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JUTE IN BENGAL

BY

NIBARAN CHANDRA CHAUDHURY

M.R.A.S., DIP. IN AGRI., SIBPUR

OF THE PROVINCIAL AGRICULTURAL SERVICE

BIHAR AND ORISSA

FORMERLY OF THE BENGAL SERVICE

Author of

A Treatise on Agricultural CImnistry

A Treatise on Foods

Cultivation of Tobacco

Cotton Cultivation

Olalcutta :

W. NEWMAN & CO., LD.
1921

First Edition 1908
New Edition 1921

Printed by W. Newman & Co., Ld
CALCUTTA

[All Rights Reserved]

PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION

THIS book was first published in 1908. One thousand
copies of this edition were sold off within two years from
the date of issue. But owing to my official touring duties,
there has been a great delay in bringing out a revised
edition of the work. However, I gratefully appreciate
the approbation with which it was received by the public
both in India and the United Kingdom, The book
has now undergone a thorough revision and some new
chapters have been added to it.

Jute is one of the most important crops in Bengal and
a very valuable asset of the Indian Empire. But the
landless middle and poorer classes of Indian population
complain often-times against the cultivation of jute, as they
hold that this crop is responsible for the high prices of food
grains. I have endeavoured in these pages to convince my
readers that high prices have little to do with the cultivation
of jute. On the contrary, the growers of, and dealers in
jute have materially been benefited by the extension of
its cultivation, and many others have greatly been relieved
of the pressure which would otherwise have been more
acutely felt b}' them.

As a touring officer of the Agricultural Department of
Bihar and Orissa, formerly of Bengal, I have been closely ^
connected with the crop for about 25 years. So far back
as 1898, I started, on my own initiative, an enquiry
regarding the races and qualities of jute grown in Backer-
gunge (Chapter IV — Part III). On receipt of my report,
which was forwarded to him by the Director of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bengal, for an expression of opinion,

PREFACE

Sir George Watt, then Reporter on Economic Products to
the Government of India, was pleased to sa}- " the
note contains much of considerable value and interest "
(Reporter's letter No. 796, dated the 21st March, 1899,
to the Director of Agriculture, Bengal), and he desired that
the Department of Agriculture, Bengal, should initiate, in
other districts, similar enquiries regarding the races of jute.
Thereupon, the Hon'ble Mr. P. C. Lyon, C.S.I., C.I.E., the
then Director of Agriculture, Bengal, wa§ pleased to
entrust me with this important task. In the meantime,
in 1901, Mr. W. Parsons, Secretary to the Calcutta Baled
Jute Association, had addressed the Director of Agricul-
ture, Bengal, on the subject of the alleged deterioration
of jute and asked for assistance in connection with the
question of improving the qualities of the fibre. As a
result, field experiments were undertaken at the Burdwan
Farm and I was selected to conduct the experiments. In
regard to this work. Dr. D. Prain, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., as
Chairman of the Sub-Committee, Board of Scientific
Advice, was pleased to report to the Board as follows : —

" After visiting the Burdwan Farm and carefully
examining the sample experimental plots, I am
of opinion that the experiment has been carefully
thought out and is being carefully conducted."
{Vide Chapter II — Part III — on Jute Experi-
ments in Bengal.)

The raiyats cultivate jute without any discrimination
as to its race. In fact, they sow seeds of different races
together on the same plot of ground, causing the act of
isolation of a race for a botanical study difficult. During
1899 ^"d 1900, numerous botanical specimens of different
races of jute, cultivated in the jute-growing districts in
Bengal, vv^ere collected by me and forwarded to the Reporter
on Economic Products to the Government of India. In
my reports on the Jute survey work, special attention was

iv

PREFACE

invited to Kakya Bombai ]w\.^ whicii I discovered in 1899,
in a field in a village in the Serajganj Sub-division, Pabna
(Chapter V— Part III — on Races of Jute in Pabna).
As usual, it was grown indiscriminately with other
races. I distinguished this race from others, as it
appeared to be the most prominefit, and named it as
" Kakva Bombai'' — the name b)- which the crop of the
mixed races was designated by the raiyats of that locality,
where it was just then introduced from Goalpara in Assam,
by a seed-dealer. Experiments carried out afterwards,
under my personal supervision, at the Experimental
Stations {vide Chapter III — Part I — on Races of Jute)
proved it to be one of the best and promising races. It was
mentioned prominently, therefore, in this book published
in 1908. Continuous and thorough trials have since been
given to this race for a number of years'by Expert Officers
of the Agricultural Departments, Bengal, Assam and
Bihar and Orissa, at various places. It gives me great
pleasure to find that it has maintained its superiority and it
is now the most favourite of all the races of jute cultivated
in the jute-growing Provinces. In opening the first
annual meeting of the Board of the Bengal Agricultural
Department, in March, 1920, His Excellency the Governor
of Bengal, Lord Ronaldshay, was pleased to remark :

"'Kakya Bombai yields, on the average, about 2 maunds
of fibre more per acre than the average local
races, and the demand for the seed already
outstrips the supply. In 1918-19 this selected
jute was grown on an area of 100,000 acres,
and the increased yield of fibre on this area is
estimated to have been 200,000 maunds, worth
Rs. 20,00,000."

I gratefully acknowledge the assistancs rendered by
Mr. D. N. Ghosh, Officiating Director of Statistics,
Government of India, and Mr. H. M. Haywood, Secretary

PREFACE

to the Bengal Chamber of Commerce, in placing the
statistical records of their offices at my disposal.

Thanks are also due to Mr. S. N, Sil, Officiating
Professor of Agriculture, Sabour, and to Mr. H L. Dutt,
Officiating Economic Botanist, Sabour Agricultural College,
for allowing the artist of the College, Babu Mahendra
Chandra Bhar, to draw the sketches of the plants and the
insects incorporated in this book. The Chapter on
Loose Jute has been re- written after consultation with
Babu Bipin Behari Mitra, who has had long experience
in the loose jute business. The Chapter on Baled Jute has
been re-written, after discussions on various points of the
" marks " of the trade, with many experienced balers of
Calcutta.

I shall fail in duty, if I do not acknowledge the debt
of gratitude I owe to the late Mr. James Luke of " Capital,"
to whom the popularity of this" work is chiefly due. It was
Mr. Luke who brought the first edition of the book pro-
minently to the notice of the trades-people both in India
and the United Kingdom.

It remains now to express my indebtedness to Messrs
\V. Newman & Co., Ltd., the reputed Publishers of
Calcutta, who have kindly undertaken the publication of
the present edition.

Calcutta, "J

1 6th August, ig20. )

N. C. CHAUDKURY.
The

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART /-INTRODUCTORY

UAPTEK

Page

I.

Objections to Jute Cultivation

I

II.

Chemistry of Jute

6

III.

Races of Jute

lO

IV.

Climate

20

V.

Soils

22

VI.

Injuries

•• 25

VII.

Extent of Cultivation . . .

.. 30

PART II— CULTIVATION

I. Preparation of the Soil

II. Manures and Manuring

III. Sowing

IV. Rotation ...
V. After-treatment

VI. Cutting

VII. Steeping ...

VIII. Stripping and Washing

IX. Outturn ...

X. Seed

XI. Cost of Cultivation and Profit

32
33
}>^

39
40

41
44
47
48

SO

PART III~RESEARCH WORK

I. Deterioration of Jute ...
II. Jute Experiments in Bengal

53
59

CONTENTS
Chapter Page

III. Fraudulent Watering of Jute ... 76

IV. Jute in Backergunge ... ... 83

V. Races of Jute in Pabna . 89

VI. Races of Jute in Mymensingh ... 94

VII. Races of Jute in Dacca ... 97
VIII. Races of Jute in Tippera ... 100

IX. Jute in Faridpur ... ... 102^

X. Races of Jute in Rangpur ... 115

XI. Races of Jute in Jalpaiguri ... 119

XII. Jute in Purnea ... 123

XIII. Races of Jute cultivated on the

Burdwan Farm ... ... 133

XIV. A List of the Names of Jute ... 138

PART IV— TRADE

I. Physical Divisions of Jute Tracts ... 140

II. Commercial Divisions of Jute Tracts 147

III. Commercial Classification of Fibres 153

IV. Baling ... ... ... 155

V. Loose Jute ... ... 157

VI. Baled Jute ... ... 160

VII. The History of the Jute Industry... 171

VIII. Indian Manufactures ... ... 175

IX. European Manufactures ... 179

X. Indian Mill Hands ... ... 182

XI. Fafhous Jute Markets ... ... 185

XII. A List of Jute Markets ■ ... 189

XIII. Jute Dealers ... ... 192

CONTENTS
Chapter

XIV. Glossary of Dealers
XV. Terms denoting Qualities of Jute

PART V- STATISTICS

I. Forecasts of Estimate of Outturn ...
II. Prices
Statement

I. Prices of Jute, Hessian Cloth and
Gunny Bags

II. Current Prices of Jute of different
Groups ...

III. Estimated Area and Yield of Jute ...

IV. Estimated Area under Jute in

different Districts

V. Area under Jute in each District

in order of Importance
VI. Classification of the Area
VII. Normal Area under Jute

VIII. Percentage of the Cultivated Area
under Jute

IX. Consumption of Raw Jute

X. Exports and Indian Consumption
of Cloth...

XI. Exports and Indian Consumption
of Gunny Bags

XII. Exports and Value of Twist and
Yarn

XIII. Value of Jute and Jute Manu-

factures ...

XIV, Exports of Jute and Manufactures

to Foreign Countries

Pa(1E
198

200

202
206

2o;j7

208
209

210

212
213
215

217
218

219

220

221

222
22^

CONTENTS

Statement Pag

XV. Exports of Jute to Foreign Markets 225

XVI. Number of Jute Mills, Looms and
Spindles, and Persons employed, in
India ... ... ... 226

XVII. Number of Looms in the Jute

Mills in India ... "^ ... 227

XV'III. Number of Jute Mills, Looms,
Spindles and Persons employed,
in Bengal ... ... 228

XIX. Number of Mills. Looms, Spindles
and Persons employed, in Madras
and the United Provinces ... 229

XX. Names of Jute Mills working in

Bengal ... ... ... 230

XXI. Wages of Labourers in a Jute Mill 232

XXII. Normal Rainfalls in Jute Districts 233

PART VI- MISCELLANY

ClIAI'TER

I. Substitutes for Jute ... ... 235

II. Introduction of Jute into other

Countries ... ... 241

III. Paper and Paper Pulp... ... 246

IV. A Three-Hundred Acre Jute Farm 257
V. Kerosene Emulsion ... ... 261

.VI. Land Measures and Bazar Weights 263
\\V. Bengalee Year ... ... 266

Index ... ... ... ... 269

Opinions on "Jute in Bengal" ... ... 285

TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Illustration Page

Corchorus capsularis ... .. ... 15

Corchorus olitorius ... ... 16

Indigo Caterpillar ... ... ... 26

Jute Semi-Looper and Jute Apion ... 28

Marks ... ... ... 164-165

Hibiscus cannabinus and Crotalaria juncea ... 238

Chart of the Jute Crop ... ... 268

JUTE IN BENGAL

PART I— INTRODUCTORY

CHAPTER I

OBJECTIONS TO JUTK CULTIVATION*

N agitation has, of late, been set on foot, in
some quarters, against the cultivation of
jute. The following are the three definite
charges formulated against the growing of
this crop : —

fi Jute is responsible for the famine and the high
prices of food grains in Bengal.

(ii) Jute causes malarious fever in Bengal. ^

(iii) Jute makes the raiyats extravagant.

I shall try to prove that these charges do not stand
on facts.

First Charge

It is true that since 1828, when the e.\;portati<jn of
jute to Europe commenced, the cultivation of the crop
has expanded in Bengal and Eastern Bengal and Assam
with rapidity. But the total area under jute does not,
even now, exceed 6 per cent, of the total cultivated area in
these two provinces. On the other hand, the area under rice
is between 60 and 65 per cent, and it does not appear t(j have
been reduced, to any extent, within the last 20 \ears
or so. The increase of jute area, without reducing the

* This article, written in 1907. is reprinted without making any alterations.

INTRODUCTORY

area under rice, may be accounted for by the fact that the
area under cultivation has also considerably increased,
specially in Northern Bengal. <It will also be remembered
that jute is immediately followed by transplanted paddy
in the Northern districts where jute is very extensively
cultivated. Thus two crops are obtained from one and
the same land, in the same season, without any
appreciable harm to either. But assuming that jute has
reduced the area under rice, we should not, even then,
grumble, as it pays the rai}'ats better. Further, jute is
an early crop, harvested at a time when the raiyats are
particularly in need of money. Again, in an emergency,
jute may be cut at a comparatively early stage, bring-
ing immediate relief, while in the case of the other crops,
the raiyat is obliged to wait till they are ripe. There
are also other reasons in favour of jute. The paddy
crop, at times, fails in E!astern and Northern districts,
owing to floods, which generally come in after the jute is
off the ground. Thus a raiyat is sure to get at least one
crop, even in such a bad year. It is also known to all
intelligent raiyats that no crop does well on the same
land year after year. Therefore, it is good to follow a
system of rotation of paddy with jute where the soil is
suitable for both of these crops. Owing to these and
other reasons, the area under jute in Bengal was not
very small even some 20 years back, when this crop was
not considered nearly as paying as now.

The present abnormally high price' of rice is chiefly
due to two consecutive bad seasons in 1905-06 and
1906-07. The crop was seriously damaged by floods
in Eastern Bengal and Assam in the former year and
in liihar in the latter, the net shortage, taking the two
provinces together, amounting to 23 and 26 per cent.*

■■• In the two provinces of Bengal and Eastern Bengal and Assam, the
normal outturn of cleaned rice may be estimated at about 52 crores of
niaunds.

OBJECTIONS TO JUTE CULTIVATION

respectively in the two years. Exports, too, have been
high of late, though they fell off to some extent in
1906-07, It is not necessary for our present purpose
to adj'udicate as to what extent bad seasons, and in
what measure foreign exports were responsible for the
present high prices, but the fact remains that, but for
jute, the situation in Eastern Bengal would have been far
more serious. On the other hand, the condition of the
raiyats of North Bihar would not have been so bad, this
year, if they had jute. From my long experience, as
a Travelling Agricultural Officer in Bengal, I am
decidedly of opinion, that the jute crop has, on the whole,
improved the condition of the raiyats of the jute-growing
districts in Bengal, who form the bulk of the population.
It has been estimated that in 1906 jute brought in
about 15^ crores of rupees to the cultivators as a clear
profit.

Second Charge

There are hardly any facts to prove that jute is res-
ponsible for the malarious fever in Bengal. If malaria
had anything to do with jute, then there is no explana-
tion to offer for its prevalence in other parts of India
which do not grow this crop. On the other hand, malaria
is not severe, if at all present, in some parts of Mymen-
singh, Dacca, Faridpur, Tippera, Rangpur and Bogra,
where jute is very extensively cultivated. Goalpara and
Sylhet are the only districts in Assam where jute is
cultivated to any extent. These districts are almost free
from this disease.

Malaria prevails badly in localities where the drainage
is imperfect, and where, in the vicinity of dwelling houses,
dead rivers and stagnant ditches are found overhung
by thick trees and shrubs obstructing the sun and free
air. These are the villages which suffer most.

INTRODOCTORY

The modern theory of malaria is that it is contracted
through the bites of a species of mosquitoes whose
favourite breedingf grounds are stagnant pools and
marshes.

Of course, jute-steeping may cause drinking water to
become foul, where reserved tanks or wells are not avail-
able. This filthy water may produce diarrhoea, indiges-
tion or some other diseases rather than malaria. In fact
the cultivators themselves never attribute any unhealthi-
ness to jute-steeping. The stench is not certainly nice,
but the discomfort to the nostrils is not without a very
substantial set-off.

Third Charge

The third charge brought against jute is that the
crop has turned the raiyats to become extravagant.
This charge hardly deserves any serious notice. After
the harvest of jute and the completion of their hard
labour, if the raiyats spend small sums of money on some
hilsha fish, milk or sweetmeats, none should grudge them •
such small comforts. On the other hand, we ought to
rejoice at this. Even if there is any indulgence at present,
we may hope that by and by they will of themselves
learn economy. It will be a better training for them than
the forced economy of poverty. We should be rather
proud of our Bengalee Hindu and Muhammadan raiyats,
who do not spend a single copper on drink, which brings
about ruin on similar classes in other countries.

In conclusion, I may remind m}- readers that from
an agricultural point of view. Nitrogen is the governing
factor in the fertility of the soil. Any country, therefore,
that exports nitrogenous compounds loses fertility, whilst
a country that imports such compounds gains in fertility
at the expense of the former. The export of food grains
from India not only means the stiffening of present prices.

OBJECTIONS TO JUTE CULTIVATION

but, what is far more serious, it means increasingly
diminished outturns in years to come. On the other hand,
the export of fibres ( such as cotton and jute ), oils ( as
distinguished from oil-seeds ), sugar and starch — which
are all non-nitrogenous products — from a country, does
not, in any way, impoverish its soil. Acid to it the fact,
that in our country we have no special deposits of
nitrogenous manures, and, unlike the farmers of other
countries, the Indian raiyats would not buy such manures
on account of their poverty and ignorance. From the
point of view of agricultural economy, the export of jute
fibre cannot, therefore, be considered harmful.

CHAPTER II

CHEMISTRY OF JUTE

ELLULOSE forms the chief constituent in all
the vegetable fibres, varying in its purity in
different fibres. Cotton is rather purely
a celluloid fibre. Bast fibres such as jute,
hemp, flax, etc., contain more or less lignine.
The cellulose of thes.e fibres is called ligno-cellulose
which is changed more or less into woody tissue.
Cotton consists of one single cell with little incrusting
matters, while the bast fibres are made up of an
aggregation of cells bound together in a compact form
with more or less gummy and resinous matters together
with oils, mineral matters and lignified tissue. This
lignified tissue lowers the economic values of the
bast fibres. Highly lignified fibres are stiff and brittle,
and the)' are little adapted to the spinning of fine
yarns. There are more or less pigment matters in
all the vegetable fibres, brownish or yellowish colours
predominating. The colours are due to incrusting
impurities. When fibres are purified or freed from
such impurities, the}' are white arid possess a high degree
of lustre. Purified fibres are more elastic than those
containing impurities : fibres containing more lignified
matters are less elastic.

Albuminous matter is found in the dried tissue of the
bast fibre. Silicic acid is sometimes found in epidermal
cells. Silicic matter in the ash is not dissolved in
Hydrochloric acid, whereas the rest is readily dissolved
by it. Crystals of calcium oxalate occasionally occurs. It
is insoluble in acetic acid, but dissolved in Hydrochloric
acid. There is also cutose originated from plant
wax. It is slightly soluble in caustic potash, but not
soluble in Sulphuric acid. It is dissolved by the

CHEMISTRY OF JUTE

action of alkalies and hydrochlorides in bleachini; process.
Woody fibre is readily detected by Aniline sulphate
reagent, which gives it a golden yellow colour. When
treated with Nitric acid, or boiling with caustic jjotash
under pressure, most of the Hgnine matter is removed, then
exhibiting characteristics of ordinar)- cellulose.

Fibres which contain only pure cellulose are coloured
blue when treated with Iodine Sulphuric Acid ; while
iibres c(^ntaining lignine are coloured yellow to brown
with the same reagent.

This reagent colours cotton blue and jute x'ellow to
brown, and Ambari hemp, San hemp, and flax are
coloured blue to copper red. Cotton and San hemp
treated with Aniline sulphate solution are not changed,
while jute changes to orange colour. Vegetable fibres are
not weakened or disintegrated by the action of dilute
alkalies. Free Sulphuric or Hydrochloric acids of moderate
strength will quickly attack the fibre. Vegetable fibres are
more conductive of heat than the animal fibres. Hence
animal fibre burns ver}- slowly, while vegetable fibres burn
very quickly. The fabrics made of wool and silk are
warmer than those made of vegetable fibres.

Jute fibre is relatively weak in comparison with other
fibres. But for its fineness and silk-like lustre it is of
special value in spinning. The chief defect is its lack of
durabilit}-. It rapidly deteriorates when exposed to
dampness.. Even under ordinary conditions it graduall}'
becomes brittle and weaker. Bleached fibre is also liable
to such deterioration. Hence it is principally used in
weaving cheap materials such as sacks, rugs, ropes,
twines, etc. San hemp fibre is better than jute in its
textile strength, specially when it is liable to exposure.

Comparative strengths for various cordage fibres
noted below have been taken from Ro\'le's work on the

INTRODUCTORY

Fibrous Plants of India. These tests were made in ropes
of the same size and of 12 metres in length.

Dry Kilos. Wet Kilos.

San hemp ... ... 51 72

jute (C. caps iiiaris) ... 65 66

Do. (C. oil tortus) ... 51 56

Hibiscus cannabinus ... 52 60

(Ambari hemp, Amlapat,

Ghana or Mestha)
Rozelle (^Hibiscus

Sabdariffa) ... ... 41 53

Ramie ... ... no 126

Ramie fibre or Rhea or Kankura of North Bengal is
the strongest of all the bast fibres.

Chemical analyses of jute and San hemp show that
there is about 65 per cent, of cellulose in jute and
about 80 per cent, of cellulose in San hemp.

Water (Hygroscopic)

Aqueous extract

Fat and wax

Ash

Incrusting and pigment matters

Cellulose

In connection with the Chemistry of the jute fibre,
something may be said about the stalk of the plant, a bye-
product, left after the fibre is removed from the stems.

It is not less than a ton and a half per acre which is
either wasted in the pools in which the fibre is extracted
or used for fuel purposes. The following results of the
chemical exami/iation conducted by us will show that the

* The composition of jute may be represented by the empirical formula
C12 H18 O9, i. e.. Carbon 47, Hydrogen 6 and Oxygen 47 parts in every
100 parts i)f the fibre. It contains no Nitrogen.

Jute.*

San.

••• 9-93
103

9-60
2-82

... 0-39
. . . 0-68

0-55
o-6i

... 24-41
... 64-24

6-41
8o-o

( llEMFSTKY OK 1UTE

Stalk, the bye-i)rodLict of the jute fibre, contains about
60 per cent, of woody fibre and little ashes. This woody
fibre, which may abundantly be available at nominal prices,
will probably form a most suitable matertal for paper
manufacture.

Results of chemical examination of jute stalk (bye-
product of jute) :—

Water (Hygroscopic) ... ••• 5*^5 %

Protein ' ... ... ••• i*40 »,

Ash ... ... . ••• 0-92 „

Carbohydrate ... ... ••• 3 ^'33 »

Fibre ' ... ... ••• 60-50 ,.

The fibre was estimated in the usual way of Sulphu-
ric Acid and .Sodium Ih'dratc treatments.

CHAPTER in

RACES OF JUTE

UTE is an annual herbaceous plant of the
natural order TiliacecB. It grows all over
Bengal, with exception to the laterite tracts
of West Bengal and North Bengal. In Bihar
and Orissa tlie cultivation is confined to
Purnea, parts of North Bihar and some parts in Orissa.
It is extending in some districts in Assam. In the plains
of Nepal, towards Purnea district, it is also crrowinp-.

There are two cultivated species of jute, e. g.j
Corchorus capsulnris and Corchorus oliforins. C. cnpsularis
is easily distinguished b}- its rounded capsules, while
C. olitorms bears long cylindrical pods. The seeds are
very small, of pyramidical shape, with three edges and
two apices on both ends, one being conspicuous. The
seed of C. cnpsularis is three-tenths of a millimetre in
length and two-tenths of a millimetre in breadth and deep
l^rown in colour, while that of C. olitorms is t\^'0-tenths of
a millimetre both in length and breadth, of blue colour.
The races of C. capsulnris are more numerous than those
of C. olitorius. A jute plant grows ordinarily to a height
between lo and 12 feet. It attains a height of about
16 feet when cultivated carefully with suitable manures.

Jute is commonly called pat in Western and Central
Bengal, pat or koshta in Eastern Bengal, and pntn in the
Northern districts of Bengal and Assam. In Orissa it is
called nalita or jhoutn and in Bihar patua. The local
names of the different races of each species vary in different
ocalities. There is no common vernacular name for either
of the two species. For convenience sake C. cnpsularis
may be called Guti pat from the rounded shape of the
fruit of this species, and C. olitorius may be called Shuti
pat from the pod-like shape of its fruit. The leaves of

RACES OF JUTh

C. capsularis taste bitter, while those of C. oliioriiis are not
so. Hence in some places, the former is called teeta (bitterj
pat and the latter mithha (sweet) pat.

C. olitoriris is principally cultivated in the districts of
Hoogly and the 24-Parganas. The Northern jute is ex-
clusivel)- C. capsjilaris. In Eastern Bengal, C. olitorins is
cultivated to a \ cry limited extent.

The fibre of C. oliiorius separates more readily from
its stalk than that of C. capsularis, hence this species is
preferred in some quarters, specially in West Bengal.

C. capsnlaris, when it is about 5 feet high, can withstand
water submersion up to its middle. C. olitorius cannot
stand water-logging at all, until it is read}' for cutting.
On the whole, C. capsularis is better capable of withstand-
ing adverse climatic conditions, such as drought or ex-
cessive rains or high temperature.

In colour and fineness, the fibre of C. capsularis is much
superior to that of C. oliiorius, but it is commonly some-
what shorter in length. The colour of the fibre of
C. olitorius is silky yelloA\ish, which is very much liked
by the sack-weavers in Eastern Bengal. From this peculiar
colour, the fibre of this species can easily be distinguished
from that of C. capsularis, although the colour of the fibre
depends chiefly on the cleanness of the water in which it is
steeped and washed.

The fibre of C. olitorius is more brittle. Roxburgh
found, in his comparative tests of the fibres of India,
that a " dry line " of C. capsularis broke with a weight
of 164 lbs. and a " wet line " with the same weight ;
whereas C. olitorius gave way with 113 and 125 lbs.
respective!}-, the wet line gaining 12 lbs. in weight.
This fact of the superiority of the fibre of C. capsularis
over that of C. olitorius is well known. Under the same
test a "dr}'" and a "wet" line of sa7i //^w/ broke with

INTRODUCTORY

160 lbs. and 209 lbs. respectively. The best fibre of C.
ciipsidaris is sold at a higher price than the l^est fibre
of C. oil tortus.

The colour of living plants of C. capsularis varies
from light green to purple, while that of C. olitorius from
light green to pink. In some green-stemmed races, the
•colour of the stem differs from that of its petioles and
fruits. It does not appear that purple or pink colour of
the stems of the plants has anything to do, in particular,
with the colour of the fibre. Generally speaking, green-
stemmed races of C. capsularis are more liked by the
jute cultivators, excepting those living in some parts of
North Bengal, who prefer purple-stemmed races, which
are said to be more prolific than the paler races. But in
Eastern Bengal, the green-stemmed races are considered
to be heavier yielders. Our experience corroborates the
statement of the raiyats of Eastern Bengal. The bark
of the green-stemmed races is thicker than that of the
purple-stemmed races. The purple-stemmed races are,
however, less branch}-.

The same race of jute would )ield fibres of different
qualities if grown in different places, under different con-
ditions. The low land jute is always inferior to the high
land jute. The low land jute which is grown in water is
always " mossy " at the bottom and harsh. This portion
of the fibre is cut off, before it is spun, and is kept apart
for batching purposes. The best sorts of jute available
at the Serajgunj and the Naraingunj markets are the
products of high lands. The Dowrah jute of Madaripur
which is sold at the lowest price, was almost equal to
the best Mymensingh jute, when grown side by side, at
the Burdwan Experimental Farm during 1904. The
following table shows the experts' valuation report on
the samples of jute submitted to the Calcutta Baled Jute
Association for appraisement : —

Value pei

niaund.

Rs.

As.

7

2

8

2

7

12

8

2

8

5

8

6

RACES OF jUTK

Commercial name Local name

of the jute. of the race.

Doumh f (0 Sut pat

'^'^'''**'' ••• \(2)Udhappat

Naraingunj ... Dhalsundar

Serajgunj ... Baran

Northern or Uttar^a | ^'\ ^'^^T^l
^ \ (2) Hewti (late )

The cultivatons never select the seeds according to the
colours of the plants. In the same field and under the
same name different races of different colours are grown.
The on')' selection they make is whether it is early or late,
irrespective of colours of the plants, as when washed the
fibres of different races, of course of the same species
(C capsularis or C. olitorius), are identical. In C. capsularis,
the races as cultivated by the raiyats are awfully mixed,
while in C. olitorius the mixture of plants of different
races are ncjt so terrible.

According to the colour of the stems, leaf-stalks and
fruits, the races of jute, as separated by the author, may
principally be divided as follows : —

(A) Corchorus capsularis

(i) Light green : — Kakya Bombai and Barapat of
Serajgunj, Baron or Barapat of M^mensingh, Dhaleswar
of Dacca, Hewti (white) of North Bengal.

(2) Light green when young, afterwards purplish : —
Amonea of Faridpur, Deswal of Serajgunj.

(3) Purple : — Meghnal or Nalpat of Faridpur, Agni-
swar of Dacca.

(B) Corchorus olitorius

(i) Light green : — Bangi or Dewnallya of Dacca, Sat-
nalla, Bangi or Bomi or Bagi of Faridpur.

INTRODUCTORY

(2) Pinkish : — Nileta or Tallah of Mymensingh, Tosha
of Serajgunj.

(3) Pink : — Desi Lalpat of Hoogly, Nal Bagi of
Far id pur.

Both the species have early and late races. The late
races yield generally a heavier outturn than the early ones.
Both of these races are however useful. The low lands,
subject to floods, should always be cultivated with the
early races. Those who wish to cultivate jute on a large
scale should sow both early and late races, so that the
different races may be harvested at different times. It
would not be possible to harvest the crop of all the fields
at the same time. Under favourable conditions, jute is a
very quick-growing plant. It is particularly important that
the soil should be rich, and that during the early stages of
its growth the crop should receive proper treatment.
Otherwise the plants get stunned, flower early and give a
poor outturn. The following are the selected races of jute
showing whether they are early or late. : —

Early

C. capsularis : —

Ansa of Mymensingh ( green )

Ditto (purple)

Bhadya of Rangpur and Jalpaiguri (green)

Ditto (purple)

C. olitorius : —

Bangi of Dacca (green)

Satnall^ of Faridpur (green)

Tosha of Serajgunj (pinkish)

CORCHORUS CAPSULARIS

(!)'■' Reduced to ono-lialf
{2) Full size.

IS

CORCHORUS OLITORIUS

(i) Full size.

[2) Reduced to one-lialf.

i6

RACES OF JUTK.

Late

C. copiulttris :-~

Baron or Barapat of M)'mensino;h
Kakya Bombai of Seraji^unj
Deswal of Serajgunj
Amonea of Faridpur
Kamarjani of Faridpur
Hewti of Rangpur

Ditto
Nalpat of Faridpur
Kajla of Dacca

(green)

(green)

(mixed)

(mixed)

(green)

(green)

(purple)

(purple)

(purple)

C. olitortus :-

Desi Lalpat yf Hoogiy
Dewnallya of Dacca
Halbelati of Tipperah
Nailta of Mymensingh

(pmk)
(green)
(green)
(green)

Comparative statements of the outturns of the races
of jute grown experimentally at the Burdwan Farm
from 1903 to 1906 are given below. From these it will
appear that there is hardly any particular variety or race
which is the heaviest yielder all along. Dewnallya of
Dacca topped the list in 1903, but it was placed much
lower down the list in the following year. So again, the
race which gave the highest outturn in the second year,
came down in the next year. The Burdwan Farm seed,
which was possibly the same as the Deswal of Serajgunj, has
occupied the first place during the last two successive years.
This is one of the best races we have. It was parti-
cularly mentioned in my report on the Jute Experiments
at the Burdwan Farm during 1902, the first experiment

17

INTRODUCTORY

carried out at Burdwan, at the instance of the Inspector-
General of Agriculture in India. The Burdwan Farm
seed seems to have improved by careful selection. Kakya
Bombai is a tall jute with few branches. It came out as
one of the best. The present selected seed "*has been
pronounced to be the best of all the races cultivated in
Bengal. When Kakya Bombai was first found oiit by us
at a place in Serajgunj, the cultivators who had just begun
to cultivate it, spoke very highly about its yield and other
qualities. They considered it to be the best of all the races
of jute grown in the Serajgunj Sub-Division. The seed of
Kakya Bombai race was originally indented by some seed
dealers from Goalpara district in Assam. Any jute seed
imported from Assam is still called by the name of Kakya
Bombai. They maintained that the seed of this jat of
jute produced at Serajgunj was not such a good yielder
as that obtained from Assam. Interchange of seeds was
highly recommended by the e.xperienced ^ cultivators of
Serajgunj.

Variety Kxtkriments with Jute

1903

At Burdwan

Name of Jute. Outturn

per acre.

(i) Dewnallya {C. olitorius) of Dacca 2,661 lbs.

•(2) Y^^y\-a.{C. capsularis) „ „ 2,581 „

1904

At Burdwan

(i) Hewti, white (6". cnpsularis), of Rangpur 2,310 lbs.
(2) Kakya Bombai {C.cnpsularis) of Serajgunj 1,935 "

18

RACES OI' JUTK
At Faridpur

Name of fiUe. Outturn

])cr acre.

(i) \^a.r3i\:)Sit {C. C'ipsularis) of Mymensins^h 2,996 lbs.
(2) Amonea (C. capsularis) of Faridpur 2,991

At Rangpur

(i) Kamarjani {C. capsularis) of Faridpur 2,644 lbs.
(2) W&^\\,v^\{\\.^ {C. capsularis), local -oio

At Jalpaiguri

(1) Baron i^C. capsularis) o{ M)'mensingh 1,1 10 lbs.

(2) Nalpat (C capsularis) of Farid[)ur 1,049

1905

At Burdvvan

(i) Farm seed (6^. capsularis) 2,600 lbs.

(2) Nailta {C. olitorius) of M)-mensinoh 2,400

1906

At Burdwan

(i) Farm seed 2,600 lbs.

(2) Halbilati {C, olitorius) of Tipperah 2,480 „

CHAPTER IV

CLIMATE

UTE is a rainy-season crop. Damp heat is
the most favourable for its growth. Excessive
rain, saturating the soil with moisture,
delays both sowing of the seed and the
after-treatments.

From one to three inches of rain distributed in a
month, during sowing period, may be considered sufficient.
Occasional showers of rain, varying from one to two
inches, at intervals of about a week, are most beneficial
for the growth of the plants.

The temperature of atmosphere on the tracts where
jute is grown hardly exceeds, during the growing season,
ioo° F. and falls below 60° F. Humidity varies from 65
to 91. It is not possible to grow jute anywhere in Bengal
during the cold weather.

The table below shows the normal minimum and
maximum temperature of the air, the mean humidity
and the normal rainfalls recorded at some typical stations
in the jute-growing areas : —

Month.

I

Weather Conditions.

2

i
6

'So
c

c

0

.s ^

Q

Is
0

w5

/"Minimum Temperature ...
., , 1 Maximum ,,
'^^'^'^1^-i Humidity

^.Rainfall

58

103

80

I

53

99

82

2

49
104

65
I

54

94

75

2

56

99

80

8

'I

April ...h

U

klinimum Temperature
Maximum ,,
lumidity
Rainfall

70
103

79
2

67

100

81

5

65

lOI

81

2

68

91

84

6

62
92
87
15

20

CLIMATE

'

^

1

.

MontV

1.

Weather Conditions.

a

3

C

E

k4

'i

r

2

n ^

i^'*

S "^

1^

ii «^

u

%

C

0

c75

'Minimum Temperature

70

71

66

65

66

M ay

Maximum ,,

105

97

108

95

96

■" Humidity

81

82

72

81

85

.Rainfall

/"Minimum Temperature

6

13

7

9

15

75

72

70

73

73

Jun<-

J Maximum ,,

96

94

95

95

98

IJumiditv

87

90

88

82

88

.Rainfall'

'Minimum Temperature
Maximum

II

18

18

15

22

76

75

72

74

74

July

92

89

92

92

92

'1 Humidity
l.Rainfall

Minimum Temperature
Maximum ,,

89

89

91

83

91

13

16

15

10

19

75

76

75

76

73

August.

91

92

93

95

98

■"j Humidity
.Rainfall

'Minimum Temperature ...
Maximum ,,

89

91

91

86

91

12

15

13

9

20

75

75

75

75

73

Sept.

92

92

93

93

94

' Humidity
.Rainfall

90

91

89

83

90

10

14

12

6

13

The minimum temperature of water in which jute is
steeped should be about 80° F.

The rainfalls appear to be too heavy in Silchar few the
jute crop.

CHAPTER V

■ SOILS

N Bengal there are old and new alluvial soils
which are called lal viaii or khiar and pali
mati respectively, the same as bhangar and
kJiadar in Bihar. The new alluvium is
generally found near large rivers, especially in
their deltas, and is commonly called alluvial soil par
excellence. The soils of parts of Orissa, South Bihar and
Burdwan Division belong to old alluvium. The whole
of North Bihar, Eastern Bengal and North Bengal
consists of new alluvium, with the exception of the
Madhupur Jungle in Dacca and Mymensingh and the
khiar in North Bengal. Jute grows on new alluvium,
but not. on the old. A striking example of this fact
may be cited :— In Bogra there is a narrow river called
Karotora. Over 50 per cent, of the cultivated palt
lands lying to the east of this river is, every year,
sown with jute, while the cultivated khiar lands to
the west of the Karotora contain jute not exceeding
5 per cent. None should select this lal or khiar soil
for jute, unless the character of this soil is thoroughly
changed by heavy application of cattle manure or by
green manuring for three or four years successively.
Khiar land becomes very hard in a drought and pre-
vents the spread of the roots of the jute plant. This
seems to be the chief reason why it is so unsuitable for
this crop.

Jute grows to perfection on loamy soils. The rain
water sinks quickly into loamy soil; hence loamy soil is
preferred to stiff clay, which can neither absorb nor
part with its water as readily as loam or sandy loam
does. On clayey soil it yields a fibre which is " sticky '*
more or less, while a coarse fibre is obtained from sandy

soir.s

lands. Jute is vei'\' badl)' affected b\- water-loj^'^np^- wlicii
it is xouiii;'.

It is said that jute will t^row \\\ \.\\c salt ■ inprrcrfKited
soils of the Sundarbans. I am, however, not prepared to
accept this \ie\v as true. I was at FraserL^unj in the
Sundarbans, on the coast of the H^iy of Bengal, for nearly
a year during 1907-08, when man\' experiments on jute
were conducted on \arious parts of the estate. Jute was
successfully grown on high lands about 4 feet abo\e the
flood level. The soil (surface soil) of this land contained
■20 to '2 5 per cent, of common salt. It failed on the soils
containing more salts. Hut padd\' was successful on the
soils which had from "50 to ro per cent, of common salt.
It may be noted that a considerable quantity of the salt of
the paddy lands must ha\e been washed off during the
padd)' season, that is, the rain}- season. The soils referred
to above were collected for analysis during the month
of November, that is, after the cessation of the rains. Of
course, in some tracts of the Sundarbans, jute has
been successfull}- cultivated. Perhaps most parts of the
salts containecl in the lands had been removed by
drainage before jute was grown. It would be best
to proceed cautiously and see whether jute will grow
on soils from which the salts have not been so thoroughly
removed. It is very well known that when a soil contains
soluble saltis in quantities above a certain amount, it is
unfit for an\' crops. F'.ven saltpetre, if present in the
soil water in a too concentrated form, acts as poison fe^r
plants. Dr. Voelcker's experiments show that no crops
grow on soils (surface soil) which contain "2 per cent.
of soda, '4 per cent, of common salt, or 7 per cent, of
sodium-sulphate.

Although chemical test is not a guide to select a site
for the cultivation of jute, the following table, showing the
proportions of the chemical properties of a typical

23

INTRODUCTORY

soil, would be useful for selection of new sites for
crop :

the

hisolubie silicates

Soluble

Ferric oxide

Alumina ...

Lime ..'.

Mani^anese

Mag^nesia . . .

Potash

Soda

Phosphoric acid

Carbonic acid

Organic matter and com

770
0-25
6-00
3-60

2-00
O'lO

o-io
0-50
0-25

0-20
2-00

bined water* 800

per cent.

lOO'OO

Jute grows on the high lands as well as on the low
lands, which are not liable to submersion before the middle
of June. Floods cannot do much harm to the plants once
they are sufficiently strong, that is, when they will shortl}
run to flower. Of course, highland jute is always superior
to lowland jute, in quality.

* Nitrogen "i per rent.'

24

CHAPTER VI

INJURIES

ON'I'INUED drought is detrimental to the jute
cro)). The greatest damage is caused to the
rrop by the heavy rain which may fall just
iifirr the seed has been sown or when the
1 tlants are still young. Stagnant water during
this period is still worse. Floods would not harm some races
of jute grown in Eastern Bengal when the plants come
into flower-bud.

There arc several insect pests which cause consider-
able damage to the plants when they are young. The
worst are three kinds of caterpillars. They are known by
the following names: —

(i) Indigo Caterpillar {^Laphygma exigiia); in verna-
cular Gore. Kathri, Horihar^, etc.

(2) Jute .Semi-Looper {Cosmopkila sabulifera) ; in
vernacular Ghorapoka, Chhitapoka, etc.

(3) Hairy Caterpillar (Z^zVir^zV/fl o/^//^/'<7); in vernacular
Suapoka, Hiccha, Bhua, Sambara, etc.

Indigo Caterpillar

The Indigo Caterpillar feeds on the young leaves of
plants. In bad cases they defoliate the plants completely,
leaving only the bare stems on the ground.

The moth comes out after dark. The female moth
lays about 250 eggs in clusters on young leaves ; each
cluster containing 50 to 200 eggs. The eggs hatch in two or
three days, and the small green caterpillars begin to feed on
the epidermis of the young leaves. After this, they spread
and feed on the leaves, generally in the morning and
afternoon, taking shelttir during the hottest part of the day.

25

INDIGO CATERPILLAR

( After Lefroy )

Fig. I — E^ cluster of indigo caterpiil;ir I'i^ 2 — The caterpillar

Fig. "X. — The iin'th

26

IXJUKIKS

If clisturbcd, the}- will curl and droi) down from tiic ]jlant.
In a fortnight thc\- become full grown, measuring about
an inch, and pu])ate in the ground under leaves, coming
out as moths in a week.

Jute Semi-Looper.

Jute Semi-Looper or Ghorapoka (a horse-like cater-
pillar), a serious jute pest, feeds on the apical buds and
top shoots of jute plants. It damages the crop from June
to August till the plants are in flowers. The moth remains
concealed during the day and comes out at dusk. At night
the female moth lays about 1 50 to 200 eggs singly on the
small top leaves. They hatch in about two days, and the
little green caterpillars emerge, feeding on }-oung leaves
and buds. .V full-grow 11 caterpillar, about one and a half
inches in length, walks in a semi-looping motion, forming an
arch on the back. . If disturbed, it jumps off from the plant
and crawls up the plant again afterwards. In 15 days
it becomes full grown and comes down to the ground to
pupate. The moth comes out from the pupa; stage
in six to nine da\s. It generall)- passes the winter as a
pupa in the soil.

Hairy Caterpillar.

The Hairy Caterpillar feeds on the leaves of jute, san-
hemp and man\' other field crops. In case of a bad attack,
the whole crop is defoliated. Continued rains are favour-
able for the activity of this insect.

The female moth lays from 400 to 1,000 eggs at night on
the lower surface of lea\'es. The\' hatch in three or four days,
and the young caterpillars begin to feed on the lower
epidermis of leaves. After a few days, they disperse in
different directions and spread over the whole area. In two
or three weeks the caterpillars become full grown, measur-
ing one and a half inch. The whole body is covered
with hairs. The full)' grown caterpillar sheds its hairs

27

JUTE SEMI-LOOPER AND JUTE APION.

After Ltfroy.)

I'ig' ' ^J"*^^ seini-looping c:iterpillar. Pig. 2 -Tlie moth sitting

<)n a leaf. f'ig. 3 — Egg cluster of hairv caterpillar. Fig. 4. — Young

caterfiillars on a leaf Fig. 5.— Full-grown caterpillar. . Fig. 6.— Moth

•sitting on a leaf. Fig 7. -Jute Apion. Fig. 8.- - Ti< gni>i. Fig 9.— Top
shoot withering on accMiini of its injury.

2S

INJURIES

and pupates" in the soil inside a rough cocoon of hairs.
After about ten days it comes out as a moth.

Jute Apion.

There is also a small black weevil called Jute Apion. It
does not appear to cause any appreciable damage to the crop.

This insect breeds in the stems of jute. The grub is
found to make small tunnels in the young stems near the
axils of the leaves and the tops droop down.

The first two caterpillars appear generally in very dry
seasons. Continued rains, on the other hand, are favour-
able to the Hairy. Caterpillar. Plants affected by these
insects become branch)-, and the fibre obtained from them
is specky and harsh. Kerosene emulsion,* which may be
applied with Eclair Vaporiser or any fine .syringe, is a sure
remedy against all these in.sects. During 1904 the
experimental jute crop on about 5 acres of land at Faridpur
was very badly attacked by the chhitopoki. I was deputed
by Mr. Maddox to try some remedies there. Kerosene
emulsion was applied by me which saved the crop, while
the neighbouring fields suffered a loss by about 50 per
cent. The outturn of the experimental fields has already
been given in Chapter III.

Fungoid Disease

Diplopia corcliori is a fungoid disease of jute known by
the name of Black Band disea.se. It has been reported
from some parts of Eastern Bengal. Fortunately it causes
little damage to the crop at present. The Department of
Agriculture reports that C. alitor ius and the red-stemmed
races of jute are immune from its attack. The Agricultural
Department suggests that the seed of the affected area
should be treated with copper-sulphate solution to get rid
of the disease.

* For detailed instruction for preparing kerosene emulsion please see Part V,
Chapter IV ,

29

CHAPTER VII

THE EXTENT OF CULTIVATION

HE cultivation of jute had been rapidly ex-
tending owing to the high prices of this
fibre during recent years. But it received a
sudden blow from the effects of the great
European War. Although peace has, at
last, been declared, and the restrictions withdrawn,
there are still diminished exports due to a shortage in
tonnage. As a result the outturn of jute is still less by
about 20 per cent, and the Jute market has been in a
state of paralysed condition. It is hoped that the normal
condition will soon prevail. The demand for the fibre will
again increase steadily. In spite of all these difficulties,
new markets are continually being opened out. There is
little doubt that the cultivation of jute will, in the near
future, extend in Bengal and Assam. At present, jute is
extensively cultivated in the districts of Mymensingh,
Dacca, Tipperah, Faridpur, Rangpur, Purnea and Pabna.
In Mymensingh nearly one-fourth of the total cultivated
land (630,000 acres) is under jute, which yields about
one-fourth of the whole production of jute of these pro-
vinces. The other six districts account for about 47 per
cent. (1,300,000 acres) of total area under jute in Bengal,
Bihar and Orissa, and Assam. Thus three-fourths of the
total outturn of jute is obtained from these seven dis-
tricts. The total area under jute at the present time
(1919) is about 10 per cent, of the total cultivated land
of the Province of Bengal in which jute is grown. Taking
the whole cultivated area of these provinces of Bengal,
Bihar and Orissa, and Assam into consideration, the
percentage of area under jute was at *5 in 1919. The
total cultivated area in these provinces is 56,807,500

* It was 5"5 i)ci" cent, in 1906,
30

■rill'; i;\"ri:N'i" oi" cultivation

acres, including 543,500 acres in Cooch Bihar State, of
which 2,821,500 acres were cultivated with jute during;-
1919.

In Assam jute t)ccupies 25 per cent, of the total area
<«i-opped, while nearly i per cent, in Bihar and Orissa.

The following table shows the percentage of area under
jute in the nett area cropped in the jute-growing provinces
in India during tlie \ear 1919 : —

rKcU'lNCK..

Total area

cropped.

Acres

Total area

under jute.

Acres.

Percentage
of t he area
under jute.

Bengal

Bihar and Orissa

Assam

Coocli Bihar

24,524,000

25,881.000

5,859,000

543>SOO

2,458,900

203,400

120,000

39,200

lO'O

oS

2 "5
-•2

56,807,500

2,821,500

The experimental cultivation of jute in several indigo
estates in North Bihar has been successful. It is expected
that it will shortly take its place among the regular crops
in that tract. In Assam proper there was very little jute
ten years ago. Goalpara was the only district where jute
was cultivated to some extent (28,000 acres) in 1906. The
cultivation of jute is extending in the Assam Valley w here
the soil and climate are suitable.

31

JUTE IN BENGAL

PART ri—CUL Tl VA TION '

CHAPTHH I

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL

AND for sowing jute is generally prepared
just after the first shower of rain during the
latter part of February or March. Intelligent
cultivators should never lose the opportunity
of early rain. If there be no cold weather
crop in the field, the ploughing should begin early in the
cold season. Deep ploughing is essential for this crop. It
has long roots which go down about one foot below the
surface of the soil. Soil should be thoroughl)' pulverised
until a fine tilth is obtained. Clods in the clay soil are to
be broken by means of a harrow or kodn/i or a wooden
mallet. No treatment should be given to the land when
it is too rrioist. Five to eight ploughings and four or five
ladderings will be often found sufficient. Clay soil may
require as much as ten ploughings. The corners of the
fields which are not properly broken b\' ploughs should be
grubbed by kodak before the last ploughing is given. The
harrow and grubber would be useful implements for crushing
clods and collecting weeds. These implements are little
known in these provinces where jute is grown. After sow-
ing, there should be no ploughing, unless the soil is very
light,' but simply laddering to cover the seeds, and to press
the land in order to bring up the moisture to the surface of
the .soil, which helps germination of the seed.

32

CHAPTER II

MANURES AND MANURING

UTE does not appear to be an exhaustive crop.
Theoretically speaking, the crop itself, that is
the fibre, removes no valuable plant foods,
such as nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash.
Analysis of the entire jute plant was made
by us and the results of the chemical test have been noted
in the chapter on " Chemistr}' of Jute." The stalk of jute
contains only "03 per cent, of phosphate. The total ash
contents amounted to less than i per cent. It may definitely
be said that the soil would not lose much if the leaves and
unnecessary tops of the jute plants be returned to the fields.
Low lands which receive silts every year from floods
require hardly any artificial manures. Jute does parti-
cularly well if it follows peas or khesari grown specially
for feeding cattle on the field. Pulses have special capa-
city for enriching the soil.

Green manuring with san is strongly recommended for
jute. It is to be sown in November or December and
ploughed down early in February. Green manure is
specially useful when the character of the soil is required
to be changed. By green manuring stiff clay becomes
lighter and the light sandy soil becomes retentive of mois-
ture. Organic manures contained in soils retain moisture
and ammonia and keep the land warm. Excellent effects of
organic manures are specially noticed on light soils.

The manure experiments with jute at the Burdwan
Experimental Farm have shown that cowdung is the best
of all manures for jute. Cowdung is followed by castor-
oil-cake. Seventy-five maunds of cowdung or six maunds
of castor cake per acre, each containing about 30 lbs.* of

*Mr. Mollison, the Inspector-General of Agriculture in India, recommended
30 lbs. of nitrogen per acre for the Burdwan Experimental Farm.

33

CULTIVATION

nitrogen, may be applied when the land is finally prepared.
The following statements on the results of the manure
experiments at the Burdwan Farm may be read with
interest : —

Old Bxperiments

Manure.

Quantity of
Manure per acre.

(80 LBS. = 1 MAUND.)

Outturn of

Fibre per acre,

Average of

II years.

Cowdung
Castor cake
Super-phosphate
Saltpetre
Bone meal
No manure

Mds. Srs.

150 0

6 0

I 20 1
0 30 J
3 0

lbs.
1,821
1,448

1,358

1,252
648

The experiments at the Burdwan Station conclusively
prove the superiority of farm-yard manure (cowdung) to
any other. Next comes the castor-oil-cake.

New Experiments

Manure.

Cowdung ...
Castor cake
Bone meal and
Saltpetre ...
Bone meal
No manure

Quantity of

Nitrogen per

acre.*

lbs.
30
30
IS
15
30

}

Outturn per
acre in lbs.

1904.

1905.

1,985
1,635

1,805
1,570

1,605

i,.S90

1,085
1,230

1,580
1,545

* Cowdung contains on the average "5 per cent., castor caki
bone meal 3 per cent., and saltpetre ro per cent, of nitrogen.

1906.

1,880
1,860

1,600

1,560
1,560

;e 5 per cent.,

34

i

MANURES AND MANURING

All the above manures, excepting super and saltpetre,
should be applied to the fields during the preparation of
the soil. Super may be used with sowing of the seed, and
saltpetre as a top-dressing, when the plants arc about one
foot high. The latter should always be put on the land on
■which there is a growing crop, as it is readily soluble in
water and liable to be washed off.

From both the old and new experiments conducted
at the Burdwan Experimental Station, it will appear that
cowdung and castor cake containing much organic matters
are the best for jute. Organic matters are of special value
as manures. They add to the soil the power of retaining
moisture — a factor essential for successful cultivation of jute.

35

CHAPTER III

SOWING

OWING season extends from about the middle
of February to the end of Ma}'. On the
low lands, which are hable to be swamped
by floods, sowing is iinished by the middle
of March. When the land is thoroughly
prepared, seed is broadcasted and covered by laddering.
The seed is sown at the rate of lo lbs. of C. capsularis
or 8 lbs, of C. olitorius per acre. To ensure an even dis-
tribution of the seed, sowing should be carried out cross-
wise, that is, the field should be gone over by the sower,
in the act of sowing, once from north to south, and a
second time, from east to west. A' harrow or a ladder or
a henga (log) should follow immediately to cover the
seed properly. Germination takes place within three or
four days after sowing, if the soil contains sufficient
moisture.

36

I

CHAPTER IV

ROTATION

JN some quarters jute is grown on the same
land year after year. This is an exhaus-
tive system. This system should never be
resorted to unless sufficient manures are
used. Of course, the lands which are sub-
merged during the rains and thus receive silts, do not
generally require any manuring. Fibre deteriorates, if
jute is cultivated on the same land, year after year, without
following a system of rotation.

In the principal jute districts where jute is culti-
vated on high lands, paddy is transplanted immediately
after cutting jute. Thus two crops are obtained in the
same season. This is undoubtedly a most exhaustive
method, if this land is not heavily manured. It may be
noted that jute does particularly well if it follows peas
or khesari grown specially for grazing.

The following rotation schemes are recommended : — ■

Two-Year Soheme No. 1

First Year

(i) Jute;

(ii) Rape or mustard.

Second Year

(i Paddy ;

(ii) Peas or kkesari.

37

CULTIVATION

Two-Year Scheme No. 2

(If jute is immediately followed by paddy)

First Year

(i) Jute;

(ii) Paddy ;

(iii) Peas or khesari (grown for feeding cattle).

Second Year

(i) Aus paddy ;

(ii) Potatoes, or rape, or mustard, or .y^K-hemp as a
green manure if no other manure is used for the next
jute crop.

One- Year Scheme No. 1

(i) Jute;

(ii) Rape or mustard or peas or khesari or potatoes.

One-Year Scheme No. 2

(If jute is immediately followed by paddy).

(i) Jute;

(ii) Paddy;

(iii) Peas or khesari (grown for feeding cattle).

The reason as to why rabi crops are not generally
allowed to precede jute, is that in the Eastern districts
jute has to be sown early to prevent its being swamped by
floods. Here the rabi crops interfere with the preparation
of the soil sufficiently early. But mustard is soon off the
ground. Peas, etc., for fodder also do not interfere with
the early preparation of the soil intended for jute.

38

CHAPTER V

AFTER-TREATMENT

MEN the plants are about six inches high, a
hida (something like a rake), called achra or
nangla in North Bengal, is drawn over the land
twice or thrice at short intervals, till the plants
attain a height of nearly one foot, for thinning
the plants and loosening the earth. After this, the crop is
twice weeded or hand-hoed, the operation being accom-
panied by thinning at the same time. The outturn of fibre
depends much on this operation of weeding and thinning.
Jute fields should be well-cleaned of weeds. Sometimes
three weedings or hoeings are given. The plants should
be so thinned as to leave a space of about 6 inches between
the plants in the case of C. capsiilaris, and 8 inches in the
case of C. olitorius. C. capsiilaris will bring forth numerous
branches if the plants are thinned out over-much. On the
other hand, thickly crowded plants will grow too thin to
give a good outturn of fibre. Just before the rainy season
sets in, the thin and weak plants are finally uprooted.
These plants * should be thrown into the manure-pit. No
operation should be given when the fields are too wet, that
is, when the earth sticks to the implements. It is very
essential that every operation is given just in proper time.
It will liarm the crop very much, if any operation is delayed
even for a few days only. Every treatment of the plants
should receive the cultivator's utmost care. Well-treated
plants will often grow lo to 12 feet high — sometimes, as
long as 16 feet.

* Nowadays fibre is generally extracted from these rejected plants and
sold as " tiach pat" (rejected jute).

39

CHAPTER VI

CUTTING ^

UTE is cut from the beginning of July to the
end of October. It is hardly ever cut before
the flowering stage of the plants. It may
be cut any time before it is dead ripe. The
time of cutting may be divided into three
stages as follows : —

First stage — cutting in flower ;

Second stage — cutting when fruits set ;

Third stage — cutting when fruits fully develop.

Four weeks are taken by the plants to pass through
these stages. Sometimes the cutting is delayed by a raiyat
for want of sufficient labour. But if the plants are allowed
to get dead ripe, the fibre becomes coarse in texture and
dirty reddish in colour. The heaviest yield of fibre of good
quality is obtained uhen the plants are cut at the third
stage. Those who would wish to undertake the cultivation
of jute on a large scale, must begin cutting from the first
stage, so that they ma}- be able to skilfully distribute the
work of harvesting over a long period. It would not be
possible for them, for want of labour and other difficulties,
to cut the whole crop at the stage which may be the
fittest of all.

Plants are cut with a sickle close to the ground.
Plants growing in deep water are pulled up. After
cutting or pulling, the plants are tied in bundles^nd steeped
in water.

40

CHAPTER VII

STEEPING

DTK fibre is contained in the .bark of tlie jilant.
In the natural state, the fibre is associated
with a kind of gum which must be first
softened by fermentation and then removed
b}^ washing. The fermentation takes place
when the plants are cut and kept under water. This is
called sleeping or rettino.

When the crop is grown on high land above inundation
level, the bundles are stacked on the field for two days,
before they are removed to a ditch for steeping. This
is a good practice, as the leaK^es of the plants may shed
and thus be kept on the soil which has produced them.
It also reduces the weight of the bundles which are to
be carried away a long or short distance. Calculating on
the basis that the fibre is 4-5 per cent, of the green weight,
16 maunds of fibre per acre means a crop with a green
weight of 355 maunds or 29,000 lbs. The bundles of a
stack should be covered with straw or palmyra leaves.
If the plants are directly exposed to tlie sun, the fibre
becomes more or less 'specky'. The bundles are then re-
moved to the nearest pool and immersed. In Western
Bengal, where deep water is not generally available for
steeping, from one to two layers of bundles are bound
together with rejected plants and placed in water. Sods
of earth are used there for weighting down the stack.
This practice is condemned as it tends to discolour the
fibre. This may partly explain why the daisee jute is
much inferior in colour to Eastern Bengal jute. Logs of
wood may always be preferred for weights.

In Eastern Bengal, where jute is cut in water, the
steeping begins at once with the leaves on. Several
layers of bundles are placed one over another. The

41

CULTIVATION

second la}'er covers the first layer completel}', leaving
only the top 9 inches, and so on. Finally the last layer is
covered with weeds. After five or six days the leaves of the
plants shed. At this time the whole heap is completely
covered with weeds. This system hardly requires any
artificial weight — the bundles immerse by their own weight.
Sometimes cultivators erect bamboo posts on either side
of the heap to keep it from floating away.

The plants take 10 to 20 days to ret. When the
plants are cut in the latter period of the season, it may
take even a month for retting — the period depending
upon the maturity of the plants, the temperature and
other conditions of the water in which the plants are
steeped. The temperature of water should be over 8o°F,
After a week or so the plants should be examined to
ascertain how far the retting has advanced. The
examination should be repeated from time to time,
till it is found that the fibre separates easily from the stalk.
If under-retted, the gum remains more or less and the
fibres stick together. On the other hand, over-retting
makes the fibre weak and dull.

The water in which jute is steeped has considerable
effect on the quality of the fibre. The fibre of jute
steeped in clear water called kalajal ( black water ) gives
it a white colour, while the colour of the jute steeped in
muddy water called /^ifl^^yrt/ (^^/^^ = white, truly speaking
grey; 7'^/ = water) is blackish grey. The stagnant ^ag"**
water gives the jute a better colour, because it is not so
muddy as the running baga water. In the case of " black
water " whether running or stagnant, the colour of the fibre
is not affected, as this water does not contain any dirty
matters. The steeping of jute in running water takes
longer to ret it than in stagnant water. In running water
the inside bundles of a heap rot earlier than the outside
bundles, producing fibre of uneven quality. Thus when

42

STKl'.l'IXd

the rettini;" of the bundles within is complete, the outside
bundles are not yet read)-. On the other hand, when the
outside bundles are fit for stripping, the inside bundles
will be overdone. It is required, therefore, to break the stack
and take away the inside bundles when they are read}- for
stripping, leaving the outside bundles in the steep for
two or three da)'s longer. Stagnant water is to be preferred
to running water. Deep water is also to be preferred to
shallow water in which the lowermost bundles touch the
ground, to the detriment of the colour of the fibre.

The crop is so bulky when it is cut that it is not always
possible to carr}' it a long way off, to get clean water for
steeping.

CHAPTER VIII

STRIPPING AND WASHING

EPARATING the fibre from the stem must
be finished within a couple of days after
retting process is complete. The principal
methods of extracting fibre from the stem
are as follows : —

First method. — Each plant is separately stripped so
that the fibre remains free and without any entanglement,
commanding a higher price. The stripper, generally a
woman, does the work in her own home, instead of stand-
ing in the steeping water as in the other processes. She
holds the lower part of the stem of each plant with her
right hand and deftly pulls the fibre off with her left
hand — the fibre passing between the fore and middle
fingers of the right hand in which the stem is held. A
skilled woman can extract even three plants at a time,
passing three bunches of fibre of three different plants
through the three spaces made with the four fingers of her
right hand which hold the stems. A woman ordinarily
strips about half a maund of dry fibre, working 8 hours a
day. But there are skilled women in East Bengal who
can strip more than that quantity. The woman is either
a member of the raiyat's own family, or one of the family
of a friend of his, who charges nothing for the work; but
she gets the stalks or piths only which are used as fuel.

Dacca, Faridpur and Barisal are the only three districts
re jute is separated in this method.

Secofid method. — When the stems are ready for strip-
ping, the raiyat stands by the heap and takes up a handful
of the plants called niuthha, which are beaten at the bottom
by means^*of a wooden hand and afterwards broken at the
•distance of one foot from the bottom. The broken pieces

44

STRIl-riNG AND WASHING

of wood are then thrown away. He now takes hold of the
separated fibre by both the hands, and jerks the stems
forward and backward on the surface of the water. After
half a dozen jerks, the fibre is cleared off the stalks. A
cultivator generally strips 20 seers of dry fibre per diem
working from 8 a. m. to 2 p. m. But, if he is not
accustomed to this work, he would not be able to extract
more than half that quantity.

This method is in vogue in almost all the .jute districts
in Bengal.

Third method. — When retting is complete, a handful of
stems is taken hold of by both the hands of the stripper,
and dashed against the water, swinging round his head.
This is a process which ma)- correctly be called washing
rather than stripping. After the stems are washed in this
way, they are dried in the sun. At last the piths or stalks
are broken at several places and removed from the fibre.
Jute is stripped in this method in Orissa. The fibre which
is washed in this method deteriorates in its value.

The first process of stripping jute fibre may further be
improved by substituting a bamboo or wooden frame for
the hand, with more pegs for fingers than a woman
commands in one of her hands. This frame may be
constructed in the following way: —

Take a piece of bamboo or wood about 24 inches long.
Attach some 8 or 10 finger-like thick round wooden or
bamboo pegs 8 or 9 inches long to the wood or bamboo
frame, at intervals of about 3 inches from one another.
This frame, with its pegs up, may be tied to two posts,
about 3 feet above the ground, so that a man can work
standing.

Now, first, the fibre at the bottom of a plant is to be
loosened and put on the frame for work. Each peg should
go between the separated portion of the fibre and the pith

45

CULTIVATION

•of a plant ; thus when all the pegs are ready, the worker
should take hold of the fibre by both the hands and drag
it out. It would be more advantageous if two men be
employed to work together with one frame. It would
undoubtedly be found a simpler process than any. Two
men would be able to strip about two maunds of dry fibre
in a day.

The separated fibre should always be washed in clean
water if available. It would be much better if ranning
water is available for washing, as in that case the separated
dirt is removed by the current, without affecting the next
bundle of fibre.

The washing is generally done by taking a handful of
fibre which is pulled right and left in the water and some-
times dashed against it. After washing, the fibre is dried
in the sun over a bamboo frame for two or three days and
then tied into bundles for market.

The best sort of jute is obtained when it is steeped in
deep, clean and stagnant water, properly retted, and washed
in clean running water ; provided the plants are well grown
on high lands not liable to be submerged by floods before
cutting.

CHAPTER IX

OUTTURN

HE official estimate of the average normal
outturn of jute per acre is i6 maunds. On
well cultivated and manured land, an out-
turn of even 30 maunds per acre may be
expected — 24 maunds per acre are com-
monly obtained.

The bye-product of the jute-plant is the stalk which
is obtained after the fibre is removed from it. It is called
pankn.ti in Ik^ngal. Enormous quantity of this stuff is
wasted — partially it is used as a fuel or as a fencing
material by the poorer classes. A very small quantit}' of
it is also utilised in the manufacture of fire-works. An
outturn of about 50 maunds of this b}-e-product ma}' be
expected from an acre of land.

CHAPTER X

SEED

ERY little attention is paid by the raiyats
to the selection and preservation of jute
seed. A raiyat ordinarily preserves neglected
plants on the border of a field for the purpose
of obtaining seed from them. This is a pity.
Vigorous individual plants, which are not branchy, should
be set aside for the purpose. They never select the seeds
of different races separately. In the same field and under
the same name different races of jute are grown and the
seeds are similarly harvested together.

An acre of land may yield as much as 6 maunds of
seed. After harvesting, seed should be preserved in an
earthen jar {j'^la) mixed with some ashes, and carefully
covered with an earthen stopper, preventing the access of
insects to the seed. ThQjnla should be painted inside with
coal tar and dried beforehand. Before sowing, loo seeds
from a lot should be tested between two pieces of wet
blotting paper. Good seeds will germinate in a couple of
days. The seed may be considered good, if the seeds
germinate at the rate not less than 90 per cent. Considering
the present value of jute, it would be suicidal to neglect
the quality of the seed. The cultivators of East Bengal,
where land is inundated, should always indent good seed
from elsewhere. On the other hand, the quality of the
fibre may deteriorate if the same seed is sown on the same
iand for a number of years. Interchange of seeds is
therefore recommended.

The jute seed is rich in oil. In a crude way of
extracting oil, five seers of seed yield one seer of oil. The
oil is said to be a specific in skin diseases. In the Hill
Tipperah State oil is obtained in the following mode. The

48

SEED

seed is at first pounded and then moistened with water.
This paste is put into a vessel with perforated bottom.
Another vessel is placed beneath it to collect the oil
dropped down. A third vessel or earthen pot with ignited
charcoal within is kept over the first vessel containing
the paste. The heat is continued until the oil is fully
extracted.

49 I>

CHAPTER XI

COST OF CULTIVATION AND PROFIT

jHE cost of cultivation and preparation of the
fibre of jute varies with the conditions of
the locaHties in which it is grown. In North
Bihar and Orissa, labour is available at the
rate not exceeding 4 annas per diem, while
in Bengal the rate of the labour, during the jute season,
varies from 8 to 12 annas per diem. The following table
will show, in detail, the necessary costs required for culti-
vating an acre of land, in an East Bengal district, where
labour is dear. Extra cost would be necessary if the fibre
is to be tied in drums intended for despatch to Calcutta.
8 ploughings (i ploughing requires 3 ploughs

@ Re. 1 a plough; ...
5 seers (10 lbs.) of seed @ 8 annas a seer
2 rakings with hida

First weeding — 24 men — at 8 annas per head
Second weeding— 12 men „ „ „

I thinning— 6 men „ „ „

Cutting and steeping — 24 men „
Stripping at the rate of Re. 1-8 per maund

(16 maunds)
Collecting fibre and tying— 2 men
Rent

Total Rs. ... 92 8

against Rs. 58 estimated in 1908.

Additional costs for manuring: —

(i) 100 maunds of coAvdung @ i anna per Rs. A.

maund ... ... ... ... 64

Application of manure requiring 4 men ... 2 o

Total Rs. ... 84
against Rs. 6-4-0 estimated in 1908.

50

Rs.

A.

24

0

T

8

2

0

12

0

6

0

3

0

12

0

• 24

0

I

0

. 6

0

COST OK CULTIVATION AND PROFIT

(ii) When required quantitx- of covvdung is not
available : —

Coudung 50 maunds ...

Application of manure

Castor cake 3 maunds @ Rs. 4 per maund

Crushing castor cake ...

Total Rs. ... 17 2
against Rs. 9-14-0 as noted in the former edition.

(iii) When cowdung is not available : —

Rs. A.
6 maunds of castor-oil-cake (a) Rs. 4 per

maund ... ... ... ... 24 o

Cost for crushing castor cake ... ... 20

Rs.

A.

3

2

I

0

12

0

I

0

Total Rs. ... 26 o

against Rs. 13-8-0 as stated in 1908.

The cost of cultivation in Bengal would amount to
about Rs. 92, that is, at the rate of about Rs. 5-12-0 per
maund of fibre produced, against Rs. 3-10-0 estimated in
1908. An additional expenditure of between Rs. 8 and
Rs. 26 is required, if the land is manured. If the yield
be taken at 16 maunds per acre, when the land is not
manured, the value of the outturn may be estimated at
Rs. 128 at the rate of Rs. 8 per maund, leaving a net
profit of about Rs. t,6 per acre, against Rs. 72 in 1908.
It may however be noted that the raiyats spend little for
the cultivation, as it is generally carried out by a system
of co-operation called /wd/a in East Bengal and gathia in
North Bengal. A group of cultivators work together in
their fields by turns, for which they provide their comrades
on the working days with a breakfast on the fields in
the morning and a dinner at about 3 P.M. after a day's

51

CULTIVATION

work comes to an end. It is a gross misrepresentation to
say that the value of thrift is not known to our cultivators.

As jute responds readily to manuring, it is always
advisable to incur an extra expenditure for this purpose.
It may be expected that manuring would increase the
outturn at least by 6 maunds per acre, adding Rs. 48 to
the gross value, at the cost of, say, Rs. 17 in the case of
cowdung being supplemented by castor cake, when the
required quantity of the former is not available.

52

JUTE IN BENGAL

PART III— RESEARCH WORK
CHAPTER 1

DETERIORATION OF JUTE

URING the year 1898, an attempt was made
by me to classify the races of jute grown in
Bengal. Accordingly when I was on tour in
Backergunj, fibres and botanical specimens of
different races of jute were collected. These
specimens, and my descriptions of the races, were forwarded
to the Reporter on Economic Products to the Govern-
ment of India, for his examination. The Reporter, in
repl\f, expressed his satisfaction on the work done, and
desired that similar surve}' work might be carried on in
all other districts. Thereupon I was deputed specially on
the surve\' work during 1899 and 1900, in Faridpur, Pabna,
Mymensingh, Dacca, Tippera, Rangpur and Jalpaiguri, the
most important jute districts in Bengal. Along with the
botanical work, an enquiry was also made with regard to
the alleged commercial deterioration in" the qualities of
>jute of different places.

The best fibre is obtained on loam\^ soil. Plants of
clayey soil do not ret uniformly-. Sandy soils produce
coarse fibres.

Finer equality of jute is always produced on the high
lands above the inundation level. The plants grown on
low lands {i. e., swamps) give forth adventitious roots freely,
producing defective fibre. We can remedy it, however, to
some extent, by introducing a variety which is called
Ktikya Bonjhai in Serajgunj. It does not produce much

SI

RESEARCH WORK

adventitious roots. It is said by the raiyats of Serajgunj
that this special quaHty of this variety ma)' most likely be
lost if the seed be not changed at regular intervals {i.e., two
or three years). In fact, the Serajgunj cultivators get fresh
supplies of this seed from Goalpara, Assam. There are
many seed-dealers who indent the seed from Assam and
sell it at Serajgunj, under the specific name of Bonibai or
Kakxa Bombai.*

Corchortis cnpsularis is not sown thin. The plants
should be 4 to 6 inches apart from one another. This
species has a natural tendency to produce more bran-
ches than the Corchorus olitorius. Irregular branching
shortens the length of fibre. Moreover, it is more difficult
to extract fibre from the branchy plants. Corchorus oli-
torius is sown thin, that is, a space of 9 inches is allowed
around each plant. Corchorus olitorius does not produce
much branches. It is asserted that this variety becomes
also branchy by long cultivation in the same field. There
are some varieties, such as Kiikxa Bomboi, Baran, &€., in
Corchorus cnpsulmis, too, which do not produce mucli
branches. Corchorus olitorius does not grow in swamps.

The fibre of Corchorus olitorius is coarse, and therefore
it is always sold cheaper than the fibre of Corchorus
capsularis. The raiyats of Eastern Bengal, therefore, do
not like to cultivate Corchorus olitorius. The fibre of
Corchorus olitorius is liked only by the Kapalies, the sack-
weavers of Bengal. It has a peculiar yellowish colour.
It is never as white, glossy, and fine as that of C<rchorus
capsulat is.

It is said that the late varieties, which flower
very late (some flower in September), give finer and
stronger fibre than the early varieties, which flower
generall}' early in July. Raiyats are not however unani-
mous on this point. With the late varieties the raiyat.s

*For botanical descriptitjn, 7'7</,f Chapter \' of Piii-i I IF -Races of Jute ''n Pabna,

54

DKTKRIOKATION OF JVTVl

get however .siifficienl time for liarvesting. In order
to suppress the flowering" period of the j^lants, it was
suggested by the Imperial Institute authorities to nip off
the flower-buds of the plants. It is not practicable, and at
the same time not necessar\- for the late varieties, if late-
ness has at all any influence on quality.

The time for the cutting of the plants for the pro-
duction of fine and glossy fibre is considered by the
raiyats to be when the plants will shortly run to flower,*'
and it has been proved to be quite truef b\' the Imperial
Institute authorities both by chemical and practical
examinations. In fact, the rai}'ats of Fabna and Mymen-
singh begin cutting, sometimes, about a month before the
plants would run to flower, /'. e., after the plants have grown
at least for a period of three months. But generally raiyats.
like to wait some time longer, in order to get heavier yield
of fibre. The later it is cut, the heavier outturn is believed
to be obtained by the raiyats. But Mr. T. N. Mukerjee's
experimentf at Rahuta shows that the heaviest yield is
obtainable from the plants cut just after budding. Mr.
Mukerjee's results do not corroborate those of ours. The
Ledger referred to does not show which variet}' was
experimented with by Mr. Mukerjee. However, the raiyats
of Eastern Bengal finish cutting before the fruits are ripe,,
in order to get the best result.

The influence of steeping water on the colour of the
fibre is great. Clear stagnant water is the best for this
purpose. Retting does not proceed uniforml\' in running
water. Muddy water imparts black colour to the fibre.

It is considered that the blackish colour of jute in
some parts of the jute growing districts is due to iron
contained in steeping water. With a view to ascertain the
quantity of iron, if any, in the steeping water of the

■' This jute is called yi// /a/.

1 yiiie Aijricukural Ledger No. 37 of 1896.

55

RESEARCH WORK

Burdwan Farm, samples of water were forwarded in 1902
to Dr. J. \V. Leather, Ph.D., Agricultural Chemist to the
Government of India, for anal}'sis.

After making examination of the samples of water.
Dr. Leather made the following observations : —

" I have determined very carefull}' the quantit)"^ of iron
[jresent in the waters which have been received from
Burdwan, and, as the statement .shows, some of the
samples contain a small quantity of dissolved ferric oxide.
None of them contained any ferrous oxide. -^ The amount
of iron present is \er\' small, "i pt. per 100,000 is equiva-
lent to 'O/ grain per gallon. Whether such small quaiitit\'
can afifedt the colour of the fibre is a question which I
cannot answer.

" I have left out of consideration all iron which may
be present in the silt of such waters. All such silt natur-
ally contains iron, but in an insoluble state. It is true
that in the process of steeping some part of this might
conceivably become dissolved and then affect the fibre ;
but when one bears in mind that most, if not all, of the
water used throughout Bengal for this purpose contains
silt, it is high!)' improbable that the iron of such silt affects
the fibre.

" Other constituents of the waters have not been
detei'mined. There seems to be no evidence that the salts,
which are natural to .such waters, can affect the fibre.
There is no chemical reason for such an assumption that
I am aware of, and, secondl\-, if the steeping water were
affecting the fibre, there should be evidence that damage
•occurs in specific localities. I see no mention of this in
the papers which have been forwarded to my office."

Dr. Leather is of e)pinion thafa ver\' small quantity
of iron (ferric oxide), 'O/ grain per gallon as present in the
water of the Burdwan Farm, can hardly affect the colour of

56

DETKRIORATION OF jUTl-;

jute. But from our personal experience of the discoloured
fibre of North Bengal and other places where jute is
steeped in mudd)' water, we can say that the quantity of
iron, although ver}- small, has something to do to discolour
the fibre of jute. The jute areas in Bengal are principally
inundated annuall}- by the rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra.
The water of the Ganges is muddy, while that of
the Brahmaputra is clear. The fact is that the jute of the
Ganges area flooded over by muddy water is more or less
dark, while that of the Brahmaputra area flooded over by
clear water is white.

The chief cause of deterioration in length of the jute
fibre is due to the continued cultivation of the crop, year
after year, on the same field. It has been observed that
the best quality of the fibre is obtained from the fields
which are newly broken up, or the fields on which jute is
rotated with some other crops. But ,the raiyats cannot
generally wait.

Where it is con\enient and available, cowdung is used
as a manure for jute. But in many cases there
are no means' to carry off the bulky manure to distant
fields. The quantity of the dung when supplied is
generally too small for the purpose, for the stock of
cattle of a raiyat is but limited. It is well known to
the rai}-ats that even the seed of the best variety sown
on poor soils produces short staple. On the poor soils
the plants flower much earlier, to 'the detriment in the
length of fibre. Farm-yard manure will not be available
in sufficient quantit}', and in many cases, as already re-
ported, it is not practicable to use it. Some chemical
manures are therefore necessary. Saltpetre* (nitrate
of potash) and oil-cakes ma}' prove most useful. Experi-

* Unfortunately the results of the experiments with jute at the
Burdwan Farm show that saltpetre, super or bonemeal are not suitable
manures for jute. Next to cowdung castor-oil-cake has been proved to
be the best.

57

RESEARCH WORK

ments in each typical locality are necessary to ascertain
the suitable manures and their quantities to be applied
most economically.

The chief cause of the deterioration of the fibre as
regards its strength and colour, is due to dishonesty
of the f arias (petty dealers), who purchase the fibre at
higher prices and sell it at lower rates. They sprinkle
water into the fibre in order to get its weight "heavier. In
extreme cases the fibre is altogether destroyed, and a great
loss is sustained by merchants. I have found some jute
containing over 30 per cent, of moisture.* This .sort of
unfair dealings must be stopped, and it lies principally in
the hands of the merchants themselves. They may offer
a higher price for a good dry fibre, and reject that which is
wet.

To sum up my suggestions for the improvement in the
quality of jute : —

(i) Rotation.

(2) Judicious manuring.

(3) Interchange of seeds.

(4) Cultivation of .selected varieties or races of jute.

(5) Fairness in the trade.

* This I mean above the normal moisture, about lo per cent., contained
by the fibre in the atmosphere of the seasi^n which is, of course, very wet.

58

CHAPTER 11

JUTl-: I'lXPl^RIMlCNTS IN BENGAL

1902 TO 1905

HI'! author was in charge of the jute experi-
ments at the Burdwan Farm and other places
Jalpai<4uri, Rangpur and Faridpur) in Bengal
conducted from 1902 to 1905. The objects
of the experiments were to isolate or select
true t}pes of the so-called varieties of jute cultivated in
Bengal ; secondly, to find out the races most suitable for
particular areas ; and thirdly, to test the effects of different
manures on jute.

In 1901 and 1902 the seeds of jute were collected from
the districts by the officers of the Agricultural Department
for experimental cultivation at different centres. The
seeds were hopelessly mixed with different races, as the
raiyats would grow races of jute together provided they
matured approximately at the same time. During the first
two years of the experiments at the Burdwan Farm it was
with great difficulty the individual races were isolated,
and the same names were given to the races as were
adopted by the author when he collected specimens for
Dr. Watt during 189810 1900. Among the isolated races
there was also the Knkya Bomhai jute which was hardly
known to the public, but it is now recognised to be the
best of all the races of C. cnpsnlaris This race was dis-
covered by the author in 1899 '" '^ village in the Serajgunj
Sub-division in Pabna. It was not a pure race, as a pure
race of jute is never cultivated by the cultivators. The
author selected a race out of the mixed races of the
Kakva Bombai plants cultivated in a field which appeared
to him to be the most prominent and sent botanical
specimens, under the popular name of the locality from
which it was collected, to the Reporter on Kconomic

.S9

RESEARCH WORK

Products to the Government of India. All the subsequent

research work on the races of jute was based on the

selection of races of jute made by the author on the
Burdwan Experimental Station.

The eminent authorities on Botany, Mr. I. H. Burkill,
M.A., Reporter on Economic Products to the Government
of India,- and Dr. D. Prain, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.,
Superintendent of the Botanic Garden, Sibpur, were
pleased to visit the experiments at the Burdwan Farm on
several occasions. Their notes and remarks about the
experiments are reproduced below, which will be of
interest to the readers.

Mr. Burkill on Jute Experiments at Burdwan

Section I — Corchorus capsulnris. — I wa^ quite con-
vinced in my mind after my visit to the Burdwan Ex-
perimental Farm in x^ugust 1902, and subsequent study of
the specimens preserved in my office, that Corchorus
cafisuUiris breaks up into no botanical varieties, but that it
has many races, perhaps more or less conspicuously wanting
in permanency. The very multiplicit}' of vernacular
names for different forms rather indicates this, and the jute
merchants have never done more in the direction of
distinguishing kinds than use place-names.

Last }'ear at Burdwan I noticed how freely insects
(particularl}' the wild bees (jf the genus Apis) visit the
flowers and fly from plant to plant. This year I confirm-
ed the observation ; and I find that from about 7-30 A. M.,
when jute flowers open, until late in the day, when they
wither, they are constantly visited by a variety of bees.
The flowers last but the one day.

Cross and self-pollination are both effected by the
visitors. It would be so contrar}' to the law of nature for
a plant to be insusceptible of cross-fertilisation that I have
not tried to prove that cross-fertilisation occurs. I did, on

JUTE EXPERIMENTS IN BENGAL

the other hand, experiment with regard to self-fertiHsation
by wrapping up buds in fine Hnen, and though I only
obtained eight fully-ripened capsules out of the 31 flowers
which were wrapped up, the possibility of self-fertilisation
was proved ; I prefer to think that, to the rain, which
soaked the wrappings almost as soon as I had put them
on, was due the failure to set seed of the other flowers and
not to self-sterility. ,

The reverse would, however, strengthen the argument
which follows. The bees going from flower to flower are
consequently doing much to frustrate the endeavours of
those who have charge of the Experimental Farm to keep
their races pure ; thus, for instance, the race Barapat has
twice been grown between plots of the races Bnrnn and
Kakvn Boinbai and is exposed to the possibility of
fertilisation from both as well as from more remote plots.

The abundant opportunities for cross-fertilisation, which
occur where the different kinds are grown close together,
accounts for the variation which was seen before the plots
were thinned in the second experimental sowing made in
1903 at Burdwan. The opportunity which thinning
afforded was used by Babu N. C. Chaudhuri, who has
been in charge of the experiments, to get rid of plants not
true to type, and to that only is due the nearly general
uniformity of each plot.

As he has undoubtedly set his ideals nearer to him
than the cultivator does, his plots are more uniform than
the crops will be found to be in the country.

There are hardly any naked-eye features that one can
seize on whereby to distinguish the races of jute except
the colour of the stems and leaf-stalks, the time of
flowering, and the height that the plant attains. The
only one of these characters serviceable at thinning time
is the first ; and on it as a test the weeding of the crops' at
Burdwan has been done. Consequently it follows that the

61

RESEARCH WORK

race Barafat grown between a race with red petioles and
another, having, like it, green petioles but beginning to
flower a little later, will have weeded out from it the
mongrels showing a strain of the red-petioled Kakya
Bombai, but not those which are the offspring of it and
Baran.

It is to be expected, therefore, that if on the closely-
approximated experimental plots at Burdwan such an
experiment as the present one be prolonged for several
years, the individuality of the races will be gradually
reduced. There will, however, be a tendency to break
them up into two classes, viz., red-stemmed and green-
stemmed, according to the selection practised in thin-
ning the plots.

Do the raiyats actually use the colours red and green
in any way to weed out undesirable plants ? I note that
the Rangpur races are particularly red-stemmed and
that the Faridpur races all have red petioles on green
stems.

In the country, plots are larger and less approximated ;
the liability to the production of mongrels is therefore
much diminished. It will be at once asked how the races
come to be retained. I believe chiefly because each
district grows early, mid, and late flowering races, and it
seems to me that such an idea should form a good working
hypothesis upon which to gather information. A common
period is, however, not kept by the races in different
districts, but the tendency is evidently for the plant in the
northern districts to become quicker-growing than in the
southern districts. Facts are wanting which might show-
any connection between the general lateness of the local
races of jutes and the degree of submersion to which the
district is liable. The Burdwan experiments have shown
that the Jalpaiguri and Jamalpur races are particularly
early-flowering.

62

jl TK KXPKRINFKXTS TN RF.NGAT,

The experiment suggested by this observation is that
the behaviour and \alue of the best Jalpaiguri races should
be tested in the neighbourhood of Serajgunj, or in Tippera,
Faridpur, and Dacca, which are districts sending the latest
kinds to Burdwan ; and the reverse should also be tried.
It may perhaps be found that imported seed is an
acquisition in one or the other place.

I observed at Burdwan that two plots of plants produced
flowers paler than usual. These two were " Toslia red " *
from Serajgunj (why named red, I do not understand) and
Fulleswari from Tippera. The only difference between
the two, as far as I have observed, is that Fulleswari was
found to be a little later a little shorter at the dates of my
visits. The Burdwan Farm received another kind of jute
from Tippera named Dewdholi. Dewdholi and Fulleswari
were the only two Tippera jutes. My notes tell me that
Dewdholi had exactly the same relation to Kak\a Bombai
from Serajgunj that Tosha red had to Fulleswari.

It is by no means improbable that seed of Kakya
Bombai and Tosha red from Serajgunj and sown in
Tippera would in a few generations become Dewdholi and
Fulleswari ; brought back again, in a i^w more
generations they would return to Kakya Bombai and
Tosha. The Burdwan Farm received under the name of
Parbatea seed from two sources, viz., Jamalpur and Dacca.
The Jamalpur plot flowered a little earlier than the Dacca
plot ; in other respects they were the same.

If I am right in thinking that the locality does, in
a few generations, tend to delay or hasten the growth
as suggested above, then this influence will act together
with the cross-fertilisation in levelling the Burdwan
crops, if they should be grown through a fairly long
series of years.

* It must have been a mistake on the part of the collector of the seeds
of Serajgunj. Tosha is an olitorius jute. — Author.

63

RESEARCH WORK.

I unhesitatingly state that —

" Tosha red" (Serajgunj) = /^i^//^^z£'^r/ (Tippera) made

a httle later.
Kakra Bombai (Serajgunj) = Z>^7ffl'/^(?// (Tippera) made

a little later.
P'irbatea (Jamalpur) = /^^r/^a/^i'Z (Dacca) made

a little later.
Barapat (Jagannathganj) = ^P^'ra/-^/ (Serajgunj),

I suspect that without difficulty other cases could be
established ; but to do so would mean an intimate study
of the plant in the field. Information in this direction
could be collected by the travelling Overseer of the
Department of Land Records and Agriculture, Bengal.

The Jute valuation made last year by Messrs, Millar,
Duffus, and Dott of the samples from the small experi-
mental plots told us only one thing really, viz., that of
all the races grown together none was distinctly better
or worse than the average of the lot ; while of
the plots grown elsewhere on the farm, the jute fibre
from many was better than from the selected races. This
year instead of 1 1 small experimental plots there have
been 36. I am very anxious to know if there is to be the
same uniformity in the value of the produce that
there was last year. What will be most instructive
perhaps from out of the whole series will be the value of
the produce of plot No. 16 " Farm seed."

Much depends upon that, and I could wish that a
plot of " Farm seed " had been sown, say, between every
five of the long series, the ground given to which seemed
to me to be poorer at one end (towards No. 45) than
at the other end.

Section 2 — Corchorus olitorius. — I tried the same
experiments with Corchorus olitorius as with Corchorus
capsularis and obtained the same result. I had 28 cap-
sules wrapped in linen and obtained 9 pods. The seeds

64

JUTE EXPERIMENTS IN BENCAL

from these pods sown on a damp tile in my office are
now germinating very freely. The flowers of C. olitorius
are larger than those of C. capsularis and are visited by
the same insects. Their duration is one day, and pollen
is shed around an apparently mature stigma at the
moment of the opening of the flower. There is, therefore,
the same chance of cross and self-fertilisation in this
species as in the other. However, the races are much
fewer. I classify them —

No. I, early green-stemmed, called Satnnla in the

Faridpur district and Bangi in Dacca ;
No. 2, late green-stemmed, which came as Nnilta
from Jagannathganj, Deswal white from Seraj-
gunj and Paknallm from Jamalpur ;
No. 3, very late green-stemmed, which came as

Dewnallya from Dacca ;
No. 4, late red-stemmed, received as Tosha from
Serajgunj and as Desz lalpat irova Hoogly;
also probably here is to be added Halbelati
from Tippera.

It is remarkable with regard to the valuation of fibre
made last year by Messrs. Millar, ■ Duffus and Dott that
they remark of both Tosha and Desi lalpat that they had
stood too long in the field — a remark that they do not
make of the early Satnala and Bangi. They also remark
of both the latter that they had soft ends — remarks which
confirm my classification by appearance of the plant.

Altogether the problem of improving the races of
C. olitorius is infinitely less complex than that of
C. capsularis.

Dr. D. Prain on Jute Experiments at Burdwan

After visiting the Burdwan Farm and carefully
examining the sample experimental plots, I am of opinion
that the experiment has been carefully thought out

65 E

RESEARCH WORK

and is being carefully conducted. It is too soon to say
yet this season what the full deductions from the experi-
ments are to be. My visit, which was paid at the request
of Mr. Maddox and not primarily in connection with the
present reference from the Government of India, was
paid in company with Mr. Burkill, who was, I under-
stand, independently under an obligation to pay a visit
to the experimental farm. I hope to pay another visit,
and further hope' that I may be able to pay it along
with Mr. Burkill.

As regards the experiments themselves, I have but
one minor criticism to offer. A point to bring out
clearly is the extent to which the plants in these plots
are subject to cross-fertilisation owing to their being
grown in proximity, and consequently to what extent
the plots of a second year show, as compared with those
of the year before, an increased proportion of plants
of mixed type. I should expect this to be considerable.
On examining the actual second-season plots at Burdwan,
it struck me as wonderfully small. I was, however,
informed that when the plants were small and the various
plots were being weeded, plants of obviously mixed type
were, as far as possible, eliminated. So far as one phase
of the experiment is concerned, I realize that this was
essential. But I should have liked to see, and had I been
consulted earlier, would have recommended, that a small
section, say a piece as long as each plot is wide, be left
rigorously alone — weeded to be sure, but with all jute
plants of whatever type it might contain, left to grow.
The plants would probably have been too thick to serve
any other useful purpose, but they would have served to
indicate the extent to which the crossing of races takes
place. So far I can find no sign that there are any varieties
either in Corchorus capsularis or Corchorus olitorius, though
there is apparently a considerable tendency to racial modi-
fication, especially in the former species.

66 ,

JUTE EXPERIMENTS IN BENtiAL

As to the general question of deterioration, it is not
clear that this occurs. It is asserted : there is no attempt
at proof. I have a vivid recollection of Experimental
Jute-growing on the Sibpur Government Farm some ten
years ago, and the similarity between the plants seen by
me at Burdwan this year and at Sibpur then is most
striking. If there be anything in the complaint, the
whole tendency of the statements before us is to shovv-
that the deterioration lies in more careless retting, not
in a demoralised plant. If so, the remedy should be
with the trade.

The report submitted by the fibre experts is the most
disconcerting document of the whole series to my mind.
It has been evidently drawn up with the greatest care,
yet it proves nothing and affords little real assistance to
Government. There are several possible explanations of
the results of this report, none of them entirely satis-
factory to my mind. It seems unnecessary at this
stage to discuss them exhaustively. I will, however,
indicate the two that appear to me to be most plausible,
yet these two being more or less alternatives, do not
help us much — (i; It may be safely assumed that the
whole of the plots were last year grown, harvested,
and retted with equal care. It is certain that the plants
in all the plots grew under quite comparable condi-
tions. Yet the results, which may be termed good
as regards Deswal jute raised from farm seed, were
indifferent to fair only with the most of the other
kinds. The suggestion, then, is that seed of a strain
natural to, or naturalized in, a particular district gives
better results in that distrk:t than any freshly imported
seed. If this Ije the case, the experiments at Burdwan,
however prolonged, will not lead to the results that
Government and the jute industry wish to obtain. They
will have to be repeated in every likelv jute-producing
tract.

67

RESEARCH WORK

(2) It may, however, be supposed that the jutes from
other districts grown at Burdwan were really quite as good
as these same strains are capable of being in their own •
districts. It may even be anticipated that in some cases
the change of venue really benefited them. If this is the
case, it is not impossible that those in charge of the retting
and extraction of fibre at Burdwan being most familiar
with the jute that had become so to speak naturalized
at the Burdwan farm, get better results from it than was
possible from idenficnl treatment of the other strains of
jute. If this possibility could be proved, the remedy would
be to get men from the districts where these particular
jutes are naturally grown to go to Burdwan and treat, as
they annually treat them, the jutes they are accustomed to.
This particular method of overcoming a difficulty is known
to and practised on a large scale in certain places by the
native raiyats themselves. The following instance, which
is a familiar one, illustrates the point. In the beginning
of the nineteenth century hemp was grown in the Jessore
district for the purpose of producing ?w/«a';r^;?/a for the
Calcutta market. In North Bengal, hemp was only grown
for the, purpose of producing y?*?/ ^avjti. When the Board
of Revenue, Lower Provinces, concentrated the cultivation
of hemp for the purpose of producing inanja in the present
^anja mahals round Nowgong and in the adjacent parts of
Rajshahi, Dinajpur, and Bogra, obviously round ganja for
the Calcutta market could only be manufactured in the
restricted area. But the people about Nowgong did not
know how to make round ^unja for the Calcutta market :
they therefore introduced at the harvesting season Jessore
coolies to make it for them. Now though three-quarters
of a century have elapsed since any hemp was grown for
s:anja making in Jessore, the Nowgong people to this day
import Jessore coolies to make their round s;anja for the
Calcutta market, making \\v^ flat themselves as they have
always done.

68

jutf: exj'ekiments in hencjal

What the rai}-ats of a particular area can do every year
for the special purpose, it is possible that Government
might do for one or two years for a parallel purpose — the
preparation of a fibre such as is known to suit the Calcutta
jute-buyer.

The Results of the Experiments.

The objects of the experiments at the Burdwan Farm
were to answer the following questions : —

I. Whether the qualities of the fibres of different

races differ.

II. At what stage of growth of plants, a crop should

be harvested to give the best fibre and heavi-
est outturn.

III. Whether a well grown crop resulting from

suitable manuring would give a better fibre
than an inferior crop.

IV. To what extent the quality and outturn of fibre

are affected by different degrees of spacing.

V. Whether the retting process can be improved

under conditions as ordinarily prevail.

I. — The results of the experiments proved that the
qualities of the fibres of different races depend chiefly on
the soils and other conditions under which they are grown.
The fibres of the same race of jute grown on different
fields of the same farm were valued at different prices,
while values of the known inferior races of jute were
similar to those of the known superior races when culti-
vated at the same place. The same race of jute yields
different qualities of fibres when grown on low lands
against high lands, taking that the retting and washing is

69

RESEARCH WORK

done rightly in the same water. Jute is a very quick
growing plant. If the plants of a race of different plots
at the same place are not weeded and thinned out timely,
there would be differences in the fibres.

The following table gives the results of valuation made
during 1903 and 1904 by some jute merchants* of reputa-
tion nominated by the Bengal Chamber of Commerce.
The plots at the Burdwan Farm were sown with the same
seed at the same time but harvested on different dates at
the same stage of maturity of the plants, that is, as the
pods set after flowering. The crops of different plots
appear to be quite different both in yield and value.

Plot No.

Date of
sowing.

Date of
harvesting.

Outturn of

fibre
per acre.

Price per
maund.

lbs.

Rs. As.

10

May 18

September 12

1,845

8 12

i^

,,

3

1,665

8 3

20

,,

»> 3

1,815

s 12

30

,,

Augu.st 18

1.230

8 10

40

,,

29

1.500

8 I

47

"

September 27

1,680

8 0

The above plots were manured with 5 tons of cowdung
per acre.

At Faridpur; on the other hand, all the plots of the
same race were sown and harvested at the same time.
No fertilisers were applied to the plots during the year
under reference, though they were manured with bonemeal
similarly during the preceding year. The table below

* Messrs. D. L. Millar, J. C. Duffus and A. S. Dott.

70

JUTE EXPERIMENTS IN BENGAL

shows that there were much differences in the yields of
the different plots : —

Outturn of fibre per acre.

Plot No. 3 ... ... ... 2,610 lbs.

12 ... ... ... 2,520 ,,

26 .... ... ... 2,025 >'

30 ... ... .. 1,755 ..

34 — ... — 1,665 „

38 ... ... ... 1,710 ,,

Both at Burdwan and Faridpur the weeding and
thinning operations were in some cases delayed owing
to rainfalls.

The following valuation statement of the fibres of the
supposed superior and inferior races of jute cultivated at
the Burdwan Farm under the same conditions, proves that
there are commercially little differences in the different
races of jute grown in different parts of these Provinces.
The qualities of the fibres differ owing to their cultivation
in different localities, in different soils and lands and
produced under different conditions.

Name of the race.

Commercial Name.

Value per

maund

Rs.

As.

I.

Udhap pat

Dowrah, quality of
commerce, Inferior.

8

2

2.

Dhal Sundar

Naraingunj, Superior
quality in commerce.

7

12

3-

Baran

Serajgunj, commer-
cially Superior.

8

2

4-

Ausa

Northern, quality
Inferior to No. 2.

8

5

In spite of the facts recorded above we are not pre-
pared to minimise the superiority in some respects of

71

RESEARCH WORK

some races such as Kakya Bombai, Hewti, Barapat, Baran,
Amania, Kaj'la, Kaniarjani, etc., of the species C. capsularts,
and Dewnallvo, Nailta, Halbelati, Tosha, Desi, etc., of
C. olitorius. The races mentioned above have been found
to be heavy yielders {vide Chapters on the Races of Jute).
There are some other races which are specially suitable
for particular lands. As for example the Sutpat of Farid-
pur can admirably thrive on the lands under deep water
where other races would be considered useless. Kak\a
Bombai jute is good on the high lands as well as on the
lower lands.

II. — The time of cutting was divided into four
periods, viz. : —

1st Stage. — Plants were cut when in flowers.

2nd Stage. — Cutting when fruits set in. ,

3rd Stage. — Cutting when fruits fully developed.

4th Stage. — Cutting when the fruits were dead ripe.

The results of the experiments at the Burdwan Farm;
are noted below : —

1st Stage

1,312 lbs.

of fibre per acre.

2nd „

... ■ 1,375 lbs.

11 )>

3rd „

... 1,671 lbs.

j> »

4th „

1,694 lbs.

)> »

The value of the fibre harvested at he fourth stage
was less than that offered for the fibres harvested earlier.
It was also more difficult to extract fibre of the plants
harvested at the fourth .stage. Considering all points, the
experiments proved conclusively that the best time for
harvesting of jute is the third stage, that is, the cutting
when the fruits fully develop, but not yet matured.

72

JUTE EXPERIMENTS IN BENGAL

There is an interval of about lo days between succeeding
stages.

III. — It will be .seen that the best grown plants give
the best quality of fibre irrespective of differences in
characters of different races. Of course it is due to length
only. The outturn and price go hand in hand. The
following table gives the results of the plots manured with
different manures applied in quantity on analysis to supply
30 lbs. of nitrogen per acre: —

V

Cost

PER ACRE.

3
0

15

'V

a

1;
c-

c

3

0

> •

0

0
;-<
(J
a

<u

a.

0

3

Manure applied per
acre.

c

£

0

For cultiva-
tion

0

c8

Si

Md.s.

lbs.

Rs.

R.s.

Ks

Rs.

Rs.

Ks. A.

Cowdung... 75

1,985

4

78

82

214

132

8 ID

Castor-cake 7

i>635

15

74

89

171

82

8 6

Bonemeal 10^

1,085

. 21

74

95

113

17

S 5

Ditto ... s>4\
Saltpetre ... 4^/

1,605

32

74

106

167

61

8 5

No manure

1,230

72

72

129

57

8 6

IV. — To what extent the quality and outturn of fibre
is affected by different degrees of spacing ? To this ques-
tion, although it is difificult to give any definite answer,
yet the Burdwan experiments proved that a spacing of
about 6", in case of C. capsvla^is, is most economical.
The crop was grown in four plots, and an attempt was
made to keep the plants 4', 6", 8' and 10" apart from.

73

RESEARCH WORK

each other in the four plots, respectively. The 8' and lo"
plots were particularly poor and the fibres were inferior.

Degree

of
spacing.

Outturn
of fibre
per acre.

Price per
maund.

Date of cutting.

Date of
washing.

4"

6"

8"

10"

lbs.
2,079

1,476

882

1,183

Rs. A.

9 4

8 8
7 14
7 14

September 15

Sept. 16 & 17

,, 19 & 20

,, 20 & 21

October 3

9

,, 12

13

Taking the first two plots only, which alone were
fairly corr^parable, an attempt was made in 1903 to
ascertain approximately the actual spacing in these two
plots, as also the number of plants and their green
weight at the time of harvesting. The following table
gives the result : —

Supposed
spacing.

Room allowed

per plant (i.e.,

average spacing).

Number of plants
per acre.

Outturn of fibre
per acre.

1903-

1904.

1903.

1904

1903.

1904.

Sq. in

Sq. in

lbs.

lbs.

4"

43

39

150,000

i6o,oot)

1,590

2,079

6"

65

63

100,000

92,000

1,050

1,476

It will be seen in both the years the real spacing was
more like 6" and 8" than 4" and 6", respectively.

74

JUTE EXPKKIMKNTS IN BENGAL

V — Jute is such a bulky and heavy crop that it is
difficult to carry the bundles of green plants any distance,
and the raiyats are obliged to use whatever water they find
handy. Calculating on the basis that the fibre is 4*5 to
5-5 per cent, of the green weight, we see that 15 maunds of
fibre per acre means a crop with a green weight of some-
thing like 300 to 350 maunds. The conditions at Burdwan
did not admit of retting the plants in running water.
The steeping process was similar to that of Eastern
Bengal. We did not approve of the local system of cover-
ing the heaps of jute plants under retting with sods of
earth which certainly discolours the fibre to a certain
extent. It is required to give weight to the heaps for
sinking. In Eastern Bengal several layers of bundles of
jute are placed one over another, which does not require
any artificial weight, while in Hoogly and its neighbour-
ing districts only two layers of bundles are heaped together,
as the water available for steeping is generally shallow.

The harvesting operation extended over three months
from early August to the end of October.

The temperature of heaps during the retting process
was taken ; 80° E. was the minimum, which gradually rose
to 95° F., the maximum. The temperature fell considerably
(70° minimum, 83° maximum) towards the end of October,
when the heaps took about ten days more for retting.
At the time of raining the temperature in all the bundles
was constant.

The steeping water of the farm was not favourable to get
a first class fibre, as is obtained in Mymensingh. The water
contained a negligible quantity of iron as shown by the
Agricultural Chemist, but other colouring matters from the
decomposition of vegetable substances were also present.

Time required for retting varied from 1 5 to 30 days-
The smaller heaps took generally a longer time in retting
than the larger ones, although steeped on the same day.

75

CHAPTER III

FRAUDULENT WATERING OF JUTE

RAUDULENT watering of jute is in practice
more or less in almost all the jute grow-
ing districts. This notorious practice is well
known to all buyers. It is done by the
unscrupulous dealers known by the name of
bepari or Jaria. The buyers have to depend on them for
the supply. The buyers can hardly check them, specially
when the market is on the rise. The dull market prevailing
during the last five years has had a considerably good effect
in checking this malpractice. Hence the qualities of jute
of the markets of the Madaripur, Serajgunj and other
districts which were notorious for fraudulent watering have
greatly improved. The common way of watering jute is
to spread out the loose jute purchased by the fa via s on the
banks of a river layer after layer and sprinkle water, and
sometimes along with sand, on each layer as it is spread
out. Then it is redrummed and taken to the markets for
sale. They always get a few drums of dry jute in front
for inspection of the intending buyers.

There is an interesting report on this subject written
by Mr. D. N. Mukerjee, M.A., M.R.A.C, formerly of the
Bengal Agricultural Department. The following is a
summing up of Mr. Mukerjee's report : —

(i) The fine particles of sand stick to the fibre so
long as it continues wet, but can be easily shaken off when
it gets dry. But the watering is a very much more serious
thing. If wet jute is baled or stacked for a few days, the
fibre loses its lustre and becomes discoloured and weak —
sometimes so weak and brittle that it may be reduced to a
fine powder by merely pressing it between the thumb and
the finger.

76

\

FRAUDULENT WATP:KING OF JU IK

(2) Some firms dry the jute before baling, but others
are perfectly reckless about what they bale. Large firms
have arrangements for the examination of every drum
that is purchased and for drying it properly if found wet
before baling it. The firms have to keep up quite an army
of assorters for this purpose, who are scattered all over
the mart, a length of over two miles. It would be very
convenient if the inahajans allowed the jute boats to come
to the ghat close to the European firms ; but though the
Bengali inahajans are agreeable, the Marwaris refuse to
give in. The consequence is that it becomes practically
impossible to properly supervise the work of the assorters.
They are men on a small pay, and are constantly passing
wet jute as dry on receiving a small bribe from the beparis.
Thus in spite of strenuous efforts, several of the most
respectable firms are powerless entirely to prevent the
baling of wet jute. But there are other firms that make
no bones of the superfluous moisture. They send the jute
over to their godowns in Calcutta, where it is sold to the
mills or to the shippers. The examination of the jute by
the buyers in Calcutta is not so thorough as at Serajgunj,
and various means are resorted to for avoiding the
detection of any excess of water.

(3) Between the raiyats at one end and the home
market at the other, there are the following middlemen :
beparis or dealers, niahojans or aratdars, buyers, balers,
and shippers. Sometimes the last three functions are
combined by the same firm that bale and ship off at
Calcutta what their agents buy in the country. But the
business at Serajgunj may be said to be practically in the
hands of the inahajans or brokers. They are well-to-do
people, being mostly Marwaris. They advance money to
the beparis or sellers, the condition being that the latter
must bring to the mahaj'ans all the jute they can get from
the raiyats. The money is not realised from season to
season, but is allowed to be in the hands of the beparis,

77

RESEARCH WORK

one bepari sometimes having an advance of Rs. 5,000 or
Rs. 10,000, and occasionally no less than Rs. 20,000.
When the jute is brought to the makajan, he settles the
price with the buyer secretly, the bepari having nothing
to do with it and often not knowing at all what his jute
sells for. He has only a general idea of the state of the
market from the price other beparis receive for their jute.
The mahajan gets a brokerage of 2 to 4 annas per maund,
but over and above this we may be sure he leaves a margin
between what he pays the bepari and what he himself gets
from the buyers. Plainly he is entitled to some discount
for the ready cash he pays in advance, but the rate might
be definitely settled, and the transaction might be above-
board. The price of jute is subject to violent fluctuations.
Probably there is no other article the price of which varies
so much in the course of a few days in the same season.
Both the buyers and the tnahajans have daily wires from
all the important jute marts telling them of the state of
the market, but the information is carefully kept to them-
selves. It might be an advantage to have some agency for
making it public. At some places there are no mahajans,
but the beparis deal directly with the buyers. The raiyats
also to some extent sell their own jute to the purchasing
firms without the intervention even of the beparis.

(4) Even what is generally held in the trade as dry
jute is not as dry as it might be. It is not " bone dry "
as it is called. If such jute is exposed to the sun, it
quickly loses 8 to 10 per cent, of its weight. This
amount (which of cour.se represents moisture) does not
affect the quality of the fibre in the bale or in the stack.
The mills also accept this amount of moisture (10
per cent, up to November and December and 8 per cent,
later), but any quantity above this is held as objectionable.
The mills now generally insert a clause in their contracts
to the effect that deductions will be made for moisture
in excess of the aforesaid quantities. It is not at all

78

FRAUDULENT WATERING OF JUTE

uncommon to deduct as much as 12 per cent, on the
weight delivered of Madaripur jute. Some of the mills
have their own agents who would not object to buy wet
jute, as it need not be baled or stacked, but used in the
mills as soon as it arrives.

(5) Mr. Mukerjee obtained some samples of well-
dried jute from different markets which were redried and
reweighed by him.

In each case 2 lbs. weight of the fibre was dried in the
sun for two days and then reweighed with the following
results : —

Name of sample. Original weight.

lbs. oz. dr.
(i) Fine Mymensingh 200

(2) Fine Bilasipara

(Assam) ... 2 o o

(3) Chandpur ... 2 o o

Average

Weight after two

days' drying in

the sun.

Percentage of

loss (moisture

on drying).

9'io

9-57
8-98

9-45

(6) Similarly some samples of wet jute were received
from two beparis of Serajgunj. Like the samples of dry
jute, these were also exposed to the sun for two days and
then reweighed with the following results : —

lbs.
I

I
I

oz.
12

12
13

dr.

7

7%
I

(I)

(2)

(3)
(4)

Weight after two

Percentage of

Name of sample.

Original weight.

days' drying in

loss on drying

the sun.

(moisture),

lbs.

oz.

dr.

lbs. oz. dr.

. fa Serajgunj

2
2

0
0

0
0

I 8 2^\

I 8 i%]

24-22

ia

. 2

0

0

I 8 6 1

I 8 4^j

\b „ ..

2

0

0

22-95

fe :; :;

2

2

0

0

0
0

I 8 A%\
193/

21-97

Chandpur ...

2

0

0

I 9 0

21-88

Average . . .

22-75

79

RESEARCH WORK

In both the above series the dry weight was taken
about 3-30 P.M. As will be seen later on, all these
samples reabsorbed some two per cent, of moisture
by the next morning and one or two per cent, more by
being stowed away for a few weeks from atmospheric
humidity.

(7) The third sample in the wet series was examined
at short intervals to see how quickly the moisture left
the fibre. It was weighed out about 2 p.m. into two parcels
of 2 lbs. each. Both the parcels were reweighed at
3-30 P.M. and again at 4-30 p.m. with the following
result : —

Weight at

Weight at

Weight at

2 P.M.

3-30 P.M.

4-30 P.M.

Ibs.oz.dr.

Ibs.oz.dr.

Ibs.oz.dr

200

I 10 2^

I 9 6

200

I 10 7

I 10 p

Sample 3 (Wet jute)K

Taking the average of the two samples, it will be seen
that the loss of weight at the end of 2 ^ hours amounted
respectively to 16-89 P^^ c^'^^- ^^^ IQ'H per cent. See-
ing that the sample contained no less than 2r97 per cent,
of moisture and that out of this as much as 10 per cent,
was acceptable to the mills and balers, an hour's dry-
ing would probably have quite sufficed to make it
unexceptionable. In other words, jute parts with mois-
ture so quickly that the plea of difficulty in drying to
explain the presence of too much water can never
stand. ^

(8) The three samples of dry jute mentioned in
paragraph (4) were stored away in a dry but shady place

80

FRAUDULENT WATERING OF JUTE

for a few weeks, after which they were examined with
the followino- results : —

17th De-

17th De-

cember,

iSth De-

23rd De-

Names of samples.

cember,
10 A.M.

(after 4

hours'

drying.)

cember,

8 A. M.

cember,

8 A.M

lbs. oz, dr.

lbs. oz. dr.

lbs. oz. dr.

lbs. oz. dr.

(i) Dry Mymensingh

I 14 I

I 13 2

I 4 I

I 14 I

(2) Do. Bilasipara .

I 14 I

I 13 I

I 4 0

I 14 ij

(3) Do. Chandpur ...

I 14 5

I 13 5h

I 4 2

(4) Wet do.

I 10, 2

I 9 4

I 05

I 10 3

It will be seen that none of the samples returned to
their original weight by reabsorption of moisture after they
had once been thoroughly dried in the sun. The " bone
dry " fibre does gain a little (between 3 to 4 per cent.) in
weight with the fall of temperature and a consequent rise
in the humidity of the atmosphere, but not more, however
long the fibre may stand. The permanent loss in weight
by bone drying in the case of the dry samples was about
6 per cent., and in the case of the badly watered samples
as niuch as 18 to 20 per cent.

9. Nor is it any excuse to say that jute gets damp by
exposure to night dew. Three experiments were made
with bone-dry jute by (i) spreading out two samples to
the dew at night, (2) by leaving by their side two other
samples in bundles exposed to the dew, and (3) by leaving
yet two other samples in bundles under a thatch. A

81

RESEARCH WORK

fourth sample was kept inside a room. The following
results were obtained in the morning : —

Nature of treatment.

Gain in weight by

absorption of

moisture.

(i) Opened out to night dew

(2) Left in bundles exposed to dew ...

(3) Ditto under a thatch

(4) Ditto inside a room

Per cent.
18-52
6-40

2-93

2 '42

The third experiment shows that a simple thatch vvould
be a very good protection and keep the jute thoroughly
dry. Jute therefore cannot only be very easily dried,
but can also be as simply kept dry. Excessive moisture
almost in every case points to deliberate fraud.

10. A sample of dry Mymensingh jute that had
already lost 5-85 per cent, was dried in a steam chamber.
It was found that it lost 8-14 per cent, of its weight. So
this sample contained almost exactly 14 per cent, of
moisture. On the other hand, the absolute quantity of
moisture in a bad sample of fraudulently-watered jute
seems to be no less than 28 or 29 per cent. The absolute
quantity of moisture in any sample of jute, however, is
not a thing of much practical value, as the arrangements
and apparatus, as also the skill required for its determina-
tion, are not at the command of practical men. But the
relative amounts of moisture in a well-dried and a
fraudulently-watered sample may be always ascertained
very easily by almost anybody.

82

CHAPTER IV

JUTE IN BACKERGUNGE
(Writ fen in i8g8)

UTE is cultivated throughout the district,
exrcept the tracts swamped by salt water
where it is grown on a very small scale in
homestead lands only for the home con-

sumption of the raiyats. According to

the last jute forecast report, published in 1897 by the
Agricultural Department, the normal area under jute in
Backergunge is 6,400 acres only (37,623 acres in 1920).

Classification and Description

There are several races of jute, three or four races
being commonly cultivated together under a common
name. The names are confusing even in the same village.
However, the following names adopted by me signify
particular races : —

(1) Cof chorus capsular is : —
(a) Bagiz=.Banqiz=.Cowpla.
{b) Raktabagi— Nileta.

(c) Sutpat^=Pechi.

(2) Corchorus olitorius : —
(cf) Bagi=^Bangi= Nileta.

The races may be distinguished by the colour of the
stems and petioles of the plants, and the time of flowering
and the normal height attained by the plants of a particular
race. The colour of the plants {a) and {d) is light
green. The plants of ib) are purple in colour, and the
colour of {c) plants is reddish. I found there are two

83

RESEARCH WORK

kinds of plants in each of [a) and {d). The petioles
and the ribs of the leaves of the plants {a) and (d)
are as green as the stems. But there are a few plants
in (a) having their petioles and ribs of the leaves reddish,*
and in {a) they are reddish or pinkish in the colour of the
stalks, petioles and ribs.

The tvv^o principal species ^i.e., Corchorus capsulatis
and Corchorus olitotius) differ from one another in fruits.
Corchorus capsiilaris has round pods, while the pods of
Corchorus olitorius are long. They also differ in the ways
of cultivation. Corchorus copsularis can thrive more or less
in water to the depth of about 2 to 3 cubits, while Corcho-
rus olitoi ius does not do so. Consequently Cot chorus capsu-
laris is very largely cultivated in Eastern Bengal, where the
cultivation of Corchorus olitorius is but limited. It is
also peculiar that Cof chorus olitorius cannot strike the
soil on which it is cultivated so firmly as Corchorus
copsularis does.

The Suipat is decidedly inferior to other varieties in
the length of the fibre, but the cluster of fibre around the
pith of Sutpnt {i.e., the bark) is thicker than that of the
other three varieties. Therefore in yields of fibres all the
varieties are nearly equal.

The fibres of the two species of Baoi are bright in
lustre, hence they are called Bagi or Bangi (perhaps from
han^a, which is a provincial word for cotton, meaning
white), which seems to have been derived from bnk (stork),
pronounced as bag in Eastern Bengal. Where both the
species of Bagi are under cultivation Corchorus capsidaris

*It has been observed that some of the races, having stems light-green
and petioles reddish, change the colour of the stems to pinkish when old (as
mostly Amonia of Faridpur, Deswal of Serajgunj) ; but there are some
(Dhupri of Faridpur, Bhadoya-white of Jalpaiguri, Deswal cf Serajgunj)
which are not so In C. olitorius no such plants having reddish petioles
on green stems are found. The same colour is contained by a plant.

84

(

JUTE IN BACKERGUNGE

is called Cowpla, which might have been derived from
capor {c\ot\\), Uowpla — having the quality of copor, i.e., as
\\4iite as capor).

Rakta Bas^i means red Bagi. The plants are purple,
but produce \vhite fibre. NUeta, from nal (red), is derived
from the correct word lal.

I am unable to give reasons for the name of
Sutpat. Slit means thread. Does it mean \h&pat (jute)
which yields thread (^suf) ? Pechi, meaning deformed, is
attributed to plants which do not grow tall. There is no
doubt that this variety was under cultivation in Eastern
Bengal before all other varieties were introduced. I am
also unable to give satisfactory reasons as to why Bagi of
Corchortis olitoriu% is called in some places Nileta. With
the exception of a few, the plants are not red {naV) in
colour. It is probable that this name was given only to
separate it from another species of the same name, i.e.,
Bagi, under Corchorus capsularis. which was first intro-
duced. Where Corchorus olitorius was introduced before
CoTchoj'us capsularis, the latter is not called there Bagi,
but Cowpln as described above.

The opinion of the raiyats regarding the qualities of
the varieties is not unanimous. The fibre of Corchorus
olitorius is said by the majority of them to be the
stronger, but coarser. The colour of the fibre of this
species is a little yellow, which is very much liked by
the Kapali class of Eastern Bengal who weave gunny
bags. The bags of Corchorus olitorius bring a higher price.
The fibres of Corchorus capsularis are sometimes kept wet
for two or three days after washing to give them this
peculiar colour. This process would also give yellowish
sparkling colour to the fibre of Corchorus olitorius.

Hibiscus cannabinus {Mestha or jVlesot, i.e., Deccan or
Ambari hemp) is also included in jute in the market.

85

RESEARCH WORK

It was largely cultivated on low lands a few years ago,
when mahajans offered a higher price for it. Now the price
for Mestha has much fallen off because the fibre is coarse.
Mestha is generally more lengthy than Corchorus and
easily stripped and washed.

The cause of inferiority '

Now I come to the main point of my enquiry. The
inferiority of the Backergunge jute is partly due to the
mode of preparation of the fibre, but mainly to the con-
ditions not being favourable for the crop.

Jute is chiefly steeped in four kinds of water ;
namely : —

{a) Stagnant bheel water.
iU) Stagnant river water.

ic) Running bheel water.
{d) Running river water.

The bheel water is called kala jol (black water) and
the river water baga jal (white water). Kala jal is
so called because it looks black {kala) on account of the
absence of silt. Bheel water is always clear and looks
'black. Baga jal seems to have been derived from bag
(stork), which is white in colour. In fact, baga jal is
light grey, on account of a large admixture of clay
carried off by the rivers of the district which are the
branches of the Ganges (Padma). It is so called because
the raiyats do not generally make any difference between
white and light grey colours.

The fibre of the jute steeped in the " black water "
gives it a glossy white colour, while the colour of the
jute steeped in baga jal is grey. The cause is this, as
explained above, the baga j'al contains silts which deposit
in the fibre of jute at the time of retting. This silt colours
the fibre grey. The stagnant bana water, of course, gives
jute a better colour because it does not contain much silt.
In the case of " black water," whether running or stagnant,
the colour of the jute is not affected. The steeping of jute

86

- JUTE IN BACKERGUNGE

in running water takes a longer time in retting than in
stagnant water. The constant washing of the bundles by
running water prevents an earlier decomposition. It is
also inconvenient in another point, namely, the bundles
within (several bundles are heaped together) ret earlier
than the outside bundles. Thus if the retting of the
bundles within is complete, the bundles around will remain
underretted ; and if the outside bundles are properly retted,
the inside bundles will be overdone. Raiyats generally
take the heap away when the bundles within are considered
to be fit for stripping. The fibre of the bundles around
will be sticky and of bad quality. The washing of the
fibre after stripping should be made in running water
instead of stagnant water, so that the refuse left after
washing could be carried off immediately, leaving clean
water for washing the remaining fibre.

The jute steeped in clean stagnant water, properly
retted and washed in clean running water, is the best.
The places having all these advantages are best suited
to jute cultivation. The cause of the stickiness in jute
in Backergunge and in other districts is mainly due to
insufficient retting. Insufficient retting does not clear
the gummy matter of the coat of the fibre. Raiyats
sometimes prefer insufficient retting where the prices
for the superior and inferior qualities are not much different.
Sufficient retting causes some loss of the fibre at the top
of a plant and washing of the fibre clears every refuse,
making the fibre lighter in weight. I have seen in some
places in Bhola that the raiyats do not wash the fibre at
all in order to make the fibre heavier.

Superior quality of jute is obtained in the hheeL lands
in the Gaurnadi Police-station, and the medium quality
is procurable in the chars where jute is steeped in ditch
water which is stagnant, although the ditch water becomes
sometimes filthy and brownish in colour with decayed

87

RESEARCH WORK

vegetation. The bad quality is seen in all places by the
sides of rivers where it is steeped in running baga jal.
It does not appear to me that brackish water has anything
to do with the inferiority of the Backergunge jute ; in fact
there is no brackish water during the rains in the jute-
growing tracts of Backergunge.

CHAPTER V

RACES OF JUTE IN PABNA

( Written in i8gg )

T was observed that there are some particular
races which yield fibres of very good quality.
Structure of soils and situation of lands have
a great deal to do with the quality. The
same variety yields fibres of different
qualities in different places. Sandy loam is more adapted
for the crop than either clay or sandy soil as far as the
quality is concerned. Clay soil is said to produce the
heaviest outturn. Floo^ also affects the quality of the
fibre. The colour of the* fibre depends chiefly on the
cleanness of the water of steeping and washing.

The time of flowering has not been mentioned in case
of each race. Early races commonly run to flower in
August, while the late races in September. The same race
flowers at different times at different places, even at the
same place if grown under different conditions.

The following races of jute were separated by the
author from the mixed plants of several races as cultivated
together by the raiyats. The specimens of selected plants
of particular races were collected by him during 1899
for the Reporter on Economic Products to the Government
of India. They are described as follows :—

No. I.

Locality. — Serajgunj, Pabna.

Species. — Corchoriis capsularis ; locally called Desal
(country).

Description. — Stem and leaf-stalk reddish (purplish or
pinkish). It flowers in August.

Outturn. — Five maunds per bigha (3 bighas=:i acre).

89

RESEARCH WORK
No. 2.

Locality. — Serajgunj.

Species. — Cot chorus capsularis. Called Desal^ separated
from the same field as noted under No. i.

Description.— Stem light green; leaf-stalk and fruits
reddish.

These races of Desal, as described under Nos. i, 2 and
3, are always cultivated together.

No. 3.

Locality. — Serajgunj.

Species. — Corckorus capsularis. It is also called Desal.

Description.— Stem and leaf-stalk are light green.

No. 4.

Locality. — Serajgunj.

Species. — Corckorus capsularis. Locally called Kakya
or Bomhat or Knkra Boinbai. Bombai is perhaps so
called as this variety is taller than others. The word
Bombai (Bombay) is used in some " places in Lower
Bengal to denote some agricultural products which are
larger in size. I could not ascertain what they meant by
Kakva. Probably the name is derived from the word
Kayia, vulgarly applied, in Bengal, to the Marwaries, who
are well-known painstaking traders. Probably the Kayia
traders introduced this jute into Serajgunj.

Description. — Stems, leaf-stalks and fruits are light
green. It flowers about one,month later than the Desal.
It yields, I learnt, more than Desal by about 50 per

90

RACES OF JUTE IN PABNA

cent. It also resists water-logging better than the
Desal. It can grow in water to the depth of 5 or 6 feet,
but the Desal does not grow in water more than 3 or 4
feet in depth. Its bark is thicker. Fibre is more
glossy than that of Desal, but the fibre of Desal is finer.
Raiyats like this variety most, because its fibre is sold at
higher prices.. Seed of this variety is yearly indented
from Assam. It is less branchy than any other race of
C. capsularis. The raiyats of the village from where the
specimens were collected did not like to waste fibre of
such quality by allowing the plants to seed. In future
the Agricultural Department should indent the seed of
this variety from Serajgunj for distribution specially in
flooded districts.

Two other races were found in the same field cultivated
with the Kakya Bombai jute. One of them had reddish
stem, while the other had light green stem with reddish
petioles. It is later than the Desal races ; otherwise the
mixed Kakya Bombai as cultivated would have been the
same as Desal of the locality. Taking all points into
consideration, it resembles the green-stemmed plants of
Hewti ]\xi& of North Bengal.

The difference between Desal and Kakya Bomhai is in
the following" respects : —

{a) Kakya Bombai thrives better.

(3) The outturn of Kakra Bombai in Serajgunj is
9 maunds, that of the Desal is 8 maunds.
Niltea race (No. 5) yields 7 maunds per bigha
when they are all well grown.

{c) The Desals yield much more rooty fibres (adven-
titious roots) than the Kakya Bombai.

(d) The seed of the Kakya Bombai is a little smaller
than that of the Desals.

91

RESEARCH WORK

No. 5.

Locality. — Serajgunj.

Species. — Corchorus capsularis. Locally called Nileta.

Description. — Stems and leaf-stalks are of purple
colour. It flowers about a fortnisfht later than the Desals.
It grows well on dry land, but can thrive also in water
three feet deep. Bark is thinner than that of Desal.
The colour of the fibre is more glossy than the colours of
Desals and Kakya Bombai ; hence it brings higher prices
than the others.

No. 6.

Localit}^ — Serajgunj.

Species. — Corchorus olitorius. Locally called Tosha.

Description. — Stem, branch and leaf-stalk are of
pink colour. It grows taller than the Desals. Fibre is
coarser and more 3'ellowish ; hence it is sold at a lower
price. It does not grow in water. It flowers about two
months later than the Desal. Two seers of the seed
of the Desal jute are sown per bigha, while Tosha seed
is sown at the rate of one seer per bigha. The yield of
fibre of the Tosha jute is somewhat heavier than that
of the Desal, that is, if the Desal produces 8 maunds
per bigha, the Tosha will produce 10 maunds. It may
be however noted that Tosha is always cultivated on
better soils.

No. 7.
Locality. — Serajgunj.

Species. — Corchorus oliiorius. Locally called Bar-
pata, which means long {bara\ jute {pata or pat).

92

RACES OF JUTE IN PABNA

Description. — Stem and leaf-stalk are light green. It
flowers about a fortnight earlier than the Tosha. The
colour of the fibre is yellowish — less yellow than that
of Tosha. In outturn Nos. 6 and 7 are similar.

No. 8.

Locality. — Serajgunj.

Species.— Corc/zorz« olitoriiis. It is called Tosha.

Description. — Stem and leaf-stalk are slightly reddish.
These specimens were collected from the field No. 6.

93

CHAPTER VI

RACES OF JUTE IN MYMENSINGH
( Written in 1 8gg)

YM EN SINGH quality of jute tops all other
qualities in the market. Its superiority is
chiefly due to the facts that the crops of
Mymensingh are extensively cultivated on
high lands and steeped and washed in clean
water of the old Brahmaputra, but not to any particular
race or races cultivated in the district. The following
are the descriptions of the typical races separated and
collected by us : —

No. I.

Locality. — Jagannathganj.

Species. — Corchorus capsularis. Locally called Chhoran,
derived from the word chhota (small). It is a dwarf
and early variety.

Description. — Stem, leaf-stalk and fruits of the typical
plants collected are green. It flowers in Ashar, and the
fruits ripen in Bhadra and Aswin.

No. 2.

Locality. — Jagannathganj.

Species. — Corchorus capsularis. Locally called Baran,
which means big {baro).

Description. — Stem, leaf-stalk and fruits of the typical
race are of light green colour. It grows taller than the
Chhoran variety, hence it is called Baran. Flowering and
fruiting seasons begin later than the former variety. It

94

RACES OF JUTE IN MYMENSINGH

produces fewer branches than the other. The outturn of
the fibre of this variety is also heavier than that of the
Chhoran variety.

No. 3.

Locality. — Jagannathganj.

Species. — Cor chorus capsular is. It is locally called
Kuchmadan or Nalpai (red jute).

Description. — Stem, leaf-stalk and fruits are reddish.
The fibres of the former two kinds are said to be better
than the fibre of this variety, both in colour and quality.
Flowering and fruiting time is the same as that of the
Baran jute.

No. 4.

Locality. — Jagannathganj.

Species. — Cor chorus capsular is. Called Kaniarjani.

Kamarjani is a jute mart in Rangpur. The seed
of this variety was perhaps first got from Kamarjani,
hence it is called Kamarjani.

Description. — Stem, leaf-stalk and fruits of the typical
plants are light green. It is less branchy and somewhat
taller than Baran.

It also produces heavier outturn than the typical Baran
race. It grows very well on dry land. This is one of the
best varieties which I recommend for introduction into other
districts. Flowering and fruiting seasons commence about
one month later.

No. 5.
Locality. — Jagannathganj.
Species. — G or chorus olitorius.

Locally it is called by the names of Nalita, Talla,
Barpata, Baran. All these words mean the same thing,
which is tall. Nalita from iVa/ (reed). Talla derived

9S

RESEARCH WORK

perhaps from a kind of bamboo which is called Tolla
bans. Originally this word {talla) might have been derived
from the word Taral ( Tarala), a Sanskrit word which
means liquid (light). This bamboo is much lighter than
other bamboos.

Description.— Stem, leaf-stalk and fruits of the typical
plants collected are light green. Fruits get ripened in
Kartik and Aghran. Outturn is said to be heavier than
that of the former races.

No. 6.

Locality. — Jagannathganj.

Species. — Corchorus ol'itorius.

Local names. — Nileta, Talla.

Description. — Stem and leaf-stalk of the typical plants
are pinkish. It is identical with the former in other
respects.

96

CHAPTER VII

RACES OF JUTE IN DACCA

{Written zji j8gg)

ACCA is one of the most important jute
districts in Bengal. The quality of the Dacca
crop, which is produced in the area watered by
the old Brahmaputra, is identical with the
high grade Mymensingh jute. Specimens of

the races of jute which were separated and collected by

me for Dr. Watt are described below : —

No. I.

Locality. — Narsingdi.

Species. — Cor chorus capsuloris.

Local names. — Dhaleswari, Dhalsundar. Both the
words denote white plants.

Description. — Stem, leaf-stalk and fruits are light green.
It flowers in July, and fruits ripen in September and
October. It is the variety most commonly cultivated in
this subdivision (Narayanganj). It is a good variety.

No, 2.

Locality. — Narsingdi.

Species. — Corchorns capsitlaris.

Local name. — Parbatya. This name might have been
derived from the word tarbat, a hill. The seed might
have first been obtained from some hilly place of Tipperah.

Description. — Stem, leaf-stalk and fruits pinkish ;
growth luxuriant ; outturn heavier than that of the
Dhaleswari. Fibre is also said to be better in quality
and colour)

91 G

RESEARCH WORK

No. 3.

Locality. — Narsingdi.

Species. — Corchorus capstdaris.

Local name. — Agniswar, from a^«; = fire. Here it
means that it has the colour like fire.

Description. — Stem, branches and fruits all along
pink ; leaf-stalk pinkish. Fibre is as good as Parbntya.
Cultivation has been recently introduced.

No. 4.

Locality. — Narsingdi.

Species. — Corchorus capsularis.

Local names. — Desi, Desal.

Description. — The colour of the stem, branches and
leaf-stalk pinkish, like the colour of Parbatra. But in
growth it is shorter and it ripens somewhat earlier. It is
now rarely cultivated.

No. 5.

Locality. — Narsingdi, Dacca.

Species. — Corchorus olitorius.

Local name. — Dewnallya. Here Nallya flenotes
Corchorus olitorius. Nallya derived from nal, a reed.

Description. — The colour of the stem, leaf-stalk and
fruits is light green. It flowers in. September. Other
particulars are the same as described of Corchorus
olitorius in other districts.

98

RACES OF JUTE IN DACCA

No. 6

Locality. — Narsingdi.

Species. — Cot chorus olitorius.

Local names. — Bangi, Nallya.

Description. — Stem pink or light red ; branches and
leaf-stalk are pinkish. It flowers in September. Fibre
more yellow than that of the former.

99

CHAPTER VIII

RACES OF JUTE IN TIPPERA

( Written in i8gg)

IPPERA comes next to Dacca as a district
of higli-class jute. C. olitorius is hardly
cultivated in the district. Typical races
of jute of the district are described
below : —

No. I.

Locality. — Chandpur.

Species. — Corchorus capsularis.

Local name. — Bidyasundar.

Description. — Stem and leaf-stalk are purple. Fruits
purplish. It yields the finest and most glossy fibre of this
place. Outturn 8 maunds per bigha (standard).

No. 2.

Locality. — Chandpur.

Species. — Corchorus capsularis.

Local name. — Dew Dholi. Dew from Dev = a god,
and i9Ao/« = white. Dew Dholi means white like a god.

Description. — Stem, leaf-stalk and fruits light green.
It is second to the former as regards quality. But the
outturn is somewhat heavier, /. e. lo maunds per
standard bigha.

No. 3.
Locality.— Chandpur.
Species. — Corchorus capsularis.

RACES OF JUTE IN TIPPERA

Local name. — Dhalsundar, meaning white, which is
beautiful {sundar).

Description. — Main stem light green ; branches and
fruits pinkish ; yields heaviest outturn, i.e., 1 1 maunds
per standard bigha. Fibre coarser than that of the
Dew Dholi.

•^

CHAPTER IX

JUTE IN FARIDPUR

( Written in igoo)

ORCHORUS O LI TORI US is always culti-
vated in high lands where there will be no
flood water. In some places I have found
them growing in water only to the depth of
a few inches at about the time of harvest.
It is sown in Bysak (middle of April to the middle of
May). The yield per bigha is here about 7 maunds
(sometimes 8 maunds). The raiyats are of the opinion
that the fibre of Corchorus olitorius is stronger than
the fibre of Corchorus capsulnris. The bark of
Corchorus olitorius is said to be thicker than that of
Corchorus capsularis. The best fibre is obtained when
the plants are just in flower in both the cases. The
heaviest yield is obtainable when the fruits of the plants
are mature. The Ba^ipat is not generally harvested
before it bears fruit. Harvesting begins in Sravan
(middle of July to middle of August), and continues
up to the middle of Aswin (the end of September).

There are two methods in stripping jute fibre. *rhey
are as follows : —

(i) After the- retting is complete, the plants are
carried home. A plant is got hold of by the right hand of
the stripper, who is generally a woman member of the
family. She then pulls off the fibre by her left hand,
and the stalk (wood) slides easily away. During this
operation of the pulling off the fibre, she keeps her
point finger between the fibre and the wood. One
skilled woman can strip about 1 5 seers of dry fibre per
diem.

(2) When the plants have retted, the raiyat stands
by the retted heap of the plants. He takes up a handful

JUTE IN FARIDPUR

of the plants which are broken at the distance of about
1 8 inches from the bottom. The broken pieces of stalks
are then thrown away. He now takes hold of the
separated fibre at the bottom by both the hands, and
pushes the plants up and down. After five or six pushes
the fibre is cleared off. By this method one hard-work-
ing man can strip about 20 seers of fibre per diem.

In Faridpur both the methods are in vogue. In
Madaripur and Sadar subdivisions, jute is stripped in
the method (i) and in Goalundo in the method (2).

Deep, clear and stagnant water is preferred for
steeping jute. They do not like to steep in running
water, where it takes a longer time for retting.

Note on Commercial Specimens of Madaripur Jute

x^t the Madaripur market there are four kinds of
jute, vis. —

(i) Charua, I (3) Bilan, and

(2) Ragi, 1 (4) Puban.

(i) Ch^run belongs to the species Corchorus capsularis.
It is grown on char lands on the sides of the rivers
Padma and Arealkhan. Water to the depth of about
two cubits accumulates on such lands during the months
of Sravan and Bhadra.

The soil of these places may be described as a loam
inclined to be sand)-. These parts produce the best jute
grown in the Subdivision. It is steeped in deep stagnant
river water. It is available in the market from Sravan
to Bhadra. It was sold at the time of my visit at Rs. 4-8
per maund. This good quality of the fibre is said to be
due to the soils where it is grown.

(2) Bagipat {Corchorus olitorius). — It is grown on high
lands and steeped in stagnant bheel water. Available in
the market from Bhadra to /^swin. It is well known to
the merchants that it is coarser than Corchorus capsularis,

103

RESEARCH WORK

but its rope is said to be stronger than that made of the
latter. Price was at Rs. 4-7 per maund. Soil on Avhich
it is grown is generally sandy loam. Out of the total
quantity of jute available at the market of Madaripur,
Baoipat shares only about 12 per cent.

(3) Bilan (belonging to bheel) belongs to the species
Corciiorvs capsutaris. Grown in d/ieel lands where water
accumulates to the depth of about three cubits. All the
varieties that are cultivated on low lands do not thrive
much after inundation. It is steeped in stagnant dheel
water. This quality of jute is available in the market from
Ashar to Asww. Price Rs. 4-4 per maund. Soil on
which it is grown is clayey.

(4) Puhan {eastern). — It is grown on char lands. Soil
is similar to that on which chnua is grown. It is steeped
in shallow running river water (depth only 2^ cubits).
The mud of the river water deposits on the fibre during
the time of retting which spoils the colour of the fibre.
It was sold at Rs. 3-12 only per maund. It is available
in the market from Sravnn to Bhadra.

Note on Commercial Specimens of Pangsa Jute

The following sorts of jute are sold at the Pangsa
market : —

(i) Pangsa,
(2) (Jiarua,

(3) Padma paira,

(4) Dakhina, and

(5) Faridpuri.

(i) The Pangsa quality of jute is brought for sale
to Pangsa from surrounding places. It is sold in the
market from the middle of Sravan to Karttk. This sort
of jute is cultivated on high lands which are composed of
loamy soil. Steeped in clear water. The price was
Rs. 3-5 per maund (i seer = 60 tolas). There is not less

104

JUTE IN FARlDrUR

than lO per cent, moisture, generally 30 per cent., in the
fibres which are sold at this market. It belongs mostly to
the species Cot chorus capsular is.

(2) Charua is grown on chir lands composed of a
loam inclined to sands. It is steeped in stagnant river
water slightly muddy. Available in the market from the
middle of 8ravan to Knrtlk. Price was Rs. 3-6 per maund.
General!}' the Pan^sa and Charua are mixed together and
sent to Calcutta for sale.

(3) Podma palm is a' sort of jute which comes from
the other side of the river Padma {e. ^., Pabna). It is
grown on dhe^/ lands composed of clayey soil. It is more
or less sticky and reddish. It is available in the market
from Bhndra to Kartik. Price Rs. 3-4 per maund.

(4) Dakhina. — This sort of jute comes from the
Balliakandi police-station. It is grown on bheel lands
composed of clayey soil. It is steeped in stagnant clear
water. Fibre is sticky. Available in the market from
Bhadra to Kariik. Price Rs. 3-4 per maund.

(5) Faiidpuri sort of jute is brought from places in
the police-stations of Ainpur and Bhanga. It is grown
on bheel lands composed of heavy clay. The water in
which it is steeped is more or less clear. Fibre is very
sticky. Available in the market from Sravan to Aswin.
Price Rs. 3 per maund.

Sometimes the localities where jute of good quality
is obtained produce bad quality owing to the following
reasons : —

Jute is sown from ChaiUa to Jaistha. During the
period of growth occasional showers of rain at intervals
of about eight days are required for producing good
quality, but heavy rains during this period (when the
plants are young) are injurious. Hairy larv£e, locally

RESEARCH WORK

called salkit, also attack the plants if there be heavy
rains ; the plants become more branchy than usual, and
yield sticky harsh fibre.

Best fibre is obtained from the plants which are
harvested just in flowers. Early flood is therefore
\vanted by raiyats for harvesting {e. g., steeping) just in
time.

Samples from Nos. i to 8 were separated and collected
m Madaripur, on the nth and the 12th September, 1900.

Races in Madaripur.

No. I.

Species. — Corchorns cap&ularis.

Local name. — Sutpat.

Description. — Colour of the stem and leaf-stalk is
pinkish. It flowers in the latter part of July. This variety
is commonly cultivated in this part of the district because
it can thrive well in deep water (not exceeding 3 cubits
in depth). Fibre is generally sticky at the bottom. About
5 maunds of fibre is obtained from one bigha of land.
It grows in deep water.

No. 2.
Locality. — Habiganj, Madaripur.
Species. — Corchorus capsulnris.
Local names. — DesaL (country), Peti (small).

Description. — Stem light green when young. Bran-
ches, leaf-stalk and fruits are of reddish colour similar
to No. I. It is being cultivated here for a longtime. It
is more branchy than other varieties. Grows in water
to the depth of 5 feet. Yields 6 or 7 maunds per
local bigha . 60 x 60 yards).

106

rUTK IN FARIDPUR

No. 3.

Localit}'. — Habiganj, Madaripur.

Species. — Corchwus capstdaris.

Local name. — Udhap (meaning perhaps \v\\\\.q = dhop).

Description. — Stem, leaf-stalk and fruits light green.
Fruits larger than those of the Desals. Outturn 7 maunds
per bigha (local).

No. 4.

Species. — Corchoi us capsularis.

Local name. — Cowpln pal.

Description. — All parts of the plant are light green in
colour. It flowers in the latter part of July. It is grown
on both high and low lands. Outturn is about 5 maunds
per bigha, but the qualit}- of the fibre is said to be better
than that of Sutpnt.

No. 5-

Species. — Corchotus capsularis.

Local name. — Lali or Ranga pat.

Description. — The colour of the stem and the leaf-
stalk is purple. Grown in both high and low lands.
It flowers about a fortnight earlier than the races 3
and 4 mentioned above. Fibre is said to be finer but
less in quantity.

No. 6.

Species. — Corchct us capsularis.

Local name. — Bel^nchi.

This race has been newly introduced.

107

RESEARCH WORK

Description. — Stem, leaf-stalk and fruits are pinkish
or reddish. It flowers in the latter part of July. Fibre is
better than that of the Sutpat^ both in quality and
quantity.

Retting is finished in much shorter time. In June it
takes only lo days for retting, while Desal or Sutpat takes
15 days. In September it takes 15 days.

No, 7.

Species. — Corchortis olilorius.

Local name. — Bagi,

Description. — All parts of the plant are light green in
colour. Generally sown in May. Outturn 8 maunds per
local bigha (one bigha=: 120X 120 cubits = ^ acre).

No. 8.

Species. — Cor chorus olitorius.

Local names. — Lal^ Nal or Rungabagi.

Description. — All parts of the plant are pink in colour.
No distinction is made between these two races of
Corchorus olitortus. Regarding the cultivation, yield and
quality, they are identical.

The following 9 races were collected from Pangsa,
the principal jute market in the Goalundo subdivision in
Faridpur, on the 15th and i6th September : —

Races in Gualundo. '

No. 9.

Species. — Corchorus olitoi ius.

Local names. — Salnrt/rt, Bnrpata, Dhamraj.

Description. — Stem, leaves and pods are all light green
in colour. Sown in Chaitra and Bysak on high lands.

108

JUTE IN FARIDPUR

Seed sown, i seer (60 tolaS) per pnkhi. Flowers in Bhadra.
Outturn per pnkhi is 6 maunds to 7 maunds (i pakhi
— 10x12 mils, and I //a/ = 6j^ cubits ='8 standard
Bengal bigha). Harvested in Bhndra. It takes 12 days
for retting.

No. 10.

S pecies. — Cor chorus olitor ius.

Local name. — Meghnal. It is also called Bar pata
in some places.

Description. — Stems and leaf-stalks are of pink colour.
Sown in Chaiira and Brsak at the rate of i seer (60
tolas) per pakhi. Flowers in the latter part of Sravav.
Outturn per pakhi is about 6 maunds. The plants are
a little shorter than the former. Harvested in Bhadra.
It takes 12 days for retting. Coj chorus olitorius p-rows
always taller than Corchorus capsularis.

No. II.

Species. — Cordiorus capstilaris.

Local name. — Dhaleswari.

Description. — Stem, leaf-stalk and fruits are reddish
in colour when old. It is sown in Chaiira and Bysak
at the rate of 2 seers of seed per pakhi. Flowers early
in Sravan. The bark is thinner than that of Corchorus
olitorius. It may be grown on both high and low lands.
Water accumulated on the low lands should not be
more than i^ cubits in depth. It takes about 15 days
for retting.

Outturn. — Four to 45^ maunds ^^^.x pakhi.
109

RESEARCH WORK

No. 12

Species. — Corchoi us capsularis.

Local name. — Aniunia.

Description — Stem, leaf-stalk and pods are light
green in colour, and it does not branch much. Sown
on high lands in Chaitra and Bvsak. Two seers of
seed are r.equired for one pakhi. Flpwers in the latter
part of Bhadra.

Outturn. — Six maunds per pakhi.

It takes about 12 days for retting. The fibre of this
variety is the finest of all grown in this part of the
district.

No. 13.

Species. — Cor chorus capsularis.

Local name. — Shani ; also called Desal, Sodu and
Kuck mardan.

Description. — Stem, leaf-stalk and pods are reddish.
Sown in Chaitra and Bvsak on both high and low lands.
Water on the lands here stands to the depth of about
3 to 35^ cubits. Seed 2 seers (i seer = 60 tolas) per pakht.
Flowers early in Ashar.

Outturn. — Three to 3^ maunds of fibre per pakhi.

It takes about one month for retting.

This race is being cultivated in this place for a
long time. Fibre is always sticky at the bottom. Plants
are very strong and much branchy. Stripping is very
difficult. Its cultivation is dying out.

JUTE IN FARIDPUR

No. 14.

Species. — Corchorus capsularis.

Local name. — Dhapa.

Description. — Stem, leaf-stalk and pods are reddish,
identical with the former, but flowers in Bhadra.

No. 15.

Species. — Corchorus capsularis.

Local name. — Meghiial {sqq No. 10).

Description. — Stem and leaf-stalk are of purple colour.
Sown generally on low lands where water accumulates
to the depth of about 2 cubits. One and three-quarters
of a seer (60 tolas = i seer) of seed required for one
pakhi. Flowers in early i5/zrtafra. It takes about 15 days
for retting.

Outturn. — About 5 maunds per pakhi.

No. 16.

Species.- — Corchorus capsularis.

Local name. — Kamarjani (i). It is also called
Parbatya.

Description. — Stem, leaf-stalk and pods are light
green in colour. Sown generally on low lands in Chaitra
and Bysak. Water may accumulate there to the depth
of about 2^ cubits. Two seers of seed (60 tolas = i seer)
are sown per pakhi. Flowers in the latter part of Sravan.
It takes about 20 days for retting.

Outturn. — Five maunds per pakhi.

Leaves of this race are used here as a favourite
pot-herb.

RESEARCH WORK

No. 17.

Species. — Corchorus capsvlaris.

Local name. — Komarjani (2).

Description. — Stem and leaf-stalk are reddish. Sown
together with No. 16.

Seed. — 2 seers per pakh'u • Flowers in the latter part
of Uravan.

No. 18.

Locality. — Goalundo.

Species. — Cot chorus capsularis.

Local name. — Ghagrj. Could not trace why it is
called Ghagri.

Description. — The colour of the stem, leaf-stalk and
fruits is light green. Flowers in July ; fruits ripen in
September.

No. 19.

Locality — Goalundo.

Species. — Corchorus capsularis.

Local names. — Gha^rt, Demi.

Description. — The colour of the stem is light green,
and that of the branches, leaf-stalk and fruits is reddish.
Fruits a little smaller than those of the Ghagri, No. 18.

No. 20.

Locality. — Goalundo.

Species. — Corchorus capsularis.

JUTK IN FARIDPUR

Local names. — Lalpnt (red jute), Kajta (black),
MesliTial {Megh^.c\o\\d, and Nal=zr&d, i.e., a colour
mixed of blue and red).

Description. — Stem, branches and leaf-stalk are pink ;
a tinge of violet colour on the fruits. Flowering
season commences about 1 5 days later than that of
Ghagri. It is less branch)' than the two Ghagris.
As a pot-herb the leaves of this race are said to be better
than the leaves of the other races.

No. 21.

Locality. — Goalundo.

Species. — Corchoj-us ol? tori us.

Local name. — Bomi (from Bangi or BaS[i).

Description. — The colour of the stem and leaf-stalk
is light green. It flowers in July. It does not grow
as tall as Satnala, which is also a light green variety
flowering later.

No. 22.

Locality. — Goalundo.

Species. — Cor chorus capsiilaris.

Local name. — Kaniarjani.

Description. — Stem, leaf-stalk and fruits are similar
to No. 17. Fibre is more glossy than that of the Ghagris.
It is one of the best varieties, recommended for introduc-
tion into other districts where it is not cultivated.

No. 23.
Locality. — Goalundo,
Species. — Corchorus capsiilaris.

RESEARCH WORK

Local name. — Dhupti (perhaps from Dhubri in
Assam). A new race just introduced.

Description— Stem light green. Leaf-stalk and fruits
are slightly reddish. Growth is more vigorous than that of
other varieties of Corchorus capsularis. Flowering time
begins some 15 days later than that of Ghagri.

114

CHAPTER X

RACES OF JUTE IN RANGPUR
( WriiUn in i^oo)

ANGPUR is the most important jute district
in North Bengal. C. capsularis is commonly
cultivated, hence it is called fati-pat, meaning
true jute. C. olitotius is scarcely met with
in the district. North Bengal jute is fine in
texture, as it is the product of high lands, but the general
practice of over-steeping harms the quality to a certain
extent.

Numerous names of jute by which the same races are
denoted in different parts in East Bengal — nay in the same
villages — are conspicuously diminished in the northern
districts. The races are divided into two classes, viz.^
Ausa or Bhadoya (early) and Hewta (late). Each of the
classes comprises of various races. The Ausa and Hewta
races are, of course, cultivated separately. The Ausa
races are preferred.

The following are the typical races of jute grown in
Rangpur : —

No. I.

Species. — Corchorus olitorius.

Local name. — Parbati Madai.

Description. — Stem and leaf-stalk are reddish in
colour. There is another race under the same name of
Parbati i)at, the stem and leaf-stalk of which are light
green. They are grown together.

Corchorus olitorius is sown during the months from
Falgun to Bysak. In some places it is sown only in
Bysak,

115

RESEARCH WORK

It grows on high lands only. One seer (i seer
= 90 tolas) of seed is required for i done (i done—i'^
standard cottahs).

Soil. — Sandy loam.

Outturn. — Four maunds to five maunds fibre per done..

Flowering season. — Latter part of Aswin.

It is harvested when the plants are in flowers. In
the case of urgency, it is harvested just before the flower-
ing time, but the yield per done would be only 3 maunds
in.stead of 4 maund.s.

Ten to 1 5 days are required for retting.

It is said to be stronger but coarser than Cor chorus
capsular is jute.

It is only cultivated for home consumption, which may
be roughly estimated at 3"5 per cent.

The price of the fibre of Corchorus olitortus is about
50 per cent, less than that of Corchorus capsulatis.

.No. 2.

Species. — Corchoj-vs capsuiaris. {Capsulaiis is com-
monl}- called here Jati-pat.)

Local name. — Ansa (white). Ausa is a crop which
is harvested earlier than the Hewtn jute, from the word
Henienta, the autumn season.

Description. — Stem is light green, but branches and
leaf-stalk are reddish. Sown from Falgiin to By&nk.
Seed — one seer per done.

Soil. — Both high and low lands ; they prefer clayey
soil, which is nothing but a loam.

Flowering season — Latter part of Smvan.

Harvested in tlowers and also in fruits.

Outturn. — Four maunds per done.

116

RACES OF JUTE IN RANGPUR

No. 3.

Species. — Corchonts, capsuliris.

Local name. — Ausa (red). Also called in some places
Men^hnal.

Description. — Stem, leaf-stalk and fruits are purple in
colour. In other respects than its yield of fibre, which
is said to be a little less, e. g.^ about 35^ maunds per done
instead of 4 maunds, it is similar to No. 2.

«

No. 4.

Species. — Cor chorus capsular is.

Local name. — Hewta (red), in some places Me^knal.

Description.— The colour of stem, etc., is reddish.

Sowing tivaQ. —F<dgiin to Bysnk.

Flowering time. — Latter part of Bhadra.

Regarding the outturn, the opinion of some raiyats
is that the Hewta variety yields heavier than the Au%a
variety (about half a maund heavier per done) ; but
others are of the opinion that the yields of the Ausa
and the Hewta varieties are nearly equal. Some raiyats
stated that the fibre of the Hewta races is more glossy
than that of Ausa.

Regarding soil, cultivation, etc., it is similar to those
of Ausa races.

No. 5.

Species, — Cor chorus capsularis
Local name — Hewta (white).

Description.— Stem and leaf-stalk are light green in
colour. In other respects it is similar to the variety No. 4,

117

Kl'Si'ARfH WORK

Hewta (red). But it is stated that a whitc-stemmedl
variety yields a little heavier outturn than any of the red-
stemmed races The red-stemmed races arc however
said to produce finer fibre.

In Rangpur the raiyats prefer running water for
.steeping jute, becau.se this water carries away all dirty-
substances from the heap of plants, although they are
aware that it takes a longer time for retting. Best colour
of the fibre is said to be produced if retted in such water.
Jute is stripped in this district in the method No. 2
described in Chapter IX, under this Part of the B<x>k.

nS

CHAPTER XI

RACES OF JU'lE IN JALPAFGURI

( Written in igoo)

[LITE is grown on high lands containing sandy-
loam.

Two seers of seed are sown per done
{ I done is nearly equal to i standard bigha).
It is sown from the 15th of Chaitra to
the 15th of Bvsak {i.e., April) and harvested when the
plants are in flowers or in fruits. The raiyats are of
the opinion that the harvesting operation of the plants
in flowers is easier and less expensive, while the plants
liarvested in fruits produce a little heavier outturn of
fibre. In stagnant water retting is complete within a
fortnight, while in running water it takes about a month.
Still, running water is preferred becau.se it gives good
colour to the fibre.

Yield is said to be only 3 maunds per donr.

No. iv

Locality. — Alipur Duars.
Species. — Corchoms capsularis.
Local name, — Betre (white).

Description. — All parts of the plant are light green
in colour. It flowers early in Sravan.

No. 2.

Locality. — Alipur Duars.
Species. — Corchorrts c^psttlai is
Local name, — Betre.

I iQ

RESEARCH WORK

Description. — Stem is of light green colour, but
branches and leaf-stalks are slightly reddish.

No. 3.

Locality, — Alipur Duars.

Species. — Core hot us capsularis.

Local name. — Hetre (red . It is also called Parbatya.

Description. — Stem and leaf-stalk are of purple colour.
These three races under the name of Betre are always
cultivated together in a mixture.

I

\o. 4.

Locality. — Alipur Duars.

Species — Corchorjis cdpsiiLaris.

Local name. — Hewti.

Description. — All parts are light green. It flowers in
Aswin. Fibre is said to be finer than that of the Betre.
Extracting of fibre of the Hewti races is considered to
be easier because Hewti is less branchy than the Betre.
In other respects it is similar to Bistre. Under the name of
Hewti, there are also red-stemmed races cultivated as
usual in a mixture.

Corckorus olitorius is not cultivated in the Alipur
Subdivision.

No. 5.

Locality. — Jalpaiguri.

Species. — Corchorus c<ipsul:iris.

Local name. — Bhadora (early).

Description. — Stem is light green, but leaf-staik and
fruits are slightly reddish. Sown in the months of Chaitra

RACES OF JUTE IN JALPAIGURI

and Bysak on both high and low lands which are composed
of sandy loam. It flowers early in Sravnn and harvested
when the plants are in flowers or in fruits.
Outturn. — Four maunds per dof^e.

No. 6.

Localit}-. — Jalpaiguri.

Species. — Corchorns capsularis.

Local name. — Bhadoya (early).

Description. — All parts are of purple colour. Lai paia
(red jute) is said to be better in colour and quality
than the sad a pat a (white jute). In other respects it
is similar to variety No. 5.

No. 7.

Locality. — Jalpaiguri.

Species. — Corchorus capsularis.

Local name.— //^zf// (late).

Description. — All parts of the plant are light green.
It flowers early in Bhadra It is a late variety. The
early varieties (Nos. 4 and 5) are said to yield better
and heavier fibre The bark of the plant of this variety
is said to be thinner than that of the early varieties. In
•other respects they are similar. Early varieties take
15 days for retting, while late varieties take 20 davs.

No. 8.

Locality.— Jalpaiguri.

Species. — Corcho?ii^ c ipsularis. '

Local name — /¥eze//z (lateY

RESEARCH WORK

Description. — Stem, leaf-stalk and fruits are of purple
colour.

No. 9.

Locality. — Jalpaiguri.

Species. — Corchorus capsularis.

Local name. — Hewtt (late).

Description. — St;em, leaf-stalk, etc., are of slightly-
purple colour or reddish.

No. 10.

«
Locality.— Jalpaiguri.

Species. — -Corchorus oli/orius.

Local names.— /}//j[r7</7 pat/j, Bouiothak.

Description. — Stems and leaf-stalks are of pink
colour. It flowers early in Bhadra. It is cultivated on
a very small scale, usually for using the leaves as a
pot-herb. It is stated that dried leaves of Corchorus
capsulars are more efficacious for medicinal purposes.
The leaves of Corckorvs olitorius are not so bitter to
taste as those of C capsnlaris^ hence it is more palatable.

The fibre of this species is never available in the
markets.

In Jalpaiguri, jute is stripped in the method No. 2
described already.

CHAPTER XII

JUTE IN PURxNKA

( Published in rgrj in the Aifriatltvral fournal of the
Department of Agticu/ture, Bihar and Orissa)

Area.

URNEA is the most important jute-growings
district in the Province of Bihar and Orissa.
According to the last Jute Forecast Report
i^l of 1 91 6, the area under jute in Purnea was
estimated at 197,027 acres. In 191 5 the area
under jute was reported to be 158,830 acres, while it was
281,220 acres in 1914. The heavy decrease in acreage
in 191 5 was due to the low prices obtained in 1 914 after
the outbreak of the great European War. On account
of the rise in the price in 191 5 there is an increase in the
area this year, although not yet to the normal acreage.
On an average the normal area under jute in Purnea is
estimated at about 240,000 acres, that is, about 14 per cent,
of the total cultivated area. Since 1914 the returns of
the area under jute have been prepared by the Panchayats
under the supervision of special Jute Officers. This area
under jute includes about 6,000 or 7,000 acres under
Hibiscus Cannabittfis, cMed Am/a ;^a/'irt, cultivated in the
Sadar Subdivision.

Soil

The soil of the district, excepting a small tract of old
alluvium about a mile long and a half mile wide near
the Monihari Railway Station, is new alluvium, mostly
of light character. Heavy clay soil is met only in the
^//#'<'/ tracts in the Sadar Subdivision. The new alluvial
soils are most suitable for the cultivation of jute. The
hhfef tracts are overflooded each year just after the break

RESEARCH WORK

of the monsoon. Jute is sown early in these tracts and
harvested in the beginninij of the rainy season, before
the crop is properly matured for cutting. By the middle of
July about three-fourths of the crop in such tracts situated
chiefly in Barsoi and Kadwa thanas are harvested. The
high land jute in other parts of the district is of a superior
quality, lute is very much affected by water-logging
when it is young. Although the plants of C. capsulatis
can bear water-logging admirably after they are in flowers,
A\ater-logging is always harmful to the quality of the fibre.

Rainfall

The rainfall of the district during the growing period,
that is, from March to August, averages 50 inches. This
is quite sufficient for the crop, but sometimes heavy abnor-
mal falls are received in July and August which cause
great damage. For sowing, from i to 2 inches of rain
are necessary for the preparation of the soil. After a
fortnight, I to 2 inches of rain each week would be
very favourable. Rain is necessary within a fortnight
after .sowing, otherwise the plants will begin to wither
up. Heavy falls of rain, 4 to 5 inches at a time, within
two months from the date of sowing will also damage
the plants, and also interfere with weeding.

Rotation

As a rule, jute is sown on the same land, year after
year, by the cultivators of small holdings. Well-off"
cultivators would sow paddy and jute in alternate years
on the same plot. They know that jute will grow very
well on the land after a lapse of 2 or 3 years. Jute is
followed commonly by mustard in the Kabi .season in the
same year. Sometimes wheat, barley, pulses, also San
hemp follow jute. Transplantation of paddy in the same
lanfl just after cutting jute is a common practice
in the district. This is certainl\' an exhausting svstem

124

JUTK IN I'URNKA

of cultivation, especial!}' where no artificial manure is
applied. The value of sowing .San hemp previous to the
cultivation of jute is well known in the district. The /<a^i
crops, which are harvested late in February or in March,
should never be sown on the lands intended for the jute
crop, as it interferes with the preparation of the soil.
An ordinar)- rai)'at who has only a limited area will,
however, cultivate jute on the same land, year after year,
knowing full\' that it will gi\e him a poor outturn.

Manuring

Jute land is hardly manured in the district. The
farmyard manure of a cultivatf)r is reserved for tobacco
only. It is known to the cultivator that cowdung
is very good for jute, but he caniiot afford to apply it to
the crop after his tobacco field has been manured with it.
It has been found that the field manured with about
8 or 9 cart-loads of cowdung (about 6,000 pounds) would
increase the )ield by about 30 per cent. The next best
manure for jute is castor-oil cake, which should be applied
at the rate of about 4S0 lbs. per acre. Castor-oil cake
is as yet unknown in the district. The cost of 6,000
pounds (75 maundsj of cowdung would not be more than
Rs. 4 or 5 if available for sale, while the castor cake at
the rate of 480 lbs. to the acre would cost at least Rs. 12.
Cowdung is therefore cheaper when obtainable.

The cultivation of the land for sowing jute begins
from February after cutting mustard or padd}' after a
shower of rain. About six ploughings and cross-ploughings
followed by /unq-u'^ are necessary to have a fine tilth of the
soil. The seed will not germinate properly on a rough soil
not properly cultivated. In the low-lying lands sowing is
finished in March, but on the high lands it extends up to
the end of May. Earl\- sowing is safer. The jute sown

* A henga is a wooden beam used for crusliiiig clods and levelling the hcid.

RESKARCH WORK

iate in May, this year (1916), was greatly damaged, if not
altogether lost, in most places, on account of the early break
of the monsoon, on the 8th June. Sowing should be
finished by the middle of May. Seed rate per acre in tlie
district varies between 10 and 12 lbs. ; but 9 pounds of seed
would be quite sufficient. The seed is sown broadcast
over the cultivated field after a harrowing is given.
Another harrowing covers the seed. If there is sufficient
moisture in the field, the seed germinates in 3 or 4 days.
After the plants grow 5 or 6 inches high, 2 bidas (rakings;
at intervals of a week are given for stirririg the soil as well
as for thinning out the crowded seedlings. Afterwards the
field is weeded once or twice before the rains set in. At
the time of weeding the plants are again so thinned as to
keep a space of about 6 inches apart by the more intelli-
gent cultivators. Some raiyats do not pay sufficient
attention to thinning, allowing a space of about 4 inches
only. In such cases the plants become thin and weak,
yielding a poor outturn. In some parts of the district the
raiyats will not take the trouble of removing the weeds
from the field, but heap them at intervals thereon.
This practice causes considerable gaps in the fields and
thereby the raiyats lo.se some fibre unnecessarily. These
heaps of uprooted weeds also become a source of future
trouble from insect pests.

The plants grown on well-prepared and manured
fields and treated properly afterwards will often grow to as
much as 12 feet in height. On the average the plants of
the district are 7 to 9 feet long. The longer the plants the
higher will be the outturn of the fibre. Good soil and
proper cultivation are, of course, essential for the success
of the jute crop.

Varieties or Races

Corchorus tapsutotis is principally cultivated in the
"district of Furnea. It is known by the names of Bhadoya

126

lUTK IN PURNF.A

and Amonia Patua, (if which lihadovn (early jutej is most
common, while A monia (late jute) is cultivated to a very
limited extent. 'J'hcrc are principally three colours in the
stems of the jute plants in both the early and late races,
accordingly they are grouped as : —

(/) Green-stemmed plant called s<%fed or ujra Patua>

{ii) Pinkish-stemmed plant named Meghnal.

(Hi) Purple-stemmed plant named also Mn^knal.

Plants of all these three colours are found in mixture
in one field. Regarding the yields some raiyats say that
sa/ed Patua is superior to the .Vjeghnal, while others hold
a contrary opinion. However, the plants of the safeii
races cultivated in the district are usually more branched
than the plants of the Mc^/mal races, so it is easier to strip
the fibre from the AJeghnai jute. Anyhow, about 75 per
cent, of the jute plants of Purnea belongs to the safed race.

Occasionally <. oii(or%u&,'knoy;v\ as Moontashi pafua,
is cultivated in the homestead lands as a pot-herb and not
usually as a fibre crop. The lands of the district are more
or less subject to inundation and are not suitable for this
jute. It cannot bear water-logging to any extent. Hence
it is not possible to introduce this jute into this district.
For the last two years the Kakva Btunbai jute of Bengal
of the Capsularis species has l^een cultivated experimen-
tally in some places It has done well— better than the local
varieties — but it is a late-maturing race, being harvested
about a month later. Most of the raiyats want to trans-
plant paddy on the same land after cutting jute in
July, so they must have an early race to sow. However,
there are also high lands, which are unsuitable for trans-
planted paddy, suitable for this late jute. Undoubtedly
Kakra Botnbai is superior to the local races of jute in
yield. Those who wish to cultivate the crop on a large
scale should cultivate both early and late varieties, .so

127

RESEARCH WORK

that the time of harv'esting might be extended consider-
ably. It would not be possible for them to manage the
harvesting of all the fields at the same time if only the
early or late races be cultivated. Such cultivators should
introduce the Kaki a Bo7nbai ]\.\\.e.

The fibre of Hibiscus cannabirms is sold as jute in
the district. This fibre is a little coarser than the
jute, but it is not easy to separate this fibre from the jute
if mixed together. There is a considerable area under
Hibiscus in this district.

Cutting-
Cutting of jute begins from the beginning of July and
continues till the end of September. As soon as the flowers
appear, the plants are considered to be fit for cutting.
The rai)ats have to wait, however, till the neighbouring
tanks or pools are filled with the rain or flood water, in
order to steep the crop within an easy reach. If steeping
water is not a^'ailable in the neighbourhood of the fields,
the cutting is usually delayed. The jute cut in flower
is considered to be the best in qualit)-, but it is known
to give a high yield if it is cut later on. Jute is hardly
e\'er cut at the stage when the fruits of the plants are
ripe, as it is ver}' difficult to separate the fibre. In Kissenganj
and elsewhere, where padd}- is transplanted' in the same
held in the same season, the cutting is finished by the
middle of August at the latest.

The plants are cut to the ground with a sickle and
then stacked in rows, covering one la)^er with another.
The object of this is to remove as many leaves as possible.
If the plants' are steeped immediately after cutting, the
[eaves are said to discolour the fibre. In low lands, where
the fields are overflooded, this shedding is not done.
.After two or three days the leaves shed and the plants
are made into bundles and carried to the nearest pools

JUTE IN PURNEA

or ditches for steeping and retting. The ditch or pool
water is commonly muddy. This discolours the fibre
to some extent.

Steeping or Retting

The bundles are stacked in water one layer over
another, two or three layers in a stack which is about lo or
12 feet square in size. This stack is commonly covered over
with water weeds. The plants take lO to 20 days to ret.
If the plants are cut in the latter period of the season,
it may take even a month for retting. In hot temperature
the retting is quick. The plants, cut in flower, take a
shorter time than the plants in fruit. After a week or
so, the plants of the stack should be frequently examined,
in order to ascertain whether they were fit for stripping,
as over-retting spoils the quality of the fibre, which gets
weak, loses its gloss, and does not fetch a good price.

Stripping and Washing

Separating the fibre from the stem after the retting
process is complete must be finished within a couple of
days. The stripper stands in about 2 feet deep water
of the ditch or pool by the side of the bundles of
the stack which are taken there if they were steeped
in deep water. He takes a handful {inutkhd) of the
stems and beats the bottom of the stems with a wooden
flat kata, resembling a dairy hand, about 8 inches in length
and 4 inches in width, having a round holder at the bottom
4 inches long. After a few beatings with this kata the
fibre of the stems at the bottom becomes loose. The
stems are then broken off about i foot from the bottom.
The separated fibre is then taken in by both hands and the
stems are pushed forward and backward on the surface of
the water. After a few jerks the fibre is cleared off the

129 I

RESEARCH WORK

stalks. A skilled man can strip about 20 seers (40 lbs.) of
fibre in a day, working 6 hours. An untrained man,
however, cannot strip more than 10 seers (20 lbs.) of fibre.
After separating the fibre from the stalks the stripper
washes the fibre by pulling the fibre right and left in the
same water. The colour of the fibre would be greatly
improved if it were washed in clean water afterwards.
The cultivators, however, will seldom take the trouble of
carrying the fibre to any other place for washing. The
colour of the jute of this district is, in consequence,
blackish, owing to steeping in muddy ditch water. After
washing, the fibre is carried home and dried in the sun over
bamboo poles. It becomes dry in two or three days, after
which the fibre is bundled and is ready for the market.

Outturn

The average outturn of jute of the district is estimated
at 15 maunds (1,230 lbs.) per acre, if weather conditions
are favourable.

Trade

There are two principal classes of jute in the district,.
V'Z., long and short. The jute which is over 8 feet in
length is considered as long jute, while the jute shorter
.than 8 feet is called short jute. About two-thirds of the
jute of the district are long jute and the remaining portion
is short jute. It is of blackish colour. The jute of the
inundated low-lying tracts of the district is barky at the
bottom. The jute imported from Nepal, called Motang
jute, is the best fibre on the market, as it is long and
barkless. Between 3 and 4 lakhs of maunds of jute
are imported into the district from Nepal annually.

Commonly jute is sold by the raiyats at their own
places to the middlemen known as beparies, who take the

130

JUTE IN I'URNKA

fibre to the markets to sell to ihc goladai s. Almost every
^oladar has a hand power press, with which he presses the
jute into bales. These are called the katrha bales t)f the
trade and weigh lOO or 280 lbs. each. ^^X\?^Aq goladars-
press the long atid short jute separately. The bales anr
sent to Calcutta. The chief jute markets in tiie district
are Kissenganj, Forbesganj, Kasba, and Barsoi. At Kissen-
ganj about 8 lakhs of maunds,* at Forbesganj about 6 lakhs
of maunds, at Kasba or Barsoi about 3 lakhs of maunds-
of jute are sold, if the }ield of the district is normal.

Besides the above-mentioned important markets, every
railway station is also a jute market of more or less
importance.

The local weights are different at different places.
From 60 to 90 tolas make a seer. In most places 90 tolas
are taken for a seer. One English pound is equivalent to
41 tolas, or roughly 40 tolas make a pound. Forty seers,
either of 60 tolas or 90 tolas, make a maund.

Preservation of Seed

There is no one in the district who cultivates jute for
the seed for sale. The cultivator usually keeps for seed a
portion of a plot of jute of stunted growth which is
estimated to be sufficient for his own cultivation. An
acre of land produces about 9 maunds to ro maunds of
seed.

Costs

The costs for the cultivation of an acre of land under
jute in Purnea, if calculated, would amount to about Rs. 65.
The cultivators never keep any account to show their
actual expenses for the cultivation. However, a table

* One lakh = 100,000. One standard maund = approximately 82 1^ lbs.

131

RESEARCH WORK

showing estijmated costs for one acre of land is given
below : —

Rs. As. p.

8 ploughings (i ploughing requires
3 ploughs) at 2 ploughs for a rupee... 12 o o

5 seers (10 lbs.) of seed ... 140

2 bidas for raking and thinning ... i o o

I St weeding, 24 men, at annas 6 per
head ... ... ... 900

2nd weeding, 1 2 men, at annas 6 per
head ... ... ... 480

Cutting and steeping, 24 men, at

annas 6 per head ... ... 900

Stripping and washing at Re. 1-8 per
maund, taking 15 maunds as the
outturn ... ... ... 22 8 o

Rent ... .... ... 60

o

Total ... 65

Profit

The average price of one maund of jute (82 lbs.) may
be calculated at Rs. 8 per maund, and the average yield at
1 5 maunds per acre. Thus the price of 1 5 maunds of
jute at Rs. 8 per maund comes to Rs. 120. Net profit,
after deducting the costs of Rs. 65 for the cultivation, may
be estimated at Rs. 55 per acre, or roughly at Rs. 50.

132

CHAPTER XIII

RACES OF JUTE CULTIVATED ON
THE BURDWAN FARM.

URING the harvesting seasons in 1901 and 1902
the seeds of the races of jute cultivated in
Bengal were collected by the officers of the
Agricultural Department, for experimental
purposes, on the 13urdwan F"arm. When they
were grown on the Farm, it was found that the seeds were
awfully mixed, as usual. The author, who . was in charge
of the experiments, had repeatedly to weed out the plants
which were not true to a race, according to the foregoing
descriptions of the races. Further particulars of some
races were added to the former descriptions, after close
observation on the experimental fields. They are as
follows :—

No. I.

Species. — Corchorus capsularis.

Race. — Baran, from Jagannathganj, Mymensingh.

Description. — The stem and petioles of the plants
are light green in colour. On 23rd August, 1902, about
2 per cent, of the plants were found flowering. It is the
latest of all the eleven races of Corchorus capsularis
cultivated on the Farm. Not much branchy. The length
of the highest plant \\-as i2'-o".

No. 2.
Species. — Corchoi us. capsular is.
Race. — Barapat, from Jagannathganj, Mymensingh.

13.3

RESEARCH \\ORK

Description. — Stem and petioles are light green. On the
20th August 30 per cent, of the plants were found flowering.
Not much branchy. The length of the highest plant
.was 1 1 '-5".

No.

:i-

Species — CorcJwms lapsularis.

Race. — Kakxa Boinbm, from Serajgunj, Pabna.

Description.— Stem and petioles are light green. On
26th August 10 per cent, of the plants were found
flowering. Not much branch)-. The length of the highest
plant was 10-9".

No. 4.

Species. — Cor chorus capsiiLiris.

Race. — Desal, from Serajgunj, Pabna.

Description. — Desal is a mixture of t\\ o races of plants.
One race has the stem and leaf-stalk of light green colour,
while the other has the stem of light green colour, but
the colour of the petiole is purplish. On the 20th August
10 percent, of the plants were found flowering. Not much
branch}'. The length of the highest plant was i I'-o".

No. 5.

Species. — Cor chorus capsnlaris.

Race. — Ba'^opat, from Serajgunj, Pabna.

Description. — The stem and petioles are of light green
colour, similar to No. 3. On the 20th August 30 per cent,
of the plants were found flowering. The length of the
highest plant was io'-8".

134

RACKS CULTIVATICI) ON THE BURDWAN FARM

No. 6.

Species. — Corchorus cnpsularis.

Race. — Nailta, from Serajgunj, Pabna.

Description.— Stem and leaf-stalk are purple. On
the 20th August lo per cent, of the plants were found
flowering. It is strong and not much branchy. The
length of the highest plant was q'-S".

No. 7.

Species.— Cor^/zf^r/a capsularis.

Race. — Nal pat or Meghnal, from Rajbari, Faridpur.

Description. — Stem and petioles are purple in colour.
On the 20th August 20 per cent, of the plants were found
flowering. It is similar to No. 6. The length of the
highest plant was 9'-8".

No. 8.

Species. — Corchorus capsularis.

Race. — Amonia, from Pangsa, Faridpur.

Description.— Stems are light green when young, after-
wards purplish, and petioles purplish. On the 20th
August 2 per cent, of the plants were found in flowers. A
late race ; very strong and branchy. It appears that it is
not true Amonia as described in my notes under Races
of Jute in Faridpur. The length of the highest plant
was 9'-/".

No. 9.

Species. — Corchorus capsularis.

Race. — Kain irjdni, from Pangsa, Faridpur.

135

RESEARCH WORK

Description. — Stems are light green at first, but purplish
when older. Petioles are purplish. On the 20th August i
per cent, of the plants was found in flowers. A late race ;
not much branchy. It is similar to No. 8. The length
of the highest plant was 10' -o".

No. 10.

Species. — Corchoi us capsulafis.

Race. — Dhaleswa} , from Narsingdi, Dacca.

Description. — Stem and leaf-stalk are light green. On
the 20th August I per cent, of the plants was found in
flowers. The length of the highest plant was 10-9". It
is similar to No. 3.

No. II.

Species. — Cotxhorus capsularis.

Race. — Belgachi, from Madaripur, Faridpur.

Description. — There is a tinge of purple colour in
the stems and petioles, A late and strong race, branch-
ing freely at the top. The length of the highest plant
was 9'-6". •

No. 12.

Species. — Corchorus olitorius.

Race.- — 7oshn, from Serajgunj, Pabna.

Description. — Stem and petioles of the plants are more
or less pink in colour. On the 19th September 20 per
cent, of the plants were found in flowers, producing only a
few branches at the top. A very late race. The length
of the highest plant was i I'-o".

n6

RACES CULTIVATED ON THE BURDWAN FARM

No. 13.

Species. — Corchorus oli tortus.

Race. — Sattiala, from Rajbari, Faridpur.

Description. — The stem and petioles of the plants are
light green. It came into flower about 20th July. An
early variety, branching irregularly at ^ the top. The
length of the highest plant was 11 '-o".

No. 14.

Species. — Corchorus olitorius.

Race. — Desi pat, Desi lal/)at, from Serampore, Hoogly.

Description. — Stem and petioles are pink in colour
On the 19th September 26 per cent, of the plants were
in flowers. The length of the highest plant was i2'-o*.

No. 15.

Species. — Corchot us olitorius.

Race.: — Bang}, from Narsingdi, Dacca.

Description. — Stems and petioJes are light green. The
length of the highest plant was \o'-y". It is similar to
No. n.

m

CHAPTER XIV

A LIST OF THE NAMES OF JUTE
(Typical Races were grown on the Burdwan Farm)

Name.

District
where grown.

N.\ME.

District
where grown.

C. capsular is.

C. capsularis.

Lankagoira pat
Lankagoira pat

Hoogly.
24 Parganas.

Cowpla
Desal

Faridpur.

Aus

Mymensingh.

Dhaleswari

Baran
Bara pat
Boran
Chhoran

11

Dhapa
Dhupri
Ghagri
Kajla

Chhota pat
Kamarjani
Kuchmardan ...

Kamarjani

Kuchmardan

Lali

• 11

Nal pat

Parbatya

Agniswar

Dacca.

Meghnal
Nal pat
Peti

)>

Belgachi
Bidya.sundar . . .
Desal

)»

Ranga pat
Sut pat
Shani

5)

Desi

Sodu

Desi Nallya

Dhaleswari

Dhalsundar

Udhap pat ...

Bagi

Bangi

Backerganj,

Kajla
Parbatya
Amonia
Belgachi

Faridpur.

Cowpla

Nileta

Pechi ... 1

Rakta Bagi ...

■)•>

138

A LIST OF THE NAMES OF JUTE.

Namk.

C. capsularis.

Sut pat

Bidya sundai ..

Deo dhali

Dhal sundar

Meghnal

Phuleswari

Bara pata

Bombai

IJeswal

Kakya 1

District
where grown.

Backerganj.
Tippera.

Pabna.

C. capsjilatis.

Kakya Bombai

Nalita

Ausa

Pihadoya

Hewta

Hewti

Betre

Bhadoya

Hewti

Lai pata

District
where grown.

Pabna.

))
Rangpur.

J)
Jalpaiguri.

Corchorus olitoriiis.

Baran

Mymensingh.

Bara pata

Faridpur.

Bar pata

11

Dhala Bagi ..

Nileta

1

Dhamraj

Packnallya

11

Meghnal ^

Talla

Nal Bagi

Banghi

Dacca.

Ranga Bagi ..

Banghi nallya ..

11

Satnala

Deo nallya

11

Parbatimadai...

Rangpur.

Bagi

Faridpur.

Bomochak

Jalpaiguri.

Bami

11

Marua pata

"

'39

JUTE IN BENGAL

PART IV— TRADE
CHAPTER I

PHYSICAL DIVISIONS OF JUTE TRACTS

CIENTIFICALLY the jute areas may be
divided into two great divisions according"
to the courses of the two great rivers, the
Ganges and the Brahmaputra, which, with
their tributaries, flow through the jute areas.
The characters of the soils of the Gangetic area oft which
jute is grown and the waters of this area in which
the jute is steeped and washed — the two principal
factors for producing jute— ^are quite different from those of
the Brahmaputra area. The lands in the Gangetic area
are for the most part lower, subjected to annual floods,
while those in the Brahmaputra area are higher. The
water of the Ganges is muddy, while that of the Brahma-
putra is clear. These differences in the conditions of the
soils and the waters of the jute areas produce effects on the
qualities of the fibres which are quite distinct. An expert
trader in jute will separate the fibre of one division from
that of the other without any geographical knowledge
of the tracts where they were produced. The fibre of
the Gangetic area is strong, coarse, bark}' and yellowish
in colour, which fades in storage, while that of the Brahma-
putra area is fine, white, more glossy and elastic, as well
as strong. The fibre of the Brahmaputra area can bear
more tension and twisting. Of course, there 'are exceptions.
The colour of the jute of the bheel lands in the Gangetic

140

PHYSICAL DIVISIONS OF JUTE TRACTS

area, where there is clear water for washing, is in no way
inferior to that of the good-coloured jute of the Brahma-
putra area. On the other hand, in parts of the Brahmaputra
area where clear water is not available for steeping and
washing, it is done in dirty ditch water. The colour of this
jute is not better than that of the jute of theGangetic area.

There are also high lands containing loamy soils in
the Gangetic area where jute of fine texture is obtained.
On the other hand, coarse fibre of fading colour is produced
on the low c/iar-\ands in the Brahmaputra area. Barring
these exceptions, however, the fibres of these two
divisions may be distinguished on the distinct points noted
below : —

Fibres of the Gangetic

Area

Strong.

Coarse or thick.

Short.

Yellowish coloured.

Barky.

Less glossy.

Fibres of the Brahma-
putra Area

1. Strong.

2. Fine.

3. Long.

4. White coloured.

5. Little barky.

6. Glossy.

7. Bearing more tension
I and twisting.

In a word, the fibres possessing all the qualities which
are desirable are available from the Brahmaputra area.

Jute grows to a very small extent (20,000 acres) in
some parts of the delta formed by the rivers Mahanadi,
Brahmani and Baitarani included in the districts of
Cuttack and Balasore in Orissa. The quality of the
fibre of this part of the country is coarse and yellowish,
and also sticky, due to defective stripping.

In the Gangetic area, the jute crop is first seen in the
diarah (char) lands in the Rajmahal Subdivision in the
district of the Sonthal Parganas on the right bank of the
river Ganges. The Ganges has taken a slower course

141

TRADE

down from Rajmahal. The cultivation has not extended,
to any extent, on the high lands in the Gangetic plains
known as the old alluvium consisting of hard reddish soils.

From Rajmahal down to the Hoogly or Bhagirathi, the
western branch of the Gangetic delta, the cultivation is
entirely confined to the diarah lands. But it is extensively
cultivated on the higher parts of the delta which com-
mences about 300 miles off from the sea, excluding salt-
impregnated parts in the Sundarbans. This area includes
the districts of Hoogly and Murshidabad on the west,
Nadia, the 24-Parganas, Jessore and Khoolna in the
middle, and Faridpur and I3arisal on the east. The most
important branches of the delta are the Bhagirathi or
Hoogly on the west, the Bhairab and the Goroi or
Madhumathi in the middle, and the Arialkhan on the
east. Most parts of this area are annually inundated,
where silts are deposited. Special characteristics of the
fibres of this tract are coarse in texture and yellowish
in colour, fading in storage. The daisi jute is principally
obtained from the banks of the Hoogly.

On the left bank of the Ganges, the jute area has,
properly speaking, commenced downwards from the Kushi
river, dividing the districts of Bhagalpur and Purnea. Jute
is cultivated to a very limited extent further up in the Tirhut
Division in North Bihar. This tract of land is watered by
a net-work of tributaries of the Ganges, of which the most
important are the Gogra, the Gandak and the Kushi. They
over-flood the banks suddenly to a depth of water which
the crop cannot resist. Otherwise, the soil which is rich
and alluvial is well suited to it. After leaving the branch
Bhagirathi (Hoogly), on the right, the Ganges takes the
name of Padma. From the Kushi on the west to the
alluvial banks of the Brahmaputra on the east, jute is very
extensively cultivated. This area may^ be divided into
three parts or divisions. The first part consists of a tract
of low lands between the Kushi on one side and the Maha-

142

PHYSICAL DIVISIONS (M' JUTE TRACTS

nanda on tlie olher. The latter flows down rather
slowl}- to the Gani^es through the districts of Purnea,
Dinajpur and Maldah. This part of the country may
be included in the Gangetic area. Fibre of an inferior
quality, in points of strength, length and colour, is produced
in this part of the area. The weakness of the fibre is
surely due to over-steeping. The second part of this
country consists of the high lands between the Mahananda
and the Karotoa riv^ers, including parts of the districts
of Dinajpur, Jalpaiguri, Rangpur, Bogra, Rajshahi and
Pabna, with the exception of a contiguous and large
tract containing old alluvial soils of a structure similar
to that found on the right bank of the Ganges already
noticed. This section, called khiar land, contains
portions of the districts of Dinajpur, Rangpur, Bogra,
Rajshahi and Maldah. The word khiar is derived per-
haps from the colour \\hich resembles that of khair
[katli). The Karotoa flows in a slow course towards
south-east from Darjeeling to the main stream of the
Brahmaputra called Jamuna. Another important river
in this part is the Atrai. It flows through the districts of
Dinajpur and Rajshahi. These two districts are almost
bisected by it. The banks are hardly overflooded. Then
it joins the Karotoa river in the district of Pabna. The
northern class of jute comes from this part of the country.
It is tall, little barky and fine, and can bear twisting
very well, but it is generally yellowish in colour owing to
its steeping and washing in ditch water, and it is some-
what weak for over-steeping. Otherwise this area yields
a fibre of a high grade. The Brahmaputra area com-
mences off from the river Mahananda. Now comes
the third part of these jute tracts lying between the
river Karotoa, a tributary to the Brahmaputra, and its
main course. This part of the country is watered
by the Brahmaputra and its other numerous tributaries,
of which the important ones are theSubansiri and the Manes

143

TRADE

<lraining the extreme northern valley of Assam, and also
the Gadadhar or Sankosh and the Raidak. The tribu-
tary Raidak separates Assam from Bengal. All of them
flow right from north to south. The most important of
the tributaries in this division of the Brahmaputra area
is the Teesta. It rises from the Himalaya and takes
a south-eastern course from Darjeeling. In its course
to the Brahmaputra, it drains parts of the districts of
Jalpaiguri, Cooch Behar and Rangpur. The most im-
portant river on the eastern part of the Brahmaputra area
is the Surma, which flows through the districts of Cachar
and Sylhet into the Meghna. They form two valleys in
Assam, called the Brahmaputra and the Surma Valleys.
Jute is grown to a limited extent in the Surma Valley,
which does not appear to be well suited to the crop, owing
to heavy' rainfalls from the beginning of the growing
season. The Brahmaputra Valley, on the other hand, is
better adapted to the crop, where it is steadily extending.
The fibre of the Brahmaputra Valley and that of the
banks of the Teesta are really identical and of good quali-
ties, which should form a separate class in the trade.

The Brahmaputra, after breaking through the moun-
tainous regions in north-eastern Assam, takes a slower course
towards the west, watering the plain lands of northern Assam,
called the Brahmaputra Valley, within the limits of the
districts of Lakhimpur, Sibsagar, Nowgong, Darrang,
Kamrup, Goalpara and the Garo Hills. On leaving the
Garo Hills on the left, it turns abruptly towards the south and
enters Bengal. After it receives the Teesta near Fulchari
in Bogra, it flows down in a rapid course to join the Ganges
at Goalundo, overflooding parts of the districts of Rangpur,
Bogra and Pabna on the right bank and Mymensingh and
Dacca on the left. The jute fibre of this section of
the Brahmaputra area is not very good in quality, being
rather coarse and yellowish in colour, and fading in storage.

144

PHYSICAL DIVISIONS OF JUTE TRACTS

In other respects it is a long, strong and healthy class of
jute.

The Brahmaputra, in another very slow course, flows
down through the Mymensingh district, from the north-
western corner near Bahadurabad to the south-eastern
corner, and joins the Meghna. This course is now
called the old Brahmaputra. Formerly the main current
flowed through it. The present main stream already noticed,
which meets the Ganges at Goalundo, is still called by the
name of the Jamuna by the people who live on its banks.
The old Brahmaputra and the Meghna supply the country
with exceptionally clear water. The highest class of jute
is produced on the high lands of the banks of the old
Brahmaputra and Meghna. In point of excellence, no
other qualities can approach it, for which fancy prices are
always offered.

The Barak (Barabakra) which rises from the Lushai
Hills joins the Surma near Marculi. It is the most
important tributary of the Surma. Man}- other tributaries
flowing through the eastern parts of Mymensingh and
western parts of Sylhet, fall into the Surma on the right
bank. These parts also form a most important jute
tract. The Surma downwards Marculi is called by the
name of Meghna. According to some of the eminent
writer^ on geography of India, the Surma is said to be a
tributary to the Brahmaputra. But from the fact that the
Brahmaputra joins the Meghna at almost right angles, it
may be suggested that the Surma or Meghna is not a
tributary, which is probably older in origin than the
Brahmaputra. It is not our point, however, to discuss the
matter further as to the ages of these rivers.

From the junction of the rivers Brahmaputra and the
Meghna, it flows towards a south-western direction, leaving
the districts of Sylhet and Tippera on the left bank and
Mymensingh and Dacca districts on the right, and joins
the Ganges over again near Chandpur, about 70 miles off

145 T

TRADE

from the Bay. They retain the name of the Meghna till
they fall into the sea. A high class of jute is obtained
from the banks of the Meghna up to the Chandpur Station.
Downwards Chandpur the crop suddenly disappears.

Thus we see that the jute is a romantic plant. It
thrives in particular soils under certain climatic conditions,
but avoids some soils of the neighbouring places under
the same climatic conditions. It becomes fine in some
soils, but coarse in others, at the same place. It changes its
colour owing to slight differences in waters which are used
for steeping and washing. It has adapted the soils of
the deltas of Mahanadi and the Ganges and the soils of
the banks of the Brahmaputra and the Meghna, but
quietly rejected the other parts of the country. It has
revolutionised the Indian trade, for which the people who
deal any way in it are getting prosperous.

Taking physical conditions into consideration, the areas
under jute, producing different qualities of fibres, may be
divided into the following divisions, as illustrated below : —

(A) Gangetic Area

III!
(I) (2) (3) (4)

Madaripore Jessore Hoogly Purnea

•

(B) Brahmaputra Area

I

\ r \ i \ ~~

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Upper Lower Old Meghna Northern

Brahmaputra Brahmaputra Brahmaputra

In the Gangetic area the Hoogly division yields the
Daisi quality.

The Old Brahmaputra division supplies the commercial
quality of Jath jute. The District quality is principally
imported from the Upper Brahmaputra, Lower Brahma-
putra and Meghna divisions.

146

CHAPTER II

COMMERCIAL DIVISIONS OF
JUTE TRACTS

UTE growing tracts in Bengal were com-
mercially divided into five Divisions in the
former edition of this book, in 1908, z^/^. : —

(i) Narainganj ;

(ii) Serajganj ;

(iii) Uttarya or Northern ;

(iv) Dowrah ;

(v) Daisi.

(i) " Narainganj " jute is grown on the tracts of lands
which are supplied with water from the old Brahmaputra
river. There is no other jute tract in Bengal where water
is so clean as that of the old Brahmaputra. The colour
of the jute of this tract is the best in the market. Most
parts of this tract are liable to submersion by floods
when the crop is still on the fields. This standing water
is responsible for the " barky " and " mossy " fibres of this
tract. High lands of this tract yield fibres of excep-
tional good quality. About 30 per cent, of the jute of
this tract are " hessian." Narainganj and Chandpur are
the principal markets in this tract, which are under the
jurisdiction of Mymensingh, Dacca and Tippera districts.

(ii) " Serajganj " jute is obtained from the tract of
lands which are fed by the new Brahmaputra or Jamuna
river. The water of this river is not equal to that of
the old Brahmaputra in point of cleanh'ness. The prin-
cipal market of this tract is Serajganj, which is supplied
with jute from the western parts of Mymensingh, and

147

TRADE

from Pabna, Bogra, Cooch Behar, Rangpur and Goalpara.
About 30 per cent, of the jute of this tract fall under
" hessian."

(iii) " Uttar}a " or " Northern " jute is grown in the
tract of high lands which are principally watered by the
tributary rivers of the Brahmaputra. Only a limited
part of this tract receives direct supply of water from
the rivers. Jute of tnis tract is, therefore, steeped and
washed mainly in ditch water, and as the same water is
used for successive steepings, it becomes more or less
coloured owing to decayed vegetable substances, as the
operation is continued. The colour of the jute of this
■tract is therefore inferior. Thirty per cent, of this jute
come under "hessian."^ Huldibari, Domar, Kissenganj,
Kasba and Forbesganj are the principal marts in this
tract, which includes the districts of Rajshahi, Bogra,
Rangpur, J alpaiguri, Dinajpur, Maldah, and Purnea.

(iv) " Dowrah " jute is grown on the lands which are
swamped by the branches of the river Ganges, containing
muddy water. This muddy water imparts a grey colour
to the fibre of this tract. The Dowrah juteis very strong,
but barky and harsh. It is principally used for sackings and
cordage. Madaripur, Berhamganj and Angaria in the
district of Faridpur are the chief markets in this tract.

(v) " Daisi " jute belongs to the species Corchorus
clitorius. It is grown on the high lands in the neighbour-
hood of Calcutta. The jute of this tract is steeped in the
ditch water supplied by the rains or the rivers Bhagirathi
and Damoodar, also Roopnarain, which contain muddy
water during the rains. Owing to the quality of the
water and some objectionable method of steeping, the
jute of this tract is more or less black in colour. This
jute is principally used for bagging. Badyabati in Hoogly
and Belgatchia in the 24-Parganas are the principal
markets.

14S

COMMERCIAL DIVISIONS OF JUTE TRACTS

The above classifications were made by the trade
according to the different quaHties of the fibres of certain
tracts of lands, which were imported into the markets
of the Division. In each Division there were certain
markets where the jute of that Di-vision or tracts of land
was sold. The fibres of a Division were not certainly
of uniform qualities. Now, for the convenience of the
trade, systematic classifications of the jute markets have
been made more or less according to the qualities of fibres
sold. Thus in the same tracts, markets of different
classes are found. For example, in the old Narainganj
tracts, comprising parts of Mymensingh, Dacca and
Tippera districts, there are two classes of markets — one
class selling the best grades of fibre called " Jath " (true)
jute, while in the other the fibres of inferior qualities
known as " District " jute are sold.

"Jath" jute is fine, strong, long, healthy and glossy, of
milky white colour, and the " ]3istrict " jute is coarse and
more or less barky, the colour of which fades afterwards
and the healthiness is lost. In other respects, it is similar
to the "Jath " paf.

It would not be however inconsistent with the classifica-
tions of the areas made by us, in the beginning of this
chapter, if it is explained that, although the "Jath " and the
"District" jutes are grown on the same tt-acts, yet
there are differences in qualities which are due to the facts
that the "Jath" jute is the product of the high lands of
the Brahmaputra area, while the " District " jute is the
fibre of the clvir lands of the same Brahmaputra area sub-
jected to inundation annually. In some " District " jute
markets, the fibres, both from the Gangetic and the
Brahmaputra areas, are sold, which cannot be taken
as general. From the tendency of the jute business, it
appears that the "District" jute should consist entirely
of the fibre of the char lands of the Brahmaputra area.

149

TRADE

In the Brahmaputra area there is another class of
jute called " Northern " jute, which is grown on the high
lands. According to the present commercial classifications,
it cioes not fall either under " Jath " or " District " owing to
ihe facts that it becomes blackish and weak on account
of steeping and washing in dirty ditch water and over-
retting, respectively, losing its gloss and healthiness.
Otherwise, it should have been a high-class jute of fine
texture. The jute of the old Serajgunj Division falls
under Northern qualities.

The jute of the defunct Dowrah Division comes now'
under Madaripur qualities. The fibres of the Gangetic
area already described fall under this class, which is
inferior to the fibres of the qualities " Jath " and " District.^
This class of fibres of the Madaripur Division is coarse
and barky, though strong. The colour is yellowish, which
fades in storage. The jute which is produced on the left
side of the river Goroi or Madhumati, goes to ths
Madaripur quality, while that on the right is assorted
as the " Jessore " qualit}'. It is similar to that of the
Madaripur class, but it is not so strong, owing to over-
steeping. The Purnea jute is identical with that of the
Jessore class, but it is generally shorter. A better class
of fibre is imported into the Purnea markets from Nepal.

The Mahanadi Division in Orissa yields a strong and
yellowish fibre, but it is more or less sticky owing to defects
in stripping. In this Division jute is chiefly cultivated
in the Kendrapara Subdivision in the Cuttack district.

There has not been an)' change n the Dnisi quality
of jute. It belongs to the species Cindwins < lit onus.

Toshfi of Serajganj, Ba^i of Dacca or Faridpur, and

Niletd of Mymensingh come under the same class. This
jute is largely cultivated in the Burdwan Division and in

the 24-Parganas in the Presidenc}- Division in Bengal.

In Eastern Bengal and Pabna, its cultivation is but
limited, not exceeding 5 per cent, of the total crop

L50 «

COMMERCIAL DIVISIONS OF JUTE TRACTS

while it is little in Northern Bengal. It is never
•cultivated in the low lands subjected to floods. The
fibre of this (juality i» very coarse, of brownish yellow
colour, little barky, but healthy. It is very suitable for
sackings. Owing to dirty water of ditches in which
jute is steeped in the neighbouring districts of Calcutta,
the colour of the fibres becomes blackish.

The follow ing diagrams will show the various qualities
of jute \\hich are available in the markets for sale : — •

Divisions of Qualities

1 II III

Gangtt.c Area Brahmap.:t;a Art-a Mahanadi Area

ladaripijr

I. Gangetic Area

(2)
Jessore

(3)
Puinea

(4).
Daisi

(0
jaih

II. Brahmaputra Area

(2)
District

(3)

Northern

(4)
Tosha

III. Maha;iadi Area

Cuttack

It should be noted that these classifications have
caothiiag ±o do with assortments of fibres in which

151

TRADE

business is done in the market. The fibres of any-
particular class, such as Jath, District, Northern or
Madaripur, are again assorted as I's, 2's, 3's, 4's, etc., accord-
ing to the qualities of the fibres contained in each bale as
enumerated in Chapter V, l*art IV. But the prices of the
fibres of these assortments differ according to the classes
they belong to. Thus the fibre of the assortment of 2's or
3's of the Jath class of jute is sold at a higher price than
that of the assortment of 2's or 3's of the District or the
Madaripur or the Northern jute. Similarly, the 2's or 3's
of the District class of jute are considered to be better
than the 2's or 3's of the Madaripur class. Exactly in
the same way, differences are made between 2's or 3's
of Tosha {C. oil tortus of Eastern Bengal) and Daisi
{C. olitofius of Western Bengal). A list showing the
markets dealing in different classes of jute, as classified
above, is duly given elsewhere.

152

CHAPTER III

COMMERCIAL CLASSIFICATION
OF FIBRES

UTE fibres are classified in the trade
according to their different qualities, such as
strength, length, colour, gloss and fineness.
In fine or soft jute there is absence of barks,
specks and gummy substances ; while harsh
jute may contain one or more of these defects. Weak or
damaged jute loses its strength and also its gloss. Jute
ma}^ be divided into six classes : —

I. Hessian-warp ;

II. Hessian-weft ;

III. Sacking-warp;

IV. Sacking-weft ;
V. Rejections ;

VI. Cuttings.

I. Hessian-warp is a strong, long, healthy and fine
jute of good gloss and silvery white colour, without any
defects, such as barky, mossy, sticky or specky. This stuff
is used for spinning thread, which is suitable as warp for
weaving hessian cloth or other finer fabrics. This class of
jute consists of the ideal finest fibre of this country. Only
a limited quantity of this quality is available. It is chiefly
exported to Europe.

II. Hessian-weft is inferior to Hessian-warp in length
and gloss, but similar to it in other respects. This jute is
used for weft in the hessian cloth referred to above.

HI. Sacking-warp is a strong, long and healthy jute,
irrespective of any particular colour. It is coarser than the

153

TRADE

stuffs I and II. The thread spun out of this jute is
used as warp for weaving sacks.

IV.' Sacking-weft is a dull-coloured short* or weak
jute used for weft in sacks.

V. Rejections are the worst stuffs, which are either
damaged or barky or knotty, used in spinning thread for
sacking weft. The barky jute is used in spinning after it
is softened with oil and water and passed through softeners
[vide the article on European Manyfactures),

VI. Cuttings are the barky or hard portions of jute
cut off from the bottom or the top. Cuttings are either
used in spinning sacks as weft, after being softened with oil
and water as referred to above, or in paper making.

* The fibre which is below 7 ?eet in length, after deducting the cuttings,
is called " short " jute, the usual length of long jute being from 8 to 12 feet.
In a normal year, two-thirds of jute are long and one-third short.

154

CHAPTER IV

BALING

QTE is pressed into bales by the dealers for
convenience of transport from one place to
another. The baling is done by means of
hand and steam power presses. The bales
which are pressed by hand press are called
k<>ii/ia bales, while those made by steam press are ^^tra
bales. The kaUlia bales are re-baled into patca bales by
the balers, if they are intended for export out of India.

A large number of hand power presses are used in
this country for pressing bales weighing 33'^ maunds
(280 lbs.) each to a density of about 12^ cubic feet. In
some places, where facilities for conveyance are not
sufficient, smaller presses for bales weighing i^ maunds
(120 lbs.) each are set up. From an economic point of
view the former are preferred to the latter.

There are two classes of presses sold in Bengal for the
Kntchn bales : one class is called the lever press, while the
other the hydraulic press. Lever presses are simpler in
construction, and it is easy to fit or set them up. It
requires some mechanical training on the part of the man
who would fit up a hydraulic press. The hydraulic presses
can be economically worked with steam power, in which
case one set of pumps, working two presses at a time
gives much more outturn than that obtained from two.
hand-power lever presses.

Ordinarily one lever press, working 10 hours a day,
turns out about 200 bales of 35^2 maunds each with 16
labourers, or about 200 bales of i ^ maunds each with
8 labourers, at the rate of 20 bales per hour. The act of
pressing is commonly done by contract s}-stem. For
each bale of 3^:^ maunds, about two annas, while for
1^2-inaund bales, about an anna-and-a-half per bale, are
paid to the labourers. The total cost including the hire

155

TRADE

of the press, godown, labourers, etc., amounts to annas S
per 35^-maund bale and annas 6 for each i^-maund bale.

Hand-presses are sold by many firms in Calcutta.
The Chain Press of Messrs. Mandal & Co. is claimed to be
cheaper than any other lever presses.

For export to Europe and America bales of 40?) lbs.
(5 maunds) each are pressed to a density of iO"4 cubic
feet, not exceeding 52 cubic feet per ton, or 5 bales.

There are three patterns of pressing machines in
Calcutta, the best of which is called the Cyclone Press.
It has a capacity of pressing about 60 bales of jute or 40
bales of cuttings of jute per hour. The Watson Press
comes next to the Cyclone Press. About 40 bales of jute
or 26 bales of cuttings may be pressed in an hour by this
machine. The capacity of the Nasmyth Press is to press
about 30 bales of jute or 20 bales of cuttings per hour.
Rs. 2-8 is charged for pressing a bale of jute, including
the costs for cordage (5 lbs.) and despatching from the
Press-house. For the bales of the cuttings and J)aisi
jute, annas 2 extra is charged for a pound of additional
rope required per bale. An additional amount of about
annas 14 for the jute of the species C. capsularis, annas 10
for Tosha, and annas 5 for Daisi (which does not require
the roots to be cut off) per bale, is charged for assortment
and cutting the roots.

There are 29 pressing machines in Calcutta, 2 at
Narainganj and i at Chandpur. Each machine has a
capacity of working 3 or 4 presses. Altogether there
were no presses working in Bengal during 1917 employ-
ing 24,438 labourers. The average for the 5 years ending
1917 works out to 240 men for each press. About 30 men
are required for driving a machine — Mistries, firemen and
Khalasies, — and an additional 20 men for each press for
baling. A vast army of labourers are wanted for assort-
ment. One man can sort fibres for i ^ to 2 bales of C. cap-
sularis (Bilathi pnt)2Xid. 4 to 5 balesofZ>rtzVz jute, per diem.

156

CHAPTER V

LOOSE JUTE

is imported into the Calcutta Bazar,
mills and the press-houses in drums
katcha bales. The drums weigh 30
40 seers of jute each, without any
particular assortment. The katcha bales
are generally of 31^ maunds (280 lbs.) each, assorted to a
certain extent, and pressed at the places from where
they are despatched. These bales are made of the
following qualities : —

I's contain ... 80 to 90% Hessian-warp ;

10 to 20"/ Weft and cuttings.
This quality is entirely exported to Europe, if available.

2's contain ... 40 to 60% Hessian-warp;

40 to 60% Weft and cuttings.
2's are divided into the following groups —
2's (Green) contain ... 60% Hessian-warp;

20% Sacking- warp ;

20% Weft and cuttings.

Calcutta mills buy a very small quantity of this quality-
It is mainly requisitioned for Europe.

2's (Red) contain ... 50% Hessian-warp;

40% Sacking- warp ;
10% Weft and cuttings.
2's (Ordinary) contain ... 40% Hessian-warp;

40% Sacking-warp ;
20% Weft and cuttings.
Red 2's are largely used by the Calcutta mills.
From this stuff, the mills pick up the fibre suitable for
weaving hessian cloth.

'57

TRADE

There is another assortment under 2's called X2's which
has also a large business in Calcutta.

X 2's contain ... 20% Hessian-warp ;

60% Sacking-warp ;

20% Weft and cuttings.
3's contain ... 70% Sacking- warp ;

30% Weft and cuttings.
Good 3's give ... 10% Hessian- warp ;

60% Sacking- warp ;

30% Weft and cuttings.

Under 3's there is also another quality which is called
in the Calcutta market as X3's.

X3's yield . . . 60% Sacking- warp ;

40% Weft and cuttings.
4's contain * *.. 40% Sacking-warp;

60% Weft and cuttings.
Good 4's have ... 50% Sacking-warp ;

50% Weft and cuttings.
X4's have ^.. 30% Sacking- warp ;

70% Weft and cuttings.

There are too many qualities in which business is done
in the Calcutta market. The result is that there are
frequent disputes between the buyers and the sellers.

Rejections contain all weft for sacking. It is the
worst of all the fibres sold. But a better quality of
rejections yield : —

20% Sacking- warp ;
80% Weft and cuttings.

A very inferior grade of rejections is also available in
the market, which contains fibre which is barky, specky

158

LQOSE JUTE

and hard all through, due to over-ripening of the crop and
bad steeping and washing. It is called Terrible Rejections
(T. R.), and used chiefly for paper manufacture.

Cuttings are the portions of jute cut from the bottoms
or tops of the fibres to bring the fibres under a uniform
quality. Cuttings are of different qualities as noted
below : —

N. C. = Narainganj jute cuttings.

O. C. =^ Ordinary jute cuttings.

T, C. = Tosha jute cuttings.

D. C. = Daisi jute cuttings.

B. C. =^ Bagging cuttings.

M. C. = Mixing cuttings out of all jute cuttings.

CJuttings, in mixture of short jute, are used in the
Calcutta mills in manufacture of sacking cloth as
weft in the following proportions and passed through
the softeners :—

2 parts short jute.

I part cuttings.

The Narainganj cuttings, which are lO to 12 inches
long, are the best of all. The Bagging cuttings are used
for paper making in Eur®pe. They are very short, about
'•4" long, as they are obtained from the cuttings of bags.
The Mixing cuttings ars the worst stuffs, which cannot
be used for baggings, but for paper.

The cuttings are largely used in the Indian mills for
mixing purposes ; they are also baled for export to foreign
countries.

The standard grade of the loose jute market is called
50/50, that is, 50 per cent, of the bales contain 2's and
50 per cent. 3's. The price of this standard grade is the
basis on . which the prices of other qualities are deter-
mined. Of course the price of a particular quality
chiefly depends on its demand.

159

CHAPTER VI

BALED JUTE

UTE is exported from Bengal to Europe and
America in bales of 400 lbs. each, pressed
by steam power to the measure of about
10^2 cubic feet, containing definite qualities
of fibres, assorted according to definite marks
of the balers, who are the members of the Calcutta Baled
Jute Association.

Each specified mark represents particular quality
and grade of jute duly registered by the Calcutta Baled
Jute Association. No public mark that has not been
included in the Official Book of Marks issued by the
Calcutta Baled Jute Association on or before the first July
in each year and lodged with the London and the Dundee
Jute Associations, can be substituted under any grade.
In the event of unavoidable circumstances preventing
shipment. of such mark or marks as guaranteed, the seller
can substitute another mark or marks of the same grade
and of equal quality at a reduction of los. per ton from
contract price. If it prove to beeJnferior to guarantee, the
liability of the seller to the buyer shall be on the mark or
marks specified. No allowance can be claimed unless the
inferiority shall exceed \os. per ton, but in that case the
buyer shall have the right either (i) to recover from the
seller the full difference in value on the date when such
inferiority shall be acknowledged or final award issued,
or (2) if the inferiority shall exceed 50X. per ton, to invoice
the jute back to the seller within 5 days after receipt of
the award and recover from the seller in respect thereof
a price per ton to be stated in the award equal to lOi".
above the market value of the quality contracted for on the
date when such inferiority is acknowledged or final award
issued. On substituted marks the buyers shall have the

160

BALED JUTE

right either (i) to recover from the seller the full difference
in value ; or (2) if the inferiority shall exceed 20s. per ton,
to invoice the jute back to the seller within 5 days after
r-eceipt of award, and recover from the seller, in respect
thereof, a price per ton to be stated in the award, equal to
10s. above the market value of the quality contracted for,
on the date when such inferiority is acknowledged or final
award issued. '7^

The marks are grouped as follows : — '1

Diamonds Lightnings

Reds Mangos i

Firsts Hearts

Daccas Daisi

Jute is sold under guarantee* in Calcutta, which is to
be of the average standard of the grade, free from Bombay
quality and Rejections, and the roots being clean cut.
This guarantee is restricted to jute of the grades higher
than what is known as " Hearts," with an exception of the
" Daisi " group. Formerly the standard quality was known
in the baled jute market by the name of M group or
" Cracks," baled principally out of the jute of the Seraj-
ganj Division. This group is now substituted by the
" Firsts," which are made up of the selected qualities of
the Northern jute. '■

This group as well as those below it, excepting " Daisi,"
is composed of the fibres in equal proportions of 2's and
3's, packed, of course, separately. In the " Firsts " 2's should'
yield 40 per cent, of Hessian-warp and 3's 70 per cent, of
Sacking-warp, not without a large percentage of Hessian-
weft in the latter. Now true Hessian-warp is hardly used for
the marks of this group. This quality of fibre is specially
picked up for the marks of the higher group. At present,
in the " Firsts " the 2's contain 40 per cent, of warp jute
resembling Hessian-warp in all respects, specially in

• For details, please see the Contract Forms issued by the London Jute
AssoctRtim f.nd the Calcutta Baled Jute Association,

f6i K

TRADE

length and strength. Next to the " Firsts " the " Daccas/
assorted similarly as the " Firsts," form a group which is
most important. They are baled chiefly out of the
District qualities of the Mymensingh and |^Dacca dis-
tricts. Differences between these two groups are on the
following points : —

"Firsts" consist of soft fine jute of inferior colour,
while the Daccas are made of hard coarse jute of superior
colour. Both are equally long.

Taking all points into consideration, there are slight
differences between them. Sometimes " Daccas " are sold at
a little higher price. There is always a strong demand for it.

The marks of the " Lightnings " group are made up of
the medium common Northern qualities, while the
" Mangos," popularly called the C. D. M. group, out of
the common medium District jute. In the marks of both
the groups, the residues of the higher marks are used. The
fibres of these groups are largely used for sacking purposes.

Formerly, the Madaripur qualities had no place in the
baled jute market, due to excessive malpractice of fraudu-
lent watering, and also to its containing tap roots (Bombay
Quality), as the plants were uprooted instead of being cut.
These defects have nearly been removed. Now the
Madaripur jute is eagerly purchased for the " Mangos "
marks, also for the " Daccas." Some portion of it, which
is produced in the bheel tracts, goes still higher for the
"Diamonds."

It may be stated that the C. D. M. (red mark) under
the " Reds " is quite different from the popular C. D. M.
C. D. M. (red) is superior to the marks of the group
" Firsts " or the " Daccas."

" Hearts" are composed of low grade weak jute with
which gunny bags are chiefly manufactured.

As already noticed, there are some marks of ifine and
exceptionally good qualities with colour of true Hessian-
warp.

162

BALED JUTE

The " Diamonds " are packed out the picked fibres
of the Mymensingh and Dacca districts, while the " Reds "
from the " Northern " qualities. Only a limited business
is done in the fibres of these two top groups. Dundee
is the principal buyer, and also France and Germany, where
these fibres are utilised for mixing purposes for manufac-
ture of woollen textiles.

It may be noted that different marks even under the
same group differ considerably from one another, both in
qualities and values.

Besides the foregoing marks, there are also some
recognised marks of inferior qualities consisting of
" Bombay " or " Dowrah " q ualities, " Rejections " and the
cuttings of different qualiti es which were already noticed
in the chapter under Loose Jute.

In addition to the groups of marks described above,
there is another group known as the " Daisi," composed
of the jute of C. oliioj-ius species. It is getting into
favour with buyers both in Europe and India. The
importance of this quality lies in its absence of. roots,
which is a thing of great economic gain to the spinners.
It is sent out to Europe in three principal numbers of I's,
2's, and 3's. The general standard is an equal percentage
of i's and 3's, for example, 10 per cent, of I's, 80 per cent,
of 2's and 10 per cent, of 3's ; or 20 per cent, of i's, 60
per cent, of 2's and 20 per cent, of 3's. These may be
illustrated by the following equations : —

i's. 2's. 3's.

10+80+ io=zioo or

20+60+20—100 or

30+40+30=100
Some of the standard marks under the aforesaid
gfQupsi recognised hy the London and the Dundee Jute
Associations are shewn overleaf,

163

TRADE

DIAMONDS

RED CHOCOLATE

RED ^■^— '•""^ ■

HATKHOLA RED

JNK
DACCA

REDS

RED RED RED

SIKDAR (bULLUB) CDM&C9
RED RED

RED^
BNP

M

RED

Xc^oX di) x^ <^

FIRSTS

RED. ,

SUBSTlTUfg

NT
RED

X:^

_ ^ f?ED

(bullub) (rajendra) (chunder) ^^kdarX, ''^^^^^

' RED

(ram^

RED

substitute

M

DAS

fjAICHAND'

RED

^' ■

PC
3R

GRCCN

BALCHAND) (R^M X^''^^^X (^^ HATKHOUmjNDOO) (^P)

DACCAS

RED RED

S DP SHAW
N NARAINGUNGE
RED

RED

OS

NARAiNGUM6E

HATKHOLA
DACCA

OOOLYCHUNO

104

BALED JUTE

LIGHTNINGS

RED

(^ (pa^!t) (^ X^^

GREEN

,-^:^

GREEN

^K a^T.rN%-G" x^B'X (S) ^x

MANGOS

REO CDM&C? Gf?EEN

RSS&C?

KUNDOO

"nZ

..---^.

HEARTS

BLUE SIKOAR

XSULLUaX CDM&C9 \^^J VKAU/ ( )

BLUE KUNDOO BLUE

(T) Qxp Qp Q^ Q^)

DAISEE

RED

RED

BULLU3

GHOSE 1 -
DAISCE 1

RED

RED

TlvVAN

OAS 1

OAjSEE 1

RtTD

RED

OS
DAISEE

RED

RED

KUNOOO
DAISEE

165

R&H
OAJSEE

HATKHOLA,
DAISEE

TRADK

The foregoing paragraphs have been written after dis-
cussion with some of the prominent balers of Calcutta, and
also after consulting their documents, according to which
the baled jute business is at present done. From this, I am
afraid, none of my readers, unless he is a trader in baled
jute, has been enlightened as to the qualities of jute con-
tained in the bales of particular mark or marks registered
by the Calcutta Baled Jute Association and noted in the
book "Jute Marks and Assortments." Not, even the
different existing groups of marks of the bales will help
any one to ascertain as to the particular quality or
qualities of which a group is composed. The quality
of one mark differs widely from that of another mark
under the same group {vide the Statement II — Part V.)
On the other hand, it will appear that from the top
to the bottom of the groups, each mark is said to
contain " 2 " 50 per cent, and " 3 " 50 per cent. If so, where
is the difference and why are there so many divisions
or groups of marks ? I put these two simple questions
to many prominent balers and brokers, but they could
not answer. Thus the 2's or the 3's have no significance
at all. The 2's must be 2's ever)'where, whether they come
from Narainganj or from Serajganj. The present system
of marking is so defective and confusing that even the
balers have no control over the assortments made by
their subordinates. The buyers too, specially those of the
foreign markets other than London and Dundee, are put
into great difficulties in the work of checking of the
qualities of the different marks, which are increasing every
year. It is not practicable to have samples of different
marks before each member of the buyers' staffs through
whom the transactions are carried on. Unless examining
the samples of jute of a mark or marks, no jute experts
would know anything about the qualities.

Mr. Antonino Neves, who came to India in 1920, as a
representative of the Brazil Republic, to study the subjects

166

BALED JUTE

of agriculture and trade of this country, told ine that
they were siinply helpless in the hands of the sellers
regarding the qualities of jute supplied to his country.
Many of the Calcutta balers with whom I had discus-
sions on the subject, agreed with me in the various main
points of defects in the marks of the Calcutta baled jute.

It may, we think, simplify the baled jute trade if the
sellers and the buyers would agree to accept the classifi-
cations of the qualities adopted in the loose jute market of
this country. The system of grading of " Daisi " jute
seems alright. Similarly the main jute fibres may be
graded. The standard quality may have 2's, 3's and 4's
in the same ratio as in the " Daisi."

We have not got much to say about the classifications
of the present loose jute market. Although the system
of classification is more satisfactory, still there are some
confusing points. It is very simple to understand what
is meant by I's, 2's, 3's and 4's of different qualities.
But of late, some confusing marks, such as red 2's,
green 2's, X3's, X4's, etc., are cropping up. Perhaps it
will be better to extend the qualities by numerical figures
without adding any adjectives to any of the simple marks
fSoted above.

The other objectionable point to which attention is in-
vited, is the grading of the fibres of different markets under
the same markings, although differing in qualities, such
as, 2's, 3's, 4's of Narainganj, 2's, 3's, 4's of Madaripur.
The Madaripur 2's are not certainly equal to the 2's of
Narainganj or Mymensingh. The qualities should be
marked according to the relative merits of all the fibres of
these Provinces combined. If the available best quality
of Narainganj be marked as 2's, then the available best
Madaripur quality must not be termed as such, but as
3's or 4's. It would not be very difficult to find out the
relative positions of the qualities of the different jute
markets.

!67

TRADE

\Ve are sure there would be some difficulty in chang-
ing the trade methods of classification. First of all, the
sellers would not be willing to call the 2's of a market as
the 3's of the proposed revised grades of all the fibres of
these Provinces taken together. The Indian dealers in
loose jute, with whom I discussed the matter, are of the
opinion that the fibres of different markets cannot, in any
-way, be judged together, as they are quite different. For
example, they maintain that a grade of jute of Northern
Division cannot be placed in any of the grades of Narain-
ganj Division, as they are quite different in colours,
strengths, etc. In some respects, some of the qualities of
the groups of Narainganj may be better than those of the
groups of other markets, and in some other respects inferior,
istill we hold that the groups can be classified, in order
of merit, by examination of different qualities taJcen
separately. In point of valuation of the present market,
the 2's of Narainganj is placed on a higher class than the
2's of Northern jute. In that case, there is no harm to
call the former as 2's and the latter as 3's.

Although there may be practical difficulties in re-
arrangement of groups as suggested above, it will, we
hope, simplify the present complications existing in the
trade. In our official duties, on several occasions we
had to classify the fibres of different centres, and we
adopted the following system. For each quality, certain
marks were allottetl, and the marks were distributed to
each sample for each quality. The sample securing the
highest marks was placed at the top. All the samples
were thus arranged serially, according to the total marks
obtained. This system worked satisfactorily, and the
European jute merchants, who were invited in 1903 and
1904 to make valuation of the different samples of
jute of different centres, approved of this system of
examination, and admitted that the examination made in
this way was most accurate.

165

BALED JUTE

he marks may be allotted as^oUows

—

Quality.
(i) Strength
^ (2) Length
(3) Colour

Full marks
... 20
... 20

.;. 20

(4) Absence of roots...

... 20

Total

... 80

T^r Fineness ...
1 Soundness

10

... 10

Total

... 20

Total full marks

... 100*

Now all the qualities of jute may be classified into the
following groups with the marks allotted against them : — ■
I's ... ... 91 to 100 marks.

2's
3's
4's

6's
7's
8's

Rejections

The full marks may be awarded to a standard quality
of jute, when it possesses the following : —

Strength. — The fibre should not break easily when
pulled or twisted. When it breaks it gives a hissing sound.

* The fibres are supposed to he free from fraudulent watering. The
dry jute of commerce contains 8 to 10 per cent, of moisture, which may be
accepted as natural moisture in jute fibres during the rainy season.

... yi L
... 81

. 90 ,

... 71

. 80

... 61

, 70

... qi

.. 60

... 41

, 50 ,

... 31

, 40

... 21

, 30

1 I

, 20

TRADE

Length. — Standard length of fibre for full marks nnay
be lo to 12 feet with roots, not below 9 feet after the
roots are cut.

Colour. — Creamy white.

Soundness. — Well grown fibre free from disease is
said to be sound. Such defects as specky, knotty, croppy,
ghata, etc., should be absent.

The other two points for consideration, viz., fineness
and absence of roots, require no explanation. It . may
however be said that from 6 to 18 inches are commonly
cut from the bottom of fibres for spinning. Marks may
be awarded according to the length of fibre thus left after
rejecting the " cuttings.'

It is hoped that the difficulties of grouping of fibres,
both of the loose and baled jute markets, would thus
be greatly minimised. The author respectfully invites the
trade to consider the foregoing suggestions for assortments.

170

r

CHAPTER VII

THE HISTORY OF THE JUTE
INDUSTRY

HE history of the jute industry in Bengal is
most interesting. The subject has been
thoroughly dealt with in Sir George Watt's
" Dictionary of the Economic Products of
India," from which some extracts are quoted.

" There can be no doubt that jute was known to the
people of India from comparatively remote periods, but,
as indicated under C. capsularis and C. olitorius, from
the confusion which existed down to the present century
in the words sunn, pat or patta, hhnnga and hemp, etc.,
names applied to certain Indian fibres, it is difficult to
determine, for certain, many of the fibre-yielding plants
referred to by ancient writers. The probability is that
sunn-hemp (the fibre of Crotolaria juncfo) was better and
earlier known to the ancient Hindus than jute, and that
the true hemp {Cannabis sativa) was known to them,
if not brought to India by their invading and conquering
ancestors. It is almost safe to assume that in very
remote times sunni, paita and bhangi were synonymous
and generic terms for fibre and coarse cloth, without
much regard to the plant from which the fibre was
obtained. If so, about the beginning of the present
century, the word pat became fixed and associated with
the fibre of Co) chorus o/i tortus and C. capsularis. Prior
to that date Government returns of exports from India
mention he7iit> fibre ; this must have been either sunn or
jute, since the true hemp fibre has not been cultivated
for centuries at least, and modern experiments have
shown that the plant is not capable of cultivation as a
source of fibre in the plains of India,

171

TRADE

" With the advance of civilization, came an in-
creased demand for cloth, at first as a luxury, and latterly
as a necessity. Jute probably met this demand and, in-
deed the poorer people, little more than half a century
ago, were largely clad in jute cloth of home manufacture,
such as, at the present day, is used by the aboriginal
tribes. The increased facilities for the importation of
cheap European piece-goods checked, however, the de-
velopment of this indigenous industry ; but with the
rapid progress in every other branch of enterprise, there
opened up a foreign trade in jute which the agriculturist
found remunerative. The resources of the rich plains
of India, Burma, and China, and latterly of America,
Australia and Egypt, were, by the British mercantile fleet,
made available for the supply of grain. Bags were re-
quired for this trade, and thousands of rough gunnies
were greedily bought up. The high price obtained was
a powerful incentive to increased activity, and thus the
gunny bag trade rapidly became a recognised part of
the Bengal peasant's work. By and by, however, Euro-
pean machinery began to compete with manual labour,
and in due time it gained the day. Jute was exported
to Europe for cordage, and ultimately for the manufacture
of the bags required in the grain trade. The first
commercial mention of the word ' jute ' is in the customs
returns of the exports for 1828, when 364 cwts. were sent
to Europe. Soon the agriculturist found that his time
would l:>e more profitably spent in preparing an extra
quantity of fibre, than in manufacturing bags to compete
with steam and mechanical appliances ; the preparation
of fibre speedily outstripped the demand for home
manufacture, and a large export trade was established
in raw jute to feed the Scotch mills. Thus transferred,
from its original home, the gunny trade took a new start
in Dundee, and down to the year 1854 little or no effort
was made to improve the Indian manufacture by the

THE HISTORY OF THE JUTE INDUSTRY

application of European machinery. In that year, how-
ever, the ' Ishera Yarn Mills Company' was established
at Ishera near Serampur by Mr. George Ackland, a large
owner of coffee plantations in Ceylon, and a non-official
member of the Legislative Council of that Island ; these
mills were afterwards called the 'Ishera Company, Limi-
ted,' and are now known as the ' Wellington Mills.' Three
years later (1857) the 'Borneo Company, Limited/ a
company originally established to exploit the Island of
Borneo, founded the mills now known as the ' Bara-
nagore Jute Mills.' In 1863-64 the ' Gouripur Jute Factory '
came into existence. Following these, factories sprang
up rapidly in every direction around Calcutta. In the
Trade Return.s for 1869-70 the exportation of manufac-
tured jute was 6,441,863 gunny bags manufactured
by power and hand looms, and brought into competi-
tion with the Dundee bags. This trade developed
steadily, and in 1879-80, ten years later, over 55,908,000
gunnies were exported from India.

"But speaking purely of India's foreign trade in jute
and jute manufactures, it would seem that even with 24
large European factories at work in India, and the hand
looms which still survive, scattered over the country,
her raw jute interests are four times as valuable to India
as her manufactures. A comparison between the ex-
ports of Indian ' power loom ' as compared with ' hand
loom' manufactures will still further show the extent to
which the jute manufactures have passed out of the hands
of the Indian peasants, who alone, little more than 40
years ago, met the demand for gunny bags. At that time
(1850-51) the value of the gunnies exported was greater
than that of the raw jute — the former being ;iC 2 1 5,978,
the latter ;^ 197,071. There were no European factories
in India in. 1850, so that the market was supplied by the
Indian peasant's hand loom"

175

TRADE

There were 43 mills at work in Bengal and one in
Bombay during 1907. The number of looms working
in 1887 was 7,164, which increased to 9,841 in 1895 and
to 23,884 in 1905 and to 39,401 in 19 17. Now y^ mills
are in working order and 16 new mills under construction.
Out of the ^6 running mills there are three in Madras,
one in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, and
the rest in Calcutta. The capital laid out for these "j^
mills up to 191 8- 19 amounted to Rs. 14,07,14,680 registered
in India and to ^^2,209,7 16 registered in the United King-
dom, including Rs. 3,42,90,500 and ;^7 1,358 respectively in
debentures. During 1919-20 fourteen mills have been
registered in India with an authorised capital of
Rs. 6,62,00,000. These figures show a great development of
the jute industry in Bengal. The actual consumption of
jute by these mills has doubled during the last 10 years ;
while the foreign exports of raw jute continued to increase
very steadily, each year exceeding the preceding onej up
to 1914, when the great European War broke out. Since
then the export of raw jute has enormously decreased.
After peace had been declared, the Government restric-
tions were withdrawn ; but there still remain the
shortage of mercantile tonnage and other after-effects of
the great war. Consequently abnormal trade conditions,
exist even now.

174

CHAPTER VIII

INDIAN MANUFACTURES

HE manufacture of jute fabrics by hand is an
old industry of Bengal. Jute cloth was
used for clothing by the poorer classes some
90 years ago. Since then the cheap and

good-looking European cotton goods have

completely replaced its use in this, country.

The principal articles of hand-loom manufacture
of India were gunny bags, mattings, rugs, and sails for
country boats. It is said that paper was also manufactured
out of jute in several districts in North and East Bengal.
The Indian weavers used to dye the fabrics in red, black
and yellow colours of their own.

Prior to 1857 the exports of jute manufactures from
India represented hand-loom fabrics. In 1850 these
manufactures were valued at Rs. 21,59,780 (^215,978).
Since 1854, the hand-loom industry of jute has rapidly
declined. During 1880-81 the value of the total exports
of manufactured jute amounted to Rs. 1,13,06,716, of which
hand looms accounted for Rs. 2,69,553 ; in 1887-88 the
hand-loom manufactured articles exported were valued
at Rs. 89,220 only, out of the total exports to the value
of Rs. 1,15,18,577. The export of hand-loom manu-
factured articles has since entirely ceased.

The old hand- loom industry of jute in India is now
well-nigh defunct. Gunny bags are now woven in some
districts to a very limited extent for the weaver's own use
or for his neighbours. The only industry still left in the
hands of the people of this country is the manufacture of
ropes wanted for everyday home use. A Bengali family
consumes, at least, half a maund of jute a year for domestic
purposes,

175

TRADE

In the factories set up in India, jute is chiefly manu-
factured into hessian cloth and gunnies. " Rejections "
and " cuttings " of jute were formerly used by paper mills,
which are now utilised by the jute mills in manufacture of
sackings. Coarse and strong qualities of the fibre are
used in some steam rope works for cordage.

During the year 191 7, there were ^6 jute mills in
India, out of which 72 mills were set up in Bengal with
39,401 looms — 23,426 being hessian looms and 15,975
sacking looms. They are situated within a radius of
about 50 miles in the neighbourhood of Calcutta. About
16 mills are under construction. The Jute district is
steadily extending northwards from Calcutta on both
banks of the river Hoogly.

On an average, there are about 500 looms and 10,000
spindles in each mill employing about 3,000 labourers.
Each loom requires roughly 6 hands for spinning and
weaving. Each hessian loom consumes approximately
i^ maunds of jute per diem, while a sacking loom 3^^
maunds. For rough calculation, 30 maunds of jute pro-
duce I ton (i ton = 27*22 maunds or 27 maunds and 9
seers; i maund = 82 lbs. and 2 ozs.) of finished goods.
During 1918-19 the value of the jute manufactures ex-
ported is estimated at about ;^ 35,101,466 against
£ 8,480,052 for the exported raw jute.

Since the great European War broke out in 1914, the
price of the raw jute has fallen considerably, while that
of the manufactured goods has risen to unprecedented
points. The fact is that the export of raw jute was
restricted by the Government owing to war conditions.
The Indian mills took advantage of this situation and
offered lower prices to the sellers of raw jute ; on the other
hand, as an organised body, they could demand higher
prices for the manufactured articles. The result was, as
might be expected, that th*^ mill? made enormous pofit,

176

INDIAN MANUFACTURES

while the growers had to sell their crops at much reduced
rates.

From the statement tabulated below, it will be seen to
what magnitude India suffered from the effects of war,
in its income from the exports of raw production of jute.
This has terribly affected the interests of the cultivators
of this country.

Values of exports of raw jute and manufactures

Year.

I913-I4
I914-I5
I915-I6
I916-I7
I917-I8
I918-I9

Value of manufactures
in sterling.
;^ 18,848,759
17,213,440
25,318,934
27,781,156
28,562,050
35,101,466

Value of raw jute
in sterling.

i; 20,5 50,929

„ 8,606,802
„ 10,428,024
„ 10,858,736

„ 4,302,559
„ 8,480,052

An immense quantity of gunny bags and jute cloth
was sold by the Indian mills during the war. The uses
of gunny bags for war purposes proved to be invaluable.
They were used not only as packages for carrying rations
or other goods, but strikingly as sand-bags, both for offen-
sive and defensive operations, resorted to, by the belligerent
allies.

There has also been an enormous expansion in the
trade of jute fabrics in this country. The following table
shows the value of the jute manufactures consumed in
India from 1913 to 1918 : —

Year. Value of bags. Value of cloth.

Rs. Rs.

191 3 2,17,07,077 30,08,432

1914 2,13,92,166 34,16,188

1915 2,30,17,550 43,39,026

1916 3,35,76,045 70,30,838

1917 3,60,06,950 75,20,072

1918 4,84,91,700 1.4378,730

177

TRADK

It is a pity that the unprecedented prosperity, in the
industry in India, has not been in the least shared by the
growers, during the last war-boom seasons.

The number of looms and spindles in the Indian mills
has steadily increased during this period — from 32,632
looms (Hessian looms 18,630 and Sacking looms 14,002)
and 677,500 spindles in 1912 to 39,401 looms (Hessian
23,426 and Sacking 15,975) ^"d 824,300 spindles in 191 7.
On an average, about 21 spindles supply yarn required for
a loom. During the year 1917-18, 1,249,775,000 yards of
cloth and 870,568,000 gunny bags were manufactured
in'lndia.

178

CHAPTER IX

EUROPEAN MANUFACTURES

N Europe, the Jute weaving industry was first
founded at Dundee in 1838. For a long time
since, Dundee was the only manufacturing
town in Europe. Latterly, the jute industry
has been established in many towns in Europe
and America, of which Hamburg, Dunkirk, Genoa, Trieste,
New York (U. S.) and Philadelphia are the most impor-
tant. It appears that Japan has also turned its attention
to this industry. Up to the present, Dundee maintains
its leading position in Europe. But the recent labour
troubles in Europe would seriously affect the interests of
the jute industry in Europe, unless a satisfactory solution
of the labour troubles is found out. The capitalists must
have been considering these difficulties.

India's monopoly in the raw produce of jute and cheap
labour suggest that further development in the manu-
facture of jute would before long take place in India.
Fortunately, for this country, the use of this fibre is
increasing every year. It is India's interest to rise to
the occasion to remove any defect in the fibre, and no
deterioration should come in. Complaints, although
imaginary, have been frequently made of the deteri-
oration of the fibre. Fraudulent adulteration of jute must
cease, otherwise the industry is likely to suffer in the future.
It may be noted that persistent efforts are being made in
other countries to introduce the cultivation of jute.

In European countries and America jute is manu-
factured into shirtings, curtains, carpets and rugs. The
great bulk of this fibre, however, is made into such
commoner classes of cloths as hessian, bagging, tarpau-
ling and sacking. Finer qualities are used for mixing
with silk or for manufacturing imitation silk fabrics. It

179

TRADE ^

is also mixed with wool. Rejections and cuttings of jute
are made use of in the manufacture of paper, and coarse
but strong stuffs in cordage. The attempts at spinning
higher counts than twenty have not yet been successful.

It has been applied extensively as a substitute for
hemp ; for this purpose, the fibres are rendered soft and
flexible by being sprinkled with water and oil, in the
proportion of 20 tons of water and 2^ tons of train oil
to 100 tons of jute. The jute is then left for 24 to 48
hours. After being squeezed by rollers and dressed with a
hackle, the fibres become so beautifully soft and minutely
isolated that it is suited for a number of purposes un-
known a few years ago.

In the year 1820, the jute was first experimented with
«in Europe, but the result was unfavourable, and, in conse-
quence, brokers were required to certify that sales of hemp
and other fibres, exported out of India, were not adulter-
ated with jute. In 1832, in Dundee, experiments were
again conducted with the fibre. The result was en-
■ couraging, and it \\'as suggested that it might be used as a
substitute for hemp. From that date jute gained rapidly
in public favour.

Jute is one of the fibres that is capable of the most
minute separation or subdivision, but only within the
past few years, it has been extensively used in the finer
tex-tile industries. For a long time, the difficulty of
bleaching seemed insurmountable, and the trouble
experienced in dyeing the material appeared likely to
nullify every effort to utilise it. All these stumbling
blocks have, at last, been removed. But its perishable
nature, however, is fatal to its obtaining a position much
higher than it has already attained.

The results of the chemical and microscopic investi-
gation of jute, instituted by Messrs. Cross, Beaven and
King, a few years ago, were that one sample experimented

180 *■

EUROPEAN MANUFACTURES

with was made to resemble tasar silk so closely that
some care was necessary in distinguishing these substances,
and another sample looked remarkably like wool. Before
long, it is hoped that it should be quite possible to utilise
the jute fibre for more useful purposes, by chemically
altering its properties.

i8i

CHAPTER X

INDIAN MILL HANDS

N the mill districts in Calcutta there were over
262,000 labourers working during 191 7- 18.
There has, of late, been labour unrest in India
too. This difficulty, if it arise, should be tact-
fully dealt with. It must be remembered that
the Indians are, in general, a sensitive people. An Indian,
specially referring to the poorer classes, leads a very
simple life. He lives on poor and' cheap foods, sleeping
in huts, even under the shade of trees if required. Owing
to this and other circumstances, the capitalists would
suffer more from a strike than the poor strikers. If the
authorities bear in mind that any kindness shown to them
would hardly be forgotten, as is characteristic to an Indian,
there would be no strike. If there be a strike in a mill,
to avoid future trouble, kindness should always follow
the strike.

Labour scarcity may occur at any time, due to out-
break of epidemic diseases. The labourers would run
away like anything without any consideration for money
or comfort. The mills must therefore guard against
epidemics.

Ordinarily, labour scarcity occurs in the mill districts
twice in a year : firstly, from the end of April to the
middle of July ; and secondly, from the end of November
to the beginning of February, during the sowing and
harvesting seasons of paddy respectively.

In the mill districts, there are principally four classes
of labourers. The most important among them are the
Ben£>'alees who are intelligent, steady and fit for any skilled
work. Next come the up-country men, including both
the Hindus and the Mahomedans, who are hardworking

INDIAN MILL HANDS

hands, but rough. The}- often indulge themselves in drink,
getting intoxicated and sometimes causing disturbances in
the mill localities. The Uryas are a class of men who are
intelligent and docile, but timid. There is another class
of workers who will not stick any where. They will
work for a few days in a mill and go away to another.
They are not at all reliable and cannot be depended on.
At the present time, Madrasee labour is also imported,
while the Bengalee workers are getting smaller and
smaller, forming only about lo per cent, of the whole labour
force employed in the mills. About 30 years or so earlier,
the mill hands were all Bengalees. The wages earned by
a labourer in the mills are not perhaps sufficiently
attractive to a Bengalee.

Wages are commonl}' paid to a labourer on the
following scales, as given in the Industrial Commission
Report, 191 8 : —

Nature of Work. Amount per mensem.

Carders (about 6 % of tht: labour force) Rs. 9

Drawers

„ 6,

Rovers ,

, 7 M

Spinners ,, 14 ,,

Shifters ,

, 14 M

Winders ,

, II,,

B earners ,

, I ,,

Weavers ,

, 20 ,,

Mistries ,, 9 „

Coolies ,

, 12 ,,

12

15
II

18

2 2

27
30
13

For want of education, Indian labourers have little
sense of self-respect. They would idle their time if not
properly supervised. In the contract system of work,
they are all right. Both for the mill people's efficiency
and morals, the mills should arrange night schools for

tS3

TRADE

them and provide them with good dwelling barracks
within the mill compounds. In addition to a course of
primary education, a course of regular lectures on sanita-
tion, duties, etc., should be introduced. Provision may
also be made to afford occasional recreation to the workers.
The mill authorities should establish co-operative stores
to supply the labourers with necessary articles at cost
prices, in order to save them from the clasp of unscrupulous
hanias. A provident or bonus fund is urgently required
to be opened in each mill for the welfare of the mill people.
The labourers might be helped from this fund at times
of unforeseen difficulties and on retirement. Thus, in
short, the efficiency of the Indian labour force can greatly
be improved and the possibility of a strike would be
minimised.

184

CHAPTER XI

FAMOUS JUTE MARKETS •

Narainganj

HE Narainganj market is supplied with jute, in
the beginning of the season, from Bikrampur
in the district of Dacca, and the adjoining
chnr lands in Dacca and Tipperah which are
annually inundated. This jute resembles the
District quality.

As the season advances, jute from the interior of
Mymensingh and Tipperah begins to come in. The high-
land jute of these districts is exceptionally good in
quality, and its colour and glo.ss do not fade for a long
time in storage. The fibre of this market is strong and
free from fraudulent watering. The peculiarity of this
quality of Narainganj jute is that it is hard and strong,
and bears more tension in spinning. The season closes
here in February, when jute containing sacking-warp is
only available. It is difficult to keep up the guaranteed
warp of 60 per cent, during this period of the season,
when a separate assortment of X3's is made.

The cuttings obtained from Narainganj jute are the
longest, and best for use in the mills as hessian-weft.
Narainganj jute is mixed with other qualities in the
following proportions, in batching of fibres : —

Narainganj (strong) ... ... 2 parts

Serajganj ... ... ... I part

or

Narainganj (strong) ■•■ ... 2 parts

Serajganj ... ... .. i part

Haldibari (soft) ... ... ... i ,,

or

Narainganj (strong) ... ... ... 2 parts

Madaripur (hard-strong) ... . i part

Serajganj (soft) ... ... ... i ,,

i8s

TRADE

Dacca

This quality of jute is obtained from parts of Dacca
and Mymensingh districts. It comes into the market early
in the season and is available for four months only till the
end of October. After October, the Dacca purchasers get
their supply from Mx'mensingh district both by river
and rail.

The white colour of tlie fibre of low-lying tracts
changes to reddishness after three or four months. It is
a strong fibre.

From the latter part of the season, Dacca supplies the
quality similar to that of Narainganj, /. t-\. a strong and
sound jute.

Serajganj

In the beginning of the season (/. e., July), local jute called
DeswaL is imported here. It is a medium fibre, neither
very fine nor thick, of both white and blackish colours
and but little rooty. As the season advances, jute from
the other side of the river Jamuna — Panibari, Sarishabari,
Porabari, etc., — comes in. This quality of jute, which is
different from the local low-land jute, is very good in
colour, strength and fine texture, yielding 50 to 70 per
cent, hessian.

Afterwards, jute from Bogra and the Southern part
of Rangpur is imported. From October, Deswol and
Mymensingh qualities are getting rare, while the market is
mainly supplied with the jute of the parts of Northern
Bengal, Assam and Cooch Behar, carried by boats.

The Northern jute is generally of very good quality,
although without any particular colour. It is soft and
bears more twist. The jute grown by the. river Teesta
(a tributary to the Brahmaputra) is strong and fine. A
limited quantity of C. olitonus called Tosha jute is also
available at Serajganj.

1S6

FAMOUS JUTE MARKETS

For convenience of communications, jute is sold at
Serajganj throughout the year. In importance as a jute
market, Serajganj occupies the second position next to
Narainganj. Fraudulent watering is practised i.n the
Serajganj local qualities.

Northern Markets

The jute from Northern districts comes into the
markets somewhat late in the season. Before Septem-
ber the supply is limited. The jute of these tracts is fine
and soft, consequently the Calcutta mills use this quality
for batching purposes, in mi.xture with other hard and
strong qualities. The North Bengal jute is soft and some-
what weak.

Purnea

Purnea jute is not included in the quality of the
Northern jute. It is inferior in colour, strength and length.
White stuff is rare. It is grown generally on low lands.
Kissenganj, Barsoi, Kasba and Forbesganj are the principal
markets in this district. A better class of jute is however
imported into the district from Morang in Nepal State.

Madaripur

The Madaripur jute is mainly grown in the low country
washed by the Ganges. In most parts of these tra(;ts
silts are deposited annually. It is a strong and coarse
fibre of inferior colour. This quality, on the whole,
is considered to be the best for sacking warp. The low
grade jute of the Madaripur Division, with or without
tap-roots, is called Doivrah jute.

Madaripur market is opened early in the season.
The crops of the districts of Faridpur, Backerganj, and
parts of Khulna are sold here.

1.87

TRADE

The practice of fraudulent watering is usually higher
in this Division than anywhere else. " Heart damaged "
is the common complaint against this jute. Sometimes
the " Heart damaged " jute of Madaripur, when opened,
would give nothing but dusts as its contents. For this
reason, the greatest care is to be taken to examine the
bales imported from Madaripur.

Of late, the quality of the Madaripur jute has greatly
improved. The malpractice of fraudulent watering is
coming to an end. Formerly the raiyats used to uproot
the plants for harvesting instead of cutting at the roots.
The system of cutting is now widely practised.

For the improvement of jute of this Division, the
recent introduction of the system of thinning the plants
in the fields, some time before the flowering stage, is
-commendable.

Cuttack

Cuttack quality of jute comes from Orissa. It is a
coarse (thick) but strong jute, suitable for sacking warp
if free from sticks (broken stalks). The fibre of the
Cuttack Division was, until recently, more or less sticky.
This defect is being steadily removed.

CHAPTER XII

A LIST OF JUTE MARKETS

A. Markets dealing in the "Jat" Quality of Jute

Mymensingh
Kaoraid (Mymensingh)

Shambhuganj „

Jamalpur „

Sherpur „

Pearpur „

BalHpara „

Nicklidampara (Karimganjj
Mymensing
Gouripur (M)-mensingh)
Deonganj
Dacca

Narainganj (Dacca)
Akhoura (Tipperah)

B. Markets dealing in the "District

Jute

Elashin (Mvnnensingh)

Ballah ' „
Naga

Panibari „

Sarishabari „

Nandanpur „

Shaturia „

Bahadurabad „

Bhairab Bazar „

Benanai „
Soya
Bilasipara

Babuapara . ,,

Kedarpur „

Jamurki „

Ratanganj „

Mirjapur „
Porabari

Quality of
(Dacca)

Sreenagar

Lohaganj „

Ghior „

Kanchanpur ,

Kalliganj

Baira ,

Shinghhair „

Chilmari (Rangpurj

Chandpur (Tipperah)

Ashuganj „

Pabna

Dewantala (Bogra)

P'ulcbhari „

Pabna

Nagarbari (Pabna)

Nakalia „

Berah

1S9

TRADE

C. Markets dealing

Haldibari (Rangpur)
Domar „

^ilphamari „
•Saidpur „

Rangpur
Kurigram „

Durwani „

Tulshighat „

Naldanga „

Alipur „

Rajshahi

Raninagar (Rajshahi)
Atrai „

Khansamahat (Bogra)

in the " Northern" Quality of
Jute

Shookanpukur (Bogra)
Mahimaganj „

Santahar „

Chilhati „

Jaypurhat „

Dinajpur

Raiganj (Dinajpur)
Jaffarganj
Mirganj
Jalpaiguri

Siliguri (Jalpaiguri)
Cooch Behar
Mathabhanga (Cooch
Behar).

D. Markets dealing in the " Madaripur ' Quality of

Jute

Barhamganj (Faridpur)

Madaripur „

Goalah „

Raj ore „

Khejurtala „

Patarhat „

Idilpur „
Faridpur
Khankhanapur „

Panchuria (Faridpur)
Goalundo „

Rajbari „

Belgachi „

Pangsha „

Osmanpur (Nadia)
KumarkliaH „
Kushtia

Markets dealing in "Non-Standard" Qualities of
Jute

Kissenganj (Purnea)
Barsoi „

Purnea
Kasba

Forbesganj (Purnea)
Azimganj (Murshidabad)
Jessore
Cuttack

19c

A LIST OF JUTE MARKETS

F. Markets dealing in the " Daisee " Quality of Jute

Baidyabati Chanditalla

Sheorafulli Baduria

Belgachia Chanduria

Kristaganj Magrahat

Kalna ,

The Calcutta Bazar includes the following markets
where loose jute business is carried on : —

Hatkhola Baghbazar

Ultadanga Chitpore

Shambazar Fulbagan

191

CHAPTER XIII

JUTE DEALERS

HE business of selling and buying is effected
by some classes of middlemen. The first
of them are those who are called he paries
(M- /arias. They visit the cultivators at
their houses, settle the price, make weigh-
ment, and carry the fibre to the mahajan, a trader who
advances money to the beparies for purchase of jute. The
bepari gets a commission of about 2 annas per maund.
Some beparies have their own small capitals. The}' are^
for the most part, a class of illiterate men, who care little
for honesty. By this class of dealers, the cultivators are
cheated in weighments, the fibres are fraudulently watered
and sold to the rnnhajans, or made over to them if
advances were already made for the purchase. Still
their services are indispensable. The mahajan is an
Indian trader of substantial means. He must have a
godown of his own, where he stocks the loose jute
purchased. He makes the loose jute into drums or
katcha bales and sends the jute either to an aratdar in
Calcutta for disposal, or sells it to a local agent of a baler
or a shipper or a mill. An aratdar is an important
personage of the Indian trade. He must have big
godowns. He sells goods sent to him by mahajans or
beparies, on some occasions at his own discretion, if no
other special agents are appointed by the sellers to look
after their sales. For this work he gets a commission from
the sellers. He is to make from time to time advances to
his constituents on terms settled between the parties.
Now appears a broker. Without his assistance no
business can be effected effectiveh'. He must thoroughly
be conversant with the market. He should have a
perfect knowledge in different qualities. He must be

192

JUTE DEALERS

a person of confidence. Both the sellers and the
buyers rely on his honesty. The sale is entirely operated
by his co-operation between the sellers and the buyers.

Balers are the buyers of raw jute, who bale the jute
by means of the press worked with steam power, for
export.

The merchants, who export jute to other countries,
are called the shippers. They purchase baled jute,
as well as raw jute to be baled by them, for export. Many
shippers have their own presses. If they have not got
presses of their own, they get the raw jute baled in the
presses belonging to others, on the hire or contract system.

There are some organised associations of the Calcutta
jute dealers. Each association looks after the interests
of its members in the trade. The members of an
association are to abide by the rules and by-laws of the
association. The following are the well-known associations
in Calcutta : —

Indian Jute Mills Association

This Association was established in 1884. The aim
and intention of the Association is to encourage united
feeling and action to protect the interests of the mills.

All persons owning and managing jute mills or holding
power-of-attorney to represent thern in India, are eligible
to join the Association on payment of the annual
subscription in advance at the rate to be fixed at each
Annual General Meeting. The subscription is calculated
on the number of looms or spindles owned or managed
by each member. It amounts to a big sum, the rate
being between annas eight and rupee one per loom per
annum.

The Association is managed by a Committee consisting
of a Chairman and four members, who are appointed at the

IP3 M

TRADE

Annual General Meeting each year. The Secretary of
the Bengal Chamber of Commerce is ex-officio Secretary
of the Association.

Calcutta Baled Jute Association

The object of this Association is to regulate the Baled
jute trade in Calcutta.

All firms or persons interested or desirous to engage
in the baled jute trade are eligible as candidates for
membership of the Association. The candidates for
membership shall be proposed by one member of the
Association and seconded by another. Elections shall
then be made finally by the Committee, who may elect
or decline to elect a candidate as a member. The
members are to abide by all the rules and by-laws of the
Association then, and as from time to time, in force.

Each member shall pay an entrance fee of Rs. 500 on
joining the Association, and the subscription of Rs. 32
annually, payable in advance in the month of September.

The members of the Association shall register with
the Association a list and description of the marks and
counter-marks of the baled jute they may offer for sale
in the Calcutta market.

The members of the Association shall not do any
business'in Calcutta or elsewhere in India in any baled
jute, cuttings or rejections with or for any firm or person
who is not a member of this Association, save and except
with the Calcutta jute mills.

The general management of the business and affairs
of the Association shall be entrusted to a Committee
consisting of nine members, to include an equal number,
eafh, of the representatives of the Shippers, Balers and
Brokers. The members of the Committee shall be
elected by a majority of the votes of members at the

194

JUTE DEALERS

Annual General Meeting. The Committee shall elect
their own chairman. The Secretary of the Bengal
Chamber of Commerce shall be ex-offlcio Secretary of the
Association.

Jute Dealers' Association

This Association has lately.bee.n established in Calcutta
by the European dealers in loose jute. The rules and
regulations for membership and management of affairs
of this Association are not known to us. The Secretary
of the Bengal Chamber of Commerce is ex-officio Secretary
of this Association.

Indian Jute Association

The general object of the Association shall be the
regulation and development of the trade in jute and the
protection of the common interests of its members.

All firms or persons interested or desirous to engage
in the jute trade shall be eligible as candidates for member-
ship of the Association.

Any other person or firm whose connection with the
Association may be considered desirable in the interests of
the Association may be eligible for election as member by
the Executive Committee.

Candidates for membership shall be proposed by one
member of the Association and seconded by another.
The proposal shall be in such form as the Committee may
from time to time prescribe, shall be signed by the candi-
date, and his proposer and seconder, respectively, and the
name of the candidate shall be put up on the notice board
of the Association and kept there for at least one week.
All objections, if any, should be communicated in writing
to the Secretary within a week from the date of the notice.

195

TRADE

All elections under these rules shall be made by the Com-
mittee, who may elect or decline to elect a candidate as
they shall in their absolute discretion determine, and if
elected, the candidate shall forthwith become a member
of the Association and be subject to the rules of the
Association then and 'as from time to time in force. Each
member shall have one vote.

Each member shall pay an entrance fee of Rs. 15 on
joining the Association.

The subscription for membership shall be Rs. 35
annually, and always payable in advance.

The affairs of the Association shall be managed by an
Executive Committee consisting of 25 members, including
the office-bearers, viz., the President, Vice-President, one
Honorary Secretary, one Assistant Secretary and one
Treasurer. The members of the Committee shall be
elected at the Annual General Meeting from amongst the
members of the Association. Office-bearers shall be sub-
sequently elected at the meeting of the Committee.

Calcutta Jute Balers' Association

This Association was founded in 1909 to provide
rooms and other facilities to Indian Jute Balers, Shippers
and Traders for holding and conducting sales of property,
brokerage or commercial transactions, etc., to promote,
protect and watch over the general commercial interests,
to collect and circulate statistics and other information
relating to the trade, to adjust controversies between mem-
bers, to arbitrate in the settlement of disputes arising
out of commercial transactions, and to maintain uni-
formity in rules, regulations and usage of trade. The
Association was incorporated on the 8th June, 191 8,
under Section 26 of the Indian Companies Act of 1913.

196

JUTE DEALERS

The affairs of the Association are managed by a Com-
mittee' of four members elected annually by the
members at the Annual General Meeting and a chairman
elected by the Committee. The routine office work is
conducted by the Secretary.

Merchants and firms carrying on or desirous to carry
on trade in baled jute in Calcutta may be elected as
members of the Association. A candidate for election
as a member shall sign the prescribed application form
and be proposed by one and seconded by another member
in the form itself, and shall deposit therewith a sum
of Rs. 300 as admission fee and Rs. 216 as the annual
subscription in advance. The Committee may elect or
decline to elect a candidate as a member of the Association.

197

CHAPTER XIV

GLOSSARY OF DEALERS

RATDAR — An Indian commission agent who'
sells goods sent to him by rnahajans or
beparies, at his own discretion, if no other
special agents are appointed by them to look
after their sales. The aratdar charges a
commission generally at the rate of one anna and three pies
for every maund of jute sold, besides actual godown rent.

The aratdar is always responsible for the recovery
of the money for goods sold. He now and then gives
advances to his respectable beparies, for which an interest
of 12 per cent, per annum is charged. An aratdar must
be a rich person.

Baler — A jute dealer who buys loose jute and, after
assortments, makes it up into bales of 400 lbs. each of the
quality or qualities thus assorted, separately, and sells his ■
stock either to shippers or the local mills for manufacture
of gunnies or gunny cloth.

Bepati — An Indian trader who has no godown
of his own. He carries on his business at the places
of rnahajans or aratdars for which he pays a commis-
sion at the rate of about 2 annas per maund. He dis-
poses of this jute at local markets or despatches it to
an aratdar in Calcutta for disposal.

In the Calcutta Bazar, the bepari pays the buyers ^
anna per maund as brokerage, and Re. i per Rs. 1,000 as
cashier's fee, and 4 annas per one hundred drums as jal-
pani (tiffin charge).

Broker — An agent employed to effect bargains or
contracts between buyers and sellers for which he gets
from the latter a commission called brokerage at the
rate of i per cent, of the value of goods sold. In the

GLOSSARY OF DEALERS *

Calcutta Bazar, he gets 3 to 6 pies per maund of the loose
jute sold. .

Chainpadar—OnQ who places jute over the scales for
weighment.

Dalai— A Bengali term for a broker.

Faria — A petty Indian trader who goes about from
house to house and buys jute from the raiyats. He
disposes of it to other higher traders.

Jachandar — A person who examines the quality of the
fibre of every bundle to be weighed, on behalf of the
buyers.

Kapali — A Bengali sack-weaver by caste.

Koyal — A weigher who is an employee of the aratdar

MaJiajan — An Indian trader who buys jute at
markets either from raiyats ox far ins. He generally sends
his goods in drums to an aratdar in Calcutta for disposal.
He must have godowns of his own. If he has any bepari,
he must help him by all means. A mahajan is also called
bepari by the aratdars if he sells his goods through them.

Ojan Sarkar — A clerk who notes the weights of
bundles when weighment is made.

Paikar — Same as faria.

Raiyat — A petty Indian cultivator.

Shipper — A merchant who exports jute in bales out
of India to foreign countries.

Under-broker — A broker who cannot approach the
buyers, but effects business through a broker. The
broker allows him a share of 25 per cent, in the brokerage.

199

CHAPTER XV

TERMS DENOTING QUALITIES OF JUTE

HERE are special terms denoting the qualities
of jute used by the jute dealers in Bengal.
Unless explained, the terms would not be
intelligible to those who are not already
in the jute trade. The following terms are
in common use : —

Actuals — Specified marks of jute, guaranteed of some
standard qualities, shipped during the two previous
seasons, and recognised by the Calcutta Baled Jute Asso-
ciation, the London and the Dundee Jute Associations.

Askmara — Weak stuff.

Ash mota — Coarse fibre.

Barky — The fibre containing epidermic bark which
is not removed from the fibre in washing is called
barky.

Batch pat — Fibre from immature plants rejected at
the time of thinning,

Bombay — A hard, short and barky fibre with or without
tap roots.

Bukchhal — Barky fibre at some middle places, due to
plants being allowed to grow in flood water.

Croppy — Fibre having top ends rough and hard.

Dagi — ^Damaged.

Dana—\X. is used to mean a fibre, specially when the
fineness or coarseness of it is referred to. Literally dana
means a grain.

Fine — Fibre of superior quality, of which the dana
(grain) is not coarse or thick, and free from impurities.

Flabby — Wanting in firmness — loose.

TERMS DENOTING QUALITIES OF JUTE

Fulpat — Immature stuff cut at flowering stage. This
fibre is excellent in colour.

Ghatta — Indicates that the fibre is entangled and
cannot be separated easily.

Glossy — Denoting the quality of a class of jute which
possesses a good lustre.

Heart Damaged— So badly damaged, due to fraudulent
watering, that the fibre changes to a powdery mass.

Knotty — ¥\i\\ of knots. Knot is a portion of fibre
agglutinated which resists separation, mainly due to an
insect bite or puncture on the growing plant.

Mora head — A term applied to jute when a bunch

of fibre is folded for pressing. It is twisted at the head

of the fold. It is not done commonly in case of
" Rejections " class of jute.

Mossy — The low-land jute with numerous adventitious
roots produced in swamps.

Rooty — 'The jute containing roots is called rooty.

Specky — Containing patches of outer bark here and
there.

Sticky — Fibre with broken pieces of sticks or piths
(stalks). This word has also been used in some places
when the epidermic bark of a plant growing on certain
soils is not easily removed from the fibre after retting
process.

Substitutes — Marks of the grade and quality equal to
those of actuals, of which they are substitutes.

JUTE IN BENGAL

PART V— STATISTICS

CHAPTER I

FORECASTS OF ESTIMATE OF OUTTURN

ORECASTS of outturn of jute are published
by Government twice in a season. The pre-
liminary forecast estimating the area sown,
with the crop and giving a description of

weather conditions of the season for sowing

and general condition of the crop, is out in the middle of
July, and the final forecast, which is published in the
middle of September, deals about the change in the area,
if any, and the estimated outturn and the weather
conditions during the growing period. The estimated
outturn is the principal item of the report with which
the trade is chiefly concerned.'

The forecasts are prepared by the offices of the Provin- '
cial Directors of Agriculture on the basis of reports
submitted by the District Magistrates, who collect the
information through the agencies of the Police.

The first important factor in preparing an estimate of
outturn is the area under a crop in a year. Unfortunately
there is no Government agency in a village in the jute
growing provinces to report on the area cropped accurately.
Police reports are not of much value, unless they are
thoroughly checked by experienced officers of the Agri-
cultural Departments. The area reported in the Survey and
Settlement Reports cannot also be taken as accurate, as

FORECASTS OF ESTIMATE OF OUTTURN

far as jute is concerned, for the area under jute varies con-
siderably from one year to another, and secondly, as only
the paddy stumps are found on the fields when surveyed,
considerable portions of the area under jute is showrr
under paddy. Paddy is transplanted in the same fields,
just after jute is cut, in some parts of the country. How-
ever, the portion of the area under jute in relation to the
whole area cropped, may be roughly estimated by experi-
enced men. The whole area cropped is accurately given of
the districts which have been surveyed. Lately, efforts are
being made to get reliable estimates of the area under jute,
through the village Pa7ichayets. The Pa?tcliayets prepare
schedules showing the names of the cultivators of a village
and the estimated areas sown with jute by them. Unless
the fields are actually surveyed after the seed is sown, the
estimate cannot be taken as correct. I checked, on many
occasions, the figures thus submitted by the Panchayeis
of some parts of Purnea and found that the Panchayets"
figures are, on an average, less by about 6 per cent.

The raiyats are suspicious of any work undertaken
by the Government. They would hardly give accurate
figures to the Panchajets. From financial consideration,,
it would not be possible for Government to employ an.
ainin (surveyor) in each village for preparing crop
reports. In these circumstances, until the raiyats have
confidence in the officers under the Government, there
would not be any other way that can be suggested for
preparing agricultural returns. As a first step, to inspire
confidence, we would suggest to organise village societies,,
taking a representative from each family. These societies
will form the backbone of the country very soon, if once
organised properly. The co-operative societies should be
amalgamated with them. They will lend money to the
deserving men ; they will decide petty disputes both civif
and criminal, and will help Government gradually in every
way. They will also sell all the produce of the village

203

STATISTICS

and take one or one-half anna from each rupee sold. So,
after a few years, fund will be accumulating from which
money can be lent to the members on nominal interest.
In this way, the oppression of the mahojans or banias
will cease, and the petty traders called /arias, who are
responsible for fraudulent watering of jute and adulter-
ating other crops, will be extinct. In a word, all the
corruptions of "the rural country will disappear, in a short
course of time, and the country will be prosperous. It is
hoped that both the Government and the people will
combine to form such societies. These societies would be
most useful institutions for supplying Government with
accurate information relating to area and outturn of crops,
and to all other matters in which the people and the
Government are interested. ,

The next factor, for estimating outturn at present, is the
*' standard normal outturn." This normal outturn of a crop,
per acre, on an average soil, in a year of an average
■character of seasons, is ascertained by Government from
past experience, on the basis of various crop-tests, in
various parts of a province, conducted by Government
officers. The figures of average outturns are ordinarily
revised by Government once in five years.

There is another factor for calculation of outturn.
It is the " fraction representing the relation of the crop
reported on to the normal crop per acre," what is known
as " percentage estimate." The cultivators estimate the
crop outturn in amias or sixteenths — sixteen annas repre-
senting the full crop. A crop above sixteen annas, accord-
ing to the raiyats' estimate, is a bumper crop. But com-
monly, raiyats underestimate their crops. Sixteen annas
are, therefore, taken to represent a bumper crop, while
twelve annas a normal crop, that is, cent, per cent. In
some parts of India, sixteen annas however express a
•normal yield. The normal outturn of jute in Bengal is

204

FORECASTS OF ESTIMATE OF OUTTURN

taken at 3-5 bales per acre, 33 bales in Assam and 3
bales in Bihar and Orissa (i bale = 400 lbs.) When these
three factors are determined, they are multiplied to
arrive at the required estimate of outturn.

Thus taking the area under jute in Bengal in 1919 at
2,500,000 acres, the standard normal outturn at 3*5 bales
per acre, and the " percentage estimate " at 80, the re-
quired estimated outturn may be worked out as follows : —

2,500,000 X 3*5 X iV^o = 7,000,000 bales.
The crop forecasts are issued in English which never
reach the cultivators. They are quite in the dark as to
why the information regarding area, etc., under a crop js
wanted by Government. This is the main" reason of their
being suspicious. The object and usefulness of forecasts
may be made known to the cultivators if vernacular
editions of the publications be distributed among them.
Thus they would be able to judge for themselves that it is
for the benefit of the cultivators and traders alike the
forecasts are published.

205

CHAPTER II

PRICES

HE export of jute to foreign countries
commenced in 1828. Before that time,
it is said to have been sold at Re. i per
maund, at its highest ; the ordinary rate was
one pice a seer. Ever since that time the
price of jute has been steadily rising. During 1845 the
prices were recorded at Rs. 9-4 in January and at Rs. 8-10
in July, per bale (5 maunds), in Calcutta. The price of
picked quality reached Rs. 30 per bale in 1882. Then
there was a fall-off to Rs. 25, during a short period of five
years. The market again steadily rose till 1894, when the
picked quality was sold at Rs. 44 per bale. There was
again a fall, which continued till 1904, when the picked
quality was sold at Rs. 36 per bale. Since then, the
market was again on the rise up to the year 191 3. The
maximum price per bale of ordinary quality (M) reached
Rs. 69. The market continued to be dull from 1914 to I9I9,>
owing to restrictions on exports, during the period of tile
great European war, and to shortage of tonnage and other
difficulties following, after declaration of peace. It is
however hoped that the normal condition of the jute
market will soon prevail. The sellers appear to be firmer,
although the buyers are reluctant, during this season,
1920-21, A short outturn is estimated this year.

The period from July to December is the busy season of
the jute trade, the first six months of a year, from January
to June, being the dull season. Often however the market
is stronger during the dull season than in the busy season,
when the stock in hand runs short, and the demand for the
fibre is stiir keen. New crops begin to come in in July,
which sell at higher prices. The following tabular state-
ment will show the variation in prices of jute since 1873.

206

STATEMENT I

Showing Prices of fute, Hessian Cloth and Gunny Bags
at Calcutta Market

Year

Jute 'M
"Medium

' Group.
Quality.

Hessian Clot
io>^ oz., 40",
per 100 yds.

H,

Gunny Bags,

No. 2 Twill,

44"X25>^",

per 100.

January.

July.

January.

July.

January.

July.

Rs.

A.

Rs. A.

Rs. A.

Rs.

A.

Rs. A.

Rs. A.

1919

77

0

81 0

21 0

28

0

58 0

61 0

1918

37

0

43 0

49 0

45

0

68 0

67 0

1917

53

0

40 0

17 8

18

0

44 8

43 0

1916

48

8

48 8

19 4

17

4

43 0

40 8

1915

42

0

48 0

II 0

22

0

34 0

43 8

1914

48

8

67 0

1.7 0

13

8

42 8

42 8

1913

60

0

69 0

17 8

17

0

39 4

39 - 0

1912

48

0

49 8

12 0

15

4

36 0

36 58

1911

50

0

54 8

10 0

II

12

30 0

32 12

1910

32

0

33 0

9 3

8»

II

28 8

27 4

1909

33

8

30 0

10 0

9

4

29 4

26 4

1 90S

36

0

39 0

II 0

II

5

33 0

28 8

1907

58

4

45 8

15 2

14

12

33 12

37 0

1906

45

4

67 4

II ID

14

2

31 14

3' ^

1905

33

?o

40 0

9 14

II

2

27 0

24 8

1904

31

8

33 0

9 14

9

14

23 8

24 4

1903

33

0

34 0

9 8

ID

0

21 0

21 8

1902

28

0

34 0

9 12

9

12

21 4

20 4

1901

30

0

34 8

II 0

II

12

23 0

22 12

1900

32

8

35 0

ID 12

March

10

6

25 8
March

22 0

1873

-

II 0

22 0

207

STATEMENT II

Showing current Prices of Jute of different Groups
at Calcutta

Season 1920-21, September

A. Baled jute, per bale of 4CK) lbs. (5 maunds of
80 lbs. per maund).

Price of marks of

Price of

Groups.

distinction,
in rupees.

ordinary marks,
in rupees.

Diamonds

P.

A. or equivalent 225

200

Reds

Sikdar

175 to 200

100 to 125

Firsts, 2/3, 50% each ...

90 to no

70 to 80

Daccas ,,

90 to 100

70 to 80

Lightnings ,,

60

50

Mangos ,, '

60

50

Hearts ,,

40

30

Daisee

70

60

Rejections

40

20

Bagging cuttings

35

30

Narainganj ,,

20

16

Mixing

16

12

B. Loose jute, per maund of 82 lbs.

Groups.

Price of
Narainganj quality.

Price of
Northern quality.

rs
2's
3's
4's
X4's
Rejections

30
20

17
13
10

7

Not available.
18

15
II

The figure 2, in the baled jute, indicates long jute,
while 3 short jute, irrespective of particular colours. The
price of the quality 3 in baled jute is less by about 33
per cent, than that offered to the quality 2.

208

STATEMENT III

Showing- the estimated Area and Yield of Jute in Bengal,
Assam, Bihar and Orissa and other places {Ccoch
Behar, Nepal, etc )

Area under Jute

Yield in bales of

Year.

in acres.

400 lbs. each.

1919-20

2,821,500

8,428,000

1918-19

2,500,400

6.955,600

I9I7-IS

2,736,000

8,864,600

1916-17

2,702,700

8,305,600

1915-16

..

2,375>9oo

7,340,900

1914-15

3,358,700

^0,443,900

1913-14

2,911,000

8,893,900

1912-13

2,970,500

9,842,800

1911-12

3,106,400

8,234,700

1910-1 1

2,937,800

7,932,000

Average.

1 9 1 0- 1 1

to 1914-15

3,057,000

9,069,000

1905-06

to 1909-10

3,264,000

8,136,000

1900-01

to 1904-05

2,335,000

7,036,000

1895-96

to 1899-1900 ...

2,035,000

5,771,000

1892-93

to 1894-95

2,207,100

5,621,100

1886-87

1,284,000

3,852,000

1880-81

910,000

2,730,000

1872-73

926,000

2,778,000

(a) Excluding Nepal.

No statistics of area and yield of jute in Nepal are
available. On an average 72,000 bales of jute are an-
nually imported- from Nepal into British India, which
have been included in the yield.

209

N

STATEMENT IV

Showing estimated Area under Jute in different Districts
in Bengal, Assam, Bihar and Orissa

Districts.

1872.
Acres

1880,
Acres.

1890.
Acres

1900.
Acres

Bengal

Burdwan

|,O0O

900

1

1 1,00c

Midnapur ... 1

8,000

300

12,500

Hoogly .. "1
Howrah .. j

34,600

25,000

9,700

13.300

24-Parganas ..

47,100

59,900

41,700

37,700

Nadia

1, 000

18,600

30,000

36,000

Murshidabad...

3,600

2,400

24,200

Jessore

6,405

4,700

40,400

28,600

Khulna

27,800

16,100

Jalpaiguri

50,000

15,400

20, 560

63,000

Rangpur

100,000

131,200

600,000

277,000

Dinajpur

117,600

M,6oo

96,000

80,000

Maldah

3>5oo

2,500

4,800

20,000

Rajshahi

14,300

25,700

118,400

107,800

Darjeeling ...

1,500

2,000

Pabna

122,900

102,300

150,000

136,500

1910.
Acres.

16,300
I o, 700
52,400
33.800
80,000
36,100
15,800
48,700
16,200
94,800
237,600
92,000
28,000
60,900
4,000
180,100

1919.
Acres.

6,600
1 1,900
30,800

9,800
63,300
67,100

20,S00

84,600
21,600

49,300

207,600
60,900
26,600

73,500

2,200
103,000

ESTIMATED AREA UNDER JUTE

Districts.

Bogra

Mymensingli

Dacca

Faridpur

Backerganj

Tippera

Noakhali

Sylhet

Goalpara

Kamrup

Darrang

Nowgong

Garo Hills

1872. 1880. 1890. 1900.
Acres. I Acres. | Acres. Acres.

Bengal— (Con fd. J

46,600

36,600

.35,000

88,000

48,000

160,900

301,000

519,000

40,000

1 11.500

180,000

161,000 1

16,600

79,600

80,000

100,000

11,600

200

10,000

78,400

190,800

219,000

3,600

1,900

5,000

AS

15,000

sam

18,000

24,000

*

„...

Bihar and Orissa

1910.

Acres.

120,000
717,500
184,600
120,200

16,000
236,900

29,000

40,000

31,000

5,800

4,300

1919.
Acres.

69,900
628,900
283,500
258,400

56,000
266,600

54,500

26,100
55,200
12,900

9,000
11,700

4,200

Purneah

75,000

26,900

28,000

48,000

220,000

175,000

Bhagalpur

22,200

3,000

1,100

Muzaffarpur ...

2,000

2,200

Champaran . .

2,000

2,400

Sonthal Parganas

1,700

Cuttack

4,208

5,800

9,900

18,500

Balasore

1,000

900

2,800

3,900

2,400

21?

STATEMENT V

Showing the Area under /ute in each District, in order of
importance, igig-20

Bengal (including Cooch Behar)— 2,498,100 acres

Mymensingh

... 628,900

Backerganj

.. 56,600

Dacca

... 283,500

Noakhali

•• 54,500

Tippera

266,600

Jalpaiguri

.. 49,300

Faridpur

... 258,400

Hoogly

.. 30,800

Rangpur

207,600

Maldah

26,600

Pabna

103,000

Khulna

. 21,600

Jessore

84,600

Murshidabad

20,800

Raj shah i

73.500

Midnapur

11,900

Bogra

69,900

Howrah

9,800

Nadia

. . 67,100

Burdwan

6,600

24-Parganas

63,300

Darjeeling

2,200

Dinajpur

60,900

Chittagong

200

Cooch Behar—

39,200 acres

Bihar and Oriss

a— 203,400 acres

Pumea

, ... 175,000

Muzaffarpur

2,200

Cuttack

18,500

Sonthal Parganas .

1,700

Balasore-

2,400

Bhagalpur .

T,IOO

Champaran

2,400

Assam — 12

0,000 acres

Goalpara

55.200

Garo Hills

4,200

Sylhet

26,100

Sibsagar

400

Kamrup

12,900

Lakhimpur

200

Darrang

11,700

Cachar

100

Nowgong

9,000

Total area under Jute— 2,821,500 acres

Oil an average, the area under jute, in Bengal, represents
about 87-6 per cent, of the total area under jute in
British India, Bihar and Orissa 9-1 per cent, and Assam
3'3 per cent.

STATEMENT VI

Showing the Classification of the A rea, in acres, of Jiite
Districts, with reference to the
Area under Jute

District.

Net Area

Net Area Cr pped

Area un

der jute.

1918 19.

1917-18.

1918-19.

•9'7-i8

BENGAL

Burdwan

1,722,240

708,100

755.900

5,600

6,400

Midnapur

3,319.040

t, 858, 700

1,844,400

10,600

14,500

Hooglily

760,320

300,000

300, 100

27 200

33,700

Howrah

326.400

129,100

146,300

7.300

13,400

24-Parganas

3,100,160

906,000

1,022,700

44,400

68,800

Khulna

3.179.624

741,600

828,500

22,800

27,700

Nadia

1,785,600

625,700

664,500

50,300

70,100

Jessore

1,861,253

991,300

991,200

52,000

84,700

Murshidabad . . .

1,370,240

533,500

557>400

12,200

26,500

Malda

1,216,640

680,900

781,000

29,000

34,000

Dinajpur

2,525,440

1,352,400

1,077,900

60,000

61,700

Rajshahi

1,675,640

948,000

880,300

74,300

Si, 100

Rangpur

2,226,560

1,463,000

1,400,000

200,200

256,400

Bogra

869,760

457,200

454, 9CO

66,400

64,800

Pabna

1,184,520

838,300

878,700

105,100

117,600

Jalpaiguri

1,868,160

917,000

951,700

45,900

52,500

Darjeeling

744,960

153,200

156,200

2,000

2,600

Dacca

1,785,224

1,286,100

1,232,300

292,500

262,100

Faridpur

1,668,455

1,279,900

i,3!6,9GO

218,100

200,000

Backerganj

2,952,787

1,681,200

1,665,800

50,200

57.000

Mymensingh ...

3.991.416

2,407,000

2,408,100

577,900

579,600

Tippera

1)599, 360

1,067,600

1^069,300

227,500

228,300

Noakhali

1,064,265

739,800

739,800

37.500

32,500

Chittagong

1,594,880

629,100

632,100

200

200

Total

44,392,944

22,694,700

22,756,000

2,2I9,2C0

2,376,200

Provincial

Total

50,454,866

24,350,400

24,451,700

2,219,200 1

2,376,200

213

CLASSIFICATION OF

THE AREA OF JUTE DISTRICTS

District.

Net Area

Net Area Cropped.

Area under Jute.

1918-19

1917-18.

1918-19.

1917x8.

BIHAR^AND

ORISSA.

MuzafFarpur

1,942,324

1,430,000

1,430,000

1,800

2,300

Sargn

1,705,870

1,131,900

1,131.900

300

300

Champaran

2,259,840

1,430,200

1,4 30,200

2,400

2,500

Bhagalpur

2,661,020

1,463,100

I, 645,600

2,600

2,300

Furnea

3. '96, 153

1,831,100

1,703,600

122,000

192,000

Sonthal Pargp.nas

3,466,100

1,322,200

1,502,400

1,300

1,400

Cuttack

2,340,307

1,233,300

1,291,300

18,700

20,700

Balasore

1,332,621

829,700

863,800

2,200

2,100

Total

18,904,235

10,671,500

10,998,800

'51,3^0

223,600

Provincial

Total

52,789,833

23,182,400

25,803,400

15^,300

223,600

ASSAM.

Cachar

2 412,160

322,576

321,965

135

399

Sylhet

3,478,400

2,141,808

2,424,836

13,613

18,697

Goal para

2,547,840

430,821

396,126

50,892

48,442

Kamrup

.2,472,640

663,149

652,934

'3,095

10,746

Darrang

2,174,720

407,187

395,954

8,324

7,700

Nowgong

2,459,520

328,517

317,759

10,889

8,947

Sibsagar

3.168,304

672,437

658,127

419

435

Lakhinipur

2,547,078

366,634

300,217

153

130

Garo Hills

2,009,792

95,120

95.179

4.584

4,998

Total

23>27o,454

5,428,249

5,623,097

102,104

100,494

Provincial

Total

3i,33o,5i4

1

5,680,076

5,876,624

102,134

100,524

214

STATEMENT VII

Showing estimated Normal Area, in acres, under Jute and
the Percentage of the t9{al Cropped Area^ binder /vte, in
each District in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, and Assam

Districts,
in order of
importance.

Normal area

Percentage of

Area during
1919.

. (average
of preceding
10 years).

total cultivated

area, under jute,

during 1919.

I.

Mymensingh ...

628,900

707,700

247

2.

Dacca

283,500

185,000

20-5

3-

Tippera

266,600

260,000

22-2

4-

Faridpur

258,400

125,000

187

5-

Rangpur

207,600

303,000

15-5

6.

Purnea

175,000

2I9,OCO

12-3

7-

Pabna

103,000

■ 180,000

166

8.

Jessore .;

84,600

123,500

I 1 •!

9-

Rajshahi

73,500

86.200

io"6

lO.

Bogra

69,9011

1 1 5 000

20-I

II.

Nadia

67,100

49.400

II-l

12.

24-Parganas ...

63.300

76,600

8-4

13-

Dinajpur

60, 900

1 1 6, 500

6-3

14.

Backerganj

56,600

22,000

2-8

15-

Goalpara

55>2oo

42,400

io"4

16.

Noakhali

54,500

26,000

4-3

17-

Talpaiguri

49,300

106,300

6-4

18.

Iloogly

30,800

38,400

127

19.

Maldah

26,600

33,000

4-3

20

Sylhet

26,100

16,000

■9

21.

Khulna

21,600

18,300

3'5

22.

Murshidabad ...

20,800

39,800

57

23

Cuttack

18,500

16,400

1-4

24.

Kamrup

12,900

8,100

1-4

25-

Midnapur

11.900

10,400

■7

26.

Nowgong

1 1 , 700

5,700

2-3

27.

Howrah

9,800

42,100

12-2

28.

Darrang

9,000

7,000

1-9

29.

Burdwan

6,600

16,500

I '5

30-

Garo Hills

4,200

4,100

5-6

31-

Balasore

2,400

2,800

"3

32.

Champaran- ...

2,400

1,900

•2

215

ESTIMATED NORMAL

AREA UNDER

JUTE

Districts
in order of
importance.

Normal area

Percentage of

Area during

(average

total cultivated

1919.

of preceding
10 yearsi.

area, under jute,
during 1919.

;i^. Muzaft'arpur ...

2,200

1,700

I

34. Darjeeling

2,200

2,900

19

35. Sonthal Parganas

1,700

3,000

•3

36. Bhagalpur

1,100

1,257

■3

37 Sibsagar

400 .

300

■06

38 Cachar

400

300

•I

39. Chittagong

200

200

•03

40. Lakhimpur

100

200

•08

Bengal

2,458,900

2,643,800

10%

Bihar and Orissa

203,400

246, 1 00

o'8%

Assam

120,000

84,100

2-51

Cooch Behar

39,200

7-2%

Normal outturn of jute, per acre, as estimated by the
Provincial Departments of Agriculture : —

Bengal

Bihar and Ori.ssa

Assam

3*5 bales of 400 lbs.
3"o „ ,,

3 '3 '» '•

216

STATEMENT VIII

Showing Percentage of the Cultivated Area under Jute

igiQ-20

Bengal

—10%

Mymensingh

247

24-Parganas

8-4

Tippera

22 2

Jalpaiguri

. 6-4

Dacca

20-5

Dinajpur

• 6-3

Bogra

20-I

Murshidabad

• 57

Faridpur

. 187

Maldah

• 4*3

Pabna

i6'6

Noakhali

4'3

Rangpur

i5"5

Khulna

■ 3'5

Hoogly

127

Backerganj

, 2-8

Howrah

I2"2

Darjeeling

1-9

Nadia

I II

Burdwan

i"5

Jessore

II'I

Midnapore

■7

Rajshahi

IO"6

Chittagong

03

Coo

ch Behar

• •• 7-2%

Bihar and Orissa — oS"^

Purnea
Cuttack
Balasore
Sonthal Parganas

1*4

Bhagalpur

Champaran

Muzaffarpur

Assam— 25°/,

Goalpara
Garo Hills

104
5-6

Sylhet ...
Cachar ...

•9
•I

Nowgong

Darrang

Kamrup

23

'■9
14

Lakhimpiir
Sibsagar

•08
•06

217

STATEMENT IX

Showing the Consumption of Raw Jute

As given in the Annual Reports of the Indian Jute Mills

Association.

Total

consumption

Season
July to June.*

Quantities

Actual

(including

bought by

Indian mill

Exports.

5 lakhs of

the mills.

consumption.

bales estimated

V

as the Indian
domestic con-
sumption).

Lakhs of

1
Lakhs of

Lakhs of

Lakhs of .

bales, t

bales, i

bales, t

bales.!

1919-20^

60

34-00

99-00

1918-19!

60

50 00

22 00

87-00

1917-18

61 -42

52-96

17-26

83-68'

191617

53-5

55-2

28-10

86-6

1915-16

53-28

56-09

31-06

89-34

1914-15

6o'io

48-05

2967

94-77

1913-14

43*95

4374

41-92

• 90-87

1912-13

47 '4 1

44-35

49-42

101-33

1911-12

41-62

37-51

46-26

92-88

1910-11

3672

39-80

35-31

77-03

1909-10

42-69

44-59

40-09

87-77

1908-09

36-49

35-93

46-31

87-80

1907-08 ^ .-

39-05

36-58

42-76

86-81

1906-07

38-37

34-31

45'o6

88-43

1905-06

34-27

29-57

41-36

80-63

1904-05

28-86 '

3077

35-25

69-11

1903-04

28-92

37-65

71-57

1902-03

27-45

32-53

64*98

1901-02

25-51

43-14

73-65

1900-01

24-15

35-42

64-57

* From 1892-93 to 1906-07, jute season extended from August to July.
■\ I lakh= 100,000.
t Estimated figures.

218

STATEMENT X

Showing the Exports and Indian Consumption of Cloth

{Last three figures from each item of

quantities omitted^

Cloth in Yards

Year.

1920-21

1,352,739

1919-20

1,275,125

I9I8-I9

1,103,211

I9I7-I8

1,196,826

I9I6-I7

1,230,950

I9I5-I6

1,192,256

1914-15

1,057,324

I9I3-I4

1,061,151

I9I2-I3

1,021,816

I9II-I2

871,484

I9I0-II

955,300

1909-10

940,101

1908-09

769,798

1907-08

789,855

1906-07

696,067

1905-06

658,671

1904-05

575,5iT

1903-04

552,320

1902-03

492,883

1901-02

418,569

1900-01.

365,214

Export.

Year.

1920
1919
1918
1917
1916

1915
1914

1913
1912
1911
1910
1909
1908
1907
1906
1905

Indian
Consumption,

34,415
52,949
37,275
37,789
30,555
26,567
19,638
14,714

24,273
30,716

15,597
15,488
16,229
16,477
13-958

Exports of gunny cloth including gunny bags — 2 yards of cloth being
equal to I bag — from the year 1918-19 to 1920-21, from Calcutta by all routes
within India, are shown below : —

1920-21. 1919-20. 1918-19.

Qnantity Yards ,.,. 230,023,952 248,167,202 286,550,568

219

STATEMENT XI

Showing the Exports and Indian Consumption of Gunny

Bags {Last three figures from each item of

quantities omitted)

Number of Bags

Year

Ik

Export.

Year

Indian
Consumption.

1920-21

533>9o8

1919-20

342,729

1920

1918-19

583,096

1919

, 97,426'

1917-18

758,390

1918

112,178

1916-17

805,094

1917

104,511

1915-16

794,152

1916

98,244

1914-15

397,565

1*915

79,711

1913-14

368,759

1914

67,106

1912-13

311,707

1913

68,732

1911-12

289,894

1912

99,491

1910-I1

360,880

191 1

90,390

1909-10

364,368

1910

78,945

1908-09

300,906

1909 •

56,791

1907-08

293,029

1908

43,657

1906-07

257,683

1907

58,921

1905-06

233,326

1906

51,666

1904-05

201,436

1905

68,702

1903-04

206,207

1902-03

225,196

1901-02

230,126

1900-01

202,908

STATEMENT XII

Showing the Exports and Value of Twist and Yarn
{Last three figures from each item omitted^

Year.

Export.

Value.

lbs.

Rs.

1920-21

10,179

3,546

1919-20

3,606

1,201

1918-19

5,115

2,018

1917-18

4,025

695

1916-17

» 3,395

545

1915-16

' 817

^^5

1914-15

5'

9

1913-14

155

20

1912-13

319

45

1911-12

161

20

1910-11

265

22

1909-10

271

23

1908-09

922

129

1907-08

1,550

291

1906-07

1,655 .

327

1905-06

357

44

1904-05

444

36

1903-04

693

81

1902-03 ^ ...

1,791

201

1901-02

5.221

581

1900-01

2,224

290

221

STATEMENT XIII

Showing the Value of Jute and fute Manufactures
exported from India

Year.

Value of Jute.

Value of Manufactures.

Rs.

Rs. ■

1920-21

16,36,08,642

52,99,46,798

1919-20

24,69,94,523

50,01,54,627

1918-19

12,72,00,782

52,65,22,838

1917-18

6,45,38,400

42,84,31,005

1916-17

16,28,81,038

41,67,23,712

1915-16

15,64,20,356

37,97,85,050

1914-15

12,91,02,030

25,82,03,189

1913-14

30,82,63,940

28,27,37,292

1912-13

27, 05,06,730

22,87,21,755

1911-12

22,55,66,010

16,00,82,760

1910-11

15,48,99,736

16,99,48,792

1909-10

15,08,83,097

17,09,66,496

1908-09 ...

19,83,45,55^

15,73,59,991

1907-08

17,97,28,013

18,29,76,445

1906-07

26,83,86,810

15,71,62,303

1905-06

17,12,56,641

12,44,79,844

1904-05

11,96,56,462

9,93,88,676

1903-04

11,71,81,222

9,46,91,969

1902-03

11,12,64,752

9,01,98,987

1901-02

11,79,72,723

8,71,14,174

1900-01

10,86,77,562

7,86,46,012

212

STATEMENT XIV

Showing Exports of Jute and Manvfadures to Foreign
Countries, during ig20-2i

Countries.

Jute.

Twist and
"S'arn.

Gunny Bags.

•

Cloth.

1

Tons. 1 lbs.

1

Number.

^■atds.

United Kingdom ...

!36,624

48,013,316

94.583,232

France

50,8(3

•••V

13 8io,6co

18,980,299

Belgium

25,670

'5 584,780

Germany

70,931

Kou mania

2,846,000

Spain

23,857

Italy ...

22,869'

750,oco

Greece

4.016,100.

1
Turkey

3,323.050

Straits Settlements

7.330,560

Java ...

24,612,530

Siam ...

4,6c6,ioo

Indo-China

17,373,500

..._

China ...

32,366,000

6,137,000

Japan ...

7.345

13,858,000

Philippines . .

1, 845^,000

EXPORTS OF JUTE AND MANUFACTURES TO
FOREIGN COUNTRIES

Countries.

Jute

Twist and
Yarn.

1 Gunny Bags.

Cloth.

Tons.

lbs.

Number.

Yards.

Egypt ...

13,112,700

1,236,000

Cape Colony

2,908,800

Natal ...

10,814,750

Transvaal

3.396,750

....

Other African Ports

9,230,500

Mauritius ** ••■

4,110,500

Brazil ...

8,709

ely.

United States
Canada

110,005

e separat

71,811,700

. 932 956.469
41,415,400

West Indies

J2

31,916,300

Chili ...

.....

>

54,310,100

Peru ._

0

5,063,300

Argentine

4,550,100

208,585,000

Uruguay ' ••

^

6,779,200

Australia

91,391,800

17.273,980

New Zealand

9,721,300

Sandwich Islands

3.831.520

8,082,000

Other Countries ...

15.591

29.247,453

14,862,069

Total

472,414

10,178,785

533,908,109

1,352.73^.649

Tons

472,414

4.544

467,580

357.424

224

STATEMENT XV

Showing Exports of Jute {Rejections and Cuttings excepted)
to all Foreign Markets

Foreign Markets.

1905-06.
Bales.

! 1910-11

j Bales.

1915-ib.
Bales.

London

454,940

418,154

419,412

Liverpool

25,083

14,739

13,999

Dundee

1,177,293

769,181

1,126,734

United Kingdom (other

ports)

2,749

984

Hamburg

709,938

739,451

Bremen

86,759

104,257

Fiume

75,129

82,228

Barcelona

48,841

, 20,185

85,039

Boulogne

156,367

39,374

59,077

Dunkirk

208,128

280,659

26,427

Treport

49,823

6,229

12,900

Leghorn

18,649

78,461

Genoa

84,022

45,169

229,799

Ancona

18,496

31,566

Venice ...

66,832

80,814

Marseilles ...

15,433

18,569

24,022

Trieste

168,361

142,352

Port Said ...

23,503

Continent (other ports) . .

82,764

165,242

162,767

New York ...

161,480

129,436

167,278

San Francisco ...

18,410

16,846

18,978

Philadelphia

42,265

33,630

28,625

Boston

19,187

83,032

159,447

Portland, etc.

85,411

28,481

64,569

Hongkong and Japan

11,676

12,347

22,600

Australia

805

1,093

2,148

Other ports ...

28

4

34,740

225

STATEMENT XVI

Showing the Number of fute Mills, Looms and Spindles^
and Persons Employed, in India

Year.

1919-20

1918-19

1917-18

1916-17

1915-16

1914-15

1913-14

1912-13

191 1-12

1910-11

1909-10

1908-09

1907-08

1906-07

1905-06

1904-05

1903-04

1902-03

1901-02

1900-01"

1899-1900

1894-95

1889-90

1884-85

1879-80

Mills.

76
76
76

74
70
70
64
61

59
58
60

56
54
44
39
38
38
38
36
36
34
28
26
24
22

Looms.

4«,045
40,043

40,639

39,697
39,890

38,379
36,050

34,033
32,927
33,169
31,418

29:525

27,244
25,284

21,986

19,991

18,400

17,189

1 6, 1 1 9

15,340

14,1 19

9,638

7,704
6,926
6,946

Spindles.

856,307
839,9'9
834,055

824,315
812,421

795,528
744,289
708,716

677,519
682,527
645,862
607,358
562,274
520,504
453,168
409,170
376,718
352,214
331,382
317,348
295,302

199,757
156,866

131,740
70,840

Persons.

280,431
275,500
266,038
262,552

254, '43
238,274
216,288
204,092
201,324
216,390
204, ro4
192, ' 8 I
187,771
166,895
144,879
133,162
123,869
1 18,904

T '4,795
1 1 1,272
102,449
74,357
59,54 «
51,902
27,494

226

STATEMENT XVII

Showing Number of Looms in the Jute Mills worked by
Mechanical Power in India

(As given in the Report of the Indian Jute Mills Association)

Year

Hessian

Sacking

Total

( 1st January)

Looms.

Looms.

Looms.

1920

24,353

16,124

40,367

1919

23,376

16,075

39,451

1918

23,426

15,975

39,401

1917

23,197

15,868

39,c65

1916

22,781

15,871

3^,652

1915

22,603

15,751

38,354

1914

22,288

15,832

38,120

1913

21,288

16,028

37,316

1912

18,630

14,002

32,632

1911

32,711

1910

...

31,755

1909

..

...

30,824

1908

..

...

29,074

1907

...

26,449

1906

..

23,884

1905

...

21,318

1904

19,901

1903

•

...

17,597

1902 . •••

..

16,640

1901

15,336

1900

..

14,278

1895

..

9,638

1890

...

...

7,704

1885

..

6,926

1880

••

...

4,946

227

STATEMENT XVIII

Showing the Number of Jute Mills, Looms, Spindles and
Persons employed in Bengal

Year.

Mills.

Looms.

Spindles.

Persons.

1919-20

72

40,676

847.487

277.393

1918-19

72

39.677

831.659

272,080

1917-18

72

40,271

825,795

262,767

i9i6-»7

71

39.404

817.759

260,199

1915-16

67

39>597

805,985

251.957

1914-15

62

38,090

789,236

236,294

1913-14

59

35,811

739.077

214.521

1912-13

59

33.799

703,684

203,327

1911-12

57

32,693

672,487

199.532

1 9 1 0- 1 1

56

32.935

677.495

214,507

1909-10

57

3i..iio

638,992

202,258

1908-09

53

29,217

600,488

189,888

190708

47

26.935

555.842

185,907

1906-07

42

25,061

515*632

165,692

1905-06

37

21.763

448,296

143,429

1904-05

36

19,816

405.542

131,886

1903-04

36

18,228

372,836

122,724

1902-03

36

1 7,018

348,656

117,810

1901-02

36

15.948

327,824

113.493

1900-01

34

15.169

313.740

110,051

228

STATEMENT XIX

Showing the Number of Jute Mills, Looms, Spindles, and
Persons employed in Madras and the United Provinces

Year.

Mills.

Looms.

Spindles.

Persons

Madras.

1919-20

3

294

6.540

2,667

1918-19

3

293

6,480

2.833

1917-18

3

293

6,480

2,736

1916-17

3

293

6,556

2,353

1915-16

3

293

6,436

2,186

1914-15

3

289

6,292

1,980

19x3-14

2

239

5,212

1,767

1912-13

2

234

5.032

1.765

1911-12

2

234

5.032

1,792

1910-11 ' ..

2

234

5.032

1,883

1909-10

2

234

5.032

1,846

1908-09

2

234

5.032

1,898

1907-08

2

234

5.032

1,589

1906-07

148

3,328

1.203

1905-06

148

3.328

917

1904-05

100

2,084

862

1903-04

100

2,082

835

1902-03

98

2,084

838

1901-02

98

2,084

489

The first mill was established during 1901-02.

United Provinces.

1919-20

75

2,280

371

1918-19

73

',780

583

1917-18

75

1,780

553

1916-17

75

1,780

553

1915-16

75

1,780

553

229

STATEMENT XX

Showing the Names of the Jute Mills working in Bengal
during iQiy-iS

Mills.

Looms.

Agents.

I.

Albion .

340

Andrew Yule & Co.

2.

Alexandra

396

Begg, Dunlop & Co.

3-

Alipur

50

Government.

4-

Alliance

1,002

Begg, Dunlop & Co.

5-

Anglo-India

2,000

Duncan Bros.

6.

Angus

660

Angus Jute Co., Ld.

7-

Auckland

460

Bird & Co.

8.

Balliaghata

177

James Luke & Sons.

9-

Bally

541

George Henderson & Co.

lO.

Baranagore

2,275

Do.

II.

Belvedere

400

Andrew Yule & Co.

12.

Budge-Budge

782

Do.

13-

Caledor^ian

350

Do.

14.

New Central

586

Do.

15-

Champdany

494

James Finlay & Co., Ld.

16.

Do. Welling on

Branch

577

Do.

17-

Clive

868

Bird & Co.

18.

Dalhousie

704

Do.

19.

Delta

610

Andrew Yule & Co.

20.

Empire

400

McLeod & Co.

21

Fort Gloster

1.350

Kettlewell, Bullen & Co.

22.

Fort William

900

Do.

23-

Ganges

1,294

Macneil & Co.

24.

Gondalpara

360

Gillanders, Arbuthnot &
Co.

25

Gouripore

1,255

Barry & Co.

26.

Hastings

1,052

Birkmyre Bros.

230

NAMES OF JUTE MILLS

Looms.

Agents.

27. Hoogly

28. Howrah

29. India

30. Kamarhatty

3 1 . Kan knar rah

32. Kelvin

33. Khardah

34. Kinnison

35. Lansdowne

36. Lawrence

37. Narcoldanga

38. Naihati

39. National

40. New Central

41. Northbrook

42. Reliance

43. Samnaggar

44. Soorah

45. Standard

46. Titagarh

47. Union

48. Union South Mill

49. Victoria

454

1,663
1,033

1,710

1,521
600

1,370

1,221

870

704

16

430
611
586

544
1,000

1,572

175

640

1,718

504
650

1,053

Gillanders, Arbuthnot &

Co.
Howeson Bros., Ld,
Mackinnon, Mackenzie

Co.
Jardine, Skinner & Co*

Do.
McLeod & Co.
Anderson Wright & Co.
F. W. Heilgers & Co.
Bird & Co.

Do.
Jas. Park & Co.
F. W. Heilgers & Co.
Andrew Yule & Co.

Do.
Bird & Co.
Howeson Bros., Ld.
Thomas Duff & Co.
McLeod & Co.
Bird & Co.
Thomas Duff & Co.
Bird & Co.

Do.
Thomas Duff & Co.

Altogether, there were 72 mills with 40,676 looms and
847,487 spindles at work, in Bengal, during the year
1919-20, while, during 19 17- 18, there were 72 mills, 40,271
looms and 825,795 spindles.

231

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234

JUTE IN BENGAL

PART VI— MISCELLANY

CHAPTER I

SUBSTITUTES FOR JUTE

^s

UTE is the most widely used material in the
world for making the sacks for packing
cotton, sugar, coffee, grain, wool, etc. India
exports, on an average, over a thousand
million yards of jute cloth, each year, and
about 500 million bags made of the material. Besides this,
India also exports over six million pounds of jute yarn,
not to speak of the raw jute, amounting to about 500
thousand tons, for manufacture elsewhere. So far, there
has apparently been little effort made to find a substitute
for jute, as its cost has been regarded as fairly cheap.
But owing to the great European war, the price of jute
had gone up in other countries, and consequently
substitutes were being sought, with the result that it has
been found that Cuba had a plant of considerable promise.
This is known as Malva, heretofore considered as a
weed, that grows wild in many parts of the island. There
are not less than eleven species of this plant known in
Cuba, but the one that is considered the best suited for
the production of textile fibre is known as Malva blanca,
and it has, of late, been cultivated to some extent. Malva
is said to grow to a height of about twenty feet sometimes,
but averages from six to ten feet in height, with a stalk
ranging from half an inch in diameter to three times that
size. The fibre is contained in the bark, that of the

235 '

MISCELLANY

young plant containing a single layer, while older plants
may contain as many as eight layers. This fibre is said
to be equal in strength to the' Indian jute, but finer
and more resembling flax, and it is therefore believed
that it will be found useful for rope making, as well as for
bag fabric. In Brazil also, a plant called Paco-paco,
probabl}' of the same family, grows wild to a considerable
extent.

It is useless to draw the attention of the Indian jute
growers, who are dumb people without education and capital.
But we cannot do better than requesting the authorities
of the Indian jute mill^ who have freely invested
capital in this country in the jute industry, and the Bengal
Zemindars who realize easily the rents from their tenants,
on account of the ready sale of the stuff, to take joint
action against any sort of danger to the jute crop. The
seeds of the plants noted above should be brought in and
cultivated in this country in comparison with jute, both
in yield and value of the crops.

Hibiscus cannabinus and Crotalaria juncea are the
only two fibrous crops in India which may be mentioned
as possible substitutes for jute. Brief accounts of these
two crops are given below by way of comparison
with jute.

Hibiscus cannabinus

{Mestha pat)

It is called Mestha pat or Mesot in Bengal, Patua
Kudrum, Channa and Amla patua in Bihar and Chota
Nagpur, Deccan hemp, Ambari or Auibadi in Bombay, and
Gogunara in Madras. Bimlipatam jute is another name
of this fibre. In some districts in East Bengal, both jute
and mestha are known by the name of koshta.

236

SUBSTITUTES FOR JUTE

The Mestha pat is the most accommodating fibrous
crop known. It grows on all kinds of soils and
lands — alluvial or laterite, high or low. Some years
ago, it was largely cultivated in Eastern Bengal, but of
late, jute has completely taken its place. There is still
a limited cultivation of this crop on the bheel lands
which are considered too low to be suitable for jute. It is
commonly sown as a hedge crop in Biha^.

On the bheel lands, in Bengal, it is sown in February
and March, and harvested in July and August. In Bihar
and Chota Nagpur, it is generally sown in June and
July, and harvested in September and October. It
thrives pretty well in other seasons, if the soil has sufficient
moisture. Thirty seers of seed are ordinarily required
for sowing one acre of land, if it is sown by itself Mestha
is commonly sown as a mixed crop with paddy in East
Bengal, and with sugar-cane, rahar and cotton in Bihar.
The quantity of the seed is, of course, to be lessened if
it is sown as a mixed crop. The plants are so thinned
as to allow a space of about 9 inches around each
plant. The flowering stage is considered the best
time for harvesting. It requires about four months
from the time of sowing to the time of cutting. In East
Bengal, the plants are pulled up and steeped as -jute. In
engal, the method of extracting fibre is the same as
that of jute. In Bihar and Chota Nagpur, the bundles
of plants, when they are ready for stripping, are taken
away And dried ; afterwards the fibres are separated
from the stalks. Fifteen maunds of fibre per acre are
considered to be a good yield in East Bengal, and ten
maunds in Bihar and Chota Nagpur, if the crop is sown
by itself

The fibre of Mestha is bright and glossy, and a little
stronger than jute, but coarse and harsh. On the
whole, it is inferior to jute both in quality and yield.
Mestha pat is commonly useid in cordage and sacking.

237

238

SUBSTITUTES FOR JUTE

Crotalaria juncea

(San pat)

It is commercially called San or Sunn hemp or
Bombay hemp. Common local name is San pat in
Bengal and Sanai in Bihar.

There are two varieties of San hemp in Bengal ; one of
them, which is called Ful or Bhadoi San, is sown in
May or June and harvested in October and November ;
and the other variety, called Gotir San or Radz San, is
sown in October and November and harvested in
February and March. The quality of the fibre of the
Radt San is superior to that of the Bhadoi San.

It is stated by Mr. R. S. Finlow, the then Jute Specialist
to the Government of Eastern Bengal and Assam, in the
Bulletin on " the Extension of Jute Cultivation in India,"
that " the extent of the cultivation in Madras for
fodder purposes may be gauged from the fact that of
the 205,000 acres returned as being under San hemp
this year (1906), much the greater portion of the crop
will be used as fodder." San is never cultivated in
Bengal as a fodder crop. It is grown to a very limited ex-
tent in some places in East Bengal for green manuring.

It thrives on all kinds of soils, provided the lands
are well drained and above the inundation level and
retentive of moisture.

The seed is sown broadcast thickly — 2 maunds
being required for one acre of land. The sowing must
be very thick, otherwise the plants will grow bushy,
causing the extraction of fibre extremely difficult.
The radt variety may be sown in rotation with
jute or aus paddy in the same year. This variety
cannot be grown in Chota Nagpur and Bihar, excepting
Purnea District, for want of steeping water and for
deficiency of moisture in the soils.

239

MISCELLANY

The plants are either pulled up or cut to the ground.
The best fibre is obtained when it is harvested at the
flowering stage. Generally the crop is harvested when
the seeds ripen, in order to get a heavier yield of fibre,
and also the seed.

In East Bengal, after the plants are cut or pulled
up, they are spread over the fields for withering. On
the .second day, the plants are tied in bundles and
submerged under water, applying some artificial weight
(commonly sods of earth) over them. There is another
process of steeping, in which the bundles are placed
upright in water about 2 feet deep for one day,
submerging them completely on the next day. Retting
generally finishes by the fifth day. The plants
are stripped immediately after retting is complete,
or else the fibre will be totally lost. It is stripped in
the same way as jute in Orissa, that is, handfuls of retted-
bundles are beaten over water to remove gummy matters
from the fibre, which is then dried and separated. The
great obstruction in the way of its extended cultivation
is the difficulty in stripping. The yield of fibre is
between 9 and 12 maunds per acre.

The San fibre is decidedly stronger than jute,
specially when wet, but the yield is much less, while
the cost for stripping' is much more. In India, the fibre
is very largely used for making fishing nets, but to a
limited extent for weaving rugs. Excepting Rhea
{KunkutaJ, which is very expensive, there is no other fibre
in India which can replace San in the use of fishing
nets. Wet or damp jute rots quickly, and, therefore, it
is useless for fishing nets. Cotton yarn is also sometimes
used for this purpose, for it is cheaper than San yarn.
An everyday used fishing net made of San lasts for
about three years, while a cotton-net gets impaired
after it is used for two years, at the longest.

240

CHAPTER II

INTRODUCTION OF JUTE INTO OTHER
COUNTRIES

P to the present, attempts for introduction
of jute into other countries have not been
successful. Repeated trials were given to it
in Brazil, Egypt, Java, Philippine Islands and
some other places. It did not succeed
even in Burma. The failures must have been chiefly due
to selection of lands which were unsuitable to the crop,
either physically or climatically. Ignorance in the culti-
vation of the crop might have been one of the causes of
the failures.

A species of jute is cultivated in the plains of Ning-po
and Tientsin in China. It does not, however appear to
be an article of much importance in the trade of the
country, as large quantities of Indian goods are imported
by it every year. There is no demand from China for
raw jute. Evidently it is due to the fact that there are few
factories in China worked by mechanical power for spin-
ning and weaving. The quantity and value of jute manu-
factures exported from India to China are given below : —

Exports of Jute Manufactures to China

(Gunny Bags* and Cloth)

Year. Quantity. Value.

"^ Yds. Rs.

1920-21 70,869,000 1,52,10,033

1919-20 35,717,600 99,41,097

1918-19 28,305,160 83,50,658

Vigorous efforts are being made by Brazil Republic
to introduce the cultivation of jute into their country.

* One gunny bag being equal to 2 yards.

241 Q

- MISCELLANY

There is a great demand in Brazil for gunny bags
of a superior qualit}' for exports of coffee. In the
State of Sao-Paulo, there are about ten mills which
manufacture packing bags of special sizes out of an
indigenous fibre called paco-paco (probably of Malvacece
order) which is much inferior to jute in quality.
Haco-paco grows wild in some parts of Brazil.
The mill owners of Brazil import finer qualities of raw
jute — about 15 thousand tons annually — from India for
mixing purposes with paco-paco for the manufacture of
bags. Sometimes they import Indian twist and yarn of
good qualities for the purpose. Considering heavy charges
incurred for freight and the delay in transhipment, they are
resolved to introduce the jute crop into their country.
It is hoped that the crop which is under experimental
cultivation will succeed in the plains in Sao Paulo,
watered by the tributaries to the river Parana, where
the climatic conditions resemble those of India for a
certain period of a year. The Amazon region, which is a
vast country not yet .* reclaimed and peopled, appears
also likely to be suitable for the crop.

Mr. Antonino da Silva Neves of the Republic came to
India in 1920, on a mission, to study the Indian agri-
culture and commerce. He was particularly keen to learn
all about the jute crop of Bengal. I was earnestly request-
ed to go over to Brazil for a term at least of two years.
But owing to family considerations, I was unable to com-
ply with the request very kindly made to me. However,
with pleasure, I rendered all assistance to Mr. Neves. I
took him across the jute districts during the growing
season of the crop, 1920. Different crops of jute of
different tracts of the country were all shown to him.
I also procured for him seeds of some typical races.
He despatched over 100 maunds of the seeds thus collect-
ed to his country for sowing during the season beginning

242

INTRODUCTION OF JUTE INTO OTHER COUNTRIES

in November, which is identical with the jute season in
India commencing from April.

Many friends of mine took objection to my helping
Mr. Neves in this respect, as they believed that it would
harm India if jute were successfully cultivated in
other countries. My friends vv^ere shortsighted indeed.
In these da}'s of democracy, no country had the right to
monopolise a crop of the world's commerce. If their efforts
be successful, I am sure the people of Brazil will ever
remember India and our humble services to their country,
in the introduction of a crop which has hitherto been a
monopoly.

It is not known to us as to what Japan and the United
States of America, as great enterprising countries, are
doing in regard to the introduction of the crop into their
tropical States. Jute industry has already made an aston-
ishing progress in the United States. Before the war,
Germany was, next to the United Kingdom, our best
customer for raw jute, now the United States. France
comes in next to the United States. Japan is follow-
ing steadily. -It is the only country in the East which
imports raw jute amounting to between 7 and 10 thousand
tons annually for manufacture of gunny bags and cloth.
The first shipment of raw jute to Japan dates in 1886-87
(1,447 cwts.), while to the United States about the middle
of the nineteenth century. Th efollowing table shows the
exports of raw jute to the above countries during
recent years.

Exports of Jute to the United States of America

Year. Quantity. Value.

Tons, Rs.

1920-21

1 10,005

2,80,58,156

1919-20 .

77,649 '

2,57,59,639

I9I8-I9

61,229

1,90,18,918

243

MISCELLANY

Exports of Jute to France

Year.

Quantity,

Valwe.

Tons.

Rs.

1920-21
1919-20
1918-19

50,813
80,731
42,963

2,23,59,302

3,76,32,533
1,54,93,006

Exports of Jute to Japan

Year.

Quantity.

Value,

Tons.

Rs.

1920-21
1919-20
1918-19

7,345

10,566

6,672

18,86,045
34,49,156
16,91,113

Japan's magnitude in the textile manufactures is mani-
fested from the fact that it imported from India alone raw
cotton worth Rs. 20,59,10,404 in 1920-21, Rs. 41,22,33,522
in 1919-20 and Rs. 23,37,39,864 in 1918-19. On the
average of the last three years' figures, about 71 per cent,
of the exports of raw cotton of India, amounting to 201
thousand tons (valued at 284 millions of rupees), out of
the total quantity of 261 thousand tons of exports (valued
at 437'6 millions of rupees), were supplied to Japan by
India. Japan's progress, on industrial lines, is wonderfully
rapid indeed !

Germany is again reaching its former position as a
most important importing country for raw jute. During
the year 1920-21, India exported to Germany about
71 thousand tons of raw jute to the value of Rs. 2,33,50,625.

The United Kingdom alone imports about 45 per
cent, of the total exports of raw jute from India amounting

244

INTRODUCTION OF JUTE INTO OTHER COUNTRIES

to 487 thousand tons (total exports) to the value of
about 18 crores of rupees (one crore being equal to
10 millions), taking the average of the figures of the last
three years.

In the circumstances narrated in the ''preceding
paragraphs, there is no immediate cause for fear, from
the activities of other countries for introduction of jute.
They will, at first, have to make experiments on the crop
for a number of years. Secondly, a country will have to
meet its own demand if the crop be a success there ; and
thirdly, the question of exports will arise. Our cheap
production of the fibre is in our favour to compete suc-
cessfully with the jute crop or any other fibre that may
be produced elsewhere.

We should not, however, keep silent. In order to safe-
guard our interest, we should take active measures to
improve the fibre both in quality and yield. Selected
seeds should be the only seeds to be sown. Manuring
of the jute fields should not be neglected as has hitherto
been the case. The Department of Agriculture, Bengal,
has done much by distribution of selected seeds among
the cultivators. About 2,000 maunds of selected jute
seeds, which are sufficient for sowing about 16,000 acres,
are annually distributed by the Department at cost prices.
The Departmental seeds, if available, should be preferred
to any other kind.

245

CHAPTER III

PAPER AND PAPER PULP

The Utility of Jute Stalks

{Contributed to " Commerce " of December 2j, jg20.)

CCORDING to modern historians, the art
of paper manufacture was introduced into
India, first of all in Kashmere, from Samar-
kand, sometime during the thirteenth
iZMA century. From Samarkand, it is said, the
knowledge of paper-making reached the Arabs early in
the eighth century. Sir Aurel Stein, during his excava-
tions of the Niya in Khotan, found a letter, dated 718 A.D.,
written by a Jew resident in Persia, addressed to a Khotan
official. Various other kinds of paper written in Khotan
and China were also discovered by him, which shows
that Khotan was once the seat of paper manufacture.
The art of paper-making is said to have been invented in
China in lo^ A.D. But it is difficult to understand as to
why paper was not introduced in India earlier, although
close relationship, religious as well as commercial, existed
between the two countries from ancient times.

The Art of Paper-making

Indian antiquarians, on the other hand, are of opinion
that the art of paper-making was not unknown in
India,' before it was invented in China. Niarcus, who
accompanied Alexander the Great, in his conquest of the
Punjab, found that a sort of paper-like pasted leaf made
of cotton was used for writing documents in commercial
transactions. However, it is true that paper was not used
for writing sacred books until recently, even if it was

• 246

PAPER AND PAPER-PULP

invented in India in ancient times or introduced later.
Nicolo Conte, who visited India in the early part of
the 15th century, says that the inhabitants of Cambay
alone used paper. For writing sacred books, the barks
of Tatish, called Talishpatm (Cassia Tamala ?), and
birch tree {Bhurjapatra), and afterwards the leaves of
palm}'ra palm (Talpatra) were used. There is no Sanskrit
name for paper except patra (leaf), even if it was at
all known in ancient India. Kasiaj, which is now used
in the vernacular, is a Persian word. In modern Sanskrit,
which sprang up after the decline of Buddhism sometime
during the seventh century A.D., a word Kas[ada,
conveying the same meaning as patra, came into use.

Introduction in India

Whether Kagaj is derived from Kagada or not,
I cannot say. I do not, however, propose to go further
into the antiquity of the industry. It is true that the
industry was introduced throughout India by the Emperor
Akbar, probably after his conquest of Kashmere, which
was then a famous paper manufacturing centre. Since then,
the industr}^ flourished in many places, Maldah, Rangpur,
Dacca and Faridpur in Bengal being the most important
among them. The paper was manufactured chiefly from
waste paper, old rags and ropes. It was called Tulnt
KugaJ, that is, the paper made of Tttla (cotton). It
is not known why it was so called, although cotton, as
far as we know was not used. Bamboo pulp has been
used for paper-making in Nepal since a long time.

Hand-made Paper /

Until 1880 or so, the hand-made paper industry was
in a flourishing condition in Bengal, when steam power
machinery was introduced. As a result of the Swadeshi
agitation, some of the descendants of the old paper

247

MISCELLANY

manufacturers — a class of Mahomedans known as
Kagajia — were induced to revive the industry. They
made but little progress, due to competition with cheap
and better stuffs either imported or manufactured in India
by steam power.

Mill-made Paper

The quality of paper manufactured in the Indian mills
has of late greatly improved. But it is still inferior to
those imported from abroad. The yielding capacity of
the existing mills is similarly unsatisfactory. In 1917
there were only ten mills in India, of which four were in
Bombay, three in Bengal, one in the United Provinces,
one in'Travancore and one in Gwalior. The authorised
capital was estimated by the authorities to be at about
Rs. 53,00,000 only. The production of paper of these
mills was estimated at 31,900 tons in 19 17, which is
much less than half of the Indian demand, the total
demand being about 84,000 tons.

Rise in Price

Since the outbreak of the great European war the
value of paper has increased beyond all proportions.
There has been shortage of paper and raw materials all
over the world. The import of paper into India has
decreased from 1,027,800 cwts. in 1914-15 to 432,800 cwts.
in 191 8-19, that is, roughly speaking from 100 to 40
per cent., while the value of the imported paper has
increased from ^^879,298 to ^^^1,813,779 respectively; —
approximately from 100 to 210 per cent. The import of
wood pulp for paper manufacture has similarly decreased
from 179,510 cwts. in 1914-15 to 41,800 cwts. in 1918-19.
As a result, the value of the Indian production has
increased from Rs. 80,37,000 for 27,100 tons in 191 3 to
Rs. 1,87,86,000 for 31,900 tons in 191 7, that is, from

248

I'APER AND PAPER-PULP

Rs. 2g6s to Rs. 588'9 per ton. The price of paper is still
rising higher and higher. The Indian mills were strug-
gling for existence- up to 1916. Since then handsome
dividends up to Rs. 50 per cent, per annum have been paid.

Shortage of Paper

Scarcity of paper exists all over the world. The
exporting capacity of the United Kingdom has dimi-
nished to such an extent that it will take a long time
to regain its former position. The paper markets of the
world are now controlled by Norway, Sweden, the United
States of America and Japan. Five years ago Japanese
paper was seldom imported into India, but it now holds a
very strong position as an exporting country. The
following table shows the present relative places held by
different countries in exporting paper into India as com-
pared between the figures for 19 14- 15 and those for 191 8-19.

Quality of Paper Importkd.

Wood-

Exporting Country

pulp im-

Packing.

1

Paste
board.

ported.

1914-15.

Cwts.

Cwts.

Cwts.

Cwts

Cwts.

United Kingdom

127,689

169,296

35c,3ii

22,983

58,711

Sweden

5.653

40,720'

8,885

266

95,207

Norway

9,823

60,980

11,448

6.7

4.425

United States ..

6,739

4. 119

S,933

1,003

Japan

/

2.763

21,176

25

1918-19.

United Kingdom ... .

4,826

11,651

11.447

3,202

Sweden

8,544

c 6,084

2,557

6,425

23,900

Norway

",345

96,2^4

16,280

205

II.COI

United States

3.614

54,114

18,019

3,971

Japan

7,811

14 827

29,842

94,875

6,900

From the above figures it will appear that with the
■exception of Japan and Norway there is a falling off

249

MISCELLANY

in export of paper from all other countries to this
country.

The Pulp Problem

The question of shortage of paper is receiving serious
attention from the authorities in every country, and various
suggestions are offered by the scientists to solve the
problem to meet the world's demand. The supplies of
cheap raw materials for paper-pulp are getting short
everywhere. The woods from which' paper pulp is
manufactured in the United States are also getting dearer
day jby day. India is fortunately rich in raw materials.
Bamboo alone can meet the world's demand for a number
of years, and it is abundantly available in the forests of
Assam and Burma. It is satisfactory to note that two
British firms are erecting suitable machinery in Burma for
the manufacture of paper-pulp from bamboo, and another
factory is intended to be erected in Calcutta. The
Government of India, too, has deputed Mr. W. Raitt,
their cellulose expert, to England for special study in
connection with the bamboo-pulp and the machinery
required for its manufacture. It is also proposed to instal
such a plant at the Forest Research Institute at Dehra
Dun.

Raw Materials

The cost of procuring bamboos and other raw materials
that can be utilised for the manufacture of paper-pulp
should now receive our consideration. The cost of
cutting bamboos in the forest as well as that of transporting
to a mill may be estimated at about Rs. 30 per ton, at
the lowest, the rate at which it is being sold in the towns
for building and other purposes. Nat (elephant grass),
which is also suggested for manufacturing paper-pulp, may
be had at the same price. Although it grows wild in the

250

PAPER AND PAPER-PULP

swamps of Bengal, it can supply only a limited portion
of the expected demand. Munj {Saccharum arundina-
ceuvt) would be more costly as it is not available in
large quantity. The Baboi {bhahat, sabay) grass, which
is at present used in the Indian mills for paper-pulp
and which was very cheap some time ago, is now sold at
Re. 1-5-0 per maund. The quantity available is six to
seven lakhs of maunds or over one lakh of bales. Even
paddy straw is not now available at less than Rs. 30 per
ton. Paddy straw contains a considerable quantity of
silicates which make it very difficult to reduce to paper-
pulp. This stuff is utilised for paper making in Germany
only. In the United States, on the other hand, special
powerful machinery has been introduced to get paper-pulp
out of timber. Before the introduction of special machi-
nery for treatment of the cuttings and rejections of
jute for manufacture of gunny bags, these materials were
largely used for paper-making, as they were very cheap
then. The other materials, such as old rags and waste
paper, which were formerly obtained at cheap prices, are
not now available easily.

Value of Jute Stalk

I may suggest the name of a material by the wa\'
of making experiments. It is the stalk of jute, a bye-
product of the jute fibre which is now either wasted or
burnt as fuel. It is not valued much as fuel as it is very
soft and burns quickly. In point of woody fibre it com-
pares very favourably with other raw materials used in the
manufacture of paper. Nay, it is much richer than an\'
other materials mentioned above.

Chemical Analysis

The results of chemical examination of the jute stalk

251

MISCELLANY

And some other raw materials conducted by us are tabu-
lated below : —

Name of Article.

Jute Stalk

Bamboo (ordinarily available in

Calcutta)*
Sabay Grass

Nal

Paddy Strawf

Fibre.

6o"5o p.c.

4roo p.c.
38-00 p.c.
37-00 p.c.
33-00 p.c.

What Jute Stalk Contains

The result of the complete analysis of the jute stalk

will, it is hoped,, be of much interest. They are as
follows : —

Water (Hygroscopic) ... 5-85 p.c.

Protein ... ... 1-40 p.c.

Ash ... ... ... 0-92 p.c.

Carbo-Hydrate ... ... 3i'33 pc.

Fibre ... ... >... 60-50 p.c.

Its Vast Possibilities

The fibres of the above-mentioned materials were
■estimated by sulphuric acid and sodium hydrate treat-
ments. The jute stalk, it will appear, contains only a
negligible quantity of ash, for which it is easy to separate
the fibre (pulp) out of it. It contains little colouring
matter, requiring therefore little bleaching operation.
About a ton and a half of the jute stalk, per acre, would
be available as a bye-product of jute fibre cultivated in
this country. Thus the jute districts of Bengal, Bihar

* Containing 3-20 per cent, of ash.
t Containing about 8 per cent, of ash.

252

PAPER AND PAPER-PULP

and Assam would yield annually about 40 lakhs of tons
of this raw material, producing roughly about 20 lakhs
of tons of paper-pulp. If jute stalk be successful as a
paper material, it will, it is hoped, like its main product,
revolutionise Indian industries and commerce.

Hand-made Paper in Bengal

The art of hand-made paper manufacture, which was
once in a flourishing state in Bengal, is now almost for-
gotten. From my recent enquiries on the subject, it
appears that there is only one family out of about 1,000 at
the village Arial in Dacca, who manufactures paper.
Paper is also manufactured by a few families near
Tarakeswar in Hoogly. They use waste papers, rags,
old ropes, gunnies, gunny cloths, nets, etc., as paper
materials. These stuffs are cut into small pieces and
put into earthen vessels containing water. After a week
or so, the stuff is washed in a basket in order to get rid
of the dirts contained. Then it is again immersed into
water which is strongly impregnated with equal quantities
of Soji-mati (crude sbdium carbonate) and quicklime.
After a week or ten days, it is again washed, broken by
beating, and dried. This process is repeated three to six
or seven times, before the pulp becomes fit for making
paper. Pulp is easily made out of waste papers. Rice
gruel is used for sizing.

Hand made Paper in Europe

In European countries good hand-made paper is §till
now manufactured out of rags. The rags are at first
dusted and cut into pieces, and then washed to get them
free from dirty matters. The stuff is then boiled in caustic
soda solution of 5 per cent, to 10 per cent, in strength.
Too weak lye leaves behind a part of substances to be
eliminated: if too strong it injures the tenacity of the fibres.

253

MISCELLANY

It should be a little too strong, rather than to be too weak.
Ordinarily soda and lime process is resorted to as it is
cheaper. For lOO parts of rags about i part of soda
and one-half to 2 parts of unslaked lime are used for
preparing lye in 100 parts of water Half the quantity of
the solution is generally used in the beginning of boiling
and the other half after six hours of boiling. If necessary
this process is repeated for the second time. Slaked lime
is dissolved by sprinkling with a little water, then mixed
with soda in the preparation of the lye.

Beating

After boiling, the stuff is washed in clean water and
bleached if necessary. Next comes beating for about
six to eight hours to reduce the stuff to fineness, and
pressed to remove excess water.

Sizing

The stuff is now to be sized. There are various
ways of sizing, animal or vegetable. The animal size
is gelatine or glue, and the ^^ vegetable size is being
made of a combination of resm with soda. Alum is
used to assist in fixing the size in the paper.

Filling

Mineral matters are employed for filling or loading.
China clay is the principal, others being Barium-sulphate,
Calcium sulphate. Magnesium silicate.

• Colouring

Colouring matters are required for the majority of
papers. Small quantities of blue and red colours are
used for white papers, and aniline dyes as well as various
pigments for coloured papers. Finally the stuff is made
into paper.

254

PAPER AND PAPER-PULP

Paper Manufacture by Steam Power

In the same process paper is manufactured by steam
power by which the work is done far more quickly at
much less cost. In the mills vacuum pans are employed
for boiling.

Fibres for Paper-pulp

Rags are the best as a paper material. But, for
cheapness, all kinds of vegetable fibres are utilised for
paper-making. Cellulose is the substance required for
paper. It is found more or less in all tissues of plants.
In most cases the presence of colouring matters and
various waxy and resinous substances render the cellulose
very impure. It is, therefore, desirable that all impurities
be removed, as far as possible, before the fibres are made
into paper. Tenderest rags, such as muslins, are em-
ployed for blotting papers. Jute fibre is smooth but
difficult to bleach : however, the resulting paper is strong
and tough. ^

The length of vegetable fibres, varying from J^^th to
^th inch, operates an important part in the manufacture
o^ paper. Short length of a fibre weakens the quality of
paper. 'Papers made out of straws are weak. Straw pulp
is generally used as an admixture. Wood pulp is now in
common use, specially in America.

Straws and u^ood are reduced to pulp by steam
power by either Soda-lime or Caustic soda process.
Caustic soda is preferred. Wood is to be cut into chips
after removing its bark and grasses into pieces before
boiling. These stuffs may • also be reduced to pulp by
boiling over a naked fire in stationary cauldrons unlike
fotatory boilers used in the mills. But it will take
much time and labour before the stuffs will be reduced
to pulp. However, our energetic young men might follow

255

MISCELLANY

this process in making pulp from jute stalks, as it is the
cheap and easy way. If successful, it would open a way
for a new industry in this country.

Literature on Paper Manufacture

The following books may be consulted for further
information on the subject : —

Art of Paper-making — A, Watt.

Commercial Products of India — SiR G. Watt.

Paper — H. A. Maddox.

•Paper-making — CROSS and Bevan.

Paper and Its Uses — Daw.

: Practical Paper-making — Clapperton.

CHAPTER IV

A THREE-HUNDRED-ACRE JUTE FARM

|E need hardly repeat that jute will never
succeed if sown under unfavourable condi-
tions. We have accentuated these points
on several occasions, in the preceding pages.

However, it will be well to caution a

beginner again, who takes to the cultivation of jute some-
what on a large scale. Jute grows on particular soils,
under particular climatic conditions. Sowing and after-
treatments must be finished in proper time. Delay in
these treatments will harm the crop materially, and the
grower will sustain a loss thereby. Although there is a
sudden fall of prices, yet a well-grown crop pays hand-
somely to its grower.

Of the 300 acres of a farm, 150 acres may be sown
with jute and the other 150 acres with paddy, in the same
season. Jute may be rotated with rape seed or pulses or
tobacco in the first year, while paddy with jute in the
second year. An additional area of 50 acres is also wanted
for the farm for buildings and grazing.

Detailed statements showing receipts and expenditure
of a thred-hundred-acre jute farm, are given as follows : —

Receipts : — Rs.
3,000 Maunds of jute at Rs. 8 per maund

(20 maunds per acre) ... . 24,000

3,000 Maunds of paddy at Rs. 3 per maund ... 9,000

1,500 „ of mustard at Rs. 5 per maund ... 7,500
7,500 „ oi pekati (stalks) at about 4 annas

per maund (50 maunds per acre) 1,875

3,000 „ of paddy straw at 8 annas per maund 1,500

4,000 „ Juar plants for fodder... ... 500

Rs. 44,375
257 R

miscellany
Capital Expenditure : —

Rs.

Cleaning and plotting lands ... ... 10,000

120 Bullocks at Rs. 75 each ... ... 9,000

10 Iron ploughs (Hindusthan) ... 200

70 Yokes ... ... ... 35

10 Bidas ... ... ... 60

4 Five-tined grubbers ... .... 80

4 Hengas (beam harrow) ... ... 20

6 Ladders ... ... 5

2 Chaff cutters ... ... 300

I Scale ... ... ... 20

200 Sickles ... ... ... 50

200 Khurpies ... ... ... 25

60 Kodalies ... ... ... 60

10 Carts ... ... / ... 500

I Cake crusher ... ... 100

Tin-roofed cowshed ... ... 3,000

Thatched shed for servants ... ... 500

Tin-roofed godown ... ... 3,000

Superintendent's quarters ... ... 1,000

Office rooms ... ... 1,000

Rs. 28,955
Working capital ... „ 6,045

Total Rs. 35,000
258

THREE-HUNDRED-ACRE JUTE FARM

Rs.

Recurring Expenditure : — '
Cultivation charges —

50 Country ploughs ... ... 100

60 Ploughmen at Rs. 12 each per mensem 8,640^
6 Sirdar coolies at Rs. 15 each per

mensem ... ... 1,080

6 Servants for feeding and grazing cattle

at Rs. 10 per head per mensem ... 720

TOO Extra coolies for 6 months for weed-
ing and harvesting, at Rs. 12 each
per mensem ... ... 7,200

200 Extra coolies for 10 days for trans-
planting paddy, at annas 6 per
diem per head ... ... 750

^O Extra coolies for 20 days for cutting

paddy ... ... ... 375

100 Extra coolies for 20 days for thrash-
ing paddy ... ... 750

100 Extra coolies for 10 days fq^; thrash-
ing mustard ... ^■' ... 375
550 Maunds of oil cake for bullocks

at 15^ maunds per diem ... 1,100

36 Maunds of salt for bullocks ... 100

2,000 „ of paddy straw ... ... 1,000

4,000 „ of juar plants ... ... 500

50 „ of jute seed ... ... 500

60 „ of seed paddy at Rs. 4 per

maund ... ... 240

25 ,, of seed mustard ... ... 150

Depreciation on bullocks and implements ... 600

Rent At Rs. 3 per acre ... • ... 1,050

Miscellaneous ... ... ... 770

Rs. 26,000
259

MISCELLANY

Establishment charges-

Rs.

Salary of Supdt. at Rs, 200 per mensem ... 2,400
„ „ First Assistant at Rs. 50 per

mensem ... ... 600

„ „ Second Assistant at Rs. 30 per

mensem ... ... 360

„ „ two Peons at Rs. 8 each per

mensem ... ... 192

3,552

Total Recurring Expenditure ... Rs. 29,552

Total Receipts ... „ 44,375

Net profit (on a Capital of Rs. 35,000) 14,823

26q

CHAPTER V

KEROSENE EMULSION.

EROSENE emulsion is the most simple and
effective remedy against all insect pests.
It kills insects when applied to their bodies.
In raw state, Kerosene oil injures the plants,
so it should always be applied after being
diluted with some other materials which would form
an emulsion in mixture with the oil. It can be used by
means of an ordinary hand sprayer in small plots or
gardens. For a large area under field or garden crops,
a larger machine of Knapsack Sprayer pattern would
be very useful. It is specially valuable when delicate
plants are attended to. The sprayer which is used
commonly by the Municipalities for disinfection will do
well for ordinary purposes. Emulsion may be prepared
according- to the followinsr formulae : —

Soap Formula

Kerosene ... ... ... 2 gallons.

Fish-oil-soap (or i quart soft soap) ... ^ lb.
Water ... ... ... i gallon.

The soap, cut into small pieces, is to be dissolved
in the water by boiling and immediately added, away
from the fire, to the kerosene oil. The whole mixture
is then agitated violently while hot with an ordinary
butter churn used in this country. The emulsion should
be ready after 5 or 6 minutes' agitation, when it would
assume the consistency of cream. The emulsion should
be diluted with water when it is to be used. If fish-
oil-soap or soft-soap (potash soap) be not available,
ordinary bar soap may be used.

261

MISCELLANY

In the up-country, where the water is hard, some of the
soap will combine with the lime or magnesia in the water,
and more or less, the oil will be freed, specially when the
emulsion is diluted. Such water should be broken with
lye, or rain water employed. It would be better to follow
the " milk emulsion " formula, with which the character of
the water, whether hard or soft, does not affect the result.

Milk Formula

Kerosene ... ... ... 2 gallons.

Sour milk ... ... ... i gallon.

The oil and sour milk are to be mixed together and
churned as in the former case. After about 5 minutes'
agitation, a change from a watery liquid to a thick
buttery consistency takes place, which is thicker than
that with the soap. Sweet milk may also be used for
the sour milk after a little vinegar is added to it. Milk
emulsion cannot be stored for a long time. It would
be better to prepare it when required.

The Emulsion is to be diluted

For the soft-bodied insects and plant lice, one part
of the emulsion is to be diluted with from 10 to 15
parts of water ; for the spider and other plant mites, the
same, with an addition of i ounce of flowers of sulphur
to a gallon. For scale insects, the larger plant bugs,
larvae and beetles, it should be diluted with from 7 to
9 parts of water.

262

CHAPTER VI

LAND MEASURES AND BAZAR WEIGHTS

N several places of this Book, local measures
of lands and standard bazar weights have
been quoted in reference to outturns of
jute fibres. A purchaser should know local
weights, which vary at different markets,
before prices for commodities are settled. Thediversity
is still more confusing in case of land measures in
this country. Almost every Zemindari (an estate) has
its own standard measurement. The unit of measures '
of lands is a nal (reed) in Bengal or laga (a piece
of bamboo) in Bihar, which may vary in length from
4 cubits to 8 cubits — 1 8 inches making a standard cubit
now-a-days. The bigha measurement is in vogue in
Western and Central Bengal. Eastern Bengal has both
bigha and kanee measures, while in Northern Bengal
it is known by the name of done.

The principal common measures are given below: —

Land measures

English —

1 2 inches = i foot
3 feet = I yard
554 yards = i pole
22 yards (4 poles) = i Gunters chain
square chain or ) _ ,
square yards ) "
square yards = i acre
acres = i square mile

I

484

4,840

640

yVth acre

26^

MISCELLANY

Bengal — Standard bigha

I square cubit = i ganda
20 gandas or J ^ ^^^^^^

5 cubits X 4 cubits S
16 chataks=i cottah
20 cottahs = I bigha
or
4 cubits = I nal
I nal X 20 nals = i cottah

20 nals X 20 nals or
1,600 square yards

i = I bigha

3-02 bighas or 1 . j

eoyi cottahs ] -^ ^^^^- "

1 1 Bihar bighas )

(51^ cubits making a /rt'^«) | j

Done= 13 cottahs or ith acre
Kanee— 3 bighas and 12 cottahs or
ri6 acres
16 Kanees=i drone
In the district of Tippera i drone is equal to 6\ acres
or about 19 bighas.

Kiari or Kiar = nearly i bigha

Pakhi = -8 bigha

Hal = 1 5 bighas or 5 acres

Bazar Weights
English —

16 drams=i ounce (oz.)

16 ounces=i pound (lb.)

14 pounds = I stone

2 stones or ♦ .

28 lbs. [=1 quarter

■4 quarters or | ^ ^ hundredweight (cwt.)

112

20
2,240

hundredweights or I _ .
lbs. ) ~

264

I'

I LAND MEASURES AND BAZAR WEIGHTS

I-

Bengal — Standard weight

5 tolas = I chatak {2% oz.)

4 chataks=i powa

4 powas= I seer (sr.) [23^ lbs.]

In some places 60 tolas and somewhere 90 tolas
make a seer.

5 seers = i panseri

40 seers = I maund (md.) [82| lbs.]

22 maunds or ) _ ^

27 mds. and 9 srs. f - ^ ^o"

265

CHAPTER VII

BENGx^LEE YEAR

|ENGALEE year ends with Chaitra, corres-
ponding to the months from the middle
of March to the middle of April, after
harvesting and storing the crops of the year.

'gl New year begins in Baisak — the most

auspicious month of the year. Social as well as religious
festivals are held almost daily, during this month, in all
parts of the Province — miseries and failures of the past
year being forgotten. Old traders renew their books and
new traders step in. After a year's hard work, the jolly
peasant of Bengal enjoys heartily the. merriments of the
month for a few days and commences field-works again
with greater energy. His crops are only a few and the
area is but limited. Hence, every plot under cultivation
receives his careful attention, although it is carried on in
a primitive style. Jute is specially a favourite of his, as it
secures a loan for him readily, when he is urgently in
need of money. The present slump in the jute trade has
no doubt made the situation dull, but better days are
assuredly awaiting him. Jute as well as other substitutes
are being vigorously tried in other parts of the world,
but up to now they have been unsuccessful. We wish
good luck to the growers, the traders, and the manufac-
turers— all who are concerned, in any way, in the crop of
our book " Jute in Bengal."

Bengalee months were frequently quoted in this work
for convenience sake, when information regarding the
seasons related to sowing or harvesting was collected from
the cultivators. Jute season of the trade begins in July
and ends in June. The table following gives the Bengalee
months corresponding to the English months.

266

BENGALEE YEAR

Bengalee Calendar months corresponding to
English months

Bengalee.

Eng

lish.

Baisak from .middle April

to middle May.

Jaistha ,

May

))

June.

Ashar ,

, June

>

July.

Sravan ,

July

>

August.

Bhadra

, August

)

September.

Aswin

, September

)

October.

Kartick

, October

J

November.

Agrahayan

„ November

>

December.

Pousli

, December

)

January.

Magh

January

)

February.

Falgoon

„ February

))

March.

Chaitra

„ March

))

April.

267

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YIELD
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INDI
DO

268

JUTE IN BENGAL

INDEX

A

A — concld.

Page

Page

Abnormal trade condi-

Area and yield

209

tions

... 174

„ under jute i, 203,

209

Ackland, G.

••• 173

,, „ in Assam

31,

Acid, Sulphuric

6, 9, 252

214

Acre

... 263

„ inHengal3i,

213

Assortments

••• 153

„ in Bihar

Actuals

i6c, 200

and Orissa 31,

214

Actual marks i6o,

164, 165

Area under jute in differ-

After-treatment

— 39

ent districts

2IO

Agni

... 98

Area under paddy

I

Agniswar . . .

... 98

Arial Khan

142

Albuminous matter

... 6

Ash ... 9,

252

Alexander the Great

.. 246

Ashmota ...

200

Alluvial soils

22

Associations

193

Amazon ....

... 242

Association, Calcutta

Ambadi

... 236

Baled Jute

194

Ambari

.. 236

„ Calcutta Jute

,, hemp

... 7,8

Balers' ..

196

Amin

... 203

„ Calcutta Jute

Amlapatua ...

123, 236

Dealers' ...

195

Analysis of jute soils

... 24

„ Dundee Jute

163

„ jute stalk

9, 252

„ Indian Jute

195

„ manures

••• 34

„ Indian Jute

„ water

... 56

Mills

193

Animal fibres

... 7

„ London Jute

163

Apion

28, 29

Assortments 153,

154

Apis

... 60

Atrai

143

Appraisement

70,71

Ausa ... 14)

"5

Aratdar

192, 198

Author's humble services

Archa

••• 39

to Brazil...

242

269

INDEX

B

Page
Baboi ... ... 251

Bach pat ... 39, 200

Baga jal ... 42, 86

Bagi ...84, 103, 108, 150

Bagging ... i59, i79

Baisak ... ... 266

Baitarani ... ... 141

Baled jute ... ... 160

,, groups ... 161

Baler ^^55, 160, 193, 198

Bales '41 i55> 160

Baling .':? ... 155

Bamboo pulp 247, 250

Banias ... ... 184

Barabakra ... ... 145

Barak' ... ... 145

Barky ... ... 200

Bast fibres ... ~ ... 6

Batching ... ... 185

Bazar weights ... 264

Beating ... ... 254

Beetles ... ... 262

Beelan ... ... 103

Bengal Chamber of Com-
merce ... 70, 195
Bengalee labourers ... 182
Bengalee months ... 267
,, year .. 266
Beparies ... 192, 198
Bhabar ... ... 251

Bhadya ... 14, 115, 120, 127
Bhadoi san... ... 239

Bhagirathi ... ... 142

Bhairab ... ... 142

Bhangar ... ... 22

Bheel lands 87, 140, 237

B — concld.

Bheel water
Bhua

Bhurja patra
Bicha
^ida

Page
. 86
•' 25

• 247

• 25
39

Bigha ... 106, 263, 264

Bilathi pat ... ... 156

Bimlipatam jute ' ... 236

Birch tree ... ... 247

Bleaching ... ... 7

Bodla ... ... 51

Bombay ... 90, 163, 200

„ hemp ... 239

„ quality ... 16 j

Bone meal ... 34

Bonus ... ... 184

Books on paper manu-
facture ... ... 256

Brahmani ... ... 141

Brahmapijtra 97, 140, 144

,, area ... 140

,, valley ... 144

Brackish water ... 88

Brazil ... 236, 241

Brokerage ... ... 198

Brokers ... * 192, 198

Bugs ... ... 262

Bukchhal ... ... 200

Bundles of jute 4i>|i6

Burdwan ... ... 18

,, Farm seed '7. 19
Burkill, I. H., on Jute

Experiments ... 60

Burma ... ... 241

Busy season ... 206

Bye-product 47, 251

270

INDEX

Page
Calcium oxalate .. 6

Calcutta Baled Jute Asso-
ciation ... ... 194

Calcutta Bazar ... 190

„ Jute Balers'
AssociatioH •-- 196

Cambay .. ••• 247

Capital Expenditure for a

Jute farm ... 258

Capital invested in mill

industry ... 174

Capsules ... ... 10

Carbo-hydrate ... 9

Carpets ... ... 179

Castor oil cake 33, 34

Caterpillars 25, 27

Caustic potash ... 6

Cause of fear ... 244

,, inferiority ... 86
C. D. M. ... .. 162

Cellulose ... 6, 255

Chain press ... 156

Chaitra ... ... 266

Champadar ... 199

Channa ... ... 236

Char ... 87, 103, 141

Chart ... ••v2^8

Characteristics of fibres 141
Char-lands 87, 103, 141

C^ap production ... 245

Chemistry of jute ... 6, 7

China . . ... 241

Chhitapoka 25, 28

Corchorus —

„ Jhouta ... 10

,, Koshta 10, 236

Nalita 10

C — conid.
Corchorus —

Page

Pat
„ Pata

„ Patua

Corchorus capsularis

Agniswar
Amonia

10

10

10

10, i3>

13,98
i3> 17,
i9> 72, 135
Amunia ... no
Ausa 13, 1 15, 1 16
Bagi 13, 83, 103,
108
Bangi 13,65, 83,99
Baran 13, ig, 61,

72, 74, 115, 133

Barapat 13, 17,

19, 6r, 72,

133,
Belgachi 107,
Betre

Bidyasundar
Bilatipat

Bombai
Burdwan

Farm
Chhoran
Cowpla

134
136
119
100

156
90

seed 17
.... 94

83, 107,

185

Deodholi, 63, 100

Desal, 98, T06,

no, 112, 134

Desi .. 98

Deswal 13, 17,

89,90

Dhaleswar 13, 136

Dhaleswari 97,109

271

INDEX

C — contd.

Page

Corchoru

s capsularis —

>>

Dhal Sundar 97,

lOI

))

Dhapa ... 1 1 1

>»

Dhupri ... 114

j>

Fulleswari ... 63

>i

Ghagri ... 112

>)

Gutee pat ►.. 10

>j

Hewta 116, 118

j>

Hewti 13, 17, 18,

72, 120

55

Jati pat ►^ 116

55

Kajla 17, 18, 72,

113

55

Kakya ... 90

55

Kakya Bombai 13,

175 59, 725 90,

loi, 134

>5

Kamarjani 17, 19,

72,95,111, 113,

135

55

Kuch madan 95,

no

5)

Lai ... 108

55

Lali ... 107

55

Lai pat ... 113

55

Lanka goira 138

»5

Meghnal ... 13,

III, 113, 117,

127, 135

»5

Nailta ... 135

5)

Nal bagi ... 108

JJ

Nalita 83, 85

JS

Nal pat 13, 17,

55

19, 95, 135

55

Nileta ... 92

55

Parbatia ... 63

C — contd.

Page

Corchorus capsularis —

„ Parbatya .. 97

Pechi 83, 85

„■ Peti ... 106

„ Rakta bagi 83, 85

„ Ranga bagi 108

„ Ranga pat ... 107

„ Safed patua 127

„ Sodu ... no

„ Sut pat 72, 83, io5

„ Ujra patua ... 127

Corchorus olitorius 10, 13,

16, 36

Bagi ij, 83, 84,

"3

Bangi 13, 65, Zi,
84, 99, 113,

137

„ Barapat92, 95, 108

„ Baran ... 95

„ Barpat ... 92

55 Bomi 13,113

„ Bomo chak ... 122

,, Daisee or

Daisi 14, 72
,, Desi lal pat 17, 65

„ Desi pat ... 139

,, Dewnallya, 13, 17,

18, 72, 98
„ Dhamraj ... 108

„ Halbilati 17, 19,

65, 72
„ Paknallya ... 65

„ Maruapata .. 122

,, Meghnal ... 109

„ Muniashipatuar2 7

„ Nalbagi 14, 108

272

INDEX

Q—contd.

Page
Corchorus olitorius —

„ Nailta 14, i7»

19.65

„ Nalita 14, 83,

84, 95

,. Nallya ... 99

„ Parbati madai 115

„ Satnala 13, 65,

108

„ Shutee pat ... 10

,, Talla 14, 65, 96

Tosha 72, 93, 151

Classes of labourers ... 182

Classifications 167

Classification of groups 157,

161, 169

„ the area 213,

214

„ fibres 153

Clayee soil .. 22

Climate ... ... 20

Collection of specimens 59, 89
Colour .... ... 170

Colouring ... ... 254

Commercial classification 153
„ division .. 151

Commission _ 198

Condition of raiyats ... 3
Consumption of cloth ... 219
gunny

bags ... 220
,? jute ... 218

„ jute per

loom 176
Conte, Nicolo ... 247

Cooch Behar ... 31, 212, 217
Co-operative societies ... 203

C — concld.

Page
Co-operative stores ... 184
Cordage 175, 180

Corruptions . 204

Cosmophila sabulifera ... 25
Cost of cultivation 50, 132
Costs ... ... 131

Cotton ... .. 6, 7

'Cotton yarn ... 240

Counts of yarn produced 1 80
Cowdung ... 33, 34

Cracks ... ... 161

Croppy ... ... 200

Crore ... .. 244

Cross fertilisation 60, 61

Cross pollination 60, 61, 64
Crotalaria juncea 238, 239

Cuba ... ... 235

Cubit ... ... 263

Curtains ... ... 179

Cuttack 151, 188

Cutting in flower . 40

,, fruits ... 40

Cuttings 40, 72, 153, 156,
i59i 251
Cutose ... ... 6

Cyclone press ... 156

Dacca .. 97, 247

„ quality . ... 186

Daccas ... ... 161

Dagi ... ... 200

Daisee or Daisi 147, 148, 151,

156, 159, 163

Dakhina ... ... 104

Dalai ... ... 199

273

D — concld.

Page
Damp heat ... ... 20

Dana ... ••• 200

Dealers ... ••• 192

Dearah 141, 147, 151, 163
Deccan hemp ,. . 236

Dedine of Buddhism ... 247
exports 174, i77i
Demand for paper ... 248

Deterioration of jute ... 53
Department of Agri. 202, 245
Diacrisia obUqua 25

Diamonds ... 161, 163, 164
Dictionary of Economic
Products... ... 171

Difficulties in classifica-
tion ... ..- 168

Diplodia corchori ... 29

Diseases — Fungoid ... 29

„ — Insects ... 25

Dishonesty ... ... 58

Distribution of seeds ... 245
District quality 149, 151

Division of area ... 146

„ labour ... 183

„ qualities ... 151
Done 116, 119, 264

Dott, A. S. ... 64, 70

Dowrah jute 13,163,187

Drought ... ... 25

Drum ... ... 157

Duffus, J. C. 64, 70

E

Early varieties

... 14

Education ...

... 183

Egypt

... 241

E — concld.

Page
Effects of war 174, 176, 177
Elephant grass ... 250

Emulsion ... ... 261

English measures ... 263

„ weights ... 264

Epidemic diseases ... 182

Epidermal cells ... 6

Estate ... ... 263

Estimate of outturn ... 202
European manufactures... 179
Examination of fibres 168,169
Excavations of Niya ... 246
Excessive rain ... 20

Expansion of jute

industry ... 177

Expenditure on a jute

farm ... ... 259

Experiments in Bengal ... 59
„ Burdwan 59

„ Faridpur 70

„ North-

Bihar 3 1
Rahuta 55
Exports of cloth 219, 223, 224
„ cotton ... 244

„ fibres ... 5

„ food grains .. 4
„ gunnybags2 2o, 223
J, hand loom
manufac-
tures ... 175
jute I, 3, 5, 218,
, 223, 224
oils ... 5
„ twist and

yam 221, 223

Extent of cultivation ... 30

274

INDEX

F

Page

P'actors in preparing fore-
casts

Failures

Family use ...

Farias 76, 192.

Faridpur 19,

Farmyard manure

Fine

Festivals

F'^ibre

,, for paper pulp

Fitres of Brahmaputra
area

Fibres of Gangetic area

202
241

175
199
247

34

200

266

9

255

141

Filling
Fineness
Final forecasts
Finlow, R. S.
Firsts

First mention of jute in
Commerce

Fishing nets

Flabby

Flat ganja . . .

Flax

Flowering stage

Forecast

Forest Research Insti-
tute

Four's

France

Fraudulent watering

141

254
170
202

239
161/164

.. 172

.. 240
200
.. 68
.. 6, 7
40, 72
.. 202

Fulpat
Fulsan
Fungoid diseases

... 250

158, 208
... 243

58, 76,

187

55. 200

... 239

... 29

G

Gadadhar ...
Gagunara ...
Gandak
Ganges
Gangetic area
„ delta
Ganja

Garo' Hills -.
Galhia
Germination
Germany
Ghata

Ghofa poka...
Glossary
Glossy

Goalundo ...
Gogra
Goladar
Goroi
Gour san
Green manuring
Green weight
Groups — baled
„ — loose
Guarantee ...
Gunny bags
purposes . .
Gutee pat ...

jute
jute

Page

... 144

... 236

142

86, 141, 145

140, 144

... 142

... 68

... 144

... 51

.. 36

... 244

.. 200

25, 28

... 198

201

108, 144

... 142

... 131

.. 142

^39

- 33

41, 75

161, 164

157. 1.58

for war

i6r

177
10

Hackle ... ... 180

Hal ... ... 264

Hairy caterpillar 25, 27, 28
Hand-loom manufactures 175
Hand-made paper 247, 253
Hand ... 44, 129

275

INDEX

H — concld.

I — concld

]

Page

Page

Hard water ..

262

Indian manufactures •.. 175

Horihari

25

India's monopoly 179, 243

Harrow

32

Injuries

" -5

Hata

129

Iodine sulphuric

acid .. 7

Heart damaged i88,

201

Insects

... 2q

Hearts .. i6x, 162,

165

,, Hairy caterpillar 25,

Helplessness

167

27, 28

Hemanta ...

116

„ Indigo caterpillar 25

Hemp ... 6 236,

239

„ Jute apion ... 29

Henga ... 36,

'25

,, Jute sem

ilooper 25, 27

Hessian looms 227,

229

Insect pests

215, 261

warp

J53

Inspiring confidence in

„ weft

153

raiyats

... 203

Hibiscus cannabinus

I2»,

Interchange of seeds 48, 158

236,

238

Intoxication

... 183

High prices of food grains

(

Introduction of

jute 24:, 242

Himalaya ...

J 44

))

paper ... 246

History of Jute industry

171

Invention of art

of paper

„ Paper manu-

making . . .

.-. 246

facture . . .

246

Iron in steeping

water ... 55

Home consumption 175,

218

Ishera Co. ..

- 173

Hoogly ... 17, 142,

253

J

Humidity ... 20

, 21

Hundredweight

264

Jachandar ...

... 199

Hydraulic press

155

Jalpaiguri . . .

I, 19, «39

I

Jalpani

.^ 198

Jamuna

. ~ 145

Ignorance of cultivation

241

Japan

243. 244, 249

Imitating silk

181

Jath

148, 149, 151

Imitation silk fabrics

179

Java

... 241

Import of paper

248

Jessore

150, 151

„ paper pulp ...

248

Jhouta

... iO

Improvement

245

Jute

10, 172

Indigo caterpillar

25

Jute and raiyat

4

Indian Jute Association

195

paddy

on the

„ Jute Mills Asso-

same land

2

ciation ...

'93

Jute areas ...

140, 214, 215 1

276

Z—concld.

K — concld.

Page

Page

Jute as a paper material 1 80,

Kayia

... 90

251. 255

Kerosene emulsion

.. 261

„ cloth ... 172, 175

Khadar

22

„ dealers 192

Khalasi

... 156

„ Dealers' Association 195

Khesari

••• 37

„ districts 3», 215, 217

Khiar

22, 143

„ farm ... ... 257

Khotan

... 246

„ in Backergunge ... 83

Kiar

... 264

,, in Faridpur .. 102

Kiari

... 264

„ in finer textile in-

Knotty

... 200

dustries ... 180

Kodali

... 32

,, in Purnea T23

- Koshta

... 236

„ markets 185, 189

Koyal

.. 199

„ mills — 226, 230

Kudrum ...

... 236

,. manufactures 175, 179

Kunkura (ramie)

8, 240

„ sea.son 206, 218, 266

Kushi

... 142

„ seed oil ... 48

„ seeds... ... 10

L

, survey... 59

Labourers 182, 226,

228, 229

„ stalk 8, 9, 47, 251, 252

Labour question

... 182

„ steeping ... 41

„ scarcity

... 182

„ tracts ... 140, 147

,, troubles

179, 182

K

Laga

•• 263

Lai

.... 108

Kagaj ... ... 247

Lali

... 107

Kagajia ... ' ... 248

Lalmati

22

Kagada ... 247

Land for sowing

• 32

Kalajal ... ... 42

„ measures

... 263

Kakya Bombai 13, 17, 53, 59,

Lakh '

... 218

72, 90, 101, 134

Laphygma exigua

... 25

„ and Kayia .. 90

Larvae

... 262

Kanee ... 263, 264

Late varieties

... 14

Kapalies ... 54, 85, 119

Leather, Dr. J. W.

... 56

Karotoya .. 22, 143

1 Length of a jute plant ... 39

Kashmere ... 246

Lever press

• 155

Katcha bale 155, 157

Lice

... 262

Kattah ... ... 264

Lignified fibres

6

277

INDEX

Ij — concld.

W—contd.

Page

Page

Lists of jute markets ... 189

Markets dealing in Daisee

Lightnings 162, 165

quality ... ... 191

Literature on paper manu-

Markets dealing in District

facture • •• 256

quahty ... ... 189

Loamy soils ■•• 22

Markets dealing in Jat

London Jute Association 163

quality ... 189

Long jute .. i54» 208

Markets dealing in

Looms 226, 227, 228, 229

jute ... 185, 189

Loose jute ... • • • 1 5 7

Markets dealing in Madari-

Lower Brahmaputra ... 144

pur quality ... 190

Lustre ... . ... 6

Markets dealing in Non-

M

standard quality ... 190

Markets dealing in North-

Madaripur quality 106, 151,

ern quality ... 190

167

Marks 160, 164, 165, 166

„ market ... 187, 190

Marwaries ... 77> 9°

Madrasee ... •••183

Maund ... .... 265

Madhumathi ... 142

Maximum temperature 20, 2 1

Mahanadi ... ... 146

Measures ... ... 263

Mahananda ... 143

Meghna ... i44, '45

Mahajans ... 77. 192, 1 99

Me.sot ... 85, 236

Malaria and its causes ... 3, 4

Mestha ... 85, 236

„ and jute •• 3, 4

„ pat 85, 236

Malda ... 247

Methods of extracting

Malva blanca ... 235

fibres ... ... 44

Mal-practice ... 76

M. group ... ... 161

Manes ... •■■ i43

Millar, D. L. 64, 70

Mangos ... 162, 165

Mill hands ... ... 182

Manure experiments ... 34

„ made paper ... 248

Manures ZZ, 34

Mills 226, 227, 228, 22,9

-„ bone meal ... 34

Milk formula ... 262

„ ' castor-oil-cake ZZ^ 34

Minimum temperature 20, 21

cowdung 33, 34

Mistries ... ... 156

„ green manuring 33

Mites ... ... 262

saltpetre ... 35

Mixing ... 159, 185

, „ super .,. 35

Mixture ... 59, 185

Manuring ... ••• ZZ

Mollison, J. ... ZZ

278

INDEX

M — concld.

Monopoly ...
Mora head
Morang
Mossy

Muddy water
Mukerjee, D. N.
T. N.
Munj
Muslins
Mutha

Page

179. 243
... 201
... 130
12, 201

••• 55
... 76

••• 55
... 251

••• 255
44, 129

N

Nal 95, 98, 108, 250, 263

Nalita ... ••• 10, 95

Nalpat ... 19, 95

Names of jute mills 23c, 231

Narainganj ... 147, '^7

jute 13, 147. 167

,, market ... 185

Nasmyth press ... 156

Nepal ... 209, 247

Nets ..._ 240, 253

Neves, Antonino 166, 242

New alluvium 22,123

„ crops... ... ao6

„ year ... ... 266

Niarcus ... ... 246

Nileta ... ... 96

Ning-po ... ••• 24T

Nitrogen ... 4, 5> 8

Normal area under jute 2 1 5
„ outturn 205, 216

Northern ... 147, 148, 151
Northern jute 13, 161, 187
Norway ... ... 249

Number of labourers in
a mill ... ... 176

N — coiicld.

Number of looms
(average in a mill)
Number of looms at
work

Page

176

226-229
mill-hands 226-229
,, mills at

work 226-229
„ spindles 226-229

o

Objections to jute culti-
vation ... ... I

Official book of marks ... 160

Oil in jute seed ... 48

,, seeds ... ... 5

Ojan sarkar ... 199

Old klluvium 22, 123, 143

,, Brahmaputra ... 145

One's ... 157, 208

Ordinary jute cuttings... 159

Organic matters ... 35

Outturn ... 47, 48

,, of jute fibre ... 39

,, ,, Mestha ... 237

,, San ... 240

Over-retting ... 42

P

Pacca bale ... ... 155

Paco-paco ... 236, 242

Paikar ... ... 199

Pakhi ... 109, 264

Pali mati ... ... 22

Palmyra palm ... 247

Pangsa ... ... 104

Pankati ... ... 47

Panchayet system 203

279

INDEX

V—contd.

"B—condd.

Page

Page

Paper and paper pulp ...

246

Prices ... 206-208

,, hand-made

247

Prices of groups of jute

208

„ making

246

gunny bags ...

207

„ mill-made

248

„ hessian cloth ..

207

„ manufacture 247

248

jute

207

Paper

255

Price of Sikdar mark ...

208

Parana

242

„ Narainganj jute

208

Pat

10

„ Northern jute .

208

Pata

TO

„ P. A. mark ...

208

Patra

247

Production of gunny bags

178

Patua ... 10,

236

„ jute cloth

178

Peasant

266

paper

248

Percentage estimate, 204,

205

■ Pofit 51, 132,

260

„ of area under

Prosperity of Indian mills

176

jute 31,

217

Protein

9

„ loss on

Provident fund

184

drying

79

Puban

103

„ the cropped

Pulp problem

250

area under

Purnea ... 123,

J 5*

jute 215,

216,

Persons employed in mills

217
226-

Q

„ press-

229

Qual ities — Cuttack 151,

188

houses

^56

„ Dacca 147,

186,

Philippine Islands

241

189

Physical divisions

140

Daisee 19, 148

^5'

Pigment matters

6

„ District 149,

i5«

Plant selection

61

,, Dowrah 147,

I50r

Ploughing ...

32

163

Prain, Dr. D., on jute

Jath' 146,

'5'

experiments

65

,, Jessore

f5i

Preliminary forecast

202

„ Madaripur

150,

Preparation of the soil ...

32

.i5i> '87,

190

Preservation of seed

48

,, Narainganj

147.

Press

'55

151, 159,

185

Pressing machines

155

,, Non-standard

190

280

INDEX

Q — concld.

R — contd.

Page

P.'VGE

Qualities—

-Northern 148,

Reds

... 162, 163,

164

151. 187, 190

Reeds

98,

263

)>

Purnea 146, 151,

Rejections ... 153, 154,

,58

187

Remedy

29

5J

Sirajganj 147, '5 S

Reporter on Economic

186

Products 53,

60

?J

Tosha 14, 150,

Research work

59

151, 186

Results

of experiments

R

18, 19,

69

Rettins

41, 42

, 7S

Rabi crops

... 38

Rhea ^

8,

240

„ san

239

Rise in

price of paper ...

248

Races of jute lo, 53

Romantic plant

146

>)

Backergunge 83

Rooty

...

201

)j

Dacca .. 97

Rotation ... 37, 38,

257

5>

Faridpur ... 102

Round

ganja

68

>)

Jalpaiguri... 119

Royle's

work

7

J>

Mymensingh 94

Rozelle

...

8

>>

Pabna 89

Rugs

179

5J

Purnea - 123

Runnin

g water

86

)5

Rangpur ... 115

Rivers :

— . .

5?

Tippera 100

River Arial Khan

142

Rags

... 251

))

Atrai

143

Raidak

144

It

Baitarani

141

Rain

20, 25

11

Barak (Bara-

Rainfall

.•20, 21, 233, 234

bakra)

T45

Rainwater

262

11

Bhagirathi

Raitt, W.

... 250

(Hoogly)

142

Raiyat

.. 199

11

Bhairab

142

Ramie (kunkura) 8, 240

?5

Brahmaputra . . .

140,

Ranga bagi

108

14',

144-

Ranga pat

... 107

))

Gadadhar

144

Rangpur

19, 247

11

Gandak

142

Raw materials for paper

11

Ganges 140, 141,

MS

pulp

... 250

,,

Gogra

142^

Receipts from a ;ute farm 257

>J

Gorai (Madhu-

Recreation

184

mati)

142

281

INDEX

Page

• 145

• 143
. 142
. 146

• 143

• 143

• 144
. 142

• 144

• 143

MS

144

R — condd.
Rivers — condd.
River Jumuna
Karoloa
Kushi
Mahanadi
Mahananda . . .
Manes
Meghna
Padma
Sankash
Subansiri
Surma 144,

Teesta

s

Sabay ... ... 251

Saccharum arundinaceum 251

Sacking ... ... 179

„ looms ... 227

warp 153, 154

weft 153, 154

Sacred books ... 246

Salt-impregnated soil. ... 23

Saltpetre ... ... 35

Samarkand .. ... 246

Sambara ... ... 25

San ... 33, 239

Sanai ... ... 239

Sandy soils... ... 22

San for fodder ... 239

„ hemp ... 7, 8, 239

San pat ... ' ... 239

Sankosh ... ... 144

Sanitation ... 182, 183

Sao Paulo ... ... 242

Scale insects ... 262

Schools ... ... 183

Seed ... 48, 59

S — contd.

Seed rate, jute

„ mestha

„ san
Seed selection
„ test ...
Seer

Selected seeds
Selection of seeds
Self-fertilisation
Self-pollination
Semilooper...
Sense of self-respect
Serajganj ... M7)

Page
. 36

• 237

• 239

48
... 48
... 264
... 245

- 59
60, 61, 64

60, 61, 64

25. 27
183
186

jute 13, 147, 151, 186
Shippers ... 193, 199

Shirtings ... ... 179

Short jute ... 154, 208

Shortage of paper ... 248

Shuti pat ...

Significance of marks

Silk

Sixteen annas

Sizing

Soap formula

Societies

Sodium hydrate

Soils

Soundness ...
Sowing season
Square mile
Specky
Spider
Spindles
Sprayer
Stagnant water
Standard grade
„ marks

TO

166

7
204

254

261

203

... 9

22, 89

.. 170

.. 36

.. 263

201

... 262

226, 228, 229

... 261

25, 86

159, 161

163—165

41,

282

INDEX

s-

C07tcla

1

H—concld.

Page

Page

Standard normal outturn

204

Temperature — minimum

Steeping .«

41

10, I

f, 75

Stein, Sir Aure

...

246

„ of water 20, 42

Stem

12

^ 13

Terms denoting qualities

200

Sticks

188

Terrible Rejections

...

159

Sticky-

22,

1 88,

201

Thinning ...

...

39

Straw ...

2 5i-»

252

Three's

...

158

Strength

169

„ good

0..

158

Strikes

i8i",

183

Tientsin

241

Stripping ...

44

Tiffin charge

...

198

Sua poka

25

Ton

264,

265

Subansiri ...

'.

'43

Top-dressing

35

Substitutes ...

i6o

201

Tosha ... 14,

i5o>

159

Substituted Marks

160

Tulat kagaj

247

Substitutes for

jute

235

Two and three

...

208

Suggestions for

classifica-

Two's

157

tion

i68,

169

,, Green

...

157

for

improve-

„ Ordinary

157

ments

...

58

„ Red

157

Sulphur

262

Sundarbans

23»

142

Super

35

U

Surma

144)

MS

„ valley

144

Under broker

199

Survey of jute

89I

-137

United Kingdom

244,

249

„ reports

202

„ States

243.

249

Swadeshi agitation

. . .

247

Up-country men

...

182

Sweden

T

...

249

Urya

V

183

Talish

...

247

Tal-patra . . .

. . .

247

Valuation of fibres 7c

>, 71.

Tarpauling ...

...

179

73,

168

Teesta

...

144

Value of exports

of

Temperature

20,

21

manufactures

177,

222

>}

maximum

,, of exports of raw

20, 2

. 75

jute...

177,

222

283

INDEX

V — concld.

^—concld.

Page

Page

Value of jute

222

Wood pulp

••• 255

„ jute stalks

...

251

Wool

7

„ twist and yarn . .

22r

„ mixed with jute ... 17Q

Vegetable fibres

...

255

Village societies

...

203

Voelcker, Dr J. A.

...

23

X

w

X Four's ...
X Three's ...

... 158
... 158

Wages

'83,

232

X Two's ..

... 158

War 174, 176, 206

235,

248

„ purposes

177

^

Washing

...

44

Y

Waste paper

253

Water-logging

II

Yard

... 263

Waters

86

Yarn 180, 221,

224, 240

„ for steeping

42, 46, 55

Year

266, 267

Watson press

'56

Yoke

... 258

Watt, Sir George

...

59

Weeding

39

Z

Weights

263,

264

Well-grown crop

47,

257

Zemindar ...

236, 263

,, plant

39

Zemindari

„. 263

284

JUTE IN BENGAL

A COMPLETE WORK ON THE CULTIVATION OF,
AND TRADE IN, JUTE

OPINIONS

" I have read through it from beginning to end and find it an
extremely useful compendium."

B. C. Basu, Roy Bahadur, b.a., m.r.a.c.

Deputy Director of Agriculture,

Eastern Bensal and Assam.

" The contents are practical in nature as well as accurate.
Your survey of the objections to jute is interesting."

Robert S. Finlow, b.sc,
Fibre Expert to the Government,

Eastern Bengal and Assam.

" I am exceedingly pleased with this book. It collates infor-
mation not at all easily accessible elsewhere, and seems to put
the available materials in a concise, clear, and satisfactory way.
My very best thanks for the copy of your very interesting and
valuable book."

Harold H. Mann, d sc,
Principal, Agricultural College, Poona,

"'Jute in Bengal' — A useful text-book. — Babu N. C.
Chaudtiury, for fourteen years Travelling Inspector of the Bengal
Agricultural Department, has just brought out a little book
' Jute in Bengal.' It should form a valuable text-book for those
who want to improve their general knowledge of jute. The book
may be heartily recommended to readers."

The Indian Daily News, i8th March, igo8.
285

OPINIONS

"•Jute in Bengal' is the title of a modest little book.
The author is Mr. N. C. Chaudhury, Graduate in
Agriculture, Civil Engineering College, Sibpur, who is now a
Travelling Inspector, Department of Agriculture, Bengal. He
knows his subject thoroughly, and from the inside, there is
scarcely any point in connection with the fibre which is not
handled and illuminated. Comparative statistics, in every
branch, are given, and the results of the latest experiments at
Agricultural farms.

" The author disposes in a very satisfactory manner of the
objections to the cultivation of jute, which ignorance has recently
propounded. Altogether the little book is a perfect mine of
information to all interested in jute, and it goes without saying
that the work will have a large sale. Everyone connected with
jute should possess the little work ' Jute in Bengal.' "

Capital^ igth March, igo8-

" Its chapters are devoted to the historical as well as every
other phase of this important industry. Helpful statistics are
also to be found within its pages. The Author, Mr. Nibaran
Chandra Chaudhury, has maintained a palatable raciness through-
out. Everyone interested in jute cultivation — one of the most
valuable assets of the Indian Empire — will find this hand-book
both useful and interesting."

The Empire, igth March, igo8.

"An excellent treatise on ' Jute in Bengal.'" :f, ^ ^
India}! Planters G<izette, 2isl March, igo8.

" Jute being such an important article of trade in the two
Bengals, a little book, entitled ' Jute in Bengal ', by N. C Chau-
dhury, of Bengal Agricultural Department, should prove of con-
siderable interest to all engaged in this business. The chapters
on commercial classification, baled jute and loose jute should
prove of interest and value to the trade. The statistical informa-
tion contained in the book is very valuable for purposes
of reference."

The Englishman, 2'jth March, igo8.
286

OPINIONS

" Babu Nibaran Chandra is an experienced Inspector of the
Bengal Agricultural Department, who is well-known by his meri-
torious book on Agricultural Chemistry in Bengali. The present
work on jute displays his thorough knowledge of this important
crop of Bengal, as also his acute observation and skill, in
putting information in a concise form. Regarding the cultiva-
tion of jute, the author places on record his long experiences
and the results of the experiments which will be of great
value to those who cultivate this crop. The commercial
portion of this book should prove exceedingly valuable to the
trade. Statistics regarding area, yield, exports, prices, etc., are
given. In a word, it is a well-written book of great value and
interest for which we congratulate the author." ^ ^ ■ ^

The Anirita Bazar Fatrika, 14th April, igo8.

"The chapters on commercial classification, baled jute
and loose jute are of special interest to persons engaged in
the business."

The hidian Trade Journal, joth April, igo8.

" This little work should be of interest to all those connected
with the jute industry, though it is mainly concerned with the
agricultural aspect. Under the heading of * Trade ' is a collec-
tion of matter relating to the commercial side of the fibre
that is of interest, the whole making a work that is to be
recommended to all interested in the subject."

Textile Manufacturer^ Manchester^ i^th July, igo8.

287

OPINIONS

"The book 'Jute in Bengal,' written by Babu N. C.
Chaudhury, is now available. It supplies all the possible
information from the time the ground is prepared to receive
the seed till the fibre is ready for the mill. It is in a very con-
densed form, and is all the more easily understood. The
practical experience of the writer is quite apparent in the way
he deals with the subject, and besides dwelling on the cultiva-
tion of jute itself, the writer also supplies no end of trade
information."

The Dundee Courier, 2Qth September, jgo8.

" Mr. Nibaran Chandra Chaudhury, of the Department of
Agriculture, F.engal, has rendered a valuable service to all
engaged in the jute industry by the publication of his well-
informed volume on 'Jute in Bengal,' Having been in charge
of the experiments in jute cultivation carried on at the Govern-
ment farm at Burdwan for a considerable time, Mr. Chaudhury
is particularly well qualified for the work of writing on jute, and
his pages display an intimate knowledge of this important
subject. The author treats of the various races of jute, the
raising of the plant, and the subsequent treatment, and has
many hints to ofi'er regarding the improvement of the fibre.
Mr. Chaudhury has also interesting chapters on the classifica-
tions of jute and statistics of the trade— in fact this part of the
book should prove of extreme value to spinners, manufactureis
and merchants in this country. Coming from such an undoubted
authority as Mr. Chaudhury, every page of the volume deserves
careful perusal and consideration,"

The Dundee Advertiser^ joth September, igo8.

288

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