JAN 1 7 1917 - FEB 9fi 1917 OCT 2 8 »T7 \ HIGHLAND SHEEP AT HOME THE PRESENTATION of this photo-engraving as a frontis- piece is meant to be a tribute to the talent of Mr. Chas. Reid, of Wishaw, Scotland, whose work in this direction has shown the degree to which animal photography may be made both artistic and instructive. The sustained merit of the work which he had done has pointed the way to gratifying results, and the outcome has just recently made it possible to illustrate a book of this kind with all the types and qualities shown as they are, through the agency of photographs made by him and such artists as Schreiber of Philadelphia, Hills of Ohio, and Brown cf Sect- land. In addition to the clearness of detail in this reproduction of some Highland sheep, note the beauty of the mountain stream with the old water wheel at the side of it, the naturalness of the cheep, the watchful pose of the dog, guardlike in position, with the sLepherds resting at the foot of the trees and all in the fore- ground of the rolling hills suggested beyond. JUDGING LIVE STOCK By JOHN A. CRAIG PROPRIETOR, OAKMORE FARM, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS FORMERLY EDITOR CANADIAN LIVE STOCK JOURNAL PROFESSOR ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN PROFESSOR ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND VICE DIRECTOR IOWA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE DEAN AND DIRECTOR TEXAS AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR 1908 COPYRIGHTED 1901 BY JOHN A. CRAIG SET UP AND ELECTROTYPED, JANUARY 1901 REPRINTED, SECOND EDITION, MARCH, 1901 REPRINTED, THIRD EDITION, APRIL, 1901 REPRINTED, FOURTH EDITION, JANUARY, 1902 REPRINTED, FIFTH EDITION, OCTOBER, 1902 REPRINTED, SIXTH EDITION, AUGUST,^ 1904 REPRINTED, SEVENTH EDITION, FEBRUARY, 1905 REPRINTED, EIGHTH EDITION, FEBRUARY, 1906 REPRINTED, NINTH EDITION, JANUARY, 1907 REPRINTED, TENTH EDITION, JANUARY, 1908 REPRINTED, ELEVENTH EDITION, APRIL, 1908 THE KENYON PRINTING & MFG. CO. DES MOINES, IOWA Beauty is boug-ht by judgment of the eye. — Shakespeare. IN JUDGING LIVE STOCK there are two faculties which seem to require special development — observation and judgment. The eye must see quickly and accurately, so that there may be no mistake in the observations which are to form the basis for a conclusion. While this is to a considerable extent dependent on being informed on what to look, for, yet no amount of informa- tion will supply keen powers of observa- tion, which in addition, must be kept in practice by continuous use. The student should never be dilatory in this, for once allow it to be said that he sees a thing which he does not, the foundation for candid criticism is being built on sand. It is bettei to be " simpler than the infancy of truth " and completely candid with one's observations than to be mthe least deceptive or dilatory in recording them. Not only should one be quick to see things as they really are but there should be as much dispatch in detecting deviations from the correct standard. There is much difficulty in this for a standard only forms itself clearly in one's mind after the re- sults of experience, observation and study have merged together into a clearly de- fined ideal. To formulate an ideal is What, then, makes a dog- beautiful? The possession of the excellence of a dog-. And what makes a horse beautiful? The possession of the excellence of a horse. What, then, makes a man beautiful ? Is it not the po- session of the excellence of a man ? — Epictetus, absolutely essential and in doing this it is imperative to familiarize one's self with the good qualities of animal life, correct conform- ation and the highest types, so that the least variation from these at once attracts the attention. When a distinct ideal, based on the best types and their highest qualities has been formed in the mind, and this is sup- ported by a discriminating eye, it is but another step to render a correct judgment. No pessimist ever made much in the study of life his- tories of animals. The stu- dent of such had better be an optimist out and out. — Samuel Lockwood. 310810 But do thou, I say, simply and fully, choose the better and hold to it. But that which is useful is the better. — An- toninus. In judging the market classes of stock the demands of the market should have a strong influence in the establishment of standards and in the judging of breeding classes the official scales of points, when such exist, should be relied upon chiefly as a guide, and when these are not officially published an effort should be made to become informed regarding the understanding that exists among the breeders. While thes ? standards are so wide in scope as to include many minor points yet it will be noticeable that the, essential features are given the greatest prominence and they are usually based on the utility oi the animal for its purpose. This does not mean lhat the minor features should be slighted, for the degree No detail is too small to be studied for truth. of excellence in domestic animals is now evenson' so high and the competition so keen that it is most frequently on some of these minor details that their rank in the show ring is determined. In show ring judging, after the inspection is completed, a draft or " short leet " is made of the likely winners of place from the rest of the competitors. Up to this time the judging has been the detection of faults and deviations from the standard required, but now the work is more of the nature of comparative judging, in which the points of the animals considered worthy of prizes are compared to determine their rank. It greatly aids dispatch and tends to more Reverence the faculty which produces opinion.— Antonims- exactness to make such a draft when there are five or more animals in the class. It also materially assists the examiner in keeping in mind the qualities which he musi compare. Carefulness at. this point will do much towards the formation of a decision, which may be afterv/ards maintained with justice. CONTENTS CHAPTER I— JUDGING HORSES. I. THE ANATOMY A BASIS OF STUDY 5 The Bones as Levers; Actions of the Muscles; Function of the Nervous System; Temperaments. II. JUDGING LIGHT HORSES, General Examination. — Form; Propelling Power Re- sides in Hindquarters; Three Classes of Light Horses; The Coach or Carriage Horse; Analysis of Style; The Trotter or Roadster; The Pacer as a Roadster; The Saddle Horse; Quality; Durability Associated with Quality; Action, The Walk; Observing Straightness of the walk; Manner of Noting Levelness; The Higli Stepper in Action; The Carriage Horse; Straight and Regular Action; The Driver's Sensation of Action; The Trotter; The Pacing Gait. Structural Examination. — Head; Nostrils; Eyes; Ears; Jaw Bones; Neck; Shoulders; Fore Legs; Arms; Elbows; Fore Arms; Knees; Cannons; Pasterns; Feet; Ribs; Back; Loin; Croup; Thighs; Quarters; Hind Legs; Hocks; Hind Cannons; Hind Pasterns; Hind Feet; Scale of Points for Light Horses. III. JUDGING HEAVY HORSES 32 Consideration of Condition. General Examination. — Form; Advantage ol Weight; Market Value of Weight; Quality with Substance Nea- essary for Durability; Action; Trotting Action. Structural Examination. — Head; Neck; Shoulder; Chest; Arm; Fore Leg; Knees; Fetlocks; Pasterns; Feet; Body; Loin; Croup; Hock; Scale of Points for Heavy Horses. IV. JUDGING HORSES IN THE BREEDING CLASSES 44 Sex Characteristics; Differences in Disposition; Differ- ences in form; Variation in Features; Relation of Sex Characteristics to Sterility; Relation of Sex Character- istics to Prepotency; The Stallion Classes; Importance of Correct Conformation; Hereditary Diseases; The Mare Classes; Colts and Fillies. V. ESTIMATING THE AGE OF HORSES BY THEIR TEETH 50 Appearance of Incisors; Order of Appearance of Incisors; Disappearance of the Tables. CONTENTS — CONTINUED VI. EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS 52 A Blemish Different from Unsoundness; Decayed and Worn Teeth; Discharges from the Nostrils; Defective Hearing; Sweenied Shoulders; Capped Elbows; Splints; Ringbones; Sidebones; Quarter Cracks and Sand Cracks; Corns; Thrush and Scratches; Locating Lame- ness; Thoroughpin; Curb; Bone Spavin; Bog Spavin; Unsound in Wind; Detection of Stable Vices. V!T. OFFICIAL STANDARDS FOR HORSES 58 Standard for Trotting and Pacing Horses; Shetland Pony Scale of Points. CHAPTER II— JUDGING CATTLE. Method of Examination 63 I JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 63 Method of Handling; Store Steer; Form of the Feeder; Quality; Inferences from Good Handling; Features of the Head; Neck; Chest; Ribs; Hips; Judging Fat Steers; Handling; Condition; Relation of Parts; Value of Cuts; Scale of Points for Beef Steer. II. JUDGING BEEF STOCK FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 73 Judging Beef Bulls; Judging Beef Cows; Judging Young Beef Stock. III. JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 76 Dairy Cow's Function; Making of Milk; Function of the Blood; Function of the Udder; Nervous System; The Dairy Form; Skin; Hair; Bone; Head; Neck; Hind Quarters; Hips; Thi^h; Escutcheon; Udder; Teats; Milk Veins; Scale of Points for Dairy Cow. IV. JUDGING DAIRY BULLS 88 Purity of Breeding; Uniformity of Breeding; Pedigree Based on Performance; Qualities Associated with Individuality; Judging Calves. V. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 90 Aberdeen Angus; Devon; Red Polled; Holstein- Friesian; Jersey; Guernsey; Dutch Belted; Ayrshire. CHAPTER III— JUDGING SHEEP. Method of Examining Sheep; Deception Due to Trim- ming; Estimating Age by the Teeth 107 I. JUDGING SHEEP FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 100 Feeding Type that Gives the Best Gains; Feeding Type Bringing Most at Maturity; Type Desired by the Butch- er; Quality; The Importance of Condition; Judging Condition; Importance of Dressed Weight; Considera- tion of the Consumer; Qualities of the Fleece; Examin- ing the Fleece; Quantity of Fleece; Density; Length CONTEXTS — CONTINUED of Staple; Classification of Wool; Quality of Fleece; Softness; Commercial Grades; Crimp; Soundness; Condition; Purity; Domestic Wool; Territory Wool; Blanket Wool; Lustre; Brightness; Yolk; Scale of Points for Fina Wooled Sheep; Scale of Points for Fat Sheep. II. JUDGING SHEEP FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 127 Formation of Types; Value of Breed Type; The Ram; The Ewe; Judging Lambs and Flocks. III. OFFICIAL STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 131 Southdown; Shropshire; Hampshire; Suffolk; Oxford; Cotswold; Wensleydale; Dorset Horn; Cheviot; De- laine, Spanish Merino; Black Top Spanish Merino; Tunis. CHAPTER IV— JUDGING SWINE. I. JUDGING FAT HOGS 145 Form; Quality; Head; Eyes; Ears; Jowl; Neck; Shoulder; Front Legs; Chest; Sides; Back; Loin; Hips; Rump; Hams; Hind Legs; Scale of Points for Fat Hogs. II. JUDGING BACON HOGS 152 Condition; Form; Weight; Shoulder; Side; Scale of Points for Bacon Hogs. III. JUDGING SWINE FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 156 The Boar; The Sow. IV. OFFICIAL STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 158 Berkshire; Poland China; Essex; Chester White; Duroc Jersey; Victoria; Cheshire, Large White York- shire; Middle White Yorkshire; Small White Yorkshire; Suffolks; Tarn worth; Thin-Rind. CHAPTER I. JUDGING HORSES. To furnisla reasons for many of the points that will be submitted in discussing the types of horses, it becomes neces- sary to consider the horse as a mechanism in which the bones are levers, the muscles the source of power and the nervous system the stimulator of the muscles. I. THE ANATOMY A BASIS OF STUDY. I. The Bones as Levers. The three classes of levers are all represented in the anatomy of the horse. The first class may be fittingly illustrated by a pair of scissors; the power is applied at the holes for the fingers, the fulcrum is in the center where the blades are united and the applica- tion of the power is at the points. This is the strongest form of leverage and it is employed in the skeleton of the horse by the parts involved in the extension of the limbs. The lever of the second class may be said to be clearly represented by a wheelbarrow. The power is applied at the handle, the weight is in the center and the application of the power is at the wheel. This leverage in the horse enables it to sleep standing or to stand without feeling much strain. It is in action in such parts as that in the region of the humerus. The leverage of the third class is represented by a pair of sheep shears. The power is applied at the center, the ful- crum is at one end and the application of the power is at the other. This leverage is not common but it is shown in the action of the lower jaw of the horse. The masseter muscles 6 JUDGING HORSES of the jaw apply their power to the center of the jaw bone, the fulcrum is at the point where the under jaw joins the head, while the application of the power is at the teeth. 2. Action of the Muscles. In considering the leverage, the attachment of the muscles and their nature are impor- tant. As the muscles consist of bundles of fibers, it is easy to understand that when these fibers are long, they possess more elasticity than when they are short. The long muscle with long leverage, added to by length of the bones is more favorable for quick action or speed, while the heavier muscle is more favorable for draft or power. The attachment of the muscles to the skeleton is also an important feature. When the muscles by means of the tendons are attached to promi- nences thus enabling them to work some distance from the bones that furnish the leverage, it is easy to see that the action of the muscles would be more effective. Hence, in most joints there are prominences to give the muscles the most favorable attachment. In this connection it will be interesting to study the pro- portions of the bones of the skeleton to find reasons for the advantages which are supposed to originate with different proportions. In general we look for short bones in those parts where the function is simply the transmission of power; while we desire greater length in those 'parts where the mus- cles, the source of power or speed, are to be found. In the front leg for instance, it is desirable to have the distance long from the elbow to the knee, with the proportions showing a much greater distance from the knee to the fetlock joint for the reason that the distance over which the power travels should be as short as possible that it may be economized and but little of it lost in transmission. 3. Function of the Nervous System. In studying the horse as a mechanism, more than bone and muscle should be included. The stimulation for action comes from the nerve power or force. The nerve power is represented centrally Ancient and modern schools in stock judging. In early times wnat was known in regard to the judging of stock had to be garnered under the environment and with the material shown in the upper illustration. Modern facilities and methods are shown in the lower illustration, which is a photo- graph of the stock judging pavilion at the Iowa Agricultural College, with the first class to come together for special instruction in stock judging. Three hundred were in attendance at this school January. 1901. •••.ka.ia.ia.ia O r ++ Hill g .1 .5" JjJii *w*L . ^ A ^iJ-ajLpi j S igl^ll o o-5 S1^ 2 ll-S S &§:S2 S2 S5ls g=^S S < THE ANATOMY A BASIS OF STUDY 7 by the brain and from there it is carried to all parts of the body by the spinal cord through the main channel of the vertebrae, and from this it branches out to stimulate many muscles. The stimulation for action must come from the nerve centers and these consequently have much to do with the quickness and the strength with which a horse may act. It has been determined * in the races of dogs and other ani- mals showing superior speed, that the nerves regulating the heart and lungs have greater power than in the instance of those that are slower. Another authority f who has given this feature special study states that the degree of contraction of the muscle is proportioned to the degree of stimulation. This general statement serves to sustain the position that the horse of strong nervous organization has quicker and more complete control over its muscles than the one deficient in this feature. 4. Temperaments. To the nervous organization, its tone and force, we can largely trace the temperaments that are characteristic of horses. The horse of nervous temperament expresses the fact by being a willing and enduring worker in its sphere; while the horse of lymphatic temperament seem- ingly lacks zest in its labors for the want of tone in its nerv- ous system. The bilious temperament reflects itself in a bad temper and springs chiefly from the condition of the body; while the sanguine temperament, resulting from apparently opposite conditions, finds expression in a disposition that is kind and willing. In this connection it should be stated that the term nervous temperament is not used in the sense in which it is commonly accepted, namely, a lack of nervous control; for such a condition usually results in an irritable and erratic temperament which is devoid of results as expressed in work. * Mills, Comparative Physiology, page 213. t Smith, Physiology of Animals, page 721. 8f JUDGING LIGHT HORSES II. JUDGING LIGHT HORSES. /. General Examination. In the general examination of horses, the form, quality and action are the chief features requiring consideration. This examination takes in the horse as a whole, while the struc- tural examination requires detailed criticism of each part independent of others. 5. Form — The Contribution of Skeleton and Muscle. To be able to accurately estimate the form of a horse, it is neces- sary to understand the extent to which the ^orm is due to the skeleton and how much of it depends on the muscular development. A comparison of a skeleton of a horse with a living and well developed animal will show clearly that some parts owe their form to the framework of bone, while other regions are shaped wholly by the muscle. Beginning at the head, it will be noticed that the form of it is determined almost alto- gether by the bones that comprise it. The outlines of the neck, however, are just as distinctly due to the muscular development of that region. The shoulder and chest are outlined in form chiefly by the skeleton though smoothened with muscle. The shape of the leg from the knee upwards to the body is determined by muscles of that region, while from the knee to the fetlock the outline is due largely to the tendons that make the leg at this point appear flat from the side. The common supposition is that the leg appears flat from the side view because the bone is flat, but the fact is the flat appearance is due to the degree to which the tendons stand back from the bone. 6. Propelling Power Resides in Hind Quarters. A study of the degree to which the skeleton and the muscular develop- ment contribute to the form of a horse, brings into promi- nence the idea that most of the power resides in the hind parts. The fact that the greatest muscular development is in that region would indicate this. Photo by Schrfiber. LF.ADER, THE SCOTCHMAN, winner of numerous prizes at the Boston and Philadelphia horse shows in the heavy harness classes. Illustrative of the fullness and symmetry of form that should be a feature of the carriage or coach type. Phcto from. Rider and Driver. TIIK DEMON and LOTHARIO showing the type desirable in a pair of car- riage horses. Photo by Schreiber, HOOD'S MCGREGOR, record 2:26?,£, by Robert McGregor 2:17*4. Winner of three first prizes Philadelphia Horse Show, 1897, in roadster classes, and also first for best appointed road rig. Photo by Lillie. Saddle gelding, COLUMBUS, showing Spanish trot. Winner of first prize high school class at Kansas City Horse Show, 1898. Owned by C. T. Walker, GENERAL EXAMINATION 9 It will be noticed that the form of the loin, the shape of the croup, the fullness of the thigh and quarters are due in the greatest degree to the extra development of muscle in these parts. The front quarter of the horse is bare of muscle in comparison with the hind quarter. Another reason for accepting this theory is the difference in the manner of the attachment of the fore legs to the body, compared to that of the hind legs. The shoulder blade is loosely attached to the trunk while the hind leg connects with the body through the agency of an unusually strong ball and socket joint. The shoulder blade plays loosely, seemingly for the purpose of lessening the concussion the leg receives from contact with the ground, while the hind legs in their connection with the pelvis make a joint that is the most powerful of the body. T* Three Classes of Light Horses. The light horse in respect to form and other characteristics may be divided into three main classes: the carriage horse, the road horse and the saddle horse. These may be spoken of as the most com- mon types recognized in the market, while the pure bred representatives of them are to be seen in the breeds of coach horses, the standard trotter and the standard saddle horse. 8. The Coach or Carriage Horse. The distinguishing features of the coach or carriage horse are its symmetry and action. The height should be about 16 hands to make a good appearance. In contrast with the roadster the carriage horse is very smooth and symmetrical. The smoothness should be due to plumpness of the muscle over all parts. In the carriage type the head snould be comparatively small and lean, the ear neat, the neck long and carried gracefully, the body round and plump and the limbs clean cut, with well formed and durable feet. Graceful carriage and stylish action are leading qualifications. 9. Analysis of Style. When in any posture, style is a very desirable attribute in any carriage horse. A critical 10 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES examination of this type would indicate how far the posses- sion of style depends on the adjustment of the parts of the framework. When a carriage or coach horse possesses characteristic style, there seems to be an appropriate blend- ing of all proportions of form. In analyzing this it will be found that most of the lines have a similar direction, in addition to the fullness of contour already discussed. The line running from the poll to the nose seems to be parallel to that of the shoulder, the line dividing the pastern also has a similar direction, and the line of the thigh in the hind quarter corresponds with the slope of the hind pastern. Considering the lines that run different from these it will be noticed that the one made by the arm from the point of the shoulder to the elbow is very similar in direction to that made by the ischium of the pelvis and this again is similar to that of the lower thigh. Kach part of a typical carriage horse seems to bear a fixed relation to every other part both in size, length and slope, giving the horse that symmetry which contributes so much to its style and beauty while standing or in action. 10. The Trotter OP Roadster. The chief characteristics of the roadster are speed and stamina. The ability to trot fast is a desirable quality and the ability to maintain a rapid gait is equally essential in a horse of this kind. In addition to being able to stand steady road work, such a horse must be well mannered so as to be safe and pleasurable to drive. The typical roadster may be said to be about 15^ hands high and about a thousand pounds in weight. In conforma- tion the horse of this class is somewhat narrow in front, deep chested, wide at the loin and very muscular in the quarters. Every feature about the horse appears clean cut, giving a hard finish which indicates durability. The linea- ments of the face and the outlines of the neck and especially the distinctness with which the tendons stand away from the leg are very desirable features. Combination saddle and harness gelding FIGHLAJSO, owned by Professor C. F. Curtiss, Iowa Agricultural College, Ames, Iowa. A winner at state fairs in this class. Prize winning Kentucky bred saddle horse COMPEER, property of Edwin n. Wotherbee, New York City. The Breeder's Gazette, referring to this horse, says : *• Of magnificent presence, with a height of 15.3 and a weight of 1,100 pounds, this young horse wants merely to settle to his height by the development of another /ear; in sound feet, elastic pasterns, quantity and quality of bone, height at withers, range of neck and strength of back Com- peer makes good his name. Disposition and manners are the essentials of a perfect saddle horse, and these Compeer possesses in unusual degree. He is brilliant in his action; his walk is fine, his trot distinguished by a superb flex of hocks, while his haunches could not be better tucked under at the Photograph of CKESCEUS 2:02^4, the champion trotting stal'.ion of the world, in track harness, with Geo. E. Ketcham, his owner, in thv. sulky. Cresceus was sired by Robert McGregor 2:17%. Owned by Geo. II. Ketcham, Toledo, O. Cresceus trotted a mile in 1:59%, but it was dls allowed, owing to a technicality. BEN BOLT, champion light weight hunter, Philadelphia Horse Show Association, 1900. Owned and ridden by Miss Marion Halloway. EAGLE PLUME, champion heavy weight hunter. and winner of numerous Drizes as a saddle horse, owned by Geo. Pepper & Sons, of Ontario, Canada. Photo by Sckreiber Polo pony owned by Robert E. Strawbridge, Philadelphia. Purchased a,t a cost of $1,000. GENERAL EXAMINATION 11 The type lacks the fullness and symmetry that are char- acteristic in the carriage or coach horse. To do effective and hard work on the road is the sphere of the roadster and the type that has been evolved is an illustration of the evo- lution of a form for a specific purpose. The type of the best campaigners that have marks of 2:10 or better will show a similarity that indicates the type towards which the trotter is tending. Though it should be noted here that the roadster in show form will show quite different outlines from one that has been subjected to the hard training that the campaignei receives. To describe the roadster form in detail it may be said that the head is proportioned to the rest of the body, wide between the eyes and somewhat sharp at the poll. The neck is slim, long and very often carried somewhat straight, owing to the continual use of the top check. . The shoulder slopes very markedly and extends well along towards the back. The arm is short and this with the slope of the shoulder makes the under line much longer than the length of the back. The fore arm is long, the cannon short and the pasterns with sufficient length and slope. The horse appears too far from the ground in proportion to its height. The back is short and strong rising some at the hips and the croup is strongly muscled. Perhaps the most noticeable feature of the type is the exceptional length from the hip joint to the point of hock and then from the point of the hock to the fetlock joint the distance is short, making the hock appear as if set low. 1 1. The Pacer as a Roadster. As a roadster, the pacer has many claims for consideration chiefly on account of the speed that characterizes this gait and the fact that it is easily maintained on smooth city roads. It is, however, mainly the quickness with which full speed is attained that makes the pacer so popular among the road riders of our cities. The difficulty that a pacer encounters on rough, broken roads or 12 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES in snow, makes it necessary to have a smooth hard road to enjoy the pleasures of the gait. Among pacers there is often noticeable a type that is not desirable in any class. It can hardly be called typical of this class of horses for many of those that are fastest at this gait, do not have the very low fore hand, the cramped hind quarters or bent-in hocks that are often connected with this form. The horse that paces smooth and true exhibits an easy and pleasing manner of going as well as one effective in producing speed, but there are many varieties of this gait that are the reverse of this because of defects in conformation which preclude rapid movement in any other manner. 12. The Saddle Horse. The type of the saddle horse is somewhat similar to that of the carriage horse but the typical saddle horse shows more quality and better manners than any other class of light horses. Aside from these features the most necessary qualifications of the saddle horse are the ability to show the different gaits that are required of horses of this class. The standard performances adopted by the executive committee of the American Saddle Horse Associa- tion are the following gaits: (i) Walk. (2) Trot. (3) Single foot or rack (4) Canter. (5) Slow pace, running walk or fox trot. The gait known as single foot or rack is very similar to the pace, except that in the latter the two feet of the same side move together while in the single foot the hind foot reaches the ground shortly before the front foot on the same side. The gait known as single foot is con- sidered synonymous with that of the rack and it has been described as exactly intermediate between the true walk and the true trot, each foot apparently moves independent of the other with what has been termed a "one at a time move- ment." 13. Quality. This term applied to horses has reference to their bones, skin and hair. Evidences of quality are clearly cut features, glove-like skin, silky hair and firm» clean Lot- DILLON, champion trotter of the world. Record, 1 mile, 1 :58i/>. Bred by Pierce Bros., Santa Rosa, California. Owned by C. K. G. Billings, New York. DAN PATCH, champion pacer of the world. Record, 1 mile, 1 l Owned by International Stock Food Co., Minneapolis, Minn. GENERAL EXAMINATION 13 bone. In the instance of the horse possessing quality, the lines of the face are clearly defined and in every region there is a complete absence of coarseness. It is possible in such a horse to easily distinguish the muscles, tendons and bones and when slightly exerted, so that the coat lies smooth, the veins in the skin show clearly in an intricate net work as delicate and fine grained as the skin. This freedom from coarseness in the joints and tendons show a soundness in these features that guarantees durability. Coarse hair is associated with coarse skin and that is a true indication of soft, spongy bones which quickly become diseased when sub- jected to the strain of hard usage or neglect. 14. Endurance Indicated by Quality. The connection between a horse' s staying power or endurance and its quality is frequently seen when subjected to severe road work, but the reason for the connection is not so plainly evident. The fine skin that is one of the features of high quality is consid- ered to be of value for what it tells of the internal organiza- tion of the animal, for it may be said in a general way that the one skin covers the horse internally as well as externally. The inner coat of the skin which covers the ribs and all exter- nal parts is a continuation of that which lines the stomach and intestines. If the skin covering the internal region is soft, fine and pliable it indicates that the secretions are healthy and it would seem natural to reason from this that the lining of the stomach would be in the same state, and if such is the case it is in a better condition to digest the food that goes into it, thereby increasing the horse's recuperative powers and endurance. 15. Durability Associated with Quality. Quality in a horse's limbs and feet is especially desirable for the reason that such prove more durable under stress or strain. In looking for this feature in the leg, it is a common practice to run the hand over the cannon bone. In doing this the skin and hair are felt against the bone and if there is the proper 14 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES quality there, the skin seems to melt from under the hand letting the latter come in close contact with the bone which feels firm and smooth. The fingers seem to touch each other as they pass between the tendon and the bone of the leg, when the latter has the right degree of quality. It is a fact that in finely bred horses that undergo unusual trials of endurance, such as the thoroughbred and the trotter, the texture of the bone is decidedly firmer and closer than that of horses bred for slower work . Another evidence of quality is to be seen in the lines showing the division of the muscles as these should appear distinct in the horse of quality and the joints of the limbs should not show any fullness but be clearly defined and hard. 16. Action — Why Highly Valued. In the market for light horses there is no single feature held in higher estima- tion than that of desirable action. It has different degrees of valuation when associated with the various types of horses, but to sell well they all must have as much as may be dis- played and used to advantage. The fact that proper action associated with the coach type brings exceptional prices in the market, would of itself make the subject an important study but when its influence on the prices of all classes of horses is considered, it at once assumes the position of being the most valuable characteristic connected with the classes of l;o-bt horses. Good action is mainly desirable for its utility and also for the many other qualities which it indicates. It will readily be expected that the horse with good action is more durable and more enjoyable, as the work is done easier, and also more profitable, for more of it is accomplished. But looking further into the subject it is surprising what other attributes are dependent on it. The action of a horse reflects its tem- perament, proves the balance of its conformation and indi- cates soundness. With right action there must be a dash and zest which is the outflow of a sanguine temperament High stepper in action. Photographed from "Driving for Pleasure." showing the extreme degree to which the knee and hock action may be developed by heavy shoeing and training. Photo by Schreiber LEADEK, THE SCOTCHMAN,, in action, showing the folding of the knee and the flexing of the hock desired in carriage horses. Photo by Philips, Independence, Iowa. ALLr.RTON, record 2:09*4, in action, showing the reach and movement to secure greatest speed. ONLINE, record 2:04, a world's champion 4-year old pacer, owned by the International Stock Food Co., of Minneapolis, Minn. The photograph shows clearly the movement of the legs when a horse paces level and true. GENERAL EXAMINATION 15 making light of the hardest effort. Then the conformation which is but a living mechanism of levers, pullies and trans- mitters must have the delicate adjustment and balance, that gives grace and smoothness to every movement. Further there cannot be any unsoundness to render less free or firm the step as both these characteristics must be prominent in actions of all kinds. The more action is studied the deeper becomes the conviction that every attribute of the horse con- tributes to it. Kvery quality comes more or less into play and for that reason the difficulties in the way of securing the typical action of the high degree of merit are almost insuper- able. 17. The Walk — Active, Straight, Level. Excellence at this gait is a very desirable quality in all varieties of horses, and unlike the trot its meritorious features are the same in all, as it has no connection with type. In the enjoyment of a road horse there is much to admire in the manner in which he conducts himself when walking. It is questionable as to which is the most pleasurable to observe — the walking of the horse whose step is evenly timed and nervy, or the trotting of one that has all the grace, style and snap that character- izes the coacher. 18. Observing Straightness of the Walk. In moving away from you the feet of the active walker leave the ground with a quick snap, showing in its passage the reflection of the whole shoe. After leaving the ground with this peculiar snap the foot swings upward and forward, then the knee unfolds, the pastern carries the foot gracefully for- ward and it again comes to the ground lightly but firmly with the characteristic spring and snap that identified the first movement. The feet move straight away, swerving neither to the left or to the right, nor should the folding of the knees or the flexing of the hocks result in an outward pitch- ing or spreading. A horse that will lift and plant his foot in the way described almost invariably has the upheaded and 16 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES commanding appearance in movement which is so admirable in the harness horse. 19. Manner of Noting Levelness. The crucial test of the balance of a horse's walk is the side view. Any variation from proper structural proportions results in wobbling, hob- bling or an otherwise uneven walk, and all these are readily seen from the side. The levelness with which a horse walks is one of the best evidences that the legs work in harmony. The most common deflection from this is attributable to a long, slim coupling which gives the onlooker the impression that the horse might break away into two parts near the region of the loin. In defective conformations of this kind the stride of the hind limbs is short and he usually has an uneven, choppy gait that is unsightly as well as ineffectual in covering distances. On the other hand an opposite rela- tion of the parts, close coupling and short back, with long legs, is likely to give use to a slovenly swinging gait, pro- ducing clicking, stumbling or other deficiencies. If there is a flaw in the mechanism of the front legs, it is usually made evident by the movement of the front feet, especially as they are about to touch the ground. If the limb proportions are ungainly the feet do not seem to reach the ground at the proper stage, either turning too much on the heel or not turn- ing enough and precipitating the toe. From behind it is easy to observe if the walk of the hind limbs is level thus being. free from any hitching, wobbling or unevenness in the stride. 20. The High Stepper in Action. The highest priced action in the general horse market is that of the high stepper. The peculiarity of this action consists in lifting the knees inordinately high and flexing the hocks so that they come close to the body and keep the legs well under it. From the standpoint of action alone, the higher the knees and the ^ocks are lifted the more valuable is the horse, provided the type and other features more common are equally GENERAL EXAMINATION 17 satisfactory. The feet must be thrown forward without any dishing on either side and the hocks must pass each other close and in line with the forward movement. It is easy to understand that while this method of movement is the most showy and stylish, it is not serviceable action for a road horse. The front legs soon succumb to the heavy concussion they would be called upon to stand under hard driving. But this action is sought only in the horse that is used for short drives about the city where style is paramount to speed and stamina.. While it is recognized that the high stepper should have as many as possible of the other qualities of excellence in addition to high action, yet all others are considered o: minor value among horses of this class. " All-around action only to be considered ' ' is the current phrase in the prize lists that provide classes for competition among the high steppers, which means a combination of shoulder, knee and hock action. 21. The Carriage Horse — Manners When in Motion. A connoisseur of horses will see much more than the legs of ? carriage horse when moving. As such a horse moves before an appropriate vehicle with the latitude of a light hand assisting him there are flashes of gracefulness from every motion. With this there is a quality of mind that gives buoyancy to the step and accounts in no small degree for the uplifted carriage of the head. It is expressive of a happy temperament that gives gracefulness to every poise and smooth flow to every movement. Even such a minor organ as an ear plays its part, the eye, too, shows the fire from within and challenges the critic for its meed of praise in measuring the step and alertness in giving it security. Scan the lines of the neck, and notice their tenseness and yet the unusual elasticity it shows when occasion offers for the move- ment of greater gracefulness. The shoulder plays with free- dom and the smooth turned loin and quarter seems the only 18 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES region that are not taking part in this unusual display, though in this immobility they show their real strength. 22. Straight and Regular Action. As to the action of the fore legs, it is straight away with continuous folding and unfolding. In the action of the carriage horse there must be some style and dash and high lifting of the feet, but never enough of it to make the action unserviceable. At no time is the fore leg held in poise as it does not dwell either in flexion or extension. The foot snaps from the ground and is then carried forward wkile the limb unfolds, as if follow- ing the rim of a wheel. It seems to reach the ground at the right stage of the unfolding so that it is not held in suspense at any point along the line of descent. The feet pass close and in a straight line so that there is no swaying or dropping down of the fore hand with each step. The hind foot leaves the ground with the same quick movement and at no time is it allowed to hang back so as to give the horse the appear- ance of not gathering himself well together. 23. The Driver's Sensation of Action. After all is writ- ten that it is possible to write about the action of the car- riage horse, there is something else that must go with it which can not be described with sufficient vividness to make the novice appreciate it. It has something to do with power and its connection between the animal and its master seems to be the driving lines. As you sit behind the horse of true carriage action and conduct you feel your proximity to a powerful mechanism that is undergoing a test of its minutest parts. If anything fails everything will be demoralized but it is the feeling of strength and power in the animal that allays unnecessary fears. Without leaving this feature connected with the carriage horse let us study its relation to the trotter. Substance and strength in the carriage horse gives momentum to the occu- pants of the somewhat cumbersome carriage, while the trot- ter loses these for speed and stamina. Between the trotter An easy and satisfactory method of opening a horse's mouth. The two thumbs are inserted just back of the incisors and the lower is pressed down so that the horse drops the lower jaw. It- is usually easy in this way to make observations regarding the teeth. Proper method of lifting and holding the foot of a horse. In seeking to lift the front foot of a horse the hand should be run over the cannon in the manner indicated in one of the photographs. Usually a horse will lift his foot as soon as this done. To hold it firmly without much effort, the proper plan is to hold the toe with the foot doubled against the elbow as shown in the above photograph. 2'ne illustration on the right hand shows a well bred and intelligent head, fche subject being LOLA RoNAN.-»standard bred road mare owned by the author, while that to the left is a photograph of a head showing lack of breeding and deficient in fullness of forehead. Two photographs to illustrate the differences in the appearance or horses' heads when they are trimmed and untrimmed. The head shown trimmed is that of Boralma. 2:08, the unbeaten four-year-old trotter. * The trim appearance of the head is to some extent due to the fact that the foretop has been clipped, the ears trimmed, the mane clipped back of the foretop. The companion head, on the right, though of a French Coach mare showing abundance of quality, is yet very coarse in appearance, largely due to the fact that the head has not been trimmed. The mane has not been cut away. The long hair is in the ears, the foretop has not been removed while the long growth of coarse hair below the jaw has not been trimmed. GENERAL EXAMINATION ,19 and its driver the feeling is that of flight instead of power in motion. The difference in the feeling resulting from follow- ing the movement of these two classes of horses might be better expressed by reference to the difference in the feeling that one has when standing beside a swift turning windmill, as compared with the effects of observing the turn of a pon- derous water wheel. The former takes advantage of every breath of wind and speeds a merry clip without apparent exertion or strength; the other impresses one at once with its power and in a lesser degree with its combination of strength and speed. 24. The Trotter — Speed and Stamina. The leading fea- ture of the action of the trotter is speed at the trotting gait, but there are many others that must be companions of this to result in the greatest development and the chief of these is stamina or the ability to maintain the necessary gait. It is generally thought that if a horse has speed he has the one essential necessary to make a trotter or a good road horse. Not only is speed desirable but there must be a true balance of parts, that insures their protection together with trueness of stride. Being true and level gaited guarantees the greatest durability and that with an ambitions turn of mind give us that very desirable quality in the trotter, termed " gameness " or stamina. Of all features of the trot- ter's action it must be the most evident that it is not in the least wasteful of energy. While that of the carriage horse or high stepper must display effort, the trotter should move so as to leave the least impression of this. Less roll to the knee, more propulsion from the stifle and less motion in the hocks carries the trotter forward closer to the ground and with less expenditure of force and without the higher lifting of the knee and hock which is characteristic of the high stepper. There is much more extension of the limbs in the trotter, as shown in the reach of the fore leg, while the hind legs pass back farther and reach farther fb^v/ard than *>0 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES in the action of the high stepper or carriage horse as the latter must keep his legs under him to gather himself together in the proper degree. A wider spread in the movement of the hind legs in the instance of the trotter is not as bad a fault as it would be if associated with the carriage horse. It is frequently noticeable as a distinction between the action of a trotter and coacher, that the latter is balanced in stride when going an easy gait but becomes unbalanced or weak when urged beyond it, while the trotter may very often show an uneven gait when moving slowly but when urged to the limit of its speed, displays truly balanced action without any tendency towards losing its stride. 25. The Pacing Gait — Level and True. A study of this gait will disclose the fact that there is more variations in it than in any other form of action. Horses pace in many ways, some lurching, others shuffling and many more wob- bling in an unsightly manner; but, however they may go, they are nearly all characterized by possessing speed. A level and true pacer displays a sightly gait. In pacing level and true the body remains steadier than in any other movement. The legs move in harmony with the directness of a machine. The nervy, machine-like pace peculiar to many of the fast pacing animals is a study in the degree to which the mini- mum of effort results in the maximum of speed. Some horses pace because of bent hocks, others because of ungainly pro- portion but when the gait results from breeding and is the outcome of straight and direct movement, it is difficult to imagine a gait with less friction or display of effort. In the instance of the horse that possesses true excellence at this gait, if you were to shut off your view of the limbs in motion, you would have the impression that the animal was standing on a rapidly moving train hidden from your view, so little does the body and other parts above the line make any dis- play of effort. As a rule the pace from the standpoint of the spectator is an unsightly gait, but one that is usually These photographs have been selected to show the differences In the dis- positions of horses. The upper one shows desirable temperament, with har- mony between horse and rider. The lower one shows horse and rider out of touch with each other and the horse discloses by expression and countenance a strong will and vicious disposition. Photo from Horse Show Monthly A row of good heads. The heads of the horses shown here indicate a high order of intelligence, borne out by the fact that they all possess suffi- cient intellect to act. Beginning on the left hand their names are Charley Adams, Nixon, Alice, Blair, Charlie Ross, Ella, Maud. They are used in the stage plays Sporting Life and the Great Ruby. They are owned by the LeRoy Payne Co., of 171 Michigan Avenue, Chicago. Without exception they show intelligent heads in that they display full foreheads, open counte- nances, large eyes, with abundant width between them. Rules Governing Position of the Limbs of the Horse When Standing. FRONT VIEW OF FORE LIMBS. A vertical line downward from the polntrof the shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee, cannon, pastern and foot. Cut A of Plate I represents the right conformation. B, C, D. E. F and G represent common defects. • L SIDE VIEW OP FORB LIMBS. A vertical line drawn downward from the center of the elbow Joint should fall upon the centerof the knee and pastern Joints and back of the foot; and a vertical line drawn down ward from the middle of the arm should fall upon the center of the foot. Cut A of Plate II re- presents the right conformation. B, shows the foot placed too far back; C, too far forward. D, "knee sprung" and E. "knock kneed." ,. \ tf ~^]/ \ *~^* \ '--. A ^ 1, 1 •\ A j N ( i B m C \ \ !j ^V D (' j! i \ Vi I 1 1 x f 1; v. 4 SIDE VIEW OF HIND LIMBS. A vertical line drawn downward from the hip joint should fall upon the center of the foot and divide the gaskln In the middle; and a vertical line drawn from the point of the buttock should coincide with the angle of the hock and pastern joints. Cut A of Plate III represents right conformation. B, Cand D represent common defects. REAR VIEW OF HIND LIMB5. A vertical line drawn downward from the point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. Cut A of Plate IV represent conformation. B. Ct l> and B represent common defects. STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 21 thoroughly enjoyable from the point of view of the driver. Owing to the ease with which the pacer moves and the light- ness with which they speed over pavements, combined with the rapidity with which they can reach their speed, the pacer has become very popular among city road riders. //. Structural Examination. Thus far the features that enter largely into the general appearance of the horse, the form, quality and action, have been considered, but in addition to these qualities there are numerous details of structure and soundness which have a predominating influence on the value of any of the classes that have been discussed. Not only must horses of the classes described prove sound to be of service, but to sell well they must also show the strength of structure that wards off the possibility of any unsoundness -developing in the future. A badly constructed hock without a curb may depreciate the value of the horse fully as much as a curb present on a strong and well formed hock. The first does not have a curb solely because it has never been subjected to a strain, while the curb in the latter instance must have been due to stress of more than common severity. To discuss this division of the subject in detail it will be neces- sary to arrange the material that follows so as to consider the various parts of a horse completely. 26. Head — Straight, Lean. The shape of the head and the countenance of a horse adds greatly to its appearance, end as this is the part which is most frequently observed it becomes of some importance. The line from the ears to the point of the nose as seen from the side should be almost straight. In scanning the photographs of a great number of trotters it will be noticed that nearly all stallions have slight Roman noses while most of the mares have slightly dished faces, a distinction which seems to be characteristic of the sexes. As a rule it will be found thai horses of very prominent Roman 22 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES noses are self willed. Small nostrils are generally associ- ated with this form of nose and as a consequence we find in such instances, that the respiratory or breathing organs lack development. The features of the face should be distinct, without the least appearance of coarseness or meatiness. A lean face is suggestive of good quality in a horse. The muzzle should be fine in quality to make the head appear at its best. Between the eyes there should be breadth enough to give a pleasing frankness to the countenance. It is a point of practical value as an index to the brain development which is of much importance in a light horse, for in this class intelligence is a merit of high value. While it is granted that the intelligence of a horse depends mostly on the train- ing received, yet there is a marked difference in the benefit which horses derive from training, and that difference may only be accounted for by variations in the brain development. 27. Nostrils— Large, Open. The nostrils of a horse should be large, thin, dilatable and of a pink color. While there should be no discharges from them, they should always have the appearance of being moist. 28. Eyes — Full, Clear. A bright eye indicates vigor of con- stitution, that IS; stamina, staying power, or bottom as it is sometimes called. It is also associated with a happy disposi- tion and it seems to be this that accounts for the fact that some horses do an enormous amount of work with little worry and strain upon themselves. A large, full, clear eye is indicative of a kind, generous disposition and good health. 29. Ears— Erect, Active. The ears should be close together and carried in an erect position. They should be active and somewhat pointed. Lop ears indicate lassitude, or in plainer words, laziness. When it is noticed that a horse does not shift or move either of its ears to any extent to catch sound, it is safe to presume that it is afflicted with deafness. On the other hand if it is continually moving them, it is advis- able to inspect the eyesight carefully as it is likely that the STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 23 extra labor imposed on the ears has its origin in the defect of one or both of the eyes. 30. Jaw Bones— Wide, Sharp. Between the jaw bones there should be sufficient width for a large wind-pipe and also enough to allow the head to play freely on the neck. When the space between the jaw bones is very narrow it will often be noticed that the horse carries his head stiffly, but when there is sufficient width in this region, the head is usually carried gracefully and moved freely on the neck. The throttle or throat latch should be light without any unnatural fullness between the jaw bones or heaviness at the juncture of the head and neck. 31. Neck — Arched, Muscled. A nicely moulded and dis- tinctly chiseled neck of sufficient length, carrying the head gracefully is one of the most beautiful features of the light horse. Extending towards the shoulder the neck should swell gradually so as to join the body smoothly. The windpipe should be large and appear distinct from the rest of the neck and the upper outlines of the latter should be sharp. While many excellent road horses have what is called a ewe neck, it is none the less a defect as it detracts very much from a symmetrical appearance. 32. Chest— Deep, Projecting. In the light horse that is called upon for light work, the chest should obtain its capa- city more by depth than breadth. The reason for this is that the deeper chest permits the freer play of the shoulder. It is easy to see that swift, smooth action of the fore legs is hardly possible in the broad chested horse, mainly because it throws them too far apart and out of line with those behind. It will often be noticed in this direction that too much width causes the horse to pitch or roll in its action. A deep chest is evidence of staying power. The conforma- tion of noted campaigners on the turf, such as Mary Marshall (2:12), The Abbot (2:03^), Cresceus (2:o2j)may be cited to illustrate full development in this feature. 24 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 33. Shoulders — Long, Oblique. The conformation of the shoulder is one of the parts of all light horses that requires critical scanning. To give elasticity to the movement of saddle horses and to permit of quick and clean action in the roadster, the shoulder should be long and oblique. An upright shoulder is very likely to result in short, stilted action, frequently accompanied by stumbling, and it is quite a fertile cause of such bone diseases as sidebones and ring- bones. The high action which is desired in the coach horse and the long reaching, clean action so sought after in the roadster depends as much on the obliquity and freedom of movement in the shoulder, as in any other feature. In addition, a sloping and long shoulder strengthens the back and extends the length of the under-line. The muscular development of the shoulder should also be carefully noted, for if there is an unusual bareness or lack of muscular cover- ing it would denote the fact that sweeny has affected it. 34. Forelegs — Broad, Cordy, Straight. The appearance of the fore leg from the side should show it to be flat and cordy. The flatness shows the tendons to be properly attached and some distance from the bone and the clean cut appearance denotes the absence of any coarseness about the legs. View- ing the legs from in front and using a plumb line it will be found in the instance of a leg that is straight, that a perpen- dicular line downward from the point of the shoulder, should equally divide the knee, cannon, pastern and foot. Viewing the fore leg from the side, a similar line dropped from the center of the leg at a point where.it joins the body should nearly divide the leg until the fetlock joint is reached and from there to the ground it should fall exactly behind the foot. Any variation from these two lines shows crook- edness from either point of view. The leg should be long from the elbow to the knee, for the reason that free and clean action follows such a conformation. In these parts it will be noticed that most of the muscles extending and The photo on the left, HUMMER 6112, shows a sloping shoulder and a lore leg of quality sat properly and strongly supported below the knee with cor- rect pastern and excenent foot. Subject of the other photo is too straight in shoulder and pastern with weak knees. Photo of a smoothly turned horse, especially round ribbed and on that account appearing too long in the legs, though not really so. The illustration on the right is a photograph of the hind quarter of ST. SAVIOUR, a thoroughbred stallion, showing a clean, strong hock and properly set hind leg. The photograph on the left shows a curb on the right leg due to a weakly supported hock also improperly set. The left illustration shows a hind leg too straight, while the right one shows the other extreme in being set too far back. STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 25 flexing the leg, are located between the elbow and the knee. If this region is long, the muscle must necessarily be long and that produces quick and easy action. The muscle of the fore arm flexes and extends the rest of the leg, and in order that these motions may take place with the least expenditure of power the course over which it must travel must be as short as possible; that is, the cannon running from the knee to the fetlock should be much shorter than from the knee to the elbow. Mr. H. T. Helm has made a careful study of the effect that the proportions of these parts to each other have upon the horse's action. He has measured a great many horses and finds that their action in the fore legs seems to be governed by the proportionate length of the fore arm and the cannon. He found that Administrator has superior action in front, and that his cannon was 1 1 ^ inches long, and the fore arm 2 \ inches long. About the same proportions were found tc exist in the fore legs of George Wilkes, and there was no lack of knee action in his movement. The actual proportions were 10^ to 20 inches. In Governor Sprague the cannon was 1 1 inches and the fore arm 21 inches, and here the front action was not quite as rounding as that of George Wilkes, In the instance of St. Lawrence, the proportions were 11% to 21 inches and the action was noted to be far reaching and gently curving. It will be easily understood that the strain upon the knees would be greater in those horses that were long in the cannons in comparison with the length of the fore arm, and it will usually be found that such a conforma- tion predisposes a horse to weak knees. On the other hand when the fore arm is inordinantely long the tendency is for the front legs to bend back at the knees and give rise to what is commonly termed calf knees. 35. Arms — Short, Thrown Forward. The humerus which forms the arm should be short and appear comparatively 26 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES straight. When it is so, it gives a horse an upright appear- ance and adds to the latter' s style. 36. Elbows— Free. The space between the leg and the body should permit of easy insertion of the hand. If the elbow is closer than this or tied in, as it is termed, the toes are usually thrown out; or if the opposite is the case, the toes are likely to be thrown in, which makes the action of the horse awk- ward and dangerous. 37. Fore Arms— Wide, Muscled, Perhaps the most impor- tant matter to notice in examining the fore leg is the size of the fore arm, or the muscular development observable just below the juncture of the leg and the body. As fat accumu- lates very little there it is a safe criterion of the muscular development of the animal. 38. Knees— Wide, Deep, Straight. The knees should be broad in front, much broader than the rest of the leg, either above or below, and the pisiform bone, which is the bone form- ing the projection at the back of the knee, should be sharp and prominent, for to this some of the most important muscles of the fore leg are attached. Breadth is desirable in such joints, because of the fact that the concussion is more evenly dis- tributed, and better spent by the many bones forming the joint, when their surfaces are large. The most common defects of the knee are calf knees, knock knees, knee sprung, speedy cut and scars. 39. Cannons — Wide, Short, Large Sinews. There should be very little shrinkage below the knee as the joints require as much support as possible. This defect of being tied in below the knee is one of the most common weaknesses to be seen in the fore legs of light horses. A light horse of common size should measure at least 8 inches at this point. The cannon should be short, wide and clean and the sinews should be back from the bone. It is sometimes noticeable that the cannon is thicker than usual which is generally caused by hard road work. A fully developed bog spavin is shown on the left leg in the right hand illustration, while the one in the left illustration shows a large ringbone at the base of the pastern. A clean, clearly defined hock appears in the photo on the right shown from the point of view most likely to discover bone spavin. The photo to the left shows this, as a spavin may be clearly seen at the inner base of the right hock. I Photo by G. A. Tadman. The illustration to the right shows a cocked ankle, while the other one is a photograph of a large sidebone which may be seen on the outside of the right leg at the junction of the pastern and foot. Prize winning Mammoth jack, JUMBOAK, owned by W. R. Goodwin, Jr., Oakhurst Otock Farm, Napersville, Illinois. In size oi bone and general form this jack shows the characteristics which are .most sought in this breed. First prize at Illinois State Fair, 1900; height, 15.3; weight. 1,100 ibs. at three years old, Sold for $J,000, STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 27 40. Pasterns — Sloping, Strong. The pastern should stand at an angle of 45 degrees with the ground, and with the cannon it should form an angle of about 135 degrees. When more upright than this, they will cause bone diseases, such as side- bones and ringbones, as the concussion is very severe in such instances. Moreover it detracts greatly from the utility of the light horse, especially those intended for the saddle, as the step is short and stilted, and this is very disagreeable to the rider. On the other hand, sometimes the pasterns of light horses, and of thoroughbred horses especially, are too long and slanting, which weakens them and ultimately ends in the snapping of the suspensory ligament resulting in the horse "breaking down." 41. Feet — Dense, Waxy, Large. The foot should receive careful attention as it has an important part to play in the work of the horse, and it is subject to many defects and various kinds of unsoundness. It should be of firm texture, good size, moderately upright and thoroughly sound. It should have a healthy appearance which is indicated by an oily coat of natural wax. The frog should bear the mark of natural usage as a buffer, being spongy and touching the ground at each step. The roof or sole of the hoof should be distinctly concave. Flatness, brittleness and contraction, are the three most common defects in horses' feet. It will be noticed in many instances that the bar of the foot has been cut away, so that the hoof splits from the heel towards the coronet. This is due to the blacksmith's practice of cutting away the bars that bind the foot together. When this is done the foot begins to spread and the crack ultimately extends as far as possible. 42. Ribs — Well Sprung, Deep, Close. The ribs should be well sprung from the spine and they should be close to each other. It will generally be found that horses having well sprung ribs always make a better appearance than those that are flat ribbed ; and, in addition, they will be found to be 2(5 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES easier keepers. It should be noted that the round ribbed horse always has the appearance of being inordinately long in the legs. This deception is due to the roundness of the body. It can easily be seen that from a side view the flat ribbed horse presents a body of deeper appearance and seem- ingly has shorter legs than the horse that is rounder ribbed. 43. Back — Strong, Short, Muscled. In its proportion the body should be short above and long underneath. This not only adds to its strength, but it gives the legs free play and insures a balanced stride. The horse of this conformation under the saddle will unite himself more quickly and better, while the same horse on the line, or in harness will have a freer and more balanced stride. It is the opinion of many that the roach back is an evidence of strength. It is the most undesirable feature in a horse for the saddle, and it is to say the least, an eyesore in road or in carriage horses. 44. Loin— Short, Broad, Muscled. It is a defect of many horses to be light and narrow at the juncture of the body and the hind quarter. If the loin is long or slack, that is, if the distance is great between the last rib and the hip bone, the horse is likely to be weak in the coupling and deficient in action, and when this is viewed from the side, it will be noticed that the hind foot fails to reach the point where the front foot left the ground. This probably is due more to lack of muscle over the loin than to any other defect. 45. Croup — Long, Muscular. The part included in the hind quarters should be critically examined, for, as it has been previously explained, it is in this region that the pro- pelling power resides. The haunch or croup should be long and on account of the improved appearance it should be comparatively straight. When the croup is long, it allows a greater play of the main muscles that are located in this region. It will be noticed in nearly all fast trotters that the croup generally has this characteristic. Length of muscle as elsewhere contributes to speed. Arabian stallion, SHAHWAN, bred by Ali Pasha, Sherif, Egypt, sold to W. S. Blount, in 1892, and taken by him to England and afterwards sold to pres- ent owner, J. A. P. Ramsdell, Newburg, N. Y. The photograph shows this horse to be a model of symmetry, style and quality. DESCRIPTION OF THE ARAB HORSE 1*HOUGH there is some unreliable sentiment associated with the Arab horse, yet there is not a vestige of doubt but that they are of superior symmetry and quality. This is perfectly summed up by Sheik Abd.-El.-Kader : "The horse of pure descent is distinguished by thinness of its lips, and the cartilage of the nose, by the dilation of its nostrils, by the leanness of the flesh encircling the veins cf the head, by the graceful manner the neck is attached, by the softness of its coat, its mane and the hairs of its tall, by its breadth of chest, the largeness of its joints and leanness of its extremities. According to the traditions of our ancestors, the thoroughbred is still better known by its moral characteristics than its physical peculiarities." Major R. D. Upton in " Newmarket and Arabia" gives the charac- teristics of the Arabian horse in the following statement which is true of those familiar to the author : " The Arabian is a horse of the highest courage, in stature about 14 hands 2 inches, a horse of length, power and substance, combined with the •elastic and sinuous-like movement of the serpent. He is a very perfect animal ; he is not exaggerated — in some parts large, meagre and diminished in others. There is a balance and harmony throughout his frame not seen in any other horse; the quintessence of all good qualities in a compact form." The head of the typical Arabian horse is exceedingly straight and the eye markedly full and bright. Perhaps the most striking feature of the type is the round and extra well ribbed barrel. In action the movement of the legs is very peculiar, being very strong and elastic. Though small, the form is exceedingly smooth and symmetrical, while the evidences of quality are strikingly shown. Photo by G. A. Tadman. Hackney stallion. ROYAL DANEGELT 5785, owned by Sir Walter Gilbey, Elsenham Hall, Essex. Winner of championship at London Hackney Show, 1898, and at the Manchester show of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- land in 1897. DESCRIPTION OF THE HACKNEY HORSE 1*HE HACKNEY was established in Great Britain as a b»^ed to meet the require- ments for a horse of extreme smoothness, with gracefully curved outlines, having the action necessary to show these to the best advantage. The Leau is light, neck muscular and curved but free from heaviness; shoulders smooth and laid weii back ; body circular, compact, short; hips smooth; quarters plump with muscle, legs short with tendons clearly defined. Their action is noted for its straightness and height, and the regularity of knee and hock movement. There is a variation in the types of the breed, some showing more upstanding with abun- dance of quality and straighter lines, while others are shorter limbed, fuller made and especially strong in action from a carriage standpoint. The secretary of the Hackney Horse Association of Great Britain has summed up the general descrip- tion of the hackney which, as he says, fitted old style and new ideal, in the follow- ing : "A powerfully built, short legged, big, broad horse, with an intelligent head, neat neck, strong, level back, powerful lines and as perfect shoulders as can be produced; good feet, flat boned legs, and height of from 16.2 hands to 15.3H- In addition to showing a type required for a carriage horse, the hackney must pos- sess as a necessary essential true carriage or coach action. STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 29 46. Thighs —Muscular, Deep. The thigh should be full and plump with muscle which should also extend as far down towards the hocks as possible. Some horses have this feature so strongly developed that the muscle continues to the hock and gives the latter a thicker appearance. The thigh should be long, making the hocks low, as this con- tributes to a long stride. 47. Quarters — Heavily Muscled. The quarters viewed from behind should show a heavy mass of muscle between the legs. Perhaps there is not another part of the muscular system that shows a greater variation in development in dif- ferent horses than the quarters, for while some will be cat- harnmed there are others surprisingly full in this part, with deep, hard muscle. 48. Hind Legs. The set of the hind legs has a direct bearing on their liability to diseases. A leg that is bent too far forward is likely to develop a curb, while one that is too straight is more subject to fullness in the hock region, pre- disposing it to either -thoroughpin or bog spavin. In look- ing from the side at a leg that has correct conformation, a plumb line from the center of the hip joint should equally divide the gaskin and the foot. Dropping a plumb line from the point of the buttock it should run parallel with the line of the cannon. From behind, the same line should equally divide the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. 49. Hocks— Wide, Straight, Cle.an. The hocks should be clean and broad and the point should be prominent as the leverage of the most powerful muscles attached here depend to a great extent upon this. There should be no gumminess about the hocks; the web should be especially clean and free from all fleshiness or puffs of any kind. In running the hand over the hock, all the depressions that are characteristic of the sound hock should be easily felt and the bone should feel firm without the least indication of unsouudness of any 30 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES part. Too much attention can hardly be given to this joint as it is one of the most important in the whole frame. 50. Hind Cannons — Wide, Short, Clean. The hind can- nons should be comparatively short as such a conformation gives the hind leg a longer stride while at the same time allowing the feet to keep under the body more. They should also be wide for that gives better attachment to the tendons and especially if the width continue just below the hock it materially strengthens that part. When the support for the bones of the hock is slight and narrow at the top of the can- non there is greater susceptibility to curbs on account of the weakness of that region. The: fetlock joint should be of normal size with good width and particularly free from any puffiness indicating windgalls. 51. Hind Pasterns— Sloping, Strong. The slope of the hind pasterns is not of such importance as that of the front pastern for the reason that It is seldom that this part will be found too straight in light horses. There is less concussion for the hind foot to stand, consequently there is less need for the pastern \o be very sloping. The pasterns should be of medium size and length so that they may be strong. Free- dom from thick, coarse skin and hair is desirable for in the instance of such there is less susceptibility to scratches. 62. Hind Feet— Dense, Rounded. The hind feet should have the characteristics that have been described in the reference to the desirable points of the fore feet. It may be noted in addition that the hind feet are more inclined to become narrow in front and not have the nicely rounded sur- face that is desirable in a good foot. The sides of the foot viewed from in front very often appear to have shrunken some, making a ridge down the center of the foot from the hoof head to the toe and leaving the sides flat. Narrowness at the hoof head usually accompanies this. The foot should be dense in structure, mediut in size, with strong, wide heel and full front. Thoroughbred stallion, IMP. ORMONDE, owned by W. O'B. Macdonough, Menlo Park, Cal. A Derby winner sired by Bend Or. DESCRIPTION OF THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE IT IS of much assistance in understanding the type of the thoroughbred to remember that they are the oldest of the breeds of horses and that they have been bred for many years for a leading purpose and this has generally been running speed. To secure this there had to be associated with the mechanism that produces it, unusual quality of structure, stamina and ambition. The running record for a mile is held by Salvator, the time being 1 :35~y2 on a straight track. The common colors among the representatives of this breed are brown, bay and chestnut. The distinguishing features are a refined appearance, especially clearly defined lineaments, with length of neck, deep chest, short upper line, long under line, somewhat straight croup, muscular thighs, neat pasterns, dense bone, firm muscle and active temperament. An inclination to ranginess in type is required, with a racy appearance, usually resulting in a horse standing 16 hands. Extreme breeding for the leading characteristics mentioned makes it necessary to discountenance in the show ring light bodies and a general appearance which has given rise to the term "weedy," which is also associated with lengthy pasterns and long legs. Being highly sensitive in organization t)iey frequently reflect an erratic temperament. Their purpose being principally fov racing, high quality with endurance and spirit are cardinal qualities, and it is these same features which have made them useful in the production of strong drivers and stylish carriage and saddle horses. Photo by Schreiber Photograph of the American standard bred trotter, GEO. WILKES, 2:22; founder of the great Wilkes family of standard bred trotters. DESCRIPTION OF THE STANDARD BRED HORSE THE CHIEF character!? tics of the American standard bred horse is speed at the trotting and the pacing gaits; the world's trotting record for one mile being held by The Aobott, the time being 2:03^, while the world's pacing record for the same distance is held by Star Pointer, the time being l:59Vi. The type which should be encouraged in the show ring is that which conduces towards this end, while at the same time showing the characteristics required for endurance, ambition and the essential features of a road horse. This means the possession of general feat- ures represented by an intelligent head and extremely light neck, low, deep chest, oblique shoulder, long, muscular forearm, strong knees, short cannons, slim, slop- ing pastern, and feet of good wearing quality, with round body rising slightly over the loin; neat, long croup; thighs full with low hocks that are strongly constructed and clearly defined. Such de^ciences as are due to undersize, lack of style and sub- stance should be points for underscoring in the show ring. In this connection, it is of importance to understand the difference that may exist in representatives of this breed when they are undergoing the strenuous work of campaigning or when they are retained only for show and stud purposes. As many carriage horses have their origin in this breed, as well as most of the roadsters and trotters, emphasis should be given to the qualities which mean endurance, ambition and high finish^ It sometimes occurs that both pacing and trotting action compete in the show ring in a class for roadsters or standard breds. Both these gaits must be recognized and the preference given to the one that shows the most purity and is the best in every particular of its kind. The distinction must be made between the high knee and hock action of the carriage horse and the more reaching and easier folding action of the roadster or trotter. See standard, page 58. STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 31 fiti SCALE OF POINTS FOR LIGHT HORSES — GELDING. & u £ GENERAL APPEARANCE: Form, symmetrical, smooth, stylish 4 Quality, bone clean, firm, and indicating sufficient sub- stance; tendons defined; hair and skin fine 4 Temperament, active, kind disposition 4 HEAD AND NECK: Head, lean, straight I Muzzle, fine, nostrils large; lips thin, even; teeth sound. . i Eyes, full, bright, clear, large i Forehead, broad, full i Ears, medium size, pointed; well carried, and not far apart i Neck, muscled; crest, high; throatlatch, fine; windpipe, large i FORE QUARTERS: Shoulders, long, smooth with muscle, oblique, extending into back 2 Arms, short, thrown forward , i Fore arms, muscled, long, wide 2 Knees, clean, wide, straight, deep, strongly supported. ... 2 Cannons, short, wide; sinews, large, set back 2 Fetlocks, wide, straight. i Pasterns, strong, angle with ground 45 degrees. . . ..... 3 Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn dense; frog large, elastic; bars strong; sole concave; heel wide 6 Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, a perpendicu- lar line dropping from the center of the elbow joint should fall upon the center of the knee and pastern joints and back of hoof 4 BODY: Withers, muscled and well finished at top i Chest, deep, low, large girth 2 Ribs, long, sprung, close 2 Back, straight, short, broad, muscled 2 Loin, wide, short, thick 2 Underline, long; flank let down i HIND QUARTERS: Hips, smooth, wide, level 2 Croup, long, wide, muscular 2 Tail, attached high, well carried I Thighs, long, muscular, spread, open angled 2 Quarters, heavily muscled, deep 2 Qaskin or Lower Thighs, long, wide, muscular 2 Hocks, clearly defined, wide, straight 5 Cannons, short, wide; sinews, large, set back 2 Fetlocks, wide, straight I Pasterns, strong, sloping 9 32 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn dense, frog large, elastic; bars strong; sole concave; heel wide, high 4 Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, a per- pendicular line from the hip joint should fall upon the center of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle; and a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should run paraMel with the line of the cannon 4 ACTION: Walk, elastic, quick, balanced 5 Trot, rapid, straight, regular, high . . , 15 Total loo III. JUDGING HEAVY HORSES. 53. Consideration of Condition. In examining draft horses it is well to remember that defects that are often apparent to the eye in the instance of light horses, require more careful observation to detect them in heavy horses. The defects are usually harder to see owing to the degree, to which the horses may be pampered. Draft horsey may be fed to such a high condition and in this way so ' ' veneered ' ' that it becomes a very hard matter to detect the structural defects. A horse in lean serviceable condition will often show many defects especially in the body that a thick cover- ing of fat would hide. In judging draft horses it is neces- sary to observe the greatest precaution so as not to mistake such padding with fat for development of muscle. /. General Examination. As in the light horse the most important matters to notice in the general examination are the form, quality and action of the horse under inspection. 54. Form— Massive, Broad, Deep. In form the draft horse should be broad, square, close to the ground and well proportioned. It is necessary to remember that power rather than speed should be the outcome of the effort of a draft horse. It is evident that the size of the muscles has more to do with power, while the length of the muscle is indicative principally of speed. There is a combination of power and French Coach Stallion, PALADIX 1968, by Perfection.Owned by Dunham, Fletcher & Coleman, Wayne, 111. DESCRIPTION OF 1HE FRUNCH COACH HORSE l~ ARGELY through the encouragement and direction of the French government ^ the French coach horse has been moulded into a type that has as its leading characteristic extreme smoothness, symmetry, a grace in movement with strong action approaching closely to that required for the carriage horse. The head should be intelligent looking, the neck clearly outlined and gracefully carried, the body snugly ribbed and quarters deep and muscular. To be striking in appearance, upstanding and high headed are features which have a paramount value in this type, and in addition there should be every evidence of quality in all structures. The common colors are bay, brown and black, and usually these are solid and not broken. Uniformity is desirable in any breed, so that it is necessary for the judge to adopt a certain type as that which he prefers, and then be consistent in the awards which follow. The highest pattern of a coach horse without coarseness or lack of action should be the standard carried in mind. When at rest it may be said that for true symmetry, fullness and graceful curves the highest type of the French coach horse is almost an idealistic pattern of what is required r" ?.i, repre- sentative of this class. German coach stallion imported SOCRATES, owned by Mr. John Parrott, San Francisco, California. At the San Francisco Horse Show this stallion was first prize winner in the stallion class for coachers. A Cleveland Bay coach stallion, first prize winner at the Royal Agricul- tural Society Show in 1899. DESCRIPTION OF THE GERMAN COACH HORSE |^HE GERMAN coach horse is representative of the larger breeds coming within the coach class. The type of the best carries with it the smoothness and the full development of muscular regions which give powerful movement and at the same time fullness of form Substance, meaning thereby the possession of a strong frame, shown especially in the bone below the kuee, is one of the features which has a pre-eminent place in tho qualities desired by the adherents of the breed. Soundness of joints and cleanness of limb are qualities which must be secured in horses suitable for the purpose of these, and the show ring inspection should be directed clearly towards discountenancing undue roughness of structure, loose- ness of joints. The colors are bay, brown and black, and these are rarely broken by splashes or other striking markings. DESCRIPTION OF THE CLEVELAND BAY HORSE *|HJIS BREED, taking its name from its native district in England, has for its characteristic color different shades of bay with black points. Being bred for the heaviest carriage work, a representative of this breed should stand sixteen hands high, somewhat large in size, and with more evidence of power than most other breeds of light horses. While possessing substance and symmetry, there should not be any deficiencies in evidence such as rough joints, coarse bone and lack of action for carriage purposes. Their size, power and evenness of disposition adapt them for general work on light farms or for heavy carriage work in the cities As the sphere of this breed has not demanded the action called for in the lighter coach breeds, true coach action has not been commonly associated with its mem- bers, but, more or less, the critical judge should look for it in the show ring as in all coach classes. GENERAL EXAMINATION 33 speed which is desirable to secure in the draft horse but as in all things opposed to each other it is impossible to secure the highest development of both in the same individual. It has been stated by a writer on this subject* that in the instance of animals of short bones, slight angularity and short muscles, the conditions are most favorable for drawing heavy loads, and animals with long bones, long muscles and slightly angular joints are especially adapted for speed. 55. Advantage of Weight. In considering the form, weight should be given a high valuation, for a horse that does not weigh at least 1,500 pounds should not be consid- ered a draft horse. In addition, this weight must be the outcome of strong bone, heavy muscles and large proportions and not have its origin in excessive fatness. As to the importance of weight it may be illustrated best by citing what is said to be the first experience that inventors had with the locomotive. When this was being perfected before its intro- duction as a means of transportation, it is stated that a small model of a locomotive with the necessary track arrangement was used by those desiring to bring it into practical use. It was found in the model that the wheels would not adhere to the track but would spin around and waste the power. Con- siderable study was given to the best means of overcoming this difficulty. It was thought that the wheels should have cogs and the track furnished in the same way but a better plan was happened upon by accident. The inventor having a small load in form of bags to take over the track, instead of putting it in the car of the model train threw them across the locomotive and when steam was generated the t rain started without any of the difficulties that had been before observed. He found through this that the locomotive to exert its power to the best advantage should have a proportionate weight and it ultimately assisted in the perfection of the locomotive. The same principle attached itself to the draft horse as a *Smith, Physiology of Domestic Animals, page 756 34 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES motor. It has been further illustrated in this way — a driver with a rather light horse was trying to take a carload of grain up a hill, the horse tried several times to accomplish it but would only get partly up the hill when the load would draw him back. After studying the matter the driver took some bags out of the cart and put them on the horse and accomplished his object. The same principle is applied as in the instance of the locomotive. He added just so much to the weight of the horse and this enabled him to overcome in a degree the weight of the load. The factor of weight is not only of value in matter of work but this is also observ- able as an influence in the general market. 56. Market Value ^f Weight. Arranging the sales re- ported by a leading firm of Chicago, during 1893, according to the weight of the horses sold, it will be seen that the variation in price is in accordance with the weight of the horse, as follows : AVERAGE AVERAGE WEIGHT. PRICE. 1400 II55-87 1450 I59-J5 1500 169.15 1550 176 56 1600 176 62 1650 208.64 1700 212.89 1750 236.14 1800 258.33 It will be noticed that there is a constant increase in the prices from the lighter to the heavier weight and this factor of weight seems to be so marked as to dominate all other merits. The weight increasing from 1,400 to 1,800 pounds advanced the price about $100, which means, that the added weight within this range was worth about 25 cents per pound on the general market. E7. Quality with Substance Necessary for Durability. Of all desirable features to be sought in a draft horse that of strong, clean and firm bone is one of the most important. Imported Trakehnor coach stallion VIHGIL. Black horse with brown muzzle, 16 hands high. Foaled 1887. Weight 1,275 pounds. Bred by W. Ger- lach, Walterkehmen, Prussia. Imported by Jacob Heyl, of Milwaukee, Wis- consin, in 1890. Russian Orloff stallion WZMAKH, record 2:26^. Gray horse, 16 hands high. Foaled 1887, Bred by S. DeBeauvais. Rogojkinow, Gouvernement Pensa, District of Mokshansk, Russia. Imported by Jacob Heyl, of Mil- waukee, Wisconsin, 1892. DESCRIPTION OF THE TRAKEHNER COACH HORSE I*HIS BREED of coach horses, developed under the patronage of the Prussian government, includes among its representatives horses that for general use exhibit a high standard of excellence. They possess the substance required In a weight pulling coach horse and with it much of the quality which reflects a high order of breeding. The outline of the best type illustrates a high order of perfec- tion for a coach horse ; while the advantage of large size with good bone adds greatly to their weight pulling qualities. In color these horses are with rare exception bright bays with few if any markings. Though typical coach action has not been made a feature of their breeding, as In the instance of some of the other breeds of coach horses, yet it is a characteristic which should be in evidence in any show ring containing a display of this class. DESCRIPTION OF THE ORLOFF TROTTER *PHE ORLOFF trotter, being the national horse of Russia, has been designed largely by government direction to meet the many demands which are made upon a horse of general utility. They should be expected to show the quality which would be required in any light horse frequently subjected to severe tests of endurance and strength of structure. The type is one smoothly moulded with muscle, strong in all its parts and yet not unduly coarse, while at the same time not being so finely constructed as to detract any from its general strength. Being vigorous, they possess an abundance of ambition, and associated with this there is a compactness and general unity of structure which makes them good wearers under work. It is not expected that a horse of this type would have the ability to trot as fast as one showing a higher and more special construction, but it is proper to look for that type which would be adapted for covering long distances with the least fatigue. Champion Shetland pony PRINCE OF WALES, at nine years of age, height 35) inches. This stallion has won a championship at every show exhibited since his two-year-old form, having won over 12 consecutive championship prizes. Owned by Chas. E. Bunn, Peoria, Illinois. See Shetland Standard page 59. A typical Welsh pony. STANDARD FOR PONY BEFORE the establishment of the Hackney Horse Society in 1883, the dividing line between the horse and the pony in England was vague and undefined. It was then found necessary to distinguish clearly between horses and ponies, and accordingly all animals measuring fourteen hands or under were designated 'ponies " and registered in a separate part of the Stud Book. This record of height with other particulars as to breeding, etc., serves to direct breeders in their choice of sires and dams. The standard of height established by the Hackney Horse Soci- ety was accepted and officially recognized by the Royal Agricultural Society in 1889 when the prize list for the Windsor Show contained pony classes for animals not exceeding 14 hands. The altered Polo rule which fixes the limit of height at 14 hands 2 inches may be productive of some little confusion; but for all other pur- poses 14 hands is the recognized maximum height of a pony. Prior to 1883 small horses were called indifferently galloways, hobbies, cobs or ponies, irrespective of their height.— Ponies Past and Present, by Sir Walter Gilbcy, Bart. DESCRIPTION OF WELSH PONY FOR THE information of those interested in this breed, the fallowing descrip- tions, furnished to the Polo Pony Society for their stud book (Vol. V.) by the local committees, may be quoted : "HEIGHT— Not to exceed 13.2 hands. COLOR — Bay or brown preferred; grey or black allowable; but dun, chestnut or broken color considered objectionable. ACTION — Best described as that of the hunter; low 'dairy-cutting' action to be avoided. The pony should move quickly and actively, stepping out well from the shoulder, at the same time flexing the hocks and bringing the hind legs well under the body when going. GENERAL CHARACTER — The pony should show good pony character and evidence of robust constitution, with the unmistakable appearance of hardiness peculiar to mountain ponies, and at the same time have a lively appearance. HEAD — Should be small, well chiseled in its outline and well set on; forehead broad, tapering toward nose. NOSTRILS — Large and expanding. EYES— Bright, mild, intelligent and prominent. EARS — Neatly set, well formed and small. THROAT AND JAWS — Fine, showing no signs of coarseness or throatiness. NECK — Of proportionate length; strong but not too heavy with a moderate crest in the case of the stallion. SHOULDERS — Good should- ers most important; should be well laid back and sloping, but not too fine at the withers, not loaded at the points. The pony should have a good, long shoulder blade. BACK AND LOINS — Strong and well covered with muscle. HINDQUARTERS — Long, and tail well carried, as much like the Arab as possible, springing well from the top of the back. HOCKS— Well let down, clean cut, with plenty of bone between the J9int; they should not be 'sickled' or 'cow-hocked.' FORELEGS — Well plnced; not tied in any way at the elbows; good muscular arm. short from the knee to the fetlock joints; flat bone; pasterns sloping but not too long; feet well developed and open at the heel; hoof sound and hard."— Ponieh Past and Present. Sir Walter Gi Bart. GENERAL EXAMINATION 35 The leg below the cannon should be flat, the bone should feel firm and the tendons should stand out distinctly from the bone. There should be such a feeling about the bone of the legs as to warrant the assumption that it is of a fine, firm texture. If you will compare the texture of a piece of hick- ory wood with that of tamarac or larch, which differ mark- edly in their relative strength, the difference which exists in the bone of horses will be made clear. Although a horse has never been known to break its leg in this region by severe exertion yet the importance of strength of bone in these parts is of high value, not simply because of its wearing quality but also largely for what it indicates. It will be found that in the instance of a horse that has what is generally known as flat, clean bone with hard defined joints, its endurance is double that of a horse showing the opposite quality. In those breeds which have hair on their legs or * * feather " as it is sometimes called, the quality of the hair is an index to the nature of the bone. Coarse, porous bone, and coarse skin are associated and the latter gives rise to coarse hair; while on the other hand fine, silky hair is accepted as an indication that the bone is of close and hard texture. The mistake some- times made of considering small bone a characteristic of quality should be guarded against as this is a very detri- mental feature in a draft horse. In heavy horses the impor- tant consideration is to secure as close a combination as pos- sible of quality with substance and weight. 58. Action — Straight, Regular. The common working pace of the draft horse is the walk and for this reason it deserves prominence. In it's sphere the draft horse is only at times urged beyond a walk so that it becomes a very important attribute of this horse to be a good walker. In criticising the walk of a draft horse, the action should be noted from three points of view — before, behind and from the side. In approaching, the horse should carry his head high and the stride should be regular. The feet should be lifted 36 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES clear of the ground and placed down evenly as if in delibera- tion. From the side it may be noted that if the hind and fore legs work in unison. Horses with short bones and long underlines present the best view from the side while in action but on the other hand those with long backs and weak loins usually drag their legs in a slovenly way. Viewed from behind the action of the hock should be carefully noted. The flexion in this region should be free and straight. It is a common weakness of the hocks to be turned outward when raised, but more frequently the hocks are bent in too much and the feet thrown out of line. As a rule the stride should not be too long but well balanced with a movement quick and elastic. 59. Trotting Action. The ability to trot well is not gen- erally considered a valuable attribute for a draft horse, as it is claimed that to walk well is a much more useful achieve- ment. Good trotting action, however, is not only valuable in itself but it also brings with it many other qualities such as activity, style, balance of conformation and other features that are desirable in any class of horses. The draft horse in trotting should go level, straight and regular, for any devia- tion from these qualities are usually evidences of unsound- ness or the absence of a balanced conformation. The legs, both fore and hind, should flex freely at the hocks and knees, for a rigidness of movement of these is indicative of defects of some kind. A stilted hock action is much too common in draft horses and is very often due to the fact that the hock is not properly set as may be observed in all hind legs that are too straight. Such are usually lacking in reach and power. //. Structural Examination. 60. Head — Lean, Medium Size. Coarseness of the head is a prevalent fault. While it should be of only medium size there should be sufficient breadth between the eyes and the face lines should be clearly defined with the total length Photo from Horse Show Montlhly. Saddle stallion MONTE CRISTO, JR., owned by J. T. Crenshaw, Scott Sta- tion, Ky. Winner of numerous prizes at leading horse shows. Morgan horse, HILLSIDE, bred by Morgan Horse Company, Carpenters- ville. 111. HILLSIDE and his full brother sold during the depressed times of the horse industry for 81,600. He was first at the Illinois State Fair in 1894, 18. and also first prize winner at the Chicago Horse Show in 1894. Standard bred trotting stallion, AL.LEKTON, when a three year old with a record of 2:12, formerly champion trotting stallion, and within recent years the leading sire of standard trotters. Sired by Jay Bird 5060, and owned by C. W. Williams, Galesburg, 111. Amerle m standard bred stallion ALT.ERTON, 2:W%. Rcprod^ed from a photograph taken when 14 years old. A comparison of this with the illustra- tion shown above, which was taken when three years old, indicates the development which takes place in a stallion as he advances in years. A comparison will also add to the prestige of this horse, for it shows how well preserved in form he is, without any blemishes, after having passed through severe campaigning. STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION ^ of the head proportionate to the rest of the body, It should be well set on the neck and carried gracefully. The nostrils should be large and of a healthy color. A n examination of the mouth, though usually made to estimate the age, should include inspection for the most frequent defects in this region which, in heavy horses are parrot mouth or overshot mouth and troubles of the teeth. The eye should be bright, full and mild with no appearance of film to interfere with the vision. In looking at the eye it is well to remember that the natural shape of the pupil is elliptical, while a spherical form indicates blindness or impaired vision. Haziness of the eye, one being smaller than the other or a wrinkled eyelid are indications of ophthalmia. 61. Neck — Strong, Lengthy. The neck should have the appearance of being strong and massive and also of sufficient length and well arched. Undue length of neck especially in draft horses is so rare that it may be considered unknown. 62. Shoulders — Sloping, Muscular. While a decidedly upright shoulder may give increased power in the shafts, it must be remembered that it may be in an extreme position in this respect, and if so it forces the step to be short and slow. It is easy to see that a moderately oblique shoulder favors a long, quick step and at the same time it detracts but little from the power. When the shoulder is very upright the concussion upon the feet is increased and hence this con- formation is generally associated with sidebones and ring- bones. Activity and elasticity of movement, especially in the walk is a desirable feature of the heavy horse and such is very seldom found in connection with an upright shoulder. 63. Chest— Deep, Full. The chest should be deep and comparatively broad giving great volume and lung room. It is best estimated by the girth, which is the body's circum- ference behind the fore legs. Horses that are slack in that part, are generally of weak constitution without average staying power. Exceptional width in the chest usually 38 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES results in rolling and pitching in action, but if the shoulder blades fit snug to the body this is not generally noticeable. 64. Arms — Sloping. The humerus or bone that forms the arm should be short and sloping so as to bring the fore legs properly under the body. In addition it should be well cov- ered with muscle. 65. Fore Legs — Wide, Defined, Fore Arm Large. The fore arm should be large and its prominence should be due to a large bunch of muscle which gives the horse complete control of his legs. It is an especially valuable feature to notice in a draft horse for the reason that it is not as easily padded with fat as the rest of the body. 66. Knees — Broad, Defined. A broad, clean knee is im- portant and there should not be the least shrinkage in the breadth below it. The extremities should be lean and the tendons should stand out prominently from the rest of the leg. In Clydesdales and Shires there should be a fringe of fine, silky hair starting from behind the knee and running to the fetlock and this should spring from the edge of the leg. It is well to bear in mind that this "feather" very often gives one a false impression of the width of the leg below the knee. Horses that are coarse about the fetlocks with matted, wiry hair in this region are as a rule more sub- ject to the skin diseases characteristic of these regions. 67. Fetlocks — Clean, Wide. This joint should be clearly defined without any fullness, due to windgalls. In addition it should be wide so as to give favorable attachment to the strong tendons that pass this point. 68. Pasterns— Sloping, Springy. The pastern of the draft horse should be medium in length and it should be critically examined especially in regard to its slope, for this has much to do with the durability of the horse's feet and also has an effect on the animal's action. A glance at the skeleton in this region will show that there are four small bones below the fetlock joint. The first one below this joint is the one A yearling Hackney filly, winner of numerous prizes in the leading British show rings. A thoroughbred yearling, DISGUISE II, owned by James R. Keene. This American bred horse finished third in the Derby, and afterwards beat the winner of the race, the Prince of Wales' Diamond Jubilee. A group of French Coach yearling fillies at Oaklawn Stock Farm, ine property of Messrs. Dunham, Fletcher & Coleman, Wayne, 111. These fillies were sired by Perfection and they show the form and quality desired in coach fillies of this age. NANCY HANKS 2:04 and foal by ARION 2:07%. This foal shows the quali- ties desired in a trotting breed weanling, while the mare in form illustrates a very desirable type of standard bred brood mare. Photo by Scott, of Carlisle. An old fashioned hunting group, with a hunter of remarkable qualities in the background. This is a reproduction of a photograph taken from Field and Fern, and is entitled "A Glimpse of Knockhill, 1864." The hunter shown illustrates a type which is usually remarkable for staying power. The head alone reflects remarkable qualities as may be noted by critical inspection. The form as a whole is that of a strongly built, stoutly made hunter, with unusual quality. It is this type without any waste weight that usually ranks first in stamina. The illustration on the right hand shows a deficient fore leg for a draft horse, as it lacks muscle, with straight, coarse pastern and shelly feet. The shoulder is also too straight and the legs very deficient in quality, as the hair is coarse and wiry, which may be noted by comparison with the one on the left. The latter shows good feet, sloping pasterns, strongly supported knee, rather weak fore arm, and moderately sloping shoulder. Clydesdale gelding SENSATION. In 1896 this horse was champion gelding of Scotland and then weighed 2184 pounds when shown by Mr. William Clark of Netherlea, Scotland,who paid $600 for him. After working during the inter- vening time on the streets of Liverpool, he was shown at Chicago at the International Exppsition in December, 1900, where he won a $100 special for the best aged gelding in harness. Photo taken December, 1900. This horse was bred by Mr, John Crawford, of Scotland and he was sired by the Darnlev horse Gartsherrie (2800). The imported English Shire stallion. ROCKINGHAM THE SECOND. Color, dark chestnut; weight, 2,290 Ibs. Property of Alexander Galbraith & Son, Janesville, Wis. Belgian Stallion, FRISCO DE MONTE 1321 (22252) foaled April 8, 1000; winner of many 1st prizes in Belgium, and 1st International, Chicago, 1903. Winner of special prizes (two firsts) offered by the Belgian Societies of Belgium and America. Owned by Dunham, Fletcher & Coleman, Wayne, 111. STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 39 that forms the pastern and below this there are two others continuing the slope of the paste.n; while the fourth is located at the juncture of the two just mentioned. It is evi- dent that it is desirable for the pastern bone to slope at least forty-five degrees, for if it is straighter than this, the concus- sion given to the foot is not dissipated over all the structures as it should be. A horse putting the foot down (except when severely taxed in draft and then the toe reaches the ground first) receives the concussion on the frog which trans- mits it to the tendinous tissue padding the heel of the foot. From there it passes to the bones of the foot apparently about the region of the first joint made by the three bones, the navicular, coffin and ,the coronary, which are admirably arranged in the leg having a sloping pastern to each receive a share of the buffeting. If the pastern is sloping it would seem that only a small part of the concussion is likely to reach the pastern bone and this seemingly would be com- pletely spent before the fetlock joint would be reached. This joint when the pastern slopes properly, swings in a sling of ligaments and tendons and consequently when the parts below slope considerably, it is much more effective in pro- tecting the bones of the leg from the irritation that arises from concussion. It is easy to see why navicular disease, r>idebones and ringbones, are most frequently associated with straight pasterns. The concussion from the foot in the straight pastern falls most severely on the first joint formed by the navicular, coffin and coronary bones and consequently it is about this region that these various bone diseases are located. Concussion produces irritation, which continued results in inflammation followed by bony deposits. To give the pastern the proper springiness, a proportionate length should be associated with the slope. The slope however, is of still more importance than length or size. The features of the joints at both ends should be clearly defined, showing 4:0 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES that they are completely free from puffiness, sidebones or other diseases or blemishes. It may be stated here that pasterns that are upright in a mature horse generally become more so with age and the action depreciates in proportion. Such a conformation gives but slight command of the feet and the horse that has it literally forces the feet into the ground or batters them on the hard pavement of the city streets. 69. Feet — Large, Dense, Concave Sole, Large Frog0 Diseases and defects of the foot are exceedingly prevalent among heavy horses. As sound feet are rather the excep- tion, and this is an important structure, considerable attention should be directed to it. The foot is made up of three bones. These are covered by a highly sensitive secret- ing layer. The external surface is made up of the wall, sole and frog. In shape the proper foot is somewhat irregular as the outer quarter running back to the sole curves consid- erably outward, while the inner quarter is straighter. This shape it will be easily seen not only gives a strong hold upon the ground, but it also decreases the possibility of the inner edge of the foot striking the opposite leg or interfer- ^or. In color the foot should be dark and it should have a waxy appearance. The angle formed by the hoof from the ground to the top should be about fifty degrees. One of the parts to be examined most critically is the frog. This should be plump, large and elastic. Just above the frog is what is known as the sensitive frog, which is a mass of blood vessels and nerves and above this again is a fatty frog which acts as a buffer. On top of the latter is the small navicular bone. This bone is enveloped in a very sensitive secreting mem- brane and if this becomes irritated in the least through con- cussion resulting from the frog not fulfilling its functions as a buffer then inflammation at once sets in; the fluid for lubri- cating the joint is not secreted ; then folio ws absorption of the cartilage and finally disease of the bone which interferes STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 41 with the function of the joint. These all result in excruci- ating pain and greatly lessen the horse's utility. Wide, open hoof heads (this has reference to the top of the foot) are very desirable. 70. Body— Short, Broad Back, Deep Ribs. The typical draft horse should stand comparatively high in front. This should not be due to straight shoulders or height of the withers, for when these are high it will generally be found that they are not well covered with muscle. Undue length of the back, very often sunken, is a common defect of draft horses. Another feature to look for in viewing the barrel is the breadth and depth of the ribs. If the body is not round and the ribs well sprung and deep, the chest is likely to be narrow. The volume of the chest behind the withers is an index to the capacity of the lungs, and it is a fact that horses that are light there and short in the hind rib easily become languid and depressed during exertion. The horse with a poorly sprung rib making a shallow barrel and light loin is usually a poor feeder and ill doer. 71. Loin— Thick, Broad. The loin should be thick and broad. If there is a slight elevation over the loin due to an extra development of the muscle it may be considered as indicating strength, though it detracts from the symmetry. 72. Croup — Broad, Muscled. The croup should be broad and thick with muscle. There is considerable difference in draft horses in regard to the slope of the croup. In some it appears as if they had been hit with a board in the hind quarter giving the croup an extreme slope, while in others it runs almost straight. The main factor which adds to the strength of the croup is not the slope of it but the degree to which it is muscled. The slope that runs from the center of the hips to the root of the tail is made by the vertebrae to which some important muscles are attached. The other slope which runs from the sides of the hip joints as seen from the side has perhaps more to do with the favorable applica- 42 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES tion of power in this part, than the slope that has been first mentioned. It is easy to see that when a muscle is perpen- dicular to the weight to be lifted the power is applied in the most advantageous way, just the same as when you wish to lift a weight you stand straight over it instead of trying to lift it at arm's length. There seems to be no real reason why the croup should slope so markedly as it does in some strains of horses, as it certainly detracts from their appearance. 73. Thighs — Muscled; Quarters Full. Passing down to the hind leg the thigh should be closely examined for the development of muscle in that region. The quarters should also be observed with the same object in view. There is a vast difference in horses in this respect, and it will sometimes be found that horses very heavily muscled at the croup are very lightly muscled in the quarters. It is a bad defect for a draft horse to be deficient in muscle in the quarters, for it is from these parts that they obtain most of their power to pull. 74. Hock — Wide, Defined, Properly Set. The hock should be closely examined, for in this joint there is likely more work done than in any other single joint of the body. Narrow, tied-in hocks are more subject to curbs than those that are broad. Fleshiness or coarseness about the hocks is very prevalent among draft horses and it is well to examine such closely for bog spavins. The tendons running from the hocks should be large, lean and firm. It is a com- mon defect for a draft horse to be too straight or too crooked in the hock. One that is set properly gives more power. The worst trouble and the most common one to be noted in hocks of draft horses is that of fleshiness or " gumminess," and such are not only more liable to hock troubles, but it indicates coarseness of organization which is not usually associated with durability. In looking at the hock it should appear wide both from in front of the horse and the side, especially so from the latter point of view. The point of the Suffolk stallion, RENDKSHAM CUPBEARER. First at the Royal Agricul- tural Society Show, 1899. DESCRIPTION OF THE SUFFOLK PUNCH HORSE VHIS BRITISH breed of draft horses is exceptionally uniform in type, owing to the fact that they have been long established and have been carefully bred for this feature. They are chestnut in color and the best representatives in form show a type that is low set, short legged and deep bodied. Considering the average weight of the breed they show an unusual amount of this to be due to the extreme development of muscle. The bone is most frequently of a high quality and the limbs clean cut in every feature, while feet of durable texture are among their common attributes. They have a well established reputation for being docile in temperament, easy keepers, steady when working, and activity is a leading quality of the breed. Desirable weight is sometimes absent in its representatives and frequently when this is ample it is secured by abnormal fatness rather than by general massivencss. While the fact that their qualities, chiefly activity and durability, especially adapt them for general farm work of lighter draft purposes yet the importance of the other essential and draft qualities, especially weight should not be overlooked by the judge in the show ring. HIAWATHA (10067), Vol. XVIII. Champion Clydesdale stallion; bay; ris- ing nine years old ; height 17-1 hands high ; weight at present 2128 Ibs. Bred by William Hunter, Garthland Mains, Stranraer. Property of John Pollock, Paper Mill, Langside. Winner of first prizes ia the Aged Open Class and the Cawdor Scottish cup at the Scottish Stallion Show, Glasgow, in 1898 and 1899; first prize and E. H. the Prince of Wales' Gold Medal at H. A. S. Show, Edinburgh, 1899; first prize and Duke of Montrose Plate, Glasgow Summer Show; also Duke of Portland's cup at Ayr, 1900; 6rst prize and Caw- dor Challenge cup at Scottish Stallion show, Glasgow, 1901. DESCRIPTION OF THE CLYDESDALE HORSE 1*HE representatives of this breed of Scotch draft horses are usually bay, brown, black or chestnut in color, with white markings. In conformation, the lead- Ing characteristics sought are the possession of weight with quality and action. While the adherents of the breed recognize the value of weight yet they always associate with it quality of structure with superior mechanical action, and in judg- ing a class of horses of this breed these features should have equal prominence. The head in the typical Clydesdale, though sometimes out of proportion to the other parts, is usually possessed of Intelligent features. To secure the action desired the shoulders must be sloping so as to permit a free and long stride in the walk and trot ; the arm must necessarily be full muscled, legs fluted and flat with a fine feather springing from the edge. The pasterns, which have received much attention in the formation of this breed, should be decidedly sloping, the hoof head or top of the foot should be large, and no amount of fine feather or excellence of pastern should be allowed to overbalance the necessity of a good sized foot, cor- rectly shaped and of splendid wearing texture. The back should be short and, though seemingly low from the extra style secured by high carriage of head, should never be weak, which is prevented by shortness in this part, and with an easy ris- ing and full coupled loin running smoothly into a strong croup. The quarters should be well muscled, and the hind legs in addition to having every evidence of quality should be properly set, meaning thereby that they stand close and the parts have correct proportion in relation to each other. In no case should style be allowed to supplant essential draft qualities, as it would be a fault of judgment to permit high carriage and flashy action to attain prominence over a deep middle, strong coupling in association with properly set limbs, as the source of Clydesdale popularity is the degree to which they combine the many essentials of a draft horse With activity. STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 43 hock should be as sharp as possible and the same may be said of all its features. Some horses are especially sharp in the prominences of the hock leading some to question their freedom from spavins. This formation is desirable for the reason that it is usually associated with the best quality of bone and tendon and further it gives this region more power because of the more favorable attachment of the tendons that pass these points. SCALE OF POINTS FOR DRAFT HORSES — GELDING. I! GENERAL APPEARANCE : Weight, over 1,500 Ibs; score according to age 4 Form, broad, massive, proportioned. .. 4 Quality, bone smooth, hard; tendons lean; skin and hair fine 4 Temperament, energetic, good disposition 4 HEAD AND NECK: Head, lean, medium size Muzzle, fine; nostrils large; lips thin, even Eyes, full, bright, clear Forehead, broad, full Ears, medium size, well carried Neck, muscled, crest high; throatlatch fine; windpipe large FORE QUARTERS: Shoulder, sloping, smooth, snug, extending into back 2 Arm, short, thrown back i Fore Arm, heavily muscled, long, wide 2 Knees, wide, clean cut, straight, deep, strongly supported 2 Cannons, short, lean, wide; sinews large, set back 2 Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong i Pasterns, sloping, lengthy, strong , 3 Feet, large, even size; horn dense; sole concave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; heel wide, one-half length of toe and vertical to ground ^. . 8 Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, a perpendicu- lar line dropping from the center of the elbow joint should fall upon the center of the knee and pastern joints and back of hoof. 4 BODY: Chest, deep, wide, low, large girth 2 Ribs, long, close, sprung 2 Back, straight, short, broad 2 Loins, wide, short, thick, straight 2 Underline, flank low. i 44 JUDGING HORSES - £ SCALE OF POINTS FOR DRAFT HORSES — GELDING. % O Continued, ^ $ HIND QUARTERS: Hips, smooth, wide 2 Croup, wide, muscular 2 Tail, attached high, well carried i Thighs, muscular 2 Quarters, deep, heavily muscled 2 Qaskin or lower thighs, wide muscled 2 Hocks, clean cut, wide, straight 8 Cannons, short, wide; sinews large, set back 2 Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong i Pasterns, sloping, strong, lengthy 2 Feet, large, even size; horn dense; dark color; sole con- cave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; heel wide, one half length of toe and vertical to ground 6 Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. From side, a perpendicu- lar line from the hip joint should fall upon the center of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle; and a per- pendicular line from the point of the buttock should run parallel to the line of the cannon 4 ACTION : Walk, smooth, quick, long, balanced 6 Trot, rapid, straight, regular 4 Total.. . zoo IV. JUDGING HORSES IN THE BREEDING CLASSES. The preceding discussion has most to do with the judging of the various types of the horse in use for pleasure or for work; so that it is necessary to present some details that should be observed in making awards in the breeding classes. In this work the judge must closely discriminate between the peculiar characteristics of the sexes and also employ much judgment in determining the development according to the age. 75. Sex Characteristics. Preceding birth and for some time in foetal life, there are no evidences of sex. Such are apparent at birth, but it is not until the approach of puberty that the sex characteristics referred to here begin to develop. After this period is reached the sexes begin to diverge from IN THE BREEDING CLASSES 45 each other, the male acquiring characteristics that are dis- tinctly masculine, while the female acquires others peculiarly feminine in that they are strikingly different from those of the male. The reproductive cells of each seem through their characteristics to influence the peculiarities of the sexes in a remarkable manner. 76. Differences in Disposition. In all classes of farm live stock there are very noticeable differences in disposition, that may be credited to the influence of the sex. The active dis- position of the male animal oftentimes is forced to spend itself in the development of viciousness and it cannot be dis- puted that such has been true of many of the best breeding sires, especially among those of the lighter breeds of horses and the dairy breeds of cattle. The difference in the nature of the sexes is even characteristic of the reproductive cells — the sperm or male cell being active and smaller, while the ovum or female cell is larger and more stable. From this condi- tion through the various stages of life the differences in the disposition of the sexes is easily traceable . The lamb of the male sex becomes combative and more active in disposition as he develops while the ewe lamb loses the early activity that was common to all and develops into the gentler ewe; the calf of the male has a fierceness of mien that seeks active expression in imaginary combats, becoming easily excited to anger, when it is noticeable that the suppliant bawl has become a fierce roar; while the cow has lost the playful energy that she had as a calf and now has none to spare for anything but her quiet vocation of making milk; the colts tend to develop the same restless activities while the fillies assume the quieter quality of mind common to maternity, and in a like manner the pigs separate in their dispositions as the sex characteristics become pronounced. Thus in all live stock the changes of disposition are traceable to sexual develop- ment and it is because of the close connection between the two features that many breeders consider the characteristic 46 JUDGING HORSES disposition valuable indications of future usefulness for breeding purposes. 77. Differences in Form. In the development of the sexes marked differences in form result. The true male form is heavier at the shoulders than the female while the latter is wider in the region of the pelvis. This should be borne in mind in critically examining animals of the different sexes, for it may oftentimes prevent an adverse criticism which should be favorable comment. It is not infrequent to hear the remark passed that a ram for instance, in a breeding class, would be an exceptionally good sheep if he were as wide behind as he is in front. This is thought by some to be the striking defect of our mutton breeds (and perhaps it is) but in many instances it is but the universal pattern that nature has adopted for the male form, A male of any class of stock should be expected to be wider in the chest than behind though it should not be weak in the latter part. Width of hip, however, is not the chief qualification of the female form; depth in this region or length of the barrel and from rib to hip, is of more importance as this makes provis- ion for the proper growth of the foetus. 78. Variation in Features. There are many marked vari- ations in the features that are characteristic of the difference in the sexes. In the stallion the face has a harder look and the head is larger. The neck is fuller and the crest or swell of the neck is very pronounced and surmounted with a heavy mane. The mare has a slimmer face with a softer expres- sion, the neck is thin and often ewe shaped and the mane light and fine. In cattle the face of the bull is more or less burly and covered with wavy hair, the horn is strong and inclined to roundness while the neck is thick and stout with a full crest. In the cow the face is long, free from wavy hair, the horn light and flat and the neck thin and in-curved on the top line. In sheep the face of the ram is shorter ard heavier and the neck has a heavy ' ' scrag ' ' or crest. The blare mare. HENDRIE CROWN PRINCESS, first in 1898 and flrstana reserve champion Royal Agricultural Society Show, 1899. Sold for $5,500 at Lord Wantage's auction sale. DESCRIPTION OF THE SHIRE HORSE HMONG the representatives of this long established breed of English draft horse the most desirable form is low, broad and massive. Weight is considered a leading feature and so with this we must associate the attributes of being heavily built, muscular, with large bone and rather slow movement. Strength of shoulder has been preferable to slope, which is probably given power in the collar but detracted from the freedom and length of the stride. The body of the best repre- sentatives is of exceptional merit, being large in girth, deep, strongly coupled with broad, short back and heavily muscled quarters. Their points of excellence are undoubtedly exceptional weight, made up of heavy bone, full muscular development, with width and depth of form ; associated with these qualities there are kindred deficiencies which are sometimes in evidence, meaning thereby a lack in general quality, coupled with a sluggish temperament. The superior consideration which has been given to weight has frequently over- balanced the claims of action, consequently while showing to excellent advantage standing there are some which fail to sustain their merit when their action is shown. A lack of quality in a draft horse must necessarily be discountenanced- tor durability depends on this and also on the set of the limbs. 8061 ' ' Percheron Stallion PINK 34765 (47513), foaled April 27, 1900. 1st at Iowa State Fair, 1903. 1st, sweepstakes andogrand sweepstakes Minnesota State Fair, 1903. 1st and Champion International, Chicago, 1903. Owned by Dunham, Fletcher & Coleman, Wayne, 111. DESCRIPTION OF THE PERCHERON HORSE IN THE establishment of this French breed of draft horses the guiding ideal has been to develop an active and durable type of draft horses suited for drawing , loads at a rapid pace. The degree to which weight is desirable in the modern draft horse has resulted in the production of a heavier type with these characteristics yet in evidence. The modern type of this breed Is short legged, compactly and stoutly built. The representatives which best exemplify the type show an active temperament, Intelligent heads, short, full crested necks, with deep body and wide croup. To meet the requirements of their patrons they must possess with this abundance of quality, attractive style and active movement. The modern type shows a difference from the original in being black in color and somcwnat closer to the ground than those first imported. The original gray Percheron had for its peculiar characteristics an unusual combination of strength and active action with style and endurance. They had an abundance of style, with round bodies and an exceptional quality of bono. The highest typo of this breed in the present show rings should be typical of an active draft horse with the quality and the substance to justify durability. To serve this purpose to the fullest extent the necessity of regular and straight action with properly set limbs should not be a secondary consideration in any show ring, and in the mind of the judge no amount of flashy action and toppiness should be allowed to overbalance these features. The weight that is necessary in representatives of this breed should be made up of a desirable quality of bone with muscle in those parts where real strength resides and not by a development in legions that have little to do with pulling power. IN THE BREEDING CLASSES 47 ewe's face is finer and the neck much lighter. In swine the boar's head is short and inclined to coarseness and the tusks are strong and large. The neck is full and the bristles abundant and with age the shields (thickening of the hide over the shoulder blades) develop. The sow is smaller in the face, the neck much lighter and finer just at the point where it joins the head. These things are all features of the sex characteristics and their value, which will be discussed in what follows, will indicate the degree to which they should be looked for in all breeding classes. 79. Relation of Sex Characteristics to Sterility. When the sex characteristics that have been described fail to develop in the mature animal, it is invariably good evidence of the lack of procreative power. The effect of castration is evi- dence of the fact that if anything interferes with the maturity of the reproductive organs, the sex characteristics fail to develop. If the operation is performed early in life there is a decided approach to the characteristics of the feminine type in the instance of geldings, steers, wethers and barrows. On the other hand, it is equally true of the opposite sex — thwarted or impaired development results in the production of the characteristics that are peculiar to the male type. As an instance of this the occurrence of ' ' free martins ' ' in cattle may be cited. This term is applied to twins in which the one is a male and the other a female. The female usually pos- sesses the sex characteristics of the male as she has the coarse appearance in the head, neck and horn, and when this is so it will be found that she is invariably infertile. Extreme effeminacy on the part of the male is equally indicative of sterility as may be attested to by the effeminate appearance and the sterility that results from inbreeding some classes of stock. Low, referring to this says of closely in and inbred animals, ' ' They become as it were sooner old; the males lose their virile aspect and become at length incapable of recreat- ing their race." Walker (Intermarriages) cites many 48 JUDGING HORSES instances that have been observed by different poultry breed- ers, bearing out the proposition that sterility through close in and inbreeding with some animals is followed by the loss or interchange of sex characteristics. 80. Relation of Sex Characteristics to Prepotency. The non-development of the sex characteristics in the male is indicative of the lack of vigor and that in turn has a close relation to prepotency or the impressive powers of a sire. Kffeminacy means a lack of tone in muscle and loss of vigor and this is very observable in sires lacking in impressive powers, while the most noted sires in the history of breeding have been remarkably virile with the characteristics of mas- culinity unusually developed. 81. The Stallion Classes. Excepting the sex character- istics the stallion should have the qualities that have been described in the class for geldings. The stallion should have the determined expression, the hard features, the high crest and full neck, that are evidences of masculinity. With these there should be the active vigorous temperament, which also indicates virility. The testicles should be nor- mal in size and both should be visible in the sac or scrotum, for impotency is often indicated by their non-appearance. It is a frequent subject for discussion as to whether or not the stallions in some classes should be judged solely as to their individual merit or also include the merit of their pedi- gree, performance and progeny. Usually the conditions relating to the awarding of the prizes are explicit enough to avoid such a discussion but where they are not it is best to consider in making awards all the attributes that will add to the value of the stallion. Pedigree in a breeding class has a value, so has performance ; and for this reason they should be given consideration along with the personal merit of the stallion and his progeny. In the instance of a standard bred trotter it is assumed by some that the fact that the stallion complies with the standard is IN THE BREEDING CLASSES 49 sufficient consideration to give his breeding but those who have given the matter any study will concede that there is a vast difference in the value of the pedigrees of standard horses. The judge should be able to discriminate between pedigrees and also to be broad minded enough to include in his estimate of the different stallions before him the other characteristics that make the animal valuable for breeding purposes. 82. Importance of Correct Conformation. In the breed- ing classes special attention should be given to the conforma- tion. A defect of conformation even in the smallest particu- lar is very apt to be transmitted and for that reason it should be discountenanced in breeding stock. It is generally known that even such a slight matter as a twist of the fetlock, or the turn of the foot in action is very likely to pass from a stallion to all his get. Considering however greater defects such as a curby hock, a weak knee or other malformations, it is certainly the duty of the judge to pronounce against them. To present this feature plainly it may be stated that a breeder would be better justified in using a stallion that had a spavin on a well constructed hock than one that was without a spavin but had a hock that was very defective in conforma- tion; the reason being that in the instance of the well con- structed hock with a spavin it is certain that the horse was subjected to a severe wrench or injury of some kind else the spavin would not be there. In the instance of the horse with the badly constructed hock it needs only the opportu- nity, which occurs in nearly all kind of work, to develop a spavin, and the reason there is not one there is solely because extra care has been given to the protection of this part. Breed- ing animals of this kind may be so carefully tended and pampered that they fail to show such diseases as would be produced by their conformation under the ordinary stress of labor. 50 JUDGING HORSES 83. Hereditary Diseases. In these classes it is of impor- tance to have in mind the diseases that are known as heredi- tary. This term does not imply that the disease is directly transmitted but that a horse having them transmits to his get a decided tendency to contract them. The newly born foal never shows them, but from its parents it inherits the defects of conformation that predisposes it towards these diseases. The Royal Commission composed of the leading veterinarians of England have decided that the following diseases in horses are hereditary: Roaring, whistling, side- bone, ringbone, navicular disease, curb, bone spavin, bog spavin, thoroughpin, grease, shivering and cataract. 84. The Mare Classes. In addition to the lighter head, neck and fore quarter which is the proper type of the sex, the mare should specially differ from the stallion in the roominess of the barrel. The ribs should be deeper and the body less compact and with much more length of loin than in the case of the stallion. 85. Colts and Fillies. This is probably the hardest class for the judge to satisfy himself in rendering decisions. This class cannot be judged without considering the possibilities of the future which comes only from experience. It is the growthy colt or filly with ideal limbs and rather lanky body that is likely to prove the superior animal when mature; while the compact, smooth bodied colt or filly that is not constructed on correct mechanical principles is likely to develop into a disappointment. V. ESTIMATING THE AGE OP HORSES BY THEIR TEETH. It is necessary to know the indications of age as they appear in the teeth that no animal may be unfairly classed with those that are younger. The indications become in a degree satisfactory to those who have proven them many times by personal observation and experience in noting the Percheron Mare MOUVETTE 30012 (43850), foaled 1896. Grand Sweepstakes Minnesota State Fair, 1903. Champion International, 1903. Owned by Dunham, Fletcher & (Joleman, Wayne, 111. Sketches of horses' teeth showing — 1, a temporary incisor of character- istic shape; 2, a permanent incisor, broader and longer than No. 1; 3, a per- manent incisor with lines indicating the appearance of the two as it is sub- jected to wear. At "A" the unworn surface of the new tooth is shown. At '•B" the mark is indicated with the general shape of the table. At "C" it is noticeable that the mark becomes much smaller while at "B" the triangular shape of the tooth that is well worn makes its appearance; 4, shows the natural mark and table of a horse's tooth. It will be noticed that there is a ring of enamel around the black mark or center; 5, this sketch shows the table of the horse's tooth that has been "Bishoped" or fixed so as to boar some resemblance to a young tooth with the natural mark. This black mark has been made in the tooth by the use of a hard instrument. f^2/2 to 3 Years to 4 Years 1...4'/2 to 5 Years Sketch of the permanent incisors, indicating the order in which they appear in pairs. The central pair of permanent incisors in both the upper and lower jaws appear when the horse is about two and one-half or three years of age, the next pair replace the temporary incisors when the horse is about four years of age, and the outside pair, making -a full mouth, usually appear at five years of age. FIVE YEARS • LOWER INCISORS Six YEARS LOWER INCISORS SEVEN YEARS E|GHT YEARS LOWER INCISORS LOWER INCISORS At five years it will be noticed that the marks are very distinct and tne tables worn but slightly in all of the incisors. At six years the center pair In the lower jaw show some wear, the mark becoming smaller. At seven years the second pair have nearly lost their marks, while at eight the third or outside pair show considerable wear with but a trace of the mark. ESTIMATING THE AGE BY THEIR TEETH 51 differences that exist. It is to be remembered however, that the foods fed them have a marked influence on the wear of the teeth, thus making differences which are not solely due to age. Liberal feeding which favors early maturity is also likely to affect the appearance and arrival of the incisors. 86. Appearance of Incisors. The difference in the appear- ance of the milk teeth or temporary incisors and the perma- nent incisors is readily understood after they have been once inspected. The temporary incisors are slender, narrow and constricted at the neck and very white, while the permanent incisors are broader, thicker and usually of a light yellow- ish tinge. 87. Order of Appearance of Incisors. The permanent incisors of both the upper and the lower jaws appear at the same time so that it is only necessary to refer to the upper. There are six permanent incisors in each jaw in the full mouth and these make their appearance in pairs about as follows : The pair in the center are the first to appear and they have displaced the temporary pair and are full grown when the colt is from 2j^ to 3 years old. The second pair or the two next to these are fully grown at 3^ to 4 years and the third pair have displaced the two corner temporary incisors at 4^ to 5 years of age. At this time the horse usually has a full mouth. 88. Disappearance of the Tables. The best indications of the age from five to ten years is the order of the disap- pearance of the tables or marks in the incisors. At five years the tables in the central pair of incisors of the lower jaw show some wear but it is not until the horse is about six years old that they have almost disappeared. At seven years of age the * ' swallow-tail " as it is called, or the nick in the corner incisor appears. At this age also, the two incisors next to the central pair lose almost all traces of their tables through wear, and at eight years the corner incisors or outside pair are so worn as to be almost free from any ap- pearance of having tables. At nine years of age the tables 52 JUDGING HORSES have disappeared from the central pair of incisors in the upper jaw; at ten the marks in the next pair in the upper jaw are about worn out and when eleven is reached the tables have almost disappeared from the corner pair of the upper row of incisors. Sometimes the teeth are "bishoped," that is, marks are made in the teeth to represent tables thus making the horse appear to be younger by the tables of its teeth. This treatment may always be told from the unnatural appearance of the table as the normal tooth always has a rim of enam,el around the tables. After a horse passes beyond the age mentioned it is a dif- ficult matter to make any further estimate with any degree of certainty. As the age increases, however, the upper sur- face of the incisors appear more triangular and the teeth spring from the jaw with a greater slope. VI. EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS. 89. A Blemish Different from Unsoundness. A blemish is something that depreciates the value of a horse without interfering with its usefulness. Such injuries as wire cuts mar the appearance of a horse and are properly called blem- ishes, while unsoundnesses include spavins, curbs, ringbones and all other diseases that lessen the usefulness of a horse in its sphere. 90. Decayed and Worn Teeth. In examining a horse for unsoundness it is well to follow a regular order beginning with the teeth. The best indication of decayed teeth or any similar unsoundness of the mouth is the odor that comes from it or attaches itself to the hand on the introduction of the latter. If the outer edges of the incisors are broken and worn away, it is an indication that the horse is addicted to ' ' cribbing ' ' in the stable. 91. Discharges from the Nostrils. The nostrils should be of a fresh pink color somewhat moist but there should be no discharge from them. If there is, glanders or distemper TEN YEARS UPPER INCISORS FIFTEEN YEARS ELEVEN YEARS LowER INCISORS UPPER INCISORS Passing to the permanent incisors in the upper jaw at nine years the central pair have almost completely lost their mark. At ten those adjoining these have reached the same condition, while at eleven the marks have about vanished from all of the permanent incisors. It will be noticed that as the age advances the appearance of the worn tables assumes a more tri- angular form. r w TWENTY ONE VELARS FIVE YEARS Comparison of a five-year-old mouth with one that is twenty years old, showing the marked contrast that develops, as age advances, in the slope of the teeth as viewed from the side. To Goubaux and Barrier's " Exterior of the Horse" the author is greatly indebted for the prints of horses' teeth which have been shown. These have been modified somewhat to bring out more clearly the necessary distinctions. 5 0- a S a §3 ih a EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS 53 may be suspected, which should lead to a trial of the mallein test if there is any suspicion of the former. 92. Impaired Vision. In regard to the eye there are many defects of vision which can hardly be termed unsound- nesses, yet they should be carefully .looked for. A horse by its action will usually indicate if the eyesight is good. Step- ping inordinately high or an inclination to shy readily indi- cate defective vision. By moving the hand gently in front of the eye, blindness may generally be discovered if the eye is so affected. The hand should be moved slowly for if the motion is made quickly the influence of the air on the eye will induce the horse to shut it though it may not have seen the motion of the hand. 93. Defective Hearing. Defects of hearing are more com- mon than is ordinarily supposed and they can usually be foretold by the action of the ears. Rigid ears indicate that the hearing has been lost. On the other hand when the ears are used excessively there is reason to suspect that the eye- sight is not as perfect as it should be and on that account the horse is trying to make its ears assist its eyes by follow- ing closely every sound. 94. Sweenied Shoulders. Passing to the shoulder it should be closely observed for the presence of sweeny. This is a shrinkage or atrophy of the muscles of this region leaving the shoulder appear flat and the blade bare of muscle. 95. Capped Elbows. On the point of the elbow, shoe boils or capped elbows may be frequently seen. The point of the elbow is unduly enlarged by the accumulation of mat- ter. It is a blemish as it is unsightly though not interfering with the horse at work. 96. Splints. Continuing down the fore leg, splints should be looked for on the cannon. They may be found on almost any part of this region but some care is necessary not to mistake the ends of the two small bones, that are associated with the cannon, for splints. In some horses the end of 54 JUDGING HORSES these bones are surmounted with noticeable knobs. If these lumps are found on both of the legs in exactly the same place, it may be taken for granted that they are natural. When the splint is located at the back part of the leg near the ten- don or close to the knee joint, so as to interfere with the action, it is in the worst place that it is possible to have it. A small splint in a position of the leg where it is not likely to cause lameness is not considered by most judges to be more than a blemish. The fact that splints on young horses very frequently disappear in a year or two is sufficient rea- son for overlooking this defect when it is present in young animals. 97. Ringbones. These are generally located on the pas- tern. There are two forms of it called high and low ring- bone, depending on the location. Ordinarily it is situated at the hoof head where the foot joins the pastern and it may be on any one of the four feet. Usually it can be seen because of the prominence produced but the hand should be passed over the part that a small form of it may not escape detection. 98. Sidebones. By pressing the thumb and the fore finger around the hind quarter of the front foot this disease may be easily detected. It is common to the front feet only. Small, hard prominences may be found on the side of the pastern just above the foot in horses that have them. They were originally cartilage but became ossified and solid caus- ing pain and considerable lameness especially when the horse having them is driven on hard roads. 99. Quarter Cracks and Sand Cracks. The feet are sub- ject to many forms of unsoundnesses and among the most prevalent are sand cracks and quarter cracks. In very sandy districts during the hot days of summer when horses are driven considerable the hoof becomes so heated that it cracks and in time results in a very troublesome disorder Usually this defect originates from weak feet. Quarter cracks are EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS 55 very similar to sand cracks excepting that they are seen on the quarters of the hoof. They extend from the coronary band or the hoof head to about the middle of the hoof in cases of ordinary severity. Looking at the bottom of the foot there should be no cracks running from the bars to the top of the hoof. Large cracks here are very common owing to the general practice of cutting out the heels in shoeing. 100. Corns. These are generally located in the corner of the heels and their presence may be more or less indicated by the way a horse wiL shrink when the sole of the foot is hit in that region with the handle of a knife. 101. Thrush and Scratches. Thrush is a diseased condi- tion of the foot in the region of the frog and invariably makes its presence known by the disagreeable odor that comes from it. Scratches occur in the back part of the pastern, and, while not properly an unsoundness, they cause the animal affected a great deal of pain and annoyance. It is a condi- tion due to the filthiness of this part and will generally dis- appear before cleanliness and antiseptic lotions. 102. Locating Lameness. In locating lameness in the leg, it should be borne in mind that it is the sound limb that the horse puts down with the most confidence and when the ailing leg comes to the ground an effort to ease it is made by throwing the head up. When a horse shows lameness in the front legs, if the trouble is in the shoulder the leg will usually be flexed at the knee when standing at ease; but when the sprain or lameness is below the knee the affected limb will be extended. When sore on both front feet they will be extended as far as convenient, 103. Thoroughpin. In detecting diseases in the region of the hock or in fact in any other part, it is absolutely neces- sary to first know the outlines of the perfect structure. This has special application to the diseases of this region; for there are many that may show but a very slight variation from the normal condition and thoroughpin is one of these. 56 JUDGING HORSES Thoroughpin is located between the tendon of the hind leg and the bone and appears just above the hoek. It consists of a soft swelling that may be pushed from side to side. 104. Curb. Curb, which occurs just below the hock and to the rear is a thickening of the ligaments in that region. By looking at the leg from the side it may be easily noticed as it is a variation from the straight line which should run from the point of the hock down towards the end of the cannon. 105. Bone Spavin. The most common trouble of the hocks, and the worst of all, is bone spavin. To detect this, it is best to stand in front of the horse and take a position so that in looking back the inner outline of the hind leg may be seen very clearly. This is a bone deposit which nature has thrown out to strengthen an otherwise weak joint and when it has developed it ties the joint so that it interferes with the proper action of the horse. The hind leg instead of coming down on the heel as it should in a sound limb, is thrown forward so that the toe reaches the ground first and the stride is unnaturally shortened, and lameness frequently results. Occult spavin, that is where the deposit is not apparent to the eye but hidden in the joints, is very hard to determine; the usual method of detection is to lift the suspected leg and then starting the horse quickly observe the result when the foot reaches the ground. Undue shrinkage indicates the presence of spavin in this form. 106. Bog Spavin. Bog spavin is usually associated with thoroughpin and it is very similar to the latter; differing from it only in location. In the natural depression that occurs on the inner and front part of the hock, the oil from the joint accumulates and forms a soft swelling commonly known as bog spavin. The term blood spavin is sometimes applied to the enlargement of the vein that passes across the hock from in front. This, however, is not an unsoundness. EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS 57 107. Unsound in Wind. After giving all the parts careful inspection for soundness, the horse should be driven rapidly for a quarter of a mile so as to discover wind troubles. The horse should be stopped quickly and then by advancing closely to the neck the breathing may be noted whether free and easy or accompanied with a sound similar to whistling. If the breathing is characterized by a wheezing or whistling sound, then whistling, roaring or some other disorder of the air passages is present. If the origin of the sound is doubtful — it might be possible to result from too tight a collar — have the horse taken out of the harness and ridden rapidly. When the breathing is not regular it is likely that the horse is troubled with the heaves. In the instance of horses so afflicted, the breathing is more or less spasmodic, tbe air from the lungs seeming to be half expelled when the respiration stops for a brief period and then the expulsion of the air is continued. In this way the depres- sion of the flanks is not gradual and continuous as it is in the instance of the horse with sound lungs but it is stayed for a short period at a time when the breath is about half expelled from the lungs. 108. Detection of Stable Vices. Horses may have many stable vices that detract greatly from their utility, but these cannot be discovered as a rule in the show ring. To make a satisfactory examination of a horse, it is necessary to see it in the stable, then have it harnessed, hitched, driven and subjected to a critical examination, and after these things have been given careful consideration it will be only after continuous companionship on the road that a man may be said to truly know his horse. 58 JUDGING HORSES VII. OFFICIAL STANDARDS FOR HORSES. THE TROTTING STANDARD — ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN TROTTING REGISTER ASSOCIATION. When an animal meets these requirements and is duly registered it shall be accepted as a standard bred trotter: 1. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse and a reg- istered standard trotting mare. 2. A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting horse pro- vided his dam and grandam were sired by registered standard trot- ting horses, and he himself has a record of 2:30 and is the sire of three trotters with records of 2:30 from different mares. 3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard trotting horse, and whose dam and grandam were sired by registered standard trotting horses, provided she herself has a trotting record of 2:30 or is the dam of one trotter with a record of 2:30. 4. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, provided she is the dam of two trotters with records of 2:30. 5. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, provided her first, second and third dams are each sired by a registered stand- ard trotting horse. THE PACING STANDARD. When an animal meets these requirements and is duly registered, it shall be accepted as a standard bred pacer: 1. The progeny of a registered standard pacing horse and a reg- istered standard pacing mare. 2. A stallion sired by a registered standard pacing horse provided his dam and grand dam were sired by registered standard pacing horses, and he himself has a pacing record of 2:25, and is the sire of three pacers with records of 2:25, from different mares. 3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard pacing horse and whose dam and grand dam were sired by registered standard pacing horses, provided she herself has a pacing record of 2:25, or is the dam of one pacer with a record of 2:25. 4. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, provided she is the dam of two pacers with records of 2:25. 5. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, provided her first, second and third dams are each sired by a registered stand- ard pacing horse. 6. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse out of a registered standard pacing mare, or a registered standard pacing horse out of a registered standard trotting mare OFFICIAL STANDARDS FOR HORSES 55 SCALE OF POINTS FOR SHETLAND PONY— ADOPTED BY AMERICAN SHETLAND PONY CLUB. Constitution — Constitution indicated by general healthy appearance, perfect respiration, brightness of eyes 10 Size — Ponies over four years old, 42 inches and under in height, two points to be deducted for every inch over 42 inches up to 46 inches, fractional portions to count as full inches. ... 25 Head — Head symmetrical, rather small and fine, wide between eyes, ears short and erect 10 Body — Barrel well rounded, back short and level, deep chested, good breast, compact, "pony build " 10 Legs — Legs muscular, flat boned, hind legs not cow-hocked or too crooked 25 Mane and Tail — Foretop, mane and tail heavy 10 Feet — Good ic IOO NOTE. In judging horses the height is sometimes a subject of dis- cussion so that the manner of determining this should be well under- stood. It is generally conceded that the horse should stand on a perfectly level floor and the measurement made to the highest point of the withers. The position of the horse should be such that the head at the poll should be in line with the withers and this parallel to the floor. The fore legs and hind legs should be as perpendicular to the floor and as parallel to each other as the conformation of the horse permits. It should be noted that the spirit level in the cross bar of the standard should indicate that it is being held properly. The horse should be measured in shoes of the same thickness as he wears when in competition in the show ring. <§ state fair circuit of 1900. Photo by Breeders Gazette. Group of Herefords from the herd of K. B. Armour, Kansas City, Mo, This group illustrates the uniform marking and conformation for beef pro- duction which is eminently desirable in a breeding herd. Commenting on Roan Gauntlet, this writer says : ' ' Roan Gauntlet was a lightish roan color, with a deep heavy carcass on shortish legs. For size, quality, hair and substance he was all right ; he was well let down in his hind quarters and his ribs sprung out well from his back, but inclined to flatten lower down. He had a biggish head and his face was cov- ered with very curly hair. The stock got by Roan Gauntlet were, like those of Champion of England, of good size and remarkable for their early development, natural depth of flesh and quality." These are the qualities that the breeder desires to have perpetuated in the produce of his herd, and they are also the qualities that the feeder desires and the butcher requires in the animals he buys. In addition to them the beef sire should have the features of masculinity that attach themselves to cattle very strikingly apparent. The face should be broad, the head burly, the horns strong but not coarse, and the crest full and prominent. There should be a marked appearance of massiveness presented in the front view and the hind quarters should not in any sense be feminine ; that is, they should not have the shortness and width and roughness that are usually associated with those of the other sex. 126. Judging Beef Cows. In judging beef cows the preference should be given those that show constitution, wealth of natural flesh and feminine character. Constitution in the female is of as much importance as it is in the sire, and its value cannot be overestimated in the breeding herd. The question of condition or flesh in this class constantly challenges the judgment of the judge, as it is very frequent that a good cow of excellent type and style competes in the show ring with an indifferent animal in high flesh. While this is an occurrence where every instance will most likely call for a different judgment, yet it may be said that the preference should be given to the cow that is lacking in con- dition rather than the poorer individual that is highly 76 JUDGING CATTLE pampered. In this connection it should be stated that cows are probably more apt to be rough and patchy, yet this is a feature that should always be condemned. Over the ribs there are apt to be creases, or around the tail the fat may be accumulated in bunches or the back may show patches, "ties" or unevenness of flesh. Though not often trans- mitted, yet this tendency to patchiness should be discount- enanced, as it is an undesirable condition in all fat stock. 127. Judging Young Beef Stock. In judging young beef stock the peculiar feature to which much importance should be attached is that of early maturity. Early maturity is a profitable characteristic to encourage in beef animals and for that reason should be given all possible prominence in the show ring. The young animals that show an early tendency to put on an even and somewhat firm and deep covering of flesh and at the same time show size, constitution and qual- ity are the ones that should have the preference of the judge. III. JUDGING DAIRY To estimate the merits of dairy cows when giving milk there is no method so satisfactory as the actual records made with the Babcock test and the scales. Having the weight of milk yielded, the percentage of fat in it, duration of the milking season and period of pregnancy together with the amount of feed consumed, the merit of a cow for dairy pur- poses may be rated accurately. But even all these details will not completely express the meritorious qualities that it is possible for a dairy cow to possess; for the breeder has in mind some other qualities that he desires, chief among which may be mentioned the ability of the cow to produce calves of the merit of herself and to continue doing this for a number of years. To attempt to encompass all the merits that any domesticated animals may possess and express this in a scale of points is at best but a stimulus to the study of Hereford oalf, winner of Sweepstakes, International Exposition, Chicago, 1900. Owned by Mr. Geo. P. Henry, Goodenow, 111. Shorthorn bull calf, SCOTTISH CHAMPION, at 7 months. The highest priced calf of 1898. Bred by W. S. Marr, Uppermill, Scotland. Sold at auction for $1,650. Polled Durham cow, owned by H. Lee Borden, of Tonti, 111. The term "double standard" is applied to such Polled Durhams as are eligible for reg- istration in the American Shorthorn Herd Book as well as in the Polled Durham Record. Photo by Reid. Hereford herd owned by Messrs. Gudgell & Simpson, Independence, Mo. This herd won first prize as the best young herd at the Kansas City National Live Stock Show in 1900. JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 77 them, and it is only with this in mind that the various scales of points are submitted here in this work. That which fol- lows is used at the London and Canadian Dairy Show as a basis for making awards: Twenty points for constitution and conformation, one point for each pound of milk, twenty points for each pound of fat, four points for each pound of solids not fat, one point for each ten days in milk after the first twenty days (limit 200 days); ten points is deducted from the total score for each per cent of fat below three per cent fat in the milk. While the judging of dairy cattle by points may not be completely satisfactory, it is a quick method for use in the show ring and it assists in the study of the many traits that are common to dairy cattle. Its value does not lie in the degree to wl^ich it assists in distinguishing the good cows from the bad ones but chiefly for the insight which it gives into the nature and functions of the dairy animal, and it is the deeper knowledge of them that leads to better care, more intelligent feeding and more successful breeding, which all culminate in greater production. 128. Dairy Cow's Function. To be able to draw correct inferences from the points of the dairy cow, it is necessary to understand her function and how she performs it. The function of the dairy cow is to make milk, so that it is desir- able to have a complete knowledge of how she does this and more especially the operation of the chief organs employed in the process. After studying this so as to see the work performed by each part, it is then realized that the type of the dairy cow is produced simply by the activity of these parts and it is in this way that it is possible to obtain a clear conception of the close relation of function or work, to type. 129. Making of Milk. To understand how milk is made let us follow the course of the food after entering the cow's mouth. From there it passes into the gullet and then to the first stomach or paunch. After remaining there for a time, 78 JUDGING CATTLE the most of it is returned to the mouth and remasticated; when this is accomplished the food passes through the two other stomachs and finally lodges in the fourth. After undergoing a mixing process by the action of the muscles of the stomach, the food passes into the small intestines. Up to this time the chief action of the various parts has been to break up the food, so that the fluids of the body may act upon it, and make the digestible and nutritive portion into a solution. In its passage thus far the food has been subjected to the action of the saliva of the mouth and the gastric juice of the stomach, together with the bile of the liver and pancreatic j uice which attack it in the small intestine. The result of this action is that the soluble nitrogenous material, carbohydrates and salts are now in a condition to be received by the blood and carried to the parts of the body that make the most abund- ant use of it. We see from this that the stomach and its aids have an important part to play in preparing the food, so that it may supply the cow the material to carry on her specialty, which is the making of milk. 130. Function of the Blood. The food now being in a condition to be utilized by the animal economy, let us see how it passes into the blood and finally reaches that other great manufacturing center of the body of the dairy cow, the udder. It is the blood that is the medium for carrying the nutritive portions of the food to the organs needing them. The mucous membrane or inner lining of the small intestines is covered with a large number of small glands that have the appearance of the pile on velvet. These villi consist of cells and numerous small branches of veins called capillaries, and they also have what are known as lacteals. All the consti- tuents, excepting the fat, pass through the wall of the small capillaries and these connect with the portal vein, which carries the blood to the liver and thence to the right side of the heart. The emulsified fat of the food reaches the same destination by a slightly different course. It passes into the JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 79 lacteals that are contained in the villi mentioned and these join a long tube that runs beneath the spine and finally reaches the thoracic duct, which also receives all the fluid coming from the other lymphatics in the cow. The thoracic duct empties its contents about the region of the first rib into a great vein (the anterior vena cava) which opens into the right side of the heart, so all the digestible constituents of the food are now in the blood and have reached the right side of the heart. From here the blood goes to the lungs to be purified by the air that is breathed in and then it again goes back to the left side of the heart to be pumped through the arteries to the various portions of the body. Several branches run to the various organs of the body but that which goes to the mammary gland is of chief interest in the function of making milk. The aorta runs along under the spinal column and finally reaches the femoral artery which is about parallel with the femur or thigh bone. This throws off a branch (prepubic) which again branches into another (the external pubic) and this again after it passes through the inguinal ring divides into two branches (the anterior or subcutaneous artery, and the posterior abdominal or mammary artery) and from these the mammary gland receives its supply, as they branch into all the regions of the udder. Following the blood still further, it passes through the udder and appears outside of it in what are known as the milk veins. They run along the belly, pass into the body, and finally direct the blood to the heart again. In respect to the function and relations of the organs up to this point, we can understand that the stomach and its accessories per- form the greatest amount of work in making food into blood, while the lungs purify it, and the heart propels it to those parts that are in most need of it. 131. Function of the Udder. In the dairy cow the udder is an important organ, for it directly performs the work of 80 JUDGING CATTLE making milk, which is the dairy cow's specialty. With the exception of the water, the udder is generally considered to produce as the direct product of its own action all the constit- uents of the milk. The casein, the fat and the milk sugar are elaborated in the udder, the only constituent that is thought not to undergo any change is the water in the blood. However, it is from the blood that the milk is made, for the action of the udder is to so change all the constituents that the milk distinctly becomes the peculiar product of the udder. To better understand the construction of the udder let us follow the course of the small opening which exists at the end of the teat. This opening at the upper part of the teat swells into a cistern or milk reservoir, where the milk accumulates to a degree between the time of milking. The milk is prevented from passing out of this cistern through che teat by a small muscle (sphincter) which holds the milk in the udder until relaxed by the stimulation of milking. From this cistern a canal extends further into the udder. This branches many times and at the end of each branch there is a cluster (a lobe) of tissue very similar to a bunch of grapes. What is known as the lobe is similar to the bunch, the lobule resembling one grape, and what is known as the alveoli the seeds of the grape. The alveoli are lined with small cells in which the milk is made. These cells produce within themselves the fat peculiar to milk and also secrete the water, salts, etc. , that enter into the composition of milk. The milk being secreted in these millions of small cells, which compose the udder, passes into the branches that lead to them, and from these it passes into the main branch and finally reaches the milk cistern, where it accumulates until milking begins. The four quarters which make up the whole udder are each constructed in the way indicated and they act somewhat independently of each other. JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 81 132. Nervous System. Besides the organs performing the work of digestion and secretion, there is another feature of the physiology of the dairy cow, which is of equal importance. Reference is made to the brain, the spinal cord, and the numberless nerves connected with the nervous system. These control the action of most of the organs of the body and have an effective influence over the amount of work that they may accomplish. The nervous system is represented by the brain and the spinal cord with its branches. The spinal cord runs through the vertebrae from the head to the tail, and sends out from each vertebra branches that connect with the various organs of the body. The feature connected with the nervous system that has special application to the dairy cow is that of temperament. More study has been given this in the instance of men, and those who have given most attention to it have divided their temperament into four classes — nervous, lymphatic, bilious and sanguinary. In cat- tle the two divisions, nervous and lymphatic are most in evidence, and they are very markedly characteristic of two classes of cattle, dairy stock and beef animals. In an ani- mal of nervous temperament, the nervous organization is strong and well developed. Such an animal is able to stand labor beyond what would be expected of it from its physical appearance. The animal of lymphatic temperament is slug- gish in disposition and inclined to fatten or become fleshy. It should be stated that the common conception of nervous temperament is not the same as that which is referred to here. Generally when reference is made to an animal's hav- ing a nervous temperament is commonly supposed to mean that it is irritable and excitable which actually indicates the lack of nervous control. The term as properly used in refer- ence to dairy cattle means an animal that is full of nerves, one that has strong nerves which gives tone to the various organs of the body. The animal of nervous temperament is one that is sensitive and active, giving all regions the 82 JUDGING CATTLE greatest vitality and all the organs the greatest productive powers. To sum up, if we consider a cow simply as a machine for making milk, we find that the food «is manufactured into blood by the stomach and its accessories and the blood in a general sense is made into milk by the udder so that the two main manufacturing centers of the dairy cow are the stomach and the udder, and it is around these that what is known as the dairy type has evolved its peculiarities. But as the dairy cow is more than a machine, as she has vitality and recuperative power, we find that the nervous system as expressed in the nervous temperament is what enables her to maintain her enormous productive powers in these centers 133. The Dairy Form. It will be understood from the previous discussion of the function of the dairy cow that there are four main centers of activity when she is perform- ing her function ; the digestive system, the milk secreting system, the circulatory system and the nervous system. And it is because of extreme activity in these centers that the dairy cow inclines towards a given type. She tends to become wedge shaped and lean because of the unusual activity in the regions mentioned. Certain portions of her organization have an undue amount of work which tends to their development in an extreme degree, while the other portions because of their activity and lack of nourishment do not develop to the fullest degree ; this results in the instance of unusual performers in a type that is inclined to be narrow in front and wide and deep behind. While it does not necessarily follow that a cow, to be a good dairy animal, must be of this type yet because of the work she does, most of them tend towards it. The relation of type to performance has been the subject of experiments by Professor Haecker, reported in Bulletin 67 of the Minne- sota Experiment Station. When a cow is milking freely Jersey cow, DOLLY'S VALENTINE. Yearly test, made by Kentucky Exper- iment Station, 679.5 Ibs. butter. Owned by Kentucky Experiment Station. DESCRIPTION OF JERSEY CATTL.E |N THE establishment of this breed on the island, from which it takes its name, the work was conducted very systematically to produce uniformity of type and bovine beauty. In establishing the ideal, two representative animals were chosen for excellence and the scale of points adopted was made a combination of these. The early breeders adhered very closely to color, markings and type but the modern breeder has lessened the attention towards these by breeding more strictly for utility as a butter producer. The foundation stock for the Jersey represented chiefly by those on the island at the present time are noted specially for the deer like appearance of their heads, fine, slim necks, light shoulders, deep though narrow fore quarters, large bodies with abundant capacity, lean hind quar- ters and more particularly for the beautiful appearance of the udder in its fullness and placing of the teats. Since the introduction of a system of testing, the indica- tions which give power of production have overbalanced to some degree the fine discriminations which existed as to the general color and markings, of nose, tongue and switch. The modern type may be of broken color, or lack in the fancy points referred to but it has the ability for larger butter production more intensified, as fche frame is inclined to show more strength and the general form more ruggedness of constitution. While the type should show the angular form which is conducive to the highest butter production, yet those features which contribute to beauty, the head and neck, should not be wholly without the graceful lines so characte istic of the breed. See scale of points, page 97. Guernsey cow, FANTINE 2D 3720. Record, 9,738 (Is. of milk and 602 llts. <>f butter. Owned by Chas. Solveson, Washota, Wisconsin.. DESCRIPTION OF GUERNSEY CATTLE *I*HE GUERNSEY cattle coming from the island of that name have not had attached to them any peculiar requirements as to the type or markings, as these have been allowed to evolve themselves as the breed developed under the patronage of the Royal Agricultural Society of the island. Being carefully pro- tected from the infusions of blood from foreign sources they have become of a dis- tinct type and their markings and color have necessarily assumed uniformity. The greatest production of butter has been the aim and the evolution of the breed and this has evolved the type of large capacity, necessarily strong in frame without any encouragement being given to the finer lines of beauty, The color is usually some shade of fawn with white markings, but this is considered subordinate to the color of the skin which should be of a rich orange tinge. The head in all its linea- ments should show refinement, the nostril and mouth large, the face slightly dished and clearly chiseled, the eye large and full with the top of the head surmounted by delicate horns. The juncture of the head and neek should be trim and light and the latter slim. A sharp shoulder should run into a deep chest and the latter should swell into a roomy barrel. The back should be sharp and straight and the hind quarters completely free from fleshiness with a thin thigh. The udder is a leading consideration and it should be long with full, circular form and teats large and the milk veins prominent, branched and tortuous. See the elaborate official scale of points, page 98. JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 83 if she possesses good dairy qualities there is likely to be a lean appearance over every region of the body show- ing that she is an animal of nervous organization and further that she utilizes all her foods for the making of milk and not for the filling out of her form. In a good dairy cow there is a feminine look that is very characteristic. There is no thickening of the neck, or a crest on the neck, or any heaviness of the fore quarters indi- cating the slightest masculinity, but all of these parts are light, clean cut and in every way indicative of feminine character. The size of the dairy cow comes into the discus- sion of type. This has something to do with her perform- ance, but there is no distinct advantage in having a cow very large if there is not with it characteristics which indicate enlarged dairy qualities. 134. Skin — Soft, Fine. The skin should be soft and comparatively thin. It is a point of much value to discrim- inate against a thin, papery skin, as such is usually associ- ated with the weakness of constitution. The skin should be unctuous, or oily to the touch, giving the impression that butter might be squeezed out of it. When the secretions of the skin are healthy it may be expected that the secretions in the rest of the body are going on vigorously. The skin lining the ear should be a golden color and so should that in the region of the udder, inside the thighs, around the eyes, at the root of the tail and below any spots of white hair. 135. Hair — Silky, Fine. The hair covering all the body should be short, soft and silky. The udder especially should be covered with hair of this character, and not with long, coarse hair, as is often observed on poorly milking animals. Coarse, harsh hair is generally an indication of lack of refinement and an evidence of unthriftiness. 136. Bone — Fine Texture. The dairy cow in her daily life needs but sufficient bone to maintain her form. As a rule the milking cows are loose in form but possessed of fine 84 JUDGING CATTLE quality. There should not be any appearance of weakness due to fineness, yet the form should not be coarse and heavy. 137. Head — Feminine, Lean, Long. A very essential quality is for the head to have a feminine appearance. The ideal head of a cow is devoid of the heaviness and coarse- ness characteristic of the bull. Just as milk giving is a peculiar trait of the cow so is fineness in the head. The face should be long and especially lean with the features very distinct. The eye should be full, mild and bright, and more or less active. A kindly disposition is reflected by a mild eye, while one that is bright is indicative of vigorous circu- lation and good health. Large, dilated nostrils permitting easy entrance of air to the lungs, with prominent windpipe, are usually associated with depth of chest and lung capacity. In size the ear should be medium, possessed of fine quality, and a rich orange color inside. The strong horn of the bull is not desirable, but rather one that is small and fine in quality. The poll should be prominent, with the forehead broad and full, showing strong development of brain. 138. Neck — Thin. A slim, fine neck carrying the head gracefully is a characteristic that adds much to the appear- ance of a dairy cow. The fullness and heaviness here which characterizes the beef animal should be completely absent. The neck must be thin and join an equally thin and bare shoulder, with the withers sharp but yet quite open. The performing powers of the dairy cow depend greatly on the depth and volume of the barrel. It has been noted the important part that the heart, lungs and stomach perform in the work of a dairy cow, so that the necessity of having a barrel that will afford ample room for the work of these will be readily apparent. The ribs should be long to supply storage capacity for food. The backbone should be promi- .*ent and strong, for through it ana under it run two of the 'argest channels, representing two of the most vital systems of the body, the nervous and the circulatory. JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 85 139. Hind Quarter — Lean, Elevated. As a whole, the hind quarter in a deep milking cow is strikingly free from fleshiness, and there is usually a slight raise in the quarter from the loin to the attachment of the tail. Some think this conformation indicates vigor, but a more reasonable view of the merit of the point asserts that it is to some extent unfavorable for the premature birth of calves. 140. Hips — Sharp, Wide Apart. The hip bones should be prominent, sharp and wide apart, giving plenty of room to the generative organs. From the point of the hip to the end of the tail there should be a marked hollow or shrink- age, due to the absence of the flesh, a condition character- istic of heavy performers when in full milk. 141. Thigh — Thin, In-curving. The thigh, for the same reason should be thin and retreating and possessed of length. A thin thigh, decidedly in-curving is a noteworthy feature. Attention has been drawn to the use of the tail as a plumb line to determine the degree to which the thigh curves. 142. Escutcheon. — High, Wide, Spreading. Viewing the thighs and the region of the cow above the udder, it will be observed that on this part the hair runs in the opposite direction from that to which it inclines on the other parts of the body. Where it does this, it is known as the escutcheon, to which attention was first directed by Guenon. It is sup- posed that the reason of this hair growing in the direction mentioned is due to the artery which passes this part. The artery supplying the udder with blood also nourishes the skin on which the escutcheon grows. Many have the idea that Guenon considered this the only point of value in determining the worth of a cow. The fact is that he con- sidered it only one of ten to be included in the merits of a first-class dairy cow. There is some reason for considering the escutcheon as it is undoubtedly to a degree an index of the quantity of blood received by the udder, for the same reason that the milk veins are of value as they indicate the 86 JUDGING CATTLE quality of blood that leaves the udder. In 1878 a commis- sion was appointed by the Governor of Pennsylvania to inquire into the reliability of this point, and they reported in its favor. It is unnecessary to go into the details of the various classes of escutcheons as Guenon enumerates eight classes and eight orders or, in other words, eight different shapes and eight different sizes. He claimed that the shape was indicative of the quantity and the size was an index of the duration of the milk flow. The broader it extends over the thigh and the greater the length of it the better the escutcheon is considered to be. Guenon believed that he thigh escutcheon indicated the quantity of milk the cow gave, while the upper portion or vertical escutcheon the length of time she would milk, and with these he considered the feel of the skin, the character of the hair, and the color of the skin as indicative of the quality of the milk. With these features he also associated ' ' the thigh ovals ' ' on the udder just above the hind teats, for in his view an escutcheon was not considered of a high order without them. 143. Udder — Long, Plastic. When empty the udder should nearly lose its form and appear to consist of folds of soft, pliable and elastic skin. The hind quarter should be full behind and attached high, while the fore quarter should extend far forward. Length in the udder is important, as it gives a long line of absorption. It should be fully thirty inches long from the attachment at the back to where it joins the belly. It is to be remembered that the udder not only secretes milk from the blood and hence is an important organ, but it is also a receptacle for holding the milk. In Bulletin 62 issued by Purdue University, Professor Plumb presents some instructive studies of this important organ. 144. Teats — Evenly Placed. These should be just large enough to fill the hand and yield milk easily but never leak. They should be evenly placed, standing at least six inches apart in all directions when the udder is full. JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 87 145. Milk Veins — Large, Branching. The milk veins are considered important as they indicate the amount of blood that has passed through the udder. In a cow that has recently dropped her calf they should be very prominent and full and branched. The milk wells through which the veins pass into the body of the cow are indicative of the size of the milk veins and consequently they should receive consid- eration, especially when the cow is dry, for at that time the milk veins themselves are not in evidence. SCALE OF POINTS FOR DAIRY CATTLE — COW. & O PL, GENERAL APPEARANCE : Form, inclined to be wedge shaped 6 Quality, hair fine, soft ; skin, mellow, loose, medium thickness; secretion yellow; bone clean, fine. 6 Temperament, nervous, indicated by lean appearance when in milk , 6 HEAD AND NECK: -Muzzle, clean cut ; mouth large ; nostrils large Eyes, large, bright, full, mild Face, lean, long, quiet expression Forehead, broad Ears, medium size, yellow inside, fine texture Horns, fine texture, waxy Neck, fine, medium length, throat clean, light dewlap FORE QUARTERS : Withers, lean, thin i Shoulders, light, oblique 2 Legs, straight, short ; shank fine 2 BODY: Chest, deep, low, girth large with full fore flank 10 Barrel, ribs broad, long, wide apart ; large stomach 10 Back, lean, straight, open jointed 2 Loin, broad 2 Navel, large 2 HIND QUARTERS: Hips, far apart, level .- 2 Rump, long, wide 2 Pin Bones or Thurls, high, wide apart i I Tail, long, slim ; fine hair in switch i Thighs, thin, long 4 Escutcheon, spreading over thighs, extending high and wide ; large thigh ovals 2 Udder, long, attached high and full behind, extending far in front and full, flexible ; quarters even and free from fleshiness 20 88 JUDGING CATTLE SCALE OF POINTS FOR DAIRY CATTLE — COW. Continued. P^ Teats, large, evenly placed , 5 Mammary Veins, large, long, tortuous, branched with double extension ; large and numerous milk wells 5 Legs, straight ; shank fine 2 Total ."loo IV. JUDGING DAIRY BULLS 146. Judging Dairy Bulls. In judging dairy bulls many points may be noted that they have in common with dairy cows, especially features of type, but it is a much more dif- ficult task to judge between those of this sex than it is to discriminate between developed cows. 147. Purity of Breeding. It seems necessary to say that the first requirement in the dairy bull, as in the instance of all other stock sires, is purity of breeding. The sire should meet all the requirements demanded of a pure-bred animal for registration. In addition the dairy sire should have the characteristics which are called for by the scale of points for the breed represented. 148. Uniformity of Breeding. To secure the greatest prepotency in a sire, the breeding for some generations back must show a uniformity in the type and characteristics of the ancestry. When the animals mentioned in a pedi- gree lack uniformity, or have been dissimilar in type and characteristics, it is not probable that the progeny will show that uniformity which every breeder desires to see in the herd. 149. Pedigree Based on Performance. The most valu- able characteristic relating to the pedigree of a dairy bull is the number and the merit of the records that have been made by the cows that are named in it. This feature is not usually considered in the show ring, though it should be, as it has a marked influence on the worth of a dairy sire. The most important feature of the pedigree of a dairy sire 15 the degree to which his dam was a good dairy cow, and in k TUDOING DAIRY CATTLE 89 lessening degree the records of those that preceded her. Next in importance to this is the number and the merit of the performances of the cows that are mentioned in the wires' line. Not only should the dams in the pedigrees have good records as performers, but the males should also be getters of performers. A bull that has breeding of high order based on performance, is as certain as things can be to sire superior stock, provided he is satisfactory as an in- dividual. 150. Qualities Associated with Individuality. Impressive power or prepotency and constitution are indicated to a cer- tain extent by the individual. The first mentioned may be estimated with some certainty by the masculine appearance of the bull in the head, horn, and crest; while the consti- tution is reflected by the depth of chest, the size of the na- vel and the general appearance of the hair, hide, and eye, as these are closely associated with thrift and vigor. The type in other respects should be that outlined for the dairy cow. A very common defect in the form of the dairy bull is roundness of the hips and undue fullness of the thighs, traceable to heaviness of flesh in these regions. The hip bones and the hocks should be prominent and between these points there should be a marked falling away due to the absence of any tendency towards fatness in this region. The undeveloped teats should be large and well placed and the navel should be prominent. The skin, especially where it gathers in loose folds between the thighs and at other points, should be soft, pliable and rich in color. All points should show much more openness and relaxation than is customary in beef animals, for this characteristic appears to be prevalent among deep milking types. 151. Judging Calves. In the selection of the best calves the merit of the dam as a dairy cow is a valuable guide but it is not a point that is usually employed in show yard judging. In reference to the form of heifer calves the type 90 JUDGING CATTLE of the typical dairy cow in miniature is the most desirable. The long face, the thin neck, light shoulder, sharp withers, deep chest, large capacious body, wide, long and thin rump, thin thighs, mellow hide of red color and soft hair should al] be in evidence. The folds of skin in the udder regions should be loose and pliable. The teats should not be bunched together but wide apart and evenly placed. It is desirable to have the navel of such size that it may be easily noticed, and the form in every part should have the open and relaxed condition referred to in discussing developed cows. The bull calf differs in no marked degree from the heifer calf until it approaches the age of one year when the sex char- acteristics have developed to a noticeable extent. V. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE. ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE. A "c SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMERICAN g ABERDEEN ANGUS ASSOCIATION— BULL. (J Color — Black. White is objectionable, except on the underline behind the navel, and there only to a moderate extent ; a white cod is most undesirable 3 Head — Forehead broad ; face slightly prominent, and tapering toward the nose ; muzzle fine ; nostrils wide and open ; dis- tance from eyes to nostrils of moderate length ; eyes mild, full and expressive, indicative of good disposition ; ears of good medium size ; well set and well covered with hair ; poll well defined, and without any appearance of horns or scurs ; jaws clean 10 Throat — Clean, without any development of loose flesh under- neath 3 Neck — Of medium length, muscular, with moderate crest (which increases with age), spreading out to meet the shoulders, with futl neck vein . . . . . 3 Shoulders — Moderately oblique, well covered on the blades and top ; with vertebra or backbone slightly above the scapula or shoulder blades, which should be moderately broad 6 Chest — Wide and deep ; also round and full just back of elbows 10 Brisket — Deep and moderately projecting: from between the legs, and proportionately covered with flesh and fat 4 Ribs — Well sprung from the backbone, arched and deep, neatly joined to the crops and loins 8 Back — Broad and straight from crops to hooks ; loins strong ; hook bones moderate in width, not prominent and well covered ; rumps long, full, level and rounded neatly into hind quarters 10 OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 9J ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE. -g Bull — Continued. g Hind Quarters — Deep and full ; thighs thick and muscular, and in proportion to hind quarters ; twist filled out well in its ''seam " so as to form an even wide plane between thighs . . 8 Tail — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a line with the back and hanging at right angles to it 3 Underline — Straight, as nearly as possible ; flank, deep and full 4 Legs — Short, straight and squarely placed, hind legs slightly inclined forward below the hocks ; forearm muscular ; bones fine and clean 4 Flesh — Even and without patchiness. 4 Skin — Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly covered with thick soft hair. (Much of the thriftiness, feeding properties, and value of the animal, depend upon this qual- ity which is of great weight in the grazier's and butcher's judgment, A good "touch" will compensate for some deficiencies of form. Nothing can compensate for a skin hard and stiff. In raising the skin from the body it should have a substantial, soft, flexible feeling, and when beneath the outspread hand it should move easily as though resting on a soft cellular substance, which however becomes firmer as the animal ripens. A thin papery skin is objectionable, especially in a cold climate) 10 General Appearance — Elegant, well-bred and masculine. The walk square, the step quick, and the head up 10 Total 100 When bulls are exhibited with their progeny in a separate class, add 25 counts for progeny. I SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMERICAN ABERDEEN ANGUS ASSOCIATION — COW. O Color — Black. White is objectionable, except on the underline behind the navel and there only to a moderate extent 2 Head — Forehead moderately broad and slightly indented; taper- ing toward the nose ; muzzle fine ; nostrils wide and open ; distance from eyes to nostrils of moderate length ; eyes full, bright and expressive, indicative of good disposition ; ears large, slightly rising upward, and well furnished with hair ; poll well defined, and without any appearance of horns or scurs ; jaws clean 10 Throat — Clean, without any development of loose flesh under- neath , 3 Neck — Of medium length, spreading out to meet the shoulders, with full neck vein 3 Shoulders — Moderately oblique, well covered on the blades and top , with vertebra or backbone slightly above the scapula or shoulder blades, which should be moderately broad 6 Chest — Wide and deep ; round and full just back of elbows. . . 10 Brisket — Deep and moderately projecting from between the legs, and proportionately covered with flesh and fat 4 92 JUDGING CATTLE ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE. Cow — Continued. o U Ribs — Well sprung from the backbone, arched and deep, neatly joined to the crops and loins 8 Back — Broad and straight from crops to hooks ; loins strong ; hook bones moderate in width, not prominent, and well cov- ered ; rumps long, full, level and rounded neatly into hind quarters 10 Hind Quarters — Deep and full; thighs thick and muscular, and in proportion to hind quarters ; twist filled out well in its " seam " so as to form an even wide plain between thighs. . . 8 Tail — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a line with the back, and hanging at right angles to it. 3 Udder — Not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the body and well up behind ; teats squarely placed, well apart and of good size 8 Underline — Straight, as nearly as possible, flank deep and full. 4 Legs — Short, straight and squarely placed ; hind legs slightly inclined forward belowthe hocks; fore arm muscular; bones -fine and clean 3 Flesh — Even and without patchiness 3 Skin — Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly covered with thick, soft hair. (Much of the thriftiness, feed- ing properties and value of the animal depend upon this quality, which is of great weight in the grazier's and butch- er's judgment. A good " touch " will compensate for some deficiencies of form. ^ Nothing can compensate for a skin hard and stiff. In raising the skin from the body it should have a substantial, soft, flexible feeling, and when beneath the outspread hand it should move easily, as though resting on a soft, cellular substance, which, however, becomes firmer as the animal ripens. A thin, papery skin is objec- tionable, especially in a cold climate.) 10 General Appearance — Elegant, well bred and feminine. The walk square, the step quick, and the head up 5 Total 100 In judging heifers omit No. 12, and add 3 counts to "Flesh, "and 5 counts to No. 17, in the order named above. DEVON CATTLE. STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR DEVON BULL — ADOPTED BY DEVON CATTLE BREEDERS SOCIETY, ENGLAND, 1896. Registered pedigree. Head masculine, forehead broad, tapering towards the nose, which should be flesh-colored; nostrils high and open, muzzle broad; eyes full and placid; ears medium size and thickness, fringed with hair; horns growing at right angles from the head or slightly elevated stout and waxy at the base, tipped with a darker shade. Cheek full and broad at the root of the tongue. Throat clean. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 93 Neck of medium length and muscular, growing from the head to the shoulders and spreading out to meet them. Withers fine, shoulders flat, sloping and well covered. Chest deep, broad and somewhat circular in character. Ribs well sprung from the backbone, nicely arched, deep and fully developed. Back straight and level from the withers to the setting on of tail, loins broad and full, hips of medium width and on a level with the back. Rumps moderately long, thick and square. Hind quarters deep, thick and square. Tail, thick at the root, and tapering with a brush of strong hair, reaching to the hocks and hanging at right angles with the back. The underline as nearly as possible parallel with the top. Arms and thighs muscular. Legs straight and squarely placed when viewed from behind, not to cross or sweep when walking. Skin moderately thick and mellow, covered with an abundant coat of rich mossy hair of a red color; a little white in front of the purse is admissible; but it should not extend beyond the navel forward, on the outside of the flanks, or any other part of the limbs or body. STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR DEVON COW — ADOPTED BY DEVON CATTLE BREEDERS SOCIETY, ENGLAND, 1896. Registered pedigree. Head, moderately long, with a broad indented forehead, tapering considerably towards the nostrils; the nose of a creamy white, the nostrils high and open, the jaws clean, the eye bright, lively and prominent; throat clean, ears thin, the expression being gentle and intelligent; horns matching, long, spreading and gracefully turned up of a waxy color tipped with a darker shade. Neck of medium length, growing from the head to the shoulders, and spreading out to meet them. Withers fine, shoulders flat, sloping and well covered. Ribs well sprung from the backbone, nicely arched, deep and fully developed. f Back straight and level from the withers to the setting on of the tail, loins broad and full, hips of medium width and on a level with the back. Rumps moderately long and level. Hind quarters, deep, thick and square. Udder not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the belly and well up behind; teats moderately large and squarely placed. Tail thick at the root and tapering, with a brush of strong hair reaching the hocks and hanging at right angles with the back. The underline as nearly as possible parallel with the top. Legs straight, squarely placed, when viewed from behind, not to cross or sweep when walking. Skin moderately thick and mellow, covered with an abundant coat of rich mossy hair of a red color; white about the udder is admissible, but it should not extend beyond the navel forward, on the outside ot flanks or any other part of the limbs or body. 94 JUDGING CATTLE HOLSTElNxFRESIAN CATTLE. ^ SCALE OF POINTS PUBLISHED IN ADVANCED REGISTRY, VOL. II, 1889— BULL. g Head — Showing full vigor, elegant in contour 2 Forehead — Broad between the eves, dishing ^ Face — Contour graceful, especially under the eyes, medium in length, broad muzzle ,,.... 2 Ear — Of medium size, fine, covered with soft hair i Eyes — Moderately large, full and bright 2 Horns — Medium in size, fine in texture, short, oval, inclining forward 2 Neck — Neatly joined to head and shoulders, nearly free from dewlap, good length, proud in bearing 5 Shoulders — Of medium height, well rounded and even over top 4 Chest — Low, deep and full 8 Crops — Full and level with shoulders. 4 Chine — Straight, broadly developed and open 3 Barrel — Well rounded and large abdomen 6 Loins and Hip— Broad, full, long and level 5 Rump — High, long, broad and level 5 Thurl — High, with great width 4 Quarters — Long, straight behind and full at sides 5 Flanks — Deep and full 2 Legs — Short, clean, tapering, with strong arm, with position firm, wide apart; feet of medium size, round, solid and deep 6 Tail — Reaching to hock or below, large at setting, tapering to a full switch 2 Hair and Handling — Fine, soft and mellow, skin of moderate thickness, secretions oily and of rich brown or yellow color. 10 Mammary Veins — Long, large, branched, with extensions enter- ing large orifices 10 Rudimentary Teats — Not less than four, large, well spread 2 Escutcheon — Large and fine development 8 Total , ioo A bull that has from three to five of his progeny in Advanced Register shall be credited with five points, in excess of what he may scale in structure. A bull that has five or more of his progeny in Advanced Register shall be credited with ten points, in excess of what he may scale in structure. No bull shall be received to Advanced Registry who does not scale 80 points. No bull shall be received to Advanced Registry that in the judg- ment of the inspectors will not reach a minimum weight of 1,800 in good flesh at full age. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 95 SCALE OF POINTS PUBLISHED IN ADVANCED REGISTRY, VOL. 1 1 , 1889 — COW. CJ Head — Decidedly feminine in appearance, comparatively long from eyes to base of horns, fine in contour 2 Forehead — Broad between the eyes, dishing 2 Face — Contour fine, especially under the eyes, showing facial veins, length medium, broad muzzle 2 Ears — Of medium size, fine, covered with soft hair i Eyes — Moderately full, large and mild 2 Horns — Set moderately narrow at base, fine, oval, well bent, inclining forward 2 Neck — Fine, nearly free from dewlap, neatly joined to head and shoulders, topline slightly curving, of good length, moder- ately thin, elegant in bearing 4 Shoulders — Fine and even over top, lower than hips and moder- ately thick, deep and broad 3 Chest — Low, deep and broad 6 Crops — Full and level with shoulders 2 Chine — Straight, broadly developed and open 3 Barrel — Well rounded with large abdomen 5 Loin and Hip — Broad, full, long and level 5 Rump — High, broad and level, with roomy pelvis 4 Thurl — High, with great width 4 Quarters — Long, straight behind, roomy in the twist, wide and full at sides 4 Flanks — Fairly deep and full 2 Legs — Short, clean, tapering, with strong arm, in position firm, wide apart; feet of medium size, round, solid and deep 5 Tail — Reaching to hocks or below, large at setting, tapering finely to a full switch 2 Hair and Handling — Fine, soft and mellow, skin of moderate thickness, secretions oily and of rich brown or yellow color. 10 Mammary Veins — Large, long, crooked, branched with exten- sion entering large orifices 10 Udder — Capacious, flexible, well developed, both in front and rear ; teats well formed, wide apart and of convenient size. . 12 Escutcheon 8 Total. loo A cow that has made milk or butter record in excess of the mini- mum requirement applicable to her case (see Rule 6) shall be cred- ited one point for each and every eight per cent that such record exceeds such requirement. No cow shall be receiver1 to Advanced Registry that does not scale 75 points (credits from railk records being allowed as provided above). No cow shall be receive^ to Advanced Registry that in the judg- ment of the inspector will r>< kt reach a minimum weight of 1,000 IDS., at full age, in ordinary flesh milking form. 96 JUDGING CATTLE JERSEY CATTLE. w. SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN JERSEY CATTLE CLUB, MAY 6, 1885. VOL. 45, 1896— COW. The points desirable in the female are generally so in the male, but must, of course, be attended with that masculine character which is inseparable from a strong and vigorous constitution. Even a degree of coarseness is admissible ; but then it must be so exclusively of masculine description as never to be dis- covered in a female of his get. The Head of the bull should be shorter than that of the cow, but the frontal bone should be broad, the muzzle good size, throat nearly free from hanging folds, eyes full. The horns should have an upward turn, with sufficient size at the base to indicate strength of constitution TO Neck — Of medium length, somewhat arched, and large in those muscles which indicate power and strength 10 Fore Quarters— Shoulders close to the body, without any hollow space behind; chest broad, brisket deep and well developed, but not too large 7 Back — Short and straight ; spine sufficiently well defined, but not in the same degree as in the cow ; ribs well sprung and body deep in the flanks 10 Hind Quarters — Long, broad and straight; hip bones wide apart ; pelvis long, broad and straight ; tail set on a level with the back ; thighs deep and broad 10 Scrotum — Large, with well developed teats in front 7 Legs — Short in proportion to size, joints firm. Hind legs well apart, and not to cross in walking 5 Skin — Yellow, soft, elastic and of medium thickness 10 Color — Red of any shade, brown or white, or a mixture of these — each color being distinctly defined 3 Average Live Weight at maturity, about 1,500 10 General Appearance, including style and movement 15 Escutcheon, large and fine development 3 Total.. . 100 104 JUDGING CATTLE SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN AYRSHIRE BREEDERS ASSOCIATION, FEB. 21, 1889 — COW. & The following scale of points for the Ayrshire cow were adopted — being similar to the scale adopted in Scotland in 1884 — and changed in a few points to render them applicable to this country : Head — Short ; forehead wide ; nose, fine between the muzzle and the eyes ; muzzle, large ; eyes, full and lively ; horns, wide set on, inclining upwards 10 Neck — Moderately long and straight from the head to the top of the shoulder, free from loose skin on the under side, fine at its junction with the head, and enlarging symmetrically towards the shoulder 5 Fore Quarters — Shoulders sloping; withers fine; chest suffi- ciently broad and deep to insure constitution ; brisket and whole fore quarters light, the cow gradually increasing in depth and width backwards 5 Back — Short and straight ; spine well defined, especially at the shoulders ; short ribs, arched ; the body deep at the flanks. . 10 Hind Quarters — Long, broad and straight, hook bones wide apart and not overlaid with fat; thighs, deep and broad; tail, long, slender, and set on level with the back 8 Udder — Capacious and not fleshy, hind part broad and firmly attached to the body, the sole nearly level and extending well forward ; milk veins about udder and abdomen well developed ; the teats from 2% to 3 inches in length, equal in thickness — the thickness being in proportion to the length — hanging perpendicularly, their distance apart at the sides should be equal to one-third of the length of the vessel, and across to about one-half of the breadth 30 Legs — Short in proportion to size, the bones fine, the joints firm. 3 Skin — Yellow, soft and elastic, and covered with soft, close, woolly hair 5 Color — Red of any shade, brown or white, or a mixture of these — each color being distinctly defined 3 Average Live Weight in full milk, about 1,000 pounds 8 General Appearance, including style and movement 10 Escutcheon — Large and fine development 3 Total.. . 100 Ayrshire cow, NELLIE OSBORNE. winner of Sweepstakes Gold Medal for breed at World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893. Owned by D. Drun\ mond, Petite Cote, Quebec. DESCRIPTION OF AYRSHIRE CATTLE 1*HIS BREED of Scotch dairy cattle originated under the rugged conditions of Ayr- shire and in their type and general characteristics they exemplify the form and quality which would be called for in a dairy animal required to make the most eco- nomical use of their food and do the best under conditions too severe for finer and more delicate cattle. The head is slim, rather long in the face and surmounted with a horn not wholly devoid of strength, the neck somewhat short is clean cut though not delicate, the shoulder is sharp and the chest full and deep, the body is straight in its top lines, slightly more compact than usually found in the dairy type but has the volume which invariably results in large capacity for consumption and production. The hind quarter is moderately wide and covered with flesh while the thigh is thin and the udder long and excellent in its proportion. The size and the placing of the teats is a feature which calls for careful attention in ranking representatives of this breed. See official scale of points, pages 103 and JOi. Holstein-Friesian cow COLANTHA 4th, in her four year old and six year old form. The lower illustration is a photo of her as a four year old. Com- pare this with the upper, which is a photo of her as a six year old, and the changes that take place in a dairy cow as she approaches maturity may be seen. This cow is owned by Messrs. Gillett & Son, of Rosendale, Wis., and her records are as follows : Milk, 1 day. Butter, 1 w'k. Milk, 1 y'r. Butter Fat, 1 y'r. 52.2 fts. 14.1 ft s. 64.8 B&s. 18.7 t>s. 70.2 fl>s. 21.1 R>s. AGE. 2 years. 3 years. 4 years. 5 years. 6 years. 77.3 fts. Milk, 1 y'r. 12.463.4 Ibs. 14.951.5 Ibs. 13,992,2 5>s. 14,481.8 B>s. 14,782.7 BT.S. 577.7 tt>s. 533.9 fts. 562.9 tt>s. 24.5 B>s. This cow was also first in the official tests of the Holstein-Friesian Asso- ciation in 1900, and also winner of first prize in tests for economy of produc- tion making 19.6 Ibs. fat in one week at a food cost of 6 3-5 cents per pound. DESCRIPTION OF HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE *pHE ORIGINAL type of this breed had more size of frame than that which char- acterizes the modern representative. The conditions existing have favored the production of a large dairy animal with extreme development for yielding milk. The type which is now common shows more refinement but still has the characteristics in the main which identified the first importations. The color should be black and white, with no mixture of this or tinge of brown. The head should be lengthy, generally because of a long face, the eye should be large and bright and that portion of the head between the horn and the eye should be full. The neck should be slim and lengthy, the shoulder sharp and fitting well while the chest should be deep and the body have for its most noted feature a large develop- ment of the digestive organs. The loins should be strong though bare of flesh and the hind quarters straight and angular and the thighs thin. The frame should show as much refinement as possible without any indication of delicacy. The gen- eral conformation should be such as to favor large capacity for the consumption of food and the production of the largest quantity of milk. See official scale of points- page 95. PARADISE II 97112, bred by H. C. Taylor, Orfordvilie, Wis. Record, 18 Ibs. 4 ounces. Owned by A. O. Auten, Jersey ville, Illinois. Dropped Oct. 17, 1893. Good type of a dairy cow. Udder very capacious and very hand- somely developed, teats large and well placed, veins very prominent. Not only does the cow show unusual merit as to form, but the calf is especially illustrative of the type desirable for dairy purposes. Guernsey bull BENJAMIN, owned by Geo. O. Hill & Son, Rosendale Wis a noted prize winner in the show rings, illustrating the main features of form required in a dairy bull. Holstein herd owned by Messrs. W. B. Smith & Sons, of Columbus, O. In this remarkable photograph of a large herd there cannot be found a single animal which does not illustrate desirable dairy type.* Photo by Schreiber. Photograph of the head of the Jersey cow, BUTTERCUP. This photo- graph shows in an unusual degree the conformation of head and neck which is desirable in a highly bred Jersey. A pair of Holstein calves bred by the Iowa Agricultural College, illus- trating the type most desirable for calves intended for dairy purposes. A photograph of some Jersey calves, taken at the stock farm of H. O. The heads Illustrate the JUDGING SHEEP. 4*1 el III Z< CC p3 O EH H S S22S2 w L •11 t^oo 11 W 55 OD QD ft 1H W CO •*' .'A CHAPTER HI. JUDGING SHEEP. 152. Method of Examining Sheep. In examining sheep it is advisable to adopt a definite course of pro- cedure so that nothing may be overlooked and each mo- tion made to disclose something in regard to the merit or demerit of the sheep. In the show ring that contains as many as ten sheep in a class it is easy to see that the judge must work quickly as well as accurately. And there is nothing that will contribute to both of these like examin- ing each part of the sheep in regular order. The best course to follow is perhaps to begin at the head, pressing down the lower lip with the finger and thumb so that the teeth may be seen and the age estimated. Then with the hands under the jaw look carefully over the head, seeing that the, eyes are all right, the head a good shape and no appearance of horns in those breeds that are hornless, while in those that possess these, note that they spring clear from the head. Then pass to the neck, feeling with the hands the fullness of it, and in addition observing the length and the way it swells to meet the shoulder at the shoulder vein. Pass down to the brisket, putting one hand on the floor of the chest and the other at the top of the shoulder and in this way form an idea as to the depth of the sheep through these parts. Next note the shoulder, observing how it is covered with flesh along the side and top and also taking the girth of the spring of the ribs with the sheep. From the top of the shoulder, using one hand, follow the line of the back to the end of the body. By carefully handling these parts the fleshiness of the 108 JUDGING SHEEP sheep or the way the ribs are covered and the straightness iof the back are determined and at the same time the spring of the ribs is made apparent. The width of the loin should then be taken and also its covering and thick- ness. The width of the hips should next be observed, and turning to one side and using two hands the length from the hip to the end of the hind quarter should be made apparent between the two points. Then the width of the hind quarter and the manner in which it is carried back and the fullness should also be examined. Follow- ing the joint towards the leg the development of the thigh on the outside requires examination, and then with the hand the quarters should be firmly felt. 153. Deception Due to Trimming. In this way the sheep has been thoroughly examined as to form, but it is to be remembered that the hands should be thor- oughly relied on to discover all defects of form, and un- less the sheep is carefully handled the examiner is very likely to be deceived. The wool of all show sheep and fat stock of the medium wool classes, is always trimmed, and the trimmer possessing skill can give any desired form to sheep, providing the wool is long enough and the sheep approaches somewhat towards the form which is being imitated. 154. Estimating Age by the Teeth. The o*der of appearance of the nippers or incisors in sheep is a fairly reliable method of telling their age. The sheep has eight permanent incisors, and these appear in regular order in supplanting the milk teeth. The milk teeth can always be told from the permanent incisors by the fact that they are narrower. The permanent incisors are broad and wide and widened considerably towards the top. The first or central pair of incisors appear when the sheep is slightly over one year old. The next pair, Illustrations of Proper Methods of Handling Sheep in Judging Them, Looking at the face and head and feeling the fullness, of the neck. With one hand oh top and the other below estimate the depth of the chest. Notice the heart girth by the dis- tance between the hands. With the hand perfectly flat note the levelness of the back, its firmness and covering. . Illustrations of Proper Methods of Handling Sheep in Judging Them— Continued. Taking the width of the loin; note the thickness. also With one hand at the hip joint and the other at the end of the body, the length of the hind quarters may be estimated. Noting the degree to which the width of body is carried to the end. Feeling the development in the leg of mutton. Illustrations of Proper Methods of Handling Sheep in Judging Them— Continued. Manner and place of opening fleece Manner and place of opening fleece to see the finest quality of wool. ...to see the poorest quality of wool. Illustration showing the proper method of holding the hand in examm- ingsheep. It will be noticed that in this illustration those examining the sheep hold the fingers together in a sloping manner, in this way it is possible to feel the form of the sheep without disturbing or breaking the fleece. The very common method of sticking the fingers into the fleece makes holes in it which greatly annoy the shepherd. j^ffsll g^^gce^c^: ._ s 3 a£ o o 0 „, I sill? 'I « gj43 0) W o 6- S'C pie8|^{| .£ * ^ 0) fn S 0> O C lis!|^|i .£!«.§» H! . +i*3 3J O> 83 2frt S Illllal FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 109 that is, one on each side of the central pair, appear the fol- lowing year, and that is when the sheep is two years old ; the third pair appear when the sheep is slightly over two years old, and the fourth pair when it is between four and five years old. This completes the number of incisors and a complete set always indicates that the sheep is be- tween four and five years old. High feeding or forcing hastens the age indications, so that the variations are often unnoticeable, especially in show sheep or those im- ported from Great Britain. I. JUDGING SHEEP FOR MUTTON AND WOOI,. In judging fat sheep it is necessary to consider the needs of the feeder of this class of stock, the demands of the butcher for lambs and mutton, the desires of the con- sumer and the requirements of the manufacturer of wool. These requisites must be merged together to ar- rive at a correct view of the whole. 155. The Feeding Type That Gives the Best Gains. In considering the type of sheep which gives the best results in the feed lot, we have only to have in view the type that gives us the greatest vigor, insuring an active digestion and the mast constitution, so that nothing may upset the sheep in the rapid progress de-- sired. In this connection it will be well to report the re- sults of an experiment made at the Wisconsin Experi- ment Station by the writer. Two lots of lambs were se- lected ; the one bred by the station showing in fleece and form a high degree of merit for grade sheep. These lambs were bred from high grade ewes and the rams had been selected at high prices for some years to make the best blend with the ewes. The lambs were very uni- form as to type and they showed what might be called an 110 JUDGING SHEEP unusual degree of merit for ordinary feeding lambs. To compare with these, some lambs native to northern Wis- consin showing the type common to that territory were put upon similar rations. The representatives of both these kinds of lambs, in addition to having the same kind of food, were kept under identically the same conditions, putting both lots of lambs in the fed lot at three cents a pound and taking them out at four cents at the end of the feeding period. The well bred lambs of good feed- ing type after paying for the feed that they ate, at current prices yielded a profit of $1.13 per head; while those representative of the poor type being indiscriminately bred only yielded a profit of $ . 60 per head. The lambs of the best type ate more food, but they made more than a corresponding gain, and the chief point should not be lost sight of, that the profit from each one of them was just twice as much as that from those being of inferior type. 156. The Feeding Type Bringing Most at Maturity In the selection of feeding lambs the feeder has to keep in view the fact that there is most demand for the lamb that when fat weighs about 100 pounds. Such a lamb has the quickest sale at the highest price per pound. This type is one that is not too heavy boned and large framed, but such as require only a medium amount of flesh to make the carcass smooth and plump at the weight indicated. It is the low set, thick type that possesses these qualities to the highest degree. To se- cure the greatest profit in feeding it is desirable to have the gain made as rapidly as possible. The younger the animal the cheaper the cost of gain, and it is that feature that makes early maturity such an important considera- tion in the different classes of stock. The market favors The three photos on the right hand show a sheep of a bad feeding type. Note narrowness of face, shallowness of chest, with length of leg in both front and side view, while the hind view shows thinness of leg of mutton. The three photos on the left show a good feeding type in breadth of face, depth and width of chest, spring of rib, squareness of form throughout and fu Jncss of leg of mutton. The sheep used for these illustrations were selected from the lots experimented with at the Wis- consin station and referred to in paragraph 155 Photographs or the backs of two carcasses are shown in tfco upper row ; the one on the left, a fine wool wether, shows lack of development in leg of mutton, narrowness and thinness of flesh on back. The one on the right, a Shropshire grade, shows much more development and covering in valuable parts. Front views of the same carcasses are shown in the lower row. The one on the left, a fine wool grade, showing lack of development in parts desired by the butcher, in comparison with the Shropshire grade on the right. Location of cuts in a mutton carcass aud their valuation in the Chicago market. Summarizing an experiment with seven special mutton breeds, Prof. Our- tiss gives the relative value of these relative parts as follows : Leg, 22.2 pounds, at 10 cents, $2.22 ; loin, 17.5 pounds, at 9 cents, 81.57; rib, 14.5 pounds, at 9 cents, fl.30; chuck, 19.8 pounds, at 1% cents, 34 cents : total, $5.43. FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 111 a lamb of the weight mentioned, because as a rule such usually dress better and the cuts are smaller. 157. The Type Desired by the Butcher. If we were to consider only the things that have the most im- portance in the view of the butcher we would have a very queerly formed sheep presented to us. The butcher is very desirous of obtaining the greatest percentage of valuable cuts, consequently the different parts of a lamb from a butcher's point of view show a wide variation from the feeder's and breeder's ideal. In the lamb that is ideal from a butcher's standpoint, it would not be necessary to have any neck, chest, digestive apparatus or leg. As may be seen from the illustration herewith submitted, the neck has a value of only one cent per pound, the shoulder is two cents and the shanks the same. The rib running from the point of the shoulder to the loin has a value of nine cents per pound, and the same is true of the loin ; while the leg of mutton has the high- est value per pound, as that is quoted at ten cents. The breast and chest have the very low value of two cents per pound. It is very evident from these facts that the back, loin and the leg are the three division^ that are most prized in the lambs that would be ideal from the butcher's standpoint. 158. Quality. After the form of the sheep has been carefully examined the quality should be noticed. This means the cleanness of the bone, fineness of the skin and the nature of the hair which covers the face and legs. These are important features in either breeding or fat sheep. It is perhaps the most valuable from the butcher's standpoint, because the waste is less from a sheep of good quality than it is from one that is inferior. The range in the percentage of dressed weight in lambs will vary from 50 per cent to 60 per cent of their live 112 JUDGING SHEEP weight, so that it will be understood that quality is an important factor from the butcher's standpoint, where the profit from the carcass is largely determined by the dressed weight returns. 159. The Importance of Condition. Not only should a lamb be well developed in the parts indicated to satisfy the butcher, but the flesh should be uniformly deep over the parts ; this is a factor in giving a high per- centage of dressed weight which adds greatly to the profit of the carcass. While it is very desirable that the lamb should weigh about 100 pounds, it is even more so that the condition should be equally satisfactory to produce the highest price. As indicating the progress of the lambs in the feed lot in this particular it would perhaps be ad- visable to follow them through their development. When put in the feed lot under proper conditions, lambs will usually begin to show the influence of good feeding at the end of the third or fourth week. During this time they seem to be simply getting into good con- dition to put on flesh, though it appears that some fat is being deposited internally. Towards the end of that time many of the lambs may be noticed standing leisurely in the sun in a partially stretched posture. This pose in the lambs is a delight to the shepherd. The fattening process seems to extend from the internal regions, and is first in evidence at the tail. It then passes along the back over the shoulder and reaches the neck ; from this line it seems to extend down the sides and over the breast in front. There are six main points at which its extension seems most in evidence — at the tail, middle of the back, the neck, the flank, the purse and the breast. 160. Judging Condition. Judges of condition handle these different points and seem to arrive at the same conclusions from continued practice in observing Two photographs of the same sheep— the upper before trimming and the lower after trimming— by Thomas Bradbourne, shepherd for Altamont flock, who holds the sheep. This illustrates the necessity of careful handling of sheep to determine the form. Grand champion wether. International Exposition, Chicago, 1903. Ex- hibited and owned by University of Wisconsin. Fed and fitted by Frank Kleinheinz. Shropshire grade, weight 210 Ibs. Photographs of sheep teeth, showing changes that occur in the order of appearance of the incisors. The photo on the upper left hand shows a lamb's rnouth with all temporary incisors. The upper right hand photo- graph shows mouth of a sheep about one year old, with the first pair of per- manent incisors and the temporary incisors back of them. The photo in the lower right hand corner shows the mouth of a sheep about two years old, with two pairs of permanent incisors appearing. The photograph in the center below shows the mouth of a three year old sheep, with three pairs of permanent incisors. The lower right hand illustration is a photograph of a sheep's mouth when four and a half to five years old. The incisors are all permanent, worn down some and more sloping than the others. FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 113 the development of any one of them, although a critical examination will reveal that sheep sometimes fatten un- evenly and may be good in one or more of these points and comparatively deficient in others. By feeling the tail head some will form their opinion as to the degree to which the lamb is fat. Others are satisfied with feeling the back. Many after feeling the tail, grasp the neck and base their opinion on the fullness of that part. The flank and breast are often used for further assistance, and some butchers estimate condition by the fullness of the purse. At any of these points, more especially the back, the covering should be such in the prime lamb as to prevent feeling the sharp projection of backbone. In a lamb that is completely fattened there is a distinct trough or groove running from the tail to the shoulders and the covering of flesh should extend well down over the sides, without softness due to excessive fat or oily tissue. All lambs do not fatten as smoothly or as uni- formly as herein indicated. In most lambs, however, the worst defect is bareness of the loin and lightness in the hind quarters. With these parts well covered and fully developed, a rather sharp shoulder and peaked bris- ket will be overlooked. Not only should the flesh be thick over the valuable cuts, but it should be firm. Very often it will be found that soft rough patches will be present about the head of the tail, owing to the deposit- ing of too much soft flesh on the back, which may slip from there on the over ripe lamb and gather at the flank or along the sides in long soft rolls. 161. The Importance of Dressed Weight. In considering this .subject still further from the butcher's point of view, there is the question of quality which ma- terially affects the percentage of the dressed meat ob- tained. This in addition to being largely influenced by 114 JUDGING SHEEP the condition of the sheep, is perhaps most influenced by the fineness of the bone, thickness of the pelt and other features, which all have a marked influence on the profit from the butcher's standpoint. In this connection to show how important it is to have the dressed weight yield a large percentage of valuable cuts, it will be interesting to quote some results obtained from an experiment at the Iowa Station under direction of Professor Curtiss. He found in a lot of ten pure bred Oxford lambs marketed by the Iowa Experiment Station, that the leg cuts con- stituted 31.87 per cent of the whole carcass by weight and sold for 42.63 per cent of the total value. The leg, rib and loin cuts together aggregated 73.74 per cent of the total weight and sold for 92 per cent of the total. 162. Consideration of the Consumer. The butcher and the consumer are very similar in their demands, but there are a few points that are of peculiar importance to the latter, and among these may be mentioned the charac- ter of the flesh. A clear distinction should be drawn be- tween flesh and fat, or, as it may be otherwise stated, be- tween muscle and lean meat and tallow. The ideal sheep from the consumer's standpoint is one that carries a large proportion of flesh or lean meat with but a limited quan- tity of fat. In live sheep this is indicated by a firm, even covering over the parts of the body. The flesh has a firm but springy touch and is smooth over all regions, especially thick where it has the highest value. The con- sumer asserts his preference for another feature and that is a marked desire for lamb in contrast to matured sheep, owing to the desirability of small cuts and the supposi- tion that lamb is more tender than older sheep. 163. The Qualities of the Fleece In estimating the worth of a sheep or judging it, not only is it fair to consider the demands of the feeder, the butcher and the FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 115 consumer, but with these we must include the qualities desired by the wool manufacturer. Though the returns from the fleece are not very large, yet the sheep breeder must consider them so that the ultimate profit may be as great as possible. To arrive at a correct understand- ing in regard to this, the examiner must follow the best method of examination and also know in detail the mar- ket requirements for wool. 164. Examining the Fleece. In examining and valuing the fleece the chief points to consider are the quantity, quality and the condition. In grouping "the qualities under these three divisions we can include the interests of those directly concerned on the various prod- ucts coming from sheep, on the market. The best method of arriving at the nature of a fleece is to open it first just over the shoulder. It is in this region that the finest and the soundest wool of the fleece is found. By using the hands in a flat position instead of sticking the end of the fingers into the wool the fleece may be parted in a more satisfactory manner. After looking at the wool and skin in this region, the thigh should be the next place of ex- amination, for here grows the poorest and coarsest wool of the whole fleece. Then the covering of the wool on the belly also demands notice, for very often sheep are quite poor in this region, making the wool light and in- dicating a lack of constitution. By examining the fleece in these three parts a fair estimate may be made of its qualities. 165. Quantity of Fleece. The chief factors which determine the quantity are the length, density and even- ness of both of these over all parts. 166. Density. The density of the fleece means the closeness of the fibers. Technically it means the number of fibers that grow on a square inch. Density is not only 116 JUDGING SHEEP of value to secure a heavy fleece, but from a breeder's point of view its chief importance lies in the fact that it is more protection to the sheep than a fleece that is open. Not only is a sheep with a loose open fleece more liable to contract a cold from exposure to rain or wind, but it is also more apt to yield a dirty fleece, as the loose fleece catches the dirt and dust and pieces of hay and straw. From the shepherd's point of view the denseness of the fleece is its leading feature, for it will be found that those animals with dense close fleeces are less subject to such diseases as catarrh, running at the nose or scouring. When a sheep experiences a chill, it at once affects the circulation and sends the blood to the internal organs, and inflammation or scouring results. This is why sheep that have open fleeces are more subject to such diseases than those that have dense fleeces. Wool is one of the best non-conductors of heat that we have and when it is on a sheep in the form of a dense fleece, it gives them the greatest possible protection from exposure. Furthermore, if the fleece is not dense, it is almost impossible for the fiber to be sound, — that is, free from weak spots. When a sheep has been badly chilled or has become sick in any way so as to cause the pores of the skin to contract, a break or shrinkage occurs in the fiber at that point. The wool on a sheep grows from a small sac in the skin and it passes away from the skin through a small opening which may be easily contracted or expanded, according to different influences. The influences are various, and for that reason it is important that the sheep be covered with a fleece that is so dense as not to be affer.tecl much by external conditions. 167. Length of Staple. The length of the staple is an important feature, both from a commercial point of view and from the shepherd's standpoint. Wools are gen- Lincoln ewe, a winner of many prizes in 1897, owned by John T. Gibson, Denfield, Ontario, Canada. DESCRIPTION OF THE LINCOLN SHEEP "PHIS BREED which originated in Linconshire England, vies with the Cotswold for the position of being considered the largest of the long wooled breeds. The form is very squarely built and when mature the representatives of this breed are very heavy. The face is pure white, somewhat long and surmounted by a tuft of wool. The body is exceedingly full in its development and marked specially by a very wide, level and deep fleshed back, while the hind quarters are usually well developed, being very square in form. The wool is long in fiber, very strong, frequently inclined to be coarse because of this, but it is particularly lustrous and parts easily in flakes. In yield of mutton and wool this breed occupies a foremost position. FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 117 erally known as short-stapled or the carding wools, which are used for woolen clothes, or long-stapled or combing wools, which are used for worsted clothes. The long sta- pled wools include the Lincoln, Leicester, Cotswold, Romney Marsh and Black Face or Highland. The short- stapled include all the Downs (Southdown, Hampshire, Suffolk, Shropshire, Oxford), — and the Cheviot and Welsh. The manufacturer of woolens desires a short- stapled wool, for such a wool has better felting qualities and usually more serrations or spirals than the long wools. In manufacturing woolens into yarns the fibers are transversely disposed to the axis or length of the thread. In yarns of this nature this feature is termed "pile." The points projecting from the center should be numerous, so that in felt- ing the fabric unites and also when the cloth comes to be finished it will appear on top like short fur (Royal Agricultural Society Transactions, Vol. II, Second Series). On the other hand, in worsted goods, the object is to stretch the fibers and lay them parallel with each other, and this produces a yarn, even, strong, and composed of as fine fibers as possible. In this process ojf manufacture, it is easy to see that the length and strength of a fiber includes its most valuable character- istics. 168. Classification of Wool. There is another mar- ket classification which is more definite than this, but is very similar in nature. The wools according to their length and strength in the Chicago market are divided into clothing, which is short, being about two inches, or it is weak ; then there is the delaine class, which is a fine wool from two to three inches long in fiber. The other class is a combing, which is a strong wool over three inches long. This classification, it will be seen, depends altogether on the length and strength of the wool. Con- sidering first, clothing wool, which is used for making: 118 JUDGING SHEEP flannels and certain kinds of rough cloth, shortness in the fiber is its leading: characteristic. If the fiber of a fleece, however, is four inches long, it would, on its length, be classified as combing wool, but if that fiber has a weak spot in it where it readily breaks it passes from the combing class into the clothing class and drops two or more cents on the pound in price. The delaine wools are fine wools that are not longer than three inches. They are used for making the finest kinds of cloth. The comb- ing wool must in the first place be strong to stand the process of combing, and with that the greatest length is desired. In further reference to the quality of the wool, in examining a fleece, it should be noticed that the length and the density are even over all parts. Considering: first the length, the fleece should be examined at the brisket, on top of the back, along the side on the thigh and on the belly. As a rule sheep fitted for show are trimmed in such a way that the wool in front of the brisket is much longer than that on top of the back, and the same may be said of that on the sides. In an untrimmed sheep, on which the wool has grown naturally, it will be found that there is a natural variation in the length of the fiber on different parts of the body. The wool on the brisket will invariably be found to be longer than that on the top or in most other parts. The density of the fleece may be determined by the feel of it under the hand. If the fleece feels firm and it seems to be compact, it is likely dense. 169. Quality of Fleece. As in most other instances it is rare to find quality and quantity associated. As a general rule it will be found that the short wooled sheep have the finest quality of wool. In judging of the qual- ity, it should be noted again that the finest wool occurs just over the heart and on the belly, while the coarsest grows on the thigh. Pair of piii;e winning Cotswold ewes owned by Messrs. George Harding & Son, Waukesha, Wisconsin, showing the desirable qualities of this breed in long forelocks, upstanding and full fronts, long, level backs and heavy fleeces of wool. DESCRIPTION OF THE COTSWOLD SHEEP 1*HIS BREED which is native to the Cotswold hills iin Gloucestershire, England, Is one of very ancient origin and is one of those breeds which show a high order ot style and finish and uniformity, due to the long continued breeding for a type. The form is remarkably square, upstanding and stylish, the latter being contrib- uted to in no small degree by a beautiful tuft of wool growing from the forehead and falling luxuriantly over the face. The head is somewhat long in the face and may be white or slightly mixed with gray. The forelock is full and long, the ear small, the neck of sufficient length to uphold the head with style. The character- istic form of the body is long, level and wide with a strong back. The hind quar- ter comes up square and should have sufficient fullness below. The fleece owing to its length is usually somewhat open but it possesses a long, strong fiber that yields heavy. The fleece most desired, while wavy, parts into locks show.'ncsr a clear pink skin free from dark spots. The popularity of the breed lies chie'f^ large yield of wool and mutton, and these features should be leading character- istics yet they should also be associated with quality in all the essentials. See official scale"of points, page 136. Border Leicester ram, FAVORITK. winner first prize at Highland and Agricultural Society, Dumfries, Scotland, 1895. Bred by 'and property of Andrew Smith, Longniddry, Hadington, Scotland. DESCRIPTION OF THE LEICESTER SHEEP l^HIS BREED which was one of the first to be established originator, in Leicester- shire, England. The first improver, Robert Bakewell, 1726-1795. sought chiefly to increase the early maturity of this breed and lessen the size of the bone and in- crease the weight of flesh. The characteristics secured at that early time are main- tained in the modern representative. The face is bare and pure white, body, square, fore quarters especially full with the hind quarters peculiarly rounded on top. There are usually many evidences of quality as seen in the fine bone and the fur- ther fact that the fiberof the fleece is usually remarkably fine considering its length. The marked aptitude of the representatives of this breed to fatten results in remark- able backs but frequently the same aptitude produces a soft and uneven covering. The Border Leicester, originating from an infusion of Cheviot blood, is generally stronger in bone and more vigorous than the English type. The wool of the fleece s lustrous, five or six inches long and very soft though frequently too open and sometimes absent on the belly. FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 119 170. Softness. By pressing the fleece with the hand the softness of it can readily be approximated. This feature is opposed to harshness. The softness of the fleece not only depends greatly on the management, but also on the nature of the food and the soil. In reference to the foods, those that are rich in sulphur have been observed to have the most influence on the softness of the wool. It is interesting to know that in one hundred pounds of wool there is at least five pounds of sulphur, and it seems that the abundance of this in the food, has an effect on this feature of softness in the fleece. It is well known that soil has a strong influence on the properties of wool, especially in regard to its softness. Clay soils are con- sidered to produce the softest wool, of the best lustre and next to these ranks sandy soils, and lastly, those of the nature of limestone. Chalky soils have been noted for the deterioration they produce in the softness of the wool. Harshness of the fleece is generally due to the absence of yolk which has resulted from ill health on the part of the sheep or from exposure. Considering the nature of the fiber of wool, it is easy to understand how anything, such as ill health or exposure which effects the secretion of yolk is certain to make the wool harsh. A fiber of wool is covered with a series of scales which overlap in a sim- ilar manner to the shingles on a roof. When the secre- tion of yolk is abundant, these scales fit it closely to the fiber, but when the secretion of yolk is stopped from any injurious cause, the scales stand out from the fiber very similar to warped shingles on a roof. The result of this is that the fibers lock and when you feel the fleece that has fibers of this nature they seem to grate each other very similarly to file shavings. The wool is harsh and dry and when pressed it gives that grating feeling which 120 JUDGING SHEEP is also characteristic of an unhealthy fleece. It is this that produces what is generally known as a cotted fleece. 171. Commercial Grades. According to the fine- ness of fiber, or, in other words, the size of it, wool is ar- ranged in three grades, — fine, medium and coarse. These terms are applied to all the classes of wool, — the cloth- ing, delaine and combing that go into the market. For instance, there is fine, medium and coarse clothing ; there is fine delaine and medium delaine, and there are all three grades of combing wools. These terms relating to the grades are used to designate certain size of fiber. No exact measurement limits the arrangement of it, but yet they are so defined that one can readily tell them after becoming acquainted with them in practice. 172. Crimp. All wool is more or less crimped, pos- sessing what are sometimes called spirals. The most im- portant point in regard to the crimp is that it should be regular and the folds should not be thrown on each other. Regularity in the crimp indicates that the fiber is sound from end to end, but if in some places the crimp is short and close, and in others long and wavy, it usually indi- cates that where this difference occurs, there is an un- sound spot in the fiber. It shows that the growth has been irregular and there is a close relation between the fineness of the fiber and the nature of the crimp. When the crimp is fine and close almost invariably the fiber will be found to be of fine quality. In all coarse wool it should be noted that the crimp is open and wavy. In opening a fleece and looking at it, the crimp should always1 be noted, for from it an estimate may be made, both as to the soundness and the fineness of it. 173. Soundness. The soundness of the fiber is of .much importance in the process of manufacturing wool- ens. The fleece of unsound fibers will bring four or five southdown ram BANNER BEARER, formerly stock sire of Turlington Stock Farm, Turlington, Nebraska, now owned by W, E. Spicer. DESCRIPTION OF THE SOUTHDOWN SHEEP 1*HIS BREED, which is one of the oldest and purest, originated on the Downs of Sussex in England and they represent a uniformity of type for mutton pur- poses which may be accepted as a model of mutton form. The type shown by this breed is very symmetrical, compact and close to the ground and there is a marked refinement in every feature; the general structure being of fine quality whileevery part strongly reflects the same characteristic. The head is moderate In size, short and clearly defined in its lineaments. The forehead should be covered with wool and the cheeks also but this usually does not join forward of the eye. There is a com- plete absence of horns, with small pointed ears, the face is some shade of brown or gray tint and the same markings should prevail on the legs. The neck is very short and straight, the breast broad and full, the back is straight, well covered and tightly knit, while the loin is wide, straight and smooth. The general form of the body shows much depth and width with a trimness characteristic of every region. The hips while markedly wide are not prominent, the hind quarter fills out square and the twist and thigh are low and full. The fleece is characterized more by its fineness and density rather than the weight of the wool which it yields as it is gen- erally medium in length and comparatively free from yolk. A marked uniformity in the quality cf the wool should be in evidence; that over the shoulder and that which covers the thigh and other parts being very even in quality. The best types of this breed may be accepted as a model form for the block. See official scale of points, jmge 131. Shropshire ram. RINGLEADER, a frequent prize winner and stock ram at the head of the Altamont flock, owned by Dr. G. Howard Davidson, Mill- brook, N. Y. DESCRIPTION OF THE SHROPSHIRE SHEEP BREED having its home in the Downs of England is very symmetrical and stylish in form. The head should'show refinement in*every feature with mod- erate length. A characteristic attribute is for it to be closely covered with wool, the cap between the ears being dense running to the bridge of the nose and joining that which covers the cheek and lower part of the head. The ears should be far apart, pointed and moderate in thickness and preferably covered to the tip with fine curly wool. There should not be the least evidence of horns as the places where these sometimes appear should be covered with wool. The neck should be nicely attached and full and of sufficient length to carry the head with peculiar style. The body to possess this characteristic smoothness and symmetry must be somewhat circular and round ribbed. The back should be straight, strong and knit so that the handling of this part shows it to be smooth and evenly covered. The loin must be wide and hips not prominent and the quarters lengthy and deep, the width from the loin and hips should be carried out to the tail head and the fullness characteristic of this par i should be maintained on the outside of the thigh and on the inside as well, making the twist not only deep but plump with flesh. The fleece should be strong and fine in fiber with all the density possible. From the bridge of the nose to the fetlock as well as along the belly, a dense covering of wool is desir- able. In opening the fleece the fibers, which are generally about three inches long, should part readily, show clear white in strong contrast to the pink skin. About the ears or top of the head there should be no patches of black fiber nor should these appear distributed anywhere in the fleece. The characteristic markings for the face and legs are a rich dark brown in color. The best type of this breed shows an unusual combination of quality and quantity of both wool and mutton. See official scale of points, page 133. FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 121 cents less than one that is strong throughout. To test the soundness of a fiber in addition to knowing it by the character of the crimp, a small lock of wool is taken be- tween the fingers and stretched evenly and gently until the unsoundness or the strength becomes apparent. The wool may break at the bottom, having what is called "weak bottoms," or it may have "weak middles" or "weak tops," according to the location of the unsoundness. Evenness of all the desirable characteristics should exist over all parts of the fleece. The softness should be ap- parent over all regions and fineness also, and the crimp should in addition appear uniform throughout the fiber. 174. Condition. The condition of the fleece refers more to its purity, lustre, brightness and the quantity and character of the yolk. The condition of a fleece results mostly from correct breeding and proper management. 175. Purity. Purity refers to the freedom of the fleece from dead fibers and foreign matter. In fleeces that are grown on sheep that are exposed to conditions un- favorable to thrift, there is a natural tendency for the fleece to revert to its original state ; that is, fibers of hair begin to appear in it and these take the place of the wool. Very often in fleeces grown by sheep that have been ex- posed there will be found a great many dead fibers which are technically spoken of as "kemp." These dead fibers are very injurious to the fleece from the commercial standpoint, because they do not absorb dyes, and in any cloth that is made from such wool these dead fibers will retain the white and hard appearance that they had in the fleece. 176. Domestic Wool. Based on the condition oi the fleece the market makes a division of four kinds. These are what is known as domestic wool, territory wool, blanket wool and carpet wool. Domestic wools are 122 JUDGING SHEEP clean and bright. Wool of this kind comes from fleeces that are grown under what might be termed domesticated conditions, that is, — sheep are given shelter, fed well and otherwise have good management. This results in a clean, bright wool which the market classifies as domes- tic wool. 177. Territory Wool. In contrast to this is the ter- ritory wool. This wool is called territory wool simply because it is dirty or it is discolored. It is wool that comes from sheep managed and cared for in a way very similar to that which is common in the territories. The sheep have run out the year round; the fleece has be- come full of sand, straw, chaff and similar substances, and this has filled the fleece with foreign material. 178. Blanket Wool. The poorest kinds of wool that go to the market are known as carpet wool and blanket wool. The worst feature connected with this kind of wool is the presence of kemp or the dead fibers previously mentioned. On account of these not freely absorbing the dyes, this wool has to be manufactured into carpets and blankets. When the nature of the fleece of the original sheep is understood so that the improve- ment that has been made through breeding for many years becomes apparent, it can easily be seen that when sheep are neglected the tendency is for their fleece to re- vert to the original condition. In this condition the fleece was made up of an external covering of hairs and beneath it an undergrowth of very finely fibered wool. Domestication by man has completely removed the hair and gives us a fine fleece of wool which exists on well bred sheep today. Neglect on the part of the breeder will surely result in the sheep reverting to the kind of fleece that it at one time possessed. Imported Hampshire ram, BARTON'S BEST 699. Weight, 313 Ibs; fleece 12^ Ibs., April 15, 1896. At head of the Prairie Castle flock. Dropped February 10, 1893. Owned by J. H. Taft Estate, Mendon, Mich. DESCRIPTION OF THE HAMPSHIRE SHEEP 1*HIS BREED, finding its name from its native district in England is strong framed with those features which denote constitution, strikingly shown. The head is strong and somewhat large with prominent nose and ear inclined to bo thick and large yet there should not be any undue coarseness in these parts. The neck should be strong and deep from head to shoulder, the chest very deep and wide. The back strong with width and proper covering. The hind quarter should be cnaracterized by fullness both before and below. In general the frame is strong, lengthy and close to the ground with the other attributes which indicate vigor. The wool of the fleece is somewhat short, dense and strong in fiber. Ruggedncss and weight of form are desirable yet these should be secured if possible without extreme coarseness of form or fleece. The early development of the lambs of this breed is a leading characteristic and should be recognized, consequently a heavy weight at an early age but not at the expense of quality and breed type is very desirable. See official scale of points, page 133. An Oxford Down ram, winner oi numerous state fair prizes, cvrned by George McKerrow, Sussex, Wisconsin. DESCRIPTION OF THE OXFORD DOWN SHEEP *pHIS BREED originated in the county of Oxford, England, and the type was evolved by the use of the Cotswold and Hampshire. The origin of the type is shown somewhat in the modern representatives for the scale, substance and back which they possess reflect the qualities of the long wool line, while the dark face, fleece characteristics and quality of structure are attributable to the Down ancestry. The face and markings are either gray or brown. The^head of the Oxford c'/ffers somewhat from the Shropshire in being longer and not so densely wooled past the eye, while the ear is slightly larger and longer. The form is square in general appearance, wider than in that of the other Down breeds and the hind quarter square on top and below carrying flesh close to the hocks. The fleece is heavy, moderately open and the fiber is long and strong. When mature they are one of the heaviest of the Down breeds being large in size and strong in frame. See official scale of points, page 135. FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 123 179. Lustre. This refers to the glistening appear- ance of the fiber when held to the light. This is inde- pendent of the amount of yolk, and it is also quite dis- tinct from the brightness of the fiber. Although yolk in a fleece may add to the lustre of the fiber, yet all lustrous wools have this characteristic independent of the amount of yolk that is present. The chief advantage from a com- mercial standpoint that attaches itself to lustrous wools is that they more readily take delicate dyes. Wools in the market are known as lustrous or dull, according to the appearance of the fiber. The lustrous fiber has the appearance of having been varnished, while a dull one does not show the least tendency to glisten when held in the light. 180. Brightness. Brightness is quite distinct from lustre, as it refers altogether to the color of the wool. In the market wools are said to be bright or dark as they vary in this characteristic. The bright wool is one that has a clear white color, while the dark wool is one that has become discolored from the soil on which the sheep has ranged, or some similar source. Brightness is always characteristic of domestic wool and discoloration is a feature of all territory wools. 181. Yolk. This is the grease or oil that is naturally secreted by the skin. As before indicated the yolk in the fleece is an indication of the healthiness of the sheep. The yolk is secreted in the skin, but it passes down through the fiber and finds an outlet at the end of the fiber. If you will notice sheep on certain days when the weather is close and the sheep are likely sweating, the yolk seems to accumulate on the end of the fiber, and if you were to run your hand over the fleece at that time you would find it became quite oily. The yolk apparently comes out at the end of the fibers and works back into the 124 JUDGING SHEEP fleece. In some flocks the quantity of yolk has been in- creased and encouraged by selection in breeding, so that heavy fleeces might be obtained. The ordinary fleece in which yolk is abundant in proper quantity will lose nearly une-third through washing it in hot water. This grease is of no value to the manufacturer and it represents a di- rect loss to him when it is in the fleece in very large quan- tities. The feeding and the management undoubtedly influence the amount of yolk. Feeding sheep foods that are rich in oils seems to further the secretion of grease and especially in feeding with such rations as are gen- erally given to fattening sheep, the quantity of yolk seems to increase. In fattening lambs at the Wisconsin Station it was found that the lambs which received grain from birth invariably sheared heavier fleeces than those that had grain only during the latter three months of fatten- ing. By washing samples from the fleece of these sheep it was determined that the increased weight of the fleece was almost altogether due to the increased amount of yolk which the grain-fed lambs secreted. The presence of yolk in proper quantities is of chief importance, be- cause the fleece becomes -soft through it, and is made more compact, thereby keeping bright and clean in con- dition. Furthermore, it is a safe index of the thriftiness in the sheep, though if present in excessive quantities and accumulated in flakes it indicates undue pampering or unthriftiness due to overfeeding. Cheviot ram, SANDY WALKER; winner of first prize at Edinburgh, Morpeth, and the H. and A. S. Show, Dumfries, 1895. Bred by and property of John Elliott, Hindhope, Jedburgh, Scotland. DESCRIPTION OF THE CHEVIOT SHEEP |*HIS BKEED. a native of the Cheviot mountains and the most common sheep of Scotch borders has been known on the hills of Scotland for more than 200 years. To thrive under the conditions of their nativity they must naturally possess unusual activity with strong constitutions. The modern type exemplifies this fact as it is that of a sheep blocky in body and deep, with short legs. The face is bare of wool from the ears forward without any appearance of horns and pure white, as on all other regions of the body excepting the immediate vicinity of the nostrils and the hoofs which should be black. Being hardy, active and prolific they have a pertness in look, and activity in movement which is thoroughly characteristic of the brecu. The manner of the sheep is characterized by alertness added to further by a keen face, bright eye and active, fine ears. The chest is deep with the floor of it close to the ground, the girth full, the back rather short but strong, with a deep rib, the hind quarter is low set but well developed from the mutton standpoint. The fleece should bo dense and fine in texture. The breeders are particularly care- ful that the quality of the fleece should be even throughout and free from kernp or dead hairs and especially fill the hand well. As constitution is eminently desirable In these sheep the evidences of this should be strikingly shown in type s.nd tern perameut. See official scale of points, page 139. ix)rset ram lamb owned <«nd bred by Tranquility Stock Farms, Alu, muchy, N. J. DESCRIPTION OF THE DORSET SHEEP ^SRIGINALLY a mountain breed of Dorsetshire and Summersetshire of the south of England, this breed has been modified considerably in type during late years and the modern representative now shows a form that is long, round- bodied and yet compactly built. Standard of excellence and scale of points of the Dorset sheep, adopted by the Continental Dorset Association. — Head neat, face white, nostrils large, well covered on crown and around jaws with wool, 5; horns, small and gracefully curving for- ward, rather close to jaws, 5; .eyes, prominent, bright, 2; ears, moderately large, covered with short white hair, 2; neck, symmetrical, strongly set on shoulders, gradually tapering to junction of head, 5; shoulders, broad and full, joining neck forward, and chine backward with uo depression at either point (important), 13; brisket, wide and well forward, chest full and deep, 8} fore flank, quite full, showing no depression behind shoulder, 10; back and loin, flat and straight, from which ribs should spring with a fine circular a~~h, 10; quarters, wide and full with mutton extending down to hock, 6; belly, straight on underlined; fleece, medium grade, 01 even quality, and presenting a smooth surface, well covered on belly and legs. 12 ; general conformation of the mutton type, body moderately lengthy, short legs placed squarely under body, appearance attractive, skin pink colored. 15. FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 125 SCALE OF POINTS FOR FINK WOOLED SHEEP. £& GENERAL APPEARANCE: Form, level, deep, stylish, round rather than square 8 Quality, clean, fine bone; silky hair; fine skin 6 HEAD AND NECK: Muzzle, fine; broad, wrinkly nose; pure white Eyes, large, clear, placid Face, wrinkly, covered with soft, velvety coat Forehead, broad, full , Ears, soft, thick, velvety Neck, short, muscular, well set on shoulders r FORE QUARTERS ; Shoulder, strong, being deep and broad 4 Brisket, projecting forward, breast wide i Legs, straight, short, wide apart ; shank smooth and fine. 2 BODY: Chest, deep, full, indicating constitution 10 Back, level, long; round ribbed 4 Loin, wide, level 4 Flank, low, making underline straight 2 HIND QUARTERS : Hips, far apart, level, smooth 2 Rump, long, level, wide 4 Legs, straight, short, strong ; shank smooth, fine 2 WOOL : Kind — Domestic, clean and bright. Territory, dirty or discolored. B?anket } Hairy or havinS dead fi°ers. Class — Clothing, fiber under two inches in length or unsound. Delaine, fiber two or three inches in length. Combing, fiber over three inches in length and sound. Grade — Fine, medium or coarse. Quantity — Long, dense, even covering, especially over crown, cheek, armpit, hind legs and belly 15 Quality — Fine fiber, crimp close, regular; even quality including tops of folds 15 Condition — Bright, lustrous, sound, pure, soft, even distri- bution of yolk, with even surface to fleece 15 Total . . 100 126 JUDGING SHEEP SCALE OF POINTS FOR MUTTON SHEEP — FOR WETHER. «*> £ or brown) ; no tuft of wool on head ................................... 10 Neck — Medium in length; thick, and well placed on the shoulders ............................................ 5 Legs and Feet — Short legs, set well apart; color white; no woo] on legs; fore legs round, hind legs flat and straight; hoofs black and well shaped ........................... 5 Covering — Body and belly well covered with fleece of medium length and good quality ................................ 10 Quality of Wool — Medium; such as is known in market as half combing wool .................................... 5 Total . ..100 140 JUDGING SHEEP DELAINE SPANISH MERINO SHEEP. SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE STANDARD DELAINE SPANISH MERINO REGISTER. Q Pure Merino Blood — Which must be established by certifi- cate < Constitution — Indicated by a deep chest, long rib well arch- ed, giving heart and lung room, with great digestive ca- pacity 20 Fleece — XX and delaine wool. This includes the quantity and quality as shown by weight of fleece, the length and strength of staple, crimp, fineness and trueness of fiber. . 10 Density of Fleece 3 Evenness of Surface 3 Evenness of Crimp 3 Length of Fiber 2 Free Flowing Oil — Of the*best quality and the right quan- tity to protect the sheep and preserve the fleece 9 Head — Medium size. Ewes showing a feminine appearance; rams, a masculine, with properly turned horns 4 Eyes — Bright, prominent and well set apart, with a thick, soft eye lid 3 Noge — Short, broad, with well expanded nostrils, skin thick and covered with thick, furry coating, joining the wool one inch below the eye 4 Ears — Medium size, set well apart, thickly coated 2 Neck — Short on top, deep and strongly attached to should- ers, tapering to head; rams with a fold across the breast, and deep neck 4 Fleece — Covering over the entire body, head and legs, skin thick and spongy ' . . 4 Legs — Short, strong and well apart 2 Feet — Neatly shaped, thin hoof, well set under the leg 4 Quarters — Deep and well rounded; back, broad, straight and strongly coupled to quarters 10 Weight — Ewes at maturity, 100 pounds and above; rams, 150 and above 8 General Appearance — Good carriage, bold and vigorous style, symmetrical form 5 Total 100 Any sheep scaling below 60 per cent, in any point can not be recorded. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 141 BLACK TOP SPANISH MERINO. . _ -*^ SCALE OF POINTS. BLACK TOP SPANISH MERINO SHEEP REGISTER, VOL. Ill, 1891. (J Blood — Purely bred from the Humphrey importation of Merino sheep from Spain, in the year 1802, as bred by W. R. Dickinson, of Steubenville, Ohio ................ Constitution — Indicated by physical development; deep and large in the breast and through the heart; broad back; very heavy square quarters; skin of fine texture, and pinkish in color; expansive nostril; brilliant eye; health- ful countenance and good feeders ...................... 15 Size — In good condition, with fleece of five months growth, full grown rams should weigh not less than 175 pounds, and ewes not less than 120 pounds ..................... 12 General Appearance — Head carried well up; standing square- ly on feet and legs; well rounded body, showing in all points symmetry of form ............................... 3 Body — Throughout heavy boned; well proportioned in length; smooth joints; ribs starting horizontally from the back bone, and well around to breast bone; breast bone wide, strong and prominent in front; strong, straight and heavy back bone; heavy muscular quarters, deep through and squarely formed before and behind; shoulders broad and flat, and not projecting sharply above the back bone, muscles firm and heavy, and body entirely free from folds. There may be a slight throatiness, and a small dewlap — smaller on the ewes than en the rams ................ 15 Head — Wide, medium in length, eyes clear and bright, prom- inent ears, medium in size and covered with soft fur. Ewes should give no appearance of horns, while upon the rams1 the horns should be well developed, clear in color, and symmetrically curved, without tendency to extreme expansion .......................................... 5 Neck — Medium in length and very heavy, especially with the rams, deepening towards the shoulder .......... . ..... 4 Legs a^nd Feet — Legs medium in length, set well apart, medi- um bone and smooth joints. The feet must be well shaped, medium sized, firm and solid .................. 10 Covering — Evenness of fleece and crimp; body and legs cov- ered to the knees; head covered forward between the eyes; the surface should be free from hair or gare ____ 8 Quality — Medium or fine, such as is known in the market as fine delaine ........................................... 7 Density — Shown by compactness of fleece, which should open freely, and have no tendency to be stringy or knotty 7 Length — At twelve months, growth must be not less than three inches, and as near as may be of uniform length.. 8 Oil — Evenly distributed, white, soft and flowing freely from skin to surface, forming on the exterior a uniform dark coating .............................................. 6 Total.. ..100 142 JUDGING SHEEP TUNIS OR BROAD TAILED SHEEP. STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN TUNIS SHEEP BREEDERS ASSOCIATION. SCALE OF POINTS. (J Blood 20 Constitution 15 Fleece 10 Covering 10 Form and Tail 12 Head and Ears 10 Neck IT Legs 6 Size 6 General Appearance G Total 100 Blood — Imported from Tunis, or having a perfect line of an cestors extending back to the flock owned and bred by Judge Richard Peters of Belmont, near Philadelphia, who received his first pair from Tunis in 1779, and bred them pure for more than 20 years. Constitution — Healthful countenance, lively look, head erect, deep chest, ribs well arched, round body with good length. Strong straight back; muscles fine and firm. Fleece — Medium length, medium quality, medium quantity, col- or tinctured with gray, never pure white. Evenness throughout. Covering — Body and neck well covered with wool. Legs bare or slightly covered; face free from wool and covered with fine hair. Form and Tail — Body straight and broad and well proportioned. Small bone; breast wide and prominent in front. Tail, the little end should be docked, leaving the fleshy part fan shaped, or tapering; five or ten inches broad, six or eight inches long and well covered with wool. Head and Ears — Bead small and hornless, tapering to end of nose; face and nose clean; in color, brown and white. Ears broad, thin, pendulous, covered with fine hair; in color brown to light fawn. Neck — Medium in length, well placed on shoulders; small and tapering. Legs — Short. In color brown and white; slightly wooled not objectionable. Size — In fair condition, when fully matured, rams should weigh 150 pounds and upwards; ewes 120 pounds and upwards. General Appearance — Good carriage; head well up; quick, elastic movements; showing symmetry of form and uniformity of character throughout. Photograph showing serious Dejections in a ram. The hind leg is loo "Straight and the pasterns broken down. Photograph of a ram chosen to illustrate the c uaiities not desired in a Shropshire ram. Note the bareness of the face, thinness and lightness of the neck, narrowness and shallowness of the chest, flat rib, short hind quarter with lack of development in leg of mutton. The appearance of the fleece in- dicates that it lacks density, possesses harshness, coarseness and is likely cotted. Prize Dorset ewe and lamb, winners at International Exposition, Chica- go, 1900. Owned by J. E. Wing, Mechanicsburg. Ohio. Imported Shropshire yearling ewes from the flock of Craig & Stevenson, Rice Lake, Wisconsin. JUDGING SWINE. 2 53 •§ oo jl 3 3-2 ^ . * S3 fl o o T3 «4? 96.) JUDGING FAT HOGS 149 should be thickly and evenly fleshed. It is not uncom- mon to notice creases just behind the shoulders and at different points between the shoulders and the hips. This is an indication of uneven fattening with a poor quality of flesh and is consequently objectionable. From the shoulder to the ham in the fat hog there should be that evenness of line which would permit the laying of a straight edge along the sides from one of these points to the other and no deviation from the edge should be no- ticed at any point. Usually the development of the shoulders or the hams is as much greater as to leave a marked depression behind the shoulder and forward of the ham. 198. Back — Straight, Broad, Evenly Covered With Flesh. Looking at the back from the side the top line should be straight, though if it rises gradually from the neck to the center of the back and there slopes very gradually to the tail, it usually carries more flesh and is considered a stronger and better back. There certainly should be no depression from shoulder to tail in the back of the hog that is in fat condition. Viewing the back from above it should appear broad and the two lines that bound it on each side should be carried straight from the upper sides of the shoulder to the hips. In addition, the back should be evenly and thickly fleshed. Any tendency towards what is called a fish back, in which the center rises very sharply, is undesirable. 199. Loin — Wide, Thick. The width of the loin should be such as to sustain the width of the back. In addition to being wide it must be straight and thickly fleshed to fill out the lines properly. Another part of the body that should receive some consideration is the belly. The underline should run parallel with the top line; that is, the belly should be equally as straight as the back. 150 JUDGING SWINE The most common defect is a marked drooping in this region. The fore flank and the hind flank should be nearly on the same level, though this is seldom so, unless the hog is far advanced in fattening. A full and pendant hind flank is an indication of fatness. 200. Hips — Smoothly Covered With Flesh. The hips should be wide apart, completely covered with flesh and low. Where they are placed high, it is seldom that they are smoothly covered with flesh. In an evenly fleshed hog, the location of the hips is not apparent to the eye, so smoothly are they covered. 201. Rump — Long, Smooth. The width of the hips should be carried back over this part. From the hip to the end of the body there should be as much length as may be secured. It is not possible to find a hog that is exactly level over this part, as they invariably droop somewhat towards the tail, but some nevertheless closely approach exact levelness in this region. 202. Hams — Wide, Deep, Plump. Looking at the ham from the side, it should be wide from the stifle to the end of the body and it should also be plump and full right down to the hock. Viewed from behind, width from between the legs to the outside of the ham, is very desirable. Perhaps the most difference in this part will be found in the degree to which the ham continues plump and full towards the hock. This part of the thigh should not be bare, but heavy with flesh. 203. Hind Legs — Properly Set, Strong. The most common defect of the hind leg is a cramped condi- tion of the hock. Though this is most usually found in hogs with light bone, yet it is common among hogs that otherwise appear strong in the limbs. It is noticeable that many hogs are higher behind than in front, showing the line running from the hind quarter to the head, to be very JUDGING FAT HOGS 151 slanting. This is generally caused by the undue length of the hind legs. The legs should be short, strong and placed wide apart and when the hog moves the hind and the front legs should pass forward in a straight line. An in and out movement of the legs is not uncommon and it accounts for much of the awkwardness observable in the gait of fat hogs. *- £ SCALE OF POINTS FOR FAT HOGS— BARROW. I1 GENERAL APPEARANCE: Weight, score according to age 6 Form, deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, compact, standing squarely on legs 10 Quality, hair silky; skin fine; bone fine; flesh smooth, mellow, and free from lumps or wrinkles 10 Condition, deep, even covering of flesh, especially in reg- ions of valuable cuts ... 10 HEAD AND NECK: Snout, medium length, not coarse i Eyes, full, mild, bright i Face, short, cheeks full i Ears, fine, medium size, soft i Jowl, strong, neat, broad i Neck, thick, medium length i FORE QUARTERS : Shoulder, broad, deep, full, compact on top 6 Breast, advanced, wide 2 Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns up- right; feet medium size 2 BODY: Chest, deep, broad, large girth 2 Sides, deep, lengthy, full; ribs close and well sprung. ... 6 Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 10 Loin, wide, thick, straight 10 Belly, straight,- even 2 HIND QUARTERS : Hips, wide apart, smooth , 2 Rump, long, wide, evenly fleshed, straight 2 Ham, heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, wide 10 Thighs, fleshed close to hocks 2 Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns upright; feet medium size 2 Total.. . 100 152 JUDGING SWINE II. JUDGING BACON HOGS. Owing to the demand that has originated in the mar- kets for lean meats, the bacon type of hog has been evolved. The consumption of bacon has extended greatly and this has made a strong demand on the large markets for the type of hog which produces this. To ob- tain a clear conception of the type required it is essential to remember that flesh is the leading characteristic de- manded and with this there are certain peculiar cuts which are quite distinct from those taken from the fat hog. 204. Condition — Even and Thick Fleshed. The condition of the bacon hog is a feature of paramount im- portance, for it must be smooth over all parts with a thick covering of flesh. It is very necessary to understand that a thin hog is not in any sense a bacon hog. In the bacon hog it is desirable to have about one inch of fat with an abundance of lean flesh in the carcass. It is flesh, muscle or lean meat that is desirable and not in any sense a thin carcass. 205. Form — Smooth, Long, Level, Deep. An important point among the desirable characteristics of the bacon hog is that of form, because this must be peculiar, as there are unusual cuts to be made from the carcass. The side should be as long as possible with great depth and levelness from shoulder to hip. The shoulder should not bulge out and the hams should not be pendant and plump as in the case of the lard hog. If a straight edge is laid along the side of the typical bacon hog it should touch every point from the start of the shoulder to the end of the hind quarter. Width is not sought for, but length and depth are cardinal points. The form should show a striking trimness in every region, due to an even cover- ing of smooth flesh without any soft or flabby parts and Fhoto from Ontario Farmers' Institute Report. Photograph showing packers' model of a bacon hog. The extreme length, levelness and smoothness are the particular features of this type. Photo from Ontario Farmers' Institute Report Photograph illustrating a pig too thin for the bacon market, but of desir- able type in other essentials. Duroc-Jcrscy sow, Hiss LOGAN 13404, a sweepstakes winner, owned by I]. P.. Watson, Newton. Iowa. Ucing close to the ground and full made and compact, this sow shows the leading characteristics of this breed. DESCRIPTION OF THE DUROC-JERSEY SWINE HJT THE National Swine Breeders Convention, held in 1872, the Jersey swine of New Jersey and the Durocs of New \ork were classified in the families of red swine with similar characteristics ; the Durocs it was then stated being finer in bone and carcass than the other reds. Previous to that time the Jersey reds had been bred in New Jersey state for over fifty years. The most popular color for this breed is a deep cherry red without any markings. The type most approved is that of a very compact hog exceedingly smooth in all parts and very close to the ground. The head is fine, the car light and pendent, neck short anr. thick, the shoulder full yet smooth with the body, the back slightly arching, wide and strong. The hips deep and the hind quarter very plump and full with meat yet somewhat short, the legs arc very short and straight allowing the frame to approach very close to the ground. The type is that of a very early maturing hog that will dress a high percentage of valuable cuts. See official scale of points, page 177. JUDGING BACON HOGS 153 a well coupled form without undue coarseness. This trimness should be observable in the smoothness by which the shoulder and the quarter join the side, and it is also brought out very effectively by the thick trim belly which is characteristic of the bacon type. 206. Weight. In reference to the weight that is de- sirable, the packers uniformly prefer a hog weighing from 1 70 to 200 pounds live weight. This preference exists in the markets of the world and most decidedly in that of Great Britain where the production of this hog has reached its highest development. It seems that a hog of this weight in proper condition offers the most satisfac- tory cuts, both in weight and quality. 207. Shoulders — Smooth, Compact. It will not be necessary to dwell on the minor points desired in the bacon type, but merely to discuss the salient features. Among these the shoulders demands attention, for they are much different in the ideal bacon hog than they are in the typical fat hog. The shoulder in the bacon type is not heavy, but completely free from roughness and characterized by compactness. It should fit closely to the body and not show any more width than the back and hind quarter, thereby adding to the trimness of form which is eminently desired in hogs of this type. The flesh should extend well down on the leg, indicating muscular development with a long shoulder cut. 208. Sides — Long, Smooth, Level. The side is a very characteristic point in the bacon type, as it should possess as much length as possible with smoothness and levelness from the beginning of the shoulder to the end of the hind quarter. The choicest bacon comes from this region and on this account there should be as much as possible of the dressed weight in this region. The upper 154 JUDGING SWINE part of the side should carry a straight line from the shoulder to the hip and the lower side should show almost as full a line running from the elbow to the stifle. The belly should be thicker with flesh than is usual in the case of the fat hog. In addition this part should be trim in form and thick without any flabbiness or shrinkage at either the fore or hind flank. The hind quarter of the bacon type is markedly different from that of the fat hog, because the extreme development of the latter is not considered an advantage in the bacon type. In the bacon hog the hips should be smooth and proportionately wide to the rest of the body. The hind quarter should be long, even and straight and slightly rounded towards the tail. A peculiar feature in the hog of this type is the gammon, which is a cut very similar to the ham. This should be firm, rounded, tapering and fleshed deep and low towards the hocks. Plumpness or fullness in this part is not con- sidered an advantage ; while length with smooth develop- ment of muscle is a prime requisite. Poland-China sow. a wincer of many prizes at state fairs, ownca cy Messrs. Risk & Gabbert. Weston, Missouri. This sow shows very smooth and is especially thickly fleshed over shoulder, baek and ham, the valuable cuts of the fat hog type. Though heavy, note how erect she stands on her pas- terns. DESCRIPTION OF THE POLAND-CHINA SWINE VHIS AMERICAN breed of swine originated in the Miami Valley of the Ohio dur- ing the years intervening between 1835 to 1840. It had for Hs ancestry a large, coarse hog that was broken in color, being mostly white and black. The improve- ment of the lust 40 years has resulted in producing an exceedingly symmetrical hog with early maturing qualities which has been added to further by disposition very favorable to quick fattening. The modern type shows unusual fullness which makes the width of the body remarkable though giving the appearanceof undue short- ness. With it all there is a quality of hair, bone and skin which contributes in a great degree to the percentage of meat from the carcass. The color is black with a few white markings, these consisting preferably of a splash on the face, four white feet and white on tip of the tail. The coat of hair should be thick, fine and free from swirls or spots around which the hair seems to twist. The head is small, slightly dished and runs to a fine snout. The ear starts strong and straight from the head but break and drops about one-third its length. The shoulder is well covered on top. the girth full, ribs well sprung, deep; hind quarter very full with deep ban:* The desirability of plumpness in all parts should not lead to undue shortness of body nor lack of length in the hind quarters. Straightness in the latter is also desirable as frequently the drop from the hip to the tail is quite marked. The legs should be straight and strong and the pasterns set so as to make the hog appear to he landing on the very tips of its t^es. See official scale of points, page 181. Berkshire sow. EMMIICK'S MATCH M<:SS, :i, pri/e winner owned by Mr. Edwin Iluss, England. DESCRIPTION OF THE BERKSHIRE SWINE POURING the last century this British breed of swine has been the subject of high breeding and careful selection. Writing in 1790, Lawrence describes the Berk- shire as being "long and crooked in snout, muzzle turning upwards, ears large and heavy a::d inclined to bo pendulous, the body long and thick but not deep, legs short, bone largo and great size.11 In "The Complete Grazier," written in 1805, the Berkshire of that time is described as follows : " Color reddish brown, with brown or black s;iots, sides very broad, flat legs, ears large and pendulous over eyes, body chick, close and well made." The modern type of this breed reflects many changes from the old, as it represents a hog that is black in color with white on the face, feet and tip of tail. They are not such a large hog as those of the original stock as they are Ion j in type, trim without undue roughness over the shoulder or promi- nence of hips. The face is short and dished, the ears short, pointed and erect, jaws full, back broad and straight, full over the shoulder, the loin thick and level and the hams especially full with short, strong and straight legs. Straightness in lines and trimness and smoothness over all parts are leading Berkshire characteristics and these should be strongly in evidence along the back and especially from the hock backward us the hind quarter should come out square to the tail and be full. As straightness and strength of legs are leading Berkshire features, it should be noted that the foro legs drop straight without any crookedness at the knee and the hind legs should not appear cramped above the hock. A thick coat of black hair lying close to the body and without swirls should contribute much to the general appearance of smoothness which is due in the main to an oven covering of firm yet Miellov/ flesh. See official scale of points, page 1.">s. JUDGING BACON HOGS 155 SCALE OF POINTS FOR BACON HOGS— BARROW. <*; u " GENERAL APPEARANCE ; Weight, 170 to 200 Ibs., largely the result of thick cover of firm flesh ......................................... 6 Form, long, level, smooth, deep ........................ 10 Quality, hair fine; skin thin; bone fine; firm, even cover- ing of flesh without any soft bunches of fat or wrinkles . . 10 Condition, deep, uniform covering of flesh, especially in regions of valuable cuts ............................. 10 HEAD AND NECK: Snout, fine Eyes, full, mild, bright Face, slim Ears, trim, medium size Jowl, light, trim. . , Neck, medium length, light FORE QUARTERS ; Shoulders, free from roughness, smooth, compact and same width as back and hind quarters ................. 6 Breast, moderately wide, full ........................... 2 Legs, straight, short, strong, bone clean; pasterns upright; feet medium size .......... . .......................... 2 BODY; Chest, deep, full girth ................................. 4 Back, medium and uniform in width, smooth ............ 8 Sides, long, smooth, level from beginning of shoulders to end of hind quarters. The side at all points should touch a straight edge running from fore to hind quarter. 10 Ribs, deep ............................................ 2 Belly, trim, firm, thick without any flabbiness or shrink- age at flank ......................................... 10 HIND QUARTERS: Hips, smooth, wide; proportionate to rest of body ........ 2 Rump, long, even, straight, rounded toward tail ......... 2 Gammon, firm, rounded, tapering, fleshed deep and low toward hocks ........................................ 8 Legs, straight, short, strong; feet medium size; bone clean; pasterns upright ......................... ............. 2 Total. ..loo 156 JUDGING SWINE III. JUDGING SWINE FOR BREEDING PURPOSES. The judging of swine in the pure bred classes requires of the judge an intimate acquaintance with the scale of points adopted by the different associations of the various breeds. These scales of points have been arranged with much labor by the associations and consequently they should be closely followed. As they are published in full in another part of this work attention will be here given to a few peculiar points that should be sought in all breeds. 209. Boar. In addition to having the characteristics of the type of the breed, the boar should be strong in those traits that are peculiar to the sex. The head may be slightly inclined to coarseness, the neck full and arched somewhat, with the shoulder heavy. The fore quarters are usually slightly heavier than the hind quarters and this distinction grows greater with age as the shields de~ velop. Strength of frame without coarseness is desira- ble and the body should be deep, long and low. Just be- hind the elbow there should be as much depth as possible, as this with a rugged appearance is indicative of a vigor- ous constitution. Short and strong limbs with straight pasterns of a fine quality should carry the body easily and without awkwardness at all times. 210. Sow. Omitting consideration of the breed type the sow should represent, the sex type is of first import- ance. There should not be the least appearance of coarse- ness— the head should be light, neck slim and neat and also inclined to sharpness between and back of the ears. In the sow it is expected that the hips and hind quarters should be slightly wider than the fore, though the width before and behind should be almost uniform. Length of body is specially desirable to give room for the growth of Improved Yorkshire sow, a first prize winner at Toronto Industrial Exlu- bition, owned by J. E. Brethour, Burford, Ontario. DESCRIPTION OF THE YORKSHIRE SWINE are three varieties of Yorkshires, namely; the large, middle and the small, and as may -be surmised these divisions are based wholly on size. The large Yorkshbe is descended from the old English which were white in color with a few black spots and it wus bred principally in Yorkshire. Both the white Chinese pigs, introduced at an early time in England, and the Neapolitan swine were used slightly upon the native stock. The middle Yorkshire originated by crossing the small and largo varieties. The small Yorkshire is an offshoot of the large varieties containing a large percentage of Chinese blood. The improved large Yorkshire retains the hardiness and prolificness of the old English hog and has improved in symmetry, flesh and early maturity through the Chinese cross. They are strong in bone, deep and long in body and of medium quality throughout. They have thick bellies, well mixed meat and long sides, points that curers of bacon value highly. The middle or improved Yorkshire are as heavy as the large variety but are lighter in bone and head with a smaller quantity of offal. In type they are very similar to the large Yorkshire, being long, level and deep in carcass. The small Yorkshire are finer in quality, possess more symmetry and they are more compact in form. These features contribute to their early maturity but do not enable them to attain the heavy weights of the others. All the varieties are white in color a few blue spots are permissible but these should not be covered with colored hair. See official scale of points, page 182. Chester White sow, ALMA, sired by Coco 2223. The property of Joseph Cairns, Camhichie, Ontario, Cannda. The litter of ALMA when three months old tipped the scales at 100 pounds. DESCHIPTION OF THE CHESTER WHITE SWINE *PniS BREED which originated in Chester county, Pennsylvania, about the beginning of the last century was the. result of crossing the big Chinas with white pigs from Bedfordshire, England, which were of Yorkshire descent, thus giving these breeds much in common. The Chester White is a large breed, strong though line in bone, vigorous with very deep and lengthy bodies. They should be pure white in color and where black spots occur, these should not be covered with colored hair. The head has a fine snout with broad face slightly dished and the ears pen- dent. The jowl is light and the neck short and deep. Depth of chest is a very desir- able characteristic and this should also be a feature of the body. The shoulder should fit snugly to the body and its width should be almost uniform with that of the body andchind quarter. Uniformity in these lines is desirable as the girth over the heart should be about equal to that around the flank. The hair should be fine and lie ciOse to the body without any tendency to harshness or extreme coarseness. Seo official :scale of points, page 174. FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 157 the litter. There should be twelve teats beginning well forward and none of them blind. Blind teats in young sows do not protrude as the normal teats do, and when the sow has farrowed they usually fail to yield any milk. In judging swine the best plan is to have them arranged in small yards so that they may be readily compared and driven enough to determine whether or not they are strong and active on their legs. 158 JUDGING SWINE IV. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE. BERKSHIRE SWINE. STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN § BERKSHIRE ASSOCIATION. Q Color — Black, with white on feet, face, tip of tail and an oc- casional splash en the arm ............................ 4 Face and Snout— Short; the former fine and well dished, and broad between the eyes ............................... 7 Eye — Very clear, rather large, dark hazel or gray ............ 2 Ear — Generally almost erect, but sometimes inclined forward with advancing age; medium size; thin and soft ........ 4 Jowl — Full and heavy, running well back on neck ............ 4 Neck — Short and broad on top .............................. 4 Hair — Fine and soft; medium thickness ...................... 3 Skin — Smooth and pliable ............. . .................. 4 Shoulder — Thick and even, broad on top, and deep through chest ............................................... 7 Back — Broad, short and straight; ribs well sprung, coupling close to hips .......................................... 8 Side — Deep and well let down; straight on bottom lines ...... 6 Flank — Well back and low down on leg, making nearly straight line with the lower part of side ...................... 5 Loin — Full and wide ............................... . ..... i) Ham — Deep and thick, extending well up on back, and hold- ing thickness well down to hock ........................ 10 Tail — Well set up on back; tapering and not coarse .......... 2 Legs — Short, straight, and strong, set wide apart, with hoofs erect and capable of holding good weight .............. 5 Symmetry — Well proportioned throughout, depending large- ly on condition ...................................... 6 Condition — In a good healthy, growing state; not over-fed.. 5 Style — Attractive, spirited, indicative of thorough breeding and constitutional vigor ........................... ... 5 Total .................. .- ........................... 100 BERKSHIRE SWINE. The Berkshire Society of Great Britain has issued to the lead- ing Agricultural Show Societies the following instructions as guides to judges in making their awards: "We recommend that a perfectly black face, or a black foot, or black tail should disqualify a pig in the show yard. White or sandy spots on the top or sides of the animal, or a decidedly white ear should be disqualifications. Any deszription of coloring staining or clipping should also be a disqualification. White on the ear or under the throat or on the underline of the bodj, should be considered objectionable. Either too much or too little white in the place of the recognize^ markings should be an ob- jection, also to be noted in the competition." OFFICIAL, STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 159 DESCRIPTION OF BERKSHIRE — ARRANGED BY THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF EXPERT JUDGES OF SWINE, 1897. DISQUALIFICATIONS. Form. — Very large and heavy or drooping ears; small, cramped chest, crease back of shoulders and over tne back so as to cause a depression in back easily noticed, deformed or crooked legs, feet broken down, so that the animal walks on pastern joints. Size. — Overgrown, gangling, narrow, contracted or not two- thirds large enough for age. Condition. — Barrenness, deformed, seriously diseased, total blindness from any cause. Score. — Les than sixty points. Pedigree. — Not eligible to record. DETAILED DESCRIPTION. 1. — Head and Face. — Head short, broad, coming well forward at poll, face short and fine and well dished, broad between the eyes tapering from eyes to point of nose, surface even and regu- lar. Objections. — Head long, narrow and coarse, forehead low and narrow, jaws narrow or contracted, lower jaws extending be- yond upper; face long, straight between the eyes; nose coarse, thick or crooked, or ridgy. 2. — Eyes. — Very clear, rather large, dark, hazel or gray. Objections. — Small, dull, bloodshot, deep set or obscure, vision impaired by wrinkles, fat or other cause. 3. — Ears. — Generally almost erect, but sometimes inclined for- ward with, advancing age, medium size, thin and soft. Objections. — Large, coarse, thick, round or drooping, long or large knu,ck, difference in form, size or positron one with the other, animal unable to control tneir position. 4. — Neck. — Full, deep, short and slightly arched, broad on top, well connected with shoulder. Objections. — Long, flat, lacking in fullness and depth. 5. — Jowl. — Full, firm and neat, carrying fullness back to shoul- der and brisket. Objections^ — Light, flabby, thin, tucked up or wrinkled. 6. — Shoulder. — Broad, deep and full, not extended above line of back and being as wide on top as back, carrying size down to line of belly and having lateral width. Objections. — Lacking in depth or width, thick beyond the line of sides and hams or extending above line of back, heavy shields on hogs under eighteen months of age. 7. — Chest. — Large, wide deep and roomy, full girth, breast bone curving well forward, extending back on level, not tucked up, broad between fore legs. Objections. — Flat, narrow at top or bottom, small girth, lack- ing depth or fullness, breast bone crooked or tucked up. 8. — Back. — Broad and straight, carrying same width from shoulder to ham, surface even and smooth without creases or projections and not too long. Objections. — Narrow, swayed or hollow, dropping below a straight line. 160 JUDGING SWINE 9. — Sides and Ribc. — Sides full, smooth, firm and deep, carrying size down to belly and evenly from ham to shoulder. Ribs long, strong, well sprung at top and bottom. Objections. — Flat, thin, flabby, not as full at bottom as top. Ribs weak, net well sprung at top or bottom. 10. — Belly and Flank. — Wide, full and straight on bottom line. Objections. — Belly narrow and sagging. Flank thin and tuck- ed up. 11. — Ham and Rump. — Hams broad, full and long; the lower front part of ham should be full and stifle well covered with flesh, coming well down on hock. Rump should have a round- ing slope from loin to root of tail, same width as back and filling out on each side! and above the tail. Objections. — Ham narrow, short, thin, not projecting beyond and coming down on hock, cut up too high in crotch. Rump flat, narrow and too steep. 12. — Legs and Feet. — Legs short, straight and strong, set wide apart with hoofs erect and capable of holding good weight. Objections. — Legs, long, slim, coarse, crooked, muscles light, pastern long, slim or flat, feet long or sprawling. 13. — Tail. — Well set up, fine, tapering and neatly curled. Objections. — Coarse and straight, too low. 14. — Coat. — Fine, straight, smooth, laying close to and cover- ing body well, not clipped, evenly distributed over body. Objections. — Hair, coarse, harsh, wavy or curly, not evenly distributed over body, swirls or clipped. 15. — Color. — Black, with white on, feet, face, tip of tail and an occasional splash on arm. Objections. — Solid black or black points, or white spots on body. 1C. — Size. — Large for age. Boar two years and over not less than 450 pounds, sow same age 400 pounds. Boar eighteen months 350 pounds, sow same age 325 pounds. Boar twelve months 300 pounds, sow same age 275 pounds. Boar and sow c-ix months, 150 pounds. Objections. — Underweight, coarse, not in good form to fatten. 17. — Action and Style. — Action, vigorous. Style, graceful and attractive. Objections. — Dull, sluggish and clumsy. 18. — Condition. — Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales or sores, soft and mellow to the touch, flesh fine, evenly laid on and free from lumps, hair soft and lying close to body, good feeding qualities. Objections. — Unhealthy, skin scaly, acabby or harsh, dry and or lumpy flesh, too much fat for breeding. Hair harsh, dry and standing up from body, poor feeders, deafness, partial or total. 19. — Disposition.— Quiet and gentle and easy to handle. Objections. — Cross, restless, vicious and wild. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 161 POLAND/CHINA. NATIONAL SCORE CARD ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF EXPERT JUDGES ON 3 SWINE, JUNE, 1897. (j Head 4 Eyes 2 Ears 2 Neck 2 Jowl 2 Shoulders 6 Chest 12 Back and Loin 14 Sides and Ribs 10 Belly and Flank 4 Ham and Rump 10 Feet and Legs 10 Tail 1 Coat 3 Color 3 Size 5 Action and Style 3 Condition 2 Disposition 2 Symmetry of Points .' 3 Total 1er jaw, head in- clined to shortness, but not enough to give the appearance of stubby nose. And in male a masculine expression and appear- ance. Objections. — Head long, narrow between the eyes; nose un- even and coarse; too large at the muzzle or the head too short; not full or high above the eyes, or too much wrinkled around or above the eyes. Eyes. — 2. — Full, clear, prominent and expressive. Objections. — Dull expression, deep set or obscure. Sight im- paired by wrinkles, fat or other cause. Ears!. — 2. — Ears attached to the head by a short, firm knuckle, giving free and easy action. Standing up slightly at the base to within two-thirds of the tip where a gentle break or drop should occur; in size neither too large nor too small, but even, fine, thin, leaf shape. Slightly inclined outward. Objections. — Large, floppy, straight, upright or coarse; knuckle long, letting the ear drop too close to the head and face, hindering the animarof free use of the ears. Neck. — 2. — Short, wide, even, smooth, well arched. Rounding and full from poll to shoulder, with due regard to the character- istics of the sex. Objections. — Long, narrow, thin and drooping from the shoul- der to the poll with unevenness caused by wrinkles or creases. Jowl. — 2. — Full, broad, deep, smooth and firm, carrying full- ness back near to point of shoulders, and below line of lower jaw so that lower line will be as low as breast bone when head is carried up level. Objections. — Light, flabby, thin and w^dge shaped, deeply wrinkled, not drooping below line of lower jaw, and not carry- ing fullness back to shoulder and brisket Shoulder. — 6. — Broad and oval at the top, showing evenness with the back and neck, with good width from the top to the bottom, and even smoothness extending well forward. Objections. — Narrow at the top or bottom; not as deep as the body; uneven width. Shields on pigs und,er eight months of age, or showing too much shield at any age. Chest. — 12. — Large, wide, deep and full; even underline to the shoulder and sides with no creases; giving plenty of room for heart and other organs, making a large girth indicating much vitality. Brisket smooth, even and broad, wide between legs and extending well forward showing in front. Objections — Pinched appearance at the top or bottom, or tucked in back of the fore legs; showing too narrow between the I "hoto by Hills Tamwortb sow, KATY BELL, a very prolific sow that reared thirty-three living pigs in one year, while in the herd at The fowa Agricultural College DESCRIPTION OF THE TAMWORTH SWINE *pHIS ENGLISH breed has been bred with care during the past sixty years with- out any infusions of foreign blood, consequently the representatives of this breed are very uniform as to color and type. The color should be a cherry red or a dark chestnut and very uniform in shade throughout without any black spots in skin or patches of hair other than the color indicated. The form should show the type that is desired for bacon production, this means a hog that is exceedingly light in offal with a long trim body and especially very smoothly covered with firm flesh indi- cating a desirable mixture of fat and flesh. The head should be slim, the snout fine and not unduly long, the ear of appropriate size for the head with the neck sharp between the ears and light, swelling easily to cover a deep shoulder smoothly. Depth of shoulder is desirable but without any roughness. The shoulder should not bulge out beyond the body or the hips for this detracts from the general appearance of trimness and smoothness which is so very desirable. The back should be long and strong with a gradually rising arch over the shoulder to the loin and then a corres- ponding descending line from there to the end of the tail. Width of the back is not de- manded but extreme smoothness and an even covering of firm flesh is absolutely es- sential. The ribs should drop as deep as possible making the body appear from the side as if it had abundance of depth. The loin is even in width with the shoulder and bac k well covered. The hind quarter lacks the width characteristic of the lard hog as this should not be any wider than the parts which precede it. Length of ham or gam- mon is a peculiar feature which should be looked for. A long ham, fleshed firmly towards the hock without folds of fat is eminently desired. The leading features of the type throughout are length and depth with trimness and smoothness in all regions. See official scale of points, page 186. Bti.4 Essex sow, a prize wrnner at Toronto Industrial Exhibition, owned by Jos. Featherstone, Ontario, Canada. A sow very typical of the breed, being exceptionally smooth and possessed of unusual quality. DESCRIPTION OF THE ESSEX SWINE ^HIS BREED of swine originated in the county of Essex, England, and from this it takes its name. London, writing in 1825, described the old Essex as being " up-eared with long, sharp head, roach back; flat, long carcass and long in the legs." They were improved by Lord Weston who, in 1830, purchased in Italy a Neapolitan boar and two sows and these were crossed on the native Essex. Extreme refinement resulted with loss of size, constitution and fecundity, but through the after work of Fisher Hobbs these defects have been largely overcome. Some authorities (Long) claim that the black Suffolk pig bred in England at the present time is but an im- proved Essex; others ( Coleman) assert that the Suffolk is a distinct breed. However, the two now are recognized as separatetoreeds. According to the standard agreed upon by the American association, the characteristics of the Essex are as follows: "(Dolor, black without any white whatever; face short and dishing; ears small, soft and standing erect while young but drooping slightly with increasing age; carcass long, broad, straight and deep; hams heavy and well let down; bone fine; hair ordinarily rather thin, fattening qualities very superior. The type of the Essex represents a very compact hog of fine quality and very stoutly built; a type which is considered to mature early and fatten easily. See official scale of points, page 170. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINB 163 legs; not depth enough back of the shoulder. Brisket uneven, narrow, not prominent. Back and Loin. — 14. Broad, straight or slightly arched, car- rying same width from shoulder to ham, surface even, smooth, free from lumps, creases or projections, not too long but broad on top, indicating well sprung ribs; should not be higher at hip than at shoulder and should fill out at junction with side so that a straightedge placed along at top of side will touch all the way from point of shoulder to point of ham, should De shorter than lower belly line. Objections. — Narrow, creased back of shoulders, swayed or hollow, dropping below a straight line; humped or wrinkled; too long or sun-fish shaped; loin high, narrow, depressed or hump- ed up; surface lumpy, creased, ridgy or uneven, width at side not as much as shoulder and ham. Sides and Ribs. — 10. — Sides full, firm and deep, free from wrinkles; carrying size down to belly; even from ham to shoul- der; ribs of good length, well sprung at top and bottom. Objections. — Flat, thin, flabby, pinched, net as full at bottom as top; drawn in at shoulder so as to produce a crease or pinch- ed and tucked up and in as it approaches the ham; uneven sur- face; ribs flat or too short. Belly and Flank. — 4. — Belly broad, straight and full, indicat- ing capacity and room, being about the same or on a level at the flank with the under chest line. Underline straight, or nearly so, and free from flabby appearance. Objections. — Belly uneven and flabby, or apparent looseness in the make-up. Pinched up in the flank or flanked too hight. Ham and Rump. — 10. — Hams broad, full, deep and long from rump to hock. Fully developed above and below, bein^ wide at the point of the hip, carrying width well down to the lower part of the hams. Fleshy, plump, rounding fullness perceptible everywhere. Rump rounding and gradually sloping from the loin to the root of the tail. Broad and well developed all along from loin and gradually rounding to the buttock; lower front part ot ham should be full and stifle well covered with flesh. Even width of ham and rump with the back, loin and body. Even a greater width as to females not objectionable. Objections. — Ham short, narrow, too round or slim. Not filled out above or below, or unshapely for deep meat; not as wide as the body, back or loin too tapering or small. Rump narrow or pointed, not plump or well filled or too steep from loin to the tail. Legs and Feet. — 10. — Legs medium length, straight, set well apart and squarely under body, tapering, well muscled and wide above knee and hock; below hock and knee round and tapering, capable of sustaining weight of animal in full flesh without breaking down; bone firm and of fine texture; pasterns short and nearly upright. Feet firm, short, tough and free from de- fects. Objections. — Legs long, slim, coarse, crooked; muscles small above hock and knee; bone large, coars-e; as large at foot as above knee; pasterns long, slim, crooked or weak; the hocks turned in or out of straight line; legs too close together; hoofs long, slim and w.eak; toes spreading or crooked or unable to bear up weight of animal without breaking down. 164 JUDGING SWINE Tail. — 1. — Tail of medium length and size, smooth and taper- ing well and carried in a curl. Objections. — Coarse and long without a curl; or short, crook- ed or stubby; or too small, fine, even, not tapering. Coat. — 3. — Fine, straight, smooth, laying close to and cover* ing the body well; not clipped, evenly distributed over the body. Objections. — Bristles, hair coarse, harsh, thin, wavy or curly; swirls, standing up, ends of hair split and brown, not evenly dis- tributed over all of the body except belly. Clipped coats should be cut 1.5 points. Color. — 3. — Black with six (6) white points: Tip of tail, four white feet and white in face, on the nose or on the point of low- er jaw. All to be perceptible without close -examination. Splashes of white on the jaw, legs or* flank or a few spots of white on the body not objectionable. Objections. — Solid black, white mixed or sandy spots. Spec- kled with white hairs over the body; mottled face of white and black; hair mixed, making a grizzly appearance. Size. — 5. — Large for age. Condition, vigor and vitality to be considered. There should be a difference between breeding animals and those kept or fitted for the show of at least 25 per cent, in size. In show condition, or when fat, a two-year-old boar should not weigh less than six hundred (600) pounds, and a sow not less than five hundred (500) pounds. Boar one year and over, four hundred (400) pounds; sow three hundred and fifty (350) pounds. Boar eighteen months, five hundred (500) pounds; sow, four hundred and fifty (450) pounds. Boar and sows six months old, not less than one hundred and sixty (160) pounds. All hogs in just fair breeding condition, one-fourth less for size. The keeping and chance that a young hog has cuts quite a figure in his size and should be considered, other points being equal. Fine quality and size combined, are the de- sirable. Objections. — Overf-gfrown; 'coarse, flabby, loose appearance. Gangling, hard to fatten; too fine, undersize; short, stubby, inclined to chubby fatness. Not a hardy robust animal. Action and Style. — 3. — Action vigorous, easy and graceful. Style attractive; high carriage; and in males testicles should be prominent and of about the same size, and yet not too large and pouchy. Objections. — Clumsy, slow, awkward movement; low carriage; waddling or twisting- walk. A seeming tired off1 lazy appear- ance; not stand erect and firm. Condition. — 2. — Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales and sores; soft and mellow to the touch; flesh fine; evenly laid on and free from lumps and wrinkles. Hair soft and lying close to body; good feeding qualities. Objections. — Unhealthy, skin scaly, wrinkled, scabby or harsh, fiabbiness or lumpy flesh; too much fat for breeding. Hair harsh dry and standing up from body; poor feeders; deafness, partial or total. Disposition. — 2. — Lively, easily handled and seemingly kind, responsive to good treatment. Objections. — Cross, sluggish, restless, wild or of a vicious turn. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 165 Symmetry or Adaptation of Points. — 3. — The adaptation of all the points, size and style combined to make the desired type or model. POLAND.CHINA SWINE. NATIONAL BREEDERS SCALE OF POINTS AS ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL POLAND-CHINA BREEDERS ASSO- CIATION AT THE ANNUAL MEETING HELD IN CHICAGO IN NOVEMBER, 1886. Published in the Poland-China Record, Dayton, Ohio, •£ Vol. XVIII, 1896, and American Poland-China Record, » Cedar Rapids, Iowa, Vol. XI, 1890. CJ Color — Dark spotted or black 3 Head — Small, broad, face slightly dished 5 Ears — Fine and drooping 2 Jowl — Neat and full 2 Neck— Short, full, slightly arched 3 Brisket— Full 3 Shoulder — Broad and deep 6 Girth- Around Heart 10 Back — Straight and broad 7 Sides — Deep and full 6 Ribs — Well sprung 7 Loin — Broad and strong 7 Belly — Wide and straight 4 Flank— Well let down - 3 Ham — Broad, full and deep 10 Ta'i I — Tapering and not coarse 2 Limbs — Strong, straight and tapering 7 Coat— Thick and soft 3 Action — Prompt, easy and graceful 5 Symmetry — Adaptation of the several points to each other. . 5 Total 100 DETAILED DESCRIPTION. Color — Black or dark spotted, with white points. (Sandy spots and speckled color shall not argue impurity of blood, but are not desirable.) Objections. — Solid black or with more sandy than black hairs, over body. Head. — Short, broad between eyes, and nicely tapering from eyes to point of nose; face slightly dished, cheeks full. Objections. — Head coarse, long and narrow; face too much dished; snout coarse and thick. Ears. — Drooping, fine and silky ; pointing forward and a little outward; well proportioned to size of body. Objections. — Too large and coarse; thick, lopping; lying too near the face; stiff, erect or too round. Jowl. — Full, firm and neat; carrying fullness well back to shoulder and brisket. Objections. — Flabby; light; thin in cheeks, tucking up under the neck. 166 JUDGING SWINE Neck. — Full, deep, short, and slightly arched. Objections. — Long, flat; lacking in fullness or depth. Brisket. — Full, well let down, extending well forward and on line witn belly. Objections. — Narrow or tucked up. Shoulders. — Broad, deep; thickness in proportion to sides and hams, full and even on top. Objections. — Lacking in depth or width; thick beyond the lines of the sides and hams; blade too prominent. »GirtH Around Heart. — Full back of shoulders, ribs extending well down; wide and full back of fore legs. Objections. — Less than flank measure or length of body from top of head to root of tail, or creased back of shoulders. Back. — Broad, straight or slightly arched, carrying width well back to hams, and of medium length. Objections. — Narrow, creasing back of shoulders; narrow across loins; swayed; too long; sunfish shaped. Loin. — Broad, strong and full. Objections. — Narrow, weak. Sides. — Full, deep; carrying sides well down and back. Objections. — Too round or flat; shallow or thin at the flank. Ribs. — Well sprung and long; carrying fullness well back. Objections. — Too flat, curve of the ribs too short. Belly. — Wide and straight. Objections. — Sagging, narrow. Flank. — Well let down and full. Objections. — Thin and tucked in; cut up too high. Ham. — Full, broad, deep, holding width and coming well over back. Objections. — Narrow, short, too steep at the rump and cut up too high in the crotch. Tail. — Well set on; small, smooth and well tapered. Objections. — Coarse, large, too prominent at the root. Limbs. — Medium length; well set apart and well tapered; bone firm and flinty; not coarse; muscles full above knee and hock; pastern short; foot short. Objections. — Long, ,slim, coarse, crooked, muscles light; pas tern long, slim or flat ; feet long or sprawling. Coat. — Fine, thick, and covering the body well. Objections. — Coarse, bristly, harsh and wiry. Action. — Easy, prompt, fine and graceful. Objections. — Dull, sluggish, clumsy. Symmetrv. — A harmonious combination of the foregoing scale of points. Objections. — Too much developed in some points and lacking in others. SERIOUS OBJECTIONS. Form — Small growth; upright ears; .small, cramped rhest; crease back or shoulders, so as to be readily seen; delormed and badly crooked legs; feet broken down so that the animal walks on pastern joints and dew-claws. DISQUALIFICATIONS. Condition — Excessive fat; barren; deformed; r.nsound or diseased; ridging or one-sided. Score — A score or less than sixty points of the standard. Pedigree — Lack of eligibility to record. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 167 POLAND'CHINA SWINE. CENTRAL ASSOCIATION SCALE OF POINTS. Published in the Central Poland-China Record, Indian- |j apolis, Ind., Vol. XII, 1891, and Standard Poland-China g Record, Maryville, Mo., Vol. XIII, 1894. CJ Head and Face ./ 4 Eyes 2 Ears 2 Neck 2 Jowl 2 Shoulders 6 Chest 12 Back and Loii> 15 Sides and Ribs 8 Belly and Flank 6 Ham and Rump 10 Feet and Legs 10 Tail 1 Coat 2 Color T 2 Size 5 Action and Style i 4 Condition 4 Disposition i 3 Total 100 DISQUALIFICATIONS. Form — Upright ears; small, cramped chest, crease back of shoulders and over the back so as to cause a depression in back easily noticed; deformed or badly crooked legs1.; feet broken down, so that the animal walks on pastern joints. Size — China build, or not two-thirds large enough for age. Condition — Excessive fatness; barrenness; deformed; seriously diseased; total blindness, caused by defective eyes, or by rea- son of fat or loose and wrinkled skin over the eyes. Score — Less than sixty points. Pedigree — Not eligible to record. DETAILED DESCRIPTION. Head and Face. — Head short and wide; cheeks full; jaws broad; forehead high and wide; face short; smooth; wide be- tween the eyes; tapering from eyes to point of nose and slight- ly dished; surface even and regular. Objections. — Head long; narrow; coarse; forehead low and narrow or contracted; lower jaw extending beyond upper; face long, straight and narrow between the eyes; nose coarse, thick or crooked, ridgy or dished as much as a Berkshire. Eyes. — Large, prominent; bright; lively, clear and free from wrinkled or fat surroundings. Objections. — Small, dull, blood-shot, deep set or obscure, vis- ion impaired by wrinkles, fat or other cause. Ears. — Small; thin; soft; silky; attached to the head by a short and small knuckle; tips pointing forward and slightly out- 168 JUDGING SWINE ward, and the forward half drooping gracefully; fully under control of animal; both of same size, position and shape. Objections. — Large; Straight; stiff; coarse; thick; round; long or large knuckle, drooping close to face, swinging and flabby; difference in form, size or position. Neck. — Wide; deep; short, and nicely arched at top, from poll of head to shoulder. Objections. — Long; narrow; thin; flat on top; not extending down to breast bone; tucked up. Jowl.)— Full; broad; deep; smooth and firm; carrying fullness back near to point of shoulders, and below line of lower jaw, so that lower line will be as low as breast bone when head is carried up level. Objections. — Light; flabby; thin; wedge shaped; deeply wrin- kled; not drooping below line of lower jaw, and not carry- ing fullness back to shoulder and brisket. Shoulders. — Broad; deep and full; not extending above line of back, and being as wide on top as back; carrying size down to line of belly and having good lateral width. Objections. — Narrow; not same depth as body; narrow on top or bottom or extending above line of back; less than body in breadth at top or bottom portions, or lacking in lateral width; shields on boars under eight months of age, or large, heavy shields on hogs under eighteen months of age. Chest. — Large; wide; deep; roomy, indicating plenty of room for vital organs, and making a large girth just back of shoul- ders; the breast bone extending forward so as to show slightly in front of legs and extending in a straight line back to end of breast bone; showing width of not less than six inches be- tween fore legs in a large, full grown hog. Objections. — Flat; pinched; narrow at top or at either end of breast bone; breast bone crooked or not extending slightly in front of fore legs. Back and Loin. — Broad; straight; or slightly arched; car- rying same width from shoulder to ham; surface (even; smooth, free from lumps, creases or projections; not too long, but broad on top, indicating well sprung ribs; should not be higher at hip than at shoulder and should fill out at junction, with side so that a straight edge placed along top of side will touch all the way from point of shoulder to point of ham; should be shorter than the lower belly line. Objections. — Narrow; creased back of shoulders; swayed or hollow; dropping below a straight line; humped or wrinkled; too long, or sunfish shaped; loin high, narrow, depressed or humped up; surface lumpy, creased, ridgy or uneven; width at side not as much as shoulder and ham. Sides and Ribs. — Sides full; smooth; firm and deep; carrying size down to belly and evenly from ham to shoulder; ribs long, strong, well sprung at top and bottom. Objections. — Flat; thin; flabby; pinched; not as full at bottom as top; drawn in at shoulders soi as to produce a crease or pinched and tucked up, and in as it approaches the ham; lumpy or uneven surface; ribs flat or too short. Belly and Flank. — Wide, straight and full and drooping as low at flank as bottom of chest; back of fore leg making a straight line from fore legs to hind legs; flank full and out even OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 169 with surrounding portions of body; the belly at that point dropping down on a line with lower line of chest; the loose skin connecting ham and belly being on a line even with bot- tom of side. Objections. — Belly narrow; pinched; sagging or flabby. Flank tucked up or drawn in. Hams and Rump. — Hams broad; full, long and wide. They should be as wide at point of the hip as the swell of the ham. Buttocks large and full; should project beyond and come down upon and full between the hocks. The lower front part of the ham should be full and stifle well covered with flesh and a gradual rounding toward the hock. Rump should have a round- ing slope from loin to root of tail; same width as back and fill- ing out full on each side of, and above the tail. Objections. — Ham narrow; short; thin; not projecting beyond and coming down to hock; cut up too high in crotch or twist; lacking in fullness at top or bottom; lacking In width from stifle straight back; lower fore part thin and flat; straight from root of tail to hock; buttocks light, thin or flabby. Rump flat, narrow and peaked at root of tail; too steep. Legs and Feet. — Legs medium length; straight; set well apart and squarely under body; tapering; well muscled and wide above knee and hock; below hock and knee round and taper- ing, capable of sustaining weight of animal in full flesh without breaking down; bone firm and of fine texture; pasterns short and nearly upright. Feet firm; short; tough and free from defects. Objections. — Legs long; slim; coarse; crooked; muscles small above hock and knee; bone large, coarse, as large at foot as above knee; pasterns long, slim, crooked or weak; the hocks turned in or out of straight line; legs too close together; hoofs long, slim and weak; toes spreading or crooked or unable to bear up weight of animal without breaking down. Tail. — Well set on; small, smooth, tapering and carried in a curl. Objections. — Coarse; long; crooked or hanging straight down like a rope. Coat. — Fine; straight; smooth; laying close to and covering the body well; not clipped; evenly distributed over body. Objections. — Bristles; hair coarse; harsh; thin; wavy or cur- ly; swirls; standing up; ends of hair split and brown; not evenly distributed over all of the body except belly. Clipped coats should be cut 1.5 points. Color. — Black with white in face or on lower jaw; white on feet and tip of tail, and a few small, clear white spots on body not objectionable. Objections. — Solid black, more than one-forth white; sandy hairs or spots; a grizzled or speckled appearance. Size. — Large for age and condition; boars two years old and over, if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 pounds. Sows same age and condition not less than 450 pounds. Boars eighteen months old, in good condition, not less than 400 pounds; sows, 350 pounds. Boars twelve months, not less than 300 pounds; sow,s, 300 pounds. Boar and sow six months, not less than 150 pounds. Other ages in proportion. 170 JUDGING SWINE Objections. — Overgrown; coarse; gangling, or hard to fatten at any age. Action and Style. — Action vigorous; easy; quick and grace- ful. Style attractive; high carriage; and in males testicles should be of same size, carriage; readily seen and yet not too large. Objections. — Slow; dull; clumsy; awkward; difficulty in get- ting up when down; low carriage; wabbling walk. In males testicles not easily seen, not of same size or carriage, too large or only one showing Condition. — Healthy; skin clear of scurf, scales, or sores; soft and mellow to the touch; flesh fine, evenly laid on and free from lumps or wrinkles. Hair soft and lying clO'se to body; good feeding qualities. Objections. — Unhealthy; skin scaly, wrinkly, scabby or harsh, flabbiness or lumpy flesh; too much fat for breeding. Hair harsh, dry and standing up from body; poor feeder; deafness, partial or total. Disposition. — Quiet, gentle and easily handled. Objections. — Cross, restless, vicious or wild. ESSEX SWINE. c SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMERICAN ESSEX ASSOCIA- g TION, VOL. II, IMPROVED ESSEX SWINE RECORD, 1893. (J Color — Black 2 Head — Small, broad and face dished 3 Ears — Fine, erect, slightly drooping with age 2 Jowl — Full and neat 1 Neck — Short, full, well arched 3 Shoulders — Broad and deep 7 Girth Around Heart 6 Back — Straight, bread and level 12 Sides — Deep and full 6 Ribs — Well sprung 7 Loin — Broad and strong 12 Flank — Well let down Ham — Broad, full and deep 12 Tail — Medium, fine, and curled Legs — Fine, straight and tapering Feet — Small Hair — Fine and silky, free from bristles Action — Easy and graceful Symmetry — Adaptation of the several parts to each other... 10 Total . 100 Pen of two Berkshire pigs. Exhibited by Mr. J. A. Firckert, of Burton, Mere, Wiltshire. Winners of the challenge cup for the best pen of two pigs, at the Smithfield Show England, 1898. Pure bred Tamworth sow, AGINCOUBT QUEEN. The property of Mr. John Bell, Amber, Ontario, Canada. Agincourt Queen was farrowed February 9, 1896= Photo was taken May 26, 1897. Thin Bind Sow, BEAUTY 37, owned by John S. Phelps, Lexington, Kentucity. Berkshire sow, HIGHCLERE COUNTESS IX, of Hood Farm, and her litter of nine pigs at three weeks old, by Wantage King of Hood Farm. First prize winner at numerous fairs in 1898. Two of the pigs are under the others, the white brush of one showing between the second and third from the left end, and the other in the same position from tho other end. Owned by Boor* Farm, Lowell. Massachusetts. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 171 CHESTER WHITE SWINE. SCALE OF POINTS AS ADOPTED BY THE STANDARD CHESTER WHITE RECORD ASSOCIATION. CHESTER WHITE ^ RECORD, VOL. Ill, 1892. The description which follows is similar to that adopted g by the National Association of Expert Judges. (j Htad and Face 4 Eyes 2 Ears 2 Neck 2 Jowl 2 Shoulders 6 Chest 9 Back and Loin 15 Sides and Rib 8 Belly and Flank 6 Ham and Rump 10 Feet and Legs 30 Tail 1 Coat 2 Color 5 Size 5 Action and Style 4 Condition 4 Disposition 3 Total 100 DISQUALIFICATIONS. Form. — Upright ears; small cramped chest; crease around back of shoulders and over the back, causing a depression easily noticed; feet broken down causing the animal to walk on pastern joints; deformed or badly crooked legs. Size. — Chuffy, or not two-thirds large enough for age. Condition. — Squabby fat; deformed, seriously deformed; bar- renness; total blindness. Score. — Less than sixty points. Pedigree. — Not eligible to record. Color. — Black or sandy spots in hair. DETAILED DESCRIPTION. Head and Face. — Head short and wide; cheeks neat but not too full; jaws broad and strong; forehead medium, high and wide. Face short and smooth; wide between the eyes; nose neat and tapering and slightly dished. Objections. — Head long, narrow and coarse; forehead low and narrow; jaws contracted and weak. Face long, narrow and straight; nose coarse, clumsy or dished like a Berkshire. Eyes. — Large, bright, clear and free from wrinkles or fat sur- roundings. Objections. — Small, deep or obscure; vision impaired in any way. Ears. — (Mediumi size; not too thick; soft; attached to the head so as not to look clumsy : nointine1 forward and slightly 172 JUDGING SWINE outward; fully under the control of the animal and drooping £0 as to give a graceful appearance. Objections. — Large; upright; coarse; thick; round; too small; drooping too close to the face; animal not being able to con- trol them. Neck. — Wide; deep; short and nicely arched. Objections. — Long, narrow; thin; flat on top; tucked up; not extending down to breast bone. Jowl. — Full; smooth, neat and firm; carrying fullness back to shoulder and brisket when the head is carried up level. Objections. — Light; too large and flabby; rough and deeply wrinkled; not carrying fullness back to shoulder and brisket. Shoulder. — Broad, deep and full, extending in a straight line with the side, and carrying size down to line of belly. Objections. — Narrow at top or bottom, not full nor same depth as body; extending above line of back; shields on boars too coarse and prominent. Chest. — Large; deep and roomy so as not to cramp vital or- gans; full in girth around the heart; the breast bone extend- ing forward so as to show slightly in front of legs, and let down so as to be even with line of belly, showing a width of not less than 7 inches between fore legs of a full grown hog. Objections. — Narrow; pinched; heart girth less than flank girth; too far let down between fore legs; breast bone crooked or too short. Back and Loin. — Back broad on top; straight or slightly arched; uniform width; smcoth; free from lumps or rolls; shorter than lower belly line; same height and width at shoul- der as at ham; loin wide and full. Obje:tions. — Back narrow; creased back of shoulders; sun- fished shape; humped; swayed; too long or lumpy rolls; un- even in width; loin narrow, depressed or humped. Sides and Ribs. — Sides full; smooth; deep; carrying size down to belly; even with line of ham and shoulder; ribs long; well sprung at top or bottom, giving hog a square form. Objections. — Flat; thin; flabby; compressed at bottom; shrunken at shoulder and ham; uneven surface; .ribs flat ana too short. Belly and Flank. — Same width as back; full, making a straight line and dropping as low at flank as at bottom of chest; line of lower edge running parallel with sides; flank full and even with body. Objections. — Belly narrow; pinched; sagging or flabby; flank thin, tucked up or drawn in. Ham and Rump. — Ham broad; full; long, wide and deep; admitting of no swells; buttock full; neat and clean, thus avoid- ing flabbiness; stifle well covered with flesh, nicely tapering towards the hock; rump should have a slightly rounding shape from loin to root of tail; same width as back, making an even line with sides. Objections. — Hams narrow; short; not filled out to stifle; too much cut up in crotch or twist; not coming down to hock but- tocks flabby; rump flat, narrow, too long, too steep, sharp or peaked at root of tail. Legs and Feet.— Legs short; straight; set well apart and squarely under body; bone of good size; firm; well muscled; OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 173 wide above knee and hock; below knee and hock round and tapering, enabling the animal to carry its weight with ease; pastern short and nearly upright; feet short, firm, tough and free from defects. Objections. — Legs too short, long, slim, crooked, too coarse; too close together; weak muscles above hock and knee; bone large and coarse without taper; pasterns long; crooked, slim like a deer's; hoofs long, slim, weak; toes spreading, crooked or turned up. Tail. — Small; smooth; tapering, well set on, root slightly covered with flesh; carried in a curl. Objections. — Coarse; long; clumsy; set too high or too low; hanging like a rope. Coat. — Fine; straight or wavy; evenly distributed and cov- ering the body well; nicely clipped coats no objection. Objections. — Bristles; hair coarse; thin; standing up; not evenly distributed over all the body except belly. Color. — White (blue spots or black specks in skin shall not argue impurity of blood.) Objections. — Color any other than white. Size. — Large for age and condition; boars two years old and over, if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 pounds. Sow same age and condition, not less than 450 pounds. Boars 18 months old in good flesh should weigh not less than 400 pounds. Sows 350. Boars 12 months old not less than 300 pounds. Sows 300. Boars and sows 6 months old, not less than 150 pounds each, and other ages in proportion. Objections. — Overgrown; coarse; uncouth; hard to fatten. Action and Style. — Action easy and graceful; style attrac- tive; high carriage; in males testicles should be readily seen; same size and carriage. Objections. — Sluggish; awkward low carriage; wabbling walk; in males testicles not easily seen; not of same size or carriage, or only one showing. Condition. — Healthy, skin clear and bright; free from scurf and sores; flesh fine and mellow to the touch; evenly laid on and free from lumps; good feeding qualities. Objections. — Unhealthy; skin scaly, scabby or harsh; flesh lumjpy or flabby; hair harsh, dry and standing up from body; poor feeders; total deafness. Disposition. — Quiet; gentle and easily handled; with ambi- tion enough to look out for themselves if neglected. Objections. — Cross; restless; vicious or wild; no ambition. 174 JUDGING SWINE CHESTER WHITE SWINE. '" SCALE OF POINTS AS ADOPTED BY THE CHESTER WHITE RECORD ASSOCIATION AT THEIR ANNUAL MEETING, ^ JAN., 1885, AND REVISED JAN., l888. PUBLISHED TODD'S IMPROVED CHESTER WHITE SWINE RECORD, VOL. IV, 1891. CJ Head — Small, broad, slightly dished 5 Eye — Large and bright 2 Ear — Thin, fine and drooping » 2 Jowl — Neat and full 3 Neck — Short, full and slightly arched 3 Brisket — Full and deep 3 Shoulder — Broad and deep , 6 Girth Around Heart 10 Back — Straight and broad 7 Sides — Deep and full G Ribs — Well sprung 7 Belly — Wide and straight 4 Girth Around Flank 10 Ham — Broad, full and deep 10 Limbs — Strong, straight and neat 7 Tail — Tapering, and not coarse 2 Coat — Fine and thick 3 Color — White 1 Action — Prompt, easy and graceful 5 Symmetry 4 Total 100 DETAILED DESCRIPTION. Head — Short; broad between the eyes, and nicely tapering from eyes to point of nose; face slightly dished; cheeks full. Objections.— Head coarse, long and narrow; face straight or too much dished; snout coarse or thick. Eye. — Large, bright, and free from overgrowing fat. Objections. — Small, dim, or hidden under protruding fat. Ear. — Drooping; thin; pointing outward and forward; well proportioned to size of body. Objections. — Too large and coarse; thick, lopping; lying too near the face; stiff, erect, or too small. Jowl. — Full, firm and neat; carrying fullness well back to neck and brisket. Objections. — Flabby; light; thin in cheek; tucking up under the neck. Neck. — Full, deep, short, and well arched. Objections. — Long; flat; lacking in fullness or depth. Brisket. — Full; strong; well let down; extending well for- ward, and on line of the belly. Objections. — Narrow, or tucked up. Shoulder — Broad; deep; thickness in proportion to the side and ham; full and even en top. Objections. — Thick beyond the line of side and ham; lacking in depth or width; blade prominent, or extending above the line of the back. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 175 Girth Around the Heart. — Full back of shoulders; ribs ex- tending well down; wide and full back of fore legs. Objections. — Less than flank or length of body from top of the head to root of the tail. Back. — Bread, straight, or slightly arched, carrying width well back to the hams, and of medium length. Objections. — Narrow; sinking back of shoulders; narrow across the loin; swayed; too long; sunfish shaped. Sides. — Full; deep; carrying weight and thickness well down and back. Objections. — Too round or flat; shallow or thin at the flank. Ribs. — Well sprung, carrying fullness well back and de'ep. Objections. — Too flat; curve of rib too short; tucking in at bottom; sagging about loin. Loin. — Broad, strong and full. Objections. — Narrow; poorly ribbed up; weak. Belly. — Wide and straight; width approximating that of the back. Objections. — Sagging; narrow; skin coarse, harsh and thick. Girth Around Flank. — Flank well let down and full; loin broad, strong and full; measurement of flank girth equal to heart girth. Objections. — Flank thin, tucked in, or cut up too high; loin narrow or weak. Ham. — Bread, full, deep; of medium length; coming down well over the hock. Objections. — Narrow; short; running too far up the back; steop at the rump. Limbs. — Medium length; short rather than long; set well apart, and well under; muscles full above knee and hock; bone firm and not ccarse; pasterns short and strong; foct short. Objections. — Long, slim, coarse, crooked; muscles lisht; pas- terns long, slim or flat; hoofs long or sprawling. Ta! I.— Small, tapering, smccth, well set on. Objections. — Coarse; large; too prominent at the roct. Coat. — Fine and thick. Objections. — Coarse; hair too long; wiry; harsh. Color. — White. (Blue spots in skin and black specks shall not argue impurity of blood.) Action. — Easy; prompt; fine and graceful. Objections. — Dull, sluggish, clumsy. Symmetry. — Uniform build, and all points in animal in pro- portion. Objections. — Wanting in some points, and too much develop- ed in others. SERIOUS OBJECTIONS. Form. — Sm&ll growth; upright ears; small, cramped chest; crease back of the shoulders, so as to be readily seen; deformed and badly crooked legs; feet broken down so that animal walks on pastern joints and dew-claws. DISQUALIFICATIONS. Conditions. — Excessive fat; barren; deformed, unsound or diseased; ridgling or one-seeded. Score. — A score of less than sixty of the standard. Pedigree. — Lack of eligibility to record. 176 JUDGING SWINE DUROOJERSEY SWINE. STANDARD OF CHARACTERISTICS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN DUROC- JERSEY SWINE BREEDERS ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN DUROC-JERSEY RECORD, VOL IV, 1893. Color. — The color is a very important factor in establishing the fancy markings of any of the improved breeds of swine, and it seems as though the Doroc-Jersey is no exception. Our breeders, (at least many of them) seem to not have the right idea as to what our "Standard of Characteristics" means by the term "Cherry Red." There are many shades of red and we shall here endeavor to make some suggestions which will enable breeders to give the exact color of their hogs sent for registration. The best way is to ,take a few hairs from the back of the animal and hold them in a bright light, and then you can tell very accurately the exact color. If the hair is a clear, deep red, and not shading brown or black at the end, you have a cherry red color and should be recorded as "Cherry Red." Should the hair be as above and shading brown or black, it should be recorded as "Dark Cherry." Should the hair be lighter and glossy in the sun light, they should be recorded as "Bright Red," or "Bright Cherry." Should the hair be light and have a dull appearance, they should be recorded as "Medi- um." Should the hair be dark or shading black, they should be recorded as "Dark Red." The most fashionable color and the one our breeders should use every possible means to establish in their herd is a "Cherry Red," and as speedily as possible, discard all animals with black spots or flecks, and avoid very light or dark shades in their selection of breeding animals. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 177 DUROOJERSEY SWINE. SCALE OF POINTS. — AMERICAN DUROC-JERSEY RECORD. ^ Similar to the description prepared by the National Asso- g ciation of Expert Judges.