The Pine and its Products. 39

tillation plants, pro vincially called “ stump factories.” Many
were built, but it was soon found that the paint and varnish
people did not want the product, as the quality was irregular
and the odor bad. Then, too, the by-products so carefully
saved found no market. Finally through faulty construction
or careless management many of the plants burned. Conse-
quently destructive distillation lost favor and plants were
erected for the extraction from lightwood by steam of spirits
of turpentine alone. This method gives an oil of good qual-
ity, and with increased experience a product is now manufac-
tured which is practically the same as “ gum spirits.” But
the yield from average raw material is rather low and if it be
sought to increase the yield by elevation of temperature the
quality is inferior.

I think I have stated the case fairly. We all hope that this
industry will eventually be placed upon a good solid basis. Let
me emphasize three points in connection with this subject : —

First. — Fewer promoters and more chemists would improve
the situation.

Second.— Investors must not expect to realize the enormous
profits claimed by some of the over-enthusiastic, but the busi-
ness is capable of yielding fair dividends if the plants are
properly located and carefully managed.

Third. — In spite of the preference now shown for steam
extraction, the future of this industry lies in destructive dis-
tillation, but not as at present practiced. The difficulty of
securing profitably a permanent supply of raw material will
lead to the establishment of numbers of cheap stills. Such
stills require no expert labor and can be easily moved from
time to time to fresh portions of the territory for raw material.
The crude product from these small stills will be shipped to cen-
tral refineries where suitable apparatus will be found operated
under the direction of chemists.

ROSIN.

What is rosin and of what chemical compounds is it

40

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

[ May

composed? This question has interested chemists for
many years. The literature of the subject is very exten-
sive and the views held at various times were and even
now are widely different. By Maly and Fliickiger rosin was
considered the anhydride of abietic acid. Henriques con-
tended for the presence of lactonic acids, Benedict for free
acids and ethereal salts, Fahrion for sylvic acid, while
Tschirch has recently separated from American rosin three
isomeric acids a, (3 and y abietic acids, and considers that all
other workers in this field have been dealing- with impure
products. The controversy on this subject between Tschirch
and Fahrion is not yet ended. Tschirch can not decide
between CI9H28Oa and C20H3002 as the correct formula for
abietic acid. Nor has it been determined with any certainty
whether the oxygen atoms of this acid are present in the
form of hydroxyl or carboxyl groups. It is possible that
some of these differences may be due to the fact that many of
the specimens used for investigations are so called “Amer-
ican Rosins,” without taking into account the fact that much
of this rosin is derived from at least two different species of
pines, Pinus Palustris and Pinus Heterophylla.

Rosin varies in color from a pale yellow to a very deep red,
the price of the rosin decreasing with increasing color. In
France the better grades of rosin are placed in shallow trays
and exposed for three or four months to the bleaching action
of sunlight. Almost colorless grades are thereby obtained.
This practice is carried on by one firm in this country. But
sun-bleaching is not effective with the darker rosins. The
great difference in price between the low and high grades
has led to many efforts to devise chemical methods for bleach-
ing rosin. A number of patents have been issued on the
subject, but so far as I know none of these have proved
commercially profitable. Here is a live problem for the
chemist, the correct solution of which is certain to bring rich
returns.

For many years the commercial demand for rosin was very

ipoy] Herty — The Pine and its Products.

41

limited. Indeed at one time the price dropped so low that
it was frequently the custom in North Carolina to distill the
oil from the crude turpentine and turn the rosin into the
creeks and swamps. In these latter days of higher prices the
rosin from these dumping grounds has been dug up, melted,
strained and shipped to market. The cause of this increase
in price is not difficult to discover. It is the manufacture of
rosin oil. Of the total amount of rosin produced about 10
per cent, is used for sizing, varnishes and other minor matters,
35 per cent., approximately, for soap making, while not less
than 55 per cent, is subjected to destructive distillation
whereby rosin spirits, various rosin oils, brewers pitch, etc.,
are obtained. As a substitute for or adulterant in linseed oil,
as lubricants, in printer’s ink and in many other ways rosin
oils are finding wider and wider application. This industry
thrives chiefly in Germany, to quite a large extent in England
and Scotland, and a much more limited extent in France,
where a high tariff prevents the importation of American
rosin. In this country there are about three rosin oil distil-
leries, operated somewhat in the same manner as the
European plants. Why should not this industry thrive in
our Southern States? It would seem that the same logic
which led to the recent movement to erect cotton mills near
the fields of cotton would apply in this case also. We have
a great advantage over the foreign manufacturer if we will
only make use of it. When the German or English rosin oil
manufacturer gets the rosin thoroughly melted in his still he
is just at the point where we were at the moment the molten
rosin was turned out of our turpentine still into the vat.
Meanwhile what has happened? The heat stored up in the
molten rosin has gone to waste, there has been added the
labor of dipping it from the vat into the barrels, the cost of
inspection, broker’s commissions, transportation costs, labor
in getting the rosin from the barrels and breaking it into
lumps of suitable size for the still, and finally the cost of fuel
for again melting the rosin, and why? All in order to get it

42

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

back again into the condition in which we once had it. Many
industries have been developed on a much narrower basis of
saving than that just indicated. Adjacent to each of our
turpentine stills there should be found one or more for rosin
oil, placed on a lower level, so that the molten rosin could be
run directly from the one to the other and destructive distilla-
tion of the rosin begun. The stills for rosin oil being made
of iron are not expensive and the skill required for distilling
is far less than in the distillation of crude turpentine.
Again, but little labor would be required, nor would it be
necessary to find markets or uses for the products: these
already exist and are constantly increasing. With such mani-
fest advantage we should be able to locate the whole of this
industry in our midst.

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TO BE ENTERED AT THE POSTOFFICE AS SECOND CLASS MATTER

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society.

f' ‘ •*? : /‘'r. t v

(H. V. WILSON, President.

ARCHIBALD HENDERSON, Vice-President.

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A; S, WHEELER, Rec. Sec. F. P. VENABLE, Perm. Sec.

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Editors of the Journal:

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J. E. LATTA, ARCHIBALD HENDERSON.

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CONTENTS.

Proceedings of the North Carolina Academy of Science, Sixth
’ Annual Meeting , 43

■ ’V ;\ <;rV‘ -• tv :- ; ;• /( ;

The Garden, Field, and, Forest of the Nation— Collier Cobb 52

Some Interesting Grasshoppers (and Relatives) of North Car-
olina— Franklin Sker m an , Jr ....... . .... * ............. , 71

Notes on Some Turtles of the Genus Pseudemys— C. S. Brimley 70

Three Little Known Species of North Carolina Fungi— J. G. Ball 85

’

-fjds Mg >? \ rafiis J.f&i W ^Wv-^vlm- }

. > -v - ;■

( W */ Vth iy, ^ i O’ 1

Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society — Quarterly. Price,
$2 00 per year; single numbers 50 cents. Most numbers of former vol-
umes can be supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Editors, at
University.of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. ' I

;•

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

PROCEEDINGS OF TIIE NORTH CAROLINA ACAD-
EMY OF SCIENCE, SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING,

The executive committee met Frida3’, May 17th at 1 p. m.,
the following- members being present: Collier Cobb, W. C.
Coker, John F. Lanneau, and F. L. Stevens.

The following names were proposed for membership to the
Academy and were elected to membership by the executive
committee: Dr. C. H. Herty, Chapel Hill; Dr. J. H. Pratt,
Chapel Hill; Dr. A. S. Wheeler, Chapel Hill; Dr. J. E. Mills,

! Chapel Hill; Dr. R. O. E. Davis, Chapel Hill; N. C. Curtis,

■ Chapel Hill; J. G. Hall, West Raleigh; H. W. Smith; W. A.
Withers, West Raleigh; Dr. G. A. Roberts, West Raleigh; F.
P. Drane, Chapel Hill; R. T. Allen, U. S. Geological Survey;

| J. E. Pogue, Jr., Chapel Hill; Miss Daisy B. Allen, Raleigh;

I Louis W. Gaines, Wake Forest ; W. N. Hutt, Raleigh ;
J. J. Wolfe, Durham; M. H. Stacy, Chapel Hill; Clifton D.

! Howe, Biltmore; C. W. MacNider, Raleigh: Will L. Brewer,
Greensboro.

At 3 p. m. Friday, the 17th, the Academy was called to

JUNE, 1907

VOL. XXIII

NO. 2

HELD AT CHAPEL HILL, MAY
17th AND 18th, 1907.

NEW V
ootanj

OAkDl

Printed June 17.

44 Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ June

order by its President, Professor Collier Cobb, and an address
of welcome was extended to the Academy by President Fran-
cis P. Venable, of the University of North Carolina. A
response to the address was made by the retiring- President,
John F. Lanneau, of the Academy of Science. The
remainder of the afternoon session was devoted to the pre-
sentation of papers.

At 9 p. m. the Academy met in Gerrard Hall, and the
presidential address, “The Garden, Field, and Forest of the
Nation,” was delivered by President Cobb. Following- this
address a reception was extended the visiting- members in the
Y. M. C. A. building.

Saturday, May 18, at 9 a. m., the Academy convened for a
business meeting. The minutes of the last meeting were read
and approved, and the names of the new members, as elected
by the executive committee, were read and formal vote of
election to membership was made.

The nominating committee, previously appointed, presented
for election the following names: President, T. Gilbert

Pearson; Vice-President, W. C. Coker; Secretary, F. L. Ste-
vens; members of the executive committee, Franklin Sher-
man, Jr., J. J. Wolfe, and John F. Lanneau. It was moved
by F. L. Stevens that the name of E. W. Gudger be substi-
tuted for that of F. L. Stevens for Secretary. The amend-
ment was carried. These nominees were then elected to office
for the ensuing year. The report of the Treasurer, showing
a balance of $122.53, was received. Raymond Binford and
Franklin Sherman, Jr., were appointed as auditors. It was
moved and carried that the executive committee be requested
to hold the meeting next year two weeks earlier than that of
this year.

Following the business meeting was held a meeting for the
presentation of papers.

The following papers were presented:

1. The Sparsity of the Stars, the Measureless Remoteness of

ipoy] Proceedings N. C. Academy of Science.

45

each Star from All Others, John F. Lanneau, Wake
Forest College.

The paper will appear in full in Popular Astronomy.

2. The Foundations of Geometry, Archibald Henderson, of
the University of North Carolina, published in The
Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Society, May, 1907.

3. Some New Sources of Eight, C. W. Edwards, Trinity
College. Read by title.

4. Some Interesting Grasshoppers (and Their Relatives) of
North Carolina, Franklin Sherman, Jr., State Ento-
mologist.

5. Osteogenesis Imperfecta (with a report of a case), Lewis
M. Gaines, of Wake Forest College. Read by title.

6. Notes on the Cultivation of Algae for Class Use, F. L,

Stevens, of the North Carolina College of Agriculture
and Mechanic Arts.

Suggestions were given for the isolation and cultivation of
algae upon solid medium, consisting of 75 per cent, ager made
up with Knopf’s solution. This medium solidifying at lower
than 34 degrees, can be safely used in plating out algae.
Cultures of several forms were exhibited.

7. Fusion of Sponge Larvae with formation of composite

sponges, H. V. Wilson, of the University of North
Carolina.

The ciliated larvae of silicious sponges (Stylotella) may
be made to fuse, thus giving rise to composite sponges. To
accomplish this result it is only necessary to bring the larvae
in close contact at the time when the ciliary action is no lon-
ger locomotary and fixation is about to occur. The compos-
ite masses representing (in the actual experiments) from two*
to six larvae complete the metamorphosis.

Journal op the Mitchell Society.

46

\_June

8. Wind-polished pebbles, and Palaeolithic Man, Collier

Cobb, of the University of North Carolina.

The close similarity between pebbles faceted and polished
by the sand-blast and the implements of early man was indi-
cated, and the errors which might result from superficial
observation were pointed out.

9. Notes on the Zoology of Lake Ellis, C. S. Brimley,

Raleigh, N. C.

The paper discusses the occurrence of various insects and
reptiles taken by the writer and others in the vicinity of Lake
Ellis, Craven County, N. C., during June, 1905, and May,
1906. The rare salamander, Stereochilus marginatus, which
had not been taken for many years, was found to be common,
and several specimens of the frog, Rana virgatipes, were
taken. Nine alligators were secured on the two trips by the
author’s companion, and several rare snakes. Five species
of dragon fly, new to North Carolina, were secured, and (in
June, 1905,) numerous specimens of the yellow fly (Diach-
lorus ferrugatus). Notes on other members of the Tabani-
dae are also given.

10. Single Phase Railway Work, J. E. Latta, of the Uni-

versity of North Carolina.

11. The Relation of the Cattle-tick to Southern Agriculture,

Dr. Tait Butler, State Veterinarian, Raleigh, N. C.

12. The Design of High Masonry Dams, William Cain, of

the University of North Carolina.

The method of finding the resultant of the water pressure
and the weight of masonry pertaining to any horizontal joint
of a dam is given; also the decomposition of the vertical com-
ponent of this resultant along the joint according to the
usual hypothesis. The hypothesis of the conservation of
plane sections, in the case of a battered wall, is then criti-
cised and the resulting vertical unit pressure at a face of the

igoy ] Proceedings N. C. Academy oe Science. 47

wall, shown to be too high and therefore on theside of safety.
But since the pressure near a face, acts necessarily parallel
to that face, the vertical unit pressure just computed, is not
the whole pressure.

The difficulty of computing exactly this whole pressure is
next entered into and an upper limit found by an approximate
method which again gives an excess pressure.

Rankine’s suggestion, to use the ordinary formula for ver-
tical unit pressure, but specify higher limiting unit pressures
for the up-stream face than for the down stream face is adopted
provisionally.

The claim is made that, in addition to the three universally
imposed conditions, no tension, safe unit pressures and no
possible sliding at any horizontal joint — a fourth condition
must be imposed, viz., that the factors of safety against
overturning and sliding shall increase gradually from the
base upwards to allow for the proportionately greater influ-
ence, on the upper joints of wind and wave action, floating
ice or other bodies, and especially of the great forces caused
by the expansion of thick ice under an increase of tempera-
ture and by earthquakes.

It was found that this could easily be done by taking the
well-known theoretical triangular type of cross-section of
dam and making some additions at the top sufficient for a
roadway.

A preliminary design is given for a dam 258 feet high,
with factors of safety and unit pressures marked on the draw-
ing, satisfying all four conditions. The area of cross-sec-
tion and height being the same as for the celebrated Quaker
bridge design, a comparison was instituted, unfavorable to
the latter, in that its factors of safety are too small, par-
ticularly in the upper portions, where by the proposed fourth
condition they should be largest.

This criticism owes its significance to the fact that the new
Croton Dam of New York, 224 feet high to water surface and
finished February 1st, 1906, at a cost of over $7,500,000, has

48 Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ June

a profile for 224 feet in depth, exactly the same as the Qua-
ker bridge design for the same depth.

Engineering News for June 30, 1888, January 12, 1893, and
May 9, 1907, is referred to for the destructive action of ice
on ponds, lakes, and rivers, due to the expansion from an
increase of temperature during the day. At night, contrac-
tion causes cracks to form, often several inches wide, which
are filled up with new ice and thus the effect, from day to
day is cumulative and very destructive as far north as Can-
ada and in the Northern States. As yet, the action of ice on
high dams has not received much attention.

For earthquake action on houses, Milne is referred to; also
a personal experience of the author in Charleston, S. C., is
recited. It was pointed out, however, that dams being built
into the sides of the valley at their ends, were not so free to
move at their tops as houses.

A brief description and analysis of the failure of the Habra
dam concludes the paper.

13. Three Little Known Species of North Carolina Fungi,

J. G. Hall, of the North Carolina Experiment Station.

14. A New Form of Achlya, W. C. Coker, of the University

of North Carolina.

During the fall of 1906 an Achlya was found at Chapel
Hill, N. C., which agrees with Achlya racemosa, var. stel-
ligera Cornu, in many respects, but different from it in having
the autheridum cut off immediately below the oogonium, and
the fertilizing tube arising from the division wall and enter-
ing the oogonium from below, as in Saprolegnia hypogyna
Pringsheim. Such an origin for the fertilizing tube is new
for the genus Achlya, and is not known elsewhere except in
Saprolegnia hypogyna.

15. Notes upon the Preparation of the Silicate Medium for

the Cultivation of Bacteria, J. C. Temple, N. C. Agri-
cultural Experiment Station.

7907] Proceedings N. C. Academy of Science. 49

Directions were given for the preparation of this medium
obviating- the necessity of dializing, and making it possible
to prepare this medium with greater certainty and greater
accuracy. The use of the medium prepared in this way for

fthe culture of various organisms was illustrated by colonies
of various bacteria growing in a thriving condition upon the
medium.

16. Breeding Colonies of Birds (Illustrated with Eggs and
Stereopticon views), T. Gilbert Pearson, of Greens-
boro.

17. The Efficiency of Soil Inoculation in the Production of
Root Tubercles, F. U. Stevens, of the North Carolina
Agricultural Experiment Station.

Data was given concerning the inoculation of soils with
liquid cultures obtained from the Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C. From many tests conducted in various
ways there was no evidence whatever that inoculation with
these cultures was efficient in the production of tubercles
upon the legumes. The cultures employed were issued in
liquid condition in hermetically sealed test tubes, and were
obtained directly from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wash-
ington, D. C.

18. The Opportunities for Study and Research at the Beau-
fort Eaboraty, H. V. Wilson, of the University of
North Carolina.

19. Does Blood Tell? Heredity According to the Experi-
ence of the Children’s Home Society, William B.
Streeter, of Greensboro, N. C.

20. Geology of the Cape Fear River, Joseph E. Pogue, Jr.,
of the University of North Carolina.

21. The Relation of Sporangium of Uygodium to the Evo-
lution of the Polypodiaceae, Raymond Binford, of
Guilford College.

50

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

[ June

22. The Condensation of Alipatic Aldehydes with Aromatic

Amines, Alvin S. Wheeler, of the North Carolina Uni-
versity.

The following reaction takes place without any dehydrat-
ing agent: RCHO+2RNH2=RCH (RNH)2+H20. In some
cases at low temperatures the addition product is obtained.
Condensation products of Chloral with the three nitranilines,
p-bromaniline, o-toluidine, anthranilic acid, and o-anisidine
were prepared. By-products, as yet unidentified, were
obtained with o-toluidine and with anthranilic acid. The
condensation products are readily broken down by Hydro-
chloric acid and by acetic anhydride. When suspended or
dissolved in the glacial acetic acid they react with extreme
smoothness with bromine, forming beautifully crystalline
compounds which are much more stable than the condensation
products.

23. Chapel Hill Ferns, by W. C. Coker, of the University of

North Carolina.

A collection of the living ferns and fern allies native to
Chapel Hill, N. C., was made and exhibited in pots. Twenty
species were represented, including all the known Ptridophytes
of the neighborhood, except Botrychium ternatum and its
variety, dissectum, which had not yet appeared above
ground.

24. Notes on Turtles of Genus Pseudemys, C. S. Brimley, of

Raleigh, N. C.

25. Electricity in Heavy Traction (Illustrated by lantern

slides), J. E. Uatta, of the University of North Caro-
lina.

26. The Optical Rotation of Volatile Oil, C. H. Herty and

G. A. Johnson, of the University of North Carolina.

27. Children’s Home Society Methods, William B. Streeter,

of Greensboro.

Proceedings N. C. Academy of Science.

51

28. Gametophytes of Botrychium Virginianum, Raymond
Binford, of Guilford College.

They were found in moist oak woods under the leaves.
Some were almost on the surface of the soil while others
were imbedded one to two inches in the soil. They seem to
have gotten down by means of worm holes or cracks made by
roots of trees. Sizes ranging from 2 m. m. to 10 m. m. were
shown. Specimens of these plants were exhibited before the
Academy.

A motion of appreciation of the courtesies extended to the
Academy by the members at Chapel Hill and ladies of Chapel
Hill was unanimously carried.

At 1:30 o’clock Saturday the Academy adjourned.

F. L. Stevens, Secretary.

THE GARDEN, FIELD, AND FOREST OF THE
NATION.

BY COLLIER COBB.

(Address as President of the North Carolina Academy of Science. )

It has been the boast of more than one of our politicians
that North Carolina could well be independent of the rest of
the world, for we might enclose the State with a high wall
and get along just as well, since we produce within our
borders everything that we need. This boast was based on
the fact that North Carolina puts something in every column
of the blanks sent out by the Agricultural Department at
Washington, that she produces a little of everything; but the
inference drawn from this fact is far from being true.
Not a single county in the State produces food-stuff sufficient
to sustain its population. As our towns and cities have
grown, the relative food production has diminished, and in
most of our counties this diminution in the amount of food
produced has been not only relative but absolute.

For the last score of years the population of our towns and
villages has increased as families have gone from the farms
to the factories, often to live off the labor of the children, or
from the rural districts to the city in order to give the chil-
dren better schooling. The increase of our population from
outside sources, too, has helped to swell the urban popula-
tion. But farm lands are not increasing, the acres planted
with food stuffs have steadily diminished in number, and
under our old system of cultivation there has been a steady
diminution in the value of the returns per acre. Even

52

[June

igoy ] Garden, Field, and Forest of the Nation. 53

Orange County, which may be reckoned a rural district,
does not begin to make food enough to maintain its
inhabitants through the year, and the inhabitants of our
adjoining county of Durham would starve in less than a
fortnight if they had to depend on the food product of the
county for support. When some of us in this hall came to
college the village of Durham could claim no other distinction
than that of being the railway station from which students
drove to Chapel Hill. Today it is a city of more than 20,000
inhabitants, drawing its population from all parts of the
world, and dependent upon distant fields for its support.
And not one of our large cities, Wilmington, Charlotte,
Asheville, Greensboro, or Raleigh, could depend on its own
county, or even upon the surplus of a score of adjoining coun-
ties, for its food.

Notwithstanding the several years of unprecedented crops
j that we have had, amounting almost to seven years of plenty,
we are practically face to face with a famine. The wheat
lands of our own Northwest have been practically exhausted of
their lime, as an acre of wheat will use up ten pounds of lime
in coming to maturity; and this loss, added to the damage
done the soil by the poisons excreted by the roots of the
wheat, has caused our farmers of the great plains to seek
new fields in the Canadian West. Already the natural pas-
turage of our semi-arid regions has been practically exhausted,
and neither cattle-raising nor sheep-raising is profitable,
where within two decades vast fortunes have been made in
these industries. Those of you who paid your month’s
butcher’s bills on the first of May were doubtless led by
their unusual size to investigate causes, and learned that for
the first time in the history of the Chicago and Kansas City
packing houses they have not been able to fill their cold
storage. The demand of the country for fresh meat has
consumed the entire output of these houses during their busy
season. And this state of things has c'ome about after three
years of abundant crops, during which time the packing

54

Journal of the Mitchell Society. [June

houses have paid their own prices for meat. Now let a
drought come and there is absolutely no escape from a meat
famine.

But what are we going to do about it ? What is the solu-
tion of the problem ? We are all familiar with the fact that
in our older States of the South the annual product per acre
has greatly decreased, owing to the rapid loss of soil fertility,
and that even our moderate production is maintained only at
increased cost; and also, that the comparatively new States
like Texas, as well, show a rapid deterioration of land and
loss of fertility. And it may be pointed out that our farmer
is of all men most miserable; neglected and looked down
upon; slave to the credit system; servant where he should be
master; poor and becoming poorer; the prey of sharpers; the
disconsolate follower of a calling which he has inherited
with his deteriorating acres, clinging to the past, knowing
no higher law than chance, planting, rearing, and gathering
his crop under the leadership of luck, each succeeding year
seeing his granary heaped fuller of disappointments, leaving
him poor in purse and lean in hope. None of us can deny
that this is a true picture of the average farmer of our State
as we have known him from our youth up. The politician
who has flattered him biennially that his calling, seen in its
true perspective, is outranked by no other in power, scope,
or service to mankind, has gone his way and made laws
directly opposed to all the farmer’s interests.

Still, what are we going to do about it ? How are we to
escape famine if our present source of supply should be
exhausted ? What is the solution of the problem ? Increase
the output from the soil that we have by the application of
science — “that sensible science of our day which has for its
ultimate aim not merely discovery but application; which is
not so delighted by the formulating of a new law as it is
overjoyed at the lifting of a burden;” science, in which
laboratory investigation goes hand in hand with field experi-
mentation, the science of our present time, which is applied

igoy] Garden, Field, and Forest of the Nation. 55

common sense, combining- laboratory practice with business-
like methods. Such science our United States Department of
Agriculture is engaged in and encouraging; so also the
various State agricultural experiment stations and most of
the agricultural colleges, corn breeders’ associations, truck
growers’ associations, sugar producers, tobacco growers,
private investigators like Luther Burbank, all laboring to
lift the burden from the agriculturist, and make him indeed
what the politician has been flattering him that he is.
Greater progress has been made in all departments of life
dependent upon the soil in the last score of years than in the

I previous two score centuries.

The most important of all this service of science to the
! farmer bas been the study of the soil, the fundamental factor
in all the varied lines of life that branch out from agricul-
' ture. How to save it, how to nourish it, how to restore it to
j life when dead, what it is composed of, how it is formed,
j how to interpret it so that any man may understand it — these
| have been, and still are among the great problems before us.

I Their solution is being worked out and already that work has
; revolutionized agriculture within our own State and is slowly
changing conditions for the better in the entire South.

Tobacco is grown in eastern North Carolina today because
a soil investigator found out that the marls just beneath the
, soil there contained in available form the lime that the
tobacco plants require for their growth, and of course all the
other essential minerals are there. Hitherto tobaccos had
been grown on limestone soils, or on soils derived from
igneous and metamorphic rocks rich in lime-soda feldspars.

In a similar manner it was discovered that the sands of the
sand-hills regions of the Carolinas contain both lime and
potash in available form, whei*eas similar sandy soils of
Western Europe are practically devoid of these necessary
plant foods, but this soil is particularly adapted to the
growth of the vine, and in consequence an important grape
j industry has grown up in our sand-hills district.

56 Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ June

Similarly it was found out that certain incoherent white
quartz sand in Florida was valuable pine-apple soil, notwith-
standing it was over 99.5 pure quartz, because it possessed
certain properties that the bacteriologist discovered.

Investigation showed that the soil of the Connecticut.
Valley, which produced only low grade tobaccos, sneered at
as Connecticut cabbage leaf, was essentially the same as that
which produced the Sumatra tobacco. But it was necessary
to change the climatic conditions, and this was done by the
use of cheese-cloth, increasing the humidity and raising the
mean temperature ten degrees Fahr. Somewhat similar
experiments have been tried in Darlington District, South
Carolina, the result, so far as the production of Sumatra
wrappers was concerned, being entirely satisfactory. And
such investigations and experiments have been carried on all
the way from Connecticut to Alabama and Texas with the
result of greatly improving the product and greatly increas-
ing the output, producing in the Southern States the cigar
tobaccos of all lands.

This matter of the investigation of soils is by no means
new, though its methods and their application to agriculture
are matters of little more than a decade. Such investigations
were begun by Liebig at Giessen more than half a century
ago. He and his assistants made countless analyses of the
ashes of plants. These showed the presence of different
minerals in every species, that each species requires from the
ground the same class of salts, and hence that it must sooner
or later exhaust the supply of these salts in a given plot, and
render it unfit for the growth of the species in question
unless fresh supplies are provided.

“Liebig attempted to give the necessary supplies in the
form of ‘Mineral Manure’, and soon set to work to study prac-
tically the effect of mineral manures on a large scale. In
the }7ear 1845, previous experiments in a garden having
proved unsatisfactory, he purchased from the town of Giessen
about ten acres of barren land — a sand pit, as he says, which

igof\ Garden, Field, and Forest of the Nation. 57

surpassed all the land in the neighborhood in its barrenness
for ordinary cultivated crops; in the year this land hardly
grew so much fodder as would have sufficed for a single
sheep. It consisted partly of sand, partly of coarse quartz
and pebbles, with strata of sand and some loam.

“Some of the soil was first tested by sowing it with seeds
in pots after enrichment with some single mineral manure,
with the result that not one of the plants got beyond flower-
ering; this showed that the soil was bad enough for his
purpose of testing the value of minerals as manure.

“A number of mineral manures were then prepared for him
according to prescriptions based on his analyses, and these
were spread over the land; next he sowed on different sub-
divisions of it wheat, rye, barley, clover, potatoes, turnips,
maize. In some cases he added sawdust to the manure, and
in one case he used stable manure; otherwise no ammoniacal
! manure and no mineral matter was employed, except that to
one plot he applied some forest soil and to another a mixture
of forest soil and mineral manure. Even in the first year he
had a harvest; the best results were given by those plots in
which mineral manures were mixed with forest soil or stable
manure. This, as he says, enabled him to correct his earlier
j ideas of the functions of humus, which by its decay renders
an extra supply of carbonic acid gas to the plants that is
especially valuable at the early stages. Gradually, without
any other supply of manure except mineral manure, the land
so improved in productiveness that in the fourth year his
crops excited the wonder of all who had known- the original
state of it.

“In 1849 this little farm was purchased by his gardener,
who was then able to farm it with profit, raising some cattle
on it yearly and getting such satisfactory crops of corn that
in 1853 a neighboring farmer wrote: ‘With us the wheat

crops are very poor, but on the height (Liebig’s plot) they
have harvested three fuder of rye twelve simmer, while I
from three fuder of the best rye, have only got five simmer.

58

Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ June

If you were to see it, you would be astonished; it is truly
wonderful.' ”

From his experiments with this land Liebig was led to form
the opinion that it was possible, by giving the soil proper
physical quality and composition, to bring about a state of
things in which sufficient ammonia to maintain its fertility can
be collecteed or condensed from the air. He recognized not
only that certain elements were necessary in a fertile soil,
but more — and what certain soil chemists have been slow to
recognize — that these elements must occur in certain combi-
nations as minerals to be available as plant-food. He found,
too, that certain earths and other substances might be added
to soils, which would withdraw to some extent soluble salts
from their solutions, removing from the soil substances
injurious to plant life. Liebig was greatly interested in the
experiments made in England by Sir Thomas Way on the
absorptive power of soils, and was the first to recognize the
true value of these experiments to agriculture.

Thus it was that a chemist sixty years ago recognized that
the study of soils was as much the province of the geologist,
the mineralogist, and the physicist, as of the chemist; and
the work with which he is credited in Denmark shows that
he also regarded it as within the province of the botanist.
So greatly did he value the structural features and mineral
composition of a soil as indicators of its fertility, that he said:
“In matters of this kind the farmer must pursue his own

course he must not put the least faith in the

assertion of any foolish chemist who wants to prove to him
analytically that his field contains an inexhaustible store of
this or that nutritive substance.”

In other words, Liebig saw that it is not so much the
chemical elements in a soil as their mineral combination which
determines their available plant food, and the geologists
have found that very different rocks may be made from the
same molten magma under different conditions of cooling.
And it was Liebig who pointed out to the farmers that they

ipo?] Garden, Field, and Forest of the Nation. 59

might change the fertility of their soil by changing its texture.
In examining into the improved conditions of agriculture in
the dune districts of the Jutland Peninsula a number of
years ago, I found that the farmers of that country attri-
buted their prosperity wholly to the suggestions made to their
fathers and grandfathers by Liebig who went to Denmark to
study moving sands; but I have not been able to find that he
ever published anything on the subject.

But the dream of Liebig is being realized, and the study of
soils is enlisting the closest attention of the chemist, the
geologist, the mineralogist, the bacteriologist, the botanist, —
a relatively small but powerful coterie of men who are the
investigators and interpreters of modern agriculture. The
chemist has found the essential plant foods, the geologist has
noted the natural distribution of vegetation with relation to
rocks both as to composition and structure, the mineralo-
gist and geologist have studied the rock-making minerals in
relation to their available plant-foods, the bacteriologist has
shown us that certain living organisms in the soil are of
enormous importance to every man who raises food for man
and beast, the botanist has busied himself with breeding
certain plants adapted to certain soils. “Knowledge is now
no more a fountain sealed.” The farmer of to-day may, nay
he must, come up to his calling “as fully equipped for service
as the lawyer, the editor, the doctor, the captain of industry;
for the curious fact has developed that the calling in which
the unlettered and untrained man was once supposed to have
as good a chance as the educated one, is now the calling in
which wide and varied knowledge is almost as imperative as
in almost any other known among men.”

Of the more than seventy elements that make up the crust
of the earth only about a dozen are essential to successful
agriculture and practically all soils contain these in one
form or another. Only four of the twelve — nitrogen, phos-
phorus, potassium, and calcium — are liable to be lacking in

60 Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ June

any given soil. But when any one of these four is wanting
dire results follow.

The results that may be obtained, even where all these
elements are present in proper proportion, depend upon the
size of the soil particles, upon the number of grains of soil in
the little measure of a gram; for the freedom with which the
film of soil moisture moves over the soil grains determines
the amount of plant food taken out of the soil. If the farmer
is a raiser of truck for the early market, the soil for his
lettuce, peas, beans, onions and radishes must be of a certain
well-defined structure — it must have at least one billion,
nine hundred and fifty millions of particles in a gram, in less
than a thimbleful of earth. If he is going in for ordinary
summer and autumn vegetables, corn and cabbage and potatoes,
then there must fie at least two billion additional particles in
each g'ram of soil. If he is a wheat planter he must be sure
that there are not less than ten billion, two hundred millions
of particles in his little thimbleful of soil; while for wheat
and grass land combined the soil must be in finer particles
still.

While it has been known for at least two centuries that
bacteria exist in the soil, it is only recently that they have been
studied with any degree of satisfaction. They exist every-
where in earth and air and sea. They were believed at one I
time to have animal life, but they are now almost universally
accepted as low forms of vegetable life. Over a thousand
different kinds are now known, and the list is being steadily
added to as knowledge of them increases. They increase by
dividing themselves in two, and this they do at a marvelous
rate of progression. One of them, according to a bacteriolo- i
gist who has studied it closely, would, if left to itself,
produce seventeen million descendants in twenty-four hours, i
Another scientist calculates that another particularly rapid «
multiplier could produce, if it had penty of food, four j
thousand seven hundred and seventy-two billion progeny in a
single day. They differ from plants which we see growing t

igo 7] Garden, Field, and Forest of the Nation. 61

about us in that they have no chlorophyl — the material
which gives the green color to the plants.

In a Kansas soil it was found that there were as many as
one billion, six hundred and eighteen million, six hundred and
eighty-one thousand, eight hundred and ten bacteria in a
single gram or small thimbleful from a field under examina-
tion, while another field nearby had only a few over a
million. As air is necessary for their existence, they rapidly
decline in numbers as you go .down in the soil to a point
where none is ever found.

Many different families of these bacteria live in the earth,
making their homes in the soil. They help to decompose it,
thus transforming it into food. They draw vast stores of
food supplies from the air. At every point they act as
agents in advancing the interest of man.

Four-fifths of the air we breathe is one of the most valuable
plant foods, nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen is available in
one form and some in another, but it must all be put into
| such form that it may pass into the system of the plant and
; be utilized in the building up of stalk and leaf and ripened
I seed.

I In portions of North Carolina I have seen a field worn out
i by injudicious cropping, the plants struggling to grow in a
depleted soil into what would be at best but a lean and
starved maturity. In an immediatly adjoining field, with a

0 soil of precisely the same character, with no advantage in
point of moisture, heat, or sunshine, with precisely the same
kind of seed planted as in the ’first case, were tall, strong,
and thrifty plants, neighbors to the thin, yellow, beggarly

1 ones of the first field.

The only difference between the two was that when the
seed were planted there was sprinkled in the rows of one
field some plain simple dirt brought from another State, and
the field that had this dirt sprinkled in its rows was the field
with the strong and vigorous plants. What wrought the
wonderful change was a colony of nitrifying bacteria, living,

62 Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ June

moving- things, that helped the crops to get their nitrogen
from the atmosphere. Long ago it was discovered that cer-
tain plants, as the beans, clovers, peas, vetch, alfalfa, and
the like, form upon their roots little bunches of tubercules, as
they are called. When science sought out the meaning of
these tubercules, why they formed on these particular plants,
what purpose they served, it was seen that they were not
abnormal, but necessary, and that plants that had them
were more thrifty than those that had them not. It was dis-
covered that their task was to take nitrogen from the air and
transform it into nitrogen suitable to be taken up by the
plant.

Having learned, then, the soil conditions necessary for
plant growth, the next thing is to apply them.

Residual soils, those found upon the rocks from which they
are derived, have certain definite characters determined by
the characters of the rocks beneath, and they are not apt to
deteriorate, since their source of food-supply is immediately
at hand, unless the fine particles are carried away by erosion
faster than the rock beneath can rot into soil. Transported
soils, on the other hand, are very readily exhausted, since
they are far removed from the parent rock, and they need to
have their supply of plant-food constantly replenished by the
use of fertilizers. One way of keeping up the fertility of the
soil is by rotation of crops requiring different plant-foods. ;

The best way to farm is to plant in each field the crop to
which the soil of that field is by nature best adapted.

But we often desire, or actually need, crops to which the
soil of a given district is ill-adapted. Since we cannot j
change the soil materially, the difficulty is met by breeding j
plants to suit the soil, and what has been accomplished in J
this direction is little short of miraculous.

The wasting of soils where serials are grown, and the jj
gradual reduction, year by year, in the yield of these crops, j|
has led more than one thoughtful student of human condi- j;

ig°7 ] Garden, Field, and Forest of the Nation. 63

tions to predict a time, and that not very far distant, when
there will not be bread enough to go around.

While enough has been done in the restoration of worn out soils
to show that the time is farther away than was at first feared,
much more has been done in the breeding of new varieties
of wheat and corn to take the place of the old and unsatisfac-
tory ones. New wheats have been created not only showing
larger yields and as great nutrition in experimental plots, but
in the thousand-acre farm of the advanced American Agri-
culturist as well. More than this, wheats have been bred to
fit a climate, redeeming vast areas of abandoned land sup-
posed to be wholly unfit for wheat production.

New corns have been created, far richer in food values, far
larger in yield, than the best known types of the past. More
than this, corns have been created at the command of man
for any one of a series of specific purposes — to be rich in one
element and lean in another, to be food for man or food for
beast. They are, in a word, as much the creation of man as
the beautiful vase in the hands of the potter.

The experiment station of the University of Tennessee
determined to breed a wheat that should fit the soil and cli-
mate of that State, where no wheat would grow and produce
good results. When the experiments were begun, eight
bushels to the acre was a fair average yield. After several
years of testing, breeding, and selection, they have produced
a wheat that has produced as high as forty-eight and one-half
bushels per acre on the same land, while maintaining an
average of over thirty-seven bushels for a period of four or
five years. And we in North Carolina have reaped the bene-
fits of this and similar experiments elsewhere in the extension
of wheat producing area to the poorer lands of the eastern
part of the State.

When we consider corn, the greatest cereal in point of value
of annual production in the United States, the results achieved
are even more satisfactory. The object sought in breeding
new corns was not only to produce corn with a heavier yield,

64

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

\_June

but to change the character of the corn itself. Corn for
human food should be rich in one element. Corn for manu-
facturing into any of the various products which are now
made from it should be rich in certain other elements.

So the corn kernel was studied in order to find out precisely
what it was made of, that by selective breeding this might
be changed. By taking kernels from a series of ears known
to be rich in one particular element, and breeding from these
ears year in and year out, carefully selecting for future seed
only the richest and best kernels and only those approaching
the ideal established, little by little, with infinite pains and
patience, new corns have been built up having the desired
character and composition.

A manufacturer desires corn for the production of oil, now
one of the most valuable products of the corn plant. It is in
large demand among the olive-oil manufacturers of Europe.
The oil comes from the fat in the tiny germ of the corn, and
the larger the germ the greater the supply of oil. Corn-oil
is in demand for many other purposes, and it appears to be
but at the beginning of its commercial life. Hopkins in Illi-
nois has succeeded in producing a corn relatively much richer
in oil than any that has preceded it, one having 6.96 per
cent, oil while the corn with which he started only six years
before contained only 4.7 per cent, of oil. To some manu-
facturers the fat of the germ is not essential, so, to accom-
modate these, he reversed the process and bred a corn low in
fat or oil, reaching 2.99 per cent.

The element of the corn which is most valuable for strength-
ening food, which is the muscle-building material of all food,
has also been increased at will, and where it could make way
for some other element suitable for some other purpose, it
has been decreased. All this has been accomplished by
selective breeding. Corn has been produced having 16.11 pro-
tein, a remarkably large amount, while the protein has been
reduced to 6.66 per cent., a difference in protein of nearly ten

sp°7] Garden, Field, and Forest of the Nation. 65

per cent. Corn is also bred for a large amount of starch,
and similarly useful results follow.

The breeding of corn has gone to yet another extreme, the
breeder having succeeded in doing away almost entirely with
the grain and producing a large, firm cob. These cobs, that
are produced on some of the poorest land in Missouri, are
used for making the corn-cob pipe, and the introduction of
the Collier corn into that district has been a Godsend to the
poorest farmers with the poorest lands in the State. A very
similar result has recently been obtained in Illinois, where a
large firm cob with an insignificant grain has been produced
on a soil of nearly pure siliceous sand. It has been found
that the pith of the corn cob is a most valuable substance for
calking ships and stopping leaks, the pith absorbing water
and swelling to fill the crevice, and corns have been produced
with a maximum of pith in the cob.

The corn of our mountain districts is rich in fat, and there
too is the only portion of the South where we may raise sugar
corn with success. The longer season in the lowlands admits
of the elaboration of the fats into proteids. It is interesting
to note in this connection that the corn of our mountains and
thecornof the north are rich in heat producing elements, while
these are almost entirely wanting in Southern varieties of corn,
the long growing season admitting of the change of the sugars
and fats into proteids. We cannot even raise sugar corn in our
coastal plain from the seed of sugar corn grown there, but
must get our seed each season from a colder region. The
same is true with regard to the seeds of cabbage grown in
the South except in the mountain region.

The changes in the character of corn are in no small meas-
ure the work of members of the corn-breeders’ association,
and show what may be accomplished through co-operation
among farmers. This association has been working to make
corn a complete ration. Here in the South, Williamson has
greatly improved corn both as to quality and yield per acre,
by a method peculiarly his own. The seed has been planted

66

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

\_Junc

and allowed to grow with grass and weeds until the plant
has reached a weak maturity and is just ready to bear grain.
Then the grass is cleared out, the corn well worked and
heavily fertilized, when its stimulated growing energy goes
all to fruiting. It has its parallel in the intellectual activity
of the boy who comes from the back districts where he had
no advantages of an intellectual sort, but his energies being
aroused at the right moment, often surpasses his more fortu-
nate associates in his college course and in the race of life.

Some of the most interesting experiments in plant-breed-
ing have resulted in the production of food stuffs adapted to
semi-arid regions, and these are of especial interest to us for
the reason that we have a long strip of semi-arid land in the
South, lying mainly in the sand-hills region and immediately
bordering that region on the northwest, little more than a
barren sand-waste until the introduction of new methods and
new plants suited to its conditions.

Alfalfa has been bred to resist both drought and alkali, and
it has also been found in nature. Agents of our Agricultu-
ral Department searched the earth for what was needed, and
found just the thing desired growing in an oasis of the Alge-
rian Sahara. Luther Burbank has bred a spineless and edi-
ble cactus admirably adapted by nature to such regions, and
this may yet become an important food plant in certain por-
tions of the South.

Rice forms the principal food of one-half the population of
the earth. It is more widely used as a food stuff than any
other cereal. Where dense populations are dependent for
food upon an annual crop, and the climate admits of its cul-
tivation, rice has become the staple food. The luxuriant
growth of leguminous plants (peas, beans, etc.) in warm
climates provides the nitrogenous elements necessary to sup-
plement rice. A combination of rice with legumes is a much
cheaper complete food than wheat and meat, and can be pro-
duced on a much smaller area.

The Carolinas in the decade ending 1860 produced approxi-

ipoy] Garden, Field, and Forest of the Nation. 67

mately eighty-five million pounds of clean rice. Now the
total product for a like period is only about thirty-five mil-
lion pounds, of which North Carolina only produced about
seven million. But the total rice product of the entire South
has advanced from 103 millions to 143 millions in the same
time, thanks to the valuable investigations of and improved
methods introduced by Dr. S. A. Knapp, of the United States
Department of Agriculture.

Horticulture is coming to be a most important branch of
agriculture, and its surprising progress has already been so
fully discussed in our newspapers and periodical literature that
I need do little more than advert to it here. Suffice it to say
that in 1870 the export of fruits preserved in cans or other-
wise from the United States to foreign countries amounted in
value to $81,735.00. Ten years later the value of the canned
fruits exported had advanced to $371,118.50. In 1890 it was
over $600,000.00, and in 1900 had passed two millions. This
does not give us any indication of the enormously increasing
domestic consumption of fruits.

It is an interesting fact that the traveler of to-day does not
find his way across the desert by the bones of men and beasts
that have started on the perilous journey before him, but by
the shining tin cans left by those who have made the jour-
ney in safety.

This progress in fruit growing has been made possible by
the breeding of fruits to suit different climates, and by the
importation of insects to prey upon the insect enemies of
fruit trees.

Already our trucking interests have made the South the
garden of the nation, for we have here the broad coastal
plain soils that yield readily to cultivation; but business
methods have gone hand in hand with the application of
scientific methods and are always equally important to the
agriculturist. The managers of the truck-growers’ associa-
tion see to it that the crops come on in regular rotation from
Florida, Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, and Delaware.

68 Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ June

The Strawberry Trust at Selma, a North Carolina organiza-
tion, has an agent who gets each night reports from all the
strawberry eating cities as to the number of crates of berries
on hand, and he then learns from the fields how many they
can supply, and an effort is made to keep the shipments just
a little short of the demand. Then by uniting their ship-
ments and sending them forward in carload lots, the shippers
get a better rate and quicker transportation.

Notwithstanding the South produces so much rice, and
the entire product of the country, still we produce only half
of what is consumed in the United States; but with the im-
proved methods of cultivation, it will be but a short time
before we produce enough for the entire nation.

Of corn we can produce every variety from our coastal
plain to our mountains, and corn culture is extending about
as rapidly as the culture of rice. The culture of wheat is
extending as new varieties are being bred for our lands, and
wheat culture is extending into regions where wheat has
never before been raised. New varieties of potatoes have been
produced in our potash soils, and already the best of these are
grown in the South, and the rapid extension of their culture
will soon make us the most important potato producers in the
country.

Of cotton, we have not simply the monopoly of this coun-
try, but practically the world’s monopoly as well. Experi-
ments carried on at Darlington, S. C., have resulted in the
production of a long-stapled cotton that will grow far from
the sea islands. And the new methods of tobacco culture
are showing us that we can produce all the grades of tobacco,
and these in any quantity.

Thus we already have the garden of the nation; we may
become, nay, are rapidly becoming the nation’s field for the
production of food stuffs; and whether we will or no, we will
soon be the only forest that the nation has left, except in the
national forests scattered over our broad domain.

Forest trees depend more directly upon rock composition

69

1907] Garden, Field, and Forest of the Nation.

and geological structure than any other products of the soil.

[This is beautifully illustrated in our State where conifers
predominate over the coastal plain and sand hills region,
and the broad-leaved deciduous trees over the granitic and
schistose rocks farther west. Within these areas species and
varieties vary with the changes in character of the rock

(and the change of its dip helping or hindering drainage.
This is beautifully illustrated in the neighborhood of Chapel
Hill, where our Triassic sandstones bear the loblolly pines,
except where the rocks are cut by dikes, and then you may
trace the dike by the broad-leaved trees that grow upon it.
The crystallines of the Chapel Hill mass have their charac-
teristic diciduous species, and these again vary as the rock
structure changes.

We have in the Appalachians practically the only hard wood
forests on the continent, and many of the most valuable spe-
cies are confined to the Southern Appalachian mountains. In
the north these forests have been ruined by the destructive
work of the lumberman, before the introduction of the
methods of modern scientific forestry; but here we already
have the forest of the nation if we will but preserve it, and
upon its preservation depend the field and the garden.

Our fathers had a true instinct when they pictured a great
civilization in the South based upon the soil. Their vision
is to be more than fulfilled when Southern agriculture can
bring to its aid science, that sensible science of our day,
which has for its ultimate end not merely discovery, but
application; which is not so delighted with the formulating
of a new law as it is overjoyed at the lifting of a burden.
“Then the tiller of the soil will come up to his calling as
fully equipped for service as the lawyer, the doctor, the cap-
tain of industry; for it has come to pass that the calling in
which the unlettered and untrained man was once supposed
to have as good a chance as the educated one, is now the call-
ing in which wide and varied knowledge is as imperative as
in almost any other known among men.”

70 Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ June

Men have also come to the same views as those expressed
by the King of Brobdingnag, who “gave it as his opinion,
that whoever could make two ears of corn, or two blades of
grass to grow upon a spot of ground where only one grew
before, would deserve better of mankind, and do more essen-
tial service to his country, than the whole race of politicians
put together.”

And better still: While the politician of the not very

remote past flattered the farmer and yet made laws directly
opposed to all his interests, the new politician in the South
shows constructive statesmanship by helping him to take
advantage of the opportunities around him, helps him with
his inland waterways, helps him to preserve his forests.

SOME INTERESTING GRASSHOPPERS (AND RELA-
TIVES) OF NORTH CAROLINA.

BY FRANKLIN SHERMAN, JR.

The grasshoppers and their relatives comprise the order of
insects known as the Orthoptera. The entire order contains
probably about 150 species native to North Carolina, of which
about 130 have now been collected, identified, and recorded.

There are not many students of Orthoptera in this country
and what few entomologists there are in the Southern States
have neglected the group entirely, hence practically nothing
was known of the actual distribution of our species until
1903, when Prof. A. P. Morse, of Wellesley College, made a
special tour through the Southern States to study this subject,
and, partially through the entreaties of Mr. C. S. Brimley
and the author, he devoted more time to North Carolina than
to any other State,— traversing it from east to west and then
again visiting the high ranges in the western section. During
his tour, Prof. Morse spent two days at Raleigh, at which
time Mr. Brimley and the author accompanied him in collect-
ing jaunts with the result that our latent interest in this neg-
lected order was considerably aroused. The facts set forth
in this paper have, therefore, for the most part, been collected
in the last three or four years, by C. S. Brimley, G. M. Bent-
ley, and the writer.

While no one can seriously study this order of insects
without becoming interested in the special structures and their
use in classification, as well as in the habits of the living
insects, — yet there are about a dozen species which would
more particularly arouse the interest or curiosity of the ordin-

1907 ]

71

72 Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ June

ary observer, and to mention these is the special object of this
paper.

Labidura rifarisi. This insect belongs to the family of
insects known as the “Ear-wigs”. The group is abundantly
represented in Europe, but only sparsely in America, the few
American representatives, however, being more especially
distributed in the Southern States. Most of our ear-wigs
are of small size, ranging from one-half to three-fourths of
an inch in total length. In mid-April of the present year a
janitor brought to the office a living specimen of this species,
a fine large male, the first to be taken in the State.

Cryftocercus functulatus. This insect belongs to the fam-
ily of roaches, a few species of which infest houses, though
more are found in the forest. The present species has been
taken in four localities in this State, three of which are in
the mountains, the exceptional locality being Newton. It is
rather a large species, is entirely wingless, and is rather slow
and stiff-bodied in movement, in which respect it differs from
most other roaches. Our specimens have all been found under
logs, in the months of July, August, and September.

Stagomantis Carolina. This creature is most commonly
known by the names of “Rear-horse”, “Devil’s Riding-horse”,
“Praying Mantis”, and other expressive common names. It
often arouses curiosity by its peculiar appearance and
demeanor. It probably occurs throughout the State, at least
east of the mountains, though we have had specimens from
only a few localities. It is the only member of the Orthop-
tera in the State which is known to be predaceous in habit.

Diafheromera femorata. This insect is also known by the
name of “Walking-stick”, so called because its very slender
body gives it a resemblance to small twigs, and because the
insect always deliverately walks, and never runs or jumps. All
through the summer the young insects are greenish in color,
corresponding to the color of young twigs and the petioles of

/p<?7] Some Grasshoppers of North Carolina. 73

leaves among- which they live, but in the autumn when the
leaves fall and the twig's become gray or brown, these insects,
being then near maturity, turn gray in color. These remark-
able resemblances, combined with their deliberate movements,
render them quite difficult to detect, unless they force them-
selves accidentally upon one’s notice.

Eritettix navicula. This is one of the true grasshoppers,
which so far as has been observed inhabits rather low, grassy
grounds. It is an exception in that it is'the only species
which has the antennael enlarged into a knob or club, at the

tip.

Trimerotrofis saxitalis. This very remarkable grasshopper
is an inhabitant of the exposed, lichen-covered surface of the
rocks on some of our mountains. In his trip through the
Southeastern States Prof. Morse failed to take it in this State,
but recorded its presence on the summit of Stone Mountain,
in Northern Georgia. In September last (1906) Mr. Woglum
and myself took it quite commonly in favorable spots on the
summits of Satula and Whiteside Mountains, near Highlands,
Macon County. The species bears a remarkable resemblance
to the lichen-covered rocks on which it is found, and when
flushed will invariably settle again on the rock, it being only
in most exceptional cases that they could be persuaded or
forced to alight in grass or herbage. When cornered they
would quickly fly back within a foot or two of the collector
to , again reach the rock, although the species is quite shy
when once disturbed.

Lefty sma ma?‘ginicollis. This species is found in grassy
places where it clings to the upright stalks or blades, so
closely applying its body to the grass as to render detection
difficult, both the shape and color of the insect being protect-
ive. One remarkable feature of this insect is the fact that
the front of the head (or face) slopes away under the body in
such degree that the mouth is situated almost between the
front legs.

74 Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ June

Melanoplus punctulatus. The genus Melanopsus contains
many species, the majority of which are not especially strik-
ing in appearance or habits, but this species is an exception
in that, while all the other species habitually live on the
ground or on low-growing grass or herbage, this one is con-
sidered to be strictly arboreal, occurring on trees, stumps,
shrubbery, etc. Our one specimen of this species was taken
in Transylvania County by Mr. Woglurn, and is mottled in
appearance, which renders its color protective when on
lichen-covered bark. It is likely that the species does not
occur east of the mountains in this State.

Dissoteiria Carolina. This is one of our most common
grasshoppers, and in nature (if not in the cabinet) is surely
familiar to most observant country people in this State.
Among those who have any common name for it, it is known
as the Carolina Locust. It occurs throughout the State along
roadsides and in. cultivated fields. The remarkable thiug
about this species is the variability of its protective colors.
In sections where the soil is grayish in color there the insect
is grayish, while only a mile away may be found red clay soil
and grasshoppers of a decidedly reddish tinge. Not that the
resemblance is perfect, but the difference in color of speci-
mens taken on differently colored soils is quite noticeable.
On one occasion in Raleigh I took a specimen on a railway
embankment and the greater portion of the body was black-
ish to correspond to the soot and cinders among which it was
found, No similarly colored specimen has since been taken
anywhere, and others were not seen at that time.

Gryllotalpa borealis. This is commonly known as the
“Mole-cricket”, so called from its habit of burrowing in the
ground like a mole, and from the further fact that it has
developed along very similar lines, the front limbs being
much enlarged like the front paws of the mole, and like them
are used for digging.

Myrmecophila pergandei. This small and wingless cricket

«

ig°7 ] Some Grasshoppers of North Carolina. 75

is found beneath stones in company with ants, whose nests
they inhabit, and in cousequence of the darkness prevailing
in its usual haunts, is white in color. Thus far it has been
taken only at Raleigh, though doubtless it occurs in other
localities.

Tridadylus sp. This is a small, blackish species taken at
Raleigh early this month for the first time. It was found in
low, sandy ground in which it frequently disappeared down very
minute burrows. When disturbed or alarmed they jump with \
marvelous agility, their small size causing them to instantly
disappear from view when they once leap away. After cap-
turing several specimens by laboriously approaching them
with the killing bottle, we finally began to walk rapidly over
the ground and sweep the collecting net back and forth at
random, and by this means secured them in considerable
numbers.

NOTES ON SOME TURTLES OF THE GENUS
PSEUDEMYS.

BY C. S. BRIMLEY.

The genus Pseudemys comprises a number of large fresh
water turtles found in the streams and ponds of North Amer-
ica. These have the carapace marked with a more or less
variegated pattern of light and dark colors, and are distin-
guished from allied genera by the broad masticating sur-
faces of the jaws, which are in the upper jaw divided by a
longitudinal ridge parallel to the margin.

The species dealt with in this paper fall more or less natu-
rally into three groups, which are characterized as follows:

Group I. Upper jaw with a notch at the symphisis and a
cusp or tooth on each side of the notch. Lower jaw, at least,
strongly serrated. Ridges in masticating surfaces of jaw
tuberculate.

Group II. Upper jaw without either notch of cusps, other-
wise as under Group I. Plastron always yellow, unblotched.

Group III. Upper jaw notched at symphisis, but without
cusps. Edges of jaws not serrated. Ridge in masticating
surface of jaws not tuberculate.

Group I comprises three nominal species, P. rubiventris
LeConte, P. alabamensis Baur, and P. texana Baur. Of
these the first and last are certainly distinct species, but the
second, of which I have seen no specimens, may be the same
as the first.

Of P. rubiventris I have seen only one specimen, this be-

76 [June

Turtles of the Genus Pseudemys.

77

igofi

ing a live individual from Orlando, Florida, which meas-
ured 267 mm. over curve of shell, 245 in straight line, 167 in
greatest breadth, 110 in greatest height. Shell strongly
arched. Carapace black with red markings, marginal plates
with much red below, plastron yellowish brown, but reddish in
front and behind, legs with red stripes. The head markings
I couldn’t see, as he would not put his head out. Lower jaw
very strongly serrated, with a serrated cusp at tip; upper jaw
slightly serrated, with a median notch and a strong cusp on
each side of it. Date, Meirch 16, 1902.

Alabamensis, according to Baur,* has the shell more arched
than in rubiventris , and the plastron is yellow with brown
markings, instead of red as in rubiventris.

Of the third species of Group I, P. texana , I have seen
only two undoubted specimens, one a living specimen from
Colmesneil, Texas, measuring 284 over curve of shell, and
265 in straight line; greatest width 215. Shell smooth, not
wrinkled, and without traces of a keel. Color slaty brown
with yellowish markings, the markings on the costal plates
transverse to the longitudinal axis of the shell. Marginals each
with a vertical yellow bar down the center. Plastron yellow
without markings. Both jaws serrated, the lower much the
most so; upper jaw notched in front but without cusps. Date,
July 7, 1902.

The second specimen, which was from Shell Bank, La.,
was much the same color, and had the upper jaw notched in
front, with a slight cusp on each side of the notch. Other
characters, as in the first specimen. Length in straight line
225, width 150. Date, July 27, 1903.

Group II includes five nominal species, P. concinna LeConte,
P.mobiliensis Holbr,f P. jloridana LeConte, P. hieroglyphica ,

* “Notes on the classification and taxonomy of the Testudinata, part
IV, The species of the genus Pseudemys” by G. Baur. (Proc. American
Philos., Soc. XXXI, May 5, 1893).

t According to Dr. Baur ( loco cito ), P. mobiliensis Agassiz is not the
same as P. mobiliensis Holbr. , the former being a composite species equal-
ing P. alabamensis Baur plus P. texana Baur.

78 Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ June

Holbr, and P. labyrinthica C. Dumeril, but how many species
it really contains I don’t know, as individual variation in at
least one species seems quite wide and obliterates the distinct-
ive features ascribed, to most of the others.

According- to Dr. Baur ( loco cito') these species are charac-
terized as follows:

Concinna by its broad and low shell and its small head.

Hieroglyjhica by its elongated, narrow shell and its head,
which is still smaller; the yellow stripes and dots on the head
are also very much more expressed than in concinna.

Labyrinthica shows the coloration of head and neck of
hieroglyfihica, but the head is larger and the shell more as in
mobiliensis , but by far not so large.

Mobiliensis has the head like concinna , but larger, the shell
very much more arched especially in front, the animal
much larger than in concinna , the upper shell reaching a
length of 385 over the curve.

Floridanus is at once distinguished by its oval form and
the great elevation of the carapace and its color. The cara-
pace has a very dark brown color with numerous irregular
lines of yellow. The marginals are dark brown and have
only one vertical, median yellow line, and are without
the yellow concentric lines so characteristic of concinna and
mobiliensis. The carapace is much more arched than in mob-
iliensis and nearly forms a half circle. The skull is also
larger than in this species and the jaws are not serrated (sic), j

The characters quoted above, except those for jloridanus ,
all fall within the range of individual variation of Raleigh
specimens of concinna , and hence until I am able to examine
specimens of the others, I cannot help feeling doubtful of their
validity.

Raleigh specimens of concinna present the following char-
acteristics: The carapace is marked with a variegated pattern

Turtles of the Genus Pseudemys.

79

7907]

of brown and yellow lines, these forming more or less distinct
concentric figures, parts of three of which usually enter each
costal plate. Markings of the carapace usually not definitely
transverse to the axis of the body, on the costals. Marginal
plates marked above with a median, vertical, yellow bar, and
yellow concentric figures between the yellow bars of adjoin-
ing plates; quite frequently, however, the vertical bars are
absent on some of the plates and the concentric figures
ieplaced by longitudinal yellow lines, continuous on adjoining
plates, this occurring on the middle and posterior marginals,
but not usually on the anterior ones. In seven adults this
feature is present or absent as follows: In one the longi-

tudinal lines replace the vertical bars and concentric lines on
all the marginals; in two others they do not occur at all; in
a fourth they occur only on marginals 4, 5, 6, right, and 11,
12, left; a fifth has them on the four middle marginals on
each side; a sixth on numbers 5, 9, 7, right, and 6, 7, left; a
seventh, on numbers 4, 7, 8, 9, 11, on both sides, and on No.
12, right also. The presence of a vertical yellow bar across
the center of each marginal is so constant in all specimens of
Pseudemys that I have seen, except those from Raleigh, that
the variation seems worth noting. Head and legs with yel-
low stripes. Plastron yellow, unblotched.

In the shape of the shell there is also a good deal of varia-
tion, some specimens being broad and flat with a median,
dorsal depression; others are broad and flat but lack the dor-
sal furrow, while others again have comparatively high and
arched shells, and in any case the dorsal depression is only
present in full grown specimens, not in young nor in half
grown ones. The flat shelled specimens seem to be mainly
males, and the more arched ones females, but I have not exam-
ined enough specimens to be sure that the variation is wholly
sexual and not individual.

The size of the head also varies, being large in some spec-
imens and small in others, the difference being apparently

80

Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ June

sexual, the small headed ones being males,* the large headed
ones females. Young specimens are nearly circular with a
distinct dorsal keel, as in all young Pseudemys, but a speci-
men 130 mm. long has substantially the form of the adult.

Some measurements of specimens from Neuse River near
Raleigh are as follows:

Taken.

Greatest Length.

Width.

Height.

1.

Feb. 26,

1902,

sex?

131

107

55

2.

April 23,

1906,

male

150

114

54

3.

March 29,

1904,

female

161

—

—

4.

July 27,

1903,

sex?

202

139

—

5.

March 24,

1903,

male

211

150

82

6.

March 29,

1904,

female

240

158

—

7.

June 2,

1905,

sex?

240

172

80

8.

March, 24,

1903,

female

275

185

110

9.

March 16,

1902,

sex?

280

195

107

Of what Baur called mobiliensis, I have had one adult and
several smaller specimens from Baker County, in Southwest
Georgia, but while the adult has an arched shell and is a
little larger (290 mm. long) than the largest I have meas-
ured from Raleigh, its shell is not more arched than those of
some Raleign specimens, nor is the head larger than in some
of them. In coloration it is identical with Raleigh speci-
mens, as are also the young ones, except that none of them
have any vertical yellow bars and concentrix markings on the
marginals replaced by longitudinal yellow lines. I am inclined
to consider this form as merely, at the most, a large south-
ern form of concinna.

Of jloridana I have had three good sized adults from John-
ston County, N. C., and quite a number of small and half
grown specimens from Southwestern Georgia, and Florida.
These differ from concinna in usually having a vertical yellow

* See also “Some observations on the turtles of the genus Malademmys”
by O. H. Hay, (Proc. U. S. N. M., Yol. XV, No. 908) in which he states
that the females of this genus have larger heads than the males.

Turtles of the Genus Pseudemys.

81

I9°T\

bar, forking at the upper end, down the center of the first and
second costal plates, and in having the markings on the rest
of the shell less concentric and usually in larger pattern.
The marginal plates have a vertical yellow bar down the cen-
ter of each, with concentric markings between; these latter,
however, only occur in quite small specimens, as they disap-
pear early in life leaving only the vertical bar. Head, legs,
and plastron colored as in concinna. Ground color of cara-
pace dark brown, darker than in concinna. The really import-
ant difference lies, however, in the shape of the shell, which
is shorter and more arched than in concinna , being in fact
more nearly the shape of that of P. scripta, to which species
jloridana bears a superficial resemblance. The males have
smaller heads and lower shells than the females.* The upper
jaw is slightly, the lower jaw strongly, serrated, in all speci-
mens that I have seen,

The measurements of the shells of some specimens are:

Taken.

From. Length. Width.

Height.

1.

June 20,

1905,

Johnston Co., N. C., 250

197

110

2.

June 30,

1905,

“ “ “ 222

149

95

3.

June 30,

1905,

“ “ “ 169

—

—

4.

May 14,

1904,

Baker Co., Ga., 136

114

57

5.

July 20,

1904,

“ “ 150

—

—

I have seen no specimens of labyrinthica or hieroglyphica
and the characters assigned to them by Dr. Baur ( loco cito ),
are not of specific value, as they fall within the range of the
individual variation of concinna . As labyrinthica is smaller

than concinna and mobiliensis larger, it is quite possible it is a
smaller! northern race of that species, just as mobiliensis
appears to be a larger southern race.

* According to Dr. Baur ( loco cito) jloridana does not have serrated jaws,
qut he places it in a section of the genus with lower jaw strongly serrated,
so the absence of serrations probably applies only to the upper jaw, where
they are little evident.

t Labyrinthica occurs in Tennessee and Illinois in the tributaries of the
Mississippi.

82 Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ June

Group III comprises three species which agree in having
the upper jaw with a notch at the symphisis, but without
cusps on each side of the notch, in the edges of both jaws
being without serrations, in the ridge in the masticating sur-
face of the jaws being non-tuberculate, and in the plastron
being more or less blotched. These three are seripta of
the Southeastern United States, and elegans and troostii of
the Mississippi Valley and south westward.

The three may be distinguished as follows:

1. Carapace keeled at all ages, a vertical yellow bar just

behind eye. Scripta.

Carapace not keeled in adult, no vertical yellow bar
behind eye.

2. An elongate-oval red mark on neck behind eye. Elegans.

No oval red mark on neck. Troostii .

Scripta is a large, heavily-built terrapin, with a wrinkled
shell, and a distinct dorsal keel at all ages. A diagnostic
mark of this species is a vertical yellow figure just behind
the eye. The marginals are marked as usual in the genus
with a vertical yellow bar and concentric figures between; the
latter, however, are usually absent in adults. The carapace
is marked on the costals with yellow, black and brown mark-
ings, there being usually a central yellow stripe down the
middle of each costal with yellow and brown lines parallel to
it and meeting their fellows above its upper end, and to some
extent below its lower end; the black is more irregular in
amount and position than the other colors, but there is always
some black on each plate in the adult, although it is wanting
in young specimens. On the posterior costals the markings
are less regular and more confused. The plastron is yellow,
or occasionally brownish, with a round black spot on each of
the two anterior plates; often there is a black spot on the
next two plates also, and occasionally one on every plate.

Turtles op the Genus Pseudemys.

83

/907]

The largest specimen I have seen weighed seven and a half
pounds and measured 272 mm.

Elegans is much like scripta in general appearance and in
markings, but the shell is flatter and not keeled in the adult
and the red neck spot is characteristic at all ages. The mark-
ings on the carapace are variable, but usually much as in
scripta , but those of the plastron are different, each plate
usually containing a black or dusky spot which is usually sur-
rounded by one or more dusky concentric lines.

Of troostii I have only seen one specimen and that differed
greatly in many respects from all the specimens of scripta and
elegans that I have seen. It was from St. Louis, Mo., and
measured 185 in length and 137 in breadth, and the tip of the
nose extended 107 mm. beyond the front edge of the shell,
when the neck was stretched to its fullest extent. The
upper jaw was notched in front, lower jaw pointed at tip,
neither serrated. Both upper and lower jaws much wider
and more rounded than in any other pseudemys with which I
am acquainted, especially than in elegans and sci'ipta, which
have the snout notably pointed. Head dark above with nar-
row, pale stripes; chin, throat, and neck below, light colored
with rather pale darker stripes on neck below, much as in
Deirochelys reticulata. Shell rather flat on top, rounded off
on sides, rather deep, and much the shape of Deirochelys, but
the bridge and shell not so high; shell smoother and without
the wrinkles so characteristic of Deirochelys. Carapace dark
brown with indistinct paler markings, most of the marginals
with faint vertical bars, which are barely visible. Plastron
pale with some dark markings round the edges of the plates.
Superficially and in length of neck this specimen resembles a
D. reticulata more than it does the other species of Pseu-
demys, but I found on examination that the basal portion of
the ribs was short, straight and broad as in other Pseudemys ,
not long, slender and arched as in Deirochelys.

84

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

\_June

SPECIMENS EXAMINED.

P. rubiventris, Orlando, Florida, one.

P. texana, Colmesneil, Texas, one; Shell Bank, La., one.

P. coiicinna , Raleigh, N. C., nine adults and several young.

P. mobiliensis ( =P . concinna ?), Mimsville, Ga., one adult,
two young.

P. jloridana , Johnson County, N. C., three adults; Orange
County, Fla., two young; Mimsville, Ga., two half-
grown specimens and several young.

P. scrifita, numerous specimens from Raleigh, N. C., and
Mimsville, Ga.; Lake Ellis, N. C., several.

P. elegans, Austin, Texas, three; St. Louis, Mo., three;
Shell Bank, La., one.

P. troostii , St. Louis, Mo., one

THREE LITTLE KNOWN SPECIES OF NORTH CAR-
OLINA FUNGI.

BY J. G. HALL.

It is my purpose to take up three species of fungi that are
little known in North Carolina, and in fact in the United
States, and to give a brief description of them.

The first two belong to the Hyphomycetes of Saccardo,
but to different groups under this head. The third belongs
to the Pyrenomycetes, and the family Sphaeriaceae.

The first I have preferred to call by the known name of
Martensella pectinata, although as will be seen later, there
are sufficient differences to make it a new species. It was
first described by Coemaus in 1863 from Belgium.

This fungus is new to North Carolina, and in so far as I
have been able to determine, has not been reported in print
from the United States, although I know it to be in culture
in one other place than West Raleigh.

The discovery of this species was partly an accident. Last
December I was making some plate cultures from some soil
that came from New Bern, in the eastern part of the State,
for Sclerotinia, a lettuce disease upon which we have con-
ducted a series of experiments.

In the culture I noticed growing a fungus that at first I
took to be Botrytis, but upon microscopic examination found
to be Martensella.

The fruiting hyphae stood erect and unbranched, except
for the short spore bearing stalks, although later I found that
the fungus became branched, and some times very much so.

1907]

85

86 Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ June

The erect hyphae are septate and after arising- a short dis-
tance above the substratum each cell sends out a short branch
near the outer end. These short branches become the spor-
ophores, and at first are indistinguishable from the main
hypha except in size. Almost immediately the tips of the
sporophores bend upward at approximately right angles and
the portion beyond the bend rapidly becomes closely septate,
having six to nine septae. The sporophores very soon become
boat-shaped with the keel toward the main hypha. Upon
the side away from the main hypha there arise small protu-
berances, the first appearing nearest the bend, and then being
produced in succession toward the tip.

These growths early begin to show a slight swelling, form-
ing a kind of head at the tip, which later lengthens into the
fusiform spores; these are constricted into a very fine thread
at the base, which connects them with a swollen base (basi-
dia) that joins them to the naviculate sporophore.

Saccardo places this fungus in that group of the Hypho-
mycetes called the Mucedineae, because of the looseness and
lightness of color of the mycelium. Also among the Amer-
osporeae of the latter, because of the shape and color of the
spores.

In quoting the original description in his Sylloge Fungorum
Saccardo says that the sterile hyphae are procumbent, with
the fertile erect, with both branched and septate; the spores
are borne on short lateral branches and in two rows along the
face of the naviculate sporophore, being cylindric-fusiform in
shape, and measuring 10-20x3 /u.; that it is parasitic on Muco
and the Saprolegneae. After giving the habitat a note is
added saying that Cremans describes some of the spores as
being borne in chains, and Kngler & Prantl reproduce fig-
ures of the fungus which show some of the sporophores
bearing catenulate spores, which are nearly globose in shape.

After the note Saccardo makes the very significant remark
that the appearance of the catenulate spores is exceedingly
strange.

igoy'] Three Little Known Species oe Fungi. 87

Engler & Prantl also show the sporophores with the spore-
bearing- surface upward and inward.

In the early part of this note I said that I believed I would
be justified in making- a new species on account of the dif-
ferences I found between my specimens and those in Saccardo
and Engler & Prantl. I found: that the plant grew very
freely with Penicillium as a host; that the spores are never
borne in chains but always singly; that instead of being
borne in two rows along the face of the sporophore, they are
arranged all over its surface. In other respects my specimens
agree with the descriptions noted.

The second species that we consider is one of the Genus
Epicoccum, which belongs to the Tuberculariae, another
group of the Hyphomycetes, so called because the mycelium
forms a tubercle or mass of threads from which the spores
arise.

The spores are borne in masses almost without sporophores,
but what there is of them is light brown, although the greater
part of the Mycelium is white. The spores are black when
mature but brownish black in the younger stages. They are
rough on the surface and look very much as if they were
four-celled, but I have not been able to see any definite par-
titions. They are globose and measure from twenty to
thirty /x in diameter.

In germination the spores send out short, almost globose
cells, and after forming two or three of these at each point of
germination, they grow into the regular septate hyphae,
which continue to lengthen for some time.

Near the growing tip of the mycelium short branches arise,
at first just a single filament, but very soon becoming much
and irregularly branched, forming a hemispherical mass
(sporodochium) upon the surface of which the spores are
borne.

As an experiment this fungus was grown upon several dif-
ferent kinds of media to see if different nutrients had differ-
ent effects upon it.

88 Journal of the Mitchell Society. [ June

A medium which we called C. B. A., Chemical Base Agar,
was made as follows: Water, 1000 grams; Di Potassium-

phosphate, 2.5 grams; Calcium Chloride, 01 gram; Magne-
sium sulphate, 01 gram; Sodium Chloride, 2.5 gram; Potas-
sium sulphate, 2 grams; Agar, 15 grams.

To this was added Sodium Aspariginate in one case; So-
dium Aspariginate and Starch in another; Sodium Asparigi-
nate and glucose in another, and one or two others. Four
per cent. Pea Agar and Apple-twig Agar were also used.

On the Pea Agar the Mycelium was white with very few
pink spots; upon the Apple and Apple-twig Agar the Myce-
lium was orange yellow with abundance of pink spots. Upon
C. B. A. and N. A. S. and N. A. G. the Mycelium was white
but with a large number of large pink spots. In all cases
spores were formed in equal abundance and they were most
numerous near the point of inoculation.

The third and last species belongs to a very different group
of fungi, the Pyrenomycetes, which has its spores borne in
sacs (asci) within closed or nearly closed conceptacles called
perithecia. In ’giving the systematic position of this species,
I shall follow Ellis & Everhart’s North American Pyrenomy-
cetes.

This is a new species of fungus, but I hesitate to give it a
name because of the scarcity of material. It is one of the
Genus Podospora, in the family Sordaieae, which is one of
the sub-order Sphaerioceae.

The perithecia are borne singly and scattered, are black
and flask-shaped. The asci are clavate and bear the eight
spores which are the distinguishing feature of the plant.
They are dark, elliptical, and are joined by a filament into
pairs.

So far as I have been able to learn, there is only one species
that approaches this in any way, and that is Podospora zygos-
pora, in which the spores are similarly joined in pairs, but
the thread joining each pair is septate, while in this one
there are no septae in the connecting thread.

r0L. XXIII

NOVEMBER, 1907

NO. 3

m

JOURNAL

OF TUK

lisha Mitchell Scientific Society

m

% \f

X’?V ;

i|

"l ~

ISSUED QUARTERLY

OHAPEL HILL, N. 0., U. S. A.

TO BE ENTERED AT THE POSTOFFICE AS

SECOND CLASS MATTER

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

PglPg

\V. ('. roEEK, I ‘resident
.1. K. LATTA. V’iee- President

pup

i.S. WHEELER live. See

•F. l’. VENABLE, I Vein. See,

m

*\p

p.vo je

*HOCEEDINGS OF THE JSlLSIIA MlTCHELL SciENTJ FI< SnOlKl’V, JANUARY

1907 to October 1907...

89

V New Method by which Sponges may re Artificially Reared —

Dr. if. Tr. Wilson n]

Tiie Condensation of, Chloral wjtii Primary Aromatic Amines—

Sh

Alvin S. Wheeler

Recent Changes in Goijd Mining in North Carolina that Have
Favorably Affected this Industry— Joseph Hyde Pratt, and
f'. .’a - it. A. 10

;%. Y $/'

> •

Chapel Hilt. Ferns ani> their Abuts.

in 4

Salisbury’s PiTYBidGRAPHY-^CW/vr . Cobh «. ....... IP. 7

a - ..-jof' •pi/'V* -.t' hSljU; ^ fife ?

Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society. — Quarterly. Prf

* -V.

#>.00 per year;* single numbers 50 cents. Most numbers of former vd

umes can be supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Editors, * j
University of North Carolina. Chapel Hill,. N. C. *

University of

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

NOVEMBER, 1907

VOL. XXIII NO. 3

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIEN
TIFIC SOCIETY, JANUARY 1907 TO
OCTOBER 1907.

LIBRA
New Y<
BOTANI
QaRDI

169th Meeting, January 15, 1907.

H. V. Wilson: The Regenerative Power of Sponges.

J. W. Gore: Direct Current Transmission of Power.

The Electrical Aging of Flour.

170th Meeting, February 12, 1907.

J. H. Pratt: The Fish and Oyster Industries in North

Carolina.

Collier Cobb: Some Human Habitations.

171st Meeting, March 19, 1907.

J. E. Latta: Some Recent Developments in Electric Trac-

tion.

N. C. Curtis: Architectural Composition.

172nd Meeting, April 16, 1907.

Archibald Henderson: The Foundations of Geometry.

Chas. H. Herty: The Optical Rotation of Turpentines.

|c At the close of the program a business meeting was held
to consider the programs. It was voted that a minimum of
pfour meetings be held each year but, if possible, one meeting
j^per month.

90

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

Business Meeting, September 23, 1907.

A business meeting- was held in the chemical laboratory
with Pres. Herty in the chair. The following officers were
elected for the ensuing year:

President: W. C. Coker.

Vice-President: J. E. Latta.

Permanent Secretary: F. P. Venable.

Recording Secretary: A. S. Wheeler.

Editorial Committee:

W. C. Coker, Chairman.

A. Henderson.

E. V. Howell.

A. S. Wheeler, Recording Secretary.

A NEW METHOD BY WHICH SPONGES MAY BE AR-
TIFICIALLY REARED.1

DR. H. V. WILSON

I have found in the course of an investigation carried on for
the Bureau of Fisheries that silicious sponges when kept in
confinement under proper conditions degenerate, giving rise
to small masses of undifferentiated tissue which in their turn
are able to grow and differentiate into perfect sponges. The
investigation has been prosecuted during the past three sum-
mers’at the Beaufort Laboratory. While the degeneration with
the formation of the indifferent masses has been observed in
several species, it is only in one species, a Stylotella, that the
process as a whole has been worked out.

This sponge, which is exceedingly abundant in Beaufort
Harbor, is a fleshy monactinellid commonly reaching a thick-
ness and height of 10-12 cm. Conical processes with termin-
al oscula project upwards from the lower body. With this
species, which is a light-loving form, I have obtained the
best results when outside aquaria, either concrete aquaria or
tubs, were used. The method of treatment is briefly this:
Into a tub about 60 cm. by 30 cm. and covered with glass, a
half dozen sponges, freed as far as possible from live oysters
and crabs, are put. They are raised from the bottom on
bricks. The tub is emptied, filled and flushed for some minutes
three times in every twenty-four hours. Direct rays of the

1 lPublished with the permission of Hon. Geo. M. Bowers, U. S. Com-
misioner of Fisheries.

Reprinted from Science, N. S., Yol. XXV. , No. 649, Pages 912-915,
June 7, 1907,

92 Journal of the Mitchell Society [. November

sun should be avoided. Tubs answer as well as concrete
aquaria, and have the advantage of being movable.

In a day or two theosculaof the sponge disappear, and the
surface begins to acquire a peculiar smooth, dense and uni-
form appearance. Microscopic study reveals the fact that not
only the oscula, but the pores also, for the most part close,
and the canal system becomes interrupted and in some degree
suppressed. The mesenchyme is more uniform, and is denser
than in the normal sponge, owing in part at least to the dis-
appearance of the extensive collenchymatous (very watery
mesenchyme) tracts of the latter.

The whole sponge may pass into this state and remain with-
out great change for weeks. During this period it shrinks
greatly in size, in a given case to one quarter the original
bulk. The arrangement of the skeletal spicules becomes
much simplified. With the shrinkage in size the sponge be-
comes more solid, i. e., more of the canal space is suppressed.
Some flagellated chambers persist and there are a few small
scattered apertures on the surface. The bulk of the chamb-
ers disappear as such, the collar-cells transforming into simple
polyhedral masses which become scattered singly or in groups
in the general mesenchyme. The mesenchyme is a syncyti-
um composed of well-marked cells that are freely intercon-
nected. The sponge in this condition closely resembles
Spongilla in its winter phase, as described by Weltner.2 Pre-
sumably water continues to circulate through the body, but
the current must be an exceedingly feeble and irregular one.

As a sponge in this condition continues to shrink, it may
subdivide and thus a large sponge may eventually be repre-
sented by numerous masses, in a given case about 1 cm. in di-
ameter. Now if the sponge in this condition or if one of the
masses into which it has split up, be attached to wire gauze
and suspended in a live box floating at the surface of the
open water of the harbor, the sponge or piece will in a few
days grow and redevelop the pores and oscula, flagellated
chambers, tissue differentiation, and skeletal arrangement of

2 ’Spongillidenstudien, II. Archiv fur Naturgeschichte,’ 1893.

I9°7]

Wilson — A New Method

93

the normal sponge. Whether in this regeneration the trans-
formed and separated collar cells again unite to form the flag-
ellated chambers, I can not say. I think it very doubtful.

In the two classes of cases just described the sponge as a
whole degenerates and slowly shrinks. Cellular death takes
place so gradually that at no time is there any obvious corpse
tissue or skeletal debris. Much more common and of far great-
er interest are the following cases. In these a large part of
the sponge body dies in the course of two or three weeks,
leaving the skeletal network still in place and bearing the
brown decaying remnants of the flesh, which, as maceration
continues, are washed away. In places, however, the sponge
body does not die. Here masses of living tissue are left,
conspicuous amidst the dead remains by their bright
color and smooth clean surface. These living fragments may
be classified into three groups. First, the upper end of an as-
cending* lobe or a considerable part of the body of the lobe may
be left alive in its entirety, thus forming a more or less cylin-
drical mass up to 5 mm. diameter, with a length sometimes
two or three times the thickness. The histological condition
of these masses is not very different from that of the sponges
already described. Such a mass may be said to consist of an-
astomosing trabeculae, separated by the remains of the canal
system. The mesenchyme composing the trabeculae consists
of discrete cells interconnected by processes to form a syncti-
um. The flagellated chambers as such have nearly disap-
peared, although remnants may still be recognized. In them
the collar cells have transformed into simple polyhedral bodies
that are widely separated. The bulk of the chambers have
broken up into their constituent cells, and these are now scat-
tered as elementary parts of the general mesenchyme. When
such masses are attached to wire gauze and hung in a float-
ing live-box they transform into perfect sponges.

A second class of surviving remnants includes masses scat-
tered over the general surface of the sponge. These may be
spheroidal and small, less than one millimeter in diameter.
Usually they are flattened and of an irregular shape with

94

Journal of the Mitchell Society [. November

lobes, suggesting- a lobose rhizopod or myxomycete plasmodi-
um. Such masses which tnaj be connected by slender strands
are commonly from two to five millimeters in the longest di-
rection. The third class of remnants are found scattered
through the body of the dead and macerated sponge, in which
they sometimes occupy positions that are obviously favorable
for respiration. These bodies are more or less spheroidal and
small, their diameter varying commonly from one half to one
and a half millimeters. In the most successful cases of treat-
ment, the small masses, internal and superficial, are exceed-
ingly abundant, and the dead and macerated sponge body
with its contained nodules of conspicuous living tissue strong-
ly suggests a Spongilla full of gemmules.

These living remnants of the sponge (bodies of the second
and third classes) execute slow amoeboid changes of shape
and position, behaving thus like plasmodia, and they may be
designated as plasmodial masses. Microscopic examination
shows them to be of an exceedingly simple character, without
canal spaces or flagellated chambers. The mass does not con-
sist of discrete cells, but is an aggregation of syncytial proto-
plasm studded with nuclei. The protoplasm is stored with
minute inclusions and is reticulate in arrangement. The nu-
clei are practically all alike, and there are no signs of per-
sisting collar-cells. Such a mass represents a portion of the
original sponge in which the degenerative changes have pro-
gressed farther than in the larger remnants. In the latter
we find a syncytium made up of discrete cells among which
some persisting collar-cells are distinguishable. But in the
plasmodial mass the cells have united so intimately that cell
outlines have been wiped out, and recognizable collar-cells
(or their nuclei) have disappeared. The optical evidence
points to the conclusion that the latter help to form the gener-
al syncytium, undergoing regressive changes in their differen-
tiation which result in their becoming indifferent parts of
this unspecialized tissue.

The plasmodial masses remain alive in the laboratory in-
definitely, but do not transform. They attach to the bottom

Wilson — A New Method

95

*9°7\

of the vessel, but so feebly as to be easily shaken loose. In
order to see if they would transform when returned to natur-
al conditions, I devised the simple plan of enclosing- them in
fine bolting-cloth bags which were hung in a live-box float-
ing in the harbor. The bags, rectangular, were divided into
compartments about an inch square with the two flat sides
nearly touching. In each space an isolated plasmodial mass
was inserted, and the bag sewed up. It was found that in
such bags the masses were held in place long enough for
them firmly to attach to the bolting cloth. Once attached to
the cloth they grow, sometimes quite through the wall of the
bag to the outer water, and transform into perfect sponges
with osculum, canals, pores and flagellated chambers in such
abundance as to be crowded.

This ability to undergo — when the environment is unfavor-
able but not excessively so, regressive changes of differentia-
tion resulting in the production of a simpler, more uniform
tissue, is something that is plainly useful, i. e., adaptive. In
the simplified state the sponge protoplasm withstands condi-
tions fatal to such parts of the body as do not succeed in
passing into this state, and on the return of normal condi-
tions again develops the characteristic structure and habits of
the species. That this power is exercised in nature there can
scarcely be a doubt, since the conditions that are present in
an aquarium must now and then occur in tidepools.

It is probable that the power thus to degenerate with the
production of masses of regenerative tissue is general among
sponges. I first discovered the phenomenon in Microciona , a
very different form from Stylotella and one in which the skel-
eton includes much horny matter. And in two other Beau-
fort species I have succeeded in producing the plasmodial
masses. There is every reason for believing that the com-
mercial sponge shares in this ability. If this is so, we have
here a means of propagation which with a further develop-
ment of methods may at some time become economically
practicable. In any case it is now possible to study the dif-
ferentiation of a quite unspecialized tissue, one that is physi-

96

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

ologically embryonic, into a perfect sponge at any time of the
year irrespective of the breeding season. We may even exer-
cise some direct control over the size of the plasmodial
masses, as the following experiment shows.

Microciona was kept in aquaria until the degenerative pro-
cess had begun. Pieces were then teased with needles in a
watch glass of sea water in such a way as to liberate quanti-
ties of cells and small irregular cell-agglomerates. These
were gently forced with pipette to the center of the watch
glass. Fusion of cells and masses, with amoeboid phenom-
ena, began at once, and in half an hour quite large irregular
masses existed. In the course of a few hours the masses
grew enormously through continued fusion. From this time
on they adhered firmly to the glass, retaining irregular plas-
modium-like shapes, and the growth was inconspicuous. To
bring them together once more and induce further fusion
they were on the following day forcibly freed, with pipette
and needle, and to clean them of cellular debris and bacteria
were transferred to a tumbler (covering with bolting cloth)
in which they were kept actively moving under a fine glass
faucet for about thirty minutes. In the course of this violent
agitation a good many masses were lost. Those remaining
in the tumbler became in the next few hours noticeably
rounder and smoother at the surface. From this experiment
eighteen more or less spheroidal masses were obtained, some
of which measured one half millimeter in diameter. They
were similar to the small plasmodial masses produced in this
species (and in Stolotella ) when the sponges are allowed to
remain quietly in aquaria. As already stated, it is only in
Stylotella that I have directly proved the regenerative power
of these masses.

Maas has just announced3 that calcareous sponges ( Sycons )
when exposed to sea water deprived of its calcium undergo

3 ‘Ueber die Einwirkung karbonatfreier und kalkfreier SaLzlosungen auf
erwachsene Kalkschwamme und auf Entwicklungsstadien derselben. Ar-
chiv fur Entwicklungsmechanik der Organismen,’ Bd. XXII., Heft 4,
December, 1906.

Wilson — A New Method

97

190 7]

marked degenerative changes, which may be of such a char-
acter that the living tissue quite separates from the skeleton
and breaks up into compact cords of cells showing active
amoeboid phenomena. The cords further constrict into
rounded masses the likeness of which to gemmules is pointed
out. Maas states that he is not yet in a position to say
whether these masses have the power to transform into
sponges, but adds that some of his observations induce him
to believe that this is possible.

It is evident that Maas, working on very different forms,
has independently met with the same degenerative-regenera-
tive phenomena as are described in this communication, the
essential facts of which were presented (together with an ex-
hibit of gemmule-like degeneration masses and young
sponges into which such masses had transformed) at the re-
cent December meeting of the American Society of Zoolo-
gists. I may add that more than two years ago at the end of
the summer of 1904, in my official report (unpublished since
the research was still in progress) to the Bureau of Fisheries
on the investigation under my charge, I described the degen-
erative phenomena in Microciona and Stylotella, i. e., the for-
mation under certain conditions of confinement of minute
masses presenting a likeness to gemules, and emphasized the
probability that these masses were able to regenerate the
sponge. It was not, however, until the summer of 1906 that
I was able to demonstrate the truth of this view.

University of North Carolina.

! Chapel Hill, N. C.,

February 16, 1907.

THE CONDENSATION OF CHLORAL WITH PRIMARY
AROMATIC AMINES. II.*

BY ALVIN S. WHEELER.

A number of condensation products of chloral with primary
aromatic amines have already been described. The first men-
tion of such a reaction is probably that of Maumene1 who
hoped to obtain indigotiue by the action of chloral (2 mols. )
upon aniline (3 mols.). His product was a brownish black
uncrystallizable substance containing no chlorine. Schiff
and Amato2 first describe a condensation product of chloral
(1 mol.) and aniline (2 mols.) with the formula

CC13CH(NHC6H5)2.

In the same year Wallach3 describes this compound. Later4
he gives a full description of the products obtained from
aniline, p-toluidine, and a sample of xylidine boiling at 212°-
216°. Eibner5 studied the condensation of chloral with p-ni-
traniline, m-chloraniline, p-chloraniline, and 1, 2, 4-dichlor-
aniline and showed that 1, 2, 4, 6-trichloraniline and 2, 6-di-

♦Contribution from the Chemical Laboratory of the University of North
Carolina.

l[Ber. 3. 246, (1870)].

2[Gazz. chin>. ital. 1,376 (1871)].

3(Ber. 4. 668).

4( Ann. 173,274).

5(Ann. 302,235).

igoy ] Wheeler — The Condensation of Chloral 99

chlor-4-nitraniline do not react. Wheeler and Weller6 pre-
pared the o- and m-nitraniline compounds and Wheeler and
Daniels7 showed that only addition products could be obtained
with the naphthylamines. Niementowski and Orzechowski8
found that one molecule of chloral condensed with one mole-
cule of anthranilic acid but later9 obtained the expected
diphenamine compound. Finally Rugheimer10 describes the
compounds with o- and p-phenylenediamine and 1, 2, 4- and
1, 3, 4-toluylenediamine. He also states that only addition
products are obtained with the naphthylamines.

The chloral diphenamine compQunds vary considerably in
stability. Most of them may be kept for years. They pos-
sess great crystallizing power. Their behavior toward
alkalies is variable. The aniline derivative is decomposed
by alcoholic potash into aniline, chloroform and phenyl cya-
nide according to Wallach. The p-nitraniline derivative is
converted by alcoholic potash into an hydroxy compound, one
chlorine being replaced by the hydroxyl group according to
Wheeler and Glenn1. They are not stable in the presence of
strong mineral acids. These split the compound so as to re-
form the amine. Eibner has shown that boiling acetic anhy-
dride and benzoyl chloride give the acetyl or benzoyl deriva-
tive of the original amine. I have found that all of them
react with great readiness with bromine in the cold. There
is a substitution of one hydrogen atom in those which have
been analyzed. This substitution probably occurs in the
methylene group of the chloral residue.

With the exception of the anathranilic acid products the
following are thought to be new.

6(Jr. Am. Chein. Soc. 24, 1063).

7[Jr. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 22, 90 (1906).

8(Ber. 28, 2812).

»(Ber. 35, 3898).

lO(Ber. 39, 1653).

!(Jr. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 19, 63, 1903).

100

Journal of the Mitchell Society [. November

Chloral and p-Bromaniline.
Irichlorethylidenedi-p-bromfihenamine,

CCl3CH(NHBrC6H4)3.

With C. W. Miller. Ten grams of p-bromaniline were dis-
solved in 50cc benzene and 8 grams of chloral (4.2 grams
required by theory) in lOcc benzene were added. The mix-
ture was concentrated one-half on the water bath and cooled.
A white flocculent precipitate came down. This gave a
melting point of 135°. On further evaporation a second crop
was obtained, showing a melting point of 119°. By several
recrystallizations from benzene the melting point was raised
to 140°. The yield of the crude product was quantitative.

Analysis:

0.1588g substance gave 0.2049g C02 and 0.0352g HaO.
0.1638g substance gave 9cc nitrogen at 15° and 755mm.
0.0890 substance heated with 0.3274g AgN03 required

9.8cc NH4SCN (lcc = 0.0l73g AgN03).

Calculated for

ci4h„n2ci3bv

Found

Carbon

35.45

35.03

Hydrogen

2.34

2.46

Nitrogen

5.93

6.38

Chlorine + bromine

56.24

55.58

Trichlorethylidenedi-p-bromphenamine consists of fine col-
orless needles, melting at 140° and decomposing at 205° . It
is extremely soluble in alcohol, acetone, glacial acetic acid
and hot benzene. It is sparingly soluble in cold benzene and
insoluble in ligroin. It is readily purified by using a mixture
of benzene and ligroin. It is not decomposed by boiling
water but is split by boiling concentrated hydrochloric acid
with the regeneration of p-bromaniline. A bromo derivative
is easily obtained by adding bromine to a glacial acetic acid
solution. The product, consisting of plates, melts at 203°

i go?] Wheeler — The Condensation of Chloral 101

after several recrystallizations from glacial acetic acid.
Determinations of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen give very
satisfactory figures for a monobrom compound. A study of
its constitution is under way. Chlorine gives a similar reac-
tion. The product, crystallizing in long colorless needles,
melts at 93° after recrystallization from glacial acetic acid.
Analysis indicates a monochlor derivative. These bodies will
be described in a later paper.

Chloral and o-Anisidine.

Trich lo rethylidenedi-o-methoxyfhenam ine ,
CCl3CH(NHOCH3C6H4)2.

With W. S. Dickson. Two molecules (12. 3g) of o-anisi-
dine were dissolved in 50cc benzene and one molecule (7.3g)
of chloral were added. After warming a short time on the
steam bath a separation of colorless needles occurred. These
decomposed at about 215° and weighed 0.05g. On concen-
tration of the filtrate in a dessicator a mass of fern-like crys-
tals was obtained mixed with a thick liquid. After filtering
the crystals were pressed on a porous tile. The product was
white, melted at 112°-114° and weighed 9.7 grams. On re-
crystallizing from benzene the melting point was raised to
121°. The thick liquid finally solidified, considerably in-
creasing the yield.

Analysis:

0.2000 gram substance gave 0.2294 gram AgCl.

1.0000 gram substance gave 0.073 gram nitrogen (Kjel-
dahl).

Calculated for

Cl

N

ci6hI7o2n2ci3

28.35

7.47

Found

28.35

7.30

Trichlorethylidenedi-o-methoxyphenamine crystallizes from
ligroin or benzene in magnificent rhombohedra, from one

102

Journal of the Mitchell Society [. November

quarter to one half inch long-, always with a slig-ht yellow
color. It is easily soluble in cold benzene and carbon tetra-
chloride and hot glacial acetic acid. It is slightly soluble in
cold ligroin and fairly soluble in hot ligroin. It crystallizes
from alcohol in long slender prisms. One hundred cubic cen-
timeters of boiling alcohol will dissolve approximately 7
grams and at 25° about 2.5 grams' It is insoluble in and
unchanged by boiling water. When boiled in concentrated
hydrochloric acid the odor of chloral could be detected in the
vapors. A bromo derivative is readily obtained by adding
bromine to a concentrated glacial acetic acid solution. The
crystals occur in clusters of needles and decompose at about
230°. This compound is being further investigated.

Chloral and p-Anisidine.

Trichlorethy lidenedi-f-methoxy -phenamine ,
CCl3CH(NHOCH3C6H4)a.

To a solution of 12.3 grams p-anisidine in 20cc benzene (a
nearly saturated solution) is added 7.3 grams chloral. The
solution turns to a dark red color at once, much heat is devel-
oped and a deposition of 0.22 gram small colorless crystals
occurs. These decompose at about 215° as in the case with
o-anisidine. After filtering, the reaction mixture is boiled
15 minutes and then allowed to stand several hours. An
abundant crystalline precipitate is formed. After filtering
and pressing on a clay plate, the product melted at 115° and
weighed 10.5 grams. A further yield was obtained from the
mother liquor. Purification was effected by using the mixed
solvent, benzene and ligroin. The melting point was raised
to 118°-120°.

Analysis:

0.2087 gram substance gave 0.2398 gram AgCl

Calculated for .

Ci6HONC1

i6 jy 2 2 3

Cl 25.35

Found

28.41

igoy~\ Wheeler — The Condensation of Chloral 103

The para compound crystallizes from ligroin in brilliant
scales, showing a strong pink color in the mass. It melts at
118°-120° and decomposes at 158°. It is fairly soluble in
cold benzene, alcohol and ether. It is readily soluble in gla-
cial acetic acid, hot benzene and hot alcohol. The hot alco-
hol solution emits a most disagreeable odor and on spontane-
ous evaporation to dryness a jet black crystalline mass
remains. It is very slightly soluble in cold ligroin and not
readily in hot ligroin. On treatment with bromine in glacial
acetic acid solution a crystalline product is obtained which
blackens at about 198°. This compound will be studied
further.

Chloral and Anthranilic Acid.

The product obtained in this case depends upon the pro-
portions used. One molecule of chloral will condense with
one or two molecules of anthranilic acid with the elimination
of one molecule of water. The two products have been de-
scribed by Niementowski but his method yields a mixture
and we have improved upon it since we wish to make the
compounds in quantity in order to study their bromo deriva-
tives.

Trichlorethylidene-o-am inobenzo ic A rid,
CCl3CHNC6H4COOH.

With W. S. Dickson. Five grams of anthranilic acid were
dissolved in 40cc boiling benzene (a saturated solution) and
5.5 grams chloral in lOcc benzene were added. The weights
are in the proportion of one molecule to one molecule. The
mixture was boiled under a reflux condenser for |three hours,
filtered from a small precipitate and then cooled. A crystal-
line deposit, weighing 5.0 grams and melting at 148°-15l°,
separated. The crystals were large elongated tables, occur-
ing in clusters. From the filtrate was obtained 3.0 grams of
material, melting at 145°-150°. Several recrystallizations
from benzene raised the melting point to 152°. Niementow-

104 Journal of the Mitchell Society \_N0ve7nber

ski and Orzechowski1 prepare this compound without the use
of any solvent. They use an excess of chloral and get sev-
eral by-products. We have tried their method but have
employed theoretical proportions. Even so we get the same
by-products. We set the mortar in a block of ice and rapidly
stirred together the previously cooled substances. The mix-
ture liquefied and then rapidly became very hard. This pro-
duct decomposed at about 127°, after two hours on ice at 124°
and after three hours more at room temperature at 118°. It
was rubbed up with a little water and filtered. The decom-
position point rose to 135°. Now taking advantage of the
marked difference in solubility in benzene of the mono- and
di-compounds (not observed by Niementowski) we extracted
the crystalline mass, weighing 8.2 grams, with 45cc boiling
benzene. From the extract there separated a mass of color-
less needles, weighing 3.7 grams and melting 149°-152°,
hence nearly pure mono-compound. On evaporating the fil-
trate a residue was obtained, weighing 1.3 grams and melting
at 160°, a good quality of the di-compound. A second ex-
traction was made with 33cc of boiling benzene. On cooling
this yielded a product weighing 0.8 gram and melting at 162°,
and a residue at 157°. There still remained an insoluble
residue, dark purple in color. These results are in marked
contrast to those obtained by our method of boiling in ben-
zene, for we get practically only the mono-compound and
consequently a much larger yield.

Anplysis:

0.2000 gram substance gave 0.3189 gram AgCl.

Calculated for

C9H602NC13 Found

Cl 39.92 39.43

On treating a glacial acetic acid solution of this compound
with bromine a bromo derivative is obtained in large quan-
tity. On cooling a hot glacial acetic acid solution it deposits

i(Ber. 28, 2812).

igoyl Wheeler — The Condensation of Chloral 105

in clusters of fern-like crystals which decompose at 237°.
This body is under investigation.

T rich lore thy lidenedi-o-aminobenzo ic Acid,

CC13CH ( NHC6H4COOH)2.

Five grams (2 molecules) anthranilic acid in 40cc boiling
benzene were treated with 2.9 grams (1 molecule) chloral in
lOcc benzene and boiled under a reflux condenser for three
hours. During the boiling there separated 3.25 grams of the
di-compound, melting at 164°-165°. On cooling a further
yield of 0.6 gram was obtained. On evaporation to dryness
the residue was found to weigh 4.0 grams and to melt at
157°. The pure body melts at 165°. The method of Nie-
mentowski1 was tried and although found to be better than
for the preparation of the mono-compound it gave a smaller
yield than our method and a larger amount of unknown col-
ored by-products.

Analysis:

0.5000 gram substance gave 0.0410 gram NH3 (Kjeldahl).
0.2000 gram substance gave 0.2113 gram AgCl.

Calculated for

Ci6HI304N3C13 Found

N 6.96 6.76

Cl 26.11 26.10

The di-compound consists of a crystalline powder and may

be purified by precipitating its ether solution with ligroin.

Upon boiling eight hours with acetic anhydride and cooling,
a crystalline substance deposits, melting at 183° and crystal-
lizing from benzene in needles. This corresponds to acetyl-
o-aminobenzoic acid. On treating a glacial acetic acid
solution with bromine there is almost instantly obtained a
heavy precipitate which after recrystallization from glacial
acetic acid melts with decomposition at 236°. This behavior
is surprisingly like that of the bromo derivative of the mono-
anthranilic acid compound.

1(Ber. 35, 3898).

106

Journal of the Mitchell Society [. November

Chloral and o-Toluidine

Trichlorethylidenedi-o-tolamine ,

CC13CH(NHC6H4CH3)2.

With Strowd Jordan. Chloral and o-toluidine were brought
directly together in the proportion of one molecule to two
molecules. No advantage was found in using benzene as a
solvent. 19.3 grams chloral were added to 28 grams of o-tol-
uidine, the mixture turned dark red and the temperature rose
to 80°. After standing for some time, often over night, a
quite hard crystalline cake formed. This was dissolved up
in ether or successively extracted with benzene. In either
case, a small residue weighing 0.7 gram remained. This
was pale greenish in color and melted at 213°. The main
product of the reaction was recrystallized from ether until
the melting point reached 80°.

The yield was 70 per cent of the theory.

Analysis:

0.1763 gram substance gave 0.2194 gram AgCl.

0.2000 gram substance required 0.2915 gram AgN03.

0.2000 gram substance required 0.2973 gram AgNOs.

Calculated for
Ci6HI7N2C13 Pound

Cl 30.95" 30.77 30.40 30.96.

The Stepanow method1 was employed in the second and
third analyses and found to be extremely convenient. With
some of our compounds we have found it impracticable on
account of the deep color of the solution. We found it advis-
able to adopt the suggestion of Rosanoff and Hill2 and filter
off the silver chloride before titrating.

Trichlorethylidenedi-o-tol amine crystallizes in very long
silky needles. It is not very stable in solution or when ex-

l(Ber. 39. 4056).

2(Jr. Am. Chem. Soc., 29, 269).

igoy~\ Wheeler — The Condensation of Cheorae 107

posed to the light. It is decomposed by water into chloral
and o-toluidine. It is soluble in cold alcohol, ether, acetone,
chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, carbon disulphide and gla-
cial acetic acid. It is soluble in hot ligroin, benzene and
methyl alcohol. The pure substance melts at 80° and will
melt repeatedly at that temperature. A bromo derivative is
readily obtained in glacial acetic acid solution. It forms sil-
very white plates which melt with decomposition in the
neighborhood of 268°.

Physioeogicae Action.

We were led to a study of the physiological action of the
trichlorethylidenedi-o-tolamine by an accidental observation.
Mr. Jordan unintentionally got a small quantity in his mouth
and within a few hours there followed a marked physiologi-
cal action. A preliminary test has been made upon two rab-
bits. Dr. William DeB. MacNider of this University kindly
carried out the test for us in the pharmacological laboratory
of the University of Chicago. A 5 per cent dilute alcoholic
solution was employed. This was first used in lOcc doses,
intravenously. It produced at first a slow heart action ac-
companied by a slight fall in blood pressure. Following this
initial change the respirations became accelerated, the heart
action fast and the fall in blood pressure much more pro-
nounced. Doses of 25cc given by the stomach caused the
animal to become drowsy, inactive and imperfectly responsive
to stimuli. The respirations were accelerated. One rabbit
returned to a normal condition in six hours. The other ani-
mal, receiving the drug by the stomach, died apparently from
respiratory failure. A more complete study is under way
upon a large number of rabbits. This study will be extended
to other diphenamine derivatives of chloral.

Chapel Hill, N. C.

Oct. 16. 1907.

RECENT CHANGES IN GOLD MINING IN NORTH
CAROLINA THAT HAVE FAVORABLY AFFECTED
THIS INDUSTRY

BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT AND A. A. STEED *

Before taking- up an account of the chang-es that have been
recently introduced in gold mining in North Carolina, it may
be of interast to mention some of the causes for failure in the
profitable mining of gold in this State, as the changes to be
described hav to some extent at least modified and lessened
the chances for failure.

Many of the causes of failure in North Carolina gold min-
ing can be traced to a lack of adequate capital, which pre-
vents mining from being conducted in the most economic
manner. O ne of the most noticeable of these is the tendency
to sink the shafts but 15 to 30 feet before driving a new
level and then stoping out a small block of ground instead of
having the levels from 75 to 100 feet apart. Since a ton of
ore removed in driving the level even in a wide vein will cost
fully twice as much as a ton of ore in stoping, it is obviously
more economical to have as few levels as possible. It
it becomes dificult to make the raises more than 100 feet and
is expensive to get men and timbers into much higher stopes.
Therefore, the levels should not be over 100 feet apart. In a
narrow vein where much waste could be left in a stope, the
economy is greater. Somewhat similar to this is the habit of
sinking a number of shafts close together instead of only
one or two on a vein. This is not so bad for working ore

* Published with the permission of the State Geologist of North Carolina

10S [November

/po?] Recent Changes in Gold Mining 109

near the surface, but becomes very expensive as the mine
gets deeper, especially when hoisting machinery is required
on each shaft. This is partially explained by the fact that
many of the old mines have been worked at very irregular
intervals and the old shafts have become caved in during the
period of idleness.

Even those mines having capital are often badly managed.
They frequently put in machinery of unnecessarily large
capacity, not realizing that a very small engine and bucket
can easily get out 10 or 15 tons of ore per day and keep a five
stamp mill busy. There are many little mines that could
pay a profit under careful management with five stamps and
running only one shift; but some of them have engines big
enough to hoist four times as much ore. Since the engineer
and top men must be there all the time, there is no economy
in operation but may even be a loss, since the engine cannot
work steadily and fuel is wasted keeping up a big fire; and’
of course, the first cost is greater. If the mine ever gets
much too big for the small engine, it can be used in prospect-
ing or underground work.

A great many shafts are much to big. It is not uncommon
to see a little bucket, 30 inches accross dangling in the mid-
dle of a hoisting compartment 6 feet square in the clear, It
is considerably cheaper to sink a shaft with compartments
only 4 feet square in the clear and when the hoisting compart-
ment is smoothly lined with plank ( to assist ventilation ), or
fitted with guides, it has jnst as great a capacity — usually
more than enough for the output of the mine. If necessary,
the hoisting capacity of a shaft may be greatly increased at
any time by putting in a tall bucket, or better a self-dumping
skip and high speed engine. The ladder and pipe compartment
is often as big as 6 by 8 feet. Since the cheaper and better
direct acting steam pump would now be placed in a shaft,
instead of the clumsy and bulky Cornish pump, the water,
steam and compresed air pipes take up very little room. It is
now customary to put in slanting ladders between landings
some distance apart. They can almost as well be a little

110

Journal of the Mitchell Society [. November

steeper and shorter and go in a smaller space. The men will
always ride up in a bucket, fitted with a crosshead running
in proper guides or running in a closely planked compart-
ment if the shaft is crooked. Therefore, the ladderway is an
emergency exit only and a good, continuous vertical ladder
securely fastened against one wall of the compartment is all
that is needed, and the compartment for ladder and pipes
may seldom need be over 3 by 4 feet. The two compartments
and the division between them then need be only 4 by8 or 2>%
by 7 feet inside. Besides being much more cheaply and
rapidly sunk, the small shaft need not be so heavily timbered,
since the shorter timbers are stronger and the earth pressure
tends to arch around the shaft instead of coming fnll upon
the timbers. On the other hand, the first 6 by 10 feet ( 8%
by 12% feet outside timbers) shaft at the Montgomery Mine,
at Candor, Montgomery County, became useless after about 5
years from the buckling of the timbers, although splendidly
timbered with 12 by 12 inch oak sets, which showed no signs
of decay.

There is, of course, very seldom any need for more than
one hoisting compartment, since the saving in power will
only pay for the greater expense of engine and shaft when a
large amount of ore is to be hoisted from considerable depth.
When a single large skip will handle all the ore, there is no
need of putting in another to remain idle half the time.

Timber framing for shafts and tuunel sets is often unnec-
essarily complicated and the carpenter must waste mnch time
chiselling, when simple notches laid off with a square and
cut by saws are often stronger and always more easily made.

The most disastrous error is usually great haste in putting
in a mill or smelter. It seems that the first thing that many
miners think of after finding a little good ore is to stop work
in the mine and put in a mill; so there are mills which have
been able to run less then a month before the mine was ex-
hausted. There is usually a neighboring mill to which tha
ore might as well have been hauled. It is seldom that tests
are made to tell what sort of a mill and treatment is adapted

Recent Changes in Gold Mining

111

/907]

to the ore. Unless the ore body is large, no mill should be in-
stalled until the changed ore below the water level has been
tested.

In North Carolina there seem to be only a few miners who
deceive themselves by assaying the rich streak and assuming
that the entire streak will be equally as good. The general
principles of sampling the entire body seem to be well under-
stood, although it is not always done as accurately as it
should be.

Even when good ore occurs in paying quantities the miner
frequently builds a mill that is too large; For there is only a
little extra expense in increasing the size of the mill after it
has been running awhile instead of building a large mill all at
once. So there is little excuse for assuming the greater risk
of a large mill. There is less loss of gold in adjusting a
small mill.

One agreeable exception to the practice of building a mill
before the mine is sufficienty developed is seen in the work of
the Whitney Company, who have carefully tested and
explored a number of mines. Many of the options were given
up of course. At the old McMakin Mine at Gold Hill, as
explorations proved the value of the mine, the contemplated
scale of working was gradually increased. When the small
shafts of the upper levels were deepened, the lower parts
were made large enough for balanced hoisting and the small
part will be enlarged later. In the meantime most careful
sampling and assaying was done and when enough ore had
been blockedout, careful mill tests were made chiefly upon the
material obtained from drifts. In this way a total of 4,950
tons of ore was run through the little mill on the ground;
careful records of everything gave an average recovery of
$4.52 of gold on the plates and only $0.34 per ton as a concen-
trate worth but $5.03 per ton and $0.83 per ton in the tail-
ings. These tests made clear that the most economical
method is simple amalgamation, giving a saving of about 80
per cent of the gold, with no attempt to concentrate and treat
the concentrates.

112 Journal of the Mitchell Society [. November

The two main shafts are down 800 feet and another is 400
feet deep, with the levels averaging over 700 feet long-.
This work shows a vein averag-ing 14 feet wide and
gives a million and a half tons of ore blocked out ready
to stope, and which will yield $2.50 per ton by amalgamation.
They have accordingly planned a mill large enough to treat
1,000 tons of ore per day, making the estimated total cost of
mining, milling and transporting the ore only $1.48 per ton.
They are now waiting for the completion of their water-
power plant before building the mill and since they have suf-
ficient ore blocked out, the mine has been idle and full of
water since the spring of 1905. The intention is to keep a
reserve of 500,000 tons of ore in advance of the s toping.

The Bonnie Doone, or Old Smart Mine, has also been prop-
erly developed by Mr. J. C. Bates, a former owner of the
Howie Mine. The old 80 foot shaft has been deepened to 200
feet, with levels 125 feet long at 60 feet, 100 feet at 120 feet,
160 feet at 186 feet. The ore obtained from these workings
is now piled in a large dump estimated to contain 3,000 tons.
And before the mill was planned, this was carefully sampled
by a competent mining engineer, who dug deep trenches
across it and found it to average $15.00 per ton. Of course a
great deal of the same quality of ore has been blocked out in
the mine. There are about 500 tons in another dump of
material which came from work in the walls and is chiefly
slate but contains a few of the veinlets and masses of milky
quartz, and is said to assay about $1.50 per ton. It has been
kept out of the good ore at only a nominal expense. The
mill has not been built on account of the continued sickness
of the owner, so there is no machinery at the mine except the
sufficiently large prospecting hoist.

As an example of a mill too large for the development may
be mentioned the Reimer Mine, near Salisbury. Here a 20
stamp mill with chlorination failed simply because no ore
at all had been blocked out and it could not be mined rapidly
enough to keep the mill going. An examination of the mine
by the late Mr. Parker, mining engineer for the Whitney

igo7~\ Recent Changes in Gold Mining 113

Company, showed a remarkably continuous vein, averaging
feet wide and carrying $7.50 in gold.

Mr. Parker planned to develop the mine so that it might
easily yield 50 tons per day, so the total cost of mining and
treating the ore would be about $4.50 per ton, which includes
depreciation, etc.

The general custom of having no reserves of ore blocked
out prevents conservative mining men from investing in them,
since there is no way of determining the value of the vein
unless it is opened up. It would be much better to spend the
cost of a premature mill in developing ore so that there would
be no difficulty in securing capital or selling the mine to
advantage.

It is also quite customary to extract all of the ore by under-
hand stoping. This becomes very expensive when the vein
is so narrow that some of the wall-rock must be broken to
make room, or when the vein contains much barren rock.
All of this waste material must then be hoisted to the surface
and much of it becomes mixed with the ore in .the bins and
chutes. If the stopes are mined upward or overhand, all the
waste can be left in them supported on a single line of stulls
over the drift. This often affords a scaffold for the men and
so saves the great expense of putting in many stulls. In
addition a large block of filling will serve as a pillar to hold
the walls apart so no ore need be left in the mine. One
excellent mine superintendent said that the reason for this
was the fact that most of the miners are more properly farm-
ers and cannot drill holes upwards. They do not work
steadily enough to warrant an attempt to teach them how,
even though skilled men prefer to drill “uppers.” This
objection can be overcome in those mines having air drills
for driving levels by installing a few of the blockholing or
air hammer drills which may be held in one hand and,
besides being much quicker, can be worked in stopes too nar-
row for hammering by hand. So far there seems to be none
of these machines in North Carolina, although they are be-
coming standard in the west.

114

Journal of the Mitchell Society [. November

When the mines yield rich ore in narrow streaks, it should
be hand-picked before going- to the mill. For this purpose
the Miami Mining Company have installed at the Phoenix
Mine, near Concord, Cabarrus County, an ore picker. The ore
is sorted into coarse and medium material by passing through a
trommel, where it is also washed by a spray pipe. It then
passes over a couple of belts 30 inches wide and 30 feet long.
A number of boys sit along these belts and pick out the waste,
which is removed by another belt, while the good ore passes
direct to a Dodge crusher. The dirt and fine ore removed by
the water is raised by a sand pump directly to the battery.
These machines would not pay at a small mine where an
arrangement like that at the Hercules Mine at Cid, Davidson
County, is better. Here the ore is dumped from the skip on
to a slightly elevated platform, where it is washed by a
stream of water from a hose and the waste thrown into a car
standing near, as the good ore is shovelled into a car for tak-
ing it to the mill.

Since the publication of Bulletins Nos. 3 and 10 of the
North Carolina Geological Survey, there have been a number
of changes in mining practiced in the State, which, given in
the order of their probable importance, are:

1. The application of machines of the old log washer type
to separate gold from saprolites as is now being practiced at
the Shuford, Empire, Beaver Dam, Troy, Sawyer and other
mines.

2. The introduction of square set timbering in the extrac-
tion of soft, deep ore bodies, which is now being practiced at
the Union Copper Mine at Gold Hill.

3. The introduction of the cyanide process for treating
certain sulphuret ores, which has been practiced on the
tailings trom the lola, Montgomery and Howie mines.

4. The introduction of self-dumping skips, picking belts etc.

Recent Changes in Gold Mining

115

/907]

Log Washers

Perhaps the most important change to be noted in gold
mining practice in North Carolina is the introduction of log
washers in treating many of the saprolitic ores that are found
quite abundantly throughout many portions of the State.
The old principle of the log washer cannot be patented, but
the machines that are now being used, known as modern pul-
verizing concentrating machines, possess many mechanical
improvements that adapted them to the work that they are
called upon to do.

Each separate unit of these machines consists of two
improved log washers running at high enough speed to read-
ily disintegrate the soft material and so mix the clay into a
fine pulp with water that the gold can readily settle to the
bottom. Each machine is essentially a long trough or boiler
plate containing a revolving cylinder fitted with heavy white
iron arms set spirally so that the ore, while being hammered
fine, is gradually worked to the discharge end. At the end
of the first washer, the larger, hard and nearly barren quartz
stones are removed by a revolving screen and belt conveyor,
this being done to save wear and power in the second washer,
where the gravel is still further reduced iu size and more gold
settles out. The gravel that remains after passing the second
washer is removed by a finer screen and the chief pulp, free
from stones, passes from the riffled sluices about three feet
wide and of varying lengths, which contains mercury to
amalgamate and save any free gold that does not settle in the
machine.

The steel troughs are about 2 feet wide by 2]4 feet deep,
the first being 18 feet long and the second 12 feet, with a
semicircular bottom and a flat wood top. The revolving cyl-
inder is made of an 8-inch steam pipe carried upon a heavy
steel shaft, passing through stuffing boxes at the ends of the
trough. Wrought iron bars reach through this pipe cross-
wise and project about 3 inches on each side to form legs to
which 8*4 inch cast iron arms are bolted to take all the wear.
There is about 4 inch clearance between these arms and the

116 Journal of the Mitchell Society [. November

bottom of the troughs, which allows the formation of a bed
of stones, which reduces the wear on the bottom and helps
save the gold. This bed of stones is of course more or less
shaken up by blows from the large fragments of quartz and
by the revolving arms, thus permitting the gold to settle
through as in panning. The constant striking of the paddles
against the surface of the water will also weight and sink
some of the float gold. The discharge end of the machine is
set 6 inches higher than the feed end so that the gold, once
down amongst the pebbles of the bed, is not apt to be pushed
out.

Riffles of the sluices are made 'by boring inclined auger
holes in the planks laid lengthwise in the cement-lined sluice
boxes. Since all the coarse gravel has been screened out,
there is little wear upon the riffles and the fall and quantity of
water are less than in the regular sluice for hydraulic mining.
In cleaning up, the planks are lifted up and turned over and
the gravel and mercury washed to the end of the sluice where
quicksilver and amalgam are washed out in hand pans.
When through cleaning up, the planks are simply replaced
and the riffles filled with mercury and the machine started
again.

In cleaning the washers, which is usually done twice a week
the machines are stopped and all the gravel within washed
out with a hose through an opening in the bottom. This
gravel is then panned by hand and the gold amalgamated.
Any nuggets that occur in the rock are pounded free from
quartz and are then also amalgamated.

The amalgam from all sources is strained out of the quick-
silver and then retorted and the bullion sold.

The chief wear on the machine is the arms, which under
certain conditions, as on the sharp ore at the Shuford mine,
only last six weeks. They can, however, be readily made at
any foundry.

It is recommended by the maker that the first washer be
driven at 150 to 250 revolutions per minute and that the second
one at 250 to 350 per minute and that for a capacity of 10 tons

Recent Changes in Gold Mining

117

/po/]

per hour, each machine be given 72 gallons of water per min-
ute. This will then at times require 25 H P. for a complete
unit of two washers and trommels. These factors will vary
greatly with the character of the ore. Since the power, and
therefore the wear, will increase even more rapidly than the
square of the speed, this should be kept low. In the absence
of any coarse stones, there is also danger that the pulp may be
too greatly agitated to allow the settling of the gold. On the
other hand, the speed and work must be sufficient to grind up
the ore. If there is too little water, the clay paste may not
allow the gold to settle. If there is too much, there is a dan-
ger of the gold being washed out. While a large capacity is
of advantage and desirable, still it will mean danger of insuf-
ficient grinding, too thick pulping, or too strong a flowing of
water. A great deal of skill and patience is, therefore,
required in adjusting these fixtures, but when once adjusted,
they will work satisfactorily. It is to be recommended that
a first unit be installed and run over several months at var-
ious speeds, capacities and amounts of water and the machine
should be given plenty of time after each change of condition
to adjust itself. Also, careful tests of the ore and tailings
should be made between times. The capacity and speed
should first be adjusted until the best result is given in reduc-
ing the amount of gold left in the tailings so combined that
it will not pan. The pulp should of course be kept at a reas-
onable consistency throughout the changes and the amount
of water finally adjusted so that the tailings will show a min-
imum of free gold in the pan.

These machines are made in Knoxville, Tenn., and are
handled by Geo. L. Erdman, of Asheville, N. C. One of the
first of these machines was installed at the Shuford Mine,
owned by the Catawba Gold Mining Company, and situated
about three-quarters of a mile north of the post-office of
Edith, about 5 miles south-east of Catawba Station on the
Southern Railway. They have a plant of 4 double units.
The Company are operating on a tract of land containing a
gold-bearing zone said to be 2 miles long and 600 feet wide.

118

Journal of the Mitchell Society [. November

This will all pan gold at the surface and has been tested by
bored holes 30 to 50 feet deep to water level and by one old
shaft 115 feet deep. This zone is filled with small quartz
seams from a line to occasionally several inches thick and
having all possible strikes and dips and seldom more than two
feet apart in every direction. The country rock varies from
schist to gneiss and is generally heavily stained by iron oxide
and thoroughly decomposed, except for a few, bold out-
cropping hard masses. The quartz is usually thoroughly
honey-combed and broken into soft, angular fragments.
Except at the surface", most of the gold is in these quartz
streaks, but the hard and solid portions of them seldom have
much value. At the present time the entire mass is being
mined by means of an irregular pit which was, in the summer
of 1906, 90 feet deep and 250 to 300 feet across at the top.
The material at the bottom is just as soft and decomposed as
at the top and the ore is loosed by black powder and shov-
elled by hand into cars containing a cubic yard. The cars
are hoisted up a steep incline and automatically dumped over
a grizzly of light steel rails. The fines are washed through
the grizzly by jets of water, the soft large lumps being
crushed and knocked through by means of a pick. In 18
months operation only a few tons of large, hard lumps have
thus far been thrown out. The material is then washed
down a trough about 50 feet long, thus becoming pretty uni-
formly mixed before being divided among the washers. At
this mine the machines are run at only 150 revolutions per
minute. They were tried at a lower speed, but there was
trouble with the gold sticking to clay balls. The machine
used about 150 gallons of water to the minute and the whole
plant is run by a 35 horsepower engine which, when the three
units are running, is probably overloaded. The tailings,
when tested, usually pan nothing at all, but assay a few
cents, due to gold included in the sand. While this loss
could be reduced by speeding up the second washer to grind
the sand finer and trusting to the riffles to save what little
additional free gold would not then settle in the machine, it

Recent Changes in Gold Mining

119

*9°7\

is doubtful whether with the present small plant and so
vast a quantitj' of ore controlled by the Company such
refinements are advisable, since they would probably reduce
the capacity of the plant. It is estimated that the present
cost of treatment is 22 cents per cubic yard loose measure
with a recovery of between 50 cents and $1.00 per cubic yard.

A great deal of the success of the Catawba Gold Mining-
Company is due to its conservative policy and the skill with
which the whole mining and milling operation has been con-
ducted.

The next machine to be placed in operation was at the old
Tallin Mine, near Cox, Randolph County, about 4 miles east
of Cid Station on the Thompsonville and Glen Anna Railway.
The Empire Mining Company own a tract of land which con-
tains argillaceous slates containing two gold-bearing zones,
200 feet wide by mile long, the northwest zone being along
the south side of a hard quartz and siliceous slate vein. The
early work on this property was done at the northeast end of
the northwest zone where there are several large pits, some
50 feet deep. The entire surface was tested by pan assays
(weighing the amount of gold from known weighed amounts
of ore) and a number of trenches were dug across the better
portions of the zone. The results of this test led the Com-
pany to instal their experimental plant on the gentle slope to
another stream near the southwest end of the northwest zone.
At the other end the slates are still soft at a depth of 50 feet,
but here they were found to be quite solid and tough within
6 or 7 feet of the surface, though drill holes are said to have
proved that the rock is again soft below a 5 or 6 foot shell of
hard material. The dip at this end is only 15 or 20 degrees
instead of being nearly vertical as at the other. This tough
slate is thoroughly oxidized and shows a very uniform distri-
bution of wheat-like grains of limonite, formed from pyrite,
which lie along the cleavage planes of the slate and all the
gold occurs in them.

This small branch has a steep fall for 2 miles to the Yad-
kin River and for the experimental plant water is returned

120 Journal of thf Mitchell Society [. November

from a small settling1 pond nearby. In order to get sufficient
fall for the head and tail sluices, the machines are put pretty
high up on the hill so that a fat incline has been put in with
dumping arrangements, etc. similarly as at the Shuford Mine.
The ore is broken up by hand into about 3 inch cubes and
when not hard, there is some tendency for it to stick in the
grizzly crusher owing to the large percentage of clay, which
is often moist. The first machine is run as high as 250 revo-
lutions per minute on hard rock, but was found to give best
results on average partly decomposed slates at 175 revolutions
per minute. As there is no hard quartz in this ore, there is
no need of an intermediate trommel. The second machine is
operated at only 90 revolutions per minute and saves most of
the gold, which is very fine. The trommel which follows
this washer removes practically nothing but fragments of
tree roots, which shows that everything is ground below
4-mesh. The riffles are 64 feet long, but very little gold is
found below the first 20 feet. With this soft, clayey ore the
capacity is about 8 tons per hour and 110 gallons of water
per minute are required. In the summer of 1906 the machine
had hardly passed the experimental stage, but the tailings
almost never showed any free gold and assays of carefully
taken samples showed a recovery of 90 per cent of the soft
material and 80 per cent on the hard.

A few modifications of the machine have been made by Mr.
O. K. McCutcheon, Superintendent of the Empire Company,
by introducing an improved stuffing box and valve for the
clean-up openings and in the second washer iustalling a plate
9 inches wide and one inch above the center of the bottom
with cross-lots ^ inch by 5 inches. This false bottom is
curled up at the discharge end and serves as a riffle plate,
thus considerably increasing the recover}7 of very fine gold.

One double unit of these machines was being worked on
the property of the Troy Mining Co., 7 miles north of Troy,
Montgomery County. There are some old shafts, but the
two main workings are based upon recent discoveries. By
test pits and panning it seems there are two parallel zones of

igoy] Recent Changes in Gold Mining 121

slate bearing gold. Open cut No. 1 shows white and pink,
clay-like slates with iron stains and abundant limonite cubes
and seams. The direction of the slates is N. 45° E. and part
of the material seems to represent thoroughly decomposed,
sheeted, coarse grained porphyry so that the deposit is proba-
bly on a contact. The values are not uniform and at a depth
of about 12 ft. the deposit seems to be about 20 ft. wjde, 50
ft. long and the upper part of a rounded lens, richest in the
center, where a 25 ft. shaft is said to have produced $30.00
ore. To develop deeper, a shaft was sunk in the hanging
wall. At a depth of 70 feet, it was stopped just as it began
to cut light-colored, sericitic schists, carrying pyrite.

The material from open cut No. 1 was all conveyed by a
sluice to the mill, a short distance away. Although a good
deal of gold was saved, the tailings ran $3.00 a ton and tests
were stopped.

Open cut No. 2 was made by recent unsuccessful hydraulic
mining. It was, at the time of the visit, 200 feet long, 20 to
24 feet wide and 2 to 10 feet deep. This zone pans quite uni-
formly 18 to 20 feet wide in the cut and in cross trenches
beyond the end of it. No assays of average samples have
been made. There is a barren, white quartz vein, with some
large quartz crystals, along part of one side of the zone and
most of the material seems to have been more or less siliceous
sericite schist, now thoroughly decomposed to purple clay or
fine sand. At the time of the visit, 100 tons were being
hauled over muddy roads to the mill about a quarter of a
mile away, to make a test run.

The machines were found to give a little less free gold in
the tailings as the speed was reduced, and at the time of the
visit, both sections were being run at only 60 R.P.M. The
rate of feeding is very low, apparently only 2 tons per hour,
and the amount of water is very large, apparently about 150
gallons per minute. As there was no hard pebbles or
other material in the ore to form a bed in the machine,
it is probable that most of the gold was washed out. Even
at this low rate of speed the coarsest tailings were very fine

122 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

particles of sand. Samples of the tailings included only the
coarser, rapidly settling parts, so that the assays made were
probably too high. It may be that the slower speed simply
decreases the pan assay of the tailings by not freeing such a
large percentage of gold which remains included in the
larger grains.

Th.e most apparent recommendation would be to put
McCutcheon riffles in the bottom of the machine, run the
first machine faster than the second and greatly increase the
percentage of ore fed to machine as compared with the
amount of water used. No samples of the ore had been taken
so the tests are not conclusive.

The latest reports are that the tailings from open cut No.
2 also assayed $3.00 to $4.00 per ton; that the washers are
abandoned and that a 50 ton cyanide mill will be erected. It
is also said that some good ore was struck below a quartz vein
in a 17 ft. shaft, sunk in open cut No. 2. It is probably well
to abandon the washers here because the thoroughly decom-
posed soil gets very hard not far from the surface, and the
water level will be less than 30 feet below the highest part
of the ore zone now exposed. Therefore the available ton-
nage of decomposed material is rather small. A shaft on a
third vein, just below the creek bed, shows hard silicified ser-
icite slates, with much pyrites but no visible copper or other
minerals which would interfere with the cyanide plant adapted
for handling slimes.

Machines have also been installed at the old Sawyer Mine
in Randolph County 5 miles west of Sophia and about 14
miles from High Point. This property has been worked off
and on for many years, but has failed because the gold could
not be saved by a stamp mill and plates. The machine will
first treat the soil and very soft outcrops and then the hard
rock, which does not slack by itself will be crushed fine by
rolls and the machine used simply as a panning device. This
will be a new and novel use for this machine and the results
will be watched with interest.

The McCutcheon modification of the Modern Pulverizing
and Concentrating machine is being installed at the old Mer-

Recent Changes in Goud Mining

123

*9°7\

rill Mine on Carraway Creek 3 miles west of Sophia. The
old workings are said to show a zone 1-2 mile long which is
composed principally of clay to a depth of 50 or 60 feet.
Theie are eight long cross-cut trenches and many test pits
have been made which are said to have given ore running
from SI. 50 to $1.90 per ton.

Near Newton, Catawba County, one of the machines is
being installed to work a property said to be similar to the
Shuford Mine in the same county.

From information obtained by observation in the field and
tests in the laboratory, it would seem that this Modern Pul-
verizing and Concentrating machine is adapted for certain
ores such as those of the Shuford Mine and that with certain
modifications as have been worked out by Mr. McCutcheon,
the machine can be adapted to still other ores. It is neces-
sary, however, to make a careful study of the ore and to
adjust the machine to each particular ore before it can be
determined whether or not the machine will save the gold;
and a machine should not be accepted or discarded until the
ore has been thoroughly tested to ascertain whether or not
the machine can be adapted to that particular ore.

SQUARE SETS.

The second change in mining practice of great importance
to the gold mining industry in North Carolina is the intro-
duction of square set timbering in the extraction of soft deep
ore bodies. This method was introduced by Mr. H. L. Gris-
wold, superintendent of the Union Copper Company’s mine at
Gold Hill, N. C. In former mining the old stopes were held
open by miscellaneous timbering such as stulls, lock sets and
truss sets. Such methods were not satisfactory and prevent-
ed the stoping of the ore in the most economical manner. By
the introduction of the western square set-method of timber-
ing, the stoping of the ore is being done safely, completely
and economically. The sets are made of 8 x 8 inch sawed
oak and the mine carpenter can usually easily frame enough
timber for this work in about one-eighth of his time. The

124

Journal of the Mitchell Society [. November

sets are 6 ft. 3 inches high in the clear and 5 feet across in
the clear. The posts are, therefore, 6 ft. 3 inches long be-
tween the shoulders and have a 5 x 5 inch tenon inches
long at each end; the caps are 5 ft. 3 inches between shoul-
ders and have a 5x5 inch tenon 2}£ inches long at each end;
the ties are 5 feet between shoulders and have a tenon 5x8
inches and 1% inches long at each end.

The size of the timbers will of course vary with the weight
to be sustained. This style and proportions of framing are
very good for oak timbers; but for pine, which crushes so
easily across the grain, it is better to have the ends of the
post tenons to touch each other. The light timbers are of
course cheaper and much more easily handled. As the stopes
get large, they are more or less completely filled with waste
rock which is usually obtained in mining and would other-
wise have to be hoisted out in working the usually underhand
stopes. This filling also holds the posts in position and
helps to prevent them from buckling or “jack-knifing” if any
one timber yields, which might otherwise endanger the whole
system. Since most of the pressure is downward, as soon as
the ore is blasted away to make room for a new set, all the
sets below are relieved and tend to come back to their origin-
al position. Thus, even light timbers will hold very well if
the stope is worked rapidly enough.

In the Union Copper mine the square sets were founded
upon a platform built upon the old solid looking truss sets.
As soon as a heavy load came upon them the trusses buckled
sidewise and everything caved in. Anew foundation was then
made upon reinforced stulls and there has been no trouble
since. Mr. Griswold is starting a new lot of square sets in
a large open chamber just above the fourth level and he will
thus be able to work out easily all the ore left above, espec-
ially a big pillar that remains between the first and second
levels.

A new set can be added in any position at any time with-
out disturbing the adjoining timbers and the old timbers can
easily be supported by temporary props while making room

Recent Changes in Gold Mining

125

1907]

for an additional set. When the old timbers have been re-
placed the entire flooring- of sets is easily put in as the ore
is removed; a temporary plank covering may be placed across
the old timbers to protect the men from falling rocks. Tem-
porary plank floors are placed upon the sets for the men to
stand upon and, as the system becomes higher, chutes and
mill holes are put in to conduct the ore to the car on the
track below. Any waste rock mined is merely dumped in
and around the lower sets.

There has been little or no trouble indtroducing the square
set method of timbering and at the Union Copper Mine the
work is done under the immediate supervision of Mr. Hed-
rick, a skilfull North Carolina shift boss who has had no
previous experience with square sets. Some of the miners,
especially negroes, when first stoping by means of square set
timbering are a little nervous because they are so close to the
roof that they can see how loose the rocks are; but they
soon realize that they can pick down the loose rock or prop
it up and, therefore, are safer than when they are so far
away that they cannot tell at what moment the rock may fall
upon them. Also when working at the bottom of a high,

1 underhand stope, a blow from even a small rock would be
dangerous.

CYANIDE PLANTS.

The introduction of the cj^anide process for treating certain
sulphuret ores is a third change in mining practice in the
State that has added considerable to the production of gold.
One of the most successful cyanide plants was the one erected
to work the tailings of the Howie mine, near Waxhaw, Union
County. This mine is in a zone of hard, siliceous slates, carry-
ing chimney-like bodies of pretty high grade ore. The gold
is all free but so finely disseminated that the high grade ore
which.is a laminated or schistose quartz has merely a golden
sheen. A great deal of this escaped amalgamation although
enough was saved to pay well. These old tailings, which are
rumored to have been worth 5 or 6 dollars a ton, soften

126 Journal of the Mitchell Society [. November

somewhat upon exposure to the weather so that the recovery
by cyanide was very good.

The old cyanide plant had four iron tanks 5)4 feet deep and
30 feet in diameter and supposedly the necessary other tanks
and apparatus. When the tailings were exhausted the mine
was sold to the Colossus Mining Company, a London corpor-
ation, which proposed to put in an immense plant to treat
the entire zone. This zone had previously been cross cut by
two trenches somewhat over 20 feet deep, but it was never
properly sampled, for although there are many fairly rich
streaks, the general average value is only 40 to 50 cents a ton.
The tanks of the old mill were made a part of the new big
mill, so the original arrangement of this successful plant
could not be learned and also no one could be found to give
information about the successful treatment. There is now a
Ledgerwood cableway for economical handling of excavated
rock. This dumps the skips of rock upon the feeding plat-
form of a very large gyratory crusher discharging into a
trommel. The coarse rock from the trommel goes through a
smaller gyratory crusher into the bin cotaining the finer rock.
From this bin it is hoisted to a long, rotating cylinder dryer
discharging to the first of a pair of Allis rolls working in
series with necessary screens and elevators. The fine mate-
rial from these rolls is divided among three ball mills of pecu-
liar design. They have a vertical axis bearing arms which
push a number of six inch iron balls around a horizontal run-
way.

There are at present no screens on these, and the product
contains a good deal of troublesome dust or slimes, and some
sand too coarse for successful cyaniding. From the ball
mills a fine set of conveyors carry the dry material to any one
of the leaching tanks. There are six tanks 5)4 feet deep and
40 feet in diameter, and four tanks 5)4 feet deep by 30 feet in
diameter, all in the open air; and the necessary solution,
gold and slump tanks. The mill is very badly designed since
the rolls have scarcely capacity for 75 tons per day and the
ball mills were so overworked that much coarse sand passed

Recent Changes in Goed Mining

127

1907]

through them. On the other hand, the crushers, elevators,
etc., have a capacity fully four times as great. The mill has
been used by the present management in making cyanide
tests upon the rich ore remaining in the chimneys. Even
when crushed very fine this fresh unaltered ore can be leach-
ed for a week without apparently giving up more than half
its gold, thus this cyanide plant cannot be used for this ore.

At present the most productive cyanide plant in this State
is the one at the Iola Mine, near Candor, Montgomery
County. The ore, coming from a pretty sharply defined
vein, is either a hard, glassy, white quartz with traces of un-
replaced slate, carrying coarse gold in octahedral crystals;
or soft sugary, white quartz generally richer but not show-
ing visible gold. This “sugar quartz” has lately been run-
ning from $14.00 to $20.00 per ton. It is crushed in a dilapi-
dated 20 stamp mill where the coarse gold and much of the
fine gold is amalgamated as usual. The tailings are elevated
and are run to the various settling tanks or “sand boats,”
3 feet wide at one end, 5 feet at the other, 12 feet
long and 3^ feet deep, having at the small end a wooden
lattice on the inner side of which a canvass curtain
may be rolled up from the bottom. When the thin tailings
run into this the sand settles out and the fine part or
slimes flow into the slime tanks. As the sand accumulates
the curtain is unrolled so that the overflow is just above the
level of the top of the sand. The other two sand boats, just
above the tanks, are plain boxes 6 feet by 3^ by 15 feet. One
end is bored full of holes to let out the slimes. These are
plugged as the level of the sand reaches them.

The wet sand from these boats is shovelled or wheeled into
whichever of the sand tanks may be empty. This shovelling
thoroughly breaks up any water tight layers of slime which
may have formed when the mill was shut down for a short
time, and the thin pulp remaining below the overflow has a
chance to settle in a layer on top of the sand. It also sup-
plies the needed oxygen to aid the cyanide in dissolving the
gold. The sand tanks were made locally of yellow pine and

128

Journal of the Mitchell Society [. November

are 4 feet deep and 20 feet in diameter with the usual
cocoa matting- filter in the bottom. When filled to conveni-
ent height, they hold 40 tons of sand. A solution containing
1.4 pounds of potassium cyanide per ton of water is pumped
upon this and drained off through the filter; this solution is
kept circulating as rapidly as possible, keeping the sand
always covered, for three or four days until the sand must be
removed to make room for another batch. Then the solution
is allowed to drain off, after which a little water is added to
displace what solution remains in the damp sand. The sand
is then washed out by a stream of water from a hose throug-h
an opening in the bottom of the tank into a troug-h or
launder, to a settling pond where the sand settles out and the
water collects to be pumped back again.

The slimes flow from the sand boats to one of the three
agitation tanks 10 feet deep and 20 feet in diameter. Near
the bottom of each of these is a slowly revolving paddle consist-
ing of four well braced oak arms carrying pins. Some of the
surplus water is drained off and a solution carrying 1 pound
of potassium cyanide per ton of water (0.05%) is added.
The agitation continues while the solution and slimes are
drawn off at the bottom to a 4-inch centrifugal pump, thus
thoroughly aerating and mixing it. This process continues
until the tank is needed for more slimes. The solution is
then pumped into one of the settling tanks 14x18 feet at a
little lower level. Here the solid matter slowly settles out
and the clear solution is drawn off. Sometimes the slimes
are returned for a treatment with a second solution until
they are finally sluiced out to waste. The solution from the
sand tank, which now contains the gold, is passed directly to
the zinc boxes; these have six compartments, 2x2x2 feet, with
a side trough and a diaphragm for circulating the solution.
This arrangement allows any one box to be emptied and
cleaned while the solution circulates through the others.

From the zinc boxes the solution flows to the sump tank,
10x20 feet. Here more potassium cyanide is added to replace
what has been consumed until the solution reaches the right

Recent Changes in Gold Mining

129

1907]

strength. This sump tank thus serves for a solution tank,
from which the solution is raised by a small centrifugal
pump to the sand leaching tanks. Most other mills have a
small extra tank at the highest level in which the solution is
made up and from which it flows by gravity to the sand
tanks.

The clear solution from the slime settling tank is stored in
the tank 24x8 feet. From this it flows through an eight com-
partment zinc box like the other one and to the sump and
weak solution tank.

In the zinc boxes zinc from a mass of fine zinc shavings
enters the solution in place of the gold which is precipitated
as a black coating upon the zinc. Each month the zinc in
the boxes is sifted and the fine stuff saved, and the coarse
stuff returned to the box. The deficiency of coarse zinc in
the first box is made up by taking some of it from the second,
which is in turn filled from the third and so on. All the
fresh zinc required is added to the last compartment, and,
since much of the gold sticks to the zinc until it is all dis-
solved, most of the gold slimes are recovered from the first
compartment where precipitation is also most active, as the
solution passing through it contains the largest percentage of
gold.

The gold slimes, or finety divided gold, containing small
scraps of zinc, is melted in a graphite crucible to which a
little nitre is added to oxidize the zinc and cause it to unite
with the borax used as a flux. The melted gold is cast into
bricks and sent to the mint.

All the tanks are in the open air. The pipes are wrapped to
prevent freezing, and there is no trouble except that heavy
rains increase the amount of solution which must be wasted
and so cause a greater loss of potassium cyanide. The
pumps, and the engine for driving them and the agitators,
are housed in. In the same building is the room containing
the zinc boxes and furnace for melting the bullion. About
4-10 of a pound of potassium cyanide is consumed per ton of
ore. In the ore are no copper minerals or similar sub-
stances to consume cyanide.

130 Journal of the Mitchell Society [. November

Eight pounds of lime are added to each ton of tailings
on its way to the cyanide plant. This is to cause the
slimes to settle more readily and neutralize any acid which
may be formed from the pyrites in the ore, and which would
otherwise consume cyanide. The chief loss of cyanide is,
therefore, in the solution that is wasted with the wet
slimes.

There is required one solution man at $1.50 a day for
each shift. If one-half of the steam used at the mill is
charged to the cyanide part, the total cost exclusive of inter-
est and depreciation is $0.90 per ton. The tailings from the
cyanide plant contain about $1.00 per ton of gold. Since the
sands from the mill had been carrying $4.86 per ton, there is
a handsome profit in the cyanide plant — about $2.90 per ton
treated. The cost of the plant was from $10,000 to $12,000.
The loss in the tailings could be reduced by a longer treat-
ment of the sands and the intention is to add two more sand
leaching tanks for this purpose.*

At the Montgomery mine, which adjoins the Iola, there is
another cyanide plant for treating failings from a 10 stamp mill.
All of the tanks are square. The stream of tailings is first sepa-
rated into slimes and sands in a pointed box. Near the bot-
tom of this box is a pipe out of which the coarse sand, which
settles most rapidly, flows to the settling tanks, over the
sand tank, while the slimes overflow at the top opposite the
inlet. The slimes are not treated and the sand treatment
does not differ essentially from that at Iola. The mine was
shut down at the time of the visit so no data as to the
cyanide (treatment could be obtained. From the relatively
greater tank capacity, the sand probably receives a longer
treatment. The solution tanks and zinc boxes are inside the
mill.

There is a new cyanide mill at the Southern Homestake Mine,
13 miles south of Thomasville, near Cox, Randolph County.

♦Note — The data as to the cyanide treatment was mostly obtained from
Mr. W. T. Sawyer, former superintendent, checked as far as possible by
Mr. Jones, the present superintendent.

Recent Changes in Gold Mining

131

7907]

The ore passes over a grizzly, the oversize from which goes
through a Blake crusher, aud, with the fines from the grizzly,
are elevated to a trommel screen above a small storage bin.
The oversize from this trommel passes through a pair of cor-
rugated rolls, then back to the same trommel, and soon, until
it is all reduced to sand. The corrugated rolls chattered
badly on account of the coarse feed; and the soft clayey ore
tends to stick them so it will probably be better to use instead a
number of smooth rolls in series.

The fine dry ore is taken by a belt conveyor to one of the
three sheet iron leaching tanks, 6 feet deep and 30 feet in
diameter. It was assumed that the solution would percolate
through the S}4 feet of dry crushed ore, even though the
slimes were not removed; but in the actual tests the tanks
were filled only half full. Below the level of these leaching
tanks are zinc boxes and sump tanks; the three solution tanks
are on a trestle outside the main building, covering the leach-
ing tanks.

The property was purchased without adequate sampling
and the work was abandoned after treating 150 tons and find-
ing that the ore averaged only $2.00 a ton. No data as to
time of treatment, strength of solution, etc., was obtained.
The recovery on the three tanks tried was 70, 80 and 83 per
cent respectively. The ore is decomposed rock, occurring in
wide zones and carrying a great deal of clay. No data was
obtained as to the capacity of the mill.

MINING DETAILS (SELF-DUMPING SKIPS, ETC.)

'

Many of the mines in North Carolina are based upon more
or less flat veins and since most of the ore is hoisted in
buckets, it is customary to sink vertical shafts. When the
mines become deep, this requires expensive cross-cuts to
reach the vein; hence there are many vertical shafts which are
turned upon reaching the vein and not adapted to the use
of a cage or an ordinary style skip. Mr. Geo. E. Price has
overcome this difficulty at the Rudisill Mine, at Charlotte,
Mecklenburg County, by modifying the ordinary skip, and

132

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

adapting it to his special needs. The shaft is vertical
for 200 feet and then inclines at an angle of 35°
from the horizontal for 150 feet more. The skip is the
ordinary iron skip, except that the wheels are a little larger
than usual to reduce friction on the incline and all have
narrow treads. In the vertical part these wheels run between
two vertical guide timbers. The rope is not over the center
of the shaft but toward the dumping side so that when
the skip reaches the top the front wheels run down the
forward curve of the track until they strike the top.
Then the rear wheels swing to the rear in the arc of
a circle. Just before they reach the top of this arc
the nose of the skip strikes a roller which raises the front
wheels sufficiently to bring them to a bearing against the
front vertical guide so that incase of overwinding the skip
rises at the dumping angle and rock cannot be dumped down
the shaft. In this way the skip need wait at the top of
the shaft only long enough for the ore to slide out of it,
which is but a small fraction of a minute.

The ore is dumped from the car on to a platform about
3 feet below the level of the rails and the skip is stopped
with its top about level with this platform and nearly fill-
ing the opening in it. If the output of the mine was a
little greater, Mr. Price would replace the platform by a
small bin, into which the cars could be dumped as they
reach the station and from which the ore could be rapidly
run into a skip through a chute. But since the man that
would be required to operate the gate has ample time to shovel
all the ore into the skip, there would be no labor saving in
the bins and no justification for the expense. For even a small
mine this skip saves the labor of a top man.

In the ordinary vertical shaft the bales of the skips are
fitted with shoes and there are no wheels on the skip which is
unlatched and dumped at the top by rollers striking suitable
curved gnides. Such a skip has the advantage of needing
only one set of guides and no wheels, but it cannot be operat-
ed around a curve.

ig°7 ] Recent Changes in Gold Mining 133

The labor of the top man is also avoided by a self-dumping-
bucket observed at the Haile Gold Mine, South Carolina.
This is an ordinary bucket fitted with guide wheels. The
back wheels are caught by a latch at the dumping place
and turns over when the rope is slacked off. Then the
bucket is raised, the latch is withdrawn by the engineer
and the bucket lowered.

CHAPEL HILL FERNS AND THEIR ALLIES

The accompanying- list of ferns of this region, including an
area of about two miles radius around Chapel Hill, has been
in course of preparation for several years, and is now, in all
probability, very nearly complete. The topography of
Chapel Hill is quite favorable to fern growth, and the num-
ber found here is as large as could be expected in regions free
from limestone.

In his “Catalogue of the Indigenous and Naturalized
Plants of the State,” by Dr. M. A. Curtis*, there are given
thirty-eight true ferns and eleven fern allies for the State
of North Carolina. Of the species mentioned by him, eigh-
teen ferns and four fern allies occur in Chapel Hill, while two
of the ferns in the following list are not recorded by Curtis
for this State. These are Botrychium obliquum var. dissec-
tum, and Dryopteris Goldieana var. celsa.

The list of our ferns is as follows:

Botrychium obliquum Muhl. (B. ternatum Chapm.).
Ternate Grape fern. Not uncommon in damp, shaded places.

Botrychium obliquum var. dissectum. Dissected Grape-
fern. Found only once in a low place near Judge’s spring.

Botrychium Virginianum (L.) Sw. Virginia Grape-fern.
Rather more common than B. obliquum and occurring in
similar situations.

Osmunda spectabilis willd. Royal Fern. (Distinct from
O. regalis L. of Europe). Common along small streams.

Osmunda cinnamomea L. Cinnamon Fern. Common
along small streams and in low, damp places.

Polypodium vulgare L. Common Polypody. Very rare.
Known only to occur at Upper Laurel Hill where it covers the
face of a high rock, looking north.

♦Geological and Natural History Survey of North Carolina, Part III,
Raleigh, 1867.

134

[ November ~

ig°7~\ Chapel Hill Ferns and their Allies

135

Polypodium polypodioides (L.) A. S. Hitchcock. (P.
incanum Sw.). Resurrection Fern. On shaded trunks of
elms and occasionally on rocks; not rare.

Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. (Pteris aquilina L.)
Bracken or Brake. In dry woods and sometimes in fields.
Common.

Adiantum pedatum L. Maiden-hair Fern. Found in
three situations; in rich places near the foot of hills looking-
north.

Cheilanthes lanosa (Michx.) Watt. (C. vestita Sw.)
Hairy Lip-fern. Found only on one rock on northern side of
Morgan’s Creek near Scott’s Hole.

Asplenium platyneuron (L.) Oaks. (A. ebeneum Ait.)
Ebony Spleenwort. Common in woods and in niches of stone
walls.

Asplenium acrostichoides Sw. Silvery Spleenwort.
Found only in two clumps near the base of Lone Pine Hill
looking north.

Asplenium Felix-foemina (L.) Bernh. Lady Fern.
Very common along streams and in damp places.

Woodwardia areolata (L.) Moore. Chain Fern. Found
only in a marshy spot about one-half mile south-west of the
University.

Onoclea sensibilis L. Sensitive Fern. Scattered here

fand there in wet places.

Dryopteris acrostichoides (Michx.) Kuntze. Christ-
mas Fern. Abundant along streams and on northern slopes
of hills.

Dryopteris Thelyteris (L.) A. Gray. Marsh Shield-
fern. Found only in marsh north of Lone Pine Hill.

Dryopteris Goldieana (Hook.) A. Gray. var. celsa.
This fern was recently found near the northern foot of Lone
Pine Hill. About eight specimens occurred scattered over a
radius of seventy-five yards. It has not before been recorded
for this State, It was described from Dismal Swamp by
Palmer in the Proceedings of the Biological Society of Wash-
ington, Volume XIII, page 65, 1899. Specimens have since

136

Journal of* the Mitchell Society [ November

been found in New York and New Jersey, For this informa-
tion I am indebted to Professor L. M. Underwood and Mr.
R. C. Benedict of New York. Dr. Underwood considers the
fern a hybrid between D, goldieana and D, marginalis. It is
not described in any of our manuals.

Phegopteris hexagonoptera (Michx.) Fee. Beech Fern.
Not uncommon in flat places along- small streams,

Woodsia obtusa (Spreng) Torr, Found only on a few
stone walls in town.

The fern allies found here are as follows:

Equisetum hyemale L. Scouring. rush. Found by Dr,
H, V, Wilson along Morgan’s Creek, Occurring also along
the Oxford road near Durham.

Lycopodium alopecuroides L. Club-moss, Growing
only in an open wet place near the spot where Woodwardia
was found.

Lycopodium complanatum L, Christmas-gre^n, Found
by me only near upper Laurel Hill, Reported from a few
places by others,

Selaginella apus L. Spring, Rather common among
moss in wet places.

SALISBURY'S PHYSIOGRAPHY. *

COIXIER COBB.

T eachers of physiography in colleges will welcome this book,
not only because it is the first of its kind of college grade,
but also for the large amount of fresh material that it con-
tains and its admirable arrangement, the author being at the
same time a skilled investigator and a successful teacher.

“In the preparation of the text,” he tells us, “the effort has
been to shape it, when practicable, so as to lead the student
into the subject under discussion, rather than to tell him the
conclusions which have been reached by those who have
made the subject their special study.” The author holds
persistently to that idea of physiography which regards the
origin of land forms as its chief problem. This is not the
English idea of physiography, but it is preeminently the Amer-
ican idea. It is the geography which Mackinder of Oxford
defined as the study of the present in the light of the past,
as distinguished from geology, which is the study of the
past in the light of the present.

If the high school teacher is disappointed that small space
has been given to certain topics that he has associated with
text-books of physical geography, such as minerals and rocks,
and plants and animals, let him remember that in colleges,
where the author purposes the book shall be used, special
courses in these related subjects are given in associated
departments. In fact a strong point of the book is that,

♦Physiography. By Prof. R. D. Salisbury, University of Chicago. 8 vo.
770 pp. American Science Series — Advanced Course. $3.50. New York:
Henry Holt and Company.

1907] 137

138

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[. November

with the exception of a few references to physiographic
effects on human life, scattered through its pages, it presents
physiography as a science associating causes and effects
clearly and forcibly, thus avoiding the mistake made by
many who exalt physiographic control at the expense of a
science deeply interesting for its own sake.

Any study of the origin of land forms involves the study of
both air and water, since air is the medium through which
solar energy is applied to the earth, and water is the greatest
agent in producing effects on the earth’s surface. Though
the greater part of the book is given to land forms, still
273 pages remain for the treatment of the atmosphere, the
ocean, and the earth’s solar relations. The treatment is
essentially dynamic, and the movement in the direction of
the explanation of the origin of the land forms of the earth.
The reader is led to see these forms in the process of becom-
ing what they are, and to anticipate the time when they
shall give way to other forms. The surface of the earth
becomes a stage where physical forces play their part, now
in one role, now in another, until the land above the sea is
reduced to base level, or rejuvenated by elevation to begin a
similar sequence of events, to enter upon a new cycle.

The first chapter of the book introduces the reader to the
chief relief forms of the earth’s crust and the materials out
of which they are made. This general survey places the
problem of the land forms well before the student, and pre-
pares him for the consideration of the agents that have
shaped them. Then follow chapters explaining and discuss-
ing the work of the atmosphere, of ground water, running
water, snow and ice, of waves and currents in the construction
of shore forms, of vulcanism, and the effects of crustal move-
ment, or diastrophism. For the first time does the work of
the atmosphere receiye anything like adequate treatment in a
text-book of physiography. These chapters are followed by
a very excellent generalization and summary of the origin
and distribution of land forms clinching in the minds of the
students the facts that have been brought out and driven
home by varied investigations. ,

Salisbury's Physiography

139

The part played by the atmosphere in the evolution of
surface forms has received a treatment comparable in detail
to that presented by special text-books of meteorology. The
energy derived from the sun is followed through a series of
transformations, in the chapters on atmospheric pressure, the
movement of air currents, and the transportation of water
vapor to its final precipitation upon the earth. The various
elements of climate and the zones of climate receive due
attention. In these chapters the composition of the atmos-
phere, the air in its life relations, the distribution of temper-
atures over the earth, and the philosophy of the movements of
the air are treated in an interesting and original manner.
The chapter on the storms of the United States is especially
detailed and illustrated by a complete series of isothermal
charts and weather maps. Following the chapters on the
atmosphere, six chapters covering fifty pages are given to
the discussion of the principal facts of oceanography.

The book contains more than seven hundred illustrations,
forty-three of which are sections of topographic maps; and of
the others more than half are half-tones from excellent photo-
graphs. This can by no means replace field-work but serves
rather to invite to work out of doors; for the author says in
his preface: “Another phase of work which should not be

i 1 neglected is work out of doors. This must form a part of the
work of every strong course in this subject. Directions for
local field-work cannot be outlined profitably in a text-book,
for the work must be shaped with reference to the specific
locality where the subject is studied. Both field-work and
map work should have for their aim the application of the
principles studied, in such a way as to make the subject vital.
The aim of every laboratory exercise carried out in connec-
tion with this subject should be the same, and any laboratory
work which does not either illustrate and enforce principles,
or lead to them, is not worth development. The student
who cannot apply what he has learned in the class-room to
to his out-of-door surroundings, has not secured the maximum
good from his study of the subject.”

140

Journal of thk Mitchell Society \_Kovemb \j>'-

At the end of each chapter is a well selected list of top

m

the text, and a list of classified and paged references for sirtf
plementary reading-. These references, even without the
text, would be a most valuable aid to the advanced student or
teacher, as they have been gathered through long1 experience
in the class room. The author’s style is pleasing- and not too
technical, and the averag-e public school teacher will find the
book an invaluable aid in the teaching- of physical geography,
though it was written primarily for the college student.

* *

DECEMBER, J907

NO. 4

KQ

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

ISSUED QUARTERLY

$ CHAPEL HU. I,, N. C.> U, Si A.

. TO It ENTERED AT THE P09T0PIICC «B SECOND CLASS MATTES

li&c!RB8Sw- 5 : - , >'■ • y- . 7 - " '/* £ : - \ v',:

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

W. C. ('OKER, President
J. E. LATTA, Vice-President

A. S. WHEELER, Rec Sec. F. P. VENABLE,

Editors ok the Journal:

§mi

W. O. COKER

E. V. HOWELL, ARCHIBALD HENDERSON

CONTENTS

Artificial Key to the Species of Snakes and Lizards which are
Found in North Carolina.— C. S. Bnmley
The Salamanders of North Carolina. — C. S. Brimley

A Key to the Species of Frogs and Toads Liable to Occur in North
Carolina. -t-C & Brimley 15

On Some Phenomena of Coalescence and Regeneration in Sponges.

. , ^ :v . , | ■ _ ' '

5 — H. V- Wilson .- 16

Fishes of North Carolina; A Review.— Josph Hyde Pratt 17

Reviews

Journal of the - Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society — Quarterly. ;Pr*^l!
$2.00 per year; single numbers 50 cents. Most numbers of former \
limes can be supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Editors, i
University of North- -Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. &

JOURNAL

vol. xxrn

OF THE

Mitchell Scientific Society

LIBRARY
NEW YOR!
0OTANICA

garden

DECEMBER, 1907

NO. 4

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE SPECIES OF SNAKES
AND LIZARDS WHICH ARE FOUND IN
NORTH CAROLINA.

1. Eyelids moveable; external ear present; underparts cov-
ered with numerous scales; limbs present, except in
Ophisaurus. Lizards. 2.

Eyelids immovable; no external ears; under parts covered

Swith broad band like plates; limbs absent. Snakes. 7.

2. Limbs absent. Length when adult about 2 ft. of which
about two thirds are normally tail. * Glass or Joint Snake.
{Ophisaurus v entrails).

Limbs present. Length when adult 1 ft. or less. 3.

j 3. Body very smooth and shiny. 4.

Body not very smooth and shiny, scales at least somewhat
rough. 5.

: 4. Leng-th about 5 inches or less, unstriped. Ground Lizard
(Leiolepisma later ale).

Length over 5 inches or else with leng-thwise stripes.
Large adults often unstriped with reddish head. Blue -

•The tail as in all lizards is very easy to break off, and hence a glass
make with an injured tail growing afresh, may have the tail quite short.

'907]

141

Printed Feb. 13, 1908

142

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

tailed Lizard, “ Red-headed Scorpion ” ( Eumeces quin -
quehneatus.)

5. Back crossbanded, or else throat and sides of belly dark
blue. Scales very rough. Fence Lizard ( Sceloporus
undulatus ) .

Back not crossbanded, throat not dark blue, scales not
very rough. 6.

6. Back with lengthwise stripes Sand Swift ( Cnemido -
phorus sexlineatus).

Back unstriped. Color green, brown or blackish. Green
Lizard, “ Chameleon ” ( Anolis carolinensis) .

7. A pit of hollow in the side of head between eye and
nostril. Plates on underside of tail mostly not in pairs.
Head much broader than the neck. The Rattlesnakes
and their kin. (Family Crotalidae). 8.

No pit on side of head between eye and nostril. Plates
on under side of tail in pairs. Top of head covered
with large plates. 11.

8. Tail with a rattle. Top of head covered with large
plates. Size small. Rattle small. Ground Rattlesnake

( Sistrurus m iliarius ) .

Tail with a rattle. Top of head covered with small
scales. Size large, rattle large. 9.

Tail without a rattle. Top of head covered with large
plates. 10.

9. Markings on back in form of diamond-shaped blotches.
Diamond Rattlesnake ( Crotalus adamanteus ).

Markings on back in form of dark, ragged-edged cross
bands, or sometimes when the animal is very dark, wholly
absent. Banded Rattlesnake ( Crotalus horridus).

10. Top of head blackish brown, colors darker. * Cotton-
mouth ( Ancistrodon piscivorus ) .

* The Cottonmouth is continually confused with the large water snakes
of the genus Natrix, which are perfectly harmless.

Artificial Key to the Snakes

143

*9°7\

Top of head reddish, colors paler. Copperhead ( Ancis -
tron contortrix).

11. Upper parts unmarked. 12.

Upperparts with evident markings. 22.

12. Upper parts green. 13.

Upper parts not green. 14.

13. fScales keeled. Southern Green Snake ( Cyclophis aesti-
vus).

Scales smooth. Northern Green Snake ( Liopeltis ver-
nalis).

14. Color of upper parts black. 15.

Color of upper parts some shade of brown. 17.

15. Snout recurved and keeled. Scales keeled. Black Adder
( Heterodon platyrhmus var. niger).

Snout as usual, not recurved nor keeled. 16.

16. Scales all smooth. Underparts slaty black except the
throat which is white. Black Snake ( Bascanion con-
strictor).

Middle rows of scales faintly keeled. Underparts black-
ish, except for about the front third, which is white.
Chicken Snake ( Coluber obsoletus).

17. Scales keeled. 18.

Scales smooth. 19.

18. Size small, under 1 ft. when adult. Brown Snake ( Hal -
dea striatula).

Size large. Coppery red below. Copperbelly ( Natrix
f erythrogastra) .

19. Size large. (Young crossbanded, a foot long when
hatched.) Coachwhip ( Bascanion Jlagellum).

Size small, under one foot when adult. 20.

+ The scales of a snake are either perfectly smooth or else with a little
ridge down the middle, in the latter case they are said to be keeled.

144

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

20. Under parts reddish. Ground Snake (Carphophiops
amoenus ).

Under parts whitish or yellowish. 21.

21. Top of head darker than back. Color of back reddish
brown. Brown-headed Snake {Rhadinaea jlavilata).
Top of head same color as back. Color of upper parts
grayish brown. * Valerias Snake ( Virginia v alert ae).

22. Markings confined to red and black blotches on the sides.
Under parts red. Size large, scales smooth. Horn Snake
{Farancia ahacura).

Markings on upper parts confined to a light or dark
cross band on neck. 23.

Back striped or spotted or both. 24.

23. Under parts white, crossband on neck black. Crowned
Tantilla ( Tantilla coronata).

Under parts reddish, crossband on neck white. Brown
Snake ( Haldea striatula ), some young specimens.

Under parts yellow, spotted with black, crossband on
neck, yellow. Ringnecked Snake (Diadophis punctatus ).

24. Body striped lengthwise. 25.

Body not striped lengthwise. 31.

25. Scales keeled. 26.

Scales, or at least most of the lower rows, smooth. 30.

26. Under parts with dark stripes. Willow Snake ( Natrix
leberis).

Under parts not striped. 27.

27. Size small, under 1 ft. when adult. No side stripes but
only one down the middle of back. 28.

Size larger, adults over two feet in length. Side stripes
usually present. 29.

28. Under parts red. Three pale spots on nape. Redbel -
lied Snake ( Storeria occipitomaculata) .

♦Valerias Snake usually^has small blackish dots on back, but these are
not very conspicuous.

igoy ] Artificial Key to the Snakes 145

Under parts whitish. Not three pale spots on nape.
DeKays Snake ( Storeria dekayi).

29. Side stripes on third and fourth rows of scales, count-
ing- from belly plates; no square black spots between
stripes of side and that on back. Slim Garter Snake
( Eutaen ia sirtalis ) ,

Side stripes on second and third rows of scales. Square
black spots between stripes. Garter Snake ( Eutaenia
sirtalis).

30. Three red stripes on a darker ground. Underparts red,
spotted with black. Hoop Snake ( Abastor erythro-
grammus).

Four dark stripes on a lighter ground. Underparts yel-
lowish. Striped Chicken Snake ( Coluber quadrivittatus) .

31. Body above with crossbands of red, black, and white
(or yellow). 32.

Body not colored as above. 34.

32. Every alternate crossbar yellow. Coral Adder ( Elaps
fulvius ).

Every alternate crossbar black. 33.

33. Snout narrow, under parts white. Red Snake ( Cemo -
phora coccinea ).

Snout rounded, under parts with black markings. Red
King Snake ( Ophibolus doliatus coccineus).

34. Scales all smooth. 33.

Scales keeled, 42.

35. Black with narrow white crossbars forking on the sides.
King Snake ( Ophibolus getulus).

Not as above. 36.

36. Underparts with squarish black spots. 37.

Underparts not with squarish black spots. 38.

146

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

37. Head large, broader than the neck. |Anal plate divided.
Spotted Racer. Rat Snake {Coluber guttatus) .

Head small, not broader than neck. Anal plate undi-
vided. Milk Snake {Ophibolus doliatus triangulus ).

38. Head large, broader than neck. Anal plate divided. 39.
Head small, not broader than neck. Anal undivided.
Brown King Snake {Ophibolus rhomb omaculatus) .

39. ^Scales in 25 or 27 rows. 40.

Scales in 19 rows. 41.

40. Underparts yellowish. Striped Chicken Snake , young.
Underparts slaty black behind, whitish in front. Chicken
Snake, young.

41. §Upper lip plates 7 on each side. Black Snake, young .
Upper lip plates 8 on each side. Coachwhip, young.

42. Snout recurved and keeled. 43.

Snout not recurved and keeled. 44.

43. Small plate just behind snout plate with several small
scales round it. Snout more strongly recurved and
keeled. Hognosed Snake {Heterodon simus).

Small plate just behind snout plate without any small
scales round it. Snout less strongly keeled and recurved.
Spreading Adder (H. platyrhinus) .

44. Anal plate undivided. Ground color whitish with
dark spots on back. Bull Snake {Pityophis melanoleu-
cugs).

Anal plate divided. 45.

tAnal plate is the plate immediately in front of the vent, which in most
of our forms is divided longitudinally into two pieces, but in some it is
undivided.

iRows of scales are counted diagonally beginning with the row just above
the belly plates and are usually uneven in number.

§Tlie upper labials or lip plates are the plates along the edge of the
upper lips, excluding the plate at tip of snout.

147

ipo?] Artificial Key to the Snakes

45. Only the middle rows of scales keeled, size small.
* Chicken Snake, young .

All rows of scales strongly keeled. 46.

46. Spots on back forming crossbars with no alternating
spots on sides. Southern Water Snake ( Matrix fasciata
fasciata ).

Spots on back forming crossbars on front part of body,
and on hinder part alternating with spots on the sides.
Common Water Snake ( Natrix fasciata Sipedon) .

Spots on back alternating with spots on sides from head
to tail. • Pied Water Snake ( Natrix taxispilota. ) .

NOTES ON THE SPECIES INCLUDED IN THE KEY.

The following species are poisonous: The three species of
Rattlesnake (Ground, Banded, and Diamond Rattlesnakes),
the Copperhead, and the Cottonmouth, and lastly the Coral
Adder, which last belongs to the same group of snakes as the
deadly cobra of India. The following harmless snakes are
often confused with poisonous species: the Spreading Adder
with the Copperhead; the harmless water snakes with the
cottonmouth, both forms being indiscriminately known as
water moccasins; and the red snake and red king snake with
the coral adder.

A few of the species listed have not yet been recorded from
North Carolina, these are the coral adder, northern green
snake, coachwhip, and milk snake, and we have only one
unsatisfactory record of the bull snake.

Of the species included in the key, the following have not
yet been taken in this state outside of the lower austral life
zone, whose northern boundary in this state appears to be
approximately a line drawn from Norfolk through Raleigh,
and thence to Charlotte:

*The Southern Chicken Snake (Coluber obsoletus confinis) may possibly
occur, in which case the keys for the young of the Chicken Snake would
apply to this also. I do not know how the young of the two forms would
be distinguished.

148

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

Glass Snake, at Raleigh, Garner, Southport, Beaufort.

Green Lizard, at Southport, Wilmington, Beaufort, Lake
Ellis, Trjon, and Lumberton.

Hoop Snake, at Newberne, Kinston, Wilmington, Lake
Ellis.

Horn Snake, at Newberne, Wilmington, Lake Ellis.

Brown headed Snake at Fort Macon.

Hognosed Snake in Wake Co., at Goldsboro and Lake
Ellis.

Spotted Racer at Raleigh, Lake Ellis and Washington.

Striped Chicken Snake, at Newberne and Cape Hatteras.

Red King Snake, at Raleigh,

Red Snake at Raleigh.

Pied Water Snake at Kinston, Avoca, Newberne and Lake
Ellis.

Southern Water Snake at Newberne, Wilmington, and
Lake Ellis.

Crowned Tantilla at Raleigh.

Cottonmouth at Newberne, Wilmington, Lake Ellis, Cape
Hatteras, Beaufort, Washington, and Raleigh.

Ground Rattlesnake, at Wilmington, and Beaufort.

Diamond Rattlesnake at Havelock below Newberne.

Records of the Coral Adder, Coachwhip, Milk Snake,
Northern Green Snake, and Bull Snake are very much desired
as also records of any other species of snakes and lizards,
particularly those confined to the lower austral zone.

Of the four species listed as possibly occurring in the state,
the Coral Adder and Coachwhip are confined to the lower
austral zone, and should be looked for in the southeastern
portion of the state, while the Milk Snake is most apt to be
found in the northwest corner. The Northern Green Snake
is apt to occur anywhere in the state but is not likely
to be common anywhere, and the Bull Snake, of which we
have a doubtful record from Wake Co. is liable to occur in
the pine woods of the region near the coast.

The other species of snakes and lizards probably occur
throughout the entire state, except in portions of the moun-

jpo7]

Artificial Key to the Snakes

149

tain region, but our actual records are few and scattered.

Persons having specimens of any reptile that they are not
well acquainted with, would do well to communicate with the
Curator of the State Museum at Raleigh, or with myself.

C. S. Brimley,

Newberne Ave., cor. Tarboro St.,

' Raleigh, N. C.

(Information is also desired concerning the occurrence of
the alligator in the state and also as to the occurrence of the
species of soft shelled turtles in the Mississippi drainage as
well as in the southeast of the state, the two different parts in
which they may possibly occur.)

THE SALAMANDERS OF NORTH CAROLINA

C. S. BRIMLEY

Salamanders are animals which are commonly confused
with lizards and which mainly resemble them in external ap-
pearance. Their true affinities, in spite of the possession of
limbs, are however with the fishes, with which group they
and the other amphibians are sometimes combined under the
name of Icthyopsida.

They differ externally from from all our lizards in the pos-
session of a moist skin without scales, while all our lizards
have a dry scaly skin. The skin in salamanders and other
amphibians (frogs and toads) is always moist, and used to
some extent (wholly in many species) as an organ of respira-
tion.

The forms which occur or are liable to occur in this state
may be recognized by the following key.

KEY TO THE SALAMANDERS OCCURING OR LIABLE TO OCCUR IN
NORTH CAROLINA

1. Adults with with external gills, 2.

Adults without external gills, 5.

2. Hind limbs absent, 3.

Hind limbs present. Toes 4 on both hind and fore-
feet, 4.

3. Toes 4. Size large. Great Siren ( Siren lacertina).

Toes 3. Size small. Little Siren {Pseudobranchas striatus) .

4. Brown with darker spots. Water Dog ( Necturus mac-
ulatus').

[December

150

igoy ] The Salamanders of North Carolina 151

Pale unspotted. Southern Water Dog ( Necturus punc-
tatus).

5. Adults with a rounded opening- on each side of neck, 6.
Adults without a rounded opening on each side of
neck, 7.

6. Body eel-shaped, with rudimentary limbs. Toes 2 or 3
each on both fore and hind feet. Ditch Eel (Amphi-
uma means).

Body stout, salamander shaped. Toes 4 on fore, 5 on
hind feet. Hellbender ( Cryptobranchus alleghaniensis ).

7. Tongue mushroom shaped, i. e. a circular disk on a
central stalk, 8.

Tongue not attached by a central stalk only, 15.

8. Toes on hind feet 4. Size very small, yellowish brown.
Dwarf Salamander (Man cuius quadridigitatus) .

Toes on hind feet 5. (Genus Spelerpes), 9.

9. *Costal grooves, 13 or 14. 10.

Costal grooves 15 to 17. 13.

10. Tail about as long as rest of body. Yellow with a dark
line along each side of back. Underparts unmarked.
Striped Salamander (S. bilineatus).

Tail 1 1-2 to 2 times as long as body. 11.

11. Color vermilion red, with many brown spots. Tail
spotted, not barred. Spotted tailed Trition (S. maculi-
caudus ).

Color yellow. 12.

12. Underparts marbled with black. Back with a black
stripe down middle and another on each side. Hol-
brook's Triton (S. guttolineatus) .

Underparts unmarked. Back and sides with irregular
black spots. Long-tailed Salamander (S. longicauda).

•Costal grooves are grooves on the sides indicating where the ribs are.

152 Journal of the Mitchell Society [. December

13. *Upper jaw bearing- on its margin, immediately below
each nostril, a prominent tubercule. Color light choc-
olate brown, spotted with brown. Underparts unmarked.
Daniel’s Salamander ( S . danielsi).

Upper jaw bearing no such tubercle. 14.

14. Color red of varying shades spotted above or below
with black or both. Red Triton ( S . ruber).

Color yellowish or purplish brown above, irregularly
blotched with gray. Purple Salamander (S. porphy-
riticus).

15. Head with three longitudinal grooves. Underparts yel-
low or red below with black dots. 16.

Head without longitudinal grooves. 17.

16. Each side with a row of red spots, each spot surrounded by

a black ring. American Newt {Diemyctylus viridescens). j
Each side with a series of black' bordered red lines,
replacing the black ringed spots. Wilmington Newt |
( D . v. vittatus).

17. Salamanders with rather long toes on all four feet, the
outer and inner ones well developed. Tail compressed.
(Genus Ambystoma). 18.

Salamanders with shorter toes, the outer or inner toes !
or both usually reduced in size or rudimentary. Tail
not much compressed. 26.

18. Costal grooves 10. Form short and stout. Color black-
ish brown with gray, lichen like markings. Mole Sala-
mander (A. talpoideum ),

Costal grooves more than 10. 19.

19. Costal grooves usually 11. 20.

Costal grooves 14. 23.

*Similar tubercles occur more , or less frequently in Manculus quadridi-
gitaus, Sp. bilineatus, Sp. guttolineatus and regularly in Sp. maculicauda. j

1907] The Salamanders of North Carolina

153

24.

!■ 26.

I

|

I

Bluish black with gray or white blotches or crossbars
on the upper parts of head, body and tail, usually
about 12 or 14 in all. Underparts unmarked. Marbled
Salamander (A. opacuni).

Not as above. 21.

Black with a series of large round yellow spots down
each side of back. A strong dorsal groove. Spotted
Salamander ( A . punctatum).

Lead colored with one or two series of small yellow
spots along sides. No dorsal groove, size small.
Smaller Spotted Salamauder (A. conspersum) .

Not as above. 22.

Dark brown, yellowish below. No markings. Sope's
Salamander ( A . Sopeanum).

Olive brown, yellowish below. Limbs banded, tail
spotted. A few ill-defined yellowish spots above. Two
colored Salamander {A. bicolor ).

Markings grayish or whitish. 24.

Markings brown or yellow. 25.

Olive brown or blackish with pale or bluish spots, these
sometimes absent. Jefferson’s Salamander (A. jefferson-
ianum).

Black with a narrow gray line between each pair of
costal folds, these either crossing the back undivided
to meet their fellows from the opposite side or forking
to meet a similiar fork from the other side. Under-
parts thickly speckled with gray. Banded Salamander
{A. cingulatus).

Tail very long, much longer than head and body. Ohio
Salamander ( A . xiphias ).

Tail about as long as head and body. Color varying
from uniform brown to yellow, but usually spotted.
Tiger Salamander ( A . tigrinum) .

Toes on hind feet 4. Underparts with dots like ink
spots. Scaly Salamander ( Hemidactylium scutatnm).
Toes on hind feet 5, 27.

154 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

27. Head with enlarged pores, w7hich give it a pitted ap-
pearance. Underparts usually with black dots. Sides
with dark longitudinal stripes. Margined Salamander
( Stereo chilus marg inatus ) .

Not as above. 28.

28. Tail compressed and finned at least for the apical two
thirds. 29.

Tail rounded. 32.

29. Color wholly black above and below. Black Triton
( Desmognath us n igra ) .

Color not all black. 30.

30. Snout very flat, broad and depressed. Yellowish buff,
thickly marked above with confluent black blotches.
Underparts unmarked. Moore's Triton ( Leurognathus
marmoratus).

Snout more or less arched. 31.

31. Skin of head granulated. Underparts usually more
or less uniform slate color. Size rather large. Moun-
tain Triton ( Desniognathus quadnmaculatus) .

Skin of head not granulated. Underparts pale. Brown
Triton (Desmognatkus fused).

32. Color brownish yellow, often spotted. Yellow Salaman-
der ( Desniognathus ochrofihea) *

Color blackish or plumbeous. (Genus Plethodon.) 33.

33. Color lead-colored with a chestnut red dorsal band, size
small. Redbacked Salamander (P. erythi'onotus).

Color uniform lead color. Plumbeous Salamander P.
e. cinereus).

Color black with various markings. 34.

34. Black with red legs. Sherman Salamander {P. Sher-
mani).

*A11 the species of the the genus Desniognathus have a peculiar physiog-
nomy which is very characteristic, but not easy to describe.

The Salamanders of North Carolina

155

7907]

Black with an orange yellow stripe on sides of head
and neck. Iordan Salamander (P. j ordain ).

Black with bluish white blotches and specks, occasion-
aly unspotted. Slimy Salamander (P. glutinosus) .
Black with yellowish green blotches of irregular form
on back and sides. Bronzy Salamander (P. aeneus).

iOf the above species the following have not yet been taken
in the state: Little Siren, Spotted-tailed Triton, Long-tailed

Salamander, Smaller spotted Salamander, Cope’s Salamander
Two-colored Salamander, Banded Salamander, Ohio Sala-
mander, Scaly Salamander, Jordan Salamander, Bronze Sala-
mander. Most of these however may possibly occur, and
some of them are almost certain to be secured with more
careful and complete collecting.

The species known to occur in the State have been collected
in the following localities:

Great Siren. Craven Co., New Hanover Co.

Water Dog. Wake.

Southern Water Dog. New Hanover.

Ditch Eel. Wake, Edgecombe, Dare, Bertie and Craven.
Hellbender. Yancey.

Dwarf Salamander. Wake, Lenoir.

Striped Salamander. Wake, Buncombe, Yancey, Mitchell
and Forsyth.

Holbrook’s Triton. Wake, Buncombe, Forsyth, and valley
of French Broad.

Daniel’s Salamander. Yancey.1

Red Triton. Wake, Buncombe, Mitchell, Carteret, Yan-
cey, Burke, Orange, Wayne, Forsyth and Henderson.

Purple Salamander. Mitchell.

American Newt. Wake, Henderson, Lenoir.

Wilmington Newt. New Hanover.

Mole Salamander. Valley of French Broad.

Marbled Salamander. Wake, Edgecombe, Guilford, Col-
umbus, Forsyth, Lenoir.

Spotted Salamander. Wa*ke.

156

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

Tiger Salamander. Moore.

Jefferson Salamander. Mitchell.

Redbacked Salamander. Mitchell, Pitt (same localities
for Plumbeous S).

Margined Salamander. Craven.

Black Triton. Mitchell.

Moore’s Salamander. Grandfather Mt.

Mountain Salamander. Yancey, Mitchell, Henderson.
Brown Triton. Wake, Craven, Forsyth, Lenoir.

Yellow Triton. Yancey, Mitchell.

Sherman Salamander. Nantahala Mt.

Slimy Salamander. Whole State.

A KEY TO THE SPECIES OF FROGS AND TOADS
LIABLE TO OCCUR IN NORTH CAROLINA

c. s. brimley

1. Upper jaw without any teeth. 2.

Upper jaw with teeth. 5.

2. Skin smooth. Size small. Snout pointed. No para-
toid glands (just behind ear). Hind feet not webbed.
Toothless Frog {Fngy stoma carolinense) .

Skin vrarty. Paratoids large. Hind feet little webbed.
Head with bony ridges above. Toads. 3.

3. Size small, length of head and body one inch. Skin
very rough. Bony ridges turning inward almost at
right angles just back of the eyes. Dwarf Toad ( Bufo
quercicus ) .

Size larger, adults about 3 or 4 inches long. Skin not so
rough. Bony ridges on top of head not turning abruptly
inward back of eyes. 4.

4. Bony ridges ending in a knob behind. Southern Toad
( B . lentiginosus) .

Bony ridges not ending in a knob behind. Common
Toad ( B . /. americanus).

5. Paratoids present. Hind feet webbed. Heel with a flat,
sharp edged spur. Solitary Spadefoot Scaphiopus hol-
brooki) .

Paratoids absent. No sharp edged spur on heel. 6.

6. Fingers and toes dilated at their tips, this dilation
forming a viscous disk. Tree frogs. 7.

Fingers and toes not much dilated at tips. 13.

1907 ]

157

158

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

7. Back with a dark x-shaped mark, size small. Peefler
( Hyla flickering!).

Back marked or not, but if marked, the markings do
not form an x-shaped mark. 8.

8. Back of thigh not marked with yellow spots or varie-
gations. 9.

Back of thigh with yellow spots or variegations. 11.

9. A yellow band on upper lip and sides of body, sharply
defined above and below. Back with minute yellowish
spots. Carolina Tree Frog ( Hyla cinerea).

Yellow or white band on sides not sharply defined
above and below. 10.

10. Size large, feet edged with yellow. Georgia Tree
Frog; {H. g ratio sa).

Size small, feet not edged with yellow. Squirrel Tree
Frog (H. squirella).

11. Size large, skin of back rough. A light spot on upper
jaw just below eye. Common Tree Frog{H. versicolor).
No light spot below eye. 12.

12. A plum colored line along sides of body with yellow
spots below it. Anderson's Tree Frog (H. andersoni).
No yellow spots on sides. Pine woods Tree Frog ( H .
femoralis) .

13. Feet unwebbed, size small. (Genus Chorophilus). 14.
Feet more or less webbed. 15.

14. Skin of upper surface granulated. Chorus Frog (C.
nigntus and subsflecies) .

Skin of upper surface smooth, a dark patch on ear.
Smooth Chorus Frog ( C . occidentalis) .

15. Size small. Skin above warty. A dark triangle be-
tween eyes. Cricket Trog ( Acris gryllus).

Size larger. Skin above smooth. 16.

16. A ridge of raised skin along each side of back. 17.

No narrow ridge of raised skin along side of back. 19.

igoy] Species of Feogs and Toads 159

17. A black ear patch. Wood Frog { Rana sylvatica).

No black ear patch. 18.

18. Fold of skin down each side of back white. Back with
large dark spots. Leonard Frog {Rana pipiens) .

Fold of skin down each side of back the same color as
back. Back with a few small dark spots or none.
Spring Frog {Rana clamata).

19. Back with large dark spots in two rows. Size medium.
Pickerel Frog {Rana palustris).

Back with irregular dark spots or none. Size large.
Bullfrog {Rana catesbiana).

Sides with two light brown longitudinal bands. Cope's
Frog ( Rana virgatipes ) .

Of the species included in the key the following have not
yet to my knowledge been recorded from from North Caro-
lina: Anderson’s Tree Frog, Georgia Tree Frog, Smooth
Chorus Frog, and Southern Toad.

The other species have been taken in the following local-
ities:

Toothless Frog. Wake, Johnston and Wayne Co’s.

Dwarf Toad. Lenoir and Carteret.

Common Toad. Forsyth, Wake, Jackson, Craven, Lenoir
and Wayne.

Solitary Spadefoot. Wake.

Peeper. Wake, Mitchell, Wayne, Johnston, Guilford.1!
Carolina Tree Frog, Lenoir and Dare.

Squirrel Tree Frog. Dare, Craven, Brunswick.

Pine woods Tree Frog. Craven and New Hanover.
Common Tree Frog. Wake, Wayne, Forsyth Pitt.

Chorus Frog. Guilford and Wake.

Cricket Frog. Wake, Craven, Wayne, Forsyth, Guilford.
Wood Frog. Lenoir.

Pickerel Frog. Wake, Mitchell, Lenoir.

Leopard Frog. Wake, Craven, Edgecombe, Dare.

Spring Frog. Craven, Wake, Forsyth, Guilford, Mitchell.
Bullfrog. Wake, Craven, Edgecombe,

Cope’s Frog. Craven.

160 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

These keys (to snakes and lizards, salamanders, and to
toads and frogs) have been prepared with the idea of giving
intelligent persons without special knowledge on the subject
an opportunity of identifying our native forms of these
groups. The keys must not be expected to be infallible
though I have endeavored to make them as accurate as
possible.

ON SOME PHENOMENA OF COALESCENCE AND
REGENERATION IN SPONGES1

BY H. V. WILSON

I

III a recent communication I described some degenerative
and regenerative phenomena in sponges and pointed out that
a knowledge of these powers made it possible for us to grow
sponges in a new way. The gist of the matter is that sili-
cious sponges when kept in confinement under proper condi-
tions degenerate in such a manner that while the bulk of the
sponge dies, the cells in certain regions become aggregated
to form lumps of undifferentiated tissue. Such lumps or plas-
modial masses, which may be exceedingly abundant, are often
of a rounded shape resembling gemmules, more especially the
simpler gemmules of marine sponges (Chalina, e. g.), and
were shown to possess in at least one form (Stylotella) full
regenerative power. When isolated they grow and differen-
tiate, producing perfect sponges. I described moreover a
simple method by which plasmodial masses of the same
appearance could be directly produced (in Microciona). The
sponge was kept in aquarium until the degenerative process
had begun. It was then teased with needles so as to liberate
cells and cell agglomerates. These were brought together
with the result that they fused and formed masses similar in
appearance to those produced in this species when the sponge
remains quietly in aquarium. At the time I was forced to

lReprinted from Journal of Experimental' Zoology, vol. v, no. 2., and
published with the permission of Hon. Geo. M. Bowers, U. S. Com-
missioner of Fisheries.

.7907]

161

162 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

leave it an open question whether the masses of teased tissue
were able to regenerate the sponge body.

During the past summer’s work at the Beaufort Laboratory2
I again took up this question and am now in a position to
state that the dissociated cells of silicious sponges after
removal from the body will combine to form syncytial masses
that have power to differentiate into new sponges. In Micro-
ciona, the form especially worked on, nothing is easier than
to obtain by this method hundreds of young sponges with
well developed canal system and flagellated chambers. How
hardy sponges produced in this artificial way are and how
perfectly they will differentiate the characteristic skeleton,
are questions that must be left for more prolonged experimen-
tation.

Taking up the matter where it had been left at the end of
the preceding summer, I soon found that it was not neces-
sary to allow the sponge to pass into a degenerative state,
but that the fresh and normal sponge could be used from
which to obtain the teased out cells. Again in order to get
the cells in quantity and yet as free as possible from bits of
the parent skeleton, I devised a substitute for the teasing
method. The method adopted is rough but effective.

Let me briefly describe the facts for Microciona. This
species (M. prolifera Verr.) in the younger state is incrust-
ing. As it grows older it throws up lobes and this may go
so far that the habitus becomes bushy. The skeletal frame-
work consists of strong horny fibers with embedded spicules.
Lobes of the sponge are cut into small pieces with scissors
and then strained through fine bolting cloth such as is used
for tow nets. A square piece of cloth is folded like a bag
around the bits of sponge and is immersed in a saucer of fil-
tered sea-water. While the bag is kept closed with the fin-
gers of one hand it is squeezed between the arms of a small
pair of forceps. The pressure and the elastic recoil of the

21 am indebted to the director of the station, Mr. H. D. Aller, for his
kindly aid in supplying all facilities needed in the course of my investi-
gation.

Some Phenomena in Sponges

163

ipo/]

skeleton break up the living- tissue of the sponge into its con-
stituent cells, and these pass out throug-h the pores of the
bolting- cloth into the surrounding- water. The cells, which
pass out in such quantity as to present the appearance of red
clouds, quickly settle down over the bottom of the saucer like
a fine sediment. Enough tissue is squeezed out to cover the
bottom well. The cells display amoeboid activities and
attach to the substratum. Moreover they begin at once to
fuse with one another. After allowing time for the cells to
settle and attach, the water is poured off and fresh sea-water
added. The tissue is freed by currents of the pipette from
the bottom and is collected in the center of the saucer.
Fusion between the individual cells has by this time gone on
to such an extent that the tissue now exists in the shape of
minute balls or cell conglomerates of a more or less rounded
shape looking to the eye much like small invertebrate eggs.
Microscopic examination shows that between these little
masses free cells also exist, but the masses are constantly
incorporating such cells. The tissue in this shape is easily
handled. It may be sucked up to fill a pipette and then
strewn over cover glasses, slides, bolting cloth, watch glasses,
etc. The cell conglomerates which are true syncytial masses
throw out pseudopodia all over the surface and neighboring
conglomerates fuse together to form larger masses, some
rounded, some irregular. The details of later behavior vary,
being largely dependent on the amount of tissue which is
deposited in a spot, and on the strength of attachment
between the mass of tissue and the substratum.

Decidedly the best results are obtained when the tissue has
been strewn rather sparsely on slides and covers. The syn-
cytial masses at first compact and more or less rounded, flat-
ten out, becoming incrusting. They continue to fuse with
one another and thus the whole cover glass may come to be
occupied by a single incrustation, or there may be in the end
several such. If the cover glass is examined at intervals, it
will be found that differentiation is gradually taking place.
The dense homogeneous syncytial mass first develops at

164

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

the surface a thin membrane with underlying connective tis-
sue (collenchyma). Flagellated chambers make their appear-
ance in great abundance. Canals appear as isolated spaces
which come to connect with one another. Short oscular tubes
with terminal oscula develop as vertical projections from the
flat incrustation. If the incrustation be of any size it pro-
duces several such tubes. The currents from the oscula are
easily observed, and if the cover glass be mounted in an
inverted position on a slide the movements of the flagella of
the collar cells may be watched with a high power (Zeiss 2
mm.). This degree of differentiation is attained in the
course of six or seven days when the preparations are kept in
laboratory aquaria (dishes in which the water is changed
answer about as well as running aquaria). Differentiation
goes on more rapidly when the preparation is hung in the
open harbor in a live-box (a slide preparation inclosed in a
coarse wire cage is convenient). Sponges reared in this way
have been kept for a couple of weeks. The currents of water
passing through them are certainly active and the sponges
appear to be healthy. In such a sponge spicules are present,
but some of these have unquestionably been carried over from
the parent body along with the squeezed out cells.

The old question of individuality may receive a word here.
Microciona is one of that large class of monaxonid sponges
which lack definite shape and in which the number of oscula
is correlated simply with the size of the mass. While we
may look on such a mass from the phylogenetic standpoint
as a corm, we speak of it as an individual. Yet it is an indi-
vidual of which with the stroke of a knife we can make two.
Or conversely it is an individual which may be made to fuse
with another, the two forming one. To such a mass the ordi-
nary idea of the individual is not applicable. It is only a
mass large or small having the characteristic organs and tis-
sues of the species but in which the shape of the whole and
the number of the organs are indefinite. As with the adult
so with the lumps of regenerative tissue. They have no defi-
niteness of shape or size, and their structure is only definite

ipoy] Some Phenomena in Sponges 165

in so far as the histological character of the syncytial mass is
fixed for the species. A tiny lump may metamorphose into
a sponge, or may first fuse with many such lumps, the aggre-
gate also producing but a single sponge although a larger
one. In a word we are not dealing with embryonic bodies of
complicated organization but with a reproductive or regener-
ative tissue which we may start on its upward path of differ-
entiation in almost any desired quantity. A striking illus-
tration of this nature of the material is afforded by the fol-
lowing experiment. The tissue in the shape of tiny lumps
was poured out in such wise that it formed continuous sheets
about one millimeter thick. Such sheets were then cut into
pieces, each about one cubic millimeter. These were hung
in bolting cloth bags in an outside live-box. Some of the
pieces in spite of such rough handling metamorphosed into
functional sponges.

Even where the embryonic bodies of sponges have a fixed
structure and size, as in the case of the ciliated larva, the
potential nature as displayed in later development, is not
fixed in the matter of individuality. Such a body may form
a single individual or may fuse with some of its fellows to
form a larger individual differing from the one-larva sponge
only in size. It is then in spite of its definiteness of shape
and size, essentially like a lump of regenerative tissue in that
whether it develops into a whole sponge or a part of a sponge
depends not on its own structure but on whether it is given
a good opportunity of fusing with a similar mass. A paral-
lel case to the coalescence of larvae is afforded by the gem-
mules of fresh water sponges. Mr. M. E. Henriksen in a
manuscript account submitted to me a year ago, describes the
fusion of gemmules to form a single sponge.

Sin the preceding description I have passed over the question
as to the precise nature of the cells which combine to form
the masses of regenerative tissue. On this point as on the
histological details in general I hope to have more to say
later. Nevertheless the phenomena are so simple that obser-
vation of the living tissue reveals much, probably indeed all

166

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

that is of fundamental importance. If a fairly dense drop of
the squeezed out tissue be mounted at once and examined with
a high power (Zeiss 2 mm., comp. oc. 6), the preparation is
seen to consist of fluid (sea-water) with a few spicules and
myriads of separate cells. The cells fall into three classes.

1 The most conspicuous and abundant are spheroidal,
reddish, densely granular, and about 8/jl in diameter. These
cells which can be nothing but the unspecialized, amoeboid
cells of the mesenchyme (amoebocytes or archaeocytes), put
out hyaline pseudopodia that are sometimes elongated, more
often rounded and blunt.

2 There is also a great abundance of partially trans-
formed collar cells, each consisting of an elongated body with
slender flagellum. The cell is without the collar, the latter
doubtless having been retracted. In the freshly prepared tis-
sue the flagella are vibratile, the cells moving about. Soon
however the flagellum ceases to vibrate.

3. The third class is not homogeneous. In it I include
more or less spheroidal cells ranging from the size of the
granular cells down to much smaller ones. Many of these are
completely hyaline, while others consist of hyaline proto-
plasm containing one or a few granules.

Fusion of the granular cells begins immediately and in a
few minutes time most of them have united to form small
conglomerate masses which at the surface display both blunt
and elongated pseudopodia. These masses soon begin to
incorporate the neighboring collar and hyaline cells. One
sees collar cells sticking fast by the end of the long flagellum
to the conglomerate mass. Other collar cells are attached to
the mass by short flagella. Still again only the body of the
collar cell projects from the mass while there is no sign of
flagellum. Similarly spheroidal hyaline cells of many sizes
are found in various stages of fusion with the granular con-
glomerate. In such a preparation the space under the cover
glass is soon occupied by innumerable masses or balls of the
kind just described, between which continue to lie abundant
free cells, some collar cells, others hyaline. Practically all

igoy\ Some Phenomena in Sponges 167

the granular cells go to make up the balls. The play of pseu-
dopodia at the periphery of such balls, which results in the
incorporation of free cells and in the fusion of balls to form
larger masses, is easily watched. Along with such a cover
glass preparation it is convenient to have some of the
squeezed-out tissue in a watch glass of sea-water. In the
watch glass preparation it is instructive to watch with a two-
thirds or one-half objective the fusion of the cell conglomer-
ates to form masses like those strewn on covers, slides, etc.

These observations on the early steps in the formation of
the masses of regenerative tissue make it plain that such
masses are composed chiefly of the spheroidal, granular cells
(amoebocytes or archaeocytes), but that nevertheless other
cells, collar cells and more or less hyaline cells also
enter into their composition. I may recall the fact that in
the formation of regenerative masses in a degenerating
sponge,3 the evidence from sections, which is the only evi-
dence available in the case, points to the conclusion that the
collar cells help to form the syncytial tissue of the masses.
The question of interest lying at the heart of this matter may
be so formulated: can particles of the Microciona protoplasm
differentiate into functional collar cells and, when the occa-
sion arises, change back into unspecialized masses capable of
combining with other masses of unspecialized protoplasm to
form a regenerative body? The facts to which I have just
alluded support this idea, and indicate that the immediate
problem is one worth pursuing farther as a good case of tem-
porary differentiation of protoplasm in the metazoa analo-
gous to the temporary specialization of the cell individual
which occurs in such colonial protazoa as Protospongia.4

As far as the amoebocytes are concerned it is certain that
they have great regenerative power. Weltner in a recent

$

3 A new method by which sponges may be artificially reared, Science, n.
s., vol. xxv, no. 649, 1907.

4 Metschnikoff, Embry ologische Studien an Medusen, p. 147, 1886.

168

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[ December

paper5 has emphasized the importance of these unspecialized
cells in the process of growth and regeneration. His con-
clusions which refer directly to fresh water sponges, are that
in a growing sponge, in a sponge regenerating new organs
after its winter period of simplification, and in the regenera-
tion of a sponge from a cutting, the amoebocytes are the all-
powerful elements in that they give rise to all the new tissues
formed. He further alludes to the fact that such reproduc-
tive bodies as the gemmules of fresh water sponges and the
buds of Tethya (according to Maas) are only groups of amoe-
bocytes; further that the gemmules of Tedania and Esperella
described by Wilson as developing into ciliated larvae, and the
similar bodies found by Ijima in hexactinellids, are such
groups. I may add that the presence of such groups of
unspecialized cells in the hexactinellids has recently been con-
firmed by the master in sponge-morpholagy, F. E. Schulze,
who recogn/zes the probability of their reproductive nature
and gives them a new name, that of sorites .6 It is clear then
that in many sponges reproductive bodies are formed by the
association of unspecialized amoeboid cells. But there is
nothing in this fact which precludes the possibility that the
groups of amoebocytes are in part recruited from transformed
collar cells and other tissue cells, such as pinacocytes (flat
cells of canal walls), that have undergone regressive differen-
tiation into an unspecialized amoeboid condition.

Cells analogous to the amoebocytes of sponges are found
elsewhere in the metazoa, e. g., in the ascidians.7 It would
be interesting to know what capacity, if any, for develop-
ment they have, when freed from the parent (bud) and col-
lected together in sea-water.

5 Spongilliden-studien V. Zur Biologie von Ephydatia fluviatilis und die
Bedeutung der Amcebocyten fur die Spongilliden. Archiv fur Naturge-
schichte, 73 Jahrg., iBd., 2 Heft, 1907.

6 Wissensch. Ergebn. d. Deutsch. Tiefsee-Exp. 1898-99. Hexactinellida,
pp. 213-15. Jena, 1904.

7 Comp. Hjort’s and Lefevre’s papers on budding in ascidians.

*9°7\

Some Phenomena in Sponges

169

II

I shall here briefly record some experiments which gave
only negative results but which under circumstances admit-
ting of a wider choice of species, ought to yield returns of
value. These experiments were based on the assumption
that if the dissociated cells of a species will recombine to form
a regenerative mass and eventually a new sponge, the disso-
ciated cells of two different species may be made to com-
bine and thus form a composite mass bearing potentially the
two sets of species-characteristics. It is clear that such an
organism would be analogous to one produced by an associa-
tion of the blastomeres of the two species. Pending the suc-
cessful carrying out of this experiment, it would be idle to
discuss further the nature of the hypothetical dual organism.

In my own experiments three sponges were used: Micro-
ciona, Lissodendoryx and Stylotella. The three are all mon-
actinellids but Microciona is the only one in which the- skele-
ton includes any considerable amount of horny substance,
j Dissociated cells of Microciona and Lissodendoryx were mixed,
and again dissociated cells of Microciona were mixed with
those of Stylotella. In each case the experiment was per-
formed at two different times, and a considerable number of
admixtures, in watch glasses and on cover glasses, was made.
The preparations were examined at short intervals with the
microscope. The cells of these three species are colored very
differently, and are therefore easily distinguished, at least as
soon as fusion sets in and little masses of cells begin to be
formed. In all the experiments the cells and cell-masses of a
species cdmbined and not the cells of different species. Thus
in the admixture of Microciona and Lissodendoryx, Microci-
ona regenerative masses and Lissodendoryx regenerative
masses were produced. Similarly when Microciona and Styl-
otella cells were mixed, the resultant masses were pure, some
Microciona, some Stylotella. The Microciona masses in these
^experiments were hardy. They continued to develop and in
some preparations metamorphosed. The cell masses of the
lother two species while they reached a considerable size were

170 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

not hardy, most dying soon although some began the process
of metamorphosis.

These three species are so unlike that there was little
ground in the beginning for the expectation that coalescence
would take place. Possibly as in the cases where fusion of
egg and sperm of different species is induced through some
alteration in the physiological state of protoplasm, so the
generative cells and cell masses of different species may be
made to combine under abnormal conditions. The more
promising task is however to find allied species and subspe-
cies, the regenerative tissue of which will combine under nat-
ural conditions. Such forms, I take it, should be sought
among the horny sponges and the monactinellids with abun-
dant horny matter.

Ill

The tendency to fuse so vigorously displayed by the cells
and cell masses of regenerative tissue led me to examine into
the power that larvae have to fuse with one another and the
capacity for development in the resultant mass. Delage and
others have remarked on the not infrequent occurrence
of fusion between sponge larvae. Delage8 says that he has
often observed two or several larvae unite to form a single
sponge “which has from the start several cloacas.”

I find that this power to fuse displayed by the larvae is one
that is easy to control. Fusion between the larvae will read-
ily take place if they are brought in contact at the critical
time when the ciliated epithelium is being replaced by the
permanent flat epithelium. At this time they will fuse in
twos or threes or in larger number up to and over one hun-
dred. The smaller composite masses composed of as many
as five or six larvae metamorphose into sponges. The larger
masses composed of many larvae did not metamorphose in my
experiments but experience with the regenerative tissue sug-
gests that such masses would metamorphose if certain
mechanical difficulties due to the great size of the mass were ?

8 Embry ong^nie des Eponges. Arch, de Zool. Exp. et G£n. , p. 400, 1892.

/0<?7]

Some Phenomena in Sponges

171

removed. Possibly this might be accomplished by cutting- a
flattened sheet composed of some hundred larvae (such as I
have produced) into pieces and inducing- the pieces to meta-
morphose separately.

I may now describe some of the details in this process of
larva-fusion. In a species of Lissodendoryx used the larva is
of the following- character. It has the usual ovoidal shape
with a protuberant non-ciliated pole. The anterior pole is
somewhat truncated and is sparsely ciliated. The rest of the
body bears the usual thick covering- of cilia. As seen with
1 reflected light the bulk of the body is dead white, the poster-
ior pole deep blue, and the anterior pole bluish. This color-
ation is not absolutely fixed for the species, but the larvae used
, in my coalescence experiments were all of this character.
Within twenty-four hours after liberation the ciliated larvae
are creeping (remaining in contact with the bottom as they
swim) over the bottom of the dish. Some are now put in
deep round watch glasses and with pipette and needle coaxed
together into a clump. Fusion soon begins and on the next
day plenty of composite larvae are present. The larvae fuse
endwise, for the most part in pairs. The compound larva so
produced owing to its weight has a very feeble locomotory
power. Using pairs that are nearly motionless, larvae may
be brought together (coaxed with needle) and arranged in a
desired position on a cover glass for instance. In successful
1 cases fusion results before the separate masses move apart.
In this way, selecting an instance, I have added to one arm
of a quadruple mass a pair of larvae, and to the opposite arm
two pairs,

For the purpose of bringing about the fusion of many lar-
vae the following simple method is convenient. Suppose
that we have the larvae in a paraffine-coated dish, and they
are in a late “creeping” stage. Small excavations, 2-3 mm.
deep and 4-5 mm. wide, are now made in the paraffine, and
with the pipette the larvae are driven into the holes. They
lie here in numbers up to and over one hundred, crowded
;j together and heaped upon one another. Fusion begins soon

172

Journal of the Mitchell Society [. December

and the larvae are gradually converted into a flattened cake.
The larger cakes thus made measured four by three millime-
ters. The body of such a cake is a continuous flattened mass
in which there is no indication of the component larvae, but
the rounded ends of the larvae that have last fused with the
general mass remain for a time distinguishable. Owing to
their blue coloration the ends of the larvae may be recognized
in these and the other compound masses even after the outline
of the larva has been completely lost.

As already stated the smaller compound masses metamor-
phose without difficulty. The coalesced larvae may be made
to attach to cover glasses, slides, etc. Larger masses com-
posed of about twenty larvae underwent a partial metamor-
phosis. Such masses were laid upon bolting cloth to which
they readily attached. The larges masses were hung in
small bolting cloth bags in a live box. Whether owing to
bad handling or more probably to some inherent difficulty,
they did not metamorphose but soon died.

The ease with which larvae of the same species may be
made to fuse together suggests that larvae of different species
might likewise be induced to coalesce. Some experiments
along this line could not fail to be of interest.

IV

In the tendency to fuse with the production of a plasmo-
dium, the dissociated cells of sponges resemble the amoebo-
cytes (amoebulae) of the mycetozoa and Protomyxa. The
regenerative power of the plasmodium has an interest both
theoretical and economic in itself. But it is the tendency to
fuse displayed by the cells that have been forcibly broken
apart, which constitutes the fact of most general physiolog-
ical importance. Discarding for the moment the word “cell”
and speaking of the protoplasm of a species as a specific sub-
stance, the phenomena may be restated to advantage in the
following way.

A mass of sponge protoplasm in the unspecialized state
typically exhibits pseudopodial activities at the surface. In

Some Phenomena in Sponges

173

/907]

1

!

lieu of more precise knowledge it is useful to regard the pseu-
dopodia as structures which explore and learn about the envi-
ronment. On coming in contact two masses of the same spe1
cific protoplasm tend to fuse. This tendency is probably use-
ful (2. e., adaptive) in that the additional safety (from ene-
mies and ‘'accidents”) accruing from increase in size of the
mass more than compensates for the reduction in number of
the individual masses that start to grow (rearing of sponges
shows that masses of good size frequently withstand condi-
tions that effectually wipe out the very small masses.) Unlike
specific substances (protoplasms of quite different species) do
not tend to fuse.

To the many biologists who have found ideas and observa-
tions of deep interest in the papers on protoplasmic activities
by Professor and Mrs. E. A. Andrews (G. F. Andrews), the
statement just made will have a familiar sound. Mrs.
Andrews in her essay on The Living Substance as Such and
as Organism9 and her paper on The Spinning Activities of
Protoplasm10 makes, it would appear from subsequent confir-
mations, a definite advance in our knowledge of the intimate
structure of protoplasm. But it is her generalizations, based
on singularly acute observations, with respect to the behavior
of protoplasm, that have especially influenced my own work.
The particular generalizations referred to ma}r be so formu-
lated:

1 Protoplasm tends to produce a viscous, pellicular layer
with formation of pseudopodial outgrowths over the surface,
whether external or internal to the mass, which establishes
contact with the environmental medium.

2 Pseudopodia from adjacent masses of the same specific
substance tend to fuse. Thus actual connections which can
be made and remade, and along which transference of sub-
stance takes place, are established between the masses.

That these phenomena are observable in widely separated
groups of metazoa has been also shown by Professor Andrews

9Suppl. to Journ. Morphology, vol. xii, no. 2,^1897.

lOJourn. Morphology, 1897.

174

Journal of the Mitchell Society [. December

in a series of brief studies marked with his well known skill
and accuracy of observation and statement. I fully agree
with him as to the great importance of the facts.

The general point of view entertained by Mrs. Andrews in
her much discussed essay is perhaps not everywhere clear to
me. It is manifest however that she consistently subordi-
nates the idea of the individual, whether entire organism or
cell, to that of the specific substance of which it is but a more
or less detached piece. As far as the cell is concerned this
point of view seems to be essentially that of Sachs and Whit-
man. Mrs. Andrews extends it to the whole organism, and I
may say that this way of looking at an animal or plant (or
piece of the same) is in my opinion a habit of mind that will
justify itself and indeed is doing so today, in that it leads to
discoveries concerning the nature of protoplasms as revealed
by what they can do.

University of North Carolina.

Chapel Hill, N. C.

October 29, 1907.

FISHES OF NORTH CAROLINA; A REVIEW

BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT

There has just been issued by the North Carolina Geolog-
ical and Economic Survey Volume II on The Fishes of North
Carolina. This volume has been prepared for the Survey by
Dr. H. M. Smith, Deputy U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries.
The object of this publication is to give to the people of
North Carolina and to others a more accurate knowledge of
the abundance, distribution, habits, migrations, spawning,
food value, etc., of the fishes in the belief that such knowl-
edge will lead to a fuller realization of the economic import-
ance of the fishery resources to the State. For this reason,
it has been the special aim to make the report useful to all
the fishing interests of the State. No essential technical
considerations have been slighted but the scientific treatment
has been adapted to the needs of fishermen and others who
have had no opportunity to study ichthyology. It is most
desirable that there be created a deeper interest in the wel-
fare of both fishes and fishermen and a better understanding
of the conditions and needs of the fishing industry with a
view of placing this important branch on a permanent basis
and making it yield an increasing revenue to both State and
people. This volume will also be of interest to the layman
and perhaps of special interest to the angler, as he will be
able to make use of the work in the identification of species.
As the scientific aspects of the subject have not been neg-
lected, the work will also be found to have a value to icthy-
ologists and zoologists in general.

1907]

175

176

Journal of the Mitchell Society [. December

As a means of identifying- any fish that may be taken in
any waters of the State, artificial keys have been prepared
based on the external characters that commercial fishermen
and anglers may readily appreciate and, further, there is a
copious index of common names which gives a further clue to
all the species whose size makes them objects of capture.

As Dr. Smith states: “Although the fish life of North

Carolina is not of a new or distinctive type and bears a
rather close resemblance to that of the adjoining States, it
does nevertheless have some features of exceptional interest.”
On account of the great variation in the topography of the
State, the number, length and volume of the rivers and
streams, the large, shallow sounds which fringe the coast,
the long coast-line, and the wide variation in climatic con-
ditions, there has been developed in North Carolina a fish
fauna rich in both species and individuals. Some of the
species found in North Carolina are peculiar to this State,
while others which were first identified in this State, have
later been found elsewhere. Other species exist in much
greater greater abundance in this State than in others.

Among the more prominent features of the fish fauna in
North Carolina, Dr. Smith mentions the following:

“(a) The abundance of certain anadromous fishes, whose
numbers are scarcely surpassed in any other waters, the chief
of these being the shad, the alewives, and the striped bass.

“(b) The variety and abundance of suckers, minnows, and
sun-fishes in the fresh waters generally, and of darters in the
headwaters of the streams on both sides of the Alleghanies.

“(c) The occurence in the sounds and along the outer
shores of immense schools of mullet, squeteague, menhaden,
blue-fish, croaker, spot, pig-fish, pin-fish and other food
fishes.

“(d) The extension to the North Carolina coast of many
species which are characteristic of the West Indies or
Florida.

“(e) A few species of the Atlantic coast reach their south-
ern limit in North Carolina (such as the cod and tautog) or

FISHES FIRST DESCRIBED FROM NORTH CAROLINA WATERS

PRESENT

identification

ORIGINAL NAME

COMMON NAME

TYPE LOCALITY

DESCRIBE H AND
YEAR

Sihtridas :

Schilbeodes furiosus*
Catostomida® :

Noturus furiosus

Mad-tom ; Tabby-cat

Neuse River.

Jordan <fe Meek,

Moxostoma papillosum

Ptychostomus papillosus

Red horse ; Shiner ;
White mullet

Catawba and Yad-
kin rivers

Cope, 1870

Moxostoma collapsum*

Ptychostomus collapsus

Sucking mullet ; Small-
mouth Red horse

Neuse, Yadkin 1
and Catawba
rivers

Cope, 1870

Moxostoma pidiense*

Ptychostomus pidiensis

Sucker

Yadkin River

Cope, 1870

Moxostoma coregonus *

Ptychostomus coregonus

Blue mullet

Catawba and Yad-I
kin rivers

Cope, 1870

Moxostoma album*

Ptychostomus albus

White mullet

Catawba River

Cope, 1870

Moxostoma thalassinum*

Ptychostomus thalas-
sinus

Sucker

Yadkin River

Cope, 1870

Moxostoma robustum*

Ptychostomus robustus

Red horse

C Mullet ; Red horse ; Red
horse-mullet ; Sucker-

Yadkin River

Cope, 1870

Moxostoma crassilabre*

Ptychostomus crassila-
bris

1 mullet ; Golden mullet ;
j Golden-finned mullet ;

Horse-fish Red fin ;
*- Trout-Sucker

Yadkin River

Cope, 1870

Moxastoma conus*

Ptychostomus conus

Sucker

Yadkin River

Cope, 1870

Moxostoma rupiscartes
Otphinidae :

Moxostoma rupiscartes

Jumping mullet; Jump-
rocks

Catawba River

Jordan & Jenkins,
1889

Notropis pyrrhomelas

Photogenis pyrrhomelas

Fiery black minnow

Catawba River

Cope, 1870

Notropis niveus

Hybopsis niveus

Shiner ; snowy minnow

Catawba River

Cope, 1870

Notropis chlorocephalus

Hybopsis chlorocephalus

Green-headed minnow

Catawba River

Cope, 1870

Notropis brimleyi*

Notropis brimleyi

Brimley’s minnow

|Cane River

|Bean, 1903

Notropis chiliticus*

Hybopsis chiliticus

Red-lipped minnow

Yadkin River

[cope, 1870

Notropis altipinnis*

Alburnellus altipinnis

High-finned minnow

Yadkin River

(Cope, 1870

Notropis umbratilis

Alburnellus matutinus

Minnow

Neuse River

(Cope, 1870

matutinus*

(Cope, 1870

Hybopis labrosus

Ceratichthys labrosus

Thick-lipped minnow

j Catawba River

Hybopis hysinotus

Ceratichthys hysinotus

High-backed minnow

(Catawba River

[Cope, 1870

Pcecii-tidae :

Fundulus rathbuni*

Fundulus rathbuni

Rathburn's killifish

Cape Fear River

i Jordan & Meek,
1889

Bxoccetidae :

Cypselurus lutkeni*
Percidae :

Exocoetus lutkeni

Flying fish

Beaufort

Jordan & Ever-
mann, 1896

Boleosoma maculaticeps*

Boleosoma maculaticeps

Spotted-head darter

Catawba River

Cope, 1870

Etheostoma rufilineatum

Pcecilicihthys rufilineat-
um

Red-lined darter

French Broad
1 River

(Cope, 1870

Etheostoma swaramnoa*

Etheostoma swannanoa

Swanannoa darter

(Swannanoa River

Jordan & Ever-
J mann, 1889

Etheostoma vulneratum

Pcecilichthys vulneratus

Red-spotted darter

French Broad
( River

iCope, 1870

Ioa vitrea

Triglidae :

Poeciliclithys vitreus

Glassy darter

i Slim- flying trad ; Fly-
■J ing fish ; Flying trad ;
i ‘ sea robin

Neuse River

ICope, 1870

Prionotus scitulus
Gobitdae :

Prionotus scitulus

Beaufort

[Jordan & Gilbert,
1882

Microgobius holmesi *

Microgobius holmesi

[Holm’s Goby

Beaufort

Smith, 1907

176

As a
any wa
based o:
and ang
copious
all the 5
As D
Caroline
rather c
does ne\
On ac
State, t
streams,
the long
ditions,
fauna n
species f
while ot
later be<
greater <
Amon.
North C;
“(a) '

numbers
of these
“(b) i

sun-fishe
headwat
“(c) T
shores oi
blue-fish
fishes.

“(d) T

species

Florida.

“(e) A
ern limit

Fishes of North Carolina

177

/907]

do not occur in noteworthy numbers further south (such as
the white perch and striped bass).”

There have thus far been described from North Carolina
waters 345 different species of fish; one species of lancelet;
and one of lamprey. This number includes several species
that have been introduced into the waters of North Carolina
but which have become more or less established. Of these,
209 are marine or brackish water species; 125 are fresh water
species; and 11 are anadromous or catadromous species.

Of this number, 29 species of fish were first described from
North Carolina waters, of which 18 have as yet been found
in no other State. These species are given in the following
table together with the name of the species as described in
the volume, name under which it was first described, the
common name, type, locality, and the person by whom named
and the date when the species was established. Those
species marked by an asterisk have not been found as yet in
any other State.

Under the heading of Systematic Catalogue of North Car-
olina fishes there is given a full list of all the species of
fishes known to inhabit the fresh or salt waters of North Car-
olina and under each species there is given its technical name
and original describer, its popular names, a brief synonomy,
a diagnostic description and then a general account of their
distribution, abundance, size, habits, food value, economic
importance, etc., which have special reference to North Car-
olina. As an aid to the diagnostic description, a figure is
given which shows the parts referred to and the names which
designate them (Fig. 1)

Of the three great classes into which fishes and fish-like
animals are divided, only the third is important in connection
with the fishes of North Carolina, as the first two classes
contain only one representative each. These classes are as
follows:

178

Journal of the Mitchell Society [December

KEY TO THE CLASSES OF FISHES AND FISH-LIKE ANIMALS

i. Animals with cartilaginous skeleton and without brain
or skull; fins rudimentary and only on median line of body;
mouth a slit surrounded by bristles; heart a tubular vessel
without separate chambers; blood colorless; gillslits
numerous, the respiratory cavity opening into the abdomen;
inspired water discharged through a special abdominal pore.

leptocardii (lancelets).

ii. Animals with cartilaginous or bony skeleton; skull and
brain present; heart developed as a cavity with at least two
chambers; blood red.

a . Eel-shaped; skeleton cartilaginous; skull imperfect;
mouth circular, suctorial; no jaws or paired fins; a
single median nostril; gills pouch-shaped and numerous;
skin naked; alimentary canal straight, without coeca;
pancreas and spleen absent.

Marsipobranchii (lampreys, etc.)

aa. Skull well-developed; jaws distinct; fins usually
highly-developed, some of them paired; skin usually
scaly; nostrils at least two, not median; gill-openings a
single slit on each side in most fishes (numerous in a
few families); alimentary canal more or less convoluted;
pancreas and spleen present.

Pisces (fishes).

Of the third class, Pisces, the North Carolina representa-
tives fall into two easily recognized groups or sub-classes:
(1) the Shark, Skates and Rays and (2) the True Fishes,
which are distinguished anatomically as follows:

i. Skeleton cartilaginous; skull without sutures and with-
out membranous bones; gill openings numerous (5 to 7) and
slit like, the gills attached to the skin; tail heterocercal; skin
tough, naked or covered with small rough scales, spines, or
tubercles; air-bladder absent; jaws separable from skull;
species viviparous or ovoviviparous, the eggs large and few
in number; embryo with deciduous external gills.

Selachii or Elasmobranchii (sharks, skates, rays, etc.)

7007]

Fishes oe North Carolina

M W I1 «5 ® N

180

Journal of the Mitchell Society [December

ii. Skeleton bony in all but a few families; skull with
sutures and membranous bones (opercula, etc.); gill-openings
a single slit on each side, the gills attached to bony arches;
tail heterocercal or homocercal; body usually covered with
numerous flat scales; air-bladder present or absent; jaws not
distinct from the skull; species oviparous (exceptionally vivi-
parous), the ova small and numerous.

Teleostomi (true fishes).

In the first class are included 9 species of shark and 11
species of rays. In the second class (true fishes) there are
325 species. The 12 largest families included in these are as
follows:

Cat-fishes

12

species

in

4

genera,

Suckers

18

a

44

5

u

Minnows

. 36

a

a

9

ii

Killi-fishes

9

ii

44

5

a

Mackerels

8

a

ii

6

a

Carangids

17

((

ii

8

a

Sun-fishes

17

U

ii

10

a

Perches

24

a

44

12

a

Sea basses

11

a

44

7

a

Sparids

7

a

44

6

u

Drums

14

a

44

10

a

Flounders

11

a

44

7

The fisheries of North Carolina are of considerable econ-
omic importance to the State, approximating in value
$2,000,000 per year, the catch being utilized largely for food
purposes. Of the 347 species listed, there are about 90 that
are of present commercial value, most of which are used for
food. In the following table there is given a list of those
that are used for this purpose. In this table there is given
the common as well as the scientific name.

r

Fishes of North Carolina

181

ipoy]

FISHES USED FOR FOOD IN NORTH CAROLINA.

Sturgeon ( Acipenser oxyrhynchus).

Suckers (Family Catostomidae. North Carolina has more
species of suckers than any other State; 8 species used
as food).

Red Horse ( Moxostoma Crassilabre) .

Choly; shiner {Hybognaihus Nuchalis ).

Horned dace ( Semotilus Atromaculatus) .

Roach; shiner (Notemigonus Crysoleucas).

Carp ( Cyprinus Carpio).

Eel, fresh-water eel ( Anguilla Chnsypa).

Sea Herring ( Clupda Harengus Linnaeus ).

Hickory Shad ( Pomolobus Mediocris).

Branch Herring, Alewife ( Pomolobus Pseudo harengus) .
Glut Herring, Shoal Herring ( Pomolobus Aestivalis') .

Shad ( Alosa Sapidissima) .

Menhaden ( Brevooriia Tyrannus) .

Brook Trout; Mountain Trout ( Salvelinus Fontinalis).
Rainbow Trout; California Trout ( Salmo Irideus).

Pike; Pickerel ( Esox Americanus and Esox Reticulatus) .
Mullets ( Mugil Cephalus and Mugil Curema ).

Bonito ( Sarda Sarda) variety of mackerel.

Spanish Mackerel ( Scomberomorus Maculatus) .

Cero ( Scomberomorus Regalis and Cavalla).

Sword-fish ( Xiphias Gladius).

Pompano; Sun-fish ( Trachinotus Carolinus).

Blue-fish ( Po?natomus Saltatrix).

Cabio; Crab-eater {Rachycentron Canadus ).

Star, Harvest- fish ( Peprilus Alepidotus).

Butter-fish (Poronotus Tricanthus).

Calico Bass; Speckled Perch ( Pomoxis Sparoides).

Flier ( Centr arcus Macropierus).

Rock Bass ( Ambloplites Rupestris) .

Goggle-eyes; Warmouth ( Chaenobryttus Gulosus ).
Long-eared Sun-fish; Red-belly; Robin ( Lepomis Auritus).
Blud Joe; Blue-gills; Blue Sun-fish ( Lepomis Incisor).
Holbrook’s Sun-fish ( Lepomis Holbrookt) .

182

Journal of the Mitchell Society December ]

Sand Perch; Pumpkin-seed {Lepomis Gibbrosus).

Black Bass; small mouthed ( Micropterus Dolomien).

Black Bass, large mouthed ( Micropterus Salmoides).

Pike Perch; Wall-eyed Pike ( Stizostedion Vitreum).

Yellow Perch; Red-fin ( Perea Flavescens).

Striped Bass; Rock-fish ( Roccus Lineatus) .

White Perch {Mar one Americana).

Black-fish; Sea Bass ( Centropristes Striatus).

Pig-fish; Hog-fish ( Orthopristis Chrysopterus) .

Snapper; Grunt ( Hcemulon Plumieri).

Scup; Pin-fish ( Stenoto?nus Chrysops).

Sailsois choice; Robin ( Lagodon Rhomboides) .

Sheepshead (Archosargus Probatocephalus).

Squeteague; Weak-fish; Sea Trout ( Cynoscion Regalis).
Spotted Squeteague; spotted Weak-fish ( Cynoscion Nebulo-
sus).

Yellow Tail; Sand Perch; Perch ( Bairdiella Chrysura.)

Spot ( Leiostoinus Xanthurus ).

Croaker ( Micropogon Undulatus).

Red Drum; Red-fish ( Sciaenops Ocellatus).

King-fish; Sea Mullet; Carolina Whiting ( Menticirrhus
Americanus).

Sea Mullet; King-fish ( Menticirrhus Saxatilis).

Surf Whiting ( Menticirrhus Littoralis ).

Black Drum (Pogonias Cromis).

Oyster-fish; Tautog ( Tautoga Onitis).

Porgee, Spade-fish ( Chaetodipterus Faber) .

Cod {Gadus Gallarias).

Flounder; Summer Flounder; Plaice ( Paralichthys Denta-
tus).

Flounder, Southern, ( Paralichthys Lethostigmus) .

Flounder ( Paralichthys Albiguttus) .

All the fishes mentioned in this list are found to a greater
or less extent in the markets, but only a few of them are of
any large economic value to the State. Of the migratory ;
fishes, the most conspicuous and the ones of most value are

Fishes ok North Carolina

183

/907]

the shad, ale wives, hickory shad, striped bass, white perch,
eel and sturgeon. Of the salt water fishes would be included
the mullets, squeteagues, Spanish mackerel, croaker, spot
and menhaden. The principal fresh water fish is the large-
mouthed black bass. The spotted squeteague, pig fish, hick-
ory shad and black bass are taken in larger quantities in
North Carolina than in any other State.

On account, however, of over-fishing and non-enforcement
of present laws relating to the fisheries, the industries are
deteriorating and in some instances quite rapidly. Unless
the State will provide prompt and adequate protection to the
shad, alewives, striped bass and other species which are be-
ginning to show a decrease in abundance, they will soon
share the same fate as the sturgeon.

There is no reason why the fisheries of North Carolina
should not be maintained for an indefinite period and even
be very greatly improved; and to this end the session of the
Legislature of 1907 created a Fsh Commission, but with very
limited powers. It is to be hoped that at the session of 1909
the powers of the Fish Commission will be increased so that
it will be in a position to prevent the causes of decline in
these industries and be able to utilize all resources for build-
ing up and increasing the abundance of fish.

The Geological and Economic Survey, in cooperation with
the United States Bureau of Fisheries, has carried on certain
lines of work in regard to the protection and reproduction of
the fishes of North Carolina, conducted through the Biolog-
ical Laboratory at Beaufort, the hatchery at Edenton and
the temporary hatching stations near Weldon. A number of
fish have been introduced into the waters of North Carolina,
some of which have become widely distributed and firmly
established, such as the rainbow or California trout and the
carp.

Large numbers of native fishes from outside hatcheries
have been planted in the State, among these being the brook
trout, large-mouthed and small-mouthed black basses, various
sun-fishes, and several kinds of cat fishes.

R EVIEWS

Van Nostrand’s Chemical Annual, 1907. First Year of
Issue. Edited by John C. Olsen, A. M., Ph. D. New York,
D. Van Nostrand Co. x - 496 pp. The “Chemiker Kalendar”
has long been a most useful publication but American chem-
ists have desired a similar publication in English. In the
new Annual Professor Olsen has improved upon the German
model and produced an extremely satisfactory reference
work. It consists exclusively of tables of physical and chem-
ical data and lists of pnblications. The physical constants
of inorganic and organic compounds are given in two tables,
comprising nearly one half of the book. It is a pleasure to
And frequently definite values for solubilities. The “Review
of Chemical Literature” consists of a classified list of the
more important articles published in the Journals and also a
classified list of books, the time covered being from Jan. 1,
1905 to June 1, 1906. It is cause for congratulation that
Professor Olsen undertook the editorship of a book which is
so indespensible to the chemist. The execution of the mech-
anical part is excellent. A. S. W.

Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Substances. A
hand-book of the most reliable quantitative solubility deter-
minations. Recalculated and complied by Atherton Seidell.
8vo X - 367 pp. D. Van Nostrand Company. New York,
1907. The only dictionary of chemical solubilities has been
Comey’s which was published in 1894. Although it is a book
of great value there are several defects which detract from its
usefulness. It contains no organic substances but we find
instead a great variety of rare inorganic double salts. Too
many unreliable determinations are incorporated and the
arrangement is not consistent throughout so that it is fre-

184

[December

Reviews

185

/907]

quently troublesome to locate a compound. Seidell has intro-
duced a large number of important organic substances, the
selection of inorganic compounds is more satisfactory, the
arrangement is logical throughout, and the determinations
are more reliable. Greater reliability was arrived at with
much labor by recalculating the various determinations to a
common basis and drawing curves through the points plot-
ted. Selections were then made after comparing the curves
and studying the methods of determination. An index adds
to the value of the book. Every chemist should have access
to this thoroughly satisfactory dictionary, in fact it should
be in every working scientific library. A. S. W.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOL. XXIV
1908

WITH ONE PLATE

LIBRARY
NEW YORK

BOTANICAL

GARDEN

ISSUED QUARTERLY

THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PACE

Micro- Structure and Probable Origin of Flint-Like Slate

near Chapel Hill, North Carolina. — H. N. Eaton 1

Field for Economic Plant Breeding in the Cotton Belt.

— David R. Coker 9

Notes on the Life-Zones in North Carolina. — C. S. Brimley

and Franklin Sherman , Jr 14

A Bacteriologic Study of the Blank Cartridge. — David II.

Dolly 23

Review 29

Papers Relating to Science 30

Ornithological Work in North Carolina. — T. Gilbert Pearson 33

Proceedings of the North Carolina Academy of Science 44

The San Jose Scale. — Franklin Sherman , Jr 52

Monazite and Monazite Mining in the Carolinas. — Joseph

Hyde Pratt and Douglas B. Sterrett 61

The Optical Rotation of Spirits of Turpentine. — Chas.

H. Herty 87

The Character of the Compound Formed by the Addition
of Ammonia to Ei'iiyl-phospho-platino-chloride. — Chas.

H. Herty and R. 0. E. Davis 92

The Volatile Otl of Pinus Serotina. — Chas. II. Herty and

W. S. Dickson 101

Micropegmatite at Chapel Hill. — H. N. Eaton 101

Abstracts 106

The Amanitas of North Carolina. — II. C. Beardslee 115

Investigations of the N. C. Geological and Economic Sur-
vey Relating to Forestry Problems Along the North

Carolina Banks.— Joseph Hyde Pratt 125

Streptococcus Infections of the Tonsils, their Diagnosis
and Relationship to Acute Articular Rheumatism. —

Wm. DeB. MacNider 139

The “Pinch-Effect” in Unidirectional Electric Sparks. —

Andrew II . Patterson 145

The Recent Baltimore Meetings of Scientific Societies 148

mmmm

Elisha Mitchell Scientific

ISSUED QUARTERLY

m ■»»

•■ V 'm

iii™^

sm ^MStsp St?,® 4fP!aiJ»uW'v

CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

TO BE ENTER ED AT THE POBTOrfiqC A* ■ECONO CtA«« MATTER

Sif/ &*■<>, **•''& ■'*•• •' f’t'to

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

W. C. COKER, President
J. E. LATTA, V i ce -Presi dent
A. S. WHEELER, Rec. Sec.

wrnifm • **

F. P. ENABLE. Perm, i

Editors or the Journal:

W. O. COKER.

E, V. HOWELL, ARCHIBALD HENDERSON

'■ V.

m

m

m

H

CONTENTS

m

Micro-Structure and Probable Origin of Fi.ist-Like Slate near '

Chapel Hill, North Carolina. — H. X. EaUm 1

Ftrld for Economic Plant Breeding in the .Cotton Belt. -r-Dari4

fSpj^ R. Coker .v.-

A Bacteriologic Study of the Blank Cartridge.— Daniil H. Dolly.. •

Review ........ I '. ;v X.:: .-1i<

Papers Relating to Science v. . . . . . V, S *i-»

(Add to table of contents.)

Notes on the Life-Zones in North
Carolina. C. S. Brimley and Franklin
Sherman , Jr page 1 4 .

1

.

" Journal of the Elisha Mitchell -Scientific Society — Quarterly;
year- single numbers 50 cents. Most numbers of f<
umes can be supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Edi
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

JOURNAL

VOL. XXIV

OF THE

Mitchell Scientific Society

library

NEW YOt

botanic

GARDEf'

MAY, 1908

NO. I

MICRO -STRUCTURE AND PROBABLE ORIGIN OF FLINT -
LIKE SLATE NEAR CHAPEL HILL,

NORTH CAROLINA

H. N. EATON

Two miles south of Chapel Hill, North Carolina, along the bed
of a small stream known as Morgan’s Creek occur extensive
exposures of a series of rocks whose general strike is east and west.

• From Purefoy’s Mill on the Pittsboro road eastward along the
stream bed to a point three miles distant on the Mason farm,
these rocks are of the same general character, and consist of a
series of conglomerates, sandstones, and flint-like slates lying in
places upon felsite, and dipping southward 50 to 70 degrees.
Sills of fine grained acid and basic igneous r cks are frequently
found intercalated in this series, and all the rocks are cut by
a set of basic dikes. The fiint-like slates alone form the basis for
the present paper.

This series of rocks has often been included in a great formation

3cof slates and schists of debatable age, extending from Virginia

v. 1903 }

5P

1

Printed May 29, 1908

2 Journal of the Mitchell Society [May

southwesterly across central North Carolina into South Carolina,
and known as the Carolina Slate Belt. Ebenezer Emmons1 placed
all these rocks in his Taconic system, and W. C. Kerr2 con-
sidered that they belonged to the Huronian. Without consider-
ing the vexed question of age, we turn to the views expressed by
former writers as to the origin of the flint-like, slaty members of
the series.

As early as 1822 the existence of novaculite in Orange County,
North Carolina, was noted by Denison Olmstead3. In 1828 the
same writer4 again mentioned the novaculite of the slate forma-
tion, and stated that the most valuable bed was found at McCau-
ley’s quarry, seven miles west of Chapel Hill. The rock here is
olive green in color, has a horny look, and is transparent on thin
edges.

Emmons5 described this rock under the head of quartzite as
follows: “Color, bluish black passing into purple, grayish, white

and green of several shades, and sometimes banded; texture, fine
when compared with the finest sandstones ; translucent on edges;
fracture, flat-conchoidal and frequently brittle, or it may be tough
in the mass, but small pieces easily chip off with a light blow. It
passes on the one hand into a fine grit, and on the other, into the
compact slate and a condition like flint. When struck with the
hammer, it is sonorous like cast iron. It is rarely if ever a sim-
ple substance like limpid quartz as it usually weathers and loses
thereby its homogeneity; besides it is often porphyritic or por-
phyrized, and frequently the fresh fracture is dotted with small
limpid crystals of quartz, which crystalized out from the mass
when it was in a semi-fluid state.”

1 Geological Report of the Midland Counties of North Carolina/ New
York, 1856, pp. 38-73.

2 Report of the Geological Survey of North Carolina, vol. 1 Raleigh, 1875,
pp. 131-139.

3 American Journal of Science, Series 1, vol. 5, 1822, p. 2 62.

4 American Journal of Science, Series 1, vol. 14, 1828, p. 238.

5 Ibid. pp. 69-70.

1908 ]

Flint-like Slate Near Chapel Hill

3

Albert Williams, Jr,1 writing in 1888, stated that novaculite
was quarried on an extensive scale a few miles west of Chapel Hill.

In his monograph on the Arkansas novaculite, published in
1892, L. S. Griswold2 cites the above, references to Olmstead and
Albert Williams, Jr. This writer, in the course of a description of
that type of novaculite known as the “Arkansas Stone”, says,
“The only other stone in this country which resembles the
Arkansas Stone and is worked, is that of North Carolina, but
the greasy talcose appearance of the latter suggests that its
internal structure differs from that of the true novaculite.”

H. B. C. Nitze3, in 1896, describing the rocks of the Carolina
Slate Belt, writes thus under the heading, “Quartz Rocks — The
Volcanic Series” :

“The crypto- crystalline varieties of quartz (flint, chert, horn-
stone, agatized, chalcedonic) are of especial interest, and warrant
a careful consideration. It is again deplored in this connection
that the present report did not allow the time for a microscopic
study of the thin sections. Such cherty, flint-like masses have
been described from the Sam Christian, Moratock, Silver Valley
and Hoover Hill mines. It is at present the opinion that these
rocks belong to the class of ancient (pre-Cambrian) acid volcanics,
and in many respects analogous to, and probably contemporaneous
with, similar rocks of South Mountain in Maryland and Pennsyl-
vania, whose discovery was first announced by the late Dr. Geo.
H. Williams4. Miss Florence Bascom5 has described the origin,
devitrification and structure of the acid types of these rocks. Dr.
Williams6 has outlined the general distribution of the ancient vol-

1 Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar year 1887, Washing-
ton, 1888, p. 772.

2 Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Arkansas for 1890, vol. 3,
1892, Whetstones and the Novaculites of Arkansas, pp. 21 and 22.

3 North Carolina Geological Survey, Bull., No. 3, Gold Deposits of North
Carolina, by H. B. C. Nitze and G. B. Hanna, 1896, pp. 37-38.

4 The Volcanic Rocks of the South Mts. in Pa. and Md., Am. Jour. Sci.,
vol. 44, Dec., 1892, pp. 482-496. Scientific American, Jan. 14, 1893.

5 Journal of Geology, vol. I, 1893, pp. 813-832.

6 Ibid. vol. 2, 1894, pp. 1-31.

4 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ May

canic rocks along the eastern border of North America. These
rocks are analogous to the halleflintas and eurites of Southern
Sweden, described as volcanic rocks by Nordenskjold. They
would also correspond to Hunt’s pre-Cambrian petro-silex rocks,
called by him the Arvonian, being below his Huronian.

“The hornstones have every appearance of being acid feldspar-
quartz rocks, and will probably be found, on further study, to
belong to the class of apo -rhyolites, a term introduced by Miss
Bascom to denote a devitrified rhyolite. Emmons1 describes
the type very well under the head of quartzite. They resemble
perfectly crypto-crystalline quartz, and on weathering present an
earthy, yellowish surface. The color of the fresh rock is drab,
bluish to almost black; translucent on edges; fracture flat con-
choidal; sometimes banded, showing flow structure, etc.” On
pages 41 and 42 of the same report the following is quoted from
Dr. Williams’2 article: “ ‘In a drive from Sanford to Chapel Hill

an abundance of the most typical ancient lavas, mostly of the
acid type, was encountered’ ” - - - - “ ‘Another locality in

the volcanic belt was visited on Morgan’s run, about 2 miles
south of Chapel Hill. Here are to be seen admirable exposures
of volcanic flow and breccias with finer tuff deposits, which have
been extensively sheared into slates by dynamic agency.’ ” The
above is repeated verbatim by the same author3 the same year
(1896) in an article entitled, “Some Late Views of the So-called
Taconic and Huronian Rocks in Central North Carolina.”

The tenor of those parts of Nitze’s paper just quoted referring
to the origin of the fine grained quartz rocks, seems to be that
these rocks are closely connected with the ancient surface lava
flows which are so common throughout the region. He states
that none of them were examined miscroscopically, but suggests
that the hornstones will probably be found to be apo-rhyolites.
The references to the work of Dr. Williams and Dr. Bascom on the
structure and devitrification of ancient acid lavas show that Nitze

1 Geological Report, Midland Comities of N. C,, New York, 1856, p. 51.

2 Journal of Geology, vol. 2, 1894, pp. 1-31.

3 This journal, vol. 13, Part Second, July- Dec. , 1896, pp. 53-72.

1908 ]

Flint-like Slate Near Chapel Hill

5

considered the formation of the hornstones and flinty slates as
due to a change in the latter rocks. The existence of tuff deposits
along this part of Morgan’s Creek mentioned by Williams and
quoted by Nitze is strongly discredited by Professor Collier Cobb,
who has had Occasion to learn thoroughly the structure of the
region in question during the course of his work at Chapel Hill.
Professor Cobb, however, takes his classes to such tuff deposits
’ southwest of the village, and it is these that Williams and Nitze
i have evidently confused with the slates of Morgan’s Creek two
j miles south of Chapel Hill.

As Professor Cobb has pointed out to the writer, these slates are
I bedded alternately with sandstones and conglomerates. The con-
glomerates are composed of well-rounded pebbles of several kinds of
volcanic rocks, but are by no means volcanic agglomerates. The
j slates are coincident in dip with the sandstones and conglomerates
with which they are associated, and, from all field evidence obtain-
able, seem to have been deposited as regular members of the sedi-
jj mentary series.

Specimens of the rock for investigation were obtained near the
I dam at Purefoy’s Mill. The general macroscopic description
given by Nitze applies very well to the rock from this locality.
In handspecimen , the rock is olive green in color, weathering to
brownish clay; banding faint, becoming more apparent on a
weathered surface; appearance waxy; structure dense and com-
| pact, with occasional minute reflecting crystal surfaces; trans-
lucent on edges; fracture conchoidal; very brittle; hardness 6.5.
Its resistance to abrasion is evidenced by the fact that all of the
I j arrow heads and spear heads of primitive man found in the
vicinity of Chapel Hill are made of this material.

Microscopically, this slate is seen to be a true crypto -crystalline
i rock, containing the minerals feldspar, quartz, kaolin, and epi-
dote. The groundmass is composed of very fine quartz crystals
and minute feldspar fragments through which kaolin scales are
plentifully scattered. Larger crystals of feldspar form a promi-
nent feature, and occur individually or in groups throughout the
Igroundmass. Sections cut at right angles to the lamination show
i ; that the kaolin scales occur in distinct bands varying in width

1 1

6 Journal of the Mitchell Society [May

from .25 to 1.1 mm. To the existence of these bands is due the
laminated appearance of the rock in hand specimen. In some
cases, also, there seems to have been a rough assortment of
the larger feldspars in bands, although this occurrence was not
observed to be universal.

The feldspar is plagioclase, and occurs in crystals varying in
size from the very minute particles of the groundmass up to .286
mm. in diameter. The average diameter of the larger crystals is
from .065 to .1 mm. The form is usually sub-angular, although
rounded crystals are seen, suggestive of a clastic derivation. All
the crystals polarize separately. Some crystals are intimately
interlocked. Others have deep re-entrants into which the silica
of the groundmass protrudes, suggesting a partial resorbtion of the
feldspar by the groundmass. Albite twinning is universal, the
maximum angle of the striations in the zone perpendicular to M
lying between 10 and 16 degrees. Hence the plagioclase mixtures
lie between basic oligoclase and andesine. The crystals show
little if any decomposition . The largest feldspar noted, .286 mm.
in diameter, is nearly round, is completely encased in a thin rim
of greenish glass, and lies in a rubble of small angular feldspar
fragments.

The crystals of the groundmass all polarize separately and
exhibit low interference colors. The grains are extremely irreg-
ular in outline, and are closely intelocked. The average diameter
is .015 mm. Many of these grains are seen to be plagioclase from
the albite striations. Many are quartz, but owing to the diffi-
culty of distinguishing between quartz and feldspar in very small
angular fragments, it is not possible to state definitely the per-
centage of each mineral. That much free silica is probably
present, however, is indicated by the high total percentage of
silica in the rock.

Kaolin occurs in minute scales. In the narrow bands above
noted, kaolin is by far the most abundant mineral, and the scales
lie very close together. It is likewise found in less abundance in
every part of the rock. The diameter of the scales varies from
.0026 to .0052 mm.

Epidote occurs rarely in minute grains in small clusters. The
interference colors are of a low order.

1908]

Flint-like Slate Near Chapel Hill

7

A partial analysis of the rock by Dr. A. S. Wheeler, associate
professor of Chemistry in the University of North Carolina, gives
the following results:

Silica 77.54 per cent.

Alumina 13.51 per cent.

Iron oxide 1.17 per cent.

Lime 1.10 per cent.

Magnesia 0.23 per cent.

This analysis confirms the microscopic determination.

Hand specimens and thin sections of a somewhat similar fine
grained siliceous rock from Gold Hill, N. C., collected last sum-
mer by Mr. F. B. Laney of the North Carolina Geological Sur-
vey, were lent the writer by the State Geologist, Dr. Joseph Hyde
Pratt. A hasty examination of thin sections of the . latter rock
reveals its close resemblance to the Purefoy’s Mill material, the
main difference between the two being that the feldspars in the
Gold Hill rock are uniformly larger.

Griswold1 defines novaculite as “a fine-grained, gritty, homo-
geneous, and highly siliceous rock, translucent on thin edges, and
having a conchoidal or sub-conchoidal fracture.” The Purefoy’s
Mill rock differs from the Arkansas novaculites in its lower silica
content, and in containing kaolin and feldspar in abundance. It
resembles the true novaculites in its general physical character.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS AS TO ORIGIN.

Field evidence shows that the flint-like slate found at Purefoy’s
Mill is a member of an undoubted sedimentary series, with dis-
tinct lamination or stratification coinciding in dip with the other
members of the series. Microscopic study reveals the fact that a
mechanical sorting and arrangement of the kaolin particles in lay-
ers took place prior to consolidation.

Professor Cobb is of the opinion that the rock owes its origin to
the consolidation of fine volcanic sand sorted by and deposited in
deep water, or that the sediment may have been derived from the

(1) Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Arkansas for 1890, vol. 3.

Journal of the Mitchell Society

8

[May

felsites and rhyolites on which it rests, its crystalline structure
being due to subsequent metamorphism.

The writer, rather, believes that the rock has remained essen-
tially unchanged since its consolidation, and that its formation
was similar to that of arkose, viz: that its component minerals
are the detrital fragments of a rock or rocks rich in quartz and
feldspar. Many of the feldspars are rounded, suggesting a clastic
origin, and are roughly arranged in layers parallel with the kaolin
bands. The chemical analysis, as far as it was carried out, is
very much like the analysis of the average rhyolite, and it is
highly probable that the materials of which the rock is composed
were derived from such acid volcanic rocks as occur in great
abundance in the vicinity.

The writer wishes to express his indebtedness to Professor Cobb
for suggestions in preparing this paper, and also to Dr. Pratt and
Mr. Laney for kindly loaning him material for comparison.

Department of Geology,

University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, N. C.

FIELD FOR ECONOMIC PLANT BREEDING IN THE COT-
TON BELT*

DAVID R. COKER

In considering any subject related to the present condition of
Southern Agriculture, it is well to remember that our section has
not completely recovered from the effect of the civil war and the
ensuing period of negro rule. This cannot be but plain to the
student of Southern Agricultural conditions and is largely caused
by the almost complete paralysis of our educational system during
and for some years after the war.

A large percentage of our farmers, not having had the opportu-
nity to obtain an education, have been unable to keep full pace
with the advance of their profession. The influence of our Agri-
cultural Colleges and the missionary work of such men as Dr. J.
M. McBryde, Col. J. S. Newman, Prof. W. F. Massey, Mr. E.
Mclver Williamson and Editors Jackson and Hunnicutt are, how-
ever, plainly evident in the general and rapid improvement of
conditions.

Though great advances along many lines have been made, the
subject of plant breeding and its vital relation to agriculture has
hardly begun to attract attention in our section. Scarcely any of
our farmers have the slightest conception of what plant breeding
means, and there is now almost no supply of pedigreed seed of
any of our staple crops. Our farmers, however, can be counted
on to buy scientifically bred seed and devote some attention to
seed selection, as soon as the great value of pure breeding is
impressed upon them. Our Agricultural Colleges and farm journ-
als have a gread field for missionary work on this subject, which,
as yet, they have scarcely touched.

♦Read before the American Breeders Association, Washington, D. C.,
January 30th, 1908.

1908]

9

10 Journal of the Mitchell Society [May

There are for sale in the South numerous so called varieties of
seed which are advertised under high sounding names and with
most extravagant claims of productive capacity. Many of these,
however, prove to be mixtures of types and are frequently found
to be worse than valueless. Plant breeders, as well as farmers,
would welcome an effort by the National and State Governments
to stop this pestiferous class of swindling, and I hope the Associa-
tion will take some steps to this end for the general good and pro-
tection of its members.

The importance of plant breeding to the south cannot better be
shown than by calling attention to the value of some of the work
that has already been done.

The earliest work of this kind that is known of by the writer
was undertaken before the war by Hon. John Townsend of Edisto
Island, who succeeded in improving a strain of Sea Island cotton
until its length was about two inches. I am informed that he
invariably got $1.00 or more per pound for this cotton as long as
he lived. Other Sea Island planters have kept up a more or less
perfect system of breeding to the present day, and to this, in part
at least, is undoubtedly due to the admitted pre-eminence of
South Carolina Sea Islands.

Valuable varieties of upland long staples have been originated
by Mr. Allen and Mr. Griffin of Mississippi and Mr. Stoney and
Prof. C. L. Newman of South Carolina. Prof. Newman has also
done some remarkable work on field peas.

The experiment Stations of all the cotton states are, I believe,
now doing more or less plant breeding, but most of their work has
not advanced far enough to have general effect on agricultural
conditions.

The work of the National Plant Breeding Department, under
the direction of Dr. H. J. Webber, stands preeminent in the breed-
ing of those of our economic plants to which attention has been
given.

The success of this department with pineapples, citrus fruits,
cotton and tobacco are no doubt more or less familiar to all of
this audience.

The Columbia, bred by Dr. Webber personally, is the first of
his cottons to be distributed by the Department of Agriculture.

19081

Field for Economic Plant Breeding

11

It has yielded with the best of the varieties tested at our State
Experiment station, and its money out-turn was the greatest of
any, on account of the premium which its long staple commands.

My own experiments with this cotton seem to coincide with
those obtained at Clemson the last season. I tested it with nine
other varieties and, though the general results were not conclusive,
owing to irregularity of stand, Columbia undoubtedly stood first in
money value.

Dr. Webber’s Citranges are also an important addition to our
economic plants, as they provide an entirely new class of fruits for
the cotton belt.

A plant of Rusk Citrange which fruited in my garden last sea-
son has thus far proved entirely hardy. The delicious ade made
from this fruit may soon be expected to alleviate the situation in
the broad area of southern prohibition territory.

I would like to mention the work of a number of the men in the
Bureau of Plant Breeding, but refrain from lack of space. I
must say, however, that Mr. A. D. Shamel has obtained results
with shade grown tobacco that deserve the widest notice and com-
mendation. He has, in fact, revolutionized that industry. Mr.
Orton also, in saving the cotton plant from extinction over con-
siderable areas, has earned the gratitude of the cotton states.

The production of varieties of cotton similar to Columbia,
suited to each section of the south, is one of the most promising
opportunities now in view for southern plant breeders. This work
is especially important to the eastern part of the belt where up-
land cottons average less than one inch in length of staple and
sell in the markets of the world at a lower price than any except
East Indians.

It should be noted that most of Dr. Webber’s promising new
cottons, including Columbia, originated with selections from exist-
ing varieties and not from hybrids.

My method of cotton breeding is similar to that originated by
Dr. Webber, but differs in a few details. I started with a deter-
mination to breed, if possible, an up-land cotton of maximum
production that would command a staple premium. All extra
staple varieties then known to me were much lower in yield than

12 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ May

the best short staple sorts. I have, therefore, from the first exam-
ined only the most productive plants, and of these only the ones
which show an increase in length of lint are selected for breeding.
I give the plants a distance of 4 by 4 or 5 by 5 feet and have inci-
dentally made the interesting discovery that on good soils these
distances produce more cotton than the usual farm method of
crowding in the drill. I find it a good plan to have two breeding
plats, one on heavy and one on light soil, putting part of the seed
of each mother plant on each plat under the same breeding num-
ber. Before selection is begun I take one seed with lint attached
from each of a dozen plants on each breeding row and mount
them. By a comparison of these a quick approximation can be
made of the average performance of each breeding number in
length and percentage of lint. Selections are then made from
every number not palpably deficient in some cardinal point, for I
find it impossible to judge with the eye the relative yield of differ-
ent rows of cotton. A record of the exact yield of each row on
both plats is, therefore, kept and if the same number shows max-
imum yields as well as other desirable qualities on both the light
and heavy soil rows, there can be little question of the inherent
quality of the selections made from it. Selections from rows of
poor yield are, of course, discarded unless very exceptional.

My best number last season showed a production about 10 per
cent greater in both plats than any other row. It was also quite
satisfactory in length and percentage of lint, largeness of boll and
other desirable characteristics, and I hope to make from it a vari-
ety as good as, or better than Columbia.

The low yield of corn throughout the cotton belt is presumptive
evidence of both poor seed and inferior cultural methods.

The latter is being rapidly remedied, largely through the agita-
tion begun by Mr. E. Mclver Williamson of my own County,
(Darlington County, S. C.) who has perfected a method of cul-
ture that not only produces large crops, but rapidly improves the
soil.

Such com breeding work as is now being carried on so gener-
ally and successfully in the middle states is almost unknown to
the South. Here and there, intelligent farmers have improved

1908\ Field for Economic Plant Breeding 13

their own seed by selection in the field. None of them, however,
that I know of has resorted to pedigreed breeding, and if any
acclimated corn of pure pedigree is being offered to the farmers
of the cotton belt, I do not know of it.

My own work, begun only a year ago, indicates as great varia-
bility in the yielding power of individual ears as has been noted
by Mr. J. Dwight Funk and Prof. C. G. Hopkins of Illinois. A

Imost notable result in my experiments was the absolute failure of
the seed ear which in all visible points was best.

The limits of this paper do not allow mention of the breeding
requirements of each of the many southern economic plants.
Suffice it to say that nearly all of them (and their number is
legion) can be greatly improved in quality and productive capac-
ity by systematic breeding.

The record of southern plant breeding is, as yet, very short.
Here and there, work has begun and quick and valuable results
have invariably followed ; but compared with what yet remains to
be done, that already accomplished is indeed small.

No fairer or broader field exists in American Agriculture today
than the field for economic plant breeding in the Cotton Belt.

Harts ville, S. C.

NOTES ON THE LIFE - ZONES IN NORTH CAROLINA

C. S. BRIMLEY AND FRANKLIN SHERMAN, JR.

The old-established popular division of North Carolina into
eastern, middle, and western sections, is familiar to us all. It is
an interesting fact that a study of the available zoological records
gives a somewhat similar division of the state into life-zones or
areas.

This detailed study of the animal life of the state shows that,
while a small number of species are widely distributed throughout
all sections of the state, yet the majority show in some degree, a
more or less restricted range within our borders, — and it is upon
a study of all available records of these restricted forms, that our
provisional map of the life-zones of the state is based. In these
studies we have depended mainly on mammals, reptiles and batra-
chians. Fishes have been practically omitted, and birds and
insects owing to their powers of flight and tendency to wander,
have been used chiefly for confirmation, and even then we have
relied principally on records of breeding birds, which would be
more likely to be within their proper range.

It has been known that four of the recognized life-zones of North
America are represented in our state. These are: — 1st, the Cana-
dian,— 2nd, the Alleghanian (or Transition), — 3rd, the Upper
Austral (or Carolinian), — 4th, the Lower Austral (or Austro-
riparian.)

1 . The Canadian Zone in this state includes only the tops of
the higher mountains. Aside from a few scattered records the
places from which we have sufficient data to positively mark as
belonging to this zone are, the higher altitudes in the Black
Mountains, Roan Mountain, Grandfather Mountain (including

14

[May

1908]

Notes on the Life-Zones

15

Blowing Rock), Bald Mountain in Yancey County, and the higher
mountains in the vicinity of Highlands in Macon County, —
although it is practically certain that more extended collecting
and observation will show that this same zone includes also the
tops of some other mountains, especially the Balsams, Mount
Toxaway, and Pisgah Ridge. This zone does not extend below
an elevation of 4,500 feet. The animals known to occur in this
zone in this state and which do not normally extend into the zones
of lower elevation, are named below. We include those species of
birds whose nesting habitat is in this zone, though the same birds
may of course be found in other zones when not nesting.

Mammals:

Carolina Red-backed Mouse (Evotomys Carolinensis) .

Canadian Deer-mouse (Peromyscus canadensis) .

Woodland Jumping-Mouse (Napaeozapus insignis).

Birds (breeding) :

Golden-crowned Kinglet (Regulus satrapa) .

Red-breasted Nut-hatch (Sitta canadensis) .

Brown Creeper (Certhia familiaris).

Winter Wren (Olbiorchilus hyemalis) .

American Cross-bill (Loxian minor) .

Pine Siskin (Spinus tristis) .

Carolina Junco (Junco hyemalis carolinensis).

Batrachians:

Black Salamander (Desmognathus nigra) .

Purple Salamander (Spelerpes porphyriticus) .

Yellow Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophea) .

2. The Alleghanian Zone embraces a large part of our moun-
tain region, including practically all between the elevations of
2,500, and 4,500 feet. In our map we have conservatively
restricted this zone to the higher known ranges. We have record
l of the following species which are characteristic of this zone as con-
trasted with the more highly-elevated Canadian zone :

Mammals:

Common Flying-squirrel ( Seiuropterus volans),

16 Journal of the Mitchell Society [May

Deer-mouse (Peromyscus leucopus).

Pine-mouse (Microtus pinetorum) .

Cotton-tail Rabbit (Lepus floridanus mallurus) .

Dusky Bat (Vespertilio fuscus).

Common Mole (Scalops aquaticus) .

Reptiles and Batrachians:

Viscid Salamander (Plethodon glutinosus) .

Red Triton (Spelerpes ruber) .

Hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleghaniensis).

Ground Snake (Carphophiops amoenus).

Chicken Snake (Coluber obsoletus) .

Banded Rattlesnake (Crotalis horridus) .

As the above-named species distinguish this zone from the
Canadian, just so the following species distinguish it from he
lower and warmer Upper Austral zone.

Mammals:

Star-nosed Mole (Condylura cristata) .

Brewer’s Mole (Scapanus breweri).

Smoky Shrew (Sorex fumeus) .

Red Squirrel (Sciurus hudsonius) .

Wood-chuck (Artomys monax).

Batrachians:

Daniel’s Salamander (Spelerpes danielsi).

Mountain Salamander ( Desmognathus quadrimaculatus) .

3. The Upper Austral Zone seems to include (roughly speaking)
all of our territory north and west of a line drawn from Suffolk,
Va. to Raleigh, thence to Charlotte, and thence a little south of
west to the South Carolina line at or near Tryon in Polk County,
— except that part of the mountain region occupied by the Alle-
ghanian and Canadian zones. The animals which occur in this
zone in this state and which are generally considered to distin-
guish it from the higher and colder Alleghanian zone are :

Mammals:

Opossum (Didelphis virginianus) .

Notes on the Life-Zones

17

|l 1908]

l

Gray Fox (Urocyon cinereo argenteus)
Golden Mouse (Peromyscus nuttalli) .
Little Mole Shrew (Blarina parva).
Twilight Bat (Nycticeius humeralis).
Georgia Bat (Pipistrellus subflarus) .

Reptiles and Batrachians:

Marbled Salamander (Ambly stoma punctatum).

Holbrook’s Triton (Spelerpes guttolineatus) .

Ground Lizard (Liolepisma laterale) .

Brown King-snake (Ophibolus rhombomaculatus) .
Muhlenberg’s Terrapin (Chelopus muhlenbergi) .

And this same zone is distinguished on the south and west by
having the following animals whose range does not normally
extend into the Lower Austral zone.

Mammals:

Chipmunk (Tamias striatus) .

Deer-mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) .
Cooper’s Lemming (Simaptomys cooperi) .
Meadow Mouse (Microtus pennsylvanicus) .

(Jumping Mouse (Zapus hudsonius).

Weasel (Putorius novaboracensis) .

Mole Shaew (Blarina brevicauda) .

Red Fox (Vulpes fulvus).

i Reptiles and Batrachians:

Common Water-snake (Natrix fasciatus sipedon).
Wood Frog (Rana sylvatica) .

Pickerel Frog (Rana palustris).

Red-backed Salamander (Plethodon erythronotus) .

4. The Lower Austral Zone includes all of our territory south
i and east of the line already described for the eastern and southern
I boundary of the preceding (upper austral) zone. The number of
! animals occurring in this state in this zone but not ordinarily
| extending into the Upper Austral Zone is quite large, and includes
the following:

18

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[ May

Mammals:

Southern Fox Squirrel (Sciurus niger).

Cotton Mouse (Peromyscus gossypinus) .

Cotton Rat (Sigmodon hispidus).

Rice-field Rat (Oryzomys palustris).

Roof-rat (introduced) (Mus alexandrinus).

Marsh Rabbit (Lepus palustris) .

Southern Shrew (Sorex longirostris) .

Carolina Mole Shrew (Blarina carolinensis) .

Big-eared Bat (Plecotus mocrotis) .

Birds:

A considerable number might be mentioned but are not need-
ed to confirm the zone.

Reptiles:

Alligator (Alligator mississipiensis) .

Joint Snake (Ophysauris ventralis).

Green Lizard ( Anolis principalis) .

Southern Water-snake (Natrix fasciata).

Pied Water-snake (Natrix taxispilota) .

Hoop-snake (Abastor erythrogrammus).

Horn-snake (Farancia abacura) .

Striped Chicken-snake (Coluber quadrivittatus) .

Spotted Racer (Coluber guttatus).

Brown-headed Snake (Rhadinea flavilata) .

Red King-snake (Ophibolus coccineus) .

Red Snake (Cemophora coccinea) .

Hog-nosed Snake (Heterodon simus).

Crowned Tantilla (Tantilla coronata).

Cotton -mouth Moccasin ( AMstrodon piscivorus) .

Ground Rattle-snake (Sistrurus miliarius) .

Diamond Rattle-snake (Crotalus adamanteus) .

Smooth Terrapin (Pseudemys concinna).

Florida Terrapin (Pseudemys floridanus).

Rough Terrapin (Pseudemys scripta) .

1908 ]

Notes on the Life-Zones

19

BcUrachians:

Carolina Tree-frog (Hyla cinerea) .

Squirrel Tree-frog (Hyla squirella) .

Pine-woods Tree-frog (Hyla femoralis) .

Dwarf Toad (Bufo quercicus) .

Narrow-mouth Toad (Engystoma carolinense) .

Margined Salamander (Stereochilus marginatus) .

Dwarf Salamander (Manculus quadridigitatus).

Mole Salamander (Amblystoma talpoideum).

Ditch Eel (Amphiuma means).

Southern Water-dog (Necturus punctatus).

Mud Eel (Siren lacertina) .

In outlining this map the most important step has been to
locate the line separating the lower and upper austral zones. In
placing this line where we have it, we have been influenced by
the following data: The Dismal Swamp region, which lies partly
in the northern end of Camden county, is known to have decided-
ly lower austral affinities, so that our line would seem to start
west of this swamp. The only section in the northeast part of
the state which has enough records to furnish a reliable guide is
the southeastern part of Bertie county, where Sans Souci and

IAvoca have on record five distinctively lower austral forms, to two
upper austral. Meagre data from Jackson (Northampton County)
and Tarboro (Edgecombe Co.) indicate a mixed fauna at both
I places, and therefore we have run the line between them. Ral-
eigh is really the strongest point in locating this line. Abundant
data indicates that the fauna of Raleigh and vicinity is thoroughly
mixed, with no decided preponderance in either direction, —
therefore we have run the line directly through Raleigh. This
gives practically a straight line from Raleigh toward Suffolk, Va.,
until the state line is reached at Chowan River.

West of Raleigh and east of the mountains our data is scant.
Cary, with one decidedly upper austral form (Chipmunk) which
does not occur at Raleigh, finds a place above the line, while
Apex with one lower austral form is below it. It is interesting to
note here that the Chipmunk recorded from Cary was taken not
' more than seven miles from Raleigh but has never been taken actual-

20 Journal of the Mitchall Society [May

ly at Raleigh, while the Florida Terrapin, (a very decidedly lower
austral form) has been taken in north-west Johnston county, but
is not known at Raleigh. This gives further warrant for running
the dividing line directly through Raleigh.

The line, passing between Cary and Apex, runs straight to
Charlotte. Southern Pines, many of whose insects are known,
shows strong lower austral affinities, while Stanly and Cabarrus
counties each contribute one lower austral record. As Salisbury
and Statesville both show records which would tend to exclude
them from the lower austral zone, we have run the line straight
to Charlotte so as to leave these points in the upper austral, but
including parts of both Stanly and Cabarrus counties in the lower
austral.

From Charlotte we have run the line slightly south of west, so
that it crosses the South Carolina line at or near Tryon in Polk
County. This latter locality seems to be (biologically) one of the
most remarkable in the state. Its vicinity within a radius of a
few miles is so varied in elevation and temperature that we have
records of lower austral, upper austral, and Alleghanian forms,
and there may be an infusion of strictly Canadian forms on the
tops of the higher mountains of that locality. Of the strictly
lower austral forms known at Tryon we may mention the Green
Lizard, and a species of true Scorpion, the latter having never yet
been taken at any other place in the state.

It may be well to mention a few rather exceptional records.
Coopers Lemming, — recorded as an inhabitant of sphagnum
swamps which are generally considered to present Alleghanian
tendencies, — has been taken at Chapanoke in Perquimmans county.
The Diamond Rattle-snake, — considered to be a decidedly lower
austral form, — has been recorded at Jackson, Northhampton Co.
The Red-backed Salamander, — not known at Raleigh and a dis-
tinctively upper austral form, — has been taken at Greenville, Pitt
Co. At Kinston the Wood-Frog and Pickerel Frog (both consid-
ered to be upper austral species) have been taken. The Weasel
(upper austral) has been taken at New Bern. The Glass Snake, —
a typically lower austral form, — has been taken at Statesville.
In Transylvania county there is record of the Mole Salamander,
which is a distinctively lower austral form. Insects of normally

1908\ Notes on the Life-Zones 21

lower austral habitat have been taken at Andrews in Cherokee
Co. and near Franklin in Macon Co. The Green Lizard (lower
austral) is also said to occur along the Little Tennessee River in
Graham or Swain Counties, but this record is open to question.

IAt Weaverville, Buncombe County, the Big-eared Bat (lower
austral) has been recorded.

These exceptional records, while in our opinion not sufficiently
numerous or consistent to change the course of the faunal lines as
shown on the map, serve to emphasize the fact that no faunal
lines or zones can be claimed to be absolute. Animals typical of
one zone will occasionally wander into a neighboring zone. It is
therefore not surprising to find a typically lower austral form as
much as twenty to forty miles north or west of the faunal line, or
on the other hand to find a distinctively upper austral form a
similar distance east or south of this line, — and this overlapping
of forms along the edges of the zones occurs with special frequency
among those animals which move rapidly from place to place and
which may therefore from hunger, fright or other causes become
restless and wander out of their normal range. But it would be
worthy of note if a distinctively upper austral form were found to
occur regularly and in any degree of abundance, in the warmer
parts of our state which are well within the Lower Austral zone as
defined on our map. In this connection we would call attention
to the localities of Cape Hatteras, Beaufort, Havelock (Lake Ellis)
and Wilmington. From these four localities we get a total of 46
characteristic records, every one of them lower austral. But when
we go nearer to the line to the north and west as at Greenville,
Tarboro and southeastern Bertie County, we strike scattering
upper austral records. The few upper austral rocords for New
Bern and Kinston are of such character as not to materially affect
their standing as strictly lower austral localities. The presence
of several lower austral records in the southern part of our moun-
tain region is plainly attributable to the proximity of the Gulf
coast only a few hundred miles to the south, whence characteristic
forms no doubt migrate with more or less frequency up the
streams or through the low mountain valleys, — while the high
mountain ranges present many Alleghanian and even some Cana-
dian forms. These conditions of life-zones normally opposed to

22 Journal of the Mitchbll Society [May

one another being brought so closely together in the southern part
of our mountain section, render it a region of peculiar biological
interest.

With regard to this southwestern section of our state, we can-
not do better than to quote from an article on “An Ornithological
Reconnaissance of Western North Carolina” by Wm. Brewster,
published in “The Auk,” January, 1886. He says:

. . . I have left a valley where Mocking-

birds, Bewick’s Wrens, and Cardinals were singing
in water-oaks, sweet -gums and magnolias (all upper
austral birds and plants) , climbed a mountain side
covered with oaks and hickories inhabited by Wil-
son’s Thrushes, Yellow-throated Vireos and Rose-
breasted Gross-beaks ( Alleghanian forms) , and with-
in an hour or two from the time of starting found
myself in a dense spruce forest where Winter Wrens,
Golden -crested Kinglets and Red-bellied Nuthatches
(Canadian forms) were the most abundant and char-
acteristic birds. Indeed, were it possible in the
present state of our knowledge to indicate accurately
on the map the relative extent and position of the
three faunae (life-zones) by using a different color
for each . . . the work when completed would

certainly present a strangely patched appearance.

“The boundaries of these divisions are determined
chiefly by elevation, the Canadian occupying the
tops and upper slopes of the mountains down to
about 4,500 ft., the Alleghanian the mountain sides,
higher valleys, and plateaus between 4,500 and 2,500
ft., and the Carolinian (upper austral) everything
below the altitude last named. ’ ’

The authors in preparing this map have chosen to be conserva-
tive in representing the Alleghanian and Canadian zones, and
there is doubtless more territorry actually included in each of
these than the map shows. Furthermore, the extreme northwest
counties are as yet practically unknown from a zoological stand-
point, so that, — while we might assign most of its territory on
hypothetical reasoning, we have preferred to leave it unmarked
save by an interrogation point.

Raleigh, N. C.

A BACTERIOLOGIC STUDY OF THE BLANK CARTRIDGE*

DAVID H. DOILY

It appears from statistics in The Journal of the American
Medical Association, August 29, 1903, that of 392 cases of tetanus
incident to accidents on the previous July 4, 363 followed wounds
from the blank cartridge and toy pistol. In other words, 92 per
cent, of the tetanus cases were apparently attributable to wounds
from blank cartridges.

Dr. A. I. Ludlow, assistant resident surgeon at the Lakeside
Hospital, succeeded in isolating B. tetani from the blank cartridge
wounds in one out of five fatal cases of tetanus, but cultivated the
B. aerogenes capsulatus in four. In none of these cases was there
emphysema nor emphysematous gangrene of the wounds, which
were routinely treated by free incision and packing with iodoform
gauze. In one of these which came to autopsy I failed to isolate
B. tetani from the wound of the hand, but obtained B. aerogenes
capsulatus from the local lesion and heart’s blood. There was no
gaseous emphysema of any organ.

These findings led me to investigate several makes of blank
cartridges, and the results of these investigations form the basis of
the present paper. The infectious agents concerned in these
wounds (apart from the contents of the cartridge), may come
from the skin and parts of clothing introduced. These latter
sources of infection were not considered.

SOURCE OF MATERIAL

The cartridges used were manufactured by the Peters Cartridge
Co., the Winchester Arms Co., and the Union Metallic Cartridge
Co., and were bought in the open market at various times and
places.

♦Reprinted from The Journal of the American Medical Association, Feb. 11,
j 1905.

1908]

23

24

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[May

CULTURAL EXPERIMENTS

( A) Wads . — In both the cultural and animal experiments the
wads were extracted with a sterile instrument, every care being
taken to exclude accidental contamination.

The wads were placed in a 1 per cent, glucose bouillon, and
incubated under anaerobic conditions (usually in Novy jars) at
body temperature, for from 3 to 5 days, when coverslip prepara-
tions were studied. Not infrequently slender bacilli with end
spores suggestive of B. tetani were seen. Nine cultures containing
these tetanus-like bacilli were inoculated in fresh hematoma in the
thigh of guinea-pigs. All of these animals survived but one,
which died at the end of the month without symptoms of tetanus.
These tetanus-like bacilli decolorized by Gram and were proved
by cultural methods to be identical with a pseudo-tetanus bacillus
discovered by Bain in blank cartridges. Many cultures contained
a stout bacillus with square ends, apparently encapsulated, and
subcultures made on glucose agar showed abundant gas formation.
Nine rabbits injected with these gas-forming cultures, and killed
ten minutes afterward, showed after from 8 to 20 hours’ incuba-
tion marked gaseous emphysema, and B. aerogenes capsulatus was
isolated from them all in pure culture. All efforts to demonstrate
the presence of B. tetani failed. In a total of 250 wads examined
by culture, the B. aerogenes capsulatus was demonstrated in sixty-
six, or 26.4 per cent., and from sixty-one it was isolated in pure
culture. Two of these were worked through all media, but in
general the cultural characteristics on glucose agar, milk, and
blood serum, together with the morphology, the capsule formation,
the positive Gram stain, and the failure to grow aerobically, were
deemed sufficient for identification. It is interesting to note that
spore formation occurred in old milk and agar cultures, as well as
on blood-serum. Some difficulty was experienced in separating
B. aerogenes capsulatus from the other anaerobic organisms present
in wads until Kitasato’s method of heating for one hour at 80
degrees C. was adopted. It invariably survived this. That the
explosion of cartridges neither kills nor inhibits the growth of B.
aerogenes capsulatus was demonstrated by shooting the wads into
jars containing melted glucose agar, which on incubation gave

1908 ] Bacteriologic Study of the Blank Cartridge

25

abundant growth of this organism in four out of five experiments.

The following table gives the proportinn in which B. aerogenes
capsidatus was found in wads of the different makes :

Wads examined

B. A. C.

Per cent.

Peters .32 caliber

54

32

50.9

Peters .22 caliber

50

21

• • • •

U. M. C. .32

7

7.0

U. M. C. .22

50

0

....

Winchester .22 caliber.

47

6

12.7

250

( B ) Powder. — Cultures from the powder of 101 cartridges were
usually serile. Neither B. tetani nor B. aerogenes capsvlalus was
isolated.

INOCULATION OF ANIMALS

At the suggestion of Prof. William H. Welch, the rat was used
as being probably the animal most susceptible to tetanus.

To give B. tetani , if present, the most favorable environment
possible, use was made of two procedures, the second one of which
; has not been employed in similar investigations. The first is
inoculation of fresh hematoma, which increases greatly the
chances of growth of B. tetani. As to the second one, Vaillard
and Rouget established that “tetanus spores when free from toxin
are innocuous when not accompanied by another bacterium, unless
protected from phagocytes.” Twelve white rats were inoculated
I under strict asceptic precautions with wads from the Peters Co.
i 82 caliber cartridges. In addition, a loop of a pure aerobic cul-
ture was added, in six an attenuated Staphylococcus pyogenes
aureus and in the remaining six B. coli communis. The skin was
then closed by a stitch and covered with celloidin.

Nine of these rats died in convulsions, the tenth quietly, while
the other two survived. The incubation period varied from sixty
to seventy hours. The character of the convulsions differed from
that usually described for animals. The first symptom was a
marked spastic condition of the inoculated leg, which was held
in extreme flexion, explained by the laceration of the extensor
muscles. Gradually this spastic state extended to the whole
body, so that the animal would retain its distorted shape in any
position. In all, there was emprosthotonos, in two associated
with pleurothotonos. The forelegs were held closely against the
abdomen and the non -inoculated leg in extension. At short, ir-

26

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[May

regular intervals there were definite convulsions, the most typical
of which started with several rapid nods of the head, followed in
order by clonic spasms of forelegs and hindlegs, passing in a few
seconds into a tonic spasm of the whole body. In several, clonic
spasms alone appeared. The convulsions lasted from one and a
half to three hours, the animals all dying at the end of a spasm.

At autopsy no lesions of internal organs were found. Smears
from the meninges were negative for leucocytes and bacteria.
Bearing in mind previous failures to cultivate B. tetani from
wounds, it was thought wiser to subinoculate from these animals.
Accordingly, the wads, with some necrotic tissue, were removed
from six of the rats and inoculated into three guinea-pigs and
three rabbits. The guinea pigs died during the night, but the
rabbits developed tetanus in about thirty hours. The character of
the convulsions corresponded to the description in text-books.

In smears from the rats and guinea-pigs, a few spore-bearing
bacilli morphologically resembling B. tetani appeared. These
were somewhat more numerous from the rabbits. From one rat
only one such bacillus was seen after an hour’s search. In all
smears bacilli morphologically identical with B. aerogenes capsula-
tus were recognizable, together with numerous other organisms.
Cultures were made from the wounds and wads on glucose bouil-
lon and glucose agar, as well as blood serum. There was marked
gas production, but repeated search failed to disclose B. tetani.
Numerous subcultures, made both with and without Kitasato’s
method, were likewise negative. B. aerogenes capsulatus grew so
rapidly and vigorously that it apparently crowded out B. tetani
Many anaerobic plates were also unsuccessful as regards B. tetani.
In explanation of these failures, it may be said that the tetanus-
like bacilli were extremely scanty, while B. aerogenes capsulatus
was relatively abundant; and, further, that several other bacilli
were present in the Peters wad, which resisted heating as well,
one of these forming colonies much resembling those of B. tetani.

However, of five rabbits inoculated with five or six loops of the
original cultures, three died in convulsions. Smears and cultures
from their wounds were also entirely negative for B. tetani , though
made as soon as symptoms of tetanus appeared.

1908] Bacteriologic Study of the Blank Cartridge 27

The experiment was next tried of adding several crystals of
urea to the material inoculated for its antichemotactic effect. In
this rabbit the exude was poor in leucocytes, and tetanus-like
bacilli more numerous than in previous experiments, but B. aero -
genes capsulatus had increased proportionately and several series of
plates were again negative for B. tetani.

A second series of inoculations with the Peters wads was next
made. Three rats and three guinea-pigs were each inoculated
with two wads, together with Staphylococcus pyogenes mucus , and
several small crystals of urea. One rat and two pigs developed
tetanus. As in the previods experiments, tetanus-like bacilli
appeared in greater numbers than in the first series, but have not
yet been isolated.

Inoculation experiments were also tried with the other brands
of cartridges. In the case of the Union Metallic cartridges, the
wads from the seven original bouillon cultures which yielded B.
aerogenes capsulatus were used. One rat died without tetanic
symptoms, the others survived. Likewise, thirteen wads of the
Winchester cartridges, distributed among three rats and three
guiney-pigs, produced no symptoms, and the animals survived
the local suppuration produced by the staphylococcus.

Previous work has been done on this subject by Le Garde, Tay-
lor, Wells, and the Boston Health Department, a total of 759
cartridges having been examined, both by cultures and animal
inoculations, all with negative results for B. tetani. The only
report of the finding of B. tetani in cartridges is made by R. N.
Connolly, bacteriologist to the board of health of Newark, N. J.
He bases his diagnosis, apparently, on the morphology and odor
of cultures, and no inoculation of animals is reported. With
regard to B. aerogenes capsulatus , Wells alone describes an obligate
anaerobe which corresponds closely to this organism, but says it
seemed to have motility, and it is not identified.

My thanks are due to Dr. W. T. Howard, Jr., and to Dr. Roger
G. Perkins, for their valuable suggestions.

CONCLUSIONS

1. B. aerogenes capsulatus (Welch) was present in a large pro-
portion of the wads of the three makes of cartridges examined.

28

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[May

2. The wads of the Peters Company, inoculated in rats, guinea-
pigs, and rabbits, produced characteristic symptoms of tetanus.

3. The powder of the three varieties of cartridges examined was
negative for B. tetani and B. aero genes capsidatus.

4. My efforts at isolation of B. tetani from the wads have
so far been unsuccessful.

5. There is abundant evidence, from clinical observations and
animal experiments, that the wads of certain blank cartridges
contain B. tetani. Dr. Welsh told me that he considered it
diagnostic to see an animal in convulsions.

REVIEW

The Chemistry of Commerce, R. K. Duncan. Harper & Bros., 1907.
In this new book the author again, as in his “New Knowledge”,
translates admirably the technical and scientific facts into lan-
guage easily understood by the layman. This he states to be his
object, and he has succeeded well. The chief value of the book is
not simply in the facts that are therein stated, nor in the descrip-
tion of the great industries dependent upon chemical science, but
in the suggestions for improvement, in the inspiration to greater
things, in the call to larger influence.

Although in the main the author does treat of the chemistry of
commerce, yet in a few chapters the relation is somewhat far
fetched. As an example, a chapter on “Floral Perfumes” treats
for the most part on the methods used in obtaining the perfumes
from flowers and only at the end records briefly the chemical pro-
duction of artificial perfumes. Again in the chapter on “Making
of Medicines”, biology plays a more important part than chemis-
try. But if this is a fault, it may be largely overlooked because
of the intensely interesting things therein recorded.

The author constantly points out the fact that Americans, while
excelling in mechanical appliances are far behind in scientific
knowledge concerning the basis of their industries, and hence the
enormous waste through bye-products of factories. Finally he
appeals to the manufacturer for a more scientific business, to the
scientist for at least a toleration of research on technical problems,
and the Universities to stand sponsor between the two.

The book is one that every manufacturer should read, to gain
a knowledge of how the chemist may help him : it is one that
every chemist should read to gain inspiration in his work.

R. O. E. D.

1908)

29

PAPERS RELATING TO SCIENCE

Published or read by the members of the Faculty of the University of
North Carolina^during 1907.

Collier Cobb.

Notes on the Geology of Core Bank , N. C. Journal of the Elisha
Mitchell Scientific Society, May, 1907.

The Garden, Field , and Forest of the Nation. Address as Presi-
dent of the North Carolina Academy of Science. Journal of the
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, June 1907.

The Geological Work of the Atmosphere. Illustrated. Address at
Guilford College, N. C.

William C. Coker.

Fertilization and Embryogeny in Cephalotaxus Fortunei. Botanical
Gazette, Oct. 1907.

Chapel Hill Ferns and Their Allies. Journal of the Elisha
Mitchell Scientific Society, Nov. 1907.

A New Form of Achlya. Paper before the N. C. Academy of
Science, May 1907.

Archibald Henderson.

Recent Investigations in the Foundations of Geometry. Paper before
the N. C. Academy of Science, Chapel Hill, May 1907.

The Foundations of Geometry — An Historical Sketch. Journal of
the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, May, 1907.

J. E. Latta.

Notes on Motor Circuits. Electric Journal, Jan. 1907.

William DeB. MacNider.

The Action of the Nitrites on the Heart. The American Journal of
the Medical Sciences, Vol. 135, page 99.

A Further Study of the Action of Magnesium Sulphate on the Heart.
American Journal of Physiology, Vol. 22, No. 11.

30

1908]

Papers Relating to Science

31

Some of the Later Manifestations of Syphilis with Report of Cases.
Charlotte Medical Journal, September 1907.

J. E. Mills.

A Review on “ Researches on the Affinities of Elements ,” by Geof-
frey Martin. Science, August 2nd, 1907.

Molecular Attraction VII. An Examination of Seven Esters.
Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 11, p. 594, 1907.

A. S. Wheeler.

Eine neue Farbenreaktion der Lignocellulosen. Ber. der deutsch.
Chem. Ges., Vol. 40., p. 1888, 1907.

H. V. Wilson.

A New Method by which Sponges may be artificially reared. Science,
Vol. 25, No. 649.

On Some Phenomena of Coalescence and Regeneration in Sponges.
Journal of Experimental Zoology, Vol. 5, No. 2.

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W. C. COKER, President
J. E. LATTA, Vice-President
A. S. WHEELER, Rec. Sec'. '/ F. P. VENABLE, Perm.

‘-'tr _ V *'r C ‘7 Editors of the "Journal:

W. C. COKER

E. V. HOWELL, ARCHIBALD HENDERSON

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The San Jose Scale. — Franklin She/'maa, Jr

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CONTENTS

Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society — Quarterly. )
$2.00 per year ; single numbers 50 cents. Most numbers of former
umes can be supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Editors,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. -y

.■if'; 8 • ■•>:,- w:. y.;,.;.

v ga

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

JUNE, 1908

VOL. XXIV NO. 2

ORNITHOLOGICAL WORK IN NORTH CAROLINA*

T. GILBERT PEARSON

udra
NEW V

botani

QaFOI

Our earliest record of an ornithological observation in North
Carolina is that of Captain Barlow who in company with his asso-
ciate, Captain Amadas, visited the coast in 1584. Entering the
Sounds by one of the inlets they sailed to Roanoke Island and
landed. Evidently they climbed one of the tree-covered dunes
girting the east side of the island, for Captain Barlow writes,
“Under the bank or hill whereon we stood, we beheld valleys
replenished with goodly cedar trees, and having discharged our
harquebus shot, such a flock of cranes (the most part white) arose
under us, with such a cry redoubled by many echoes, as if an
army of men had shouted together.” One visiting Roanoke Island
today will still see goodly cedar trees but the herons, (which
doubtless were the birds to which he referred) are no longer to be
found in such numbers. Three hundred and twenty-five years of

^Presidential address before the North Carolina Academy of Science,
May 1, 1908.

1908]

33

Printed June 20, 1908.

34 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ June

man’s destructive influences have written their story large among
the bird life of that interesting region, and the most northerly
breeding colony of herons known to exist in the State is situated
on an island in Matamusket Lake 45 miles away in a southwes-
terly direction. The birds here are so few in number, and their
united cries would not equal the lusty shout of a corporal’s guard.

Two years after this, viz. : in 1586, Thomas Hariot came to the
island and made a list of the birds he found there. Of these he
says there were “Turkey cocks and turkey hens, stock doves, par-
tridges, cranes and herons, and in winter great store of swan and
geese. Of all sorts of fowl, I have names in the country language,
four score and six; of which number, besides those that he named,
we have taken, eaten, and have the pictures as they were drawn,
with names of the inhabitants; of several strange sorts of water
fowl eight, and seventeen kinds more of land fowl, although we
have seen and eaten many more which for want of leisure there
for the purpose, could not be pictured; and after we are better
furnished and stored upon further discovery with their strange
beasts, fish, trees, plants and herbs, they shall be published.
There are also parrots, falcons, and merlin -hawks, which although
with us they be not used for meat, yet for other causes I thought
good to mention.”

One of the most interesting items in this narration is the refer-
ence to “parrots”, which establishes the fact without doubt that
the Carolina Paroquet at one time inhabited the immediate neigh-
borhood of the coast. /

John Lawson, Gentleman, in his History of North Carolina
published in London in 1714, devotes fully ten pages to an enum-
eration of the birds of the state and a dissertation on the habits
and activities of some of them. Many of the birds which he found
here were new to him, and as he evidently was not a trained
ornithologist he failed in many instances to note the difference
between them and those species of Europe which to his eye they
much resembled. To many of our native birds therefore he gave the
names of English species, and his descriptions being meagre we are
often left in doubt as to what birds he really had in mind. Thus
what he calls “Moorehen” may have been either the Gallinule or

1908 ] Ornithological Work in North Carolina

35

the coot. His “Lay- wing” was perhaps one of the plovers, the
golden, black-bellied, Wilsons or piping, or may have been the
dowitcher or turnstone.

Among the hawks he speaks of the “Hobbie”. I am yet at a
loss to understand to what species he referred as all the other small
hawks are evidently accounted for under such English titles as
Falcon, Merlin, etc.

j He made the mistake of regarding the young Bald Eagle as a
distinct species and calls it the gray eagle. This error, by the
way, was long followed by subsequent observers of North American
j bird life. Audubon, writing over a hundred years later, tells in
! much detail about the life history of the gray eagle, in fact he has
• left us a full page drawing of the magnificent “Bird of Washing-
| ton”, as he calls it. The fact that the young bald eagle does not
acquire its white head and tail until after an elapse of three years
! will account in a measure at least for its mistaken identity.

On the other hand some of Lawson’s statements which bear on
jthe face evidences of being perfectly truthful, reveal some valuable
si information. One of these is his account of the breeding of the
black duck in the eastern marshes and another which tells of the
j common occurrence of the sandhill crane. These are the only
(two positive records we have of this character within the borders
! of North Carolina, for so far as known no one else has recorded
I cranes in the state, and while the black duck is a common winter
visitor and has long been suspected of breeding here, we know of
no authoritative record of a nest having been found since this
j -account given by Lawson.

I In the days of Lawson the wild pigeon which has since become
1 extinct, was an aboundant bird in North Carolina. They proba-
! bly gathered to breed in vast numbers in the mountains, after
; which they spread over the low country and their numbers being
| augmented by great flights from the north, the pigeon population
(must have been something enormous. Lawson says “I saw such
i prodigious flocks of these pigeons in January and February, 1701-2
ij (which were in the hilly country between the great nation
j if the Esaw Indians and the pleasant stream of Sapona,

I vhich is the west branch of Clarendon, or Cape Fear River, that

36 Journal of the Mitchell Society [June

they had broke down the limbs of a great many large trees all over
those woods, whereon they chanced to sit and roost; especially the
great pines which are more brittle wood, than onr sots of Oak are.
These Pigeons, about sunrise, when we were preparing to march
on our journey, would fly by us in such vast flocks that they
would be near a quarter of an hour before they were all passed by,
and as soon as that flock was passed another would come, and so
successively one after another for a greater part of the morning.
It is observable that wherever these fowls come in such large num-
bers, as I saw them then, they clear all before them, scarce leav-
ing one acorn upon the ground, which would doubtless be a great
prejudice to the planters that would seat there, because their swine
would be thereby deprived of the mast. When I saw such flocks
of the Pigeons I now speak of, none of our company had any
other sort of a shot than that which is cast in moulds and was so
very large that we could not put above ten or a dozen of them into
our largest pieces. Wherefore we made but an indifferent hand
of shooting them ; although we commonly killed a Pigeon for every
shot. They were very fat and as good Pigeons as ever I eat.”

While it can hardly be claimed that the writings of John Law-
son are of any great ornithological value, they are at least inter-
esting from a historical standpoint and should most assuredly be
included in any bibliolographical sketch of North Carolina orni-
thological study.

The work of Col. Wm. Byrd of Westover, Va., next claims our
attention. It was he who conducted the survey of the boundary

line between , Va., and North Carolina in 1729. The

narrative of his experiences which we are told was written largely
for his own amusement and that of his friends, contains besides
an account of the survey many side remarks on the inhabitants of
the territory which he traversed. His references to natural his-
tory are not infrequent, but are for the main part of little mo-
ment. The following contribution on the habits of the Carolina
paroquet, a bird now extinct, may be of interest. “Very few in
this country have the industry to plant orchards, which in a dearth
of rum might supply them with much better liquor. The truth
is there is one inconvenience that easi'y discourages lazy people

loos'] Ornithological Work in North Carolina

37

from making this improvement. Very often in autumn when the
apples begin to ripen they are visited with numerous flights of
paroquets, that bite all the fruit to pieces in a moment for the
sake of the kernels. The havoc they make is sometimes so
great that sometimes whole orchards are laid waste in spite
of all the noises that can be made or mawkins that can be dressed
up to frighten them away. These ravenous birds visit North Car-
olina only during the warm season and so soon as the cold begins
to come on retire back towards the sun. They rarely venture so
far north as Virginia except in a very hot summer, when they
visit the most southern parts of it. They are very beautiful, but
like some other pretty creatures are apt to be loud and mischiev-
ous.’’ He does not attempt to catalog the birds of the country.

In the library of the State College at Columbia, S. C., I recent-
ly found that rare and interesting work of Catesby “The Natural
History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands,” published
in 1731. A careful reading of its pages, however, reveals the fact
that the author in all probability was never within the borders of
North Carolina. He went up the Savannah river almost to the
mountains and hunted buffalo with the Indians; later he sailed
for Virginia, and ascending the James river, traveled thence
westward to a point almost north of that reached on his trip from
Savannah. There seems to be no evidence that he ever saw the
intervening territory. This is to be regretted, as Catesby was not
only an artist of merit but for the times must have been a very
careful and painstaking naturalist. I mention this work because
its title would lead one to think he had made a study of the Nat-
ural History of this state.

In my quest for information regarding early ornithological
writers I applied to North Carolina’s most noted historian of today,
Dr. Stephen B. Weeks, and from him received many courtesies
including the loan of some of the books from his extensive library.
One of these is the work of Dr. John Brickell published in Dublin
in 1737, and bearing a comprehensive title as follows: “The Nat-
ural History of North Carolina, with an account of the trade, man-
ners, and customs of the Christian and Indian inhabitants; illus-
trated with copper plates, whereon are curiously engraved the map

Journal of the Mitchell Society

28

[ June

of the country, several strange beasts, birds, fishes, snakes, insects,
trees and plants, etc.”

His list of birds follows closely that of Lawson published some
years previously, and the similarity of the text in many instances
strongly suggests the idea that he frequently bordered closely on
plagiarism.

He enumerates 129 kinds of birds. Five of these at least we
must eliminate at the start. He makes three eagles out of one,
naming as he does in addition to the bald eagle the black and
gray eagles which are simply different phases of the immature
bird. We, of course, cannot accept two species of leather-winged
bats for birds, and the nightingale which he mentions is not found
in a wild state in the Western Hemisphere.

Although Dr. Brickell in his Preface says regarding his Natural
History writing “I have been very exact,” the reader is not
always so impressed. Of the brown pelicans he says “They have
an odd kind of note much like the braying of an ass, and in spring
they go into the woods to breed and return in the autumn.”
Whereas it is a well-known fact that the pelican is an absolutely
silent bird and breeds on the ocean beaches or on mangrove Keys
of the Gulf coast. Of the cuckoo he writes “In winter they hide
themselves in hollow trees, and their feathers come off, and they
are scabby, they usually lay one egg, and that in the nest of the
Hedge Sparrow.”

This reminds one of the story of the Naturalist Humbolt to
whom a student stated that a lobster was a red fish which runs
backwards. Humbolt is reported to have replied “You are right
in all but three things, viz: it is not red, it is not a fish and does
not run backwards.”’ The Carolina cuckoos do not hide in hol-
low trees, they do not lose all their feathers at once and become
scabby, they lay not one but from two to four eggs in a nest of
their own construction, and finally the hedge sparrow is not found
in America.

In treating of the gray eagle he discusses at considerable length
its interesting characteristics of form and activities. In part he
says “They are great thieves, and live to be very old and die not
from age nor any sickness, but of mere hunger by reason that the

1908 ] Ornithological Work in North Carolina 39

upper beak of their bill is so far over grown and tumeth inward
so much, that they are not able to open it to feed themselves.
They seldom seek their prey in the forenoon, for they are found
sitting idle and perched upon trees all the morning. It is reported
that the quills or feathers of eagles laid amongst those of other
fowls will rot and consume them, which I have not faith to be-
lieve. The flesh though scarce fit to be eaten is medicinal
against the gout, the bones of the skull in powder are good
against megrim, the brain drank in wine, helps the jaundice, and
the gaul is of excellent use in most disorders of the eye, and
applied helps the bitings of serpents and scorpions, etc.

Delicious as Brick ell’s natural history sketches are, it is almost
certain that he acquired much of his material from the Indians
and settlers and has woven into his narrative many of the tradi-
tions and superstitions of the country. Positive statements as to
what he actually saw occur but seldom, one of these is when in
speaking of the smallness of the hummingbird he remarks “I
have frequently seen butterflies chase them away from the
flowers.” The butterfly of his day must have been a pretty for-
midable creature.

Another of these early gentlemen who traveled through the
South and left his writings for .the benefit of posterity was Wm.
Bartram in 1791. His book is entitled “Travels through N. C.
S. C., Fla., etc.” It seems, however, that he made but one hasty
trip through North Carolina. He traveled by' land. Entering
the State in Brunswick county, he proceeded to Southport, passed
from there up the Clarendon (or Cape Fear river) to Cambletown
(now Fayetteville), and thence on to Virginia. He speaks briefly
of the trees, soil and rocks, but makes no reference to the wild
animal life. Some of his stories are very lightly colored. He
speaks of the alligators of S. C., rushing at him with terrible roar-
ings and with steam rushing from their mouths and nostrils which
threw over him a hurricane of water. In reading his writings one
is inclined to believe that William Bartram would come under the
:| class of President Roosevelt’s “Nature Faikirs.”

Apparently the first real ornithologist to visit North Carolina for
the purpose of studying the birds was Alexander Wilson , a Scotch-

40

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[June

man who traveled through the country collecting birds and mak-
ing drawings of them by day and playing the violin for profit or
diversion at night. Wilson was a field naturalist of the first order,
and his great work “American Ornithology’ 5 illustrated in colors
with his own most creditable drawings in colors has well won for
him the title of “Father of American Ornithology,” despite the
fact that his work was eclipsed some years later by the stupendous
undertaking of Audubon. As an ornithologist Audubon was Wil-
son’s superior only in that he was a more skilful artist. As a man
Wilson was of humble parentage, but indifferently educated, was
poor, retiring, sensitive and self-effacing. Audubon was of excel-
lent parentage, was highly educated, was always confident and at
times self-assertive. Both were great contributors to the world’s
knowledge of American birds, and it was their work which aroused
real interest in the subject and put in motion the movement
for bird study from which has since developed a long line of
brilliant American naturalists.

On one of Wilson’s trips through North Carolina, he found a
specimen of the largest of all American wood -peckers, the Ivory-
billed. The bird has long been extinct in this State. Another
point of interest attending this capture by Wilson is that there is
no record of one ever having been taken farther north in Eastern
America. His record is therefore interesting and unique. He
says, “The first place I observed this bird at, when on my way to
the south, was about twelve miles north of Wilmington in North
Carolina. There I found the bird from which the drawing of the
figure in the plate was taken. This bird was only wounded
slightly in the wing, and, on being caught, uttered a loudly reiter-
ated, and most piteous note, exactly resembling the violent cry-
ing of a young child; which terrified my horse so, as nearly to
have cost me my life. It was distressing to hear it. I carried it
with me in the chair, under cover, to Wilmington. In passing
through the streets its affecting cries surprised every one within
hearing, particularly the females, who hurried to the doors and
windows with looks of alarm and anxiety. I drove on, and on
arriving at the piazza of the hotel, where I intended to put up,
the landlord came forward, and a number of other persons who

1908\ Ornithological Work in North Carolina

41

happened to be there, all equally alarmed at what they heard ;
this was greatly increased by my asking, whether he could furnish
me with accommodation for myself and my baby. The man
looked blank and foolish, while the others stared with still greater
astonishment. After diverting myself for a minute or two at
their expense, I drew mp woodpecker from under the cover, and
a general laugh took place. I took him up stairs and locked him
up in my room, while I went to see my horse taken care of. In
i less than an hour I returned, and, on opening the door, he set up
the same distressing shout, which now appeared to proceed from
grief that he had been discovered in his attempts to escape. He
had mounted along the side of the window, nearly as high as the
I ceiling, a little below which he had begun to break through. The
! bed was covered with large pieces of plaster; the lath was exposed
i for at least fifteen inches square, and a hole, large enough to ad-
mit the fist, opened to the weatherboards; so that, in less than
another hour he would certainly have succeeded in making his
way through. I now tied a string around his leg, and, fastening
it to the table, again left him. I wished to preserve his life, and
had gone off in search of suitable food for him. As I reascended
the stairs, I heard him again hard at work, and on entering had
' the mortification to perceive that he had almost entirely ruined
| the mahogany table to which he was fastened, and on which he
; had wreaked his whole vengeance. While engaged in taking the
, drawing, he cut me severely in several places, and, on the whole,
displayed such a noble and unconquerable spirit, that I was fre-
j quently tempted to restore him to his native woods. He lived
I with me nearly three days, but refused all sustenance, and I wit-
| nessed his death with regret.” The above account refers to a
great woodpecker nearly as large as a crow and now confined to
the more inaccessible swamps of the Gulf coast.

What we may term recent ornithological research began in
North Carolina in 1871, when Dr. Eliott Coues published in the
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, May 2, a series of notes on
: the birds observed by him while stationed at Fort Macon in Cart-
[ eret county, 122 species of birds were mentioned.

In 1886, William Brewster of Cambridge spent some time in the

42

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[ June

mountains of western North Carolina, and his list of birds pub-
lished in the “Auk” contains records of 120 species. The preced-
ing winter Charles Bachelder, also of Cambridge, made a number
of obsen ations on the winter bird life of the mountains and this
likewise was published in the “Auk.” One of the discoveries
made by Mr. Brewster was the Carolina snow bird (Junco hye-
malis Carolinensis) . J. S. Cairns, an enthusiastic student of birds
living at Waynesville, published the results of his observations in
the “Ornithologist & Oologist” in 1887. He enumerates 169
varieties of birds in Buncombe County. It was he who first dis-
covered the Cairns Warbler.

Messrs. H. H. & C. S. Brimley, of Raleigh, were for many
years engaged in collecting birds for scientific purposes. During
this time and since they have gathered much valuable information
on the nesting and migration habits of the birds which occur there.
Between 1884 and 1891 they published in the “Ornithologist &
Oologist” 76 articles on Raleigh Bird Life. Mr. R. B. McLaughtin
during 1887-1888 contributed 9 articles to the same publication
on the birds of the Statesville region.

Additional papers on the bird life of the state to the extent of
47 in number by various authors have been published; princi-
pally in the “Auk” and the “Ornithologist & Oologist.”

Thus briefly and somewhat hastily I have attempted to sketch
what has been done in the line of ornithological study in North
Carolina. It will be observed that the work done has been mostly
in gathering notes on the geographical distribution, migration and
modification of the species found in the state. Considerable
attention has also been paid to Oology by Messrs. Brimley of Ral-
eigh, McLaughtin of Statesville, Joseph Armfield of Greensboro
(whose splendid collection of eggs of our native birds may be seen
at the Museum of this College) , Dr. Smith wick of Arora and a
few others.

Today we know of positive records of 325 species of birds which
have been taken in the state, some of these at least are exceedingly
rare and may be regarded only as stragglers. Among these
may be mentioned the Northern Phalerope taken by Dr. Bishop
at Pea Island; the Ruff taken at Raleigh by Mr. Brimley; the

1908 ] Ornithological Work in North Carolina 43

Black-necked Stilt captured at Roanoke Island by the Rev. Mr.
Moyle; the bay-breasted Warbler noted at Chapel Hill and the
Man -o’ -war bird secured at Ocracoke by the speaker.

It may not be out of place here to mention that the state Audu-
bon Society has in preparation a book on the birds of the state and
a note regarding any rare finds made by members of the Academy
will be greatly appreciated. In conclusion it has occurred to me
that it might not be out of place to present to the Academy some
views illustrating game preserve activities in the state also showing
what the Audubon Society has been able to accomplish in one
small island in the way of protecting sea birds.

Greensboro, N. C.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NORTH CAROLINA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

The North Carolina Academy of Science held its seventh annual
meeting at the State Normal College, Greensboro, N. C., on Friday
and Saturday, May 1 and 2, 1908.

The Academy was called to order at 3:30 P. M., May 1, by the
president, T. Gilbert Pearson. A letter of welcome to the acad-
emy from President J. I. Foust of the College was read. A response
to this welcome was made by the retiring president, Collier Cobb,
of the Academy.

At 8 : 30 in the evening the Academy met in the auditorium of
the Students’ Building, and the presidential address, “An Histori-
cal Sketch of Ornithology in North Carolina” (illustrated by lan-
tern slides)* was delivered by President T. Gilbert Pearson.
Following this address a reception was tendered the members of
the Academy by the faculty and students of the senior and junior
classes of the College in the dining room of Spencer Building.
Later President and Mrs. Pearson received the visiting members at
their home on West Market Street.

At 9 A. M. Saturday, May 2, the Academy convened for a busi-
ness meeting. Reports of various committees were heard. The
report of the treasurer showed a balance of $119.60.

The following new members were elected: Mr. Harry N.

Eaton, Instructor in Geology, and Mr. Hubert Hill, Assistant in
Geology, University of N. C.; Mr. R. I. Smith, Entomologist to
the N. C. Experiment Station, West Raleigh; Mr. S. B. Shaw,
Assistant Horticulturist N. C. Department of Agriculture; Dr. L.
L. Hendron, Professor of Applied Mathematics, Trinity College,
Durham, N. C.; John Roy Williams, M.D., Greensboro; Mrs.
Charles D. Mclver, State Normal College, Greensboro.

♦This address appears in full in this issue of the Journal.

44

[ June

of X. C. Academy of Science

45

190S\ Pro( kf dings

The following officers were chosen for the ensuing year:

President, Tait Butler, Department of Agriculture, Raleigh.

Vice-President, .J. J. Wolfe, Trinity College, Durham.

Secretary-Treasurer, E. W. Gudger, State Normal College,
Greensboro.

Executive Committee, Chas. H. Herty, University of N. C.,
Chapel Hill; John F. Lanneau, Wake Forest College, Wake Forest ;
W. H. Pegram, Trinity College, Durham.

The Committee on Resolutions brought in the following report,
which was unanimously adopted :

In pursuance of the duties devolving upon the commit-
tee appointed, the committee begs to submit the follow-
ing resolutions:

(1) That in the death of Prof. J. W. Gore, Dean of
the Department of Applied Science and Professor of
Physics at the University of North Carolina, the North
Carolina Academy of Science feels that it has suffered
profound loss, — the loss of an investigator whose scien-
tific attainments were notable, a scholar whose interest
in scientific progress, in general as well as in his own and
allied subjects, was unbounded, and a man whose broad
humanity and high Christian character were a source of
inspiration to all with whom he came in contact.

(2) That a copy of these resolutions be published in
the official organ of the Academy and likewise in the
public press.

/ The next meeting of the Academy will be held at Trinity Col-
lege, Durham, N. C., May. 1909.

The following papers were presented :

The Amanitas of the Asheville Plateau , by H. C. Beardslee, of Ashe-
ville, N. C.

The following list of species was reported :

Amanita Caesarea Scop., A. virosa, A. Phalloides Fr., A. mus-
cariaLinn., A. pantherina DC., A. junquillea Quel., A. strobili-
formis Paul . , A . solitaria Bui ., A. schinocephala Vitt., A. rubes-

46 Journal of the Mitchell Society [June

cens, A. cinerea Bres., A. nitida Fr., A. vaginata Fr., A. volvata
Pk., A. farinosa Schw., A. mappa Fr.

The species A. verna, virosa, and phalloides were considered
as not distinct.

Amanita junquillea Quel, was illustrated by photographs and
specimens and compared with the European forms. The Ameri-
can A. russuloides Pk. was referred here, also the European spe-
cies A. amici, adnata, and vernalis. Photographs and specimens
had been seen by Bresadola and Boudier w’ho verify this conclu-
sion. Specimens of the European form had also been examined.

Amanita cinerea Bres. was shovm to include A. spreta Pk.

A. volvata wras shown to be the plant referred by Quelet and
Bataille to A. coccola Scop. It was also considered the true A.
agglutinata of Curtis, and A. baccata as understood by Bresadola.

Photographs of many forms of A. solitaria and its allies were
shown illustrating the difficulty of successfully defining species in
this much confused group.

Distribution and Migration of Warblers at Raleigh. C. S. Brimley
of Raleigh, N. C.

An Adjustable Armella'i'y Sphere — Newly Designed , J. F. Lanneau,
of Wake Forest College, N. C.

This paper dealt with a unique piece of apparatus — a light,
symmetrical mechanism, built by Wm. Gaertner & Co., Chicago,
after Professor Lanneau ’s design — for class-room use in Wake
Forest College.

Its special feature is the placing of the horizon plane and ver-
tical circles within the celestial circles, and the two concentric
systems, mechanically independent , allowing of the real eastward
rotation of the former, or of the apparent westward rotation of
the latter.

SOME ILLUSTRATIONS.

1 . An alluminum ball at the centre represents the sun ; and
by a simple device a smaller ball revolves around it eastward in
the plane of the ecliptic, representing the earth’s annual
motion .

190S] Proceedings of N. C. Academy of Science

-17

2. With central ball representing the earth, to it is securely
attached the horizon plane and vertical circles for, say, an
observer in latitude 36° north. Clamping the celestial circles in
fixed position, the earth-ball with its horizon system is easily
rotated eastward, showing sun-rise and sun -set and the rising and
setting of moon, stars and planets — these objects being suitably
indicated , for any given date, in their apparent places on the
celestial frame-works. Or clamping the horizon in its seemingly
fixed position, the celestial circles and objects in place are readily
rotated westward in accord with familiar appearances.

3. Altering in latitude the attachment of the horizon plane to
the earth-ball, the apparatus shows in turn the reality and the
appearances to an observer at the equator; or, again, to an obser-
ver at the north pole during his six-months’ day and his six-
months’ night.

4. Some circles and the celestial objects may be variously
adjusted and placed for an indefinite number of of astronomical
illustrations.

5. Selected circles and objects may be duly disposed to facili-
tate apprehension and solution of numerous celestial problems—
and, if problems also in geodesy and navigation which involve
the ever-recurring “astronomical triangle”.

QUESTION AND ANSWER.

Are the earth and sun at the centre? They are not held to be
at the centre of the myriad stars of the visible universe. They
are at the centre of the “celestial sphere”, conceived of as every-
where equidistant from the earth ; so distant as to be beyond the
remotest star. Its quasi reality is that vast shell of void space
beyond the stars, upon which as a dark, spherical background all
the stars appear fixed as viewed from the central earth. So
measureless its remoteness, any point within the earth’s com-
paratively little orbit, including the sun, is virtually its centre.

■ This “celestial sphere”, with sun or earth as centre, is the
basis of practical astronomy. Its standard circles in miniature
are part of our armillary sphere.

48 Journal of the Mitchell Society [Jane

Concerning Sclerotinose of Lettuce, F. L. Stevens and J. G. Hall,
of the N. C. Experiment Station, Raleigh.

The term Sclerotinose was proposed as a designation for diseases
caused by Sclerotinia , and Sclerotinose of lettuce was characterized
as one form of lettuce drop caused by S. Lihertiana.

As the result of two years'' study the authors conclude that the
only part of the fungus that lives through the quiescent period of
the disease is the sclerotium and that each season's infection is by
wind borne ascospores produced from these sclerotia. They rec-
ommend that the formation of sclerotia be prevented by early
removal and destruction (incineration or burial) of infected plants.
This course followed for a few years, accompanied by the exhaus-
tion of all sclerotia originally in the soils by germination, seems
promising as a means of ridding infected regions of the pest.

The Origin of Certain Topographic Features along the Sand-Hills
Border of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Collier Cobb, of the
University of North Carolina.

Notes on the Life-zones in North Carolina.* By C. S. Brimley and
Franklin Sherman, Jr., Raleigh, N. C.

The authors, having made a careful detailed study of all avail-
able records of the occurrence and distribution of animals in the
state, present their conclusions as to the probable boundaries of
the different life-zones. The groups of animals chieffy relied
upon are: Mammals, Reptiles, and Batrachians. Birds and

insects have been used mainly to confirm ideas otherwise origi-
nated.

It is found that four distinct life-zones are represented in the
state as follows:

1. The Canadian Zone, including only the tops of the
higher mountains, usually above 4,500 feet elevation. The fol-
lowing places are placed in this zone: Black Mountains, Roan

Mountain, Grandfather Mountain, Bald Mountain in Yancey
County, and the higher mountains in Macon County near High-
lands.

♦This paper was published in full in this Journal, for May, 1908.

1908 ]

Proceedings of N. C. Academy of Science

49

2. The Alleghanian Zone , includes practically all between the
elevation of 2,500 ft. and 4,500 ft. This includes most of the
Blue Ridge and Smoky Mountains, Nantahala Mountains, Bal-
sam, Pisgah Ridge and the lower elevations of Black Mountains
and others mentioned as belonging to the Canadian zone.

3. The Upper Austral Zone includes all of the state north and west
of a line drawn from Suffolk, Va. to Raleigh, thence to Charlotte,
thence to the South Carolina line near Tryon in Polk County —
except that portion already assigned to the Canadian and Alle-
ghanian zones.

4. The Lower Austral Zone includes all of the state to the
south and east of the line just mentioned.

Lists are given of the characteristic animals in each of these
zones, and mention is made of a number of exceptional records,
where animals have been taken beyond the limits of what their
range would supposedly be.

The counties in the extreme northwest part of the state have
not yet been zoologically explored, and are therefore not yet
assigned to any zone, awaiting the accumulation of more records.

The Relation of Bovine Tuberculosis to the Public Health. Tait
Butler of the Dept, of Agriculture, Raleigh.

“The Twenty -Seven Lines Upon a Cubic Surface .” Archibald Hen-
derson of the University of North Carolina.

In his paper, Dr. Henderson explained that by the selection of
a highly symmetrical equation of a cubic surface :

by a proper choice of constants xIt yzi zx, wx; x2, y2, z2, w2; and
finally by employing a regular tetrahedron of reference, that it
was not difficult to derive very simple and symmetrical equations
of the twenty-seven lines upon the cubic surface, and therefore to

50 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ June

construct a string model of the configuration, showing the funda-
mental tetrahedron and the twenty-seven lines in proper relation
to each other and to the fundamental tetrahedron. Instead of
a string or wire model, he exhibited a beautiful perspective draw-
ing in colors, of the configuration.

The Scope and Function of Science. Wm. Louis Poteat of Wake
Forest College. [Read by title.]

Some Trials of a Museum Curator. H. H. Brimley, State Museum,
Raleigh. [Read by title.]

The Oral Gestation of the Gaff Topsail Catfish, Felichthys marinus.
E. W. Gudger of the State Normal and Industrial College.
This paper was given by permission of the Commissioner of
Fisheries and will later be published in the Bulletin of the Bureau.

The Proximate Constituents of the Oleoresins of Pinus palustris and
Pinus heterophylla. Chas. H. Herty of the University of
North Carolina.

The San Jose Scale.* By Franklin Sherman, Jr., Entomologist
N. C. Dept. Agriculture, Raleigh.

The paper opens with an apology and explanation for present-
ing a paper upon so threadbare a subject before the Academy, —
stating however, the author’s belief that popular presentation of
subjects of economic interest to the state should have a conspicu-
ous place on the program.

A brief account of the history and general distribution of the
San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus, Comst.) is given, and
mention is made of the principal food-plants, and methods of
spread.

Referring to conditions within the state of North Carolina it is
shown that present records indicate the pest in 65 counties, at 145
different post-office localities and on at least 423 different prem-
ises. It is a safe presumption that it is in many localities in addi-
tion to those on record. It is a reasonable presumption that it is

*This paper appears in full in this issue of the Journal.

190 8] Proceedings of N. C. Academy of Science

51

in every county in the state but it cannot be presumed that it is in
every locality, — and there is every reason to believe that many
individual premises are not yet infested by it. .

In at least seventeen communities it is generally distributed,
having been found in a number of orchards or perhaps in all. In
the west, it is known in the counties of Cherokee, Haywood,
Mitchell and Watauga, — and in the east in the counties of Bruns-
wick, New Hanover, Carteret and Pasquotank. It is found only
a few feet above sea-level, and at an elevation of 4,000 ft.

According to present records the worst-infested counties are as
follows in order of infestation: Catawba, Surry, Guilford, Moore,
Gaston, Wake and Polk.

Concerning the Difference of Behavior of Soil Organisms When in
Solution and When in Soils. F. L. Stevens and W. A.
Withers of the N. C. Experiment Station, Raleigh.

(A prelimiminary Report of work done by F. L. Stevens and
W. A. Withers assisted by W- A. Symeand J. C. Temple.)

Results of numerous experiments were adduced to show that
the activities of ammonifying, nitrifying, denitrifying and nitrogen
gathering bacteria are different in soils from what they are in
solutions and that no adequate knowledge of the efficiency of
these various soil organisms in effecting chemical change can be
attained by tests conducted in solutions. Even the relative
powers of different organisms or of different soils is largely affected
by the conditions of the test. It seems therefore that in the study
of soil bacteria the work must be done with soils, rather than with
solutions or at least that frequent controls or checks in soil must
be made.

THE SAN JOSE SCALE

A Brief Popular Account of a Notorious Insect Pest, with
a Statement of its Present Recorded Status
. in North Carolina*

BY FRANKLIN SHERMAN, JR.

About three years ago, two prominent amateur collectors of
insects, each an authority in his chosen group, were in this state
on a brief collecting trip, and, by arrangement, I met them and
spent a day in their company. It chanced that the orchards
throughout all that neighborhood (Southern Pines) are infested
with the San Jose Scale, and when I mentioned this fact quite
incidently, both immediately expressed great interest and desire
to see the pest, saying that they had often heard of it but had
never seen it or received any first-hand information concerning it.
Yet this insect is so notorious a pest, that among economic ento-
mologists the discussion of it is now almost debarred, by mutual
consent and unwritten law, from the public meetings. One year
ago, at the sixth annual meeting of our Academy at Chapel Hill,
Dr. Butler gave a discussion of the Cattle Tick, a pest of wide dis-
tribution and of tremendous economic importance to the live-
stock interests of the southern states, and while none of the facts
which he gave could in any wise be regarded as new and original
contributions to science, yet the paper was received with manifest
interest by our Academy.

These facts have convinced me that however desirable it may
be to present at our meetings the results of really new and original

*Read before the North Carolina Academy of Science, May 2, 1908.

['June

1908]

The San Jose Scale

53

research , one of our most beneficent functions will be missed if we
fail at the same time to have on our programs a certain number
of popular discussions of matters of economic importance to our
state.

So much by way of apology for discussing before this body a
subject which to economic entomologists at least, has become
threadbare and almost barren of new thoughts.

* * *

The San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus) was first described
to science in 1880 by Prof. J. H. Comstock, who found it very
destructive in deciduous fruit orchards in the Santa Clara valley of
California. He recognized it as one of the so-called “Scale-
insects”, belonging to the genus Aspidiotus , remarking that it was
the most pernicious scale-insect known to him, and therefore
applying to it the specific name of perniciosus , and proposed that
it be called the Perniciosus Scale. But as the city of San Jose is
not distant from the place where it was discovered it became
known by the popular designation of The San Jose Scale.

There is reason to believe that it became established in Califor-
nia as early as 1870/ and there is reason also to believe that it
was introduced into California from China, which seems to have
been its original home.

In the eastern United States the insect was not known until
1893 (only fifteen years ago) when it was discovered at Charlottes-
ville, Va. on trees which had been purchased from New Jersey
nurseries and these nurseries had presumably become infested by
the importation of stock from California. Only four or five years
later it was known to exist in twenty states east of the Mississippi
river. It is not to be supposed that Charlottesville, and the New
Jersey nurseries, were the only sources of scale in the east. It is
likely that it became established in many other localities and per-
haps in other nurseries at about the same time.

So far as we know the San Jose Scale gained its first foot-hold
in North Carolina at or near Southern Pines, Moore County,
about 1893 or 1894, approximately at the same time that it was
discovered at Charlottesville. It was not recognized until 1895 at

54 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ June

which time it had gained a strong foothold. In 1897 it was
known in six or eight localities, In 1900 it was known in about
twenty places. In August 1904, it was known in 44 counties.
At present (April 1908) it is known to be on no less than 423
different premises, at 145 different post offices (or rural routes
therefrom), in 65 counties. Further details of its present known
distribution in this state will be discussed later.

Trees that are very badly infested with the San Jose Scale look
as if they had been dusted over with ashes. Examined with a
lens this scurfy crust on the branches is found to be made up of
hundreds of little nipple-like objects or scales, lying close to the
bark. The largest scales are those of the mature females and are
gray in color, circular, about the size of the head of a good-sized
pin but with a slightly greater degree of convexity than the sur-
face of the top of the pin-head. Slightly to one side of the cen-
ter of the scale is a lemon-yellow nipple or “center”. Turning
over this scale with a pin or knife-point we may find the bright
yellow, soft-bodied, wingless, eyeless, legless body of the female
insect beneath. Indeed, her energies seem concentrated on the
two all-important biological functions of assimilating food and
reproduction . The food is procured by means of a slender thread-
like organ thrust into the bark and through which the sap of the
tree is imbibed.

The young are born alive, there being no distinct egg-stage in
the life-history of the species, and the young are able to creep out
from under the parent scale. For a few hours these yellowish
young lice, barely visible to the naked eye, are able to creep
about freely, but when they are compelled by hunger to thrust
their beaks into the bark to draw nourishment they become per-
manently attached, and after a few hours more the scale begins to
form, being composed of a waxy secretion from the body, com-
bined with the cast skins of the growing young insect.

There are a number of complete and distinct generations of the
insect in the course of the season, but when settled cold winter
weather comes the old insects nearly always die, leaving only the
partly -grown ones to survive. These over- wintering scales are
almost black and about as large as the cross-section of the body of

1908 ] The San Jose Scale 55

a good-sized ordinary pin. When the growing season opens in
the following spring the female develops as already described while
the scale of the male becomes elongate and the creature finally
develops into a tiny yellowish, winged, flying insect, which
although mouthless and thus incapable of taking sap from the
tree, is endowed with an extra set of eyes to make all the more cer-
tain of finding mates and providing for the perpetuation of his
species.

We have said that the scales may be matted together in a scurfy
coating over twigs and branches of badly-infested trees. In cases
of slight infestation the scales may be scattering, only a few being
found on a piece of twig, or perhaps even only one or two being
found on an entire tree. Where the scales are scattering on the
bark each scale is apt to be (but is not always) surrounded by a
reddish blotch or spot. This reddish staining is very noticeable
in the inner bark of badly infested twigs. It is also quite con-
spicuous on those varieties of trees which have a yellowish or
greenish bark, in contrast to which the reddish blotches show up
in bold relief.

We have stated that the insect after once settling down to feed
remains attached at that spot. We have also seen that the female
never emerges from under the shell or scale. The adult male,
which can fly, can play but an unimportant part in the spread of
the species. How, then is the species distributed? The several
agencies by which this is accomplished are:- 1st, by its own
natural powers, each young louse often crawling several inches
from the parent scale before attaching itself, 2nd, by wind,
which in blowing through an orchard may waft the tiny young
like particles of dust or pollen from one tree to another, 3rd, by
birds, which may alight in an infested tree and then rapidly trans-
port young crawling lice on their feet or feathers to new trees,
4th, by insects, in same way as by birds, 5th, by man, horses,
etc. in cultivating or working in the orchard and passing from tree
to tree. All the above means facilitate its spread locally from
tree to tree, or from one orchard to another in the same neighbor-
hood. But for spread into new and distant localities the San
Jose Scale is chiefly dependent on still another method, namely 6th,

56

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[Ji

me

the transportation of infested trees or plants. It is on account of
this last feature of its spread that all of the eastern states have
adopted measures providing for the the inspection of fruit-tree
nurseries and the condemnation of stock found to be infested.

The San Jose Scale is not capable of living and thriving on all
kinds of plants. For convenience its food-plants may be divided
into three clases. First, the ordinary food plants on which it is
most commonly found, and including peach, apple, plum, pear,
cherry, and apricot. Second, the not uncommon food plants,
including currant, gooseberry, rose, grape, osage-orange, thorn-
apple, Japan walnut, Japanese (or flowering) quince,
poplar, elm, and linden. Third, what we may call the uncommon
or rare food-plants including persimmons, walnut, sumac, catalpa,
willow, ash, dogwood, maple, spruce, cedar, raspberry, strawberry,
milkweed, and even crabgrass.

In short, while it is found on a great variety, yet its economic
aspect is principally concerned with its occurrence on our culti-
vated deciduous fruit plants, (especially orchard trees) and such
ornamental plants as belong to the botanical family Rosaceae.
Only in rare cases has it been found in the actual forest and the
forests are not appreciable factors in harboring or disseminating it.

The length of time that a tree will live after it becomes infested
depends upon the hardiness of the tree and the age at which it
becomes infested. With peaches from two to six years (depending
on age) will usually be fatal, while for apples from two to ten
years is required to kill, or perhaps they may not entirely die at
all from the scale.

There are certain natural enemies which have a tendency to
reduce the numbers of the scale, or at least to prevent its becom-
ing so abundant as it otherwise might. Several species of internal
insects parasites infest it, while more than one of our native lady-
beetles devour it. A fungous disease also does some good work,
while only in recent years the U. S. Department of Agriculture
introduced a Chinese species of lady-beetle for which great things
were hoped but which has been unequal to the emergency.

For nearly ten years after this pest was discovered in the
eastern states fruit-growers relied upon emulsions of kerosene or

1908]

The San Jose Scale

57

solutions of soaps to subdue it, and the more skillful, careful and
resourceful growers were enabled to keep their orchards profitable,
even though badly infested. During 1901 and 1902 experiments
were made which demonstrated that the lime-sulphur-salt wash,
long in use on the Pacific coast, was useful here also and it
quickly came into general use. Within another two years it was
clearly demonstrated that the salt was not of material value in the
mixture. The mixture as now most widely used in this state
consists of 20 pounds lime and 17 pounds sulphur, boiled an hour,
to 50 gallons of water, the wash being sprayed on the trees while
still hot or warm. This remedy not only holds the scale in prac-
tical control, but also retards other insects to some extent, and is
also claimed to be quite an effectual preventative of leaf-curl of
peaches. Certainly it is efficacious in removing much moss,
lichens and loose dead bark from trunk and branches and it seems
to promote a healthy growth of new wood and bark. Indeed, so
marked have been the benefits from this wash that many thought-
ful, sensible fruit-growers declare that, all things considered, the
appearance of the San Jose Scale in their orchards has worked
to their ultimate advantage rather than otherwise. Certainly the
appearance and spread of the pest has caused our fruit-growers to
awaken to the importance of other insects also, as nothing else
had done before, — and the science of Economic Entomology has
gained a decided impetus from it.

* * *

Referring again to the present known conditions with regard to
the San Jose Scale in this state, — it has been my frequent experi-
ence to be asked by really intelligent and apparently otherwise
well-informed men, whether this pest is actually known to occur
within the borders of North Carolina. In order that at least
every person here present may be assured in the affirmative on
this point I present herewith a map of the state on which each
locality where the scale is known to exist, no matter how
slightly, is marked with a black dot. The numbers refer to the
number of different premises actually known to be infested
in the county. Localities which seem to be generally infested

58 Journal of the Mitchell Society [June

with the San Jose Scale (the pest presumably being present in all
or most of the orchards) are marked with black circles or ellipses,
etc. as the case may require to denote the infest'ed territory. It
must be remembered that this records the present conditions only
so far as known to us, and our knowledge is probably far from com-
plete.

Without going into a detailed consideration of each county a
few general considerations may be of interest. The map shows
the scale recorded in 65 of the 98 counties in the state. It
showsl45 different localities infested (and really there are more as
a locality as here designated includes all who are served by the
rural mail routes from that point) and the complete list numbers
423 separate premises. In 17 communities the scale is generally
distributed. We find that it is in the counties of Cherokee, Hay-
wood, Mitchell and Watauga bordering the Tennessee line, and in
the east it is found in the counties of Brunswick, New Hanover,
Carteret and Pasquotank. With regard to elevation, it occurs at
sea-level in Brunswick and hut little higher in Carteret, Beaufort
and Pasquotank, yet it is also found at 3,000 ft. elevation in Hay-
wood and at about 4,000 ft. in Watauga. The area of heaviest
infestation seems to be the piedmont, but the fact that this is the
most thickly settled region, has been more frequently visited and
inspected, and that we have more correspondence among farmers
in this section than others explains this condition to some
extent. The records of one case each in the counties of Craven,
Beaufort and Pasquotank are due to the activity of Prof R. I.
Smith, Entomologist of the Experiment Station who discovered
these cases while on a recent Farmers’ Institute tour through
this section, — and they go to show that the scale is far more
widespread than our records yet indicate.

We know therefore that the San Jose Scale is already wide
spread in the state. It is a safe presumption that it is in many
localities in addition to those on record. It is a reasonable presum-
tion that it is in every county in the state, though we connot yet
rightfully presume that it is present in every locality, and there is
every reason to suppose that there are many individual orchards
which are yet free from its attacks. But it is plainly evident that

1908 ]

The San Jose Scale

59

no section of the state is immune, and no man can safely presume
that his neighborhood is free from it. It is firmly established as
a permanent pest to be taken into consideration from the outset
be every person who enters the fruit growing business. k
It is difficult to say which county is the worst infested. Based
solely on the number of infested premises on record Catawba
county leads with 62 cases, Guilford second with 32, and Gaston
a close third with 31. Based on the number of localities where
scale is known to exist Surry leads with 9 localities, Guilford sec-
ond with 7, while Moore and Gaston tie for third place with 6
infested localities each. The following table briefly indicates the
recorded conditions for each county which is known to have 5
or more localities in which there is San Jose Scale.

County

No. Localities
Infested

No. Premises
Infested

Average Premises
per locality.

1 Catawba

5

62

12 2-5

Surry

9

27

3

Guilford

7

32

4 4-7

Moore

6

28

4

Gaston

6

31

5 1-6

Wake

5

21

4 1-5

Polk

5

16

3 1-5

In conclusion it should be repeated that all the statements as to
the present conditions in this state are based solely on the present
available records. New cases are still coming to light almost

every week.

Raleigh, N. C.

XXIV

..«tv -

aB*K95&'

NOVEMBER, 1908

NO. 3

Mi

Hut!'

a&fr

JOURNAL

OF THE

!sha Mitchell Scientific Society

M

'y> m ■■

iff

Bill

ISSUED QUARTERLY

ip

CHAPEL HILL, N. C., U. S. A.

TO BE ENTERED *T THE POSTOErlCE AS SECOND CLASS MATTER

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

"Vj~* V- .,v AV. C. CO REP, President

J. E. LATTA, Vice-President

A. S, WHEELER, Eee. Sec. F. P. VENABLE, Perm. Sec.

Editors of the Jocrnai.:'

W. C. COKER

E. V. HOWELL, ARCHIBALD HENDERSON

CONTENTS

PAG*

Monajote Axn Monazite Mining in the Carolines. — Joseph Hyde

Pratt ami Douglas U. Sterrett. 01

Tufe Omcii. Rotation op Spirits of Terpentine. — Chas. II. 'Hetty. . . 87 '*

Tim Character. -op tije Compound Formed by the Addition of Ammo-
nia to EthyivpHospho-plati}.'0-chx.oride.— rChas. JJ. 'Herbj ami R.

‘ OPFj. 92

The Volatile Oil of -Pinos Serotina. — Chas. H. Hetty md U. S’..

Dickson. 101 '

■MicroPro matitk at Citapel Hill. — II. X. Eaton 104

Attracts 106.

Journal of. the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society — Quarterly. Price'
$2.00 per year; single numbers 50 cents. Most numbers of former vol*-
umes can be -supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Editors, at
Coicersity of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. .C. -j

N 4 -’1909

JOURNAL

OF THE

library

NEW YORK

botanical

garden.

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

NOVEMBER, J9C8

VOL. XXIV. NO. 3

MONAZITE AND MONAZITE MINING IN THE CAROLINAS*

BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT AND DOUGLAS B. STEKRETT

Introduction

Monazite is one of the minerals which for a long time was con-
sidered rather rare in its occurence, but upon a commercial de-
mand arising for it prospectors and engineers soon located large
deposits of it in the Carolinas and Brazil, and the supply has al-
ways been able to meet the demand. During the past year
further sources of supply of monazite have been discovered and
developed in Idaho. North and South Carolina, however, are the
only states that have thus far put any monazite on the market.

This mineral is essentially an anhydrous phosphate of the rare
earth metals, cerium, lanthanum, and didymium (Ce, La, Di) P04.
There is nearly always present a varying but small percentage of
thoria (ThOj and silicic acid (Si02), which are very probably
united in the form of a thorium silicate (ThSi04) . Some mona-
zites contain but a fraction of a per cent of thoria, while others
have been recorded that showed the presence of 18 to 32 per cent;

♦Paper read at the Chattanooga meeting of the American Institute of Min-
ing Engineers, October 1908.

v.m]

Cl

Printed November 13, 1908

62 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

but the majority contain from 3 to 9 per cent of this oxide. It is
the presence of the thorium oxide that gives the monazite its com-
mercial value. The analysis occasionally shows also the presence
of other constituents, as the yttrium and erbium oxides, zirconia,
alumina, magnesia, lime, iron oxides, manganese oxide, and tita-
nium ozide.

Monazite is light yellow, honey yellow, reddish, brownish, or
greenish yellow in color, with a resinous to vitreous luster, and is
translucent to subtransparent. It is brittle with a conchoidal
to uneven fracture, and is from 5 to 5.5 in hardness. It crys-
tallizes in the monoclinic system, and some crystals have been
observed that were 2 inches in length. The more perfect crystals
are, however, very small, ranging from an eighth to a sixteenth
of an inch in length down to microscopic ones.

The mineral is usually readily recognized after a few samples
have been examined. Its color, usually yellowish inclined to
reddish, its hardness 5 to 5.5, being readily scratched by feldspar
(hardness 6) or quartz (hardness 7), and its high specific gravity,
4.64 to 5.3, are the chief microscopic properties that will aid in
distinguishing it. The principal chemical and blow-pipe reactions
that can be readily employed to identify monazite are the follow-
ing: It is incompletely soluble in hydrochloric acid, but is com-

pletely and readily acted upon by sulphuric acid. If oxalic acid
is added to the very dilute filtered sulphuric acid solution, or to
the solution obtained by fusing the mineral with soda, a precipi-
tate is obtained which upon ignition becomes brick red, due to
cerium oxide. Before the blowpipe the mineral turns gray, but is
infusible. If heated with sulphuric acid, it colors the flame
bluish green, due to phosphoric acid.

The presence of the thoria content of the monazite, which is
the substance for which the mineral is mined, varies quite widely
from .01 to over 7 per cent. The following analyses of thoria
will illustrate the variation in the percentage of this oxide.

iqo8] Monazite and Monazite Mining 63

Percentage of thoria (ThOa) in North Carolina monazite sand.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ~9 10

Th02...2.15 2.25 6.54 1.27 6.30 2.48 5.87 6.26 3.98 1.93

1. White Bank gold mine, Burke County.

2. Hall Creek, Burke County.

3. Linebacher place, Silver Creek, Burke County.

4. Long Branch, McDowell County.

5. Alexander Branch, McDowell County.

6. MacLewrath Branch, McDowell County.

7. Proctor farm, near Bellwood, Cleveland County.

8. Wade McCurd farm, Carpenters Knob, Cleveland County.

9. Davis mine, near Mooresboro, Cleveland County.

10. Henrietta, Rutherford County.

These results are for the concentrated sand, but in a number of
cases they could have been concentrated to a higher degree of
purity and thus contain a higher percentage of thoria.

Geography

Monazite is of wide spread occurrence in the United States,
though commercial deposits have been found in but fewr regions.
The area in which monazite deposits of commercial value have
been found in the Carolinas lies in the south central part of wes-
tern North Carolina and in the extreme northw estern part of
South Carolina. This area covers about 3,500 square miles and
includes part or all of Alexander, Iredell, Caldw'ell, C'atawrba,
Burke, McDowell, Gaston, Lincoln, Cleveland, Rutherford, and
Polk counties in North Carolina; and Cherokee, Laurens, Spar-
tanburg, Greenville, Pickens, Anderson, Oconee counties in South
Carolina. The larger towns within or near the monazite region
in North Carolina are Statesville, Hickory, and Shelby; and in
South Carolina, Gaffney, Spartanburg, and Greenville. This
monazite region is crossed by the Southern, the Seaboard Air
Line, and the Carolina & North Western railroads.

Several deposists of monazite have been located in northeastern
Georgia, though their value has not yet been determined. One of
these in Rabun County showed a good quantity of both gold and
monazite in a preliminary test. In the adjoining Jackson County

64

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[November

of North Carolina, monazite was found in several pannings that
were made in the Horse Cove region two miles east of Highlands.
At a number of other places in the mountain region of North
Carolina monazite occurs in pegmatized gneisses and schists.
Several small deposits of fairly rich monazite hearing gravels are
reported by Mr. Geo. L. English to occur in Clay County, North
Carolina. The lack of large areas of bottom lands, however,
limits the value of these deposits. It has also been found to a hmited
extent in Cub Creek near Wilkesboro, Wilkes county, North
Carolina.

Physiography

Physiographically, North and South Carolina are divided into
three parts. These are the coastal plain, extending from the At-
lantic Ocean northwestward for a 100 to 150 miles; the Pied"
mont Plateau, extending from the limits of the coastal plain
northwestward for 100 to 130 miles to the foot of the Blue Ridge;
and the mountain region extending northwestward from the Pied-
mont Plateau to the State lines. The coastal plain and the Pied-
mont Plateau are prominent in both States, but only North Caro-
lina contains a large portion of the mountain area.

The coastal plain is a broad, nearly flat stretch of country
rising from sea level on the southeast to an elevation of a few hun-
dred feet on the northwest, in which direction it is practically
limited by the boundaries of the rock formations of which it is
composed. The Piedmont Plateau is an elevated district rising
from a few hundred feet above sea level on the southeast to 1200
or 1500 feet on the northwest. It forms a plateau much dissect-
ed by valleys from 50 to 200 or 300 feet deep, and its regularity
is farther disturbed by scattered mountain peaks and smaller hills
rising above its general level. The features of the plateau are
best observed from a prominent ridge or one of the smaller hills
of the region. In the mountain region are included the Blue
Ridge and its foothills, and the higher mountains to the north-
west. The country in the mountain region is exceedingly rough,
and the elevations range from 1500 to over 6500 feet.

The region in which valuable deposits of monazite have been
found may be defined as a belt from 20 to 30 miles wide and over

Monazite and Monazite Mining

65

i()o8\

150 miles long. This belt lies wholly within the Piedmont Pla-
teau and borders closely on the Blue Ridge, to whose general
course it is roughly parallel.

Geology

Formations

The rocks of the Carolinas monazite region are principally
gneisses and schists. These include the Carolina and Roan
gneisses; granite gneiss and porphyritic granite gneiss. Among
other rocks are massive granite, pegmatite, peridotite and allied
rocks, quartz diorite, and diabase.

The Carolina gneiss is of Archaean age and is the oldest and
most important rock of the region. It is composed of several
types of gneisses and schists which exhibit various degrees of
metamorphism. The most common types are mica, garnet,
cyanite, and graphite gneisses and schists or combinations of two
or more of these types. The mica of the micaceous types may be
either biotite or muscovite or both. More or less mica is generally
present in all of the types of the Carolina gneiss, while the garnet
and cyanite types with or without the graphite type also occur
together. The different types of the Carolina gneiss vary in color
from light gray to dark gray and are sometimes bluish gray or
bluish black where graphite is abundant in them. Some types of
the Carolina gneiss are fine grained so that the component miner-
als are distinguished with difficulty, while others are more coarsely
crystallized. Some of the common constituent minerals of the
Carolina gneiss are biotite, muscovite, quartz, garnet, cyanite,
feldspar, and graphite. The presence of much pegmatitic
material is a characteristic feature of much of the Carolina gneiss.

The Roan gneiss is the next oldest formation of the monazite
region and is also of Archaean age. It consists of hornblende
gneiss and schist, with occasionally the less metamorphosed phase
diorite. The hornblende gneisses and schists are composed chiefly
of small interwoven and matted hornblende crystals and grade
into diorite which contains a noticeable amount of feldspar and
has a granitoid texture. The hornblende rocks vary from black
to dark green in color. Bands of mica gneiss and schist, possibly
of the Carolina gneiss, are included in both large and small
masses of the Roan gneiss.

66

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[. November

The age of many of the granites and granite gneisses has not
been determined though a part are probably Archaean. The
granites and their different phases are next to the Carolina gneiss
in importance, and are particularly prominent in areas where rich
deposits of monazite exist. The types found in the monazite
region are biotite granite, muscovite, and hornblende granite,
while in some places considerable secondary garnet has developed
in the gneissoid granites. The texture of the granites are gneissic
or schistose, porphyritic, and massive. Where the granite is both
porphyritic and schistose the feldspar phenocrysts often have an
augen form, caused by crushing and shearing. Many of the
granite masses have much quartz in veins and veinlets throughout
their mass. Some of this quartz is massive crystalline and other
occurs with more or less well-defined crystal form, or drusy sur-
faces. The occurrence of quartz veins is not always confined to
the granite masses, but in many places extends some distance
from the contact of the granite into adjacent formations. The
composition of the granite masses near the contact with other for-
mations has in many cases been altered by the partial or complete
absorption of inclusions of those formations. This phenomena is
particularly evident where a mica granite, by intrusion into a
mass of Roan gneiss, has become a hornblende granite near its
borders through the absorption of hornblende.

Pegmatite is a common rock throughout the monazite region
and is especially prominent in those areas rich in monazite. Two
principal methods of occurrence are here recognized. In one the
pegmatite occurs in distinct masses or bodies composed of quartz
and feldspar, with or without mica and other accessory con-
stituents. The texture of these masses is, in some cases, extreme-
ly coarse with the minerals composing the pegmatite separated out
in crystals or masses many inches across. The other type is peg-
matized gneiss, representing the addition of the pegmatite minerals
to the gneiss, with perhaps some recrystallization of portions of
the inclosing rocks. The nature of this pegmatized rock varies
considerably. In some places secondary quartz is the principal
mineral added, while feldspar is present in smaller quantities. In
others feldspar is more prominent . Mica may or may not be

1908]

Monazite and Monazite Mining

67

present in the pegmatitic material but has generally been plenti-
fully developed in the mass of the gneiss by metamorphism. The
feldspar of pegmatized gneisses often assumes a porphyritic form
producing augen gneisses. The gneisses and schists are often
banded with or cut at all angles by streaks of pegmatitic or grani-
tic material. The recrystallization of the gneisses and schists,
with the development of pegmatitic material or the injection of
such material through the rocks, may be called pegmatization . In
many places the process has proceeded so far that it is very diffi-
cult to distinguish pegmatized gneiss from granite gneiss, especially
from porphyritic and flow-banded granite gneiss. This difficulty
is partly due to the fact that granite and pegmatite are composed
of the same minerals and have no sharp division line between the
size of their grains.

The peridotites and allied basic rocks are dark-green to greenish
black in color and contain one or more of the ferromagnesian
minerals, olivine, pyroxene, and hornblende as chief constituents.
So far as known these rocks are of Archaean age and are probably
genetically connected with the Roan gneiss. Though a relatively
unimportant rock of the monazite region, these basic rocks gener-
ally outcrop prominently wherever they occur, and many of the
outcrops are marked by large rounded “nigger-head” bowlders.
The peridotites and allied rocks are often altered to talcose or
chloritic soapstone or serpentine. In some cases this alteration is
only superficial, but in others whole masses have been so meta-
morphosed. These rocks generally occur in lens-shaped bodies
parallel, or nearly so, to the schistosity of the inclosing rocks.

Quartz diorite of undetermined age is one of the less important
intrusive rocks of the monazite region. It is a hard, fine grained
rock, composed of granular quartz and feldspar with varying
quantities of hornblende. Locally, garnet is distributed pro-
miscuously through it. Quartz diorite occurs in small dikes,
from a few inches to several feet thick, cutting the formations at
various angles. Their size is offset by their abundance in some
sections and resistance to erosion, owing to which they leave much
debris over their outcrops in the form of hard rounded bowlders.

Diabase, probably of Triassic age, is the latest intrusive rock
known in the monazite region. It is a dense, hard rock of dark

68

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[November

green to black color, composed chiefly of olivine and a lime
feldspar and is rather abundant in some seetions and occurs in
dikes from a few to over a 100 feet wide. The outcrop is gener-
ally marked by abundant characteristic spheroidal “nigger-head”
bowlders. The diabase dikes cut the rocks at various angles,
though in many cases they have a north to northwest strike.

Structure

The rocks of this region have undergone extreme regional meta-
morphism, with accompanying folding and faulting. The mash-
ing and recrystallization of the rocks of the Carolina gneiss forma-
tion have been so extensive, in some cases, that much of the
original sedimentary structure and igneous texture have been
destroyed. The folding of the older formations has resulted, in
some places, in complex structure of both large and small dimen-
sions. Some of the folds extend over miles of region, while others
are confined to a few feet or inches. The minor deformations and
crumplings — miniature Appalachian folds — seen in some rock
exposures portray the form of the larger folds. The Carolina
gneiss has been intruded by rocks of later age and cut by them
into irregular-shaped masses, many of which fork out into long
tongues or occur as narrow streaks in the intrusives or vice versa.
There have been successive intrusions of igneous rocks of later age
into the earlier formations. Thus the Carolina gneiss is cut by
the Roan gneiss, and both are cut by granites of later age.

The structure of the pegmatite in this region is quite variable.
In some places the pegmatite occurs in sheets or lenses interbedded
and folded with the inclosing gneisses and schists. In other places
it occurs in dikes, veins, or lenses either conformable with the
inclosing rocks through part of its extent and cutting across them
in other parts, or in irregular masses having no definite orienta-
tion in the surrounding formations. In pegmatized rock masses
pegmatization has generally affected certain beds, which grade into
regular pegmatite in either the direction of their greatest or that of
their least extension. In such rocks it is often impossible to de-
termine the line of demarcation between the two. There is also
a gradation between the pegmatized beds and ordinary gneiss.

1908\

Monazite and Monazite Mining

69

Rocks and Soils

The rocks of the southern Appalachain region have undergone
extensive weathering and in many places in the Piedmont Plateau,
especially, are concealed by a thick mantle of residual soil. In
many sections good outcrops are scarce and are found mostly on
steep hillsides, along water courses and in road cuts. The resi«
dual soils often furnish evidence of the nature of underlying rocks
and can be used as a guide to their determination. It is first
necessary to learn the different stages of soil formation by the
examination of many outcrops and their graduations into residual
soil.

The Carolina gneiss, on partial disintegration and decomposition,
commonly forms a gravelly soil with a red clayey matrix. This is
especially characteristic of the garnetiferous and graphite-cyanite
types, which are abundant in parts of the monazite region. The
pebbles are composed of small fragments of the original rock, such
as tufts of cyanite impregnated »with hematite or limonite, iron
; stained garnets, or pieces of hematite. On more complete decom-
position a fine reddish clayey soil results, with no decided character-
istics. Other types of the Carolina gneiss, in which mica is an
important constituent, leaves a micaceous soil, much of which
assumes a purplish color. Granite and its various phases, on
partial disintegration and decomposition, yields light sandy soils.
On more complete decomposition the granites yield soils of a light
to dark reddish color, depending on the quantity of ferromagne-
sian minerals, as biotite or hornblende, in the original rock.
The quartz grains of the granite remain as sand mixed through a
clayey matrix. This quartz sand is almost everywhere to be seen

iat the immediate surface, from which the clays have been washed
by rains. Where Carolina gneiss and granite are intimately
associated . or where pegmatization has been extensive in a body of
Carolina gneiss, there results a sandy soil, characteristic of granite,
through which are scattered pebbles of hematite and ferruginous
cyanite, characteristic of the Carolina gneiss. The relative impor-
tance of pebbles in such soils decreases as the quantity of pegma-
i tite or of granite in the rock formations increases. These features
of the soils are especially marked on the broad, flat ridges charac-

70

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[ November

terizing much of the Piedmont Plateau region. The Roan gneiss
leaves a greenish sandy soil on disintegration, and an ocher-yellow
to dark reddish brown or chocolate-colored clayey soil on deconr
position. Black stains of manganese are associated with many of
the soils derived from hornblendic rocks.

A clew to the nature of the rock formations in a given region is
often furnished by the character of the gravels in the bottom
lands and streams draining that region. Thus in this area a very
light colored gravel with much quartz debris indicates a granite or
its contact or a very highly pegmatized country rock. Garnets and
hematite iron ore, with which blocks of mica or cyanite gneiss are
associated, indicate Carolina gneiss. Quantities of black sands in
the stream gravels, containing magnetite, ilmenite, hornblende,
etc., are characteristic of the Roan gneiss.

Occurrence

Monazite has been found in several varieties of rocks, in the
soils derived from monazite bearing formations, and in gravel beds
formed through the erosion of these formations. Only gravel
deposits have been profitably worked for monazite on an extensive
scale, though in some places the surface soils adjoining rich
deposits of monazite, or the saprolite or rotted rock underlying
them, are found to be sufficiently rich in monazite to be sluiced
down and washed.

The percentage of monazite in both the original rock matrix and
in the gravel deposits is small, and probably does not often run
over 1 per cent. Figures are not available for the percentage of
monazite in gravel deposits. From the saprolite underlying the
F. K. McCurd mine, three-fourths of a mile northeast of Carpen-
ter Knob, N. C., Mr. George L. English obtained about one-third
of a pound of monazite per ton, or about 0.016 per cent. At the
British Monazite mine, 3 miles northeast of Shelby, N. C., the
quantity of monazite in the hard rock formations was found by
Mr. Hugh Stewart, engineer in charge, to run from between 0.03
per cent and less up to over 1.10 per cent.

1908 ]

Monazite and Monazite Mining

71

Monazite- Bearing Rock

Monazite has been observed in the Carolinas in several types of
rock, among which are gneiss, pegmatized gneiss and schist, peg-
matite, and different varieties of granite. The occurrence of mon-
azite in ordinary pegmatite masses is in large masses of crystals.
These have been found varying from an ounce or two to several
pounds in weight in the mica mines of Mitchell and Madison
counties, N. C.

Most of the pegmatized gneiss bodies which are rich in monazite
represent phases of the Carolina gneiss in which the original
nature of the rock has been largely obliterated as a result of the
addition of new minerals and the recrystallization of the original
ones into pegmatitic material. The texture developed during this
pegmatization is in many cases porphyritic, in which the feldspar
phenocrysts assume somewhat of an augen form. The feldspar
phenocrysts range in size from some smaller than a grain of wheat
to others the size of a walnut. The porphyritic gneiss may grade
into less or more highly pegmatized gneiss, and from the latter into
regular pegmatite- This gradation may be between two separate
beds or from one part to another of the same bed. In those beds
or portions of beds where there has been little pegmatization mon-
azite occurs sparingly. The same is true where pegmatization has
been complete and but little of the original gneiss remains. It is,
then, the beds of gneissic rock which are rich in secondary quartz
and contain numerous small masses of feldspar throughout that
carry the most monazite. In such rocks there is generally much
biotite, with graphite and perhaps some muscovite and other acces-
sory minerals, as well as abundant quartz and feldspar. The
quartz occurs in layers or scattered grains throughout the rock,
inclosing and replacing the other constituents. The feldspar crys-
tals chiefly replace, though they partly displace the other minerals
of the rock, Monazite in a rock matrix almost invariably pos-
sesses crystal form, often with brilliant faces.

A typical example of rich monazite-bearing rock could be
described as follows: The chief constituents of the rock are

quartz, feldspar (mostly the potash variety), biotite, graphite,
muscovite, monazite, and a little zircon. It has a banded stuc-

72

Monazite and Monazite Mining [ November

ture caused by the more or less separate occurrence of certain
minera's arranged in parallel streaks, with a roughly parallel
orientation of the crystals or grains of each mineral. The princi-
pal features of the banding consist of larger quartz streaks with
several smaller ones and individual grains in a regular biotite
schist. The other minerals occupy various positions and show
diverse relations to the minerals of these bands and to each other.
The feldspar is porphyritic and occurs chiefly in individual crys-
tals, some of which are of considerable size. A number of the
feldspar phenocrysts are small bodies of pegmatite in themselves.
The feldspar phenocrysts replace the other minerals. Graphite
occurs in large amounts with biotite, though it is associated with
nearly every other mineral of the rock. Where present, muscovite
is chiefly associated with the feldspar. Monazite seems to be
indiscriminately scattered through the rock, included in or asso-
ciated with all the foregoing minerals. Though generally free
from inclusions, it is not invariably so, and in one case a plate of
graphite was observed within a monazite crystal. All the minerals
observed in the rock, with the exception of zircon, have been noted
as inclusions in the feldspar phenocrysts.

In microscopic sections cut from specimens from one of the ore
streaks, the minerals described above were observed, together with
some iron staining. The feldspar is principally orthoclase and
microcline, partially kaolinized. The quartz is plainly secondary,
and occurs in bands or streaks or grains parallel with the schis-
tosity of the rock. In some places the quartz has been deposited
in the fracture or between the grains of other minerals; in others
it replaces or includes fragments of such minerals as biotite and
graphite.

Gas cavities and inclusions of very fine acicular needles, pro-
bably rutile, are abundant in the quartz. Biotite occurs in inter-
woven laths and crystals roughly parallel to the banding of the
rock. The pleochroism of the biotite is light yellow-brown to
greenish brown or dark purplish red. Graphite occurs as plates
and laths, in general lying parallel to the banding of the rock.
Some of it is interbanded and even interleaved with biotite; else-
where the plates are turned across the foliation. In one section a
lath of graphite was observed inclosed in quartz which filled a

1908 ]

Journal of the Mitchell Society

73

fracture across the foliation of a biotite crystal. Monazite occurs
in contact with the various minerals of the sectoin, though it is
more commonly surrounded by or included in grains of biotite and
quartz. The position of the monazite in the biotite indicates
replacement, and the biotite foliae are not displaced around the
crystals. In the microscopic sections sufficient feldspar was not
observed to determine its relation to the other minerals.

The rock has been so thoroughly recrystallized that it is diffi-
cult to give the relative order of formation of the minerals. Bio-
tite, if not still in its original condition, was probably the first
mineral to form during recrystallization. Part of the graphite
was probably contemporaneous with the biotite. Some, however,
was introduced later and formed at the same time with the quartz.
The small amount of muscovite in the rock was probably next to
form, followed closely by quartz. From the small amount of
; feldspar in the microscopic sections, it was not possible to state its
relative period of formation. From the hand specimen, however,
it is evident that the feldspar was introduced later than the quartz,
or possibly contemporaneously with part of it.

Origin

The occurrence of monazite in granitic and pegmatitic rocks indi-
cates that its origin is associated with magmatic agencies. It is
probable that the constituents of monazite are associated with gran-
| itic magmas and that only part of the mineral crystallizes out
when such magmas solidify. During the formation of pegmatite
■! magmas and solutions from the residues of the solidification of
granite part of the constituents of monazite are retained. When
these pegmatite magmas and solutions are intruded into or depos-
: ited in the gneisses and schists in masses such as are mined for
mica, monazite forms in large masses or crystals. During
j the pegmatization of rock formations by these magmas and solu-
[ tions the monazite is carried into the gneisses and schists where it is
now found. This pegmatization with which monazite is associated
: was probably produced by the passage of active magmatic solutions
Ij through the rock, both aiding in recrystallization of the original
y constituents, and depositing the materials held in solution when
[I conditions of temperature or agents of precipitation were favorable.

74

Monazite and Monazite Mining

[. November

It is possible that in some cases the monazite in pegmatized
gneiss is formed by the gathering together of the proper elements
disseminated through the original rock during recrystallization.
It is probable that pegmatization in which much quartz with but
little feldspar has formed represents a phase of recrystallization
in which the quartz may either in part or wholly have come from
the original rock itself or may have been added by solutions pass-
ing through the formations. In either case the materials do not
represent the work of active magmatic solutions or magmas such
as might give rise to regular pegmatite bodies. In those recrystal-
lized or pegmatized rocks where the feldspathic component of peg-
matite is not plentiful, monazite occurs but sparingly. On the
other hand, monazite is found more abundantly in pegmatized
rock formations in which feldspar plays a prominent part. The
common proximity of this form of pegmatization to granite
masses, or its gradation into pegmatite bodies, gives evidence of
its formation through magmatic agencies.

The monazite of rock formations has, then, probably been
derived from aqueo-igneous solutions such as give rise to certain
forms of pegmatite and have in these cases affected large masses of
rock.

PLACERS

The commercial deposits of monazite occur in the gravel beds of
creeks and streams and in the bottom lands adjacent to them.
The thickness of the gravels ranges from a foot or two, including
over-burden, to 6 or 8 feet. The distribution of the monazite in
them is, as with all heavy minerals, richer near the bed rock and
poorer above, grading into the over-burden. In some deposits the
whole thickness of the gravel, with the finer alluvium at the sur-
face, is rich enough to be washed directly or sluiced down and
washed. The extent and value of these deposits vary with the topog-
raphy of the country and the nature of the gravels. In some places
the bottom land, containing rich monazite-bearing gravels, are over
100 yards wide and extend a half a mile or more along the streams.
In other places the bottom lands are small and there is but little
more than the stream gravels present. The best deposits are more
commonly associated with light colored gravels and sands, con-

1908\

Monazite and Monazite Mining

75

taining considerable quartz debris and fragments of other light
colored rocks, such as pegmatite, granite, mica, and cyanite gneiss.
On the other hand, the absence of much quartz and pegmatitie or
granitic debris from the gravel is generally characteristic of low
grade deposits of monazite. The presence of black sands — mag-
netite, ilmenite, hornblends, etc. — in the gravels does not neces-
sarily indicate a low grade deposit, unless quartz and pegmatitie
minerals are also lacking. Monazite deposits in regions where
hornblende rocks are abundant generally contain a large percent-
age of black sands, and it is then often difficult to concentrate
the monazite to a marketable grade. As an offset to this, how-
ever, especially in regions where granite is associated with the
hornblendic rocks, gold is often found in the concentrates in quan-
tity more than sufficient to pay the cost of separation, and in the
same localities the concentrates generally carry also a quantity of
zircon. This zircon is in the form of small, clear crystals with
brilliant lustre, which range in size up to 1 millimeter square and
about 2 millimeters long.

Residual Deposits

It has been found profitable to sluice down and concentrate the
surface soils on the lands adjoining some of the richer monazite
bearing deposits. The residual soils that have suffered but little
displacement on the surface can be thus profitably washed to a
depth of 3 or 4 inches, and where the drift soil has collected on
the gentle slopes below a steeper hillside several feet can be sluiced
down in some cases. The partial concentration of monazite in the
top layer of soil is caused by the washing away of the clay and
other light decomposition products of the rock. The supply of mon-
azite in the stream gravels in favorable areas is often replenished
by the wash from the hillside soils during rains; especially where
the hills have any considerable slope and the land is cultivated.
Under such conditions the stream gravels are often worked two
or more times in a year.

The saprolite or rotted rock underlying the richer deposits of
monazite is at some places sluiced down to depths of a few inches
to a foot or so, along with the overling gravels. At other places
small amounts are removed and washed separately for the mona-

76

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[November

zite they contain. The formations that have been found especi-
ally favorable for such work are highly pegmatized gneiss or schist.
Such deposits have generally soon been lost or grown poor, prob-
ably on account of the fact that the miners have cut through the
richer bed or failed to follow it in the direction of its extension.
The occurrence of monazite in saprolite is merely an altered phase
of the occurrence in hard rock formations.

COMMERCIAL DEPOSITS

All the monazite mined in the Carolinas is obtained from gravel
deposits which lie in and along the stream and creek beds where
the monazite is collected after being liberated from the rocks by
their alteration and erosion . While no accurate record has been
kept of the percentage of monazite in these gravel deposits, yet it
is undoubtedly true that the percentage per cubic yard, reckoning
from surface to bed rock, is not over 1 percent. This, however,
is sufficient to make profitable mining. In many localities it has
been the custom to sluice not only the gravels but all the over-
burden, inasmuch as even the top soil carries a small amount of
monazite.

There are no large hydraulic plants in operation, but nearly all
the monazite is obtained in sluice boxes fed by hand. These
boxes are fitted at their upper end with a sieve or shaking hopper
with a mesh of about No. 12. The boxes vary in length from 8
to 20 feet, and in some instances are fitted with riffles holding
mercury for catching the gold. An interesting fact noted in con-
nection with the deposition of monazite in the stream beds is that
when the gravels have been washed for monazite and then left for a
few months or a year (especially if there has been considerable rainy
weather), there is another supply of monazite deposited, which in
many cases can be profitably worked. This monazite has resulted
from the wTashing in of the mineral from the surface adjoining the
streams where it had been during the decomposition and erosion
of the original rock matrix. This second deposition of monazite
is facilitated by plowing the adjoining fields. In a few places
Wilfley tables have been introduced for treating the concentrates
from the sluice boxes. Where these tables are used the. soil and

1908 ]

Monazite and Monazite Mining

77

gravels are washed into shaking hoppers and then through sluice
boxes, the over size thrown out and the sands fed to Wilfley
tables. At one mine it is necessary to raise the gravels by a
mechanical elevator in order to bring them to a sufficient height
to feed them to the table. They are fed into a revolving screen
and from that to the table. The heads from this first washing do
not contain a very large per cent of the monazite, and the mid-
dlings are, therefore, re-fed to the table with other feed ore. In
some cases the feed ore is all run over the machine and a rough
concentrate first obtained and then this re-fed. The product from
these machines contain from 50 to 80 and occasionally 90 per cent
of monazite. Where there is a large amount of the heavy black
sands occurring in the gravel with the monazite, it is almost
impossible to get the percentage much over 50 per cent monazite.
Where, however, these occur more sparingly, it is possible by this
method to obtain a monazite concentrate containing 80 per cent
monazite.

All the concentrates from the sluice boxes and Wilfley tables
have to be dried before they can be treated on the magnetic sepa-
rators. There are two different methods used in the monazite dis-
trict for this purpose. In one the sand is spread over an oiled or
rubber cloth in a thin layer and exposed to the heat of the sun.
It dries very quickly, due perhaps partly to the heat absorbed by
the dark iron sand. It requires, however, a considerable surface
to accommodate any large amount of sand. The other method of
drying is by heating over furnaces. A small ditch from 4 to 8
feet long and 1^ to 2 feet wide and about one foot deep is dug, at
one end of which there is built a rock or brick chimney. The
ditch is usually built up of stones with an opening at the opposite
end of the chimney for firing. Over the ditch there is a sheet iron
cover or drying plate. The monazite is spread on this and exposed
to the action of the hot fire underneath. These dry sands are
often further concentrated by means of the ordinary horseshoe
magnet, which picks out all the magnetite. The miners are paid
for their sand on the basis of 100 per cent product and the nearer
they can bring their sand to this, the better prices they receive for

78

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[ November

it. The sand brought into the magnetic concentration plants is
worth from 4 to 8 cents per pound while after a magnetic separa-
tion, its value is increased to 12 to 20 cents per pound.

This material represents what is known as crude monazite sand
and contains, besides the monazite, magnetite, ilmenite, garnet,
zircon, rutile, corundum, cyanite, hornblende, and occasionally
chromite. In order to separate the monazite from its associated
minerals, it is necessary to run this crude sand through some elec-
trical apparatus. There are two types of machines that are in
operation : (1) the Wetherill electro-magnetic machine and modi-

fications of this; and (2) machines in which the minerals are
deflected by electro -magnets while falling. Of these, the first type
is the one most generally employed. By means of these various
machines a product can be obtained varying from 90 to 98 per
cent of monazite and represents the sand that is shipped to the
manufacturers of the incandescent mantles.

MAGNETIC SEPARATION

The first application of magnetic separation was in the concen-
tration of certain iron ores, principally magnetite, in order to pro-
duce a product richer in iron and also to eliminate certain miner-
als that contained elements injurious to the metallic iron. The
next application was to other iron ores such as limonite, hematite,
and siderite after they had been given a preliminary roasting to
convert them into the magnetic oxide. The next step was in the
separation of magnetic iron particles from certain copper, gold
and zinc ores either before or after roasting. For many years this
was the only application made of magnetic separation. It was
found, however, upon experimenting with an electro-magnet with
a higher intensity that other minerals were subject to magnetic
attraction and that it was possible to separate minerals into more
or less pure products by varying the intensity of the magnetic
field. Thus, it has been possible to adapt this method of separa-
tion to ores containing iron or manganese, which are only weakly
magnetic. As is well known, steel bars may be magnetized and
they will retain more or less of this magnetism indefinitely, while
bars of softer wrought or cast iron may be magnetized by means
of electric currents in surrounding coils of insulated copper wire.

1908 ]

Monazite and Monazite Mining

79

These iron bars do not become permanent magnets but form elec-
tro-magnets as long as the current flows around them. They
can be given a greater and more constant strength than can
be given to the permanent steel magnets and for this reason, in
nearly all of the magnetic processes, electro-magnets are used
instead of the field magnets.

The magnetism of these electromagnets can be varied and dif-
ferent intensities obtained ranging from indefinitely weak to a
certain maximum strength. It is also possible to control the
intensity of any magnetic field so that minerals that are strongly
attracted may be separated from minerals that require a magnetic
field of much higher intensity. This intensity of the magnetic
field depends:

1. On the size of the magnet.

2. On the shape of the magnet.

3. On the distance between the magnet and the body to be
attracted.

4. On the number of amperes turns in the magnet coil, that is,
the product of the amperes or current flowing in the coil times the
number of turns around the core.

There are many substances that are attracted by electro-mag-
nets that are not influenced apparently at all by the strongest steel
magnet and for this reason, formerly many substances which were
considered non -magnetic, have been proved to be magnetic when
subjected to the intense magnetic field obtained in an electromag-
netic separator. All substances are of course either attracted or
repelled by magnets and the former are called para-magnetic and
the latter dia-magnetic. The latter class is the most numerous,
but since the introduction of electromagnets, the former class,
which up to this time had been considered extremely small, has been
largely increased . The paramagnetic substances are the metals iron ,
nickel, cobalt, manganese, chromium, cerium, palladium, plat-
inum, osmium and many of their salts and compounds. The degree
of attraction of these varies very widely and, as an illustration
between a strong and weak magnetic substance, it has been esti-
mated that if the attraction of steel be taken at 100,000, then
magnetite would be 65,000, siderite 120, hematite, 93 to 43, lim-

80 Journal of the Mitchell Society [November

onite 72 to 43. By using the electromagnetic separators, which
can be regulated so as to give a very strong field and at the same
time a field which is capable of fine adjustment, it is now possible
not only to separate the paramagnetic from the diamagnetic sub-
stances, but also to separate the paramagnetic from each other.

There are a large number of magnetic separators that have been
invented, many of which are now on the market. Perhaps the
simplest of all these magnetic separators is one devised by Edison.
In this separator the particles of mineral are permitted to fall in a
thin sheet in front of the poles of a strong bar electromagnet, which
causes a deflection of the magnetic particles from a direct down-
ward path, while the nonmagnetic particles would not be
influenced by this attraction and would fall vertically. It is possi-
ble to make two and sometimes three products in this way.

There are three general classes of these magnetic separators as
follows: (1) in which the magnetic particles are held to revolving
cylindrical rolls or drums within which are magnets; (2) those
in which the magnetic particles are carried by conveying belts or
pans passing over the magnets; (3) those in which the ore falls in
front of a magnet. There are a number of points of difference in
the machines such as permanent or electromagnets; treating the
ore wet or dry ; magnets acting continuously or intermittently ;
and the use of direct or alternating current. It will be found that
different machines are suited for different purposes according to the
character of the material to be treated. As I have stated before,
most of the machines were originally designed simply to treat iron
ores, or to separate iron minerals from other ores and there are
but few of them that are adapted for the separation of monazite,
zinc minerals, etc.

The first class is represented by the Ball-Norton separator which
consists of two revolving drums within each of which is a series of
stationary electro-magnets so wound that opposite poles are adja-
cent to one another. The capacity of a machine with 2 drums 2’
dia. and 2' face raises 15-20 tons per hour, 16-20 mesh. The ore
is fed upon the top of the first drum and the magnetic particles
are held by the drum, while the non -magnetic fall into the hopper
below. As the drum revolves, the magnetic particles get beyond

Monazite and Monazite Mining

81

igo8\

the magnetic field and are thrown by centrifugal force on to the
second drum. This drum, which does not have quite so strong a
current as the first, does not attract as many of the magnetic par-
ticles so that some of these drop off into a second hopper, forming
a middling product, while the stronger magnetic particles are held
by the drum and carried a certain distance, when they get beyond
the magnetic field and are dropped into a third hopper. On
account of the alternate polarity of the adjacent magnets, the par-
ticles roll over and thus facilitate the elimination of any gangue
particles that may be mixed with the magnetic.

Another simple drum separator is the Heberli. In this machine
there is but one drum and the electro-magnets extend over about
one-fourth of the area of the drum. The ore is fed to the drum
just above the centre radius and about the middle of the magnets.
The drum revolves in the opposite direction to which the ore is fed
and the magnetic particles are attracted by the drum and carried
up and over the magnets while the non-magnetic particles drop
into the hopper below. As the magnetic particles leave the mag-
netic field, they are dropped on the opposite side of the drum into
another hopper.

2. It is the magnetic separators of the second class that have
been used principally in the separation of monazite in the Caro-
linas. Of these machines, the Wetherill stands out most promi-
nently and was probably the first to commercially treat weakly
magnetic materials. The principal idea of these machines is to
secure a very strongly magnetic field by concentrating the lines of
force as far as possible, this being accomplished by placing the two
poles of the magnet facing one another with a minimum air gap
between them and by bevelling down the pole pieces to their end.

The type of the Wetherill magnetic separator that is more gener-
ally used is known as the Rowand type, which has a magnetic
pole with sharp edge between the travelling feed belt and a blunt
pole directly under it. Both of these poles are capable of being
magnetised by an electric current which will produce a condition
varying from weak to intensely strong magnetism. The concen-
tration of magnetism at the sharp edge causes all the grains to
jump to the upper pole. A cross-belt directly beneath this pole,
which is running at right angles to the feed belt and is running

82

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[November

rapidly, readily takes off these grains and deposits them in a bin
while the non-magnetic grains go on with the belt. There can be
readily arranged above the travelling feed belt a series of such
poles, each stronger than the one before, so that the first will take
off the strongest magnetic particles. The travelling feed belt
varies in width from 12 to 18 inches. The material fed to the
machine is classified and allowed to pour over a revolving drum,
which concentrates it evenly over the feed belt. The pole pieces
are made of soft iron and weigh up to 90 pounds each. They are
adjustable so that the length of ore gap between them may be
varied . The strength of the current in ami>eres can be varied and
also the distance of the feed belt beneath the poles.

The rnonazite sand, which is fed to the travelling feed belt,
passes along under four powerful electo-magnets. The first re-
moves all the magnetic iron and generally all of the titanic iron or
ilemnite and any chromite that might be present. The second
magnet removes all the fine grains of garnet, the coarser ones, if
present, usually being removed by the first magnet. The third
magnet is so adjusted as to remove only the coarser particles of
rnonazite, while the fourth removes all the finer pieces of mona-
zite. The remaining portion of the sand, consisting largely of
zircon, quartz, and a little rutile, corundum, cyanite, etc., is
dropped off at the end of the large belt into a waste pile.

In another type of machine used in the rnonazite district there
are a series of magnets over which are travelling belts which pick
out different minerals, according to the intensity of the magnetic
field. In this machine the magnetic particles are carried over and
under the magnet and dropped into a hopper as they leave the
magnetic field, while the tailings are dropped into another hopper
and fed to another travelling belt and over a second magnet of
stronger intensity, which picks out the garnet. This is dropped
into a special bin and the balance into another hopper and fed to
a third magnet, whick picks out the rnonazite. It is possible by
these separators to obtain a rnonazite sand of from 90 to 99 per
cent rnonazite, according to the care that is taken in separating it.

The other products, as the iron minerals magnetite and ilmenite,
and garnet, can also be obtained in a very pure state. From a
long series of experiments that have been carried on, it has been

1908 ]

Monazite and Monazite Mining

83

determined that in machines of this type the magnetite can be
removed when the amperage is .2; ilmenite with 1.1; chromite
with 1.6; garnet with 1 .75; hypersthene and olivine with 2.2; mon-
azite with 3.5 amperes. Zircon is left behind with the gold as
non- magnetic. Any platinum that might be present would begin
to be lifted by the weakest current, but most of it would not be
lifted until the current was 1.5 amperes.

It is possible to separate almost completely pyrite from horn-
blende by picking out the hornblende with the electro-magnet, the
pyrite remaining in the tailings. Such minerals as pyroxene, epi-
dote, titanite, tourmaline, and serpentine are readily picked out
by the Wetherill magnetic separator with a current of 2 to 2.5
amperes. Brookite and cassiterite can occasionally be picked out
with an amperage of 3.5.

USES OF MONAZITE

The commercial value of monazite depends upon the incandes-
cent properties of the rare earth oxides which it contains, such as
cerium, lanthanum, didymium and thorium oxides, which are
used in the manufacture of the Welsbach and other incandescent
gas light mantles. It is the thoria that is used in largest amount
and which gives the actual value to the monazite. In the reduc-
tion of the monazite sand, there are a number of the rare earth
salts that are obtained in considerable quantity, which has made it
possible to carry on an extensive series of experiments with these rare
earth oxides. It requires from 4 to 6 months to recover from the
monazite sand its percentage of thoria and render it sufficiently
pure to be used in the mantles.

The Welsbach light consists of a cylindrical hood or mantle com-
posed of a fibrous network of the rare earths, the top of which is
drawn together and held by a loop of asbestos or platinum wire.
When in use, this mantle is suspended over the flame of a burner,
constructed on the principle of the Bunsen burner, in which the
heating instead of the illuminating power of the hydrocarbon of
the gas is used by burning it with an excess of air. In this man-
ner the mantle becomes incandescent and glows with a brilliant
and uniform light.

84

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[ November

A short, description of the method of manufacture of these man-
tles may be of interest . The first part of the process is the selec-
tion of the thread fibre from which the mantle fabric is knitted.
The fibre mostly used is cotton, either the upland, river bottom,
Peeler, Allen seed, Sea Island or Egyptian variety, the market
prices varying from about 10c for the upland to 30c per pound
for the Egyptian. The cheaper cottons are used in the lower grade
mantles, the highest grade mantle requiring the best quality of
cotton. The thread is purified, so as to remove every possible
trace of mineral matter. If the thread used shows a mineral im-
purity above .015 per cent, it will introduce factors that will affect
the physical and lighting life of the mantle. Cylindrical networks
of varying diameters are knitted out of the thread and then wash-
ed in ammonia and distilled water and wrung out in mechanical
clothes wringers. After it is dry it is cut into pieces sufficiently
long to make two good mantles.

These knitted fabrics are then placed in a suitable vessel and
covered with the ‘lighting fluid.” They remain in this until
thorougly saturated. The excess of fluid is drawn off amd the
fabric put through an equalizing machine piece by piece. The
“lighting fluid” is composed of a solution of approximately 99
per cent thorium nitrate and 1 per cent cerium nitrate in distilled
water, in the ratio of 3 parts of water to 1 part of mixed nitrates.
The fabric is dried and then cut to the proper length required for
a hood. They are then shaped over a wooden form and the upper
end drawn together by means of an asbestos cord (occasionally of
platinum). After the mantle has been modelled the cotton fibre
is eliminated by heating them over a hot Bunsen burner flame,
leaving the mantle composed of the ash of thorium and cerium.
The peculiarity of these oxides is that they have sufficient cohesion
to hold together during the balance of the process of manufacture,
after every bit of the supporting cotton thread has been burned
aw’ay. They are then subjected to a series of tempering and test-
ing heats during which the mantle is carefully shaped to its per-
manent form. In order to protect the ash of the mantle during
its inspection, packing, transportation, and installation, it is dip-
ped in collodion. Just before using a mantle this collodion cover-

1908]

Monazite and Monazitr Mining

85

ing has to be burned off. It is estimated that the American mar-
ket consumes 40,000,000 of these mantles per year.

Another element obtained from the monazite is didymium,
whose oxide is dark brown . Use is made of this for branding the
mantles with an indelible brand. A nitrate solution is made and
an ordinary rubber stamp used for branding.

Of the associated minerals, zircon has a commercial value of 20
to 25 cents per pound for its zirconia content, which is used in
the manufacture of the glower of the Nernst lamp. The funda-
mental principle of this Nernst lamp is that certain of the rare
earths or refractory oxides will conduct an electric current and
glow after they have been heated to redness. This discovery,
which was made by Dr. Nernst in 1897, has resulted in the devel-
opment and perfecting of the glower which is now embodied in the
Nernst lamp. . This glower is composed of a mixture of the rare
earth oxides and is made in the form of a small rod or pencil of
chalk-like material, having wire terminals at either end. When
cold, the glower is an insulator, but by means of the wire the
glower becames heated to redness when a current is passed through
these wires, and its resistance gradually decreases until it has
reached a red heat, when with 220 volts across the terminals it
starts to conduct the current and give light.

In bringing a glower up to its starting point corresponding to a
temperature of 1,200° F., use is made of a small electrical heater
composed of two or more small tubes of porcelain, about 1-J- inches
long and i inch in diameter, which are overwound with fine plati-
num wire, this in turn being held in place and protected from the
intense heat later generated by the glower by an outer coating of
porcelain paste. After the glower becomes heated, there is, of
course, no further use for the heater, and it is cut out by a small
electro-magnet cut-out, which consists of a magnetic coil connect-
ed in series with the glower, an armature, and the necessary con-
tacts in the heater circuit. Thus, when the glower has become
heated sufficiently, the current begins to pass through it, and
when this becomes sufficiently strong the armature is attracted
and the contacts are separated, thus disconnecting the heater from
the line. The surface of the glower before being used presents a

86

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[ November

smooth, white, porcelain or chalky appearance, but after having
been in use about 500 hours, it is rough or crystalline in appear-
ance.

The yttria contents used in the manufacture of the Nernst glow-
er are obtained principally from the mineral gadolinite, which has
not thus far been found in North Carolina. There are, however,
a number of minerals containing yttria, such as samarskite, eux-
enite and fergusonite, which have been found in the State.

The magnetite and ilmenite may find a use in the manufacture
of magnetite electrodes that are manufactured by the General
Electric Company.

The garnet grains are sharp and can be used for abrasive pur-
poses in the manufacture of garnet paper, which is used extensive-
ly in the boot and shoe trade.

THE OPTICAL ROTATION OF SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE*

BY CHAS. H. HERTY

Among the physical properties of spirits of turpentine, none
has proved of more interest than its optical rotation. In most
specimens this property is very marked, and as the liquid is color-
less and the determination readily made, many data are found on
this subject in chemical literature. Slight variations in the rota-
tion of different samples are to be expected, as spirits of turpen-
tine is not a chemical compound but a mixture of substances,
chiefly terpen es. From the results of numerous observations upon
commercial samples, the view commonly held previous to 1891
was that French spirits of turpentine, distilled from the oleoresin
of Pinus maritima , is levo-rotatory and that American spirits of
turpentine, distilled in years past, almost wholy from Pinus palus -
tres , is dextro-rotatory. The difference in the character of the
rotation was ascribed, therefore, to the different species from which
the spirits of turpentine was produced.

Recognizing the fact that American spirits of turpentine is dis-
tilled from more than one species of pine, J. H. Long,1 in 1891,
undertook a study of the volatile oils distilled from oleoresins of
well identified individual trees, these trees embracing the several
species of pines subjected to turpentining in our southern states.
He found that specimens from Pinus palustris (Long Leaf Pine)
gave dextro-rotatory oils, while those from Pinus heterophylla
(Cuban or Slash Pine) gave levo-rotatory oils. Since the oleore-
sins from these two species are indiscriminately mixed, at the
time of collection in the woods, the rotation of the oil distilled
from such a mixture would naturally vary. Pinus palustris is the

♦Reprinted from the Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 30,
p. 863.

!/. Anal. Appl. Chem., 6, 1.

19081

87

88

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

predominating species and Long attributed to this fact the dextro-
rotatory character of American spirits of turpentine. This view
has been generally accepted.

The fact that spirits of turpentine is frequently adulterated with
optically inactive mineral oil, led A. McGill2 to make a large num-
ber of determinations of the rotation of commercial samples of
spirits of turpentine, in the hope of utilizing this property for the
detection of adulteration. From the widely varying results
obtained he was compelled to declare the method useless.

New evidence upon this point has been obtained from investiga-
tions carried on in this laboratory in collaboration with the U. S.
Forest Service, the experimental work having been carried out by
Messrs. George A. Johnston and W. S. Dickson under the direc-
tion of the writer. In order to gain a better knowledge of the
oleoresins from the two principal species of pine utilized in the
turpentine industry at the present time, fourteen trees were
selected on a Florida turpentine farm. One-half of these were
Firms palustris , the other half Pinus heterophylla. Three trees of
each species were tapped for the first time at the beginning of the
experiments. In each case a small, young pine, a medium pine,
and a large, old pine were selected. In another set four trees
were selected, two each Pinus palustris and Pinus heterophylla.
These trees had been subjected to turpentining during the pre-
vious year; the chipping or weekly scarification, on all of them
having been unusually shallow, only about one-half as deep as is
commonly practiced. In a third set four trees were selected, two
of each of Pinus palustris and Pinus heterophylla , which had been
turpentined during the previous year, and on each of these the
depth of the chipping was the normal cut. The trees in each set
were chipped at intervals of seven days.

Special precautions were taken in the collection of the oleore-
sins. The cup and gutter system described in Bulletin No. Ifi,
U. S. Bureau of Forestry , was used. Instead of the clay cup com-
monly used, oyster pails were substituted. The entire apparatus
was covered with black oilcloth fastened securely into the bark of
the tree above the chipping surface, thereby protecting the resin

2 Bulletin No. 79, Inland Revenue Dept., Canada.

1908\

Optical Rotation of Turpentine

89

from light and avoiding the filling of the pails with rain water.
Every four weeks these pails were removed from the tree, tightly
stoppered and immediately shipped to this laboratory for exami-
nation . The specimens so obtained wTere extremely pure and free
from chips. After removal of the pails, the metal gutters were
raised to a point near the shipping surface in order to minimize
the amount of oleoresin which might stick to the exposed portion
of the trunk above the gutters.

The distillation of the oleoresins was carried out in a 500 cc.
Kjeldahl flask, surrounded by a bath of cottonseed oil. Steam
from a small boiler was first passed through a small iron pipe in
which it could be superheated, then into the distillation flask
through a glass tube having on its end a bulb containing a num-
ber of openings. By this means strong agitation of the molten
oleoresin was obtained. Thermometers were placed both inside
the flask and in the oil-bath. The mixed vapors of steam and
spirits of turpentine were passed through a Hopkins condensing
bulb to prevent the carrying over of solid particles of resin, con-
densed in an ordinary Liebig condenser and collected in a separa-
tory funnel . After drawing off the lower layer of water, the spir-
its of turpentine was transferred to a dry flask and allowed to
stand over night with calcium chloride. The determinations of
the optical rotation of the volatile oils were made with a Schmidt
and Haensch half-shadow polariscope, sodium flame, at 20°.

In the following table are given the results from the first collec-
tion of the oleoresin in early spring :

Tree

designation Species

Diameter

(inches)

Optical rotation
100 mm. tube,

Character of chipping 20 C

A1

P. heterophylla...

... 7.0

1st year, normal depth

a u

— 20°5O

A2

14.5

-f 0°I5'

A3

24.5

i i it

—15° O'

A4

P. Palmtris

. . 7.3

a a

+ 15°4CK

A5

“

15.0

a a

+ 8° 9'

A6

“

21.0

u i l

+ 18°18'

Cl

P. heterophylla..,

... 12.3

2nd year, shallow

U t(

—27° IP

C2

U

8.2

— 26°28'

C3

P. palustris

... 13.0

“ “

— 7°26'

C4

8.7

ti n

-f 7°3l/

D1

“

9.0

2nd year, normal depth

+ 10°50'

D2

“

13.5

+ l°23'

D3

jP. heterophylla...

... 13.0

Cl n

— 18°35/

D4

a

9.0

a i i

— 29°26<

90

Journal of the Mitchell Society [November

These results show a wide variation in the optical rotation of
the volatile oils from the individual trees, even among trees of the
same species. In a general way the figures give support to Long’s
view, namely that the volatile oils from Pinus palustris are
dextro-rotatory and those from Pinus heterophylla levo-rotatory.
That this is not strictly true, however, is evidenced by the dextro-
rotation of A, (P. heterophylla ) and more especially by the levo-
rotation of C3 (P. palustris).

With these variations in the first collection from the several
trees, the question naturally arose, would the variations change as
the season advanced or would the figures prove constant for the
individual trees? The rotations for the successive collections fol-
low in Table II :

Table II. — Optical Rotation in 100 mm. Tube, 20° C.

Collection A1

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

Cl

1..

— 20°5 O'

-f-0°15'

—15

O Q,

-fl5°40'

-4-8° 91

+18°18'

— 27°11/

2..

—22° 5'

— 0°30'

—14

°26'

-hl5°22'

+8°50'

-f-17°43/

— 26°48'

3..

— 21°45/

+0°15/

—15

°55/

-fl4°15/

+8°27/

+19°30/

— 26°25/

4..

—21° V

— l0^

—15

°50'

-fl4°20/

-f-8°34/

+18°46/

— 23°32/

5..

— 20°30/

U">

0

CS

1

—15

°15/

+14°21'

+8°32/

+19°24/

— 21°12/

6..

— 20°15'

— 3°3 O'

—15

°27*'

+14°35 /

+8° V

+18°1&

— 21°46'

7..

— 22°15'

— 5°45'

—17

°52^

+12°49'

+7° &

+14°47'

— 21°35'

Collection C2

C3

C4

Dl

D2

D3

D4

1..

— 26°28'

— 7°26/

+ 7

°31'

+10°50'

+1°23'

— 18°35/

— 29°26'

2..

— 25°37/

— 6°42/

+ V

320'

+U°23f

+2 °40'

—17° 0,

— 27°45'

3..

— 26°2 O'

— 4°45'

+13° 7/

-f-2°25/

— 15°2 O'

— 28°19'

4..

— 26°30/

— 4°29'

-f 12°46/

+2°25'

—15° O'

—27°38'

5..

—26° 7/

— 3°55'

+13° 0'

+i°iy

— 14°38'

— 27°4 8'

6..

—26° O'

—4° 5'

+13° 0/

+1°15'

—14° 7<

— 26°11'

7..

— 26°28'

—6° 6/

+10°48'

— 0°55/

— 14°19'

— 26°12'

Note. — The yield of oleoresin from C4 was so small, after the first and second col-
lections, that not enough volatile oil could be obtained on distillation to fill the 100 mm
tube.

From this table it is seen that the rotation in most cases is quite
constant throughout the year. The most marked exception is A,
(P. heterophylla) . It is evident that some distinct change in the
biological activity of this tree has taken place, for while the rota-
tion is reasonably constant during the first half of the year, a
steady increase in the levo-character of the oil is apparent during
the last half. In the case of C, (likewise P. heterophylla) some-

1908 ]

Optical Rotation of Turpentine

91

what the reverse has taken place. A rather marked decrease in
the levo-rotation is shown just at the middle of the year, then the
rotation remains practically constant during the last half. In the
case of C3, another type of change is represented, the levo-rotation
decreasig up to the middle of the season and again increasing
during the latter half.

With the limited facts at hand, it is impossible to interpret the
significance of these changes. That tree which shows the most
marked variation, Aa, is a healthy, vigorous tree, from which
variations would be least expected. Nor can an explanation be
offered for the wide variations in the optical rotation of oils from
the same spieces. All of the trees in Series A are located within
20 yards of each other and have, therefore, the same general con"
ditions of climate, light and soil. Fractionation of the volatile
oils from these show practically the same rise in boiling-point
for the same volume of distillate. It would seem, therefore,
that these volatile oils, consisting so largely of pinene, are mix-
tures principally of dextro- and levo-pinene, the preponderance
of the one or the other determining the optical rotation.

University of North Carolina,

Chapel Hill, N. C.

THE CHARACTER OF THE COMPOUND FORMED BY THE
ADDITION OF AMMONIA TO ETHYL-PHOS-
PHO-PL ATIN O-CHDORIDE*

BY CHAS. H. HERTY AND R. O. E. DAVIS

By heating together phosphorus pentachloride and spongy plati-
num. Baudrimont1 obtained the phospho-platino-chloride PtCl,-.
PCI,. Later Schutzenberger prepared the compound PtCl2.2PCl5
by treating Baudrimont ’s salt with phosphorus trichloride and he
studied the various derivatives of these two substances.

The apparent analogy of these compounds to those of platinous
chloride with ammonia led one of us (Herty) in 1901 to investi-
gate them further by physico-chemical methods, in order to
determine whether the analogy was real and therefore whether
they conformed to Werner’s3 extension of the valence hypothesis.
If so, various possibilities of isomerism at once suggested them-
selves.

These views, in abstract form, were presented to the commit-
tee in charge of the C. M. Warren Research Fund and a grant was
made for the purchase of platinum. Work was begun at once,
hut unfortunately a call to another field made impossible the com-
pletion of the investigation. The platinum was recovered, sold,
and the grant returned.

1 Ann. chim. phys. [4], 2, 47.

2 Bull. sor. chim. [2], 17, 482; 18, 101, 148.

3 Z. nnorg. C him., 3, 267.

I Ibid., 37, 394 ; 43, 34.

^Reprinted from the Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 30.
p. 1084. 1908.

92

[November

ipo#] Ammonia-Ethyl-Phospho-Platino-Cheokide

Later, Rosenheim4 published the results of an investigation
covering practically the same ground. He found that the anal-
ogy was real and succeeded in obtaining numerous isomers. With
the stable ethoxy derivatives, molecular weight determinations,
both ebullioscopic and cryoscopic, showed that while the formula
of the 1 : 2 compound is normal, that of the 1 : 1 compound must
be doubled, thus

These facts show both compounds in strict accord with Werner’s
coordination ideas, namely, that the coordination number of plat-
inum in platinous compounds is four. Accordingly, their formu-
las would be

The addition of one molecule of aniline to the former, results in
one chlorine atom becoming ionizable, but from the latter, Rosen -

again conforming to Werner’s views.

However, when gaseous ammonia was used instead of aniline an
unexpected result was obtained. Two molecules of the base were
added for each atom of platinum present, the empirical formula
being PtCl2.P(OC2H5)3.2NH3. According to Werner’s views, such
a compound should be diionic, as represented by the formula

PtCl, . 2P ( 0C2H. ) 3 and (PtCl2.P(0C2H;)J)

heim succeeded in obtaining two isomeric substances, a white and
yellow modification, each having the formula

94

JOUKNAE OF THE MlTCHELE SOCIETY

[ November

Pt(NH3)3 VCI.

P(OC2Hs)3 )

But Rosenheim found that silver nitrate precipitated at once both
chlorine atoms, even at o°, and that the molecular conductivity
at 25° was

V 32 64 128 256 512

At 155.9 160.8 160.4 160 162.3

From these facts and from the composition of the double salt with
chlorplatinic acid, he concluded that the formula may be

1Pt f

( P(0C2Hs)3 )

a,

but since such a formula is not in accord with the coordination
number of platinous platinum, and since the compound is derived
from the double molecule

Cl2

Pt

P(OC9H5)

Rosenheim assigned to it the formula

J

1

(NH,),

Pt

P(OC9H5)3

Such a formula appeared to us to be a strained interpretation
of Werner’s views. Furthermore, the molecular conductivity, as
given by Rosenheim, is abnormal in every way. It seemed desir-
able, therefore, to repeat the preparation of the substance and to
study its properties further. Experience gained in the study of
the molecular conductivity of complex ammonia compounds at oQl

l Werner and Herty, Z. phys. Chem. vol. 38, p.331.

1908\ Ammonia-Ethyl-Phospho-Peatino-Cheoride

95

justified the hope that such a study of this compound might throw
more light upon its constitution. Following the directions of Schut-
enzberger and of Rosenheim, pure spongy platinum was heated with
phosphorus pentachloride, the latter freed from trichloride and oxy-
chloride by heating in a current of dry air at 110°. The fused mass
on treatment with hot benzene, free from thiophene and purified
by freezing, yielded on cooling an abundant crop of well crystallized

Cl,

Pt

PC13

Freed from benzene, at the same time carefully protected from the
action of moisture, the compound wos immediately treated with
absolute alcohol in order to convert it into the ethoxy derivative

The alcoholic solution was then placed in a desiccator over two ves-
sels, one containing concentrated sulphuric acid, the other pow-
dered lime, and left to evaporate to crystallization. Removal to a
new building necessitated cessation of the work for several months.
On resuming, it was found that the solution in the desiccator had
evaporated to dryness, no distinct crystallization being noticeable.
This mass was dissolved in pure benzene and into the solution dry
ammonia gas was conducted. The absorption of ammonia was
accompanied by a marked elevation of temperature, the original
yellowish tint of the solution gradually faded and then, rather
suddenly, a mass of white crystals separated, the mass becoming
almost solid. The completion of the reaction was indicated by the
return to normal temperature. The crystal broth was set aside
and owing to the exigiencies of other work, two weeks elapsed
before the crystals were separated from their mother liquor. The
substance, freed from benzene, was recrystallized from alcohol and
obtained in a very pure form.

96

Journal of the Mitchell Society [November

A portion of the substance dissolved in water showed no acid
reaction, although Rosenheim found an immediate acid reaction
and explained the peculiar results he obtained from a study of its
molecular conductivity by assuming a rapid hydrolysis of the
compound . Analysis showed :

i

Cl (Ionizable) 8.02

Pt ^42.30

NJI3 7.04

Cl (Ionizable)

Pt

NHs

Found by Rosenheim

n l ii

7.90 15.08 14.42

41.40 41.68

7.18 7.19

Theoretical for

r (nh8)2 i

i r 01 i

I pt

Cl4|Pt(NH3)2 \

L p<0C2H5)sJ

1 2 L P(OC2H5)aJ

15.23

7.62

41.82

41.82

7.30

7.30

Ionizable chlorine was determined at room temperature by precip-
itation of the water solution of the substance with excess of silver
nitrate. The filtrates remained clear even after standing several
weeks. Platinum was determined by Rosenheim ’s method1, ammo-
nia by the Kjeldahl method.

Effort was then made to determine the total chlorine by Rosen-
heim's method1 but concordant results could not be obtained.
Determinatians of the total chlorine by Stepan ow’s2 method gave:

Total Chlorine

i. n. Theoretical

15.19 15.00 15.23

Determination of the molecular conductivity at 25° showed

v 32 64 128 256 512 1024 2048

p. 95.79 100.13 106.09 113.49 119.70 127.97 138.98

Found by Rosenheim 155.9 160.8 160.4 160.0 162.3

1 Z. anory. C 'hem., Vol. 37, p. 395.

2 Ber., Vol. 39, p. 4056.

1908] Ammonia-Ethyl-Phospho-Peatino-Cheoride

97

The values for y- found by us agree closely with the figures
obtained by Werner and Miolati3 and by Werner and Herty4 for
all diionic complex ammonia compounds. No evidence of hydrol-
ysis could be detected in the solution which had been used for
the determination of the molecular conductivity, the reaction was
perfectly neutral .

From all the above facts, it is evident that the formula of our
compound is

a formula strictly in accord with Werner’s coordination law. It
would seem further that we have here another case of isomerism
of inorganic compounds.

In order to gain further knhwledge of the conditions which
determine the formation of the one or the other of these sub-
stances, new experiments were begun. A fresh portion of the
compound

was prepared. Twenty-one grams of the substance were dissolved
in seventy-five cc. of benzene and the solution was divided iuto
three equal portions. In one, designated A, the substance was pre-
pared under the conditions above described. In another, desig-
nated B, the crystals were promptly separated from the benzene
liquor. In the third portion, designated C, the temperature was
maintained at 6° throughout the experiment .

In order to insure as far as practicable a uniform addition of
ammonia in the several experiments, thirty -five grams each of
finely pulverized lime and ammonium chloride were thoroughly
mixed and placed in a 500 cc. round bottom flask and heated in a

3 Z. phys. Chem., Vol. 12, p. 35; Yol. 14, p. 506; Vol. 21, p. 225,

4 Ibid., Vol. 38, p. 331.

98

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[November

bath of cottonseed oil . At 220° copious evolution of ammonia be-
gan . The gas, dried over quicklime, was passed through the benzene
solution of the ethoxy compound for forty-five minutes, during
which time the temperature of the oil bath was gradually raised to
245°.

The benzene solution was placed in a 50 cc. round bottom flask
provided with a three-hole rubber stopper through which passed
a thermometer dipping into the solution and the inlet and outlet
tubes for the ammonia.

Experiment A: The initial temperature of the benzene solution

was 22°. When the temperature of the oil bath surrounding the
generator reached 220° the temperature in the absorption flask
began to rise. After five minutes it was 25°, after ten minutes
33°, after fifteen minutes, 38°. Meanwhile the yellow color of the
original solution gradually faded. After twenty minutes the tem-
petature was 40°, then suddenly the separation of the white sub-
stance took place to such an extent that the mass became almost
solid . A portion of the substance was at once removed from the
absorption flask, pressed between folds of drying paper and dis-
solved in water. No evidence of hydrolysis could be detected, the
solution being perfectly neutral to indicators, As Rosenheim
found that his salt was strongly hydrolyzed, it was decided to con-
tinue the passage of the ammonia gas into the crystal broth longer.
Accordingly, this was continued for twenty-five minutes more, the
temperature of the solution falling gradually. The vessel tightly
corked was allowed to stand two weeks. At the end of this time
the crystals were filtered from the benzene and pressed between
folds of drying paper, then recrystallized from absolute alcohol
and labeled “A”.

Experiment B : This was a repetition of Experiment A except

that the crystals were removed from the benzene immediately after
the conclusion of the experiment. The maximum temperature
observed in the absorption flask was 44° . The separation of the
crystals took place twenty-two minutes after the temperature of
the oil bath surrounding the ammonia generator had reached 220°.
The substance recrystallized from alcohol was labeled “B”.

1908] Ammonia-Ethyl-Phospho-Platino-Chloride

99

Experiment C : This was a repetition of Experiment B except

that the temperature of the benzene solution was kept constantly
at 6°. The crystal separation took place twenty-four minutes
from the time the oil bath reached 220° . Recrystallized from alco-
hol the substance was labeled *'C”.

The results of the analyses of the three preparations follow :

Theoretical chlorine for

lonizable chlorine

Total

i n Chlorine

A 7.66 7.64 15.16

B 7.74 7.66 15.17

C 7.47 7.49 15.01

PtC(NH8)2 1 Cl.
. P(OC2H5)bJ

lonizable Total

7.62 15.23

From these results it is evident that we have succeeded in pre-
paring only the normal salt

01

\ Pt (NH,).

( P(OC,Hs)3

1

Cl.

And yet Rosenheim’s directions have been faithfully followed and
his description of the absorption experiment coincides with our
observations. It is therefore not considered profitable to further
undertake the preparation of Rosenheim’s compound until more
specific directions are given. Meanwhile, it is our intention to try
to prepare the compound

( Cl,

< Pt nh3

( P(OC„Hs)

}

analogous to the aniline compound prepared by Rosenheim, and
to gain further light upon the character of the reaction by which
the addition of ammonia changes the non-ionizable compound

K i

( PCOC.H.),)1

100

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[November

into the ionizable compound

Pt (NH3)2 >C1.

P(0C,H5), )

University of North Carolina
Chapel Hill, N. C.
March 11, 1908

THE VOLATILE OIL OF PINUS SEROTINA*

BY CHAS. H. HERTY AND W. S. DICKSON

Scattered among the forests of Long Leaf pine along the Atlantic
seaboard, there are found, usually in mixed stands, patches of
Pond pine {Pinvs serotina) and Loblolly pine ( Finns taeda) .
These pines are seldom subjected to turpentining, as the yield of
oleoresin is not so plentiful as from the predominating types Pinus
palustris and Pinus heterophylla . Nor are the two species usually
distinguished locally, the name “black pine” being applied to
each. The striking odor of the wood of Pinus serotina when
freshly cut made desirable an investigation of its volatile oil, and
in collaboration with the U. S. Forest Service, the oil has been
studied in this laboratory during the past year. Well identified
trees were selected in Florida. The trees were regularly chipped
throughout one season of eight months. The product from each
tree was collected every eight weeks. The oleoresin closely resent"
bles that from Cuban pine (P. heterophylla) being quite liquid and
containing relatively about the same proportion of crystalline
acids. To this low percentage of crystalline matter is to be as-
signed doubtless, as in the case of P. heterophylla, the absence of
“scrape” formation on the scarified surface of the tree, a forma-
tion so typical of P. jmlustris ) .

The volatile oil was distilled from the oleoresin by steam in the
apparatus described on page 865 above. The oleoresin evidently
contains a greater portion of mucilaginous substances than that
from the more common pines, for it was much more difficult to
distil. On heating to 140°, the usual temperature of distillation,
and introducing steam, the easily molten mass froths badly.
This could be avoided only by raising the temperature at the out-

* Reprinted from the Journal of the American Chemical Society. Vol. 30,
p. 872. May, 1908.

1908]

101

102

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[November

set to 160°. At this temperature, the viscosity is diminished suf-
ficiently to enable a complete distillation to be carried out without
frothing. During the latter part of the summer, however, and
during the autumn, the amount of this mucilaginous substance
evidently increased, and to such an extent that it became practic-
ally impossible to distil off the volatile oil. Partial success was
secured by he addition of concentrated sodium hydroxide solution
to the distilling flask.

The resin left after distillation is pale yellow, similar to the best
grades of commercial resin. Acid number 167.

The volatile oil, freed from water by standing in contact with
calcium chloride, was a limpid liquid with a fragrant odor sug-
gesting at once the presence of limonene. The physical constants
of the oil follow :

Sp. gr.: 20°, 0.8478.

Sp. rotation: 20°, — 105° 36.

Index of refraction: 20°, 1.4734.

Acid number: 0.

Saponification number: 1.54.

Iodine number: 378.

Solubility in ethyl alcohol at 22.5° :

95 per cent, alcohol 1.35 parts required to dissolve 1 part of volatile oil.

90 per cent, alcohol 4.80 parts required to dissolve 1 part of volatile oil.

85 per cent, alcohol 8. 10 parts required to dissolve 1 part of volatile oil.

80 per cent, alcohol 16.20 parts required to dissolve 1 part of volatile oil.

70 per cent, alcohol 56.00 parts required to dissolve 1 part of volatile oil.

Comparative evaporation with the volatile oil of P. palustris, at
room temperature, in shallow watch glasses, 0.2 gram of each
used.

P. palustris P. serotina
Time Per cent. Per cent.

Loss after % hour 35.7

Loss after 1 hour 62.5

Loss after 1)4 hours \ 91.7

Loss after 2 hours 96.0

Loss after 5 hours 97.8

20.30

37.30
53.40
68.47
98.80

On fractionation the following results were obtained:

1908 ]

Volatile Oil of Pinus Skrotina

103

Temperature

Per cent,
distillate

Index of refrac-
tion, 20°

Rotation in 100
mm. tube 20°

172-175°

27.4

1.4716

— 87°53’

175-180°

57.0

1.4724

— 92°21’

180-185°

8.4

1.4744

— 92°14’

185— f-

7.2

1.5045

Repeated fractionation at atmospheric pressure showed some
polymerization. From a fraction, 175-176°, a large yield of lim-
onene tetrabromide was obtained. Melting point 103°-103°.
The solution of the tetrabromide in chloroform was levo-rotatory,
— 70-0°.

A study of the oxygen absorbing power of this volatile oil in
comparison with that of the ordinary spirits of turpentine
obtained from P. palustvis showed a much larger absorption by
the oil of P. serotina during the early days of the experiment, but
the total absorption after three months’ exposure to northern
light was practically the same in each.

These results show a wide variation in the optical rotation of
the volatile oils from the individual trees, even among trees of the
same species. In a general way the figures give support to Long’s
view, namely that the volatile oils from the Pinvs palustris are
dextro-rotatory and those from Pinvs heterophylla levo-rotatory.
That this is not strictly true, however, is evidenced by the dextro-
rotation of Aa (P. heterphylla ) and more especially by the levo-
rotation of C3 (P. palustris).

University of North Carolina
Chapel Hill, N. C.

MICROPEGMATITE AT CHAPEL HILL.

BY H. N. EATON.

During the course of an investigation of the Chapel Hill granites
now in progress an occurrence of micropegmatite was discovered
which seems worthy of special mention. The binary granites
were found to contain micrographic intergrowths of quartz and
feldspar. The one showing the best development of this pheno-
menon is described below .

This rock occurs in a slightly weathered condition just beyond
the village limits on the slope of the hill along the Hillsboro road
and south of Bolin’s Creek. Its extent and relation to the other
rocks of the igneous complex of the region are unknown .

In handspecimen, the rock is grayish pink in color, and fine
grained. No hint of the arrangement of the minerals is given
from a freshly broken surface owing the uniform fineness of grain.

In thin section, the mineral content is seen to comprise plagio-
clase, orthoclase, microcline, and some accessory magnetite. The
striking feature of the slide is the arrangement of the quartz and
alkali feldspar in the micropegmatitie relation.

With the exception of the magnetite, plagioclase was the first
mineral to crystallize. It occurs sparingly in short, stout prisms,
for the most part idiomorphic, but in places showing absorption by
the later formed minerals. Twinning occurs after both the carls-
bad and aibite laws. Owing to strong kaolinization the albite
striations are frequently difficult to recognize. The maximum
extinction angle noted was 13 degrees, thus placing the species
between oligoclase and andesine, and nearer the latter of the two.

Quartz and alkali feldspar occur mutually inclosing and inter-
penetrating each other in micrographic intergrowths. The

104

[NoremAer

1908 ]

Micropegmatite at Chapel Hill

105

quartz is best seen in this relation in long, spindle-shaped forms
with parallel orientiation over a considerable portion of the field.
These are wholly inclosed in orthoclase or microcline and extin-
guish simultaneously over wide areas. Measurements with a mi-
crometer eye-piece gave lengths of .58 m.m., .62 m.m., and .69
m.m. for the longer quartz spindles. In places the large spindles
radiate from centers in which (dusters of smaller quartz crystals
are imbedded in orthoclase and microcline. There are a few
places where quartz occurs in the triangular and knee-shaped form
characteristic of graphic granite as originally described.

The orthoclase is very abundant and forms a large percentage of
the rock. Crystal boundaiies are very indistinct. Large areas
inclosing the quartz spindles extinguish as single crystals sepa-
rately from the quartz.

Microcline is less abundant than orthoclase, and the areas
occupied are smaller. Crystal boundaries are indistinct.

The impression first given by the slide is that the orthoclase and
microcline were the last to crystallize, and constitute a groundmass
in which the quartz is set, but a careful examination reveals many
quartz-feldspar boundaries in which the two minerals are mutu-
ally interpenetrating. Many quartzes also contain small poikilitic
inclusions of orthoclase. It is therefore probable that the
quartz and the alkali feldspars crystallized contemporaneously.

University of North Carolina
Chapel Hill, N. C.

March 11, 1908

ABSTRACTS

On the Effect of Complete Anemia of the Central Nervous
System in Dogs Resuscitated after Relative Death. D. H.
Dolley and George Crile, M. D.* Jour, of Expe. Med., vol. 10,
Nov. 1908.

This study of brain anemia is the sequence of provious work on
the resuscitation of animals killed by anaesthetics and asphyxia,*
which may be briefly summarized as follows : By measn of a cen-
tripetal arterial infusion of salt solution under sufficient pressure,
together with the injection of one to two cubic centimeters of
1-1,000 adrenalin chloride in mass dose early and along with the
infusion, and the simultaneous employment of vigorous artificial
respiration and gentle but firm cardiac massage through the
unopened thorax, a heart which has ceased to beat maybe excited
to resume beating within certain limits. Up to five minutes of
total cessation of function, these efforts are uniformly and readily
successful, provided that the full technique has been used: up to
ten minutes, there is an occasional failure, but after that the
chances of success become progressively less. Our limit was
five minutes in puppies (three cases).

To determine the limits of recovery after the total anemia of
the central nervous system incident to a state of relative death, a
series of thirty dogs was killed by chloroform and resuscitated
after varying times from three to fourteen minutes. Under five
minutes the recovery of function was rapid and strikingly free
from the after effects which characterized longer periods. Of seven
animals between the periods of five minutes and six and one half

tFrom the Laboratory of Surgical Physiology, Western Reserve Univers-
ity, and the Pathological Laboratory, University of North Carolina.

2 Jour, of Exper. Med., vol. 18, p. 718, 1906.

106

[November

ABvSTRACTS

107

1908]

minutes, only one died apparently as a direct result of the ane-
mia, but of twelve between the periods of seven minutes and eight
and one half minutes, only one, after seven and one half minutes,
recovered. The remaining dogs all died.

After a resuscitation, the course of events in the animals which
succumbed, while limited according to the extent of the reanima-
tion, was similar to that in the dogs which did eventually recover.
Many of the dogs showed more than a mere reflex revival there
being some temporary manifestation of special senses and higher
faculties in addition. In general, three stages were to be observed.
A state of hyperexcitability followed reanimation, reaching its
maximum in one to three hours, when retrogression began. This
second stage was characterized by the onset of uncontrolled mus-
cular movements, either coordinate or convulsive, lasted a longer
time, and gradually passed into the third stage of depression and
paralysis. The crisis in practically all the experiments was
reached in from twelve to twenty-four hours. Then death quickly
ensued or distinct improvement of nervous functions shortly
began, continuing more or less rapidly till complete restoration,
though the convalescent period lasted in two dogs four and six
weeks respectively. There was no intermediate condition of fatal
outcome delayed for several days except in several cases in which
death was due to accidental organic lesion. Up to a certain point,
not to be exactly limited, but roughly six minutes, the after
effects were not marked, and the second, third, or fourth day
brought complete recovery. Beyond the six minute limit, how-
ever, there was a great deal of after effect, increasing out of all
proportion to the increase in the duration of the period of anemia,
reaching as well in the dogs which finally recovered a temporary
state in which the animal was little more than a cardio-respira-
tory mechanism.

(The sequence of return of the various functions and reflexes
and the special phenomena following a resuscitation are dis-
cussed in detail . )

Histological examination both of presumptive recoveries and
fatal cases was made by ordinary methods and those of Nissl and
Marchi. The neurocytes of the fatal cases uniformly presented
the greatest change, not merely chromolytie but here and there

108

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[November

indicative of cell death. Mavchi’s method further supported these
findings by proving the existence of fibre degeneration. Finally,
showing the narrowness of the escape, the best result in recovery,
seven and one half minutes in time, which at the end of four
iveeks had apparently entirely returned to a normal state, by the
Marchi method had a degeneration of a number of fibres localized
in the pyramidal fasciculi, which were traced from the cord to
the cortex, and in Flechsig’s fasciculus, as well as a more sparsely
scattered degeneration of both ascending and descending fibres
elsewhere. The results of the histological examination place the
limits of experimental resuscitation upon an anatomical basis.

conclusions

1. In dogs anesthetized by ether for preparation and killed
quickly by chloroform, the average limit of total cerebral anemia,
estimated from the cessation of the heart sounds to the return of
circulation, which admits of recovery, is between six and seven
minutes. Any recovery beyond seven and half minutes would be
exceptional, and the ulterior limit appears to be under ten min-
utes, hitherto stated as the most conservative figure after other
modes of investigation.

2. Further, experience with resuscitation of animals killed by
anesthetics and asphyxia, embracing numerous unrecorded exper-
iments as well as those forming the basis of the present article,
establishes our former conclusion, that the procedures detailed
afford a reliable method within its limitations, and certainly uni-
formly successful within the limits compatible with the recovery
of the central nervous system.

Binders for Coal Briquets, % J. E. Mills. Bulletin 348
of the United States Geological Survey.

The bulletin contains a report of investigations made at the
Fuel-Testing Plant, St. Louis, Mo., by the author. The charac-
teristics of good briquets are discussed and the general conditions
governing the use of binders. A very large number of different
binders were investigated in the laboratoiy, the effort having been
made to include in the list all binders which it was thought

1908]

Abstracts

109

might be used commercially in the United States, as well as cer-
tain other substances which seemed fitted to throw light on the
laws governing the action of the binder. Attempt was also made
to study such modifications and combinations of the different
binders as it seemed might produce more efficient commercial
results. The author gives the following summary of the investi-
gations :

“Definite answer to the question ‘What is the best binder to
use in making briquets?’ depends, as repeatedly emphasized in
this paper on the locality, on the character of the coal, and on
the purpose for which the briquets are intended. For purposes
of a brief comparison consideration is given to the binders avail-
able for a coal which is fairly easy to briquet and which cakes
rather readily. A few coals will briquet with somewhat less and
others require greater percentages of binder, but an endeavor has
been made in the following summary to strike a reasonable
average.

“The experiments herein reported show that, in general, for
plants situated where it can be obtained, the cheapest binder will
prove to be the heavy residuum from petroleum, often known to
the trade as asphalt. Four per cent of this binder being suffi-
cient, its cost ranges from 45 to 60 cents per ton of briquets pro-
duced. This binder is particularly available in California, Texas,
and adjacent territory.

“Second in order of importance comes water-gas tar pitch.
Five to six per cent usually proving sufficient, the cost of this
binder ranges from 50 to 60 cents per ton of briquets produced.
As water-gas pitch is also derived from petroleum, it will be avail-
able more particularly in oil-producing regions.

“Third in order of importance is coal-tar pitch. Being derived
from coal, this binder is very widely available. From 6.5 to 8
per cent will usually be required, and the cost ranges from 65 to
90 cents per ton of briquets produced.

“Of local importance, where the price permits, are natural
asphalts and tars derived from wood distillation. The price of
each of these binders varies greatly with the locality, but there
are doubtless places where they could compete with the binders

110

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ Navember

above mentioned. Wax tailings could be used with an easily cak-
ing coal.

“Pitch made from producer-gas tar is not yet on the market,
but it will produce excellent briquets with a lower percentage of
binder than other coal-tar pitches. It will doubtless be available
in the future.

“Briquets excellent in all respects except that they are not
waterproof can be made by using 1 per cent of starch as a binder,
the cost 'of which is 20 cents per ton of briquets produced. Extra
care is necessary in drying and handling these briquets, and this
adds to their cost.

‘ ‘The waste sulphite liquor from paper mills also producees
excellent briquets except that they are not waterproof . At present it
is a troublesome waste product dissolved in much water. Its utili-
zation for this purpose will bear further investigation.

“Of inorganic binders, magnesia might be utilized, as its prob-
able cost would not exceed 22 to 30 cents per ton of briquets pro-
duced. Other inorganic binders, while available as regards price,
would not make first-class briquets.

“The briquetting of lignite coal offers a peculiarly difficult
problem. If the lignite cakes in the fire, asphaltic residues from
petroleum or water-gas tar pitch may be used as binder, larger
percentages being required than for ordinary coals. The most
promising binders for lignites that do not cake are starch, sul-
phite liquor, and magnesia. Lignites may be briquetted without
binder if they are to be burned on grates specially constructed to
overcome the tendency to fall to pieces in the fire.

“Attention is called to the suggested method of deciding as to
the value of coal-tar pitch for briquetting purposes. The method
is likewise applicable to asphalts and petroleum residues gener-
ally; (1) The pitch or tar is distilled and all oils coming off
below 270° C. are rejected as being of no value; (2) the flowing
point of the portion to be used in briquetting is determined (this
should generally not be less than 70° C.) (3) the pitch is
extracted with carbon disulphide. The smaller the amount of
residual carbon the more satisfactory is the pitch. The less read-
ily the coal cakes the higher must be the flowing point of the
pitch. If a pitch cracker is used, the pitch to work successfully

Abstracts

7908]

111

on a hot summer’s day must have a flowing point above 120° C.
In the winter pitch with a flowing point of 100° C. may be used.
All softer pitches and asphalts have to be melted and mixed in
liquid form with the coal.

A pitch with a very high softening point, above 150° C., should
be either thinned or superheated in the mixer. The efficient use
of a binder depends very largely on the proper regulation of the
conditions in the mixer. The presence of low-volatile compounds
in the pitch to be used as a binder increases the smoke in burn-
ing; and also increases the tendency of the briquet to soften and
crack open in advance of combustion, owing to the volatilization
and escape of these compounds.

“The main problem in briquetting is to find a suitable binding
material at sufficiently low cost. When the difference in price
between the slack coal and the first-class lump coal is $1, the cost
of briquetting should not exceed this amount. Of this the binder
must cost less than 60 cents per ton, as the cost of manufacture
averages about 40 cents. To leave out of consideration the pos-
sible advantages in the use of briquetted coal over run-of-mine
coal, due to the greater efficiency and smokelessness of briquets,
it will probably not be necessary to pay any attention to binding
materials costing $1.25 or more per ton of briquets produced.”

The Volatile Oil of Pinus Serotina, by Chas. H. Herty
and W. S. Dickson. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. 30, p. 872.
May 1908.

A study of the volatile oil obtained by distillation with steam
from the oleo-resin of Pinus Serotina (Pond Pine) showed that it
contained large quantities of limonene instead of the more com-
mon pinene present in ordinary spirits of turpentine. The oil
showed the following physical contents :

Specific Gravity : 20° 0.8478

Specific Rotation: 20° *— 105° 36*

Index of Refraction : 20° 1.4734

Acid Number: 0
Saponification Number: 1.54
Iodine Number: 378
On Fractionation the oil showed:

112

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

Temperatures

172-175

175-180

180-185

185-+

Per Cent of Distillate

27.4

57.0

8.4

7.2

The limoene was identified byconversion into the tetrabromide.

The Character of the Compound Formed by the Addition
of Ammonia to Ethyl-phospho-platino Chloride, by Chas. H.
Hertv and R. 0. E. Davis. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. 30, p.
1084. July 1908.

failed. On each attempt, following closely Rosenheim’s directions,

rine in this compound can be precipitated by silver nitrate.
Determinations of its molecular conductivity show close agreement
with analagous di-ionic, complex ammonia compounds studied by
Werner, Miolati and Herty. The character of the compound
agrees fully with the co-ordination hypothesis of Werner.

Corrosion of Iron, by R. O. E. Davis. Ch. Eng., vol. 5, p.
174. 1908.

The corrosion of iron in explained by different workers in sev-
eral different ways, but the main discussion is whether it is oxygen
or carbon dioxide that is essential to rusting. Experiments were
devised to determine this point, from which the conclusion is
drawn that corrosion of iron takes place with water and oxygen
but not with water and carbon dioxide. The presence of carbon
dioxide may accelerate the reaction but is not essential to it.

The Optical Rotation of Spirits of Turpentine, by Chas.
H. Hertv. Jour. Am Chem. Soc., vol. 30, p. 863. May 1908.

The results of this investigation were obtained from oleo -resins
from individual trees in Florida of Pinus Palustris and Pinus Heter-

Efforts to prepare Rosenheim’s Salt

i Cl I

the salt -\ Pt (NH3\ r Cl was obtained. Only half of the chlo-

( P(OC.Hs), )

[1908

Abstracts

113

rophylla. The collections of the oleo-resins from which the vol-
atile oils were distilled were made at regular intervals throughout
a complete season, March to November. A number of trees of
eacb species were used.

The optical rotation of the severel volatile oils obtained on
distillation showed a marked variation. Those from Pinus Palus-
tris were generally dextrorotatory, varying however from -f l°
23' to +18° 18' (100mm. tube). One specimen showed a levo-
rotation of — 7° 26'. The oils from Pinus Heterophylla were levo-
rotatory, with one exception -f 0° 15', varying from — 7° 31* to
-29° 26'.

While these wide variations were noticed in the specimens from
the individual trees, there was but slight variation in the speci-
mens from the same tree throughout the season.

VOL. XXIV

DECEMBER. 1908

NO. 4

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

*

ISSUED QUARTERLY

CHAPEL HILL, N. C., U. S. A.

TO 86 ENTERED 4TTHC POSTOEFICE AS SECOND CLASS MATTER

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

ARCHIBALD HENDERSON, President
A. H. PATTERSON, Vice-President

A. S; WHEELER, Rec. Sec. F. P. VENABLE, Penn. Se«

Editors ok the Journal:

W. C. COKER

. E. V. HOWELL, J. E. MILLS

CONTENTS

The Amanitas of North Carolina. — H. C. Beardslee 115

I n vestigations of the N. C. Geological and Economic Sur-
vey Relating to Forestry Problems Along the North

Carolina Banks. — Joseph Hyde Pratt 125

Streptococcus Infections of the Tonsils, their Diagnosis
and Relationship to Acute Articular Rheumatism. —

Wm. DeB. Macnider 139

The “Pinch-Effect in Unidirectional Electric Sparks. —

Andrew H. Patterson 145

The Recent Baltimore Meetings of Scientific Societies 143

Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society — Quarterly. Price
$2.00 per year; single numbers 50 cents. Most numbers of former vol-
umes can be supplied. Direct all correspondence to the Editors, at
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

AR 10 1909

JOURNAL

OF THE

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL
Q ARDEN c

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

DECEMBER, 1908

VOL. XXIV NO. 4

THE AMANITAS OF NORTH CAROLINA

BY H. C. BEABDSLEE

The Amanitas are among the most conspicuous and interesting
of our fleshy fungi and for that reason most frequently serve as the
starting point for the beginner. In the following paper the
attempt has been made to furnish a key and synopsis of the genus
which will be serviceable to students of this state. All the species
which are listed, with two exceptions have been found near Ashe-
ville and will be found generally distributed through this and the
surrounding states.

The names used are in the main those in common use. The
few changes which have been made, have been determined upon
only after carefully comparing our plants with European speci-
mens and after submitting good specimens and life sized photo-
graphs to European authorities. Bresadola, Boudier, and Carle-
ton Rea have given much assistance in this work and have placed
the author under great obligations.

The genus Amanita may be distinguished among the white
spored species by the volva which surrounds the entire plant in its
younger state. In the mature plant this is often largely obliter-

1908] 115 Printed January 30, 1909

116

Journal of the Mitcheee Society

[ December

ated, but its remains will usually be seen on the pileus or at the
base of the stipe, according to the nature of its development. In
some cases the valva is a loose membranous sack, which splits as
the pileus develops, and is left as a loose cup at the base of the
stipe. In other cases the volva breaks at the margin of the pileus
leaving a part adherent to the pileus in the form of irregularwarts,
while the basal portion remains adherent to the base of the stipe,
either in the form of a sheath with an even margin where it has
been ruptured, or in the form of scales.

Species, then, with white spores, a distinct cup at the base of
the stipe, or the pileus adorned with superficial warts may be
looked for in this genus. The Volvarias wich are rather rare have
the same loose cup at the base of the stipe, but will be at once
distinguished by the red spore print which will be obtained by
placing a cap on white paper,

KEY TO THE GENERA AND SPECIES

Stipe furnished with an annulus.

Stipe without an annulus.

Amanita.

Volva forming a loose membranous cup at the base of the stipe
Volva forming a distinct marginate sheath adnate to the stipe
Volva not as above.

Amanita.

Amanitopsis.

1. Gills yellow. A. caesarea.

1. Gills white, margin of pileus striate. A. spreta.

1. Gills white, margin ef pileus even. 2.

2. Annulus remaining white. A. phalloides.

2. Annulus becoming sooty black. A. porphyria.

3. Pileus yellow. A. mappa.

3. Pileus white. A. cothumata.

3. Pileus gray or brownish gray. A. pantherina.

4 . Pileus striate on the margin , spores elliptical . A . muscaria and

A. russuloides.

4. Pileus striate on the margin, spores subglobose. A. frostiana.

5. Flesh with red stains when wounded. A. rubescens.

5. Not as above. 6.

6. Pileus adorned with erect pointed warts. A. echinocephala.

The Amanitas of North Carolina

117

ipoS]

6. Pileus adorned with thin, adnate, polygonal warts.

A. solitaria.

6 . Pileus adorned with thick , large polygonal warts .

Amanitopsis.

A.

strobiliformis.

Volva persisting as a membranous cup.

1.

Volva separating into warty scales on the pileus.

2.

Volva pulverent.

A.

farinosa.

1. Pileus sulcate striate on the margin.

A.

vaginata.

1 . Pileus even on the margin .

A.

agglutinata.

2 . Pileus red .

A. muscaria coccinea.

2. Stipe distinctly bulbous.

A.

russuloides.

2. Not as above.

A.

strangulata.

Amanita caesarea Scop.

Pileus 4 to 10 inches broad, smooth, varying from bright scarlet
to orange or dingy yellow, distinctly striate on the margin; gills
yellow, free; stipe firm, stuffed, usually yellow and flocculose,
with a large, persistent annulus. Volva large thick loose, persis-
tent, white. Spores elliptical, 10 to 12 by 5 to 6 me.

This is easily the finest and most striking of the Amanitas. It
is very abundant in Western North Carolina, but is rare farther to
the north. It is highly esteemed in Europe as an edible species,
but like all the Amanitas should only be used for food when it has
been identified beyond all possibility of mistake. It should be
remembered that several species of Amanita are highly dangerous.

Amanita spreta Peck.

Pileus 2-6 inches broad, usually gray, or brownish gray, but
varying to white. Smooth or nearly so, striate on the margin;
gills white, free; stipe cylindrical, not bulbous, stuffed or hollow.
Volva loose, free, persistent. Spores 10-12 by 7-8 me, elliptical.

This is very abundant and also very variable. The common
form at Asheville is large and robust, with the margin nearly even,
and the pileus brown or dark gray. Other forms are found which
are slender and occasionally almost pure white. The more slen-
der forms are much like A. cinerea Pres, which is the European
form of this species. One interesting form occurs on our dry hilh

118

Journal of the Mitchell Society [. December

sides which is so distinct that both Peck and Bresadola declare it
a distinct species, Careful observations have lead to the conclu-
sion that it is however merely a very distinct variety. I have fig-
ured it as A. spreta parva n. var. It may be readily known by
its small size. Pileus .5 to 1 inch broad, thin and membranous,
soon plane or depressed, deeply sulcate striate on the margin.
Stipe slender white with a distant, almost median annulus.
Spores as in the type.

Amanita phalloides Fr.

Pileus 2-5 inches broad, omooth or with a few fragments of the
volva, white, yellow, or oliveaceous, often darker on the disk,
margin even; gills white, free; stipe white, smooth, bulbous at
the base, which is surrounded by the globose, free, membranous
volva. Spores globose 9-10 me.

Common and variable in color. The most common form is
pure white and so distinct that it has been separated under the
name A. verna. This may be found in our woods in profusion.
It may at once be recognized by its pure white pileus, and the glo-
bose base of the stipe surrounded by the loose volva. This is the
deadly Amanita. It should be remembered that in spite of its
attractive appearance it is the most dangerous of our Agarics.

Amanita porphyria A. and S.

Pileus 2-4 inches broad, brownish gray often with a tint of pur-
ple, even or slightly striate on the margin, smooth; gills white,
slightly adnexed. Stipe stuffed, then hollow, bulbous at the base;
volva free; annulus persistent, becoming sooty black. Spores glo-
bose, 10-12 me.

This species has not as yet been detected at Asheville, but is
inserted in the conviciion that it will eventually be found here.
It has been found by the author in Maine agreeing in every par-
ticular with specimens found in Sweden. The peculiar annulus
should distinguish it. It collapses upon the stipe and forms a
sooty ring which is characteristic.

Amanita cothurnata Atkinson.

Pileus 2-4 inches broad, white, viscid when moist, covered with

i<?o8 ] The Amanitas of North Carolina 119

flat, irregular, white warts, striate or tuberculate striate on the
margin; gills white, free, broadest at the margin; stipeslender,
white, abruptly enlarged into a globose bulbous base. Volva
adnate to the base of the stipe, upon which it forms a distinct
sheath with a distinct margin. Spores elliptical, 8-10 me.

Very abundant during the summer. We have used the
American name, though with the conviction that this is only a
form of A. pantherina. One of the decisive reasons for its separa-
tion from A pantherina was that the spores are globose instead of
elliptical. This is certainly not true of the fresh plant, though
the spores in my dried specimens show a curious habit of becom-
ing distended, and are filled with a large globule which takes the
place of the4 proper contents. The main difference is in the
color which is a doubtful character. Typical A. panterina has
a dark pileus upon which the white warts are very conspicuous.
The curious sheath at the base of the stipe will at once character-
ize this species.

Amanita mappa Fr.

Pileus 2.5 anches broad, yellow or pallid, dry, with flat white
or yellow scales from the fragments of the volva, even on the mar-
gin; gills white slightly adnexed; stipe stuffed then hollow, white,
striate at the apex, with a globose marginate bulb. Spores glo-
bose 8 me.

Found in pine woods, rather rare. This is identical with the
the plant which is found in Sweden. It is much like A. phalloi-
des in some regards but has no free volva. The basal portion of
the volva is adnate to the bulb and is cut squarely across forming
a thick margin at the margin of the bulb.

Amanita Rubescens Pers.

Pileus 2 to 5 inches broad, brown, or red brown, varying to pale
or yellow, even or slightly striate on the margin, thickly covered
with irregular fragments of the veil, somewhat viscid when moist;
gills white, rather narrow, tapering toward the stipe; stipe white,
stuffed, becoming hollow, usually bulbous at the base. Flesh of
plieus and stipe becoming red when wounded. Spores elliptical
7-9 by 5-6 me.

120

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[. December

Very common. In mature specimens it can at once be recog-
nized by the red stains which will be seen where insects have
formed their burrows in the stipe. No trace of the volva will be
seen at the base of the stipe in the mature plant.

Amanita muscaria Linn.

Pileus 3 to 6 inches broad, viscid when moist, thickly covered
with the remains of the volva, which breaks up on the pileus in
the form of irregular white or yellow warts, varying from bright
orange to yellow or pallid, striate on the margin; gills white;
stipe white or yellowish, bulbous at the base which is at first
covered with scales from the volva. Spores 8-10 by 6-8 me.

Probably the best known of the Amanitas. The bright orange
forms are very beautiful, but the more dingy forms are with us,
the most common. It should be carefully distinguished from A.
caesarea especially by those who are interested in the Caesars mush-
room for food, as it is a dangerous species. The two species may
be also identical in color. In other respects they are widely dif-
ferent. A. caesarea has a loose cup shaped volva at the base of the
stipe, yellow gills, and a smooth pileus. A. muscaria has no cup
shaped volva, white gills, and a warty pileus. No difficulty should
be experienced in distinguishing the two species but all doubtful
apecimens should be rejected as being possibly the most danger-
ous A. muscaria.

Amanita muscaria coccinea Beardslee.

Pileus bright scarlet, viscid, striate on the margin, thickly
covered with yellow warts. Gills yellow, yellow pulverent on the
’margin; annulus lacking. This is one of our most striking forms
and is so constant that it deserves recognition, especially as it
seems to be quite abundant. It may prove to be not distinct from
A. gemmata Fr. and A. nitido guttata Paul, though it does not
well correspond with the discriptions.

Amanita echinocephala Vitt.

Pileus 3-8 inches broad, pure white to dull olive green, thickly
covered with erect pointed scales; gills from pure white or cream
to sordid olivaceous, free; stipe solid, colored like the pileus,

ipoS] The Amanitas of Nokth Carolina 121

mealy or clothed, especially below, with pointed scales, enlarged
at the base into a bulb from which a long root like projection is
given off. Strong odor of chlorine in old plants. Spores ellip-
tical, 10-12 me. long.

Amanita solitaria Aull.

Pileus white or slightly gray, convex, even on the margin,
covered wieh thin adnate polygonal warts: gills white, free: stipe
solid white, flocculose, somewhat bulbous at the base, bulbs point-
ed. Spores 10-12 by 7-9 me. Odor as in the preceding. In
woods, less abundant than the preceding species.

Amanita stobiliformis Paul.

Pileus large and firm 3 to 8 inches broad, white or light gray,
covered with thick brown polygonal warts, even on the margin;
gills white; stipe thick, solid, farinose or scaley, enlarged below
into a bulb which is often marginate. Spores 10 to 12 me ellip-
tical.

I have given here the description of these three species in order
to facilitate the study of the group to which they belong.
It is necessary to add that the status of this group is more than
doubtful, and that there is no agreement among the best authori-
ties in regard to it. The truth in regard to the group
seems to be this. It is rather rare in the north. Peck
says for example that it is of little consequence to determine
whether it is or is not edible on account of its rarity. In the
south it is abundant and can be gathered by the bushel. It seems
certain that only one who has observed it in comparative rarity
should feel sure of the distinctions which are drawn . My obser-
vations which are recorded in a large series of photographs are
that none of the “characters” are constant enough to be of much
value. The shape of the warts and their nature seems to depend
largely upon the conditions of development and, in what is clearly
the same species, may vary from a thin mealey covering to hard
polygonal warts. The shape of the bulb is just as uncertain. In
the same species it may be entirely lacking or highly developed,
marginate or immarginate, and smooth or scaley. While the
dimensions of the spores vary I have been unable to base any sep-

122

Journal of the Mitchell Society \Decembei

aration on this character. The most striking forms which occur
in North Carolina are a form which is dull olive green throughout
and gives dark olive spore prints (apparently A. umbella of
Cuelet and Bataille’s monograph) and the huge attractive v form
which has been known as Lepiota vittadinii Moret. Upwards of
thirty “species” have been described in this group, part attributed
to Lepiota and part to Amanita. Most of these are certainly of
no value. It is my present opinion that they will all eventually
be reduced to synonyms. It is hoped that those who are inter-
ested in the subject may secure specimens and photograps of mem-
bers of the group whicli are found in their vicinity. It is only by
the study of ample material that the matter can be cleared up.

Amanita russuloides Peck.

Pileus 2 to 4 inches broad, pale yellow, viscid when moist,
covered at first with white irregular warts, tuberculate, striate on
the margin; gills white, free; stipe stuffed, smooth, bulbous.
Spores 10 to 11 by 7 to 8 me. Very abundant in the Ashe-
ville region. It is known in Europe as A. junquillea Quel.
Amanita vernalis Gilet and A. amici are doubtless but forms of
the same species. It is probable also that A. adnata Smith is to
be referred here. The form found at Asheville has either no annu-
lus, as is the case with the form figured by Smith or at the most
a very rudimentary one. The species is doubtless not rare in our
State and will be easily recognized. The pale yellow or straw
colored pileus with its striate margin and the rounded bulb at the
base of the stipe are characteristic. Specimens from Boudier have
been carefully compared with our own material and there can be
no doubt of the identity of the two.

Amanita frostiana Peck.

Pileus 1-2 inches broad, bright yellow or orange, warty from the
remains of the volva, even or slightly striate on the margin ; gills
white, stipe white or yellow, bulbous, spores 8-10 me, broadly ellipti-
calor globose. Growing in woods. In appearance this is.'a~small
A. muscaria, but the spores are different. It will doubtless1 be
found generally through the the state .

ipoS] The Amanitas of North Carolina 123

Amanitopsis.

This genus differs from Amanita in the absence of an annulus.
The division is rather artificial and the fact that some species are
found either with or without an annulus makes it of question-
able value.

Amanitopsis vaginata Bull.

Pileus ovate, becoming expanded and plane or depressed, pal-
lid, gray, tan or brown in color, naked or with a few flat frag-
ments of the veil, deeply sulcate, striate on the margin; gills
white, free; stipe slender, tapering upward, flocculose; volva
membranous, persistent, lax. Spores globose 7 to 10 me. One of
our most abundant and variable species. The loose, cup shaped
volva at the base of the stipe, lack of an annulus, and striate mar-
gin readily distinguish it.

Amanitopsis agglutinata B. & C.

Pileus firm, convex, even or only striate on the margin, white,
slightly colored on the disk and somewhat flocculose scaley; gills
white, broad, rounded; stipe not enlarged at the base, equal or
tapering upward, stuffed flocculose; volva firm, free, forming a
persistent, membranous cup at the base of the stipe. Spores ellip-
tical 11-14 by 5-7 me.

This is A. volvata Peck and is shown under that name in
this country. In Europe it is considered by Bresadola to be the
real A. baccata of Fries. Boudier finds it and refers it to A. coc-
cola. Specimens from him are identical with our plant and his
figure (Bulletin of the French Mycological Society, Vol. 18, Page
253] represents it perfectly. The description given by Berkeley is
however unmistakable and is substantiated by specimens. It
seems best to use the first authentic name since A. baccata Fr.
must always be an uncertainty. Fries’ figure of A. baccata does
not seem to represent our plant. A. barlae Quel, is probably
another synonym .

Amanitopsis strangulata Fr.

Pileus 1-4 inches broad, campanulate, becoming expanded and
plane or depressed, brown or gray-brown, deeply striate on the

124 Journal of the Mitchell Society [. December

margin, warty, viscid when moist: stipe tapering upward, slightly
enlarged at the base, white. Gills not crowded, white, free; volva
firm in texture, breaking up into broad felty scales on the pileus
and forming a more or less perfect ring which projects like a false
annulus from the base of the stipe. Spores globosed 10-12 me.
This is not rare in the mountains af West Virginia and I have
included it here although it has not been reported as yet from
North Carolina. It comes close to A. vaginata, but seems suffici-
ently distinct. The curious false annulus is its distinguishing mark.

Amanitopsis farinosa Schw.

Pileus 1-2 inches broad, gray or brownish gray, mealy with
gray particles which are thickest at the disk, deeply striate on the
margin; gills white, free; stipe slender, pallid or gray, bulbous at
the base. Spores elliptical or subglobose 6-7 me long. In open
woods along paths. Common.

This dainty species is common in western North Carolina, but is
rare farther to the north and is entirely unknown in Europe. The
volva is represented by a gray farinose covering which at first
covers the entire plant. It is a very distinct and attractive species.

Amanita Spissa should be found in our state and it is hoped that
collectors will watch for it. It is much like some forms of
A. rubescens but the warts on the pileus are gray and the flesh
unchangeable. I have observed it in Maine but not at Asheville.

ASHEVILLE, N. C.

INVESTIGATIONS OF THE N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND
ECONOMIC SURVEY RELATING TO FORESTRY
PROBLEMS ALONG THE NORTH
CAROLINA BANKS

BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT, STATE GEOLOGIST

Problems of considerable interest have recently come up regard-
ing the preservation of the small areas of forests that still remain
on a few sections of the Banks along the North Carolina coast and
of the reforestation of certain other sections. Conditions along
the banks have been studied and, although the investigations have
shown that over certain areas it will be impractical to attempt
any reforestation or to try and check the progress of the dunes,
yet there are certain other areas that should be protected and
reforested. The greatest enemy of the areas of forests now exist-
ing on the Banks are the dunes and one of the greatest difficulties
in the way of checking the progress of the dunes is the cattle,
sheep, and hogs that roam over these Banks, devouring the grass,
roots, tree sprouts, etc. The survey has been assisted in its work
of collecting data regarding the conditions existing along the
Banks by Professor Collier Cobb of the University of North Caro-
lina, Mr. I. F. Lewis of Johns Hopkins University, and the U. S.
Forest Service.' The principal investigation has been on Shackle-
ford Banks, extending from Cape Lookout southwestward about
eight miles to Beaufort Inlet and from Cape Hatteras to Hatteras
Inlet, a distance of about twelve miles.

Shackleford Bank extends from Cape Lookout southwestward
about eight miles to Beaufort Inlet, and is from a half to three-
quarters of a mile broad. The whole Bank was, within the mem-
ory of the older inhabitants, heavily wooded over iis entire area.
Owing, however, to cutting of the timber for firewood and lumber,

125

[December

126

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

the sand of the beach began to drift in on the forest somewhere
near 1840. At this time the beach was higher than the forest on
the sound side. The beach is described by Mr. Torrey Moore, an
inhabitant of the Bank since 1828, as “flattening out on the
woods,” and so killing the trees. At the present date the eastern
end of the Bank is completely “sanded over.” The original
forest is represented only by several clumps or “islands” of live-
oak, which happened to be hardy enough to withstand the drift-
ing sand. Near the western end of the Bank, about two miles of
this forest land still remains, though it is rapidly being encroached
upon by the advancing sand. Along the seaward side of this strip
the beach, originally narrow, has broadened to a quarter of a mile
or more, destroying the forest as the sand moved toward the sound.
The sand is encroaching on the forest with greater rapidity as the
increased breadth of the beach gives more surface for the wind to
take up the dry particles and blow them over on the forest.

The forest here is made up chiefly of live-oak and red cedar, with
the red mulberry, holly, water beech (Carpinus) , and red bay
(Persea) occurring commonly. The trees are not large, but are
densely massed, and serve to prevent the winter storms from
sweeping over the Bank. Cutting of timber was once a common
practice but is no longer so, for the reason that the islanders real-
ize that their only protection from storms lies in the forests them-
selves. The trees are still sometimes used for firewood by the
natives.

The inhabitants of the island live on the side of the Bank near
the sound, and make their living partly by fishing and partly by
gardening. The soil is a deep and mellow loam, suitable for most
vegetables grown in this country. The principal plant now under
cultivation are figs, tomatoes, sweet and Irish potatoes, cabbage,
turnips, beans, peas, watermelons and cantaloups, If the drift-
ing sand is allowed to advance much farther toward the sound,
these gardens must be abandoned and the living of the inhabitant
must become very precarious.

In the woods on the western end of Shackleford are a consider-
able number of ponies, cattle, sheep and goats. Sheriff Hancock
of Carteret County estimates the numbers from Cape Lookout west

igo8~\ Forestry Problems on N. C. Banks 127

as follows: Three hundred ponies, 500 sheep, 250 cattle, 300

goats. These animals are very destructive, and are rapidly
destroying all grass, shrubs, and tree sprouts on the Banks. Com-
mercially they are of little value and a law compelling the people
to keep them up would in the end work no hardship on the citi-
zens of the Banks.

A more important, though less immediate, reason for checking
the sand drift lies in its effect on the channels and fisheries of the
sounds. Where the once wooded Bank has become a sandy desert,
the sand blown by the wind has filled in or is filling in the chan-
nel of Core Sound. Wherever the woods are still in existence, the
deep water extends up to the Bank, but where the woods have
been exterminated, the channel near the Bank haf been filled up,
being now only one or two feet deep at low water. This in itself
is not of great importance for navigation so long as other channels
near the mainland can be kept open, However, as the sand drifts
in, these will gradually become shallower until, probably within
the course of a few decades, the waterway between Bogue and
Pamlico sounds will become closed. The effcet of a filling in of
the channels would be disastrous to the fishing industry at this
point . The enormous stream of mullet and other fish now coming
through Core Sound from Pamlico would be diverted to some other
outlet, and fishing would cease to be a means of existence to the
people of the region.

As an example of the effect on the people of the drifting sand,
attention is called to Diamond City, a fishing viliage on the sound
side of Shackleford Bank not far from Cape Lookout. When the
forest covered this part of the Bank the villagers were prosperous,
being sure of a good catch of fish and having productive gardens
under cultivation. As the sand came over from the beach, the
gardens were first destroyed, then the channels began filling in and
the catch of fish fell off. Finally, as the sand spread out more
and more, the winter storms began to sweep the Bank more and
more completely, until, about 1903, conditions became such that
the settlement was broken up, and the inhabitants, about four
hundred in all, were compelled to move over to Harker’s Island,
near the mainland. Now Diamond City is visited only in the fall,

128

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

when fishermen take up temporary quarters during part of the
fishing season.

To the north of Cape Lookout, the more important forest areas
are on Hatteras Island, between the inlet and the cape, one just
to the west of the Cape consisting largely of loblolly pine, and
another near Hatteras village, composed largely of red cedar, pine
and live oak. To the southwest of the inlet there are small scat-
tered areas, containing a good many olive trees. These latter
trees make especially good binders in checking the advance of the
sand dunes inasmuch as they are able to sprout from their
branches, after the main part of the tree has been covered by the
sand.

There is one element of the situation which, so far as is known,
is different from the conditions where sandbinding work has been
instituted, as, for instance, Cape Cod. The winds which cause
the sands to move are from the south, blowing pretty constantly
during the spring and summer, or growing season. The stronger
northeast winds of winter have little effect on the sand . What
effect they have consists in blowing the sand back towards the
ocean. They are less effective as sand movers than the south
winds of summer, partly because they blow less constantly and
partly because their force is greatest when the sand is wet from
winter rains and not easily to be moved . At any rate, the sand
is moving north, carried so chiefly in the summer months, whereas
at other points where conditions have been studied, it moves south
and west, being blown by winter winds. This condition, which
probably obtains along the South Atlantic and Gulf coast, causes
the problem to to be presented in a slightly different aspect from
that usually considered, and serves to emphasize the desirability
of experimental work at this point.

A special report was made for the N. C. Geological and Eco-
nomic Survey, by Mr. Jay F. Bond of the U. S. Forest Service on
the practicability of forest protection on the Banks and how to
accomplish it. Mr. Bond’s report is as follows:

EXAMINATION OF THE NORTH CAROLINA BANKS

Introduction

The following report is the result of a brief examination of the

Forestry Problems on N. C. Banks

129

/po^]

banks off the North Carolina coast between Cape Hatteras and the
wooded area about six miles west of Beaufort Inlet. This investi-
gation was undertaken by the Forest Service at the request of the
State Geologist of North Carolina and was intended only to deter-
mine, in a general way, the damage being done by drifting sands
on the area examined. If considered necessary, methods of pro-
tection against further damage were to be recommended.

The portion of the banks covered by this report is typical of the
entire strip and within this area are the only places where active
protective measures seem to be required at the present time. A
detailed plan for the treatment of these lands is included in this
report.

Damage by Shifting Sands

There is abundant evidence, throughout the area examined, of
marked changes within a comparatively recent time. Within the
recollection of many of the residents, practically the entire banks
were forest covered. At present, however, the forests occur only
at two points. Immediately west of Cape Hatteras are approxi-
mately 2,500 acres covered principally with loblolly pine. Recent
estimates of the amount of pine in this stand approximate 20,000,-
000 feet board measure. Although this figure seems excessive,
there is undoubtedly a considerable amount of valuable timber in
forest. The trees are of medium size and the lumber of rela-
tively low value, but the accessibility of the stand and the great
market for even the poorer grades will make the exploitation of
this timber profitable. These lands are held by private owners
and the stumpage is controlled by a company which holds an
option at $.50 per thousand feet, B, M. This option expires Jan-
uary 1, 1910.

Poor business management has eaused a suspension of logging
operations, but it is practically certain that lumbering will be
resumed in the near future and that a considerable portion of the
forest will be removed before the expiration of the option, since it
could be renewed only at a much higher rate.

Near the western end of Shackleford Banks are a few hundred
acres of forest composed almost entirely of red juniper. This is
being exploited in a small way for posts.

130

Journal of the Mitchell Society [. December

The entire area between these points is barren and unproductive.
Only at the villages of Hatteras and Ocracoke. where the residents
maintain small gardens is there any attempt to utilize the land in
any way except for the pasturage of a small number of stock.
Sand more or less fixed in the form of dome-shaped dunes extends
from the ocean to the sounds. The damage here is complete and
the improvement of the area as a whole is practically impossible.

There are two localities on the area under discussion where pro-
tective measures would prove a decided benefit. At the south-
eastern and southern part of the woodland near Cape Hatteras the
blowing sand is rapidly encroaching upon and destroying the for-
est while at Beaufort Inlet the surface sand is being blown into
Core Sound and, through the destruction of the beach, the width
of the inlet is perceptibly increasing. The problem of arresting
the damage at these two points is discussed in detail below.

Cape Hatteras Forest

Along the entire southern and western edges of the forest west
of Cape Hatteras a considerable area of woodland is being buried
and destroyed by blowing sand. As stated above, this timber has
a distinct value and, in addition to its value for lumber, the occur-
rence of the forest makes this locality by far the most desirable
residence section of the banks. It is simply a question of a rather
limited time, however, when the encroachment of shifting sands,
together with destructive logging, will complete the permanent
denudation of the area.

The greatest difficulty to be encountered in the treatment of
these lands is the fact that they are private property and therefore
can scarcely be controlled by legislative action. Apparently
nothing can be done, except in an advisory way, to regulate the
exploitation of these woods. Fortunately, however, the logging
operations were begun at the sound side of the forest remote from
the area being encroached upon by the sand and hence the cut-
over area will have an opportunity to reforest naturally before the
removal of the timber immediately in the lea of the approaching
sand dunes. The large proportion of loblolly pine in the stand
makes reproduction certain with a minimum of protection. It is

igo8~\ Forestry Problems of N. C. Banks 131

certain, however, that by far the greatest factor in the destruction
of the original stand has been careless lumbering.

The destruction resulting from logging has been made perma-
nent by unrestricted grazing, Cattle, sheep, goats and hogs have
free range and the damage from these sources cannot be overesti-
mated. Hogs are the greatest menace and a single hog, practi-
cally valueless, will root out large areas of sandbinding grasses
along the beech. Cattle and sheep complete the destruction by
eating the roots of the uprooted grass. The sand thus liberated is
carried away by the wind and a “blow-out” results. This blow-
out constantly enlarges until the damage becomes general and
large areas are affected.

Even if grazing were an important industry on the islands, free
range of stock would be fatal to the industry itself as well as to
the general productiveness of the lands. The reverse is the fact,
however, since competent observers place the total value of all stock
between Cape Hatteras and Hatteras Inlet at no more than $1000.
The cattle, sheep and horses are in-bred and of minimum value
while the hogs are practically worthless since the meat is unfit for
consumption, owing to the carrion fish upon which they feed.

It is strongly recommended, therefore, that the Legislature
enact suitable laws providing for the fencing of all stock upon
this portion of the Banks. This will work no real hardship upon
stock owners and, moreover, is an economic necessity if the indus-
try be made profitable. Without such legal protection, all meas-
ures for the control of shifting sand such as are described below
will be useless. In addition, natural reproduction on the cut-over
forest areas cannot be satisfactory since, under present conditions,
live oak reproduction, which would otherwise be abundaut, is
missing and even pine reproduction is very seriously damaged.

The sand dune area which is encroaching upon the forest lies to
the south and east of the woodland. Beginning at a point two
miles east of Creed’s Hill Life Saving Station, it extends westward
four and one-half miles and beyond the wooded area where the
sand extends entirely across the banks to the sound. A descrip-
tion of this area and certain recommendations appear below.

132

Journal of the Mitchell Society [. December

Cape Hatteras Sand Dune Area

The moving sand of the dune area between the forest and the
ocean has already covered up and destroyed the growth for about
one-half mile inland. At the western end of the dune the sand
gradually slopes into a low marshy area which extends to Durant’s
Life Saving Station where a small body of live oak occurs. To the
south of this woodland is a long, narrow sand dune and to the west
a low wash-flat extends to Hatteras Inlet where there are a few
mound-like dunes near the beach.

It is only the dunes immediately south and west of the Cape
Hatteras forest which are discussed below, since the dunes further
to the west can do practically no damage. Over this entire area
the sand is constantly moving in a northeast direction. The sur-
face is practically bare of vegetation and such growth as does
spring up from time to time is promptly destroyed by stock.

The direction of the movement of the dunes is undoubtedly
influenced by the forest growth which shelters the area from the
northerly winds. From the south the winds have uninterrupted
sweep and, in consequence, the sand is carried by these winds in
a northerly direction. The prevailing winds in the different sea-
sons also have a greater or less influence on the direction in which
the sand is carried. During the summer the sand becomes very
dry and in this condition is easily carried by the winds which are
southerly at this season. In the winter, however, the moist con-
dition of the sand prevents it from being easily carried by the
northern winds which prevail. The result is that even where the
winds have full sweep in both directions the general movement
of the dunes is tovrard the north.

At the northern end of the sands the dunes terminate abruptly
at the edge of the woods. Here there is a high dune rising gradu-
ally to a height of about 25 feet. To the leeward the slope of the
dune is fully 35°, which seems to be as steep as sand wTill remain
at rest.

The rate at which this dune is advancing inland could not be
determined the short time available. It is very evident, however,
that the advance is relatively rapid, since there are numerous liv-

iyo8] Forestry Problems of N. C. Banks 133

ing tops of trees protruding above the sand considerably to the
windward of the crest of the leeward dune.

To control and fix these sands will require most careful treat-
ment and an expense entirely disproportionate to the value of the
reclaimed land and of the forest lands in the lea. So long as the
present conditions in respect to laws and the ownership of the
greater part of the area exists protective measures are impossible.
In addition to the enactmen of stock laws as recommended above,
it is recommended that the state acquire by purchase a strip of the
forest land in the lea of the dunes not less than 500 and preferably
1,00 feet wide and extending along the entire area so far as the
forest occurs. When this has been done the active measures look-
ing to the control of the sands may be put into effect.

The Fixation of the Sands

The permanent reclamation of the sand waste depends upon two
things: (1) Since the source of supply of the sand is inexhaust-
ible, a barrier must be provided near the beach to prevent new
supplies of sand which are brought up by the surf from being
blown inland. (2) The loose moving sand in the lee of this pro-
posed barrier must be permanently fixed by growing forests.

The success of all work relative to the satisfactory growth of the
trees and consequent binding of the sand depends upon the barrier
and past experience has established that this barrier is most satis-
factory, if it consist of a littoral dune of proper height built up by
sand which is arrested by means of mechanical obstructions and
held in place by suitable sand -bin ding grasses. It should be built
up parallel to the shore line and not nearer than 100 feet to
high water mark.

When the work of fixation is complete, the entire area with the
exception of the strip between the barrier dune and the shore line
will be covered by a forest. The strip to the windward of the bar-
rier must be held in place by the planting of grass. When the for-
est has been established, it should be cared for according to usual
forest practice.

It will be impossible to establish a forest directly upon the drift-
ing sand either by sowing the seed or by setting out young trees,
since the blowing sand either uncovers the seed or buries it too

134

Journal of the Mitchell Society [. December

deeply, while in the case of planted trees, the sand cuts the leaves
and bark or buries the plants. It will therefore be necessary to
hold the sand in place by some mechanical covering until the trees
have developed and formed a natural cover.

The work of fixation is thus divided into two stages: (1) Pre-
liminary, holding the sand in place. (2) Permanent, establish-
ing a forest. Upon the coast strip the work never proceeds beyond
the first stage and the maintenance of a grass cover will require
constant care.

The Coast Strip and the Barrier Dune. — The coast strip and the
barrier dune should be handled in such a way that the surface of
the strip may not jeopardize the stability of the dune. It is
obvious that the first work is the proper formation of the dune.
This is done by rapidly accumulating blowing sand so as to form
a long ridge. For this purpose, palisade fences arranged in a dou-
ble row 6 feet apart are used. Each fence should be made of inch
boards 6 inches wide and 5 feet long, driven about two feet into
the sand. The tops of the fences should be of equal height and
the palings should be four inches apart. Such an arrangement of
fences allows the wind to pass through, but reduces its velocity
and hence sand is deposited within and on both sides.

As the sand accumulates to the tops of the fences, the palings
should be raised and, when the dune has reached a height of 30
feet, sea oats ( Uniola Paniculatd) should be planted 3 feet apart
alternating in rows three feet apart, parallel to the crest of the
dune. The grass should be planted on both sides of the dune and
gradurlly extended toward the windward until the dune attains a
fairly permanent form with a gradual slope toward the windward,
while on the leeward side the slope will be approximately 30° .
The successive steps in the formation of the barrier dune is shown
in the series of diagrams accompanying the report (Plate I).

The barrier dune, when completed, will protect the area in the
lee but will require constant care tc keep it in proper condition.
Every precaution should be taken to prevent a break in the dune
and, if such occurs, it must be repaired immediately, since the
wind will constantly enlarge the opening. A break may be
repaired by the simple expedient of piling brush on the surface of

igo8] Forestry Problems of N. C. Banks 135

the blowout and, when the sand has filled in to its former level,
by replanting grass as before. The main care should be to main-
tain a good grass cover over the dune and the coast strip. When
the grass becomes thin in one place, plants should be taken from
areas where it is thicker than necessary and replanted where
required.

Forestation- — The area in the lea of the littoral dune must be
planted in forest trees to accomplish permanent fixation. Local
conditions and geographical position of the area to be planted are
such that proven methods developed in extensive work of this
character in Europe may be adapted to this project.

It has been established that the most certain method of securing
a forest cover on waste sands is by direct sowing of the seed, pro-
vided that suitable species are available for use in the locality and
also that the sand be temporarily fixed until the young trees are
well established. Upon the formation of the barrier dune the
sands in the lee will be comparatively free from the action of the
wind, since the dune will protect the area from the southerly
wind, while the forest will serve as a windward to the north.

Loblolly pine, a rapid growing species which produces valuable
timber, grows throughout the banks. Although, owing to the
exposed situation, the qualiiy of timber produced cannot equal
that of the forests of the mainland, this tree is by far the most
desirable commercial species on the banks.

The proper method of sowing the seed can be determined only
by experiment. Two methods are suggested, the second to be used
only when it has been clearly demonstrated that the first is not
feasable. (1) Sowing the seed directly on the surface. (2) Sow-
ing the seed after the sand has been temporarily fixed by a light
covering of brush.

At the western end of the shore dune, on a strip 500 feet wide
and extending from the dune to the forest, loblolly pine should be
sown at the rate of 12 pounds per acre. The seed should be
sown directly on the surface of the sand without any preparation
of the site. Although there is good reason to count upon favour-
able results, there are several possible objections to this method.
Large quantities of the seed are almost certain to be destroyed by

136

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

birds and to guard against this the seed should ke coated with red
lead before being sown. Again, wind will blow away some of the
seed and in other cases will cover the seed too deeply with sand.
It is certain that the action of the wind will be greatly reduced
by the littoral dune and the forest, but just how efficient this shel-
ter will be can be determined only by actual experiment.

It is obvious that if the sweep of the wind over the area in the
lee of the dune is not reduced to a minimum, the success of plant-
ing by direct sowing without previous preparation of the site will
be impossible. In such a case the surface of the area to be planted
must be covered with a light covering of brush, laid in rows par-
allel to the barrier dune. Seed should then be sown at the same
rate as above among the brush.

Such a method, although more expensive than the first plan,
will insure success. The brush should be allowed to remain until
the young trees are established and the year following the sowing
it should be removed in order not to interfere with the growth of
the seedlings.

Brush can be obtained from the nearby forest. Myrtle, red
bay, yaupon, or any similar material may be used. Brush cut
from the tops and limbs of conifers after lumbering will serve
admirably. Such material may be obtaided from recently cut-
over areas in the forest.

The forest immediately in the lee of the sands, the purchase of
which has been recommended above, should be carefully conserved.
Absolutely no cutting should be permitted until the dune forest is
firmly established.

The expense of fixing the sands can be only approximated.
There was no opportunity in the limited time available to deter-
mine the rapidity at which the barrier dune would accumulate.
It is obvious therefore that the cost of the dune cannot be deter-
mined, since it will vary directly with the the length of time
which will elapse before it assumes permanent form. The cost of
forestation can, however, be approximated, and will vary from
$25 tn $40 per acre, depending upon the method. Seed of the
loblolly pine are quoted in the market at $2 per pound but could
undoubtedly be secured by contract at a much lower figure.

Forestry Problems of N. C. Banks

137

1908]

Material for the palisade needed in the building up of the barrier
dune represents a first cost of $900 at present prices and labour for
its construction will add at least $500. The cost of maintenance
cannot be predicted.

Grass planting on the coast strip and the littoral dune will be
expensive and at least $500 must be allowed for this work exclusive
of maintenance.

The entire cost of the work of fixation, exclusive of any expense
necessary in the acquisition of the lands, will reach at least
$40,000.

Advisability of Project. — This report does not aim to outline
a policy. It merely suggests a definite plan by which the areas
under discussion can be protected and leaves the advisability of
the action to the proper authorities.

The work of fixing the sands will serve to accomplish the per-
petuity of the only forest remaining on the banks above Beaufort
Inlet. If prompt measures, such as outlined above, are not taken,
the destruction of the forest is certain. The lands will become a
sand waste similar .to the larger part of the area of the banks.
The cost of the work, however, is large and it is doubted if the
value of the property to be protected will equal the cost.

Aside from the intrinsic value of the property, it must be con-
sidered that this area supports a considerable population which will
be seriously affected should the land become waste. These people
are entitled to protection by the State and, although relief could
be secured by temporary measures involving less immediate
expense,, the method of treatment recommended necessitates the
lowest coast consistent with permanent protection.

If, however, the project is undertaken, it is strongly advised
that the work of carrying out the details of the general plan
advised be entrusted to a competent official and be made a part of
his duties.

The Beaufort Inlet Project

The Department of War maintains a series of sand fences on
either side of Beaufort Inlet at the entrance to the harbor. These
fences are to hold the sand as it is brought to the beach in order
to build up the beach and prevent the inlet from increasing in

138

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[. December

width. The effect of the blowing sand which might be deposited
in the channel is not considered, since the currents will serve to
keep the channel clear.

Since the Department of War has made provision for the con-
tinuance of this protective work, a further discussion is not essen-
tial.

These investigations regarding the preservation of the forests on
the Banks of North Cirolina will be continued by Mr. W. W.
Ashe, Forester of the Survey, and he will also have supervision of
any work that the Survey may undertake to actually protect and
perpetuate the forests.

STREPTOCOCCUS INFECTIONS OF THE TONSILS, THEIR
DIAGNOSIS AND RELATIONSHIP TO ACUTE
ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM *

BY WM. Deb. MACNIDER.

Perhaps it may seem a rather late day to resurrect such an old
and well studied subject'as throat infections and their diagnosis.
The subject has recently aroused much interest in me from having
to deal with two small epidemics of such cases which proved to be
of a non-diphtheritic nature and from the complications referable
to the joints which several of these cases developed.

Within the past two years I have had the opportunity of study-
ing fifty-eight infections of the tonsils and adjacent soft ports.
With but few exceptions these infections have been in males
between the ages of 16 and 30. Six were in children between 3
and 8 years of age and four cases occurred in women.

The acute inflammations of the tonsils are usually due to infec-
tions by the Staphylococcus or the Bacillus Diphtherise. Some
organisms of the streptothrix group which are usually present in
the mouth and which are non -pathogenic, may perhaps under
favorable circumstances become pathogenic and should be classed
among the organisms capable of causing acute infections of the
throat.

These organisms may be present in pure culture, but frequently
a mixed infection exists. In such cases a styphylococcus is often
the organism. It is a large coccus, grows luxuriantly on the
ordinary culture media add is feebly pathogenic for rabbits when
they are inoculated subcutneously.

♦Reprinted from The Charlotte Medical Journal, September, 1908.

139

140

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[December

In the ordinary cases of acute follicular tonsilitis the styphylo-
coccus is the commonist organism found. It can be easily
obtained from the white fibrinous plugs in and around the open-
ings of the tonsilar follicles.

Of the fifty-eight cases of throat infection presented in this
paper, thirty were subjected to a bacteriological examination and
as the other cases which were not so examined developed within a
few weeks and in the same locality as those examined, it is not
illogical to conclude that they had as their cause the same organ
ism.

Technique. — The bacteriological examination consisted in first
making from the exudate covering the tonsils or fauces, two film
preparations. One was stained with Loefflers alkaline mythylene
blue and one by Neisser’s method. The last method of staining
has the advantage of clearly defining the polar bodies, which are to
some extent characteristic of the bacillus diphtherise.

Secondly with the aid of a cotton swab three blood serum tubes
were inoculated from the exudate. These were incubated from
twelve to twenty hours and from the colonies which formed film
preparations were made and stained by the above methods.

The result of these examinations showed constantly present
both in the films made from the throat and from the colonies, an
organism having the characteristic chain grouping of streptococcus.
Associated with this organism was a diphlococcus of rather large
diameters which did not grow well on the ordinary media.

In no instance were there organisms found which at all resem-
bled the bacillus of diphtheria. In the films made from the
throat, bacilli were often present which differed from the diph-
theria bacilli in that their protoplasm stained uniformly, there
was no “barred” appearance, no polar bodies, the organisms were
not curved or clubbed but were straight bacilli with rounded ends.

Symptoms. — The symptoms manifested in these cases were those
of an acute infection. The onset was sudden with a chill or chilly
sensation followed by headache, rather severe backache, a rapid
rise of temperature to 103-104 deg. F., a large hightensioned
pulse, which compared with the degree of fever was slow, usually
about 90-100 per minute.

1908] Streptococcus Infections of the Tonsils

141

The tonsils in the majority of cases were only slightly enlarged.
The lymphatic glands of the neck were enlarged but this change
was not pronounced. The inflammatory reaction of the tonsils
consisted in the formation of a grayish white membrane which
covered their surface, usually involved both tonsils, and in four
cases extended up the anterior pillars of the fauces. The mem-
brane was tough, was removed with difficulty, and after its
removal in many instances left behind a raw bleeding surface.
In only ten of the fifty-eight cases, was the membranous deposit
limited around the follicular openings.

So far as the appearance of the throat was concerned, these
cases would have been diagnosed as diphtheritic infections. Such
a diagnosis was made in the first four on a purely clinical basis.
Their failure to respond to antitoxin treatment led to a bacterio-
logical examination with the demonstration of a streptococcus
infection .

A series of such cases, twenty-four in number, have been
reported by Prudden of New York in which the streptococcus
was the organism present and not the bacillus of diphtheria.

The existence of such cases renders the diagnosis of diphtheria
when approached entirely from the clinical side extremely diffi-
cult, if not impossible. All cases should be subjected to a bacteri-
ological examination before a diognosis is made.

The second point of interest which developed from the study of
this series of cases was the occurrence of symptoms referable to the
joints. Many of the patients complained of pain in one or more
joints and in a few cases the joints were slightly swollen. Such
symptoms lasted but a short time and did not return.

In four of the series the joint symptoms were prominent and
persisted. For the sake of brevity a detailed history of the cases
will not be given.

Case 1. — A. R. D., male, age 17. The general symptoms were
those of an acute infection. The throat examination revealed
a grayish membrane covering the right tonsil and sneaking up
the right anterior faucal pillar. The lower half of the left tonsil
was covered by a similar membrane.

The bacteriological examination demonstrated as a streptococ-
cus infection.

142

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[ December

Four days after the patient was first seen the right shoulder
joint became swollen, red, tender and painful. The following
day the left knee became involved. The joints remained swollen
for about one week and gradually returned to the normal. Dur-
ing the time the joints were effected the temperature ranged
around 103 degrees., occasionally falling to 101 degrees F., follow-
ing profuse sweats. At no time was there a leucocytosis.

Case 2— L. A., male, aged 21. This case was very similar to
case No 1, with the exception that the changes in the tonsil were
those of a follicular tonsilitis. The exudate was more or less con-
fined to the surface immediately around the follicles. From the
exudate streptococci were isolated. A few days after the tonsilitis
the right shoulder and knee joint become involved.

Case 3. — R. L. W., male age 19. When the patient was first
seen he was just recovering from a severe sore throat. His chief
complaint was soreness in the left shoulder joint, which he attri-
buted to an injury. Temperature 100 degrees F., pulse 75. The
following day the joint was decidedly enlarged and very painful.
Five days from this the right ankle joint became swollen and pain-
ful, then the left ankle and right shoulder. Within two weeks all
the joints had returned to their normal size, except the first joint
affected. This joint remained slightly swollen and the move-
ments greatly restricted.

One month from the time the patient was first seen he suddenly
complained of intense pain in the left shoulder joint. Within
twenty-four hours the joint had increased perceptibly in
size and gave evidence of a rapid accumulation of fluid. The
joint was opened, liberating a few old tarry looking clots, fresh
clots and some pus. Immediately following the operation the
patient became profoundly shocked from which condition he failed
to rally,

Case !{.. — A. H. B., male, aged 19. Mr. B. was seen early in
the course of an acute tonsilar infection of streptococcus origin.
The local condition had the same characteristics as previous cases.
A membranous deposit over both tonsils and extending to both
anterior pillars. During the early stage of the infection his tem-
perature remained constantly elevated, ranging between 101 and

1908 ] Streptococcus Infections of the Tonsils 143

104 degrees F. At the end of the first week several points became
involved, the swelling and pain presisted for several days and
gradually subsided, following the subsidence of the joint changes.
The joints at this stage of the infection gave no trouble but severe
pain was complained of in the muscles and tendons. This dis-
turbance continued sixteen weeks at the end of which time the
patient entered on a tedious convalescence which terminated in
complete recovery.

A fifth case recently seen, presented nothing in general
different from the cases reported, except the development of a dry
pericarditis followed by quite an extensive effusion.

The streptococcus in an organism which varies much in its
morphological and biological characteristics as well as in the type
of infection which it produces. In some instances it rapidly
causes a septicaemia while in other cases it is content to remain a
circumscribed infection producing an abcess, or at other times to
extend to the adjacent structures without entering the general cir-
culation .

The frequency with which the tonsils act as an avenue for the
entrance of an infection has long been recognized. The develop-
ment of a tonsilitis before or during an attack of acute articular
rheumatism, first suggested the possibility of the disease being of
microbic and of metabolic origin.

Taking into consideration the ease with which a local infection
of the tonsil could become generalized, the frequency with which
joint complications follow streptococcus infections of these struc-
tures, and lastly, the variety of changes this organism is capable
of causing, it is not improbable that a modified streptococcus or
or an organism clasely related to it, is the specific cause of acute
articular rheumatism.

The specific cause of acute rheumatism, is at the present time,
receiving much attention. There practically remains no doubt
that the disease is an acute infection and that in many of the
cases the tonsils are the portals of entry. The question which is
at present under much discussion is whether the disease should
be considered as a condition produced by one specific organism,
the Diplococcus Rheumaticus of Poynton and Paine. This organ-

144

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

ism has been isolated from the synovial fluid of patients with
acute rheumatism, has been cultivated on special media where it
grows characteristically, and lastly an acute arthritis has been
produced by various investigators by giving intravenous injections
of the organism to rabbits. This diplococcus is Gram negative,
the streptococcus is invariably Gram positive.

The question of the specific nature of acute rheumatism has
been well summed up by Cole of the Johns Hopkins Medical
School. His views are certainly conservative. They are as
follows :

“I greatly fear we are not as yet in a position to make any
positive statements as to the etiology of this disease. It seems to
me that there are at least three possibilities. First, that acute arti-
cular rheumatism is a definite, acute, specific infectious disease,
the cause of which we do not know, and that the cocci which
have been isolated were secondary invaders. Second, that there
is no such specific disease as acute articular rheumatism, but that
the cases grouped under this term are those of a mild and moder-
ately severe case of general streptococcus infection, in which the
joints and heart are generally involved. Third, that acute artic-
ular, rheumatism is due to a specific form of streptococcus, which
at present we have no accurate method of distinguishing from
Streptococcus Pyogenes, but which, owing to the specific character
of the lesions induced in man, must possess special characteris-
tics.”

Lastly, in regard to the treatments of these cases a point of
interest develops. It is well known that the salicylates have a
more or less specific influence in cases of acute rheumatism. In
all of these cases of streptococcus infections of the tonsils the sali-
cylates were of great service in relieving the subjective symptoms.
This relief might be produced through the general action of the
salicylates on the nervous and circulatory systems, or, on the
other hand, it might be explained through a germicidal action of
the salicylates on the specific cause of the disease.

University of North Carolina,

Chapel Hill, N. C.

THE ‘PINCH-EFFECT” IN UNIDIRECTIONAL ELECTRIC

SPARKS.1

BY ANDREW H. PATTERSON.

Prof. Nipher has recently2 described some interesting experi-
ments on momentum effects in electric discharge, and writes as
follows concerning the undirectional sparks obtained by the inser-
tion into the circuit of strips of cloth moistened with a saline
solution : “ . . . . the sparks are large and brilliant at the negative
end in both positive and negative lines, and thin out towards the
positive end. The negative terminals are large spheres of about
10 cm. diameter. The positive terminals are small knobs, of
1 cm. diameter. While on the large sphere the electrons repel each
other. But when they start into motion across the spark-gap, they
attract each other electromagnetically . This appears to be the reason
why the spark thins out as the electrons proceed in their motion
across the spark-gap. The italics are mine.

According to theory, two like charges repelling each other when
at rest, begin to develop an electromagnetic attraction for each
other as soon as they are put in motion in the same direction.
But this attraction does not become equal to the electrostatic
repulsion until the charges move with the velocity of light. This
used to seem very puzzeling to me, for I reasoned as follows: —
Imagine a positively charged hopper filled with steel balls, which
continually dropped into two parallel inclined glass troughs. As
the motion of the charged balls is constantly accelerated, the
electromagnetic attraction which they exert on the charged balls

1 Reprinted from Science, vol. 29, p. 731, Jan. 1, 1909.

2Science, vol. 28, p. 805, Dec. 4, 1908.

1908]

145

146

Journal of the Mitchell Society [December

in the other trough grows larger and larger until the velocity is that of
light, when the streams of balls in the two troughs are exerting
zero fource on each other, (for their electrostatic repulsion is
exactly balanced by their electromagnetic attraction), and yet
they are said to be behaving like electric currents. Why, then,
do parallel currents actually attract each other? No one supposes
that a current in a wire travels faster than light. Some years
ago in Cambridge I asked Prof, (now Sir) .J. J. Thomson about it,
and he replied that my analogy was all right, except that according
to the electron theory the glass trough should have a metal covering
outside, which is positively charged, the hopper should be negatively
charged, and the charge on a unit’s length of the trough should
equal the sum of the negative charges on the balls contained in
that length. Then, the analogy, while crude, would be com-
rlete:, — the steel balls would represent electrons, and the current
in the ordinary sense would flow up the trough instead of down.
The charge on the covering of the trough would represent the
the charges on the positive atoms in a conductor. Under these
circumstances it is easy to see that attraction between the troughs
would ensue as soon as the balls began to move. Prof. Nipher’s
explanation, therefore, would seem to be valid only on the suppo-
sition that the positive ions in the line of the disruptive discharge
(which are dashing towards the negative terminal) would take
the place of the metal-covered trough in my analogy, thus render-
ing the electromagnetic attraction of the moving electrons effective
in drawing them together in a column which continually thins
out towards the positive terminal. If this be true, the effect
ought to be rendered more intense because of this consideration : —
the analogy would then be that of the trough itself (carrying a
a positive charge) moving in the opposite direction to the motion of
the steel balls , thus making the relative velocity of the balls greater
and the attraction more intense.

But there is another way of looking at it which may be more
natural. The negative terminal is a large sphere 10 cm. in diameter,
while the positive terminal is but 1 cm. in diameter. The lines
of force are therefore strongly convergent frem the negative to the
positive sphere, somewhat like the ropes from the gas bag of a

1908 ]

“Pinch Effects” in Electric Sparks

147

balloon to the much smaller basket beneath, and electrons sliding
down these lines (along their negative direction, of course) would
naturally arrange themselves in a column larger at the negative
end, especially as these lines are themselves falling towards the
center line of the discharge. In this case would not the phenom-
enon simply show the pinch effect in gaseous discharge?

University of North Carolina,

Chapel Hill, N. C.

THE RECENT BALTIMORE MEETINGS OF SCIENTIFIC

SOCIETIES

ZOOLOGY

Both the American Society of Zoologists and Section F
(Zoology) of the American Association held meetings. Thirty
three papers were read before section F and fifty nine papers
before the Society of Zoologists. The meeting like all those of
recent years in America gave ample evidence of the strength of
the analytic tendency. Striking discoveries in morphology whether
of adult forms, larvae, or embryos, or of tissues, or of cell group-
ings and movements during embryonic life, continue to be few.
The relationships of animals (phylogenetic classification) have for
the time being almost dropped from the list of subjects discussed.
Keen interest is however manifested in morphological data that
can be interpreted as throwing light on the physiology of develop-
ment. Prominent in this connection were papers by E. B. Wil-
son and T. H. Morgan on sex determination and the nuclear con-
stitution of the sperm in certain insects. These investigators
produced new facts as to chromosome arrangement wThich lend
support to the hypothesis that sex is determined in the individual
germ cell by the presence of a male-producing or female-produc-
ing chromosome.

Underlying this special question of sex determination is the
general question as to the nature of the whole process of differen-
tiation during development. As bearing upon this question E.
G. Conklin presented the results of an experimental study of egg
organization in ascidians and mollusks. Earlier studies led him
to the conclusion that the egg cytoplasm in these forms becomes
differentiated into substances (“organ -forming substances”) that
have fixed and different potentialities, such for instance as a cyto-
plasmic area that necessarily develops into the notochord.
Conklin employing the centrifuge alters the arrangement of sub-

148

[December

1908 ]

Recknt Baltimore Meetings

149

stances in the egg and obtains larvae with correspondingly mis-
placed organs. Thus experiment confirms his earlier conclusion.

In cases like the preceding, differentiation even when inter-
fered with is not directly affected by external factors but is clearly
the result of internal agencies. A capital instance, as it would
seem, of the direct influence of an external agency on the differ-
entiating embryo was discussed by C. R. Stockard, who finds that
if the fertilized eggs of the teleost Fundulus are treated with a
trace of magnesium chloride cyclopean monsters regularly develop
in considerable number. Another interesting paper dealing with
vertebrate monsters and the causes of their production was pre-
sented by H. H. Wilder who sharply separates mere malforma-
tions from bilaterally symmetrical monsters which develop in an
orderly fashion, as Wilder thinks, in obedience to a mechanism of
control inherent in the germ.

The numerous experiments of recent years on hybridization and
artificial parthenogenesis in the echinoderms have made it clear
that before we can deduce with certainty the influence of the two
sexes in determining the characters of the resultant embryo and
larva, we must know more about embryonic variability in the
species experimented upon. D. H. Tennent has made a good
step in this direction in his mapping out of the embryonic varia-
bility in the Beaufort echinoids which he has been using for experi-
mental work.

A considerable number of papers that would collectively fall
under the rubric of experimental evolution dealt with phenomena
of inheritance as disclosed in the breeding of poultry, pigeons,
rats, and insects. Some of the results fit in very well with the
hypothesis of unit. characters and Mendelism, but W. L. Tower
stated that he had been unable to make use of Mendel’s ideas in
his experiments, since in the offspring from his crossed forms the
parental characters might or might not appear in the Mendelian
ratios. C. B. Davenport voiced the widely entertained opinion that
even in apparently contradictory cases, such as those presented by
Tower, Mendelism gives a clue that will aid in unravelling the
tangle of factors.

Good contributions to systematic zoology and geographical distri-
bution were not lacking. C. HartMerriam gave an account of the

150

Journal of the Mitchell Society [ December

work of the U. S. Biological Survey. There were papers on cestodes
by Edwin Linton, on bryozoa by R. C. Osburn, on isopods by Miss
Harriet Richardson. The evolution of species and races in cer-
tain land shells of the Society Islands was discussed by H. E.
Crampton who has made a careful study, during several visits to
the islands, of the local distribution of the different forms.

Mention should be made of a number of papers by H. S. Jen-
nings, L. L. Woodruff, and others on the behavior of protozoa in
respect to conjugation and in response to various stimuli. The
instinctive actions of higher forms, too, received attention, especi-
ally in one of F. H. Herrick’s studies of bird behavior (cuckoo)
in G. A. Drew’s account of the reproductive processes of the squid.
Finally there were papers dealing with the analysis of physiologi-
cal processes in the adult. Among these may be mentioned A.
G. Mayer’s fine study of the cause of rhythmical pulsation in the
scyphomedusae. H. V. Wilson.

CHEMISTRY

The 39th general meeting of the American Chemical Society
was held in Baltimore Tuesday, December 29, 1908 to Friday
January 1, 1909 in conjunction with the meeting of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science. The attendance was
the largest in the history of the society, partly due to the favor-
able meeting place and partly due to the fact that recent large
accessions to the membership have made it one of the largest
chemical societies in the world. The last report gave an enroll-
ment of 4008. The great increase in membership during the last
year was primarily due to the establishment of the Industrial
Division and the promise of a journal devoted to technical chem-
istry. This “Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry”
has now made its appearance. Two years ago the society began
the publication of “Chemical Abstracts”, a semi-monthly periodi-
cal, the most complete chemical abstract journal published.
Three journals are now issued by the society. The success of the
Industrial Division led to the organization at Baltimore of the
Division of Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, Division of Organic
Chemistry and the Division of Fertilizer Chemistry.

1908 ]

Recent Baltimore Meetings

151

By far the larger part of the papers are given in sectional meet-
ings but at Baltimore more than the usual number of general
meetings was held, thus bringing all sorts of chemists together
more than ordinarily. This general mixing was further increased
by the fact that the best place to obtain the noon lunches was at
the Woman’s College where the meetings were held. In the
morning of the first day the society listened to the following
addresses: “The Untilled Field of Chemistry” by A. D. Little,
Chairman Division Industrial Chemists and Chemical Engineers,
“The Use and Abuse of the Ionic Theory” by G. N. Lewis, Chair-
man of Physical Chemistry Section; “The Work of Werner on
the Constitution of Inorganic Compounds” by Charles H. Herty,
Chairman of Inorganic Chemistry Section. The afternoon was
given exclusively to the meeting of the new Section of Chemical
Education, four papers being presented as follows: “Science

Teaching as a Career” by H. P. Talbot, Chairman of this section;
“The Efficiency and Deficiencies of the College Trained Chemist
when Tested in the Technical Field” by William H. Nichols;
“To What Extent Should College Training Confer Practical Effi-
ciency along Technical Lines” by L. M. Dennis; “The Attitude
of Technical Institutions to Post Graduate Study” by William
McMurtrie.

In the evening at the Hotel Belvedere William Simon gave an
illustrated lecture on the “Lumiere Process of Color Phography.”
This was followed by a complimentary smoker. Sectional meet-
ings were held Wednesday forenoon and on subsequent days.
Agricultural and Food Chemistry Section, H.J. Wheeler, Chairman,
21 papers; Biological Chemistry Section, J. J. Abel, Chairman, 16
papers; Division of Industrial Chemists and Chemical Engineers,
A. D. Little, Chairman, 26 papers; Fertilizer Chemistry Section,
F. B. Carpenter, Chairman, 10 papers; Pharmaceutical Chemistry
Section, Edward Kremers, Chairman, 5 papers; Inorganic Chem-
istry Section, Charles H. Herty, Chairman, 17 papers; Organic
Chemistry Section, S. F. Acree, Chairman, 29 papers: Physical
Chemistry Section, Gilbert N. Lewis, Chairman, 31 papers.
Wednesday afternoon was devoted to two excursions, one to the
U. S. Naval Academy at Annapolis and the other to Sharp and
Dohme, pharmaceutical chemists. In the evening at the Girl’s

152 Journal or the Mitchell Society [. December

Latin School Prof. M. T. Bogert, President of the Society deliv-
ered an address on “The Function of Chemistry in the Conserva-
tion of Our Natural Resources.” It was shown that chemistry
does play and will play a more important role in the conservation
of our resourses by developing better methods of working up the
natural resources and new methods of utilizing waste products.

Thursday forenoon at the business meeting resolutions of respect
on the death of Wolcott Gibbs were passed. The following
addresses were given at this time: “The Future of Agricultural
Chemistry” by H. J. Wheeler, “The Quantitative Study of
Organic Reactions” by S. F. Acree, “The Classification of Carbon
Compounds” by Edward Kremers. In the evening a subscription
dinner was given at the Hotel Belvedere. It was an unusual suc-
cess, not only in point of cuisine but in the great enthusiasm and
jollity that was manifest throughout the evening. On Friday
adjourned meetings of the sections were held and a trip was made
to the Maryland Steel Company’s works at Sparrow’s Point.
William R. Whitney, Director of the Research Laboratories of the
General Electric Co. was elected president for the coming year.
The following were elected Councilors-at-Large : W. Lash Miller,
Chas. H. Herty, S. W. Parr, W. H. Walker. The summer
meeting of 1909 will be held at Detroit and the winter meeting
at Boston. Alvin S. Wheeler.

physics

The attendance at the meetings of Section B was larger than
ever before, the Physics lecture room at the Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity being comfortably filled at almost every session. No
striking discoveries were reported, and there was not the enthusi-
asm which greeted for example, the papers of Rutherford at earlier
meetings, but the interest was sustained throughout, and the
discussions were incisive and entertaining. The noticeable feature
was that while all the speakers seemed to realize that the electron
theory is yet simply a working hypothesis, still the language and
the conceptions of that theory were constantly used to explain
phenomena described in various papers. The listener could not
fail to discern a quiet note of confidence in the substantial accur-

1908]

Recent Baltimore Meetings

153

acy of that theory. Another point of interest was that terrestial
and cosmical physics was brought into prominence as never before
at these meetings. Quite a number of papers were presented
dealing wTith various phases of this growing branch of physical
science, and Dr. L. A. Bauer, Director of the Department of
Terrestial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution, took a prominent
part in the discussions, and indeed was elected Vice-President of
Section B for next year. Many papers dealt with attempts to
“try out” many phases of the Electron Theory experimentally,
in some cases with negative, in other cases with positive results.
Among the more inportant papers should be mentioned those on
“The extension of the Balmer series of lines in the Sodium Spec-
trum,” by Prof. R. W . Wood, of Johns Hopkins University;
“The Optical Properties of Films of Magnetic Metals,” by Prof.
C. A. Skinner, University of Nebraska; and “Solar Vortices and
Magnetic Fields,” by Prof G. E. Hale, of Mount Wilson Observa-
tory, Cal.

The Physicists’ Dinner, a new departure, at the Country Club
near Baltimore, was a decided success, and will doubtless be a
regular part of the program in the future. It was decided at this
dinner to cable the; congratulations of those present to Prof.
Ernest Rutherford, a former member of the American Physical
Society, on receiving the Nobel prize in Chemistry for last year.

A. H. Patterson.

geology

The twenty-first annual meeting of the Geological Society of
America was held in the geological building of Johns Hopkins
University, Tuesday to Thursday, 29 to 31 December, 1908.
The morning and afternoon sessions were devoted to the transac-
tion of business and the reading and discussion of original papers.
The formal address by President Samuel Calvin on “The Latest
Phase of the Pleistocene Problem in Iowa” was delivered Tuesday
enening in the main lecture room, followed by a smoker and
social hour in the laboratory. Wednesday evening the annual
dinner of the Society took place at the Hotel Rennert, President
Calvin acted as toastmaster. Over one hundred geologists were
present. The guest of honor was Professor Albrecht Penck, of
the University of Berlin. Informal talks were make by Professor

154 Journal of the Mitchell Society [. December

Penck, Professor Chamberlain, President Van Hise, Professor
Stevenson, Professor Fairchild, Dr. W. B. Clark, and others.
Dr. Gilbert spoke feelingly of his life spent in geology. Dr. G.
O. Smith told of the work of the federal survey, and Dr. Brock
spoke in behalf of the Canadian Survey.

Seventy two papers were listed on the programme, of which
about three-fourths were read. They were arranged in the follow-
ing groups: Physical and Structual, Glacial, Stratigraphic, Areal,
Paleontologic, Petrologic, Physiographic, Cartographic, Economic.
By invitation of the council Professor Penck delivered a lecture
on interglacial epochs Wednesday morning. This great geog-
raper and glacial geologist in the brief time at his disposal
summed up the evidence, as exhibited in the Alps and in North
America, bearing upon the lapses of time between the different
ice invasions.

“Some Distinctions between Marine and Terrestial Conglomer-
ates”, by Joseph Barrell, followed the same line which this author
has pursued for some years, and showed his usual painstaking
research. Professor Chamberlain’s paper, “Diastrophism of the
Ultimate Basis of Correlation”, was appreciated by all. The sen-
sation of the meeting came when Frank B. Taylor in his paper,
“The Bearing of the Tertiary Mountain Belt upon the Origin of
the Earth's Plan”, suggested the possibility of the earth having
captured the moon in late geological time, thus accounting for the
earth’s polar shortening. The papers by Fairchild on the reces-
sion of the ice in New York, elicited much comment from Brigham
and others, and it seemed difficult for the glaciologist to agree
upon details. Dr. W. B. Clark spoke of the results of the invisti-
gation of the coastal plain formations along the Atlantic coast.
Of interest to North Carolinians were the papers by E. W. Berry
on “The Geologic Relations of the Cretaceous Floras of Virginia
and North Carolina”, and by S. L. Miller on “Erosion Intervals
in the Tertiary of North Carolina and Their Bearing upon the
Distribution of the Formations”. Dr. E. O. Hovey displayed
some very fine views of Mont Pele and the Soufri&re taken last
summer, and pointed out recent changes in the two volcanoes.

The paper most eagerly awaited by stratigraphers and general
geologists entitled, “Revision of the Paleozoic Systems in North

1908 ]

Recent Baltimore Meetings

155

America”, by E. 0. Ulrich was read to a crowded audience. Dr.
Ulrich has spent many years during his connection with the U. S.
Geological Survey in gathering first hand knowledge of the Paleo-
zoic formations, and his conclusions are the ripe fruit of a mind
long trained in field observation and paleontology. Such vague
terms as Cambro-Ordovician and Devon o-Mississippian are decried
by him as savoring of ignorance, and the attempt is made to show
that defiinite boundaries can be discovered by careful field search
and close correlation. “The proposed classification is based
primarily on crustal movements, diastrophism, the succession of
which is determined by the faunal evidence. The occurance of
such movements is determined, aside from plain physical evidence,
primarily by mutations in the faunas, especially by the introduc-
tion of new faunal elements and facies, etc.” One of the pro-
posed changes is the insertion of a new system, the Ozarkian,
so-called for its development in Missouri and Arkansas, between
the Cambrian and Ordovician systems. This system occurs also
along the Appalachian Valley from New York to Alabama, and
is separated from both Cambrian and Ordovician by unconformi-
ties. Another change consists in placing the Meramec and
Chester groups of the Mississippian in the system, the Tennesseean,
between the Mississippian and the Pennsylvanian.

The meeting of the Society disbanded with the offering of a
formal vote of thanks to Dr. W. B. Clark and his colleagues for
the entertainment and courtesy extended to all visiting geologists.

H. N. Eaton.

botany

The recent meetings in Baltimore of the botanists of America
were the largest, most interesting, and most successfully conducted
of any ever held in this country. The botanical societies that
came together there were Section G. of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, The Botanical Society of America,
The Sullivant Moss Society, The Wild Flower Preservation
Society, and The American Nature Study Society (which is inter-
ested in the teaching of botany) .

The Secretaries of Section G. and of the Botanical Society of

156

Journal of the Mitchell Society

[. December

America were so successful in arranging their sessions as to avoid
any conflict of programs, but it was found necessary to segregate
the papers on fungi into a separate program. This withdrawal of
the fungologists into sessions of their own marks another step in
the process of specialization that characterizes the advance of all
our sciences. The economic importance of the fungi in producing
diseases of plants and animals has naturally attracted much atten-
tion to them, and papers on their structure and habits are becom-
ing more numerous with each succeeding year.

Attractive as the newer fields of botanical research undoubtedly
are, they have not led to a decline of interest in the subjects of
morphology and classification. Such papers as Chrysler ’s “On
the nature of the fertile spike in the Ophioglossaceae” which
throw new light on relationships, and as Shattuck’s on the
“Origin of Heterospory in Marsilea”, a good piece of work on
experimental morphology, never fail to attract attention.

During the last few years the most notable development in our
knowledge of morphology has been along the line of vascular
anatomy. In the words of Prof. John M. Coulter “Phylogenetic
vascular anatomy was developed at an auspicious time, for phyl-
ogeny based upon reproductive structures was beginning to waver.
Wider research had begun to dissipate rigid categories into mists,
and especially had expermental morphology begun to play havoc.
The whole situation has been steadied, at least momentarily, by
the recent development of vascular anatomy, including as it does
the enormously important ancient history of the vascular groups.”

Prof. J. C. Bose, a hindoo, who was here on a commission
from the government of India, gave an address on the little known
subject of “Electrical response in plants” that attracted much
attention .

From the program it was obvious that the study of ecology* is
gaining ground. A symposium on the subject was held by the
Botanical Society of America in which papers were given by

^Students of Dr. W. K. Brooks will remember how much he disliked that
word, claiming that it was not needed, its meaning being entirely covered
by the word “biology”.

1908 ]

Recent Baltimore Meetings

157

Cowles, Livingston, Shaw Spalding, and Transeau. Expressions
in these papers indicated that the long dominent idea that all
structure and activities of a plant must have some useful purpose
or express some adaptation is fast being replaced by one that
admits the possibility of useless structures. It is a relief, as Cowles
says, not to be compelled to find adaptations where none exists.

Interest in the factors of evolution and the laws of inheritance is
still most active, and evidence is being sought by experiments in
many directions. The mutation theory and the laws of Mendel
still focus the attention of the students of evolution ; but it seems
evident that we are still far from the time when these highly com-
plex phenomena may be expressed in simple laws.

To commemorate the birth of Charles Darwin one hnndred
years ago a memorial session was held by the Botanical Society of
America. The following addresses were made:

“General sketch and estimate of Darwin’s work on cross-polli-
nation in plants,” by William Trelease. “Estimate of Darwin’s
work on movement of plants,” by H. M. Richards. “Darwin’s
influence on plant ecology and plant geography,” by F. E. Clem-
ents. A Darwin centenary memorial was also held by the Ameri-
can Association for the Advancement of Science, together with the
American Society of Naturalists, all sciences participating. The
two addresses given by botanists were as follows: “The Theory

of Natural Selection from the standpoint of botany,” by John. M.
Coulter; “The Direct Effect of Environment,” by Daniel T.
MacDougal. From the tenor of these addresses it was evident
that the fame of Darwin is in no wise on the decline.
His influence on science, philosophy, life is beyond all
estimate. Fifty years have passed since the publication of
“The Origin of Species,” years unparalled for progress in the
history of the world; and it was the momentum of Darwin’s
thought that initiated that progress and that sustained it in its
course. Since that eventful year of 1859 much new knowledge
has been acquired and points of view have changed, new theories
have been proposed and old ones modified; but through bitter
assault and turmoil and testing the foundations that Darwin built

158

Journal of the Mitchell Society

have remained unshaken, and of all the great names that make
memorable the 19th century his, at least, is secure:

“Nothing is here for tears, nothing to wail
Or knock the breast; no weakness, no contempt,
Dispraise, or blame; nothing but well and fair,

And what may quiet us in a” life “so noble.”

W. C. Coker.

PLATE I.

F ig /

Fig 3

F'g 6.

DIAGRAMS EXPLAINING PROGRESSIVE STEPS IN THE FORMATION OF BARRIER DUNE

When the dune has assumed the form illustrated by Fig. 4, grass is planted, and by extend
ig the area planted towards the shore (to the left) the subsequent form of the dune is influenced

North Carolina Geological Survey.

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