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KEY TO NABIRDS

PLATT 1.

i

GAYWALKER, a

PRINTED AT
THE SALEM PRESS,
Corner of Liberty and Derby Streets, Salem, Mass.,
F. W. PurnaM & Co., PROPRIETORS.
b October, 1872.

Birt KEY

NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS

CONTAINING A CONCISE ACCOUNT OF EVERY SPECIES OF

LEVYING ANT FOSSA BIRD

AT PRESENT KNOWN FROM THE CONTINENT NORTH OF THE MEXICAN
AND UNITED STATES BOUNDARY.

ILLUSTRATED BY 6 STEEL PLATES, AND UPWARDS OF 250 WOODCUTS.

BY

ELLIOTT COUES,

ASSISTANT SURGEON UNITED STATES ARMY.

SALEM: AGENCY.
NEW Y ND MEAD
BOSTON: ES AND LAURIAT.

Oot 1872. °

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by
F. W. PUTNAM AND ELLIOTT COUES,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.

PREFACE.

A PREFACE is indispensable in this instance, simply because I have no other
opportunity of properly acknowledging the assistance I have received in preparing
this work. I am particularly indebted to Mr. J. A. Atten, of Cambridge, Mass.,
who has diligently revised nearly all the proofsheets, and whose critical suggestions
have proved invaluable. Mr. Roperr Ripeway, of Illinois, has given me the
benefit of his still unpublished studies of the Raptores and some other groups,
besides rendering, as Mr. ALLEN also has, various essential services.

Prof. Barrp kindly offered me the use of all the illustrations of his late
Review, while Prof. Acasstz generously placed at my disposal the plates
accompanying Mr. Arien’s Memoir on the Birds of Florida. Several of the
woodcuts have been taken from Prof. Tenney’s Manual of Zoology, with the
author’s permission; and a few others have been contributed by Messrs. Len
and SHEeparp. With a few exceptions, the rest of the illustrations have been
drawn from nature by the author, and engraved by Mr. C. A. Waker.

I have spoken elsewhere of Prof. Marsu’s almost indispensable codperation
in one part of the work.

While material for the greater part of the descriptions has been furnished by
the author’s private cabinet, the Synopsis could hardly have been prepared without
that free access to the collection of the Smithsonian Institution, of which I
haye been permitted to avail myself.

The only word of explanation that seems to be required is with regard to the
large number of genera I have admitted. I have been led into this—unnecessarily,
perhaps, and certainly against my judgment—partly by my desire to disturb a
current nomenclature as little as possible, and partly because it is still uncertain
what value should be attached to a generic name. Among wading and swimming
birds —the groups of which are, on the whole, more precisely limited than those of
Insessores—I have, however, indicated what I consider to be a reasonable reduc-
tion; and on another occasion I should probably extend a like practice, if not one
even more ‘‘conseryative,’ to the remaining groups. I will only add, that I
consider that several of the admitted families of Oscines will require to be merged

‘im one. These are the Twrdidew, Sazxicolide and Sylviide, if not also the Troglo-

dytidee and Motacillide ; while the same may prove true of the current Sylvicoline,
Tanagrine and Fringilline groups.
E. C.
Wasnuineton, D. C., September 9th, 1872.

CONTENTS.

PAGE,
INTRODUCTION. : 1

Sec. I. OrnirHoLtoGy Drrmyrnp— Birps DEFINED — BriEF DESCRIPTION OF THEIR
PECULIAR COVERING. . . 0. 1Oxo No oe sb: Chiro CRAM JO od april!

Src. II. AN ALLUSION TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF Brrps — Taxonomy — SrTrRuUC-

TURE — CHARACTERS — Groups OF DmrreRENT GRADES — TYPES AND ABER-
RATIONS — EQUIVALENCY — ANALOGY AND AFFINITY — EXAMPLE. 0 7

Sec. III. Derrrmirion AND BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE EXTERIOR OF A BirpD. —

Parts AND OrGans—I. Tur BoDy: HEAD, NECK AND BODY PROPER.—II. THE
MEMBERS: BILL, WINGS, TAIL, FEET. t Che ck ks 13

Sec. IV. Directions — How To Usr tur Key. — How To Measure a SPECI-
MEN, ETO. < . . Phat 53
ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE GENERA. p iva oe ae 61
SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS. 69
SYNOPSIS OF THE FOSSIL FORMS. 347
ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 351
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 353

INTEODUCTION.

SECT. I. OrnirgoLtogy Drerinrp— Birps DEFriInED— BrirF DEscrIPTion
OF THEIR PECULIAR COVERING.

§ 1. Scrence (Lat. scire, to know) is knowledge set in order; knowledge
disposed after the rational method that best shows, or tends to show, the mu-
tual relations of observed facts. Such orderly knowledge of any particular
class of facts — such methodical disposition of observations upon any par-
ticular set of objects — constitutes a Special Science. Thus, OrnrTHOLOGY
(Gr. ornithos, of a bird, logos, a discourse) is the Science of Birds. Or-
nithology consists in the rational arrangement and exposition of all that is
known of birds. Ornithology treats of the physical structure, physiological
processes, and mental attributes of birds; of their habits and manners; of

their geographical distribution ; of their relations to each other and to other

animals. The first business of Ornithology is to define its ground; to
answer the question

§ 2. Wuat is A Brrp? A Bird is an air-breathing, egg-laying, warm-
blooded, feathered vertebrate, with two limbs (legs) for walking or swim-
ming, two limbs (wings) for flying or swimming, fixed lungs in a cavity
communicating with other air-cavities, and one outlet of genito-urinary and
digestive organs ; with (negative characters) no teats, no teeth, no fleshy lips,
no external fleshy ears, no (perfect) epiglottis nor diaphragm; no bladder,
no scrotum, no corpus callosum ; and with the following collateral characters,
mostly shared by more or fewer other animals :— Under jaw hinged with

_ the rest of the skull by means of an interposed movable bone, that is also

movably jointed with two bones of the upper jaw; head jointed with neck
by only one hinge; shoulder-joints connected with each other by a curved
bone, the clavicle (with rare exceptions), and with breast-bone by a straight
stout bone, the coracoid; ribs all bony, most of them jointed in the middle
as well as with back-bone and breast-bone, and having bony offsets; less
than three separate wrist and hand-bones ; two fingers, of one or two bones ;
head of thigh-bone hinged in a ring, not in a cup; one of the two leg-bones
not forming the ankle-joint; no separate ankle-bones; less than three sep-
arate foot-bones; two to four toes, of two to five bones, always ending in
claws; both jaws horny-sheathed and nostrils in the upper one; feet and
toes (when not feathered) horny-sheathed ; three eyelids ; eyeball with hard

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 1. (1)

2 STRUCTURE OF FEATHERS.

plates in it, eight muscles on it, and a peculiar vascular organ inside; two
larynges, or “ Adam’s-apples”; two bronchi; two lungs, perforated to send
air into various airsacs and even the inside of bones; four-chambered heart,
with perfect double blood-circulation ; tongue with several bones; two or
three stomachs; one liver, forked to receive the heart in its cleft; gall-
bladder or none; more or less diffuse pancreas, or “sweetbread” ; a spleen;
intestines of much the same size throughout; cceca, or none; two lobulated,
fixed kidneys ; two testicles fixed in the small of the back, and subject to
periodical enlargement and decrease; one functional ovary and oviduct ;
outlets of these last three organs in an enlargement at end of intestine, and
their products, with refuse of digestion, all discharged through a common
orifice. But of all these, and other characters, that come under the head
of description rather than of definition, one is peculiarly characteristic of
birds; for every bird has FEATHERS, and no other animal has feathers.
Naturally, then, we look with special interest upon

FEATHERS :

§ 3. a. Tuerr Structure. A perfect feather consists of a main stem,
or scape (scapus; pl. 1, fig. 7, ad), and a supplementary stem or after-
shaft (hyporhachis; pl. 1, fig. 7, 6), each bearing two webs or vanes (vex-
illum, pl. vewilla; pl. 1, fig. 7,¢), one on either side. The scape is divided
into two parts; one, the tube or barrel, or “quill” proper (calamus; pl. 1,
fig. 7, d) is hard, horny, hollow, cylindrical and semitransparent ; one end
tapers to be inserted into the skin; the other ends, at a point marked by
alittle pit (wmbilicus), in the shaft (rhachis), or second part of the stem;
the rhachis is squarish, and tapers to a point; is less horny, is opaque, and
filled with white pith; it alone bears the vexilla. The after-shaft has the
same structure, and likewise bears vexilla; it springs from the stem, at junc-
tion of calamus and rhachis, close by the umbilicus. It is generally very
small compared with the rest of the feather; but in a few birds is quite as
large; it is wanting in many; and is never developed on the principal wing
and tail feathers. The vane consists of a series of appressed, flat, narrowly
lance-shaped or linear laminz, set obliquely on the rhachis, and divarica- -
ting outward from it at a varying angle; each lamina is called a barb -
(barba; pl. 1, fig. 6, a, a). Now just as the rhachis bears barbs, so does
each barb bear its vanes (barbules; pl. 1, fig. 6, 6, 6, c) ; it is these last
that make a vane truly a wed, that is, they connect the barbs together, so
that some force is required to pull them apart. They are to the barbs ex-
actly what the barbs are to the shaft, and are similarly given off on both
sides of the barbs, from the upper edge of the latter. They are variously
shaped, but generally flat sideways, with upper and lower border at base,
rapidly tapering to a slender thread-like end; and are long enough to reach
over several barbules of the next barb, crossing the latter obliquely. All
the foregoing structures are seen with the eye or a simple pocket lens, but
the next two require a microscope; they are barbicels (or cilia; pl. 1, fig.

TYPES OF FEATHERS. 3

8), and hooklets (hamuli; pl. 1, fig. 8). These are simply a sort of fringe
to the barbules, just as if the lower edge of the barbule were frayed out,
and only differ from each other in one being plain,
fj hair-like processes, and the other being hooked at the
end. Barbicels do occur on both anterior and pos-
terior rows of barbules; but rarely on the latter;
hooklets are confined to barbules of the anterior
/| series, which, as we have seen, overlie the posterior
1) vows of barbules, diagonally forming a meshwork.
| The beautiful design of this structure is evident; by
| it, the barbules are interlocked, and the vane of the
feather made a web; for each hooklet of one barbule
\ catches hold of a barbule from the next barb in front,
—any barbule thus holding on to as many of the bar-
Fic. 2. Sections of a central *

rigid feather of the Lyre- bules of the next barb as it
ee ee? & has hooklets. ‘To facilitate
this interlocking, the bar- _
bules haye a thickened upper edge of such size —
that the hooklets can just grasp it. This is clear-
ly illustrated in pl. 1. fig. 2, where a, a, a, a are

four barbs in transverse section, viewed. from the ;
cut surfaces; with their anterior (0, 6, 6, 6), and ~
posterior (c, ¢, c, ¢) barbules, the former bearing
the hooklets which catch over the edge of the

> Fig.1. Section from loosely barbed
latter ~ feather of Lyre-bird. Natural
size.

6. But all feathers do not answer the above
description. First, the after-shaft may be wanting, as
we have seen; then, as frequently happens, hooklets
may not be developed, and barbicels may be few or
wanting ; barbules may be few or wanting, or so trans-
formed as to be only recognized by position, and even
barbs themselves may be wanting on one side of the
shaft, as in some tail feathers of the famous Lyre-bird, .
or on hoth sides, as in certain bristly feathers about the
, mouth and eyelids of various birds. (Certain unusual
styles of feathers are shown in figs. 1, 2, 3.) Con-
sideration of these and other modifications has led to
the recognition of three
§ 4. Types or Srrucrurre. 1. The feathery (pen-
y nacea), characterized as above. 2. The downy (plum-
SS # ulacea), when the stem is short and weak, with soft
Bifom one ot the eatemai Lhachis and barbs, with long, extremely slender, mostly
single barb. "3" thread-like barbules, with little knotty dilatations in
place of barbicels, and no hooklets. 3. The hairy (filoplumacea) with a
thin, stiff calamus, usually no pith in the rhachis, fine cylindrical stiff barbs

4
.
¢
7
}

4 KINDS OF FEATHERS.

and barbules, the latter wanting barbicels, knots and hooklets. The first
two types may be found in different parts of the same feather, as in pl. 1,
fig. 7, which is partly pennaceous, partly plumulaceous. All feathers are
built upon one of these three plans; and, though seemingly endless in di-
versity, may be reduced to four

§ 5. Diererent Kiyps or Frarners. 1. Contour-feathers (penne)
have a perfect stem composed of barrel or shaft, and vanes of pennaceous
structure at least in part, usually with downy structure toward the base.
They form the great bulk of the plumage, that is upon the surface of a bird,
exposed to light; their tints give the bird’s colors; they are the most vari-
ously modified of all, from the fishlike scales of the penguin, to the glit-
tering plates of the humming-bird, and all the endless array of tufts, crests,
ruffs and other ornaments of the feathered tribe ; even the imperfect bristle-
like feathers above-mentioned belong here. Another feature is, that they

are usually individually moved by cutaneous muscles, of which there may be

several to each feather, passing to be inserted into the sheath of the tube,
inside the skin, in which the stem is inserted; it is estimated that some
birds have twelve thousand of these little feather muscles. Every one
has seen their operation when a hen shakes herself after a sand-bath; and
any one may see them plainly under the skin of a goose. 2. Down-feath-
ers (plumule), characterized by the plumulaceous structure throughout.
These form a more or less complete investment of the body ; they are almost
always hidden from view beneath the contour-feathers, like padding about
the bases of the latter; occasionally they come to light, as in the ruff about
a condor’s neck, and then usually occur where there are no other feathers ;
they have an after-shaft or none, and sometimes no rhachis at all, when the
barbs are sessile in a tuft on the end of the barrel. They often, but not
always, stand in a regular quincunx between four contour-feathers. 3. The
semiplumes (semipluince), which may be said to unite the characters of the
last two, possessing the pennaceous stem of one and the plumulaceous vanes
of the other. They stand among penne, like the plumule, about the edges
of patches of the former, or in parcels by themselves, but are always cov-
ered over by contour-feathers. They are with or without an after-shaft. 4.
Filoplumes (jiloplume), or thread-feathers ; these have an extremely slen-
der, almost invisible, stem, not well distinguished into barrel and shaft, and
no vanes (with rare exceptions), unless a few barbs near the end of the
rhachis may be held for such. Long as they are, they are usually hidden
by the contour-feathers, close to which they stand as accessories, one or
more seeming to issue out of the very sac in which the larger feathers are
implanted. They are the nearest approach to hairs that birds have.

§ 6. Pecuntar Feararers. Certain down-feathers are remarkable for
continuing to grow indefinitely, and with this growth there is constant break-
ing off of the ends of the barbs. These feathers, from being always dusted
over with the dry, seurfy exudation or exfoliation from the follicle in which
they grow, are called powder down-feathers. They occur in the hawk, par-

PLUMAGE : TRACTS AND SPACES. 5

rot, and gallinaceous tribes, but especially in the heron family, where they
are always present, and readily seen as two large patches of greasy or dusty,
whitish, matted feathers over the hips and in front of the breast. Their use
is not known.

§ 7. Frearner Om-cranp. With comparatively few and irregular ex-
ceptions, birds have a singular apparatus for secreting oil with which to lu-
bricate and polish their feathers. It is a two-lobed, or rather heart-shaped,
gland, saddled upon the root of the tail; consisting essentially of numerous
slender secreting tubes or follicles, the ducts of which successively unite
in larger tubes, and finally perforate the’skin at one or more little nipple-
like eminences. Birds press out a drop of oil with their beak, and then
dress the feathers with it. The gland is largest in water-birds, which have
most need of an impervious coating of feathers, and always present among
them ; very large in the fish-hawk; smaller in other land-birds, and want-
ing (it is said), among the ostriches, bustards, parrots and some others. _ (In
pl. 1, fig. 4, the line 6 points to the oil-gland.)

§ 8. DevrLorpment or Frearners. In a manner analogous to that of
hair, a feather grows in a little pit or pouch formed by inversion of the der-
mal layer, and is formed in a closed oval follicle consisting of an inner and
outer coat separated by a layer of fine granular substance. The outer layer,
or “outer follicle ” is composed of several thin strata of nucleated epithelial
cells; the inner is thicker, spongy and filled with gelatinous fluid; a little
artery and vein furnish the blood-circulation. The inner is the true matrix of
the feather, evolving from the blood-supply the gelatinous matter, and resoly-
ing this into cell nuclei; the granular layer is the formative material. The
outer grows a little beyond the cutaneous sac that holds it, and opens at
the end; from this orifice the future feather protrudes as a little, fine-rayed
pencil point. During subsequent growth the follicular layers undergo little
further change; it is the granular that becomes the feather.

§ 9. Alla bird’s feathers, of whatever kind and structure, taken together,
constitute its ptilosis or

PLUMAGE.

(a.) FeaTHERED Tracts AND UNFEATHERED Spaces. With the exception
of certain birds that have obviously naked spaces, as about the head, ete., all
would be taken to be fully feathered. So they are fully covered with feath-
ers; but it does not follow from this, that feathers are implanted everywhere
upon the skin. On the contrary, this is the rarest of all kinds of feather-
ing, though it occurs, almost or quite perfectly, among the penguins and
toucans. Let us compare a bird’s skin to a well-kept park, part woodland,
part lawn; then where the feathers grow is the woodland; where they do
not grow, the lawn; the former places are called éracts (pteryl@) ; the latter
spaces (apteria) ; they mutually distinguish each other into certain definite
areas. Not only are the tracts and spaces thus definite, but their size, form
and arrangement mark whole families or orders of birds, and so are impor-

6 CHANGES OF PLUMAGE.

tant for purposes of classification. They have been specially studied, named
and classified by the celebrated Nitzsch, who has laid down the following as
the general plan obtaining in the vast majority of birds : —

(6.) 1. The spinal or dorsal tract (pteryla spinalis, pl. 1, fig. 4, 1),
running along the middle of the bird above from nape of the neck to the
tail; subject to great variation in width, to dilation and contraction, to
forking, to sending out branches, to interruption, ete. 2. The humeral tracts
(pt. humerales, pl. 1, fig. 4,2), always present, one on each wing; narrow
bands running from the shoulder obliquely backward upon the upper arm-
bone, parallel with the shoulder-blade. 3. The femoral tracts (pt. femo-
rales, pl. 1, fig. 4,3), a similar oblique band upon the outside of each
thigh, but, unlike the last, subject to great variation. 4. The ventral tract
( pt. gastrei, pl. 1, fig. 3,8), which forms most of the plumage on the
under part of a bird; commencing at or near the throat, and continued to
the anus; it is very variable like the dorsal tract, is usually bifurcate, or
divided into right and left halves with a central apterium, is broad or nar-
row, branched, etc. ; thus, Nitzsch enumerates seventeen distinct modifica-
tions! The foregoing are mostly isolated tracts, that is, bands nearly
surrounded by apteria that are complementary to them; the following are
continuously, uniformly feathered, and therefore, in general, equivalent to
the part of the body they represent. Thus, 5, the head tract (pt. capitis, pl.
I, figs. 3,4; 4,4), clothes the head and generally runs into the beginning of
both dorsal and ventral tracts. 6. The wing tract (pt. alaris, pl. 1, figs. 3, 5;
4,5), represents all the feathers that grow upon the wing, except those of the
humeral tract. 7. The tail tract (pé. caudalis, pl. 1, figs. 3,63; 4, 6), includes
the tail feathers and their coverts, those surrounding the oil-gland, and usu-
ally receives the termination of the dorsal, ventral, and femoral tracts. 8.
The leg tract (pt. cruralis, pl. 1, figs. 3, 7; 4, 7), clothes the legs as far as these
are feathered, which is sometimes to the toes, generally only to the heel. I
need not give the spaces, as these are merely the complements of the tracts ;
and the highly important special feathering of the wings and tail will be
examined in describing those members for purposes of classification.

§ 10. Progress anp Cuaner. Newly hatched birds are covered with a
kind of down, entirely different from the feathers they ultimately acquire.
It is scanty, leaving much of the body naked, in Altrices, or those birds that
are reared by the parent in the nest ; but thick and puffy in a few of these, and
in all Precoces, that run about at birth. But true feathers are soon gained,
in some days or weeks, those of wings and tail being the first to sprout. The
first plumage is usually only worn for a short time —then another is gained,
and frequently several more changes ensue before the bird attains its mature
covering. Feathers are of such rapid growth, that we can easily understand
how exhaustive of vital energies the growth must be, and how critical a pe-
riod the change is. The renewal of plumage is a process familiar to all under
the term “ moult” (ecdysis). It commonly occurs at least once a year, and
generally twice, in spring and fall; when old, faded and worn out feathers

;

CLASSIFICATION. 7

are shed, and fresh ones take their place, either over a part or the whole of

the body. The change frequently or generally results in considerable differ-
ences of color, constituting the “seasonal plumages” of so many birds,
which, in the same bird, may change from black to white even, from plain
to variegated, from dull to brilliant. But birds also change colors, by actual
alteration in the tints of the feathers themselves, and by gaining new ones
- without losing any old ones. The generalization may be made, that when
the sexes are strikingly different in color, the young at first resemble the
female; but when the old birds are alike, the young are different from
either. When the seasonal changes are great, the young resemble the fall
plumage of the old. When the old birds of two different species of the
same genus are strikingly alike, the young of both are usually intermediate
between them, and different from either.

Besides being the most highly developed, most complex, wonderfully per-
fect and beautiful kind of tegumentary outgrowth; besides fulfilling the
obvious design of covering and protecting the body, the plumage has its

§ 11. Psounrar Orrice: that of accomplishing the act of flying. For
all vertebrates, except birds, that progress through the air—the flying-fish
with its enlarged -pectoral fins; the flying reptile (Draco volans) with its
skinny parachute ; the flying mammal (bat) with its great webbed fingers —
accomplish aérial locomotion by means of tegumentary expansions. Birds,
alone, fly with tegumentary outgrowths, or appendages.

SECT. II. An aLtusion TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF Brrps— TAXxon-
omy — STRUCTURE — CHARACTERS — Groups OF DIFFERENT GRADES—
Types AND ABERRATIONS— EQUIVALENCY— ANALOGY AND AFFINITY
— EXAMPLE.

Serine what a bird is, and how distinguished from other animals, our
next business is to find out how birds are distinguished from each other ;
when we shall have the material for

§ 12. CrassrricaTion, a prime object of ornithology, without which,
birds, however pleasing they are to the senses, do not satisfy the mind,
which always strives to make orderly disposition of things, and so discover
their mutual relations and dependencies. Classification presupposes that
there are such relations, as results of the operation of fixed inevitable law ;
it is, therefore,

§ 13. Taxonomy (Gr. fais, arrangement, and nomos, law), or the ra-
tional, lawful disposition of observed facts. Just as taxidermy is the art
of fixing a bird’s skin in a natural manner, so taxonomy is the science of
arranging birds themselves in a natural manner, according to the rules that,
to the best of our knowledge and belief, are deducible from examination of
their
‘ § 14. Srrucrure: The physical constitution of a bird ; all the material
constituents of a bird, and the way its parts or organs are put together.

8 : CLASSIFICATION.

Internal structure, or anatomical structure (ana, and temnein, to cut), so
called because we have to cut into a bird to see it, comprehends all the parts
of a bird that are ordinarily hidden from view; external structure, those
that lie exposed to view upon the surface. Much time has been wasted in
arguing the superiority of one or the other of these for purposes of classifi-
cation; as if a natural classification must not be based upon all points of

structure! as if internal and external points of structure were not reciprocal .

and the mutual exponents of each other! External points of structure
stand to internal somewhat in the relation of interest and capital; it is legit-
imate and wise enough to use interest only unless we need to draw upon
capital. In our greater taxonomic enterprises —in the founding of our
higher groups—we require all the capital we can get; in our lesser under-
takings the interest alone is sufficient. Moreover, birds are so much alike
in their anatomical structure, that this answers taxonomic purpose only for
higher groups; and practically, at any rate, we make our lesser divisions so
readily from external structure, that this may be said to furnish most of our

§ 15. ZootocicaL Cmaracters. <A “character” is any point of struct-
ure whatsoever that is susceptible of being perceived and described for the
purpose of distinguishing birds from each other. Characters are of all
grades, or values, from the trivial ones that separate two species, to the
fundamental ones that mark off primary divisions. The more characters, of
whatever grade, that birds have in common, the more closely they are allied
to each other, and conversely. The possession of more or fewer characters
in common, results in

§ 16. Dre@rens or Likeness. Were all birds alike, or did all birds
differ by the same characters to the same degree, no classification would
be possible. But we find that they vary within wide limits—from the
almost imperceptible difference between two hatched in the same nest, to
the extreme unlikeness between a thrush and a penguin. This is the arena
of classification; this gives us both the room and the material to divide
birds into groups, and subdivide these into other groups, of greater or
lesser “value,” or grade, according to the more or fewer characters shared
in common. We saw that (in addition to other characters), all birds have
feathers, which no other animals possess ; birds can be separated from other
animals, but not from each other, by this feature; it is therefore a cLass
character. Even the

§ 17. Protary Division of birds must be made from a character of less
value than this. A broad generalization upon the sum total of all the ex-
hibitions that (recent—geologically) birds make in their modes of life,
shows that these are of three sorts. Either birds habitually live above the
earth, in the air or on trees; or they habitually live on the ground; or they
habitually live on the water; and in each case, their structure was designed
and fitted for such particular end. We have, therefore, at the outset three
types of structure correspondent with, and equivalent to, three plans of life;
and, if our observations are correct, and our reasoning not fallacious, these

ORDERS, FAMILIES, s)

types or plans, seemingly an abstract induction of ours, are as real as the
birds themselves. It is natural then to. divide birds into three primary
groups: Aerial Birds (Aves Aérecw), Terrestrial Birds (Aves Terrestres)
and Aquatic Birds (Aves Aguatice). An illustration will make this clear.
Men build machines to transport themselves and their goods; the only
known media of transportation are the air, the earth and the water; and
we do not imagine any sort of vehicles more unlike than a balloon, a
buggy, and a brig ; these, therefore, exemplify the most fundamental division
of machines for transportation.

§ 18. Orprrs. Taking any one of these types of structure, we find that
it may be unfolded, or carried out, in different ways. Studying all known
aquatic birds, for example, we see that their plan of life is fulfilled in four
different ways; it is exhibited under four aspects, or modes of execution,
each distinguished by some particular combination of aquatic characters
with certain other characters that we did not take into account in framing
our Aves Aquatice. Thus a goose, a gannet, a gull and a guillemot, all
agree in aquatic characters, but differ from each other by each having certain
characters that the other three lack. Characters marking such modes of ex-
hibition are called ordinal; and the groups so organized, Orders. In our
illustration, there are likewise four plans of aquatic machines; diving bells,
sailing vessels, steamships and rowboats, clearly distinguished by the way
in which motion (the prime function of all vehicles) is effected ; in this case
it is by weight, by wind, by steam, by muscle; therefore the machinery by
which these forces are applied, furnishes ordinal characters of aquatic
vehicles.

§ 19. Famintes. But all the birds of an order are not alike; some re-
semble each other more than they do the rest; so another set of groups
must be made. These groups are called Families; they consist in a certain
combination of all ordinal characters with special sets of characters of the
next lower grade or value. Let # represent the sum total of strictly ordi-
nal characters, and suppose we find these variously combined with a certain
number of the next lower grade of characters, as a, 6, for instance; then
the particular combination x (abc) is one family; x (bef) another; x (cde)
another, etc., and we shall have as many families under an order as there
actually are such combinations. Sometimes an order may be represented
by « (a. ..f); then there is but one family, as, for example, in the aquatic
order Lamellirostres where the Anatide alone furnish every one of the ordi-
nal features, and are equivalent to the order; that is to say (@...f) =,
because no character from a to f is wanting in any member of the order.
In our order sailing vessels, of aquatic machines, masts and sails are ordi-
nal characters, because they are essential apparatus to catch the wind.
But these may be of a varying number, etc., upon which we might found
families of sailing-vessels, as the ship family, represented by « (three masts
+ square sails) ; the schooner family x (two masts + fore-and-aft sails) ; the
sloop family « (one mast + fore-and-aft sails), ete. Diving bells, I sup-

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 2

10 GENERA, SPECIES, VARIETIES.

pose, are so much alike, that they might be called an order of aquatic
machines of but one family.

§ 20. Genera. After family manifestations of ordinal characters, we
come to the modifications of families themselves, enquiring how many kinds
of difference (genus, a kind, pl. genera) there are in the birds composing a
family. The mode of determining genera in a family is precisely like that of
determining families in an order; it is # again (this time representing fam-
ily characters) into a varying number or combination of characters of the
next lower grade, a—f. A genus is the last definite grouping of birds that
is usually recognized; it may be defined as the ultimate essential modifica-
tion of structure (ultimate, because there is none lower; essential, because
trivial features do not constitute a genus; of structure, because mere size,
color, ete., are only specific characters). In the ship family, the three-
masted vessel, full-rigged, with square sails, is a genus (ship-proper) ; one
with square sails on two masts only, and fore-and-aft sails on the mizzen, is
another genus (bark), and so on. Genera are composed of one or more

§ 21. Species. The definition of a species has become difficult of late
years, but for present purposes we may assume that it is any one of the
constant exponents of a genus, comprehending all the birds that bear to
each other the relation of parent and offspring; the latter capable of repro-
ducing ‘ each after its kind’ and maintaining certain characters to an evident
degree peculiar to itself. Resting, then, upon this, we have little else to
consider before we reach that most unquestionable fact, an individual bird.
Species, however, are not absolutely constant ; they vary in size, color, ete.,
within certain limits, under influences not always comprehended as yet, but
which seem a part of that universal tendency in nature toward the produc-
tion of essential unity in diversity; the operation of which, if completely
effective, would level distinctions and abolish difference in sameness.

§ 22. A Variety is a step in this direction; for, although it may seem
an opposite step, yet departure from any given point or standard must be
approach toward some other. <A variety is (generally) distinguished from
a species by its tendency to revert to its original stock, or, diverging fur-
ther from that, to approach some other type. The former case is constantly
being demonstrated, and the latter is probably susceptible of being proven ;
but in either case, énconstancy is a marked feature of varieties. Varieties
apparently produced by difference in food, climate, etc., are called local
races, When restricted to a small area in or around the general distribution
of the parent stock; geographical races, when more widely separated over
large areas. A hybrid is a cross between two species, almost always of the
same natural genus. Hybrids are generally infertile, while crosses between
mere varieties are capable of reproduction, so that hybridism becomes in
some measure a test; nevertheless, exceptions are not wanting.

§ 23. Inrermeprare Groupes. Having arrived at the individual bird, we
will retrace our steps for a moment, for the student must sooner or later
learn, that, easy as it seems to theoretically determine the foregoing groups,

INTERMEDIATE AND ABERRANT GROUPS. iat

there are many difficulties in the way of their practical definition. This
is partly because all birds are singularly inter-related, presenting few broad,
unequivocal, unexceptional characters in the midst of numberless minor
modifications, and partly because the higher groups, no less than species and
varieties, shade into each other. In our illustration, for example, we find
exactly intermediate aquatic machines; thus, it would be difficult for a
landsman to say whether an hermaphrodite brig belonged to the ship family,
or the schooner family ; he would have to decide according as he considered
number of masts, or shape of sails, the more essential family character.
But the tntermediate groups which remain to be examined are not of this
ambiguous nature ; they are unequivocally referable to some particular group
of the next higher grade, and, being subordinate divisions, they are distin-
guished by the prefix sub, as sub-order, sub-family. Though somewhat
difficult to define, they are, I think, susceptible of intelligible, if not always
precise, definition. A sub-group of any grade is framed, without taking
into consideration any new or additional characters, upon the varying prom-
inence of one or more of the characters just used to form the group next
above. In our formula above & (abc) for a certain family of the order a,
suppose the family character a to be emphasized, as it were, and to pre-
dominate over } and c, to the partial suppression of these last: then a sub-
family of x (abc) might be expressed thus:—«# (Adc) ; and it is further
evident, that there will be as many sub-families as there are groups of birds
in the family representing varying emphasis of a, or 6, orc; asx (a Bc),%
(Ab C), ete. While we take account of new characters of another grade,
in forming our successive main groups, in our sub-groups, then, we recog-
nize only more or less of the same characters. But the distinction is not
always evident; nor is it observed so often as, perhaps, it should be.

§ 24. Typican anp ApeRRANT Groups. Waiving what might be rea-
sonably argued against considering any group specially “typical” of the
next higher, we may define a convenient and frequent term: —The typical
genus of a family, or family of an order, is that one which develops most
strongly, or displays most clearly, the more essential characters of the next
higher group, of which it is one member. And in proportion as it fails to
express these in the most marked manner, either by bearing their stamp more
lightly, or by having it obscured or defaced by admixture of the characters
of a neighboring group, does it become less and less typical (“ subtypical ”)
and finally aberrant. Suppose the ordinal symbol «, as before, to represent
the sum of various ordinal characters, more or less essential to the integrity
of the order; then obviously, the family characters abc, or def may be com-
bined with a varying value of w; thus, a’ (abc) or « (def) and the formula
of the typical family would be a" (a—f). Thus, it is characteristic of most
thrushes (Turdid@) to have the tarsus booted, but all do not have it so;
therefore, in subdividing the family, we properly make a division into
thrushes with booted tarsi, and thrushes with scutellated tarsi; the former
are typical of the family, the latter sub-typical or even aberrant.

1 AFFINITY AND ANALOGY.

§ 25. EqQurvALENCcE oF Groupes. It may sound like a truism to say, that
groups of the same grade, bearing the same name, whatever that may be,
from sub-class to sub-genus, must be of the same value; must be distin-
guished by characters of equal or equivalent importance. Equivalence of
groups is necessary to the stability and harmony of any classiticatory sys-
tem. It will not do to frame an order upon one set of characters here, and
a family upon a similar set of characters there; but order must differ from
order, and family from family, by an equal or corresponding amount of dif-
ference. Leta group called a family differ as much from the other families
in its own order as it does from ¢ome other order, and it is by this very fact
not afamily, but an order itself. Let the orders of birds stand apart a yard,
say; if, then, any families, so-called, stand as far apart, they are not families.
It seems a simple proposition, yet it is too often ignored, and always with
ill result. Two points should be remembered here: first, that the absolute
size or bulk of a group has nothing to do with its grade; one order might
contain a thousand species, and another only one, without having its ordinal
value disturbed. Secondly, any given character may be of different value in
its application to different groups. Thus, number of primaries, whether
nine or ten, is a family character almost throughout Oscines; but in one
Oscine family, Vireonide, it is scarcely a generic feature. It is difficult,
however, to determine such a point as this last without faithful training in
ornithology.

§ 26. Arrryity anp AnaLoay. Birds are allied, or affined, according to
the number of like characters they employ for like purposes; they are ana-
logically related according to the number of unlike characters that they use for
similar purposes. A loon and a cormorant, for instance, are closely affined,
because they are both fitted in the same way for the pursuit of their prey
under water. A dipper (family Cinclide), and a loon (family Colymbide),
are analogous, because they both pursue their prey under water; but they
stand almost at the extremes of the ornithological system ; they have almost
no affinity beyond their common birdhood ; totally different structure is only
modified for the same ends, that are thus brought about by totally different
means. So the wings of a butterfly, a bat, and a bird are analogical, be-
cause they subserve the same purpose in each case; needless to add, these
- creatures have no affinity.

§ 27. With this cursory glance* at some taxonomic principles I pass to a
brief explanation of modifications of external characters alone ; some knowl-
edge of which is necessary to the slightest appreciation of ornithological
definitions and descriptions. I shall confine myself mainly to consideration
of those that the student will need to understand in order to use the present

*As the present occasion obviously affords no opportunity for an adequate discussion of the classification
of birds, it is hardly necessary to say to ornithologists, that here I simply assume a class Aves composed of
recent birds, as an initial step, without considering the broader generalizations deducible from extinct forms;
and that I speak of species and varieties, in the sense in which these terms are commonly used, waiving
the biological questions involved.

EXTERIOR OF A BIRD. 13

volume easily and successfully. Here, however, I will insert a tabular illus-
tration of the foregoing remarks :—

: Class AVES : — Birds.
(Sub-class * Jnsessores : — Perching Birds.)
Order Passeres : — Passerine Perchers.
‘(Sub-order Oscines : — Singing Passerines. )
Family + Turpin : — Thrushes.
(Sub-family ¢ Mimine : — Mocking Thrushes. )
Genus ¢t Mimus :— Mockers.
-(Sub-genus ¢ Mimus: — Typical Mockers. )
Species | potyeLorrus : — Many-tongued.

(Variety caudatus : — Long-tailed.)

SECT. III. Derrinirion anp BRIEF DeEscrIPTION OF THE EXTERIOR OF
5 A Birp. — Parts AND Orcans— I. Tur Bopy: HEAD, NECK AND BODY
proper. —IJ. Tor MEMBERS: BILL, WINGS, TAIL, FEET.

°§ 28. Tae Contour of a bird with the feathers on, is spindle-shaped, or
JSusiform, tapering at both ends; it represents two cones, joined base to base
at the middle, or greatest girth of body, tapering in front to the tip of the
bill, behind to the end of the tail. Obvious design: easiest cleavage of air
in front, and lessening of drag or wash behind. But this shape is largely
produced by the lay of the plumage; a
Gee § 29. Naxep Birp presents several prominences and depressions ; this ir-
s regular contour is reducible, in general terms, to two double cones. The
head tapers to a point in front, at the tip of the bill; and nearly to a point
behind, towards the middle of the neck, in consequence of the swelling mus-
cles by which it is slung on the neck; from the middle of the somewhat
-__ contracted or hour-glass shaped neck, this last enlarges toward the body, by
+) deers the swelling of the muscles by which it is slung to the body ; the body then
; tapers to the tail. The
§ 30. Exrerror or a Brrp is divided into seven parts: 1, head (caput),
2, neck (collum), 3, body (truncus), 4, bill (rostrum), 5, wings (ale), 6,
. tail (cauda), 7, feet (pedes): 1, 2, 3, are collectively called “ body,” in dis-
tinction to 4, 5, 6, 7, which are members. The

tomacoy: x

ed

} * Intermediate groups are in italics and parentheses.
¢ 5 } Families now always end in -id@, and sub-families in -ine, a very conyenient distinction, since we thus
always know the rank designated by words so ending.
{A bird’s scientific name now INVARIABLY consists of two words —the genus and the species, the former
first, the latter last: thus, Mimws polyglottus ; but we may, if we wish, interpolate the sub-genus in parenthe-
>. ses, and affix the variety with sign var.: thus, Mimus (Mimus) polyglottus, var. caudatus. Generic names
are always written with a capital; specific names, according to the rules of the British Association, now gen-
erally followed, should never be, though it is customary to so write those that are derived from the names
of persons and places, as well as all substantive appellations.

Ra ger ee ee

14 HEAD, NECK, BODY.

§ 31. Heap has the general shape of a 4-sided pyramid; of which the
base is applied to the end of the neck, and does not appear from the exte-
rior; the uppermost side is more or less convex or vaulted, sloping in every
direction, and tapering in front; the sides proper are flatter, more or less
perpendicular, and taper in front; the bottom is likewise flattish and simi-
larly tapering. The departures from this typical shape are endless in degree,
and variable in kind; they give rise to numerous general descriptive terms,
as “head flattened,” “head globular,” ete., but these are not susceptible of
precise definition. The sides present each two openings, eyes and ears;
their position is variable, both absolutely and in respect to each other. But
in the vast majority of birds, the eyes are strictly /ateral, and near the mid-
dle of the side of the head, while the ears are behind and a little below.
Exceptions :—owls have eyes “anterior ;” woodcock and snipe have ears be-
low and not behind the eyes. The mouth is always a horizontal fissure in
the apex of the cone; there are no other openings in the head proper, for
the nostrils are always in the bill. The

§ 32. Neck, in effect, is a simple cylinder: rendered somewhat hour-
glass shaped as above stated. Its length is variable, as is the number of
bones it has. Bearing the head with the bill, which is a bird’s true hand, it
is unusually flexible, to permit the necessarily varied motions of this impor-
tant organ. Its least length may be said to be that which allows the point
of the bird’s beak to touch the oil-gland on the rump; its length is usually
in direct proportion to length of legs, in obvious design of allowing the
beak to touch the ground easily to pick up food. Its habitual shape is a
double curve like the letter S; the lower belly of the curve fits in the space
between the legs of the merry-thought (furcula) ; the upper limb of the
curve holds the head horizontal. This sigmoid flexure (sigma, Greek S) is
produced by the shape of the jointing surfaces of the several bones: it may
be increased, so that the upper end touches the lower belly; may be de-
creased to a straight line, but is scarcely carried beyond this in the opposite
direction. As a generalization, the neck may be called longest in wading
birds; shortest in perching birds; intermediate in swimming birds; but
some waders, as plovers, have short necks; and some swimmers, as swans,
extremely long ones; a very long neck, however, among perching birds is
rare, and confined mainly to a crane-like African hawk, and certain of the
lowest perchers that stand on the confines of the waders. The shape of the

§ 33. Bopy proper or trunk (L. ¢runcus), is obviously referable to that
of the egg; it is ovate, (LL. ovum, an egy). The swelling breast muscles
represent the but of the egg, which tapers backwards. But this shape is
never perfectly expressed, and its variations are unnumbered. In general,
perching birds have a body the nearest to an oval; among waders, the oval
is usually compressed, or flattened perpendicularly, as is well seen in the
heron family, and still better in the rail family, where the narrowing is at
an extreme; among swimmers, the body is always more or less depressed,
or flattened horizontally, and especially underneath, to enable these birds to

a a

a

ps

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BODY. 15

rest with stability on the water; a duck or a diver shows this well. Speak-
ing of shape of body, I must allude to the

§ 34. Centre or Gravity of a bird, and show the admirable provision
by which this is kept beneath the centre of the body. The enormous breast-
muscles of a bird are its heaviest parts; sometimes they weigh, to speak
roundly, as much as one-sixth of the whole bird. Now these are they that
effect all the movements of the wings at the shoulder-joint, lifting as well as
lowering the wings; did they all pull straight, the lifters would have to be
above the shoulder; but they all lie below, and the lifters accomplish their
office by running through a pulley, which changes their line of traction ; they
work, in short, like men hoisting sails from the deck of a vessel; and thus,
like a ship’s cargo, a bird’s chief weight is kept below the centre of motion,
Topheaviness is further obviated by the fact that birds with a long, heavy
neck and head draw this in upon the breast, and extend the legs behind, as is
well shown in a heron flying. The nice adjustment of balance by the yari-
able extension of the head and legs is exactly like that produced by shifting
the weight along the bar of a steel-yard ; this, with the slinging of the chief
weight under the wings instead of over or even between them, enables a
bird to keep right side up in flight, without exertion.

Sub-sect.1. Of the Body; its Topography, ete.

§ 35. Busipes being divided as above into body and members, the exte-
rior of a bird is further subdivided ; the body being mapped out, mainly for
purposes of description, into regions, and the members being similarly re-
solved into their component parts or organs. We have first to notice, as
the most general, the

§ 386. Uprer anp Unper Parts. Draw a line from the corner of the
mouth along the side of the neck to and through the shoulder-joint and
thence along the side of the body to the root of the tail; all above this line,
including upper surface of wings and tail, are upper parts; all below, includ-
ing under surfaces of wings and tail, are under parts; called respectively,
“above” and “below.” The distinction is purely arbitrary, but so conven-
ient that it is practically indispensable ; for it will be seen in a moment, how
an otherwise lengthy description can be compressed into, for example, four
words: “above, green; below, yellow:” and these terms are often used
because many birds’ colors have some such simple general character.

The “upper parts” of the body proper (§ 33) have, also, received the gen-

eral name of nofeeum (Gr. notos, back; fig. 4, 12) : the “under parts,” simi-
larly restricted, that of gastreum (Gr. gaster, belly ; fig. 4, 20). These two
are

§ 37. Never Nakep, while both head and neck may be variously bare of
feathers. The only exception is the transient condition of certain birds dur-
ing incubation: when, either, like the eider duck, they pull feathers off the
belly to cover the eggs or even to build the nest, or, like several other birds,

the plumage below is worn off in setting. The gastreum is rarely pecu-

16 TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BODY.

liarly ornamented with feathers of different texture or structure from those

of the general plumage; but an instance of this is seen in our Lewis’ wood- ~

pecker. The noteum, on the contrary, is often the seat of extraordinary
development of feathers, either in size, shape or texture; as the singularly
elegant plumes of the herons. Individual feathers of the notzum are
generally pennaceous (§ 4), in greatest part straight and lanceolate; and

b

i
H
{
i
H
:
i
H
i
'

Fic. 4.— Topography of a Bird.

1, forehead (frons). 2, lore. 3, cireumocular region. remiges. 28, primary coverts. 29, alu/a, or bastard wing.
4, crown (verter). 5, eye. 6, hind head (occiput). 7, 30, greater coverts. 31, median coverts. 32, lesser coverts.
nape (nucha), 8, hind neck (cervir). 9, side of neck. 33, the * throat,” including 34, 37,38. 34, jugu/um or lower
10. interscapular region. ll, dorsum, or buck proper, in- throat. 35,auriculars, 36, malar region. 37, gula,or mid-
cluding 10. 12, not#um, or upper part of body proper, dle throat. 35, mentum, or chin, 39, angle of commis-
including 10, 11, and 13. 13, rump (wrepygium). 14, upper sure, or corner of mouth. 40, ramus of under mandible.
tail coverts. 15, tail. 16, under tail coverts. 17, tarsus. 41, side of under mandible. 42, gonys. 43, apex, or tip of
18, abdomen. 19, hind toe (ha/luxr), 20, gastraum, inelud- bill. 44, tomia, or cutting edges of the bill. 45, culmen,
ing 18 and 24, 21, outer or fourth toe, 22, middle or third or ridge of upper mandible, corresponding to gonys. 46,
toe. 25, side of the body. 24, breast (pectus). 25, prima- side of upper mandible. 47, nostril. 48 passes across the

ries, 26, secondaries. 27, tertiaries; nos. 24, 26, 27 are all bill a little in front of its base.

as a whole they lie smoothly imbricated (like shingles on a roof). The
gastreeal feathers are more largely plumulaceous ({§ 4 ), less flat and imbri-
cated, but even more compact, that is, thicker, than those of the upper
parts ; especially among water birds, where they are all more or less curly,
and very thickset. There are subdivisions of the

§ 38. Normum. Beginning where the neck ends, and ending where the
tail coverts begin, this part of the bird is divided into back (Lat. dorsum;
fig. 4, 11) and rump (L. wropygium fig. 4,13). These are direct continuations
of each other, and their limits are not precisely defined. The feathers of
both are on the pteryla dorsalis (§ 8, 6). In general, we may say that the
anterior two-thirds or three-quarters of noteum is back, and the rest rump.
With the former are generally included the scapular feathers, or scapulars:
these are they that grow on the pteryle humerales (§ 8, 6): the region of

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BODY. 17/

noteum that they form is called scapulare (Li. scapula, shoulder-blade) ;
that part of noteum strictly between them is called interscapulare (fig. 4, 10) ;
it is often marked, as in the chipping sparrow, with streaks or some other
distinguishing coloration. A part of dorsum, lying between interscapulare
and uropygium, is sometimes recognized as the “lower back” (L. tergum),
but the distinction is not practically useful. To uropygium probably also
belong the feathers of the pieryle femorales (§ 8, 6), and at any rate they
are practically included there in descriptions; but these properly represent
the flanks (i. hypochondria), that is, the sides of the rump. They are
sometimes the seat of peculiarly developed or otherwise modified feathers.
The whole of noteum, taken with the upper surfaces of the folded wings, is
called the “mantle” (i. séragulwm), and is often a convenient term, espec-
ially in describing gulls. In like manner, the ~

§ 39. Gastrawum is subdivided into regions, called, in general terms,
“breast” (pectus; fig. 4, 24), “belly” (abdomen; fig. 4, 18) and “sides of the
: body” (fig. 4,23). The latter belong really as much to back, of course, as to
belly ; but in consequence of the underneath freighted shape of a bird’s body,
the line we drew (§ 36) passes so high up along the sides, that these last are
| _ almost entirely given to gastreum. The breast begins over the merry-
: thought, where jugulum (§ 40) ends; on either hand it slopes up into
“sides :” behind, its extension is indefinite. Properly, it should reach as far
wo as the breast-bone (sternwm) does; but this would leave, in many birds,
i almost nothing for abdomen, and the limit would, moreover, fluctuate with
almost every family of birds, the sternum is so variable in length and shape.
Practically, therefore, we restrict pectus to the swelling anterior part of
gastreum, which we call abdomen as soon as it begins to straighten out and
flatten. Abdomen, like breast, rounds up on either hand into sédes; behind,
it ends in a transverse line that passes across the anus. It has been un-
necessarily divided into epigastrium, or “pit of the stomach,” and venter,
or “lower belly ;’ but these terms are rarely used. (“Crisswm” is a word
constantly employed for a region immediately about the anus; but it is
loosely used, sometimes including the hypochondria, and oftener meaning
simply the under tail coverts; I refer to it again in speaking of these last.)
Although these various boundaries seem fluctuating and not perfectly defin-
ite, yet a little practice will enable the student to appreciate their proper
use in descriptions, and then use them himself with sufficient accuracy.
The anterior continuation of body in general, or the

§ 40. Neck, is likewise subdivided into regions. Its lateral aspects (ex-
cept in a few birds that have lateral neck tracts of feathers) are formed
by the meeting over its sides of the feathers that grow on the dorsal and
ventral pteryle ; the skin is really not planted with feathers; and partly on
this account, perhaps, a distinctively named region is not often expressed ;
we say simply “sides of the neck” (parauchenia, fig. 4,9). Behind, it is
divided into two portions: a lower, the “hind neck,” or “scruff of the neck,”
cervix (fig. 4, 8), adjoining the back; and an upper, the “nape of the

«

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 3.

18 _ TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BODY.

neck” (nucha ; fig. 4, 7), adjoining the hind head; these are otherwise known
as the cervical region, and the nuchal region, respectively, and both together
as “the neck behind.” ‘The front of the neck has been, perhaps, unnecessa-
rily subdivided, and the divisions vary with almost every writer. It will be
sufficient for us in the present connection to call it throat (Lat. gula, fig.
4, 37), and jugulum (fig. 4, 3:), remembering that the jugular portion is
lower, vanishing in breast, and the gular higher, running into chin along the
under surface of the head. Gruétur is a term used to signify gula and
jugulum together; it is simply equivalent to “throat” as just defined.
Though generally fully covered with feathers, the neck, unlike the body
proper, is frequently in part naked. When naked behind, it is almost in-
variably cervix that is bare, from interruption of the upward extension of the
pteryla dorsalis ; as exemplified in many herons. NVucha is rarely, if ever,
naked except in continuation of general nakedness of the head. Similarly,
gula is naked from above downwards, as is especially illustrated in nearly
all the order Steganopodes, as pelicans, cormorants, etc., that have a naked
throat-pouch; or some vultures, whose nakedness of head extends over
nucha, and along gula, as if the feathers were killed by over-manuring with
the filthy substances these birds eat. The condor has a singular ruffle all
around the neck, of close, downy feathers, as if to defend the roots of the
other feathers from such consequence. Jugulum becomes naked in a few
birds, where a distended crop or craw protrudes, pushing apart the feathers
of two branches of the pteryla ventralis as these ascend the throat. The
neck is not ordinarily the place of remarkably modified feathers ; they might
restrict freedom of motion in the neck; to this rule, however, there are
signal exceptions. Among these may be mentioned here, the grouse family,
among our representatives of which, the “ruffed” has singular tufts on the
sides of the neck; the “pinnated” little wing-like feathers there, covering
bare, distensible skin, and the “cock of the plains” has curious, stiff, scaly
feathers ; unless these rather belong to pectus. Cervix proper almost never
has modified feathers, but often a transverse coloration different from that of
the rest of the upper parts ; when conspicuous, this is called “cervical collar,”
to distinguish it from the guttural or jugular “collars” or rings of color.
Nucha is frequently similarly marked with a “nuchal band ;” often, special
developments there take the form of lengthening of the feathers, and we
have a “nuchal crest.” More particularly in birds of largely variegated
colors, guttur and jugulum are marked Jengthwise with stripes and streaks,
of which those on the sides are apt to be different from those along the
middle line in front. Jugulum occasionally has lengthened feathers, as in
many herons. Higher up, the neck in front may have variously length-
ened or otherwise modified feathers. Conspicuous among these are the
ruffs, or tippets, of some birds, especially of the grebe family, and, above
all our other birds, of the male ruff (Machetes pugnax). But these, and a
few other modifications of the feathers of the upper neck, are more con-
veniently considered with those of the

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE HEAD. 19

§ 41. Heap. Though smaller than either of the parts already considered,
the head has been more minutely mapped out, and such detail is necessary
from the number of recognizable parts or regions it includes. Without pro-
fessing to give all that have been named, I describe what will be needed for
our present purposes.

(a). “Top of the head” is a collective expression for all the superior sur-
face, from base of the bill to nucha, and on the sides nearly or quite to the
level of the upper border of the eyes. This is pilewm (fig. 4,1, 4,6) 3 it
is divided into three portions. orehead, or frontal region, or, simply, “the
front” (Li. frons; fig. 4,1) includes all that slopes upward from the bill —
generally to about opposite the anterior border of the eyes. Middle head or
crown (lL. corona), or vertex (L. vertex; fig. 4,4), includes the top of the
head proper, extending from forehead to the downward slope towards nucha.
This last slope is hind head, or occiput (fig. 4,6). The lateral border of all
three together constitutes the “superciliary line,” that is, line over the eye
(Lat. super, over, cilia, hairs [of the brows in particular]).

(b). “Side of the head” is a general term defining itself. It presents for
consideration the following regions: orbital, or circumorbital (L. orbis, an
orb, properly, here, the circular hole in the skull itself that contains the eye-
ball; fig. 4,3) is the small space forming a ring around the eyes; it em-
braces these organs, with the upper and under /ids (Li. palpebre) ; where
these meet in front and behind respectively, is the anterior canthus and poste-
rior canthus. The region is also subdivided into supra-orbital, infra-orbital,
ante-orbital and post-orbital, according as its upper, under, front or back por-
tion is specially meant. The position of the circumorbital varies in differ-
ent families; generally, it is midway, as stated, but may be higher or lower,
crowded forward toward the base of the bill, or removed to the back upper
corner of the side of the head, as strikingly shown in the woodcock. The
aural or auricular (fig. 4, 3) region is the part lying over the external ear-
opening; its position varies in heads of different shape; but in the vast
majority of cases it is situated a little behind and below the eye. Wherever
located it may be known at a glance, by the texture of the auricular feathers
(shortly, the auriculars) covering the opening. Doubtless to offer least ob-
stacle to passage of sound, these are a tuft of feathers with loose vexilla
(§ 3) from greater or less disconnection of the barbs (§ 3); and they may
collectively be raised and turned forward, exposing the ear-opening ; they are
extremely large and conspicuous in most owls. “Temporal region,” or the
temples (Li. ¢empora, times, or age, because an elderly man’s hair whitens
there first) is a term not often used ; it designates the part between eyes and
ears, not well distinguished from the post-orbital space. At the lowermost
posterior corner of the head a protuberance is seen, or may be felt; it is
where the lower jaw is hinged to the skull, and is called the “angle of the
jaw ;” it is generally just below and behind the ear. The lore (L. lorum,
strap or thong; hence, reins or bridle ; hence, place where the main strap of
a bridle passes; fig. 4, 2) is an important region. It is generally pretty

20 TOPOGRAPHY OF THE HEAD.

much all the space betwixt the eye and the sides of the base of the upper
mandible (§ 44). Thus, we say of a hawk, “lores bristly ;” and examina-
tion of a bird of that kind will show how large a space is covered by the
term. Lore, however, should properly be restricted to a narrow line
between the eye and bill in the direction of the nostrils. It is excellently
shown in the heron and grebe families, where “naked lores” is a distinctive
family character. The lore is an important place, not only from being thus
marked in many birds, but from being frequently the seat of specially
modified or specially colored feathers. The rest of the side of the head,
including the space between angle of jaw and Dill, has the name of cheek
(L. gena, firstly eyelid, then, and generally, the prominence under the eye
formed by the cheek-bones; fig. 4, 36). It is bounded above by lore, infra-
orbital, and auricular; below, by a more or less straight line, representing
the lower edge of the bony prong of the under mandible (§ 44). It is
cleft in front for a varying distance by the backward extension of the gape
of the mouth; above this gape is more properly gena, or malar region in
strictness; below it is yaw (maxilla), or rather “side of the jaw.” The
lower edge of the jaw definitely separates the side of the head from the

(ce). “Under surface” of the head; properly bounded behind by an imag-
inary line drawn straight across from one angle of the jaw to the other, and
running forward to a point between the forks of the under mandible (§ 44).
As already hinted, “throat” (gula; fig. 4, 37) extends upward and forward
into this space without obvious dividing line; it runs into chin (LL. mentum;
fig. 4, 38) of which it is only to be said, that it is the (varying in extent)
anterior part of the under surface of the head. Anteriorly, it may be con-
veniently marked off, opposite the point where the feathers end on the side
of the lower jaw, from the feathery space (when any) between the branches
of the under mandible itself; this latter space is called the dnéerramal (L.
inter, between, ramus, fork).

(d). The head is so often marked lengthwise with different colors, apt to
take such definite position, that these lines have received special names.
Median vertical line is one along the middle of pileum, from base of culmen
(§ 50) to nucha: /ateral vertical lines bound it on either side. Superciliary
line has just been noticed; below it runs the lateral stripe; that part of it
before the eye, is loral or ante-orbital ; behind the eye, post-orbital; when
these are continuous through the eye, they form a transocular line; below
this is malar line, cheek-stripe, or frenum; below this, on the under jaw,
maxillary line; in the middle below, mental or gular lines. ‘The lines are
stripes (Li. plage) when narrow and distinct, like the welt of a whip-lash ;
streaks (sé7de) when narrow and somewhat erratic ; and vittce or fascie when
quite broad, as is particularly likely to be the case with the eye-line.*

*I had thought of a section on patterns of coloration (picture), but the attempt to reduce birds’ infinitely
varied colors to generalized formulas would take too much space. I may add, however, conveniently in
this connection, the following: Considerable areas of color take name from the parts they occupy, down
to what may be called variegations. These are produced in two ways: (1) by insensible change of colors, either
in fading into lighter, or shading into darker tints of the same; as an indefinite brown into black, gray or

eo

Te ee ee

wens

nee wt

Dae whe etapa 8 ee eet

hl a tap

PTILOSIS OF THE HEAD. : 21

(ce). No part of the body has so variable a ptilosis ({ 9) as the head. In
the vast majority of birds, it is wholly and densely feathered; it ranges
from this to wholly naked; but nakedness, it should be observed, means
only absence of perfect feathers, for most birds with unfeathered heads have
a hair-like growth on the skin. Our samples of naked headed birds, are the
turkey, the vultures, the cranes, and some few birds of the heron tribe.
Associated with more or less complete “baldness,” is frequently the presence
of various fleshy outgrowths, as combs, wattles, caruncles (warty excres-
cences), lobes and flaps of all sorts, even to enumerate which would exceed
our limits. The parts of the barn-yard cock exemplify the whole; among
North American birds they are very rare, being confined, in evident devel-
opment at any rate, to the wild turkey. Sometimes horny plates take the
place of feathers on part of the head; as in the coots and gallinules. A
very common form of head nakedness marks one whole order of birds, the
Steganopodes, which have mentum and more or less of gula naked, and
transformed into a sort of pouch, extremely developed in the pelicans,
and well seen in the cormorants. The next commonest is definite bareness
of the lores, as in all herons and grebes. A little orbital space is bare in
many birds, as the vulturine hawks, and some pigeons. Among water birds
particularly more or less of the interramal space is almost always unfeath-
ered; the nakedness always proceeds from before backwards. With the
rare exceptions of a narrow frontal line, and a little space about the angle of
the mouth, no other special parts of the head than those above given are
naked in any North American bird, unless associated with general baldness.

(f). The opposite condition, that of redundant feathering, gives rise to all
the various crests (L., pl. criste) that form such striking ornaments of many
birds. Crests proper belong to the top of the head, but may be also held
to include those growths on its side; these together being called crests in
distinction to the ruffs, rufiles, beard, ete., of gula or mentum. Crests may
be divided into two kinds:—1, where the feathers are simply lengthened
or otherwise enlarged, and 2, where the texture, and sometimes even the
structure (§ 4) is altered. Nearly all birds possess the power of moving
and elevating the feathers on the head, simulating a slight crest in moments
of excitement. The general form of a crest is a full soft elongation of the
coronal feathers collectively; when perfect such a crest is globular, as in
the Pyrocephalus (genus 111) ; generally, however, the feathers lengthen on

white; or by unmarked change of a secondary color, as green into blue or yellow. (2) by obvious markings.
Markings are all reducible to two kinds, streaking and spotting. Streaking, as a generic term, is sharply
divisible into lengthwise and crosswise. Lengthwise streaking comprehends all kinds of streaks, stripes, vitte,
fascix, with the distinctions above given in the text. Crosswise streaking is called barring, and always runs
transverse to the axis of a bird; if the lines are straight, it is banding; if undulating, it is waving; if very
fine and irregular, it is vermiculation (L. vermiculus, a little worm). Spotting is graded according to size
of the markings, from dotting or pointing, to blotching or splashing; and spots are also designated accord-
ing to their shape, as round, square, U-shaped, V-shaped, hastate, sagittate, ete. Very fine spotting mixed
with streaking, is called marbling; when indistinct, nebulation or clouding; intermediate special marks have
particular names, as crescents. Distinct round spots are ocelli (‘‘little eyes”). Indistinct variegations of any
sort are called obsolete. Washes of color over a definite color, are called tinges or tints. Color is glossy when
it shines; metallic, when it glitters; iridescent when it changes with different lights. Colors are also bright
dull, dead (said of white), opaque, or velvety (said of deep colors, chiefly black), ete.

D2, } PTILOSIS OF THE HEAD.

the occiput more than on the vertex or front, and this gives us the simplest
and commonest form. Such crests, when more particularly occipital, are usu-
ally connected with lengthening of nuchal feathers, and are likely to be of a
thin, pointed shape, as well shown in the kingfisher. Coronal or vertical
crests proper, are apt to be rather different in coloration than in specially
marked elongation of the feathers; they are perfectly illustrated in the king-
bird, and other species of that genus. Frontal crests are the most elegant of
all; they generally rise as a pyramid from the forehead, as excellently shown
in the blue jay, cardinal bird, tufted titmouse and others. All the foregoing
crests are generally single, but sometimes double; as shown in the two lat-
eral occipital tufts of the “horned” lark, in all the tufted or “horned”
owls, and in a few cormorants. Lateral crests are, of course, always double,
one on each side of the head; they are of various shapes, but need not be
particularized here, especially since they mostly belong to the second class
of crests —those consisting of texturally modified feathers. It is a general
—though not exclusive — character of these last, that they are temporary ;
while the other kind is only changed with the general moult, these are as-
sumed for a short season only —the breeding season; and furthermore, they
are often distinctive of sex. Occurring on the top of the head they furnish
the most remarkable ornaments of birds. I need only instance the elegant
helmet-like plumes of the partridges of the genus Lophortyx (186); the
graceful flowing train of the Oreortyx (gen. 185); the somewhat similar
plumes of the night and other herons. The majority of the cormorants, and
many of the auks, possess lateral plumes of similar description; these, and
those of the herons are probably —in most cases certainly — deciduous ; while
those of the partridges above mentioned last as long as the general plumage.
These lateral plumes, in many birds, especially among grebes, are associated
with, and, in fact, coalesce with, the ruffs, which are singular lengthening
and modifying in different ways of feathers of auriculars, gene and gula; and
are.almost alwa¥s temporary. Beards, or special lengthening of the mental
feathers alone, are comparatively rare; we have no good example among
our birds, but a European vulture, Gypaétos barbatus, is one. The feathers
sometimes become scaly (squamous) forming, for instance, the exquisite
gorglets or frontlets of humming-birds. They are often bristly (setaceous) ,
as about the lores of nearly all hawks, the forehead of the dabchick, meadow-
lark, ete. While usually all the unlengthened head feathers point backward,
they are sometimes erect, forming a velvety pile, or they may radiate in a cir-
cle from a given point, as from the eye in most owls, where they form a disk.

In the foregoing, I only mention a few types, chiefly needed to be known
in the study of our birds; but should add that there are many others, with
endless modifications, among exotic birds; to these, however, I cannot even
allude by name. Peculiarities of nasal feathers, and others around the base
of the bill, are noticed below. Forms of crests are illustrated in figs. 21,
22, 23, 24, 32, 56, 95, 96, 107, 109, 114, 117, 125, 127, 135, 136, 152,
1538, 154, 177, 191, 202.

b fr
$ é
“~~. — a ee ee

(chiefly) a bone called the intermazxillary, or better,

OF THE BILL. 23

Sub-sect. 2. Of the Members; their parts and organs.

ihe Mesos a sinage

§ 42. Tuer Birt is hand and mouth in one: the instrument of prehension.
As hand, it takes, holds and carries food or other substances, and in many
instances, feels; as mouth, it tears, cuts, or crushes, according to the nature
of the substances taken; assuming the functions of both lips and teeth,
neither of which birds possess. An organ thus essential to the prime funce-
tions of birds, one directly related to their various modes of life is of the
utmost consequence in a taxonomic point of view; yet, its structural modi-
fications are so various and so variously interrelated, that it is more impor-
tant in framing families and genera than orders; more constant characters
must be employed for the higher groups. The general

§ 43. Suapn of the bill is referable to the cone; it is the anterior part of
the general cone that we have seen to reach from its point to the base of the
skull. This shape confers the greatest strength combined with the greatest
delicacy ; the end is fine to apprehend the smallest objects, while the base is
stout to manipulate the largest. But in no bird is the cone expressed with
entire precision; and in most, the departure from this figure is great. The
bill aLways consists of two, the upper and the lower

§ 44. Manprpezes (fig. 5), which lie, as their names indicate, above and
below, and are separated by a horizontal fissure —the mouth. Each mandi-
ble aLways consists of certain projecting skull-bones,
sheathed with more or less horny integument in lieu of
true skin. The frame-work of the Upper mandible is

abcde f £

in this case, the premawillary. In general, this is a
three-pronged or tripodal bone running to a point in

front, with one, the uppermost prong, or foot, im- ;
1 k j i
planted upon the forehead, and the other two, lower "Pig. 5. eae ee

and horizontal, running into the sides of the front of a,siae orupper mandible; 6, cul-
en; c, nasal fossa; d, nostril; e,

A . ™m
the skull. The scaffold of the Under mandible is a (Gee beiow); 7 gape, or'whole com>

missural line; g, rictus; h, commis-

compound bone called inferior maxillary; it is U-, or sural pointor angle oF tne ont

i, pais of under jaw; j, tomia of
: . . . andi t reference
V-shaped, with the point or convexity in front, and tines’ should have been drawn to

indicate the corresponding tomia

the prongs running to either side of the base of the of upper mandible); t, angle of
gonys; /, gonys; m, side of under

skull behind, to be there movably hinged. These two Mules” HPs of mandibles.
bones, with certain accessory bones of the upper mandible, as the palate
es, etc., together with the horny investment, constitute the 7s. p
bones, etc., togeth th the | t ie titute the Jaws. Both
jaws, in birds, are movable; the under, by the joint just mentioned; the
upper, either by a joint at, or by the elasticity of the bones of, the forehead ;
it is moved by a singular muscular and bony apparatus in the palate,
further notice of which would involve anatomical details. When closed,
the jaws meet and fit along their opposed- edges or surfaces, in the same
manner, and for the same purposes, as the lips and teeth of man or other

ee, a ae inn.
%
|
F
.

24. DIFFERENT KINDS OF BILLS.

vertebrate animals. All bills, thus similarly constituted, have been
divided * into

§ 45. Four Cuassms, representing as many ways in which the two man-
dibles close upon each other at the end. 1. The epignathous (Gr. epi, upon,
gnathos, jaw) way, plan, or type, in which the upper mandible is longer
than the under, and its tip is evidently bent down over the tip of the lower.
2. The hypognathous (Gr. hypo, under), in which the lower mandible is
longer than the other. 3. The paragnathous (Gr. para, at or by), in which
both are of about equal length, and neither is evidently bent over the other.
4. The metagnathous (Gr. meta, with, beside, etc.), in which the points of
the mandibles cross each other. The second and fourth of these are ex-
tremely rare; they are exemplified, respectively, by the skimmer and the
cross-bill (genera 295 and 60). The first is common, occurring through-
out the birds of prey, the parrots, and among the petrels, gulls, etc., etc.
The great majority of birds exhibit the third; and among them, there is
such evident gradation into epignathism, that it is necessary to restrict the
latter to its complete development, exhibited in the intermaxillary bone di-
vested of its horny sheath, which often, as among flycatchers, etc., forms a
little overhanging point, but does not constitute epignathism. These classes,
it should be added, though always applicable, and very convenient in de-
scriptions, are purely arbitrary, that is, they by no means correspond to
any four primary groups of birds, but on the contrary, usually only mark
families and the subdivisions of families; and the four types may be seen
in contiguous genera. The general shape of the bill has also furnished

§ 46. Orner Crasses, for many years used as a large basis for ornitho-
logical classification ; but which the progress of the science has shown to be
merely as convenient as, and only less arbitrary than, the foregoing. The
principal of these are represented by the following types :— A, among land
birds. 1. The jisstrostral, or cleft, in which the bill is small, shoré, and
with a very large gap running down the side of the head, as in the swallow,
chimney-swift, whippoorwill. 2. The éenucrostral, or slender, in which the
bill is small, Jong, and with a short cleft; as in the humming-bird, creeper,
nuthatch. 38. The dentirostral, or toothed, in which, with a various gen-
eral shape, there is present a nick, tooth, or evident lobe in the opposed
edges of one or both mandibles near the end; as in the shrike, vireo, and
some wrens, thrushes and warblers. 4. The conirostral, or conical, suffi-
ciently defined by its name, and illustrated by the great finch family and
some allied ones. B, among water birds. 5. The longirostral, or long, an
aquatic style of the tenuirostral, best exhibited in the great snipe family. 6.
The pressirostral, or the compact, illustrated by the plovers, etc., and quite
likely analogous to the conirostral. 7. The culétrirostral, cutting, perhaps
analogous to the dentirostral, exemplified in the heron group. None of

these are now used to express natural groups, in strict definitions; all are.

* By the writer: Proc. Acad. Nat, Sci. Phila., Dec. 1869, p. 213.

VARIOUS FORMS OF BILLS. 25

convenieut incidental terms in general descriptions. Various other lesser
terms, expressing special modifications, as lamellirostral, acutirostral, etc.,
are employed; but all are best used, now, as common, not as proper names,
simply descriptive of

§ 47. Orser Forms. A bill is called Jong, when notably longer than the
head proper; shoré, when notably shorter; medium, in neither of these con-
ditions. It is compressed, when higher than wide, at the base at least, and
generally for some portion of its length; depressed, when wider than high ;
terete, under neither of these conditions. It is recurved, when curved up-
ward; decurved, when curved downward; bent, when the variation in either
direction is at an angle ; straight, when not out of line with axis of the head.
A bill is obtuse (said chiefly of the paragnathous sort) when it rapidly
comes to an end that therefore is not fine; or when the end is knobby; it is
acute when it runs to a sharp point; acwminate, when equally sharp and slen-
derer; attenuate, when still slenderer; subulate (awl-shaped), when slen-
derer still; acicular (needle-shaped), when slenderest possible, as in some
humming-birds. <A bill is arched, vaulted, turgid, tuwmid, inflated, etc.,
when its outlines, both crosswise and lengthwise, are notably more or less
convex; and contracted, when some, or the principal, outlines are concave
(said chiefly of depressions about the base of the upper mandible, or of con-
eavity along the sides of both mandibles). A bill is hamulate (hooked) or
unguiculate (clawed), when strongly epignathous, as in rapacious birds,
3 where the upper mandible is like the talon of a carnivorous beast; it is den-
tate, when toothed (§ 46), as in a falcon; if there are a number of sim-
ilar “teeth,” it is serrate (like a saw); it is cultrate (knife-like) when ex-
tremely compressed and sharp-edged, as in the auk, skimmer; if much
‘curved as well as cultrate, it is fulcate (scythe-shaped) ; and each mandible
3 may be oppositely faleate, as in the cross-bill. A bill much flattened and
} widened at the end (rare) is spatulate; examples: spoonbill, shoveller duck.
One is called lamellate, when it has a series of plates or processes just inside
the edges of the mandibles; as in all the duck order, and in a few petrels ;
the design is to furnish a sifter or strainer of water, just what is effected in the
whale, by the “bone” in its mouth. Finally, the far end of the bill, of what-
ever shape, is called the éép or apex (fig. 5, n); the near end, joined to the
rest of the skull, the dase; the rest is the continuity. Some other features

of the bill as a whole are best treated under separate head of
§ 48. THE COVERING OF THE BILL. (a.) In the great majority of birds,
including nearly all perchers, many walkers and some swimmers, the sheath-
ing of the mandibles is wholly hard, horny or corneous; it is integument
modified much as in the case of the nails or claws of beasts. In nearly all
waders and most swimmers, the sheath becomes, wholly or partly, softer, and
is of a dense, leathery texture. But some swimmers, as among the auks,
furnish bills as hard-covered as any, while some perchers have it partly quite
soft, so that no unexceptional rule can be laid down; and, moreover,
the gradations from one extreme to the other are insensible. Probably,

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 4

ee Pee ee ee

+
>

+e

Oe Pea

e Bel: “tude
cn ~~.

.

linia

26 COVERING OF THE BILL.

the softest bill is found among the snipes, where it is skinny throughout,
and in typical snipes vascular and nervous at the tip, becoming a true organ
of touch, used to feel for worms out of sight in the mud. In all the duck
order, the bill is likewise soft; but there it is always terminated by a hard,
horny “nail,” more or less distinct; and such horny claw also occurs in other
water birds with softish bills, as the pelican. An interesting modification
occurs in all, or nearly all, of the pigeon order; these birds have the bill
hard or hardish at tip and through most of continuity, but towards and at the
base of the upper mandible the sheath changes to a soft, tumid, skinny
texture, overarching the nostrils; if is much the same with most plovers.
But the most important feature in this connection is ‘afforded by the parrots
and all the birds of prey; one so remarkable that it has received a distinct
name:—Crrr. The cere (L. cera, wax; because it looks waxy) is a
dense membrane saddled on the upper mandible at base, so different from the
rest of the bill, that it might be questioned rather it does not more properly
belong to the head than to the bill, were it not for the fact that the nostrils
open in it. Moreover, the cere is often densely feathered, as in the Carolina
parroquet, in the bill proper of which no nostrils are seen, these being
hidden in the feathered cere, which, therefore, might be easily mistaken, at
first sight, for the bird’s forehead. <A sort of false cere occurs in some
water birds, as the jaegers, or skua-gulls (genera 280 and 279). The
tumid nasal skin of pigeons is sometimes so called; but the term had better
be restricted to the birds first above named. The under mandible probably
never presents softening except as a part of general skinniness of the bill.

(6.) The covering is either entire or pieced. In most birds it is entire ;
that is, the sheath of either mandible may be pulled off whole, like the
finger of a glove. It is, however, in many birds divided into parts, by
various lines of slight connection, and-then comes off in pieces; as is the
case with some water birds, particularly petrels, where the divisions are
regular, and the pieces have received distinctive names. ‘The entire cover-
ing of both jaws together, is called rhamphotheca; of the upper alone, rhin-
otheca; of the under, gnathotheca.

(c.) The covering is otherwise variously marked; sometimes so strongly,
that similar features are impressed upon the bones themselves beneath.
The most frequent marks are various ridges (i. pl. carine, keels) of all
lengths and degrees of expression, straight or curved, vertical, oblique, hor-
izontal, lengthwise or transverse; a bill so marked is said to be striate or
carinate; when numerous and irregular, they are called ruge (L. ruga, a
wrinkle) and the bill is said to be corrugated or rugose. When the eleva-
tions are in points or spots instead of lines, they are called puncte; a bill
so furnished is punctate, but the last word is oftener employed to designate
the presence of little pits or depressions, as in the dried bill of a snipe,
towards the end. Larger, softish, irregular knobs or elevations pass under
the general name of warts or papille, and the bill so marked is papillose ;
when the processes are very large and soft, the bill is said to be carunculate

SPECIAL PARTS OF THE UNDER MANDIBLE. 27

(L. caro, flesh, diminutive carunculus, little bit- of flesh). Various linear
depressions, often but not always associated with carina, are grooves or sulct
(L. sulcus, a furrow) and the bill is then swleate. Sulci, like carine, are of
all shapes, sizes and positions; when very large and definite, they are some-
times called canalicul7, or channels. The various knobs, “horns,” and large
special features of the bill cannot be here particularized. Any of the fore-
going features may occur on both mandibles, and they are exclusive of that
special mark of the upper, in which the nostrils open, and which is consid-
ered below (§ 51). We have still to notice the special parts of either
mandible ; and will begin with the simplest, the

§ 49. Unprr Manpisxe. In the majority of birds it is a little shorter
and a little narrower and not nearly so deep as the upper; but sometimes
quite as large, or even larger. The upper edge, double (7. e. there is an
edge on both sides), is called the mandibular tomium (Gr. temnein, to cut ;
fig. 5, 7), as far as it is hard; this is received against, and usually a little
within, the corresponding edge of the upper mandible. The prongs already
mentioned (§ 44) are the mandibular rami (pl. of L. ramus, a branch; fig.
5, 7); these meet at some point in front, cither at a short angle (like >) or
with a rounded joining (like) ). At their point of union there is a promi-
nence, more or less marked (fig. 5, /); this is the Gonys (corrupted from
the Gr. gonu, a knee ; hence, any similar protuberance). That is to say, this
point is gonys proper; but the term is extended to apply to the whole line of
union of the rami, from gonys proper to the tip of the under mandible; and
in descriptions it means, then, the under outline of the bill for a corres-
ponding distance (fig. 5, 7). This important term must be constantly held
inmind. The gonys is to the under mandible what the keel is to a boat.
It varies greatly in length. Ordinarily, it forms, say, one-half to three-
fourths of the under outline. Sometimes, as in conirostral birds, a sparrow
for example, it represents nearly all this outline; while in a few birds it
makes the whole, and in some, as the puftin, is actually longer than the lower
mandible proper, because it extends backwards in a point. Other birds
have almost no gonys at all: as a pelican, where the rami only meet at the
extreme tip, or in the whole duck family, where there is hardly more.
As the student must see, the length of the gonys is simply a matter
of the early or late fusion of the rami, and that similarly, their mode
of fusion, as in a sharp ridge, a flat surface, a straight line, a curve,
etc., results in corresponding modifications of its special shape. The
interramal space (§ 41, c) is complementary to length of gonys: some-
times it runs to the tip of the bill, as in a pelican, sometimes there is next
to none, as in a puffin; while its width depends upon the degree of diver-
gence, and the straightness or curvature of the rami. The surface between
the tomium and the lower edge of rami and gonys together is the s¢de of the
under mandible (fig. 5, m). The most important feature of the

§ 50. Urprr Manprsue is the culmen (Lat. for top of anything; fig. 5,
6). The culmen is to the upper mandible what the ridge is to the roof of a

28 SPECIAL PARTS OF THE UPPER MANDIBLE.

house ; it is the upper profile of the bill—the highest middle lengthwise line
of the bill; it begins where the feathers end on the forehead, and extends
to the tip of the upper mandible. According to the shape of the bill it may
be straight or convex, or concave, or even somewhat m-shaped ; or double-
convex, as in the tufted puffin: but in the vast majority of cases it is con-
vex, with increasing convexity towards the tip. Sometimes it rises up into
a thin elevated crest, as well shown in Crotophaga (gen. 126) and in the
puffins, when the upper mandible is said to be heeled, and the culmen it-
self to be cultrate; sometimes it is really a furrow instead of a ridge, as
toward the end of a snipe’s bill; but generally it is simply the uppermost
line of union of the gently convex and sloping sides of the upper mandible
(fig. 5, a). Ina great many birds, especially those with depressed bill, as
all the ducks, there is really no culmen; but then the median lengthwise line
of the surface of the upper mandible, takes the place and name of culmen.
The culmen generally stops short about opposite the proper base of the bill;
then the feathers sweep across its end, and downwards across the base of the
sides of the upper mandible, usually also obliquely backwards. Variations
in both directions from this standard are frequent; the feathers may run out
in a point on the culmen, shortening the latter, or the culmen may run
a way up the forehead parting the feathers; thus either in a point, as in the
rails and gallinaceous birds, or as a broad plate of horn, as in the coots
and gallinules. The lower edge (double) of the upper mandible is the
maxillary tomium, as far backward as it is hard and horny. ‘The most con-
spicuous feature of the upper mandible in most birds is the

§ 51. Nasa Fossa (L. fossa, a ditch), or nasal groove (fig. 5, ¢), in
which the nostrils open. The upper prong of the intermaxillary bone (§ 44)
is usually separated some ways from the two lateral ones; the skinny or
horny sheath that stretches betwixt them is usually sunken below the general
level of the bill, especially in those birds where the prongs are long or widely
separated ; this “ditch” is what we are about. It is called fossa when short
and wide, with varying depth; su/cws or groove when long and narrow ; the
former is well illustrated in the gallinaceous birds; the Jatter in nearly
all wading birds and many swimmers. When the prongs are soldered
throughout, or are very short and close together, there is no (or no evident)
nasal depression, and the nostrils open flush with the level of the bill. The

§ 52. Nosrrits (fig. 5, d) vary in position as follows :— they are lateral
when on the sides of the upper mandible (almost always) ; culminal when
together on the ridge (rare) ; superior or inferior when evidently above or
below midway betwixt culmen and tomia; they are basal, when at the base
of the upper mandible ; sub-basal when near it (usual) ; median when at or
near the middle of the upper mandible (frequent, as in cranes, geese, etc.) ;
terminal when beyond this (very rare; and probably there are now no birds
with nostrils at the end of the bill, except the Apteryx). The nostrils are
pervious, when open, as in nearly all birds; dmpervious, when not visibly
open, as among cormorants and other birds of the same order; they are

4

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THE NOSTRILS AND NASAL FOSSA4—THE GAPE. 29

perforate when there is no septum (partition) between them, so that you can
see through them from one side of the bill to the other, as in the turkey-
buzzard, crane, etc. ; imperforate when partitioned off from each other, as
in most birds; but different ornithologists use these terms interchangeably.
The principal shapes of the nostrils may be thus exhibited : —a line, linear
nostrils ; a line variously enlarged at either end, clavate, club-shaped, ob-
long, ovate nostrils; a line, enlarged in the middle, oval or elliptic, nostrils ;
this passing insensibly into the circle, round or circular nostrils; and the
various kinds of more or less linear nostrils may be either longitudinal, as
in most birds, or oblique, as in a few; almost never directly transverse
(up and down). Rounded nostrils may have a raised border or rim; when
this is prolonged they are called tubular, as in some of the goatsucker
family, and in all the petrels. Usually, the nostrils are formed entirely by
the substance surrounding them, thus, of cere, in a hawk, of softish skin,
in a pigeon, plover or snipe, or of horn, in most birds; but often their
contour is partly formed by a special development somewhat distinct cither
in form or texture, and this is called the nasal scale. Generally, it forms
a sort of overhanging arch or portico, as well shown in all the gallinaceous
birds, among the wrens, ete. A very curious case of this is seen in the
European wryneck (Jinx torquilla), where the scale forms the floor instead
of the roof of the nostrils. The nostrils also vary in being feathered or
naked; the nasal fossa being a place where the frontal feathers are apt to
run out in points (called antiw) embracing the root of the culmen. This
extension may completely fill and hide the fossa, as in many grouse and
ptarmigan ; but it oftener runs for a varying distance toward, or above and
beyond the nostrils; sometimes, similarly below them, as in a chimney-
swift; and the nostrils may be densely feathered when there is no evident
fossa, as in an auk. When thus truly feathered in varying degree, they are
still open to view; another condition is, their being covered over and hidden
by modified feathers. These are usually bristle-like (setaceous), and form
two tufts, close-pressed, and directed forwards, as is perfectly shown in a
crow; or the feathers may be less modified in texture, and form either two
tufts, one over each nostril, or a single rug, embracing the whole base of the
upper mandible; as in nuthatches, titmice, redpoll linnets, snow buntings
and other northern Fringillide. Bristles or feathers thus growing forwards
are called retrorse (Li. retrorsum, backward; here used in the sense of in an
opposite direction from the lay of the general plumage; but they should
properly be called antrorse, 7. e., forward). The nostrils, whether culminal
or lateral, are, like the eyes and ears, always two in number, though they
may be united in one tube, as in the petrels.

§ 53. Tue Garr. It only remains to consider what results from the re-
lations of the two mandibles to each other. When the bill is opened, there
is a cleft, or fissure between them; this is the gape or rictus (L. rictus,
mouth in the act of grinning); but, while thus really meaning the open
space between the mandibles, it is generally used to signify the line of their

30 THE WINGS—THEIR BONY FRAMEWORK.

closure. Commissure (i. committere, to put or join together) means the
point where the gape ends behind, that is, the angle of the mouth, where
the opposed edges of the mandibles join each other; but as in the last case,
it is loosely applied to the whole line of closure, from true commissure
to tip of the bill. So we say, “commissure straight,” or “commissure
curved;” also “commissural edge” of either mandible (equivalent to
“tomial edge”) in distinction from culmen or gonys. But it would be
well to have more precision in this matter. Let, then, toma (fig. 5,7) be
the true cutting edges of either mandible from tip to opposite base of bill
proper, rictus (fig. 5, 7) be their edges thence to the PomnT commissure
(fig. 5, 2) where they join when the bill is open; the LINE commissure (fig.
5, f) to include both when the bill is closed. The gape is straight, when
rictus and tomia are both straight and lie in the same line; curved, sinuate,
when they lie in the same curved or waved line; angulated, when they are
straight, or nearly so, but do not lie in the same line, and therefore meet at
an angle. (An important distinction. See under family /ringillide in the
Synopsis. )

THe WINGS.

§ 54. Deriirion. Pair of anterior or pectoral limbs organized for
flight by means of dermal outgrowths. Used for this purpose by birds in
general; but by ostriches and their allies only as outriggers to aid running ;
by penguins as fins for swimming under water; used also in the latter
capacity by some birds that fly too, as divers. Wanting in no recent birds,
but imperfect in a few. To understand their structure we must notice

§ 55. Tuerr Bony Frameworrn. (Fig. 6.) This ordinarily consists
of nine actually separate bones; but there are several more that fuse
together. The arm-bone, humerus, a single bone, reaches from shoulder to
elbow; it is succeeded by two parallel bones, wna and radius, of about
equal lengths, reaching from elbow to wrist, forming the forearm, cubit or
antibrachium. The wrist (carpus) has two little knobby carpal bones, called
scapholunar and cuneiform; very early in life there is another, the mag-
num, that soon fuses with the hand-bone, or metacarpal. At first, this last
is of three bones, corresponding to those of our hand that support our fore,
middle and ring finger respectively ; afterwards they all run together. The
one corresponding to the middle finger is much the largest of the three, and
it supports two finger-bones (phalanges) placed end to end, just as our
‘three similar finger-bones are placed one after the other at the end of their
own hand-bone. The forefinger hand-bone sticks out a little from the side
of the principal one, and bears on its end one finger-bone (sometimes two),
which is commonly, but wrongly, called the bird’s “thumb.” For although
on the extreme border of the hand, it is homological with the forefinger ;
birds have no thumb (exe. Archewopteryx, Struthio, Rhea); and no little
finger. The third hand-bone is joined to the second, and bears no finger-
bone.

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STRUCTURE OF THE WING. 31

§ 56. Tae Mecuanism of these bones is admirable. The shoulder-
joint is loose, much like ours, and allows the humerus to swing all about,
though chiefly up and down. The elbow-joint is tight, permitting only
bending and unbending in a horizontal line. The finger bones have scarcely
any motion. But it is in the wrist that the singular mechanism exists. In
the first place, the two forearm bones are fixed with relation to each other
so that they cannot roll over each other, like ours. Stretch your arm out
on the table; without moving the elbow, you can turn the hand over so that
either its palm or its back lies flat on the table. It is a motion (rotation)
of the bones of the forearm, resulting in what is called pronation and su-
pination. This is absent from the bird’s arm, necessarily ; for if the hand
could thus roll over, the air striking the pinion-feathers, when the bird is
flying, would throw them up, and render flight difficult or impossible.
Next, the hinging of the hand upon the wrist is such, that the hand does not
move up and down, like ours, in a plane perpendicular to the plane of the
elbow-bend, but back and forwards, in a plane horizontal to the elbow;
it is as if we could bring our little finger and its side of the hand around to
touch the corresponding border of the forearm. Thus, evidently, extension
of the hand upon the wrist-joint increases and completes the unfolding
of the wing that commenced by straightening out the forearm at the elbow.
There is another essential feature in a bird’s wing. In the figure, 6, aBc
represents a deep angle formed by the bones, but none such is seen upon
the outside of the wing. This is because this triangular space is filled up
by a fold of skin stretched over a cord that passes straight from near 4 to c.
But a and c approach or recede as the wing is folded or unfolded, and a
simple cord long enough to reach the full distance a—c would be slack in
the folded wing; so the cord is made elastic, like an india rubber band ; it
stretches when the wing is unfolded, and contracts when the wing is shut;
it is thus always hauled taut. The cord makes the always straightish and
smooth anterior border of the wing. The carpus c, or the always promi-
nent point of the anterior border, is a highly important landmark in de-
scriptions, and should be thoroughly understood ; it is also called the “bend
of the wing.” (See under Directions for Measurement; see also explana-
tion of fig. 6.)

Fic. 6, taken from a young chicken (right wing, upper surface), shows the composition
and mechanism of a bird’s wing, A, shoulder; B, elbow; C, wrist or carpus; D, tip of prin-

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32 MECHANISM OF THE WING.

cipal (the third) finger; 4B, arm; BC, forearm; CD, pinion, or hand, composed of c, carpus,
thence to E, metacarpus or hand proper, except the bone 7, this, and Ep, being digits or fin-
gers. a, shaft of humerus; }, ulna; c, radius; d, scapholunar bone; e, cuneiform bone;
these last two composing wrist or carpus proper. Now the figure (1) marks two lines
that run to the two ends of the humerus, designating a sort of cap on either end of that bone;
this cap is an EprpHystIs;* both ends of ulna and radius show similar epiphyses, connected
in the figure, as in case of the humerus, with the shaft by waved lines. Then, of the meta-
carpus, g and f are the epiphyses of, respectively, the two principal metacarpal bones /:;, the
third, and 7, the fourth; & and 7 have not yet coalesced together, but lie simply opposed to
each other, whereas their epiphyses themselves, gy and jf, are seen nearly fused together.
h, which seems to be the epiphysis of 7, is not; it is a metacarpal itself (the second),
bearing the digit, i; it is nearly soldered with g, in which its epiphysis is already ab-
sorbed. Later in life, % sends a plate-like process towards 7; 7 and k grow together; h
grows into & and g; f and g grow into /k, with the compound result fyhik, forming a single
bone, THE METACARPAL, bearing the ‘‘thumb” phalanx 7 and the two finger phalanges m, n,
all three of which remain permanently separate. (Observe, that % is called the Tump meta-
carpal, because it represents that bone in the hand of man and beasts; that in actual
position it is second, h being first and 7 third; that ordinary birds have no first and no fifth
metacarpals; and that the bone 7, though called ‘“‘thumb,” corresponds to the first joint of
our forefinger.) d/, first finger, or thumb, the seat of the bastard wing-feathers (alula, § 58) ;
d'', actually the second finger, but morphologically the third finger, composed of two movable
bones m,n. a@!, seat of primaries (upon whole pinion); 5’, seat of secondaries (upon fore-
arm); c’, seat of tertiaries (about and above elbow); a!’, seat of scapularies (upon pteryla
humeralis). This wing is shown half-spread; in closing or folding, c approaches a, and
D approaches B; all nearly in the plane of the paper; and in unfolding, the elbow-joint
B is such a perfect hinge that c cannot sink down below the level of the paper, and c is
similarly so hinged that p cannot fly up from the same level, as the air, pressing upon
the quill feathers a! and b/, would tend to make it do. Observe also; 6 and ¢ are two
rods connecting B and c, and the construction of their jointing at B and c, and of their
jointings with each other at their ends, is such, that they can slide along each other a little
way. Now when the point c, revolving about B, approaches a in the arc of a circle, the
rod ¢ pushes on towards d, f, g, etc., while the rod b pulls back e, 1, etc.; so that the point
D is brought nearer B. Conversely, in opening the wing, when c recedes from 4, ¢ pulls
back, and 6 pushes on, effecting recedence of p from B. So the angle aBc cannot be in-
creased or diminished without similarly increasing or diminishing the angle scp. In other
words, you cannot open or shut one part of the wing, without opening or shutting the other;
it is like killing two birds with one stone, this wonderful bony mechanism for economizing
muscular power.t

We are now ready to examine the

§ 57. Winc-Fratuers. These all grow upon the pteryla alaris (§ 9, 0,
and Pl. 1, fig. 4,5). They are of two main sorts; the remiges (i. remex, a
rower) or long quills collectively, and the coverts, ¢ectrices (Li. tectrix,
arbitrary feminine corruption of ¢ector, a coverer) ; to which may be added
as a third distinct group the bastard quills (alula, or ala spuria). The

§ 58. Anuna (L. diminutive of ala, a wing, Pl. 1, fig. 1, al), or little
wing, is simply the bunch of feathers that grow upon the “thumb.” Highly

*Epiphysis (Gr. epi, upon, phusis, growth). Young bones are wholly cartilaginous, or gristly; they harden
at length by deposition in the cartilage of bone-earth. This deposit begins at certain points called ossijic cen-
tres. Nowin what are called “long” bones, that is, bones like a humerus, etc., there may be one such centre
for the shaft and one upon each end of the bone. The shaft ossifies first; the ends later; and before the bone
has completed its growth these ends remain distinct from the shaft with which they afterwards solder. These
cartilaginous or gristly caps on the ends are called epiphyses.

+See BERGMANN, Arch. f. Anat., 1839, 296; COUES, Amer. Nat. vy, 1870, 513.

_e

WING-COVERTS AND REMIGES. 33

important as it is in a morphological point of view, it is taken into little
account in practical ornithology, unless when largely modified in form, con-
spicuous in color, or bearing special organs, as claws, spurs, etc. It
strengthens, and defends, and adds to the symmetry of the anterior outer
border of the wing. (The student must carefully distinguish the use of
the word spurious in this connection from its application to a certain state
of the first primary — see § 62.)

§ 59. Tae Winc-coverts are conveniently divided into the wpper (tec-

‘trices superiores) and under (tect. inferiores); they include all the small

feathers that clothe the wings, extending a varying distance along the bases
of the remiges (§60). The ordinary disposition and division of the upper
coverts is as follows :— There is one set, rather long and stiffish, close-pressed
over the bases of the outer nine or ten remiges, covering these, in general,
about as far as their structure is plumulaceous. These spring from the hand
or pinion (§ 55) and are the upper primary coverts (PI. 1. fig. 1, pe) : they
are ordinarily the least conspicuous of any. All the rest of the upper coverts
are SECONDARY, and spring mostly from the forearm; they are considered in
three groups, or rows. The greater coverts (Pl. 1, fig. 1, gsc) are the first,
outermost, longest row, covering the bases of most of the remiges except
the first nine or ten; the median coverts (Pl. 1, fig. 1, msc), are a next
row, shorter, but still almost always forming a conspicuous series. All the
rest of the secondary coverts pass under the general name of lesser coverts
(Pl. 1, fig. 1, dc). The greater coverts have furnished a very important z06-
logical character: for in all Passeres they are not more than half as long as
the remiges they cover, while the reverse is believed to be the case in nearly
all other birds. The under coverts have the same general disposition as the
upper: but they are all like each other, have less distinction into rows or
series, and for practical purposes generally pass under the common name of
under wing-coverts; and since, when the wing is strikingly colored under-
neath, it is these feathers, and not the remiges, that are highly or variously
tinted, the expression “ wing below,” or “under surface of the wing” gener-
ally refers to them more particularly. We should distinguish, however,
from the under wing-coverts in general, the awillary feathers, or axillars (i.
axilla, arm-pit). These are the innermost of the under wing-coverts ; al-
most always longer, stiffer, and otherwise distinguishable from the rest; in
ducks, for example, and many waders, they take on remarkable development.

§ 60. (a.) THe Remices (PI. 1, fig. 1, 6, s, and ¢) mainly give the size,
shape, and general character to the wing, and are its most important fea-
tures; they represent the whole of its posterior outline, most of its surface,
and most of its outer and inner borders. Taken collectively, they form a
flattened surface for striking the air; this surface may be quite flat, as in
birds with long pointed wings that cut the air like oar-blades; generally it
is a little concave underneath, and correspondingly convex above; this con-
cavo-convexity varying insensibly within certain limits. It is usually great-
est in birds with a short rounded wing, as in the gallinaceous order. Two

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 5

34 NUMBER AND SHAPE OF REMIGES.

extremes of the mode of flight result. The short, round wing confers a
heavy, powerful, cutting flight, for short distances, with a whirring noise,
produced by quick vibrations of the wing: birds that fly thus are almost
always thickset and heavy. The long, pointed wing gives a light, airy,
skimming flight, indefinitely prolonged, with little or no noise, as the wing
beats are more deliberate: birds of this style of wing are generally trim
and elegant. These, of course, are merely generalizations, mixed and ob-
scured in every degree in actual bird-life. Thus the humming-bird, with
long pointed wings, whirs them fastest of all birds; so fast that the eye can-
not follow the strokes, and merely perceives a mist on each side of the bird.
The combination of a pointed with a somewhat concave shape of wing is a
remarkably strong one; it results in a rapid, vigorous, whistling flight, as in
a pigeon or duck. An ample wing, as it is called, that is, one long as well
as broad, without being pointed, is seen in the herons; it confers a slow and
somewhat lumbering, but still strong, flight. The longest winged birds are
found among the swimmers, as albatrosses; but here the extreme length is
largely produced by the length of the humerus ; some land birds, as swallows,
swifts, humming-birds, and other fissirostral birds, would have a still longer
wing, were not the humerus extraordinarily short. The shortest wings
(among birds with perfect remiges), occur in the lowest swimmers, as among
the auks and divers, and in the gallinaceous birds. The various special
shapes of wings are too numerous and too insensibly gradated to be men-
tioned here. The mechanics of ordinary flying’ are probably now under-
stood,* though the “way of an eagle in the air” was an enigma to the wise
man of old. But the sailing of some birds for an indefinite period through
the air, up as well as down, without visible motion of the wings, remains a
stumbling-block ; the flight of the turkey vulture is yet unexplained, I ven-
ture to afirm.

(b.) The number of remiges ranges from sixteen, in the humming-bird,
to upwards of fifty, in the albatross. This statement is exclusive of the
penguins, in which there are no true remiges. The remiges subserve flight
in nearly all existing birds except these last, the ostriches and their allies,
and the great auk, Alca émpennis—if indeed this bird still lives.

(c.) Of the shape of remiges there is little to be said, they are, with few
exceptions, so uniform. They are the stiffest, strongest, most truly penna-
ceous (§ 4) of a bird’s feathers ; they have no evident hyporhachis (§ 3, a) ;
they are generally lanceolate, that is, taper regularly and gradually to a
rounded point. Sometimes one or both webs are incised or attenuate
towards the end, that is, they narrow abruptly ; this is also called emargina-
tion. (See fig.110.) The tips of the remiges may be squarely or obliquely
cut off, as it were, or nicked in various ways. Except in the case of a few
of the innermost remiges, their outer vexillum (§ 3, a2) is always narrower

*The student should not fail to consult, in this connection, M. Marey’s ‘Lectures on the Phenomena of
Flight,” Smithsonian Report for 1869, p. 226. (Translated from Revwe des Cours Scientifiques.)

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PRIMARIES. 35

than the inner, and its barbs stand out less from the rhachis (§3, a). Rem-
iges are divided into three classes, according to their seat; and in this is in-
volved one of the most important considerations in practical ornithology, of
which the student must make himself master. The three classes are 1, the
primaries; 2, the secondaries; 3, the tertiaries.

§ 61. Tue Primaries (PI. 1, fig. 1, 6) are those remiges which grow upon
the pinion, or hand- and finger-bones (fig. 6, cp). Whatever the total num-
ber of remiges may be, in all birds with remiges the primaries are either NINE
or TEN in number, as far as is known. ‘The albatross and the humming-bird
(§ 60, b) both have ten. All birds, probably, below the highest, the oscine
Passeres, have ten. Among Oscines, there are nine or ten indifferently ; and
just this difference of one primary more or less formas one of the most marked
distinctions between some families of that suborder. So the tenth feather in
a bird’s wing, counting from the outside, is a sort of crucial test in many
cases ; if it be first secondary, the bird is one thing; if it be last primary, the
bird is another; the necessity, therefore, of determining which it is, becomes
evident. It is, of course, always possible to settle the question by striking
at the roots of the remiges and seeing how many are seated on. the pinion ;
but this generally involves some defacing of a specimen, and ordinarily there
is an easier way of determining. Hold the wing half spread ; then, in nearly
all Oscines, the primaries come sloping down on one side, and the secondaries
similarly on the other, to form, where they meet, a reéntrant angle in the
general contour of the posterior border of the wing ; the feather that occupies
this notch is the one we are after, and unluckily is sometimes last primary,
and sometimes first secondary. But primaries are, so to speak, emphatic,
self-asserting, italicized remiges, stiff, strong, obstinate; while seconda-
ries are whispering, retiring remiges in brevier, limber, weak, and yielding.
This difference in character is almost always shown by something in their
general shape, impossible to describe, but which the student will soon learn
to detect. Let the reader examine plate 1, fig. 1, where 6 marks the 9 pri-
maries of a sparrow’s wing, and s indicates the secondaries ; he will see a dif-
ference at once. The primaries express themselves, though with constantly
diminishing force, to the last; then the secondaries immediately begin to
tell a different tale. Among North American birds, the only ones with
NINE primaries are the families Motacillidew, Alaudide, Sylvicolide, Hirun-
dinide, Fringillide, Icteride, part of the Vireonide, and the genus Am-
pelis.* The condition of the first primary, whether

§ 62. Spurious or not, is often of great help in this determination. The
first primary is said to be spurious (compare § 58) when it is very short;
saya third, or less than a third, of the length of the second primary. <A

*This really has ten; but the first is so small and so out of position that it is only theoretically accounted
as such, and would not be so considered by the student. I should add, that recent researches of Prof. Baird’s
tend to show that al/ supposed nine-primaried birds have really ten; but only an expert ornithologist could
find the additional one in question; and it need not be taken into account for present purposes. (See expla-
nation of Pl.t. fig. 1, qu.) Nitzsch says the grebes have II primaries; this may be confirmed.

36 SECONDARIES AND TERTIARIES—THE TAIL.

spurious first primary only occurs in certain ten-primaried Oscines. It is
evident, therefore, that the finding of this short primary is equivalent to
determining the presence of ten primaries; but, on the other hand, not
finding it does not prove nine primaries; the count must be made in all
cases where the first primary is more than one-third as long as the second.

§ 63. Tur Seconpartss (PI. 1, fig. 1, s) are those remiges that are seated
on the forearm (fig. 6, Bc) ; they vary in number from six upward, the pre-
cise greatest number probably not ascertained, unless it be the forty of the
albatross. They have the peculiarity of being actually attached to one-of
the bones of the forearm (u/na) which the other remiges are not. If you
examine an ulna, you will see a row of little points showing the attachment.
The secondaries present no special features necessary to describe in the pres-
ent connection. They are enormously developed in the argus pheasant.

§ 64. (a.) Tae Trrtiarres (PI. 1, fig. 1, ¢) are, properly, the remiges
that grow upon the upper arm (humerus) ; but they are not evident in most
birds, and the two or three innermost secondaries, that grow upon the very
elbow, and are commonly different from the rest, in form or color, or both,
pass under the name of tertiaries. So also some of the scapular feathers
(§ 38, and Pl. 1, fig. 1, sep), when long or otherwise conspicuous, are called
tertiaries. But there is an evident and proper distinction. Scapulars are
feathers of the pleryla humeralis (§ 9, 6); while tertiaries, whether seated
on the elbow or higher up, are the innermost remiges of the péeryla alaris
(§ 9, 6). They are oftener called “tertials,” for short, though the other
name is more correct, besides being formed in analogy with the names of
the other remiges. Tertiaries do not often afford conspicuous or important
characters; but in many birds they are very long and flowing. This is
particularly the case in most sharp-winged wading birds; and, in fact, is
mainly confined to birds with such a wing.

(b.) Occasionally, any of the wing feathers take on remarkable special
developments, and such is particularly the case with the tertials and second-
ary upper coverts ; but it would be superfluous to particularize these here.
The wing rarely produces anything but feathers ; sometimes, however, offen-
sive weapons are found, as in the horny spur-like process of the pinion of
the spur-winged thrush, Zurdus dactylopterus, the spur-winged goose
(Plectropterus), spur-winged pigeon (Didunculus), several plovers (Chet-
tusia, etc.), the jacanas (Parra), etc., and the one or two claws of the
ostriches and their allies, as well as of the extinct Archcopteryx. But we
have no illustration of these outgrowths among North American birds.

THe Tatu.

§ 65. Time was when birds flew about with long bony and fleshy tails,
with the feathers inserted in a row on either side (distichous) like the hairs
of a squirrel’s. But we have changed all that. Now the bones are few

generally about nine in number), and short, not projecting beyond the gen-

|
:
:

| aa

TAIL-COVERTS AND RECTRICES. 37

eral plumage, and the last one, called coccyx or vomer (L. vomer, a plough-
share), is large and singularly shaped, and the feathers are stuck around this
like the blades upon a lady’s fan. The whole bony and muscular apparatus
is familiar to every one as the “pope’s nose” of the Christmas turkey ; and
in descriptive ornithology the word “tail” refers solely to the feathers, all of
which grow upon the pteryla caudalis (§9, b). The tail feathers, like those
of the wings, are of two sorts; coverts (tectrices) and rectrices (L. rectrix, a
female ruler or governess; here in the sense of a steerer or rudder, because
they guide the bird’s flight) ; these correspond precisely to the wing-coverts
(§ 59) and the remiges (§ 60, a). The

§ 66. Tait-coverts are the numerous, generally rather small, in compar-
ison with rectrices, feathers that overlie and underlie the rectrices, defending
their bases, and contributing to the firmness and symmetry of the tail. An
obvious division of them is into an wpper (tect. superiores) and under (tect.
inferiores) set. Neither set is EVER wholly wanting; but sometimes one or
the other, and particularly the upper, is very short, and not distinguishable
from the general plumage of noteeum (§ 38), as in the ruddy duck (genus
270). The upper coverts are the most variable in size, shape and texture.
While usually shorter than the under, and reaching only from a fourth to a
half of the length of the rectrices, sometimes they take an extraordinary
development, project far beyond the rectrices, and form the bird’s chiefest
ornament. The gorgeous argus-eyed train of the peacock is upper tail
coverts, not rectrices; the elegant plumes of the paradise trogon (Pharo-
macrus mocinno), several times longer than the bird itself, are likewise
coverts. The under tail ccverts are more uniform in development, and
very rarely, as in some of the storks, become plumes of any considerable
pretensions. Ordinarily, they are about half as long as the tail, but fre-
quently reach its whole length, and form a dense tuft, as in the ducks. I do
not now recall an instance of their projecting noticeably beyond the tail.
It is to this bundle of under tail-coverts that the word crissum (§ 39) prop-
erly applies. The

§ 67. Recrrices or true tail feathers can almost never be confounded
with the coverts : they are, like the remiges, stiff, well-pronounced feathers,
pennaceous to the very base of the vexilla, wanting after-shafts (at least
evident after-shafts, in the great majority of cases), and have one vexillum
wider than the other, except, sometimes, the central pair. They are always
in pairs: that is, there is the same number on each side of the middle line of
the tail, and their number, consequently, is always an even one. The ex-
ceptions to this rule are so few (and then only among birds with the higher
numbers of tail feathers) that they are probably to be regarded as simple
anomalies, from accidental arrest of a feather. They are imbricated over
each other in this way :—The central pair are highest, and lie with both their
webs over the next feather on either side (the inner web of either of these
middle two underlying or overlying the inner web of the other); and they
all thus successively overlie each other, so that they would form a pyramid

i

38 SHAPE AND NUMBER OF RECTRICES.

were they thick, not flat. This disposition is perceived at once in the accom-
panying diagram, where it will also be seen that spreading of the tail is
simply the greater divergence of a@ from 3, For
while closing the tail is bringing @ and 6 to- —
gether directly under c. The act is accom- Aes
plished by certain muscles that pull on either = ——
side at the bases of the quills collectively: a oe
they are the same that pull the whole tail to one side or the other, just as
tiller-ropes of a boat’s rudder work on that instrument. The general

§ 68. Swarr of a rectrix, is shown in Pl. 1, fig. 5. The feather is some-
what clubbed, or oblong, widening gradually and nearly regularly towards
the tip, where it is gently rounded. But the obvious departures from this
are various. A rectrix broad to the very tip, and there cut squarely off, is
truncate; one such cut diagonally off is incised, especially when, as usually
happens, the outline of the cut portion is concave. A linear rectrix is very
narrow, with parallel sides; a danceolate one is broader at the base, and
tapers regularly and gradually to a point. A noticeably pointed rectrix is
acute; when the pointing is produced by abrupt contraction towards the tip
it is called acuminate, as in woodpeckers generally. A very long, slender,
more or less linear feather is said to be filamentous, as the lateral one of a
barn-swallow or of most terns, the middle one of a tropic bird (gen. 278),
ete. When such protrude suddenly and far beyond all the rest, I call them
long-exserted, after an analogous term in botany. An unusually stiff feather
is called rigid, as in woodpeckers and other birds that use the tail as a prop
or support. When the rhachis projects beyond the vexilla, the feather is
spinose, or better, mucronate (Li. spina, a prickle, or mucro, a point; e. g.,
chimney-swift, fig. 123). The bob-o’-link (gen. 87) and sharp-tailed finch
(fig. 84) both approximate towards this condition. When the vexilla are
wavy-edged, the feather is crenulate (fine example in Plotus, gen. 276).
While the great majority of rectrices are straight, some are curved, either
outwards or inwards, in the horizontal plane; those curved in a perpen-
dicular plane are arched or vaulted—the latter particularly when the vanes
are concayo-convex in transverse section. The typical

§ 69. Numper of rectrices is Twetve. This holds in the vast majority
of birds. It is so uniform throughout the great group Oseines, that the
rare exceptions are perfectly anomalous; in the other group of Passeres
(Clamatores) it is usually twelve, but sometimes fen. Among Sérisores
there are never more than éen rectrices. In Scansores, the number varies
from eight to twelve; eight is rare, as in the genus Crotophaga (no. 126) ;
other cuckoos have ten; the woodpeckers have APPARENTLY fen, but there
are really éwelve, of which the outer pair on each side are very small, almost
rudimentary, hidden betwixt the bases of the second and third pair (see Key,
III). Birds of prey have about twelve. Pigeons (all ours at least) have
twelve or fourteen. In birds below these the number begins to increase ;
thus directly, among the grouse, we may find up to twenty, as in the great

ee eee ee eee re ae

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Be airk 1h ie Opt) aaa: +

ae

a ve

ae

ATE td

FORMS OF TAILS. 39

cock of the plains; but in a few singular types (Tinamide) of the order
Gallince, there are none, or only rudimentary ones. Among water birds the
numbers vary so that they are usually of only generic, and sometimes only
specific, importance. Those swimmers with long, well-formed tails, as
the Longipennes, and particularly the gull family, and some of the ducks,
have the fewest; here there are twelve, sometimes fourteen, rarely sixteen ;
while those with short, soft tails have the most, as sixteen, eighteen, twenty ;
and, as in the pelicans, twenty-two, or even twenty-four—the last being
about the maximum, although in one genus of penguins (Apéenodytes) there
are thirty-two or more. Swimmers again, furnish birds with no rectrices,
the whole grebe family (Podictpide:) being thus distinguished. So rectrices
run among birds from none to over thirty. The typical

§ 70. Smarr or THE Tart, as a whole, is the ran. The modifications,
however, are as many as, and greater and more varied than, those of the
wing, at the same time that they are susceptible of better definition, and
have received special names that must be learned. Taking the simplest
case, where the rectrices are all of the same length, we have what is called
the even, square or truncate tail, from which nearly all the others are simple
departures in one way or another. A square, or nearly so, tail with the
two central feathers long-exserted (§ 68) is common: we see it in all jaegers
(gen. 280), in Momotus (gen. 112) and especially in Phaéthon (gen. 278).
The most frequent departure from the even tail is by gradual successive
shortening of the rectrices from the pair next the middle to the exterior
ones; and this shortening is called gradation. Gradation is a generic term,
implying such shortening in any degree. Precisely, it should mean shorten-
ing each successive pair of rectrices by the same amount; say, each pair
being half an inch shorter than the next. But this exactness is not often
preserved. When the feathers shorten by more and more, we have the true
rounded tail, probably the commonest form among birds: thus, let the grada-
tion between the middle and next pair be just appreciable, and then increase
regularly, to half an inch between the next to the outermost and the lateral
pair. The opposite gradation, by less and less shortening, gives the wedge-
shaped or cuneate tail; it is well shown in the magpie, where, as in many
other birds, the central feathers would he called long-exserted, were all the
rest of the same length as the outer. A cuneate tail, especially with narrow
acute feathers, is also called pointed, in contradistinction to rounded, as in

_ the sprig-tailed duck (gen. 253). The generic opposite of the gradated tail

is the forked; where the lateral feathers increase in length from the central
to the outer pair. The least appreciable forking is called emargination, and
such a tail is emarginate; when it is more marked, as for instance, say an
inch of forking in a tail six inches long, the tail is truly forked. The de-
grees of forking are so various and intimately connected, that they are usu-
ally expressed by qualified terms: as, “slightly forked,” “deeply forked,”
ete. The deeper forkings are usually accompanied by a more or less fila-
mentous elongation of the outer pair of rectrices: as in the barn swallow,

40 FORMS OF TAILS—THE FEET.

some flycatchers, most of the terns, etc., etc. It would be advisable to have
a term to express such extreme condition, which I shall call forficate, when
the depth of the fork is equal to, or greater than, the length of the shortest
(middle) pair of feathers ; it occurs among our birds in the genera Milvulus
(no. 104), Sterna (291), and elsewhere. Double-forked or double-rounded
tails are not uncommon; they result from combination of both gradation
and forking, in this way : — Let the middle feathers remain constant, and
the next two or three pairs progressively increase in length, then the rest
successively decrease ; evidently, the tail is forked centrally, gradated exter-
nally: this is the double rounded form; it is shown in the genera Myiadestes
(no. 52) and Anous (294). Now with middle feathers as before, let the
next pair or two decrease in length, and the rest progressively increase to
the outermost: then we have the double-forked, a common shape among
sandpipers. In the latter case, the forking rarely amounts to more than
simple emargination, and generally is really little more than simple protru-
sion of the middle pair of rectrices in an otherwise slightly forked tail ; and
in neither case is the gradation either way often great.

Various shapes of tails, which the student will readily name from the
foregoing paragraph, are illustrated in figs. 17, 19, 29, 30, 32, 54, 57, 68,
73, 76, 84, 98, 106, 117, 120, 121, 126, 133, 135, 137, 144, 145, 147-52,
177, 206, 214. Ishould also allude to the folded tail of the barn-yard fowl
(Gallus bankivi, var.) a very familiar but rare form. One of the most
beautiful and wonderful of all the shapes of the tail is illustrated by the
male of the famous lyre-bird (Menura superba), shown in the figure at the
end of this Introduction.

It should be remembered that to determine the shape, the tail should be
viewed nearly closed ; for spreading will obviously make a square tail round,
an emarginate one square, etc. I append a diagram of the principal forms.

Fic. 7.— Diagram of shapes of tail.

Fic. 7. adc, rounded; aec, gradate; aic, cuneate-gradate; alc, cuneate; abc, double-
rounded; feg, square; fig, emarginate; fneog, double-emarginate ; kim, forked; kem, deeply
forked; kb, forficate.

Tue FEeEr.

§ 71. In ALL Brrps, the posterior extremities are organized for progres-
sion; for walking, hopping, or running on land, in all; but a few of the

;

BONES OF LEG AND FOOT. 41

lowest birds can scarcely walk; for perching on trees, etc., in the vast
majority, most of which hop about there, and many of which climb or
scramble in every imaginable way, with or without the aid of the tail; for
swimming on the water, or diving, in a great many; for grasping and hold-
ing detached objects in some, as the parrots, birds of prey, and a few
others. The modifieations of the leg and foot are more numerous, more
diverse, and more important, in their bearing upon taxonomy, than those

of either bill, wing or tail.
§ 72. (a.) THE BoNY FRAMEWORK. (Fig. 8, somewhat diagrammatic il-
e lustration, taken from a loon’s right leg.) This ordinarily consists of twenty
bones, of which fourteen are toe-bones, one is a little bone connecting the
hind toe with the rest of the foot, one’a little bone in front of the knee-
joint, and four are the principal bones from the hip-joint down to the roots
of the toes. The first is the femur or thigh-bone, a, reaching from hip a, to
knee B; a large terete bone, corresponding to the humerus of the wing.
Then come two bones, 8, the ¢ébia, or principal (and inner) leg-bone, and c,
the fibula, or lesser (and outer) leg-bone; both these joint with the femur
above, and in front of this, the knee-joint, there is in many or most birds a

AI

ea
P

ee

Fia. 8. Bones of leg and foot.

little knee-pan, or knee-cap: the patella, p. The tibia runs to the heel, c,
and there has an enlarged extremity to joint with the next bone: but the
fibula is only a slender spicula not reaching the heel, but ending in a sharp
point part way down the leg, and partly soldered with the tibia. It is only
in a few of the lowest birds, that the tibia runs up to a point above the knee-
joint, as shown in this figure: ordinarily, it ends at the knee itself. The
portion of the leg represented by the femur, or from A to B, is the THIGH ;
that represented by tibia and fibula is the Lea or crus; leg proper, there-
fore, is from knee to heel, or B to c only.
KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 6

'S

42 BONES OF LEG AND FOOT.

(b.) Now a bird’s legs are not like ours, separate from the body from the
hip downward, but are for a variable distance inclosed within the general
skin of the body. The freedom is greatest among the higher birds, and es-
pecially rapacious birds, that use the feet for grasping, and least in the low-
est swimming birds: the entire range of enclosure of the leg, is from part
way up the thigh down almost to the very point c, as in+he case of the loon
and other diving swimmers. And in no birds, is the knee, B, seen outside
the general contour of the plumage; it must be looked or felt for among the
feathers, and in most prepared skins will not be found at all. Practically,
it is a landmark of no consequence in determining genera and species,
though of the utmost importance in primary classification; the student may
for awhile ignore its existence if he chooses. The first joint that sticks out
from the plumage is the HEEL, C; and this is what, in loose popular terms,
is called “knee,” upon the same erroneous notion that the wrist of a horse’s
foreleg is called “ knee.” Just so people call a bird’s crus the “thigh,” and
disregard the thigh altogether. There is no need of this confusion; and
even without the slightest anatomical knowledge, any one can tell knee from
heel at a glance, whatever their position relative to the body; for knees
ALWAYS bend forward, and heels anways bend backward.

(c.) This point c corresponds to the point c in fig. 6 of the wing. There
we found two little carpal bones, or wrist-bones, intervening between fore-
arm and hand, or metacarpus; but adult birds have no such actual bones in-
tervening between tibia and the next bone, d, the MrraTarsus. So there is
no tarsus proper; metatarsus hinges directly upon tibia, or foot upon leg,
without true ankle-bones; that is, the foot-bone itself makes the ankle-joint,
with the leg, at the point c, heel. (Theoretically, however, there are tarsal
bones: for there is an epiphysis (§ 56*) at the lower end of the tibia, and
an epiphysis at the upper end of the metatarsal bone ; afterwards fused with
these bones respectively. One or the other, or both of these are held by
different anatomists to be tarsal bones; more particularly, the one that fuses
with the metatarsus ; which last, therefore, represents both tarsus and meta-
tarsus, and is on this account called ¢aso-metatarsus.*)

*This is as usually taught. But Gegenbaur has shown that these so-called epiphyses are true tarsal
bones. He represents, in the chick at the ninth day of embryonic life, two bones, an upper and an under, the
former afterward anchylosing with the tibia, the latter with the metatarsus, leaving the ankle-joint between
them, as in reptiles. Morse, who has studied the embryos of several species, goes still further: he shows that
the upper tarsal bone of Gegenbaur is really two bones, corresponding to the tibiale and fibulare, or astrag-
alus and calcaneum; these subsequently co-ossify to form the upper one seen by Gegenbaur, and finally
co-ossify with the tibia to form the bitrochlear condyle characteristic of this bone in Aves. The distal tarsal
ossicle he believes to be the centrale of reptiles. Wyman discovers that the so-called process of the astraga-
lus has a distinct ossification, and Morse interprets it as the intermedium. (dm. Nat. vy, 1871, 524.) In the
light of these late discoveries, the homologies of the bird’s carpus and metacarpus become clearer. We have
seen (§ 55, 56, fig. 6) that birds retain throughout life two distinct proximal carpal bones (called scapholunar
and cuneiform, but better named simply radiale and ulnare), and that in early life they have a distal bone,
that was mentioned as the magnum, but appears to be centrale, corresponding to the distal tarsal ossicle,
Just as the ulnare and radiale do to the proximal tarsal ossicles. Morse has eyen found in the carpus of
birds, two more ossicles, the homology of which remains undetermined. But what we now know, renders it
almost certain, that the so-called epiphyses upon the proximal ends of the metacarpals, are not epiphyses,
any more than the so-called tarsal epiphyses; and that the metacarpus of birds is really carpo-metacarpus,
just as the metatarsus is actually tarso-metatarsus. This view is strengthened by the fact that the metacarpal
bones of higher vertebrates, except the first, ordinarily lack epiphyses.

a
)

fel 8 Nae

eet eee ie ee ee ee ee

Aas BF

iiniinicnentamtniiniesnemnnens eevthaieetnmnnncindinniaiaas

—

MECHANISM OF THE LEG AND FOOT. 43

(d.) The principal metatarsal bone, d, representing the distance c pD, be-
tween the lower end of the leg and the roots of the toes, really consists of
three bones fused in one; these are partly distinct only in the penguins,
among recent birds ; but in all birds except ostriches, the original distinction
is indicated by three prongs or claws at the lower end of the bone: for joint-
ing with the three principal toes. The other toe, almost always the hinder
one, when it is present, is hinged on the metatarsus in an entirely different
way; by means of a separate little rudimentary bone, the accESSORY META-
TARSAL, 7, in the figure, in dotted outline. It is of various shapes and sizes,
and variable in position up and down the lower part of the metatarsus. Or-
dinarily it is too small, or too flat, to be seen from the outside of the
foot at all; it has no true jointing with the main metatarsal, but is simply
pressed flat against it, and more or less soldered, much as the lower part of
the fibula is with the tibia. It may be wanting in some birds with no hind
toe; in others, without hind toe, it still persists.

(e.) In spite of the anatomical propricties involved, this part of the leg,
from heel to bases of toes,—from c to p—represented really by the meta-
tarsal bone and its accessory, has gained a name now so firmly established,
that it would be finical to attempt to change it in ordinary descriptive writ-
ings. This is THE TARSUS; we shall soon see how important a thing it is.

(f.) The toes or digits consist of a certain number of bones placed end
to end, all jointed upon each other, and the first series upon the metatarsal
or its accessory. ach of these individual bones is called a phalanzx (pl.

' phalanges) or internode (because intervening between the joints or nodes of

the toes). The furthermost one of each toe almost invariably bears a claw.
They are of various lengths relative to each other, and of variable number
in the same or different toes; but these points, and others, are fully consid-
ered farther on. We may here glance at the

§ 73. (a.) Mecuantsm involved. The hip is a ball-and-socket joint, per-
mitting roundabout as well as fore-and-aft movements of the thigh. The
knee is usually a hinge-joint only, allowing back and forward motion of the
lee; so constructed that the forward movement is never carried beyond a
right line with the leg, while the backward is so free that the leg may be
completely doubled under the thigh. In some birds there are also rotatory
movements at the knee, very evident in certain swimmers. The ankle or
heel-joint is a strict hinge, and sometimes a wonderful one, too, taken in
connection with the action of certain muscles that move the tarsus. For in
some birds the interior structure of the joint is such that it locks the tarsus,
when straightened out upon the leg, in that position, so firmly that some
voluntary muscular effort is needed to overcome the resistance ; such birds
can sleep standing up on one leg, and this is the design of the mechanism.
The ankle permits just the opposite bendings to those of the knee; the tar-
sus cannot pass backward out of a straight line with the leg; but can come
forward until the toes nearly touch the knee. The jointing of the toes on
the metatarsal bone is peculiar; for the hinge-surfaces of the metatarsal

44 PLUMAGE OF THE LEG.

prongs have such mutual obliquity, that when the toes are brought forward,
at right angles or thereabouts with the tarsus, they spread themselves in
the action, and the open foot, with its diverging toes, are pressed on the
ground or against the water; and when the toes are bent around in the other
direction, they close together more or less parallel with each other, besides
being bent or flexed, each one at its several nodes. The mechanism is best
illustrated in the swimmers, which must present a broad surface to the water
in giving the backward stroke, and bring the foot forward closed. with only
an edge opposed to the water. It is carried to such extreme in the loon,
that the digit marked 2¢ in the figure lies below and behind 3¢, as there
shown; in most birds with the foot in much the same position relative to the
tarsus, 24 would appear above 3¢ (compare other figures of feet). It is
probably least marked in birds of prey, that clutch with all the toes spread.
The individual toe joints are all simple hinges.

(b.) In ordinary hopping, walking, perching, etc., only the toes rest upon
or grasp the support, and c is more or less perpendicularly above p. This
resting of the toes is complete for all the anterior ones; for the hind toe it
varies according to the position and length of the latter from complete
resting like the others, to mere touching of the tip, and finally to not
even this; the hind toe is then said to be functionless. But the lowest
birds cannot stand upright on their toes at all; these rest with the tarsus
horizontal, and the heel c touching the ground; moreover, in all these birds,
the tail affords additional support, making a tripod with the legs, as in the
kangaroo. These birds might be called plantigrade, in strict anatomical
analogy with the beasts so called; the others are digitigrade, quite as analo-
gously ; but there are no birds, that, like horses and cows, walk on the ends
of their toes, or toe-nails. A bird’s ordinary walking or running, corres-
ponds exactly with ours, as far as the mechanics of motion are concerned ;
but its hopping, as it is called, is really leaping, both legs being brought
forward at once. Nearly all birds down to Gallince, leap when on the
ground; all others walk or run, advancing one leg after the other. Leaping
is thus really distinctive of the ZJnsessores; though many of them, as tit-
larks, shore larks, meadow larks, many terrestrial sparrows, blackbirds,
crows, turkey buzzards, and others, including all the pigeon family, walk
instead of leaping.

§ 74. Tue Prumace of the legs varies within wide limits. In general,
the leg is feathered to the heel, and the tarsus and toes are naked. The
thigh is aways feathered. The crus is feathered in all Jnsessores (with
rare exceptions), and in all Watatores without exception; in the loon family
the feathering extends on as well as to the heel-joint. It is among the Cur-
sores, or walkers, and especially wading birds, that the crus is most naked ;
here it may be denuded half way up. A few waders—among ours, chiefly
in the snipe family —have the crus apparently clothed to the joint, but this
is in most if not all cases due to the length of the feathers, for probably no
one of them has the crural pteryla itself extended to the joint. The crural

ee a ee

PROPORTIONS AND COVERING OF THE LEG. 45

feathers are almost always short and inconspicuous; sometimes long and
flowing, as in nearly all the hawks, our tree-cuckoos, ete. The ¢arsus in the
vast majority of birds is naked of feathers; it is so in all the higher Jnses-
sores, with very few exceptions (as in the swift family, for instance), in all
waders, without exception, and in all swimmers with the single exception of
the frigate bird (Zachypetes, gen. 277), and here the feathering is not com-
plete. The Raptores and the Galline give us the most feathered tarsi. Thus
feathering is the rule, among the owls (Sérigide) ; frequent (either partial
or complete) in hawks and eagles, as the genera Aguila (161) Archibu-
teo (160) and Buteo (159). All our grouse, as distinguished from the
turkeys and partridges of the same order, have the tarsus more or less
feathered. The foes are feathered in few birds; but we have fine examples
of this, in the snowy owl, and all the ptarmigan. Partial feathering of the
tarsus is often continued further down to or on the toes by sparse modi-
fied bristly feathers; this is well illustrated in the barn owl. When incom-
plete, the feathering is usually wanting Jehind and below; being almost
invariably continuous above with the crural feathering. But, in that spirit
of delight that birds show in proving every rule we make about them by
furnishing exceptions to it, the tarsus is sometimes partly feathered without
connection with the general plumage above. A curious example is afforded
by the bank swallow, with its little tuft of feathers at the base of the hind
toe; and some varieties of the barnyard fowl sprout monstrous leggings of
feathers from the side of the tarsus.

§ 75. Tae Lenetra or tHe Lea, compared with the size of the bird, is
extremely variable. A thrush or a sparrow probably represents about an
average in this respect. The shortest-legged known bird is probably the
frigate, just mentioned; a yard long, more or less, it has a tibia not half as
long as the skull, and a tarsus under an inch. The leg is very short in the
order Strisores, as among humming-birds, swifts, goatsuckers, kingfishers,
trogons, etc.; while the swallows, of Oscines, are like swifts in this
respect. It is likewise pretty short among Scansores. The leg is also
“short” in all swimmers; the femur especially being very short, and the
tarsus likewise ; while the toes, bearing their broad webs, are longer. The
leg lengthens in lower Jnsessores, as most hawks, and especially among
some of the terrestrial pigeons. It is still longer among the walkers; and
reaches its maximum among the waders, especially the larger kinds, as fla-
mingoes, cranes, storks and herons, among all of which it is accompanied
by corresponding increase in length of the neck. Probably the longest
legged of all birds for its size is the stilt (Himantopus, 197). It is seen
from the above, that, taking the tarsus alone, as an index of the whole com-
parative length of the leg, this is in the frigate bird under one thirty-sixth
of the total length; a flamingo, four feet long, has a tarsus one foot; a stilt,
fourteen inches long, a tarsus four inches; so the maximum and minimum of
length of tarsus are represented by nearly thirty, and under three, per cent.
of the bird’s whole length.

46 CONDITIONS OF THE PODOTHECA.

§ 76. Tae Naxkep Part of the leg is covered, like the bill, by a hard-
ened, thickened, modified integument, which varies in texture between cor-
neous and leathery. This is called the poporHEca (Gr. podos, of a foot,
theke, sheath). Land birds have the most horny covering, and water birds
the most skinny ; in general this is distinctive of these two great divisions
of birds, and the exceptions are few. The perfectly horny envelope is
tight and immovably fixed, or nearly so, while the skinny is looser, and may
usually be slipped round about a little. The covering may also differ on
different parts of the same leg; in fact, such is usually the case-to a degree.
Unlike the covering of the bill, that of the legs is NEVER simple and contin-
uous throughout ; it is divided and subdivided in various ways. The lower
part of the crus, when naked, and the tarsus and toes, are variously cut up
into scales, plates, tubercles, etc.; these have all received special names ;
and moreover, the mode of this division becomes, especially among higher
birds, a matter of the utmost consequence, for purposes of classification,
since it is fixed and definite in the same groups.

§ 77. Scurenya (pl. of L. scutellum, a little shield; figs. 10, 11, 6) are
scales, generally of large comparative size, arranged in definite up and down
lines, and apt to be imbricated, or fixed shingle-wise, with the lower edge of
one overlapping the upper edge of the next below. The great majority of
birds have them. They generally occur on the front of the tarsus (which is
called acrotarsium, and corresponds to our “instep”), and almost inva-
riably on the top of the toes (called acropodium) ; frequently on the back
of the tarsus; not so often on the tibia, sides of the tarsus, sides and under
surfaces of the toes (if ever in the latter situation). A tarsus so furnished
is said to be scutellate, before or behind, or both, as the case may be;
the term is equally applicable to the acropodium, but the expression is
rarely used because the scutella are so commonly there.

§ 78. Puares, or reticulations (L. reticulum, a little net or web; fig.
11, a), result from the cutting up of the envelope by cross lines in various
ways. Plates are of various shapes and sizes; but however they may be, in
these respects, they are distinguished from scutella by not appearing imbri-
cated; their edges simply meet, but do not overlap. They are generally
smaller than scutella. The commonest shape is the six-sided, or hexagonal ;
a form best adapted to close packing, as strikingly shown, and long ago
mathematically proven, in case of the cells of bees’ honey-comb. They are
sometimes five-sided, or even four-sided; but are more likely to have more
sides, becoming irregularly polygonal, or even circular; when crowded in
one direction and loosened in another, this develops into the oval, or even
somewhat linear. A leg so furnished is called reticulate; it may be wholly
so, but is generally partly scutellate. A particular case of reticulation is
called

§ 79. GranuLation (L. granum, a grain) ; when the plates become ele-
vated into little tubercles, roughened or not. Such a leg is said to be gran-
ulated or rugose; it is well seen in the parroquet and fish hawk.

—_— Mer

CONDITIONS OF THE PODOTHECA. 47

§ 80. Wnuen the harder sorts of either scutella or plates are roughened
without obvious elevation, the leg is said to be scabrous or scarious. But
scabrous is also said of the under surfaces of the toes, when these develop
special pads, or wart-like bulbs (called tylar?) ; excellently shown in most
hawks. The softer sorts of legs, and especially the webs of swimming
birds, are often crosswise or otherwise marked by lines, without these being
strong enough to produce plates; this is a condition analogous to the little
raised lines and depressions seen on our own palms, and especially our
finger-tips. _ Occasionally, the plates of a part of the lez become so devel-
oped as to form actual serration; seen on the hinder edge of the tarsus of
grebes.

ii

\)))
MN

4

Fig. 9. “Booted” tarsus, of a robin. Fiec.10. Scutellate tarsus, Fie. 11. 6b. Seutellate tarsus, of a

of a cat-bird. pigeon; a. reticulate tarsus, of a
plover.

§ 81. Wuen an unfeathered tarsus shows on its front surface no divisions
of the podotheca, or only two or three divisions close by the toes, it is said
to be booted, and the podotheca is said to be fused. (Fig. 9.) This con-
dition chiefly occurs in higher Oscines, and is supposed by many, particu-
larly German ornithologists, to indicate the highest type of structure; but
it is also found in some water birds, as Wilson’s stormy petrel. It is not a
very common modification. Among North American birds it only occurs
in the following cases:—Genera Turdus (1), Cinclus (5), Sawicola (6),
Sialia (7), Regulus (9), Chamea? (11), Myiadestes (52) and Oceanites
(307) ; and even these birds, when young, show scutella, which disappear
with age, by progressive fusion of the acrotarsial podotheca.

§ 82. Tur Crus, when bare below, may present scutellation either before
or behind, or both, as is seen in many waders where the crus is largely
naked; often again, the crural podotheca may consist of loose, softish,
movable skin, not obviously subdivided: sometimes it is truly reticulate,
as in the genus Heteroscelus (221).

§ 83. Tur Tarsus, in general, may be called subcylindrical ; it is often
quite circular in transverse section ; very rarely thicker across than fore-and-
aft (as in penguins); but very often thicker in the reverse direction.
When this transverse thinness becomes noticeable, the tarsus is said to be

48 NUMBER AND POSITION OF TOES.

compressed: the form is seen in its highest development in the loon, where
the tarsus is almost like a knife-blade. Cylindrical tarsi occur chiefly when
there are scutella before and behind; it occurs in our shore lark (Hremo-
phila, gen. 26), but is a rare modification among land birds, though very
common among waders. The tarsus of the vast majority of land birds is
seen, on close inspection, to be sharp-ridged behind, and gently rounded in
front. This generally results from the presence, in front, of a series of
scutella, associated, on the sides and hinder edge of the tarsus, with fusion,
or with a few large plates variously arranged. The meeting of these two
kinds of envelope on the sides of the tarsus is generally in a more or less
complete straight up and down line; either a mere flush trace of union, or
a ridge, oftener a groove (well seen in the crows) that may or may not be
filled in with a few small linear plates. But further consideration of special
states of the tarsal envelope, however important and interesting, would be
part of a systematic treatise, rather than of an outline sketch like this.

§ 84. Tue Tors (individually, digiti; collectively, podium). Their nor-
mal number is Four: there are never more. The ostrich alone has only two.
There are three in all the auks (fam. Alcide) and albatrosses (subfam. Dio-
medeine) ; in all struthious birds, except the ostrich and Apteryx; and ina
large number of waders (Galle). Three toes only occur as an anomaly
among Insessores, as in the cases of the exotic genus Ceyx of kingfishers,
and the genus Picoides of woodpeckers. North American three-toed birds
are only these : —the woodpeckers just named ; auks and albatrosses ; plovers
(except one, Sqguatarola, 189); the oystercatchers (Hamatopus, 194) ; the
sanderling (Calidris, 211); the stilt (Himantopus, 197). In the vast
majority of cases, there are three toes in front, and one behind; occasionally,
either the hind one, or the outermost front one, is versatile, that is, capable of
being turned either way ; the outermost one is mostly so in the owls, the fish
hawk (gen. 153), and a few other birds. We have no case of true versatility
of the hind toe among North American birds, but several cases of its lateral
stationary position (goatsuckers, some Western swifts, loons, and all the tot-
ipalmate swimmers); nor have we any example of that rarest condition
(seen in the European swifts, Cypselus, and in the Coliide) where all four
toes are turned forward. This only occurs in the order Sérisores. The ar-
rangement of toes éwo in front, and ¢wo behind, or in pairs, characterizes the
whole order Scansores, or climbers; such birds are said to be zygodactylous
(yoke-toed ; see fig. 128). Our examples are the parrot, woodpeckers and
cuckoos, to which some add the trogons; in all these, except the last named,
it is the outer anterior toe that is reversed. In nearly every three-toed bird,
all three are anterior; our single exception is the genus Picoides (132),
where the hind toe is wanting, the outer anterior reversed to take its place,
and only two left in front. No bird has more toes behind than in front.
All birds’ toes are

§ 85. NuMBprreED, in a certain definite order, as follows (see figs. 8, 9) :—
hind toe (1t) = first toe; inner anterior toe (2t) = second toe; middle an-

- |

——<—~"

b

yy
7
+

STRUCTURE AND POSITION OF THE TOES. 49

terior toe (3t) = third toe; outer anterior toe (4t) = fourth toe. In birds.
with the hind ‘toe reversed, the same order is obvious: only, inner anterior
toe = lt, ete. In zygodactyli (except Trogonide), inner hind toe =1t;
inner front toe — 2t; outer front toe — 3t; outer hind toe = 4t. Now
when the number of toes decreases, the toes are always reduced in the
same order: thus, in all three-toed birds, 1t is wanting: in the two-toed
birds 1t and 2t are wanting. This is proven by the

§ 86. Numeer or Jorts, or number of phalanges (§ 72, f) of the toes.
The constancy of the joints in birds’ toes is remarkable, one of the strong-
est expressions we have of the highly monomorphic character of the class
Aves. In all birds, 1t has éwo joints (not counting the accessory metatar-
sal). Inall birds, 2t has three joints. In nearly all birds, 3t has four joints.
In nearly all birds, 4t has five joints. The only exceptions to this, consist
in the lessening of the joints of 3t by one, and the lessening of the joints
of 4t by one or two. So in all cases, where the joints do not run 2, 3, 4, 5,
for the toes from Ist to 4th, they run either 2, 3, 4, 4, or 2, 3, 3, 4, or 2,
3, 3, 3. This variability in number of the internodes is confined (wholly ?)
to the order Strisores. Our examples are in the sub-families Cypselince and
Caprimulginee (which see; see also figs. 119 and 122). This admirable
conservatism enables us to always determine what toes are missing, in birds
with less than four; thus, in Picoides, the hind toe, though seemingly lt,
is evidently 4t, because 5-jointed; in the ostrich, with only two toes, 3t
and 4t are seen to be preserved, because they are respectively 4- and 5-
jointed. (In fig. 8, the dotted line 1 indicates the first series of phalanges
of all the toes; dot-line 2, the second; the correspondence of the remaining
phalanges is seen at a glance.)

§ 87. THe posrrion of the toes, other than in respect of their direction,
is important. In att birds the front toes are on the same level, or so
nearly so, that the difference is not notable. And the same may be said of
the hind toes, when there are fwo, as in Scansores. But the hind toe, when
present and single, varies remarkably in position, and must have special
notice, as this character is important in taxonomy. The insertion of this
toe varies, from the very bottom of the tarsus, where it is on a level with
the front toes, to some distance up the tarsus. When flush with the bases
of the other toes, so that its whole under surface touches the ground, it is
said to be incumbent. When just so much raised that its tip only touches
the ground, it is called znsistent. When so high up that it does not reach
the ground at all, it is termed remote (amotus). But as the precise position
varies insensibly, so that the foregoing distinctions are not readily per-
ceived, it is practically best to recognize only two of these three conditions,
and say simply, “hind toe elevated,” when it is inserted appreciably above
the rest, or “hind toe not elevated,” when its insertion is flush with that of
the other toes. In round terms: it is characteristic of all Jnsessores to have
the hind toe pown; it is characteristic of all other birds to have the hind toe
up (when present). The exceptions to the first statement are extremely

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 7

50 ' CONDITIONS OF THE HIND TOE.

rare; they are confined, among our birds, in any marked degree, to the two
genera of Caprimulgide (gen. 114, 115) and the turkey buzzard ( Cathartes,
gen. 166); but among other Raptores besides Cathartes, such as certain
owls, and in some pigeons (lowest of Jnsessores, it will be remembered),
the toe is not quite down, or is even perceptibly uplifted. Technically, how-
ever, I take all these but the three first named, as having the toe down. It is
elevated in all our Lasores or Galline (gen. 177 to 188) ; elevated in all our
waders except the herons, ibises, and spoonbill; the elevation is least marked
in the rail family, but still plain enough there. It is elevated in ay
swimming birds, whether lobe-footed, or partly or wholly web-footed ; but
in the Totipalmate order (Steganopodes, gen. 273 to 278) where it is lateral
and webbed with the inner toe, the elevation is slight. Now since, curiously
enough, the only three of our insessorial genera above mentioned (two of
Caprimulgide, and Cathartes) that have the hind toe well up, have also
little webs connecting the anterior toes; and since some Raptores are our
only other Insessores with any such true webs; and since herons, ibises
and spoonbills are our only birds with such true webs, that have the hind
toe down, the following rule is infallible for all our birds: Consider the
hind toe up in every bird with any true webbing or lobing of the front toes,
except herons and their allies and some birds of prey. The converse,
also, holds nearly as well; for our only birds with fully-cleft anterior toes,
and hind toe up, are the rails and gallinules, the black-bellied plover
(our only 4-toed plover), the turnstone, the woodcock, Wilson’s snipe, and
most of the true sandpipers. Besides its versatility of position the hind
toe has ©

§ 88. OTHER NOTABLE CHARACTERS. It is free and simple, in the vast
majority of birds; in all Insessores, nearly all Cursores, and most WVata-
tores. In length, it may equal or surpass (with its claw included) the
longest anterior toe, and generally surpasses at least one or two of them.
It is never so Jong as when down on a level with the rest; here also, it
attains its greatest mobility, and among Passeres is virtually provided with a
special muscle for its apposition with the others in the act of grasping. In
general, it grows shorter as it gets higher up; and probably in no bird
where it is truly elevated, is it so long as the shortest anterior toe. It is
short and barely touches the ground in most waders: shorter still in some
swimmers, as the gulls, where probably it is functionless; rudimentary in
one genus of gulls, /issa (284), where it bears no perfect claw; represented
only by an immovable sessile claw, liable to be overlooked unless carefully
sought for, in the petrels; it disappears in the birds above named (§ 84),
and some others. It is never actually. joined by direct soldering to either of
the other toes, for any noticeable distance ; but is united to the base of the
inner toe by a web in the loons, and to the whole length of the inner toe in
all the Steganopodes (fig. 183). But it may be, as it were, independently
webbed; that is, have a lobe or flap of membrane hanging from it; this con-
dition is seen in all the sea-ducks (Fuligine, gen. 260 to 270), and in all

. a
} an

THE THREE PLANS OF THE AVIAN FOOT. ok

‘our truly lobe-footed birds. I may finally consider the modes of union of
the anterior toes under the head of the

§ 89. THREE MODIFICATIONS OF THE BIRD’S Foor. All birds’ feet are
built upon one or the other of three plans, corresponding to the three sub-
classes Insessores, Cursores and Natatores. These are the perching plan, the
walking or wading plan, and the swimming plan; and these are pretty
sharply distinguished (independently of differences in the number and position
of the toes) by the method of union. In the perching plan, the toes are
only very exceptionally connected by true movable webbing; they are cleft
to the base, or else joined, for a part, or the whole, of one joint, or a part
also of the second joint, by actual cohesion. Our thrushes show about
as complete cleavage as is ever seen; our wrens, titmice, creepers, etc.,
exhibit considerable basal cohesion. A remarkable exception is seen in the
syngnesious foot; where the outer and middle toes fuse for nearly their
whole length; the kingfisher (figs. 116, 117), illustrates this; and all such
birds are called syndactylous (Gr. sun together, dactylon a finger). In the
walking plan, the toes are never, probably, thus joined by fusion; and they
are seldom cleft to the base; the union is generally by a movable basal web,
of variable extent. This constitutes the semipalmate (4-webbed, that is,)
foot. But the webs occasionally, in true wading birds, run out to the ends
of the toes, as in the avocet (gen. 196), and in the flamingo (if indeed this
bird really belongs among waders). Generally they run out to the end of
the first, or along part of the second joint, constituting true semipalmation ;
shown in the semipalmated sandpiper and willet. (Figs. 166,170.) Oftener
the web is of about this size between the outer and middle toes, and slighter
or wholly deficient between the middle and inner; this is shown in nearly all
our larger waders, including herons. (It is also the usual state of webbing
of those hawks that have semipalmation.) In the swimming plan, the foot
is changed into a paddle by webbing or lobing; the former constitutes the
palmate, and the latter the lobate, foot. In the palmate, the webbing is
usually complete betwixt the three front toes; it is extended to the hind toe,
likewise, in all Steganopodes, and partly in the loons. Sometimes the
webbing is defective, from deep incision, or cutting away of the free anterior
border of the webs for some distance: this is seen partly in the genus Phi-
lacte (249) and much more so in the short-tailed tern, Hydrochelidon (gen.
292; fig. 208), where it simulates semipalmation. But in such a case, if
the fresh foot be carefully examined, the webbing will be seen running
as a narrow border, quite to the claws, as usual. Frequently, one web
is larger than the other, as in all our terns (fig. 207, for example) where
the inner web is somewhat defective. In the lobate foot, instead of con-
necting webs, we have a series of broad lobes along each joint of the
toes, as in the coot, and all the grebes: but it is almost always, if not
always, associated with semipalmation. It occurs, again, in some wad-
ing birds, as the remarkable family of the phalaropes, which swim, in
fact, better than they walk. Here the lobation may be either scolloped,

i i i ee el . M ll

52 MARGINAL MEMBRANE—THE CLAWS.

or cut out at the joints, as in the coot, or plain, that is, straight-edged.
(Fig. 162.) True lobation, occurring, among North American birds, only
in the grebes, coots, and phalaropes, must be carefully distinguished from
various

§ 90. MarcrvaL Frinees, or processes, that birds of the lower orders
often exhibit. Thus, if a gallinule be examined ina fresh state, it will be
found to have a margin of membrane running along the sides of the toes,
and the same is the case, if less evident, in a great many waders. Palmate
birds also show it, on the free borders of 2¢ and 4¢; it is very conspicuous
in the albatrosses, and plain enough in geese, &c. In the grouse family
there is a remarkable development of horny substance, resembling a real
fringe, being cut into a series of sharp teeth, or pectinations.

§ 91. Tur Cxiaws. With certain anomalous exceptions, as in case of a
rudimentary hind toe, every toe bears a claw. The general shape of the
claw is remarkably constant throughout birds: variations are in degree only,
rather than in kind. A cat’s claw represents nearly the usual shape, viz:
compressed, arched, acute. The great talons of a bird of prey are only the
extreme of this typical shape. Besides this general shape, the claws are
usually dug out underneath, so that the transverse section, as well as length-

wise outline below, is concave, and the under surface is bounded on either -

side by a sharp edge. One of these edges, and particularly the inner edge
of the middle claw, is somewhat dilated or expanded in a great many birds ;
and in some it becomes changed into a perfect comb, by having a regular
series of teeth. This pectination occurs only on the inner edge of
the middle claw; it is beautifully shown by all the true herons (Ardeide) ;
by the whippoorwills and nighthawks, by the frigate pelican, and, to
a less degree, by the barn owl. It is supposed to be used for cleaning
out lice from parts that cannot be reached by the bill; but this is open
to question, seeing that outside the herons, it chiefly occurs among very
short-legged birds, that cannot possibly reach many parts of the plumage
with the toes. Besides Haptores, most perching birds are very sharp-
clawed; the claws are more obtuse among the pigeons and Galline
(scratchers) and still more so among most swimming birds. Obtuseness is
generally associated with flatness, or depression; this is seen in Wilson’s
petrel, as distinguished from all our others, and carried to the extreme in
the grebes, where the claws resemble human nails. The deviations from
curvature occur principally in the hind claw; this is straight or nearly so, in
the shore lark, and some terrestrial sparrows, as the genus Plectrophanes
(63). All the claws are straight, and prodigiously long, in some exotic
birds of the rail tribe—the jacanas (Parra); this enables the birds to
run lightly over the floating leaves of aquatic plants, by so much increase of
breadth of support that they do not slump in. Claws are also variously
carinate, suleate, etc. They are always horny. They take name from and
are reckoned by the digits they belong to: thus, lcl. = claw of 1¢: 2el.
= claw of 21, etc.

es

u-~teenn beeen

—.

| ia ig

HOW TO USE THE KEY. 53

SECT. IV. Directions. —HOW TO USE THE KEY.~—HOW TO MEASURE A
SPECIMEN, ETC.
1. HOW TO USE THE KEY.

§ 92. We have in hand a bird which we know nothing about, and desire
to identify; that is, to discover its name and position in the system; and to
learn whatever else the present volume may afford. Let us suppose it to be
that little black and white spotted bird which we often see climbing about
our fruit trees, boring holes in the bark.

The Key opens with an arbitrary division of our birds, according to the
number and position of their toes. Our specimen, we see, has four toes,
arranged in pairs; that is, two before and two behind. It therefore comes
under the third division (III). Turning to III, we read :—

Bill with a cere, and strongly epignathous, etc.,
— not cered; inner hind toe with 3 joints, etc.,
—only 2 joints. (f)

We see that the bill of the specimen is neither cered nor hooked, and
that the inner hind toe is 2-jointed. Following, therefore, the reference-
letter (f), we find three alternatives, viz.,

(f) Tail of 8 feathers, etc.,

— 10 soft feathers, etc.,
— 12 (apparently only 10) rigid acuminate feathers. (g)

The tail feathers of the specimen are stiff and pointed, and we count ten
perfect ones, besides a rudimentary pair concealed at the bases of the others.
Evidently, then, we continue with the reference letter (g¢), as follows :—

g) Birds > 14 inches long, etc.,
(g) Birds <14 in.; ridges on upper mandible reaching tip, ete., . . . . . Prcus, 131.

The specimen is much-less than fourteen inches long, and the sharp ridges

on the sides of the upper mandible run quite to the end of the bill; and

here, at last, instead of a reference-letter, we find a genus named; which
is the one to which the specimen belongs. The bird is a Picus.

§ 93. Tuus the key conducts to a genus, by presenting in succession,
certain alternatives, on meeting with each of which, the student has only to
determine which one of the two or more sets of characters agrees with those
afforded by his specimen. There will not, it is believed, be any trouble
in determining whether a given character is so, or is not so, since only the
most tangible, definite, and obvious features have been selected in framing
the key. After each determination, either the name of a genus is encoun-
tered, or else a reference-letter leads on to some new alternative, until by a
gradual process of elimination the proper genus is reached. After a few
trials, with specimens representing different groups, the process will be

. shortened, for the main divisions will have been learned; still, the student

54 HOW TO USE THE KEY.

must be careful how he strikes in any where except at the beginning, for a
false start will soon set him hopelessly adrift. The Key has been tested *
so thoroughly that there is little danger of his running off the track except
through carelessness, or misconception of technical terms; but there is no
excuse for the former, and the latter may be obviated by the Glossary and
the Introduction, which should be consulted when any doubt arises. Time
spent upon the Introduction will be time saved in the end.

§ 94. Now the genus Picus that we found has a number after it, which
refers to the Systematic Synopsis, where the genera are numbered consecu-
tively. The running numbers at the top of the pages catch the eye ina
moment, and enable us to turn directly to Picus, 131. Here we find a few
remarks, illustrative of the general character of all our species of the genus ;
and these we see, are six in number. We have now to find out which one
of the six ours is; and to this end they are analyzed, that is, mapped out
in groups, in such way that we perceive their most striking features, or
diagnostic characters, almost at a glance : —

* Body not banded, streaked nor spotted.
** Spotted and crosswise banded, but not streaked.
*** Spotted and lengthwise streaked, but not banded.
+ Usually 9-10 long; outer tail-feathers wholly white.
tt Usually 6-7 long; outer tail-feathers barred with black and white.

The specimen has no transverse bars of color on the body, but a long
white streak down the back, and a profusion of white spots on the wings and
their coverts ; it is not over seven inches long, and has the outer tail feath-
ers black and white; so that we know it comes under ***t+. As there
is but one species given there, our bird is at last identified. It is the
downy woodpecker, Picus pubescens. The term pubescens, at the end of

the descriptive paragraph, is the specific name, which, joined with the gen-—

eric name, Picus, constitutes the scientific designation of the species, as ex-
plained in the Introduction, p. 13. In this case of the downy woodpecker,
no full description appears, merely because the bird “is exactly like P.
villosus” (the preceding species) except in the diagnostic points of size and
barred rectrices ; but in general, a concise specific description will be found.
These descriptions are not always, or even usually, full and complete ;
being designed simply to discriminate the several species of the same genus,
or to certify that the student has discovered the right species, if there be
but one under the genus. But since mere identification of a specimen is not
all that we may desire, many other particulars are really given. Thus we
discover that the downy woodpecker inhabits Eastern North America, and is
replaced in the West by a variety closely resembling it. We discover its
exact relations to its congener, P. villosus, and of both these to the other

*In the cases of over nine-tenths of the genera, by actual comparison with the specimens themselves, and
found to give accurate results. It is just possible, that an occasional immature specimen, or one offering un-
usual deviation from the normal standard, cannot be determined by the Key.

eb ww

aj

DIRECTIONS FOR MEASUREMENT. 55

species of the genus. We have a reference to several standard authors,
which may be consulted if desired. Turning back a few pages, we find that
the genus Picus belongs to the sub-family Picine, of the family Picide, of
the order Scansores; and each of these groups is defined, illustrated, or
otherwise noticed. In this way, it is believed, a single specimen may
be made the means of imparting no inconsiderable amount of information.

2. HOW TO MEASURE A SPECIMEN.

§ 95. For large birds, a tape line showing inches and fourths will do:
for small ones, a foot rule, graduated for inches and eighths, or better, deci-
mals to hundredths, must be used ; and for all nice measurements the divid-
ers are indispensable.

§ 96. Ivy comparing measurements made with those given in the Synop-
sis, absolute agreement must not be expected; individual specimens vary
too much for this. It will generally be satisfactory enough, if the discrep-
ancy is not beyond certain bounds. A variation of, say, five per cent., may
be safely allowed on birds not larger than a robin: from this size up to that
of a crow or hawk, ten per cent.; for larger birds even more. Some birds
vary up to twenty or twenty-five per cent., in their total length at least.
So if I say of a sparrow for instance, “length five inches,” and the speci-
men is found to be anywhere between four and three-fourths and five and
one-fourth, it will be quite near enough. ut:—the relative proportions
of the different parts of a bird are much more constant, and here less dis-
crepancy is allowable. Thus “tarsus longer than the middle toe,” or the re-
verse, is often a matter of much less than a quarter of an inch: and as it is
upon just such nice points as this that a great many of the generic analyses
rest, the necessity of the utmost accuracy in measuring, for use of the key,
becomes obvious. When I find it necessary to use the qualification “about”
(as, “bill abowt—tarsus”) I probably never mean to indicate a difference of
more than five per cent. of the length of the part in question.

§ 97. “Leneru.” Distance between the tip of the bill and the end of the
longest tail feather. Lay the bird on its back on the ruler on a table, take
hold of the bill with one hand, and of both legs with the other; pull with
reasonable force, to get the curve all out of the neck; hold the bird thus
with tip of the bill flush with the end of the rule, and see how much the end
of the tail points to. Put the tape line in place of the ruler, in the same
way, for larger birds.

§ 98. “Exrenr.” Distance between the tips of the outspread wings.
They must be fully outstretched. With the bird on its back, crosswise on
the ruler, its bill pointing to your breast, take hold of right and left meta-
carpus with thumb and forefinger of your right and left hand, respectively,
stretch with reasonable force, getting one wing-tip flush with one end of the
ruler, and see how much the other wing-tip points to. With large birds,
pull away as hard as you please, and use the table, floor, or side of the
room, as convenient ; mark the points and apply tape line.

56 DIRECTIONS FOR MEASUREMENT.

As this measurement cannot be got at all from dried skins, I do not often
use it in this book. But it is highly important, and for the very reason that
it cannot be got afterwards, always note it down from fresh specimens. The
first measurement, likewise, can only be got at approximately in skins, and
the following details are really our chief data in all cases :—

§ 99. “LenerH oF winc.” Distance from the angle formed at the
(carpus) bend of the wing, to the end of the longest primary. Get it with
compasses for small birds. In birds with a convex wing, do not lay the tape
line over the curve, but under the wing, stretching in a straight line from
the carpal angle, to end of longest primary. This measurement is the one
called, for short, “the wing ;” thus when I say, simply, “wg. 12,” I mean
that this distance is twelve inches; so, also, “wg. =# tl.,” means that this
distance is half as great as the length of the tail.

§ 100. “Lenerxn or rar.” Distance from the roots of the rectrices,
to the end of the longest one, whichever one that may be. Feel for the
pope’s nose; in either a fresh or dried specimen, there is more or less of a
palpable lump into which the tail feathers stick. Guess as near as you can
to the middle of this lump; place the end of the ruler opposite the point,
and see how much the tip of the longest tail feather points to. “Depth of
fork” and “amount of gradation,” in a tail, is the difference between the
shortest and the longest tail feathers ; in the one case the outer, in the other
the middle, pair of rectrices is the longest.

§ 101. “Leneru or pity.” Exactly what this is, depends upon the
writer. Some take the curve of the upper mandible; others the side of
the upper mandible from the feathers; others the gape, etc. I take the
chord of the culmen. Place one foot of the dividers on the culmen just
where the feathers end—no matter whether the culmen runs up on the
forehead, or the frontal feathers run out on the culmen, and no matter
whether the culmen is straight or curved. Then with me the length of the
bill is the shortest distance from the point just indicated to the tip of the
upper mandible. Measure it with the dividers. In a straight bill, of
course it is the length of the culmen itself; in a curved bill, however, it is
quite another thing. The “depth of bill” is determined opposite the same
point; it is a perpendicular transverse dimension : the “ width of the bill” is
determined at the same point; it is the horizontal transverse dimension.
“The gape” is the shortest distance between the commissure proper (see
§ 53, and fig. 5, 2) and the tip of the upper mandible.

§ 102. “Leneru or tarsus.” This is the most important measurement
for the purposes of this volume. Measure it always with dividers, and in
front of the leg. It is the distance between the joint of the tarsus with the
leg above, and that with the first phalanx of the middle toe below. Place
one foot of the dividers exactly upon the middle of the tibio-tarsal joint in
front. The front of this joint is rounded on either side by two little semi-
circular rims, or lateral elevations, more or less evident in different birds ;
you want to get just between them. In the softer-legged wading, or water

aaa eats nee ie ee

DIRECTIONS FOR MEASUREMENT. 57

birds, there is a slight elevated point right in the middle; this, or the posi-
tion of it in other birds, is the precise place. Place the other foot of the
dividers over the transverse line of jointing of the base of the middle toe.
This latter point, in all birds, when the toes are bent backward, becomes a
more or less salient angle easily determined. In hard-legged birds it is
usually indicated by the termination of last tarsal scutellum ; in water birds,
there will be seen a little crosswise nick, showing just where the skin has
shrunk into the crack between the end of the metatarsus and the base of
the toe. It will be evident that a measurement taken as here directed will
not always be the same as one taken behind, up over the convexity of the
heel, and down to the level of the sole; but there are behind no other
tangible points of termination. (See fig. 9, és.) What, now, is the mean-
ing of the expression —“d. = $ trs.”?

§ 103. “Leneru or tors.” Distance in a straight line along the upper

surface of a toe, from the point last indicated, to the root of the claw on
top. Observe that, as the claws are inserted upon the ends of the toes,
somewhat as the nails are on our fingers, this measurement is a different
thing from one taken along the under surface of the toes. Always make
it with the dividers. Length of toe is always taken without the claw unless
otherwise specified. When no particular toe is specified, 3¢ is always
meant. (See fig. 9, 3écl.) Define this expression : —“érs.> 3¢.”
. § 104. “Lenera or tHe ciaws.” Distance in a straight line from the
point last indicated to the tip of the claw. (See § 101.) When this
measurement is meant to be included in the length of toe, I say écl.
Determine this : —“‘érs. < 3¢cl.”

§ 105. “Leneru of HEAD” is an often convenient dimension for compar-
ison with the bill. Set one foot of the dividers on the base of culmen
(determined as above), and allow the other to just slip snugly down over
the arch of the occiput. This is the required measurement. What does
this mean :—“/d. = b.”?

§ 106. ALL MrasuREMENTS are in the English inch and vulgar fractions
or decimals, unless otherwise specified.

§ 107. Fryatty, it may be well to call attention to the fact, that most
persons unaccustomed to handling birds are liable to be deceived in attempt-
ing to estimate a given dimension; they generally make it out less than
measurement shows it to be. This seems to be an optical effect connected
with the solidarity of the object, as is well illustrated in drawing plates of
birds, which, when made exactly of life-size, always look larger than the
original, on account of the flatness of the paper. The ruler or tape-line,
therefore, should always be used, and are more particularly necessary in
those cases where analyses in the Key rest upon dimensions. It is hardly
necessary to add, that in taking, approximately, the total length from a
prepared specimen, regard should be had for the “make-up” of the skin. A
little practice will enable one to determine pretty accurately how much a
skin is stretched or shrunken, and to make the due allowance in either case.

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 8

abd. Abdomen.
ad. Adult.

aut. Autumn.
axill. Axillaries.
b. Bill.

bl. Blue.

bi. Black.

Br. Am. British America.
brn. Brown.

brst. Breast.

cl. Claw, claws.
col. Color.

cold. Colored.
comm. Commissure.
culm. Culmen.
Eur. Europe.
Jthr, Feather.
Sthr’d. Feathered.
Jihrs. Feathers.
hd. Head.

gon. Gonys.

gr. Gray.

grn. Green.
intersc. Interscapularies.

A few contractions, not given above, are self-explanatory.

gd. Male.
2. Female.

Og, oryg. #¢. Young male.
o9,oryg. 9. Young female.
= Sign of equality; generally, as long as. the end of a word: when before a word or

> More; generally, longer than; also, greater than, paragraph, they are used to point off sections

or more than.

< Less; generally, shorter than; also, smaller than, *,* Interpolated sentences.

or less than.

igth. Length. sum. Summer.
mand. Mandible. supere. Superciliary.
max. Maxilla. wg.wgs. Wing, wings.
Mex. Mexico, win. Winter.
N.Am. North America (at large). W.Z. West Indies.
nost. Nostrils. t. Toe, toes.
obs. Observation. _ tcl. Toe and claw together.
occip. Ocvciput. tert. Tertiary —ies.
olw. Olive. tib. Tibia.
plmg. Plumage. thrt. Throat. c
prim. Primary—ies. tl. Wail.
purp. Purple. trs. Tarsus.
rect. Rectrices. un. mand. Under mandible. :
rem. Remiges. un.-tl.-cov. Under tail coverts.
retic. Reticulations. un.-wg.-cov. Under wing coverts.
reticc. Reticulate. up.mgnd. Upper mandible.
rmp. Rump. up.-tl.-cov. Upper tail coverts.
scap. Scapularies. up.-wg.-cov. Upper wing coverts.
seut. Scutella. U.S. United States, except Alaska; 4
scutt. Scutellate. usual abbreviations for names of a
sec. Secondary —ies. States and Territories.
?sh. Diminishing.sufix; as b1/’sh, wht. White.
blackish. yell. Yellow.
spr. Spring. yg. Young.

ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS.

.
i) “

ABBREVIATIONS USED.

SIGNS USED.

! Certainty, with personal responsibility (not ex-
clamation or surprise). All other punctua-
tion as usual. F

*, t,t, ete. Refer as usual to foot notes, when at. —

in a manner that will be evident.

_ § Complete paragraphs (in the introduction only).

WORKS CITED. : 59

WORKS REFERRED TO.

I quote throughout the following standard American works when they notice the species in question : —
“ Wils.’ WILSON, ALEXANDER. American Ornithology. 9 vols., 4to. 1808-14. (The original ed., and
Ord’s continuation.) |

“ Nutt.’ NUTTALL, THOMAS. Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and of Canada. 2 vols.
12mo. (The first ed., of 1832-34, unless the 2d (of 1840) is specified.)

“Aud.” AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES. Birds of America. 7 vols., 8vo. 1840-44. (Octavo reprint of the
“Ornithological Biography,” repaged and with systematic arrangement and renumbering of the plates of
the folio edition.)

* Cass.” CASSIN, JOHN. Illustrations of the Birds of California, Texas, ete. Svo,1 vol. 1853-55.

“Bd.” “Cass. in Bd.” “ Lawr. in Bd.” BAIRD, SPENCER F., with the coéperation of JoHn CAssIn
and GEORGE N. LAWRENCE. Birds of North America; constituting the ninth yol. of the Pacific Railroad
Explorations and Surveys. 1858. (Also republished: separately, with a few additions and a 2d vol. of 100
plates, by the Naturalists’ Agency, 1870.)

“Eu. Evvior, D.G. Birds of North America. 2 yols., folio. (Plates and descriptions of many speties

recently introduced to our fauna, or before unfigured.)

“Coop.” Birds of California. From the MSS. notes of J. G. Coorer. Edited by S. F. Baird. 1 vol.
8vo, 1870.

I also quote, in particular cases, papers from the proceedings of different societies, etc., by various
writers. The references in these instances are sufliciently explicit.

The Roman numerals immediately after the italicized authors name, refer to the volume; the next figure,
to the page; “pl.” with figures after it, to the number of the plate; “ fig.,” to the number of the figure.

Lyre Bird of Australia. (See § 70.)

ir on ey at ge ee ee

KEY TO THE GENERA.

ELOHSa55-— 2 IN PRONTO BEHIND. « : s «86 + « 6 « 8s « « « Proormrs 132
TOES 3,—3 1n Front. (II.)

TOES 4,—2 IN Front, 2 BEHIND. (III.)

TOES 4,—3 IN FRONT, 1 BEHIND. (IV.)

II. [rors 3,—3 IN Front. ]

Toes incompletely, or not webbed. (a)
Toes completely webbed. (da)

(a) Naked leg and foot together about wing. Bill subulate; one basalweb. . . . . . HIMANTOPUS 197
—much<the wing. (b) ‘
(b) Bill much> tarsus, truncate at tip; trs. reticulate. Birds over 12incheslong, . . . H@MATOPUS 194
—much<, or about=trs. Birds under 12inches long. (ce)
(c) Tarsus in front scutellate, about=bill, LEM ace etticme sauce cts) “enc is “OAL RES. 2 Le,
—reticulate, > bill; plumage apeckled, operate + « « » « « CHARADRIUS 190
— not speckled; trs. nearly twine ate tise) OD AROG RE Lo7,
—notnearly twice-=at., + « - « ANGIALITIS 191
(d) Nostrils tubular; sides of under mandible not suleate,. . ... . . . . +...» + « DIOMEDEA 296
—with along colored groove,. .. . . . . PH@BETRIA 297
—not tubular (linear, oval, etc.) (6)
(e) Nostrils naked; eyelids horny; both mandibles suleate. Not crested . » « » » . FRATERCULA 318
—simple. Birds>12 long; up. mand. sulcate. Crested, . .. . . . LUNDA 319
—not suleate. Crested, . . . CERATORHINA 320
—<12 long; un. mand. faleate, up. mand. oval, . . PHALERIS 321.
- —not faleate; up. mand. wrinkled, . PTrYCHORHAMPHUS 323
—smooth,. . . SIMORHYNCHUS 322
(e) Nostrils incompletely feathered; tail nearly even; b. and trs. compressed, . SYNTHLIBORHAMPHUS 325
—gradated; bill and tarsus not compressed, . . . - MERGULUS 324
(6) Nostrils completely feathered; tarsus in front reticulate. Birds under 12long, . BRACHYRHAMPHUS 326
; —12ormorelong, ... . URIA 327
—scutellate; b. not sulcate or cultrate,. . . . LOMVIA 328
—suleate. Bird<24, . . . UTAMANTA 317
Bird>24,. .. . . ALCA 316

III. [Tors 4, iy pairs, 2 IN FRONT, 2 BEHIND. ]

Bill with a cere, and strongly epignathous; tarsus granulated,. . . .... + + + « + +» CONURUS 138
—not cered; inner hind toe with 3 joints; plumageiridescent, ...... .. +. . . TROGON 125
—only 2 joints. (f)
(f) Tail of 8 feathers; upper mandible sulcate; sides of head partly naked, . . . . . . CROTOPHAGA 126
—10 soft feathers; tarsus>middle toe and claw; lores bristly; birds about 2 feet long, GEOCOCCYX 127
—< middle toe and claw; lores soft; birds about 1footlong, . Coccyzus 128
—12 (apparently only 10) rigid acuminate feathers. (g)

(g) Birds > 14 inches long, conspicuously crested; bill and nasal feathers not dark, ., . . CAMPEPHILUS 129
—dark,.. . HyYxLoTomus 130
(g) Birds << 14 in,; ridges on up. mand. reaching tip; tongue acute, barbed. No yellow, . . . . Purcus 131
—ridges running into tomium; tongue obtuse, brushy. Some yellow, . SPHYRAPICUS 133

—ridges wanting, or indistinct and not reaching tip or tomia. (g*)
(g?) plumage of belly bristly, of back with metallic iridescence, . . . . ASYNDESMUS 136
—normal, with many round black spots, . . .. . . » COLAPTES 137
—not spotted; not white, ...... . . CENTURUS 134
—white, .... . . + MELANERPES 135

(61)

62 KEY TO THE GENERA.

-—T. ’ .
Lee ee a . i — ; r
Pu Sone teen js ES Gace, ‘c<
4 ~ .
ee od Pz ee ee
3 ra apis

IV. [Tors 4,—3 IN Front, 1 BEHIND.]

§. HIND TOE INSERTED ABOVE THE LEVEL OF THE REST (AND ALWAYS SHORTER THAN THE SHORTEST
ANTERIOR TOE). (A)

§. HIND TOE NOT INSERTED ABOVE THE LEVEL OF THE REST (AND generally but not always NOY SHORTER
THAN THE SHORTEST ANTERIOR TOE). (B)

A. (The hind toe elevated.)

1. Feet TOTIPALMATE; (all 4 toes webbed ; hind toe semilateral and barely elevated.) (A)
2. Feet PALMATE; (3 front toes completely webbed, hind toe well up, simple or lobed, free or connected by

slight webbing with base only of inner toe.) (1)

3. Feet LOBATE; (3 front toes (partly webbed, or not, and) CONSPICUOUSLY bordered with plain or Scare

membranes ; hind toe free, and simple or lobed.) (C)

4. Feet SEMIPALMATE; (2, or 3, front toes webbed at base only by small yet evident membrane; hind toe well

up, simple.) (D)

5. Feet SIMPLE; front toes with no evident membranes ; hind toe well up, simple. (B)
(A) Tarsus feathered, partly; tail deeply forked; bill epignathous, . . . © 61a) ee) CLA CHYPE MENEAME
—naked; bill>tail, hooked at tip, furnished with an enormous merrates . « « « PELECANUS 274
—< tail; throat feathered; middle tail feathers filamentous, . . .. - PHAETHON 278
—naked; tail pointed, soft; tomia subserrate, . . . . . . . SULA 273
— rounded, stiff; bill paragnathous, . . .. . . PLOTUS 276
—epignathous, .. . . . GRACULUS 275
(B) Hind tee ecmewhat lateral, and joined by slight web to base only of inner toe, . . . . COLYMBUS 311
— directly posterior, free, and simple or lobed. (h)

(h) Bill—recuryed, depressed at base, subulate, extremely acute, . . . . . . . . RECURVIROSTRA 196
—bent abruptly downward near its middle, and lamellate, ©. . . . . . » PHOENICOPTERUS 246
—neither recurved, nor abruptly bent. (i)

(i) Bill—hypognathous, corneous, cultrate, suleate, . . . - . - + « «+ «© «+ « « RHYNCHOPS 265
— paragnathous, comeous, not lamellate; nostrils not tubular; tail not even. (k)

— epignathous (or paragn. end tl. even), corneous, not lamellate; nostrils nod tubular. (1)
—epignathous, corneous, not lamellate; nostrils tubular. (m)
—paragnathous, mostly membranous, lamedlate, nostrils not tubular. (n)
(x) Tail graduated, and middle feathers shorter than next pair. Plumage sombre brown . . . ANOUS 294
—forked; toes almost semipalmate. Black, brown or ashy, and white, . . . |. HYDROCHELIDON 252
—well webbed; feet not black; back pale; nocrest, . . . .. . . . . STERNA 291
—blk.; wht. crescent on forehead (Sterna, 291, or) . HALIPLANA 293
—no crescent; not crested; b. barely >trs., GELOCHELIDON 289
— crested; b.much>trs., . THALASSEUS 290
1) Bill with a sort of cere; middle tail feathers exserted; tarsus <3tel., . . . . . . . . BuPHAGUS 279
—=3tel, .. . . . . STERCORARIUS 280
—not cered; hind toe rudimentary, not bearing a perfect claw, . . ol as Rime @, 2s EIB SAGs
— perfect; tail wedge-shaped; a dark collar round neck, - RHODOSTHETHIA 286
— forked; bill black, tipped with yellow, . . ... . . . XEMA 287
—reddish, not tipped with yellow, . . . CREAGRUS 288
—even; tarsus black, rough; websincised, ... . PAGOPHILA 285
—not black. Under plhimage — (1?)
(1?) dark, head white, tail black, bill and feet reddish, . . . . BLASIPUS 282
(12) white, head dark (if dark, head whitish), . . . CHRGCOCEPHALUS 283
(12) white, head white (if dark, head not whitish), . . + . . . LARuS 281
(m) Tarsus not <3t.; claws depressed, obtuce; tarsal scutella fused; webs with yellow, . OCEANITES 307
—distinect; webs black, . . . . FREGETTA 8(8
—compressed; tail cuneate; no white anywhere, .... . HALOCYPTENA 303

2 —nearly even. Blk. or smoky brown, and white, PROCELLARIA 304
—forked. Blk. or smoky brown, and white, . CYMOCHOREA 305
—Not black and white, . . . . . OCEANODROMA 306

(m) Trs. <3tel.; tail of 12 feathers; nasal tube obliquely truncate, septum thick, . . . . . PUFFINUS 310
— vertically truncate, septumthin, . . . . PRIOFINUS 309
—> 12 fthre.; plmg. conspicuously spotted, . . . . . . . =... =. - DAPTION 301
—unspotted; tl. cuneate, . . . . . . AESTRELATA 362
—not cuneate; 16-fthid, OSSIFRAGA 298
—4-ithrd. b. << trs., FULMARUS 299
—=trs., PRIOCELLA 300
(n) Lamelle acute, like saw-teeth, retrorse; bill terete, black; trs.=}36., . = LOPHODYTES 272
—not black; trs.>33t., . ... . . . MERGUS 271
—simple; bill depressed toward end; lores naked. Adult entirely white, . . . . . CYGNUS 247
— feathered; trs. in front—reticulate. (0)
—scutellate. (p)
(o) Trs. not>38tcl. Plumage partly lavender-colored, head white, throat black,. . . . . . PHILACTE 249
—>3tel.; bill and legs not black. White or gray, bluish, speckled, ete., . . . . . . ANSER 28
: — black; neck ell black: nostrils median, . ... . . . . BRANTA 250
—not all black; nostrils subbasal,. . . DENDROCYGNA 251

KEY TO THE GENERA.

(p) Hind toe simple; head crested, and narrow tip of bill formed wholly by the nail, . . . . . . AIX
—not crested; bill ywch wider at end than at base, . .. One SPATULA
—not wider; tail cuneate, } or more of ines wing, . . DAFILA
—not cuneate, not } the wing. (p? )
(p?) Bill head; crown streaked; tl. fthrs faces acter Qandyg.of . DAFILA
—creamy or white; speculum green, . . . . . MARECA
—about=hd.; speculum white: wing coverts chestnut, CHAULELASMUS
—little>hd. speculum violet, black and white bordered, . . . . ANAS
— green; wing coverts sky blue, . QUERQUEDULA

Foun gare Re NETTION
(p) Hind toe lubed; cheeks bristly. Colors black and white, . . . « . « « CAMPTOLZMUS

tail pointed ; in the adult=or> wing; bill black ail onaaees coe + « . DARED A
— rounded, the feathers stiff, lance- aan exposed to their bases, , . ERISMATURA
— Ducks with none of the foregoing characters. (p*)

(p*) Up. mand. gibbous at its unfeathered base. Black or brown,. . . . . G2DEMIA
—not gibbous where unfeathered; nail narrow, distinct. (p*)

—broad, fused. (p5

(pt) Head black or gray, with white; nost. nearly median; b. about s.. BUCEPHALA

—reddish or brownish, no white; nost. nearly median; b.>trs., . AYTHYA

—black or brown; nost. subbasal; b.>trs., . . 6 feo & Wlutne.<

(p®) Feathers not extending on culmen; bill barely tapering iS tip, .« . PQLEYSTICTA

—much tapering to tip, . . HisTRIONICUS

— extending on culm., and partly on sides of upper mand., . SOMATERIA

—entirely on sides of up.mand., . LAMPRONETTA

(C) Forehead ‘naked, with a large horny plate formed by extension of culmen, . . . . . . . FULICA

63

259
258
253

253
255
254
252
257
256
264
263
270

269

—feathered; lores feathered; tail perfect; bill flattened, membranes scolloped, PHALAROPUS 200
—subulate, membranes scolloped, . . Lowrpes 199
—subulate, membranes plain, . . STEGANOPUS 198
—naked; tail, none; forehead bristly; bill epignathous, - + « PODILYMBUS 315

—soft; bill paragnathous. (q)
(q) Tarsus =middle toe and claw. Birds 20 inches, or more, long,. .... . . . . ASCHMOPHORUS 312
—< middle toe and claw. Birds from 12to19incheslong, ... .. . . . . . PODICEPS 313
Birds under 12incheslong, ....... . . « SYLBEOCYCLUS 314
(D) Middle claw pectinate ; 4t. 4-jointed; 1f. lateral; tail rounded; long rictal bristles, . ANTROSTOMUS 114
— forked; short rictal bristles, . . CHORDEILES 115
(D) Mid. claw not pectinate; head naked ; nostrils imperforate; naked leg and foot < tail, . MELEAGRIS 177
— perforate; naked leg and foot < tail, . . CATHARTES 166

— perforate; naked leg and foot> tail, . . . . GRUS 2

— feathered; nostrils feathered, or overhung by a scale, in deep
fossa of stout, hard bill. (r)
— not feathered nor scaled, in long groove of
“ slender softish bill. (s)
(r) Toes feathered; tarsi and nasal fossz feathered. Plumage pure white in winter, . . . . LAGOPUS
— naked ;—tarsi feathered, part way down; tail of 18 soft broad feathers, . . . . . . BONASA
— to the toes; tail of —20 stiff acuminate feathers, . . . CENTROCERCUS
— 20 or 16 soft broad feathers, . .. . . . TETRAO
— 18 fthrs; neck with lanceolate feathers, CUPIDONIA
— without such feathers, PEDIG2CETES
— naked; tail nearly = wing; crest — slender, clubbed, recurved, . . LOPHORTYX
— full, soft, depressed, . . . . . CALLIPEPLA
— ito} the wing; crest — long, straight, filamentous, . . . OREORTYX
— full, soft, depressed, ... . . CYRTONYX

183
182
179
178
181
180
186
187

x 185

188

rx 184

—rudimentary ornone, . ... .. . ORTYX
(s) Trs. entirely reticulate; hind toe minute; bill straight, not>head,. . . . . . « « SQUATAROLA
— scutellate in front only; bill much > hd. very slender. decurved, . . . . . ~ « . NUMENIUS
— barely > hd., comparatively stout, straight,, . . HkTEROSCELUS
— and behind; tl. not barred; one minute web; primaries mottled, TRYNGITES
—2 plain webs; b.<, or about=hd., EREUNETES
—much>hd., MICROPALAMA
— tl. barred crosswise with light and dark colors. (8?)

(s?) Gape not reaching beyond base of — furrowed culmen. Under a foot long, . MACRORHAMPHUS
—unfurrowed culmen. Over a foot Ce Stee nt oe DALMLOS A
(s?) Gape longer. Length <9 in.; 2t. unwebbed; bill grooved nearly to tip, . . . - - TRINGOIDES

— about half-way to tip, RMaYACOPHILUS

—>9in.; b. not >hd., grooved 3 its length; tl. about = 4 the wg., ACTITURUS
—not=i the wing, PHILOMACHUS

—> head; 2t. webbed: legs not green or yellow, SYMPHEMIA

—hbarely or not webbed; legs green or yell., GLOTTIS

189
222

221

3 220

206
205

204
213
217
216
219
218
214
215

yaa cy %,
raat

64 KEY TO THE GENERA.

(E) Forehead covered with a broad horny plate; nostrils linear, trs. << 2in.long, . . . . GALLINUEA 243
—nearly circular; trs.2 in. long,. . PORPHYRULA 244
— feathered; first primary attenuate; bill straight, > hd., culm. grooved, . . . . SCOLOPAX 202
—3 outer EES ies attenuate; bill same: tibiz feathered; trs. << 3t. . PHILOHELA 201

— not attenuate; first primary much < second. (t)

— =, or>, second. ™)
(t) Length 2 feet or more: bill much > head, decurved; tibia half bare; trs, not << 3tel., . . . ARAMUS 239
—<2 feet; bill> head, decurved; tibia little bare; trs.<3tel., . . .... . +. . . RALLUS 240
— < head, straight: feet as before. Length 10inchesormore,. ... . . CREX 242
—less than 10inches,. . . . PORZANA 241
(a) Trs. evidently < 3tcl.; tibize naked below: bill about twice = head, culm. furrowed, . GALLINAGO 203
— feathered; b. little > head, culm. unfurrowed, .. . . ARQUATELLA 210
— about =, or>, 3tel.; trs. in front—reticulate, . . + . . APHRIZA 193
scutellate, legs reddish; pill pubes < head . STREPSILAS 195

legs dark. (v)

(v) Bill slightly curved, much > hd.; tarsus evidently > middle toe and claw, . . . ANCYLOCHEILUS 209
—=or barely > middle toe and claw, . . . . . . PELIDNA 208
— straight, much < head. Primaries mottled with black, . . . .. .. . . . . TRYNGITES 220 +
— about =, or > hd; tarsus much> middle toe andclaw,... . . . . . TRINGA 211 :
— about = middle toe andclaw, .« . . . . ACTODROMAS 207 +

B. (The hind toe not elevated.)

1. TIBLA NAKED BELOW. (w)

2. NOSTRILS OPENING BENEATH SOFT SWOLLEN MEMBRANE. (x)*
3. BILL HOOKED AND FURNISHED WITH A CERE. (y)

4. BIRDS WITHOUT THE ABOVE CHARACTERS. (2) i?

(w) Middle claw simple; tarsus reticulate; bill flat, spoonshaped atend, . . 7 es s DATA EA 297, c
— not flat, very stout, tapering, slam ved, . . TANTALUS 224 j
— scutellate; bill grooved, curved; claws — straightish, . FALCINELLUS 225

—cnrved; a9. s -« «)s EBB 226
(w) Mid. claw pectinate; tail of 10 feathers; lower neck bare behind.—Length over 18 inches, BOTAURUS 237
—Length under 18 inches, ARDETTA 238
—12 feathers; lateral toes not more than 4 as long as tarsus, HYDRANASSA 233
— more than } the tarsus. (w?) : Mi
(w?) Tibiz bare 1 inch or less ; trs. > 8tcl.; billover 4 inch deep at base, . . NYCTHERODIUS 236
— <3tel.; b. not thrice aslongashigh, . . . . NYCTIARDEA 235 7
b. more than thrice as long as high, . . BuTrormeEs 234 :
—2in.or more. Lgth.2 feet or less. Blue (or white), legs blk. and blue, FLORIDA 230 4
White; legs black and yellow, GARZETTA 231 ‘s
—3 feet or more. Bluish, ashy, brown, &., . . . . ARDEA 228 ;
White; trs. << 7in. b. <6, . . HERODIAS 232 ?
White; trs.>7in.b.>6, . . AUDUBONIA 229 ?

.
ts adalat

(x) Tail-feathers — 12. Greenish; bird over 18 inches long,. . . Halas +» « « « ORTALIDA 176
— 4, long, tapering, much graduated; oiveuriedbitall ‘apaes spose + + « ZENZDURA 169 :
— 12; trs. fthn’d above; tail broad, rounded, much < wings, . . . . . . . COLUMBA 167 .
— narrow, pointed, about = wings,. . . ECTOPISTES 168 7 ;
trs. wholly naked, — reticulate, .. - soe 6 6 « ee « . STARNGENAS 175 et

—scutellate in front; tail parataal se « « « SCARDAKELLA 173

—rounded. (x?)
(x?) Trs. about=3t., without claw; wing rounded, Ist primary <4th. . . . . . GEOTRYGON 174
— evidently <3t.; wing pointed, and—under 4inches long, . . . . . CHAMAEPELIA 172
—over 4; lores—naked, . . . . . MELOPELIA 171
—feathered, . . . . . ZEN@DA 170

* This membrane (not scale), which distinguishes the pigeons, shrinks in drying, when if may be recognized by its
closing up the nostrils, or at least making them zrregular ; but if still in doubt, observe tarsi reticulate on sides and
behind, and (generally) scutellaie in front. See fig. 11, b.

— >

ser =~ Oe

7 «

KEY TO THE GENERA. 65

(y) Nostrils at edge of the cere; eyes anterior, surrounded by radiating feathers, the anterior of which are
bristly and hide the base of the bill; outer anterior toe shorter than inner anterior toe. (y1)

y) Nostrils im the cere; eyes lateral, not surrounded by a disc; outer anterior toe (generally) not shorter

than inner anterior toe. (y?)

(y1) Trs. naked or scant-feathered. Facial disc perfect; 3cl. somewhat pectinate,. . . . . . . STRIX 139

—imperfect; 3cl. simple; trs.>3tcl, . . . . SPEOTYTO 150

—<3tel, . . . MICRATHENE 149

—full-feathered; head tufted; tail about }the wing. OverlS8incheslong, ... .. . . BuBOo 140

—jthe wing. Underl2incheslong, ... .. . . Scors 141

— Over 12, under 18; tufts— of 8 to 12 fthrs., . Orus 142

—of 3 to 6 fthrs., BRACHYOTUS 143

—not tufted; tail about 4 the wing. Length under 12inches, . . . NYCTALE 147

—jthewg. Lgth.18o0rmore. Pure wht., spotted, NYCTEA 145

— Not pure white, SyRNIUM 144

—j the wg. Length over 12, under 18 inches, . SURNIA 146

Length mueh under 12, . . . GLAUCIDIUM 148

(y?) Trs. feathered to the toes—all around; taila foot or more long, . . «os cme) at) A OUIGAN TOS
—except a narrow strip behind: tail nota foot lone . . ». ARCHIBUTEO 160

—reticulate— upper mandible toothed, under mandible notched, nostrils circular, . . FALco 158
—Claws all of same length, rounded undernéath; tibial feathers close, . . PANDION 162

— Tail emarginate, and outer feathers not longer than middle, . . . . . EDLANuS 154

— forked, outer feather about twice as long as middle, . . . . . NAUCLERUS 155

—scutellate in front; no web at base of toes; tailafootormorelong, ... . . . HALLETUS 164

—a web; nostrils circular; tailnot }aslongas wing, . .. . . . IcTINtA 153

—ovyal; billnot 4 as deep at base as long, . . ROSTRHAMUS 152

— oval; tarsus feathered about 4 way down in front, ASTUR 157
—hardly ; way down, . . ACCIPITER 156

—and behind — Tibial feathers not reaching below the joint, . . . . . ONYCHOTES 161
— Bill yellowish; nost. linear, oblique, near up. edge of cere, POLYBORUS 165
—Face with a ruff; trs. twice 3t.; up. tail-coverts white, . . . Circus 151

— Hawks without these characters, ....... . . . . BUTEO 159

(Z) PRIMARIES, —10; the Ist (never spurious) always more than | as long as the longest. (a)
(Z) PRIMARIES, —10; the Ist (spurious or) at most not % as long as the longest. (b)
(Z) PRIMARIES,— 9; the lst (never spurious) of variable length. (e)
(a) Feet syndactylous ; bill serrate: middle tail feathers long-exserted, . . . . . . . . . » Momorus 112
—not serrate, middle tail feathers not exserted, . . . jee) CRRYER IS
(a) Feet normal ; tail of 10 feathers; more than 6 secondaries ; trs. feathered; 4t. 3-jointed, » PANYPTILA 116
—naked; tailnotspiny, . NEPHC@CETES 117

—spiny, . . CH®TURA 118

—only 6 secondaries ; bill subulate,=or>head. (a?)
(a?) Trs. feathered. Grass-green, head striped with black and white, .... . . . HELIOP®DICA 119
—naked; b. serrate, twice=head. Black below, throatnot scaly, ... . . . . . LAMPORNIS 120
—not serrate; Ist primary rigid; tailtruncate. Green, .. » »« « . STELLULA 123

—notrigid; attenuate; or—rufous on sides; or crown scaly, SELASPHORUS 122
—not attenuate; norufous; throat green, . ARGYRTRIA 124
—not green, . . TROCHILUS 121
(a) Feet normal; tail of 12 feathers: 1st primary —attenuate; tail>wings, forficate, . . . . MILvuLUs 104
—not>wings: forked or not, TYRANNUS 105
—not attenuate; crown plain, or full-crested. (a*)

(a®) Tail =or little < wing, not forked, edged with chestnut; trs.=or>3tcl., . MYIARCHUS 106
—slightly or not forked; not edged: trs.>3tcl.,. . . SAYORNIS 107
— much < wing., a little forked; trs.<3tcel. Length 6} or more. . . . CONTOPUS 108

—<or nearly =we., barely or not forked: trs.=or>3tcl. Length 6} in. or less. (a4)
(at) Colors greenish, olive, etc.; no buff, red or pure brown, . . EMPIDONAX 109
— brownish olive, etc.; buffy below. Subcrested, . MirrerPHoRuS 110
— fiery (or rosy) red, and deep brown; ¢ full-crested, PyYROCEPHALUS 111
(b) Tarsus * booted ;” wings < tail, both much rounded; plumage remarkably lax, . .. . . CHAM@A 11
wings > tail; nostrils linear; no rictal bristles; plumage close. Aquatic, CINCLUS 7
—not linear: taildouble-rounded, ... . . . . MYIADESTES 52
—not double-rounded. Under5in.long, RrEGuLUS 9

Over din. long. (b?)
(b?) Tarsus not>mid. toe andclaw. Bluethe chief color, . . oy et SEATS 0G
—>mid. toe andclaw. Noblue, Tail only 3 the ies - SAXICOLA 5
—morethan ?thewing, TuRDUS 1
(b) Tursus scutellate; nostrils covered with tufts of antrorse bristly feathers. (c)
—nostrils exposed; base of bill with few such feathers, or none. (d)

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 9

i? res = a soe, ~! See ee, eee

66 KEY TO THE GENERA.

(¢) Bill— strongly epignathous, toothed and notched near tip. Gray, wings and tail black, . COLLURIO
—paragnathous. Not7 in. long; b. nearly =hd., wg. much>tL., trs.not>3tcl, . . . . SITTA
— barely or not } as long as hd.—Crested, . . LOPHOPHANES
—Not crested. (c¢?)
(c2) Head yellow; bend of wing chestnut, . . . . AURIPARUS
—not yell.; crown and throat blk. or dark,. . . . PARUS
— crown ashy or light brown, . PSALTREPARUS

15
13
14

—Over7long. Crested. Blue, with black bars on wings and tail, . Cyanurus 100

No crest. Iridescent b/k. and wht.; wgs.much<tl, . . PIcA
—Uniform glossy bik.; wgs.much>tl, . . CoRyusS
— Gray; bik. wgs.> blk. and wht. tail, PICICORVUS

99
95
96

— Gray; no blue; wgs.about=tail, . PERISOREUS 103
— Blue, &c., no green or yellow, . . APHELOCOMA 101
— Blue, black, green and yellow, . . . XANTHOURA 102

(d) Length over 14 inches; color dark brown; rounded tail not< wings, .. +. . + + PSILORHINUS
—10—12 inches; color all blue, square tail< wings, . . .... +... . + « GYMNOKITTA
—7—S inches; glossy black (@ brown) with large white wing patch. Crested, . PH®NOPEPLA
—41!—b5L inches; brown, streaked, below white, tail feathers rigid, acuminate, . . . CERTHIA
—4—5 inches; bluish gray, unstreaked, below wht., tail soft, blk. and white, . . POLIOPTILA
—4—5in.; olive-green, below yellowish, tail like back, pill not hooked, . . PHYLLOPNEUSTE
—4}—61; greenish or grayish olive, wht’sh or yell’sh below, bill distinctly hooked at tip, VIREO
(d) Birds presenting no one of the foregoing combinations of characters. (d?)
(a2) Rictus bristled; inner toe cleft to base; wg. not < tail; b. little<head, .. . . OREOSCOPTES
—<tail; billmuch<head, ... . . Mirus
—little<,=, or>hd., HARPORHYNCHUS
—unbristled; breast— with distinct round black spots; b.<hd., . . . . CAMPYLORHYNCHUS
—unspotted; back— uniform in color; wg.=or< tail; b.<head, . TurRyoTHorus
—speckled: throat pure white; b.nearly=hd., . . . CATHERPES
—streaked; b.much<hd, . . . SALPINCTES
— barred crosswise; tailnearly=wg.; ... . . . TROGLODYTES
—much<weg., . - . . . . ANORTHURA
— streaked lengthwise; bill about § as long as phead: TELMATODYTES
—hardly or not }=hd., . CisTorHorRus
(e) Bill metagnathous ; both mandibles faleate, their points crossed, . . . . - . » « CURYVIROSTRA
(e) Tarsus scutellate behind: hind claw straight ; nostrils concealed; little ear tufts, . . « EREMOPHILA
(e) Quills (usually) tipped with red horny appendages ; tail tipped with yellow. Crested, . . . AMPELIS
(e) Tomia of up. mand. toothed or lobed near middle. Bright red, or greenish and yellow, . . PYRANGA
(e) Greenish or grayish-olive, below golden yellow, belly white, lores black. Length 7-8 inches, . ICTERIA
(e) Greenish or grayish-olive, below white or yellow; bill notched and hooked at tip. Length 5;—6;, VIREO
(e) Birds with no one of these special characters.— Commissure* straight or gently curved. (f£)
— Commissure* abruptly angulated. (i)
-(f) Bill triangular-depressed, about as wide at base as long, gape twice as long as culmen, reaching
to about opposite eyes, trs. not > outer lateral toe and claw; 1st primary =or>2d. (g)
(£) Bill not nearly so wide as long, gape not twice as long as culmen; trs. > lateral toes. (h)
(g) Outer web of 1st primary saw-like, with a series of minute recurved hooks,. . . STELGIDOPTERYX
(g) A little feathery tuft at base of hind toe. Plain gray, below white, breast like back, . . . COTYLE
(g) No hooks nor tuft. Tail deeply forked, outer feathers attenuate, or with white spots, . . HiRUNDO
— forked. Below, pure white; above, lustrous or velvety. . . TACHYCINETA
— forked. Uniform lustrous blue-black, or partly white below, . . PROGNE
— barely or not forked. Rump not colored like back, . . . PETROCHELIDON
(h) Longest secondary nearly = primaries in closed wing; hind claw slightly curved, twice as long
as middle claw.—Tail not < wing. No spots or streaks below, ... .. . +. . . . BUDYTES
—< wing; trs.>hind toe andclaw. Breast spotted, . . . . . ANTHUS
—not> tcl. Back and breast spotted, - « « » NEOCORYS
(h) Longest secondary much < primaries in closed wing; hind claw well curved, not nearly twice
as long as middle claw. (h*)
(h2) Rictus with many conspicuous bristles reaching decidedly beyond nostrils. (h*)
(h2) Rictus with no evident bristles or a few short ones reaching little if any beyond nostrils. (4)
(h®) Bill barely or not twice as long as wide at base; tail blk. and orange, or brn, and yell., SETOPHAGA
(hb) Bill fully twice as long as wide; tail unmarked, or with white blotches, . . . . MYIODIOCTES
(bh!) Trs. <, or about=3tel.; hind toe much> its claw. Entirely blk. and wht., streaked, MNIOTILTA
—little>its claw; breast andrump yellow, . . . CERTHIOLA
(h‘) Trs.>3tel.; tl. not<wgs. Olive, with yell. below, hd. of & with blk. orashy, . . GEOTHLYPIS
—<wes.; tail feathers ye/ow on inner webs, dusky on outer webs, DENDROECA
—all unmarked, same color on both webs. (h5)
—(some or all) marked with white blotches. (h®)

98
97

* As this important distinction may not be perfectly plain to the student in some dried (especially if distorted) speci-
imens, it may help him to be here told, that (/) will take him to the swallows and the great warbler group of little insec-
tivorous birds; while (2) will carry him to the blackbirds, orioles, meadow starlings, cowbirds, and bobolinks, and the

great controstral granivorous finch family, including grosbeaks, linnets, buntings, finches, and all the sparrows.

9
“

bisa a gi gS Bel, # en

KEY TO THE GENERA.

(h5) Conspicuously streaked below; crown plain, or with 2 black stripes, . . .. .. . . SEIURUS
(h5) No streaks below; b. at least }inch long; 4 black stripes on head, or none,. . . HELMITHERUS
—not inch long; wg.> 2% in.; crown plain or with black, . . . OPORORNIS

—<2}in.; crown plain, or with bright spot, HELMINTHOPHAGA

(h®*) Rictal bristles not evident; b.at least } inch long; whole hd. and neck rich yellow, PROTONOTARIA
bill< fin. long; whole head and neck not yellow, HELMINTHOPHAGA

(h*) Rictal bristles evident; hind toe much>its claw. Length underSinches, .... . PARULA
—little if any longer thanitsclaw, .... . . . . DENDROECA

(i) Length Zess than 5 in., wing and tail 2 in. or less, tailfeathers acute, . . .. . . . . SPERMOPHILA
(i) Hind claw slightly curved, twice as long as middleclaw, .. . «+ « « « »« PLECTROPHANES
(i) Feathers of crown bristle-tipped. Streaked: below yellow, with black hore patch, . . STURNELLA
(i) Longest secondary nearly = primary in closed wgs. Black, with white wing patch, . CALAMOSPIZA
(i) Conspicuously crested. Red the prevailing color. Bill reddish, face black, . . . . . CARDINALIS
—not reddish, face not black, . PYRRHULOXIA

(i) Tail-feathers acute. Black, nape buff, 7; or streaked yell’sh-brn., 9; wg.>3 inches, . DOLICHONYX

— Small streaked marsh-sparrows, wg. <3 inches, its edge yell., . AMMODROMUS
(i) Colors greenish and white, with yell. on edge of wing; —rufous head-stripes, . . . . EMBERNAGRA
—crown chestnut, breast ashy
(i) Length about 8 in.; ¢#2.>wgs. Plain brown, &c., or black, white and chestnut, - » PIPIZO
(i) Inner claw reaching at least 4 way to tip of 3cl. Black, white and chestnut, j
—BIk. (or brn.) hd. yellow; > 8 long, XANTHOCEPHALUS
— Spotted and streaked; <8long, . . . PASSERELLA

(i) Birds with none of the foregoing combinations of chars.— Bill with a ruff of antrorse bristly seathers.
— Bill without ruff; nostrils exposed. (1)
(k) Length—8 or more. Jed, or gray with brownish yellow onheadandrump, .. . . . . PINICOLA
—under 8. White, with blk. onwgs. and tl.; or washed with clear brown, . PLECTROPHANES

— Bluish-gray, below reddish-gray, crown, face, wgs. &tl., blk. . . PYRRHULA
— Reddish-brown, blk.-streaked, crown ashy, throat blk. Imported, . PASSER
— Unstreaked, chocolate-brown, rosy-tinted, hd. with blk. and ash, LEUCOSTICTE
— Streaked: no yell., crown crimson, face and throat dusky, . . . AEGIOTHUS
— Streaked: no yell.; no red; or else crown, and throat too, red, . CARPODACUS
—Streaked or not: with some yellow, buf{nored, . .. . . . CHRYSOMITRIS

(1) Species at least over 7 inches long. (m)

(1) Species at most not over 7 inches long; plumage nowhere decidedly spotted or streaked. (n)

90
77
(k)

56
63
57
76
60
61
58
62

— somewhere or everywhere spotted or streaked. (0)

(with head and neck rich brown, ... . . . . MOLOTHRUS
(m) Bill jet-black ; plumage glossy blk., | with head, neck and breast yellow, . . . . XANTHOCEPHALUS

(plumage of 9 plain brown) * 4 with head black, bend of wing red, . . . . . . . AGELHUS
P B P | with no red or yell.; tailrounded,< wg., . . SCOLECOPHAGUS
L — graduated, =or Se 5 « « QUISCALUS

(m) Bill dark horn-blue, very acute; plumage black, with orange, yellow, or white,

—plain olivaceous, ne 20. Gym HORE

— obtuse; plumage blk., white and brown, tl. with wht. spots, . . GONIAPITEA

(m) Bill greenish-yellow, as long as tarsus; wes. black, many secondaries white, . . . HESPERIPHONA
(m) Bill not bluish nor greenish; tail with white spots; under wg.-coverts rosy or yellow, . GONIAPHEA
—notrosy or yell.; yg. of, . PIPILO

tail plain; entire plumage streaked. Qof..... .. . AGELEUS

(n) Black and chestnut, or orange, ¢, or olive yellowish below, 2; b. acute, horn blue, or brn., ICTERUS
(n) Dusky grayish-brown, nearly uniform; bill blackish, obtuse. Q of .... .. . . MOLOTHRUS
(n) Blackish, or ashy, belly and 1 to 3 outer tail feathers white; billflesh color, ..... . . JUNCO

(n) Throat and tail black, latter with white spots: head with 2 white stripes, . . + » «. POOSPIZA
(n) Blue, with or without red, purplish, &c.; or greenish and yell.; or plain brown; ‘<6 long, CYANOSPIZA
(n) Blue, with chestnut on wings, #; or plain brown, 9; >6long, ... A » . . GONIAPHEA

(0) Wings> tail; breast more or less yellow; throat patch, or maxillary aoreuke biguke - .« » « HUSPIZA
—not yell.; wg.<2% inches, its edge yellow; tail2in. orless,. . . COTURNICULUS

> 2} in., — without yell.; lesser wg.-cov. chestnut, . . POOECETES

with yell. or not; longest sec. nearly=prim..PASSERCULUS

—without yell.; longest sec. much<primaries, CENTRONYX

(0) Wings not> tail; tailforked. Lgth.5 to 6 in., wg. or tl. 2} to3,trs.¢toj, . . . . . . . SPIZELLA
—graduated, tipped with wht.; head striped with chestnut and wht., CHONDESTES

—little rounded, black, outer feather paleedged, ..... .. + . POOSPIZA

—not black. Streaked below or crown chesinut, . . MELOSPIZA

Not streaked below. Lgth.6ormore, ZONOTRICHIA

Length under6in., . PEUCHA

:

SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS

OF

NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS’?

Subclass I. AVES AEREZ, or INSESSORES.

AERIAL BIRDS, or PERCHERS.

Tue first and highest one of three primary divisions of the classt Aves, embrac-
ing all existing birds down to the Galline.

The knee and part of the thigh are free from the body, and the leg is almost
always feathered to or beyond the tibio-tarsal joint. With rare exceptions, the
toes are all on the same level, and touch the support throughout; being thus fitted
for grasping or perching. In other respects the members of this great group are too
various to be defined by external characters, unless it be negatively, in the absence
of the special features of the other two groups. They are Altrices. They are now

usually divided into jive Orders, of which the first is the

Order PASSERES. Perchers Proper.

The feet are perfectly adapted for grasping by the length and low insertion of
the hind toe, great power of opposing which to the front toes, and great mobility
of which, are secured by separation of its principal muscle from that that bends
the other toes collectively. The hind toe is always present, and never turned for-

* North of the present Mexican Boundary; inclusive of Lower California; exclusive of Greenland.

tAs commonly received, without recognizing, however, the fossil Archwopteryx (see Introd. § p. 12) a meso-
zoic bird, which probably alone represents a primary group Saurure; admitting which, some high authorities
then divide all existing birds into two other primary groups, atite (Ostriches), in which the sternum has no
keel, and Carinate, embracing all other birds. On this basis, our Aves aéree would represent a group of less
value than a subclass; and I desire to be understood as using this term provisionally, in a conventional sense,

(69)

Bey grate Se te aes eee

70 OSCINES, SINGING BIRDS.

wards or even sideways; its claw is as long as, or longer than, the claw of the
middle toe. The feet are never zygodactyle, nor syndactyle, nor semipalmate,
though the front toes are usually immovably joined to each other at base, for a
part, or the whole, of the basal joints. Various as are the shapes of the wings,
these members agree in having the great row of coverts not
longer than half the secondaries; the primaries either nine
or ten in number, and the secondaries more than six. The
tail, extremely variable in shape, has twelve rectrices (with
certain anomalous exceptions). The bill is too variable to
furnish characters of groups higher than families; but it is

always cérneous, either wholly or in part, is never largely

membranous, as in many wading and swimming birds, nor
A\ cered, as in birds of prey. No Passeres are known to have

Fic. 12. Passerine foot. more than one common carotid artery ; and they all have the
sternum cast in one particular mould, with slight minor modifications of shape.
They are the typical Insessores, as such representing the highest grade of develop-
ment, and the most complex organization, of the class. Their high physical
irritability is codrdinate with the rapidity of their respiration and circulation; they
consume the most oxygen, and live the fastest, of all birds. They habitually reside
above the earth, in the air that surrounds it, among the plants that with them adorn
it ; not on the ground, nor on “‘ the waters under the earth.”

Passeres, corresponding to the Insessores proper of most ornithologists, and
comprising the great majority of birds, are divisible into two groups, commonly
called suborders, mainly according to the structure of the lower larynx. In one,
this organ is a complex muscular vocal apparatus; in the other the singing parts
are less developed, rudimentary, or wanting. In the first, likewise, the tarsus is
normally covered on either side with two entire horny plates, that meet behind
in a sharp ridge; in the other, these plates are subdivided or otherwise differently
arranged. This latter is about the only external feature that can be pointed out
as of extensive applicability ; and even this does not always hold good. For
example, among our birds, the larks (Alaudide), held to be Oscine, and certainly
to be called songsters, have the tarsus perfectly scutellate behind.

Suborder OSCINES. Singing Birds.

The first and higher of the two suborders just indicated. All of the birds com-
posing it have a more or less complex yocal apparatus, consisting of five pairs
of muscles ; but many of them do not sing.

It is a question, which one of the numerous Oscine families should be placed at
the head of the series. Largely, perhaps, through the influence of those orni-
thologists who hold that fusion of the tarsal envelope into one continuous plate
indicates the acmé of bird-structure, the place of honor has of late been usually

VX

ee ee ee eS eee eee

ee eee

TURDID&, THRUSHES.— GEN. 1. dat

assigned to the thrushes. But only a part of the thrushes themselves show this
character ; on which account, probably, the rest were associated by Cabanis with
the wrens. It seems to me most probable that this character, though unques-
tionably of high import, should be taken as of less value than the reduction of the
number of primaries from ten to nine; and I am at present inclined to believe that
eventually some Oscine family with only nine primaries—as the finches or tanagers
—will take the leading position. Here, however, I follow usage.

Family TURDIDA. Thrushes.

The oval nostrils are nearly or quite reached, but not covered, by feathers.
There are bristles in all our genera about the rictus and base of upper mandible.
The toes are deeply cleft, the inner one almost to its very base, the outer to the
end of its basal joint. The bill is not conical, nor deeply fissured, and wswally has
a slight notch near the tip. There are 12 tail-feathers (in all our forms), and
10 primaries, of which the 1st is short or spurious, and the 2d is shorter than the
4th. Our two subfamilies are sharply defined by the character of the tarsus.

Subfamily TURDINA. Typical Thrushes.

With the tarsus, in the adult, enveloped in one continuous plate, or ‘ boot,”
formed by fusion of all the scutella except two or three just above the toes. Thus
easily distinguished ; for our few other birds that show this feature are very differ-
ent in other respects. The 1st quill is spurious or very short; the 2d is longer
than the 6th; the 4th toe is longer than the 2d. Upwards of one hundred and
fifty recorded species are now usually assigned to the Turdinew proper, most of
them being referable to the single genus Turdus with its subgenera. They are
nearly cosmopolitan, and have a great development in the warmer parts of
America, where the subfamily is, however, mainly represented by types closely
allied to Turdus proper; more aberrant forms, constituting very distinct genera,
occur in the old world. We have but one genus in the United States, of which the
robin is the most familiar example, though several other species are common and
well known birds. These are diffused over all the woodland parts of our country,
and are all strictly migratory. They are insectivorous, but like many other insect-
eating birds, feed much upon berries and other soft fruits. Although not truly
gregarious, some, as the robin for instance, often collect in troops at favorite feed-
ing places, or migrate in companies. They build rather rude nests, often plastered
with mud, never pensile, but saddled on a
bough, or fixed in a forked branch, or on
the ground; and lay 4-6 greenish or
bluish eggs, sometimes plain, sometimes
spotted. They are all vocal, and some,
like the woodthrush, are exquisitely melo-
dious.

1. Genus TURDUS Linneus.

* Not spotted nor banded below ; throat AY
streaked. (Subgenus Planesticus.) FG. 13. Robin; natural size.

Robin. Dark olive-gray, head and tail blackish; below reddish-brown,
throat black and white, under tail coverts and crissum white with dark marks,

72 TURDIDZ THRUSHES.—GEN. 1.

eyelids and tips of outer tail-feathers with white spots, bill brown or yellow,

feet dark. Very young birds are spotted aboye. 9-10 long, wing 5-53,

tail 4-44. N. Am. Nest in trees and bushes; eggs plain. WIzs., i, 35,

pl. 2; Aup., iii, 14 pl., 142; Norr., i, 338; Bp., 218. . MIGRATORIUS.
Var. confinis, described from Cape St. Lucas, is paler, duller, &c. Bop., Rey. 29.
** Banded crosswise, not spotted, below. (Subgenus Hesperocichla.)

Varied Thrush. Slate-color, below orange-brown, with black pectoral
band which runs up on sides of neck and head ; crissum and under tail coverts
whitish ; eyelids, postocular stripe, 2 wing-bars and much edging of quills,
orange-brown ; bill dark, feet pale; ? and young, duller, browner, pectoral
bar obscure, ete. Size of the last. Pacific slopes, N. Am.: accidental in
Mass., N. J. and Long Island. Avp., iii,
22, pl. 143; Bp., 219: » 5 = NasvIUS:

*** Spotted, not banded, below. (Sub-
genus LHylocichia.)

+ Upper parts not uniform in color.*

t{Upper parts tawny, shading into olive
on rump.

Wood Thrush. Under parts white,
barely or not buff-tinted, marked with
large distinct dusky spots, middle of throat and belly only immaculate ; bill
dusky and yellowish; legs flesh-color; 7-8 long; wing 4-44, tail 3-34.
Eastern United States. Nest in bushes and low trees; eggs plain. Wus.,
i, 35, pl. 2; Nurr., i, 343; Avup., iii, 24, pl. 144; Bp., 212. musTexius.

Fic. 14. Wood Thrush; natural size.

ti Upper parts olive, shading into rufous on rump and tail.

Hermit Thrush. Under parts white, with slight buffy tint anteriorly
and olive shade on sides, breast and sides of throat thickly marked with
large distinct dusky spots; bill dusky and yellowish; legs pale. About 7
long; wing 34, tail 23. Eastern (and Arctic) North America. Nest in
bushes; eggs plain. Wius., v, 95, but not his fig. 2 of pl. 45; Nurv., i,
346; Aupasgige29; pl. 1465 Bp. 212. 2 se. 6. ee 2 eae

Var. auduboni, is entirely similar in color, but rather larger. South-west-
ern United States into Mexico. Bp., Rev. 16.

Var. nanus, is entirely similar in color, but rather smaller. Rocky Mountains
to Pacific. Aup., iii, 32, pl. 147; Bp., 223; Rev. 16; Coor., 4.

+7 Upper parts uniform in color.*

—- Upper parts olive.

Olive-backed Thrush. Under parts white, olive-shaded on sides, the fore

parts and sides of head and eyelids strongly tinged with buff, the breast
and throat thickly marked with large dusky-olive spots. 63-73 long; wing

* Very young birds of all the species of Hylocichla are spotted above; but these spots disappear the first
autumn, and then the ground color is always as stated.

© ele Ot eta et

oe tw

ie

TURDID®, THRUSHES. —GEN. 1. 73

34-4, tail 23-3. North America, except perhaps south-west U.S. Nest in
bushes ; eggs speckled. Wuus., v, pl. 45, f. 2, but not his description on p.
Siete German cet Pah Hate cR ed sy: rehome Med cle SSWEAINSONT:

Var. aliciew. Alice’s Thrush. Similar; but without any buffy tint about head,
nor yellowish ring around eye; averaging a trifle larger, with longer, slenderer bill.
Much the same distribution, but breeds further north. Nest and eggs similar.
Bp., 217, and Rey. 21. :

Var. ustulatus. Similar; but with the upper parts slightly suffused with
tawny, and the spots below smaller, fewer and paler; thus approximating to the
following species. -Nest and eggs, however, as in swainsoni. Pacific Coast, U.S.
Norr., 2d ed. i, 400; Bp., 215; Coor., 5.

—-— Upper parts tawny.

Wilson’s Thrush. Veery. Under parts white, with olive shade on sides,
and strong fulvous (almost pinkish-brown) tint on breast; breast and sides
of neck with very small, sparse, sometimes indistinct dusky spots. 7-73
long; wing 4-44, tail 34. Eastern N. Am. Nest built on the ground;
egos plain. Wiuts., v, 98, pl. 43; Nurr., i, 349; Avup., iii, 27, pl. 145;
sie lee ema hats a Sk Thicey ee ws, cs Oe av “a MABUSCESCENS.

Subfamily MIMIN AE. Mocking Thrushes.

Distinguished from the last by having the tarsus scutellate in front, the tail
longer and rounder (usually longer than the wings, but not so in Oreoscoptes), the
wings shorter and rounder, with 1st primary hardly to be called spurious. Birds
very much like overgrown wrens (with which they used to be associated), but dis-
tinguished therefrom by more deeply cleft toes, different nostrils, and bristly rictus
(compare diagnoses of the two families). The
bill is usually longer, or at least slenderer, and
more curved than in the typical thrushes: in ~-——~_

some species of Harporhynchus it attains ex- Ze as Oe gee i
traordinary length and curvature. As a group ») lj rec a
they are rather southern, hardly passing be- ria (

yond the United States; and attaining their / ee ees,

maximum development in Central and South ee
. na ~

America. The Mimine may be properly re-

stricted to these American birds, represented

by the genera Mimus, Harporhynchus, and five or six other closely related forms.
Upwards of forty species are recorded, about two-thirds of which are certainly

\

~
Fig. 15. Bills of Harporhynchi; natural size.

- genuine. About one-half of the current species fall in the genus Mimus alone; of

Harporhynchus, all but one of the known species occur within our own limits. In
their general habits they resemble the true thrushes; but they habitually reside
nearer the ground, relying for self-preservation more upon the concealment of the
shrubbery, than upon their own activity and vigilance. They are all melodious,
and some, like the mockingbird, are celebrated songsters, famous for their powers
of mimicry, and their brilliant vocal execution. In compensation, perhaps, for this
great gift, they are plainly clad, grays and browns being the prevailing colors. The
nest is generally placed in a bush; the eggs, four or five in number, are greenish-
blue, plain or speckled.
KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 10

iat

74 TURDIDZ, THRUSHES.—GEN. 2, 3.

2. Genus OREOSCOPTES Baird.

Mountain Mockingbird. Brownish ash, below whitish, shaded behind,
thickly spotted with dusky; 8; wing nearly 5; tail 4. Rocky Mountain
region of United States. Avp., ii, 194, pl. 139; Bp., 347. . MonraNnus.

3. Genus MIMUS Boie.

Mockingbiri. Ashy gray, below white, slightly shaded across breast
and along sides, wings and tail blackish, former with two white bars, and
much white at base of primaries, latter with 1-3 outer feathers partly or
wholly white. The g is known by the much greater extent of white on the
primaries, which is the mark of a “singer,” as he is called, the ? being
songless, in captivity at any rate; young birds are spotted below the first
autumn. 9-10 long; wing about 4; tail about 5 (nearly 6 in var. from
California). Southern U. 8. to Massachusetts, but not common north of
38°; thronging the groves of the South Atlantic and Gulf States. Two or
three broods are generally reared each season. When taken from the nest,
the mockingbird becomes a contented captive; and has been known to live
many years in confinement. Naturally an accomplished songster, he proves
an apt scholar, susceptible of improvement by education to an astonishing
degree ; but there is a great difference with individual birds in this respect.
Wuts., ii, 14, pl. 10, fig. 1; Avp., ii, 187, pl. 137; Bp., 344. potyeLorrus.

Fic. 16. Mockingbird; about 3 natural size.

Catbird. Blackish-ash, or dark slate; crown and tail black; under tail
coverts chestnut. 8-9 long; wing 32, tail 4. Eastern United States; also
Washington Territory, Mexico, Central America and Bermuda. An abund-
ant and familiar inhabitant of our groves and briery tracts, remarkable for
its harsh ery, like the mewing of a cat (whence its name), but also possessed

a

TURDIDZ, THRUSHES.—GEN. 4. 75

of no mean vocal powers. *,* The tarsal scutella are frequently obsolete.
Wus., ii, 90, pl. 14, f. 3; Aup., ii, 195, pl.140; Bp., 346. cARoLINENsIS.

4. Genus HARPORHYNCHUS Cabanis.

* Bill equal to or shorter than head, not, or not much, curved; tail moderately
longer than wings. reast spotted.

Brown Thrush. Thrasher. Sandy Mockingbird. Reddish-brown,
below white, with more or less tawny tinge, and thickly spotted with dark
brown, except on throat and middle of belly, the spots lengthening into
_streaks on the sides; wings with two white bars; tail feathers with pale
tips; bill black, yellow below; feet pale; iris yellow; about 11 long;
wing 4, tail 5 or 6; bill nearly straight, 1 inch long. Eastern United
States; a delightful songster, abundant in thickets, ete. Wuus., ii, 83, pl.
HERON COMED cO00cr. Lh) 5 2 4s 6 4 «6 « © RURUS:

Var. longirostris. Long-billed Thrush. Somewhat similar; darker brown
above; the markings below blackish ; bill longer and a little more curved. Mexico
to the Rio Grande. Bop., 352, pl. 52; Rev., 44.

Curve-billed Thrush. Dull grayish-brown, below whitish, breast, ete.,
spotted with color of the back, wing coverts and lateral tail feathers tipped
with white; size of the last; bill over an inch long, and decidedly curved.
Valley of Rio Grande and Colorado. Bp. 351, pl. 51. . CURVIROSTRIS.

Cinereous Thrush. Brownish-ash, below whitish, shaded with fulvous,
especially behind, and with brown spots; two wing-bars and tips of lateral
tail feathers obscurely white. Rather smaller than the foregoing. Cape St.
Lucas. Bp., Pr. Acad. Phil. 1859, 303, and Rev. 46; Extror, pl. 1;
Sipe ee eee ee \ a) LR a sy CC, CINEREUS,

**Bill longer than head, arcuate! Tail much longer than wings. Breast not
spotted.

Sickle-billed Thrush. Californian Mockingbird. Dark oily olive-
brown, paler below, deepening into rusty brown on belly and under tail
coverts; throat rusty whitish; auriculars streaked : bill black, at a maximum
of curvature, about 14. long, but very variable in length and degree of
curve ; tarsus about 1$; total length 11 or more; wing 4 or less, tail 5 or
6 inches long. Coast region of California. Cass., Ill. 260, pl. 43; Bo.,
349; Rev. 48; .Coor., Ger ee ee ere ae en At Se REDIVEVUSS

Var. lecontei. Leconte’s Thrush. Pale ash, still paler below, shading into
brownish-yellow on under tail coverts ; throat whitish, with slight maxillary streaks ;
bill black; no decided markings anywhere. A bleached desert race. Colorado
Valley; only two specimens known. (Ft. Yuma, Leconte; Ft. Mojave, Coues.)
Bp., 350, pl. 50; Rev. 47; Coopr., 17.

_Crissal Thrush. Olive-brown, paler on throat and belly ; throat whitish
with blackish maxillary streaks ; under tail coverts chestnut in marked con-
trast; auriculars slightly streaked; bill black. Size of the last, or rather
larger; tail 6 or more. Valley of Rio Grande and Colorado. Bp., 351,
Pelee Ads OOORs LS) 5 us +) lf} CU eo ws SCRISSALIS.

}
&
13

76 SAXICOLIDA, BLUEBIRDS.—GmN. 5, 6.

Family SAXICOLIDA. Stone-chats and Bluebirds.

Chiefly Old World ; represented in North America by one European strageler and
the familiar bluebirds ; authors assign different limits to it, and frequently trans-
pose the genera; it might come under Twrdide
without violence. As usually constituted, it
contains upwards of one hundred species, com-
monly referred to about a dozen genera. Like
most other groups of Passeres, it has never been
defined with precision, the family being known,
conventionally, by the birds ornithologists put
in it. The following birds have booted tarsi;
oval nostrils; bristled rictus; rather short,

Fic. 17. Stone-chat; natural size. square or emarginate tail; long, pointed wings,
with very short spurious Ist quill, and the tip formed by the 2d, 3d and 4th quills.

5. Genus SAXICOLA Bechstein.

Stone-chat. Wheat-ear. Adult :—ashy gray; forehead, superciliary line
and under parts white, latter often brownish-tinted; upper tail coverts
white, wings and tail black, latter with most of the feathers white for half
their length ; line from nostril to eye, and broad band on side of head, black ;
bill and feet black ; young everywhere ‘cinnamon-brown, paler below ; wing
34, tail 24, tarsus 1; middle toe and claw 3. Atlantic coast, astray from
Europe vid Greenland; also, North Pacific Coast, from Asia. Cass., IIl.,
2085) pl. O41; HD., 220 sand: deve Oily) s) ) rer eeeutsy es) espe seu veematCNAUNGIQERT ETS

: 6. Genus SIALIA Swainson.

*.* More or less blue: bill and feet black; 2 grayish or brownish, with blue
traces, especially on rump, wings and tail. Young like the 2, but curiously
spotted. 6-7 long, wing 33-44, tail 23-3}, bill 4 or less, tarsus # or less.

Eastern Bluebird. @ rich sky-blue, uniform above; below reddish-
brown, belly white. Eastern U. S. Wits. i, 56, pl. 3; Nur. i, 445;
Ls LVL spl. LEAS IBD. 5 222 25 eee eh, seats oun fees Re een S PALS

Western Bluebird. @ above, and the throat, deep blue, with a dorsal
patch of same color as breast and sides, which are rather darker than in the
last species ; belly dull bluish-gray. Rocky Mountains to Pacific. Nurr.,
1, Olds AwD., ii, 176, spl.i3o% bps, 223) Coops, 28.) a. = MEXICANS

Arctic Bluebird. @ everywhere clear pale blue, with a faint green
shade, paler below, fading into white on belly. Chiefly central region of
N. A., from 65° into Mexico; also Pacific coast. Nurr., 514; Aup., ii,
Vkohy eles lei EER Coro yb 6 Glee 986 Gy oe 6 VANORUGA.

Family CINCLIDA. Dippers.

Aquatic! thrush-like birds (formerly included under Turdide), with thickset
bodies, compact plumage to resist water, short, stiff, concave wings, with 10 prima-

es He”

CINCLIDH, DIPPERS. SYLVIIDA, SYLVIAS.—GEN. 7, 8. 77
ries of which the 1st is spurious, still shorter, square tail, almost hidden by the
coverts, linear nostrils, slender bill, almost a little turned up (gonys convex, cul-
men slightly concave), with no trace of rictal bristles. There is only one genus,
with about a dozen species, all inhabiting clear mountain streams of most parts of
the world, easily progressing wnder water; feed on
aquatic animal substances; moderately vocal; our
species builds a remarkable and elegant dome-like
nest of moss, with a hole in one side.

7. Genus CINCLUS Bechstein.

Wes

Water Ouzel. Dipper. Lead-colored, nearly — ¥16- 18-_ Dipper; natural size.
uniform, but apt to be brownish on head; 7; wing 34; tail 24. Rocky
Mountain region of N. A. Nurr., ii, 569; Aup., ii, 182, pl. 137; Bo.,
229); Coopr., 25. MER rec ncistm Geet ay wads dice cya. SUM RT OAN TS:

Family SYLVIIDA. Sylvias.

A large family, chiefly Old World, sparingly represented in the New. Primaries
10, the 1st short or spurious, about half the 2d, which is shorter than the 6th;
bill slender, about straight, shorter than the head, usually slightly notched and
hooked at tip; rictus bristly; nostrils exposed, or slightly overhung, but never
densely hidden: part have booted tarsi, and these are difficult to distinguish
technically from Turdine and Sawicolide, but here size is a good criterion, none
of our Sylviide being over five inches long; the rest, with scutellate tarsi, are of
course distinguishable on sight from the last mentioned families; from the
Certhiide, by not having stiff acuminate tail-feathers; from the Paride and
Sittide by not haying densely feathered nostrils; from the Troglodytide, by the
less cohesion of the toes at base; and from all the Sylvicolidee by haying more
than nine primaries. Three subfamilies occur in North America; one of them,
Polioptiline, peculiar to this country, used to be associated with the Paride, with
which, howeyer, it has no special affinity ; another, Reguline, is simply warblers
with booted tarsi; a third, Sylviinee, with its several not well defined groups, con-
stitutes an immense assemblage of upwards of five hundred recorded species,
among them the famous nightingale of Europe.

Subfamily SYLVIINA. Typical Old World Warblers.

Represented in North America by a single waif from Asia.

8. Genus PHYLLOPNEUSTE Meyer.

Kennicott’s Sylvia. Olive-green; below yellowish and white; super-
ciliary line yellow; wings and tail dusky, olive-edged ; wing coverts yellow-
ish-tipped. 43; wing 25; tail 2. Alaska (Dall). Bp., Trans. Chicago
Medd, 18695oL3, pl. 30. f 2. 25. Ae caine pe . BOREALIS.

Subfamily REGULIN 4. Kinglets.

Tarsus booted; wings longer than the emarginate tail. Elegant greenish-olive
pigmies, with brilliant colors on the head when adult. ‘There are about ten species
of the following genus, inhabiting Europe, Asia and America; two of them are

Mie . pec Dek ee nee 3

78 REGULINE, KINGLETS. POLIOPTILINE, GNATCATCHERS.—GEN. 9, 10.

very common in our woods, thickets and orchards. Migratory, insectivorous ;
have a sweet song.

9. Genus REGULUS Cuvier.

*.* Greenish-olive, below whitish or yellowish; wings and tail dusky, edged
with greenish or yellowish, wing coverts whitish-tipped. 4-41 long, wing 23-24;
tail 11-13

Ruby-crowned Hinglet. Crown with a rich scarlet patch (in both sexes,
but wanting in both the first year) ; no black about head; bill and feet black.
North America. Wus., i, 83, pl. 5,
f. i; Norn, 1, 41533Aumps, i, 1638;
pl. 1383; Bp., 227. . CALENDULUS.

Golden-crowned Iinglet. Crown
bordered in front and on sides by
black, inclosing a yellow and flame
colored patch (in the ¢; in the 9,
the scarlet wanting) ; extreme fore-
head, and Jine over eye, whitish;
young, if ever without traces of black
and yellow on the head, may be told
from the last species, by smaller size
and presence of a tiny bristly feather

overlying the nostrils; this is want- IGS @oltlensorn med Kase
ing in calendulus. North America. Wuts., i, 126, = 85 heed! 3 eA Dells
XT, Tolls Weyer) Ge Pe. >. eee eS ARR AAR

Ozss. Cuvier’s Kinglet (&. cuvieri Aup., ii, 163, es 131; Nourr., i, 416, Schuyl-
kill River, June, 1812), not now known, is said to have two black stripes on each
side of head. J. tricolor Nurv., i, 420, is R. satrapa; so is his R. eristatus, which
is the name of the European species, not found in North America.

Subfamily POLIOPTILINA. Gnateatchers.

Tarsus not booted, and wings not longer than the rounded tail; bill slender (too
thick in the figs.), depressed and well bristled at base; tip evidently overhanging
(not in the figs.) ; tarsus long, slender; toes very short. Delicate little woodland
birds, peculiar to America; migratory, insectivorous, very active and sprightly,
with sharp, squeaking notes. There are about a dozen, chiefly Central and South
American, species of the single

10. Genus POLIOPTILA Sclater.

*,* Bluish-ash, paler or white below; tail black and white; wings dusky, edged
with hoary white; bill and feet black; only 4-44 long; wing scarcely 2, tail rather
more.

Blue-gray Gnatcatcher. Clear ashy blue, bluer on head; forehead, and
line over eye, black (wanting in 9): outer tail feather white. United
States to Mass.; Arizona; Mexico. W4:1s., ii, 164, pl. 18, f. 3; Nurv., i,
297; 2d ed., i, 327; Aup., i, 244, pl. 70; Bp., 380; Coor., 35. caRuULEA.

=

PARIDZ, TITMICE, OR CHICKADEES.—GEN. 11. Us,

Black-headed Gnatcaicher. @ bluish-ash, with whole crown black. ¢
with crown like back; outer tail feather white-edged only. Southwest
United States. Cass., Ill., 164, pl. 27; Bp., 882; Coopr., 31. MELANURA.

Plumbeous Gnatcatcher. Duller
leaden gray; crown like back; a
white, and also a black (latter not |
in 2) superciliary line; whole outer @ //
web of outer tail feather, and its tip
for some distance, white. Arizona.
Bp., 382; Coor., 37. . PLUMBEA.

Family Ce par cena Wren-
its.

Recently framed for a single species,
7 : . . 2 Fic. 20. Under fig., blue-gray gnatcatcher; upper
much like a titmouse in general appear- fig. black-headed gnatcatcher; ¢, tail of the same; d,
. . tail of mbeous gnatea ane f natural size.
ance, but with the tarsus not evidently ail of plumbeous gnatcatcher; all of natural size
scutellate in front; rounded wings much shorter than the graduated tail; lores
bristly, and plumage extraordinarily soft and lax. With the general habits of
wrens, with which the species was formerly associated.

-

ll. Genus CHAMAIA Gambel.

Fasciated Tit, or Ground Wren. Dull grayish or olivaceous-brown,
below paler and more fulvous; throat and breast streaked with darker;
wings and tail brown, obscurely waved with dusky; whitish ring round
eye; iris white. 54-6; wing only 24-24, tail 84; the graduation an inch.
Coast region of California. A curious bird, with no special resemblance to
any other species. Cass., Ill., 36, pl. 7; Bp., 370; Coop., 39. Fascrara.

Family PARIDA. Titmice, or Chickadees.

7

Ours are all small (under 7 in. long) birds, at once distinguished by having 10
primaries, the 1st much shorter than the 2d; wings barely or not longer than the
tail; tail-feathers not stiff nor acuminate; tarsi scutellate, longer than the middle
toe, anterior toes much soldered at base; nostrils concealed by dense tufts, and
bill compressed, stout, straight, unnotched and much shorter than the head; charac-
ters that readily marked them off from all their allies, as wrens, creepers, etc.
Really, they are hard to distinguish, technically, from jays; but all our jays are
much over 7 inches long.

They are distributed over North America, but the crested species are rather
southern, and all but one of them western. Most of them are hardy birds, endur-
ing the rigors of winter without inconvenience, and as a consequence, none of
them are properly migratory. They are musical, after a fashion of their own,
chirping a quaint ditty ; are active, restless, and very heedless of man’s presence ;
and eat everything. Some of the western species build astonishingly large and

curiously shaped nests, pensile, like a bottle or purse with a hole in one side;

others live in knotholes, and similar snuggeries that they are said to dig out for

o
t=}

_ themselves. They are very prolific, laying numerous eggs, and raising more than

one brood a season; the young closely resemble the parents, and there are no

80 PARINE, TRUE TITMICE.—GEN. 12.

obvious seasonal or sexual changes of plumage. All but one of our species are
plainly clad; still they have a pleasing look, with their trim form and the tasteful
colors of the head. ‘ :

Subfamily PARIN A. True Titmice.

Exclusive of certain aberrant forms, usually allowed to constitute a separate
subfamily, and sometimes altogether removed from Puride, the Titmice compose
a natural and pretty well defined group, to which the foregoing diagnosis and re-
marks are particularly applicable. There may be about seventy-five good species
of the Parinc, thus restricted, most of them falling in the genus Parus, or in its
immediate neighborhood. With few exceptions they are birds of the northern
hemisphere, abounding in Europe, Asia and North America. The larger proportion
of the genera and species inhabit the Old World ; all those of the New World occur
within our limits, except two— Psaliriparus melanotis and Parus meridionalis,
which are Mexican, though they have been lately included in our systematic works.
The former is a very distinct and beautiful species; the latter is perhaps only a
southern variety of the common Chickadee.

12. Genus LOPHOPHANES Kaup.

*.*Conspicuously crested. Leaden-gray, often with a faint olivaceous shade,
paler or whitish below ;- wings and tail unmarked. (All the figures are of natural
size.)

Tufted Titmouse. Forehead alone black; nearly white below; sides
washed with rusty-brown; feet leaden-blue. Young birds have the crest
plain, thus resembling the next species; but they are
nearly white below, the sides showing rusty traces.
Largest of our species of the family, 6-64; wing 3-34,
tail about the same. Eastern United States, north to
Long Island; “Nova Scotia” (Aud.). Wus., i, 137, pl.
8, f. 5; Aup., ii; 143, pl. 125; Bp., 384: BICOLOR.

Plain Titmouse. Plain leaden gray with faint olive
shade, merely paler below; no markings anywhere.
54-6; wing and tail about 23. New Mexico, Arizona and California.
Cass., Ill., p. 19; Bp., 8386; Exxtor, pl. 3; Coor., 42. . . INORNATUS.

Black-crested Titmouse. Size of the last, or rather less; similar to the

Fic. 21. Tufted Titmouse.

Fic. 22. Plain Titmouse. Fic. 23. Black-crested Titmouse. Fic. 24. Bridled Titmouse.
first in color, but forehead whitish, and whole crest black. Valley of the

Rio Grande. Cass., p. 13, pl. 3; Bp., 385; Coor., 43. | ATRICRISTATUS.
Bridled Titmouse. -Olivaceous-ash; below soiled whitish; chin and

ie ee lt i i ae ie ae nae

PARIDE, TITMICE OR CHICKADEES.—GEN. 13, 14. 81

throat pure black; sides of head and neck white, commonly striped with
black in two or three places ; crest like back, margined with black ; smallest ;
5-54; wing and tail about 24; young with the
black head-markings obscure. New Mexico,
Arizona, and southward. Cass., Ill., 19; Bop.,
DOR COOP. 40... 5,4 = ~~ WOLLWEBERI.

13. Genus PARUS Linnzus.

* Crown and nape, with chin and throat, black,
separated by ashy or whitish; above brownish or
grayish ash, often with faint olivaceous tinge ; below
whitish or rusty or brownish shaded on sides ; wings
and tail plain, more or less whitish-edged.

+ No white superciliary line.

Titmouse. Black-capped Chickadee. Average
dimensions : — Length 54; extent 84; wing and
tail, each, 24; tarsus 7-10. Hxtremes:—
Length 43-53; extent 73-84; wing and tail ;
24-28; tarsus 3-3. North America. Every- Pagroes ee Th
where abundant. Wits., i, 137, pl. 8,f.4; Aun., ii, 146, pl. 126; Nurr.,
4A Ds, O90: Ss te) eee PAT RIOAP TE TUSs

Var. SEPTENTRIONALIS. Long-tailed Chickadee. Averaging larger; paler below,
and less shaded on sides; wings and tail much edged with whitish; tail longer
compared with the wings (nearly or quite 3). Missouri and Rocky Mountain re-
gion, Cass., Ill., 80, pl. 14; Bop., 389.

Var. CAROLINENSIS. Carolina Titmouse. Averaging smaller than P. atrica-

pillus; wings and tail less edged with whitish. Eastern United States, southerly.
Awp., ii, 152, pl. 127; Bp., 392.

+> Var. OCCIDENTALIS. Western Titmouse. Size of the first; said to be darker,

with longer tarsi. Pacific Coast. Bup., 391.

77 A distinct white line in the black over eyes and across forehead.

Mountain Chickadee. Otherwise exactly like P. atricapillus. Rocky
Mountains to Pacific. Bp., 394; Exxiot, pl. 2; Coor., 46. . MONTANUS.

** Body with chestnut brown; chin and throat brownish-black.

Hudsonian Chickadee. Pale olive-brown; crown similar but browner ;
below on sides, and behind, pale chestnut. About 5; wing 2%, tail 2%.
British America into Northern States (Alaska, Dall). Aup., ii, 155, pl.

123; Bo., 395. Var. littoralis is described from Nova Scotia. HUDSONIUS.

Chestnut-backed Chickadee. Crown, nape and throat alike in color, sooty
brown; back and sides chestnut. Under 5; wing 2%, tail less. Pacific
coast. AUD., ii, 158, pl. 129; Bp., 394; Coop., 47. . . . RUFESCENS.

14. Genus PSALTRIPARUS Bonaparte.

Dwarfs among pygmies! 33-4} long; wing 2 or less, tail 2 or more; ashy or
KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 11

ke
a

82 SITTIDH, NUTHATCHES.—GEN. 15, 16.

olive gray; paler (whitish, etc.) below. Both species are western; these and
Auriparus flaviceps build the curious pensile nests above mentioned.
Least Titmouse. Crown dark brown, unlike back. Pacific coast to
Sierra Nevada. AuvD., ii, 160, pl. 130; Bp., 397; Coor., 48. . mrnrus.
Leaden Titmouse. Crown like back. Iris brown or yellow. Arizona.
BD, 5398; COOP, 49% terre ie ake oy ee a eT ESET

15. Genus AURIPARUS Baird.

Yellow-headed Titmouse. Ashy; paler below; head all yellow (this color
wanting in the young) ; bend of wing chestnut; 44; wing and tail about 24.
Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, South and Lower California. Bp., 400, and
Reyi5785 3 (Coops, 518) ts Sree oh op exes sn See SAI GEES

Family SITTIDA. Nuthatches.

These birds differ in so many respects from either Certhiide or Paride, with both
of which they have been associated, that I shall give them independent family rank.
Cuars.— Bill subcylindrical, tapering, compressed, slender, acute, nearly or about
as long as the head, culmen and commissure about straight, gonys long, convex,
ascending (giving a sort of recurved look to a really straight bill). Nostrils
rounded, concealed by bristly tufts. Wings long, pointed, with 10 primaries, the
1st very short or spurious ; tail much shorter than wings, broad, soft, nearly even ;
tarsus shorter than the middle toe and claw, scutellate in front; toes all long,
with large, much curved, compressed claws; Ist toe and claw about equal to the
3d; 2d and 4th toes, very unequal in length; plumage compact; body flattened ;
tongue horny, acute, barbed. Nuthatches are amongst the most nimble and adroit
of creepers; they scramble about and hang in every conceivable attitude, head
downwards as often as otherwise. This is done, too, without any help from the
tail—the whole tarsus being often applied to the support. They are chiefly insec-
tivorous, but feed also on hard fruits ; and get their English name from their habit
of sticking nuts and seeds in cracks in bark, and hammering away with the bill till
they break the shell. They are very active and restless little birds, quite sociable,
often going in troops, which keep up a continuous noise; lay 4-6 white, spotted
eggs, in hollows of trees. The family is a small one, of less than thirty species,
among them a single remarkable Madagascan form, Hypherpes, a genus peculiar
to Australia (Sittella), and another confined to New Zealand (Acanthisitta) : but
it is chiefly represented by the genus Sitta, with 12 or 14 species, 8 or 9 of Europe
and Asia, and the following of our country : —

16. Genus SITTA Linnzus.

~e WE? below, flanks and under tail coverts washed with rusty brown; ashy-
blue above, middle tail feathers the same, other
tail feathers black, spotted with white; crown
and nape glossy black, without stripes; wings
varied with black, white and the color of the
back. Large; 51-6; wing 3}, tail 2

Fic. 26. White-bellied Nuthatch; nat, size. White-bellied Nuthatch. As above; bill
over 15-100 deep at base. In the young and many 9’s, black of head

Se ee ee eee ee ee eee

wre <ipcanani whe! eile os

-

——————E EEE

————

aS.

SITTIDEZ, NUTHATCHES. CERTHIIDH, CREEPERS.—GEN. 16. 83

restricted to nape, or altogether absent. Eastern United States to the
Piame:)) Was., 1, p..40; Novr., i, 581; Aup.; iv, 175, pl. 2473) Bo,,
Neem nee fe Cetin cee le. ceo nes ko ret eee CAROLINENSIS.

Var. acuLeata. Slender-billed Nuthatch. Exactly like the last, except slen-
derer bill; not over 15-100 deep at base. Plains to Pacific. Bp., 375; Coop., 54.

** Rusty brown below, nearly uniform; back bluer than in the last, head with
white stripes, crown black or like back; tail as in the last; wings plain; medium
in size; 41 to nearly 5; wing 22, tail 13.

Red-bellied Nuthatch. & with crown glossy black, bordered by white
stripes meeting across forehead, below these a black bar through eye to
hind nape, below this, and the chin, white. 9 with crown like back, and the
lateral black stripe merely dusky ; young with no
black on the crown and lateral stripes obscure.
North America, but rather northerly. Wius., i,
40, pl. 2; Nurr., i, 583; Aup., iv, 179, pl. 248;

De Ol Gc wars tess sie 2. 4s +s » CANADENSIS.
KKK . ] j . ino
Pale rusty or brownish white below; wings, jy¢. 97, Red-bellied Nuthatch;
tail and back, much as in the last; crown and nape natural size.

brown to below eyes, the lower border darker ; head without white stripes. Small-
est; 4, or less, long; wing 23, tail 11.

Brown-headed Nuthatch. Crown clear hair-brown; a distinct little
whitish spot on nape; middle tail feathers like back, with no black, and
little or no white at base. South Atlantic States, strictly. Wuus., ii, 105,
pl. 15; Norr., i, 584; Aup., ii, 181, pl. 249; Bp., 377, . . PUSILLA.

Pygmy Nuthatch. Crown dull olive brown, its lateral borders blackish ;
the nuchal whitish spot wanting or obscure; middle tail feathers white at
base, and there black-edged on outer web. This species is apt to be quite
brownish underneath, instead of merely muddy white, as in the last; but
both vary much in this respect. Rocky Mountains to Pacific, United States.
ATID pls OAs ple200); D250 5) COOP) 00- ol - co =) 7 «) EY GMAAL

Family CERTHITDA. Creepers.

A very small, well-marked group, of about a dozen species, and four or five
genera, which fall in two sections, commonly called subfamilies; one of these,
Tichodromine, is represented by the well known European Creeper, T. muraria, and
several, chiefly Australian, species of the genus Climacteris; while the genus Cer-
thea, with five or six species or varieties, and one or two allied genera (all but one
Old World) constitutes the

Subfamily CERTHIIN. Typical Creepers.

Our species may be known on sight, among North American Oscines, by its
rigid, acuminate tail-feathers, like a woodpecker’s. Besides :—bill about equal to
head, extremely slender, sharp and decurved; nostrils exposed; tarsus shorter
than 3d toe and claw, which ‘is connate for the whole of the 1st joint, with both
2d and 4th toe; 1st toe shorter than its claw; claws all much curved and very
sharp ; tarsus scutellate ; wings 10-primaried, 1st very short, not one-half the 2d,

84 TROGLODYTIDA, WRENS.— GEN. 17.

which is less than the 3d; point of wing formed by 3d, 4th and 5th quills; tail
rounded, equal to or longer than wing. Restless, active little forest birds that
make a living by picking bugs out of cracks in bark. In scrambling about, they
use the tail as woodpeckers do, and never hang head downwards, like the nut-
hatches. Lay numerous eggs in knotholes ;
not migratory ; no song; slight seasonal or
sexual changes of plumage.

17. Genus CERTHIA Linnezus.

Brown Creeper. Plumage above sin-
gularly barred with dusky, whitish,
tawny or fulvous brown, and_ bright
brown—latter chiefly on the rump; below, white, either pure or soiled,
and generally slightly brownish-washed behind; wings dusky, oddly varied
with tawny or whitish bars and spots; tail plain; about 53; wing and tail
about 22. North America. Wuts., i, 122, pl. 8; Nurr.; Aup., ii, 109,
Ne IMU RR oa Me) eer cei to Gs oS tof a. fy. IMTITATETS.

Fic.28. Brown creeper; nat. size.

Family TROGLODYTIDA. Wrens.

Embracing a number of forms assembled in considerable variety, and difficult to
limit with precision. Closely related to the last two or three families ; known from
these by non-acuminate tail feathers and exposed nostrils. Very intimately re-
sembling, in particular, the mocking group of thrushes—those with scutellate tarsi
and not strictly spurious first primary ; but all our wrens are smaller than any of the
Mimince, and otherwise distinguished by less deeply cleft toes, as stated on p. 73;
‘the inner toe is united by half its basal joint to the middle toe, sometimes by
the whole of this joint; and the second joint of the outer toe enters wholly or
partially into this union, instead of the basal only.” Nostrils narrowly or broadly

oval, exposed, overhung by a scale resembling that of the Galline; bill rather or,

very slender, straight or slightly decurved, from half as long to about as long as
the head, unnotched in all our genera; no evident rictal bristles: wings short,
more or less rounded, primaries 10, the 1st short, but not strictly spurious; tail
variable in length, much or little rounded: tarsus scutellate, hind toe very long.
Excluding certain Old World forms sometimes placed with the Wrens, but prob-
ably better assigned elsewhere; and excepting the European wren and its con-
geners, the Troglodytide are confined to America. If thus restricted, the family is
susceptible of more exact limitation, as shown by Baird in his elaborate ‘ Review’
(p. 91). There are about a hundred recognized species or varieties, usually referred
to about sixteen genera or subgenera; most of these belong to tropical America,
where the family reaches its maximum development; for instance, over twenty
species of Campylorhynchus alone are described. Of the North American forms,
genera 18, 19 and 20 are confined to the West, and represent a section distin-
euished by the breadth of the individual tail feathers, which widen noticeably
towards the tip. Species of all our other genera are common and familiar eastern
birds, much alike in disposition, manners and habits; the house wren may be taken
to typify these. They are sprightly, fearless and impudent little creatures, apt to
show bad temper when they fancy themselves aggrieved by cats or people, or any-

F

TROGLODYTIDH, WRENS.—GEN. 18, 19, 20. 85

thing else that is big or unpleasant to them ; they quarrel a good deal, and are
particularly spiteful towards martins and swallows, whose homes they often invade
and occupy. Their song is bright and hearty, and they are fond of their own
music; when disturbed at it, they make a great ado with noisy scolding. Part of
them live in reedy swamps and marshes, where they hang astonishingly big globular
nests, with a little hole in one side, on tufts of rushes, and lay six or eight dark
colored eggs; the others nest anywhere, in shrubbery, knotholes, hollow stumps
and other odd nooks. Nearly all are migratory ; one is stationary; one comes to
us in fall from the north, the rest in spring from the south. Insectivorous, and
very prolific, laying several sets of eggs each season. Plainly colored, the browns
being the usual colors ; no red, blue, yellow or green in any of our species.

18. Genus CAMPYLORHYNCHUS Spix.

Brown-headed Creeper Wren. Brown, conspicuously white-streaked,
crown brown, plain; below whitish becoming pale brownish behind, with
many very distinct round black spots, largest and closest on throat and
breast ; tail feathers black, only the outer and central pair with more than
one white bar on the inner web. Largest of all, 8; wing and tail about 34.
South-western United States, and southward. Cass., Ill., 156, pl. 25;
BDO OOOPmbilieg.) Sur alede epucle so os 0 ) BRUNNEICAPIEELUS.

Allied Creeper Wren. Similar; smaller; fewer and smaller black spots
on breast; tail feathers all with white bars or spots on both webs. Cape
St. Lucas, Xantus, Proc. Acad. Philada., 1859, p. 298; Exuxior, pl. 3;
Bp., Rev. 100; Coor., 62. <A variety of the last? bch ee ts OAREENTS:

19. Genus SALPINCTES Cabanis.

Tock Wren. Brownish-gray, often obsoletely waved with lighter and
darker shades, becoming cinnamon or fulvous-brown on rump, everywhere
speckled with black and white dots; below whitish, throat and breast
obscurely streaked with dusky ; belly and sides fulvous-brown-tinted, under
tail coverts blackish-barred; wings dusky, obscurely waved with paler,
chiefly on outer webs; middle tail feathers barred like wings, others with
broad subterminal black bar and fulvous tip; outer feather often with
several such markings. 53-6; wings 2%, tail 24; all the markings are
obscure and blended; the brown has often a slight pinkish shade. Central
and Rocky Mountain region of the United States into Mexico. (Myiothera
obsoleta, Bonar., Am. Orn., i, 6, pl. 1,f. 2.) Nurr., i, 435; Avp., ii,
BS ep le lGi bps. 3008 COOP hO0 sn ce keer) 9s be. 2) 4) OBSOLETA.

20. Genus CATHERPES Baird.

Mexican or White-throated Wren. . Brown, grayer towards and on head,
becoming rich ferruginous or brownish-red behind, both above and below ;
chin and throat pure white; back and crown finely speckled with black
and white dots; wings dusky, waved with brown; tail rich brown, like the
rump and belly, with numerous narrow distinct black bars; belly waved
or speckled with dusky and whitish; bill long (? or more), extremely

86 TROGLODYTIDEH, WRENS.—GEN. 21, 22.

slender; 5-54; wing 24, tail 24. South-western United States and south-
ward. Cass., Ill., 173, pl. 30; Bp., 356; Coop., 66. . . MEXICANUS.

21. Genus THRYOTHORUS Vieillot.

* Tail not longer than wings, all its feathers reddish-brown with numerous fine
black bars.

Carolina Wren. Clear reddish-brown, slightly grayer on head, brightest
on rump; below tawny of varying shade; long conspicuous superciliary
line white or tawny; wings edged
with color of back, and dusky waved ;
wing coverts usually whitish spotted ;
under tail coverts usually blackish
barred; sides of body unmarked.
54 to nearly 6; wings 24, tail rather
less. Eastern United States, rather
southern; north to Connecticut, and
scarcely or not migratory; winters |
at Washington, D. C. A voluble
songster. Wius., ii, 61, pl. 12, f.
5s Nuri, 1, 429). App. i, kl’:
pl. 117; Bp., 8361. LupovicraNnus.

Var. BERLANDIERI. Berlandier’s
Wren. Similar; rather smaller; bill
larger; darker, especially below; sides
dusky-barred. Near Mexican boundary.
A geographical race of the last, with
which it is perfectly connected, according to Mr. Allen, by intermediate Floridan
specimens. Bp., 362, pl. 83, f. 1; Rev. 124.

** Tail longer than wings; its feathers mostly black.

Bewich’s Wren. Grayish-brown; below ashy-white; superciliary line
white; wings dusky, faintly waved; under tail coverts dark-barred ; two
middle tail feathers like back, with numerous fine black bars, others black,
several of the lateral with white or gray spots or tips. 54; extent 63;
wings little or not over 2, tail 24. United States, southern ; in New Mexico
and Arizona, whiter below (var. leucogaster) ; on Pacific coast, grayer above
and bill longer (var. spilurus). Nurr., i, 434; Aup., ii, 120, pl. 118;
BD oS evs 126s COOP a7 O0s acme tte Reena eM romantemt mace E EWR Goel ee

Fic. 29. Carolina Wren.

22. Genus TROGLODYTES Vieillot.

House Wren. Brown, brighter behind; below rusty-brown, or grayish-
brown, or even grayish-white ; everywhere waved with darker shade, very
plainly on wings, tail, flanks and under tail coverts; breast apt to be darker
than either throat or belly; bill less than head, about half an inch long ;
wings and tail nearly equal, about 13-2$; total length from 4$-53 (aver-
age 4%). Eastern United States, very abundant anywhere. WZUxs., ii, 129,

By at Kol A Gia ae

TROGLODYTIDH, WRENS.—GEN. 23, 24. 87

pl. 8; Nurr., i, 422; Aup., ii, 125, pl. 120; Bp., 367. Very variable in
precise tint, distinctness of the barring, etc. ; old spring birds are apt to be
grayer and clearer below; young fall specimens are usually browner. 7’.
americanus AuD., as I have said (Proc. Essex Inst. v, 1867, 278; specimen
in my cabinet, personally identified by Audubon ; see also Maynarp, Guide,
p- 95), is not otherwise different, and I shall now drop it. . . . DON.

Var. parkmanni Aup. On an average, grayer and paler. Western United
States (see Cours, Proc. Acad. Phil., 1866, p. 43). Bp., 367; Coor., 71.

23. Genus ANORTHURA Rennie.

Winter Wren. Deep brown, darkest on head, brightest on rump and
tail, obscurely waved with dusky and sometimes with whitish also; tail like
rump; wings dusky, edged with
color of back, and dark barred;
several outer primaries also whitish
barred ; a superciliary line, and ob-
secure streaks on sides of head and
neck, whitish; below pale brown;
belly, flanks and under tail coverts
strongly barred with dusky and
whitish. Only 4-4} long; extent
64-63 ; wing 2 or less, tail 14 or Fic. 30. Winter Wren.
less—so short that the outstretched feet reach beyond it. Tarsus and
middle toe and claw together about 14; bill 3. North America; United
States in winter. Sylvia hyemalis, Wits., i, 139, pl. 8, f. 6; Trog.
hyemalis, Aup., ii, 128, pl. 121; Bp., 369; Trog. europeus, Nurv., i,
427. Var. pacificus is described; Bp., Rev. 145. . . . ‘TROGLODYTES.

Alaskan Wren. “Form like that of the winter wren;” size and colors
nearly the same; darker; bill larger; culmen, gape and gonys almost per-
fectly straight —latter slightly ascending. St. George’s Island, Bering’s
Sea. One specimen known. A variety of the last? Bp., Trans. Chic.
PAGAG ELS OO Shas DleoOs tude ose. leis so et «os 0) FAUASCENSIS.

24. Genus TELMATODYTES Cabanis.

Long-billed Marsh Wren. Above clear brown, unbarred, back with a
black patch containing distinct white streaks, crown brownish-black, super-
ciliary line to. nape white: wings not noticeably barred, but outer webs of
inner secondaries blackish ; tail brown, dusky barred ;
below dull white, often quite pure, the sides alone
brownish-washed, and under tail coverts somewhat
barred. 43-53 long; wing about 2, tail less, tarsus
‘ie. 31 Long-billed Marsh 4—§3 bill J or more, barely curved. North America ;

ke ese nae particularly reedy swamps and marshes of United
States, abundant. Wits., ii, 58, pl. 12, f. 4; Nurr., i, 489; Aup., ii,
135, pl. 123; Bo., 364; var. paludicola, Bp., Rev. 148. . . PALUSTRIS.

88 ALAUDIDE, LARKS.—GEN. 25.

25. Genus CISTOTHORUS Cabanis.

Short-billed Marsh Wren. Dark brown above, crown and middle of
back blackish, nearly everywhere conspicuously streaked with white; below
buffy white, shading into pale brown on sides and behind; wings and tail
barred with blackish and light brown; flanks barred with dusky ; throat and
middle of belly whitish: 43; wing and tail about 12; bill not 4 long and
very slender; tarsus and middle toe and claw together about 14. Eastern

United States, in reedy swamps and marshes, not common. Troglodytes |

brevirostris. Nurr., i, 431; Aup., ii, 138, pl. 124; Bp., 865. sTELLaris.

Family ALAUDIDA. Larks.

A rather small group, well defined by the character of the feet, in adaptation to
terrestrial life. The subcylindrical tarsi are scutellate and blunt behind as in front,
with a deep groove along the inner side, and a slight one, or none, on the outer
face. Other characters (shared, however, with some Motacillide) are the very long,
straight, hind claw, which equals or exceeds its digit in length; the long, pointed
wings, with the 1st primary spurious or wanting, and the inner secondaries (‘ terti-
aries”) lengthened and flowing. The nostrils are usually concealed by dense tufts
of antrorse feathers: The shape of the bill is not diagnostic, being sometimes
short, stout and conic, much as in some Fringillidce, while in other genera it is
slenderer, and more like that of insectivorous Passeres. ‘The family is composed,
nominally, of a hundred species ; with the exception of one genus and two or three
species or varieties, it is confined to the Old World. Its systematic position is
open to question; Lilljeborg removes it from Oscines altogether, probably on
account of the peculiarities of the podotheca; authors generally place it near the
Fringillide, perhaps from the resemblance of the bill of some species to that of the
finches ; but it has many relationships with the Motacillide, and in the arrangement
of this work I find no better place for it than here, though it has no special affinity
with the preceding family. Moreover, the fact that it has indifferently nine or ten
primaries may indicate a natural position between the sets of families in which
number of primaries is among the diagnostic features. According to shape of bill,
structure of nostrils, and number of primaries, the family may be divided into two
subfamilies, the Alaudine, typified by the celebrated skylark of Europe, and the

Subfamily CALANDRITINA,

Represented in America by the single genus Hyremophila, of which there are
nominally ten, really four or five, species. The birds of this genus have the bill com-
pressed-conoid, shorter than the head, the nostrils densely feathered, and appar-
ently only nine primaries (though I suspect that a rudimentary 1st primary exists
in the condition mentioned under Ampelis and Vireo); the point of the wing
formed by the first three primaries; the tail of medium length and nearly square ;
and a peculiar little tuft of lengthened feathers over each ear, like the ‘‘ horns” of
certain owls. They frequent open places, are strictly terrestrial in habits, and
neyer hop when on the ground, like most Passeres; they are migratory in most
localities, and gregarious, except when breeding ; nest on the ground, and lay 4-5
speckled eggs; sing sweetly in the spring time.

a

MOTACILLIDA, WAGTAILS.—GEN. 26. 89

26. Genus EREMOPHILA Boie.

Horned Lark. Shore Lark. In spring :—Pinkish-brown, brightest on
rump, nape and wing coverts, thickly streaked with dusky; below, white,
breast and sides shaded with the color of the back, chin, throat and super-
ciliary line pale yellow, or yellowish-white ; a pectoral crescent and curved
stripe under the eye, black; tail
black, outer feathers white-edged
and middle ones like the back.
Tints extremely variable; young
birds, and fall and winter specimens
of the Atlantic States are plain
grayish-brown, streaked with darker,
below soiled whitish, and with the
black markings of the head and
breast obscure or wanting, though
the yellow is usually bright—even
more so than in spring. Length 7-74, wing 44, tail 22-3, tarsus %, hind
claw 4-3, very slender and sharp. North America; in the east retires in
spring beyond the United States, but in the west breeds on the plains much
further south. Wruts., i, 85, pl. 5, f. 4; Nurr., i, 455; Aup., iii, 44, pl.
USILS Tey. 2408) : ALPESTRIS.

Var. corysoLe#maA. A rather smaller, brighter colored race, occurring in south-
western United States and Mexico. It looks quite different at first sight, but is
not distinguishable as a species by any definite or constant characters. Alauda
rufa AUD., vii, 853, pl. 497; Bp., 403. The foregoing, with EL. peregrina, a South
American species or variety, are the only American Alaudide.

Fic. 32. Horned Lark.

Family MOTACILLIDA. Wagtails.

Bill shorter than the head, very slender, straight, acute, notched at tip. Rictus
not evidently bristled. Primaries nine, of which the 1st is about as long as the 2d,
and the first three, four or five, form the point; inner secondaries enlarged, the
longest one nearly, or quite, equalling the primaries in the closed wing. Tail
lengthened, generally about equalling the wing. Feet large; tarsus scutellate,
longer than the middle toe and claw; inner toe cleft to the very base, but basal
joint of outer toe soldered with the middle one; hind toe usually bearing a long
and little curved claw. A pretty well defined group of one hundred, chiefly Old
World, species, which may be termed terrestrial Sylvias, all living mostly on the
ground, where they run with facility, never hopping like most Oscines. They are
usually gregarious; are insectivorous and migratory. They have gained their
name from the characteristic habit of moving the tail with a peculiar see-saw
motion, as if they were using it to balance themselves upon unsteady footing.
They may be distinguished from all the foregoing birds, except Alaudide, by
haying only nine primaries ; and from all the following birds by haying long flow-
ing inner secondaries; and from Alaudide, with which they agree in this respect,
as well as in usually having a lengthened, straightish hind claw, by having the
tarsal envelope as in Oscines generally, slender bill and exposed nostrils. Two

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 12

90 MOTACILLIDEH, WAGTAILS.—GEN. 27, 28.

subfamilies are generally recognized, though the distinctions are scarcely more than
generic.
Subfamily MOTACILLINA. True Wagtails.

Represented in America by a single species; in the Old World by nearly fifty
species or varieties, chiefly belonging to the genus Motacilla and its subdivisions
or immediate allies, of which Budytes is one. In Motacilla itself, the hind claw is
of about the ordinary length and curvature; in Budytes, the hind claw is longer
and nearly straight, and the tail is about as long as the
wing, the point of which is formed by only three quills.

27. Genus BUDYTES Cuvier.

Yellow Wagtail. Greenish-olive, below yellow;
crown and nape ashy, superciliary line white, wings
and tail blackish, white-edged. Length 6; wing

Fic. 33. Yellow Wagtail; .
natural size. and tail about 8. Alaska; a well known, widely

spread and extremely variable Old World species, unknown in America
until the recent discovery by Dr. Bannister that it is abundant at St.
Michael’s. Datu and Bann., Trans. Chicago Acad., 1869, 277, pl. 30,
| ey ey aa oll a see Cerra en NS art Oc Co ig: INGA.

Subfamily ANTHINE. Titlarks.

Consisting of the single genus Anthus, of which, however, there are several sub-
divisions. In typical Anthus, the wing is longer than the tail, and its point is
formed by the four outer primaries, the 5th being abruptly shorter; the hind claw
is nearly straight, and nearly or quite equals its digit in length. Here belong our
species ; in certain South American forms even five primaries enter into the tip of
the wing ; in several European subgenera only three primaries are abruptly longer
than the succeeding ones. Our Anthus is strictly congeneric with the European
A. spinoletta, type of the genus: Neocorys only differs in having the feet larger
and tail shorter. About fifty species (among them six or eight Central and South
American ones) are ascribed to Anthince, of which half may prove genuine. They
are terrestrial and more or less gregarious birds, migratory and insectivorous.

28. Genus ANTHUS Bechstein.

Brown Lark. Titlark. Wagtail. Pipit. Dark brown with a slight
olive shade, and most of the feathers with dusky centres, giving a slightly
streaked appearance ; eyelids, superciliary line and all the
under parts pale buffy or ochrey brown (very variable in
shade), the breast and sides of the neck and body thickly
streaked with dusky ; wings and tail blackish, inner sec-
ondaries pale-edged, and one or more outer tail feathers
wholly or partly white; 64-63, wing 34-34, tail 23-3.
North America, everywhere; an abundant and well
known bird of fields and plains. In the United States,
seen chiefly in flocks, in the fall and winter: breeds in -

J : 5 2 Fic. 34. Brown Lark;
high latitudes, and in the Rocky Mountains, above the natural size.
timber line, as far south as Park county, Colorado (Allen) ; lays 4-6 very
dark colored eggs in a mossy nest on the ground; voice querulous, gait

SYLVICOLIDH, WARBLERS.— GEN. 29. 91

tremulous, flight vacillating. Wus., v, 89, pl. 89; Nurr., i, 450; Aup.,
mOMAOe pl tAOR BW. 202.) . (aioe mu po Wo do te” «) SLUDOVIOIANUS:

29. Genus NEOCORYS Sclater.

Missouri Skylark. Brown, the feathers with paler edges; below and a
superciliary line, whitish, the breast sharply speckled with dusky ; wings
and tail dusky, inner secondaries pale-edged, outer tail feathers white ; 53;
wing 3, tail 2$. Region of the Upper Missouri and Saskatchewan, ex-
tremely rare; said to resemble closely the European skylark in habits.
AID sev poOD pl. 4865) BD, 202. «© «+ «© « « «y= «SPRAGUE:

Family SYLVICOLIDA. American Warblers.

Primaries, nine; inner secondaries not enlarged, nor hind toe lengthened and
straightened, as in the two preceding families ; bill without a lobe or tooth near the
middle of the commissure, as in Pyranga, nor strongly toothed and hooked at end,
as in Collurio and Vireo, nor greatly flattened with gape reaching to eyes, as in
Hirundinide, nor strictly conical with angulated commissure, as in Fringillide.
The family presents such a number of minor modifications of form, that it seems
impossible to characterize it, except negatively; in fact, it has never been satis-
factorily defined. But doubtless the student will be able to assure himself that his
specimen is a sylvicoline, by its not showing the peculiarities of our other nine-
primaried Oscines.

All the sylvicolas are small birds; excepting Icteria, and perhaps a species of
Seiurus, not one is over six inches long, and they hardly average over five. With
few exceptions they are beautifully clothed in variegated colors; but the sexes are
generally unlike, and the changes of plumage, with age and season of the year, are
usually strongly marked, so that different specimens of the same species may bear

_ to each other but little resemblance; this of course renders careful discrimination

necessary. ‘The usual shape of the bill may be called conoid-elongate (something
like a slender minié bullet in miniature), but the variations in precise shape are
endless. The rictus is usually bristled; the bristles sometimes have an extraor-
dinary development, and are sometimes wanting. The wings are longer than the

_ tail, except in Geothlypis, Icteria, and one or two exotic genera; neither the wing

nor tail ever presents striking forms. The feet have no special peculiarities, though
they show some slight modifications corresponding to somewhat terrestrial, or more
strictly arboricole, habits. Some of the warblers have the habits of titmice or
wrens; others of creepers or nuthatches; the Seiuri closely resemble the tit-
larks in some respects, and have even been placed in the Motacillide ; while the
Setophagine simulate the Tyrannide (of a different suborder) so perfectly that
they used to be classed with the true flycatchers. The warblers grade so perfectly
towards the tanagers that they have all been made a subfamily of Yanagride
(where possibly they belong). The affinity of some of them with the Carebide,
or honey-creepers of the tropics, is so close that the dividing line has not been
drawn. The position of Icteria and its two associate exotic genera, Granatellus
and Teretristis, is open to question; perhaps they come nearer Vireonide. It is
probable that final critical study will result in a remapping of the whole group;
meanwhile, the very diversity of forms included in it enables us to mark off sec-
tions with ease.

VP te9, es.

92 SYLVICOLIDH, WARBLERS.— GEN. 30, 31.

As at present constituted, the Sylvicolide, comprising upwards of a hundred
genuine species, may be considered to represent, in Ameriea to which they are
confined, the Sylviide or typical Old World warblers. I divide them into three
subfamilies, uniting the Geothlypine of Baird with the true Sylvicoline. Their
characters, mostly borrowed from Baird’s excellent analysis, will be found in full
beyond; here they may be shortly contrasted : —

Sylvicolinte. — Wings longer than tail (except in Greothlypis); commissure
slightly curved, with short bristles or none. .

Icteriinee. — Wings shorter than tail; commissure much curved, unbristled.

Setophagine.— Wings longer than tail; commissure slightly curved, with
bristles reaching beyond the nostrils.

Subfamily SYLVICOLIN. Warblers.

Bill conoid-elongate, shorter than the head, about as high as, or rather higher
than, wide opposite the nostrils, not hooked, but with a slight notch, or none, at tip ;
commissure straight or slightly curved; a few rictal bristles, reaching little if any
beyond the nostrils, or none. Wings pointed, longer than the narrow, nearly even
tail (except in Geothlypis).

This group is specially characteristic of North America; all the genera and the
great majority of the species occurring within our limits in summer, though most of

them winter in the West Indies, Mexico and Central America. Dendreca, the ~

largest and most beautiful genus, is particularly characteristic of the Eastern
United States. All are strictly insectivorous, though not such expert flycatchers as
the Setophagine ; none rank high as songsters, though they have pleasing notes in
springtime. With us, they are all migratory.

*.* Genera 30, 31, are creeping warblers, haying the hind toe longer than its
claw, and the front toes more extensively soldered together at base than in any other
forms. Gen. 36, 37, 388 are ground warblers, with the feet relatively stouter than
in the rest. Gen. 32, 33, 34 are worm-eating warblers; these have no rictal bristles
at all. Genus 35 comprehends the wood warblers par excellence.

30. Genus MNIOTILTA Vieillot.

Black and White Creeper. (Pl. u, figs. 12, 18, 14, 12a, 13a, 14a.)
Entirely black and white, in streaks, except on the belly; tail white-spotted,
wings white-barred ; 5-54, wing 24-23, tail 24. Eastern North America ;
a common bird, generally observed scrambling like a nuthatch about the
trunk and larger branches of forest trees. WILS.,
iii, 22, pl. 19; Nurr., 1, 384; Aup., ii, 1055 pl
ila SOI eee On ere eet Ace lolica u WAMRTLAL

31. Genus PARULA Bonaparte.

Blue Yellow-backed Warbler. @, in spring:
blue, back with a golden-brown patch, throat and
breast yellow with a rich brown or blackish patch,

Fic. 35. Black and White 5 4 f
Creeper; natural size. the former sometimes extending along the sides;

belly, eyelids, two wing-bars, and several tail-spots, white ; lores black ;
upper mandible black, under flesh colored; @ , in spring, with the blue less

oa i
a ee ee, ee ee ee

atc enti Sep

:
;
:
{
i]
;
1
;
i

SYLVICOLIDH®, WARBLERS.—GEN. 32, 33, 34. 93

bright, the back and throat patches not so well defined; young, with the
blue glossed with greenish, and these patches obscure or wanting; but
always recognizable by the other marks and very small size; 43-43; wing
24; tail 13. Eastern North America; an elegant, diminutive species,
abundant in high open woods, where it is generally observed fluttering
among the smallest twigs and terminal foliage. Wus., iv, 17, pl. 28, f. 3;
Nir 11090) AUD-, Mot, pl. ols Bp.,°238. i. a -« .« AMBRIGANA:

32. Genus PROTONOTARIA Baird.

Prothonotary Warbler. Golden-yellow, paler on the belly, changing to
: olivaceous on the back, thence to bluish-ashy on the rump,
wings and tail; most of the tail feathers largely white on the
inner webs; no other special markings; bill entirely black,
very large, at least $ long; 54, wing 23-3, tail 24. South
Atlantic and Gulf States; straying, however, to Ohio,

Fig. 36. Prothono- - : : 4
tary Warbler. § Missouri and even Maine; swamps and thickets; not com-

mon. WILS., iii, 72, pl. 24, f. 3; Nurr., i, 410; Aup., iii, 89, 106; Bp.,
PDE br Me MT rd: Kei ny cl ter tieeat oe Cod ad cs? . wipe POLI RAIA

33. Genus HELMITHERUS Rafinesque.

Worm-eating Warbler. Olive, below buffy, paler or whitish on the belly ;
head buff, with four sharp black stripes, two along sides of crown from bill
to nape, one along each side of head through
the eye; wings and tail olivaceous, unmarked :
bill and feet pale; bill acute, unbristled, un-
notched, at least 4 long, stout at base; tail
rounded; 54, wing 23, tail 2. The sexes are
not particularly dissimilar. Eastern United g
States, rather southerly, but north to Maine; = ¥Fi¢. 37. Worm-eating Warbler.
woods, shrubbery and swamps; rather common. WILS., ili, 74, pl. 24, f.
4; Nurr., i, 409; Aup., ii, 86, pl. 105; Bp., 252. . . . VERMIVORUS.

Swainson’s Warbler. Somewhat similar; colors browner above, includ-
ing the head, and more buffy below; a whitish superciliary line ; no decided
markings anywhere; bill still longer, shaped something like a meadow-
lark’s ; tail emarginate ; nearly 6 long. A rare and curious species, confined
to the South Atlantic States; said to have occurred in Massachusetts, but
this isa mistake. Avp., ii, 83, pl. 104; Bp., 252. . . . SWAINSONII.

34. Genus HELMINTHOPHAGA Cabanis.
*.* The bill slender and exceedingly acute, unnotched, unbristled. The follow-
ing analysis will determine the species in adult plumage — not otherwise : —

Tail feathers white-blotched — bluish, crown yellow, throat black, . .. ... . =... + « chrysoptera.
— greenish, crown and all under parts yellow, . - . . . «+. + «+ + + pinus.

— greenish, crown (partly) and throat black,. . . . . . . . « « bachmanii.

—upper tail coverts chestnut, crown patch chestnut, . . . . . . + + lucia.

Tail feathers all unmarked — upper tail coverts—yellow; crown patch chestnut, . . . . . . . virginie.
—not yellow; crown patch—chestnut, . . . . ruficapilla.

—orange brown, . . . celata.

—wanting, . . . . peregrina.

94 SYLVICOLIDH, WARBLERS. — GEN. 34.

Blue-winged Yellow Warbler. Crown and entire under parts rich yellow;
upper parts yellow-olive, becoming slaty-blue on the wings and tail, former
with two white or yellowish bars, latter with several large white blotches ;
bill and stripe through eye black ; 5, wing 24, tail 24. 9 and young not
very dissimilar. Eastern United States; common. The resemblance, in
color, between this species and the prothonotary warbler, is striking. Wus.,
ii, 109, pl. 15; Nurr., i, 410; Aup., ii, 98, pl. 111; Bp., 254. . Pinus.

Blue Golden-winged Warbler. % , in spring :—slaty-blue, paler or whitish
below, where frequently tinged with yellowish; crown and two wing-bars
rich yellow; broad stripe on side of head through
eye, and large patch on throat, black, both these
bordered with white; several tail feathers white-
blotched; bill black. The back and wings are fre-
quently glossed with yellowish-olive, especially in
immature specimens, in which also the peculiar mark-
olden-wingea INS of the head and throat may be obscure. Size of

Fic. 38. Blue G

WEI pinus. Eastern United States; rather common, in
woodland, like the preceding. Wiuus., ii, 113, pl. 15, f. 5; Nurr., i, 411;
IND, Wey Ble Pole MOMS Ws A Ge - . « - GHRYSOPINEA:

Bachman Warbler. Geter olive, ne with ashy on hind head ;
under parts, forehead, chin and lesser wing coverts, yellow; throat and
band across crown, black; outer tail feathers white-blotched. Small; 44;
wing 23, tail 2. An extremely rare species, confined to the South Atlantic
States, -AUDs 11, 955) ple 0S); eB Die zoos sic emt . . BACHMANIL.

Lucy's Warbler. Ashy-gray, below white, cameiaaes faintly buffy-tinted
on the breast; upper tail coverts and crown patch chestnut, the latter often
concealed, and wanting in the young; outer tail feathers obscurely white-
blotched. Very small; 43-43, extent 74, wing 24-24, tail 12-2, bill about
4! A rare and curious species, lately discovered in Arizona; very unlike
any other, and somewhat resembling a Polioptila. Colorado Valley.
CoorgeR, Proc. Cala. Acad. 1861, 120, and B. Cal. 84; Cours, Proc.
Acad. Philada. 1866, 35; Barrp, Review, 178. . . . oe ae CIs

Virginia’s Warbler. Plumbeous, washed with greenish- olives especially
in 9 and autumnal specimens; below white, shaded on sides ;: throat with a
yellow patch; upper and under tail coverts yellow (entirely yellow below
when adult?) ; crown patch chestnut; a white ring around eye; 5; wing
24, tail 24. Southern Rocky Mountain region. (Colorado, abundant,
Ripeway; Arizona, rare, Couns.) Very near the next species! Barrp,
B. N. A. 1860, p. xi, pl. 79, f. 1, and Rev., 177; Coor., 85. . VirGINIZ.

Nashville Warbler. Olive-green, brighter on rump, changing to pure
ash on head: below bright yellow, paler on belly, olive-shaded on sides ;
crown with a more or less concealed chestnut patch; lores and ring round
eye pale; no superciliary stripe; @ and autumnal specimens have the head
glossed with olive, and the crown patch may be wanting. 43-43; wing
24-24; tail 13-2. Eastern North America, common; also, California

+
7 |
|
4
‘
-

2 =! eS >

SYLVICOLIDH, WARBLERS.— GEN. 35. 95

(Xantvus, GruBER). Wits., iii, 120, pl. 27, f. 3, and vi, 15; Nurr., i,
AL? ADs, i503, pl. 113); Bp., 256; Coor., 82... 2) RUFICAPILLA:

Orange-crowned Warbler. Olive-green, nearly uniform, rather brightest
on rump, never ashy on head: below, greenish-yellow, washed with olive on
the sides; crown with more or less concealed orange-brown patch (sometimes
wanting) ; eye-ring and obscure superciliary line yellowish. Size of the
last, and often difficult to distinguish in immature plumage; but a general
oliveness and yellowness, compared with the ashy of some parts of ruficapilla,
and the different color of the crown-patch in the two species, will usually
be diagnostic. North America; common in the West, rare or irregular in
the Eastern States. Bonap., Am. Orn., i, 45, pl. 5, f. 2; Nurr., i, 413;
AUD OO Mpe 2s BD.) 200 ssCOOPG So. — «soa aban pls CHLATAT

Tennessee Warbler. Olive-green, brighter behind but never quite yellow
on the tail coverts, more or less ashy towards and on head ; no crown patch ;
below, white, often glossed with yellowish but never quite yellow; a ring
round eye, and superciliary line, whitish; frequently an obscure whitish
spot on outer tail feathers; lores dusky ; in the 9 and young the olivaceous
glosses the whole upper parts. 44-42, wing about 23, tail 2 or less; this
comparative length of wing and tail, with other characters, probably always
distinguishes the species from the foregoing. Eastern North America; rare
in New England. Wus., iii, 83, pl. 25, f. 2; Nurr.,i, 412; Avup., ii, 91,
POLE OF WII e 20 Ooias ie fuueimicreik-w Wie\en Gi bite teficra ep er - seat gy PEREGRINAS

35. Genus DENDRGCA Gray.

*,* The coloration of the rectrices is a good clue to this genus; for all the
species, excepting cestiva and its exotic conspecies or varieties, have the tail feathers
at all ages blotched with white—a feature only shown, among North American
allies, in gen. 30, 31, 32 and part of 34,40. About thirty-five species pass current,
but only twenty-seven of them are well established ; they all occur within our limits
excepting these : —pityophila (Cuba), adelaide (Porto Rico), pharetra (Jamaica),
olivacea (Mexico), and petechia with its several tropical forms, all like cestiva, and
of which eoa (Jamaica) and wwreola (Galapagos) seem most likely to prove
genuine. Of the twenty-five species ascribed to North America, one, olivacea, has
been admitted upon insufficient evidence; of two others, ‘‘montana” and ‘“car-
bonata,” nothing is now known; leaving twenty-two species to be here treated.
Kirtlandii is exceedingly rare; only two or three specimens haye ever been dis-
covered. Tigrina has been lately removed from the genus, as type of a new one
(Perissoglossa), on account of a peculiar structure of the tongue, which resembles
that of certain Cerebide ; but, as Sundeyall remarks, we have yet to see whether
otheravarblers do not possess the same character. ‘This is an inviting problem; the
student may render good service to ornithology, and reflect credit on himself,
by examining the tongues of some additional (see Barrp, Rey., 164) species
under a moderate magnifying power, and publishing his results. Baird’s excellent
analysis of the North American species known-in 1858 was supplemented in 1865
by a more complete review of the whole genus, and in 1869 a monographic essay
was given by Sundeyvall (Ofvers. Kong]. Vetensk. Akad. Forh., 615). The follow-
ing artificial analysis will facilitate the determination of our twenty-two established

96 SYLVICOLIDEH, WARBLERS. — GEN. 35.

species ; I believe it to be an infallible key to the perfect male plumages, and that it
will probably hold good for spring specimens of both sexes of many species; but
it will fail for nearly all autumnal and most female specimens of (b). It is difficult
if not impossible to meet the varied requirements of these by rigid analysis; and
recourse must be had to the detailed descriptions of the species arranged in what
seems to be their natural sequence. The supplementary table of certain peculiar-
ities may, however, prove of much assistance, though it is not a complete analysis.

ANALYSIS OF PERFECT SPRING MALES.

Tail feathers edged with yellow, . . . co AA . estiva.
Tail feathers blotched with white; a hike apot x the base of price fea, eee, onsite cerulescens.
—no white spot at base of primaries. (a)
(a) Wing-bars not white. Below, white, sides chestnut-streaked, crown yellow, . pennsylvanica.
— yellow; sides reddish-streaked, crown reddish, . . . . . . palmarwm.
— black-streaked; above, ashy, . . - . . . kirtlandii.
— olive, redaiahe Siroaked. - discolor.
(a) Wing-bars white (sometimes fused into one large white patch). (b)
(b) Crown blue, like the back; below, white, sides and breast streaked, . ..... - cerulea.
— chestnut, like the throat; below, and sides of neck, buffy tinged, ere + . castanea.
— clear ash; rump and under parts yellow, breast and sides black-streaked, » maculosa.
— blackish, with median line orange-brown., like the auriculars; rump yellow, . . tigrina.
— perfectly black; throat black; a small yellow loral spot, é - « « Migrescens.
—not black; no yellow; feet flesh-color,. . .. ... .. . . striata.
— with yellow spot; throat flame-color; rump not yellow, .. . uae - . + « dlackburnie.
—white; rump and sides of breast yellow, ..... . . . coronata.
—yellow; rump and sides of breast yellow, . . . . . . + « audubonii.
(b) Crown otherwise; throat black; back ashy, streaked, rump ash, crown yellow, occidentalis.
— blackish, rump black, crown blackish, . chrysopareia.
—=<OLVOsCrOwnslke PACK, a te | oN elcsi steel conten et virens.
—notlike back,......... . . townsendit.
— yellow; back olive; no black or ashy on head, . . sPfa te 10 val ta, Nea NIBeee
—ashy-blue; cheeks the same; eyelids valtaw oe ee GTaCtE.
—black; eyelids white,. . . . . . dominica.

Diagnostic marks of certain Warblers in any plumage.

A white spot at base of primaries — ccerulescens.
A yellow spot in front of the eye and nowhere else — nigrescens.
Wings and tail dusky, edged with yellow — estiva.
Wing-bars and belly yellow — discolor.
Wing-bars yellow, and belly pure white — pennsylvanica.
Wing-bars white, tail-spots oblique, at end of two outer feathers only — pinus.
Wing-bars brownish, tail-spots square, at end of two outer feathers only — pal-
marum.
Wing-bars not evident (?), whole under parts yellow, back with no greenish —
kirtlandii. :
Tail-spots at end of nearly all the feathers, and no definite yellow anywhere —
coerulea.
Tail-spots at middle of nearly all the feathers, rump and belly yellow—maculosa.
Rump, sides of breast, and crown more or less yellow; throat white —coronata.
Rump, sides of breast, crown and throat, more or less yellow —audubonii. «
Throat definitely yellow, belly white, back with no greenish —dominica or gracie.
Throat yellow or orange, crown with at least a trace of a central yellow or
orange spot, and outer tail feather white-edged externally — blackburnie.
Throat, breast and sides black er with black traces, sides of head with diffuse
yellow, outer tail feather white-edged externally — virens and its western allies.
Bill ordinary ; and with none of the foregoing special marks — striata or castanea.
Bill extremely acute, perceptibly curved: rump (generally) yellow —tigrina.

ta thas seta,

2am am mad ls

a eee

eee ed

SYLVICOLIDEH, WARBLERS.—GEN. 35. 97

Blue-eyed Yellow Warbler. Golden Warbler. Summer Yellowbird.
Golden-yellow; back olive-yellow, frequently with obsolete brownish
streaks ; breast and sides streaked with orange-brown ; wings and tail dusky,
yellow-edged ; bill dark horn blue; ¢ and young paler, less or not streaked
below. North America, everywhere a familiar and abundant bird. Sylvia
citrinella Wius., ii, 111, pl. 15, f. 5; 8. childreni Aup., Orn. Biog. i, 180,
pl. 835; S. rathbonia Aup., ii, 53, pl. 89; 50, pl. 88; Nurr., i, 364, 370;
Erie RE iE erst oe A Mears.) 3 Gk va a pe cael ow? oe seen CASBV AY

Fic. 39. Black-throated Green Warbler.

Black-throated Green Warbler. $, in spring: back and crown clear
yellow-olive, forehead, superciliary line and whole sides of head rich yellow

(in very high plumage, middle of back with dusky marks, and dusky or

dark olive lines through eyes and auriculars, and even bordering the crown) ;

chin, throat and breast jet black, prolonged behind as streaks on the sides ;

other under parts white, usually yellow-tinged; wings and tail dusky,

former with two white bars and much whitish edging, latter with outer

, feathers nearly all white; bill and feet blackish; @ in the fall and 9 in
; spring, similar, but the black restricted, interrupted or veiled with yellow ;
young similar to the 9, but black still more restricted or wanting alto-
gether, except a few streaks along sides. Small: about 5; wing 23.
(Compare Blue Mountain warbler, beyond.) Eastern United States, abund-

ant in forests; breeds in New England in pine woods. Wz4ts., ii, 127, pl.

iF Pipi a saiNUTT: 61, 9:005 AUD., 11,42, pl..04.; BD. 260.3. . VIRENS-
K Western Warbler. Somewhat similar to the last; crown and back not
f continuously olive; back. olivaceous-ash, with blackish streaks; crown and

sides of head clear yellow, former with the feathers black-tipped or dusky-
clouded; no black stripe through eye; chin, throat and fore-breast pure
black, ending behind with a sharp convex outline; sides faintly or not
hs streaked with black; belly, wings and tail as in vérens. Rocky Mountains
to the Pacific, U.S. The seasonal and sexual changes are not well made

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 138

98 SYLVICOLIDH, WARBLERS.—GEN. 35.

out, but are doubtless parallel with those of virens. AvD., ii, 60, pl. 93;
Bis g2085 <<. Bes sO aelen Sree aehhe Pera aal he keer POCORDEN TATE:

Townsend’s W laste: Somewhat similar to virens; upper parts olive-
green, much black-streaked, crown mostly black with olive edgings of the
feathers, chin and throat not perfectly black? Perfect plumage probably
not known, and changes not well understood. Rocky Mountains to the
Pacific ; said to have once occurred near Philadelphia. Nurr., 2d ed., i,
446; Aup., 59, 92; Bp., 269, and Rev., 185; Coor., 91. . TOWNSENDII.

Golden -cheeked Warbler. Prevailing color of the upper parts black,
pure on the rump, elsewhere mixed with olive-green; sides of the head
yellow, with narrow black stripe through the eye; below, with the wings
and tail, as in virens; size of this species. Guatemala (Salvin) to Texas
(San Antonio, Heermann). A species I have never seen; the description is
abridged from Barrp, Rey., 183, 267, who took it from the type of the
species. Sci. and Saty., Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1860, 298, and Ibis,
1860, 273. *,* This and the two preceding species require further investi-
gation to place their relationship to each other and to virens upon firm
foun: : slp clus: pat dea ce ei) to a CHR SORARITAG

Black- Te ean Wacker. 6, in spring: back bluish-ash, with
black streaks; head and neck all round pure black, with a white stripe over
and behind eye, another, broader and longer, from the corner of the bill
on each side of the chin and throat, and a little yellow spot just before and

above the eye (no other yellow anywhere) ; below
_ from the throat white, the sides with numerous black
streaks; wings and tail blackish, former with two
white bars a much whitish edging, latter with outer

Fic. 40. Black-throated Gray the head and throat denuded with ae ‘ cond ais black
beens a streaks of the back obsolete: the curious yellow loral

spot seems to be persistent and diagnostic of the species. Size of virens,
and much the same pattern of coloration, bluish-ash replacing the olive ;
stands between virens and cerulescens; the western analogue of the latter.
Rocky Mountains to the Pacific. Nurr., i, 2d ed. 471; Aup., ii, 62, pl.
94% Bp. One OOOP- Ors tion ceiit- all teatime pert . » NIGRESCENS.
Black-throated Blue Warbler. @ in spring: es uniform slaty-blue,
the perfect continuity of which is only interrupted, in very high plumages,
by a few black dorsal streaks ; below, pure white ; the sides of the head to
above the eyes, the chin, throat, and whole sides of the body continuously
jet-black ; wing-bars wanting (the coverts being black, edged with blue),
but a large white spot at base of primaries; quill feathers blackish, out-
wardly edged with bluish, the inner ones mostly white on their inner webs ;
tail with the ordinary white blotches, the central feathers edged with
bluish ; bill black; feet dark. Young 2, similar, but the blue glossed with
olivaceous, and the black interrupted and restricted. 9 entirely different :

SYLVICOLIDH, WARBLERS.—GEN. 35. 99

dull olive-greenish, with faint bluish shade, below pale soiled yellowish ; but
recognizable by the white spot at base of primaries, which, though it may
be reduced to a mere speck, is always evident, at least on pushing aside the
primary coverts; no other wing markings; tail-blotches small or obscure ;
feet rather pale. Size of virens. Eastern United States, abundant, in
woodland. S. pusilla, Wits., v, 100, pl. 43, f. 4; S. sphagnosa, Nutr.,
i, 406; Aup., Orn. Biog. ii, 279, are g or young. SS. canadensis, WILS.,
five, ple 15, f..7; Nurr:, i, 398; Aup., ii, 63, 95; Bo., 271. “S. ceru-
Wesens Mil aweverlkoOs.s se ws 6 oa) ee lO OS. i “OMRULESOENS:

Ozs. The only other warbler with a white spot at base of primaries is the D.
olivacea of Mexico, and ascribed also to Texas; it is olivaceous, the head, neck
and breast orange-brown, with a black bar through the eye. Cass., Ill. 283, pl. 48 ;
Bo., Rev. 205.

Cerulean Warbler. g in spring: azure blue, with black streaks ; below,
pure white, breast and sides with blue or blue-black streaks; two white
wing-bars ; tail-blotches small, but occupying every feather, except, perhaps,
the central pair; bill black, fect dark. @ and young with the blue impure,
strongly glossed with greenish, and the white similarly soiled with yellow-
ish; a yellowish eye-ring and superciliary line. Eastern United States, not
common in most places; north to Connecticut Valley ; “ Nova Scotia.” A
small and very beautiful species; 4-44. Sylvia rara, Wi1s., iii, 119, pl.
27, f. 2; Nurr., i, 393. S. azurea, Nutt., i, 407; S. cerulea, Wits., il,
141, pl. 17, f. 5; Aup., ii, 45, pl. 86; Bp., 280. See ke Can RUM EAY

Yellow-rumped Warbler. Yellow-crowned Warbler. Myrtle Bird. 2,
in spring: slaty-blue, streaked with black; below, white, breast and sides
mostly black, belly, and especially the throat, pure white, immaculate ;
rump, central crown patch, and sides of breast sharply yellow, there being
thus four definite yellow places; sides of head black; eyelids and super-
ciliary line white ; ordinary white wing-bars and tail-blotches ; bill and feet
black; ¢ in winter, and ¢@ in summer, similar,
but slate color less pure, or quite brownish; young ,
birds are quite brown above, with a few obscure
streaks in the whitish of the under parts. It is im-
possible to specify the endless intermediate styles;
but I never saw a specimen without the yellow
rump, and at least a trace of the other yellow
marks ; these points therefore are diagnostic. The
only other obscure-looking brownish warblers with
yellow rump are maculosa and tigrina, when young. One of the larger
species; 53-52; wing 3, tail 24. North America, but chiefly eastern ;
Alaska (Dall) ; Washington Territory (Suckley) ; California (Cooper, 89).
United States rarely in summer, but during the migrations the most abun-
dant of all the warblers; winters as far north at least as Washington,
D.C. ; oceurs, however, in Mexico and Central America; seen everywhere,
but is particularly numerous in shrubbery, along hedge-rows, in flocks,

Fig. 41. Yellow-rumped Warbler.

100 SYLVICOLIDH, WARBLERS.—GEN. 35.

associating with troops of sparrows. WIzs., ii, 138, pl. 17, f. 4; pl. 45,
f. 3; Nurt., i, 361; AuD., ii, 23, pl.76; Bp., 272; Rev., 187. coronara.

Audubon’s Warbler. With a close general resemblance to the last, but
throat yellow, not white; eyelids white, but no white superciliary line ;
cheeks not definitely black ; wing-bars generally fused into one large white
patch, and tail-blotches larger; otherwise like coronata, of which it is the
western representative; and with which its changes of plumage are entirely
correspondent. North America, from Rocky Mountains to Pacific; very
abundant. AvD., ii, 26, pl. 77; Bp., 273; Coopr., 88. . . AUDUBONII.

Blackburnian Warbler. Hemlock Warbler. in spring: back black,
more or less interrupted with yellowish; crown black, with a central
orange spot; a broad black stripe through eye, enclosing the orange
under eyelid; rest of head, with whole throat, most brilliant orange, or
flame color; other under parts whitish, more or less tinged with yellow, and
sides streaked with black; wing-bars fused into a large white patch; tail-
blotches occupying nearly all the outer feathers; bill and feet dark. 9 and
young ¢: upper parts and crown olive and black, streaked (much like
adult ¢ and young striata, but is smaller, with more black, and usually a
yellow trace on the crown) ; superciliary line and throat clear yellow (pale
for this species, but as rich as is usual for adults of the various yellow-
throated species), fading insensibly on the breast; lower eyelid yellow, con-
fined in the dusky ear-patch; sides streaked much as in the adult; wing-
patch resolved into two bars; tail-blotches nearly as extensive as in the
adult, the outer feathers showing white on the outer webs at base (this is a
strong feature). Eastern United States, abundant in woodland; the loveli-
est of the warblers; none can compare with the exquisite hue of the throat.
S. parus, Wis., v, 114, pl. 44, f. 3; Nurr., i, 392; Avup., ii, 40, pl. 83
(young). WILS., iii, 64, pl. 23, f. 3; Nurr., i, 379; Aup., ii, 48, pl. 87;
|) eee 1c aS es ee ee em Nera te oe eC En

Black-poll Warbler. (PLaTE u, figs. 15, 16, 15a, 16a.) ¢ in spring:
upper parts thickly streaked with black and oliva-
ceous-ash; whole crown pure black; head below
the level of the eyes, and whole under parts, white,

ing forward on the sides of the neck to form two
stripes that converge to meet at base of the Dill,
cutting off the white of the cheeks from that of
Fic. 42. Black-poll Warbler. the throat; wing-bars and tail-blotches ordinary ;
inner secondaries white-edged; primaries usually edged externally with
olive; feet and under mandible flesh color, or pale yellowish ; upper mandi-
ble black. ¢ in spring: upper parts, including the crown, greenish-olive,
both thickly and rather sharply black-streaked ; white of under parts soiled
anteriorly with very pale olivaceous-yellow, the streaks smaller and not so
crowded as in the 2, but still plain enough. Young: closely resembling the
adult 9, but a brighter and more greenish olive above, with fewer streaks,

the sides thickly marked with black streaks crowd-

SYLVICOLIDZ, WARBLERS.—GEN. 35. 101

often obsolete on the crown; below more or less completely tinged with
pale greenish-yellow, the streaks very obscure and sometimes altogether
wanting; under tail coverts usually pure white; a yellowish superciliary
line ; wing-bars tinged with the same color. When the streaks on the sides
are obsolete, the species bears an extraordinary resemblance to young
castanea, which see. One of the larger species; 53-53, wing 23-3, tail
2-24. Eastern North America, very abundant; a late migrant; when the
black-polls appear in force, the collecting season is about over! Wiuxs., iv,
20M ple 30; f..3); vi, LOL, plo54, f. 3; Nurr., i, 3833 Aup., ii, 28, pl.
eee OU namepette Meo Sy ep cali yiaete crise tek, a ays ois en eR DAS

Bay-breasted Warbler. Autumnal Warbler. ¢ in spring: back thickly
streaked with black and grayish-olive; forehead and sides of head black
enclosing a large deep chestnut patch; a duller chestnut (exactly like a blue-
bird’s breast) occupies the whole chin and throat and thence extends, more
or less interrupted, along the entire sides of the body; rest of under parts
ochrey or buffy whitish; a similar buffy area behind the ears; wing-bars and
tail-spots ordinary; bill and feet blackish. The 9 in spring is more oliva-
ceous than the male, with the markings less pronounced ; but always shows
evident chestnut coloration; and probably traces of it persist in all adult
birds in the fall. The young, however, so closely resemble young striata,
that it is sometimes impossible to distinguish them with certainty. The
upper parts, in fact, are of precisely the same greenish-olive, with black
streaks; but there is generally a difference below —castanea being there
tinged with buffy or ochrey, instead of the clearer pale yellowish of striata;
this shade is particularly observable on the belly, flanks and under tail
coverts, just where striata is whitest ; and moreoyer, castanea is usually not
streaked on the sides at all. Mature spring birds vary interminably in the
extent and intensity of the chestnut. Size of striata. Eastern United
States, abundant. Sylvia autumnalis. Wits., iii, 65, pl. 23; Nurr., i,
390; Aup., Orn. Biog., i, 447, pl. 83 (young). WHLS,, ii, 97, pl. 14, f.
AP MNUO igi Oo2 5 AUD.) 1, pl. 805 BD.,.206. 5 ans . Ste SCASTANEA.

Chestnut-sided Warbler. @ in spring: back streaked with black and
pale yellow (sometimes ashy or whitish) ; whole crown pure yellow immedi-
ately bordered with white, then enclosed with
black; sides of head and neck and whole under
parts pure white, former with an irregular black
crescent before the eye, one horn extending back-
ward over the eye to border the yellow crown and
be dissipated on the sides of the nape, the other
reaching downward and backward to connect with
a chain of pure chestnut streaks that run the whole Frc. 43. Chestnut-sided Warbler.
length of the body, the under eyelid and auriculars being left white; wing-
bands generally fused into one large patch, and, like the edging of the
inner secondaries, much tinged with yellow; tail-spots white, as usual;
bill blackish, feet brown. 9 in spring, quite similar; colors less pure ;

102 SYLVICOLIDEH, WARBLERS.—GEN. 35.

black loral crescent obscure or wanting; chestnut streaks thinner. Young:
above, including the crown, clear yellowish-green, perfectly uniform, or
back with slight dusky touches ; no distinct head-markings ; below, entirely
white from bill to tail, unmarked, or else showing a trace of chestnut
streaks on the sides; wing-bands clear yellow as in the adult; this is a
diagnostic feature, shared by no other species, taken in connection with the
continuously white under parts; bill light colored below. 5-54, wing 24,
tail 2. Eastern United States; abundant in woodland. Wrus., i, 99, pl.
14. f. 5; Nurr., 1, 380; Aup., ii, 35, pl. 81; Bp., 279. PENNSYLVANICA.
Black and Yellow Warbler. Magnolia Warbler. @g in spring: back
black, the feathers more or less skirted with olive; rump yellow; crown
clear ash, bordered by black in front to the eyes,
behind the eyes by a white stripe ; forehead and sides
of head black, continuous with that of the back,
enclosing the white under eyelid ; entire under parts
(except white under tail coverts) rich yellow, thickly
streaked across the breast and along the sides with
<i. Black and Yellow Dlack, the pectoral streaks crowded and cutting off
warnles the definitely bounded immaculate yellow throat

from the yellow of the other under parts; wing-bars white, generally fused
into one patch ; tail spots small, rectangular, at the middle of the tail and on
all the feathers excepting the central pair; bill black, feet brown. ¢, in
spring, quite similar; black of back reduced to spots in the grayish-olive ;
ash of head washed with olive; other head-markings obscure, black streaks
below smaller and fewer. Young, quite different ; upper parts ashy-olive,
still grayer on the head; no head-markings whatever, and streaks below
wanting, or confined to a few small ones along the sides; but always
known by the yellow rump in connection with extensively or completely
yellow under parts (except white under tail coverts) and small tail spots
near the middle of all the feathers except the central. Small; 5 or less,
wing 24, tail 2. Eastern United States; a dainty little species, abundant
in woodland. S. magnolia Wuts., iii, 63, pl. 23. S. maculosa, Nutr.,
L005 LADS; 115 °65;¢pl.-96)5\ Bpe,) 284: 1 ot. AE eee ee. eA OUOR AS
Cape May Warbler. @ in spring: back yellowish-olive, with dark
spots; crown blackish, more or less interrupted with brownish; ear-patch
orange-brown; chin, throat, and posterior portion of a yellowish superciliary
line tinged with the same; a black loral line; rwmp and under parts rich
yellow, paler on belly and crissum, the breast and sides streaked with black ;
wing-bars fused into a large whitish patch; tail-blotches large, on three
pairs of rectrices; bill and feet black. ¢ in spring is somewhat similar,
but lacks the distinctive head-markings ; the under parts are paler and less
streaked; the tail-spots small or obscure; the white on the wing less.
Young: an insignificant-looking. bird, resembling an overgrown ruby-
crowned kinglet, without its crest; obscure greenish-olive above, rump olive-
yellow, under parts yellowish white; breast and sides with the streaks

SYLVICOLIDZ, WARBLERS.—GEN. 35. 103

obscure or obsolete; little or no white on wings, which are edged with
yellowish; tail-spots very small. 5-54, wing 23, tail 24. Eastern North
America to Hudson’s Bay; West Indies (where it also breeds). A species
not very common with us, remarkable for the very acute and somewhat
decurved bill, and the anatomical peculiarities of the tongue. S. maritima
Wizs. vi, 99, pl. 54, f. 3; Nurr., i, 371; Aup., 44, pl. 85; D. tégrina
Bp., 280; Perissoglossa tigrina Bp., Rev. 181... . . . . TIGRINA.

Prairie Warbler. Yellow-olive: back with a patch of brick-red spots;
forehead, superciliary line, two wing-bars and entire under parts, rich
yellow; a V-shaped black mark on side of head, its upper arm running
through eye, its lower arm connecting with a series of black streaks along
the whole sides of the neck and body; tail-blotches very large, occupying
most of the inner web of the outer feathers. The sexes are almost exactly
alike, and the young only differ in not being so bright, and in having the
dorsal patch and head-markings obscure. Small; 43-5; wing 24; tail 2.
Eastern United States, to Massachusetts; an abundant little bird of the
Middle and Southern States, in sparse low woodland, cedar thickets and old
fields grown up to scrub-pines ; remarkable for its quaint and curious song ;
an expert flycatcher, constantly darting into the air in pursuit of winged
insects, like the redstart and the species of Myiodioctes. sS. minuta Wits.,
iii, 87, pl. 25, f.4. 4S. discolor Nurt., i, 394 (“294” by error of paging) ;
UID OSD Coias SOD 5 2008 eM edsui tie) Go lk asl ste DISCOLOR:

Grace's Warbler. @ in spring: bluish-ash, back with black streaks,
crown with still more black streaks, so crowded anteriorly and on the sides
as to become continuous ; chin, throat and breast rich yellow, ending abruptly
against the white of the other under parts; sides of neck and body with
numerous black streaks; a broad yellow superciliary line, changing to
white behind the eye; no white patch below auriculars ; lower eyelid yellow;
a black line from bill to eye, with which the streaks of the side of the neck
connect; two white wing-bars, the anterior one much the stronger; tail
blotches large, the outer one occupying nearly all the feather ; bill and feet
black. 9 not particularly different. Young: dull brownish (like young
coronata) with few or no black streaks on back, crown or along sides ; throat,
eyelid and superciliary line rich yellow, as in the adult; other under parts
soiled whitish. 5-54, wing 2%, tail 24, bill under 4. New Mexico, Arizona
and southward; abundant, and breeding, at Fort Whipple (Cowes). An
interesting lately discovered species, closely resembling the next. Cougs,
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philada., 1866, p. 67. Barrp, Rev. 210; Coorrr,
ea (OP DENCis) mone nate cl a -uieS plate) s.8 0. ot.) GRACIA:

Yellow-throated Warbler. Much like the last species, with which its
changes of plumage are entirely correspondent; no yellow in the black
under the eye; a white patch separating the black of the cheeks from the
bluish ash of the neck; superciliary line usually yellow from bill to eye,
thence white to nape, sometimes entirely white; bill very long (at least 4),
extremely compressed, almost a little decurved. South Atlantic and Gulf

104 SYLVICOLIDH, WARBLERS. —GEN. 35.

States, rather common; north to Maryland and Ohio, but rare; West Indies
(where it breeds), Mexico and Central America. S. flavicollis Wits., ii,
64, pl. 12, f. 6; S. pensilis Nurr., i, 374; Aup., ii, 82, 79; D. super-
ciliosa Bp., 289; .D. dominica, Bp., Rev. 209. . . . =. . DOMINICA.

Kirlland’s Warbler. “ Above slate-blue, the feathers of the crown with
a narrow, those of the back with a broader, streak of black; a narrow
frontlet involving the lores, the anterior end of the eye and space beneath
it, black; the rest of the eyelids white; under parts clear yellow, almost
white on the under tail coverts, the breast with small spots and the sides
with short streaks of black; greater and middle wing coverts, the quills and
tail feathers, edged with dull whitish; two outer tail feathers with a dull
white spot on the inner web; 53; wing 2*, tail 23” (Baird). Very rare;
only two or three specimens known, from Ohio and the Bahamas. A species
I have never seen; but I suspect that its relationships are with dominica and
gracie, and that they may prove still closer with the Portorican species
of the same group (adelaide). Batrp, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y. v,
1852, 217, pl. 6; Cass., Ill. i, 278, pl. 47; Bp., Rev. 206. . KIRTLANDII.

Yellow Red-poll Warbler. Palm Warbler. In spring: brownish-olive,
rump and upper tail coverts brighter yellowish-olive, back obsoletely
streaked with dusky, crown chestnut; superciliary line and entire under
parts rich yellow, breast and sides with reddish-brown streaks, somewhat as
in the summer warbler; a dusky loral line running through eye; no white
wing-bars, the wing coverts and inner quills being edged with yellowish-
brown; tail spots at very end of inner webs of two outer pairs of tail
feathers only, and cut squarely off—a peculiarity distinguishing the species
in any plumage. Q not particularly different from the ¢ : young, an ob-
scure-looking species, brownish above like a young yellow-rump, but upper
tail coverts yellowish-olive, and under tail coverts apt to show quite bright
yellow in contrast with the dingy yellowish white or brownish white of other
under parts ; pectoral and lateral streaks obscure; crown generally showing
chestnut traces; but in any plumage, known by absence of white wing-bars
and peculiarity of the tail spots, as just said. 54, wing 23, tail 24. East-
ern North America, abundant: usually found in fields, along hedgerows and
roadsides, with yellow-rumps and sparrows; the most terrestrial species of
the genus, often recalling a titlark ; remains in the fall latest of any, except
the yellow-rump. Winters in Florida and the West Indies (Allen). SS.
petechia, WiLs., vi, 19, pl. 28, f. 4; Nurr., i, 364; Aun., ti, 55, pl. 90;
IBD IRB Beers ee eer oe at are AE a eh wi Stace oe SES L Irene ve © Ae taTgeP ATEN AR aoe

Pine Warbler. Pine-creeping Warbler. Uniform yellowish-olive above,
yellow below, paler or white on belly and under tail coverts, shaded and
sometimes obsoletely streaked with darker on the sides; superciliary line
yellow ; wing-bars white; tail-blotches confined to two outer pairs of feathers,
large, oblique. Q and young, similar, duller; sometimes merely olive-gray
above and sordid whitish below. The variations in precise shade are inter-
minable ; but the species may always be known by the lack of any special sharp

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8 is a t+ ? Pa “¢ “
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_ 12 Tyrannus carolinensis, 3-7, Troglodytes don, B-ll,Seiurus noveboracensis,
1214 Mmotilta varia, 15-16, Dendreca striata, 17-18,2ipila exvthrophthalmus 19-20,
Pyranga gstiva. — . 5

OF, Se

STINT AE.

SYLVICOLID®, WARBLERS.—GEN. 36. 105

markings whatever, except the superciliary line; and by the combination of
white wing-bars with large oblique tail-spots confined to the two outer pairs
of feathers. One of the largest species: 54 to nearly 6. Eastern United
States, very abundant in pine woods and cedar thickets; has an extensive
breeding range, and is apparently resident in southern portions. Vireo
vigorsit Nutr., i, 318; S. pinus Wits., iii, 25, pl. 19, f. 4; Nurr., i, 387;

PAPE (LST POSED sao Lilisie Suse shi tele ice’ ghc tassios Seams wie PINUSS

Oss. The two following species, ascribed to North America, are not now
known :—

Blue Mountain. Warbler. Sytv1a montana Wits., v, 113, pl. 44, f. 2 (Blue
Mountains of Virginia). Aup., ii, 69, pl. 98 (‘ California”). Bp., 278. Professor
Baird suggests that some plumage of D. pinus or striata may furnish the clue to
this lost species; but these are among the largest warblers, whilst Wilson says
“length four inches and three-quarters.” Mr. Turnbull (Birds of New Jersey, p
18) says, without qualification, it is the young of D. cerulea. I think myself that
it is simply the young of D. virens! of which, it seems, Wilson never recognized
an autumnal example. A September specimen of virens, before me as I write,
agrees almost precisely with Wilson’s description — rich yellow olive; front, cheeks,
chin and sides of neck, yellow; * * two exterior tail feathers white on the
inner vanes from the middle to the tip, and edged on the outer side with white, etc.
Now D. virens is the only Eastern species, showing this latter feature, that agrees
with the other assigned characters at all. It is curious additional evidence that I
am right in this surmise, that the original of Audubon’s figure, in the British
Museum, came from ‘California;” for I suppose that this specimen was the
young of occidentalis or townsendii, some of the plumages of which, as well as can
be made out, are with difficulty distinguishable from immature virens.

Carbonated Warbler. Sytvra cARBonatTa Aub. Orn. Biog. i, 308, pl. 60; Norr.,
i, 405; Avp., ii, 95, pl. 109; Bp., 287. Only known by the figure and description
of a pair killed in Kentucky. I have no idea what this is; it may not be a
Dendreca at all. Audubon himself put it among the worm-eating warblers.

36. Genus SEIURUS Swainson.

*,* The birds of this genus have been classed with the thrushes, and also with
the titlarks (which they somewhat resemble in habits, being walking birds), but
they have no special affinity with either. They are simply terrestrial warblers,
closely related to gen. 37, 38. Five species are
enumerated, but the exotic representatives of nove-
boracensis and ludovicianus seem to be mere vari-
eties.

* Crown orange-brown, with two black stripes ; no
superciliary line.

Golden-crowned Thrush. Oven Bird. Bright
olive green; below pure white, thickly spotted
with dusky on breast and along sides; a narrow
maxillary line of blackish; under wing coverts
tinged with yellow; a white eye-ring; legs flesh color; wings and tail
unmarked. Sexes alike; young similar. Length 54-64; wing 3; tail 23.

Fic. 45. Golden-crowned Thrush.

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 14

106 SYLVICOLIDA, WARBLERS.—GEN. 37.

Eastern North America, West Indies, Mexico, Alaska (Dall). A very

common bird in open woodland, spending much of its time on the ground

rustling among the leaves; noted for its loud monotonous song, and its

curious nest, which is placed on the ground and roofed over; whence the

name “ovenbird.” Wiuts., ii, 88, pl. 14, f. 2; Nurr., i, 355; Aup., Orn.

Biog. ii, 253; v, 447; pl. 143; Bp., 260. . . . . . AUROCAPILLUS.
** Crown plain, like the back; a conspicuous superciliary line.

Water Thrush. Water Wagtail. (Puate ur; figs. 9,10, 11; 9a, 10a,
lla.) Deep olivaceous-brown ; below, white, more or less tinged with pale
yellowish, thickly and sharply spotted with the color of the back, except on
lower belly and crissum: superciliary line yellowish; feet dark. Length
53-6; wing 23; tail 24; bill about 4. North America, everywhere ; a com-
mon bird of low watery thickets, in the habit of constantly vibrating the
tail as it moves about in the underbrush. Wruts., iii, 66, pl. 22, f. 5;
Nurtt., i, 353 ; Aup., Orn. Biog. v, 284, pl. 433 ; Bp., 261. NOVEBORACENSIS.

Large-billed Water Thrush. (Puiare m1, figs. 8, 8a.) Very similar to the
last; rather larger, averaging about 6, with the wing 3; bill especially
longer and stouter, over 4, and tarsus nearly 1. Under parts white, only
faintly tinged, and chiefly on the flanks and crissum, with buffy (not sul-
phury yellow) ; the streaks sparse, pale, and not very sharp: throat, as well
as belly and crissum, unmarked; legs pale. It may prove only a variety,
but I have yet to see a specimen I cannot distinguish on sight; the size of
the bill is not by any means the only character, as some seem to suppose,
though it is the principal one. Eastern United States, rather southern, and
not very common; north to Massachusetts (Allen). Aup. Orn. Biog. i,
Sebo) kg 1 il 83 oan, AeA A Sek A ow ho 5 on ce oy JELUR DIO IKON TU.

37. Genus OPORORNIS Baird.

Connecticut Warbler. Olive-green, becoming ashy on the head; below,
from the breast, yellow, olive-shaded on the sides; chin, throat and breast
brownish-ash ; a whitish ring round eye; wings and tail unmarked, glossed
with olive; under mandible and feet pale; no decided markings anywhere ;
54; wing 2}; tail 2. In spring birds the ash of the head, throat and breast
is quite pure, and then the resemblance to G'eothlypis philadelphia is close ;
but in the latter the wings are little if any longer than the tail. In the fall
the upper parts from bill to tail are nearly uniform olive. Eastern United
States, not common, and very rarely observed in the spring; a quiet, shy
inhabitant of brushwood and thickets. Of late very abundant in the fall
about Cambridge, Mass., where in two seasons over a hundred specimens
have been taken (Allen). Wits., v, 64, pl. 24, f. 4; Nurr., 2d ed. i,
AO BT ao Mon sepia (Un jak Behe 18a ALK © Sos 8G! gee ode) for AGIOS

Kentucky Warbler. Clear olive-green; entire aes ae bright yellow,
olive-shaded along sides; crown black, separated by a rich yellow super-
ciliary line (which curls around the eye behind) from a broad black bar

CS. + ae ©

EEE EOE ele

BWitEs., 1, oD, pl. 25, f 2; Nurr., 1, 399; Avp.,

>. >i - ans

SYLVICOLIDZ, WARBLERS.—GEN. 38. 107

running from bill below eye and thence down the side of the neck; wings
and tail unmarked, glossed with olive; feet flesh color; 533; wing 23-3; tail
2-24. Young birds have the black obscure if not wanting; in the fall,
the black feathers of the crown of the adult are skirted with ash. Eastern
United States, north to the Connecticut Valley ;
not abundant, but common in certain sections, as in
southern Illinois (J?édgway) and Kansas (Coues).

Meevosplai4; -bD:, 247. -\. » « ~~» ‘FORMOSUS.

38. Genus GEOTHLYPIS Cabanis.

Maryland Yellow-throat. 2 in spring: olive-
green, rather grayer anteriorly, forehead and a
broad band through the eye to the neck pure black, bordered above with
hoary ash; chin, throat, breast, under tail coverts and edge of wing rich
yellow, fading into whitish on the belly ; wings and tail unmarked, glossed
with olive; bill black, feet flesh colored. 9 in spring, without the definite
black and ash on the head, the crown generally brownish, the yellow pale
and restricted. The young, in general, resembles
the 9, at any rate lacking the head markings of the
g ; but it is sometimes buffy brownish below, some-
times almost entirely clear yellow. In any plumage,
the bird is distinguished from warblers of any other
genus, by having the wings shorter, or at most not
longer, than the tail; and from the two following

Fic. 47. Maryland Yellow- species by having no clear ash on the throat. Length
an 49-5; wing and tail 1{-24. United States, from
Atlantic to Pacific; Mexico, West Indies and Central America. An abund-
ant and familiar inhabitant of shrubbery and underbrush, the sameness of
which is enlivened by its sprightly presence and hearty song, throughout
the summer months. Wuts., i, 88, pl. 6, f. 1; Nurr., i, 401; Aup., ii,
oa plkOssDy, 240. 99. fy 5 tet Sherer. teats tol Oo eee) DRIOEUAS:

Mourning Warbler. Bright olive, below clear yellow; on the head the
olive passes insensibly into ash; in high plumage the throat and breast are
black, but are generally ash, showing black traces, the feathers being black
skirted with ash, producing a peculiar appearance suggestive of the bird’s
wearing crape ; wings and tail unmarked, glossed with olive ; under mandi-
ble and feet flesh color; no white about eyes. Young birds have little or
no ashy on the head, and no black on the throat, thus closely resembling
Oporornis agilis, but are of course distinguishable by their generic charac-
ters; 54-54; wing and tail, each, about 24. Eastern United States, rare ;
Minnesota, “abundant” (Trippe) ; a shy, retiring inhabitant of dense shrub-
bery. Wuts., i, 101, pl. 14; Norr., i, 404; Aun., ii, 76, pl. 101; Bo.,
243. Bt crtlyhe Ne. | ure a ae aa ae PHILADELPHIA.
Macgillivray’s Warbler. Precisely like the last species, excepting that it

+. 46. Kentucky Warbler.

108 SYLVICOLIDZ, WARBLERS.—GEN. 39.

has white eyelids. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, U. S., and southward.
One of the most abundant warblers in the mountains of Colorado, and
common elsewhere in the West. Tvrichas tolmiet Nutt., 2d ed. i, 460;
Aup:, ii, 74, pl. 1005 Bo:, 248; Coor:, 96: =... MACGmEyRANaE

Subfamily ICTERIINA. Chats.

A small group, recently framed to accommodate the following genus and its two
tropical allies; it is perhaps questionable whether they are most naturally classed
with the Warblers. Icteria shows the following points :— Larger than any other
Sylvicolide ; bill short, stout, compressed, culmen and commissure both curved,
tip unnotched, rictus unbristled ; wings much rounded, shorter or at most not longer
than the tail. Sexes alike. Probably contains but one species.

39. Genus ICTERIA Vieillot.

Yellow-breasted Chat. Bright olive green, below golden yellow, belly
abruptly white; lore black, isolating the white under eyelid from a white
superciliary line above and a short white maxillary line below; wings and
tail unmarked, glossed with olive; bill and
feet blue-black ; 7-73; wing about 3 ; tail about
34. Eastern United States, north to Massa-
chusetts, abundant; an exclusive inhabitant of
low tangled undergrowth, and oftener heard
than seen, except during the mating season,
; when it performs the extravagant aerial evolu-

Fra. 48. Yellow-breasted Chat. tions for which, as well as for the variety and
volubility of its song, it is noted. Nest in a crotch of a bush near the
ground: eggs 4-5, white, speckled with reddish brown. Pipra polyglotta
Wizs., i, 90 pl. 6, f. 2; Icteria viridis Nutt.,i, 299: Aup. Orn. Biog.
li, 223, v, 433, pl. 137; Bp., 248; Icteria virens Bp., Rev. 228. VIRENS.

Var. toncicaupa. Long-tailed Chat. Very similar; the olive duller and grayer,
sometimes quite ashy on the head: tail usually but not always longer, averaging
perhaps 31. Replaces virens from the Plains to the Pacific, U. S., and southward.
Bp., 249 ; Cooprr, 98.

Subfamily SETOPHAGINA. Flycatching Warblers.

These have the bill depressed, considerably broader than high at base, notched
and usually hooked at tip, and furnished with long stiff bristles that reach halfway
or more from the nostrils to the end of the bill. ‘In other respects they are not
distinguished from the rest of the family. While many or most other Sylvicolidee
are expert in taking insects on the wing, these capture their prey in the air with
special address, representing, in this respect, the true clamatorial flycatchers, with
which some species of Setophagine used to be classed, in the extensive old genus
“Muscicapa.” As I have said, the Sylwicoline are peculiarly North American ;
while the Setophagine are most developed in Central and South America, where
they are represented by three or four genera, and upwards of forty species. It is
hardly necessary to add that, however closely some of them may resemble the

ee ly a

SYLVICOLID®, WARBLERS.—GEN. 40. 109

Tyrannide, they are at once distinguished from these clamatorial birds by the
oscine character of the tarsi, and the presence of only nine primaries.

40. Genus MYIODIOCTES Audubon.

Hooded’ Flycatcher. Clear yellow-olive, below rich yellow shaded along
the sides, whole head and neck pure black, enclosing a broad golden mask
across forehead and through eyes; wings un-
marked, glossed with olive; tail with large white
blotches on the two outer pairs of feathers, as in
Dendreca; bill black, feet flesh color. 9 with
no black on the head; that of the crown replaced
by olive, that of the throat by yellow; young 2
with} the black much restricted or interrupted, if
not wholly wanting as in the 9¢ (Muscicapa selbyi
Bou. Orn. Bide. -1,-46, pl: 9). Length 5-5; 7% 9) Meeded Miveatoher.
wing about 23, tail about 24. Eastern United States, apparently not very
common. Muscicapa cucullata Wits., iii. 101, pl. 26, f. 8; Nurr., i, 373;
PRED esis 025 ple CliseB Des 292.8 Ss i wee MITRATOSs

Green Black-capped Flycatcher. Clear jellow=olives ; crown glossy blue-
black ; forehead, sides of head and entire under parts bright yellow; wings
and tail plain, glossed with olive ; upper mandible dark,
under pale; feet brown; 9 and young similar, colors
not so bright, the black cap.obscure. Small; 43-5;
wing about 24; tail about 2. North America, at large ;
common. WKdts., iii, 103, pl. 26, f. 4; Nurr., i, 408;
MER Gohan. eaten Aup., 11, 21, pl. 755 Bp, 293:. .. 5. .) ‘PUSILLUS.

Flycatcher. Canadian Flycatcher. Bluish-ash; crown speckled
with lanceolate black marks, crowded and generally continuous on the fore-
head ; the latter divided lengthwise by a slight yellow line; short super-
ciliary line and edges of eyelids, yellow; lores black, continuous with black
under the eye, and this passing as a chain of black
streaks down the side of the neck and prettily encir-
cling the throat like a necklace; excepting these
streaks and the white under tail coverts, the entire
under parts are clear yellow; wings and tail un-
marked ; feet flesh color. In the @ and young the
black is obscure or much restricted, and the back
may be slightly glossed with olive: but they cannot
be mistaken. In this plumage the bird is Mytodioctes #1651. Canadian Flycatcher,
bonapartii Aup., ii, 17, pl. 73; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 330; Bo., 295. Length
about 54; wing 24; tail 24. Eastern United States, an abundant and beau-
tiful woodland species. Wruzs., ii, 100, pl. 26, f. 2; Nurr., i, 872; Aup.,
Meee Ass Die 2 BDs 294. 9 so ie. cl ge 2 se he te CANADENSIS.

Ogzs. The Binodt healed Flycatcher, We cniaiaee MINUTA WILS., vi, 62, pl. 50, f.
2; Nurr., i, 2d ed. B34; Aup., i, 238, pl. 67; Bp., 293, now unknown, is conjec-

—— Fr) ee oe

110 C@REBIDE, HONEY CREEPERS.—GEN. 41, 42.

tured to belong to this genus; but this can hardly be, for Wilson says it has two
white wing bands, a character not shown in Myiodioctes. There is no reasonable
probability that any species of the family, inhabiting the Middle States in June,
remains to be detected. I have no doubt that the bird is a Dendreca, and nothing
in the description forbids its reference to one of the endless plumages of D. pinus !

41. Genus SETOPHAGA Swainson.

Fedstart. lustrous blue-black, belly and crissum white, sides of the
breast, large spot at bases of the remiges, and basal half of the tail feathers
(except the middle pair) fiery-orange; belly often tinged with the same;
bill and feet black. ¢ olivaceous, ashier on the head, entirely white below,
wings and tail blackish, with the flame color of the g represented by
yellow; young ¢ like the ¢ but browner, the yellow of an orange hue.
From the circumstance that many spring males are shot in the general
plumage of the female, but showing irregular isolated black patches, it is
probable that the species requires at least two years to gain its perfect
plumage. Length 54; wing and tail about 24. Eastern North America,
very abundant, in woodland. Whuus., i, 103, pl. 6, f. 6; Nurr., i, 291;
DNs y PEOS jolly crs Wioby Oi 6 6 Go o 5 a 9 6 oc a IOHIClNEiiyA-

Painted Flycatcher. § lustrous black, middle of breast and belly carmine
red; eyelids, wing coverts and crissum white, inner quills edged with white,
outer tail feathers mostly white. @ not particularly different. 5; wing
and tail, each 22; tarsus 3. A Mexican species, recently found in Arizona.
(Tucson, Bendire.) Bp., 298; Rev., 256. . 2... = Sere

Oss. One other Mexican species of this genus (S. miniata), and two species of
closely allied genera, Basileuterus rufifrons and Cardellina rubra (both Mexican),
have been admitted to our fauna, though they have not, to my knowledge, been
actually taken within our limits.

Family CGQAREBIDA. Honey Creepers.

Primaries nine, and other external characters very nearly as in the last family ;
but the bill is generally slenderer and sharper, and often a little decurved. The
line between the two families has never been drawn with precision, and has become
the more diflicult of expression since some of the Sylvicolide have proven possessed
of a peculiarity of the Coerebidee—deeply bifid, penicillate tongue. A small group,
containing perhaps forty species, of pretty little birds, confined to tropical Amer-
ica. Our species is merely a stray visitor to Florida.

42. Genus CERTHIOLA Sundevall.

Honey Creeper. Dark olivaceous ash; superciliary line and under‘parts
dull white; belly, edge of wing, and rump, bright yellow; wings dusky,
with a white spot at base of primaries; tail dusky, tipped with white ; bill
and feet black; “eyes blue.” Length 43; wing 24; tail 13. Indian Key
(Wurdemann). Bps 924. ©. 0 20. 49 3 2. RADAR

TANAGRIDH, TANAGERS.—GEN. 43. 1G

Family TANAGRIDA. Tanagers.

An extensive, brilliant family, confined to America, abounding in species be-
tween the tropics. Its position is a point at issue with ornithologists ; it may how-
ever, not unnaturally follow the Cwrebide and Sylvicolide, though certainly no fam-
ilies should stand between it and Fringillide. In fact certain tropical forms might
be assigned to either indifferently. The best definition of the tanagers I have seen
is that given by the distinguished ornithologist who called them ‘ dentirostral
finches ;” but this important generalization, like other happy epigrams, is insuscep-
tible of application in detail, and the tanagers remain to be precisely characterized.
As a consequence, the number of species can hardly be approximately estimated ;
but upwards of three hundred are usually enumerated.

The single well established North American genus may be recognized, among all
the birds of our country, by the combination of nine primaries and scutellate tarsi
with a turgid bill, notched at the tip and toothed or lobed near the middle of the
superior maxillary tomia ; though this last character is sometimes so obscure that it
might be looked at without being seen. ‘The species of Pyranga are birds of bril-
liant colors, with great seasonal and sexual differences of plumage. They are
frugivorous and insectivorous, and consequently migratory in the United States.
They inhabit woodland, lay 4-5 dark colored, speckled eggs, nest in trees, and are
fair songsters. In distribution they are rather southerly, not passing northward
beyond the United States. One species of another genus, Luphonia elegantissima,
has been admitted to our fauna, but apparently upon insufficient evidence.

43. Genus PYRANGA Vieillot.

Scarlet Tanager. @ scarlet, with black wings and tail; bill and feet
dark; @ clear olive green, below clear greenish yellow, wings and tail
dusky, edged with olive; no white wing-bars. Young @, at first, like the
@ ; afterward variegated with red, green and black. Length 7-74; wing’
4; tail3. Eastern United States, abundant. Wmuus., ii, 42, pl. 11, f. 3,4;
Nignt pis 4Go%; AD, 1,226, plee209);) Bp), 300. - . 2 . « RUBRA.

Summer [ed-bird. @ rich rose-red, or vermilion, including wings and
tail; the wings, however, dusky on the inner webs; bill rather pale; feet
darker; Q dull brownish-olive, below dull brownish-yellow ; no white wing-
bars; young ¢ like the @ ; the g changing ‘
plumage shows red and green confused in d ee
irregular patches, but no black. The ?, with aes eS
a general resemblance to 9 rubra, is distin- 5
guished by the dull brownish, ochre or buffy a
tinge, the greenish and yellowish of rubra Wiel be. Summer Red-bird:
being much purer; the bill and feet, also, are BRANES) REELS
generally much paler in @stiva. Size of rubra, or rather larger. astern,
Southern and South-western United States, hardly north to New England ;
abundant. Wiuts., i, 95, hes Goto Norns, 1,469); Aup.;1,)/222, ae 208;
HSS Ole fates: Me hye : : = 9) ABS TIVA

Ozs. The ea cooperi, lately based fie Mr. Ridgway (Proe. Acad. Phila.
1869, 130) upon New Mexican specimens, seems scarcely tenable. The characters

101 HIRUNDINIDH, SWALLOWS. —GEN. 43.

are not.very tangible, and there is little probability of their proving constant.
Though the difference in the shape of the bill of the type specimens is evident (fig.
52, a and b), yet this is no more than that oc-
curring in Eastern specimens of unquestionable
estiva. (See Prate uy, figs. 19, 20, a, 6.) It
may, however, take rank as a geographical variety.
Hepatic Tanager. Ashy-red, or liver-
brown, brighter red on the head and under
parts; sides ashy-shaded; bill plumbeous
Bb ge Oy Hu aele eee black, conspicuously toothed; 9 like that of

the foregoing, but ashier on the back. Size of the last. New Mexico,
Arizona, and southward. Bp., 302; Rip@way, Proc. Acad. Phila. 1869,
1325: Coops, VAae eee ae be oe et Seis ne ee no ee ELPA ae
Louisiana Tanager. g bright yellow, middle of back, wings, and tail,
black ; head crimson; wings with two yellow bars. @ most nearly resem-
bling that of rubra, but distinguished from this or any of the foregoing by
presence of two whitish or greenish-yellow wing-bars, and much edging of
the same color on the inner quills. Immature g shows the black of the
back mixed with olive, and the head only tinged with red; at first it is like
the @. Size of the first species. U.S., Rocky Mountains to the Pacific
(not in Louisiana!). Wiuts., ili, 27, pl. 20, f. 1; Nurz., i, 471; Avup., iii,
231, pl. 210; Bp., 303; Coop., 145. oa Leo eo oe EDO METAaEe

Family HIRUNDINIDA. Swallows.

Fissirostral Oscines. Bill short, broad, flat, deeply cleft, the gape wide and
about twice as long as the culmen—it generally reaches to about opposite the
eyes. Nasal fossz short, broad, the nostrils directed more or less upward, some-
times circular and completely open, sometimes overhung by a straight flat scale.
Rictus with a few inconspicuous bristles or none. Wings extremely long, of nine
primaries, of which the first equals or exceeds the second, the rest being rapidly
graduated, the ninth hardly or not half as long as the first ; secondaries and their
coverts extremely short. Tail of 12 (rarely 10?) rectrices, usually forked, some-
times forficate with filamentous outer feathers. Feet short and weak; tarsi
scutellate (occasionally feathered), commonly shorter than even the lateral toes ;
basal joint of middle toe adherent to one or both lateral toes ; toes with the normal
number of phalanges.

This is a perfectly natural group, well distinguished by the foregoing characters.
The swallows alone represent, among Oscines, the fissirostral type of structure ;
they have a close superficial resemblance to the swifts and goat-suckers of another
order, but the relation is one of analogy, not of affinity, though all these birds
were formerly classed together in the highly unnatural ‘“‘ order” Fissirostres. (See
beyond, under Cypselide and Caprimulgide.)

A hundred species of swallows are recorded; probably about three-fourths of
them are genuine. They are distributed all over the world; the most generalized
types, like Hirundo itself, are more or less cosmopolitan, but each of the great
divisions of the globe has its peculiar subgenera or particular sets of species. Thus,
-all the American groups except Hirundo and Cotyle are peculiar to this continent.

At I a Nae

HIRUNDINIDZ, SWALLOWS.—GEN. 44, 45. 113

Swallows are insectivorous, and therefore migratory in cold and temperate lati-
tudes ; unsurpassed in powers of flight, they are enabled to pass with ease and
swiftness from one country to another, as the state of the weather may require.
With us a few warm days in February and March often allure them northward, only
to be driven back again by the cold, giving rise to the well-known adage. No birds
are better known to all classes than these, and none so welcome to man’s abode—
cherished witnesses of peace and plenty in the homestead, dashing ornaments of
the busy thoroughfare.

The habits of swallows best illustrate the modifying influences of civilization on
indigenous birds. Formerly, they all bred on cliffs, in banks, in hollows of trees,
and similar places, and many do so still. But most of our species have forsaken
these primitive haunts to avail themselves of the convenient artificial nesting places
that man, intentionally or otherwise, provides. Some are just now in a transition
state; thus the purple martin, in settled parts of the country, chooses the boxes
everywhere provided for its accommodation, while in the West it retains its old
custom of breeding in hollow trees.

44. Genus HIRUNDO Linneus.

Barn Swallow. Lustrous steel blue; below, rufous or pale chestnut
of varying shade; forehead, chin and throat deep chestnut; breast with an
imperfect steel-blue collar; tail forficate,
its outer feathers attenuate, all but the
middle pair with white spots on the inner
web; bill and feet black. Sexes alike;
young less lustrous, much paler below,
tail simply forked. Wing 43-43; tail 24
to 5 inches. North America, abundant
in the United States in the summer,
breeding in colonies in barns and out-
houses ; eggs white, speckled. Wuts., v,
34, pl. 38; Nurr., i, 601; Aup., i, 181,
pl. 48; Bp., 308. . . . HORREORUM.

45. Genus TACHYCINETA Cabanis.

White-bellied Swallow. Lustrous
green, below pure white; tail simply
emarginate. Young similar, not so
glossy. 6-64; wing 5; tail 24. North Bie Soa barn Swallow:
America, abundant in the United States in summer. Waits., v, 49, pl. 38;
meer, 605); Aup., 1, 175, pl. 46;.Bp., 310. . . 4. . . BICOLOR.

Violet-green Swallow. Opaque velvety green, purple and violet ; spot over
the eye, sides of rump, and whole under parts pure white. Young similar,
duller. 43-54; wing 44; tail 2, emarginate. Rocky Mountains to the
Pacific, U. S.; an exquisite species, breeding in knotholes and woodpeckers’
holes, in pine woods and in weather-worn holes in cliffs. (ALLEN, Am.
Nat. 1872, 274.) Aup.,i, 186, pl. 49; Bp., 309; Coop., 107. THALASSINA.

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 15

114 HIRUNDINIDH, SWALLOWS.—GEN. 46, 47, 48, 49.

46. Genus PETROCHELIDON Cabanis.

Cliff Swallow. Eave Swallow. Lustrous steel-blue ; forehead whitish (or
brown), rump rufous, chin, throat and sides of head chestnut; a steel-blue
spot on the throat ; breast, sides and generally a cervical collar rusty-gray,
whitening on the belly. Young sufficiently similar. 5; wing 43; tail 24,
nearly square. North America, in all suitable places. Naturally. this
species builds on cliffs; but throughout the settled portions of the country
it now places its curious bottle-shaped nests of mud under the eaves of
barns and outhouses. Nurr.i,603 ; Aup.,i, 177, pl.47; Bp., 309. LUNIFRONS.

47. Genus COTYLE Boie.

Bank Swallow. Sand Martin. Lustreless gray, with a pectoral band of
the same; other under parts white. A curious little tuft of feathers at the
bottom of the tarsus. Sexes exactly alike; young similar, the feathers
often skirted with rusty or whitish. 44-43; wing 33-4; tail 2, simply
emarginate. North America, very abundant; breeds in immense troops in
holes excavated in banks of soft earth. Wrts., v, 46, pl. 88; Nurr., i,
607; Aup., i, 187, pl. 50; Bp., 313. a RIPARIA.

48. Genus STELGIDOPTERYX Baird.

Rough-winged Swallow. Lustreless brownish-gray, paler below, whiten-
ing on the belly. Rather larger than the last; no feathery tuft on tarsus ;
outer web of outer primary, in the ¢, converted into a series of recurved
hooklets, which are wanting, or much weaker, in the 9. United States;
rare or wanting in New England. Aup., i, 193, pl. 51; Bp., 373; Cougs,
Proc’ Philas-Acads, 1866, 30. 6) = > ea Le 2 US RRIPENaIEe

49. Genus PROGNE Boie.

Purple Martin. Lustrous blue-black ; no purple anywhere. The 9 and
young are much duller above, and more or less white below, streaked with
gray. Bill very stout for this family, curved at the end; nostrils circular,
opening upward, not roofed over. Length 7 or more; wing nearly 6; tail
34, simply forked. United States, very abundant. Wus., v, 58, pl. 39,
f..2,.3; Nurr., 1, 598; Aup., 1, 170; pl: 45; Bp. 314... PuRPUREA.

Oxs. Other species or varieties of Progne, requiring confirmation, are attributed
to North America. See Cass., Ill., 246 (California); Bp., 923, and Rev., 277
(Florida).

Family AMPELIDZ.

This appears to be an arbitrary and unnatural association of a few genera that
agree in some particulars, but are widely different in others. The composition and
position of the group differ with almost every writer; some place it in Clamatores,
next to the Tyrannide. I think that the family should be dismembered ; Baird has
already shown how near the Myiadestince are to the true Thrushes, and doubtless
the other two subfamilies here presented may be properly dissociated.

AMPELIN®, WAXWINGS.—GEN. 50. 115

Birds of the three following genera agree in this character :— Bill short, broad,
flattened, plainly notched at tip, with wide rictus, and culmen or gonys hardly if
at all exceeding half the length of the commissure; basal phalanx of middle toe
joined with outer toe for about two-thirds its length, and to inner toe for about half
its length. The three genera, or subfamilies, that follow, may be readily and pre-
cisely defined.

Subfamily AMPELINA2. Wasxwings.

Bill as just described ; nasal fossze broad, nasal opening exposed, but overarched
by a broad scale more or less completely covered with close-set velvety antrorse
feathers. Wings with ten primaries, but the first spurious, very short and displaced
(on the outer side of the second) so as to be readily overlooked ; point of the wing
formed by the third primary, closely supported by the second and fourth, the fifth
being abruptly shorter. Inner quills, as a rule, and sometimes the tail feathers,
tipped with horny appendages like red sealing-wax. ‘Tail short, square, } or 2 as
long as the wings, the under coverts highly developed, reaching nearly to its end.
Feet weak; the tarsus shorter than the middle toe and claw, its podotheca some-
what receding from strict oscine character.

Of this subfamily as here restricted there is only one genus with three species—
one of Europe and America, one of Asia and Japan, and one confined to this
country. They are songless, in this differing altogether from the Myiadestine and
Ptilogonydine ; and I should not be surprised if their relationships proved to be
entirely with a certain exotic clamatorial family. Although by a strange mis-
nomer sometimes called ‘‘chatterers” they are among the most silent of all birds,
their only voice being a weak wheezy kind of whistle. They feed chiefly on berries
and other soft fruits, but also on insects, and are gregarious and migratory. The
sexes are alike; the head is adorned with a beautiful crest; the wings have unique
ornaments, the use of which is unknown; the tail is tipped with yellow (red in the
Japanese species, phanicopterum) ; the plumage is extremely smooth, and of a
nameless color. Young birds lack the curious horny appendages, and have the
general plumage streaked.

50. Genus AMPELIS Linnzus.

Bohemian Waxwing. Under tail coverts chestnut; front and sides of
the head tinged with a richer, more orange-brown shade; primary wing
coverts tipped with white; each quill with
a sharp white (or yellowish) stripe at the

end of the outer web; chin velvety black, 7.
in a large well defined area; narrow line See
SS ae
a ee

across forehead, along sides of head

through eyes, meeting its fellow on the

occiput behind the crest, also velvety >

black; no white on under eyelid nor eae Bonentanweniae:
across forehead; no yellowish on belly ; Gap pendaees ion ihe amuen anita,

bill and feet black. 7 or 8 inches long, wing about 44. Northern North
America; U..S. casually in winter, but sometimes appearing in immense
roving flocks; S. sometimes to 35°. Aup., iv, 269, ple. 246;e Norms,
or esr lU lM ee eee Ey Ue olsl ge sve, Ie ats Weed "GARRULUBS

116 PTILOGONYDIN/, MYIADESTIN®.—GEN. 51.

Carolina Waxwing. Cedar Bird. Cherry Bird. Under tail coverts
whitish ; little or uo orange-brown about head; no white on wings; chin
black, shading gradually into the color of the throat; a black frontal, loral
and transocular stripe, as in garrulus, but this bordered on the forehead with
whitish ; a white touch on lower eyelid, feathers on side of under jaw
white ; abdomen soiled yellowish. 6 or 7 long ;
wing about 32. Eastern North America to
Hudson’s Bay; an abundant bird, irregularly
migratory, going in flocks nearly the whole
year; breeds late (in June) in orchards and
thickets; the nest is placed in the crotch of a
tree; the eggs are 3-4, dull pale bluish,
speckled with purplish and blackish. Wiuts.,
1, LOG, pl. 3 ANurrs) 122485 AD, wlvesslions
pl? 245); Bp, 58: a a5.) oe) CEDEORUME

Subfamily PTILOGONYDINA. Ptilogonys.

SURE CENT RRINV ERS ACS Bill much as in the last subfamily, but slenderer for
its length; nasal scale naked; a few short bristles about the base of the bill.
Tarsus scutellate anteriorly, and sometimes also on the sides; about as long as
the middle toe and claw; hind toe remarkably short. Wings not longer than the
tail, much rounded, of ten primaries ; the 1st spurious, less than half as long as the
2nd, which is only about as long as the 8th; point of the wing formed by the 4th,
dth and 6th or 38rd quills. Tail long, nearly even, with broad plane feathers
(Phenopepla) ; or much graduated, with tapering central feathers (Prilogonys).
Head conspicuously crested ; sexes (in our genus) dissimilar; young not streaked
or spotted. There are only two genera of the subfamily as thus restricted
— Phenopepla and Ptilogonys, the latter with two strongly marked species of
Mexico and Central America.

51. Genus PHASNOPEPLA Sclater.

Black Ptilogonys. @ uniform lustrous black; wings with a large white
area, most of the inner web of each primary, except the first, being white ;
9 brown, the white on the wings restricted or obsolete; young ¢ gradating
between the coloration of both sexes. 7$; wing and tail 33-4. Valley of
the Colorado and southward; a delightful songster, though the fact seems to
have been ignored. Cass., Ill., 169, pl. 29; Bp., 320, and Rev., 416;
CooPslail. Sear Fae a ey = a et VS oe Pence

Subfamily MYITADESTIN A. Flycatching Thrushes.

Bill as in the last subfamily. Tarsus booted, and toes deeply cleft, as in Turdide.
Lateral toes very unequal in length, the tip of the inner claw falling short of the
base of the middle. Wings of ten primaries, the 1st spurious, the 2nd about as
long as the 6th, the point of the wing formed by the 5rd, 4th and 5th. Tail long,
about equalling the wing, dowble-rownded, being forked centrally, graduated exter-
nally ; all the feathers narrowing somewhat towards the end. Head subcrested ;

at i A i i ne

ee

VIREONIDZ, VIREOS.—GEN. 52. 7

plumage sombre, variegated on the wings; sexes alike; young spotted, like
thrushes.

The birds of thé group thus defined are, as Baird has pointed out, more closely
related to the Turdide than to the family with which they are usually associated.
They consist of about a dozen species, mostly of the genus Myiadestes, though
there are others called Cichlopsis and Platycichla. With one exception, they are
birds of Central and South America, and the West Indies. Our species, formerly
called ‘* Ptilogonys,” simply for want of an English name, which I here supply,
is not to be confounded with the foregoing. It is an exquisite songster.

52. Genus MYIADESTES Swainson.

Townsend's Flycatching Thrush. Nearly uniform ashy-gray, sometimes
paler or mixed with whitish
on throat, belly, crissum
and under wing coverts;
a whitish. ring round the
eye; quills variegated with
pale cinnamon or buffy,
showing as two oblique
bands in the closed wing ;
tail blackish, central feath-
ers like the back, the outer-
most pair edged and tipped,
the two next pair tipped,
with white. The young are
speckled with round ful-

Fic. 57. Townsend’s Flycatching Thrush.
yous spots. Length about Bill and feet of natural size; wings and tail j.

8; wing and tail about 44. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, United States.
Morr, 1, 2d ed., 361; Aup., 1, 243, pl. 69; Bp., 321, and Rev., 429);
RCO Arne het ee Nc coo on A sf ss - LOWNSENDII.

Family VIREONIDA. Vireos, or Greenlets. -

Bill shorter than the head, stout, compressed, distinctly notched and hooked at
tip; rictus with conspicuous bristles; nostrils exposed, overhung with a scale, but
reached by the small bristly erect frontal feathers. Toes soldered at base for the
whole length of the basal joint of the middle one, which is united with the basal
joint of the inner and the two basal joints of the outer, all these coherent
phalanges very short. (Lateral toes unequal in the genus Vireo.) Tarsus equal
to or longer than the middle toe and claw, scutellate in front, laterally undivided,
except at extreme base. Wings moderate, of ten primaries, of which the first is
short (one-half to one-fourth the second), or spurious, or apparently wanting (being
rudimentary and displaced).

This family was formerly united with the next (Laniide), chiefly on account of
the resemblance in the shape of the bill of certain species to that of the shrikes ;
but the likeness is never perfect, and there are other more important characters,
especially in the structure of the feet, by which the two groups may be discrimi-
nated. The Vireonide are peculiar to America; they are a small family of five or

118 VIREONID®, VIREOS.—GEN. 53.

six genera and nearly seventy recorded species, of which about five-sixths appear
to be genuine. The typical and principal genus, Vireo, containing nearly thirty
species, is especially characteristic of North America, though several species occur
in the West Indies and Central America; one genus and species, Laletes osburni,
is exclusively West Indian; the rest — Cyclarhis, Hylophilus, Vireolanius, and
Neochloe— are, with one exception, South and Central American. In further illus-
tration of the characters of the group, I offer some remarks under the head of the
only genus with which we have to do in the present connection.

53. Genus VIREO Vieillot.

The numerous species of this genus have been divided into several groups, but
no violence will be done by considering them all as Vireo —in fact, it is difficult to
do otherwise. For even the seemingly substantial division into two genera, ac-
cording as there is an evident spurious first primary or apparently none, separates
species, like gilvus and philadelphicus, hardly otherwise specifically distinguishable ;
while another division into two genera, according to shape of the wings and length
of the spurious first primary or its absence, is subject to some uncertainty of deter-
mination, and unites species, like olivaceus and jflavifrons, most dissimilar in other
respects. The fact is, that almost every single species of Vireo has its own peculiar
form, in shape of bill, proportions of primaries, etc., and these details cannot well
be considered as of more than specific value. These slight differences are perfectly
tangible and surprisingly constant, and render the deter-
mination of the species comparatively easy, though these
birds bear to each other a close general resemblance in
size and color. They are all more or less olivaceous
above, sometimes inclining to gray or plumbeous, with
the crown either like the back, or else ashy—in one
species, however, brown, and in another black; and white
or whitish below, usually more or less tinged with yellow.
The coloration is very constant, the sexes being indistin-
cuishable, and the young differing little, if at all, from the adults. All are small
birds — about 5 or 6 inches long. As a group the student will probably have no
difficulty in recognizing them by the foregoing diagnosis, as the character of the
feet seems to be peculiar, among North American birds, and is at any rate
diagnostic when taken in connection with the character of the bill—all those
Oscines, as wrens, creepers, or titmice, that show much cohesion of the toes,
having an entirely different bill. The bill of Vireo may be described as resembling
that of a shrike in miniature —it is hooked and notched distinctly at the end, and
there is sometimes a trace of a tooth behind the notch, and of a nick in the under
mandible too. Some of the weaker-billed species might be carelessly mistaken for
warblers— but there is no excuse for this, nor for confounding them with any of
the little clamatorial flycatchers.

The Vireos were long supposed to possess either nine or ten primaries. But that
the important character of number of primaries —one marking whole families as
we have seen—should here subside to specific value only, seemed suspicious; and
the fact is, as announced by Baird (Review, pp. 160,325) that all the species
really have ten, only that, in some instances, the first primary is rudimentary and
displaced, lying concealed outside the base of the second quill.

The North American species are distributed over the temperate portions of this

Fic. 58. Warbling Vireo.

lal le

ek ted

*

VIREONID®, VIREOS.—GEN. 53. 119

continent, and several of them are abundant birds of the Atlantic States, inhabit-
ing woodland and shrubbery. They are exclusively insectivorous, and are therefore
necessarily migratory in our latitudes. They build a neat pensile nest in the fork
of a branchlet, and commonly lay four or five white speckled eggs. Next after the
warblers, the greenlets are the most delightful of our forest birds, though their
charms address the ear and not the eye. Clad in simple tints that harmonize with
the verdure, these gentle songsters warble their lays unseen, while the foliage itself
seems stirred to music. In the quaint and curious ditty of the white-eye —in the
earnest, voluble strains of the red-eye —in the tender secret that the warbling vireo

‘confides in whispers to the passing breeze — he is insensible, who does not hear the

echo of thoughts he never clothes in words.

ANALYSIS OF SPECIES.

Primaries apparently 9 (the Ist rudimentary and displaced). (a)
Primaries evidently 10 (the 1st short or Seas (b)

(a) Throat yellow,.. . e el ls s) fe ey” (0) 1s) a ROEUEYT ONS
— white; crown aan mee nlacke edger, ipandiy Conbrastine with back, ... . . philadelphicus.
—black-edged, back olive; no maxillary streaks, . . . . . . olivaceus.
—maxillary streaks, . .. . . barbatulus.
(b) Crown black,. .... CMeaMey Acie kcaifenrts) Unkseal te" Jeli Net ae wees) sche se (GLICO DOI
—not black; spurious Fomul a leant ¥ aslongas 2nd and wing 2}long, . .... . . . vicinior.

—not as long as 2nd, or wing not 2} long (c)
(c) Wing-bands wanting: coloration as in philadelphicus, . . . Si at (al Mp) ane UCD ELS
—present; length over 5in.; back olive, contrasting with ashy fpyire crown, . . . solitarius.
—plumbeous, crown scarcely different, . . . . plumbeus.
—5in. or less; wing =tail, both about 2}; Ist quill=42nd., .. . . pusillus.
—> tail; crown ashy, chin and supere. line white, . . belli.
— olive, chin wht., superc. line yell., . novebor.

—and under parts yell’sh, . huttonii.

Oxzs. The Bartramian Vireo of Aun., Orn. Biog. v, 296, pl. 434, f. 4;
B. Am. iv, 153, pl. 242, and of Nurr., i, 2d ed. 358, has not been identified by
later ornithologists; but there is little chance of its being a good species. The
descriptions indicate a bird much like V. olivacews. The original Vireo bartramii of
Swainson, Fauna Bor.-Am. ii, 235, is a Brazilian species of the olivacews group,
wrongly ascribed to North America. The name Vireo virescens that Barrp applied
to the Bartramian Vireo, in B. N. A. p. 333, is doubtless an erroneous identification,
as he has since shown, VreItLLov’s virescens being based on a Pennsylvania speci-
men, almost certainly olivacews.— For the discussion of these questions, and
a masterly review of the whole genus, see Barrp, Review, pp. 322-370.

Fic.59. Red-eyed Vireo. (This, and subsequent figs. of this family, of nat. size.)

Red-eyed Vireo. Above, olive-green; crown ash, edged on each side
with a blackish line, below this a white superciliary line, below this again a
dusky stripe through eye; under parts white, faintly shaded with olive
along sides, and tinged with olive on under wing and tail-coverts; wings
and tail dusky, edged with olive outside, with whitish inside ; bill dusky, pale

120 VIREONID®, VIREOS.—GEN. 53.

below; feet leaden-blue ; eyes red; no dusky maxillary streaks ; no spuri-
ous quill. Large; 53-6}; wing 34-34; tail 24-24; bill about 3; tarsus 2.
Eastern North America; in most places the most abundant species of the
genus, in woodland ; a voluble, tireless songster. WHzs., ii, 53, pl. 12, f.3;
Norr.,i, 312; Aup., iv, 155, pl. 243: Bp., 831, and Rev. 333. OLIVACEUS.

Black-whiskered Vireo. Whip-tom-kelly. Very similar to the last; distin-
guished by a narrow dusky maxillary line, or line of spots, on each side of
the chin; bill longer, $-%; proportions of quills slightly different (see the
figs.). Cuba, Bahamas, and casually in Florida. V. longirostris, Nurtr.,
i, 2d ed., 359. ~—-V.. altiloquus, GampBen, Proc. Acad. Phila., 1848, 127;
Cass., tbid., 1851, 152, and Ill. pp. 8, 221, pl. 37; Bo., 354. V. barbatula,
IME Ika ells 4 a2 a “o - «. ALTILOQUUS var. BARBATULUS.

Fic. 60. Black-whiskered Vireo. Fic.61. Vireo flavoviridis.

Ozs. Another species or variety of this long-billed, 9-primaried group, V. jla-
voviridis (Cass., Proc. Acad. Phila. 1851, 152: Bp., 332 and Rev. 336), occurs
in Mexico and may be expected over our border, though no specimens appear to
have been taken within our limits; it has been admitted into late systematic works.
It closely resembles olivaceus, but the under parts are yellow, brighter perhaps,
at least on the axillars and crissum, than olivaceuws ever becomes, even in the fall.

Lrotherly-love Vireo. Above dull olive-green, brightening on the rump,
fading insensibly into ashy on the crown,
which is not bordered with blackish; a dull
white superciliary line ; below, palest possible

A yellowish, whitening on throat and _ belly,

slightly olive-shaded on sides; sometimes a
slight creamy or buffy shade throughout the
under parts ; no obvious wing-bars ; no spuri-
ous quill. About 5 long; wing 23; tail 24; bill hardly or about $; tarsus 2.
Eastern North America; a small, plainly colored species, almost indistin-

guishable from gi/vus except by absence
a ‘

Fiac. 62. Brotuerly-love Vireo.

of spurious quill; not very common.
Cass., Proc. Acad. Phila. 1851, 153;
Bp., 335; Rev. 340. PHILADELPHICUS.
Warbling Vireo. Colors precisely as
in the last species ; spurious quill present,
-% as long as the second primary. Fig. 63. Warbling Vireo.
Eastern North America, an abundant little bird and an exquisite songster.
Its voice is not strong, and many birds excel it in brilliancy of execution ;

4
)

.

VIREONIDZ, VIREOS.—GEN. 53. 121

but not one of them all can rival the tenderness and softness of the liquid
strains of this modest vocalist. Not born to “waste its sweetness on the
desert air,” the warbling vireo forsakes the depths of the woodland for the
park and orchard and shady street, where it glides through the foliage of
the tallest trees, the unseen messenger of rest and peace to the busy, dusty
haunts of men.— Wits., v, 85, pl. 42, ae :

ee

PeeGeNUE 1, 300); Agb., iv, 149, pl. X
241; Bo., 335, and Rev. 342. iLvus. -

Var. swarnsont. “Similar to V. gilvus, but
smaller; colors paler; bill more depressed ;
upper mandible almost black; 2d quill much
shorter than 6th.” Barrp, Rev. 343; Coop.,
116; Extrort, pl. 7. Rocky Mountains to the
Pacific, U. S. The Western form has been described as distinct, but I scarcely
think the characters assigned will be found constant. In one of my Arizona skins
the second quill is Jonger than it is in an Eastern specimen.

Fic. 64. Western Warbling Vireo.

Yellow-throated Vireo. Above, rich olive-green, crown the same or even
brighter, rump insensibly shading into bluish-ash; below, bright yellow,
belly and ecrissum abruptly white, sides
anteriorly shaded with olive, posteriorly
with plumbeous; extreme forehead, su-
perciliary line and ring round eye, yel-

low; lores dusky; wings dusky, with
a the inner secondaries broadly white-
edged, and two broad white bars across

Fic. 65. Yellow-throated Vireo.

tips of greater and median coverts; tail
dusky, nearly all the feathers completely encircled with white edging; bill
and feet dark leaden blue; no spurious quill; 52-6; wing about 3; tail only
about 24. <A large, stout, highly-colored species, common in the woods of
the Eastern United States. Wuts., i, 117, pl. 7,f. 3; Nurr., i, 302; Aup.,
ila pl. 2905 BD., 541, and Rev. 846. . - . . = . ELAVIFRONS.

Blue-headed, or Solitary Vireo. Above, olive-green, crown and sides of
head bluish-ash in marked contrast, with a broad white line from nostrils to
and around eye, and a dusky loral line; below, white, flanks washed with
olivaceous, and axillars and crissum

pale yellow; wings and tail dusky, = ~e
most of the feathers edged with white A =e
or whitish, and two conspicuous bars = \

of the same across tips of middle and ‘f.
greater coverts ; bill and feet blackish
horn-color. 54 = 52 ; wing 23 23 ; tail Fic. 66. Blue-headed, or Solitary Vireo.
24-24; spurious quill 4-3 long, about one-fourth as long as 2d. United
States from Atlantic to Pacific, except perhaps Southern Rocky Mountains,
where replaced by the next species; not rare, but not so common as oliva-
ceus, flavifrons and noveboracensis; inhabits woodland. W4u1s., ii, 143, pl.

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 16

22, VIREONID#, VIREOS.—GEN. 53.

17, f. 6; Nurr., i, 305; Aup., iv, 144, pl. 239; Bp.,340, and Rev. 347.
(V. cassinii Xantus, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1858, 117; Bo., 340, pl. 185f-ae
1s:tiot differents). “al eh Saas se Bol le a OEE
Plumbeous Vireo. Weaden-gray, rather brighter and more ashy on the
crown, but without marked contrast, faintly glossed with olive on rump;
a conspicuous white line from nostril to and around eye, and below this a
dusky loral stripe; below, pure white, sides of neck and breast shaded with
color of the back, flanks, axillars
and crissum with a mere trace of
olivaceous, or none; wing and tail
dusky, with conspicuous pure white
edgings and cross-bars. Size of
the last or rather larger ; bill nearly
Fic. 67. Plumbeous Vireo. 4; tarsus %; middle toe the same;

spurious quill about 2, one-third as long as the second quill. Central Plains
to the Pacific, U. S., and especially Southern Rocky Mountains, where it is
abundant. A large stout species, a near ally of solitarius, but nearly all
the olivaceous of that species replaced by plumbeous, and the yellowish by
white, so that it is a very different looking bird. It may prove only a
variety, but I have seen no intermediate specimens, and cannot reconcile
the obvious discrepancies, upon this supposition. Cours, Pr. Ac. Phila.,
1866, 74; Bp., Rev. 349; Coor., 119; Extior, pl. 7. . . PLUMBEUS.
Gray Vireo. With the general appearance of a small faded specimen of
plumbeus: leaden-gray, faintly olivaceous on the rump, below white, with
hardly a trace of yellowish on the sides; wings and tail hardly edged with
white; no markings about head except a whitish eye-ring. 5}; extent 83;
wing and tail, each, 24; tarsus nearly $; middle toe and claw hardly over 4;
tip of inner claw falling short of base of middle claw; tail decidedly
rounded; spurious quill 3, half as long as the second primary, which latter
is not longer than the eighth. Arizona. If these peculiar proportions of the
single known specimen are constant, the species is distinct from any other.
It is our plainest colored species, resembling plwmbeus, but apparently
more closely allied to the smaller rounder-winged species like novebora-
censis and especially puszllus; the toes are almost abnormally short, and

the tail as long as
the wing. Cours,
Proc. Phila. Acad.
SciaelS6Gsaipetors
Bp.) ekeyva. wool
Coop. 125 ; ELuror,
pl. 7. . VICINIOR.

White-eyed Vireo.
Above bright olive-
green, including crown; a slight ashy gloss on the cervix, and the rump
showing yellowish when the feathers are disturbed ; below white, the sides ,

Fic. 68. White-eyed Vireo.

VIREONIDE, VIREOS.—GEN. 53. 123

of the breast and belly, the axillars and crissum, bright yellow; a bright
yellow line from nostrils to and around eye; lores dusky; two broad yel-
lowish wing-bars ; inner secondaries widely edged with the same; bill and
feet blackish-plumbeous ; eyes white. About 5 inches long; wing 24-24;
tail 24; spurious quill ?, half as long as the second, which about equals the
eighth; tarsus about #; middle toe and claw 4; bill nearly 4. A small,
compact, brightly-colored species, abundant in shrubbery and _ tangled
undergrowth of the Eastern United States; noted for its sprightly manners
and emphatic voice; eggs 4-5, white, ——

speckled at large end. Wruts., ii, 266, pl. ; cameras

18; Nurr., i, 306; Aup., iv, 146, pl. 240;

Bp., 338, and Rev. 354. NOVEBORACENSIS.
Hutton’s Vireo. A species or variety LM y,

similar to the last, but differing much as
flavoviridis does from olivaceus, in having
the under parts almost entirely yellowish ; second quill about equal to the
tenth. Lower California and southward. An accredited species, but one
TI have not tested, and cannot endorse. Cass., Proc. Acad. Phila. 1851,
iene ple let. 1); Bp, d39pl..(8; 1.125 Rev. 857. . 9. MUTTONT

Bell’s Vireo. Olive-green, brighter on rump, ashier on head, but without
decided contrast ; head-markings almost exactly as in gilvus; below, sul-
phury yellowish, only whitish on chin and middle of belly; inner quills
edged with whitish; two whitish wing-bands, but one more conspicuous
than the other. Hardly or not 5
long; wing little over 2; tail under
2; spurious quill about 2 the second,
which equals or exceeds the seventh.
A pretty little species, like a mini-
ature gilvus, but readily distin-
guished from that species by its
small size, presence of decided wing-bars, more yellowish under parts, and
different wing-formula. Middle region, U. S., west to the Rocky Moun-
tains, east to Kansas (Cowes) and Illinois (idgway) ; an abundant species,
inhabiting copses and shrubbery in open country, with much the same
sprightly ways and loud song of
noveboracensis. AuwD., vii, 333, pl.
485; Bp., 337; Rev. 358. BELLII.

Least Vireo. Olivaceous-gray,
below white, merely tinged with
yellowish on the sides ; head-mark-
ings obscure ; wing-bands and edg-
ings, though evident, narrow and whitish; no decided olive or yellow any-
where. Size of belli; wing and tail of equal lengths, little over 2 inches ;
bill $; tarsus 3; middle toe and claw 4; spurious quill about $ as long as
the second, which is intermediate between the seventh and eighth. A small

Fic. 69. Hutton’s Vireo.

Fic. 70. Bell’s Vireo.

i11G. 71. Least Vireo.

i.

1p eo ee
“eG are

124 LANIIDZ, SHRIKES.—GEN. 53.

obseure-looking species near belli?, which it replaces in Southwestern U.S;
possibly a grayer, longer-tailed, geographical race, but more specimens will
be required to prove this. Its habits are the same as those of Bell’s vireo.
Cougs, Proc. Acad. Phila., 1866, 76; Bp., Rev. 360; Coop. 124. (V. bellit
Coor., Proc. Cala. Acad. 1861, 122.). Ber . . PUSILLUS.
Black-headed Vireo. Olive-green, the crown andi sides of head black;
below white, olive-shaded on sides; 4%; wing 24; tail 2. Southwestern
Texas, extremely rare; only three specimens known. Woopuowse, Proce.
iC Phila. Acad. 1852, 60; Rep. Expl. Zuii
River, 75, pl. 1; Cass., Ill., 153, pl. 243
Bp., 337, and Rev. 353. . ATRICAPILLUS.

Family LANIIDA. Shrikes.

Essentially characterized by the combination
of comparatively weak, strictly passerine feet
with a notched, toothed and hooked bill, the
size, shape and strength of which recalls that of
a bird of prey. The family comprises about two hundred recorded species, refer-
able to numerous genera, and divisible into three groups, of which the following is
the only one occurring in America.

2. Shrikes? bills.

Subfamily LANIINA. True Shrikes.

The genus Collurio is the only representative of this group in North America.
In this genus the wing has ten primaries and the tail twelve rectrices; both
are much rounded and of nearly equal lengths. The rictus is furnished with
strong bristles. The circular nostrils are more or less perfectly covered and con-
cealed by dense tufts of antrorse bristly feathers. The tarsi are scutellate in front
and on the outside — in the latter respect deviating from a usual Oscine character.
Our shrikes will thus be easily distinguished ; additional features are, the point of
the wing formed by the 3d, 4th and 5th quills, the 2d not longer than the 6th,
the 1st about half the 3d; the tarsus equalling or slightly exceeding the middle toe
and claw; the lateral toes of about equal lengths, their claws reaching the base of
the middle claw. In coloration our species are much alike, and curiously similar to
the mockingbird, being bluish-, grayish- or brownish-ash aboye, white more or less
evidently vermiculated with black below; wings and tail black variegated with
white, rump and scapulars more or less whitish, and a black bar through the eye.

These shrikes are bold and spirited birds, quarrelsome among themselves, and
tyrannical toward weaker species ; in fact, their nature seems as highly rapacious
as that of the true birds of prey. They are carnivorous, feeding on insects and
such small birds and quadrupeds as they can capture and overpower; many in-
stances have been noted of their dashing attacks upon cage-birds, and their reckless
pursuit of other species under circumstances that cost them their own lives. But the
most remarkable fact in the natural history of the shrikes is their singular and
inexplicable habit of impaling their prey on thorns or sharp twigs, and leaving it
sticking there. This has occasioned many ingenious surmises, none of which,
however, are entirely satisfactory. They build a rather rude and bulky nest of
twigs, and lay 4-6 speckled eggs. They are not strictly migratory, although our
northernmost species usually retires southward in the fall. The sexes are alike,

a

}
wen

bras csteninsgnie ne ~

|

a

LANIIDH, SHRIKES.—GEN. 54. 25

and the young differ but little. There are only two well determined American
species, of nine that compose the genus.

54. Genus COLLURIO Vigors.

Great Northern Shrike, or Butcherbird. Clear bluish-ash blanching on
the rump and scapulars, below white always vermiculated with fine wavy
blackish lines; a black bar along side of head not meeting its fellow across
forehead, interrupted by a white crescent on under eyelid, and bordered
above by hoary white that also occu-
pies the extreme forehead; wings
and tail black, the former with a
large spot near base of the prima-
ries, and the tips of most of the
quills, white, the latter with nearly
all the feathers broadly tipped with
white, and with concealed white i
bases; bill and feet black; 9-10 ek Gece pee
long; wing 44; tail rather more. The young is similar, but none of the
colors are so pure or so intense; the entire plumage has a brownish suffu-
sion, and the bill is flesh colored at base. North America, northerly ;
breeds, however, in mountainous parts of the United States (Alleghanies,
Turnbull) ; in winter, usually extends southward about to 35° (Coues).
Wits., i, 74, pl. 5, f. 1; Nurr., i, 258; Aup., iv, 130, pl. 236; Bp., 324,
imate Chae SR MEN aslerc, “oo 36 yeulist, v9 BOREALIS.

Loggerhead Shrike. Slate-colored, slightly whitish on the rump and
scapulars, below white, with a few obscure wavy black lines, or none; black
bar on side of head meeting its fellow across the forehead, noé interrupted
by white on under eyelid, and scarcely or not bordered above by hoary white ;
otherwise like borealis in color, but smaller; 8-84; wing about 4; tail rather
more. Young birds differ much as described under borealis, and are decid-
edly waved below as in that species ; but the other characters readily distin-
guish them. South Atlantic States. Wuus., iii, 57, pl. 22, f.5; Nurr.,
i, 561; Aup., iv, 135, pl. 237; Bp., 825, and Rev. 443. . LUDOVICIANUS.

Var. excupiroroipEs. White-rwmped Shrike. With the size, and the essential
characters of the head-stripe, of Judovicianus, and the under parts, as in that
species not, or not obviously, waved, but with the clear light ash upper parts, and
hoary whitish superciliary line, scapulars and rump of borealis. Middle and West-
ern N. Am.; N. to the Saskatchewan, E. to Illinois, S. into Mexico. Bop., 327,
328, and Rey., 344, 345; Coop., 138.

Oss. Extreme examples of ludovicianus and eacubitoroides look very different,
but they are observed to melt into each other when many specimens are compared,
so that no specific character can be assigned. ‘To this species I must also refer the
C. elegans of Baird, considering that the single specimen upon which it was based,
represents an individual peculiarity in the size of the bill. This specimen is sup-
posed to be from California, but some of Dr. Gambel’s to which the same locality is
assigned, were certainly procured elsewhere, and it may not be a North American

126 FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.

bird at all. The highest authority on this genus, Messrs. Dresser and Sharpe, have
shown from examination of Swainson’s type specimen, that his elegans is the
C. lahtora, a widely-spread Asiatic species probably erroneously attributed to North
America.

Family FRINGILLIDA. Finches, etc.

The largest North American family, comprising between one-seventh and one-
eighth of all our birds, and the most extensive group of its grade in ornithology.
As ordinarily constituted, it represents, in round numbers, five hundred current
species and one hundred genera, of nearly all parts of the world, except Australia,
but more particularly of the northern hemisphere and throughout America, where
the group attains its maximum development.

Any one United States locality of average attractiveness to birds, has a bird-
fauna of over two hundred species; and if it be away from the sea-coast, and con-
sequently uninhabited by marine birds, about one-fourth of its species are Sylvico-
lide and Fringillide together—the latter somewhat in excess of the former. It is
not easy, therefore, to give undue prominence to these two families.

The Fringillide are more particularly what used to be called ‘‘ conirostral” birds,
in distinction from ‘ fissirostres,’ as the swallows, swifts and goatsuckers, ‘ten-
uirostres,” as humming birds and creepers, and ‘‘ dentirostres,” as warblers, vireos
and most of the preceding families. The bill approaches nearest the ideal cone,
combining strength to crush seeds, with delicacy of touch to secure minute objects.
The cone is sometimes nearly expressed, but is more frequently turgid or conoidal,
convex in most directions, and sometimes so contracted that some of its outlines
are concave. The nostrils are usually exposed, but in many, chiefly boreal,
genera, the base of the bill is furnished with a ruff, or two tufts of antrorse feathers
more or less completely covering the openings. The cutting edges may be slightly
notched, but are usually plain; there are usually a few inconspicuous bristles about
the rictus, sometimes wanting, sometimes highly developed, as in our grosbeaks.
The wings are endlessly varied in shape, but agree in possessing only nine
developed primaries; the tail is equally variable in form, but always has twelve
rectrices. The feet show a strictly Oscine podotheca, scutellate in front, covered
on the side with an undivided plate, producing a sharp ridge behind. None of
these members offer extreme phases of development or arrestation, in any of our
species.

But the most tangible characteristic of the family is angulation of the commis-
sure. The commissure runs in a straight line, or with a slight curve, to or near to
the base of the bill, and is then more or less abruptly bent down at a varying
angle—the cutting edge of the upper mandible forming a reéntrance, that of the
lower mandible a corresponding salience. In the great majority of cases the fea-
ture is unmistakable, and in the grosbeaks, for example, it is very strongly marked
indeed ; but in some of the smaller-billed forms, and especially those with slender
bill, it is hardly perceptible. On the whole, however, it is a good character, and at
any rate it is the most reliable external feature that can be found. It separates our
fringilline birds pretty trenchantly from other Oscines except Jcteridw, and most of
these may be distinguished by the characters given beyond.

When we come, however, to consider this great group of conirostral Oscines in
its entirety, as compared with bordering families like the Old World Ploceide, or
the Icteridw, and especially the Tanagride, of the New, the difficulty if not the
impossibility of framing a perfect diagnosis becomes apparent, and I am not

se

——

- ceatieeteee aiid ee

— ee nw cae

=

eS ge te OE Sa

FRINGILLIDH, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 55, 56. 127

aware that a rigid definition has been successfully attempted. Ornithologists are
nearly agreed what birds to call fringilline, without being very well prepared to say
what ‘‘fringilline” means. The division of the family into minor groups, as might
be expected, is a conventional matter at present—the subfamilies vary with every
leading writer. Our species might be thrown into several groups, but the distinc-
tions would be more or less arbitrary, not readily perceived, and doubtless negatived
upon consideration of exotic material. It becomes necessary, therefore, to waive
this matter, and simply collocate the genera in orderly sequence.

The Fringillide are popularly known by several different names. Here belong
all the sparrows, with the allied birds called finches, buntings, linnets, grosbeaks
and crossbills. In the following pages I describe seventy-one species, well deter-
mined, and ascertained to occur within our limits, referring them to thirty-four
genera, as the custom is, although I think this number of genera altogether too large.
Species occur throughout our country, in every situation, and many of them are among
our most abundant and familiar birds. They are all granivorous—seed-eaters, but
many feed extensively on buds, fruits and other soft vegetable substances, as well
as on insects. They are not so perfectly migratory as the exclusively insectivorous
birds, the nature of whose food requires prompt remoyal at the approach of cold
weather ; but, with some exceptions, they withdraw from their breeding places in
the fall to spend the winter further south, and to return in the spring. With a few
signal exceptions they are not truly gregarious birds, though they often associate
in large companies, assembled in community of interest. The modes of nesting are
too various to be here summarized. Nearly all the finches sing, with varying
ability and effect; some of them are among our most delightful vocalists. As a
rule, they are plainly clad—even meanly, in comparison with some of our sylvan
beauties ; but among them are birds of elegant and striking colors. Among the
highly-colored ones, the sexes are more or less unlike, and other changes, with age
and season, are strongly marked ; the reverse is the case with the rest.

55. Genus HESPERIPHONA Bonaparte.

Evening Grosbeak. Dusky olivaceous, brighter behind, forehead, line
over eye and under tail coverts yellow; crown, wings, tail and tibie black,
the secondary quills mostly white; bill greenish-yellow, of immense size,
about # of an inch long and nearly as deep; 74-83; wing 4-44; tail 24.
The 9? and young differ somewhat, but cannot be mistaken. Plains to the
Pacific, U. S., and somewhat northward; occasional eastward to Ohio and
Illinois, and even straying to Canada (McLlwraith) and New York (Law-
rence). AUD., iii, 217, pl. 207; Bp., 409; Coop., 174. . VESPERTINA.

56. Genus PINICOLA Vieillot.

Pine Grosbeak. @ carmine red, paler or whitish on the belly, darker
and streaked with dusky on the back; wings and tail dusky, much edged
with white, former with two white bars; 9 ashy-gray, paler below, marked
with brownish-yellow on the head and rump. 8-9 long; wing 43; tail 4,
emarginate ; bill short, stout, convex in all directions. Northern North
America, appearing in the United States in winter, generally in flocks, in
pine woods ; resident in the Sierra Nevada of California (Cooper). W1LS., i,
80, pl. 5; Aup., iii, 179, pl. 199; Bp., 410; Coor., 152. . ENUCLEATOR.

128 FRINGILLIDEZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 57, 58.

57. Genus PYRRHULA Auctorum.

Cassin’s Bullfinch. § above clear ashy gray, below cinnamon gray,
rump and under wing and tail coverts white ; wings and tail, crown, chin and
face black; outer tail feathers with a white patch, greater wing coverts
tipped and primaries edged with whitish : bill black, feet dusky ; ¢ unknown.
Length 6$; wing 34; tail 34. Nulato, Alaska (Dall), only one specimen
known, originally described as a va-
riety of P. coccinea of Europe, but
later determined to be distinct. Bp.,
Trans. Chicago Acad. 1869, 316, pl.
29, f. 1; Newton, Ibis, 1870, 251;
Tristram, Ibis, 1871, 231. cassInit.

58. Genus CARPODACUS Kaup.

* Adult ¢ with the red diffuse, belly
unstreaked, and edging of wings reddish.

Purple Finch. @ crimson, rosy,
or purplish-red, most intense on the
crown, fading to white on the belly, mixed with dusky streaks on the back ;
wings and tail dusky, with reddish edgings, and the wing coverts tipped with
the same; lores and feathers all around base of bill hoary. 9 and
young with no red—olivaceous-brown, brighter on the rump, the feathers
above all with paler edges, producing a streaked appearance; below white,
thickly spotted and streaked with olive-brown, except on middle of belly and
under tail coverts; obscure whitish superciliary and maxillary lines.
Young males show every gradation between these extremes, in gradually
assuming the red plumage, and are frequently brownish-yellow or bronzy
below. 53-64; wing 3-34; tail 24-24, forked; tarsus §; middle toe and claw
%; bill under 3, turgid, with a little ruff of antrorse
feathers. Not crested, but the coronal feathers erec-
tile. The foregoing description should prevent con-
founding young birds with any of the streaked and
spotted sparrows. United States from Atlantic to
Pacitic, and somewhat northward in summer; an
abundant species, particularly in spring and fall, in
woods and orchards, generally found in flocks except when breeding; feeds
on seeds, buds and blossoms; a delightful songster. Wus., i, 119, pl. 7,
f. 4; Aup., iii, 170, pl. 196; Bp., 412; also, C. californicus Bp., 413,
Coopr., 154, which I cannot distinguish at all. oy 0 boas: PURPUREGSS

Cassin’s Purple Finch. Similar; the red paler, more streaked with
dusky on the upper parts, crown rich crimson in marked contrast; larger;
64-7; wing 34; tail 22; bill about $, comparatively less turgid; tarsus 3.
Southern Rocky Mountain Region. Bp., 414; Cours, Pr. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Phila. 1766, 45> Coors, a ase ie ae Geen 6s =o be en ee ne OARS UNITE

Fic. 74, Cassin’s Bullfinch.

Fic. 75. Bill of Purple Finch.

FRINGILLIDH, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 59. 129

** Adult g with the red partly in definite areas, the belly streaked, the edging
of the wings whitish.

Crimson-fronted Finch. House Finch. Burion. 2 with the forehead
and a line over the eye, the rump, and the chin, throat and breast, crimson ;
other upper parts brown, streaked with darker, and marked with dull red,
and other under parts white or whitish, streaked with dusky ; wings and tail
dusky with slight whitish edgings and cross bars. The changes of plumage
are parallel with those of C. purpureus, but the species may easily be dis-
tinguished in any plumage by its smaller size, with relatively longer wings
and tail, these members being absolutely as long or nearly as long as in
purpureus; the tail barely or not forked ; and especially by the much shorter
and more inflated bill, which is almost exactly as represented in the fore-
going figure of Pyrrhula cassinii. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, U. S.,
avery abundant species in the towns and gardens of New Mexico, Arizona
and California, where it is as familiar as the European Sparrow has become
in many of our large eastern cities ; nests about the houses; a pleasant song-
Sete AUD. 1 Udo. 19s bps 4155 Coor., 156. . 3 . FRONTADIS.

59. Genus CURVIROSTRA Scopoli.

*.* Distinguished from all other birds by the falcate mandibles with crossed
points. Nasal ruff conspicuous; wings long, pointed; tail short, forked; feet
strong. Sexes dissimilar; g some shade of red, nearly uniform, with dusky wings
and tail; @ brownish or olivaceous, more or less streaked, head and rump
frequently washed with brownish-yellow ; young like the 9. Irregularly migratory,
according to exigencies of the weath-
er, eminently gregarious, and feed
principally on pine seeds, which they
skilfully husk out of the cones with
their singular bill. Our two species
inhabit the northern parts of Amer-
ica, coming southward in flocks in
the fall; but they are also resident in
northern and mountainous pine-clad
parts of the United States, where
they sometimes breed in winter.

White-winged Crossbill. Wings
in both sexes with two conspicu-
ous white bars; @ rosy red, 9
brownish-olive, streaked and speckled with dusky, the rump saffron; about
6; wing 34; tail 24. Wis. iv, 48, pl. 31, f.3; Aup., iii, 190, pl. 201;
are Oe res ae ere Cay ats ik aa eet tt $e) a. ~EEUCOPTERA’

Red Crossbill. Common Crossbill. (Puiatr m, figs. 13, 14, 15, 13a,
14a, 15a.) Wings blackish, unmarked; ¢ bricky red; 9 as in lewcoptera,
but wings plain. Whuus., iv, 44, pl. 31, f. 1,2; Aup., iii, 186, pl. 200;
ere mOOOr mals.) Ghee SOA 5 Rin hi tos vy a AMERIGANAS

Fic, 76. WlLite-winged Crossbill.

Var. mexicana. Similar to the last; bill large, about ? of an inch long. Moun-

KRY TO N. A. BIRDS. 17

oe

130 FRINGILLID®, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 60, 61.

tainous parts of New Mexico, and southward. Bp., 427 (in text), 924. My New
Mexican specimens show a bill almost matching that of C. pytiopsittacus of Europe.

60. Genus LEUCOSTICTE Swainson.

*,* Sides of the under mandible with a small sharp oblique ridge; nasal tufts
conspicuous,

_ Gray-crowned Finch. Chocolate or liver-brown, the feathers posteriorly
skirted with rosy or lavender, wings and tail dusky, rosy-edged, chin dusky
with little or no ashy, crown alone clear ash, forehead alone black, bill and
nasal feathers whitish, feet black; 9? not particularly different; about 7;
wing 44; tail 22; a little forked. In midsummer, the black frontlet extends ~
over the crown, the rosy heightens to crimson, and the bill blackens; the
whole plumage is likewise darker. Rocky Mountain region, south to Colo-
rado. AUD., iii, 176, pl. 198; Bp., 430; Coor., 164. . TEPHROCOTIS.

Var. campestris Bp., in Coor., 163. Colorado. In the specimen described, the
ash of the head extends a little below the eyes but not on the auriculars, and forms
a narrow border on the chin; thus approximating to the
next.

Var. GRISEINUCHA. Gray-eared Finch. The ash of the
lead extending over the whole cheeks and ears and
part of the chin; the black frontlet extending over most
of the crown. Larger than average tephrocotis. Aleutian
Islands. Bp., 430 (footnote); Trans. Chicago Acad.
Hea fi, Gray caved FMoh G): 1 869" ple 285 £2 4 COOP. 161,

\_ Var. nirroraLis Bp., Trans. Chicago Acad. 1869, p. 317, pl. 28,f. 1; Coop., 163.
In the specimens described, from Sitka and British Columbia, the whole head
including the chin, except the black frontlet, is ashy. The gradations noted in the
foregoing paragraphs show that there is but a single species, although griseinucha
and littoralis look quite different from tephrocotis and campestris.

Siberian Finch. Dusky purplish; neck above pale yellowish; forehead
and nasal feathers blackish; outer webs of quills and wing coverts, tail
coverts, rump and crissum silvery gray, rosy-margined. Kurile and Aleu-
tian Islands; Siberia. Bp., 430 (footnote); Coop., 165. . . ARcToa.

61. Genus AEGIOTHUS Cabanis.

* ,* Small species (53-52; wing 23-3; tail 23-21), with the bill extremely acute,
overlaid at the base with nasal plumules, the wings long, pointed, the tail short,
forked, the feet moderate. . Conspicuously streaked, the crown with a crimson patch
in both sexes, the face and chin dusky, wings and tail dusky with whitish edgings ;
the males with the whole breast rosy and the rump tinged with the same. Boreal
birds, occurring in the United States in winter, in large flocks.

Red-poll Linnet. (PLATE m1, figs. 1, la, 2, 2a, 4, 4a, 5, 5a.) Upper parts
streaked with dusky and flaxen in about equal amounts, rump white or rosy,
always streaked with dusky; below, streaked on the sides, the belly dull
white; bill mostly yellow; feet blackish; middle toe and claw as long
as the tarsus. WILS., iv, pl. 42; Nurr.,i, 512; Aup., iii, 122; Bp., 428;
Couns; Erocs Phila. AcadselS Glens saan oi ate in eane pee nm LGN AT se

FRINGILLIDH/, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 61, 62. 131

Var. Fuscescens. Dusky Redpoll. (Puiare it, figs. 3, 3a.) Upper parts nearly
uniform dusky, rump scarcely lighter, sides heavily streaked; bill dusky. Avp.,
iii, pl. 179? Cowes, Proc. Phila. Acad., 1861, 222, 390; 1869, 186; Extror, pl. 10.
I am not sure that this is anything more than a state of plumage of linarius, as the
dusky appearance may be due to wearing away of the lighter edges of the feathers.

Var. exttires. American Mealy Redpoll. (Puiare m1, figs. 6, 6a.) Colors pale,
the flaxen of linarius bleaching to whitish ; rump white or rosy, entirely unstreaked
in the adults; breast pale rosy, and streaks on the sides small and sparse; bill
very small, with heavy plumules ; feet small, the middle toe and claw hardly or not
equal to the tarsus. Avp., iii, 120, pl. 178; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad., 1861, 385,
1869, 187; Extror, pl. 9. An Arctic race, not difficult to recognize, representing
in America the true Mealy Redpoll, A. canescens, of Greenland.

Oss. In addition to the foregoing, a large variety with a very large yellow bill,
apparently corresponding to what is called holbclli in Europe, has been noted from
Canada. Couvegs, Proc., Phila. Acad., 1862, 40; 1869, 184.

6lbis. Genus LINOTA Bonaparte.

Brewster's Linnet. With the general appearance of an immature Aegio-
thus, this bird will be recognized by absence of any crimson on the crown, a
peculiar yellowish shade on the lower back, and somewhat different propor-
tions. Massachusetts, one specimen (Lrewster). Aegiothus flavirostris,
var. brewsterii Ringway, Am. Nat. vi, July, 1872. An interesting dis-
covery, of which I learn as these pages go to press; may be same as the
European. (Notin the Key.) . . . ‘JFLAVIROSTRIS var. BREWSTERII.

62. Genus CHRYSOMITRIS Boie.

*Sexes alike. Bill extremely acute; nasal plumules sometimes deficient.
Everywhere thickly streaked ; no definite black on head ; no red anywhere.

Pine Linnet. (Puate ut, figs. 11, lla, 12,12a.) Continuously streaked
above with dusky and olivaceous brown or flaxen, below with dusky and
whitish, the whole plumage in the breeding season more or less suffused
with yellowish, particularly bright on the rump; the bases of the quills and
tail feathers extensively sulphury yellow, and all these feathers more or
less edged externally with yellowish. 43; wing 22; tail 12; forked. The
plumage is extremely variable; young birds frequently show a buffy or
flaxen suffusion, and resemble a redpoll; but the yellowish coloration of
the wings and tail is peculiar, and distinctive of the species. North Amer-
ica, breeding northerly, ranging throughout most of the United States, in
flocks, in the winter; abundant. WHd1s., ii, 133, pl. 17, f.1; Nurv., i, 511;
MUD spt.) L255 pl. 180); Bp. 4255 (Coop. 172. =... . 2... PINUS:

* * Sexes unlike. Bill moderately acute. Not noticeably streaked. The adult
males with definite black on the crown, wings and tail.

American Goldfinch. Yellowbird. Thistlebird. (PLATE m1, figs. 7, 8,
9, 10, 7a, 8a, 9a, 10a.) g in summer, rich yellow, changing to whitish
on the tail coverts; a black patch on the crown; wings black, more or less
edged and barred with white; lesser wing coverts yellow; tail black, every
feather with a white spot; bill and feet flesh-colored. In September, the

H52 FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 62.

black cap disappears, and the general plumage changes to a pale flaxen
brown above, and whitey-brown below, with traces of the yellow,
especially about the head: this continues until the following April or
May. 9 olivaceous, including the crown; below soiled yellowish, wings
and tail dusky, whitish-edged : young like the?. About 43 long; wing 23;
tail 2, a little forked; 9 rather smaller than the ¢. North America,
especially the Eastern United States; an abundant and familiar species,
conspicuous by its bright colors, and plaintive lisping notes; in the fall,
collects in large flocks, and so remains until the breeding season ; irregularly
migratory ; feeds especially on the seeds of the thistle and buttonwood ; flies
in an undulating course. Nest small, compact, built of downy and very soft
pliant substances, with stucco-work of lichens, placed in a crotch; eggs 4-5,
white, speckled. Wius., i, 20, pl. 1, f. 2; Nurz., i, 507; Aup., ii, 129,
ple dels Bpss 2 15 yo theme ts 0 ose ete a) tee ent cet eae STS

Lawrence’s Goldfinch. & gray, whitening on the belly and crissum:
rump, a large breast patch, and often
much of the back, rich yellow; crown,
face and chin black; wings black,
variegated with yellow, most of the
coverts being of this color, and the same
broadly edging the quills; tail black,
most of the feathers with large square
white spots on the inner web; bill and
feet dark. The ¢ resembles the male,
but there is no black on the head, and the
yellow places are not so bright. Size of
tristis, or rather less ; an elegant species.
California, Arizona, and probably New Mexico. Bop., 424; Exxior, pl. 8;
COGPs SUT) hag Fee al ack ORs eet oe et Pe

Arkansas Goldfinch. @ olive-green, below yellow; crown black, this
not extending below eyes; wings
black, most of the quills and the
greater coverts white-tipped, and the
primaries white at base; tail black,
the outermost three pairs of feathers
with a long rectangular white spot on
the inner web. @ and young similar,
but not so bright, and no black on the
head; sometimes, also, no decided
white spots on the tail. 44-44; wing

Fic. 78. Lawrence’s Goldfinch.

Fic. 79. Arkansas Goldfinch.

24; tail 2. Plains to the Pacific, (Arizona variety.)
U. S., rather southerly. Aup., iji, 134, pl. 183; Nurr., i,510; Bo., 422;
COOP, LEB. jee hic an SEE year ene Coat ee Seo ee Se

Var. arizonz Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad., 1866, p. 46; Coor., 170. The upper *
parts mixed olive and black in about equal amounts, thus leading directly into

. « LAWRENCE. 7

FRINGILLIDH, FINCHES, ETC. —GEN. 63. 133

Var. MEXICANA, with the upper parts continuously black, and the black of the
crown extending below the eyes, enclosing the olive under eye-lid. Mexican
border and southward. Bp., 423; Coop.,
169. This bird looks quite unlike typical : ASN
psaltria, but the gradation through var. QA
arizone is perfect; and mexicana, more-
over, leads directly into var. columbiana, a
Central American form in which the tail-
spots are very small or wanting. The
females of these several varieties cannot be
distinguished with certainty.

Oss. Chrysomitris magellanica, a South
American species with the whole head black,
is said by Audubon to have been taken in
Kentucky, where probably it will not be found again. Chrysomitris stanleyi and
C. yarrellii, of Audubon, were apparently cage-birds, improperly attributed to
North America.

Fig. 80. Mexican Goldfinch.

63. Genus PLECTROPHANES Meyer.
* Bill small, truly conic, ruffed at base; hind claw decidedly curved.

Snow Bunting. Snowflake. In breeding plumage, pure white, the back,
wings and tail variegated with black ; bill and feet black. As generally seen
in the United States, the white is clouded with clear, warm brown, and the
bill is brownish. Length about 7; wing 443 tail 23. Arctic America,
irregularly southward, in flocks, in the winter, to about 85°; but its move-
ments depend much on the weather. WAILs., iii,
86, pl. 21; Nurr., i, 458; Aup., iii, 55, pl. 155;
BOR RAO ORME eeifete fo 8 ok ars ce Ne SNIVALISS

** Bill moderate, unruffed, but with a little tuft of
feathers at the base of the rictus; hind claw straight-
ish, with its digit longer than the middle toe and claw.
Sexes dissimilar; ¢ with a cervical collar, and oblique white area on the outer tail
feathers; 9 resembling some of the streaked sparrows. (Centrophanes.)

hp

Fic. 81. Foot in Centrophanes.

Lapland Longspur. Adult g : whole head and throat jet black bordered
with buffy or whitish which forms a postocular line separating the black of
the crown from that of the sides of the head; a broad chestnut cervical
collar; upper parts in general blackish streaked with buffy or whitish that
edges all the feathers; below, whitish, the breast and sides black-streaked ;
wings dusky, the greater coverts and inner secondaries edged with dull bay ;
tail dusky with white areas as above mentioned; bill yellowish tipped with
black, legs and feet black. 6-64; wing 3}-33; tail 24-23. Winter males
show less black on the head, and the cervical chestnut duller; the 9@ and
young have no continuous black on the head, and the crown is streaked like
the back; but there are traces of the cervical collar, whilst the generic char-
acters will prevent confusion with any of the ordinary streaked sparrows.
Arctic America, irregularly southward into the United States in winter, fre-

ee, es

134 FRINGILLID2, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 63.

quently in company with nivalis, but not so common. NutT., i, 463;
AD, Wis 00> plo llo2 bps 435: Fld: LAPPONICUS.

Painted Lark Bunting. Adult g : cervical collar and entire under parts
rich buffy brown or dark fawn; crown and sides of head black, bounded
below by a white line, and interrupted by white superciliary and auricular
line and white occipital spot; upper parts streaked with black and brownish
yellow; lesser and middle wing coverts black, tipped with white forming
conspicuous patches; one or two outer tail feathers mostly white; no white
on the rest; legs pale. Size of lapponicus: seasonal and sexual changes of
plumage correspondent. British America into United States in the ¢nterior ;
not common with us. Nurt., ii, 589; Avp., iii, 52, pl. 153; vii, 337,
pl. 487 (smithiz) ;.Bp., 484. nee eee ar OA PICTUS.

Chestnut-collared Lark Bunting. Adult g: a chestnut cervical collar,
as in lapponicus, and upper parts streaked much as in that species, but
erayer; nearly all the under parts continuously black, the throat yellowish ;
lower belly and crissum only whitish; in high plumage the black of the
under parts is more or less mixed with intense ferrugineous, and sometimes
this rich sienna color becomes continuous; crown and sides of head black,
interrupted with white auricular and postocular stripes, and in high plumage
with a white occipital spot; lesser wing coverts black or brownish-black ;
outer tail feathers mostly or entirely white, and all the rest largely white
from the base —a character that distinguishes the species in any plumage
from the two preceding; legs not black; 9 with or without traces of the
cervical collar; crown exactly like the back, generally no black on head or
under parts ; below whitish, with slight dusky maxillary and pectoral streaks
and sometimes the whole breast black, edged with grayish. Immature males
have the lesser wing coverts like the back; but they show the black of the
breast, veiled with gray tips of the feathers, long before any black appears
on the head. Size less than in the foregoing. 54-6; wing 3-34; tail 2-24.
Missouri Region, Kansas, and westward; 8. to the Table-lands of Mexico.
Aup., iii, 53, pl. 154; Nurr., 2d ed. 1, 539; Bp., 485. P. melanomus
Bp., 486, appears to be merely a high plumage, perhaps not always assumed
by, northerly: tbinds ss ge. ss) yo een es) eel etl Uo siete es cm COTE AUTSTOD

** * Bill large, turgid, unruffed ; hind claw as before, but shorter; sexes dissim-
ilar ; no cervical collar; outer tail feathers white, the rest, except the middle pair,
white on the inner webs to near the tip, the line of demarcation running straight
across. (Rhynchophanes.)

Maccown’s Bunting. Adult g: crown anda broad pectoral crescent
black; superciliary line and under parts white; bend of wing chestnut;

above, streaked with blackish and yellowish-brown. Size of the last, or :

rather larger; 6-64; wing 33; tail 24-24; bill nearly $ inch long. The ¢?
lacks the black and chestnut, but in any plumage the species may be known
by the peculiar markings of the tail feathers, the white areas being cut
squarely off, except in the outer pair, which are wholly white. Plains to the
Rocky Mountains, U. S., rather northern; breeds abundantly about Chey-

ot

FRINGILLIDH, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 64, 65. 135

enne, Wyoming. (Allen.) Lawr., Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y., 1851, v,
ire CAss lll. 228, pl. 39; Bp. 437. ~. . - « ~. . . MACCOWNI.

64, Genus CENTRONYX Baird.

Baird’s Bunting. Wind claw rather longer than its digit ; hind toe and
claw not shorter than the middle one. Wings pointed, but inner secondaries
not lengthened as in Passerculus. Tail emarginate. Thickly streaked
everywhere above, on the sides, and across the breast ; above, grayish streaked
with dusky, below white, with blackish maxillary, pectoral and lateral
streaks; crown divided by a brownish-yellow line; a faint superciliary whit-
ish line; no yellowish on bend of wing; outer tail feathers whitish. A curi-
ous bird, apparently related to Plectrophanes in form, but with the general
appearance of a savanna sparrow or bay-winged bunting. Only one speci-
men known. Yellowstone, Aup., vii, 359, pl. 500; Bp., 441. “ Massa-
chusetts,” Maynarp, Am. Nat., 1869, 554, and Guide, 112, frontispiece ;

Auten, Am. Nat. 1869, 631; Brewster, Am. Nat. 1872, 307. I have

seen the later supposed specimens, the fresh measurements of one of which
(64; wing 34; tail 23; bill .4; tarsus nearly an inch) are much larger than
those recorded by Audubon, and there are many other discrepancies. The
bird should be diligently sought for, as a full investigation will reveal some-
Poe MOU MOWAAUUCIPAveM. | 6 ba 6 «8 6 = ~ «© | «» \ BATRDID.

65. Genus PASSERCULUS Bonaparte.

Savanna Sparrow. (Puate mi, figs. 16,17, 18, 16a, 17a, 18a.) Thickly
streaked everywhere above, on sides, and across breast; a superciliary line,
and edge of the wing, yellowish; lesser wing coverts not chestnut; legs
flesh-color; bill rather slender and acute; tail
nearly even, its outer feathers not pure white;
longest secondary nearly as long as the primaries
in the closed wing. Above, brownish-gray,
streaked with blackish, whitish-gray and pale bay,
the streaks largest on interscapulars, smallest on
cervix, the crown divided by an obscure whitish
line; sometimes an obscure yellowish suffusion 7" (pin too slender)
about head besides the streak over the eye. Below, white, pure or
with faint buffy shade, thickly streaked, as just stated, with dusky — the
individual spots edged with brown, mostly arrow-shaped, running in chains
along the sides, and often aggregated in an obscure blotch on the breast.
Wings dusky, the coverts and inner secondaries black-edged and tipped with
bright bay ; tail feathers rather narrow and pointed, dusky, not noticeably
marked. 54-52; wing 24-23; tail 2-24; middle toe and claw together 14;
bill under $. North America; a terrestrial species, abundant everywhere
in fields, on plains, by waysides, and along the seashore; migratory, grega-
rious. With a close general resemblance to several other species, it may be
readily distinguished by the foregoing marks. It varies but little with sex

ff. ee eee Be

>

136 FRINGILLID®, FINCHES, ETC.- GEN. 66.

and age, though the colors may be darker and sharper, or brighter and more
diffuse, according to season and wear of the feathers. Wits., iii, 55, pl. 22,
f.1; Nurr., i, 489; Auvp., iii, 68, pl. 160; Bp., 442. P. alaudinus Bo.,
446; Coor., 181, is indistinguishable. . -, . . . . = = SAVANNA.

Var. antutnus Bp., 445; Coopr., 183; Ett., pl. 13, may be recognized. Bill
longer, slenderer (as in fig. 82); spots below very numerous, close, sharp, dark.
California coast, abundant in the salt marshes.

+ Var. SANDVICENSIS Bp., 444; Coor., 180. A large northern race: 6 or more
long; bill 4, stout; head more yellowish. Northwest coast.

Sea-shore Sparrow. With the form of a savanffa sparrow, but the bill
elongated as in Ammodromus, yet very stout and turgid, with decidedly
convex culmen, 4 an inch long. No evident yellowish over eye or on edge of
wing ; no evident median stripe on crown. Brown-
ish-gray, back and crown streaked with dusky,
below dull white, confluently streaked with brown
everywhere except on belly and crissum. Wings
and tail dusky gray, the rectrices with paler edges,
the primaries with whitish edges, the wing coverts
and secondaries broadly edged and tipped with
grayish-bay ; an obscure whitish superciliary line; under mandible yellow-

Fic. 83. Sea-shore Sparrow.

ish, legs pale; 543; wing 23; tail 2. Pacific coast, U. S.; a curious species,
common, maritime, representing, with var. anthinus, the Amimodromi in the
marshes of the seashore. Cass., Ill., 226, pl. 28; Bp., 446; Couss, Ibis,
ISG66RE2Z68s COOP! G4 Wels nes. arenes 2) we es. SROSTRARUSS
St. Lucas Sparrow. Similar to rostratus; same size; bill not so heavy :
“A’ stripe of pale yellow runs from the bill to the eye, a longer stripe of pale
yellow extends from the under mandible down the side of the throat * * *
differs from all its allies in the obscure grayish coloring of the upper parts,
with no reddish- brown, and in having its under plumage more closely and
fully spotted.” San José, L. California; a variety of the last? Lawr.,
Ann. lye. Nat. Hist-eN. Yo. 1867, 47355) Coor., 1855008. EGULTATI Ss

66. Genus POOECETES Baird.

Bay-winged Bunting. Grass Finch. Thickly streaked everywhere above,
on sides and across breast; no yellow anywhere; lesser wing coverts chest-
nut and 1-3 pairs of outer tail feathers partly or wholly white. -Above
grayish-brown, the streaking dusky and brown, with grayish-white ; below
white, usually noticeably buffy-tinged, the streaks very numerous on the
fore parts and sides; wing coverts and inner quills much edged and tipped
with bay ; crown like back, without median stripe, line over, and ring round,
eye, whitish; feet pale; 53-64; wing 2§-84, with inner secondaries
lengthened; tail 24-23. North America; a rather large, stout species,
known on sight by combination of chestnut lesser wing coverts and white
outer tail feathers; the sexes are alike, and the variations in color are only
such as are indicated under P. savanna; western specimens average paler
and grayer, representing var. confinis Bp., 448. A very abundant bird,

/ _ REPT NABIRDS. ' PLATE It.

ar

UI. M203, re

As

-

nn 4
wh

=_
an

<4
17

\

="
12
<4
th
10
:

16, Héiothns linarius, 710; Chrysomntris trists, 112, Cpinus, 13-15, Curvirostra
amerieana, 1618, Passerculus savanna.

FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 67, 68. ilsii

in fields, etc., terrestrial, migratory, gregarious in the fall. Wruus., iv, 51,
pl. 31, f. 5; Norr., i, 482; Aup., iii, 65, pl. 159; Bp., 447. GRAMINEUS.

67. Genus COTURNICULUS Bonaparte.

Yellow-winged Sparrow. Edge of wing conspicuously yellow; lesser
wing coverts, and short line over eye, yellowish; below, not or not evidently
streaked, but fore parts and sides, buff, fading to dull white on the belly.
Above, singularly variegated with black, gray, yellowish-brown and a
peculiar purplish-bay in short streaks and specks, the crown being nearly
black with a sharp median brownish-yellow line, the middle of the back
chiefly black with bay and brownish-yellow edgings of the feathers, the cer-
vical region and rump chiefly gray mixed with bay ; wing coverts and inner
quills variegated like the back; feet pale. Small; only 4§-5}$ long; wing
24, much rounded; tail 2 or less, with very narrow pointed feathers, the out-
stretched feet reaching to or beyond its end; bill short, turgid. Sexes alike ;
young similar, not so buffy below, and with pectoral and maxillary dusky
spots; but in any plumage known from other sparrows (except the next
species) by amount of yellow on wings, and peculiar proportions of parts.
United States ; abundant in tall grass and weeds of plains and fields ; strictly
terrestrial, migratory, with a peculiar chirring note, like a grasshopper’s ;
nests on the ground, eggs 4—5, white, speckled. Specimens from -dry
western regions are paler and grayer (var. perpallidus Ripaway, Mss.).
Wus., iii,-76, pl. 26, f.5; Avp., iii, 73, pl. 162; Noutt., i, 494; Bp., 450;
SBOE SO Marae Seeker e2 | et kM te bis asc 3a ly S PASSERINUS:

Henslow’s Sparrow. Resembling the last; smaller; more yellowish
above, and with sharp maxillary, pectoral and lateral black streaks below ;
tail longer, reaching beyond feet; bill stout. Eastern U. S., not very com-
mon. AUD., iii, 75, pl. 163; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 571; Bp., 451. HENSLOwII.

Leconte’s Sparrow. Like the last; bill much smaller; fore and under
parts and sides of head buff, with black touches on sides; no yellow loral
spot; median crown-stripe buff, white posteriorly ; 45; wing 24; tail 1%.
Missouri region; Texas. <A long-lost species, rediscovered in No. 50, 222,
Mus. S. I. (Lincecum.) Aun., vii, 338, pl. 488; Bp., 452. . LECONTEL.

68. Genus AMMODROMUS Swainson.

*.* Small streaked sparrows, remarkable for the slender lengthened form of the
bill, and the narrow, acute tail feathers. Wing short, much rounded, its edge
yellow ; tail short ; feet very large, reaching nearly to end of tail. Confined to salt-
marshes of the Atlantic and Gulf States; abundant, migratory.

_Sea-side Finch. Olive-gray, obscurely streaked on the back and crown with
darker and paler; below, whitish, often washed with brownish, and shaded
on the sides with the color of the back, with ill-defined streaks on the breast
and sides; wings and tail plain dusky, with slight olivaceous edgings, wing
coverts and inner quills somewhat margined with brown; a yellow spot over
eye, and often some vague brownish and dusky markings on side of head ;

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 18

+

+.

4

138 FRINGILLIDH, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 69.

bill plumbeous, feet dark; 53-64; wing 24-24; tail about 2. Wuts., iv,

. 68, pl. 34, f. 2; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 592, 593; Auvp., iii, 103, 106, pl. 172,
WSiCnacgillevrayt) = BD., 404.6. 2. ete) ey eh. ARN
Sharp-tailed Finch. Olive-gray, sharply streaked on the back with
blackish and whitish; crown
darker than nape, with brown-
ish-black streaks and obscure
median line; no yellow loral
spot, but long line over eye and
sides of head rich buff or orange-
brown enclosing olive-gray
auriculars and a dark speck
behind these ; below, white, the
fore parts and sides tinged with
yellowish brown or buff of vari-
able intensity, the breast and
sides sharply streaked with
dusky. Rather smaller than the

Fic. 84. Details of structure in Sharp-tailed Finch. last ; bill still slenderer, and
tail feathers still narrower and more acute. Wd1sS., iv, 70, pl. 34, f. 3;
Nortt., i, 504; Aup., iii, 108, pl. 174; Bp., 453. . . . CAUDACUTUS.

69. Genus MELOSPIZA Baird.

*Breast streaked, and with a transverse belt of brownish-yellow; tail nearly
equal to wings.

Lincoln’s Finch. Below, white, breast banded and sides often shaded
with yellowish, everywhere except on the belly thickly and sharply streaked
with dusky ; above grayish-brown, crown and back with blackish, brownish
and paler streaks; tail grayish-brown, the feathers usually showing blackish
shaft lines; wings the same, the coverts and inner quills blackish with bay
and whitish edgings ; no yellow on wings or head; 5$; wing and tail about
24. North America; not common in the Eastern States. AuwD., iii, 116,
pl. 177; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 569; Bp., 482; Coop., 216. . . LINCOLNII.

** Breast ashy, unbelted, with few streaks, or none; tail about equal to wings.

Swamp Sparrow. Crown bright bay, or chestnut, blackening on the fore-
head, often with obscure median ashy line, and usually streaked with black ;
cervix, entire sides of bead and neck, and the breast, strongly ashy, with
vague dark auricular and maxillary markings, the latter bounding the whitish
chin, the ashy of the breast obsoletely streaky ; belly whitish ; sides, flanks and
crissum strongly shaded with brown, and faintly streaked; back and rump
brown, rather darker than the sides, boldly streaked with black and pale
brown or grayish. Wings so strongly edged with bright bay as to appear
almost uniformly of this color when viewed closed, but inner secondaries
showing black with whitish edging; tail likewise strongly edged with bay,

4

FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 69. 139

and usually showing sharp black shaft lines. No yellowish anywhere; no
tail feathers white; further distinguished from its allies by the emphasis of
its black, bay and ash; 54-6; wing and tail 24-24. Eastern North America ;
a common inhabitant of low thickets, swamps and marshes. WHIts., iii, 49,
plz, f. 15 Aup., iii, 110, pl. 175; Nurr., 1, 502; Bo., 483. PaLusTRis:

*** Breast white, with numerous streaks aggregated into a central blotch; tail
obviously longer than the wings, both rounded. Thickly streaked everywhere
above, on sides and across breast. No yellowish anywhere.

Song Sparrow. Below, white, slightly shaded with brownish on the
flanks and crissum, the numerous streaks just mentioned being dusky with
brown edges, forming a pectoral blotch and also usually coalescing into
maxillary stripes bounding the white throat; crown dull bay, with fine black
streaks, divided and bounded on either side by ashy-whitish lines; vague
brown or dusky and whitish markings on the sides of the head; the inter-
scapular streaks black, with bay and ashy-white edgings; rump and cervix
grayish-brown, with merely a few bay marks; wings with dull bay edgings,
the coverts and inner quills marked like the interscapulars ; tail plain brown,
with darker shaft lines, on the middle feathers at least, and often with obso-
lete wavy markings. Very constant in plumage, the chief differences being
in the sharpness and breadth of the markings, due in part to the wear of the
feathers. 6-64; wing about 24; tail nearly or quite 3. Eastern United
States; one of our most abundant birds everywhere, and a well known
pleasing songster. WH1S., ii, 125, pl. 16, f.4; Nurr., i, 486; Auvp., iii,
EPR Dl ESD Adan y me hey rel oe a ee: oe Ul ee ey) 8, MELODTAy

Oss. The Eastern song sparrow is simply one variety of a bird distributed from
Atlantic to Pacific, and which in the West is split into numerous geographical races,
some of them looking so different from typical melodia that they have been con-
sidered as distinct species, and even placed in other genera. This differentiation
affects not only the color, but the size, relative proportion of parts, and particularly
the shape of the bill; and it is sometimes so great, as in case of M. insignis, that
less dissimilar looking birds are commonly assigned to different genera. Neverthe-
less, the gradation is complete, and effected by imperceptible degrees. The follow-
ing varieties have been described, and may usually be recognized.

Var. FALLAx Bp., 481; Coopr., 215. Extremely similar; wings and tail slightly
longer; paler, grayer; the streaks not so obviously blackish in the centre. Whole
of Rocky Mountains and Great Basin; scarcely distinguishable.

Var. currata Norr., i, 2d ed. 581; Fringilla cinerea, Aup., iii, 145, pl. 187.
Darker and more rufous, the colors more blended, from indistinctness of the
streaks; below, quite brownish, except on middle of belly. Pacific coast, U. S.,
and British Columbia.

Var. rurINA Bp., 480; Coor., 214. Similar, but larger; color more fuliginous.
Sitka, Alaska. ;

Var. nrERMANNU Bp., 478; Coop., 212. Grayish, the streaks numerous, broad,
distinct, mostly lacking pale edging. California.

Var. coutpm Bp., 479. Similar to the last, in distinctness of the black streaks,
but very small, under 5; wing little over 2; tail 24. California. Ammodromus
samuelis Bo., 455, pl. 71, f. 1; Coor., 191, is the same bird.

. ot

140 FRINGILLID®, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 70, 71.

Var. instents Bp., Trans. Chicago Acad. 1869, 319, pl. 29, f. 1. Plumbeous
brown, not rufous, the dorsal streaks fine; beneath, plumbeous white, with almost
confluent ashy-brown streaks. Large; 7; wing and tail 34; bill slender and very
long, .60. Kadiak, Alaska.

70. Genus PEUCAIA Audubon.

* Edge and bend of wing yellowish, as in Cotwrniculus, which the species much
resembles in the color of the upper parts; but it has no obvious yellowish about
the head ; the wings are not longer than the tail, and the tail feathers, though very
narrow and lanceolate, are not acute at tip.

Bachman’s Finch. Upper parts, including crown, continuously streaked
with blackish, dull chestnut and ashy-gray ; wing coverts and inner second-
aries marked like the back; below, dull brownish-ash, or brownish-gray,
whitening on the belly, deepest on sides and across breast, . nowhere
obviously streaked in adult plumage ; some obscure dusky maxillary streaks,
some vague dusky markings on auriculars, a slight ashy superciliary line
and very obscure median ashy line on crown; bill dark above, pale below ;
legs very pale ; lateral claws falling far short of base of middle claw; hind

claw much shorter than its digit ; tarsus not longer than middle toe and claw ;
tail much rounded, with obscure grayish-white area on the lateral feathers.
Young have the breast and sides evidently streaked. 53-6; wing 24;
tail 24. Southern States. \ Nurr., i, 568; Avup., iii, 113, pl. 176.
IBD AS Ass cele, ek sre oe ka ee oe wml Nel cei ks dea) nail Cem An NIT Tay pee

Var. cassinn. Similar; paler and grayer; wings and tail rather longer.
Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, and southward. Bp., 485; Coop., 219.

* * Edge and bend of wing without yellow.

Rufous-crowned Finch. Similar; rather smaller; crown uniform chest-
nut, and maxillary streaks sharp, distinct. California. Cass., Ill. 185,
pl. 20; Bp., 486; Coopr., 218. 3 te lke 4 al ey ee RURTOR RSS

71. Genus POOSPIZA Cabanis.

*,* Southwestern species, with rounded blackish tail not shorter than the wings,
plumbeous-black bill and feet, and few decided streaks, or none.

Black-throated Finch. Y¥ace, chin and throat sharply jet-black ; a strong
pure white superciliary line, and another bounding the black of the throat ;
under eyelid also pure white; auriculars dark slate ;
no yellow anywhere. Below, pure white; the sides,
flanks and crissum shaded with ashy or fulvous-
brownish, but no streaks. Above, uniform grayish-
brown; wings dusky, coverts and inner quills edged
with the colors of the back; tail black, with narrow
grayish edgings, the outer feather sharply edged and
tipped with white and several others similarly tipped.
Small, 5-53; wing about 24; tail 23. In the young the head-markings
are obscure, there is little or no black on the throat, and a few pectoral

Fic. 85. Black-throated Finch.

FRINGILLIDA, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 72. 141

streaks. Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California. Cass., Ill. 150, pl.
POPE Ds els) COOPs,2038. 6. « .e 2 Bo eeBIBINE ATA,

Bell’s Finch. No definite black about eae and edge of wing slightly
yellowish. Forchead, line over eye and edges of eyelids, inconspicuously
white. Below white, more or less tinged with pale brownish, the sides with
slight sparse streaks that anteriorly become aggregated into rather vague
maxillary stripes cutting off from the white throat a whitish line that runs
from the corner of the bill; lores and circumocular region dusky. Above
grayish-brown, ashier on head, the crown and back with small sparse sharp
black streaks ; wing coverts and inner quills with much fulvous edging ; tail
black with slight pale edgings, the outer web of the outer feather simply
whitish. About 6 long; wing and tail 8. Utah, New Mexico, Arizona and

3D?

California. Bp., 470; Exxror, pl. 14; Coop., 204. . . . . BELLI.

72. Genus JUNCO Wagler.

*.* Unspotted, unstreaked, the colors in large definite areas; 2-3 outer tail
feathers white ; bill flesh-colored. Length, 6-7; wing and tail about 3.

Snowbird. Blackish-ash, below abruptly pure white from the breast. In
the 9, and in fact in most fall and winter specimens, the upper parts have ¢
more grayish, or even a decidedly brownish cast, and the inner quills are
edged with pale bay. One of our most abundant and familiar sparrows, in
flocks, from October to April; retires to high latitudes and mountains, to
breed. Chiefly Eastern; but also found in Alaska (Dall), Washington
Territory (Suckley) and Arizona (Coues). A western variety has the mid-
dle and greater wing coverts tipped with white, forming two conspicuous
Crossbars. Wims., ti, 1295 pl. 16, f. 6; Nurr.,.1, 491; Aup., iii, 88,
Meee SM sy Ds 468. es e's seas oh) /eu so DEL EMALISE

Oregon Snowbird. Head and Sank ail round, and Drtants black; middle
of back dull reddish-brown, and wings much edged with the same; below
from the breast abruptly white, tinged on the sides with pale reddish-brown.
In the 9 and young the black is obscured by brownish, but the species may
always be distinguished by an evident contrast in color between the inter-
scapulars and head, and the fulvous wash on the sides. Rocky Mountains
to the Pacific; as abundant there as hyemalis is with us. <Avp., ili. 91,
pl tos; Bp., 466; Coop, 199. . . . ee ee ae COREGONUDS.

Cinereous Snowbird. Clear grayish- he pane rather gradually into
white on belly ; interscapulars abruptly, definitely, chestnut or rusty-brown ;
lores blackish; no fulvous wash on sides; no chestnut on wings. Rocky
Mountains, U. S., and southward. Bop., 467, 468; Coor., 201; Cougs,
roe. Phila. Acad. 1866,50. . . . . . +. CINEREUS var. CANICEPS.

Oxzs. The true cinereus, a Mexican bird, has the wing coverts edged with rusty
like the back, the bill black and yellow. Juwnco dorsalis Henry, Proc. Phila. Acad.
1858, 117, is caniceps approaching cinerews— perhaps a hybrid. J. annectens Bo., in
Coor., 564, based on specimens I procured in Arizona, is intermediate between
oregonus and caniceps—in all probability a hybrid. See Cours, Proc. Acad.

142 FRINGILLID®, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 73.

Phila. 1866, p. 50. Specimens intermediate between oregonus and hyemalis have
been instanced (Rmeway, Proce. Phila. Acad. 1869, 126), and all these forms of the
genus, in fact, seem to be nascent species, still unstable in character; but the
modification of the Junco stock has passed the merely varietal stage.

73. Genus SPIZELLA Bonaparte.

*,* Small species, 5—6 inches long, with the long, broad-feathered, forked tail
about equalling the rather pointed wings, with no yellowish anywhere, and no
streaks on the under parts when adult.

* Species with the crown of the adult chestnut.

Tree Sparrow. Bill black above, yellow below; legs brown, toes black ;
no black on forehead; crown chestnut (in winter specimens the feathers
usually skirted with gray), bordered by a grayish-white superciliary and
loral line, and some vague chestnut marks on sides of head; below impurely
whitish, tinged with ashy anteriorly, washed with pale brownish posteriorly,
the middle of the breast with an obscure dusky blotch; middle of back
boldky streaked with black, bay and flaxen; middle and lesser wing coverts
black, edged with bay and tipped with white, forming two conspicuous
cross-bars ; inner secondaries similarly variegated, other quills and tail
feathers dusky, with pale edges. A handsome sparrow, the largest of the
genus, at least 6 inches long; the wing and tail almost 3; abundant in the
United States in winter, flocking in shrubbery; breeds in mountainous and
boreal regions. Wiuts., ii, 12, pl. 12, f.3; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 572; Avp.,
lll;"O03, pl. L665 )D:,,. 472 Coops. 2065.) 6 ae eos en ee MONTICOMAG

Chipping Sparrow. Chipbird or Chippy. Hairbird. Adult: bill black ;
feet pale; crown chestnut, extreme forehead black, a grayish-white super-
ciliary line, below this a blackish stripe through
eye and over auriculars. Below, a variable shade
of pale ash, nearly uniform and entirely unmarked ;
back streaked with black, dull bay and grayish-
brown, inner secondaries and wing coverts similarly
variegated, the tips of the greater and lesser
coverts forming whitish bars; rump ashy, with
slight blackish streaks; primaries and tail dusky

Be Oe eee th paler edges. Smaller; 5-53; wing about 23 ;
tail rather less. Sexes alike, but very young birds are quite different, the
crown being streaked like the back, the breast and sides thickly streaked
with dusky, the bill pale brown and the head lacking definite black. In
this stage, which, however, is of brief duration, it resembles some other
species, but may be known by a certain ashiness the others lack, and from
the small sparrows that are streaked below when adult, by its generic char-
acters. North America, extremely abundant, and the most familiar species
about houses, in gardens, and elsewhere, nesting in shrubbery ; nest of fine
dried grass, lined with hair; eggs 4-5, bluish, speckled. WHUts., ii, 127,
pl. 16, f.5; Nurr., i, 497; Aup., iii, 80, pl. 165; Bp., 473. . socraLis.

FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 73. 1438

Var. Arizon£ Covurs,n.v. Like an immature S. socialis. Paler than this species,
the ashiness in great measure brown; crown grayish-brown streaked with dusky
like the back, and showing evident traces of rich chestnut, but never becoming
wholly chestnut ; black frontlet lacking, and no definite ashy superciliary line, the
sides of the crown merely lighter brown; bill brown above, pale below. Arizona,
and probably other portions of the same region. A curious form, as it were an
arrested stage of socialis. Some specimens, with the least chestnut on the head,
look remarkably like pallida var. brewerii, but this last is evidently smaller, without
chestnut on the head, and otherwise different.

Field Sparrow. Bill pale reddish; feet very pale; crown dull chestnut ;
no decided black or whitish about head. Below white, unmarked, but much
washed with pale brown on breast and sides; sides of the head and neck
with some vague brown markings ; all the ashy parts of socialis replaced by
pale brownish. Back bright bay, with black streaks and some pale flaxen
edgings ; inner secondaries similarly variegated ; tips of median and greater
coverts forming decided whitish cross-bars. Size of socialis, but more
nearly the colors of monticola; sexes alike; young for a short time streaked
below, as in socialis. Eastern United States, very abundant in fields, copses
and hedges, in flocks when not breeding. Wus., ii, 121, pl. 16, f. 2;
MUP ee su ils Pl. LOLs NUET.,q,,499; Bp. 473. = << ..4.- « PUSILMLA.

** Western species, with the crown not chestnut, and streaked like the back.

Clay-colored Sparrow. Crown and back clay-colored or flaxen, distinctly
streaked with black, without evident bay, the dorsal streaks noticeably
separated from those of the crown, by an ashier, less streaked, cervical
interval; rump brownish-gray. Crown divided by a pale median stripe; a
distinct whitish superciliary line ;‘ loral and auricular regions decidedly
brown; wing coverts and inner secondaries variegated like the back.
Below, white, soiled with clay-color. Bill and feet pale. Small; 43-54;
wing and tail, each, 24. Central region of the United States into British
America. Emberiza pallida, Swatnson, Fauna Bor.-Am. ii, 251; #. shat-
(elieeNUD., Vil, 347, pl. 493..; Bp., 474... 3... 2 a PALLIDA.

Var. BREWER. Similar; paler and duller, all the markings indistinct; streaks
of crown and back small, numerous, not separated by a cervical interval; no
definite markings on sides of head. Size of the last, but tail relatively longer,
rather exceeding the wings—about 22 long, thus equalling;if it does not some-
what exceed, that of soctalis, although the latter is a larger bird. It bears an
extraordinary resemblance to the curious western variety of socialis, above des-
cribed ; but in this, as in typical socialis, the tail is appreciably shorter than the
wings. Southwestern U. S. Emberiza pallida Aup., iii, 71, pl. 161. S. breweri
Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1856, 40; Bp., 475; Coor., 209.

*** Western species, with the crown of the adult dark ash.

" Black-chinned Sparrow. Dark ash, fading insensibly into whitish on the
belly, deepening to black on the face and throat; interscapulars bright bay,
streaked with black ; wing coverts and inner secondaries variegated with the
same colors; tail blackish, with pale edgings; bill reddish, feet dark. A
small species, but measuring full 6 long, on account of the great length of

Hees

144 FRINGILLIDH, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 74.

the tail (fully 3), which greatly exceeds the wings (24); the young lack
the black on the face, and have the crown washed with ashy-brown, and the
bill dusky above ; but may be known by the length of the tail. Mexico,
north to Colorado Valley; Cape St. Lucas. (JS. atri-
mentalis Couch. S. cana Bo. 8S. evura Cours, Ibis,
1865, 118, 164.) Bp., 476; Couns, Proc. Phila.
Acad., 1866, 87; Coop., 210. . . . ATRIGULARIS.

74. Genus ZONOTRICHIA Swainson.

Fic. 87.. Black-chinned *,* Embracing our largest and handsomest sparrows,

Ba 63 to 74 inches long, the rounded wings and tail each 3 or

more; the under parts with very few streaks, or none, the middle of the back

streaked, the rump plain, the wings with two white cross-bars, and the head of the
adults with black.

White-throated Sparrow. Peabody-bird. Adult 3 with the crown black,
divided by a median white stripe, bounded by a white superciliary line and
yellow spot from nostrils to eye; below this a black stripe through the eye;
below this a maxillary black stripe bounding the definitely pure white throat,
sharply contrasted with the dark ash of the breast and sides of the neck and
head. Hdge of wing yellow. Back continu-
ously streaked with black, chestnut and fulvous-
white; rump ashy, unmarked. Wings much
edged with bay, the white tips of the median
and greater coverts forming two conspicuous
bars ; quills and tail feathers dusky, with pale
\ edges. Below, white, shaded with ashy-brown
on sides, the ash deeper and purer on the
breast ; bill dark, feet pale. 9 , and immature
birds, with the black of the head replaced
by brown, the white of the throat less conspicuously contrasted with
the duller ash of surrounding parts, and frequently with obscure dusky
streaks on the breast and sides; but the species may always be known by
the yellow over the eye and on the edge of the wing (these never being
imperceptible), coupled with the large size and the general characters above
| given. A fine sparrow, abundant throughout Eastern North America in all
. situations, generally in flocks, except when breeding; a pleasing if not
brilliant songster. Wuus., iii, 51, pl. 22, f. 2; Nurr., 1,481; Aup.. i,
153, pl. 191; Bp., 463. SN eae ae an ALBICOLLIS.

White-crowned Sparrow. Adults of both sexes with the crown pure
white, enclosing on either side a broad black stripe that meets its fellow
on the forehead and descends the lores to the level of the eyes, and bounded
by another narrow black stripe that starts behind the eye and curves around
the side of the hind head, nearly meeting its fellow on the nape; edge of ~~
under eyelid white. Or, we may say, crown black, enclosing a median
white stripe and two lateral white stripes, all confluent on the hind head.

Fic. 88. White-throated Sparrow.

FRINGILLID®, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 74. 145

General color’a fine dark ash, paler below, whitening insensibly on chin
and belly, more brownish on the rump, changing to dull brownish on the
flanks and erissum, the middle of the back streaked =:

with dark purplish-bay and ashy-white. No bright
bay, like that of albicollis, anywhere, except some
edging on the wing coverts and inner secondaries ;
middle and greater coverts tipped with white, form-
ing two bars; no yellow anywhere; Dill and feet
reddish. Young birds have the black of the head
replaced by very rich warm brown, the white of the

head by pale brownish, and the general ash has a
at Fie. 89. White-crowned Sparrow.

brownish suffusion, and the back is more like th
of albicollis; but the two species can hardly be confounded. North America,
especially eastern and rather northerly, not nearly so abundant in the United
States as albicollis, but common in many sections in winter and during the
migrations. Wuts., iv, 49, pl. 31, f. 4; Nurr., i, 479; Aup., iii, 157, pl.
ee wODr IOs COORS) LOO. seus hf. oo. | 2 « GEUCOPHRYS:

Var. GAmBeLtt. Exactly like the last, but the lores gray or ashy, continuous
with the white stripe over the eye, 7. e., the black of the forehead does not descend
to the eye. Perhaps averaging a trifle smaller, and duller colored. Mr. Allen tells
me he has seen specimens that resembled lewcophrys on one side of the head, and
gambelii on the other! Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, there mostly replacing true
leucophrys. Nurr., 2d ed. i, 556; Bp., 460; Coor., 195.

Golden-crowned Sparrow. Adults of both sexes with the forehead and
sides of the crown black, enclosing a dull yellow coronal patch; edge of the
wing yellow. Above, much like albicollis, but with less bay; below, much
like lewcophrys, but the ashy not so pure; larger than either. Young have
the black of the crown replaced by brown, but there are always traces of the
yellow on crown and wings. Pacific coast (to the Rocky Mountains?),
abundant. Lringilla atricapilla Aup., iii, 162, pl. 193; F. aurocapilla
Mintieecdcd. 1 D9). bp., 461s Coor., 197. . . . « . CORONATA.

Harris's Sparrow. Adult g with whole crown, face and throat jet-black ;
sides of the head pale ash, the auriculars darker ash, bounded by a black
line starting behind the eye and curving around them. Under parts nearly
pure white, but slightly ashy before and faintly brownish-washed behind,
the sides with a few dusky streaks, the breast with a few black ones con-
tinued from the black throat-patch ; back nearly as in coronata; bill and toes
dark, tarsi pale; no yellow anywhere; very large, tail about 54; @ similar,
but with much less black on head and throat. This and coronata represent
the maximum dimensions above given, while the other two species are at
or near the minimum. Missouri region; a bird of imposing appearance
for a sparrow. J. querula Nutt.,i, 2d ed. 555; F. harrisii Aup., vil,
PEED SAM Dewd4OO ns is as ss el Uy ~ QUERULA.

Oxzs. Morton’s finch, 7. mortonii Avp., iii, 151, is a South American species
of this genus (Z. matutina), erroneously attributed to California.

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 19

146 FRINGILLID®, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN, (53 46.

75. Genus CHONDESTES Swainson.

Lark Finch. Head curiously variegated with chestnut, black and white ;
crown chestnut blackening on forehead, divided by a median stripe, and
bounded by superciliary stripes, of white; a black line through eye, and
another below eye, enclosing a white streak under the eye and the chestnut
auriculars ; next, a sharp black maxillary stripe
not quite reaching the bill, cutting off a white
stripe from the white chin and throat. A black
blotch on middle of breast. Under parts white,
faintly shaded with grayish-brown ; upper parts
grayish-brown, the middle of the back with fine
black streaks. Tail very long, its central feathers
like the back, the rest jet-black, broadly tipped
with pure white in diminishing amount from the
lateral pair inward, and the outer web of the
outer pair entirely white ; 63-7; wing 34, pointed; tail 3, rounded. A
beautiful species, abundant from the eastern edge of the prairies to the
Pacific; the young differ somewhat, particularly about the head, but the bird
is unmistakable in any plumage ; the coloration of the tail alone is diagnostic.
A sweet songster; nest on the ground, of dried grass; eggs 4-5, white,
with straggling zigzag dark lines, as in many Icteride. Aup., iii, 63, pl.
158; Nurr., i, 480; Bp., 456 ;3"Coor:, 198... >». > & « GRANITAGAM

Fie. 90. Lark Finch.

76. Genus PASSER Auctorum.

English Sparrow. Bill shaped much as in the purple finch, with a slight
basal ruff; tarsus as long as the middle toe; wings pointed; tail forked a
little, 2 as long as the wing. g ,above, reddish-brown, the back black-streaked,
the crown and under parts brownish-ash, the chin and throat black; 9? lack-
ing the latter marks. A species lately imported from Europe, now
thoroughly naturalized, and already abundant in many towns and cities of
the Eastern and Middle States, though not yet generally dispersed over the
country. It has also been recently introduced into Salt Lake City, where it
seems to thrive equally well. It has proved highly beneficial by destroying
canker-worms, the pest of our shade trees, and our dusty streets are enlivened
with its presence ; but if it continues to multiply at the present rate, it must
soon overflow municipal limits, and then the results of the contact of this
hardy foreigner with our native birds may cause us to regret its introduction,
unless it finds natural enemies to check its increase. Lawr., Ann. Lye. Nat.
Hist. N. Y. viii, 1866, 287; Proc. Bost. Soe. 1867, 157; 1868, 389 ;
Covers, Proc. Essex Inst. 1868, 283; Atten, Am. Nat. iii, 635; Exxior,
ra PMR Wace Vs ae MRM MRSC Te

Ozs. Two other European finches, the Goldfinch, Carduelis elegans, and the
Serin finch, Serinus meridionalis, ave reported from Massachusetts, but believed
to have been escaped cage-birds. Anien, Am. Nat. iii, 635.

FRINGILLIDZ, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 77, °78. 147

77. Genus PASSERELLA Swainson.

Fox Sparrow. General color ferrugineous or rusty red, purest and
brightest on the rump, tail and wings, on the other upper parts appearing as
streaks laid on an ashy ground; below, white, variously but thickly marked
except on the belly and crissum with rusty red —the markings anteriorly in
the form of diffuse confluent blotches, on the breast and
sides consisting chiefly of sharp sagittate spots and. pointed
streaks; tips of middle and greater coverts forming two
whitish wing-bars; upper mandible dark, lower mostly
yellow; feet pale—the lateral toes so lengthened that the
tips of their claws fall far beyond the base of the middle
claw; this is a diagnostic feature, not shared by any other yy¢. 91. pin of Fox
streaked sparrow. A large handsome species. 63-74 long ; CE ak
wing and tail, each, 3 or more; sexes alike, and young not particularly
different. Eastern North America, abundant. Wruts., iii, 53, pl. 24, f. 4;
Nort., i, 514; Aup., iii, 139, pl. 186; Bp., 488. P. obscura VerRRILL,
rocer Bost. soc. Nat. Hists 1x) 1862, pi 143, 2. .5-.. 9. 5s. TLTACA.

Var. TOWNSENDIL. With the same size and pattern of coloration, but darker ;
above, continuous olive-brown, with a rusty shade; rump, tail and wings rather
brighter; no whitish wing-bars; below, the markings of the color of the back,
close, and illy defined. Pacific coast. Avp., iii, 143, pl. 187; Nurv., i, 2d ed.
533; Bp., 489; Coop., 221.

Var. scurstaceA. Similar to the last; above continuous slate-gray, with little
rufous on wings and tail, the spots below slate-colored, sparse, small, sharp.
Rocky Mountain region, U.S. Bo., 490, 925, pl. 69, f. 3, 4 (megarhynchus — large-
billed form from Cala.) ; Coop., 222.

Oss. P. schistacea and townsendii are certainly not distinct specifically from each
other, but it may be a question whether they do not form two races of a species
different from iliaca. In all three cases, however, the difference is solely in the
relative intensity and predominance of certain common colors; and although the
Western and Eastern forms may not have been shown to intergrade, they differ from
each other less than some of the recognized varieties of Melospiza do from the Kast-
ern song sparrow, and in a parallel manner.

78. Genus CALAMOSPIZA Bonaparte.

Lark Bunting. White-winged Blackbird. §$ entirely black, with a
large white patch on the wings, and the quills and tail feathers frequently
marked with white; bill dark horn above, paler below; feet brown; 6-63;
wing 33; tail 2?. Sexes unlike: Q resembling one of the sparrows, brown
above, streaked, white below, somewhat streaked, but always known by the
whitish wing-patch; @ said to wear the black plumage only during the
breeding season, like the bobolink (Allen). In the form of the bill, this
interesting species is closely allied to the grosbeaks (Groniaphea) ; and this,
with the singularly enlarged tertiaries, as long as the primaries in the closed
wing, renders it unmistakable in any plumage. A prairie bird, abundant on

148 FRINGILLIDA, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 79, 80.

the western plains, to the Rocky Mountains; Cape St. Lucas. Aup., iii,
195, pl. 201; Nurv., 2d ed. 1, 803; Bpo., 492; Coor., 225. - BICOLOR.

79. Genus EUSPIZA Bonaparte,

Black-throated Bunting. @ above grayish-brown, the middle of the back
streaked with black, the hind neck ashy, becoming on the crown yellowish-
olive with black touches; a yellow superciliary line, and maxillary touch of
the same; eyelid white; ear coverts ashy like the cervix ; chin white 3 throat
with a large jet-black patch; under parts in general white, shaded on the
sides, extensively tinged with yellow on the breast and belly ; edge of wing
yellow; lesser and middle coverts rich chestnut, other coverts and inner
secondaries edged with paler; bill dark horn blue, feet brown; 64-7;
wing 84, sharp-pointed ; tail 24, emarginate. 9 smaller; above, like the g,
but head and neck plainer ; below, less tinged with yellow, the black throat
patch wanting and replaced by sparse sharp maxillary and pectoral streaks,
wing coverts not chestnut. An elegant species, of trim form, tasteful colors
and very smooth plumage, abundant in the fertile portions of the Eastern
U.S.; N. to Connecticut Valley ; W. to Kansas and Nebraska. WILs., iii,
86, pl. 3, f. 2; Nurv., i, 461; Aup., iii, 58, pl. 156; Bp., 494. AMERICANA.

Townsend's Bunting. “Upper parts, head and neck all round, sides of
| body and forepart of breast, slate-blue ; back and upper surface of wings
rh tinged with yellowish-brown ; interscapulars streaked with black ; super-
| ciliary and maxillary line, chin and throat and central line of under parts
i from breast to crissum, white ; edge of wing, and gloss on breast and middle
te of belly, yellow; a black spotted line from lower corner of lower mandible
ly down the side of the throat, connecting with a crescent of streaks in the
the upper edge of the slate portion of the breast.” Bp., 495. AUD., iii,
62, pl. 157; Nurv., i, 2d. ed. 528: Pennsylvania; one specimen known,
astanding puzzle to ornithologists, in the uncertainty whether it is a good
species or merely an abnormal plumage of the last. . . . TOWNSENDU.

80. Genus GONIAPHEA Bowditch.

*,* Embracing large species, of beautiful and striking colors, the sexes dissimilar.

t Bill extremely heavy, with the lower mandible as deep as the upper or deeper, the :
r pay commissural angle strong, far in advance of the :
i feathered base of the bill, the rietus overhung with a .
j few long stiff bristles. Brilliant sonesters. ;

Rose-breasted Grosbeak. Adult é with the
head and neck all round and most of the upper
parts black, the rump, upper tail coverts and
under parts white, the breast and under wing

coverts exquisite carmine or rose-red ; wings and
tail black, variegated with white ; bill pale, feet
dark. above, streaked with blackish and olive-brown or flaxen-brown,

Mia, 92. Rose-breasted Grosbeak.

ay me

with median white coronal and superciliary line; below, white, more or less

FRINGILLIDA, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 80, 81. 149

tinged with fulvous and streaked with dusky ; under wing coverts saffron-
yellow; upper coverts and inner quills with a white spot at end; bill brown.
Young @ at first resembling the 9. 74-84; wing about 4; tail about 34.
Eastern United States, common. Writs., ii, 135, pl. 17, f. 2; Nurv., i,
MA AUD>, ii, 209, pl. 205; Bp., 497. . . « + «| «- LUDOVICIANA.
Black-headed Grosbeak. Adult @ with the crown and sides of head,
back, wings and tail black; the two latter variegated with white blotches ;
neck all ‘asound and under parts rich orange-brown, changing to bright
yellow on the belly and under wing coverts; bill and feet dark horn. Size
of the last; the 9 and young differ much as in the last species, but may be
recognized by the rich sulphur-yellow under wing coverts; the bill is shorter
and more tumid. Plains to the Pacific, United
States; common. Avp., iii, 214, pl. 206; Bo.,
498; Coorp., 228. . . . »« MELANOCEPHALA.+
Blue Grosbeak. Adult g rich dark blue, uni-
form; feathers around base of bill, wings and
tail, black; middle and greater wing coverts
tipped with chestnut; bill dark horn, feet black-
ish; 64-7; wing 34; tail 3. 9 smaller, plain
warm brown, paler and rather flaxen below,
wings with whitey-brown cross-bars, bill and feet
brown. Young 7 at first like 9 ; when changing, shows confused brown
and blue, afterward blue interrupted with white below. United States,
ratherly southerly, but N. to Massachusetts, and even Maine (Boardman).
Wius., iii, 78, pl. 24, f. 6; Nurr., i, 529; Aup., iii, 204, pl. 204; Bo.,
OE OO, tear, a hn ae ie ss 4 es) | ORRULEA.

FiG.%3, Blue Grosbeak.

81. Genus CYANOSPIZA Paird.

Painted Finch. Nonpareil. Adult g with the head and neck rich blue,
the rump, eyelids and under parts intense red, the lores, back and wings
glossed with golden-green, the tail purplish-blue. 9 above plain greenish,
below yellow; young ¢@ at first like the 9. 54; wing 2%; tail 24. South
Atlantic and Gulf States, common; an exquisite little creature of matchless
hues. WI1s., ili, 68, PI 04.4, 4,9 Avup., i, 93, eo 169; Nurr., i, 477;
M00... '. ? aatts « ‘OLRIG.

Western Nonparells Adult ‘4 wih the Gre hes ae cervix, bend of wing
and rump purplish-blue, throat and hind head dusky red, belly reddish-
purple, wings and tail dusky glossed with blue; 9 “similar to that of
C. amena, but distinguished by the absence of the two white bands on
wings, and by the legs being black.” Size of the last. Mexico; Cape St.
Lueas. Bp., 503; Coop., 234. .. . . . VERSICOLOR.

Lami Finch. Adult 2 lacili- blue, Giveieed on : the back, the lores
black, the breast definitely brown, the rest of the under parts, and the wing-
hands, white; tibie blue; bill and feet dark. Size of the first. 9 plain
brown above, whitish below, the breast browner, the wings with whitish

150 FRINGILLIDH, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 82, 83.

bars. Plains to the Pacific, replacing cyanea; common. Nurt., i, 478;
Aup:, iii,7100 pl. wi7ass Bp: b04 ee COOr ss 233. auesee akan ane ay AW ICHNAS

Indigo bird. Adult g¢ indigo-blue, intense and constant on the head,
glancing greenish with different lights on other parts; wings and tail black-
ish glossed with greenish-blue ; feathers around base of bill black: bill dark
above, rather paler below, with a curious black stripe along the gonys. 9
above plain warm brown, below whitey-brown, obsoletely streaky on the
breast and sides, wing coverts and inner quills pale-edged, but not whitish ;
upper mandible blackish, lower pale, with the black stripe just mentioned —
this is a pretty constant feature, and will distinguish the species from any of
our little brown birds. Young ¢ is like the 9, but soon shows blue traces,
and afterward is blue with white variegation below. Size of the foregoing.
Eastern United States, abundant, in fields and open woodland, in summer ;
a well meaning but rather weak vocalist. Wuus., i, 100, pl. 6, f. 5; Nurr.,
ie iho. ANuidees its We eel Wein bs HU, a wo Be wo 6 | ONAN

82. Genus SPERMOPHILA Swainson.
Morelet’s Finch. Top and sides of head, back of neck, broad band across
upper part of breast, middle of back, wings and tail, black; chin, upper
throat and neck all round, except behind, rump, and
Le remaining under parts, white, the latter tinged with
eS brownish-yellow ; two wing-bands, and concealed bases ot
na all the quills, also white. 9 olivaceous above, brownish-
yellow below, wings and tail somewhat as in the @.
Length about 4 inches; wing 2; tail less. Mexico to
Texas. Bop., 507. /S.-albigularis Lawr., Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., v, 1851,
PQ eS ra ta ae! ea a es Me? Eten) oc eee eee LORE RTS

Fic. 94. Morelet’s Finch.

82bis. Genus PHONIPARA Bonaparte.

Black-faced Finch. @ dark olive green, paler below, grayish-white on
the belly; head, throat and breast more or less blackish; wings and _ tail
dusky, unmarked, with olivaceous gloss; upper mandible blackish, lower
pale. The ¢ lacks the black of the g, but is otherwise similar. About
4 inches long; wing 2; tail 13. A West Indian bird, the occurrence of
which, in Florida, I learn from advance sheets of Mr. C. J. Maynard’s work
on the Birds of Florida, now publishing. (Not in the
Keyed arate pk hee) Salata oR TOORORS

83. Genus PYRRHULOXIA Bonaparte.

Texas Cardinal. Conspicuously crested, and other-~
wise like the common cardinal in form, but the bill
extremely short and swollen. 2 ashy-brown, paler
below; the crest, face, throat, breast and middle line
of the belly, with the wings and tail, more or less per-
fectly crimson or carmine red; bill whitish. ¢ similar,
rather brownish-yellow below, with traces of the red on the breast and belly.

Fic. 95. Texas Cardinal.

FRINGILLID®, FINCHES, ETC.—GEN. 84, 85. ileal

Length about 8$; wing 3%; tail 43. Mexico, Texas, Arizona, Cape St.
Tucas. Cass., Ill. 204, pl. 33; Bp., 508; Coor., 236. . . . SINUATA.

84, Genus CARDINALIS Bonaparte.

Cardinal Red-bird. Virginia Nightingale. Conspicuously crested ;
tail longer than the wings, both rounded. @ rich vermilion or rosy red,
obscured with ashy on the back, face black,
bill reddish, feet brown. 9 ashy-brown,
paler below, with evident traces of the red
on the crest, wings, tail and under parts.
Length 8-9; wing about 33; tail 4; 9
rather less than the g. Eastern United
States, somewhat southern, seldom north to
the Connecticut Valley; a bird of striking
appearance and brilliant vocal powers, resi-
dent in thickets and undergrowth, abundant.
Its rolling notes recall those of the Carolina
wren, but are stronger. WiILs., i, 38, pl.
6, f. 1, 2; Nurr., 1, 519; Aup., iii, 198, pl. 203; Bp., 509. virernranus.

¢+ Var. 1aneus. Like the last, but paler, with the black frontlet interrupted at the
base of the culmen, where the red comes down to the bill. Cape St. Lucas; Colo-
radq Valley. Bo., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1859, 305; Exxror, pl. 16; Coor., 238.

Fic. 96. Cardinal Red-bird.

85. Genus PIPILO Vieillot.

* Colors of the male black, white and chestnut in definite areas.

+ No white on the scapulars or wing coverts. Sexes very unlike.

Towhee Bunting. Marsh Robin. Chewink. (PuaTE i, figs. 17, 18,
17a, 18a.) Adult male black, belly white, sides chestnut, crissum fulvous
brown; primaries and inner secondaries with white touches on the outer
webs; outer tail feather with the outer web and nearly the terminal half of
the inner web, white, the next two or three with white spots decreasing in
size; bill blackish, feet pale brown, iris red in the adult, white or creamy
in the young, and generally in winter specimens; @ rich warm brown
where the ¢ is black, otherwise similar. Very young birds are streaked
brown and dusky above, below whitish tinged with brown and streaked with
dusky ; but this plumage, corresponding to the very early speckled condi-
tion of thrushes and warblers, is of brief duration; sexual distinctions may
be noted in birds just from the nest, and they rapidly become much like
the adults. g 84; wing 34, much rounded; tail 4; ¢Q rather less. Kastern
United States, an abundant and familiar inhabitant of thickets, undergrowth
and briery tracts, spending much of its time on the ground, scratching
among fallen leaves; migratory. Nest on the ground, bulky, of leaves,
grasses and other fibrous material; eggs 4-5, white, thickly speckled with
reddish. Wius., vi, 90, pl. 53; Nurv., i, 515; Aup., iii, 167, pl. 195;
nei rt he ee Fo eb). oa! PRY THROPRTMALMUS.

ee

,
\}

a sf - eee

152 FRINGILLIDH, FINCHES, ETC. —GEN. 85.

Var. ALLENI Cours, Am. Nat. 1871, 366. Similar; smaller; less white on the
wings and tail; claws longer; iris white. Florida. P. leuwcopis Maynarp, Birds of
Florida (in press).

{+t Scapulars and wing coverts with white spots; sexes more alike.

Spotted Towhee.’ A. Mexican species. .° 2°". -. ., % . MACULAROR.

Represented in the United States by the following varieties :—

Var. orEGoNus. Oregon Towhee. Very similar to erythrophthalmus; wing
coverts with small rounded, and scapulars with larger oval, white spots on the outer
web of the feathers near the end; white marks on the quills very small or wanting ;
white spots on tail feathers very small, the outer web of the outer rectrix not white
except just at the end. Excepting these particulars, this variety Jooks more like
erythrophthalmus, than like the typical maculatus, in which the body colors are
olivaceous ; nevertheless, it shades into the latter. On the other hand, erythroph-
thalmus, which might seem to be merely the extreme link in the chain, may be fairly
considered a different bird; its sexes are very unlike, whereas in the western black
Pipilos the @ is blackish-brown, more like the ¢ ; its note is entirely different,
the words ‘‘towhee” and ‘‘chewink” being an attempt to imitate the sound,
while the cry of the western varieties of maculatus is exactly like the scolding mew
of a catbird.—Pacifie coast. Pipilo oregonus Brit, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y. v,
1852, 6; Bp., 513; Coop., 241. P. arcticus Aup., iii, 164, pl. 194.

Var. arcticus. Arctic Towhee. Similar to the foregoing; the white spots of
the wing coverts larger, those of the scapulars still larger and lengthening into
‘streaks, the interscapulars also spotted with white; the white on the quills and tail
feathers at a maximum, as in erythrophthalmus; there are usually, also, concealed
white specks in the black of the throat. 9 comparatively dark. Central region
of N. A. P. arecticus Swainson, Fauna Bor.-Am. 1831, 11, 260. Norr., i, 589;
2d ed. i, 610; Bo., 514.

Var. MEGALONYx Bp., 515, pl. 73; Coor., 242, is the prevailing form in the
Southern Rocky Mountain region, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. It is
precisely like arcticus, but the feet are larger, with highly developed claws; the
hind claw is decidedly longer than its digit, while the lateral claws reach to or
beyond the middle of the middle claw. In this form at any rate, the Q is hardly
distinguishable in color from the ¢, being blackish with an appreciable olivaceous
shade, thus exhibiting an approach to the typical Mexican stock. (See Cours,
Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 89; AttEen, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., iii.)

* * Colors not definitely black, white and chestnut; no greenish; sexes alike.

Brown Towhee. Canon Towhee. Above, uniform grayish-brown with a
slight olivaceous shade, the crown brown in appreciable contrast ; wings and
tail like the back, unmarked; below, a paler shade of the color of the back,
whitening on the belly, tinged with fulvous and streaked with dusky on the
throat and breast, washed with rusty brown on the flanks and crissum. 84;
wing 3}; tail 43. New Mexico, Arizona, and southward. This is the
P. mesoleucus Bo., 518; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 90; Coor., 247,
which is P. fuscus Swarnson, Philos. Mag. 1827, 434, of Mexico. Fuscus.

Var. Atgicguta. Exactly like the last, but the white of the under parts extending

further up the breast, the gular spots more restricted, sparser, and better defined.
Cape St. Lucas. Bop., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1859, 305; Exxior, pl. 4; Coor., 248.

7

Sewanee.

a es i

Jom Se
* { =e
ant) P
te ht -~ - '
key TONABIRDS PLATE N.
\
“BUILAGZNOL 27° S. : * PLATE VI

c.sokse|

Agelzus pheniceus

°

ICTERIDH, AMERICAN STARLINGS. —GEN. 86. 153

Var. crissAtis. Similar to the first; crown like the back; rather darker above,
decidedly so below, the middle of the belly scarcely or not whitening, the gular
fulvous strong and, with its dusky streaks, definitely restricted to the throat; the
flanks and crissum chestnut or deep cinnamon brown. Upwards of 9 inches long ;
wing 4; tail 5; 9 rather less. Coast region of California (and northward?),
abundant. This is the dark coast form, bearing the same relation to fwscus
(mesoleucus) that the coast Harporhynchus redivivus bears to the paler H. lecontii of
the interior. Itis the P. fwscus of Cass., Ll. 124, pl. 17; Bpo., 517; Coop., 245,
but not the true fuscus of Swarnson; and its earliest name appears to be Fringilla
crissalis Vicors, Zool. Voy. Blossom, 1839, 19.

Abert’s Towhee. Somewhat similar to the foregoing species of this sec-
tion; no decided markings anywhere. Dull brown, paler and more fulvous
below, the face dusky; otherwise nearly uniform. Very large, 9; wing 4
or less; tail5 or more. New Mexico and Arizona; abundant in the Colorado
Valley ; Covss, Pr. Phila. Acad. 1866, 90. Bp., 516; Coor., 244. aperrit.

*** Colors greenish ; sexes alike.

Green-tailed, or Blanding’s Finch. Above dull olive-green, brighter on
the wings and tail, crown chestnut, forehead blackish, edge of wing yellow ;
chin and throat pure white, bounded by dusky maxillary stripes, and con-
trasting with the dark ash of the breast and sides of head and neck (very
much as in the white-throated sparrow); this ash fades to white on the
belly; the flanks and crissum are washed with dull brownish; bill dark
horn, feet brown; about 74 long; wing 3}; tail rather more. In the young
the markings, especially of the head and throat, may be obscure, but the
species is unmistakable. Rocky Mountain region, U. S. and southward,
northeast to Kansas; abundant. Aup., Orn. Biog. v, 339; Cass., IIl., 70,
emt sabi 20)l Ils. COOP, 20 0sera Geren re. es, Saabs; CHLORURUS-

86. Genus EMBERNAGRA Lesson.

Green Finch. “Above uniform olivaceous green; sides of the hood and
a stripe behind eye, dull brownish rufous, not very conspicuous; an ashy
superciliary stripe, rather yellowish anteriorly ; under parts brownish-white,
tinged with yellowish anteriorly, and with olivaceous on the sides, white in
the middle of the belly ; edge of wing, under coverts and axillaries, bright
yellow. Length 53; wing 23; tail 2?. Valley of the Rio Grande, and
probably of the Gila, and southward.” Bp., 487. . . . RUFIVIRGATA.

Family ICTERIDA. American Starlings.

A family of moderate extent, confined to America, where it represents the
Sturnide, or Starlings, of the Old World. It is nominally composed of a hundred
and fifty species, half of which may prove valid, distributed among fifty genera or
subgenera, of which one-fourth may be considered worthy of retention. The
relationships are very close with the /ringillide on the one hand; on the other,
they grade toward the crows (Corvide). They share with the fringilline birds the
characters of angulated commissure and nine developed primaries, and this distin-

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 20

154 ICTERIDHZ, AMERICAN STARLINGS.— GEN. 87.

guishes them from all our other families whatsoever; but the distinctions from the
Fringillide are not easily expressed. In fact, I know of no character that, for
example, will relegate the bobolink and cowbird to the Jcteride rather than to the
Fringillide, in the current acceptation of these terms. In general, however, the
Icteride are distinguished by the length, acuteness and not strictly conical shape of
the unnotched, unbristled bill, that shows a peculiar extension of the culmen on the
forehead, dividing the prominent antiz (p. 29, § 52) of close-set, velvety feathers
that reach to or on the nasal scale.

Among our comparatively few species are representatives of each of the three
subfamilies into which the group is conveniently and probably naturally divisible.
In most of them, black is predominant, either uniform and of intense metallic lustre,
or contrasted with masses of red or yellow. In nearly all, the sexes are conspic-
uously dissimilar, the female being smaller, and plain brownish or streaky in the
iridescent black species, olivaceous or yellowish in the brilliantly colored ones.
All are migratory in this country.

Subfamily AGELALIN_A. Marsh Blackbirds.

Gregarious, granivorous species, more or less completely terrestrial, and chiefly
palustrine, not ordinarily conspicuous vocalists, building rather rude, not pensile,
nests, laying 4—6 spotted or curiously limned eggs. With the feet strong, fitted
both for walking and for grasping swaying reeds, the wings more or less pointed,
equalling or exceeding the tail in length, the bill conic-acute, shorter or little longer
than the head, its cutting edges more or less inflected. *,* In gen. 87, 91, the
tail feathers are acute; in 91, the wing is unusually rounded for this family ; in 87,
88, the bill has an ordinary fringilline character.

87. Genus DOLICHONYX Swainson.

Bobolink ; Northern States. Reedbird; Middle States. Ricebird; South-
ern States. g, in spring: black; cervix buff; scapulars, rump and upper
tail coverts ashy white; interscapulars streaked with black, buff and ashy ;
outer quills edged with yellowish; bill blackish horn; feet
brown. in fall, 9 and young, entirely different in color ;
yellowish-brown above, brownish-yellow below, crown and
back conspicuously, nape, rump and sides less broadly,
streaked with black ; crown with a median and lateral light
stripe; wings and tail blackish, pale-edged; bill brown.
The ¢ changing shows confused characters of both sexes ;
but in any plumage the species may be recognized by the
stiffish, extremely acute tail feathers, in connection with
these dimensions; length 63-74; wing 34-4; tail 23-3;
tarsus about 1; middle toe and claw about 14. Eastern
United States, very abundant. In its black livery, only worn for a short
time, the “bobolink” is dispersed over the meadows of the Northern States
to breed, and is a voluble, spirited songster. After the midsummer change,
the “reedbird” or “ricebird” throngs the marshes in immense flocks, with
the blackbirds ; has simply a chirping note, feeds on the wild oats, becomes
extremely fat and is accounted a great delicacy. The name “ortolan,”

VIG. 97. Bobolink.

ea a

Ps

ICTERIDZ, AMERICAN STARLINGS. —GEN. 88, 89. 155

applied by some to this bird, by others to the Carolina rail, is a strange
misnomer, the ortolan being a fringilline bird of Europe. In the West
Indies, where the present species retires in winter, it is called “butterbird.”
Wvies.; ii, 48, pl. 12, f. 1,.2; Norv., i, 185; Aup., iv, 10, pl. 2114 Bo.,
Meee cee er ee RP 50 6 SS ORYAIVGRUS.

88. Genus MOLOTHRUS Swainson.

Cowbird. @ iridescent black, head and neck purplish-brown; 74-8 ;
wing over 4; tail over 3. @ 7-74; wing 3}; tail 22; an obscure looking
bird, nearly uniform dusky grayish-brown, but rather paler below, and
appearing somewhat streaky, owing to darker shaft lines on nearly all the
feathers ; bill and feet black in both sexes. The young ¢ at first resembles
the 9 , but is decidedly streaked below. North America, abundant; grega-
rious, polygamous, parasitic. The singular habits of this bird, probably
shared by others of the genus, form one of the most interesting chapters in
ornithology. Like the European cuckoo, it builds no nest, laying its eggs

by stealth in the nests of various other birds, especially warblers, vireos and

sparrows ; and it appears to constitute, furthermore, a remarkable exception
to the rule of conjugal affection and fidelity among birds. A wonderful
provision for the perpetuation of the species is seen in its instinctive selec-
tion of smaller birds as the foster-parents of its offspring; for the larger
ege receives the greater share of warmth during incubation, and the lustier
young cowbird asserts its precedence in the nest; while the foster-birds,
however reluctant to incubate the strange egg (their devices to avoid the
duty are sometimes astonishing) become assiduous in their care of the found-
ling, even to the neglect of their own young. The cowbird’s egg is said to
hatch sooner than that of most birds; this would obviously confer additional
advantage. — Wits., ii, 145, pl. 18, f. 1, 2, 3; Nurr., i, 178; Avp., iv,
Morapiepeiia se D024. 93 so ee a SS. ee se 0) PECORIS:

Var. opscurus. Dwarf Cowbird. Similar; smaller; ¢ the size of 2 pecoris ;
Q@ under 7; wing 34; tail 21. The difference is very strongly marked, and appar-
ently constant. Arizona, Lower California, and southward. Cass. Proc. Phila.
Acad. 1866, 18; Cours, ibid., 90; Coopr., 260.

89. Genus AGELAUS Vieillot.

*,*The gf uniform lustrous black, with the bend of the wing red; 8—9 long;
wing 41-5; tail31-4. The 9 everywhere streaked; ,above blackish-brown with
pale streaks, inclining on the head to form median and superciliary stripes; below
whitish with very many sharp dusky streaks, the sides of the head, throat, and the
bend of the wing, tinged with reddish or fulvous; under 8; wing about 4; tail 3}.
The young ¢ at first like the 9, but larger, apt to have a general buffy or fulvous
suffusion, and bright bay edgings of the feathers of the back, wings and tail, and
soon showing black patches.— Upon investigation of the variations in the character
of the wing-patch, upon which our three accredited species rested, I am satisfied of
the propriety of treating them as varieties of one. The 9’s are indistinguishable.

2 EN ee ee

Eted-winged Blackbird. (PLATE Iv, all the figs.) Lesser wing coverts
scarlet, broadly bordered by brownish-yellow, or brownish-white, the middle
row of coverts being entirely of this color; sometimes the greater row,
likewise, are mostly similar, producing a patch on the wing nearly as large
as the red one; occasionally, there are traces of red on the edge of the wing |
and below. In some Eastern specimens the bordering is almost pure white. |
United States from Atlantic to Pacific, very abundant. Wzu1s., iv, 30,
pl. 30; Num, 1,167) Aope iv. ol, 2065 (bD:026.) 2 oe, SPHOENIOMUN:

Var. GUBERNATOR. Lesser wing coverts scarlet, narrowly or not at all bordered,
the next row having black tips for all or most of their exposed portion, so that the
brownish-yellow of their bases does not show much, if any. Pacific Coast. Norr.,
i, 2d ed., 187; Auvp., iv, 29, pl..215; Bp., 529; Coopr., 263.

Var. TRIcoLOR. Lesser wing coverts dark red, bordered with pure white.
California. Nutr., i, 2d ed., 186; Aup., iv, 27, pl. 214; Bp., 530; Coop., 265.

3
156 ICTERIDH, AMERICAN STARLINGS.—GEN. 89, 90.
}

90. Genus XANTHOCEPHALUS Baird.

“ellow-headed Blackbird. @g black, whole head (except lores), neck and
upper breast yellow, and sometimes yellowish feathers on the belly and legs ;
a large white patch on the wing, formed by the primary, and a few of the
outer secondary, coverts; 10-11; wing 53; tail 4$. 9 and young brownish-

Fic. 98. Yellow-headed Blackbird.

black, with little or no white on the wing, the yellow restricted or obscured ;
g much smaller than the ¢— 94, etc. A handsome bird, abundant on the
prairies and marshes from Illinois and Wisconsin, westward; N. to 58° :
and even Greenland (Reinhardt). Nurv., i, 176; Aup., iv, 24, pl. 218;
Bp., 581; Coor., 267; Cours, Am. Nat., 1870, 195. . 1cTEROCEPHALUS.

ICTERIDEH, AMERICAN STARLINGS.—GEN. 91, 92. 157

91. Genus STURNELLA Vieillot.

*,* Plumage highly variegated ; each feather of the back blackish, with a terminal
reddish-brown area, and sharp brownish-yellow borders ; neck similar, the pattern
smaller; crown streaked with black and brown, and with a pale median and super-
ciliary stripe; a blackish line behind eye; several lateral tail feathers white, the
others, with the inner quills and wing covyerts, barred or scalloped with black, and
brown or gray. Edge of wing, spot over eye, and under parts generally, bright
yellow, the sides and crissum flaxen-brown, with numerous sharp blackish streaks,
the breast with a large black crescent (obscure in the young) ; bill horn color, of
peculiar shape; feet light brown, very large and strong, reaching beyond the very
short tail. Length 10-11; wing 5; tail 34; bill4; @ smaller (91; wing 41; tail
3), similar in color; young not particularly different.

Fieldlark. (Puate vi, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, la, 2a, 3a, 4a.) The colors, as
above described, rich and pure, the prevailing aspect brown; yellow of chin
usually confined between rami
of under mandible; black bars
on wings and tail usually con-
fluent along the shaft of the
feathers, leaving the gray in
scallops. . Eastern United
States, everywhere abundant
in open country; imperfectly
migratory ; partially gregari-
ous when not breeding;
strictly terrestrial; an agreeable vocalist; nest of dried grass, on the
ground, eggs 4-6, white, speckled with reddish. Wuus., iii, 20, pl. 19;
PAOD 1s C0; pl. 223) Nurs ty AdsebD.; 0008. =. 5 . . . MAGNA.

Fic. 99. Fieldlark.

ay Var. NecLecTA. The colors duller and paler, the prevailing aspect gray ; yellow

of chin usually mounting on sides of lower jaw; black on wings and tail usually
resolved into distinct bars alternating with gray bars. Western U. 8. Song
said to be different. Aun., vii, 339, pl. 487; Bp., 537; Coop., 270.

Oxs. It does not appear that the Red-breasted Lark, Trupialis militaris, was
ever taken in this country. It is a South American species resembling ours, but
with red in place of the yellow. Bop., 533.

Subfamily ICTERIN_A. Orioles.

Non-gregarious, insectivorous and frugivorous species, strictly arboricole, of
brilliant or strikingly contrasted colors, and pleasing song, distinguished as archi-
tects, building elaborately woven pensile nests. With the bill relatively longer,
slenderer and more acute than in most of the last subfamily, and the feet weaker,
exclusively fitted for perching. Three of our species are abundant migratory birds
in summer; the rest merely reach our southern border from tropical America.

'

92, Genus ICTERUS Brisson.
* The ¢ black and chestnut.
Orchard Oriole. & black, lower back, rump, lesser wing coverts and

158 ICTERIDZ, AMERICAN STARLINGS. —GEN. 92.

all under parts from the throat, deep chestnut; a whitish bar across tips of
greater wing coverts; bill and feet blue-black; about 7; wing 34; tail 3;
@ smaller, plain yellowish-olive above, yellowish below; wings dusky ; tips
of the coverts and edges of the inner quills, whitish; known from the 9 of
the other species by its small size and very slender bill. Young ¢ at first
like 9 , afterward showing confused characters of both sexes; in a particular
stage, it has a black mask on the face and throat. Eastern U. S., very
abundant in parks, orchards, and the skirts of woods. Wmuus., i, 64, pl. 4,
f. 1, 2, 3,4; Awp:, 1v, 46, pl. 219); Noms, i, 165);) Bp. 547500 SPuRTDSS

Var. arrints. Much smaller; ¢6}; wing under 3. Texas. Lawre. Ann. Lyc.
Nat. Hist. N. Y. 1851, 113.

** The ¢ black and orange.

Baltimore Oriole. Golden Robin. Firebird. Hangnest. 3 with the

head and neck all round, and the back, black; rump, upper tail coverts,

lesser wing coverts, most of the tail feathers, and all the under parts from
the throat, fiery orange, but of varying intensity according to age and
season; middle tail feathers black; wings black, the middle and greater
coverts, and inner quills, more or less edged and tipped with white, but the
white on the coverts not forming a continuous patch; bill and feet blue-
black; 73-8; wing 33; tail 38. 9 smaller, and much paler, the black
obscured by olive, sometimes entirely wanting. Young ¢ entirely without
black on throat and head, otherwise colored nearly like the @. Eastern
United States, west to the
mountains of Colorado
(Allen); abundant, in or-
chards and streets, as well as
in woodland, conspicuous by
its brilliant colors and spirited
song. WILS., 1, 23, pl. 1, f-
3; Vi, pl. 53; Aup., iv, 37,
Pla Zits Nurn Selo Deeb De.
. 548. . . . . BALTIMORE.
Bullock’s Oriole. Similar ;
the orange invading the sides
of the head and neck and the
forehead, leaving only a
Fic. 100. Bullock’s Oriole. harrow space on the throat,

the lores, and a line through the eye, black; a large continuous white patch
on the wing, formed by the middle and greater coverts. 9 olive-gray,
below whitish, all the fore parts of the body and head tinged with yellow,
the wings dusky, with two white bars, but the tail and its under coverts quite
yellowish. Young ¢ at first like the 9 , soon however showing black and
orange. Rather larger than the last. Western United States, in woodland,
abundant, replacing the Baltimore. Avp., iv, 43, pl. 218; Bp., 549;
Coor., 273; Cours, Am. Nat.. v, 1870, 678. 6s elo sane 6 JBUBHOCRT.

ICTERIDA, AMERICAN STARLINGS.—GEN. 92, 93. 159

Hooded Oriole. $ orange; wings, tail, a narrow dorsal area and a large
mask on the face and throat, black; tips of wing coverts, and edges of many
quills, white ; size of the foregoing, but wings shorter and tail longer. The
g lacks the black mask; but the species may be distinguished in any plum-
age from either of the foregoing by not having the wings evidently longer
than the tail. Valley of the Rio Grande and Colorado, Lower California,
and southward. Cass., Ill. 42, pl. 8; Bpo., 546; Coopr., 275. cUCULLATUS.

*** The g black and clear yellow.

Scott’s Oriole. @ black; below from the breast, rump and upper tail
coverts, lesser, middle and under wing coverts, both above and below, and
basal portions of all the tail feathers, except the central ones, clear yellow ;
greater wing coverts tipped, inner quills edged, with white ; in the 9 or young
the black is replaced by brownish, and the yellow is not pure; about 8;
wing and tail about 4. Valley of the Rio Grande and Colorado, Lower
California, and southward. Bop., 544; Coop., 276. . . . PARISORUM.

Audubon’s Oriole. 3 yellow, somewhat olivaceous on the middle of the
back ; head, neck, breast, wings and tail black ; wings with a white cross bar
and white edging; about 9; wing 4; tail 44. Texas, and southward. Cass.,
Ill., p. 137, pl. 21? (apparently represents the Southern smaller true melan-
ocephalus); Bp.,542. . . . . (MELANOCEPHALUS var?) AUDUBONII.

Oss. Several additional orioles have been ascribed to this country, but the fore-
going are all that appear to have been actually taken within our limits; others,
however, may be confidently expected to occur on our Southern border.

Subfamily QUISCALIN. Crow Blackbirds.

Closely resembling the Agelwince both in structure and in habits, these birds are
distinguished by the length and attenuation of the bill, with decidedly curved culmen,
especially towards the end, and strongly inflected tomia. The typical Quiscali have
a certain crow-like aspect, but they are readily distinguished by several features.
The feet are large and strong, and the birds spend much of their time on the ground,
where they walk or run instead of advancing by leaps. They generally build rude,
bulky nests, lay spotted or streaked eggs, and their best vocal efforts are hardly to
be called musical. The g¢ of most of the species is uniform lustrous black, the
@ brown and much smaller. There is only one genus (Cassidix) besides the two
of this country; in 93, the tail is slightly rounded and shorter than the wings ;
in 94, the tail is graduated, and about equals or exceeds the wings.

93. Genus SCOLECOPHAGUS Swainson.

Rusty Grackle. gin summer lustrous black, the reflections greenish, and
not noticeably different on the head; but not ordinarily found in this condi-
tion in the U.S.; in general simply glossy black, nearly all the feathers
skirted with warm brown above, and brownish-yellow below, frequently
continuous on the fore parts; the g of the first season, like the ? , is entirely
rusty brown above, the inner quills edged with the same ; a pale superciliary
stripe; below, mixed rusty and grayish-black, the primaries and tail alone

160 ICTERIDH, AMERICAN STARLINGS. —GEN. 93, 94.

black ; bill and feet black at all times; g about 9; wing 44; tail 34; bill 3;
very slender for the family, somewhat resembling a thrush’s; 9 smaller.
Eastern North America, N.W. to Alaska (Dall), very common in the U.S.
in the fall and winter, in flocks, in fields; breeds in Labrador and other
Northern regions, laying speckled, not streaky, eggs. Whuxs., iii, 41, pl. 21,
f. 33 Nort:, 7, 199; Aup., iv, 65, pl. 222;-Bp., 551. . ®eREUGINETS.

Blue-head2d Grackle. Brewer's Blackbird. Similar; the general irides-
cence green as before, changing abruptly on the head to purplish, violet or
steel-blue, the difference obvious; larger; ¢ 94-103; wing 5-54; tail 4-44;
bill much stouter, more like that of Agelcus, and altogether it seems to be
quite another bird. The 9 and young ¢ differ much as in the last species, but
they are never sorusty. Plains to the Pacific, U.S. and southward, abundant.
Aup., vii, 845, pl. 492; Bp., 552; Coop., 278... . . CYANOCEPHALUS.

94. Genus QUISCALUS Vieillot.
*.*The ¢ iridescent black throughout.
Great-tailed Grackle. about 18 inches long; wing 74; tail 9, its lateral
feathers about 34 inches shorter than the central ones; bill about 1?. Texas,

Fic. 101. Great-tailed Grackle.

and southward. It may prove only an extreme form of the following species,
but presents dimensions that the latter has not shown. Bp., 254. Macrourus.

Boat-tailed Grackle. Jackdaw. § 153-17 long; wing and tail 7-8 ; bill
about 14; graduation of the tail under 3 inches; tarsus nearly 2, middle toe
and claw about the same; the general iridescence green, purple or violet
mainly on the head. astonishingly smaller than the g, lacking entirely
the great development of the tail, and easily to be mistaken for 9 purpureus,
but is rarely so glossy ; 12-134; wing 54-6; tail 47-54. 9 and young apt to
be quite brown, only blackish on the wings and tail, below grayish-brown,
frequently whitening on the throat and breast. South Atlantic and Gulf
States, on the coast; strictly maritime, abundant; N. regularly to the Caro-
linas, frequently to the Middle districts, hut not to New England as currently
reported. Aup., iv, 52, pl. 2205. Bp.,,555. 4. 3... .. =) “MAJOR:

Purple Grackle. (PuatTe v, figs. 1, 3, 4, 5, la, 3a, 4a, 5a.) = 12-138;
wing averaging 53; tail 54; but either from 5 to 6; bill about 14; tarsus 14;
graduation of the tail 14 or less; 9 11-12; wing about 5; tail about 44.
Iridescence of the male variable with age, season and other circumstances,

e 4 mall | 7
—s Saeee
: ae TONA.BIRDS, ‘ PLATE ¥,
BULL ALG S VOLUN? 3. PLATE VI

.

CAWse,)

Quisealus purpureus.

CORVIDZ, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 94. 161

but in the adults always intense, inclining to bronzy, purplish or violet rather
than the uniform green of the last species; @ blackish-brown, sometimes
quite lustrous. Eastern United States, abundant
and generally distributed, migratory, gregarious.
Waus., iii, 44, pl. 21, f.4; Norr., 1,194; Aun., iv.
oelaceis) DD. JOD. 0 1. «= > . sPURPUREUS:
Var. aGLzus. (PLATE v, figs. 2,6, 2a, 6a.) Similar;
averaging smaller, but dimensions inosculating with those
of the last; bill relatively larger, or at least longer, with
more attenuated and decurved tip. Florida. Q. baritus
Bp., 556; Q. agleus Bo., Am. Jour. Se. 1866, 84; Cass.,
Proc. Phila. Acad., 1866, 404; Rrpeway, zbid., 1869, 135.
Oss. The Quiscalus eneus, lately described as a new
species by Mr. Ridgway (/. c. 154), appears to be based
upon a special plumage of Q. purpureus; and since it does
not prove to be confined, as its describer believed, to any (/
particular region, I should judge it not entitled to rank "7% 1% BUS of Quiseati.
as a geographical variety. The brilliant coloration is that rep resented in Audu-
bon’s plate, above cited.

Family CORVIDA. Crows, Jays, etc.

A rather large and important family, comprising such familiar birds as ravens,
crows, rooks, magpies, jays, with their allies, and a few diverging forms not so well
known ; nearly related to the famous birds of paradise. There are 10 primaries, of
which the 1st is short, generally about half as long as the 2d, and several outer
ones are more or less sinuate-attenuate on the inner web toward the end. The
tail has 12 rectrices, as usual among higher birds; it varies much in shape, but is
generally rounded —sometimes extremely graduated, as in the magpie, and is not
forked in any of our forms. The tarsus has scutella in front, separated on one or
both sides from the rest of the tarsal envelope by a groove, sometimes naked,
sometimes filled in by small scales. The bill is stout, about as long as the head or
shorter, tapering, rather acute, generally notched, with convex culmen; it lacks the
commissural angulation of the Fringillide and Icteridce, the deep cleavage of the
Hirundinide, the slenderness of the Certhiide, Sittide, and most small insectiv-
orous birds. The rictus usually has a few stiffish bristles, and there are others
about the base of the bill. An essential character is seen in the dense covering of

~ the nostrils with large long tufts of close-pressed antrorse bristly feathers (excepting,

among our forms, in gen. 97, 98). These last features distinguish the Corvide
from all our other birds excepting Paride ; the mutual resemblance is here so close,
that I cannot point out any obvious technical character of external form to distin-
euish, for example, Cyanuwrus from Lophophanes, or Perisoreus from Parus. But as
already remarked (p. 79), size is here perfectly distinctive, all the Corvidew being
much larger birds than the Paride.

Owing to the uniformity of color in the leading groups of the family, and an
apparent plasticity of organization in many forms, the number of species is diffi-
cult to determine, and is very variously estimated by different writers. Mr. G. R.
Gray admits upwards of two hundred species, which he distributes in fifty genera
and subgenera; but these figures are certainly excessive, probably requiring reduc-

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 21

162 CORVID&, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 95.

tion by at least one-third, in both cases. They have been divided into five sub-
families ; three of these are small and apparently specialized groups confined to
the Old World, where they are represented most largely in the Australian and
Indian regions; the other two, constituting the great bulk of the family, are more
nearly cosmopolitan. These are the Corvine aiid Garruline, readily distinguish-
able, at least so far as our forms are concerned.

Subfamily CORVIN-4E. Crows.

With the wings long and pointed, much exceeding the tail, the tip formed by the
3d, 4th and 5th quills; the legs stout, fitted for walking as well as perching. Asa
rule, the plumage is sombre or at least unvariegated — blue, the characteristic color
of the jays, being here rare. The sexes are alike, and the changes of plumage
slight. Although technically oscine, these birds are highly unmusical ; the voice of
the larger kinds is raucous, that of the smaller strident. They frequent all situa-
tions, and walk firmly and easily on the ground. They are among the most nearly
omnivorous of birds, and as a consequence, in connection with their hardy nature,
they are rarely if ever truly migratory. Their nesting is various, according to
circumstances, but the fabric is usually rude and bulky; the eggs, of the average
oscine number, are commonly bluish or greenish, speckled. Although not prop-
erly gregarious, as a rule, they often associate in large numbers, drawn together by
community of interest. In illustration of this, may be instanced the extensive
roosting-places in the Atlantic States, comparable to the rookeries of Europe,
whither immense troops of crows resort nightly, often from great distances, recall-
ing the fine line of the poet—

“The blackening trains of Crows to their repose.”

95. Genus CORVUS Linneus.
*,* The species throughout uniform lustrous black, including the bill and feet ;
nasal bristles about half as long as the bill.
* Ravens, with the throat-feathers acute, lengthened, disconnected.

Raven. About 2 feet long; wing 16-18 inches; tail about 10. North
America; but now rare in the United States, east of the Mississippi, and
altogether wanting in most of the States; Labrador, ranging southward,
rarely, along the coast to the Middle districts; very abundant in the west,
there generally supplanting the crow. Whuzs., ix, 136, pl. 75, f. 3; Nurt.,
i, 202; Aup., iv, 78, pl. 224; Bp. 560. C-. cacolotl Bp., 563. corax (var?).

White-necked Raven. Smaller; concealed bases of cervical feathers
pure white. Southwestern U.S. Bp., 565; Coop., 284. cRYPTOLEUCUS.

** Crows, with the throat-feathers oval and
blended.

Crow. Length 18-20; wing 13-14; tail
about 8; bill 13-2, its height at base 2;
tarsus about equal to the middle toe and claw.
Eastern North America, chiefly U. 8., not
ordinarily found westward in the interior,
where the raven abounds. Wuzs., iv, 79, pl. 25, f. 3; Nurr., i, 209;
ADD, 1Vi5:80 5 pla 220 36BD:, (066. eee oh ke eee) PANTRIG ANTS:

Fig. 103. Bill of Crow.

CORVIDH, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 96, 97. 163

Var. FLoripANus Bp., 568, represents the greater relative size of the bill and
feet shown by many birds of Florida and corresponding latitudes.

Var. cAurtinus Bp., 569; Coop., 285, is a smaller race from the Pacific Coast ;
maritime ; piscivorous ; voice said to be different.

Fish Crow. Small; 14-16 inches long; wing 10-11; tail 6-7; tarsus
about equal to middle toe alone; a bare space about the gape? South
Atlantic and Gulf States, north to New England, common; maritime,
piscivorous. Apparently a different bird, as it presents some tangible dis-
tinctions, although constantly associated with the last. Wus., v, 27, pl.
Sita Nort., 1, 216; Aup., iv, 94, pl. 226; Bp., 571. .. OSsIFRAGUS.

96. Genus PICICORVUS Bonaparte.

Clarke's Crow. Gray, often bleaching on the head; wings glossy black,
most of the secondaries broadly tipped with white; tail white, the central
feathers black ; bill and feet black. About
a foot long ; wing 73-8 inches ; tail 43-5 ;
bill 13; nasal feathers very short for this
family ; claws very large and much curved.
Coniferous belt of the West, N. to Sitka,
S. to Mexico, E. to Nebraska, W. to the
Coast Range; the American representa-
tive of the European nuteracker, Nucifraga caryocatactes; abundant, imper-
fectly gregarious. WHILS., iii, 29, pl. 20; Nurt., i, 2d ed. 251; Auvp., iv,
IPA pl. 20; BD. 01a; Coop., 289, . . .-.. .*. . COLUMBIANUS:

Fic. 104. Clarke’s Crow.

97. Genus GYMNOKITTA Maximilian.

Blue Crow. Dull blue, very variable in intensity, nearly uniform, but
brightest on the head, fading on the belly; the throat with whitish streaks ;
wings dusky on the inner webs; bill and feet
black; g 11-12; wing about 6; tail about 44;
bill 14; ¢@ smaller, duller. Rocky Mountain
region ; much the same elevated distribution as
the last, but apparently rather more southerly ;
decidedly gregarious, and very abundant in

ecg ee TON: some places, though still rare in collections.
A remarkable bird, combining the form of a crow with the color and rather
the habits of a jay, and a peculiarly shaped, slender, lengthened and acute
bill; the antiz are prominent and somewhat antrorse, but do not hide the
nostrils. Cass., Ill. 165, pl. 28; Bp., 574; Coop., 292. CYANOCEPHALUS.

Subfamily GARRULIN A. Jays.

With the wings much shorter than or about equalling the tail, both rounded, the
tip of the wing formed by the 4th—7th quills. The feet, as well as the bill, are
usually weaker than in the true crows, and the birds are more strictly arboricole,
usually advancing by leaps when on the ground, to which they do not habitually

164 CORVIDH, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 98, 99.

resort. In striking contrast to most Corvine, the jays are usually birds of bright
and striking colors, among which blue is the most prominent, and the head is
frequently crested. The sexes are nearly alike, and the changes of plumage do not
appear to be as great as is usual among highly colored birds, although some differ-
ences are frequently observable. Our well known blue jay is a familiar illustration
of the habits and traits of the species in general. They are found in most parts of
the world, and reach their highest development in the warmer portions of America.
With one boreal exception (Perisoreus), the genera of the Old and New World are
entirely different.

It is proper to observe, that, while the American Corvine and Garruline, upon
which the foregoing paragraphs are mainly drawn up, are readily distinguishable,
the characters given may require modification in their application to the whole
family, the different divisions of which appear to intergrade closely.

98. Genus PSILORHINUS Rueppel.

Brown Jay. Smoky brown, darker on head, fading on belly ; wings and
tail with bluish gloss; bill and feet black, sometimes yellow ; about 16 long ;
wing 73; tail 84, much graduated; bill 14, very stout; nostrils naked ;
head uncrested. Rio Grande Valley and
southward. Bp., 592. . . . MORIO.

99. Genus PICA Brisson.

Magpie. Lustrous black, with green,

iridescence, especially on the tail and
wings; below from the breast, a scap-
ular patch, and edging of the quills,
white; some whitish touches on the
throat; bill and feet black. Length 15
or 20 inches, according to the develop-
ment of the tail, which is a foot or less
long, extremely graduated ; wing about
8, the outer primary short, slender,
and falcate. Arctic America, and U.S.
from Plains to Pacific, except California ;
common, ~ Wats:,-iv, (0, plimoor
Weeds LE Ee Norr., i, 219; Aup., iv, 99, pl. 227:
Bp., 076: - 6 elle 2 te 6) ol) OMELANOLEUGACVar. HUDSONIGAS
Var. nutratiu. Yellow-billed Magpie. Bill yellow; otherwise precisely like the
last, of which it is a perpetuated accident! The European Magpie sometimes
shows the same thing, and in some other species, like P. morio, the bill is indiffer-
ently black or yellow. California. Aup., iv, 104, pl. 228; Nurr., i, 2d ed., 236 ;
Bp., 578; Coor., 295.
Ozss. The Columbian Magpie, Pica bullockii of Aup., iv, 105, pl. 229, and
Norr., i, 220, is the Calocitta collie, 2 magnificent species of the West Coast of
Mexico, erroneously attributed to California and Oregon.

|
|

purple and violet, and even golden ‘

CORVIDE, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 100, 101. 165

100. Genus CYANURUS Swainson.

*.* Conspicuously crested; wings and tail blue, black-barred; bill and feet
black. Length 11-12; wing or tail 5-6.

Blue Jay. Purplish-blue, below pale purplish-gray, whitening on the
throat, belly and crissum ; a black collar across the lower throat and up the
sides of the neck and head behind the crest, and a black frontlet bordered
with whitish ; wings and tail pure rich blue,-with black bars, the greater
coverts, secondaries and tail feathers, except the central, broadly tipped with
pure white ; tail much rounded, the graduation over an inch. Eastern North
America, especially the United States, everywhere abundant. Wzurts., i, 2,
ple l)f. 1; Aup.; iv, 110, pl. 231; Nurr., i, 224; Bp., 580. crisratus.

Steller’s Jay. Sooty brown, darker on the head, passing insensibly into
rich blue on the rump and below from the breast; wings and tail deep
prussian blue, with black bars (wanting in very young birds) ; crest faced
with some blue touches, and throat with some whitish streaks ; no white on

Fig. 107. Steller’s Jay; long-crested variety.

the eyelids ; tail moderately rounded ; crest about two inches long when full
grown. Western North America; the typical bird rather northerly. Nurr.,
ii, 229; Avp., iv, 107, pl. 230; Bp., 581; Coop., 298.- . . sTELLERII.

Var. macrotopuus. Long-crested Jay. Similar; head quite black; crest longer?
the facing bluish-white, and some white touches on the eyelids. Southern Rocky
Mountain region. Bp., 582; Eut., pl. 17; Coor., 300; Cours, Am. Nat. vy. 1871,
770.

101. Genus APHELOCOMA Cabanis.

* .* Not crested; wings and tail blue, not barred.

Florida Jay. Blue; back with a large well-defined gray patch, belly
and sides pale grayish, under tail coverts and tibiz blue in marked contrast ;
much hoary whitish on forehead and sides of crown; chin, throat and middle
of breast vague streaky whitish; ear-coverts dusky; the blue that seems to
encircle the head and neck well defined against the gray of back and breast ;
bill comparatively short, very stout at the base. About 12; wing 5 or less;

166 CORVIDH, CROWS AND JAYS.—GEN. 102, 103.

tail about 6, much rounded; bill about 1. Florida (and Gulf States?),
abundant. Nort., i, 230; Aup., iv, 118, pl. 233; Bp., 586. FLORIDANA.

Var. woopHouser. The dorsal patch dark, somewhat glossed with blue, shading
into the blue of surrounding parts; under parts rather darker, somewhat bluish-
gray; the tail coverts pale bluish but not contrasted; on the breast the blue and
gray shading into each other, the gular and pectoral
streaks whitish and well defined, the superciliary line
definite white, but no hoary on forehead ; bill slenderer.
Southern Rocky Mountain region. Bp., 585, pl. 59 ;
Coopr., 304.

Var. cALirornica. California Jay. The dorsal
patch light and distinct as in true floridana, but the
under parts, including tail coverts and tibis, nearly
white; gular streaks very large, ageregated, and white,
causing this part to be nearly uniform; a white super-
ciliary line, but no hoary on forehead, as in woodhousei; bill slender. Thus it is
seen that each of the three forms presents a varying emphasis of common char-
acters. Pacific Coast, U.S. Avp., iv, 115, pl. 232; Bp., 584; Coop., 302.

Sicher’s Jay. Bright blue, scarcely duller on the middle of the back,
below white, the throat and breast tinged with blue. Length 13; wing 63;
tail about the same, rounded, the graduation nearly an inch; tarsus 1%;
bill 1, its height at base nearly $. Bp., 587; Coopr., 305. . . soRpmDA.

Oxzs. Not having seen this species, I take the name and description — the
works cited, without raising the question of its relation-
ships to its allies, especially C. ultramarinus.

Fic. 108, Florida Jay.

102. Genus XANTHOURA Bonaparte.

Rio Grande Jay. Green, below greenish-yellow,
inside of the wings and all the tail feathers except
the central pair, clear yellow; crown, nape and
stripe from bill to eye, rich blue; forehead hoary
white; rest of the head and whole throat velvety
black ; central tail feathers greenish-blue ; bill black ;
feet dark. About 11 long; wing 44, rounded, with elongated inner quills ;
tail 5, graduated an Han or more; bill very short aa stout. Southern
Texas and southward. Cass., Ill. i, pl. 1; Bp., 589. yncas var. LUXUOSA.

Fic. 109. Rio Grande Jay.

103. Genus PERISOREUS Bonaparte.

Canada Jay. Whiskey Jack. Gray, whitening anteriorly, with a darker
nuchal area; wings and tail plumbeous, the feathers obscurely tipped with
whitish ; bill and feet black. Young much darker, sooty or smoky brown ;
the bleaching progresses indefinitely with age. 10-11 long; wing 54-6;
tail rather more, graduated ; tarsus 14; bill under 1, shaped like a titmouse’s.
Arctic America, into the N. States, S. along the Rocky Mountains to 40° and
ae further; breeds in Maine in winter. W§ILS., iii, 33, pl. 21; Nurr.,

, 232; Aup., iv, 121, pl. 234; Bp., 590; Coor., 807. . CANADENSIS.

TYRANNIDA, FLYCATCHERS. 167

Ozs. Several additional species of jays have been ascribed to our country, but
apparently upon insufficient evidence or erroneous information.

Suborder CLAMATORES. Non-melodious Passeres.

As already intimated (p. 70), the essential character of this group, as distin-
guished from Oscines, is an anatomical one, consisting in the non-deyelopment of a
singing apparatus; the vocal muscles of the lower larynx (syrinz) being small and
weak, or else forming simply a large fleshy mass, not separated into particular
muscles. This character, however, appears subject to some uncertainty of deter-
mination, and probably does not always correspond with the only external character
assignable to the group, namely, a certain condition of the tarsal envelope rarely if
ever seen in the higher Passeres. If the leg of a kinghird, for example, be closely
examined, it will be seen covered with a row of scutella forming cylindrical plates
continuously enveloping the tarsus like a segmented scroll, and showing on its
postero-internal face a deep groove where the edges of the envelope come together ;
this groove widening into a naked space above, partially filled in behind with a
row of small plates. With some minor modifications, this condition marks the
clamatorial birds, and is something tangibly different from the ordinary oscine
character of the tarsus, which consists in the presence on the sides of entire
corneous Jaminze meeting behind in a sharp ridge; and even when, as in the
case of Hremophila and Ampelis, there is extensive subdivision of the laminz
on the sides or behind, the arrangement does not exactly answer to the above
description. The Clamatores represent the lowest Passeres, approaching the large
order Picarie (see beyond) in the steps by which they recede from Oscines, yet well
separated from the Picarian birds. The families composing the suborder, as
commonly received, are few in number; only one of them is represented in North
America, north of Mexico.

Family TYRANNIDA. Flycatchers.

While haying a close general resemblance to some of the foregoing insectivorous
Passeres, the North American representatives of this family will be instantly distin-
guished by the above-described condition of the tarsus; and from the birds of
the following order by the Passerine characters of twelve rectrices, greater wing
coyerts not more than half as long as the secondaries, and hind claw not smaller
than the middle claw.

This family is peculiar to America; it is one of the most extensive and character-
istic groups of its grade in the New World, the Tanagride and T'rochilide alone
approaching it in these respects. There are over four hundred current species,
distributed among about a hundred genera and subgenera. As well as I can
judge at present, at least two-thirds of the species are valid, or very strongly
marked geographical races, the remainder, being about equally divided between
slight varieties and mere synonyms. Only a small fragment of the family is repre-
sented within our limits, giving but a vague idea of the numerous and singularly
diversified forms abounding in tropical America. Some of these grade so closely
toward other families, that a strict definition of the Tyrannide becomes extremely
difficult ; and I am not prepared to offer a satisfactory diagnosis of the whole group.
Our species, however, are closely related to each other, and may readily be defined
in a manner answering the requirements of the present volume. With a possible
exception, not necessary to insist upon in this connection, they belong to the

*

168 TYRANNIDE, FLYCATCHERS.

Subfamily TYRANNINA, True Tyrants,

presenting the following characters :—Wings of 10 primaries, the 1st never spurious
nor yery short, one or more frequently emarginate or attenuate on the inner web

a near the end. Tail of 12 rectrices, usually nearly even,
sometimes deeply forficate. Feet small, weak, exclu-
sively fitted for perching ; the tarsus little if any longer
than the middle toe and claw, the anterior toes,
especially the outer, extensively coherent at base.
Bill very broad and more or less depressed at the base,
and tapering to a fine point, thus presenting a more or
less perfectly triangular outline when viewed from
above; the tip abruptly deflected and usually plainly
notched just behind the bend; the culmen smooth and
rounded transversely, straight or nearly so lengthwise,
except towards the end; the commissure straight (or
slightly curved) except at the end; the gonys long, flat,
not keeled. Nostrils small, circular, strictly basal,
overhung but not concealed by bristles. Mouth capa-
cious, its roof somewhat excavated, the rictus ample
and deeply cleft, the commissural point almost beneath
the anterior border of the eye. Rictus beset with a
number of long stiff bristles, sometimes reaching nearly
to the end of the bill, but generally shorter, and flaring
outward on each side; there are other bristles or
bristle-tipped feathers about the base of the bill. The
bill is very light, gives a resonant sound, in dried
FiG.110. Emargination of primaries Specimens, when tapped, and on being broken open,

pin hes the upper mandible will be found extensively hollow.
These several peculiarities of the bill are the more obvious and important features
of the group; and will prevent our small olivaceous flycatchers from being con-
founded with insectivorous Oscines, as the warblers and vireos.

The structure of the bill is admirably adapted for the capture of winged insects ;
the broad and deeply fissured mandibles form a capacious mouth, while the long
bristles are of service in entangling the creatures in the trap and restraining their
struggles to escape. The shape of the wings and tail confers the power of rapid
and varied aérial evolutions necessary for the successful pursuit of active flying
insects. A little practice in field ornithology will enable one to recognize the
flycatchers from their habit of perching in wait for their prey upon some prominent
outpost, in a peculiar attitude, with the wings and tail drooped and vibrating in
readiness for instant action; and of dashing into the air, seizing the passing insect
with a quick movement and a click of the bill, and then returning to their stand.
Although some Oscines have somewhat the same habits, these pursue insects from
place to place, instead of perching in wait at a particular spot, and their forays are
not made with such admirable élan. Dependent entirely upon insect food, the
species are necessarily migratory in our latitudes ; they appear with great regularity
in spring, and depart on the first approach of cold weather in the fall. They are
distributed over temperate North America; many of them are common birds of the
Eastern States. The voice, susceptible of little modulation, is usually harsh and

es eee eee . ee Oe eee ee m
ren ee

a ae

TYRANNIDZ, FLYCATCHERS. —GEN. 104, 105. 169

strident, though some species have a not unpleasant whistle or twitter. The sexes
are not ordinarily distinguishable (remarkable exception in gen. 111), and the
changes of plumage with age and season are not very great. The larger kinds are
unmistakable, but several of the smaller species (of gen. 107, 108, 109) look very
much alike, and their discrimination becomes a matter of much tact and diligence.

104. Genus MILVULUS Swainson.

* * Adults with the tail much longer than the body, deeply forficate, one or more
outer primaries strongly emarginate, and a brightly colored crown-patch.

Fork-tailed Flycatcher. Three or four primaries emarginate; crown-
patch yellow. Clear ash, below white ; top and sides of head, and tail, black ;
the outer tail feather white on the outer web for about half its length; wings
dusky, unmarked. Sexes alike; young similar, but primaries not emar-
ginate, nor tail lengthened. Wing about 4; tail from 3 inches to a foot
long. <A beautiful bird of tropical America, accidental in the U. S.
(Louisiana, New Jersey, Audubon). Aup., i, 196, pl. 52; Nurr., i, 274,
PCR UE DT ehOGee nL koe pic ay ss. ceo s- at os xe sm | SOYRANNUSS

Swallow-tailed Flycatcher. sScissor-tail. First primary alone emarginate
(fig. 110a) ; crown-patch orange or scarlet. Hoary ash, paler or white below,
sides at insertion of the wings scarlet or bloody-red, and other parts of the
body variously tinged with the same, or a paler shade ; wings blackish, gener-
ally with whitish edgings ; tail black, several outer feathers extensively white
or rosy; wing about 44; tail upwards of a foot long. Young similar, lack-
ing the crown-patch, less tinged with red, tail not elongated, primary not
emarginate. Lower Mississippi Valley, Texas and southward; accidental
in New Jersey (Anzot, Am. Nat., vi, 367). A most elegant and graceful
Dirdes ee NUET.. 1, 2/01; Aop., 1, 197, pl. 53; Bp., 169. ~. . FORFICATUS.

105. Genus TYRANNUS Cuvier.

*,* Adults with the tail not forficate, shorter than the lengthened wings, of which
several outer primaries are emarginate or gradually attenuate, and crown with a
yellow or flame-colored patch. Young with the
crown plain and primaries not emarginate. Sexes
alike in color; primaries said to be less emarginate
in the 9.

* No olive nor decided yellow.

Kingbird. Bee-martin. (PLATE 11, figs. 1,
2, 1a, 2a.) Only two outer primaries obviously
emarginate (fig. 110). Blackish-ash, still darker
on head, below pure white, the breast shaded with
plumbeous; wings dusky, with much whitish
edging; tail black, broadly and sharply tipped
with white, the outer feather sometimes edged FP! 111 Kingbird. Beemartin.
with the same ; bill and feet black; very young birds show rufous edging of
the wings and tail. Length about 8 inches; wing 44; tail 34, even or
slightly rounded ; bill small, under an inch long. Temperate North America,

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 22

ke

eS RII TI ID

170 TYRANNIDA, FLYCATCHERS.—GEN. 105, 106.

but chiefly Eastern United States to Rocky Mountains; rare or casual on
the Pacific slope ; abundant in summer. Destroys a thousand noxious insects
for every bee it eats! Wi1s., i, 66, “ 13; Aup., i, 204, pl. 56; Nurr., i,
ADs BD.S Ll COME patie tet a -. “. s . CAROLINENSIS.

Gray Kingbird. Five or six outer primaries usually emarginate. Grayish-
plumbeous, rather darker on the head, the auriculars dusky; below white,
shaded with ashy on breast and sides, the under wing and tail coverts faintly
yellowish ; wings and tail dusky, edged with whitish or yellowish; the tail
feathers merely indistinctly lighter at the extreme tip. Larger than the last ;
about 9; wing 54; tail nearly 5, more or less emarginate ;_ bill very turgid,
an inch long. West Indies; Florida regularly ; N. to.Carolina rarely (Aud-
ubon), to Massachusetts accidentally (Allen). Aup., i, 201, pl. 55; Bd.,
Dre hi et eal Mam Sees nea tae eae St nc Arcs ing ue Eee OMNI T OL NSE

* * Olivaceous and yellow; belly and under tail coverts clear yellow, back ashy
olive, changing to clear ash on the head, throat and breast, the chin whitening, the
lores and auriculars usually dusky, wings dark brown with whitish edging, tail
black or blackish, bill and feet black. Very young birds paler below, with rufous
traces above. 8-9 long; wing nearly 5; tail about 4; bill 2-3.

Arkansas Flycatcher. Several outer primaries gradually attenuated for a
long distance (fig. 110c). Outer web of outer tail feather entirely white. Ash
of the fore parts pale, contrasting with dusky lores and auric-
ulars, fading insensibly into white on the chin, and chang-
ing gradually to yellow on the belly ; olive predominating
over ashy on the back. Western U.S., abundant; acci-
dental in Louisiana, New Jersey. Nutr.,i, 273; Aup., i,
MGS atcha, 199; pl, 54; Bp:, 173; ‘Coor., 312) 2 «2 eyanmemers

Cassin’s Flycatcher. Several outer primaries abruptly emarginate for a
short distance (fig. 110d). Outer web of outer tail feather barely or not edged
with whitish. Ash of fore parts dark, little different on the lores and auricu-
lars, changing rather abruptly to white on the chin and to yellow on the
belly ; ashy predominating over olive on the back. Southwestern U. S., and
southward, common. Tyrannus cassinii Lawr., Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y.
v, 39, pl. 3, f. 2; 7. vociferans Bv., 174; Coor., 314. . VOCIFERANS.

Coucl’s Flycatcher. Very similar to the last; tail dark brown, like the
wings, and obviously forked (about $ an inch; in cassinz? the tail is quite
black and slightly emarginate or nearly even), all its feathers with slight
pale edges, and their shafts pale on the under surface ; yellow of under parts
very bright, reaching high up the breast; throat as well as chin extensively
white. A universally distributed S. and Cent. Am. species, of which a slight

“northern variety (7. couchii Bp., 175) reaches our Mexiean border. 5S.

Arizona (Bendire) ; Cours, Am. Nat. vi, Aug. 1872. . MELANCHOLICUS.

106. Genus MYIARCHUS Cabanis.

*,* No colored patch on the crown, but head slightly crested; primaries not
emarginate. Olivaceous ; more or less yellow below, the throat ash, the primaries

TYRANNIDH, FLYCATCHERS. —GEN. 106, 107. 171

margined with chestnut; the tail feathers the same or mostly chestnut; wings
rounded, about as long as the nearly even tail; feet black, bill blackish, usually
pale at the base below. Fig. 113a.

Great Crested Flycatcher. Decidedly olivaceous above, a little browner
on the head, where the feathers have dark centres; throat and fore breast
pure dark ash, rest of under parts bright yellow, the two colors meeting
abruptly ; primaries margined on both edges with chestnut: secondaries
and coverts edged and tipped with yellowish-white, tail with all the feathers
but the central pair chestnut on the whole of the inner web excepting per-
haps a very narrow space next the shaft; outer web of outer feathers edged
with yellowish ; the middle feathers, outer webs of the rest, and wings except
as stated, dusky brown. Very young birds have rufous skirting of many
feathers, in addition to the chestnut above described, but this soon disap-
pears. Large; 84-93; wing and tail about 4; bill #; tarsus #?. Eastern:
United States, west to Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas and Texas, north to
Massachusetts ; Mexico and Central America in winter. An abundant bird,
in woodland, of loud harsh voice and quarrelsome disposition, noted for its
habitual use of cast off snake skins in the structure of its nest. WHLS. ii,
forapleelap NURTS. 1.02015; AUD. 1. 209. pl.of ; BD. lds) ° ORINITUS:

Ash-throated Flycatcher. Tather olivaceous-brown above, quite brown on
the head, the throat very pale ash, sometimes almost whitish, changing grad-
ually to very pale yellow or yellowish-white on the rest of the under parts ;
primaries edged as before, but secondaries and coverts edged with grayish-
white ; tail feathers as in the last, but the chestnut of the inner webs hardly
or not reaching the tip, being cut off from the end by invasion of the dusky.
In young birds, in which the quills and tail feathers are more extensively
rufous-edged, this last distinction does not hold. Southwestern U. S.,
Mexico, common; very near the last species, but apparently a different bird.
It is rather smaller, but with longer (4) tarsi; the bill obviously narrower,
only about as wide as high at the base; but in Cape St. Lucas specimens
(M. pertinax Bo., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1859, 303 ; Coopr., 318), again, the bill
is shaped as in erinitus, although smaller. Tyrannula cinerascens Lawr.,
Ann. Lye. N. Y. 1851, 109; MW. mexicanus Bo., 179; Coop., 316 (not of
Peau Evoc. Z00). Soc 1851, 51)... . . = « + « » , CINERASCENS.

Lawrences Flycatcher. Very similar in color to crinitus, but much
smaller; about 7 long, wing and tail about 34; wing coverts and inner
quills as well as the primaries edged with rufous (rarely yellowish on the
inner secondaries) ; no chestnut on tail feathers except a narrow bordering
on the outer webs, and, in the young, an inner margining also; bill broad,
flattened. Texas (?), Mexico and Central America. Bp., 181. LAwRENCEI.

107. Genus SAYORNIS Bonaparte.

*,* The three following species do not particularly resemble each other; most
authors place them in separate genera, and even under different subfamilies. The
discrepancies of form, however, are not startling, and for the purposes of this work

172 TYRANNIDZ, FLYCATCHERS.—GEN. 107.

the species may be properly put together, as they agree in presenting a certain
aspect not shown by the other North American groups. Fig. 1130.

Say’s Flycatcher. Grayish-brown, paler below and changing to cinna-
mon on the belly and crissum ; wings dusky with paler edgings on the inner
quills and coverts ; tail perfectly black; bill and feet black. Younger birds
are much more extensively fulvous or paler cinnamon than the old, this color
extending far up the breast, skirting the feathers of the back and rump,
forming conspicuous crossbars and edging on the wings, and sometimes
tipping the tail. 7 or 8 inches long; wing 4; tail 84, emarginate. West-
ern America, in open country, common. Norv., i, 277; Aup., i, 217,
pli59} (Bp 1855eCoorss 3200 5 eee eg. ye) We are gana

Black Flycatcher. Sooty-brown, deepest on head and breast, belly and
crissum abruptly pure white; lining of wings and edging of outer tail
feather and inner quills, whitish; bill and feet black; “iris red ;” about 7;
wing 33; tail 34. Southwestern United States and southward, in unwooded
country, caiions, and along rocky streams. Nurrv., i, 2d ed. 311; Aup., i,
217 > pl. 59s Bp.;, 185.3 ‘Coop:, 320%...) 2s Sg ie SERGIO

Pewee. Pewit. Phebe. Dull olivaceous-brown, the head much darker
fuscous-brown, almost blackish, usually in marked contrast with the back ;
below soiled whitish, or palest possible yellow, particularly on the belly ; the
sides, and the breast nearly or quite
across, shaded with grayish-brown;
wings and tail dusky, the outer tail
feather, inner secondaries, and usually
the wing coverts, edged with whitish ;
a whitish ring round the eye; bill
and feet black. Varies greatly in
shade; the foregoing is the average
spring condition. As summer passes,
the plumage becomes much duller and
darker brown, from wearing of the
feathers, and then, after the moult,
fall specimens are much brighter than
in spring, the under parts being fre-
quently decidedly yellow, at least on
the belly. Very young birds have
some feathers skirted with rusty, par-

2 3

ticularly on the edges of the wing and

ag pee are epaller tail feathers. The species requires
careful discrimination, in the hands of a novice, from any of the little oliva-
ceous species of the next two genera. It is larger; 63-7; wing 3-3$; tail
about the same, slightly emarginate ; bill 4 or slightly more, little depressed,
not so broad for its length as is usual in Contopus and Hmpidonaz, its lateral
outlines straight ; tarsus equalling or slightly exceeding the middle toe and

claw, these together about 14 long; point of the wing formed by the 2d to

TYRANNIDE, FLYCATCHERS.—GEN. 108. 173

5th quill; 1st shorter than 6th; 3d and 4th generally rather the longest.
Eastern North America, very abundant, in open places, fields, along streams,
ete.; one of the very earliest arrivals in spring, a late loiterer in the fall;
winters in the Southern States. Voice short, abrupt, unlike the drawling
note of the wood pewee. WILS., ii, 78, pl. 13; Nurr., i, 278; Auvp., i,
Pe EMCO EED swLOt amet tse sia se! Se sus osha RUSOUSS

; 108. Genus CONTOPUS Cabanis.

* .* With the feet extremely small, the tarsus shorter than the middle toe and
claw; the tarsus, middle toe and claw together, barely or not one-third as long as
the wing; the bill flattened, very broad at base; the pointed wings much longer
than the emarginate tail. Medium sized and rather small species, brownish-
olivaceous, without any bright colors, or very decided markings; the coronal
feathers lengthened and erectile, but hardly forming a true crest. Fig. 113¢.

* Species 7-8 long, with a tuft of white fluffy feathers on the flank.

Olive-sided Flycatcher. Dusky olivaceous-brown, usually darker on the
crown, where the feathers have blackish centres, and paler on the sides;
chin, throat, belly, crissum and middle line of breast, white, more or less
tinged with yellowish; wings and tail blackish, unmarked, excepting incon-
spicuous grayish-brown tips of the wing coverts, and some whitish edging
on the inner quills; feet and upper mandible black, lower mandible mostly
yellowish. The olive-brown below has a peculiar streaky appearance hardly
seen in other species, and extends almost entirely across the breast. Young
may have the feathers, especially of the wings and tail, skirted with rufous.
Wing 3g-44, remarkably pointed ; second quill longest, supported nearly to
the end by the first and third, the fourth abruptly shorter; tail about 3;
tarsus, middle toe and claw together only about 14; bill 2-3. North Amer-
ica, apparently nowhere very abundant. Nurr., i, 282; 2d ed. 298; Aup.,
meerplocs D., 1883. Coorira23. 2). ~ . . = « BOREALIS.

Coues’ Flycatcher. Somewhat similar; colors more uniform and more
clearly olive; below, fading insensibly on the throat and belly into yellowish
white, and lacking the peculiar streaky appearance: cottony tufts on the
flanks less conspicuous; wing-formula entirely different; second, third and
and fourth quills nearly equal and longest, first abruptly shorter; tail longer,
about 32. Mexico; north to Arizona. Cas., Mus. Hein. ii, 72; Cours,
Proe. Phila. Acad. 1866, 60; Enu., pl. 18; Coop., 324. . . PERTINAX.

** Species under 7 long, without an evident cottony white tuft on the flank.

Wood Pewee. Olivaceous-brown, rather darker on the head, below with
the sides washed with a paler shade of the same reaching nearly or quite
across the breast ; the throat and belly whitish, more or less tinged with dull
yellowish; under tail coverts the same, usually streaked with dusky ; tail
and wings blackish, the former unmarked, the inner quills edged, and the
greater and middle coverts tipped, with whitish; feet and upper mandible
black, under mandible usually yellow, sometimes dusky. Spring specimens
are purer olivaceous; early fall birds are brighter yellow below; in

:
b

174 TYRANNID®, FLYCATCHERS. —GEN. 108, 109..

summer, before the now worn features are renewed, the plumage is quite
brown, and dingy whitish; very young birds have the wing-bars and edging
of quills tinged with rusty, the feathers of the upper parts skirted, and the
lower plumage tinged, with the same; but in any plumage the species may
be known from all the birds of the following genus, by these dimensions :
Length 6-64; wing 54-33; tail 22-3; tarsus, middle toe and claw together
hardly one inch, or evidently less; tarsus alone about 3, not longer than the
bill. North America, in woodland; extremely abundant in most United
States localities, May—Sept. Muscicapa rapax Wits., il, 81, pl. 13, f. 5;
M. virens Aup., i, 231, pl. 64; Nurr., i, 285; C. virens Bp., 190. vrrEens.

Var. RICHARDSONII. Western Wood Pewee. Similar; darker, more fuscous olive
above, the shading of the sides reaching almost uninterruptedly across the breast ;
belly rather whitish than yellowish; outer primary usually not obviously white-
edged; bill below oftener dusky than yellow, sometimes quite black. I fail to
appreciate any reliable differences in size or shape. Note not exactly like that of
virens; nesting said to be different (Audubon, Allen). Rocky Mountains to the
Pacific; ‘‘ Labrador” (Audubon). Tyrannula Richardsonii Sw., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii,
146? Contopus richardsonii Bp., 189; Coor., 325. Muscicapa phoebe Auvp., i,
219, pl. 61; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 319.

109. Genus EMPIDONAX Cabanis.

*,* Species 5-6 (rarely 63) long; wing 3} or less; tail 22 or less; whole foot
at least + as long as wing; tarsus more or less obviously longer than middle toe
and claw, much longer than bill; 2d, 3d and 4th quills entering into point of wing,
1st shorter or not obviously longer than 5th; tail not over } an inch shorter than
wings; breast not buffy. (Compare 107, 108,110.) As in allied genera, several
outer primaries are slightly emarginate on the inner web, but this character is
obscure, and often inappreciable. Fig. 115d.

Small Green-crested or Acadian Flycatcher. Above, olive-green, clear,
continuous and uniform (though the crown may show rather darker, owing
to dusky centres of the slightly lengthened, erectile feathers) ; below,
whitish, olive-shaded on sides and nearly across breast, yellowish-washed on
belly, flanks, crissum and axillars; wings dusky, inner quills edged, and
coverts tipped, with tawny yellow; all the quills whitish-edged internally ;
tail dusky, olive-glossed, unmarked; a yellowish eye-ring; feet and upper
mandible brown, under mandible pale. In midsummer, rather darker; in
early fall, brighter and especially more yellowish below ; when very young,
the wing-markings more fulvous, the general plumage slightly buffy-suffused.
Largest ; 53-64; wing 23-3 (rarely 34) ; tail 24-22; bill nearly or quite 4,
about 4 wide at nostrils; tarsus 3; middle toe and claw $; point of wing
reaching nearly an inch beyond the secondaries ; 2d, 3d and 4th quills nearly
equal and much (4 inch or more) longer than 1st and 5th, which about equal
each other; Ist much longer than 6th. Eastern United States, abundant, in
woodland; readily diagnoscible by the points of size and shape, without
regarding coloration. Muscicapa querula Wits., ii, 77, pl. 18, f.3; MW.
acadica Nurr.,.i1, 208; Aup.; 1, 221.) pl.G2 5 Bp, 19%. 2.) ACADIOUS.

SFU se

TYRANNID, FLYCATCHERS.—GEN. 109. 175

Traill’s Flycatcher. Above, olive-brown, lighter and duller brownish
posteriorly, darker anteriorly, owing to obviously dusky centres of the
coronal feathers; below, nearly as in acadicus, but darker, the olive-gray
shading quite across the breast; wing-markings grayish-white with slight
yellowish or tawny shade; under mandible pale; upper mandible and feet
black. Averaging a little less than acadicus; 53-6; wing 23-22, more
rounded, its tip only reaching about 3 of an inch beyond the secondaries,
formed by 2d, 3d and 4th quills, as before, but 5th not so much shorter,
(hardly or not 4 of an inch), the Ist ranging between 5th and 6th; tail 23;
tarsus %, as before, but middle toe and claw #, the feet thus differently pro-
portioned, owing to length of toes. Eastern North America to the Plains,
common; an entirely different bird from acadicus, but difficult to distinguish
from the following species. AvD., i, 234, pl. 65; Nurv., i, 2d ed. 323;
TD is5 TAGES SOUS eet i mre oes tentrs eta eT gaa De PO Rw 20

Var. pusittus of Bp., 194, which replaces true traillii from the Plains to the
Pacific, may usually be recognized by its more fuscous coloration, the olivaceous
and yellowish shades of truilliz being subdued ; by its larger bill, and the feet nearly
as in acadicus. The original Tyrannula pusilla of Swarxson, Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 144 ;
Aup., ii, 236, pl. 66, is uncertain, just as likely have been minimus as this bird.
I therefore pass over the name, which, if belonging here, antedates ¢raillii, and
adopt traillii for the eastern form (although AupuBon says “Arkansas to the
Columbia”), taking pusillus of Barrp for the western variety.

Least Flycatcher. Colors almost exactly as in ¢railii; usually however
olive-gray rather than olive-brown; the wing-markings, eye-ring and loral
feathers plain grayish-white; the whole anterior parts often with a slight
ashy cast; under mandible ordinarily dusky ; feet perfectly black. It is a
smaller bird than ¢rai/lii, and not so stoutly built ; the wing-tip projects only
about $an inch beyond the secondaries; the 5th quill is but very little
shorter than the 4th, the lst apt to be nearer 6th than 5th; the feet are

' differently proportioned, being much as in acadicus; the bill is obviously

under 4 an inch long. Length 5-54; wing 22 or less; tail about 24.
Although it grades up to ¢raillii in size, and has no obviously different color-
ation, yet I am satisfied that it is a different bird. Eastern North America to
the Plains, very abundant in the U. 8. during the migrations, in orchards,
coppices, hedgerows and the skirts of woods rather than in heavy forests.
Awp., vii, 343, pl. 491; Bp., 195. Pe ese ove eer ete MINIM 4

Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. Above, olive-green, clear, continuous and
uniform as in acadicus, or even brighter; below, not merely yellow/sh, as in
the foregoing, but emphatically yel/ow, bright and pure on the belly, shaded
on the sides and anteriorly with a paler tint of the color of the back; eye-
ring and wing-markings yellow; under mandible yellow; feet black. In
respect of color, this species differs materially from all the rest; none of
them, even at their autumnal yellowest, quite match it. Size of ¢raill7i, or
rather less; feet proportioned as in acadicus; bill nearly as in minimus, but
rather larger; Ist quill usually equal to 6th. Eastern United States,

176 TYRANNIDH, FLYCATCHERS.—GEN. 109, 110.

common. Aub., vii, 341, pl. 490; Bp., 198. Var. pirricitis Bp., 198
(in text), Coor., 328, is the paler western form. . . . FLAVIVENTRIS.

Hlammond’s Flycatcher. Above, olive-gray, decidedly grayer or even
ashy on the fore parts, the whole throat and breast almost continuously olive-
gray but little paler than the back, the belly alone more or less decidedly
yellowish ; wing-markings and eye-ring dull soiled whitish ; bill very small,
and extremely narrow, being hardly or not 4 wide at the nostrils; this distin-
guishes the bird from all but minimus and obscurus; under mandible usually
| blackish ; tail usually decidedly forked, more so than in other species, though
5 in all of them it varies from slightly rounded to slightly emarginate ; outer
tail feather usually whitish-edged externally (a character often shown by
traillii and minimus), but not decidedly white. About the size of traillii,
but not so stoutly built ; wings and tail relatively longer; feet as in minimus.
Western United States. Bp., 199; Coopr., 330. . . . . HAMMONDII.

Wright's Flycatcher. Colors not tangibly different from those of ¢raillit
or minimus, but outer web of outer tail feather abruptly white in decided
contrast. General dimensions approaching those of acadicus, owing to length

of wings and tail; wing 23 to nearly 3; tail 25-22; tarsi about 3; bill
about $, extremely narrow (much as in Sayornis fuscus), its width at the
nostrils only about $ its length. Southwestern U. S. Bp., 200, 922;
COOPs OOo. (Ae SF are a es a ce, a eee Pan aoe ee OR SONS
Ozs. The foregoing account, carefully prepared after examination of a great
amount of material from all parts of the country, will probably suflice to determine
ninety out of a hundred specimens; but I confess it does not entirely satisfy me,
and, as it does not fully answer all the requirements of the case, it must be regarded
as provisional. At the same time I must say, that the only alternative seems to
be, to consider all the foregoing (excepting acadicus and jflaviventris, perhaps) as
varieties of one species; but for this I am not prepared.

110. Genus MITREPHORUS Sclater.

Buff-breasted Flycatcher. Coronal feathers and rictal bristles longer than
in Hmpidonax, and general cast of the plumage buffy. Above, dull grayish-
brown tinged with olive, particularly on the back; below, pale fulvous,
strongest across the breast, whitening on the belly ; no fulvous on the fore-
head ; sides of head light brownish-olive; wings and tail dusky, outer web
of outer tail feathers, edges of inner primaries except at the base, and tips
of wing coverts, whitish ; iris brown; bill yellow below, black above; feet
i black ; 43 long; extent 74; wing 24; tail 2; tarsus .55; middle toe and
claw .45; bill .40. Fort Whipple, Arizona. Lmpidonax pygmceus Cours,
y Ibis, 1865, 537; MZ. pallescens Cours, Proc. Phila, Acad. 1866, 63; Coopr.,
334; Exxuror, pl. 19. My original specimens, affording the descriptions

‘ quoted, and the first known to have been taken in the United States, do not
; appear to be specifically distinct from fulvifrons of Grraup ( B. of Tex.
pl. 2, f. 2), which may itself be the same as a Mexican species of
prior mame... 9. «9 & Ge! &) e294) IRGRVEERONS) var. PALGESOENS:

7, = a

PICARL®, PICARIAN BIRDS. —GEN. 111. V7

lll. Genus PYROCEPHALUS Gould.

Vermilion Flycatcher. pure dark brown; wings and tail blackish with
slight pale edgings ; the full globular crest, and all the
under parts, searlet ; bill and feet black. ¢ dull brown,
including the little crested crown; below, white, tinged
with red or reddish in some places, the breast with
slight dusky streaks. Immature ¢ shows gradation -
between the characters of both sexes; the red is some-
times rather orange. 54-6; wing 34; tail 24. Valleys

. Fic. 114. Vermilion Fly-
of the Rio Grande and Colorado, and southward. Cass., catcher. of

Til. 127, pl. 17; Bp., 201; Coor., 333. . . RUBINEUS var. MEXICANUS.

Order PICARIA. Picarian Birds.

This is a miscellaneous assortment (in scientific language, “‘a polymorphic
group,”) of birds of highly diversified forms, grouped together more because they
differ from other birds in one way or another, than on account of their resemblance
to each other. As commonly received, this order includes all the non-passerine
Insessores down to those with a cered bill (parrots and birds of prey). Excluding
the parrots, which constitute a strongly marked natural group, of equal value with
those called orders in this work, the Picariew correspond to the Strisores and
Scansores of authors, including, however, some that are often referred to Clama-
tores. This ‘‘order” Scansores, or Zygodactyli, containing all the birds that have
the toes arranged in pairs, two in front and two behind (and some that have not),
is one of the most unmitigated inflictions that ornithology has suffered; it is as
thoroughly unnatural as the divisions of my artificial key to our genera.

As at present constituted, the Picarie are insusceptible of satisfactory definition ;
but we may indicate some leading features, mostly of a negative character, that
they possess in common. The sternum rarely if ever conforms to the particular
Passerine model, its posterior bordtr usually being either entire or else doubly
notched. The vocal apparatus is not highly developed, haying not more than three
pairs of separate intrinsic muscles ; the birds, consequently, are never highly musical.
There are some modifications of the cranial bones not observed in Pusseres. <Ac-
cording to Sundevall, they, like lower birds, lack a certain specialization of the
flexor muscles of the toes seen in Pusseres. The feet are very variously modified ;
one or another of all the toes, except the middle one, is susceptible of being turned,
in this or that case, in an opposite from the customary direction; the fourth one
being frequently capable of turning either way ; while in two genera the first, and~
in two others the second, toe is deficient; and, moreover, the tarsal envelope is
neyer entire behind as in the higher Passeres. Another curious peculiarity of the
feet is, that the claw of the hind toe is smaller, or at most not larger, than that
of the third toe. The wings, endlessly varied in shape, agree in possessing ten °
developed primaries, of which the first is rarely spurious or very short. A notable
exception to this occurs in the Pici. A very general and useful wing-character is,
that the greater coverts are at least half as long as the secondary quills they cover,
and they sometimes reach nearly to the ends of these quills. This is the common
case among lower birds, but it distinguishes most of the Picarie from Passeres; it

. KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 23

178 PICARI®, PICARIAN BIRDS.

is not shown, however, in the Picidw and some others. The tail is indefinitely
varied in shape, but the number of its feathers is a good clue to the order. There
are not ordinarily more than ten perfect rectrices, and occasionally there are only
eight; the woodpeckers haye twelve, but one pair is abortive; there are twelve,
however, in the kingfishers, and some others.

With this slight sketch of some leading features of the group (it will enable the
«tudent to recognize any Picarian bird of this country at least), I pass to the
consideration of its subdivision, with the remark, that a precedent may be found for
any conceivable grouping of the families that is not simply preposterous, and for
some arrangements that are nearly so. As well as I can judge from the material
at my command, and relying upon excellent authority for data that I lack, the
Picarie fall naturally into THREE divisions. These I shall call suborders, not how-
ever insisting in the least upon the question of taxonomic rank, but simply employ-
ing the terms conformably with my usage in other cases. The three groups may
be here tabulated, with remarks calculated to give an idea of their composition : —

I. CYPSELI— including only the three families Cypselidee, Caprimulgide, and
Trochilide—the swifts, goatsuckers, and hummingbirds. They are birds of re-
markable volitorial powers; the wing is pointed, and very long, in its feathers and
terminal portions, though the upper arm is very short. The feet are extremely
small and weak, and are scarcely if at all serviceable for progression. The hind
toe is sometimes versatile (among the swifts) or somewhat elevated (in the goat-
suckers and some swifts) ; the front toes are frequently connected at base by mov-
able webbing (goatsuckers), and sometimes lack the normal number of phalanges
(among swifts and goatsuckers). The variously shaped tail has ten rectrices. One
family (hummingbirds) shows the tenuirostral type of bill; the other two, the
fissirostral, on which account they used to be classed with the swallows. The
sternum is broad, with a deep keel, entire or doubly notched (rarely singly notched)
behind ; the syrinx has not more than one pair of intrinsic muscles.

If. CUCULI— comprehending the great bulk of the order; in all, about fifteen
families, rather more than less. They are only readily limited by exclusion of the
characters of the preceding and following groups. The sternum is usually notched
behind ; the syringeal muscles are two pairs atmost. The feet are generally short ;
the disposition of the toes varies remarkably. In the Coliide, or colies, of Africa,
all the toes are turned forward. In the Trogonide, the second toe is turned back-
ward, so that the birds are zygodactyle, but in a different way from all others.
Families with the feet permanently zygodactyle in the ordinary way by reversion
of the fourth, or partially so, the outer toe being versatile, are—the Cuculide, or
cuckoos, with their near relatives the Indicatoride, or guide-birds of Africa; the
Rhamphastide, or toucans, confined to tropical America and distinguished by their
enormous vaulted bill; the Musophagide, plantain-eaters or touracos, of Africa;
the Bucconidcee and Capitonide, or barbets of the New and Old World respectively ;
and the Galbulide, or jacamars, of America. In the remaining groups, the toes
have the ordinary position, but sometimes offer unusual characters in other respects.
Thus in the Alcedinide (kingfishers), and Momotide (motmots or sawbills), the
middle and outer toes are perfectly coherent for a great distance, constituting the
syndactyle or anisodactyle foot. The Bucerotide, or hornbills, of the Old World,
characterized by an immense corneous process on the bill, are near relatives of the
kingfishers ; so are the Todidw, a group of small brightly colored birds of Mexico
and the West Indies. Other forms, all Old World, are the Meropide or bee-eaters,

CAPRIMULGIDH, GOATSUCKERS. 179

the Upupide or hoopoes, the Coraciide or rollers, with their allies the Leptoso-
matide, of Madagascar.

III. PICI—comprising only three families, the Zyngidw, or wrynecks, with one
genus and four species, of Europe, Asia and Africa; the Picwmnide, with one or
two genera and nearly thirty species, chiefly American; and the Picide or true
woodpeckers. The digits are permanently paired by reversion of the fourth, except
in two tridactyle genera ; there is a modification of the lower end of the metatarsus,
corresponding to the reverse position of the fourth toe, and the upper part of the
same bone is perforated by canals for flexor tendons. The basal phalanges of the
toes are short. The wing has ten primaries, with short coverts, contrary to the rule
in this order; the tail ten rectrices, soft and rounded in Jyngide and Picumnide,
rigid and acuminate in Picidce, where also a supplementary pair of spurious feathers
is developed. The nostrils vary: they are large and of peculiar structure in Iyn-
gide, usually covered with antrorse plumules in the rest. The bill is straight or
nearly so, hard and strong, acute or truncate, the mandibles equal; the tongue is
lumbriciform, and very generally extensile to a remarkable degree, by a singular
elongation of the bones and muscles. The salivary glands have an unusual devel-
opment, in the typical species at any rate. The sternum is doubly notched behind.
A very strongly marked group; in some respects it approaches the Passerine birds
more nearly than other Picaric do.

Suborder CY PSELI. Cypseliform Birds.

See p. 178, where some leading characters of the group are indicated.

Family CAPRIMULGIDA. Goatsuckers,

So called from a-traditional superstition. Fissirostral Picarie: head broad,
flattened ; eyes and ears large; bill extremely small, depressed, triangular when
viewed from above, with enormous gape reaching below the eye, and generally with
bristles that frequently attain an extraordinary development; nostrils basal,
exposed, roundish, with a raised border, sometimes prolonged into a tube. Wings
more or less lengthened and pointed, of ten primaries and more than nine second-
aries ; tail variable in shape, of ten rectrices. Feet extremely small; tarsus usually
short, and partly feathered ; hind toe commonly elevated and turned sideways ; front
toes connected at base by movable webbing, and frequently showing abnormal ratio
of phalanges; middle toe lengthened beyond the short lateral ones, its claw fre-
quently pectinate. A definitely circumscribed, easily recognized group of about
fourteen genera and rather more than a hundred species, of temperate and tropical
parts of both hemispheres. It is divisible, according to the structure of the feet,
into two subfamilies, Podargine, chiefly Old World, with the normal ratio of
phalanges, and Caprimulgine, as below. Considering, however, other points,
particularly the shape of the sternum, a more elaborate division is into Podargine,
phalanges normal, but tarsus naked and lengthened, and sternum doubly notched,
with three genera of the Old World— Nyctibiine, phalanges normal, tarsus short,
feathered, sternum doubly notched, upper mandible toothed, containing one genus
of tropical America — Steatornithine, phalanges normal, sternum singly notched,
with one genus of tropical America—and finally Caprimulgince, comprising the rest

[Nore. An erroneous sequence of two genera haying been discovered since the key was printed, and there-
fore too late to rectify the numbering, Gen. 112 and Gen. 113, will be found next after Gen. 125.)

7

180 CAPRIMULGIDH, GOATSUCKERS.—GEN. 114.

of the family. The eggs are colorless in the first and third of these, colored in
the second and fourth.

Subjamily CAPRIMULGINE. True Goatsuckers.

Sternum singly notched on each side behind, its body not square. Outer toe
4-jointed; middle claw pectinate; hind toe very short, elevated, semi-lateral ;
anterior toes movably webbed at base; tarsus very short, commonly much
feathered. Besides the semipalmation of the feet, there is another curious analogy
to wading birds; for the young are downy at birth, as in Precoces, instead of
naked, as is the rule among Altrices. The plumage is soft and lax, much as in the
owls; the birds have the same noiseless flight, as well as, in many cases, nocturnal
or crepuscular habits ; and they sometimes bear an odd resemblance to owls in their
general appearance. An evident design of the capacious mouth,
is the capture of insects; the active birds quarter the air with wide |
open mouth, and their minute prey is readily taken in. But they
also secure larger insects in other ways; and to this end the rictus
is frequently strongly bristled, as in the Tyrannide. Our two genera Ay \
are readily discriminated by the enormous rictal bristles, rounded tail JY. ] y)
and comparatively short wings of Antrostomus, the slight bristles, f f 1)
forked tail and long pointed wings of Chordeiles; they each repre- ) v
sent one of the two sections of the subfamily. In both, the feet are
so extremely short that the birds cannot perch in the usual way, but Le ;
sit lengthwise on a large branch, or crouch on the ground. They Fic. 115. Bones of
lay two lengthened, dark colored, thickly spotted eggs, on or near Dadian nsan |
the ground, in stumps, etc.; the sexes are distinguishable but nearly alike; the
colors are subdued, blended and variegated ; the voice is peculiar. Migratory.

114. Genus ANTROSTOMUS Gould.

* The rictal bristles with lateral filaments.

Chuck-will’s-widow. Singularly variegated with black, white, brown,
tawny and rufous, the prevailing tone fulvous; a whitish throat-bar ;
several lateral tail feathers tipped with white in the g, with rufous in the
g. Large; a foot long; wing 8-9; tail 53-64, slightly rounded. South
Atlantic and Gulf States, strictly; resident in Florida. Wuts., vi, 95,

. pls 545 fs 2) Nome G2. Asem
151, pl. 41; Bp., 147. cAROLINENSIS.

** The rictal bristles simple.

Whippoorwill. Night-jar. Upper
parts variegated with gray, black,
whitish and tawny; black streaks
sharp on the head and back, the

EG LS a een Oa colors elsewhere delicately marbled,
including the four median tail feathers; prevailing tone gray; wings and
their coverts with bars of rufous spots; lateral tail feathers black, with
tawny marbling in distant broken bars, and tipped with white (g) or

:
:

ee

ama et

CAPRIMULGIDH, GOATSUCKERS.—GEN. 115. 181

tawny ( ¢@ ) ; a bar across the throat white ( ¢ ) or tawny ( 9 ) ; below mottled
with dusky and whitish; 9-10 long; wing 5-6; tail 4-5, much rounded.
Eastern United States, abundant; a nocturnal bird, rarely seen, but well
known for its loud strange cry, whence its name is taken. Eggs 2, ellip-
tical, 14 by %, white, speckled and blotched. Wauus., v, 72, pl. 41, f. 1, 2,
3; Nurr.,i, 614; Aup., 1, 155, pl. 42; Bp., 148. .-. . . VOCIFERUS.

Nuttall’s Whippoorwill. Somewhat similar; small; about 8; tail under
4; much paler in tone; crown barred transversely ; throat patch very large ;
tawny prevailing over black on the wings; terminal white tail spots short.
Note different, the first syllable being omitted. Plains to the Pacific, U.S.
AUuD., vii, 350, pl. 495; Cass., Ill. 237; Bp., 149; Coop., 340. NUTTALLII.

115. Genus CHORDEILES Swainson.

Night-hawk. Bull-bat. Above, mottled with black, brown, gray and
tawny, the former in excess ; below from the breast transversely barred with
blackish and white or pale fulvous ; throat with a large white ( ¢@) or tawny
(@) cross-bar; tail blackish, with distant pale
marbled cross-bars and a large white spot (wanting
in the @ ) on one or both webs of nearly all the
feathers toward the end; quills dusky, unmarked
except by one large white spot on jive outer
primaries about midway between their base and
tip; in the 9 this area restricted or not pure white.
Length about 9; wing about 8; tail 5. Temperate
North America, abundant. This species flies abroad
at all times, though it is perhaps most active
towards evening and in dull weather; and is gener-
ally seen in companies, busily foraging for insects
with rapid, easy and protracted flight; in the
breeding season it performs curious evolutions,
falling through the air with a loud booming cry.
Eggs 2, elliptical, 14 by %, finely variegated. Wits., v, 65, pl. 40; f. 1,2;
MimgEo. 1, O19 ;-Aup., 1, 1595 pl. 43); Bo., V5. ©. © . VIRGINIANUS.
~- Var. wenryi is the lighter colored form prevailing in the dryer or unwooded
portions of western United States; the gray and fulvous in excess of the darker
hues, the white patches on the wing, tail and throat usually larger. Cass., Ill.
233; Bp., 153, 922, pl. 17; Coopr., 344.

Texas Night-hawk. Similar to the first; smaller; wing 7; tail 4; fine
gray mottling much predominant above; below rufous prevailing over the
dark bars ; many broad fulvous bars on the tail, besides the white spots ( 2 )
wanting in the 9 ; primaries all sprinkled toward the base with numerous
fulvous spots; the large white ( g) or tawny (¢) area nearer the tip than
the bend of the wing, and on only four primaries. Southwestern U. 8S.
and southward; unquestionably different from the common bird of this
country, but in adopting the name ¢exensis, I must say that I have not inves-

Fic. 117. Night-hawk.

| |

182 CYPSELIDE, SWIFTS.—GEN. 116.

tigated its relationships to the South American form. Lawr., Ann. Lye. v. |
1851, 114; Cass, Ill. 238s Bp. 154; Coors, 044... 2.) .) SLEXENSINe

Family CYPSELID. Swifts.

Fissirostral Picarice: bill very small, flattened, triangular when viewed from
above, with great gape reaching below the eyes. Wings extremely long, thin and
pointed (frequently as long as the whole bird) ; the secondaries extremely short
(nine?). Tail of ten rectrices, variable in shape. Feet small, weak; tarsi naked or
feathered ; hind toe frequently elevated, or versatile, or permanently turned side-

ways or even forward ; anterior toes completely cleft, the basal phalanges extremely
short, the penultimate very long, the number of phalanges frequently abnormal ;
claws sharp, curved, never pectinate. Sternum deep-keeled, widening behind, its
posterior margin entire. Eggs narrowly oval, white. For pterylosis see parE 1.

‘“*One of the most remarkable points in the structure of the Cypselide is the
great development of the salivary glands. In all the species of which the nidifi-
cation is known, the secretion thus produced is used more or less in the construc-
tion of the nest. In most cases it forms a glue by which the other materials are
joined together, and the whole nest is affixed to a rock, wall, or other object against
which it is placed. In some species of Collocalia, however, the whole nest is made ~
up of inspissated saliva, and becomes the ‘edible bird’s-nest’ so well known in the
East.” (ScraTer.) 5 ;

A well defined family of six or eight genera and about fifty species, inhabiting
temperate and warm parts of the globe. They are rather small birds of plain
plumage, closely resembling swallows in superficial respects, but with no real
affinity to these Oscines. The family is divisible into two subfamilies, according to

_the structure of the feet.

Subfamily CYPSELINA. Typical Swifts.

3 joints like the 2d; hind toe reversed (in Cypselus, where nearly

all the species belong) or lateral (in Panyptila); tarsi feathered

HIG: fis Bae (in Cypselus); toes also feathered (in Panyptila). Contains only
foot. these two genera and nearly half the species of the family. Of
Panyptila there are only three well determined species, all American ; while Cypselus
has upward of twenty, mostly of the Old World; the three or four American

ones are sometimes detached under the name of Tachornis.

(7 Ratio of the phalanges abnormal, the 3d and 4th toes having each

116. Genus PANYPTILA Cabanis.

White-throated Swift. Black or blackish; chin, throat, breast and middle
line of belly, tips of secondaries, edge of outer primary, bases of tail
feathers and a flank patch, white. Length 53-6; wing the same; tail about
22, forked, soft. Southwestern U. 8. and southward, breeding in colonies
on cliffs. Acanthylis saxatilis WoopnousE, Expl. Zuni River, 1853, 64;
Cypselus melanoleucus Bpo., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1854, 118. Cougs, ibid.
1866, Ds. Bp sills (COOP ay oAde m cites) ots wks ee oe ence MORPA TTT

CYPSELIDA, SWIFTS.—GEN. 117, 118. 183

Subfamily CHAETURINA. Spine-tailed Swifts.

Toes with the normal number of phalanges; hind toe not reversed, but some-
times versatile; our species have it obviously elevated, and should have come in
the Key under A, like gen. 114, 115; but it has not been technically so considered
(compare § 87, p. 49). Tarsi never feathered. In the principal genus, Chetura,
containing about half the species of the subfamily, of various parts of the world,
the tail feathers are stiffened and mucronate by the projecting rhachis. The other
genera are Collocalia and Dendrochelidon of the Old World; Cypseloides, and the
scarcely different Nephocetes, of the New.

117. Genus NEPHC:CETES Baird.

Black Swift. Blackish, nearly uniform. Length nearly 7; wing as much ;
tail about 3, forked, stiffish, but not mucronate. Western America. Bp.,
142; Exxior, pl. 20; Coor., 349. . . . . . NIGER Var. BOREALIS.

118. Genus CHATURA Stephens.

Chimney Swift. Chimney “Swallow.” Sooty brown witha faint green-
ish gloss above, below paler, becoming gray on the throat; wings black.
Length about 5; wing the same; tail 2 or
less, even or a little rounded, spiny. Eastern
United States, migratory, very abundant in
summer. Like the swallows, which this bird
so curiously resembles, not only in its form,
but in its mode of flight, its food, and twitter-
ing notes, it has mostly forsaken the ways of
its ancestors, who bred in hollow trees, and

o

<=
now places its curious open-work nest, of bits p,q. 449, Ghnee Sui ein’ manronnts

of twig glued together, inside disused rece

chimneys. WIizs., v, 48, pl. 39, f. 1; Nurr., i, 609; Aup., i, 164, pl. 44;
oy, 12 re : eens por SPEGASGEA.,
Vaux’s Swift. Satan 2 alee? flip fiat PiGah: ; smaller; length 44;
wing the same. Pacific Coast, U.S. Seems to be different from pelasgia,
but perhaps the same asa S. Am. species. Bp., 145; Coor., 351. vauxu.

Family TROCHILIDA. Hummingbirds.

Tenuirostral Picarie. These beautiful little creatures will be known on sight ;
and as the limits of this work preclude any adequate presentation of the subject, I
prefer merely to touch upon it. The hummers are peculiar to America. Species
occur from Alaska to Patagonia, but we have a mere sprinkling in this country ;
the centre of abundance is in tropical South America, particularly New Granada.
Nearly five hundred species are current; the number of positively specific forms
may be estimated at about three hundred. The genera or subgenera vary with
authors from fifty to a hundred and fifty ; perhaps half the latter number of generic
names may be eligible. The birds appear to fall naturally into two groups; one of
these, Phithornithine, representing about one-tenth of the whole, is composed

184 TROCHILIDZ, HUMMINGBIRDS. —GEN. 119, 120, 121, 122.

of duller colored species especially inhabiting the dense forests of the Amazon;
the other is the

Subfamily TROCHILIN 2.

+ Xantus Hummingbird. Tarsi feathered; tail nearly even; first primary
not attenuate ; frontal feathers ending abruptly at base of bill; g¢ above, and
the throat, metallic grass-green ; below, cinnamon-rufous ; face blue-black ;
a white stripe through the eye; wings purplish-dusky; tail purplish-chest-
nut, the central feathers glossed with golden green; bill flesh-colored, black-
tipped. 9 shining green above, including central tail feathers; below, and
the face, pale rufous, whitening about the vent, and the sides greenish; : |
head-stripes rufous, whitening on the auriculars; tail feathers, except the
central, chestnut, with a dark terminal spot. 34; wing 24; tail 14; bill 2.

| Cape St. Lucas. Amazilia xantusii and Heliopeedica castaneicauda Lawr.,

Ann. Lyc. N. Y. 1860, pp. 105, 109; Ext., pl. 22; Coor., 365. xanrTusit. +

119. Genus HELIOPAIDICA Gould. |
-
;

120. Genus LAMPORNIS Swainson.

Black-throated Hummingbird. Tomia serrate near the end; bill depressed,
not quite straight; no metallic scales on throat; ggolden-green above and
on the sides; below, opaque black, with white flank-tufts; wings and tail
dusky-purplish. 9 white below, with median black stripe. 44; wing 24;
tail 13; bill nearly 1. Straggler to Florida. Bp., 130,922. . Mango? +

121. Genus TROCHILUS Linneus.

Ruby-throated Hummingbird. & with the tail forked, its feathers all
narrow and pointed; no scales on crown; metallic gorget reflecting ruby-
red, etec.; golden-green, below white, the sides green; wings and _ tail
dusky-purplish. ¢ lacking the gorget; the throat white; the tail somewhat
double-rounded, with black bars, and the outer feathers white-tipped. 34;
wing 13; tail 14; bill 3. Eastern North America, abundant in summer,
generally seen hovering about flowers, sometimes én flocks. Feeds on insects,
and the sweets of flowers. Nest a beautiful structure, of downy substances,
stuccoed with lichens outside; eggs two, white. Wus., ii, 26, pl. 10;

Nort., i, 588; Avp., iv, 190, pl. 253; Bp., 181. . . . . COLUBRIS.—

Black-chinned Hummingbird. Similar; tail merely emarginate; gorget
opaque black, reflecting steel blue, etc., posteriorly. 9 with the tail simply
rounded. California, Arizona and southward. Cass., Ill. 141, pl. 22; Bo.,
13332 COORT GODS. tne aera ton esc meas cree vo 8 eee ALEXANDRI. ;

. 122. Genus SELASPHORUS Swainson. F

* No metallic scales on crown; @ throat scales not much prolonged into a ruff; :
outer primary attenuate; tail graduated, the middle feathers broader than the
lateral. ;

os

TROCHILID®, HUMMINGBIRDS. —GEN. 122, 123. 185

Rufous-backed Hummingbird. § chiefly cinnamon-rufous above, below
and on the tail; traces of green above, especially on crown; gorget red,
etc. ; a white collar behind it. 9 with a trace of the gorget; upper parts
more or less green; tail barred with black and tipped with white. Bh;
wing 13; tail 14. Rocky Mountains to the Pacitic, from Mexico to Alaska ;
abundant; the sole boreal representative of the family. Aup., iv, 200, pl.
Peep etad COOP MEoDO. lo. fe ee wy Ok Oe 8 ROO.

Broad-tailed Hummingbird. Outer primaries much attenuated, outer
tail feather linear, very narrow; others broad; ¢ glittering green, with
much white below, the gorget purplish-red, etc.; wings and tail dusky-
purplish, most of the tail feathers with rufous edging basally. ¢@ with no
gorget; no green, but much rufous, below; 4; wing 2. Rocky Mts. to lat.
42° ; W. to Sierra Nevada; S. into Mex. Bp., 135; Coor., 357. PLATYCERCUS.

** Crown of ¢ with metallic scales like the gorget, which is prolonged into a ruff ;
outer primary not attenuate; tail of ¢ forked, the outer feather abruptly narrow
and linear. (Calypte.)

Anna Hummingbird. @ above, and the breast, green; crown and gor-
get ruby-red, etc.; 9 lacking the scales; the tail slightly rounded, black-
barred, white-tipped. Size of the last. California ; resident, abundant. Nurr.,
i, 2d. ed. 712; Auvp., iv, 188, pl. 252; Bp., 137; Coop., 358. . ANNA.

Costa Hummingbird. g above, and on the sides, green; mostly white
below; crown and gorget purplish, steel-blue, etc.; the latter much pro-
longed into a ruff; tail lightly forked; 9 like that of anna; smaller; about
34; wing under 2; tail 1$; bill 3. Valley of the Colorado; S. and Lower
PeaeMi ee De loon COOP GOO ce cn) w ve. + 2 « = « - COSTA.

*** Crown of ¢ not metallic like the gorget, which is prolonged into aruff; outer
primary of f attenuate; tail graduated, the feathers rounded at the end, the lateral
black-barred and white-tipped (in both sexes). (A/fthis.)

Heloise Hummingbird. @ golden-green above, including crown; gorget
lilac-red, bordered with white; below white; sides with green and rufous ;
tail feathers cinnamon-rufous at base, the central otherwise like the back, the
others black-barred and white-tipped; ¢ similar, lacking the gorget; outer
primary not attenuate. Very small; 23; wing 14; tail1; bill 4. Texas
and, southward. Exiror, pl. 21; Coor., 361. . . . . . HELOISH: f

123. Genus STELLULA Gould.

Calliope Hummingbird. @ golden-green; below white, with green and
rufous on sides; gorget violet or lilac, the bases of the scales, and sides of
the neck, pure white ; tail feathers brown, including the central pair, with pale
tips and slight rufous edgings; under mandible light; 9 with dusky specks
in place of the gorget; throat feathers not ruffed; no green on sides; tail
feathers variegated with green, rufous, black and white. 22; wing 13;
tail 1; bill $. Mountains of Washington, Oregon and California, to
Mexico. ELLIOT, pl. 23;. Coop.,363. . . . - . + «+ + GALLIOPE, +

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 24

-
7
Py
b
-
;
4
y
1
/

186 TROGONIDH, TROGONS ; MOMOTIDA, SAWBILLS.—GEN. 124, 125.

124. Genus AGYRTRIA Cabanis.

Linné Hummingbird. 8 bronzy-green, including middle tail feathers ;
throat and breast grass-green, paler on sides; middle of belly, and crissum,
white; wings purplish-brown; lateral tail feathers black with paler tips;
@ duller, more white below, no green on throat; wing 2; tail 14; bill 3.
South America; accidental in Massachusetts, one instance (Aug. 1865,
Brewster) ; but I am advised that the occurrence is open to suspicion.

ALLEN, Am. Nat. iii, 1869, p. 645; Maynarp, Guide, 128. . Linna. +

Suborder CUCULT. COuculiform Birds.

The nature of this large group has been indicated on a preceding page (178).

Family TROGONID. Trogons.

Feet zygodactyle by reversion of the second toe. The base of the short, broad,
dentate bill is hidden by appressed antrorse feathers; the wings are short and
rounded, with faleate quills; the tail is long, of twelve broad feathers; the feet
are very small and weak. The general plumage is soft and lax, the skin tender,
the eyelids lashed. <A well-marked family of about fifty species and perhaps a

dozen genera, chiefly inhabiting tropical America. ‘They are of gorgeous colors,

and among them are found the most magnificent birds of
this continent.

125. Genus TROGON Auctorum,

Mexican Trogon. Metallic golden-green; face and
sides of head black; below from the breast carmine ;
a white collar on the throat; middle tail feathers
coppery-green, the outer white, barred with black ;
Fig. 120, Mexican Trogon. quills edged with white; about 11; wing 54; tail 62.
Valley of the Rio Grande, southward. Bop., 69, pl. 40. . . MeExicaNnus?

Family MOMOTIDA. Sawbills.

Feet syndactyle by cohesion of third and fourth toes; tomia serrate. A very small
family of tropical American birds,
comprising about fifteen species.
Neither this nor the foregoing has
really rightful place here, but they
come on our border, and are in-
cluded to illustrate the suborder.
Tn the following species, the central
tail feathers are long-exserted, and
spatulate by absence of webs along
a part of the shaft—a mutilation
effected, it is said, by the birds
themselves; the bill is about as
long as: the head, gently curved ;
the nostrils are rounded, basal, exposed; the wings are short and rounded; the
tarsi are scutellate anteriorly.

Fig. 121. Blue-headed Sawhbill.

ee ee ee

:
:
{

ALCEDINID, KINGFISHERS.—GEN. 112. 187

112. Genus MOMOTUS Lesson.

Blue-headed Sawbill. Greenish, rather paler below ; purer on wings and
tail; the crested crown blue, encircled with black; face mostly black. 15;
ming 54. Mexico. Bp., 161, pl.46. ... . . . . . C#RULEICEPS.

Family ALCEDINIDA. Kingfishers.

Feet syndactyle by cohesion of third and fourth toes; tomia simple. Bill long,
large, straight, acute (rarely hooked), ‘ fissirostral,” the gape being deep and wide ;
tongue rudimentary or very small; nostrils basal,
reached by the frontal feathers. Feet very small and
weak, scarcely or not ambulatorial; tarsi extremely
short, reticulate in front; hallux short, flattened
underneath, its sole more or less continuous with the
sole of the inner toe; soles of outer and middle toe
in common for at least half their length; inner toe
always short, in one genus rudimentary, in another wanting (an abnormal modifica-
tion, overlooked in penning § 86, p. 49 ; but see § 84) ; wings long, of 10 primaries ;
tail of 12 rectrices, variable in shape.

“The kinefishers form a very natural family of the great Picarian order, and are
alike remarkable for their brilliant coloration and for the variety of curious and
aberrant forms which are included within their number. . . ‘Their characteristic
habit is to sit motionless watching for their prey, to dart after it and seize it on
the wing, and to return to their original position to swallow it... . The Alced-
inide nest in holes and lay white eggs. It is, however, to be remarked that, in
accordance with a modification of the habits of the various genera, a corresponding
modification has taken place in the mode of nidification, the piscivorous section
of the family nesting for the most part in holes in the banks of streams, while the
insectivorous section of the family generally nest in the holes of trees, not neces-
sarily in the vicinity of water.” (Suarpe.)

The nearest allies of the kingfishers are considered to be the hornbills and bee-
eaters of the Old World, and the sawbills and todies of the New. One would gain
an imperfect or erroneous idea of the family to judge of it by the American fragment,
of one genus and six or eight species. According to the author of the splendid
monograph just cited, there are in all 125 species, belonging to 19 genera; the
latter appear to be very judiciously handled, but a moderate reduction of the former
will be required. They are very unequally distributed; Ceryle alone is nearly
cosmopolitan, absent only from the Australian region; the northern portion of the
Old World has only 2 peculiar species; 3 genera and 24 species are characteristic
of the Ethiopian region, one genus and 25 species are confined to the Indian, while
no less than 10 genera and 59 species are peculiar to the Australian. Mr. Sharpe
recognizes two subfamilies; in the Dacelonince (with 14 genera, and 84 species)
the bill is more or less depressed with smooth, rounded or sulcate, culmen. In the

Fic. 122. Syndactyle foot.

Subfamily ALCEDININA,

the bill is compressed, with carinate culmen. The American species all belong here.
It is the more particularly piscivorous section; the Dacelonine feed for the most
part upon insects, reptiles, and land mollusks.

188 ALCEDINID, KINGFISHERS.—GEN. 113.

113. Genus CERYLE Boie.

Belted Kingfisher. Upper parts, broad pectoral bar, and sides under the
wings, dull blue with fine black shaft lines; lower eyelid, spot before eye,
a cervical collar and under parts except as
said, pure white; the @ with a chestnut
belly-band, and the sides of the same color ;
quills and tail feathers black, speckled,
blotched or barred on the inner webs with
white; outer webs of the secondaries and
tail feathers like the back; wing coverts
frequently sprinkled with white ; bill black,
pale at base below; feet dark, tibie naked
below ; a long, thin, pointed occipital crest ;
plumage compact and oily to resist water,
into which the birds constantly plunge after
their finny prey. Length a foot or more ;
wing about 6; tail 84; whole foot 14;
culmen about 24. North America, com-
: mon everywhere, resident or only forced
southward by freezing of the waters. WHUxs., iii, 59, pl. 23, f. 1; Nurr.,
i fOO4 ATID uve 200. Dla 2O0smI>DaglOGs ia eer fay uno vant mAOMORE

Cabanis’ Hingfisher. Glossy green; a cervical collar and the under parts
white; ¢ witha rufous, ? with an imperfect, greenish, pectoral bar; quills
and tail feathers black, partly
like the back, with numerous
white spots, mostly paired.
Small; about 8; wing 34;
tail 24. Valleys of the Rio
Grande and Colorado, and
southward. Cass., Ill. 255; Bp., 159, and Mex. Bound. Sury. ii, pl. 7;

Fic. 123. Belted Kingfisher. ?.

Fic, 124. Cabanis’ Kingfisher.

CooP:; 3389) ikem os ee 14. UO Ue DAMERICANA Vare CARANISIEE:

Family CUCULIDA. Cuckoos.

Feet zygodactyle by reversion of the fourth toe. This character, in connection with
those given below, will answer present purposes ; and in my ignorance of some of the
exotic forms, I cannot attempt to give a full diagnosis. The family is a large and
important one. It comprehends quite a number of leading forms showing peculiar
minor modifications; these correspond in great measure with certain geographical
areas of faunal distribution, and are generally held to constitute subfamilies. Three
or four such are confined to America ; about twice as many belong exclusively to the
Old World; among them are the Cuculince, or typical cuckoos allied to the Euro-
pean C. canorus, famous, like our cowbird, for its parasitism. This section com-
prehends the great majority of the Old World species; the Cowinc are a peculiar
Madagascan type; others rest upon a special condition of the claws or plumage.
There are about two hundred current species of the family.

Lia |

CUCULIDE, CUCKOOS.—GEN. 126, 127. 189

Subfamily CROTOPHAGIN A. Anis.

Tail of eight feathers, graduated, longer than the rounded wings. Bill exceed-
ingly compressed, the upper mandible rising into a thin vertical crest, the sides
usually sulcate, the tip deflected. Plumage uniform (black), lustrous, the feathers /
of the head and neck lengthened, lanceolate, distinct, with scale-like margins; face
naked. Terrestrial. Nest in bushes. One genus, and two or three species, of the
warmer parts of America.

126. Genus CROTOPHAGA Linnzus.

Ani. About a foot long; wing 6; tail 8. Florida (and Gulf?) coast,
southward; accidental north to Philadelphia. C. ani and C. rugirostris
RIPPLES TEE SL UrAN oe 3) Ge som (ee tas Latta) to. athe, INTs

Subfamily SAUROTHERIN4. Ground Cuckoos.

Tail of ten feathers, graduated, longer than the short, rounded, concave wings.
Bill about as long as the head, compressed, straight at base, tapering, with deflected
tip, gently curved culmen, and ample rictus. Feet large and strong, in adaptation
to terrestrial life ; tarsus longer than the toes, scutellate before and behind. One
West Indian genus, Saurophaga, with three or four species, and the following,
with one or two :— iv

127. Genus GHOCOCCYX Wagler.

Ground Cuckoo. Chaparral Cock. Road Runner. Snake Willer.
Paisano. Most of the feathers of the head and neck bristle-tipped ; a naked
area around eye; crown crested; plumage coarse. Above, lustrous bronzy
green, the crest dark blue, everywhere sharply
streaked with whitish or tawny brown; sides and
front of the neck tawny, with sharp black streaks ;
other under parts dirty white; quills and_ tail
feathers much edged with white; central rectrices
like the back, others darker green, violet, etc., with
broad white tips. Nearly 2 feet long; tail a foot or
more; wing 6-7 inches; tarsus 2; bill 13. Sexes
nearly alike. Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Cali- }
fornia and southward. <A bird of remarkable
aspect, noted for its swiftness of foot; aided by its wings held as outriggers,
it taxes the horse in a race; feeds on reptiles, insects and land mollusks.
@ass., Ill. 213, pl. 36; Bp., 73; Coor., 363. . . . . CALIFORNIANUS.

Fic. 1225. Ground Cuckoo.

Subfamily COCCYZINA. American Cuckoos.

Tail of ten soft feathers, much graduated, little longer than the wings, which
are somewhat pointed, although the first and second quills are shortened. Bill
about equalling or rather shorter than the head, stout at base, then much compressed,
curved throughout, tapering to a rather acute tip; nostrils basal, inferior, exposed,
elliptical; feet comparatively small, the tarsus naked, not longer than the toes.

or ine

So

190 CUCULID®, CUCKOOS.—GEN. 128.

Four or five genera, and perhaps twenty species; none parasitic. Ours are strictly
arboricole birds of lithe form, blended plumage and subdued colors; the head is
not crested; the tibial feathers are full, as in a hawk; the sexes are alike, and the
young scarcely different. In the following, the upper parts are uniform satiny
olive-gray, or ‘‘ quaker color,’ with bronzy reflections. Migratory, insectivorous ;
lay plain greenish eggs, in a rude nest of twigs saddled on a branch or in a fork.
They are well known inhabitants of our streets and parks as well as of woodland,
noted for their loud jerky cries, which they are supposed to utter most frequently in.
falling weather, whence their popular name, ‘‘rain crow.”

128. Genus COCCYZUS Vieillot.

Black-billed Cuckoo. Bill blackish except occasionally a trace of yellow-
ish below. Below, pure white, sometimes with a faint tawny tinge on the
fore parts. Wings with little or no rufous. Lateral tail feathers not con-
trasting with the central, their tips for a short distance blackish, then
obscurely white. Bare circumocular space red. Length 11-12; wing 5-53;
tail 6-64; bill under an inch. Eastern U.S. and Canada. Wuts., iv, 16, pl. ,
28; Nurr., i, 556; Aup., iv, 300, pl. 276; Bpo., 77. ERYTHROPHTHALMUS.

Yellow-billed Cuckoo. Bill extensively yellow below and on the sides.
Below, pure white. Wings extensively cinnamon-rufous on inner webs of
the quills. Central tail feathers
like the back, the rest black with
large white tips, the outermost
usually also edged with white. Size
of the last. United States, rather
more southerly than the last species,
and chiefly Eastern; also, Pacific
Coast (Cooper, Nuttall). Wus.,
iv, 13, (pl. 285) Nur.) is oole
Aup:, iv, 293, 1pl. 275); Bosco
A Coor., 371... + AMERICANUS:

FiG. 126. Yellow-billed Cuckoo. Mangrove Cuckoo. Bill much as

in the last. Below, pale orange-

brown. Auriculars dark, in contrast. Tail as in the last, but outer feathers
not white-edged. Size of the others, or rather less. West Indies and
Florida. Nurr., i, 558; Aup., iv, 303; pl. 277; Bp., 78. . SENICULUS.

Suborder PICT. Piciform Birds.

See p. 179 for characters of this suborder.

Family PICIDA:. Woodpeckers.

These birds have been specially studied, with more or less gratifying success, by
Malherbe, Sundevall and Cassin. There are nearly two hundred and fifty well
determined species, of all parts of the world except Madagascar, Australia and
Polynesia. Their separation into minor groups has not been agreed upon; our

PICIDA, WOODPECKERS. on

species are commonly thrown into three divisions, which, however, I shall not
present. The ivory-bill and the flicker stand nearly at extremes of the family, the
little diversity of which is thereby evident. One of our genera, without very
obvious external peculiarities, stands apart from the rest in the character of the
tongue— a fact that seems to have escaped general attention. In ordinary Pici the
“horns” of the tongue are extraordinarily produced backward, as slender jointed
bony rods curling up over the skull behind, between the skin and the bone, to the
eyes or even further; these rods are enwrapped in highly developed, specialized
muscles, by means of which the birds thrust out the tongue sometimes several
inches beyond the bill. This is not the case in Sphyrapicus, where the hyoid
cornua do not extend beyond the base of the skull, and the tongue, consequently, is
but little more extensible than in ordinary birds. I have determined this by
examination of all our species but one, in the flesh. The tongue of Sphyrapicus
is beset at the end by numerous brushy filaments, instead of the few acute barbs
commonly observed in the family. (See also under gen. 153.) In most of our
species the bill is perfectly straight, wide and stout at the base, tapering regularly
to a compressed and vertically truncate tip, chisel-like, and strengthened by sharp
ridges on the side of the upper mandible — an admirable tool for cutting into trees ;
‘and in all such, the nostrils are hidden by dense tufts of antrorse feathers. In
others, like the flicker, the bill is smooth, barely curved, the tip acute and the
nostrils exposed. The claws are always large, strong, sharp and much curved; the
feet do not present striking modifications, except in the three-toed genus Picoides.
The wings offer nothing specially noteworthy, unless it be the shortness of the
coyerts, in exception to the Picarian rule; and the shortness of the first primary,
which may fairly be called spurious. The remarkable character of the tail has been
already mentioned. This member offers indispensable assistance in climbing,
when the stiff strong quills are pressed against the tree, and form a secure support
To this end, the muscles are highly developed, and the last bone (vomer or pygostyle)
is large and peculiar in shape. Woodpeckers rarely if ever hang head downward,
like Nuthatches, nor are the tarsi applied to their support.

Species are abundant in all the wooded portion of this country, and wherever
found are nearly resident. For, although insectivorous, they feed principally upon
dormant or at least stationary insects, and therefore need not migrate; they are,
moreover, hardy birds. They dig insects and their larve out of trees, and are eminently
beneficial to the agriculturist and fruit grower. Contrary to a prevalent impression,
their boring does not seem to injure fruit trees, which may be riddled with holes
without harmful result. The number of noxious insects these birds destroy is simply
incalculable ; what little fruit some of them steal is not to be mentioned in the same
connection, and they deserve the good will of all. The birds of the genus Sphy-
rapicus are probably an exception to most of these statements. Woodpeckers nest
in holes in trees, which they excavate for themselves, sometimes to a great depth,
and lay numerous rounded pure white eggs, of which the shell has a crystalline
textnre, on the chips and dust at the bottom of the hole. The voice is loud and
harsh, susceptible of little inflection. The plumage as a rule presents bright colors
in large areas or in striking contrasts, and is sometimes highly lustrous. The sexes
are ordinarily distinguishable by color-markings.

Ozs. Campephilus imperialis, the largest and most magnificent bird of the
family, inhabiting Central America, has been attributed to the United States, but
upon unsatisfactory evidence. (Aup., iv, 213; Cass., 285, pl. 49; Bop., 82.)
Dryocopus lineatus, likewise, was improperly introduced by Audubon (iv, 233).

aon

DPE! AE OD ET OP

ee ee

£92 PICIDH, WOODPECKERS. —GEN. 129, 130, 131.

129. Genus CAMPEPHILUS Gray.

Ivory-billed Woodpecker. Black; a stripe down the side of the neck, one
at base of bill, the scapulars, under wing coverts, and ends of secondaries,
» white; bill and nasal feathers white; ¢ scarlet-crested ;
) 9 black-crested. A large, powerful bird of the South
' Atlantic and Gulf States; about 21 long; wing 10-11;
tail 7=—8: Wus., iv, 20, pl. 39, f. 6; Nurr., 1, 564;
Aup., iv, 214, pl. 256; Bo., 81. . . » PRINGIPALTS:

130. Genus HYLOTOMUS Baird.

f Pileated Woodpecker. Black; the head, neck and
ee Tory chem wings much varied with white or pale yellowish ; bill dark ;

Weodtemen: g scarlet-crested, scarlet-moustached; 9 with the crest
half black, half scarlet, and no maxillary patches. Only yielding to the
ivory-bill in size; length 15-19;
wing 83-10; tail 6-7. North
America, anywhere, in heavy tim-
berm WaLS 3, lv, ©2(,mplem2on denen
NM DOs eAUDs, lve 220), elle
DOD.) Oleg ee ee PLO AT US

131. Genus PICUS Linneeus.

Fig. 128. Pileated Woodpecker.

* .* All the following species are
blac fend: -white, the ¢@ with red on the head; and all but the first have numer
small, round, white spots on the quills.

* Body not banded, streaked, nor spotted.

White-headed Woodpecker. Uniform black; whole head white, in the @
with a scarlet nuchal band; a large patch of white on the wing, commonly
resolved into a number of blotches; about 9; wing 5; tail 33. Mountains
of California, Oregon and Washington. Cass., Journ. Phila. Acad. 1853,
257; -pl..22¢ Bo., 963, Eun. plese
Coor., 382. . = . «| ALBOLARVAmUB:

** Spotted and crosswise banded, but not
streaked.

—ed-cochaded Woodpecker. Head black
on top, with a large silky white auricular
patch embracing the eye and extending
on the side of the neck, bordered above
in the ¢ bya scarlet stripe nof meeting
its fellow on the nape; nasal feathers and
those on the side of the under jaw white ;
black of the crown connected across the
lores with a black stripe running from the corner of the bill down the side
of the throat and neck to be dissipated on the side of the breast in black

FiG.129. Red-sockaded Woodpecker.

:
:

apm a

ee ee eee

bee

PICIDH, WOODPECKERS. —GEN. 131. 193

spots continued less thickly along the whole side and on the crissum; under
parts otherwise soiled white ; central tail feathers black, others white, black-
barred ; back and wings barred with black and white, the larger quills and
many coverts with the white bars resolved into paired spots; 8-83; extent
14-15; wing 44; tail 33. Pine swamps and barrens of the South Atlantic
and Gulf States; North to Pennsylvania. Wrts., ii, 103, pl. 15; Nurv.,
imant: AUD. iv, 204, pl. 264; Bo., 96. ... .- Se eBORBATAS.

Texan Woodpecker. Crown black, frequently Bpcailed with white, in the
g@ the hind head and nape extensively crimson; sides of the head white,
with a long black stripe from the bill under the eye, widening behind, there
joining a black postocular stripe and spreading over the side of the neck;
nasal feathers usually brown; under parts ranging from soiled white to
smoky gray, with numerous black spots on the sides, flanks and crissum ;
lateral tail feathers perfectly barred with black and white in equal amounts,
the central ones black ; back and wings as in the last species. Small ; about
7; wing 33-4; tail under 3; bill 3-§. Southwestern U. S. and southward.
EE TOOMES MONO uo ie es sh a ss) + SG oe 8s, SCALARIS.

Var. NuTrALLu. Rather larger; more white, this rather prevailing on the back
over the black bars, the hind neck chiefly white, the nasal tufts white, the lateral
tail feathers, especially, sparsely or imperfectly barred. The Californian coast
race; Bp., 93; Coor., 378. Picuws lucasanus, from Cape St. Lucas, is a local form
like nuttallii, with rather larger bill and feet; bill 1 inch. Xawnrus, Proc. Phila.
Acad. 1859, 298, 302; Cass., ibid. 1863, 195; Coor., 381. P. parvus Casor;
P. bairdii Scirarer; PP. vagatus and orizabe Cassy, all belong to scalaris.

*** Spotted and lengthwise streaked, but not banded.

f Usually 9-10 long; outer tail feathers wholly white.

Hairy Woodpecker. Back black, with a long white stripe; quills and
wing coverts with a profusion of white spots; four middle tail feathers black,
next pair black and white, next two pair white, as stated ; under parts white ;
crown and sides of head black, with a white stripe over and behind the eye,
another from the nasal feathers running below the eye to spread on the side
of the neck, anda scarlet nuchal band in the ¢, wanting in the @ ; young
with the crown mostly .red or bronzy, or even yellowish. Eastern North
America, abundant. Wing nearly 5; tail 34; bill 14; whole foot 13. Varies
greatly in size, mainly according to latitude. Large whiter northern birds
are— P. leucomelas Bopp., Pl. Enlum. 345, f. 1; P. canadensis Gm., 1.
437; P. phillipsti Aup., iv, 238, pl. 259 (young with crown yellowish) ;
P. septentrionalis Nurt., i, 2d ed. 684 (same); var. major Bp., 84.
Ordinary birds are— P. villosus Wis., i, 150, pl. 9; Nurr., i, 575; Aup.,
iv, 244, pl. 262; P. martine Aup., iv, 240, pl. 260 (young with crown
reddish) ; P. rubricapillus Nurr., i, 2d ed. 685 (same) ; var. medius Bo.,
84. Small southern birds are— P. auduboni Swainson, Fn. Bor.-Am. ii,
306; P. auduboni Truprau, ys Phila. Acad. 1837, 404 (young with
crown yellowish); Avup., iv, 259, pl. 265; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 684; var.
DRC S ey Ge haces, bela cer 3) aes st, ss 6a | WELLOSUS.

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 256

194 PICIDA, WOODPECKERS.—GEN. 182, 133.

Var. HAarRisn. Exactly like villosus, excepting fewer wing-spots; generally none
on the coverts and inner quills; with specimens enough we can see the spots disap-
pear one by one. Generally white below, but in some regions smoky-gray (a thing
not observed in Eastern birds, but apparently due, sometimes at least, to soiling
with carbonaceous matter). Rocky Mountains
to the Pacific. Avup., iv, 242, pl. 261 (dark-
bellied) ; Nurr.,i, 2d ed. 627; Bp., 87; Coor.,
375. P. hyloscopus CaBANIs.

+7 Usually 6-7 long ; outer tail feathers barred
with black and white.

Downy Woodpecker. Exactly like P.

f es villosus, except in the above respects; wing
Bigade0: | Dovwaly, Wicd pecker, under 4; tail under 3; bill about 3; whole
foot 14. Eastern North America, abundant in orchards, and all wooded
places. ‘ Wits., i, 153, pl. 9; Nurr., i, 576; Aup., iv, 249, pl. 263; Bp.,
89. P. meridionalis Swains., F. B.-A. ii, 808 (small southern race) ;
Permedcanus Ups; ibid.” 308... SS eee OS eis

Var. GAIRPNERI. Bearing the same relation to P. pubescens, that harrisii does to
P. villosus, and inhabiting the same regions; the wing spots few or wanting on the
inner quills and the coverts, the belly smoky-gray in some localities. Aup., iv,
252; Bo., 91, pl. 85; Coor., 377. * P. meridionalis Nurv., i, 2d ed. 690.

132. Genus PICOIDES Lacepede.

*,* Three-toed; the hallux absent. Crown with a yellow patch in the ¢ ;
sides of head striped, of body barred, with black and white ; under parts otherwise
white ; quills with white spots; tail feathers unbarred, the outer white, the central
black. Length 8-9; wing 43-5; tail 31-4.

Black-backed Woodpecker. Back uniform black. Arctic America to the
Northern States. Avp., iv, 266, pl. 268; Nurr., i, 578; Bp., 98; Coopr.,
384. P. tridactylus Bonar., Am. Orn. ii, 14, pl. 14, f.2. . arcricus.

Banded Woodpecker. Back with a white lengthwise stripe, banded with
black tips of the feathers. Arctic America into Northern States. P. hir-
sutus AUD., iv, 268, pl. 269; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 622; Bp., 98; P. tridactylus
Swains., I’. B.-A. ii, 311, pl. 56; P. americanus Coor., 385. AMERICANUS.

Var. porsaLis. Back with an uninterrupted white stripe; Bp., 100, pl. 85, f. 1.
Rocky Mountain region. *,* All the species of this genus are unquestionably
modified derivatives of one circumpolar stock ; the American seem to have become
completely differentiated from the Asiatic and European, and further divergence
seems to have perfectly separated arcticus from americanus; but dorsalis and
americanus are still linked together.

133. Genus SPHYRAPICUS Baird.

*,* Tongue not extensible; the tip brushy; hyoid bones short. Birds of this
genus feed much upon fruits, as well as insects, and also, it would seem, upon soft
inner bark (cambium) ; they injure fruit trees by stripping off the bark, sometimes
in large areas, instead of simply boring holes. Of the several small species com-
monly called “ sapsuckers,” they alone deserve the name. In declaring war against

iW ee
e

PICIDE, WOODPECKERS. —GEN. 133. 195

woodpeckers, the agriculturist will do well to discriminate between the somewhat
injurious and the highly beneficial species.

Yellow-bellied Woodpecker. with the crown crimson, bordered all
around with black; chin, throat and breast black, enclosing a large crimson
patch on the former (in the ¢ ; in the ? this patch white); sides of head
with a white line starting from the
nasal feathers and dividing the
black of the throat from a trans-
ocular black stripe, this separated
from the black of the crown by a
white postocular stripe; all these
stripes frequently yellowish;
under parts dingy yellow, brown-
ish and with sagittate dusky marks
on the sides ; back variegated with
black and yellowish-brown ; wings
black with a large oblique white
bar on the coverts, the quills with
numerous paired white spots on
the edge of both webs; tail black, most of the feathers white-edged, the
inner webs of the middle pair, and the upper coverts, mostly white. Young
birds lack the definite black areas of the head and breast, and the crimson
throat-patch, these parts being mottled gray; but in any plumage the bird
is recognized by its yellowness, different from what is seen in any other
Eastern species, and the broad white wing-bar, to say nothing of the generic
characters. About 83; wing 44-5; tail 34. Eastérn North America,
abundant. Wiuus., i, 147, pl. 9, f. 2; Nurr., i, 574; Aup., iv, 2683, pl.
GD seo meer Mats RM) 05. ese oe a ARTUR
Var. NucHALIS. With an additional band of scarlet on the nape, and the throat-
patch more extensive; it is often seen in the 9. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific,
but apparently not exclusively western; I am informed that birds of this descrip-
tion are found in New England. Bop., 103, 897; Coopr., 390.

Red-breasted Woodpecker. Exactly like the last, but the whole head,
neck and breast carmine red, in both sexes; gray in the young. Size of
the last, with which it is said to intergrade, and of which it is apparently
only a variety. Pacific Coast, U.S. Avp., iv, 261, pl. 266; Bp., 104;
ES OOD. os 5s - 1») RUBER.

Brown-headed Ge eee Conceal rinvaace Ecoles ieeded with black
and grayish-white; rump white; middle of belly yellow, of breast black ;
whole head ‘nearly uniform brown; quills sprinkled with white along the
edges; tail black with the middle feathers white-barred ; 9-94; wing 5 or
more; tail 4 or less. Wooded mountainous regions, Pacific slope. Cass.,
Ill. 200, pl. 32; Bp., 106; Exxior, pl. 25; Coor., 393. . THYROIDEUS.

Williamson’s Woodpecker. Glossy black; sides and crissum mixed black

- and white; belly yellow; rump white; tail black, unmarked; wings black,

Fig. 131. Yellow-bellied Woodpecker,

196 PICIDH, WOODPECKERS. —GEN. 134, 135.

with a large oblique white bar on the coverts, and a few white spots on the
edges of the quills; throat with a narrow crimson patch (white in the Q ?) ;
head with a white postocular stripe meeting its fellow on the nape, and
another from the nasal feathers to below the auriculars; size of the last.
Same habitat. A beautiful species; this, and ‘hyroideus, resemble no others.
BD.; Os sCoors. 303mm 6 eo) eo ele oe en =, Sn Sans Nii

134. Genus CENTURUS Swainson.

*.* Back and wings, except larger quills, closely banded with black and white ;
primaries with large white blotches near the base, and usually a few smaller spots ;
below, immaculate, except sagittate black marks on the flanks and crissum; the
belly tinged with red or yellow; 9-10 long; wing about 5; tail about 32.

[ed-bellied Woodpecker. Whole crown and nape scarlet in the ¢, partly
so in the 9 ; sides of head and under parts grayish-white, usually with a
yellow shade, reddening on the belly; tail black, one or two outer feathers
white-barred; inner web of central feathers white with black spots, outer
web of the same black with a white space next the shaft for most of its
length; white predominating on the rump. Eastern United States, some-
what southerly, rarely N. to New England; common. Wruts., i, 113, pl. 7,
f. 2). Nurr.,; 150725 AmD:, iv,.2705 pl. 270); “Bp., 1095 | | osROmmNmEE

Yellow-faced Woodpecker. Extreme forehead and a nuchal band yellow ;
crown with a central square crimson patch, wanting in the 9 ; rump and
upper tail coverts entirely white; tail feathers entirely black, except white
touches on the outer pair; lower parts sordid whitish, becoming yellow on
the belly. Texas, southward. C. flaviventris Bp., 110, pl. 42; P. aurifrons,
WiAcnmR, [sis; 18295 512) Coor..o99.) el) se ee | ADRINRONSS

Gila Woodpecker. No yellow about the head; crown with a square crim-
son patch, wanting in the 9 ; rump and upper tail coverts barred with black ;
tail feathers marked as in carolinus; head and under parts dull brown,
becoming yellow on the belly. Valley of the Colorado and Gila. Bp., 111;
Coopt 399 6 ease a!) 8 ganeecl oe ca #20 eek k OCe Ren U ROPES G Inutine

135. Genus MELANERPES Swainson.

Red-headed Woodpecker. Glossy blue-black; rump, secondaries and
under parts from the breast, pure white ; primaries and tail feathers black ;
whole head, neck and breast crimson, in both sexes, grayish-brown in the
young; about 9; wing 53; tail 3$. Eastern U.S. to the Rocky Mountains ;
California? A very abundant and familiar bird, in orchards and gardens as
well as in the woods, conspicuous by its gay tricolor plumage; migratory “in
northerly sections. Wmuts., i, 142, pl. 9, f.1; Nurr., i, p.—; Auvwb., iv,
274, pl. 2715 Bo:, 113; Coor., 402.-. .. =< « SRYTHROCEPHALUS:

Californian Woodpecker. Glossy blue-black; rump, bases of all the
quills, edge of the wing, and under parts from the breast, white, the sides
with sparse black streaks; forehead squarely white, continuous with a stripe
down in front of the eyes and thence broadly encircling the throat, there

- PLATE Vil.

CAsiect

14,Stumella ludoviciana, 5-6, Golapies auratus -

.
.
- ’ '
'
aes
« F is
.
.
‘

with black maxillary patches, wanting in the

PICIDZ, WOODPECKERS.—GEN. 136, 137. 197

becoming yellowish; this cuts off the black around base of bill and on the
chin completely ; crown in the ¢ crimson from the white front, in the 9
separated from the white by a black interval; frequently a few red feathers
in the black breast-patch, which is not sharply defined behind, but changes
by streaks into the white of the belly. Bill black; eyes white, brown in the
young, which are not particularly different, but have the head markings less
defined. Size of the last. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, U. S., abund-
ant; noted for its habit of sticking acorns in little holes that it digs in the
bark for the purpose ; whole branches are frequently studded in this manner.
@Ass-, Lil ai, pl. 2; Bpo., 114; Coor., 403. . : . . . ¥FORMICIVORUS.

Var. ANGUsTIFRONS is said to have the white frontal bar narrower and the bill
somewhat differently shaped. Cape St. Lucas. Coop., 405.

136. Genus ASYNDESMUS Coues.

Lewis’ Woodpecker. Black, with bronzy-green iridescence; wings and
tail the same, unmarked; face and sides of head dusky crimson; cervical
collar and under parts hoary-ash, becoming crimson or bloody-red on the
belly ; the feathers of these parts of a peculiar loose bristly texture ; sexes
alike ; young plainer black above, with little or no crimson on face or below.
About 11 long; wing 64; tail 43. Wooded and especially mountainous
parts of Western America; a remarkable looking bird. Wmuts., iii, 31,
Des s NUTT. 1, ot ; AUD, iv,.200, pl. 2¢2;. Bp., 115; Couns, Proc.”
ilies Acad. 866,565 Coon.,406. ° . . = = =. . « TORQUATUS.

137. Genus COLAPTES Swainson.

*,* Under parts with numerous circular black spots on a pale ground. <A large
black pectoral crescent. Rump snowy white. Back, wing coverts and innermost
quills brown with an olive or lilac shade, and
thickly barred with black ; quills and tail black,
excepting as below stated. About a foot long ;
wing about 6; tail 43.

Golden-winged Woodpecker. Flicker.
Wings and tail showing golden-yellow
underneath, and the shafts of this color; a
scarlet nuchal crescent in both sexes; ¢

@ ; crown and nape ash; chin, throat and
breast lilac-brown ; sides tinged with creamy
brown, and belly with yellowish; shade of
the back rather olivaceous. Eastern North
America; Alaska (Dail). A very abundant
and well known bird. Wauts., i, 45, pl. 3,
f. ile Nurr., 1; 561; Aup., iv, 282, pl. FiG. 132, Golden-winged Woodpecker.
273; Bp., 118. PAE Rin aaa rece or 3) Ss Ga e SAURAL OSS
Gilded Woodpecker. Wings and tail showing golden yellow underneath,

198 PSITTACI, PARROTS.

and the shafts of this color; no nuchal crescent in either sex; g with
scarlet maxillary patches, wanting in the 9 ; crown lilac-brown ; chin, throat
and breast ash; sides tinged with creamy-brown, and belly with yellowish.
Colorado Valley, Lower California, and southward. Bp., 125, and Proc.
Phila. Acad. 1859, 3023 Exxior, pl. 26; Coor., 410. . . CHRYSOIDES.

Red-shafted or Mexican Woodpecker. Wings and tail showing orange-red
underneath, and the shafts of this color; no nuchal crescent in either sex;
g with scarlet maxillary patches, wanting in the 9 ; crown lilac-brown;

chin, throat and breast ash; under parts shaded with lilac-brown; no

yellowish on the belly. Western North America, Sitka to Mexico. Aup.,
iv, 290, pl. 274; Nurt., ii, 603; Bp., 120; Coop., 408. . MEXICANUs.

Ozs. It will be noted, how curiously these species are distinguished mainly by
a different combination of common characters.— Colaptes ayresii of Aup., vii, 348,
pl. 494; C. hybridus of Barrp, 122, is a form from the Missouri region in which the
characters of mexicanus and auratus are blended in every conceivable degree in
different specimens. Perhaps it is a hybrid, and perhaps it is a transitional form.
According to Mr. Allen, Florida specimens of awratus sometimes show red touches
in the black maxillary patch, as is frequently the case with Kansas examples.

Order PSITTACI. Parrots.

Feet permanently zygodactyle by reversion of the fourth toe; bill short,
extremely stout, strongly epignathous, and furnished with a (frequently feathered)
cere, as in the birds of prey; wings and tail variable. The parrots, including the
macaws, cockatoos, lories, etc., form one of the most strongly marked groups of
birds, as easily recognizable by their peculiar external appearance as defined by the
technical points of structure. They were formerly included in an order Scansores
on account of the paired toes, but this is a comparatively trivial circumstance ; they
have no special affinity with other zygodactyle birds, and their peculiarities entitle
them to rank with groups called orders in the present volume. They might not
inaptly be styled frugivorous Raptores ; and in some respects they exhibit a vague
analogy to the quadrumana (monkeys) among mammals. The upper mandible is
much more freely movable than is usual in birds, being articulated instead of
suturally joined with the forehead; and the bill is commonly used in climbing.
The bony orbits of the eyes are frequently completed by union of the lachrymal
bones with postorbital processes. The symphysis of the lower jaw is short and
obtuse. The sternum is entire or simply fenestrated posteriorly ; the furculum is
weak, sometimes defective, or wanting. The principal metatarsal bone is short and
broad, and its lower extremity is modified to suit the position of the fourth toe.
The lower larynx is peculiarly constructed, with three pairs of muscles. The
plumage shows aftershafts ; the oil gland is often wanting.

‘Parrots abound in all tropical countries, but, except in Australia and New
Zealand, rarely extend into the temperate zone. The Indian and A®thiopian
regions are poor in parrots, while the Australian is the richest, containing many
genera and even whole families peculiar to it” (Newron). The highest authority,
Finscu, recognizes 354 species as well-determined, distributing them in 26 genera;
142 are American, 23 African, and 18 Asiatic; the Moluccas and New Guinea have
83, Australia 59, and Polynesia 29. Ornithologists are now nearly agreed to divide

————————ee

a

RAPTORES, BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 138. 199

them into 5 families. The curious flightless ground-parrot of New Zealand (Stri-
gops habroptilus) forms one of these, Strigopide. ‘The most highly organized
group is the Tvichoglosside, in which the whole structure is adapted to flower-
feeding habits” (WaxLace) ; it belongs to the Australian region. The cockatoos
are familiar examples of a third family, Plictolophide, of Australia and the East
Indies. The great bulk of the order, however, is made up of the other two less
specialized and more generally distributed groups, the Psittacide proper, and the

Family ARIDA,

of which the macaws (Ara), and the following species, are characteristic examples.

138. Gen. CONURUS Kuhl.

Carolina Parroquet.
Green; head yellow; face
red; bill white ; feet flesh
color ; wings more or less
yariegated with blue and
yellow. Sexes alike.
Young simply green. 13;
wing 73; tail 6. Southern
States ; up the Mississippi
Valley to the Missouri
region; formerly strayed
to Pennsylvania and New
York, but. of late has
receded even from the
Carolinas; still abundant
in Florida. Gregarious,
frugivorous and granivorous; not regularly migratory. WILs., iii. 89, pl.
26, f. 1; Nurt., i, 545; Aup., iv, 306, pl. 278; Bp., 67. CAROLINENSIS.

Fic. 133. Carolina Parroquet.

Order RAPTORES. Birds of Prey.

Bill epiqnathous, cered; and feet not zygodactyle. The rapacious birds form a
perfectly natural assemblage, to which this expression furnishes a clue. The
parrots, probably the only other birds with strongly hooked and ¢ruly-cered bill,
are yoke-toed. The Raptores present several osteological and other anatomical
peculiarities. There are two carotids; the syrinx, when developed, has but one
pair of intrinsic muscles. The alimentary canal varies with the families, but
differs from that of vegetarian birds, in adaptation to an exclusively animal diet.
In the higher types, the whole structure betokens strength, activity and ferocity,
carnivorous propensities and predaceous nature. Most of the smaller, or weaker,
species feed much upon insects; others more particularly upon reptiles, and fish ;
others upon carrion; but the majority prey upon other birds, and small mammals,
captured in open warfare. Representatives of the order are found in every part of
the world. They are divisible into fowr families. One of these, Gypogeranide,
consists of the single remarkable species Gypogeranus serpentarius, the secretary-
bird or serpent-eater of Africa; this shows a curious grallatorial analogy, being

—————

200 ; STRIGIDH, OWLS.

mounted on long legs, like a crane, and has several other more important structural
modifications. The other three families occur in this country; and the following
accounts are sufficiently explicit to illustrate the order, without further remark
in this connection.

Family STRIGIDA. Owls.

Head very large, and especially broad from side to side, but shortened length-
wise, the ‘‘face” thus formed further defined by a more or less complete “ruff,” or
circlet of radiating feathers of peculiar texture, on each side. Eyes very large,
looking more or less directly forward, set ina circlet of radiating bristly feathers,
and overarched by a superciliary shield. External ears extremely large, often pro-
vided with an operculum or moyable flap, presenting the nearest approach, among
birds, to the ear-conch of mammals. Bill shaped much as in other ordinary rapa-
cious birds, but thickly beset at base with close-pressed antrorse bristly feathers.
Nostrils large, commonly opening at the edge of the cere rather than entirely in its
substance. Hallux of average length, not obviously elevated in any case; outer
toe more or less perfectly versatile (but never permanently reversed), and shorter
than the inner toe. Claws all very long, much curved and extremely sharp, that of
the middle toe pectinate in some species. As arule, the tarsi are more or less
completely feathered, and the whole foot is often thus covered. Among numerous
osteological characters may be mentioned the wide separation of the inner and
outer tablets of the brain case by intervention of light spongy diploe; the
commonly 4-notched sternum, and a peculiar structure of the tarso-metatarsus.
The gullet is capacious but not dilated into a special crop; the gizzard is only
moderately muscular; the intestines are short and wide; the cceca are extremely
long and chib-shaped. The syrinx has one pair of intrinsic muscles. The feathers
haye no aftershaft, and the general plumage is very soft and blended.

The Nocturnal Birds of Prey will be immediately recognized by their peculiar
physiognomy, independently of the technical characters that mark them as a natural,
sharply defined family. They are a highly monomorphic group, without extremes
of aberrant form; but the ease with which they are collectively defined is a measure
of the difficulty of their rigid subdivision, and the subfamilies are not yet satis-
factorily determined. Too much stress appears to have been laid upon the trivial,
although evident, circumstance of presence or absence of the peculiar ear-tufts that
many species possess: more reliable characters may probably be drawn from the
structure of the external ear, and facial disk, the modifications of which appear
to bear directly upon mode of life, these parts being as a rule most highly developed
in the more nocturnal species ; while some points of internal structure may yet be
found correspondent. One group, of which the barn owl, Strix jlammea, is the
type, seems very distinct in the angular contour and high development of the facial
disk, pectination of the middle claw, and other characters; and probably the rest
of the family fall in two other groups; but I do not deem it expedient to present
subfamilies on this occasion.

As is well known, owls are eminently nocturnal birds; but to this rule there are
numerous striking exceptions. This general habit is correspondent to the modifi-
cation of the eyes, the size and structure of which enable the birds to see by night,
and cause them to suffer from the glare of the sunlight. Most species pass the
daytime secreted in hollow trees, or dense foliage and other dusky retreats, resuming
their wonted activity after nightfall. Owing to the peculiar texture of the plumage

a

ee OS te

STRIGIDH, OWLS. —GEN.- 139. 201

their flight is perfectly noiseless, like the mincing steps of a cat; and no entirely
fanciful analogy has been drawn between these birds and the feline carnivora that
chiefly prey stealthily in the dark. ‘Owls feed entirely upon animal substances, and
capture their prey alive—small quadrupeds and birds, reptiles and insects, and even
fish. Like most other Raptores, they eject from the mouth, after a meal, the bones,
hair, feathers and other indigestible substances, made up into a round pellet. They
are noted for their loud outcries, so strange and often so lugubrious, that it is no
wonder that traditional superstition places these dismal night birds in the category
of things ill-omened. The nest is commonly a rude affair of sticks gathered in the
yarious places of diurnal resort; the eggs are several (commonly 3-6), white, sub-
spherical. The female, as a rule, is larger than the male, but the sexes are alike
in color; the coloration is commonly blended and diffuse, difficult of concise
description.

Owls are among the most completely cosmopolitan of birds; with minor modifi-
cations according to circumstances, their general habits are much the same the
world over. A difliculty of correctly estimating the number of species arises from
the fact that many, especially of the more generalized types, have a wide geograph-
ical distribution, and, as in nearly all such cases, they split into more or less easily
recognized races, the interpretation of which is at present a matter of opinion
rather than a settled issue. About 200 species pass current; this number must be
reduced by one-third; out of about 50 generic names now in vogue, probably less
than one-half represent some structural peculiarity. Notable exotic genera are the
Japanese Phodilus (P. badius), an ally of Strix proper; the Asiatic MKetupa; and
the extensively distributed Old World Athene, in its broad acceptation.

Fic. 134. Foot of Barn Owl.

139. Genus STRIX Linneus.

Barn Owl. Tawny, or fulvous-brown, delicately clouded or marbled with
ashy and white, and speckled with brownish-black ; below, a varying shade
from nearly pure white to fulvous, with sparse sharp blackish speckling ; face
white to purplish-brown, darker or black about the eyes, the disk bordered
with dark brown; wings and tail barred with brown, and finely mottled like
the back; bill whitish; toes yellowish. Facial disk highly developed, not
circular; no tufts; ears very large, operculate ; tarsi long, scant-feathered,
below bristly, like the nearly naked toes; middle claw usually found serrate
or at least jagged; plumage very downy. @ 17 long; wing 13; tail 53;
é rather less. U.S., Atlantic to Pacific, southerly; rare in the interior,

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 26

202 STRIGIDZ, OWLS.—GEN. 140, 141.

rarely N. to New England. Wixs., vi, 57, pl. 50, f. 2; Nurt., i, 139; Aup.,
1, 127, pl. 834; Cass. in Bo., 47; Coor., 415. FLAMMEA Vit, AMERICANA,

140. Genus BUBO Cuvier.

Great Horned Owl. Distinguished by its large size, in connection with
the conspicuous exr-tufts: the other species of similar dimensions are tuft-
less. The plumage varies interminably,
and no concise description will meet all
its phases ; it is a variegation of blackish,
with dark and light brown, and fulvous.
A white collar is the most constant color-
mark. Var. arcticus is the northern bird,
very light colored, and frequently nearly
white, like the snowy owl, in arctic speci-
mens. Var. pacificus is a littoral form,
very dark colored, with little fulvous,
“extending from Oregon northward,
coastwise, to Labrador.” (2idgway.)
Facial disks complete; ear non-opercu-
late; feet entirely feathered. Length
about 2 feet, rather less than more; wing
14-16 inches; tail 9-10. This powerful
bird, only yielding to the great gray owl
in size, and to none in spirit, is a common
painters ase inhabitant of North America at large ; not
} migratory ; breeds in late winter and early spring months, building a large
nest of sticks, on the branches or in the hollows of trees; eggs white,
nearly spherical, 24 by 1§. Whs., vii, 52, pl. 50, f. 1; Nurr., i, 124;
Aup., i, 143, pl. 39; Cass. in Bp., 49; Coopr., 418. . . VIRGINIANUS.

141. Genus SCOPS Savigny.

* Toes bristly.
Screech Owl. Red Owl. Mottled Owl. ike a miniature Ludo in form ;
8 or 10 inches long; wing 6-7; tail 3-34. One plumage : — General aspect
. eray, paler or whitish below, above speckled with blackish, below patched
4) with the same; wings and tail dark-barred ; usually a lightish scapular area:
Another : — General aspect brownish-red, with sharp black streaks ; below,
rufous-white, variegated ; quills and tail with rufous and dark bars. These
plumages shade insensibly into each other, and it has been determined that
they bear no definite relations to age, sex, or season. Parallel varia-.
tions occur in some other species. North America at large; one of the
most abundant species. Wits., iii, 16, pl. 19, f. 1; v, 83, pl. 42, f. 1;
} Nurtt., i, 120; Avp., i, 147, pl. 40; Cass. in Bp., 51; Coopr., 420. ~asio.

———

GEN. 142. 203

STRIGIDZ, OWLS.

Var. kenNicormu. Large dark north-western form; general color sepia-brown,
mottled and blotched with black; 11; wing 7}; tail 4. Alaska to Washington and
Idaho; three specimens known. Extror, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1867, 69; Ib., pl. 27;
Bp., Trans. Chicago Acad. 1869, 311; Coor., 423.

4Var. MACCALLU. Small, pale, southern form; size at the minimum above given.
Southwestern United States. Cass., Ill. 180, and in Bp., 52.

‘

Fic.

136. Screech Owl.

** Toes perfectly naked.

Flammulated Owl. Above, grayish-brown, obscurely streaked with black,
and finely speckled with white; below, grayish-white with some rufous
mottling, each feather with a shaft streak, and several cross-lines, of black ;
face and ruff varied with rufous ; edges of the scapulars the same, forming a
noticeable oblique bar; wing coverts tipped, and outer webs of the quills
squarely spotted, with white, or rufous-white, and tail feathers imperfectly —
barred with the same. 63-7; wing 54-54; tail 24. A small owl with the
form and much the general aspect of an ungrown S. asio, but the feathering
of the feet stops abruptly at the toes. Mexico; North to Fort Crook,
California, where found breeding (Filner). Scu., Proe. Zool. Soc. 1858,
96; Scz. and Saty., ¢bid. 1868, 57, and Exotic Ornithology, vii, 68, 99,
RRO ORE TAO. Vie. el is wos ss Oe hw 6) |URLAMMEOLA.

142. Genus OTUS Cuvier.

Long-eared Owl. General plumage above, a variegation of dark brown,
fulvous and whitish, in a small pattern; breast more fulvous, belly whiter,
former sharply striped, and latter striped and elaborately barred, with black-
ish; quills and tail mottled and closely barred with fulvous and dark brown ;
face pale, with black touches and eye patches; bill and claws blackish.

204 STRIGIDH, OWLS. —GEN. 143, 144.

Tufts long and conspicuous, of 8-12 feathers; ear parts immense, with a
semicircular flap; facial disk complete; tarsi and toes feathered. 14-15
long; wing 11-12; tail 5-6. Temperate North America, common. WILs.,

vi, 73, pl. 51, f. 3; Nurr., i, 130; Avup.,1; 136, pl. 37; Cass. im Bps,
da, COOP., 4262. 5 3 2°. = « = 4. =) VULGARIS var. WIESONDUMUAE

143. Genus BRACHYOTUS Gould.

Short-eared Owl. Fulvous or buffy-brown, paler or whitey-brown below ;
breast and upper parts broadly and thickly streaked with dark brown, belly
usually sparsely streaked with the same, but not barred crosswise; quills
and tail buff, with few dark bands, and mottling; facial area, legs and cris-
sum pale, unmarked ; eye patch blackish. With the size and form of the last
species, but readily seen to be different; ear tufts small and inconspicuous,
few-feathered. Temperate North America, abundant; not appreciably
different from the European. WitsS., iv, 64, pl. 33, f. 3; Nurr., i, 132;
Aup., i, 140, pl. 38; Cass. in Bp., 54; Coop., 427. . . . PALUSTRIS.

144. Genus SYRNIUM Savigny.

*,* Large owls, without ear-tufts, the facial disks complete and of great extent,
the eyes comparatively small, the ear parts moderate, operculate, the tarsi and
toes fully feathered.

Great Gray Owl. Above, cinereous-brown, mottled in waves with cine-
reous-white ; below, these colors rather paler, disposed in streaks on the
breast, in bars elsewhere ; quills and tail with five or six darker and lighter
bars; the great disk similarly marked in regular concentric rings. An
immense owl, one of the largest of all, much exceeding any other of this
country ; about 23 feet long, the wing 14, the tail a foot or more. Arctic
Am., irregularly S. into the northern U.S. in winter. Bonar., Am. Orn.
pl. 23, f. 2; Sw. and Ricw., F- B.-A. ii, 77, pl. 31; Aup., 1, 130; pl..35)5
Nutr., i, 128; Cass. in Bp., 56; Coop., 433. LAPPONICUM var. CINEREUM.

Barred Owl. Above, cinereous-brown, barred with white, often tinged
with fulvous ; below, similar, paler, the markings in Jars on the breast, in
streaks elsewhere; quills and tail feathers barred
with brown and white with an ashy or fulvous
tinge. Length about 18; wing 13-14; tail 9.
Eastern North America, common. WItzs., iv, 61,
pleda, t. 2; Numa.) 135); Ate loa sep lec Ou
Cass. in Bp., 56; Coor., 431. . . NEBULOSUM.

Western Barred Owl. Resembling the last,
but easily distinguished: general: color warm
brown; the white bars above broken into spots
particularly towards and on the head; below, the markings in bars every-
where; wings and tail closely barred. Fort Tejon, Cala.; one specimen
known. Xanrus, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1859, 193; Bp., B. N. A. 1860, p.
vy, pl. 66 (not in the Government edition) ; Coor., 480. . OCCIDENTALE.

Fic. 137. Barred Owl.

PSs.» aceite ae eae

brown and whitish, the throat alone

STRIGIDZH, OWLS.—GEN. 145, 146, 147. 205

145. Genus NYCTEA Stephens.

Snowy Owl. Pure white, with more or fewer blackish markings.
Nearly 2 feet long; wing 17 inches; tail 10. Head smooth; facial disks
incomplete ; eyes and ear parts moder-
ate ; feet densely clothed. This remark- *
able owl, conspicuous both in size and
color, inhabits the boreal regions of both
continents, coming southward in winter ;
it ordinarily enters the United States,
and in extreme cases ranges irregularly
through most of the States. It is not
by any means exclusively nocturnal.
Wirse tv, 05, pl. 32, f. 1; Nurr., 1,
116; Aup., i, 113, pl. 28; Cass. in Bp.,
63; Coor.,447.. . . . . NIVEA. gl

146. Genus SURNIA Dumeril.

Hawk Owl. Day Owl. Dark brown
above, more or less thickly speckled
with white; below, closely barred with

Fig. 138. Snowy Owl.

streaked; quills and tail with numerous white bars; face ashy, margined
with black. Length about 16 inches; wing 9; tail 7, graduated, the lateral
feathers 2 inches shorter than the central. Except in the length of its tail,
which produces linear measurements unusual for a bird of its bulk in this
family, its general form is that of the snowy owl. Like that species, it is +

bird of Arctic regions, coming southward in winter, but its range is more

restricted, rarely extending to the Middle States. It is the most diurnal
bird of the family, ranging abroad at all times, and approaches a hawk
more nearly than any other. Wis., vi, 64, pl..50, & 6; Norr., 1,115;
Aup., i, 112, pl. 27; Cass. in Bp., 64; Coop., 448. ULULA var. HUDSONICA.

147. Genus NYCTALE Brehm.

*.* Small owls with the head untufted, the facial disks complete, the ears opercu-
late, the tarsus longer than the middle toe, the tail nearly even, the 3d quill longest,
the first 5 emarginate; color above chocolate-brown, spotted with white, the tail
with transverse white bars; the adult with the facial area and forehead variegated
with white, the face and superciliary line grayish-white, the lower parts white with
spots or streaks of the color of the back; the young with the facial area and fore-
head dark brown, the face dusky, the eyebrows pure white, the lower parts brown,
paler on the belly, unmarked. (See Rmeway, Am. Nat. vi, 254.)

Tengmalm’s Owl. Warge; wing 74; tail 44, thus more than half the
wing. Bill yellow, the cere not tumid, the nostrils presenting laterally, and
obliquely oval. Arctic America, south to the borders of the United States.

206 STRIGIDZ, OWLS.—GEN. 148.

Strix tengmalmi Aup., Orn. Biog. iv, 559, pl. 380; B. Am. i, 22: pl. 32.
Nyctale richardsoni Cass. in Bo., 57. According to Mr. Ridgway, the
American bird is a distinguishable variety, being darker, the dark areas
larger, legs speckled instead of plain, ete. TENGMALMI var. RICHARDSONIL.

Acadian Owl. Saw-whet Owl. Small; wing 55; tail 23, thus not more
than half the wing. Bill black, the cere tumid, the circular nostrils pre-
senting anteriorly. United States and somewhat northward; Mexico.
Common. Wyctale albifrons Cass. in Bp., 57, and Ill. 187; Coop., 435;
NV. kirtlundii Hor, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1852, 210; Cass., Ill. 63, pl. 11;
Strix frontalis Licur.; these are the young. Strix passerina WILS., iv,
66, pl. 34, f. 1; Strix acadica Nutr., i, 137; Ulula acadica Aun., i, 123,
pl. 88:3 WV. agadica Cass: in: Bp: 583 Coor:, 436... 2 Acanione

148. Genus GLAUCIDIUM Wagler.

*,* Very small; head untufted ; facial disk nearly obsolete; ear parts moderate ;
tarsus fully feathered, toes thickly bristled; wings short and much rounded, 4th
quill longest, the 8 outer ones emarginate; tail rather long, even; claws strong,
sharp, much curved.

Pygmy Owl. Above, uniform brown, everywhere dotted with small
round white spots, and with a collar of mixed white and blackish around the
back of the neck; breast with a mottled brown band separating the white
throat from the rest of the white under parts, which all have lengthwise
reddish-brown streaks ; wings and tail dusky brown with round white spots
on both webs, largest on the inner; under wing coverts white with black
marks disposed in an oblique bar. ¢ 7, or a little less; extent 144; wing
32; tail 3; 9 larger; 74, extent 154, etc. Iris and soles yellow; toes
above, bill and cere, greenish-yellow. The shade of the upper parts ranges
from pure deep brown to pale grayish-brown, sometimes with a slight oliva-
ceous shade. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, U. S., common; a erepus-
cular and rather diurnal than strictly nocturnal species. Surnia passerinoides
Aup., i, 117, pl. 30. G. infuscatum Cass., Ill. 189; G'. gnoma Cass. in
Bp., 62; Coor., 444. . . . . . +. ‘PASSERINUM var. CALIFORNICUM.

Ferrugineous Owl. With the size, shape, and somewhat the coloration
of the foregoing, but readily distinguished: under parts and nuchal collar
much the same, but the former usually with a rusty tinge; upper parts
ranging from the color of gnoma to a rusty-red (the variation nearly as great
as in the two plumages of MScops asio), not continuously speckled, the
whitish or ochrey spots mostly confined to the wing coverts and scapulars,
those of the crown lengthened into sharp streaks; spots on the quills

enlarged into bars nearly confluent from one web to the other, rusty or

ashy next the shafts, white or tawny on the edges of the feathers, especially
the inner; tail in both plumages alike closely and continuously barred with
brown and rusty-red (same as the color of the upper parts in the red
plumage, conspicuously different in the gray plumage), the latter sometimes
fading on the inner webs. South and Central America and Mexico to the

-

|
i
i
'
:
|

STRIGIDH, OWLS.—GEN. 149, 150. 207

U.S. border; Arizona (Lendire). Cours, Am. Nat. vi, 8370. (Described
from extra-limital specimens, No. 58,229, Mazatlan, and 43,055, Costa Rica,
transmitted by the Smithsonian for the purpose.) . . . FERRUGINEUM.

149. Genus MICRATHENE Coues.

Whitney's Owl. Above light brown, thickly dotted with angular paler
brown marks, the back also obsoletely marbled with darker; a concealed
white cervical collar, forming a bar across the middle of the feathers, which
are plumbeous at base and brown at tip; quills with 3-6 spots on each web,
white on the inner webs of all and outer webs of several, brown on the rest ;
coverts with two rows of white spots, brown spots intervening; outer
secondaries with a few white spots, and scapulars showing a white stripe ;
lower wing coverts tawny white, with a dark brown patch; other wing-
feathers dark brown with pale ashy dots near the ends of the secondaries ;
tail feathers with light spots forming five broken bars, and a narrow terminal
bar; feathers over eyes white, with black-spotted shaft; under eyes light
brown obsoletely barred with darker; bristles about the bill black on their
terminal half; chin and throat white, becoming light brown below, the white
forming a broad crescent; sides of neck narrowly barred with ashy and
brown, and breast imperfectly barred and blotched with the same, towards
the abdomen forming large patches, margined with gray «and white ; tibi
narrowly barred with light and dark brown; tarsal bristles whitish; bill
pale greenish; iris and soles yellow. Length 64; extent 154; wing 44;
tail 24; gape of bill $; bill $ high, 2 wide at base. Facial disk imperfect ;
no ear tufts; wings very long, but rounded; 3d and 4th quills longest, 2d
equal to 6th, Ist 3 the 3d; tail nearly even, with broad-tipped feathers ;
tarsus nearly bare of feathers, sparsely bristly, like the toes; middle toe and
claw about as long as the tarsus; claws remarkably small, weak, and little
curved. Colorado Valley and southward (Fort Mojave, Cooper; Southern
Arizona, Bendire; Mazatlan and Socorro, Grayson). A diminutive owl of
remarkable characters, only lately discovered. Cooper, Proc. Cala. Acad.
1861, 118, and B. Cal. 442; Couns, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 51; Lawr.,
roc. Bost. Soc. 1871, p.—; Extior, pl. 29. . . . .°. WHITNEYI.

150. Genus SPHEOTYTO Gloger.

Burrowing Owl. Above, grayish-brown, with white, black-edged spots ;
below, tawny-whitish, variegated with reddish-brown, chiefly disposed in
bars; face and throat whitish; crissum and legs mostly unmarked; quills
with numerous paired tawny-white spots, and tail feathers barred with the
same; bill grayish-yellow; claws black. 9-10 long; wing 64-74; tail
33-4. No tufts; facial disk imperfect ; tarsi very long, extensively denuded,
bristly like the toes. Prairies and other open portions of the United States
west of the Mississippi, abundant; lives in holes in the ground, in prairie-
dog towns, and the settlements of other burrowing animals, using their
deserted holes for its nesting place. There is certainly but one species in this

a ae a

208 FALCONIDA, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.

country ; it is merely a variety of the S. American bird. Bonap., Am. Orn.
pl. 7,f.2; Nurr., i, 118; Aup., i, 119, pl. 31; Athene hypogea and A. cunic-
ularia Cass. in Bp., 59, 60; Coop., 437,440. CUNICULARIA var. HYPOGHA.

Family FALCONIDA. Diurnal Birds of Prey.

Comprising the great bulk of the order, this large family may be best defined by
exclusion of the special features marking the others. There is nothing of the
grallatorial analogy exhibited by the singular G'ypogeranide; the nostrils are not
completely pervious, nor the hind toe obviously elevated, as in Cathartidew, and

other peculiarities of the American vultures. are not shown. Comparing with the ~

owls, we miss their peculiar physiognomy, the eyes looking laterally as in ordinary
birds, the disk wanting (except in the Circus group, where it is imperfect), the after-

shaft present (except in Pandion), the outer toe not versatile (except in Pandion),

and not shorter than the inner. The external ears are moderate and non-operculate.
The eyes, as a rule (but not always), are sunken beneath a projecting superciliary
shelf, conferring a decided and threatening gaze. The bill shows the raptorial type
in its perfection, and is always furnished with a cere in which the nostrils are
pierced. The lores, with occasional exceptions owing to nakedness or dense soft
feathering, are scantily clothed with radiating bristles, which however do not form,
as in the owls, a dense appressed mass hiding the base of the bill. The feet are
strong, with widely separable and highly contractile toes, and large sharp curved
claws — efficient instruments of prehension, offence and defence. The toes are
generally scabrous underneath, with wart-like pads at the joints, to prevent slipping,
and commonly show a basal web. The podotheca is very variable; the whole
tarsus is frequently feathered, and usually partially so; the horny covering takes
the form of scutella, or reticulations, or rugous granulations, and is occasionally

fused. The capacious gullet dilates into a crop ; the gizzard is moderately muscular ;

the intestines vary; the cceca are extremely small. The syrinx has one pair of
intrinsic muscles. There are several good osteological characters.

Birds of this family abound in all parts of the world, and hold the relation to
the rest of their class that the carnivorous beasts do to other mammals. ‘There are
upwards of 300 good species or very strongly marked geographical races, justly
referable to about 50 full genera. In round numbers, 1,000 specific and 200
generic names have been instituted for Malconide. No unexceptionable sub-
division of the family has yet been proposed; and as this point is still at issue, I
deem it best not to present subfamilies. Instead of an attempt in this direction,
which would necessarily be premature, I will endeavor to give the student a general
idea of the composition of the family.

1. The Old World vultures form a group standing somewhat apart from the
others in many points of external structure and habits, although correspondent in
more essential characters. Until Prof. Muxley’s successful exhibition of this fact,
they were usually united in a family, Vultwride, with the American vultures, from

which, however, they differ decidedly, as stated beyond. It is a small group of six |

genera and about twelve species. The bearded griflin, Gypactus barbatus, is conspic-
uous for its raptorial nature. The other genera, more or less decidedly ‘* vulturine,”
are Vultur, Otogyps, Gyps, Neophron and Gypohierax; the characteristic species
are —V. monachus, O. auricularis, G. fulvus, N. percnopterus and G. angolensis.

2. The genus Polyborus (beyond), illustrates a small group of hawks partaking

eee ee ee ert)

te ed Cae

‘ve

Pe

FALCONID®, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 209

somewhat of a vulturine nature; they feed much upon carrion, are rather sluggish
in habit, and lack the spirit of the typical hawks. Details of form vary in the three
genera Polyborus, Ibycter, and Milvago. ‘There are less than twelve species, all
confined to America.

3. The harriers are another small group, in which a ruff, forming an imperfect
facial disk, as in the owls, is more or less developed. It consists of the genus
Circus and its subdivisions (to which some add Polyboroides, of Africa), comprising
about fifteen species of various parts of the world. Our species is a typical example.

4.. The jish-hawks, of the single genus Pandion, with four or five species or races
of various parts of the world, are remarkably distinguished from other birds of the
family by the lack of aftershafts, a special tract-formation, a peculiar conformation
of the feet, and other characters as noticed further on.

5. The genus Pernis is distinguished from ordinary Falconide, in having the
whole head softly and densely feathered. P. apivorus, the bee-eating hawk of
Europe, is the type. It approaches the kites.

6. The kites form a rather extensive group of hawks averaging undersized
and of no great strength, though very active, generally of lithe and graceful shape,
with long pointed wings and often forked tail. They subsist on small game,
especially insects, which they capture with great address. The eye is commonly
unshielded. Besides the genera given beyond, there are several others: Milvus,
near which our Nauclerus stands, of Europe and Asia; the Indian and East Indian
Baza, the African Aviceda, and the remarkable Machaerhamphus of Africa and
Malacca; with the American Cymindis, and Gampsonyx. There are some thirty
species of the group as thus constituted; but some of the genera are questionably
enumerated here. Milvus, Nauclerus, Elanus and Ictinia are true kites.

7. The buzzards form a large group, not easily defined, however, unless it be by
exclusion of the peculiarities of the others. They are hawks of -medium and
rather large size, heavy-bodied, of strong but rather measured flight, inferior in
spirit to the true hawks and falcons, and as a rule feed upon humble game, which
they rather snatch stealthily than capture in open piracy. The extensive genus
Buteo with its subdivisions, and its companion Archibuteo, typify the buzzards ;
they include, however, a variety of forms, shading into other groups. With them
must be associated the eagles; for the popular estimate of these famous great*birds
as something remarkably different from ordinary hawks is not confirmed by exam-
ination of their structure, which is essentially the same as that of the buzzards, into
which they grade. Although usually of large size, and powerful physique, they are
far below the smallest falcons in raptorial character, prey like the buzzards, and
often stoop to carrion. The genus Aquila may stand as the type of an eagle; its
several species are confined to the Old World, with one exception. Haliaétus rep-
resents a decided modification in adaptation to maritime and piscivorous habits.
A celebrated bird of this group is the harpy eagle of South America, Thrasiaétus
harpyia, with immense bill and feet, and one of the most powerful birds of the
whole family. There are several other genera in either hemisphere.

8. The hawks proper are another extensive group, of medium sized and small
species, which, although less powerfully organized, are little, if any, inferior in spirit
and relative strength to the true falcons. Their flight is swift, they capture their
prey in active chase like hounds, and always kill for themselves. The wings are
rather short, as a rule, with the tip formed by the 3d—5th quills, the 2d and Ist being
shortened ; the tail is generally lengthened. The eye is shaded by a bony brow.

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 27

210 FALCONIDZ, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 151.

The genera Astur and <Accipiter are perfect illustrations of this group; the several
other genera usually adopted are not very different. There appear to be about
seventy-five species, of most parts of the world.

9. Lastly, the true falcons are prominently distinguished by the presence of a
tooth behind a notch of the upper mandible, in the foregoing birds the tomia being
simply lobed or festooned, or merely arched. The falcons are birds of medium and
small size (one of them is not larger than some sparrows), but extremely compact
and powerful organization, and bold ruthless disposition ; they prey by sudden and
violent assault, and exhibit the raptorial nature in its perfection. The wings are
strong, long and pointed, the tip formed by the 2d and 3d quills supported nearly
to the end by the 1st and 4th; the tail is generally short and stiff. The typical and
principal genus is Falco, of which there are, however, several subdivisions corres-
ponding to minor modifications. The Australian Jeracidea, the East Indian Jeraa,
and the Brazilian Harpagus, which is doubly-toothed, are the principal other forms.
There are upwards of fifty species of true falcons.

With many exceptions, in this family the sexes are alike in color, but the female
is almost invariably larger than the male. The changes of plumage with age are
great, and render the determination of the species perplexing—the more so since

purely individual, and somewhat climatic, color-variations, and such special condi- _

tions as melanism, are very frequent. ‘The modes of nesting are various; the
eggs as a rule are blotched, and not so nearly spherical as those of owls. The
food is exclusively of an animal nature, though endlessly varied; the refuse of
digestion is ejected in a ball by the mouth. The voice is loud and harsh. As a
rule, the birds of prey are not strictly migratory, though many of them change
their abode with much regularity. Their mode of life necessarily renders them
non-gregarious.

In the following sequence of our genera, the student will observe an attempt to
indicate affinities not only in the family itself, but with allied families, by the
central position of the typical Malco, the series beginning with the most owl-
like form, and ending with the vulturine buzzards. But it is hoped that he will
detect the imperfection of the arrangement, and that his studies will soon convince
him of the impossibility of expressing natural relationships in any linear series.
With this hint, the inviting problem is left open to stimulate investigation.

151. Genus CIRCUS Lacepede.

Marsh Harrier. Adult g@ pale bluish-ash, nearly unvaried, whitening

below and on upper tail coverts; quills blackish toward the end; 16-18; -

wing 14-15; tail 8-9; @ larger, above dark
brown streaked with reddish-brown, below the
reverse of this; tail banded with these colors ;
the immature ¢ is like the 9, though redder,
but in any plumage the bird is known by its
white upper tail coverts, and generic charac-
ters: face with ruffs ; wings, tail and tarsi very

Fig. 139. Marsh Marrier. long, the latter scutellate before and behind,
and twice as long as the middle toe ; nostrils oval, ete. North America, abund-
ant. Nests on the ground. WILsS., vi, 67, pl. 51, f. 2; Nurr.,i, 109; Aup,,
i, 105, pl. 26; Cass. in Bp, 38; Coor., 489. . cCYANEUS var. HUDSONIUS.

ee

i

FALCONID®, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 152-156. 211

152. Genus ROSTRHAMUS Lesson.

Everglade Kite. Adult g blackish; coverts and base of tail feathers .
white ; cere and feet yellow; bill and claws black; iris red; 16-18; wing
133-154; tail 64-74, emarginate; bill about 1, extremely slender and with
a long hook; tarsi scutellate in front, the bare part shorter than the middle
toe; claws very long, gently curved. 9 and young brown, more or less
variegated with fulvous and whitish. Florida, and southward. Cass. in Bp.,
38; Maynarp, Birds of Florida, pls. i, v (in press; best account of the
PANO TONU) Mane Misr Ns us ies iw, Sm eS torg at. SSOCTABIEISS

153. Genus ICTINIA Vieillot.

Mississippi Kite. Plumbeous, paler on the head and under parts, black-
ening on wings and tail; quills suffused with rich chestnut; sexes alike;
young varied with rusty and whitish; 14-15; wing 11-12, pointed; tail
6-64, nearly square. Bill very short and deep, the commissure with promi-
nent festoon; nostrils small, circular; tarsus short, scutellate anteriorly ;
outer and middle toe webbed; claws short, stout, flattened beneath. S. At-
lantic and Gulf States, N. to Illinois (J2idgway). Wrus., iii, 80, pl. 25,
f.1; Nurr., 1,92; Aup., i, 73, pl. 17; Cass. in Bp., 37. MISSISSIPPIENSIS.

154. Genus ELANUS Savigny.

White-tailed Itite. Black-shouldered Hite. Head, tail and under parts
white ; back cinereous; most of the wing coverts black; bill black; legs
yellow; young variegated with brown above, the head and tail ashy. Rather
larger than the last; nostrils nearly circular ; tarsi reticulate, feathered above
in front; outer toe scarcely webbed; claws rounded underneath; tail emar-
ginate, but outer feather shorter than the next. South Atlantic and Gulf
States, California, and southward, chiefly coastwise. Nurr., i, 93; Auvpb., i,
7O>spl. 1G'; CAss. in Bp.> 387; Coop, 488. . . . =. « . LEUCURUS.

155. Genus NAUCLERUS Vigors.

Swallow-tailed Hite. Head, neck and under parts, white; back, wings
and tail, lustrous black. Tail a foot or more long, deeply forficate ; wing
15-18, pointed; feet small, greenish-blue; claws pale; tarsi reticulate and
feathered half way down in front; toes hardly webbed; nostrils broadly
oval. A beautiful bird, common in the South Atlantic and Gulf States, in
its extensive wanderings sometimes reaching the Middle districts, and in the
interior penetrating to Wisconsin (Hoy), Missouri (Cowes) and even Min-
nesota (lat. 47°; Zrippe). Wus., vi, 70, ee Dil hs Die NUE 4, ipo se ED oy
Pe(ceplaloseCass.in BD., 36. « . . y) 2 fs eee -RUROATUS:

156. Genus ACCIPITER Brisson.

*,* Tarsus feathered but little way down in front (in gen. 157 the feathering
reaches half way to the toes) ; toes long, slender, much webbed at base and padded

2, FALCONIDZ, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 156, 157.

underneath ; height of bill at base greater than chord of culmen; 4th quill longest,
2d shorter than 6th, 1st very short. The two following species are exactly alike in
color; one is a miniature of the other. The ordinary plumage is dark brown above
(deepest on the head, the occipital feathers showing white when disturbed) with an
ashy or plumbeous shade which increases with age, till the general cast is quite
bluish-ash ; below, white or whitish, variously streaked with dark brown and rusty,
finally changing to brownish-red (palest behind and slightly ashy across the breast)
with the white then only showing in narrow cross-bars; chin, throat and crissum
mostly white with blackish pencilling ; wings and tail barred with ashy and brown
or blackish, the quills white-barred basally, the tail whitish-tipped; bill dark;
claws black; cere and feet yellow.

Sharp-shinned Hawk. “ Pigeon Hawk.” Feet extremely slender; bare
portion of tarsus longer than middle toe; scutella frequently fused; tail
square. g 10-12; wing
6-7; tail5-6. 9 12-14;
wing 7-8; tail 6-7.
Whole foot 34 or less.
North America, abund-
ZF AN ant. Falco velox WILs.,
: Zi \\ v, 116, pl. 45, f. 1; F.
Z, Wy RN wh) \ pennsylvanicus W1LS., Vi,

“13, pl. 46, f.1; Sw. and
Riow., F. B.-A. ii, 74;

EF Norr:, 1, 87s Aupaeas
BIG AAO COCuETS BBN, 100, pl. 25 ; Cass. in Bp.,
Si MCOOPs, 2400.5. 2 bene co eta : <| \. | RUBSCUSE

Cooper’s Hawk. Chicken Hawk. Pest moderately tnt: bare portion
of tarsus shorter than middle toe; scutella remaining distinct; tail a little
rounded. ¢ 16-18; wing 9-10; tail 7-8; 9 18-20; wing 10-11; tail
8-9. Whole foot 4 or more. N. Am., especially U. S.; common. Bonav.,
Am. ‘Orn. i, 1, pl. 1, £15 Aup., 1,98, pl: 245 ‘Cass* in Bp:, 165 Coors
464. Falco cooperi and F’. stanleiti Nurr., i, 90,91. A. mexicanus Cass.
in’ Bps,-L7i-Coor. 465, is the’ same bird. . =. "2 2"). = +s nGOORPRDE

157. Genus ASTUR Lacepede.

Goshawk. Adult dark bluish-slate blackening on the head, with a white
superciliary stripe; tail with four broad dark bars; below, closely barred
with white and pale slate, and sharply streaked with blackish. Young dark
brown above, the feathers with pale edges, streaked with tawny-brown on
the head and cervix; below fulvous-white with oblong brown markings.
@ 2 feet long; wing 14 inches; tail 11; g smaller. A large, powerful,
and, in perfect plumage, a very handsome hawk, inhabiting northern North
America; the northern half of the United States chiefly in winter, but also
breeding in mountainous parts. Wus., vi, 80, pl. 52, f. 3; Nurr., i, 85;
Aup., i, 95, pl. 23; Cass. in Bp., 15; Coop., 467. A variety of the
European Astur palumbarius? . . . . . . . . . ATRICAPILLUS.

7

oi ras

Airs)"

FALCONIDEH, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 158. 213

158. Genus FALCO Linnezus.

* Tarsus more or less feathered above, elsewhere irregularly reticulate in small
pattern; 2d quill longest; 1st alone decidedly emarginate on inner web.

Jerfalcon, or Gyrfalcon. Tarsus feathered fully half-way down in front,
with only a narrow bare strip behind, and longer than middle toe; 1st quill
shorter than 3d. Upward of 2 feet long; wing about 16 inches; tail 10.
White, with dark markings much as in the snowy owl; or, ash-colored with
numerous lighter bars; young striped longitudinally beneath. An arctic
falcon, of circumpolar distribution, in this country reaching the northern
states in winter. It is split into several varieties which, however, do not
seem to be strictly geographical, and concerning which ornithologists are
singularly agreed to disagree. In var. candicans, the white predominates
over the dark markings, and the bill and claws are white; N. Greenland ;
Iceland; Arct. Am. and Eur. Avp., i, 81, pl. 19; Exxior, pl. 30; Cass.
in Bp., 18. In var. islandicus, dark markings predominate, and the bill and
claws are dark; the crown is lighter than the back, and the dark maxillary
patches are slight; S. Greenland; Iceland; N. Eur. and Am.; 8S. to U.S.
in winter. Cass. in Bp., 13; Exuior, pl. 31. Var. gyrfalco is like the
last, but with the crown darker than the back, and the moustaches heavy.
Other strains are sometimes recognized by name. See Newton, Proc.
Phila. Acad. 1871, 95; Rine@way, ibid. 1870, 140; Barrp, Trans. Chicago
aver ls iy (0 6 De) SAGER (Horst. 1772).

Lanier Falcon. Tarsus fonthered a third way down in front, broadly bare
behind, and longer than middle toe; 1st quill shorter than third. <A foot
and a half ices wing 13-14; tail 7-8. Above, plain brown, the feathers
bordered with rusty, ine nape, forehead and superciliary line white; below,
white, with brown maxillary patches and other streaks on the breast and
belly, the flanks barred; tail barred and tipped with whitish; adult with

yellow iris and yellowish legs; young with brown iris and bluish legs.

Western United States and southward; E. to Illinois (Sargent, Ridgway).
F. polyagrus Cass., Ill. 88, pl. 16; Bp., 12; Coop., 458. . MEXICANUS.

Peregrine Falcon. Duck Hawh. Tarsus feathered but a very little way
above in front, and not longer than the middle toe; 1st quill not shorter
than 3d. Size of the last, or rather
less. Above, blackish-ash, with
more or less evident paler waves ;
below, and the forehead, white with
more or less fulvous tinge, and
transverse bars of blackish; con-
spicuous black cheek-patches.
Young with the colors not so in-
tense, tending rather to brown; the
tawny shade below stronger, the lower parts longitudinally striped. North
America; generally distributed, not abundant. /. peregrinus WILS., ix,

Fic. 141. Peregrine Falcon.

214 FALCONID®, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 158.

120, pl. 76; Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 23; Nurr., i, 53; Avup., i, 84)
pl. 20. #. anatwm and F’. nigriceps Cass. in Bp., 7, 8. . . COMMUNIS.

Oss. JF. rufigularis, a bird of this section of the genus, admitted to our fauna
under the name of /. aurantius (Cass. in Bp., 10; Exxior, pl. 32), does not appear
to have been taken within our limits.

** Tarsus scarcely feathered above, with the plates in front enlarged, appearing
like a double row of alternating scutella (and often with a few true scutella at base) ;
1st and 2nd quills emarginate on inner web.

Pigeon Falcon. Pigeon Hawk. Adult 3 above ashy-blue, sometimes
almost blackish, sometimes much paler; below pale fulvous, or ochraceous,
whitish on the throat, the breast and sides with large oblong dark brown
spots with black shaft lines; the tibize reddish, streaked with brown; inner
webs of primaries with about 8 transverse white or whitish spots ; tail tipped
with white, and with the outer feather whitening; with a broad subterminal
black zone and 3-4 black bands alternating with whitish; cere greenish-
yellow, feet yellow. 9 with the upper parts ashy-brown; the tail with 4-5
indistinct whitish bands; about 18; wing 8; tail5; g smaller. N. Am.,
generally distributed, common. Observe that Accipiter fuscus is also called
“pigeon hawk.” Wiuts., ii, 107, pl. 15, f. 3; Sw. and Rion., ii, 835; Nurr.,
i, 60); Aup.; 1,88; pl. 2; Casson Bp.,99: 2. ) COnmEARioss

Richardson's Falcon. Similar; sexes nearly alike, both lighter and more
earthy-brown than the 9? of the last; head nearly white anteriorly ; streaks
on the cheeks fine and sparse, those on the breast broad and sharp, light
brown, with black shaft lines; tail with 6 ashy-white bands; ¢@ above with
pairs of ochraceous spots on the feathers, and secondaries with three ochra-
ceous bands; wing 9; tail 6; tarsus nearly 1$; @ smaller. Interior N.
Am., especially from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains. Very near
the last; both are very closely related to /’. wsalon of Europe, the fewer
bars of the wings and tail being a principal character. Rip@way, Proc.
Phila. Acad. 1870, 145. /. esalon Ricn. and Sw., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 37,
pl. 25; Nurv., ii, 558; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 42. RicHARDSONII.

Rusty-crowned Falcon. Sparrow Hawk. Crown ashy-blue, with a chest-
nut patch, sometimes small or altogether wanting, sometimes occupying
nearly all the crown; conspicuous black maxillary and auricular patches,
which with three others around the nape make seven black places in all, but
a part of them often obscure or wanting; back cinnamon brown, in the ¢
with a few black spots or none, in the ? with numerous black bars; wing
coverts in the ¢ ashy-blue, with or without black spots, in the 9 like the
back; quills in both sexes blackish with numerous pale or white bars on
inner webs; tail chestnut, in the g with one broad black subterminal bar,
white tip, and outer feather mostly white with several black bars; in the ¢
the whole tail with numerous imperfect black bars; below white, variously
tinged with buff, or tawny, in the g with a few small black spots or none,
in the 9 with many brown streaks; throat and vent nearly white and immac-
ulate in both sexes; bill dark horn, cere and feet yellow to bright orange ;

FALCONID, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 159. 215

10-11; wing 7; tail 5, more or less. North America, everywhere, very
abundant. This elegant little hawk will be immediately recognized by its
small size, and entirely peculiar coloration, although the plumage varies
almost interminably. However the case may be with the West Indian and
other exotic forms, no races have been discovered
in this country sufficiently marked to require
designation by name. But we may, perhaps,
with Mr. Ridgway.(Proc. Phila. Acad. 1870,
149), recognize var. isabellinus, as a Middle
American coast form occurring in the Gulf States,
although of course it shades directly into the
ordinary plumage (no rufous on crown; several
lateral tail feathers variegated, the black zone an
inch wide; black spots on back and sides very sparse; breast ochraceous ;
Q with the black bars above unusually broad, upon a ferrugineous ground).

Fic. 142. Sparrow Hawk.

Wits., ii, 117, pl. 16, f. 1; iv, 57, pl. 32, f. 2; Nurr., i, 58; Avup., i, 90,

pl. 22; Cass. in Bp., 13; Coor., 462. . . . . SPARVERIUS.

Femoral Falcon. Ashy-brown or pale slate, woe to age; forehead
and superciliary line white, deepening to orange-brown on the auriculars ;
two ashy stripes on side of head; wings and tail with numerous white bars ;
under wing coverts buffy with numerous black spots; throat and breast white _
or tawny; belly with a broad black zone; tibive and crissum orange-brown.
Length 15 or more; wing 103; tail 73. A widely distributed South and
Central American species, reaching just over our Mexican border ; it belongs
to the same section of the genus as the sparrow hawk, but is not at all like
this or any of the foregoing species. Cass. in Bp., 11, pl. 1; Dresser, Ibis,
1865, 3338 ; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 42; Coor., 461. FEMORALIS.

159. Genus BUTEO Cuvier.

* Five outer primaries emarginate on inner web; bill high; nostrils oval, hori-
zontal, with eccentric tubercle; feet robust. (Subgenus Crawirex.)

Harris’ Buzzard. Dark chocolate-brown, nearly uniform; wing coverts
and tibie brownish-red; upper tail coverts, base and tip of tail, white ;
young duller brown, varied with fulvous; 9 nearly 24; wing 15; tail 10;
$ smaller. A South and Central American species, reaching our Gulf
border. Very different from any of the following species ; approaching the
Polybori in habits. Avup., i, 25, pl. 5; Bp., 46. uNicrNcTUS var. HARRISII.

** Four outer primaries emarginate on inner web.

Cooper’s Buzzard. Very pale; below, pure white, the tibie tawny, the
throat, breast and flanks with a few dark streaks; a blackish patch on under

wing coverts ; crown and hind neck with the feathers largely white at base,

x

with dark tips and streaks; upper tail coverts white, rufous-tinged, dark-
barred; tail mostly white, with ashy clouding, marked with rufous ;and
darker in lengthwise pattern, and with dark subterminal zone; back dark
brown with an ashy shade; 214; wing 15; tail 9. Santa Clara Co., Cala. ;

” Ae te

216 FALCONIDH, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 159.

one specimen known, which has not been referred to any described species,
but which cannot be considered as establishing one. Cass., Proc. Phila.
Acad: 1856, 253, and im Bp-, 31; Coor.; 4723; 3. 2 <= ‘coorERms

Harlan’s Buzzard. General color blackish, nearly uniform, the tail nearly
concolor with the rest of the plumage, or mottled lengthwise with ashy,
rufous and white, and having-a dark subterminal bar (in the young brown
banded with black) ; inner webs of quills extensively white. Of nearly the
size and form of the following species; tibial feathers remarkably long and
flowing. “Louisiana ;” Aup., Orn. Biog. i, 441, v, 380, pl. 86, and B. Amer.
i, 38, pl. 8; Nurr., i, 105. An obscure species, variously interpreted by
different writers. See Lawr., Ann. Lyc. N. Y. v, 220; Cass., Ill. 101, and
in Bp., 24; Bryant, Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H. viii, 109; Cours, Proc. Phila.
Acad. 1866, 45; Ripeway, zbid. 1870, 142; Coop., 473. Different “black
hawks” appear to have received this name, but Mr. Ridgway informs me that
he believes he has the true harlanii, and that it isa good species. HARLANII.

Red-tailed Buzzard. Hen Hawk. Adult dark brown above, many feathers
with pale or tawny margins, and upper tail coverts showing much whitish ;
below white er reddish-white, with various spots and streaks of different
shades of brown, generally forming an irregular zone on the abdomen;
tail above bright chestnut red, with subterminal black zone and narrow whitish
tip, below pearly gray; wing coverts dark; young with the tail grayish-
brown barred with darker, the upper parts with tawny streaking. A large
stoutly-built hawk; 9 23; wing 153; tail 8$; g 20; wing 14; tail 7.
Wits., vi, 76, 78, pl. 52, f. 1, 2 (adult and young) ; Nurr., i, 102; Aup.,
i, 32, pl. 7; Cass. in Bp., 25. This is the ordinary bird, abundant in
Eastern North America, where it is subject to comparatively little variation.
In the West, a form with the throat dark colored, and the under parts exten-
sively rufous, is B. montanus Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1856, 39, and in
Bp., 26 (but not of Nutra). Coopr., 469; 2B. “swainsonii” Cass., Il.
98 (not the true swainsonii; see below). Another western, melanotic form,
in which the whole plumage is dark chocolate-brown, with the tail red and
sometimes a large red patch on the breast, is 4. calurus Cass., Proc. Phila.
Acad. vii, 1855, 281, and in Bp., 22; figured in Pacific R. R. Rep. x, pt.
iii, pl. 14; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 44. An unpublished variety
from Cape St. Lucas is B. lucasanus Ripaway, Mss. . . BOREALIS.

Red-Shouldered Buzzard. General plumage of the adult of a rich fulvous
cast ; above, reddish-brown, the feathers with dark brown centres; below a
lighter shade of the same, with narrow dark streaks and white bars; quills
and tail blackish, conspicuously banded with pure white, the bend of the
wing orange-brown. Young plain dark brown above, below white with dark
streaks; quills and tail barred with whitish (“winter falcon,” /. hyemalis
Wits., iv, 73, pl. 35, f. 1; Aup., Orn. Biog. i, 364, pl. 71; FF. buteoides
Nurr., i, 100). Nearly as long as B. borealis, but not nearly so heavy ;
tarsi more naked; 9 22; wing 14; tail9; ¢ 19; wing 13; tail 8 (average).
Eastern North America, very abundant. Wrts., vi, 86, pl. 53, f. 3; Nurr.,

at an nT <a. 7

i a

FALCONID&, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 159. 217

i, 106; Aup., i, 40, pl. 9; Cass. in Bo., 28. In adult plumage, this hand-
some hawk is unmistakable; but the student may require to look closely
after the young. The western form, even darker “red” than the eastern, is
B. elegans Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1855, 281, and in Bp., 28, figured in
phe. Rep. x, Cala. Route, pl. 2; Coop.,477. . . . . . IINHATUS.
Band-tailed Buzzard. Black or blackish, upper parts with an indefinite
number of pure white spots; bases of primaries white with black bars; tail
of the adult with three broad white bars, of the young with several narrower
imperfect ones; young varied with rusty? Smaller than any of the fore-
going, more slightly built, and otherwise obviously different; about 18;
wing 15; tail 9. California (Cooper), Arizona (Cowes), and southward.
SotaterR, Trans. Zool. Soe. 1858, 263, pl. 59 (Mexico); Cours, Proc.
emia Acad. 1866, 46; Coor., 479. . . . «. . « « » ZONOCERCUS.
*** Three outer quills emarginate on inner web.
Swainson’s Buzzard. Extremely variable in color, but usually showing

a broad dark pectoral band contrasted with light surroundings, and numer-
ous (8-12) narrow dark tail bars. A smaller bird than the foregoing
(except zonocercus) ; 9 about 20; wing 16; tail 83; g less. Not so stoutly
built; wings and tail relatively longer. Chiefly Western North America;
also, Canada and Massachusetts. It comes nearest B. vulgaris of Europe.
B. vulgaris Sw. and Ricw., F. B.-A. ii, 47, pl. 27; Nurr., ii, 559; Avp.,
i, 30, pl. 6; Falco buteo Aup., Orn. Biog. iv, 208, pl. 872; B. montanus
Norr., i, 2d ed. 112; B. swainsoni Cass. in Bp., 19 (not of Ill. 98);
Coop., 476; Bp., P. RR. Rep. x, pt. ili, pls. 12, 138. JB. bairdit Hoy,
Proc. Phila. Acad. 1853, 451 (Wisconsin) ; Cass., Ill. i, 99, 257, pl. 41,
and in Bp., 21, is the young, differing materially in color. LB. insignatus
Cass., Ill. 102, 198, pl. 31, and in Bp., 23 (Canada; Nebraska; California) ;
Coopr., 474, is a melanotic plumage. wee Ss Aa hee SWAINSONIGs
Broad-winged Buzzard. Above, umber-brown, the feathers with paler,
or even with fulvous or ashy-white, edging, those of the hind head and nape
-eottony-white at base; quills blackish, most of the inner webs white, barred
with dusky ; tail with about three broad dark zones alternating with narrow
white ones, and white-tipped ; conspicuous dusky maxillary patches; under
parts white, or tawny, variously streaked, spotted or barred with rusty or
rufous, this color usually predominating in adult birds, when the white
chiefly appears as oval or circular spots on each feather; throat generally
whiter than elsewhere, narrowly dark-lined. In the young, the upper parts
are duller brown, varied with white, the under parts tawny-whitish with
linear and oblong dark spots, the tail grayish-brown with numerous dark
bars. 9 18; wing 11; tail 7; ¢g less. Eastern North America, and
throughout Middle America to Panama; common. <A rather small but stout
species, with short broad wings, very different from any of the foregoing,
and easily recognized; the maxillary patches are a strong feature. WILs.,
vi, 92, pl. 54, f. 1; Nurr., i, 105; Avp., i, 43, pl. 10; Cass. in Bp., 29.
Falco latissimus Wis., 1. c. (later copies). . . . . PENNSYLVANICUS.

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 28

218 FALCONIDA, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 160.

Oss. I cannot admit Buteo oxypterus (Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1855, 282, and
in Bp., 30; Fort Fillmore, N. M.) as a valid species, although Iam not prepared
to assign it as a synonym of any one of the foregoing. The type and only recog-
nized specimen is apparently a young bird, very near swainsonii, if not the same.
(Compare B. fuliginosus Scu., Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858, p. 356.)

160. Genus ARCHIBUTEO Brehm.

* .* Large hawks with the tarsi feathered in front to the toes; upward of 2 feet

long; wing 16-18; tail 8-10. Four outer primaries emarginate on inner web.
tough-legged Buzzard. Below, white, variously dark-marked, and often
with a-broad black abdominal zone; but generally no ferrugineous. North
America; abundant. The black hawk, A. sancti-johannis, is a melanotic
state, in which the whole plumage is nearly uniform blackish. This does
not appear to have been observed in the European bird, of which ours is a
variety. The name adopted, it must be observed, is not intended to
discriminate this black plumage, but to distinguish the American bird from
the European lagopus, as a geographical race. Falco lagopus Wixs., iv, 59,
pl. 33, f. 1; v, 216, pl. 53, f. 1, 2; #. niger Wixs., vi, 82; Buteo lagopus
Sw. and Riow., F. B.-A. ii, 52, pl. 28; Nurr., i, 97, 98; Aup., i, 46, pl.
11. Cass. in Bp., 32, 33; Coop., 483. . LAGOPUS var. SANCTI-JOHANNIS.
Ferrugineous Buzzard. Below, pure white, scarcely or not marked,
excepting that the legs are rich rufous with black bars, in marked contrast ;
above, varied with dark brown, rufous, and white; quills brown, with much
white ; tail silvery-ash, clouded with brown or rufous. Young duller above,
more marked below, tibize not so strongly contrasted in color. Our hand-
somest and one of our largest hawks, inhabiting Western U. S., especially
California, Arizona and New Mexico. Cass., Ill. 159, pl. 26, and in Bp.,
34; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 46; Coopr., 482. . FERRUGINEUS.

160bis. Genus ASTURINA Vieillot.

Gray Hawk. Nostrils horizontal, without tubercle, upper outline straight,
lower semicircular; 4 outer primaries emarginate on inner web. Adult
above cinereous, darkening on the rump; below closely barred with cinere-
ous and white; tail blackish, with about three white bars, its upper and
under coverts white; quills ashy-brown, with darker bars and much white
edging on inner webs; crown with a lateral white stripe; cere and feet
yellow; 9? 18; wing 10; tail 74; g less. Young above umber-brown,
below white with longitudinal brown stripes ; tail light brown with numerous
dark bands; tibize barred. A handsome species, resembling a goshawk, but
belonging to the buteonine group; admitted to our fauna in 1858 (A. nitida
Cass. in Bp., 35; Coop., 486) upon the strength of its occurrence in
Northern Mexico, but only lately detected in the United States. Illinois,
Rineway, Am. Nat. 1872, 430. 5. Avizona, breeding (Lendire, in epist.).
A. plagiata Souu., Mus. P.-B. Asturine, 1; Sou. and Sary., Proce. Zool.
Soc. 11869, 130. | (Not inithe Key.) )2 2) .) en ee eae ee RGAE

a

FALCONID2, DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.—GEN. 161, 162, 163, 164. 219

161. Genus ONYCHOTES Ridgway.

Gruber’s Buzzard. “Nostrils nearly circular, with a *conspicuous (not
eentral) tubercle; tarsus very long and slender; toes moderate ; claws
very long, strong and sharp, but only slightly curved; tibial feathers short,
close, not reaching beyond the joint; wing very short, much rounded,
and very concave beneath; 4th quill longest, Ist shorter than 9th; tail
moderate, rounded; outstretched feet reaching beyond tail.” No white
about head or neck; general color dark bistre-brown, darkest on crown and
back, below paler and more rusty; primaries uniform black above, below
showing white basally; tail crossed by 7-8 obscure narrow dark bars ;
wing 10; tail 5%; tarsus 2%. One specimen known, supposed to come
from California. Rrpaway, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1870, 149. . —- GRUBERII.

162. Genus PANDION Savigny.

Osprey. Fish Hawk. Plumage lacking aftershafts, compact, imbricated,
oily, to resist water; that of the legs short and close, not forming the
flowing tufts seen in most other genera, that of the head lengthened,
acuminate ; primary coverts stiff and acuminate. Feet immensely large and
strong, the tarsus entirely naked, granular-reticulate, the toes all of the same
length, unwebbed at base, very scabrous underneath, the outer versatile ;
claws very large, rounded underneath. Hook of the bill long; nostrils
touching edge of the cere. Above, dark brown; most of the head and neck,
and the under parts, white, latter sometimes with a tawny shade, and streaked
with brown. 2 feet long; wing 18-20 inches; tail 8-10. Temperate North
America, abundant; migratory, piscivorous. Wus., v, 13, pl. 87; Nurr.,
i, 18; Aup., i, 64, pl. 15; Cass. in Bp., 44; Coor., 454. . MHALIAETUS.

163. Genus AQUILA Auctorum.

Golden Eagle. Tarsus completely feathered. Dark brown with a pur-
plish gloss; lanceolate feathers of head and neck, golden-brown; quills
blackish; in the young, tail white, with a broad terminal black zone.
About 3 feet long; wing upward of 2 feet; tail a foot or more. North

s gs ul
America, rather northerly, in winter south ordinarily to about 35°. Wits.,
miewlo, pl. oo, f. 1: Nori, i, 62; Aup., i, 50, pl. 12. A. canadensis
Paseo. 41) Coop, 449. . . . = « »..» + «+ » CHRYSAETUS.

164. Genus HALIAETUS Savigny.

Bald Eagle. Tarsus naked. Dark brown; head and tail white after the
third year; before this, these parts like the rest of the plumage. About
the size of the last species. Immature birds average larger than the adults ;
the famous “Bird of Washington” (Atp., Orn. Biog., i, 58, pl. 11, and B.
Amer., i, pl. 13, Kentucky) isa case in point. North America, common ;
piscivorous; a piratical parasite of the osprey; otherwise notorious as the
emblem of the Republic. Wius., iv, 89, pl. 36; vii, pl. 55; Nurr., i, 72;
Awp., i, 57, pl. 14; Cass. in Bp., 43; Coor., 451. . . LEUCOCEPHALUS.

220 CATHARTIDA, AMERICAN VULTURES.—GEN. 165.

.

Oxs. The Greenland Sea Eagle, 7. albicilla; and the Northern Sea Eagle, H.
pelagicus (Cass., Ill. 31, pl. 6, and in Bp., 42,43; Extioz, pl. 34, 35), both usually
attributed to our fauna, remain to be detected, the former in N. E., the latter
in N. W., portions. H. pelagicus has 14 rectrices, and is otherwise distinct.

hic. 143. Bald Bagle.

165. Genus POLYBORUS Vieillot.

Caracara Buzzard. Bill long, high, compressed, little hooked, commis-
sure nearly straight to the deflected end; nostrils linear, oblique, in the front

upper corner of the cere, which is truncate and bristly; sides of head.

extensively denuded ; occipital feathers lengthened ; 3d and 4th quill longest,
Ist shorter than 7th; outer 4-5 emarginate; tarsus almost naked, longer
than middle toe. Brownish-black, barred on the neck, breast and most of
the upper parts, with yellowish-white; auriculars whitish; tail whitish,
narrowly black-barred and with broad black terminal zone; primaries like-
wise barred with whitish; feet yellow; bill greenish-white. Length 23;
wing 15-17; tail about 10. Southern border, Florida to California; a
remarkable form, allied in some respects to the vultures. AvD., i, 21, pl.
4; Nurr., i, 52; Cass. in Bo., 45; Coor., 492. THARUS var. AUDUBONII.

Family CATHARTIDA. American Vultures.

Head, and part of the neck, more or less completely bare of feathers ; eyes flush
with the side of the head, not overshadowed by a superciliary shield; ears small
and simple. Bill lengthened, contracted toward the base, moderately hooked and
comparatively weak. Nostrils very large, completely perforated, through lack of a
bony septum. Wings very long, ample and strong; tail moderate. Anterior toes
long for the order, webbed at base; hind toe elevated, very short; claws compara-
tively lengthened, obtuse, little curved and weak. ‘To these external characters,
which distinguish our vultures, I may add, that there are numerous osteological
peculiarities. A lower larynx is not developed. The capacious gullet dilates into
an immense crop. The coeca are extremely small. ‘The feathers lack an aftershaft.

ev ers

Lg

Rha ET LS sae 2 > &

CATHARTID/Z, AMERICAN VULTURES. 221

The American vultures differ in so many essential respects from those of the
Old World, that they should unquestionably rank as a separate family, whatever
may be the propriety of uniting the others with the Fulconide. In a certain sense,
they represent the gallinaceous type of structure; our species of Cathartes, for
instance, bear a curious superficial resemblance to a turkey. ‘They lack the strength
and spirit of typical Raptores, and rarely attack animals capable of offering resist-
ance; they are voracious and indiscriminate gormandizers of carrion and animal
refuse of all sorts—efficient and almost indispensable scavengers in the warm
countries where they abound. They are uncleanly in their mode of feeding; the
nature of-their food renders them ill-scented, and when disturbed they eject the
foetid contents of the crop. Although not truly gregarious, they assemble in multi-
tudes where food is plenty, and some species breed in communities. When gorged,

Fic. 14, Californian Vulture.

they appear heavy and indisposed to exertion, usually passing the period of diges-
tion motionless, in a listless attitude, with the wings half-spread. But they spend
most of the time on wing, circling high in the air; their flight is easy and graceful
in the extreme, and capable of being indefinitely protracted. On the ground, they
habitually walk instead of progressing by leaps. Possessing no vocal apparatus,
the vultures are almost mute, emitting only a weak hissing sound. The plumage in
Cathartes is sombre and unvaried; its changes are slight; the sexes are alike in
color; the 9 is not larger than the g. The famous condor of the Andes, Sarcor-
hamphus gryphus, the king vulture, S. papa, and the following species of Cathartes,
with their one or two South American analogues, compose the family.

222 CATHARTID®, AMERICAN VULTURES. —GEN. 166.

166. Genus CATHARTES Illiger.

Californian Vulture. Brownish-black, lustrous above, paler below;
secondary quills gray; greater coverts tipped with white; bill whitish; head
and neck orange and red; “iris carmine.” Most of the neck, as well as
the head, naked, with scattered bristle-like feathers, and a feathered patch
at base of the bill; plumage commencing on the neck, not with a downy
ruff, as in the condor, but with lengthened lanceolate feathers continued on
the breast; nostrils comparatively small; tail nearly even. Young covered
with whitish down. Largest of the genus; length about 4 feet; extent 9;
wing 2; tail 14; thus approaching the condor in size. Egg white,
granular, elliptical, 43 by 2% inches. General habits the same as those of
the following species. Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, U.S. Avp., i, 12,
pl. 1; Nurr., 1,39; ii, 557; Cass. in Bp., 5; Coopr., 496. CALIFORNIANUS.

Turkey Buzzard. Blackish-brown; quills ashy-gray on their under
surface ; head red; feet flesh-colored; bill white. Skin of the head corru-
gated, sparsely beset with bristle-like feathers; plumage commencing in a
circle on the neck; nostrils very large and open; tail rounded. Length
about 25 feet; extent 6; wing 2; taill. U.S., from Atlantic to Pacific,
and somewhat northward; abundant in more southern portions; resident as
far north as New Jersey. Nests on the ground, or near it, in hollow stumps
and logs, generally breeding in communities; eggs commonly two, creamy
white, blotched and speckled, 22 by 1g. WHLS., ix, pl. 75, f. 1; Nurr., i,
43; Aun. 1,-15; pl. 25 Casss mBp., 45 Coor.,.503. -.. a ee eau

Carrion Crow. Blackish; quills very pale, almost whitish, on the under
surface; head dusky; bill and feet grayish-yellow. Skin of the head as in
the last species, but plumage running up the back of the neck to a point on
the hind head; nostrils as before; tail square. Smaller than awra, in linear
dimensions, but a heavier bird; length about 2 feet; wing 14; tail 3. The
difference in size and shape between this species and aura is strikingly dis-
played when the birds are flying together, as constantly occurs in the South-
ern States ; there is also a radical difference in the mode of flight, this species
never sailing for any distance without flapping the wings. Nesting the same :
eggs similar, but larger, or at any rate more elongate; 34 by 2. Chiefly
South Atlantic and Gulf States, there very numerous, far outnumbering the
turkey buzzard, and semi-domesticated in the towns; N. regularly to North
Carolina, thence straggling even to Massachusetts (Ji/lson; Purnam, Proc.
Essex Inst. 1856, 223) and Maine (Boarpman, Am. Nat. iii, 498) ; Ohio
(Audubon) ; not authenticated on the Pacific Coast. Wus., ix, pl. 75,
{23 Numpad, 46s At. allt, ples (CASS. InebD...o: > ATRATUSS

Oss. C. burrovianus Cass. in Bp., 6; Exttor, pl. 36, a doubtful species, is
said to inhabit Lower California. From various accounts, it seems probable that
the king vulture really occurs on our southern border, but this remains to be deter-
mined. See Bartram, Travels in Florida, p. 150; Cassin in Bp., p. 6; Cougs,
Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, p. 49; Aten, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. ii, 1871, p. 313.

COLUMBIDZ, PIGEONS. 223

Order COLUMBA, Columbine Birds,

An essential character of birds of this order is seen in the structure of the bill:
horny and convex at the tip, somewhat contracted in the continuity, furnished at the
base with a soft swollen membrane in which the nostrils open. There are four toes,
three anterior, generally cleft, but occasionally with a slight basal web, and one
behind, with few exceptions perfectly insistent or not obviously elevated. The feet
are never lengthened ; the tarsus is commonly shorter than the toes, either scutellate
or extensively feathered anteriorly, reticulate on the sides and behind, the envelope
rather membranous than corneous. The plumage is destitute of aftershafts. The
syrinx has one pair of intrinsic muscles. There are two carotids. The sternum is
doubly notched, or notched and fenestrate; there are other osteological characters.
The regimen is exclusively vegetarian. Terrestrial progression gradient, never
saltatory. As commonly accepted, the order is composed of three families. The
strange dodo, Didus ineptus, recently extinct, represents one, Dididw; another,
Didunculide, consists of the only less singular tooth-billed pigeon, Didunculus strigi-
rostris, of the Navigator Islands; the third is the Columbide. Some, like Lillje-
borg, enlarge the order, under name of Pullastr, to receive the Cracide (see
beyond), and Megapodide, big-feet or mound-birds of the East Indies; mainly on
account, it would appear, of the position of the hallux in these families; but the
balance of evidence favors their reference to the gallinaceous birds. ‘There is no
question that the columbine are very closely related to the rasorial birds, but it
seems best to draw the line between them as above indicated; and I shall accord-
ingly close the great Insessorial series with the

Family COLUMBIDZ:. Pigeons.

The family may be framed simply by exclusion of the Didunculide and Didide.
With one exception, all our species will be immediately recognized by their likeness
to the familiar inmates of the dove-cot. One seemingly trivial circumstance is so
constant as to become a good clue to these birds: the frontal feathers do not form
antize by extension on either side of the culmen, but sweep across the base of the
bill with a strongly convex outline projected on the culmen, thence rapidly retreat-
ing to the commissural point. The plumuleless plumage is generally compact, with
thickened, spongy rhachis, the insertion of which will seem loose to one who skins
a bird of this family. The head is remarkably small; the neck moderate; the
body full, especially in the pectoral region. The wings are strong, generally
lengthened and pointed, conferring a rapid, powerful, whistling flight ; the peculiar
aérial evolutions that these birds are wont to perform, have furnished a synonym for
the family, Gyrantes. The tail varies in shape, from square to graduate, but is
never forked; as a rule there are 12 rectrices, frequently increased to 14, rarely
to 16. The feet show considerable modification when the strictly arboricole are
compared with the more terrestrial species; their general character has just been
indicated. The gizzard is large and muscular, particularly in the species that feed
on seeds and other hard fruits; the gullet dilates to form a capacious circumscribed
crop. This organ at times secretes a peculiar milky fluid, which, mixed with
macerated food, is poured by regurgitation directly into the mouth of the young ;
thus the fabled ‘ pigeon’s milk” has a strong spice of fact, and in this remarkable
circumstance we see probably the nearest approach, among birds, to the character-

t 2 :

224 COLUMBID, PIGEONS.

istic function of mammalia. .‘‘The voice of the turtle is heard in the land” as a
plaintive cooing, so characteristic as to have afforded another name for the family,
yemitores. Pigeons are altricial, and monogamous — doubly monogamous, as is said
when both sexes incubate and care for the young; this is a strong trait, compared
with the preecocial and often polygamous nature of rasorial birds. They are amorous
birds whose passion generally results in a tender and constant devotion, edifying to
contemplate, but is often marked by high irascibility and pugnacity—traits at
variance with the amiable meekness which doves are supposed to symbolize. The
nest, as a rule, is a rude, frail, flat structure of twigs; the eggs are usually two in
number, sometimes one, white.

“The entire number of pigeons known to exist is about 300; of these the
Malay Archipelago already counts 118, while only 28 are found in India, 23 in Aus-
tralia, less than 40 in Africa, and not more than 80 in the whole of America.”
They focus in the small district of which New Guinea is the centre, where more
than a fourth of the species occur. Mr. Wallace accounts for this by the absence
of fruit-eating forest mammals, such as monkeys and squirrels; and finds in the
converse the reason why pigeons are so scarce in the Amazon valley, and there
chiefly represented by species feeding much on the ground and breeding in the
bushes lower than monkeys habitually descend. ‘‘In the Malay countries, also,
there are no great families of fruit-eating Passeres, and their place seems to be
taken by the true fruit-pigeons, which, unchecked by rivals or enemies, often form with
the Psittaci the prominent and characteristic features of the Avifauna.” (Newron.)

There are three prominent groups of pigeons. The Treroninw are exclusively
frugivorous and arboricole species, with short, soft, broad-soled and extensively
feathered feet, 14 rectrices, and soft lustreless plumage, of which green is the
characteristic color. These are all Old World; the genera are Treron and Ptilono-
pus, with their subdivisions; ‘54 species are confined to the Austro-Malayan,
while 28 inhabit the Indo-Malayan, subregion ; in India 14, and in Africa 6 species
are found; 30 inhabit the Pacific Islands, and 8 occur in Australia or New Zealand,
while New Guinea has 14 species.” (Wattacrn.) The Gowrine are more or less
terrestrial species, of both hemispheres, embracing a considerable number of more
varied generic forms. In the New Guinean Gowra coronata there are 16 rectrices,
and the head is crested; in the singular Calanas nicobarica, feathers of the upper
parts are acuminate, elongate and even pendulous; each of these is sometimes
made the type of a family. There are several other Old World forms, such as
Trugon, Phaps, Henicophaps, Geophaps, Lophophaps, Ocyphaps and Chalcophaps ;
our genus Starnonas is an interesting American one. The Columbine are the
least specialized and most generally distributed group, comprising numerous species
of which the domestic pigeon (Columba livia) is a type. Of these the Australian
Lopholemus antarcticus, if really belonging here, is one of the most peculiar;
Carpophaga and Turtur are leading Old World genera. The North American
genera, excepting the first two following, are probably Gowrinw in the current
acceptation of that term; but in the uncertainty attending its precise limitation as
compared with Columbine, I shall not attempt to distinguish subfamilies. In gen.
167-8 the tarsi are short and slightly feathered above, a characteristic of arboricole
pigeons; in the rest, longer and entirely naked, as usual in the terrestrial species ;
and in many of these there is a naked space above the eyes. The males of nearly
all our species show a beautiful iridescence on the neck; the sexes are distinguish-
able by color; the young resembles the female.

ee ae Sn eS ee Se ee se

=

|
.

COLUMBIDH, PIGEONS. —GEN. 167; 168. 225

167. Genus COLUMBA Linneus.

Band-tailed Pigeon. Ashy-blue, tinged with olive on the back; head,
neck and under parts purplish, whitening on the belly; hind neck metallic
golden, with a conspicuous white collar; tail with a dark bar, beyond this
brownish-white ; bill and feet yellow, former black-tipped: 9 and young
less or not purplish, the nuchal band often obscure or wanting; 15; wing
84; tail 64, nearly even; tarsus 1, feathered above. Rocky Mountains to
the Pacific, U. S. and southward; common. Bonar., Am. Orn. i, 77, pl. 8;
WNurr., i, 624; Aup., iv, 312, pl..279; Bp., 597;‘Coor., 506. . FASCIATA.

Red-billed Pigeon. Slaty-blue, olive on the back and seapulars ; head and
neck all round, breast and wing-patch, chocolate-red ; no nuchal iridescence ;
“bill, feet and eyes, purple ;” 14; wing 8; tail 53. Mexico, to U.S. border ;
Cape St. Lucas. Lawr., Ann. Lyc. N. Y. 1851, 116; Bo., 598, pl. 61;
MOOR DUS. 9. Geet Un Oe uy ee ae eal Ge ns S FLAVIROSERIS;

White-crowned Pigeon. Dark slaty-blue, paler below ; crown pure white ;
hind neck purplish-brown, lower down metallic golden, each feather black-
edged ; iris white ; bill and feet reddish, former blue-tipped ; 134; wing 73 5
tail 54; Q similar. West Indies and Florida Keys. Bonar., Am. Orn. ii, 11,
pl. 15; Nurr., i, 625; Aup., iv, 315, pl. 280; Bp., 599. LEUCOCEPHALA.

168. Genus ECTOPISTES Swainson.

Wild Pigeon. Adult g dull blue with olivaceous tinge on back, below
dull purplish-red whitening on vent and crissum; sides of neck golden and
ruby ; some wing coverts black-spotted ; quills blackish, with slaty, whitish

and rufous edging; middle tail feathers bluish-black, the others white or

Fie. 145. Wild Pigeon.

ashy, the inner webs basally black with a chestnut patch; bill black; feet
yellow; @ and young duller and more brownish or olivaceous above, below
dull grayish, with a tawny tinge anteriorly, or quite gray; very young have
the feathers skirted with whitish; 15-17; wing 7-8; tail about the same,
cuneate, of 12 narrow acuminate feathers. “Wanders continually in search

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 29

226 COLUMBIDZ, PIGEONS.—GEN. 169, 170, 171, 172.

of food throughout all parts of North America; wonderfully abundant at
times in particular districts” (dudubon); chiefly, however, temperate
Eastern North America; eminently gregarious. Wuts., v, 102, pl. 44;
Nurr., i, 629; Aup.; v, 25,)pl. 2853) Bp:. 600: . MIGRATORIUS.

169. Genus ZENZ{DURA Bonaparte.

Carolina Dove. Brownish-olive, glossed with blue on the crown and
nape; below purplish-red, becoming tawny-white on the vent and crissum ;
neck metallic golden; a velvety black
spot on the auriculars, and others on
_ the wing coverts and scapulars ; middle
7) tail feathers like the back, the rest
7 ashy-blue at base, then crossed by a
black bar, then white or ashy-white ;
bill very slender, black; feet carmine ;
g and young differ as in the wild
pigeon; 11-13; wing 5-6; tail 6-7,
shaped as in the wild pigeon, but of
14 feathers; circumorbital space naked. Temperate North America, very
abundant. Wiuts., v, 91, pl. 43; Nourr., i, 626; Aup., v, 36, pl. 286;
IBDSs GOA qc SP ere te, pak vce asl ees Pac Iebeasi | yo. Maier eee CARON UNEN Ger

Fic. 146. Carolina Dove.

170. Genus ZENAIDA Bonaparte.

Zenaida Dove. Olive-gray with a reddish tinge, crown and under parts
vinaceous-red, sides and axillars bluish; a velvety black auricular spot, and
others on the wing coverts and tertiaries; secondaries tipped with white ;
neck with metallic lustre; middle tail feathers like the back, others bluish
with whiter tips, a black band intervening; 10; wing 6; tail 4, rounded.
West Indies and Florida Keys. Bonar., Am. Orn. ii, pl. 15, f. 2; Nurr.,
i OPByee np Ay ligeialle Pollo eings WO 5 68 5 ek c.g ANAT.

171. Genus MELOPELEIA Bonaparte.

White-winged Dove. A broad oblique white bar on the wing, formed by
ends of greater coverts and alula. Tail feathers, except the middle, broadly
tipped with white; general plumage resembling that of the Carolina dove ;
11-12; wing 6-63; tail 5, rounded. Southwestern U.S. and southward.
Columba trudeaui Aup., vii, 852, pl. 496. Bp., 603. . . LEUCOPTERA.

172. Genus CHAMASPELETIA Swainson. .

Ground Dove. Grayish-olive, glossed with blue on the hind head and
neck, most feathers of the fore parts with darker edges, those of the breast
with dusky centres; forehead, sides of head and neck, lesser wing coverts
and under parts purplish-red of variable intensity, paler or grayish in the Q ;
under surface of wings orange-brown or chestnut, this color suffusing the
quills to a great extent, upper surface sprinkled with lustrous steel-blue

a we UN an ere er err ere. 2. Oo & eee

a

a

COLUMBIDH, PIGEONS.—GEN. 173, 174, 175. 227

spots; middle tail feathers like the back, others bluish-black ; feet yellow ;
bill yellow with dark tip; diminutive ; 6-64; wing 34, with inner second-
aries nearly as long as the primaries; tail 2?, rounded. Southern U. S.,
Atlantic to Pacific, but chiefly coastwise ; N. to the Carolinas, and accident-
ally to Washington, D.C; common. WitLs., iv, 15, pl. 46; Nurr., i, 635;
Aup., v, 19, pl. 283; Bpo., 606; Coor., 516. Var. paillescens Bp., Proc.
Phila. Acad. 1859, 305; Coopr., 517; Cape St. Lucas. . . PASSERINA.

173. Genus SCARDAFELLA Bonaparte.

Scaly Dove. General coloration much as in the ground doye, but all the
body-feathers with sharp dark border producing a scaled appearance ; tail
long and cuneate, with (14?) narrow acuminate feathers, as in the common
dove, broadly tipped with white, except the middle pair; wing shaded as in
the ground dove. Small; 8; wing and tail about 4. Mexico to U. S.
border. Bp., 605; Exutior, pl. 37; Coop., 519. . SQUAMOSA var. INCA.

174. Genus GEOTRYGON Gosse.

Key West Dove. Above, vinaceous-red with highly iridescent lustre of
various tints; below pale purplish fading to creamy; an infraocular stripe
and the throat white; 11; wing and tail about 6, latter rounded. West
Indies and Key West. Columba montana, Aup., v, 14, pl. 282. Nurrt.,
MEECOM DOS Ds sO0(in a 9s ae tsdeuwh o oe, @ = 3 = «© MARTINICA.

175. Genus STARNGNAS Bonaparte.

Blue-headed Ground Dove. Crown rich blue bounded by black; a white
stripe under the eye meeting its fellow on the chin; throat black, bordered
with white; general color olivaceous-chocolate above, purplish-red below,
lighter centrally; 11; wing 54; tail 4$. West Indies and Florida Keys.
A remarkable form, grading towards the gallinaceous birds in structure and
habits ; bill short; wings and tail very short, former rounded and concave,
latter nearly even; legs very long and stout; tarsus bare, reticulate; hind
toe not strictly insistent. Aup., v, 23, pl. 284; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 769;
UCM Se ite taras cs ks lS ) OYANOCEPHATA;

228 GALLINA, GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.

Subclass II, AVES TERRESTRES, or CURSORES,
TERRESTRIAL BIRDS.

This second series includes all living birds, between the Columbe and the Lam-
ellirostres, excepting, probably, the ostriches and their allies. Like the other two
divisions called ‘‘subclasses” in the present work, it is insusceptible of definition
by characters of more than the slightest morphological importance, and conse-
quently has nothing of the taxonomic value commonly attaching to groups so
named. It may be considered, however, to represent the teleological generalization,
that a certain number of birds, differing greatly in structure, are collectively
modified in a way that fits them for similar modes of life—that several different
types of structure are bent to subserve a particular end. In a certain sense, there-
fore the Cursores may be said to hold together more by analogical relationship
than by special morphological affinity ; and among them there is certainly greater
diversity of structure than that existing between some of them and the birds
standing upon the confines of IJnsessores and Natatores. On the one hand, the
gallinaceous birds shade directly into the columbine, while on the other, the
Grallatores are perfectly linked with the Natatores by means of the flamingoes.
As implied in their name, the birds of this series are especially terrestrial in habit,

spending most of the time on the ground, not on trees or the water; although most

of them fly vigorously, and some swim well. A character of general applicability .

is the combination of long or strong legs (as compared with Jnsessores), with the
freedom of the knee and lower thigh from the body (as compared with Natatores).
The hallux as a rule is reduced in length and elevated in position, and is often
absent altogether—a modification rarely found outside this group; the front toes
are generally webbed at base, often cleft, occasionally lobed or even full-webbed.
Excluding the struthious birds, which cannot well be brought into this connection,

the series represents two commonly received orders.

Order GALLINA. Gallinaceous Birds.

Equivalent to the old order Rasores, exclusive of the pigeons— this name being
derived from the characteristic habit of scratching the ground in search of food ;
connecting the lower terrestrial pigeons with the higher members of the great
plover-snipe group. On the one hand, it shades into the Columbe so perfectly that
Huxley has proposed to call the two together the ‘‘ Gallo-columbine series ;” on
the other hand, some of its genera show a strong plover-ward tendency, and have
even been placed in Limicole. The birds of this family are more or less perfectly

GALLINZ, GALLINACEOUS BIRDS. ; 229

terrestrial ; the legs are of mean length, and stout; the toes four (with rare excep-
tions), three in front, generally connected by basal webbing, but sometimes free,
and one behind, almost always short and elevated, occasionally absent. The tibice
are rarely naked below; the tarsi often feathered, as the toes also sometimes are;
but ordinarily both these are naked, scutellate and reticulate, and often developing

processes (spurs) of horny substance with a bony core, like the horns of cattle.

The bill as a rule is short, stout, convex and obtuse; never cered, nor extensively
membranous; the base of the culmen parts prominent antize, which frequently fill
the nasal fossze ; when naked the nostrils show a superincumbent scale. The head is
frequently naked, wholly or partly, and often develops remarkable fleshy processes.
The wings are short, stout and concave, conferring power of rapid, whirring, but
unprotracted, flight. The tail varies extremely; it is entirely wanting in some
genera, enormously developed in others; the rectrices vary in number, but are
commonly more than twelve. The sternum, with certain exceptions, shows a
peculiar conformation; the posterior notches seen in most birds, are inordinately
enlarged, so that the bone, viewed vertically, seems in most of its extent to be
simply a narrow central projection, with two long backward processes on each side,
the outer commonly hammer-shaped ; this form is modified in the tinamous, curas-
sows, mound-birds and sand-grouse, and not at all shown in the hoazin. The palate
is schizognathous ; there are cther distinctive osteological characters. As a rule, the
digestive system presents an ample special crop, a highly muscular gizzard, and
large ceeca; ‘‘ the inferior larynx is always devoid of intrinsic muscles” (Hualey).
Excepting the Pteroclide (?), there are aftershafts, and a circlet around the oil-gland.
Gallincee are precocial. A part of them are polygamous —a circumstance shown in its
perfection by the sultan of the dunghill with his disciplined harem ; and in all such
the sexes are conspicuously dissimilar. The rest are monogamous, and the sexes of
these are as a rule nearly or quite alike. The eggs are very numerous, usually laid
on the ground, in a rude nest, or none. The order is cosmopolitan ; but most of its
sroups haye a special geographical distribution; its great economic importance is
perceived in all forms of domestic poultry, and principal game-birds of various
countries ; and it is unsurpassed in beauty—some of these birds offer the most
gorgeous coloring of the class. The characters of the order have been ably
exposed by Blanchard, Parker, Huxley and other distinguished anatomists. I
will briefly recount the exotic families.

1. The tinamous, Tinamide, are so remarkably distinguished by certain cranial
characters that Huxley was induced to make them one of his four primary divisions
of carinate birds. The palate is ‘“‘completely struthious;” the sternum has a
singular conformation. An obvious external feature, in many cases, is the entire
lack of tail feathers (only elsewhere wanting among grebes) ; in others, however,
these are developed. Confined to Central and South America, and represented by
about forty species, of six or eight genera.

2. The wonderful hoazin of Guiana, Opisthocomus cristatus, is the sole repre-
sentative of a family Opisthocomide, one of the most isolated and puzzling forms
in ornithology, sometimes placed near the Musophagide, but assigned by maturer
judgment to the fowls, which it resembles in most respects. The sternum and
shoulder-girdle are anomalous; the keel is cut away in front; the furcula anchylose
with the coracoids (very rare) and with the manubrium of the sternum (unique) ;
the digestive system is scarcely less singular.

3. The bush-quails of the Old World, Twurnicide, differ widely from other

i

nn

a RN

230 GALLINE, GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.

Galline, resembling the sand-grouse and tinamous in some respects, and related to
the plovers in others. A singular circumstance is a lack of the extensive vertebral
anchyloses usual in birds, all the vertebrae remaining distinct (Parker). The crop
is said to be wanting in some, as is also the hind toe. There are some twenty
current species of the principal genus, Turniz, to which Gray adds the African
Ortyxelos meiffrenii, and the Australian Pedionomus torquatus; the latter is placed,
by some, with the Gralle.

4. The sand-grouse, Pferoclide, inosculate with the pigeons, as the Turnicide
do with the plovers. The digestive system is fowl-like; the sternum in Pterocles
departs from the rasorial type to approach the columbine, the modification being
even more marked than in the next family; the pterylosis is pigeon-like, lacking
aftershafts (Hualey), or having small ones (NVitzsch). The wings are very long and
pointed, the feet short, with reduced hallux, and variable feathering. Confined to
Europe, Asia and Africa: the principal genus, Pterocles, has about a dozen species ;
the only other, Syrrhaptes, has two.

5. The mound-birds, Megapodide, as the name implies, have large feet, with
little curved claws, and lengthened insistent hallux. They share this last feature
with the Cracide (beyond) ; and the osseous structure of these two families, except
as regards pneumaticity, is strikingly similar. Both show a modification of the
sternum, the inner one of the two notches being less instead of more than half as
deep as the sternum is long, as in typical Gallinw. Confined to Australia and the
East Indies; Megapodius is the principal genus, of a dozen or more species; there
are three others, each of a species or two. :

6. The guinea-fowl, Numidide, of which a species, Nuwmida meléeagris, is com-
monly seen in domestication, are an African and Madagascan type. While the
foregoing families are strongly specialized, this one, like the turkey family, more
closely approaches the true fowl, and both may be only subfamilies of Phasianide.
The bones of the pinion have a certain peculiarity ; the frontal generally develops
a protuberance ; there are wattles, but no spurs; the tail is very short; the head
naked. There are six or eight species of Nwmida, in some of which the trachea is
convoluted'in an appendage to the furcula; Acryllium vulturina, Agelastes melea-
grides and Phasidus niger, are the remaining ones.

7. Finally, we reach the Phasianide, or pheasants, a magnificent family of
typical Galline, of which the domestic fowl is a characteristic example. These
birds do not show any of the foregoing special characters; the feet, nasal fosse,
and usually a part, if not the whole, of the head, are naked; the tarsi commonly
develop spurs; the hallux is elevated; the tail, with or without its coverts, some-
times has an extraordinary development or a remarkable shape. There are fifty or
sixty species, distributed in numerous modern genera, about twelve of which are
well marked; they are all indigenous to Asia and neighboring islands, focussing in
India. In the peacock, Pavo cristatus, the tail coverts form a superb train, capable
of erection into a disk, the most gorgeous object in ornithology ; in an allied genus,
Polyplectron, there are a pair of spurs on each leg. The argus pheasant, Argqusanus
giganteus, is distinguished by the enormous development of the secondary quills, as
well as by the length of the tail feathers and peculiarity of the middle pair. The
combed, wattled and spurred barn-yard fowl, with folded tail and flowing middle
feathers, are descendants of Gallus bankiva, type of a small genus. The trago-
pans, Cereornis, are an allied form with few species; the macartneys, Ewplocomus,
with a dozen species, are another near form, as are the impeyans, Lophophorus,

beat penb tS P ee eee

—— eee a a ee Ce es

————

i le

CRACIDH, GUANS. MELEAGRID®, TURKEYS.—GEN. 176, 177. 231

with a slender aigrette on the head, like a peacock’s. The naturalized English
pheasant, P. colchicus, introduced into Britain prior to A. D. 1056, is the type of
Phasianus, in which the tail feathers are very long and narrow; in one species,
P. reevesii, the tail is said to attain a length of six feet. The golden and
Amherstian pheasants, Chrysolophus pictus and amherstie, are singularly beautiful,
eyen for this group. The other genera are Crossoptilon and Pucrasia. New species
are still coming to light.

Family CRACIDA. Curassows. Guans.

This type is peculiar to America, where it may be considered to represent the Mega-
podide, though differing so much in habit and general appearance. The affinities
of the two are indicated above, and some essential characters noted. According to
the latest authority on the family, Messrs. Sclater and Salvin, it is divisible into
three subfamilies: Cracine, curassows and hoccos, with four genera and
twelve species; Oreophasine, with a single species, Oreophasis derbianus, and the

Subfamily PENELOPIN, Guans,

with seven genera and thirty-nine species, one of which reaches our border.

176. Genus ORTALIDA Merrem.

Texan Guan. Chiacalaca. Head crested, its sides, and strips on the
chin, naked, but no wattles; tarsi naked, scutellate ; hind toe insistent, about
4 the middle toe; tail graduated, longer than the wings, of 12 feathers.
Length nearly 2 feet; wing 84 inches; tail 11; tarsus 2§; middle toe the
same. Dark olivaceous, paler and tinged with brownish-yellow below,
plumbeous on the head; tail green, tipped with white except on the middle
pair of feathers; bill and feet plumbeous. Mexico, to Texas. O. vetula
Lawre., Ann. Lyc. N. Y. 1851, 116; O. poliocephala Cass., Ill. 267, pl. 44;
UCT Dsl eee es sys). i shew ts. si ~ | WP UAL

Family MELEAGRIDA. Turkeys.

Head and upper neck naked, carunculate; in our species with a dewlap and
erectile process. Tarsi naked, scutellate before and behind, spurred in the @.
Tail broad, rounded, of 14-18 feathers. Plumage compact, lustrous ; in our species
with a tuft of hair-like feathers on the breast. One genus, two species. MV. ocella-
tus is a very beautiful species of Central America.

-

177. Genus MELEAGRIS Linneus.

Turkey. Upper-tail coverts chestnut, with paler or whitish tips; tail
feathers tipped with brownish-yellow or whitish ; 3-4 feet long, ete. Wild
in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and southward; domesticated elsewhere.
There is reason to believe that the Mexican bird is the original of the

domestic race; it was upon this form, imported into Europe, that Linneus

imposed the name gallopavo (Fn. Suec. No. 198; Syst. Nat. i, 1766, 268),
which has generally been applied to the following feral variety. M.

232 TETRAONIDE, GROUSE, PARTRIDGES.—GEN. 178.

mexicana GouLD, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856, 61; Bp., 618; Extioz, pl. 38;
Coor:, 523. GALLOPAVO.

Var. aAmeRICANA Bant., Tray. 1791, 290. Gallopavo sylvestris Le Conte, Proce.
Phila. Acad. 1857,179; MM. gallopavo Aup., v, 42, pls. 287, 288 ; Nurt.,i,630; Bp.,
615. Upper tail coverts without light tips, and ends of tail feathers scarcely paler.
This is the ordinary wild turkey of Eastern North America; N. to Canada, where
it is said still to occur; apparently extirpated in New England. N.W. to the
Missouri, and $.W. to Texas (Audubon). The slight. differences just noted seem to
be remarkably constant, and to be rarely, if ever, shown by the other form, although,
as usual in domestic birds, this last varies interminably in color.

Family TETRAONID4. Grouse, ete.

All the remaining gallinaceous birds are very closely related, and they will prob-
ably constitute a single family, although the term Tetraonide is usually restricted
to the true grouse as below defined ( Tetraonine), the partridges being erected into
another family, Perdicide, with several subfamilies. But the grouse do not appear

to differ more from the partridges than these do from each other, and they are all —

variously interrelated; so that no violence will be offered in uniting them. One
group of the partridges is confined to America; all the rest to the Old World. The
leading forms among the latter are Perdiz, the true partridge; Cotwrnix, the true
quail; Francolinus, the francolins; with Rollulus and Caccabis. In all, perhaps
a hundred species and a dozen genera. Without attempting to frame a family
diagnosis to cover all their modifications, I will precisely define the American forms,
as two subfamilies.

Subfamily TETRAONINA. Grouse.

Head completely feathered, excepting, usually, a naked strip of skin over the
eye. Nasal fossze densely feathered. Tarsi more or less perfectly feathered, the
feathering sometimes extending on the toes to the claws ; the toes, when naked, with
fringe-like processes. Tail variable in shape, but never folded, of 16-20 feathers.
Sides of the neck frequently with lengthened or otherwise modified feathers, or a
bare distensible skin, or both. ;

The true grouse are confined to the northern hemisphere, and reach their highest
development, asa group, in North America, where singularly varied forms occur.
The only Old World species are—the great Tetrao urogallus, or capercailzie of
Europe, and its allied Asiatic species; Tetrao tetrix, the ‘‘ black game” of Europe,
with curiously curled tail feathers; Tetrao falcipennis of Siberia, the represen-
tative of our spruce partridge ; Bonasa betulina of Northern Europe and Asia, like
our ruffed grouse; and two or three species of ptarmigan (Lagopus).

178. Genus TETRAO Linneeus.

*.* No peculiar feathers on the neck; tarsus feathered to the toes; tail mod-
erate, little rounded, of 16-20 broad feathers. Woodland birds of northerly or
alpine distribution. Our species differ materially from the European capercailzie,
T. urogallus, type of the genus, and might be properly separated.

* Tail normally of 16 (14-18) feathers. (Can«ace.)

Canada Grouse. Spruce Partridge. . g below mostly black with
numerous white spots; above, vermiculated with blackish and slate, and

|
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:
.
|
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Se a Ae i Le

a Re AA

TETRAONIDE, GROUSE, PARTRIDGES.—GEN. 179, 180. 238

usually some tawny, especially on the wings; quills variegated with tawny ;
tail with a terminal orange-brown band, its upper coverts plain; 15-17;
wing 7; tail 5; Q rather less, no con-
tinuous black below, but variegated
with blackish, white and tawny; above,
much as in the ¢, but more tawny. N.
Am., northerly; in Brit. Am., W. to
Alaska; in U. S., W. to Rocky Mts. ;
S. into the northern tier of states;
Maine, and casually to Massachusetts.
Nurt., i, 667; Aup., v, 83, pl. 294;
MeO22. 2) 2...” CANADENSIS.

Var. FRANKLINU. ‘Tail less rounded,
lacking the terminal orange-brown band,
and its upper coverts conspicuously white-tipped. Rocky and Cascade Mts., U.S.
Bp., 623; Coor., 529.

** Tail normally of 20 (18-22?) feathers. (Dendragapus.)

Dusky Grouse. @ blackish, more or less variegated with slate-gray, or
a peculiar slaty-black; throat and sides marked with white; breast black ;
belly slate; tail clouded with slate and black, and with a broad terminal
slate bar; 18-20; wing 9-10; tail 7-8; 9 smaller, not particularly different
in color, but not so uniformly dark, having ochrey or reddish-brown variega-
tion in places. Rocky and other Mountains, U. 8. to the Pacific. Nurr.,
1, 666; Aup., v, 89, pl. 295; Bp., 620; Coor., 526. . . . OBSCURUS.

Var. nicuarpsonu. Tail nearly square, entirely black, or with only a slight
slate tipping. Central Rocky Mountains and northward. Coop., 582.

Fic. 147. Canada Grouse.

179. Genus CENTROCERCUS Swainson.

Sage Cock. Cock of the Plains. Tail very long, equalling or exceeding
the wings, of twenty stiffened, graduated, narrowly acuminate feathers ;
sides of lower neck with a patch of peculiar sharp scaly feathers, the shafts
of which terminate in bristly filaments, sometimes 3-4 inches long in the
@ ; tarsi full feathered. Very large; two feet or more long, wing and tail
each about a foot; ¢ much smaller. Above, variegated with black, gray
and tawny ; below, a large black abdominal patch in the adult. Confined to
the sterile plains and ‘sage-brush (Artemisia) tracts of Western U.S. ;
S. to about 35° (Mojave river; Cooper). Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 358,
pl. 58; Nurr., i, 666; Aup., v, 106, pl. 297; Bp., 624. UROPHASIANUS.

180. Genus PEDIG:CETES Baird.

*,* Neck without peculiar feathers; tail very short, of sixteen narrow, soft, true
rectrices, and a middle pair, apparently developed coverts, projecting an inch
beyond the rest; tarsi fully feathered. Length about 18; wing 8-9; tail 5-6.
Below, white, with numerous dark marks; above, variegated with blackish and
white, or tawny; quills dusky, with white or tawny spots on the outer web;
central tail feathers like the back, others white on the inner web. Sexes alike.

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 30

234 TETRAONIDA, GROUSE, PARTRIDGES. —GEN. 181.

Northern Sharp-tailed Grouse. The markings black, white and dark
brown, with little or no tawny ; spots on the under parts numerous, blackish,
V-shaped; throat white, speckled. Arctic America; not S. to the U.S.
Tetrao phasianellus Linn., Syst. Nat. i, 160; Exxror, Proc. Phila. Acad.
1862, 403. P. kennicottii Suckuery, ibid. 1861, 361. . PHASIANELLUS.

Var. cotumBianus. Common Sharp-tailed Grouse. The markings black, white,
and especially tawny; below, the spots fewer, brown, U-shaped; throat buff.
T. phasianellus Nutr., 1, 669; Avp., v, 110, pl. 298. Bp., 626. P. columbianus
Extror, J. c.; Coop., 532. This is the ordinary U.S. bird, abundant on the prairies
from Wisconsin and Kansas westward. It is accurately discriminated from the
dark northern form by Dr. Suckley and Mr. Elliot, who, however, incorrectly
suppose that the two forms are distinct species; they are geographical races
differing from each other according to well known laws of climatic variation.

181. Genus CUPIDONIA Reichenbach.

Pinnated Grouse. Prairie Hen. Neck with a peculiar tuft of loose,
lengthened, acuminate feathers, beneath which is a patch of bare, brightly
colored skin, capable of great distension; tail short, rounded, of eighteen
stiffish, not acuminate, feathers; tarsi barely feathered to the toes. Length
16-18; wing 8-9; tail about 5. Above, variegated with black, brown,
tawny or ochrey, and white, the latter especially on the wings; below,
pretty regularly barred with dark brown, white and tawny; throat tawny,
a little speckled, or not; vent and crissum mostly white ; quills fuscous, with
white spots on the outer webs; tail fuscous, with narrow or imperfect white
or tawny bars and tips; sexes alike in color, but 9 smaller, with shorter

Fic. 148, Foot of Prairie Hen.

neck-tufts. This well known bird formerly ranged across the United States,
in open country, from the Atlantic to the Eastern foothills of the Rocky
Mountains, and now abounds on the prairies, from Illinois and Wisconsin,
to Middle Kansas at least, if not found on the dryer plains westward. It
has been almost extirpated in the Middle and Eastern States, though
it still occurs sparingly in isolated localities in New York, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Long Island, Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard, etc. Its
abundance, and the excellence of its flesh, render it an object of commercial
importance. Though there may be little probability of its extinction, legis-
lation against its wanton or ill-timed destruction would be a measure of
obvious propriety. Whus., iii, 104, pl. 27; Nurv., i, 662; Aun., v, 93,
ple 296 3 BD O28 05. oie vy os tele ee ee eh ees Pee TIIOE

TETRAONID®, GROUSE, PARTRIDGES. —GEN. 182, 183. 235

182. Genus BONASA Stephens.

Ruffed Grouse. Partridge; New England and Middle States. Pheasant ;
Southern States. Sides of the neck with a tuft of numerous (15-30),
broad, soft, glossy-black feathers ; head with a full soft crest ; tail about as
long as the wings, amply rounded, of (normally) eighteen soft broad
feathers ; tarsi naked below. Length
16-18; wing 7-8. Sexes nearly
alike; variegated reddish- or gray-
ish-brown, the back with numerous, ‘
oblong, pale, black-edged spots;
below, whitish barred with brown; £—
tail with a broad subterminal black
zone, and tipped with gray. A
woodland bird, like the species of
Tetrao, abundantly distributed over
Eastern North America, well known
under the above names in different sections; but it is neither a partridge nor
a pheasant. The “drumming” sound for which this bird is noted, is not
vocal, as some suppose, but is produced by rapidly beating the wings
together, or against some hard object, as a fallen log. Wus., vi, 46, pl.
FUSE NULT., 1, 00%; AUD., Vv, pl. 293, (2; Bp., 630: . . . UMBELLUS.

Var. umMBeLtLorpes. Pale; slaty-gray the prevailing shade. Rocky Mountain
region. Dovexas, Linn. Trans. xvi, 1829, 148; Bp., 925.

_ Var. sABineri. Dark; chestnut-brown the prevailing shade. Pacific Coast
region. Doveuras, ibid. 1387; Bp., 631; Coor., 540.

Fic. 149. Ruffed Grouse.

*183. Genus LAGOPUS Vieillot.

*.* No peculiar feathers on neck; tarsi and toes densely feathered ; tail short,
little rounded, normally-of 14 broad feathers, with long upper coverts, some of
which resemble rectrices. Boreal and alpine grouse, shaped nearly as in Canace,
remarkable for the seasonal changes of plumage, becoming in winter snow-white.
There are only five or six species, at most, and probably fewer; we certainly

have the three here given:

Willow Ptarmigan. Tail black; no black stripe on head; bill very
stout, culmen 3, or more, its depth at base as much as the distance from
nasal fossa to.tip. In summer, the fore parts rich chestnut or orange-brown,
; variegated with blackish, the upper parts and sides barred with blackish,
tawny and white; most other parts white. 15-17; wing 8; tail 5. British
America, into northernmost U.S. Nurr., i, 674; Aup., v, 114, pl. 299;
Bp., 633. JZ. salceti Sw. and Ricu., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 351. . . ALBUS.

Lock Ptarmigan. Tail black; g with a black transocular stripe; bill
slenderer, culmen about 3, deptlrat base less than distance from nasal fossa
to tip. In summer, the general plumage irregularly banded with black,
reddish-yellow, and white. Rather smaller than the foregoing. Arctic

a

236 TETRAONIDEH, GROUSE, PARTRIDGES.—GEN. 184.

America. Sw. and Ricn., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 354, pl. 64; Nurr., i, 610;
Aup., v, 122, pl. 801; Bp., 635. ?Z. americanus Aup., v, 119, pl. 3005
based on Z. mutus Sw. and Ricu., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 350. . RUPESTRIS.

White-tailed Ptarmigan. Tail white at all seasons; in winter, no black
anywhere ; in summer, barred with dark brown and ochrey; bill slender,
and other proportions nearly as in the last. A species of alpine distribution
in western North America, from the Arctic regions to New Mexico (lat. 37°).
Sw. and Ricu., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 356, pl. 63; Nurr., i, 612; Aun., v,
125; pl..302; Bp:,636:5) Goor., 542. (55 2. 6. | eS REUCURGR.

Subfamily ODONTOPHORINE. American Partridges.

Head completely feathered, and usually crested, the crest frequently assuming a
remarkable shape. Nasal fosse not filled with feathers, the nostrils covered with
a naked scale. Tarsi and toes naked, the latter scarcely or not fringed.

Our partridges may be distinguished, among American Galline, by the foregoing
characters, but not from those of the Old World; and it is highly improbable that,
as a group, they are separable from all the forms of the latter by any decided
peculiarities. I find that the
principal supposed character,
namely, a toothing of the under
mandible, is very faintly indicated
in some forms, and entirely want-
ing in others. Pending final issue,
however, it is expedient to recog-
nize the group, so strictly limited
geographically, if not otherwise.
Several beautiful and important
genera occur within our limits, but these partridges are most numerous in species
in Central and South America. Odontophorus is the leading genus, with perhaps
15 species ; Hupsychortyx and Dendrortyx are other extra-limital forms ; and in all,
some forty-odd species are known. In habits, they agree more or less completely
with the well known bob-white. Our species are apparently monogamous, and go
in small flocks, called ‘‘coveys,” usually consisting of the members of one family ;
they are terrestrial, but take to the trees on occasion; nest on the ground, laying
numerous white or speckled eggs; are chiefly granivorous, but also feed on buds,
soft fruits, and insects ; and are non-migratory.

Fic. 150. Foot and bill of Partridge.

184. Genus ORTYX Stephens.

Virginia Partridge, or Quail. Bob-white. Quail; New England and
Middle States, wherever the ruffed grouse is called “partridge.” Partridge ;
Southern States, wherever the ruffed grouse is called “pheasant.” Coronal
feathers somewhat lengthened, and erectile, but hardly forming a true crest.
Forehead, superciliary line and throat, white, bordered with black; crown,
neck all round, and upper part of breast, brownish-red, other under parts
tawny-whitish, all with more or fewer doubly crescentic black bars; sides
broadly streaked with brownish-red; upper parts variegated with chestnut,
black, gray and tawny, the latter edging the inner quills. 9 known by

TETRAONIDEH, GROUSE, PARTRIDGES. —GEN. 185, 186. 237

having the throat buff instead of white, less black about the fore parts, and
general colors less intense; rather smaller than the g. 9-10; wing 44-5;
tail 23-3. Eastern United States to high central plains; the characteristic
game bird of this country. Eggs white. Wuts., vi, 21, pl. 47; Nurt., i,
Pee UD: nV ,0005) Dl.e2Ouise DD, 6405: ls os) eo tte ces SVIRGINEANUS.

Var. FLORIDANUS Cougs, 7. v. Rather smaller, the ¢ about the size of the?
virginianus, but bill relatively larger, and jet-black; colors darker, all the black
markings heavier. Florida (Allen) ; an approach to the Cuban form (0. cubanensis).

Var. TExANUS Lawr., Ann. Lyc. N. Y., vi, 1853, 1; Bpo., 641. Size of florida-
nus; colors paler, the prevailing shade rather gray than brown; upper parts much
variegated with tawny. Texas.

Ozs. Among the thousands of bob-whites yearly destroyed, albinotic or melan-
otic, and other abnormally colored specimens, are frequently found; but the
percentage of these cases is nothing unusual, and the sportsman must be cautioned
against supposing that such birds have any status, in a scientific point of view,
beyond their illustration of certain perfectly well known variations. Such speci-
meus, however, are interesting and valuable, and should always be preserved.

185. Genus OREORTYX Baird.

Plumed Partridge. Mountain Quail of the Californians. With an
arrowy crest of two slender “keeled feathers, 3-4 inches long in the g
when fully developed, shorter in the 9. An
elegant species, much larger than the bob-
white, inhabiting the mountainous parts of
California and Oregon. A foot long; wing
over 5 inches; tail over 3; whole foot about
3; Qrather less. Hinder half of body above,
with wings and tail, rich dark olive-brown,
the inner edges of the inner quills brownish-
white; hinder half below purplish-chestuut,
barred with white, black and tawny; fore
parts above and below slaty-blue (above :
more or less glossed with olive, below finely : :
marbled with black), the chin and throat eal
purplish-chestnut, edged with black and EsGe dp es Murad t erenaee,
bounded by a white stripe meeting its fellow under the bill; 9 sufficiently
similar. AvuD., v, 69, pl. 291; Nutr., i, 2d ed. 791; Bop., 642; Coor.,
SE to ct earae Mace ob ioe sg sy, Maske. os e PIOLUS:

186. Genus LOPHORTYX Bonaparte.

*,* With an elegant crest, recurved helmet-wise, of several (6-10) keeled,
clubbed, glossy black imbricated feathers, more than an inch long when fully
developed; in the ¢, smaller, of fewer feathers. Bulk of the bob-white, but
longer; 10-111; wing 4 or more; tail 3 or more. @ with the chin and throat
_ jet-black, sharply bordered with white; a white line across the vertex and along
the sides of the crown, bordered behind by black; 9 without these head-markings.

238 TETRAONIDEH, GROUSE, PARTRIDGES.—GEN. 187.

Californian Partridge. Valley Quail of the Californians. @ with a
small white line from bill to eye; forehead whitish with black lines; occiput
smoky-brown; nuchal and cervical feathers with very dark edging and shaft
lines, and fine whitish speckling; general color of upper parts ashy with
strong olive-brown gloss, the edging of the inner quills brownish-orange ;
fore breast slaty-blue; under parts tawny deepening centrally into rich
golden-brown or orange-chestnut, all the feathers sharply edged with jet-
black; sides like the back, with sharp white stripes; vent, flanks and cris-
sum tawny, with dark stripes. Besides lacking the definite head-markings,
the @ wants the rich sienna color of the under parts, which are whitish or
tawny, with black semicircles as in the ¢ ; the breast is olive-gray. Lower
portions of California and Oregon, East nearly to the Colorado River;
abundant. Eggs of this and the next species speckled. Aup., v, 67,
pl. 290; Nurr., i, 2d ed. 789; Bp., 644; Coor., 549. . CALIFORNICUS.

Gambel’s Partridge. Arizona Quail. @ without white loral line; fore-
head black with whitish lines ; occiput chest-
nut; nuchal and cervical feathers with dark
shaft lines, but few dark edgings or none,
and no white speckling; general color of
upper parts clear ash, the edging of the
inner quills white; fore breast like the back ;
under parts whitish, middle of belly with a
large jet-black patch; sides rich purplish-
chestnut with sharp white stripes; vent,
flanks and crissum white with dusky streaks.
Besides lacking the definite head-markings,
the @ wants the black abdominal area, where
the feathers are whitish with dark lengthwise
touches. New Mexico and Arizona, both in
mountains and valleys, very abundant; E.
\ to Pecos and San Elizario, Texas, beyond

FIG. 152. “Gambel’s Partridge. which replaced by the Massena partridge ;
W. to Colorado R. and slightly beyond; N. to 35° and probably a little
further; S. into Mexico. Cass., Ill. 45, pl. 9; Couns, Proc. Phila. Acad.
1866, 59, and Ibis, 1866, 46; Bp., 645; Coop., 553.. . . . GAMBELII.

187. Genus CALLIPEPLA Wagler.

Scaled Partridge. Blue Quail. With a short, full, soft crest. Grayish-
blue, paler below, in places with a brownish shade, the sides with white
stripes, nearly the whole plumage marked with semicircular black edging of
the feathers, producing a scaled appearance ; inner edges of inner quills, and
end of crest, whitish; crissum rusty with dark streaks. 9 not particularly
different. 9-10; wing 5; tail4. Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and south-
ward. Cass., Ill. 129, pl. 19; Bp., 646; Coop., 556. . . SQUAMATA.

— i er ee | ae

GRALLATORES, WADING BIRDS.—GEN. 188. 239

188. Genus CYRTONYX Gould.

Massena Partridge. with the head singularly striped with black and
white; the upper parts variegated with black, white and tawny, and with
paired black spots on the wings; below -
velvety black, purplish-chestnut along
the middle line, and with numerous
sharp circular white spots; 9-10 long;
wing 6; tail 24; tarsus 1}. 9 smaller,
and entirely different in color, but
easily recognized by the peculiar generic
characters; tail very short, soft, almost
hidden by its coverts; wing coverts
and inner quills highly developed ;_ toes
short; claws very large; head with a

short, full, soft, occipital crest. Texas, Fic. 153. Massena Partridge.
New Mexico, Arizona and southward. N. at least to 35°. Cass., Ill. 21,
Sereemnp,, 6475 COOP., 598. - . « + + + + + + + + MASSENA.

Oss. The Welcome Partridge, Zupsychortyx cristatus (Ortyx neorenus AvD., Vv,
71, pl. 292) and several other species, have been admitted to our fauna upon
unsatisfactory evidence, or erroneous reports. Some of them, however, may yet be
found over our Mexican border.

Order GRALLATORES. Wading Birds.

A character of nearly unexceptional applicability is nakedness of the leg above
the heel, or tibio-tarsal joint (suffrago). The bare space is generally of consider-
able length, but in several genera the ends of the feathers reach to the joint, while
in others the tibize are completely feathered. The legs are usually long; as a rule
the neck is lengthened pari passu; and the length of the bill is also in some
measure correspondent. In its current acceptation, the order does not appear suscep-
tible of further, or of any very exact, definition. Besides its several leading and
characteristic groups, it contains a number of singular outlying forms, mostly
represented each by a single genus, the location of which has not been satisfactorily
determined. Present indications are, however, that all the grallatorial birds will
fall in one or another of three groups, to be conventionally designated as sub-
orders. All of these occur in this country; their nature may be approximately
indicated, as follows : —

I. LIMICOLZ. Shore-birds. Commonly known as the great ‘‘ plover-snipe
group,” from the circumstance that the pluvialine and scolopacine birds form the
bulk of the division. The species average of small size, with rounded or depressed
(never extremely compressed) body, and live in open places on the ground, usually
by the water’s edge. With rare exceptions, the head is completely feathered; the
general pterylosis is of a nearly uniform pattern. The osteological characters are
shared to some extent by certain swimming birds, as gulls and auks; the palate is
schizognathous ; the carotids are double; the syringeal muscles, not more than one
pair. The physiological nature is precocial; the eggs, averaging four, as a rule
are laid on the ground in a rude nest or bare depression ; the young hatch clothed

240 GRALLATORES, WADING BIRDS.

and able to run about. The food is insects, worms, and other small or soft animals,
either picked up from the surface, or probed for in soft sand or mud, or forced to
rise by stamping with the feet on the ground; from this latter circumstance, the
birds have been named Calcatores (stampers). With a few exceptions, the wing is
long, thin, flat and pointed, with narrow stiff primaries, rapidly graduated from 1st
to 10th; secondaries in turn rapidly lengthening from without inward, the posterior
border of the wing thus showing two salient points separated by a deep emargina-
tion. The tail, never long, is commonly quite short, and has from 12 (the usual
number) up to 20 or even 26 feathers (in a remarkable group of snipe). The legs
are commonly lengthened, sometimes extremely so, rarely quite short, and are
usually slender; they are indifferently scutellate or reticulate, or both. The
feathers rarely reach the suffrago. The toes are short (as compared with the case
of herons and rails, of the next group), the anterior usually semipalmate, fre-
quently cleft to the base, rarely palmate or lobate; the hinder is always short and
elevated, or absent. The bill varies much in length and contour, but is almost
always slender, contracted from the frontal region of the skull, and as long as, or
much longer than, the head, representing the ‘‘ pressirostral” and “ longirostral”
types of Cuvier. Furthermore, it is generally in large part, if not entirely, covered
with softish skin, often membranous and sensitive to the very tip, and only rarely
hard throughout. The nostril is generally a slit in the membranous part, and
probably never feathered.

Most of the families of this division are well represented in this country, and
will be found fully characterized beyond. The extra-limital ones are: — Otidide,
bustards, an important group of Europe, Asia and Africa, containing some 20
species; it has a certain gallinaceous bent, and stands, like the Turnicide, near the
boundary line of the two orders. The remarkable genus Chionis, of two South
American species, forms the family Chionidce (or sheath-bills, so called because the
bill is invested by a horny sheath forming a false cere), with some gallinaceous rela-
tionships, and appears to belong here, near the oyster-catchers. The Thinocoride,
or ‘ lark-partridges,” as they are called, consisting of the South American genera
Thinocorus and Attagis, of few species, appear to be plover-like birds, near the
elareoline group of the latter. The singular African Dromas ardeola, representing
a family Dromadidce, of uncertain position, is sometimes placed near the avocets,
sometimes with the herons, and is occasionally removed to another order.

II. HERODIONES. Herons and their allies. The species average of large
size, some of them standing amongst the tallest of birds (excepting ostriches).
The body is usually compressed ; the legs, neck and bill are commonly extremely
long. The general pterylosis is peculiar, in the presence, nearly throughout the
croup, of the remarkable powder down tracts, and in some other respects. A part,
if not the whole of the head, is naked, as much of the neck also frequently is.
The toes are long and slender; the hallux is long, and either not obviously elevated,
or else perfectly insistent. A foot of insessorial character results, and the species
frequently perch on trees, where the nest is usually placed. The physiological nature
is altricial; the young hatch naked, unable to stand, and are fed in the nest. The
food is fish, reptiles, mollusks and other animal matters, generally procured by
spearing with a quick thrust of the sharp bill, given as the birds stand in wait, or
stalk stealthily along; hence they are sometimes called Gradatores (stalkers). The
bill represents the cultrirostral pattern; it isas arule of lengthened, wedged shape,
hard and acute at the end, if not hard throughout, with sharp cutting edges, and it

gee 8. EN oe

NN TR 8) et ee ne a ee ae

=

GRALLATORES, WADING BIRDS. 241

enlarges regularly to the forehead, where the skull contracts gradually in sloping
down to meet it. The palate is desmognathous. The wings normally show a
striking difference from those of Limicole, being long, broad and ample, much
as in the next group.

The herons (Ardeide, beyond), are typical of this group. The only extra-limital
family is that of the Ciconiide, or storks; these are birds standing very near the
ibises and spoonbills (beyond), and distinguished from the herons, among other
circumstances, by the absence of powder-down tracts. Excepting the jabiru of
tropical America, Mycteria americana, the storks are all Old World, and chiefly
inhabit warm countries; there are only 8-10 species, representing nearly as many
genera of authors; among these, Anastomus and Hiator are remarkable for a wide
interval between the cutting edges of the bill, which only come into apposition at
base and tip. The singular African Scopus wmbretta, type of a subfamily at least,
is often placed among the herons, but its pterylosis is that of the storks. The
eranes, which have been associated with Herodiones on account of their stature and
other superficial resemblances, unquestionably belong to the next division, where
also several doubtful forms appear to fall.

Ui. ALECTORIDES. Cranes, Rails and their allies. A portion of these birds,
representing the crane type, have a general resemblance to the foregoing, but are
readily distinguished by the technical characters given beyond under the head of
Gruidee, and in essential respects accord with the rest, representing the rail type.
The latter are birds of medium and small size, with compressed body, and the head
feathered. The neck and legs are not particularly lengthened, but as a rule the
toes are remarkably long, enabling the birds to run lightly over the soft oozy ground
and floating vegetation of the reedy swamps and marshes they inhabit. This
length of the toes has given a name, Macrodactyli, to the group ; their shy retiring
habit of skulking among the rushes has caused them to be sometimes called
Latitores (skulkers). Their nature is precocial ; the eggs are numerous, usually laid
on the ground, in a rude nest. The nourishment is essentially the same as that of
the Limicole, but it is simply picked up from the surface, not felt for in the mud,
nor stamped out of the ground. The hallux is usually lengthened, and but little
elevated ; the feet are conspicuously lobate in some forms. The wings are usually
short, rounded and concave; the tail is very short, few-feathered, often held cocked
up, and wagged in unison with a bobbing motion of the head that occurs with each
step taken. The Alectorides are schizognathous.

This country affords typical representatives of the two leading forms, that of the
cranes, and of the rails, coots and gallinules, as given beyond; there are, however,
a number of remarkable outliers, that may be briefly mentioned, as follows ;—
The kagu, Rhinochetus jubatus of New Caledonia, and the carle, Zurypyga helias
of Guiana, are each the type and single representative of a family which seems near
the cranes in principal osteological characters (Hualey), although pterylographi-
cally they are more like herons, both possessing powder-down tracts (Bartlett) ;
and Hurypyga, in particular, resembles herons in other respects. More closely
allied to the cranes are the trumpeters, Psophiidew, of one genus and few species of
South America, with the cariamas, Cariamidce, of the same country, represented
only by the Cariama cristata and the Chunga burmeisterii. The horned screamers,
Palamedeide, of South America, consisting of three species, Palamedea cornuta,
Chauna chavaria and CO. derbiana, seem to be nearer the rails, and also closely
approach the water birds; one of them is by some considered the nearest living

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 31

——

==

= Se

242 CHARADRIID@H, PLOVER. ty
|

ally of the mesozoic Archewopteryx. Some gigantic extinct birds belong in the

neighborhood of the rails and coots. Decidedly rail-like and better known birds
are the jacanas, Parride, noted for the length of the toes, and especially of the
claws; they have a sharp spur on the wing. There are less than 12 species, usually
referred to several genera, of various parts of the world. Finally, the sun-birds,
Heliornithide, are a small but remarkable family of one or two genera and about
four species of tropical America, Africa, and southern Asia. They have been
classed, on account of their lobate feet and a certain general resemblance, with the ;
grebes ; but the feet are like those of coots, and their whole structure shows that they
belong with the ralliform birds. This completes an enumeration of the Alectorides.

Suborder LIMICOL4. Shore Birds. (See p. 239.)

Family CHARADRIIDA. Plover.

This is a large and important family of nearly a hundred species, of all parts of
the world. Its limits are not settled, there being a few forms sometimes referred
here, sometimes made the types of distinct families. I exclude from it the genera
Thinocorus, Attagis, and Chionis, noted on a preceding page. The glareoles
(Glareoline if not Glareolide) are a remarkable Old World form, like long-legged
swallows, with a cuckoo’s bill; the tail is forked ; there are four toes; the wings are
extremely long and pointed ; the tarsi are scutellate; the middle claw denticulate.
The coursers, Cursoriince, are another Old World type, near the bustards, of one
or two genera and less than ten species. In both of these the gape of the mouth is
longer than in the true plovers; the hind toe, as usual for this family, is absent in
the coursers. The thick-knees, @dicnemine, are truly plover-like birds, with one
exception belonging to the Old World, comprising about eight species of the genera
Gidicnemus and Esacus. All the remaining pluvialine birds appear to fall in the

Subfamily CHARADRIINA?. True Plover.

Toes generally three, the hinder absent (excepting, among our forms, gen. 189,
193) ; tarsus reticulate, longer than the middle toe; toes with a basal web; tibize
naked below. Bill of moderate length, much shorter or not longer than the head,
shaped somewhat like that of a pigeon, with a convex horny terminal portion, con-
tracted behind this; the nasal fosse rather short and wide, filled with soft skin in
which the nostrils open as a slit, not basal, and perforate. Gape very short, reaching
little beyond base of culmen. Wings long and pointed, reaching, when folded, to or
beyond the end of the tail, and sometimes spurred; crissal feathers long and full;
tail short, generally nearly even and of 12 feathers; body plump; neck short and
thick ; head large, globose, sloping rapidly to the small base of the bill, usually
fully feathered. Size moderate or small.

Our species (excepting Aphriza, if really belonging here) are very closely related,
and will be readily recognized by the foregoing characters. There are in all perhaps
sixty species. The most singular of them is the Anarhynchus frontalis, in which
the bill is bent sideways. Thinornis zelandie of New Zealand, Phegornis mitchellit
and Oreophilus totanirostris of Chili, are peculiar forms. Species of Chettusia,
Lobivanellus, and Hoplopterus have fleshy wattles, or a tubercle, often developed into
a spine, on the wing, or both; some of these, and others, are crested. These are

(Nore. The genus Grus, inadvertently numbered 223 in the Key, will be found next after genus 238.]

rT

CHARADRIIDE, PLOVER. —GEN. 189, 190. 243

all near Vanellus proper, and a part of them are 4-toed. Our species are found
along the seashore, by the water’s edge in other open places, and in dry plains and
fields. They all perform extensive migrations, appearing with great regularity in
the spring and fall, and most of them breed far northward. They are all more or
less gregarious except when breeding. They run and fly with great rapidity ; the
yoice is a mellow whistle ; the food is chiefly of an animal nature. The eggs are
commonly four in number, speckled, very large at one end and pointed at the other,
placed with the small ends together in a slight nest or mere depression in the ground.
The sexes are generally similar, but the changes with age and season are creat.

Ozss. The European lapwing, Vanellus cristatus, is reported by Mr. Dall from
Alaska, where, however, specimens were not taken. (Alaska and its Resources, p.586.)

189. Genus SQUATAROLA Cuvier.

Black-bellied Plover. Beetle-headed Plover. Whistling Field Plover.
Bull-head. Ox-eye. A small hind toe, hardly 4 long; plumage speckled.
Adult in breeding season (rarely seen in the U. S.): face and entire under
parts black, upper parts variegated
with black, and white or ashy; tail
barred with black and white; quills
dusky, with large white patches. Adult
at other times, and young: below white,
more or less shaded with gray, the
throat and breast speckled with dusky ;
above blackish, speckled with white or
yellowish; the rump white with dark
bars; legs dull bluish. Old birds
changing show every grade, from a few
isolated black feathers on the under parts, to numerous large black patches.
11-12; wing 7 or more; tail 3; bill 1-14; tarsus 2; middle toe and claw 1}.
A bird commonly diffused over most parts of the world. Wuts., vii, 41, pl.
57,f.4; Aup., v, 199, pl. 315; Nurv., ii, 26; Cass. in Bp., 697. HELVETICA.

Fic. 154. Black-bellied Plover.

190. Genus CHARADRIUS Linnzus.

Golden Plover. Frost-bird. Bull-
head. No hind toe; plumage speckled
above, and in the breeding season black
below, as in the last species, but much
of the speckling bright yellow, and the
rump and upper tail coverts like the
back ; forehead, and a broad line over
the eye to the nape, white ; tail feathers
grayish-brown, with imperfect white or
= ashy bars; axillars gray or ashy. At

Fig. 155. Golden Plover; winter plumage. other times the under parts nearly as
in the last species. 10-11; wing 7 or less; tail under 3; bill 1 or less;
tarsus 12; middle toe and élaw 14. N. Am., abundant in the U. S. in

J vA - — om, eg a ee os
ere a

244 CHARADRIIDE, PLOVER.—GEN. 191, 192.

great flocks in the fall, a well-known and highly-rated game bird. It is
very near the European species, but seems distinct; the axillars are gray,
not white. It appears to be a variety of the Asiatic; rather larger and
with shorter toes. Wus., vii, 71, pl. 59,f. 5; Nutr., 11, 16; Aun:; v;

‘203, pl. 316; Cass. in Bp., 690. . . . . . ‘¥FULVUS Var. VIRGINICUS.

. 191-2. Genus ASGIALITIS Boie.

*,* Plumage not speckled; below, white; head and neck with black bands in
the breeding season.
* Tarsus about half as long again as the middle toe. (#gialitis.)

Ivildeer Plover. Rump and upper tail coverts tawny or orange-brown,

' most of the tail feathers white at base and tip, suffused with orange-brown

ina part of their length, and with
1-3 black bars ; secondaries mostly
white, and primaries with a white
space ; forehead white ; a black bar
across the crown, and éwo broad
black bands on the neck and breast ;
bill black; feet pale grayish-blue.
9-10; wing 6 or more; tail 33,
much rounded; tarsus about 14.
North America, very abundant,
especially on the Plains; breeds
anywhere, but rarely in New Eng-

Fic. 158. Kildeer Plover. land; name derived from its pecu-
liar notes. WILS., vii, 73, pl. 59; Nurt., ii, 22; Avup., v, 207, pl. 517;
CASS SID Die G92" eek gee oh: 2s NOCIRERIUSS

Wilson’s Plover. Pale ashy-brown, merging into fulvous on the nape; a
black bar on the crown, and a broad black pectoral belt, grayish-brown in
the @ and young; no bright ring round eye; legs flesh-colored; bill black,
extremely large and stout, nearly as long as the head; 7-8; wing 44-5;
tail 2, nearly square. Seacoast of S. Atlantic and Gulf States, common;
N. to the middle districts, and probably to New England; also on the Pacific
side to California? Wiuus., ix, 77, pl. 73, f. 5; Nurv., ii, 21; Aup., v,
214, pl. 319; Cass. in Bp., 693. ee Ds se ay LS ONT

Semipalmated Plover. Ling Plover. Ringneck. Dark ashy-brown with
an olivaceous shade; very broad coronal 4nd pectoral black bars, in the
adult of both sexes, that on the breast grayish-brown in the young, but still
evident: edges of eyelids bright orange; bill moderately short and stout,
orange or yellow, black-tipped; legs yellowish; toes conspicuously semi-
palmate. About 7; tail about $-as long as the wings, rounded. North
America, abundant. Breeds northward. Wus., vii, 65, pl. 59, f.3; Nurr.,
li, 24; Aup., v, 218, pl. 320; Cass. in Bp., 674. . . . SEMIPALMATUS.

Piping Plover. Ringneck. Very pale ashy-brown; the black bands
narrow, often imperfect; bill colored as in the last, but very short and

es

CHARADRIIDH, PLOVER.—GEN. 192, 193. 245

stumpy; edges of eyelids colored ; no evident web between inner and middle
toes, and only a slight one between middle and outer; size of the last, or
rather less. Eastern and Middle North America; abundant on the Atlantic
coast, breeding northward. Wius., v, 30, pl. 37, f. 3; Nurr., ii, 18;
Paes 220, pl. o2l 5 Cass. in Bp., 695. . . . . . . MEDLODUS:
Snowy Plover. With a general resemblance to the last, this species is
rather darker (not so dark as in semipalmatus), and the hind head is tinged
with fulvous, as in wilsonius; it may be at once recognized by its entirely
black bill, slender, about 3 long; legs dark; several lateral tail feathers
entirely white; 64-7 long; wing 4-44; tail 2 or less. California coast,
where I found it abundant in winter: Ibis, 1866, 274. It belongs to a
different sub-group from the foregoing, and appears to be identical with the
common Kentish plover of Europe, A. cantiana; but I have had no
opportunity of a direct comparison. Cass. in Bp., 696. . . CANTIANA.
** Tarsus about twice as long as the middle toe. (Podasocys.)
Mountain Plover. Bill black, slender, an inch long; middle toe and claw
the same; tarsus 13; tibice bare over 4; about 9; wing 6; tail 3, nearly
square. Above brown, all the feathers skirted with rusty, which also shades
the breast; other under parts, forehead, and short line over eye, white; a
coronal (and pectoral?) black band in mature plumage; quills and tail
blackish, former with white shafts, latter tipped with whitish. Middle
Kansas to the Pacific, common on dry plains and even in deserts; inde-
pendent of water; feeds on insects, especially grasshoppers. I found it in
New Mexico in June, and abundantly in California in November. The
eggs, hitherto undescribed, measure 1.40 to 1.50 in the greater axis, by 1.10
in the transverse; color an olive drab with a slight brown shade, thickly
marked, especially toward the larger end, with small sharp speckling and
fine dotting of blackish, dark brown and neutral tint. (Described from two
specimens in the Smithsonian collection, taken by Haypen, July, 1859, in
Nebraska). Charadrius montanus AuD., v, 213, pl. 318 ; Zgialitis montanus
Cass. in Bp., 693; Podasocys montanus Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866,
MOEee ior, pldo. 5 . > - . . =. .. - ASIATICUS var. MONTANUS.

193. Genus APHRIZA Audubon.

Surf Bird. Dark ashy-brown, streaked with white on the head and neck,
and in summer with chestnut and black on the back; upper tail coverts
white; under parts white, often ashy-shaded, and variously marked with
blackish ; tail black and white; bases and shafts of primaries, most of the
secondaries, and tips of greater coverts, white; bill black, flesh-colored at
base below; legs dusky-greenish; 9-10; wing about 7; tail 3 or less;
bill 1; tarsus 14, reticulate ; hind toe present; front toes cleft to the base.
Varies greatly in plumage with age and season. A remarkable bird, appar-
ently a plover, connecting this family with the next, and also related to
the sandpipers. Extensively dispersed on the coasts and islands of the Pacific.
Cass. in Bp., 698; Aphriza townsendii Aup., v, 228, pl. 822. . VIRGATA.

246 H#MATOPODID®, OYSTER-CATCHERS, TURNSTONES. —GEN. 194, 195.

Family HAAMATOPODIDA:. Oyster-catchers. Turnstones.

A small family of two genera and six or eight species, with the bill hard,
and either acute or truncate, the nasal fosse short, broad and shallow; the
legs short, stout, brightly-colored. The two following genera differ much.
Hematopus is 3-toed, with much basal webbing, the tarsi reticulate; the
bill longer than the tarsus, stout, straight, constricted toward the base,
compressed and truncate at the end, somewhat like a woodpecker’s; it is an
efficient instrument for prying open the shells of bivalve mollusks. Strepsilas
is 4-toed, with no obvious basal webbing; the tarsi scutellate in front, the
bill sharp-pointed, not longer than the tarsus; its scientific and vernacular
names are both derived from its curious habit of turning over pebbles along
the beach in search of food. ‘There is but one species, cosmopolitan.

194. Genus HASMATOPUS Linneus.

Oyster-catcher. Head and neck blackish tinged with brown or ashy;
back ashy-brown; below from the breast, eyelid, rump, tips of greater
wing coverts, most sec-
ondaries, and basal part
of tail feathers, white ;
rest of tail, and quills,
blackish; bill and edges
of eyelids red or orange ;
legs flesh color; 17-18;
wing 10; tail 44; bill 3.

Fic. 157. Bill of Oyster-catcher. Fi Atlantic coast ; California
(Cooper). Wrus., viii, 15, pl. 64; Nurrt., ii, 15; Avup., v, 236, pl. 324;
CASS. cing SD s.n099s eee) are 2), SPATETATUSS

Black Oyster-catcher. Nearly uniform blackish or sooty brown; the head
and neck frequently with an ashy shade. Size of the foregoing. Pacific
coast. Cass. in Bp., 700. WH. townsendii Aup., v, 243, pl. 325. NIGER.

Oss. HA. bachmani Aup., v, 245, pl. 326; H. ater Cass. in Bp., 700 (if really
distinct from the last, which is doubtful), is a South American species improperly
attributed to our fauna.

195. Genus STREPSILAS Linneus.

Turnstone. Brant Bird. Calico-back. Adult in summer pied above
with black, white, brown and chestnut-red, the latter color wanting in
winter, and in young birds; below, from the
breast (which is more or less completely black),
throat, most of the secondaries, bases and
shafts of primaries, and bases and tips of tail
feathers, white; bill black; feet orange; 8-9;
wing 53-6; tail2$; bill $, almost recurved, with
ascending gonys; tarsus 1; tibie bare butalittle — F1G. 158. Bill of Turnstone.
way. Both coasts, abundant during the migrations. Wus., vii, 32, pl. 57, f.
1; Nott., ii, 30; Aup., v, 231, pl. 323; Cass. in Bp., 701. INTERPRES.

Fam. PHALAROPODIDAs. Phalaropes.

Nunes

RECURVIROSTRIDZ, AVOCETS, STILTS. —GEN. 196, 197. 247

Var. MELANOCEPHALUS. Black-headed Turnstone. Without any of the chestnut
coloration of the last, the parts that are pied in interpres being blackish; the white
parts, however, as before. Apparently a permanent melanism. Pacific Coast.
Cass. in Bp., 702.

Family RECURVIROSTRIDA. Avocets. Stilts.

Another small family, characterized by the extreme length of the slender legs,
and the extreme slenderness of the long acute bill, which is either straight or
curved upward. ecurvirostra is 4-toed, and full-webbed; the bill is decidedly
recurved, flattened, and tapers to a needle-like point; the body is depressed; the
plumage underneath is thickened as in water birds. The species swim well.
Himantopus is 3-toed, semipalmate, the bill nearly straight, and not flattened; in
relative length of leg it is probably not surpassed by any bird whatsoever. These
two genera, each of three or four species of various parts of the world, with

the Cladorhynchus pectoralis of Australia,
i compose the family.

196. Gen. RECURVIROSTRA Linneus.

Avocet. Blue-stocking. White; back
and wings with much black ; head and neck
cinnamon-brown in the adult, ashy in the

nF young (JL. occidentalis Cass., Ill. 232, pl.

Fi

G. 159. Bill and foot of Avocet. 40); bill black; legs blue; eyes red;
16-18 ; wing 7-8 ; tail33; tarsus33. Temperate N. Am. Wixts., vii, 126, pl.
63,f. 2; Nurt., ii, 74; Aup., vi, 24, pl.353; Cass.in Bp., 703. AMERICANA.

197. Genus HIMANTOPUS Brisson.

Stilt. Longshanks. Lawyer. Glossy black ;
forehead, sides of head and neck, rump and
under parts, white; tail white or ashy; bill
black; legs carmine. Young with back and
wings brown. 13-15; wing 8-9; tail 3;
tarsus 4. United States. Wiuus., vii, 48, pl.
38, f.2; Avp., vi, 31, pl. 354; Nurtr., ii, 8;
CAsssin-Bp., 704. . . . . #NIGRICOLLIS.

This is likewise a small family; the three species
comprising it resemble sandpipers, but are imme-
diately distinguished by the lobate feet ; the toes are furnished with plain or scalloped
membranes, like those of coots and grebes, but not so broad. The body is depressed,
and the under plumage thick and duck-like to resist water, on which the birds swim with
perfect ease and grace. The wings and tail are like those of ordinary sandpipers ; the
tarsi are much compfessed ; there is basal webbing of the toes besides the marginal
membrane ; the bill, and some other details of form, differ in each of the three species.
These birds inhabit the northern portions of both hemispheres, two of them at
least breeding only in boreal regions, but they all wander far southward in winter.

Fie. 160. Stilt.

248 PHALAROPODIDH, PHALAROPES.— GEN. 198, 199, 200.

198. Genus STEGANOPUS Vieillot.

Wilson’s Phalarope. Membranes straight-edged; bill very slender,
subulate. Length 9-10; wing 5; tail 2; bill, tarsus, and middle toe, each,
over 1, black. Adult ashy; upper tail coverts and under parts white ;
a black stripe from the eye down the side of the neck spreading into rich

purplish-chestnut, which also vari-
egates the back, and shades the
throat; young lacking these last
colors. N., Am. Wiis: 1x, 725
pl. 735, £35 =Newrs,piijeeot oe
Aup., v, 299, pl. 341; Cass. in
Bp:;-705..2 2.8 2~ 4 Oo WESONES

199. Genus LOBIPES Cuvier.

Fic. 161. Wilson’s Phalarope (head); Northern .
Phalarope (foot). Northern Phalarope. Mem-

branes scalloped; bill very slender, subulate. Length about 7; wing 44;
tail 2; bill, tarsus and middle toe, each, under 1, black. Adult dark
opaque ash or grayish-black, the back variegated with tawny; upper tail
coverts and under parts mostly white; side of the head and neck with a
broad stripe of rich chestnut, generally meeting on the jugulum; breast
otherwise with ashy-gray ; young lacking the chestnut. Northern N. Am.,
U.S. during the migration. Bonar., Am. Orn. iv, 82, pl. 25, f. 2; Nurr.,
ii, 239; Aup., v, 295, pl. 340; Cass. in Bp., 706. . . HYPERBOREUS.

200. Genus PHALAROPUS.

Red Phalarope. Membranes scalloped ; bill comparatively stout, flattened,
with lancet-shaped tip. Length 7-8; wing 5; tail 22; bill 1, yellowish,
black-tipped; tarsus #, greenish. Adult with the under parts purplish-
chestnut, of variable intensity, white in the young; above variegated with
blackish and tawny. Northern N. Am., U. S. during the migrations.
Wits., ix, 75, pl. 73, f.4; Nurv., ii, 236; Aup., v, 291, pl. 339); Casae
MB FOU eh < Geo ele 8) Res SR oe LU ene

Family SCOLOPACIDA. Snipe, etc.

Snipe and their allies form a well-defined and perfectly natural assemblage, one
of the two largest limicoline families, agreeing with plover in most essential
respects, yet well distinguished® from the pluyialine birds. In general, the bill is
much elongated, frequently several times longer than the head, and in those cases
in which it is as short as in plover, it does not show the particular, somewhat
pigeon-like, shape described under Charadriine, being slender and soft-skinned
throughout. It is generally straight, but frequently curved up or down. The
nasal grooyes, always long and narrow channels, range from one-half to almost the
whole length of the bill; similar grooves usually occupy the sides of the under
mandible; the interramal space is correspondingly long and narrow, and nearly
naked. This length, slenderness, grooving, and peculiar sensitiveness are the prime

.

. |

;
:

:

i
e |

;
;

’
,
7
:
;

.

;

SCOLOPACID, SNIPE, ETC. 249

characteristics of the scolopacine bill. The gape, never ample, is generally very
short and narrow, reaching little, if any, beyond the base of the bill. The nostrils
are short narrow slits, exposed. The head is completely feathered to the bill
* (except in one species), at the base of which the ptilosis stops abruptly, without
forming projecting antiz. The wings commonly show the thin pointed contour
described under Limicole, but they are occasionally short and rounded. The tail,
always short and soft, has as a rule 12 rectrices; in one genus, however, there are
from 12 to 26. The crura are rarely feathered to the suffrago. The tarsi are
scutellate before and behind, and reticulate on the sides, except in the curlews,
where they are scutellate only in front; they are probably never entirely reticulate
(the normal state in plover). The hallux is absent in only two or three instances ;
the anterior toes commonly show one basal web, and often two, but in many species
they are entirely cleft. The scolopacine birds are of medium and small size,
ranking with plover in this respect ; none attain the average stature of Herodiones.

The general economy of these birds is similar to that of plover; a chief
peculiarity being probably their mode of procuring food, by feeling for it, in the
majority of cases, in the sand or mud with their delicately sensitive, probe-like bill.
The eges are commonly four, parti-colored, pointed at one end and broad at the
other, placed with the small ends together in a slight nest or mere depression on
the ground ; the young run about at birth. The sexes, with very rare exceptions,
are alike in color or nearly so, and the 9 is usually a little larger than the ¢ ; but
the sexual distinctions are very rarely strong enough to be perfectly reliable (remark-
able exception in gen. 218). Color distinctions with age, likewise, are rarely
marked ; but on the contrary, seasonal plumages are, in many cases, as throughout
the sandpipers, very strongly indicated, the nuptial dress being entirely different
from that worn the rest of the year. Excepting a few species that frequent dry open
places like many plover, these birds are found by the water’s edge where the ground
is soft and oozy—in moist thickets, low rank meadows, bogs and marshes, by the
Tiverside, and on the seashore. Some are solitary, but the majority are gregarious
when not breeding, and many gather in immense flocks, especially during the
extensive migrations that nearly all perform. The voice is a mellow pipe, a sharp
bleat, or a harsh scream, according to the species. Few birds surpass the snipe in
sapid quality of flesh, and many kinds rank high in the estimation of the sportsman
and epicure. The family is cosmopolitan, but the majority inhabit the northern

hemisphere, breeding in boreal regions. There are about ninety well-determined
species of scolopacine birds, referable perhaps to fifteen tenable genera, although
many more than this are often employed. Various attempts to divide the group into
sub-families have met with little success, owing to the close intergradation of the
several types. All the leading forms of the family, with most of the lesser genera,
are represented in this country, and are indicated by the specific descriptions given
beyond ; while its entire composition may be pointed out and rendered perfectly
intelligible by a brief summary :—

a. In woodcock (gen. 201-2) and true snipe (203) the ear appears below and
not behind the eye, which is placed far back and high up; and if the brain be
examined, it will be found curiously tilted over so that its anatomical base looks
forward. The bill is perfectly straight and much longer than the head, deep-grooved
to the very end, which is either knobbed, or widened just behind the tip, where
there is a furrow in the flattened culmen. The membranous covering is abundantly
supplied with nerves; this organ constitutes a probe of delicate sensibility, an |
efficient instrument of touch, used to feel for food below the surface of the ground.

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 32

250 SCOLOPACID, SNIPE, ETC.

In the dried state, the soft skin shrinks tight like parchment to the bone, and
becomes studded with small pits. The gape of the mouth is extremely short and
narrow; the toes are cleft; the legs, neck and wings are comparatively short, and

the body is rather full. There are no obvious seasonal or sexual differences in *

plumage. Not completely gregarious; no such flights of woodcock and true
snipe occur as are usually witnessed among sandpipers and bay-snipe; they
inhabit the bog and brake rather than the open waterside; they cannot be
treacherously massacred by scores, like some of their relatives; they are knowing
birds, if their brains are upset, and their successful pursuit calls into action all the
better qualities of the true sportsman. There is but one species of Philohela; two
or three of Scolopax, and about twenty of Gallinago. The curious circumstance
occurs, among the latter, that the tail feathers range from 12 to 26 in different
species ; and:in those with the higher numbers, several pairs are narrow and linear—
a character upon which the genus Spilura rests: —The singular genus Rhynchea,
with two species, R. capensis (Africa) and FR. semicollaris (S. America), may belong

here.— Macrorhamphus (204), containing only our species, and one other, M. semi-"

palmatus of the Old World, has the bill exactly as in Gallinago, but is distinguished
by more pointed wings, and differently proportioned legs, with basal webbing of
the toes. It stands exactly between the true snipe and

6. The godwits (213), in which we-find the same very long, wholly grooved,
and extremely sensitive bill, which, however, is not dilated at the end, nor furrowed
on the culmen, and is bent slightly upward; the gape, as before, is exceedingly con-
stricted. The toes show a basal web. These are rather large birds, with the colors
and general aspect of curlews, but the bill is not decurved and the tarsi are scutel-
late behind. They frequent marshes, bays and estuaries, and are among the
miscellaneous assortment of birds that are collectively designated ‘* bay-snipe.”
There are only five or six species, of the single genus Limosa. The Terekia cinerea
of various parts of the Old World, with the bill recurved almost as in an avocet,
stands between the godwits and tattlers.

c. The sandpipers (gen. 205-212) are a rather extensive group, notable for the
variation in minor details of form, that it shows with almost every species —a cir-
cumstance that has caused the erection of a number of unwarranted genera. Here
the bill retains much of the sensitiveness of a snipe’s, and the gape likewise is
much constricted ; but the bill is much shorter, averaging about equal to the head.
One trivial circumstance affords a good clue to this group; the tail feathers are plain
colored, or with simple edgings, while in almost all the species of other groups these
feathers are barred crosswise. In this group the seasonal changes of plumage are
very great; the proportions of the legs, and webbing of the toes, are variable:
with the species, but as a rule, the toes are cleft to the base (not so in 205, 206),
and four in number (except 212). The sandpipers belong particularly to the
northern hemisphere, and breed in high latitudes ; they perform extensive migra-
tions, and in winter spread over most of the world. Among them are the most
diminutive of waders. They are probably without exception gregarious, and often
fleck the beach in vast multitudes; they live by preference in open wet places,
rather than in fens and marshes, and feed by probing, like snipe; the voice is
mellow and piping. They are pretty well distinguished from both the foregoing,
though gen. 203 connects with the snipe through 204; but shade directly into the
following group; for instance, gen. 218-19-20, if not also 217, have been called
Tringa, and “sandpiper.” Nearly all the forms of sandpiper are described in
detail beyond. There are in all about 20 species. The only generic forms not

SCOLOPACID®, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 201. 251

represented in this country are the Limicola platyrhyncha, the peculiarity of which
is expressed in its name; and the Hurinorhynchus pygmceus, a wonderful and
exceedingly rare species, in which the bill is expanded and flattened at the end,
somewhat as in the spoonbill. The singular Philomachus pugnax should perhaps
rather come here than among

d. The tattlers, with which it is ranged, beyond. In this, the largest and most
varied group, the bill has comparatively little of the sensitiveness of that of all the
foregoing, and the gape is longer, extending obviously beyond the base of the
culmen, and sometimes to nearly below the eyes. It varies much in length and
shape, but it is wswally longer than the head, and very slender, not often grooved
to the. tip, and is either straight, or bent slightly upward. The body and its
members are commonly more elongate than in the foregoing, the toes have a basal
web or two, and the hinder is always present. The tail is usually barred. They are
noisy, restless birds of the marshes and sand-flats and mud-bars of estuaries, and
apparently do not probe for food to any extent; they gain their name from their
harsh voice. The yellowshanks is a typical example of the group; most of the
species cluster close about this type, and ought to go in the single genus Totanus.
Gen. 217, 219, 220, are another slight group. The only extra-limital form is the
Prosobonia leucoptera, of the Sandwich Islands, a curious species, apparently near
220. There are about 18 species in all, universally distributed. Finally,

e. The curlews (gen. 222) are distinguished by the downward curvature, extreme
slenderness, and usually great length of the bill, with the slight scutellation of the
tarsus. In size and general appearance they are near the godwits; they inhabit
all parts of the world. They all belong to the genus Nwmenius, which has about a
dozen species — excepting the Tbidorhyncha struthersii of Asia, which is a three-toed
curlew, not showing the coloration characteristic of the rest.

201. Genus PHILOHELA Gray.

American Woodcock. Bogsucker. First three primaries attenuate and
faleate; wings short; when closed, the quills hidden by the coverts and

Fic. 162. Woodcock; with attenuate primaries.

tertiaries; tibise feathered to the joint; tarsi shorter than middle toe,
scutellate before and behind ; toes slender, free to the base ; bill much longer
than the head, stout and deep at base, grooved nearly its whole length, the tip
knobbed ; gape very short and narrow; ear under the eye, which is set in the
back upper corner of the head; colors above variegated and harmoniously
blended black, brown, gray and russet ; below pale warm brown of variable

252 SCOLOPACIDE, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 202, 203, 204.

shade; ¢.10-11; 9? 11-12; extent 16-18; wing 44-5; bill 23-3; tarsus
14; middle toe and claw 13; weight 5-9 oz. Bogs, swamps, wet woodland
and fields, Eastern U. S. and Canada.- Wits., vi, 40, pl. 48, f. 2; Nurr.,

ni, 194; Awp:, vi, L5>.pl.352) Cassin bp., (095). 0. ee MINORS

202. Genus SCOLOPAX Linneus.

European Woodcock. First primary alone attenuate ; wings more pointed
than in the last; one-third larger; weight 12-15 oz. This bird has not
hitherto been formally introduced to our fauna in any systematic treatise ;
but there are several authentic instances of its capture in this country, and
it is unquestionably entitled to a place here, as a straggler from Europe.
See Lewis, American Sportsman, ed. of 1868, p. 169, footnote (New
Jersey) ; Lawr., Ann. Lye. N. Y. 1866, 292 (Rhode Island and New Jersey) ;
Barrp, Am. Journ. Sci. xli, 1866, 25 (Newfoundland). Sportsmen who get
a bird of this sort, will do well to report the fact at once. Of all the snipe-
like birds of this country, called “Scolopax,” the present is the only one to
which the name is strictly applicable. . . . . . . . . RUSTICOLA.

203. Genus GALLINAGO Teach.

American Snipe. Wilson’s Snipe.” Bill much longer than the head,
perfectly straight, soft to the end, where it is somewhat widened and grooved
on top; gape narrow, not reaching beyond base of culmen; ear under eye;
tibize feathered not quite to the joint; tarsus a little shorter than middle toe
and claw; toes perfectly free. Crown black, with a pale middle stripe;
back varied with black, bright bay and tawny,
the latter forming two lengthwise stripes on the
scapulars ; neck and breast speckled with brown
and dusky; lining of wings barred with black and
white; tail usually of 16 feathers, barred with
black, white and chestnut; sides waved with
dusky ; belly dull white; quills blackish, the outer
white-edged. Length 9-11; wings 43-54; bill
about 24; whole naked portion of leg and foot
about 3. This is the genuine snipe, of all the
birds loosely so called; its name of “English”

Fic. 163. American Snipe. snipe is a misnomer, as it is indigenous to this
country, and distinct from any European species, though closely resembling
one of them. Open wet places of North America, at large; migratory.
Wus., vi, 18; pl. 47, f. 2; Nurr., ii, 185; Aup., v, 339, pl. 350; Cass.
in Bp., 700. WScolopax drummondii and S. douglasii Sw., F. B.-A., ii,
401 ;9Seleucurusiip 07d. .d0leea aes et) ean ete chia eens ONE

204. Genus MACRORHAMPHUS Leach.

- Red-breasted Snipe. Gray Snipe. Brown-back. Dowitcher. A very
snipe-like bird, with the bill exactly as in Gr'allinago, but readily distinguished

Cu

—"

ee ee

— ee — ee Pe oe ees, CL

i

SCOLOPACID®, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 204, 205. 253

generically: legs long; tibie bare upwards of ? of an inch; tarsus longer
than middle toe and claw; outer and middle toes connected by an evident
membrane ; tail of 12 feathers. ‘Tail and its coverts, at all seasons, conspic-
uously barred with black and white (or tawny) ; lining of wings, and axillars,
the same; quills dusky, shaft of first primary, and tips of secondaries except
the long inner ones, white; bill and feet greenish-black. In summer,
brownish-black above, variegated with bay ; below, brownish-red, variegated
with dusky; a tawny superciliary stripe, and a dark one from bill to eye.

Fic. 164. Red-breasted Snipe; with end of bill, from above.

In winter, plain gray above, and on the breast, with few or no traces of
black and bay, the belly, line over eye, and under eyelid, white. 10-11;
wing 5-54; tail 24; bill about 24; tarsus 14; middle toe and ‘claw 14.
A variety of this bird is almost a foot long, the bill upward of 3 inches
(M. scolopaceus Lawr., Ann. Lyc. 1852, 4, pl. 1; Cass. in Bp., 712).
North America, at large; abundant, migratory; it generally flies in large
compact flocks, like the sandpipers and shore-birds generally, rather than
singly or in wisps like the true snipe; and prefers the shores of bays and
estuaries, instead of wet meadows. WItsS., vii, 45, pl. 58, f. 1; Nurr., ii,
ialeeAnD:, vi, LO, pl. dois) Cass.in Bp., 712: . . . . . GRISEUS:

205. Genus MICROPALAMA Baird.

Stilt Sandpiper. Bill much as in the last genus, but shorter, less
evidently widened at the end and not so distinctly furrowed on top, some-
times perceptibly curved; legs very long; tibiz bare an inch; tarsus as long
as the bill, both 14-13; feet semipalmate, the front toes being connected by
two evident webs; middle toe 1. Length 8-9; wing 5; tail 24; plumage
resembling that of the last species, its changes the same. Adult in summer:
above blackish, each feather edged and tipped with white and tawny or bay,
which on the scapulars becomes scalloped; auriculars chestnut; a dusky
line from bill to eye, and a light reddish superciliary one; upper tail coverts
white with dusky bars; primaries dusky with blackish tips; tail feathers 12,
ashy-gray, their edge and a central field white; under parts mixed reddish,
black and whitish, in streaks on the jugulum, elsewhere in bars; bill and
feet greenish-black. Young, and adult in winter: ashy-gray above, with or
without traces of black and bay, the feathers usually with white edging ; line
over the eye and under parts white, the jugulum and sides suffused with the
color of the back, and streaked with dusky; legs usually pale. N. Am.,

254 SCOLOPACIDH, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 206, 207-211.

generally dispersed, but apparently not very common anywhere ; West Indies '
in winter; U. S. during the migrations; breeds in high latitudes. Avp.,
v, 271, pl. 334; Nurr., ii, 138, 140, 141; Sw., F. B.-A. ii, 379, 380, pl. |
66; Cass. in Bp., 726; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1861, 174. HIMANTOPUS.

206. Genus EREUNETES [Illiger.

Semipalmated Sandpiper. Peep. Bill, tarsus and middle toe with its
claw, about equal to each other, an inch or Jess long, but bill very variable,
and apt to be shorter —%-§; feet semipalmate, with two evident webs;
length 53-63; wing 34-32; tail 2, doubly emarginate, the central feathers
projecting. Adult in summer: above, variegated with black, bay, and ashy
or white, each feather with a black field, reddish edge and whitish tip;
rump, and upper tail coverts except the lateral ones, blackish; tail feathers
ashy-gray, the central darker; primaries dusky, the shaft of the first white ;
a dusky line from bill to eye, and a white superciliary line ;
below, pure white, usually rufescent on the breast, and with
more or less dusky speckling on the throat, breast and sides,
in young birds usually wanting; in winter the upper parts
mostly plain ashy-gray ; but in any plumage and under any
variation, the species is known by its small size and

Fic. 165. semipalmate feet. The extreme variation in the length of
the bill is from 4 to 14, or 86 per cent. of the average (§). N. Am.,
everywhere an abundant and well known little bird, thronging our beaches
during the migrations. Tringa semipalmata WIxS., vii, 131, pl. 63, f. 4;
Norr., ii, 136; Aup., v, 277, pl. 336; Hreunetes petrificatus Cass. in
Bp., 724; #. pusillus Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1861, 177. Var. occidentalis
LAwr., 202d. 1864, 10759 humor pl. 40. 9) ean ee EUStumUs.

207-11. Genus TRINGA Linnzus.
* Bill, tarsus, and middle toe with claw, of about equal length. (Actodromas.)
t+ Upper tail coverts (except the lateral series) black or very dark* brown ;
jugulum with an ashy or brownish suffusion, and dusky streaks.

Least Sandpiper. Peep. Smallest of the sandpipers ; 53-6; wing 34-33 ;
tail 2 or less; bill, tarsus, and middle toe with claw, about 2; bill- black;
legs dusky-greenish; upper parts in summer with each feather blackish
centrally, edged with bright bay, and tipped with ashy or white ; in winter,
and in the young, simply ashy; quills blackish, the shaft of the first white ;
tail feathers gray with whitish edges, the central blackish, usually with
reddish edges; crojvn not conspicuously different from hind neck; chestnut
edgings of scapulars usually scalloped; below, white, marked as above
stated. North America, very abundant; this species and the last are usually
confounded under the common name of “sandpeeps,” and look much alike ;
but a glance at the toes is sufficient to distinguish them. Tringa minutilla
ViEILLOT; Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1861, 191; 7. pusilla Wits., v, 32,
pl. 37, f. 4; Aup., v, 280, pl. 337; 7. minuta Sw., F. B.-A., ii, 385;
Nutt., ii, 119; Z. welsont Nurt., ii, 121; Cass. in Bp., 721. mMInuTILLA:

ue

SCOLOPACIDH, SNIPE, ETC. — 207-11. : 255

Baird’s Sandpiper. Medium; 7-74; wing 44-48 ; tail 24; bill, tarsus,
and middle toe with claw about %; bill and feet black ; colors almost exactly
as in the last species ; edgings of upper plumage rather tawny than chestnut ;
jugular suffusion pale, rather fulvous, the streaks small and sparse, some-
times almost obsolete. North and South America; rare on the Atlantic
coast (Long Island, Henshaw; Am. Nat. vi, 306). Tringa schinzii
Woonu., Sitgreaves Rep. 1853, 100. 7. bonapartet Cass. in Bp., 722 (in
part). “2. maculata, Scutecey, Mus. Pays-Bas, Scolopaces, 39 (in part).
A. bairdii, Couxs, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1861, 194; 1866, 97; ScuaTER, Proc.
Zool. Soc. 1862, 369 (Mexico) ; 1867, 332 (Chili, ete.) ; Dann and Bann.,
Trans. Chicago Acad. i, 292 (Alaska) ; AtLEN, Bull. MiG. Z., 1812; k32
(Kansas) ; Harting, Ibis, 1870, 151 (S. Africa!). . . . . BAIRDII.

Pectoral Sandpiper. Jack Snipe. Grass Snipe. Large; 84-9 ; wing
5-54; bill, tarsus, and middle toe with claw about 14; bill and feet greenish ;
crown noticeably different from cervix ; edging of scapulars bright chestnut,
straight-edged ; chin whitish, definitely contrasted with the heavily ashy-
shaded and sharply dusky-streaked jugulum. North America, abundant.
Nort., ii, 111; Aup., v, 259, pl. 359; Cass. in Bp., 720. . MACULATA.

++ Upper tail coverts white, with or without dusky marks; jugulum sharply
streaked, but with little or no ashy suffusion.

White-rumped Sandpiper. Medium; size of bairdii; feet black; bill
black, light-colored at base below; plumage as in the foregoing species,
excepting the above particulars. An ashy wash on the jugulum is hardly
appreciable except in young birds, and then it is slight; the streaks are
very numerous, broad and distinct, extending as specks nearly or quite to
the bill, and as shaft lines along the sides; while the white upper tail coverts
are a diagnostic feature. Eastern N. Am. to the Rocky Mountains.
Western? An abundant species along the Atlantic Coast. T. schinzit
Sw., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 384; Nurr., ii, 109; Aup., v, 275; 7. bonapartit
Conse, fin Bing, Uae eG Saree ieee) cece a BONAPARTEI.

Cooper’s Sandpiper. Largest; 933 wing 5%; tail 23; bill 17; tarsus Ieye
Like the last in color. Long Island; only one specimen known. It is
uncertain whether this is a good species or an unusual state of J’. canutus
or A. maculata. Bo., 716; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1861, 202. COOPERII.

** Bill, tarsus, and middle toe, obviously not of equal length.’

{ Tarsus shorter than middle toe; tibiee feathered. (Arquatella.)

Purple Sandpiper. Bill little longer than head, much longer than tarsus,
straight or nearly so; tibial feathers long, reaching to the joint, though
the legs are really bare a little way above ; tarsus shorter than middle toe; -
8-9; wing 5; tail 23, rounded ; bill 14; tarsus 3; middle toe 1 or a little
more. Adult: above ashy-black with purplish and violet reflections, most of
the feathers with pale or white edging ; secondaries mostly white; line over
eye, eyelids, and under parts white, the breast and jugulum a pale cast of
the-color of the back, and sides marked with the same. In winter, and
most immature birds, the colors are similar but much duller; very young

si |

256 SCOLOPACID, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 207-211.

birds have tawny edgings above, and are mottled with ashy and dusky
below. Atlantic coast, rather common. Nutvt., ii, 115; Aup., v, 261,
330 3: Cassin SBD A aT ley ee pee ei ice Se nc oe AE AEE

tj Tarsus not shorter than middle toe; tibiz bare below.
+-Bill slightly decurved, much longer than tarsus. (Pelidna.)*

American Dunlin. Black-bellied Sandpiper. Red-backed Sandpiper.
Ox-bird. Bill longer than head or tarsus, compressed at the base, rather
depressed at the end, and usually appreciably decurved ; 8-9; wing 44-5;
tail 2-24; bill 14-12; tibie bare about $; tarsus 1 or rather more; middle
toe and claw 1 or rather less. Adult in summer: above, chestnut, each
feather with a central black field, and most of them whitish-tipped, rump
and upper tail coverts blackish, tail
feathers and wing coverts ashy-gray,
quills dusky with pale shafts, second-
aries mostly white, and inner pri-
maries edged with the same; under
parts white, belly with a broad, jet-

Fic. 166. Bill and foot of American Dunlin.

thickly streaked with dusky; bill
and feet black. Adult in winter, and young: above, plain ashy-gray, with
dark shaft lines, with or without red or black traces; below white, little or
no trace of black on belly; jugulum with few dusky streaks and an ashy
suitusion. IN. Am. Wits., vil, 25, pl..56, f& 2°39) pl5”, f..d 58 Naeem,
106; Aup., v, 266, pl. 332; Cass. in Bp., 719. ALPINA var. AMERICANA.

++ Bill much decurved, slightly longer than tarsus. (Ancylocheilus.)

Curlew Sandpiper. Bill longer than head or tarsus, compressed through-
out, decurved; size of the last; legs longer; tibie bare #; tarsus 14;
middle toe and claw under an inch; bill about 14. Adult in summer:
above, greenish-black, each feather tipped and edged with yellowish-red ;
below, deep brownish-red; upper tail coverts white with dusky bars; tail
ashy-gray, with greenish gloss; wing coverts ashy with reddish edgings and
dusky shaft lines; quills dusky, the shafts whitish along their central por-
tion; bill and feet greenish-black. Adult in winter, and young: similar;
above, duller blackish with little reddish; below, white, more or less buffy-
tinged, the jugulum dusky-streaked. Atlantic coast, extremely rare, little
more: than a straggler; Europe; Asia; Africa. Nurr., ii, 104; Aup., v,
269) pl. s5as. Cassin Bps, 418.5. as. tue a | a eo oe SUB ARO TNE AS

+++ Bill perfectly straight. (Tvringa.)

Ted-breasted Sandpiper. Ash-colored Sandpiper. Gray-back. Robin-
snipe. Itnot. Bill equalling or rather exceeding the head, straight, compar-
atively stout ; toes evidently shorter than tarsus; large, 10-11; wing 6-63 ;
tail 24, nearly square; bill about 14 (very variable); tarsus 14; middle
toe and claw 1; tibize bare 4 or more. Adult in summer: above, brownish-
black, each feather tipped with ashy-white, and tinged with reddish on the

black area, breast and jugulum |

—_——

SCOLOPACIDE, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 212, 213. 257

seapulars ; below, uniform brownish-red, much as in the robin, fading into
white on the flanks and crissum; upper tail coverts white with dusky bars ;
tail feathers and secondaries grayish-ash with white edges; quills blackish,
gray on the inner webs and with white shafts; bill and feet blackish.
‘Young: above clear ash, with rumerous black-and-white semicircles ; below
white, more or less tinged with reddish, dusky-speckled on breast, wavy-
barred on sides. Atlantic coast, abundant. Wus., vii, 36, 43, pl. 57, f. 2,
9; Nourr., ii, 125; Aup., v, 254, pl. 328; Cass. in Bp., 715. . cANUTUS.

212. Genus CALIDRIS Cuvier.

Sanderling. Luddy Plover. No hind toe; otherwise, form exactly as
in Tringa proper; 73-8; wing 44-5; tail 24; bill about 1; tarsus 1 or
rather less; middle toe and claw #. Adult in summer: head, neck and
upper parts varied with black, ashy and bright
reddish; below from the breast pure white; tail
except central feathers light ash, nearly white ;
primaries gray with blackish edges and tips, the
shafts of all and bases of most, white ; secondaries
white except a space at the end, and greater coverts
broadly white-tipped ; bill and feet black. Adult
in winter, and young: little or no reddish ; speckled
with black and white, or ash and white, below
white, sometimes tawny-tinged on the jugulum.
N. Am., coastwise, abundant. Wus., vii, 68, 129, pl. 59, f. 4; pl. 63, f. 3;
Nort.. ii, 4; Aup., v, 287, pl. 338; Cass. in Bp., 723. . . ARENARIA.

Fic. 167. Foot of Sanderling.

213. Genus LIMOSA Brisson.

Great Marbled Godwit. Marlin. Tail barred throughout with black and
rufous ; rump and upper tail coverts like the back ; no pure white anywhere.
General plumage rufous or cinnamon-brown ; below, nearly unmarked and
of very variable shade, usually deepest on
the lining of the wings; above, variegated
with black and brown or gray ; quills rufous
and black ; bill flesh colored, largely tipped
with black ; feet dark. Large ; 16-22; wing
about 9; tail about 34; bill 4-5, grooved
nearly to the end, usually slightly recurved ;
tibie bare 1-14; tarsus 24-34, scutellate
before and behind; toes 14, stout. Tem-
perate North America, abundant; conspic- —=
uous by its size and coloration among the —
waders that throng the shores and muddy
or sandy bars of bays and estuaries during
the migration; breeds in the U.S. as well as northward. Writs., vii, 30, pl.
96, f.1; Nurr., ii, 173; Aup., v, 331, pl. 348; Cass. in Bp., 740. FEDOA.

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 33

Fic. 168. Great Marbled Godwit.

re
en ~~

258 SCOLOPACID®, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 214-216.

White-tailed Godwit. Tail, its upper coverts and rump, white, barred
throughout with black ; head, neck and under parts rusty-red in the breeding
season, in winter whitish; above, grayish-brown, the feathers with darker
centres, and blackish s haft lines ; sides and crissum with sagittate black marks.
About the size of the last. A widely distributed Old World species, and a
very near relative of Z. rufa of Europe, lately discovered in Alaska (Dail).
Bp., Trans-sChicago Acad.i, 320, pl. 32... 2 3 3) . URORYGLALIE:

Hudsonian or Black-tailed Godwit. Ling-tailed Marlin. Tail black,
largely white at the base, its coverts mostly white ; rump blackish; lining of
wings extensively blackish; under parts in the breeding season intense
rufous, variegated (chiefly barred) with dusky ; head, neck and upper parts
brownish-black, variegated with gray, reddish, and usually with some
whitish speckling; quills blackish, more or less white at the base. Young
and apparently winter specimens much paler, tawny whitish below, more
gray above. Considerably smaller than either of the foregoing; about 15;
wing 8 or less; bill 34 or less; tarsus 24 or Jess. North America, rather
northerly, apparently not common in the United States; a near relative of
LL. egocephala of Europe. Nurv., ii, 175; Aup., v, 335, pl. 349; Cass.
MH BD el 4he bs) ek sande ee pe ke, oe, SE Sa ee EO DS ONILORG

214-16. Genus TOTANUS Bechstein.

* Toes with 2 subequal webs; legs bluish or dark. (Symphemia.)

Willet. Semipalmated Tattler. Bill straight, comparatively
stout, grooved little if any more than half its length; toes
<A with two conspicuous basal webs; 12-16; wing 7-8; tail
THT a Ee e: 24-3; bill or tarsus 2-23; tibiee bare 1 or more; middle toe

toes of Willet. and claw 14-2. In summer, gray above, with numerous
black marks, white below, the jugulum streaked, the breast, sides and
crissum barred or with arrow-shaped marks of dusky (in winter, and in
young birds all these dark marks few or wanting, except on jugulum) ; upper
tail coverts, most of the secondaries, and basal half of primaries, white ;
ends of primaries, their coverts, lining of wings, and axillars, black; bill
bluish or dark. Temperate N. Am., abundant; resident in the U. §., con-
spicuous in the marshes of the Atlantic coast. Wuts., vii, 27, pl. 56, f. 3;
Nurtt., ii, 144; Aup., v, 324, pl. 347; Cass. in Bp., 729. SEMIPALMATA.

** Toes with inner web very small; legs yellow or green. (Glottis.)

Greater Tell-tale. Greater Yellow-shanks. Stone-snipe. Tattler. Bill
straight or slightly bent upward, very slender, grooved half its length or
less, black; legs long and slender, yellow. In summer, ashy-brown above
varied with black and speckled with whitish, below white, jugulum streaked,
and breast, sides and crissum speckled or barred, with blackish, these latter
marks fewer or wanting in winter and in the young; upper tail coverts white
with dark bars; tail feathers marbled or barred with ashy or white; quills

blackish. Large; length over 12; wing over 7; tail 3 or more; bill 2 or_,

more; tarsus about 24; middle toe and claw 14; tibiz bare 15. N. Am.,

,

———

SCOLOPACID&, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 214-216. PAA)

abundant, migratory ; like the last, a restless noisy denizen of the marshes,
bays and estuaries. Wi1S., vi, 57, pl. 58; Nurtr., ii, 148; Aun., v, 316,
moro CASS, In Bp. (al. . 2 2. eC. Ch e)6|hMELANOLEUCUS.

Fic. 170. Greater Tell-tale.

Lesser Tell-tale. Yellow-shanks. A miniature of the last; colors pre-
cisely the same; legs comparatively longer; bill grooved rather further.
Length under 12; wing under 7; tail under 3; bill under 2; tarsus about 2 ;
middle toe and claw, and bare tibia, each, 14. Eastern (and Western ?)
N. Am., abundant, in the same places as the last. Wiuts., vii, 55, pl. 57;
Worr., ui, 152; Aup., v, 313, pl. 344; Cass. in Bp., 732. . . FLAVIPES.

Green-shanks. Size and form almost exactly as in the last species; bill
longer, about 24; colors nearly the same, but bill and legs greenish; rump
and lower back, as well as the tail and its coverts, white, with more or fewer
dark marks. Florida. TJ. glottis Aup., v, 321, pl. 346; Nurr., ii, 68;
Glottis floridanus Cass. in Bp., 730. There is no reason to suppose that
this bird is any thing more than a straggler to this country; Audubon’s
specimen is absolutely identical with European ones. . . . CHLOROPUS.

*** Toes with inner web rudimentary; legs blackish. (Rhyacophilus.)

Solitary Tattler. Bill perfectly straight, very slender, grooved little beyond
its middle; 8-9; wing 5; tail 24; bill, tarsus, and middle toe, each about
1-14; tibie bare 3. Dark lustrous olive-brown, streaked on the head and
neck, elsewhere finely speckled, with whitish; below, white, jugulum and
sides of neck with brownish suffusion, and dusky streaks; rump and upper
tail -coverts like the back; tail,
axillars and lining of wings beauti-
fully barred with black and white ;
quills entirely blackish ; bill and feet
blackish; young duller above, less
speckled, jugulum merely suffused
with grayish-brown. N. America,
abundant, migratory ; a shy, quiet inhabitant of wet woods, moist meadows
and secluded pools, rather than of the marshes; breeds in mountainous
portions of the U. S., and northward. Wuts., vi, 53, pl. 58; Nurv., ii,
159; Aup., v, 309, pl. 343; Cass. in Bp., 7338. . . - ~ SOLITARIUS.

FiG.171. Solitary Tattler.

4

260 SCOLOPACID, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 217, 218, 219.
4

217. Genus TRINGOIDES Bonaparte.

Spotted Sandpiper. Bill short, straight, grooved nearly to tip; 7-8; |
wing about 4; tail about 2; bill, tarsus and middle toe, each, about 1. :
Above, olive (quaker-color; exactly as in a cuckoo) with a coppery lustre,
finely varied with black; line over eye, and entire under parts, pure white,
with numerous sharp circular black spots, larger and more crowded in the 9
than in the 3, entirely wanting in very young birds; secondaries broadly
white-tipped and inner primaries with a
white spot; most of the tail feathers like
the back, with subterminal black bar and
white tip; bill pale yellow, tipped with
black ; feet flesh-color. N. Am., extremely
abundant everywhere near water, and
breeding throughout the country; famil-
iarly known as the sandlark, peetweet, teeter-tail, tip-up, etc., these last
names being given in allusion to its habit (shared by allied species) of
jetting the tail as it moves; a custom as marked as the continual bobbing of
the head of the solitary tattler and others. Nest a slight affair of dried
grasses, on the ground, often in a field or orchard, but generally near water ;
eggs 4, pointed, creamy or clay colored, blotched with blackish and neutral
tint. WILS., vii, 60, pl. 59, f. 1; Nurr., it, 162; Aun., v, 303, pl. 342;
Cass. in Bp., 735. Set peat . oes . . MACULARIUS..

Fic. 172. Spotted Sandpiper. ‘

218. Genus PHILOMACHUS Mocehring.
Ruf (3g). Reeve (9). Bill straight, about as long as the head,
grooved nearly to tip; “gape reaching behind culmen; outer and middle toe
webbed at base, inner cleft; tail barred; ¢ in the breeding season with the

“face bare and beset with papille, and the neck with an extravagant ruff of

elongated feathers; plumage endlessly variable in color; about 10; wing
64-7; tail 24-3; bill 14; tarsus 12; middle toe and claw 14; 9 smaller,
the head fully feathered, and no ruff. A widely distributed bird of the Old
World, noted for its pugnacity; occasionally killed on the coast of New
England and the Middle States; some half dozen instances are recorded.
Norw., ii, 131; Cass. in Bp., 737; Lawr., Ann. Lyc. N. Y. 1852, 220
(Long Island) ; Brewster, Am. Nat. vi, 306 (Massachusetts). . PUGNAX.

219. Genus ACTITURUS Bonaparte.

Bartramian Sandpiper. Upland Plover. Field Plover. Bill straight,
about as long as the head, grooved 3 its length, the gape very deep,
reaching nearly to below the eyes, the feathers extending on the upper _
mandible beyond those on the lower, which do not fil the interramal. space ;
tail very long, more than half the wing, graduated ; tarsi much longer than
the middle toe and claw; tibize bare nearly the length of the latter; length
11-13; wing 6-7; tail 3-4; bill 1-14; middle toe and claw the same;

4

A Pe

Se

bill black; feet greenish-yellow. N. Am.,

SCOLOPACIDA, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 220, 221. 261

tarsus about 2. Above blackish, with a slight greenish reflection, varie-
gated with tawny and whitish; below, pale tawny of varying shade,
bleaching on throat and belly; jugulum with streaks, breast and sides with
arrowheads and bars, of blackish; axillars and lining of wings pure
white, black-barred; quills blackish, with white bars on the inner webs;
tail varied with tawny, black and white, chiefly in bars; bill and legs pale,
former black-tipped. N. Am., abundant, migratory; a highly esteemed
game bird found usually in flocks, in fields, not necessarily near water ;
feeds chiefly on insects. WIts., vii, 63, pl. 59, f. 2; Avup., v, 248, pl.
Some urns, > 1685. CAss..in Bp., 737... . . . .. .* BARTRAMIUS.

220. Genus TRYNGITES Cabanis.

Buff-breasted Sandpiper. Bill extremely small. and slender, appearing
the more so because of the extension of the feathers on its base—on the

‘upper mandible, quite to the nostrils, nevertheless not reaching nearly so far

as on the sides of the lower, and the interramal space completely filled ;
gape reaching beyond base of culmen; basal webbing of toes rudimentary,

hardly noticeable; tail rounded, with projecting central feathers; 7-8;

wing 5-53; tail 24; tarsus 1}; middle toe and claw, and bill, under an inch.
Quills largely white on the inner web, and with beautiful black marbling or
mottling, best seen from below; tail unbarred, gray, the central feathers
darker, all with subterminal black edging and white tips; crown and upper
parts blackish, the feathers with whitish and tawny edging, especially on the
wings; sides of the head, neck all round,
and under parts, pale rufous, or fawn color,
speckled on the neck and breast with dusky ;

generally distributed in open country, but
apparently not abundant; a remarkable bird
both in form and coloration, in the latter
respect somewhat resembling the foregoing, with which it shares many
habits. Nurr., ii, 113; Aup., v, 264, pl. 331; Cass. in Bp., 739. RUFESCENS.

221. Genus HETEROSCELUS Baird.

Wandering Tatiler. Bill straight, stout, compressed, grooved about § its
length, gape reaching beyond base of culmen; legs rather short, rugous;
reticulate, scutellate only in front of the tarsus; outer toe with an evident
basal web, inner with a rudimentary one; 10$; wing 64; tail 34; bill 13;
tarsus 14; tail unbarred; plumage variable, generally uniform plumbeous-
gray above, below white shaded on breast and sides, or barred on the latter,
with the color of the upper parts. A species of almost universal distribution
on the coasts and islands of the Pacific, described under at least twelve
different names, without counting its various generic appellations. //.
nee ne (ot... sw se . LINOANUS.

262 ’ SCOLOPACIDA, SNIPE, ETC.—GEN. 222.

222. Genus NUMENIUS Linneus.

Long-billed Curlew. Sickle-bill. Bill of extreme length and curvature,
measuring from 5 to 8 or 9 inches; total length about 2 feet; wing a foot
or less; tail about 4 inches; tarsus 24-23, scutellate only in front.
Plumage very similar to that of the godwit;
prevailing tone rufous, of varying intensity in
different birds and on different parts of the same
bird, usually more intense under the wing than
~ elsewhere; below, the jugulum streaked, and
the breast and sides with arrow-heads and bars,
of dusky ; above, variegated with black, especi-
ally on the crown, back and wings; tail barred
throughout with black and rufous; secondaries
rufous ; primaries blackish and rufous; no pure white anywhere; bill black,
the under mandible flesh colored for some distance; legs dark. Temperate
N. Am., abundant; breeds in the U. 8. Wus., viii, 23, pl. 64; Nurv.,
ii, 94; -Aup., vi, 35, pl. 355; Cass. in’ Bp., 743. . . . BONGIROSTRIS-

Hudsonian Curlew. Jack Curlew. Bill medium, 3 or 4 inches long;
length 16-18 ; wing 9; tail 33; tarsus 24-24. Plumage as in last species
in pattern, but general tone much paler; quills barred. N. Am., abundant ;
breeds in British America; U.S. chiefly during the migrations. Scolopax
borealis Wixs., vii, 92, pl. 56; WV. intermedius Nutt., ii, 100. AvuD., vi,
42. pl. 356; Nurr:, ii, 97; Cass. in Bo., 744. . ... = »HUDSONICUBE

Esquimaux Curlew. Dough-bird. Bill small, under 3 inches long;
length 12-15 inches; wing under 9; tail 3; tarsus 2. Plumage in tone and
pattern almost exactly as in the last species, but averaging more rufous,
especially under the wings, and primaries not barred. N. Am., abundant;
distribution much as in the last species. Swarns., Fn. B.-Am., ii, 378, pl.
65; Nurr., ii, 101; Aup., vi, 45, pl. 357; Cass. in Bp., 744. BORBALIS.

Fig. 174. Long-billed Curlew.

Suborder HERODIONES. Herons and their Allies.

The character of this group has been indicated on p. 240.

Family TANTALIDA. Ibises. Spoonbills. @

Under this head I associate the genera Tantalus, Platalea and Ibis, with its
subdivisions ; all of these, especially the first, are very nearly related to the storks
(Ciconiide) ; the last two agree more closely with each other, in the remarkable
smallness of the tongue, and other characters. In all, the pterylosis is more or
less completely stork-like. The head is more or less perfectly bare of feathers in
the adult state, downy in young. Birds of medium and very large size, long-
legged, long-necked and small-bodied, like the cranes, storks and herons, with
ample,*more or less rounded wings, of which the inner quills are very large; tail
very short, usually, if not always, of 12 broad rectrices; tibiz bare for a long
distance ; tarsi reticulate, or scutellate in front only ; toes four, the anterior webbed

TANTALID@, IBISES, SPOONBILLS.—GEN. 224, 225-6. 263

at base, the hinder lengthened and inserted low down, as in storks and herons (not
eranes) ; middle claw not pectinate as in the herons. Chiefly lacustrine and palus-
trine inhabitants of the warmer parts of the globe, feeding on fish, reptiles and
other animals. The sexes are alike; the
_ young different. The manifest modification
of the bill is the principal external character
of the three subfamilies into which the group
is divisible.
.
j

Subfamily TANTALINA. Wood Lbises.

Bill long, extremely stout at base, where

it is as broad as the face, gradually tapering

to the decurved tip, without nasal groove or

membrane, the nostrils directly perforating

its substance. One genus and three or four

_ species of America, Africa, Southern Asia,
and part of the East Indies.

| 224. Genus TANTALUS Linneus.

Wood Ibis. Adult with head and Beep Perc oD.

_ part of the neck naked, corrugate, bluish; legs blue; bill pale greenish ;
plumage entirely white, excepting the quills, tail, primary coverts and alula,
which are glossy black; young with the head downy-feathered, the plumage
_ dark gray, the quills and tail blackish; about 4 feet long; wing 18-20
:

inches; bill 8-9; tarsus 7-8. Wooded swampy places in the Southern
states, N. to Ohio and the Carolinas, W. to the Colorado, abundant; grega-
rious; nests in trees and bushes. Wrrts., viii, 39, pl. 66; Nurr., ii, 82;
Reeweerevia oto pl. ool; Bp. 682. . 3. . « . . « + LOCULATOR.

Subfamily IBIDINA. Lbises.

Bill long, very slender, curved throughout, and grooved nearly or quite to the
tip (thus closely resembling a curlew’s). There are about twenty species of ibises,
among which minor details of form vary considerably, nearly every one of them
having been made the type of some genus. They probably form two genera, Ibis, with

the tarsi scutellate in front, and Geronticus, with the legs entirely reticulate. Our
species vary in the nakedness of the head, which in one is little more than in the
herons, and in none is it complete, as in the preceding and following genus.

225-6. Genus IBIS Moehring.

Glossy Ibis. Plumage rich dark chestnut, changing to glossy dark green
with purplish reflections on the head, wings and elsewhere; bill dark ;
_ young similar, much duller, or grayish-brown, especially on the head and
neck, which are white-streaked. Claws slender, nearly straight; head bare
only about the eyes and between the forks of the jaw. Length about 2 feet ;
Wing 10-11; tail 4; bill 4$; tarsus 34; middle toe and claw 3. U.S.,

_ generally but irregularly distributed, chiefly southerly and especially coast-
wise; N. casually to New England. Bownarv., Am. Orn. iv, 23, pl. 23;
Norv., ii, 88; Aup., vi, 50, 358; Bp., 685. . FALCINELLUS var. ORDII.

, y th, le ta et mes un ICR yen

264 TANTALID®, IBISES, SPOONBILLS.—GEN. 227.

White Ibis. Plumage pure white, outer primaries tipped with glossy black ;
bill and feet reddish; young dull brown or gray, the legs bluish, the bill
yellowish. Claws curved; face and throat bare in the adult. Size of the
last or rather larger; bill 7; tarsus 4. South Atlantic and Gulf States,
casually N. to Long Island (Lawrence). W4xs., viii, 43, pl. 66; Nurr.,
ii, 86; Aup.;, vi, 54, pl. 360); Bp., 684505" tt ahh | ee, Ae

Scarlet Tis Plumage rich cece outer primaries t ipeed with glossy
black; bill and feet reddish. Yoing ashy-gray, darker above, paler or
whitish below. Size and proportions nearly as in the last species. Tropical
America; accidental in the U.S. (Louisiana; seen at a distance, not pro-

i ~ cured, Audubon; Rio Grande, fragment of a specimen examined, Cowes.)
Wits., viii, 41, pl. 66; Nurr., ii, 84; Aup., vi, 53, pl. 359; Bp., 683. RUBRA.

Subfamily PLATALEIN4. Spoonbills.

Bill long, perfectly flat, remarkably widened, rounded and spoon-shaped at the
end. Birds of this group are known at a glance, by the singularity of the bill;
they closely resemble the foregoing in structure and habit. One genus, with five or
six species of various countries.

227. Genus PLATALEA Linneus.

1, Ltoseate Spoonbill. In full plumage rosy-red, whitening on neck; lesser
wing coverts, tail coverts, and lower throat crimson; tail brownish-yellow ;
legs pale carmine ; bare head yellowish-green, with a dark stripe ; bill mostly

grayish-blue. Young with the head mostly feathered, colors much less vivid

(no crimson) ; tail rosy ; in an early stage probably grayish. Length about

30; wing 14-15; tail 4-5; tarsus 4; bill 6-7. South Atlantic and Gulf

states, N. casually to the Carolinas and Natchez (Audubon) ; common;

gregarious ; breeds on trees and bushes in the wooded swamps. WILS., Vii,

; pl. 62; Nurr., ui, 79; AuD., il, 72, pl. 362; Bp., 686. . -.) “AvADAS

Family ARDEIDA. Herons.

It is in this family that powder-down tracts (p. 4, § 6) reach their highest
development; and although these peculiar feathers occur in some other birds,
there appears to be then only a single pair; so that the presence of two or more
pairs is probably diagnostic of this family. In the genus Ardea and its immediate
allies there are three pairs, the normal number; one on the lower back over the
hips, one on the lower belly under the hips, and one on the breast, along the track
of the furcula. In the bitterns, the second of these is wanting. In the boat-billed
heron, Cancroma cochlearia, there is still another pair, over the shoulder blades.
There are other pterylographic characters; in general, the tracts (p. 5, § 9) are
extremely narrow, often only two feathers wide; there are lateral neck tracts; the
lower neck is frequently bare behind. More obvious characters are, the complete
feathering of the head (as compared with storks, etc.) except definite nakedness of
the lores alone—the bill appearing to run directly into the eyes; a general
looseness of the plumage (as compared with Limicole), and especially the frequent
development of remarkably lengthened, or otherwise modified, feathers, constituting

ARDEID, HERONS. 265

_ the beautiful crests and dorsal plumes that ornament many species, but which, as a
Tule, are worn only during the breeding season. These features will suffice to deter-

mine the Ardeide, taken in connection with the more general ones indicated under
head of Herodiones, and the details given beyond.

The boat-billed heron of Central America, with a singular shape of the bill that
has suggested the name, and the four pairs of powder-down tracts, constitutes one
subfamily, Cancromine. The still more remarkable Baleniceps rex, of Africa, with
an enormous head and bill, thick neck, and one pair of such tracts, is probably

assignable here as a second subfamily, Balenicepine ; but it approaches the storks,

and may form a separate intermediate family. The disputed cases of Rhinochetus,
Burypyga and Scopus have been already mentioned; these five forms aside, the
herons all fall in the single

Subfamily ARDEINA. True Herons.

Bill longer than head, straight, or very nearly so, more or less compressed, acute,
cultrate (with sharp cutting edges) ; upper mandible with a long groove; nostrils
more or less linear, pervious. Head narrow and elongate, sloping down to the bill,
its sides flattened. Lores naked, rest of head feathered, the frontal feathers
extending in a rounded outline on the base of the culmen, generally to the nostrils.

- Wings broad and ample; the inner quills usually as long as the primaries, when
closed. Tail very short, of twelve (usually), or fewer soft broad feathers. Tibize
naked below, sometimes for a great distance. Tarsi scutellate in front, and some-
times behind, generally reticulate there and on the sides. Toes long and slender ;
the outer usually connected with the middle by a basal web, the hinder very long
(for this order), inserted on the level of the rest. Hind claw larger and more
curved than the middle one (always?) ; the middle claw pectinate.

The group thus defined offers little variation in form; all the numerous genera
now in yogue have been successively detached from Ardea, the typical one, with
which most of them should be reunited. The night herons (235-6) differ

~ somewhat in shortness and especially stoutness of bill; while the bitterns (237,
and the South American genus Tigrisoma) are still better marked. There are
about seventy-five species, very generally distributed over the globe, but especially
abounding in the torrid and temperate zones. Those that penetrate to cold
countries in summer, are regular migrants; the others are generally stationary.
They are maritime, lacustrine and paludicole birds, drawing their chief sustenance
from animal substances taken from the water, or from soft ground in its vicinity ;
such as fish, reptiles, testaceans and insects, captured by a quick thrust of the
spear-like bill, given as the bird stands in wait or wades stealthily along. In
conformity with this, the gullet is capacious, but without special dilation, the
stomach is small and little muscular, the intestines are long and extremely
slender, with a large globular cloaca, and a cecum. Herons are altricial, and
generally nest in trees or bushes (where their insessorial feet enable them to
perch with ease) in swampy or other places near the water, often in large
communities, building a large flat rude structure of sticks. The eggs vary in
number, coincidently, it would seem, with the size of the species; the larger
herons generally lay two or three, the smaller kinds five or six; the eggs are
somewhat elliptical in shape, and usually of an unvariegated bluish or greenish
shade. The voice is a rough croak. The sexes are nearly always alike in color
(remarkable exception in gen. 238); but the species in which, as in the bittern,

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 34

=

22

a

a pean dA (innate lth gens saat?
2, See Perens

ent

ome

2S REAR SS ata SO

266 ARDEIDA, HERONS.

the plumage is nearly unchangeable, are very few. Indeed, probably no birds show
s y $ ’ dl ;
greater changes of plumage, with age and season, than nearly all the herons.

Their beautiful plumes are only worn during the breeding season; the young —

invariably lack them, and there are still more remarkable changes of plumage
in many cases. Thus, the young may be pure white while the adults are dark
colored, as in the small blue heron; and sometimes even, as in the remarkable
case of our reddish egret, most individuals change from white to a dark

plumage after two years, while others appear to remain white their whole lives, ©

Fic. 176. Great Blue Heron. a

and others again are dark from the nest. Many species are pure white at all
times, and to these the name of ‘“ egret” more particularly belongs ; but I should
correct a prevalent impression that an egret is anything particularly different
from other herons. The name, a corruption of the French word “aigrette,” simply
refers to the plumes that ornament most of the herons, white or otherwise, and
has no classificatory meaning; its application, in any given instance, is purely
conventional. The colors of the bill, lores and feet are extremely variable, not
only with age or season, but as individual peculiarities; sometimes the two legs of
the same specimen are not colored exactly alike. The 9 is commonly smaller than
the g. The normal individual variability in stature and relative length of parts

|
|

ARDEIDZH, HERONS. —GEN. 228-34. 267

is very great; and it has even been noted that a specimen may have one leg larger
than the other, and the toes of one foot longer than those of the other—a circum-
stance perhaps resulting from the common habit of these birds, of standing for a
long time on one leg. *

228-34. Genus ARDEA Linneus.

*Species of large size, and varied dark colors. (Ardea.)

Great Blue Heron. Back without peculiar plumes at any season, but
scapulars lengthened and lanceolate ; an occipital crest, two feathers of which
are long and filamentous; long loose feathers on the lower neck. Length
about 4 feet; extent 6; bill 54 inches; tarsus 64; middle toe and claw 5;
wing 18-20; tail 7. ? much smaller than ¢. Adult of both sexes grayish-
blue above, the neck pale purplish-brown with a white throat-line, the head
black with a white frontal patch, the under parts mostly black, streaked
with white; tibie, edge of wing, and some of the lower neck feathers,
orange-brown ; bill and eyes yellow, culmen dusky, lores and legs greenish.
The young differ considerably, but are never white, and cannot be confounded
with any of the succeeding. Entire temperate North America, abundant ;
migratory in northerly portions. Wuus., vili, 68, - Ge INfomits, an. 4)
AUD Vis 122.) pl. 3093, BD., 668. . . 8 . . HERODIAS.

Florida Heron. Similar; larger; bill Ga: tarsus 8 or more; tibize bare
nearly $ their length; middle toe not % the tarsus; below, white, the sides
streaked with black; neck ashy ; ay with the crest, white, the forehead
streaked with black. Southern Florida ( Wurdemann). Bo., 669. It
seems improbable that this is anything more than a special state of the last
species, but as it is useless to exchange one doubtful opinion for another,

I retain it, pending final determination. . . . . . . WURDEMANNII.
** Species (large or small) white at all times. (dAudubonia, Herodias and
Garzetta.)

Great White Heron. Size and form nearly as in the foregoing ; no greatly
elongated occipital feathers nor lengthened scapulars ; bill 645; tarsus 84;
tibie bare 6. Color entirely pure white; bill and eyes yellow; culmen
greenish at base; lores bluish; legs yellow, greenish in front. Southern
Florida. Auvp., vi, 110, pl. 368; Nurr., ii, 89; Bp., 670. OCCIDENTALIS.

: Great White Egret. White Heron. No obviously lengthened feathers
on the head at any time; in the breeding season, back with very long
plumes of decomposed feathers drooping far beyond the tail; neck closely
feathered; plumage entirely white at all seasons; Dill, lores and eyes,
yellow; legs and feet black. Length 36-42 (not inciuding the dorsal
train); wing 16-17; bill nearly 5; tarsus nearly 6; rather larger speci-
mens constitute var. californica Bn., 667. Distribution the same as that
of the snowy heron; abundant. WHLs., vii, 106, pl..6l,. £4 3 Nuwr., at,
Pau. vi, 132, pl.370; Bp.; 666. . - . . . . EGRETTA.

Little White Egret. Snowy Heron. Adult with a ees occipital crest of

268 ARDEIDAZ, HERONS.—GEN. 228-34.

decomposed feathers, and similar dorsal plumes, latter recurved when per-
fect; similar, but not recurved plumes on the lower neck, which is bare
behind; lores, eyes and toes yellow; bill and legs black, former yellow at
base, latter yellow at the lower part behind. Plumage always entirely white.
Size of the little blue heron. S. States; Cala. ; Middle States, in summer ;
N. occasionally to New England; abundant. Wits., vii, 120, pl. 62, f. 4;
Nutt., ii, 49; Avp., vi, 163, pl. 374; Bp., 665. . . . CANDIDISSIMA.

*** Species under 3 feet long, of varied dark colors when adult, in some cases
white when young. (Hydranassa, Florida and Butorides.)

Louisiana Egret. Adult slaty-blue on the back and wings, mostly white
below and along the throat-line ; crest and most of the neck reddish-purple,
mixed below with slaty; the longer narrow feathers of the crest white ;
lower back and rump white, but concealed by the dull purplish- brown
feathers of the train, which whiten towards the end; bill black and yellow;
lores yellow; legs yellowish-green, dusky in front. Young variously
different, but never white. Length about 24 (exclusive of the long train) ;
wing 10-11; bill 4-5; tarsus 4; middle toe and claw 3. SS. Atlantic and
Gulf States, chiefly maritime, very rarely N. to the Middle districts. A.
ludoviciana WILS., viii, 13, = 64,:f..1;— Norn... ai, dis Anup; vi, b> Gale
dll -bDess0 Cosme earn . . LEUCOGASTRA var. LEUCOPRYMNA.

Reddish Egret. Adult gray ‘she blue, rather paler below, head and neck
lilac-brown, ends of the train yellowish; bill black on the terminal third,
the rest flesh-colored, like the lores; iris white; legs blue, the scales of the
tarsus blackish; length about 30; wing 14-15; bill 4; tarsus 54. Young
usually entirely white, for a year or two; some individuals permanently so ;
bill as in the adult ; legs greenish, with yellowish soles; in this state the bird
A. pealei Bonar., Am. Orn. iv, 96, pl. 26, f. 1; Nurr., ii, 49; GamBet,
Proc. Phila. Acad. 1848, 127; Bp., 661. Florida and Gulf States, strictly ;
maritime, abundant. Ardea rufescens Aup., vi, 139, pl. 371; Demiegretta
TUF OD. O02.) eee : ‘ : $2) | eR UE

Little Blue Heron. Heda of ie sault with deiciedea decomposed
feathers, those of the lower neck, and scapulars, shee ate and lanceolate ;
no dorsal plumes; neck bare behind below; length about 24; wing
11-12; bill 3; tarsus 34-4. Adult slaty-blue, becoming purplish on the
head and neck; Dill and loral space blue, shading to black at the end;
eyes yellow; legs black. Young pure white, but generally showing blue
traces, by which it is distinguished from the snowy heron, as well as by
the color of the bill and feet, though at first the legs are greenish-blue
with yellowish traces. §. Atlantic and Gulf States, abundant; N. casually

to New England in summer. WIzts., vii, 117, os 62; feds) Nuptse sen

AUD? sVis TASS plo tioes Aa Ds. OC cee ee =i. = . CARUDEAS
Green Heron. Adult in the breeding season Sh the crown, long soft
occipital crest, and lengthened narrow aa of the back lustrous dark

green, sometimes with a bronzy iridescence, and on the back often with a

glaucous cast; wing coverts green, with conspicuous tawny edgings; neck

ARDEIDE, HERONS.—GEN. 235-6, 237. 269

purplish-chestnut, the throat-line variegated with dusky or whitish; under
parts mostly dark brownish-ash, belly variegated with white; quills and tail
greenish-dusky with a glaucous shade, edge of the wing white; some of the

quills usually white-tipped ; bill greenish-black, much of the under mandible

yellow; lores and iris yellow; legs greenish-yellow; lower neck with
lengthened feathers in front, a bare space behind. Young with the head less
crested, the back without long plumes, but glossy greenish, neck merely
reddish-brown, and whole under parts white, variegated with tawny and

dark brown. Length 16-18; wing about 7; bill 24; tarsus 2; middle toe

and claw about the same; tibiz bare 1 or less. U.S., and a little beyond,
abundant in summer; resident in the South. Whuts., vii, 97, pl. 61, f.
Ls Nurr., 11, 63; Aup.; vi, 105, pl. 867; Bp., 676. . . -. VIRESCENS.

235-6. Genus NYCTIARDEA Swainson.

Night Heron. Qua-bird. Squawk. No peculiar feathers excepting 2-3
very long filamentous plumes springing from the occiput, generally imbricated
in one bundle ; bill very stont; tarsi reticulate below in front; length about
2 feet; wing 12-14 inches; bill, tarsus and middle toe about 8. Crown,
seapulars and interscapulars, Very dark glossy green; general plumage
bluish-gray, more or less tinged with lilac; forehead, throat-line and most
under parts, whitish; occipital plumes white; bill black; lores greenish ;

eyes red; feet yellow. Young very different; lacking the plumes; grayish-

brown, paler below, extensively speckled with white ; quills chocolate-brown,
white-tipped. U.S., and somewhat northward, abundant; resident in the
South, migratory elsewhere. A. nycticorax Wits., vii, 101, pl. 61, f.
2, 3; AuD., vi, 82, pl. 363; A. discors Norn, ii, 54; WV. gardeni Bp.,
678; A. nevia Bopp., Planches Enluminées, 939. .. GRISEA var. NAVIA.

Yellow-crowned Night Heron. Adult with the head crested, some of the
feathers extremely long, and back with long loose feathers, some of which
reach beyond the tail; bill short, extremely stout; tarsi mostly reticulate,
longer than middlé toe; about as large as the last; bill 22; tarsus 33;
middle toe 3. Grayish-plumbeous, darker on the back, where the feathers
have black centres and pale edges, and rather paler below, the head and
upper neck behind black, with a cheek-patch, the crown, and most of the
crest, white, more or less tinged with tawny; bill black, eyes orange, lores
greenish, feet black and yellow. Young speckled, as in the last, but show-
ing-the different proportions of the bill and feet. Wuts., viii, 26, pl. 65,
Per eNUTTs 11,02; Aup., vi, 89, pl..364; Bp., 679... . . VIOLACEUS.

237. Genus BOTAURUS Stephens.

Bittern. Indian Hen. Stake-driver. Bog-bull. Plumage of the upper
parts singularly freckled with brown of various shades, blackish, tawny and
whitish ; neck and under parts ochrey or tawny white, each feather marked
with a brown dark-edged stripe, the throat-line white, with brown streaks,
a velvety black patch on each side of the neck above; crown dull brown,

270 ARDEIDZ, HERONS. —GEN. 238.

with buff superciliary stripe; tail brown; quills greenish-black, with a
glaucous shade, brown-tipped ; bill black and yellowish, legs greenish, soles
yellow; 23-28 long; wing 10-13; tail 43, of only 10 feathers; bill about
3; tarsus about 33. Temperate N. Am., abundant. Not gregarious; nests
on the ground; eggs 4-5, drab-colored. Wus., viii, 35, pl. 65, f.3; Nurr.,
ii, 60; Aup., vi, 94, pl. 365; Bp., 674. Enpicorr, Am. Nat. iii, 169. mmnor.

Fic. 177. Bittern.

238. Genus ARDETTA Gray.

Least Bittern. No peculiar feathers, but those of the lower neck long
and loose, as in the bittern; size very small; 11-14 inches long; wing 4-5;
tail 2 or less; bill 2 or less; tarsus about 13. Sexes dissimilar. ¢ with

eer

—————

the slightly crested crown, back and tail, glossy greenish-black; neck ”

behind, most of the wing coverts, and outer edges of inner quills, rich
chestnut, other wing coverts brownish-yellow; front and sides of neck, and
under parts, brownish-yellow, varied with white along the throat-line, the
sides of the breast with a blackish-brown patch; bill and lores mostly pale
yellow, the culmen blackish; eyes and soles yellow; legs greenish-yellow ;
@ with the black of the back entirely, that of the crown mostly or wholly,

replaced by rich purplish-chestnut, the edges of the scapulars forming a_

brownish-white stripe on either side. U. S., common. Wmits., viii, 37, pl.
65; f. 4; Nurr:, ii, 665 Aup:, v1, 1005 pl 36Gse Bp ton os en mE SaaS

Family GRUIDAi. Cranes.

As already intimated, cranes are related to rails in essential points of structure,
though more resembling herons in their general aspect. They are all large birds,
some being of immense stature; the legs and neck are extremely long, the wings
ample, and the tail short, usually of twelve broad feathers. The head is generally,
in part, naked and papillose or wattled in the adult, with a growth of hair-like
feathers, or, in some cases, an upright tuft of curiously bushy plumes. The general
plumage is compact, in striking contrast to that of herons; but the inner remiges,
in most cases, are enlarged and flowing. In some species, the sternum is enlarged
and hollowed to receive a fold of the windpipe, as in swans. Bill equalling or
exceeding the head in length, straight, rather slender but strong, compressed, con-
tracted opposite the nostrils, obtusely pointed ; nasal fossee short, broad, shallow ;
nostrils near the middle of the bill, large, broadly open and completely pervious ;

ee

— T= wee

GRUIDM, CRANES.—GEN. 223. ARAMIDMH, COURLAN.—GEN. 239. 271

tibiz naked for a great distance; tarsi scutellate in front; toes short, webbed at
base; hallux very short, highly elevated. About 14 species of various parts of
the world; only 2 of them American. Most of them fall in the genus Grus; the
elegant ‘‘ demoiselle” cranes of the Old World, Anthropoides virgo and paradise,
and the African Balearica pavonina, are the principal exceptions. ©

223. Genus GRUS Linnsus.

White or Whooping Crane. Adult with the bare part of the head
extending in a point on the occiput above, on each side below the eyes, and
very hairy. Bill very stout, gonys convex, ascending, that part of the
under mandible as deep as the upper opposite it. Adult plumage pure white,
with black primaries, primary coverts and alula; bill dusky greenish; legs
black ; head carmine, the hair-like feathers blackish. Young with the head
feathered; general plumage gray? varied with brown. Length about
50 inches; wing 24; tail 9; tarsus 12; middle toe 5; bill 6. Temperate
N. Am., but apparently of irregular distribution, not well made out; said
to be common in the South Atlantic and Gulf States. Wiuus., viii, 20, pl.
64, f. 3: Norr., ii, 34; Aup., v, 188, pl. 313; Bp., 654. . amMERICANUS.

Brown or Sandhill Crane. Adult with the bare part of the head forking
behind to receive a pointed extension of the occipital feathers, not reaching
on the sides below the eyes, and sparsely hairy. Bill moderately stout, with

nearly straight and scarcely ascending gonys, that part of the under mandible

not so deep as the upper at the same place. Adult plumage plumbeous-gray,
never whitening; primaries, their coverts, and alula, blackish. Young with -
head feathered, and plumage varied with rusty brown. Rather smaller than

the last. Temperate N. Am., rare or irregular in the east, very abundant

in the south and west. Nurtt., ii, 38; Aup., v, 188 (in part), pl. 314; -
Bp., 655. Also, Gt. fraterculus Cass. in Bp., 656 (young). CANADENSIS.

Family ARAMIDZ:. Courlan.

Consisting of a single genus, with probably only one species, of the warmer
portions of America; closely allied to the rails in all essential points of structure,
and perhaps only forming a subfamily of fdillide. Bill twice as long as the head,
slender but strong, compressed, grooved for about half its length, contracted
opposite the nostrils, the terminal portion enlarged, and decurved; nostrils long,
linear, pervious; head completely feathered to the bill; tibiee half bare; tarsus
seutellate anteriorly, as long as the bill; toes cleft, the hinder elevated; wings
short, rounded, with falcate 1st primary ; tail short, of 12 broad feathers.

239. Genus ARAMUS Vieillot.

Scolopaceous Courlan. Orying-bird. Chocolate-brown with a slight oliva-
ceous or other gloss, paler on the face, chin and throat, most of the plumage
sharply streaked with white ; 24-28 long; wing 12-14; tail 6-7; bill and
tarsus, each, about 5. Florida. Bonar., Am. Orn. iv, 111, pl. 26; Nurr.,
li, 68; Aup., vy, 181, pl. 312; Bp., 657. . SCOLOPACEUS var. GIGANTEUS.

2iee RALLIDZ#, RAILS, ETC.

Family RALLIDA, Rails, etc.

This is a large and important family, abundantly represented in most parts of
the world. They are birds of medium and small size, generally with compressed
body and large strong legs (the muscularity of the thighs is very noticeable),
enabling them to run rapidly and thread with ease the mazes of the reedy marshes
to which they are almost exclusively confined; while by means of their very long
toes they are prevented from sinking in the mire or the floating vegetation. The
wings are never long and pointed as among Limicole, being in fact of the shortest,
most rounded and concave form found among waders; and the flight is rarely
protracted to any great distance. The tail is always very short, generally of 10 or
12 soft feathers. Details of the bill and feet vary with the genera; but the former
is never sensitive at the tip, and the latter have the hallux longer and lower down
than it is in the shore-birds. The nostrils are pervious, of variable shape. The
head is completely feathered; the general plumage is ordinarily of subdued and
blended coloration, lacking much of the variegation commonly observed in shore-
birds ; the sexes are usually alike, and the changes of plumage not great with age
or season. The food, never probed for in the mud, but gathered from the surface
of the ground or water, consists of a variety of aquatic animal and vegetable
substances. The nest is a rude structure, placed on the ground, or in a tuft of reeds
or other herbage; the eggs are numerous, generally variegated in color; the young
are hatched clothed. The general habit is gregarious, and migratory ; many species
occur in vast multitudes, though their skulking ways, and the nature of their
resorts, withdraw them from casual observation. Some species swim habitually.

There appear to be upward of 150 species of the family, falling in several well

“marked groups. The Ocydromine are an Old World type of some 35 species,

ranking with some authors as a distinct family. Mr. Gray makes the African
Himantornis hematopus the type and single representative of another subfamily.
Excluding the Purride and Heliornithide (see p. 241), both of which are sometimes
brought under Fallidce, as subfamilies, the three remaining groups are represented
in this country. i

Subfamily RALLINA. Rails.

This is the largest, and central or typical, group, to which most of the foregoing
paragraph is especially applicable. The species are strictly paludicole; the
compression of the body is at a maximum; the form is blunt and thick behind,
with a very short tip-up tail, and tapers to a point in front; the whole figure being
thus adapted to wedge through narrow places. The wings are extremely short and
rounded, and the ordinary flight appears feeble and vacillating, though the migra-
tions of many species are very extensive. The flank-feathers are commonly
enlarged and conspicuously colored; the thighs are very muscular; the tibiz are
generally if not always naked below; the toes are long, completely cleft, without
lobes or any obvious marginal membranes. The bill occurs under two principal
modifications: in allus proper it is longer than the head, slender, compressed,
slightly curved, long-grooved, with linear nostrils; in most genera, however, it is
shorter or not longer than the head, straight, rather stout, with short broad nasal
fossze, and linear-oblong nostrils—altogether somewhat as in gallinaceous birds.
The culmen more or less obviously parts antial extension of the frontal feathers,
but never forms a frontal shield, as in the coots and gallinules. Of the 3d

RALLIDZ, RAILS, ETC.—GEN. 240, 241. 273

American species (Sclater and Salvin) only 7 occur in this country, one of which is
merely a straggler. There are some 25 Old World species.

240. Genus RALLUS Linneus.

Clapper Rail. Salt-water Marsh-hen. Mud-hen. Above, variegated with
dark olive-brown and pale olive-ash, the latter edging the feathers; below,
pale dull ochrey-brown, whitening on the throat, frequently ashy-shaded on
the breast; flanks,
axillars and lining
of wings, fuscous-
gray, with sharp
white bars; quills
and tail plain dark-
brown; eyelids and
short superciliary
line whitish ; young
birds are mostly
soiled whitish be-
low; when just *
from the Ss» eh Fig. 178. Clapper Rail.
tirely sooty black.

14-16 long; wing 5-6; tail 2-24; bill 2-24; tarsus 13-2; middle toe and
claw 2-24; 9 smaller than the g. Salt marshes of Atlantic States,
extremely abundant southerly ; N. regularly to middle districts, sometimes
to Massachusetts; Great Salt Lake (Allen). Eggs 6 to 10, 13 by 14,
whitish, creamy or buff, variously speckled and blotched with reddish-
brown, with a few obscure lavender marks. &. crepitans WILs., Vil, p. 112;
Nourr., ii, 201; Aup., v, 165, pl. 310; Cass. in Bp., 747. LONGIROSTRIS.

King Rail. Fresh-water Marsh-hen. With a general resemblance to the
last species, but much more brightly colored; above, brownish-black,
variegated with olive-brown, becoming rich chestnut on the wing coverts ;
under parts rich rufous or cinnamon-brown, usually paler on the middle of
the belly, and whitening on the throat; flanks and axillars blackish, white-
barred. Rather larger than the last. U.S., chiefly in fresh-water marshes.
Wus., vii, pl. 62, f. 2; Aup., v, 160, pl. 309; Cass. in Bp., 746. ELEGANS.

Virginia Rail. Coloration exactly as in elegans, of which it is a perfect
miniature. Length 83-10}; wing about 4; tail about 13; bill 14-13 ;
tarsus 14-14; middle toe and claw 14-13. Temperate N. Am., common,
migratory ; many winter in the S. states. Wu.s., vii, LOO F pleG 2s. tomes
Nurt., ii, 205; Aup., v, 174, pl. 311; Cass. in Bp., 748. . VIRGINIANUS.

241. Genus PORZANA Vieillot.

Carolina Rail. Common Rail. Sora. “ Ortolan.” Above, olive-brown,
varied with black, with numerous sharp white streaks and specks; flanks,
axillars and lining of wings, barred with white and blackish; belly whitish ;

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 35

2 gn i tet eet La

ARN

274 RALLIDZ, RAILS, ETC.— GEN. 242.

crissum rufescent. Adult with the face and central line of throat black, the
rest of the throat, line over eye, and especially the breast, more or less
intensely slate-gray, the sides of the breast usually
with some obsolete whitish barring and speckling ;
young without this black, the throat whitish, the
breast brown. Length 8-9; wing 4-44; tail about
2; bill 3-2; tarsus 14; middle toe and claw 1%.
Temperate N. Am., exceedingly abundant during
— = the migration in the reedy swamps of the Atlantic
Fig. 179. Carolina Rail. states. WILs., vi, 27, pl. 48, f. 1; Nurr., ii, 209;
Aup., Vv, 145; —pl. 306;0CAsssin Bdesn4 950 es . . CAROLINA.
Yellow Rail. Above, varied with biadkieh and ochr enon and thickly
marked with narrow white semicircles and transverse bars; below, pale
ochrey-brown, fading on the belly, deepest on the breast, where many
feathers are dark-tipped; flanks dark with numerous white bars; crissum
varied with black, white and rufous. Small, about 6 long; wing 34; tail 13;
bill $; tarsus $; middle toe and claw 14. Eastern N. Am., not abundant.
Bonap., Am. Orn. iv, 136, pl. 27, f. 2; Sw. and Ricu., Fn. B.-A. ii, 402;
Norr., ii, 215; Aup., v, 152, pl. 307; Cass. in Bp., 750. NOVEBORACENSIS.
Black Fail. Blackish; head and under parts dark slaty, paler or
whitening on the throat; above, speckled with white, the cervix and upper
back varied with dark chestnut; lower belly, crissum, flanks and axillars,
white-barred ; quills with white spots. Very small; about 54; wing 23-3;
tail 14; tarsus #. S. and Cent. Am. and West Indies; rarely observed in
the U. S, Washington, D. C., (Cowes and Prentiss) ; Kansas, (Allen).
AUDs V5 lOve plo08!s CASS: In Bp. (490 ey cial. ied eee ANC ALORINGIS

242. Genus CREX Bechstein.

Corn Crake. Yellowish-brown, varied with black; below, cinereous-
whitish, palest on the throat and belly ; wings extensively rufous both above
and below; flanks and crissum barred with the same; 10-11; wing 54-6;
tail 2; bill 1; tarsus 13. Europe; Greenland; accidentally on the Atlantic
Coast, U.S. Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1855, 265 (New Jersey), and in
Bp., (ol; Bamp, Am. Journ. Sci. 1866, xli, 25. == = = 5 = PRATENSISe

Subfamily GALLINULINE. Gallinules.

Forehead shielded by a broad, bare, horny plate, a prolongation and expansion
of the culmen. Bill otherwise much as in the shorter-billed rails, like Porzana ;
general form much the same, though the body is not so compressed; toes slender,
simple or slightly margined. The two following genera differ considerably, and
each becomes the type of a subfamily with those who elevate the gallinules to the
rank of a family; but this does not seem to be required. In Gallinula, the nostrils
are linear, and the toes have an evident marginal membrane. Porphyrio (not ‘‘ Por-
phyrula”) has broadly oval nostrils and no obvious digital membranes; the legs
are notably longer, with shorter toes; the bill is thicker, ete. There are about
thirty species of gallinules, of various parts of the world.

aia

RALLID/, RAILS, ETC.—GEN. 243, 244, 245. : 275

243, Genus GALLINULA Brisson.

Florida Gallinule. Head, neck and under parts, grayish-black, darkest
on the former, paler or whitening on the belly ; back brownish-olive; wings
and tail dusky; crissum, edge of wing, and stripes on the flanks, white ;
bill, frontal plate, and ring round tibi, red, the former tipped with yellow ;
tarsiand toes greenish. 12-15 long; wing 63-74; tail 3-34; gape of bill
about 14; tarsus about 2. S. Atlantic and Gulf states, N. sometimes to
Massachusetts. Bonap., Am. Orn. iv, 128, pl. 27, f. 1; Nurr., ii, 223;
Aup., v, 132, pl. 304; Cass. in Bp., 752. . (CHLOROPUS var?) GALEATA.

244, Genus PORPHYRIO Temminck.

Purple Gallinule. Head, neck and under parts beautiful purplish-blue,
blackening on the belly, the crissum white; above, olivaceous-green, the
cervix and wing coverts tinted with blue; frontal shield blue; bill red,
tipped with yellow; legs yellowish. Young with the head, neck and lower
back brownish, the under parts mostly white, mixed with ochrey. 10-12;
wing 63-7; tail 24-3; bill from gape about 14; tarsus about 24; middle
toe and claw about 3. §S. Atlantic and Gulf States, N. casually to New
England (Maine, Boarpman, Am. Nat. iii, 498). Wus., ix, 69, pl. 73;
f. 2; Nurvr., ii, 221; Aup., v, 128, pl. 303; Cass. in Bp., 753. MaRTINICA.

Subfamily FULICINE. Coots.

Bill and frontal plate much as in the gallinules; body
depressed, the under plumage thick and duck-like, to resist
water; feet highly natatorial; tarsus shorter than middle
toe ; toes, including the hinder, Jobate, being furnished with \
large semicircular membranous flaps. The coots are emi-
nently aquatic birds, swimming with ease, by means of their
lobate feet, like phalaropes and grebes. There are about
ten species, of both hemispheres, all referable to the

245. Genus FULICA Linneus.

Coot. Dark slate, paler or grayish below, black-
ening on the head and neck, tinged with olive on the
back ; crissum, whole edge of wing and tips of second-
aries, white; bill white or flesh color, marked with pre. 180. Frontal plate of a
reddish-black near the end; feet dull olivaceous ; See OR,
young similar, paler and duller. About 14; wing 7-8; tail 2; bill from
the gape 14-14; tarsus about 2; middle toe and claw about 3. Temperate
eeeam, abundant. . WiLs., ix, 61, pl. 73, f.1; Nurt., ii, 229; Aup., v,
PMR OASS. In Ds, Wal. ~ . « 2. » + . « . AMERICANA.

276 NATATORES, SWIMMING BIRDS.

Subclass III]. AVES AQUATICA, or NATATORES.

AQUATIC BIRDS. SWIMMERS.

Tuts, the third and last series, containing all remaining carinate birds of the
present geologic epoch, is a group that may readily be defined upon the principles
of adaptive modification already explained under head of Aves Terrestres;
although as in the cases of the other two “subclasses,” it does not rest upon
characters of much morphological significance. The birds composing it are
aquatic in a strict sense, fitted to progress upon or through the water, and to derive
the greater part of their sustenance from the same source; many of them are
absolutely independent of land, except for the purpose of reproduction. Manifest
indications to be fulfilled in adaptation to an aquatic mode of life, are such a con-
figuration of the body as will enable the bird to rest upright on the water, boat-
like; and such conformation of the legs as will render them a pair of paddles
rather than simple pillars of support, together with water proof clothing of the
body. Accordingly, all swimming birds haye a more or less broad and depressed
shape, especially flattened underneath. The coat of feathers is compact and
impervious to water, either by its close imbrication, or its thickening with broad
tracts and abundant down-feathers, or its plentiful lubrication with oil from the well-
developed gland on the rump ; in general, these three circumstances conspire to the
single result. The modifications of the legs are especially interesting. In general,
these limbs are transformed into oars by means of webs stretching from tip to tip
of the front toes, and sometimes also from the inner toe to the hallux. This com-
plete palmation is so nearly universal that it alone would characterize the Swim-
mers, were it not that in one family the same result is effected by means of broad
lobes instead of plain webs, and for the fact that a very few genera of waders are
more or less completely palmiped. Since these broad webs would interfere in
passing each other were the legs as close together and as parallel as they are in
higher birds, another feature is introduced. The limbs are widely separated, in
swimming, not only by the unusual width of the body, but by an outward obliquity
of the members themselves; divergence begins at the hip-joint in the direction of
the axis of the femur, and increases thence to the terminal segments. Greater
power being required to push the body through the water than is needed to simply
support it, first on one leg and then on the other, as in ordinary walking, the femur

is shortened to become rather a fulcrum for advantageous application of power,

a

PHENICOPTERIDA, FLAMINGOES. 20

than a lever for increase of motion. This shortening is generally so marked that
the knee is entirely withdrawn within the general skin of the body—a special
characteristic of swimming birds; and in the best swimmers, the whole limb is thus
buried almost to the heel-joint. Finally, the natatorial limb becomes a rudder as
well as an oar, serving to steer the bird’s course through the water, as much as the
tail guides flight through the air. This is accomplished by the backward set of the
legs—they project so far posteriorly, in many cases, that in standing on land, the
birds necessarily assume a nearly upright position. The wings, tail and Dill differ
according to families, as noticed under the several heads, beyond, while the more
important points of the osseous and digestive systems are similarly diversified.

The Natatorial plan is primarily carried out in four different ways, affording as
many orders. All of these, and all their families excepting one, are represented

within our limits. The missing family is that of the Spheniscide, or penguins.

Order LAMELLIROSTRES. Anserine Birds.

Bill lamellate: that is, both mandibles furnished along their tomial edges with
series of laminar or teeth-like projections, alternating and fitting within each other.
Covering of bill membranous, wholly or in greatest part. Tongue fleshy, usually
with horny tip, and serrate or papillate edges corresponding to the denticulations
of the bill. Feet palmate; hallux elevated, free, simple or lobed (rarely absent).
Wings never exceedingly long, rarely very short. Tail generally short and
many-feathered. sophagus narrower than in the lower flesh-eating orders,
usually with a more or less specially formed crop; gizzard strongly muscular ;
intestines and their ececa long; cloaca capacious. Legs near centre of equilibrium ;
position of body in walking horizontal or nearly so. Reproduction precocial.
Sexual habit frequently polygamous. Diet various, commonly rather vegetarian
than animal. There are two remarkably diverse families of lamellirostral birds.

Family PHQANICOPTERIDZA:. Flamingoes.

Bill very large and thick, entirely invested with membrane (without the horny
terminal nail of the Anatide) which extends around the eyes, and abruptly bent
downward at the middle. Legs and neck exceedingly long. Tibixw largely bare
below ; tarsus broadly scutellate, much longer than the toes. Front toes completely
webbed; hallux very small, or wanting. Wings moderately long, ample.

This is a small but very peculiar group of about six species, inhabiting various
warm parts of the world. The external characters are so nicely balanced between
those of wading and swimming birds, that the flamingoes have been placed indiffer-
ently in both groups; but nearly the whole organization corresponds essentially
with that of the duck tribe, the grallatorial relationship, in form and habits, though
so evident, being rather of analogy than of affinity. In length of legs and neck
these birds exhibit even an exaggeration of the characters of cranes, storks and
herons. The bill is unique in shape; its abrupt bend brings the upper surface
in contact with the ground in the act of feeding. The nest is a heap of earth

a

278 ANATIDE, GEESE, DUCKS, ETC.—GEN. 246.

high enough to permit their long legs to dangle, as represented in some popular
accounts and pictorial efforts. The young are said, on good authority, to take to
the water as soon as hatched.

246. Genus PHG:NICOPTERUS Linneus.

American Flamingo. Adult plumage scarlet; most of the quill feathers
black; legs lake-red; bill orange-yellow, black-tipped. Length about 4
feet; wing 16 inches; tail 6; bill 5; tarsus 12; middle toe and claw 33.
Florida and Gulf coast; N. casually to S. Carolina (Audubon). Whuxs.,
vill, 45, pl. 66; Nurt., ii, 70; Aup., vi, 169, pl. 375; Bp., 687. RuBER.

Family ANATIDA. Geese, Ducks, etc.

Bill lamellate, stout, more or less elevated and compressed at base, widened or
flattened at tip, invested with soft, tough, leathery membrane, except at the end,
which is furnished with a hard, horny ‘ nail,” generally somewhat overhanging,
sometimes small and distinct, sometimes large and fused; that is, changing insen-
sibly into the general covering. (This soft covering is regarded by some as a
prolonged cere; but this is purely theoretical.) Body full, heavy, flattened beneath ;
neck of variable length; head large; eyes small. No anti, the frontal feathers
encroaching on the culmen with a convex or pointed out-
line, and forming other projections on the sides of the bill,
and in the interramal space, which latter is broad and long,
the mandibular crura being united only at the end by a broad
short bridge; no culminal ridge nor keel of gonys. Nostrils
subbasal, median or subterminal, usually broadly oval.

Fic. 181. Wild Duck. Wings of moderate length (rarely very short), stiff, strong,
pointed, conferring rapid, vigorous, whistling flight; a wild duck at full speed is
said to make ninety miles an hour. Tail of variable shape, but usually short and
rounded, never forked, sometimes cuneate, of 12-24 feathers, usually 14-16, the
under coverts very long and full, forming a conspicuous crissal tuft. Feet short;
knees buried in the general integument; tibizee feathered nearly or quite to the
suffrago; tarsi reticulate or scutellate, or both; toes palmate, the hinder always
present and free, simple or lobate. Wing occasionally spurred.

Like the gallinaceous, the anserine type is a familiar one, comprising all kinds
of ‘‘ water-fowl,” among which are the originals of all our domestic breeds of swans,

* geese and ducks, that vie with poultry in point of economic consequence, ornament

our parks, or furnish exquisite material for wearing apparel. But additional infor-
mation respecting the structure of this, the largest and most important family of
swimming birds, may be desirable. It is definitely characterized by many impor-
tant points besides those external features just stated. In palatal structure, the
Anatide are desmognathous ; ‘‘the lachrymal region of the skull is remarkably long
[the lachrymal bone itself is large]. The basisphenoidal nostrum has oval sessile
basipterygoid facets. The flat and lamellar maxillo-palatines unite and form a
bridge across the palate. The angle of the mandible is produced and greatly
recurved” (Hualey). The interorbital septum is more or less completely ossified,
and the orbits are better defined than in many birds, by well developed processes.
The premaxillary is large, and its three prongs are so extensively fused that only a

‘and other material, which the birds bestride in an ungainly attitude ; but it is not

ana eee eh

ANATIDZ, GEESE, DUCKS, ETC. 279

slight nasal aperture remains. Sometimes the top of the skull shows crescentic
depressions for lodgment of the supraorbital gland, the secretion of which lubricates
the nasal passages; but this feature is never so marked as in most of the pisciv-
orous swimmers. The sternum is both long and broad, more or less transverse
posteriorly, with a simple notch or fenestra on each side; sometimes its keel is
curiously hollowed out for a purpose stated beyond. The vertebrae vary a good
deal in number, owing to the variability of the cervicals, which run up to 23 in some
swans. The pelvis is ample, arched and extensively ossified, with small foramina,
showing nothing of the straight, constricted, largely fenestrated figure prevalent
among lower water-birds.

The tongue is large and fleshy ; its main bone (glosso-hyal) is highly developed ;
its sides show a fringe of processes corresponding to the lamelle of the bill. The
gullet is not so ample as in the flesh-eating swimmers. The gizzard resembles that
of a fowl in its shape and great muscularity ; the muscles are deep-colored, and well
show the typical disposition of large hemispherical lateral masses converging to
central tendons. The cceca vary with the genera according to food; they are very
long—12 or 15 inches—in some of the herbivorous species. The male genital
armature merits special notice. ‘‘In some Natatores which copulate on the water
there is provision for more eflicient coitus than by simple contact of everted cloacee ;
and in the Anatide a long penis is developed. It is essentially a saccular produc-
tion of a highly vascular part of the lining membrane of the cloaca. * * * In
the passive state it is coiled up like a screw by the elasticity of associated
ligamentous structure. * * * A groove commencing widely at the base follows
the spiral turns of the sac to its termination; the sperm ducts open upon papillee
at the base of this groove. This form of penis has a muscle by which it can be
everted, protruded and raised.” (Owen.) Among the most interesting structures
of the Anatide are the curious modifications of the windpipe, prevailing almost
throughout the family. In a number of swans, this organ enters a cavity in the
keel of the sternum, doubles on itself and then emerges to pass to the lungs, forming
either a horizontal or a vertical coil. In some geese the windpipe coils between the
pectoral muscles and the skin. These vagaries of the windpipe are not, however,
confined to the present family, occurring in some of the cranes, certain Galline,
and also, it is said, in the curious snipe, Rhynchwa capensis. In most of the ducks,
furthermore, and in the mergansers, the lower larynx is a singularly enlarged and
complicated affair; several of the lower rings of the trachea being soldered together
and greatly magnified to produce a large irregularly shaped capsule. Its use is
not known; in some sense it is a sexual character, since it is only fully developed
in the male; it varies greatly in size and shape in different species. Finally, it
should be added, that the pterylosis of the family is perfectly definite, a certain type
of tract-formation prevailing throughout, with very slight minor modifications.

It is not easy to overrate the economie importance of this large family. It is
true that the mergansers, some of the sea ducks, and certain maritime geese, that
feed chiefly upon animal substances, are scarcely fit for food; but the great majority
afford a bounteous supply of sapid meat, a chief dependence, indeed, with the
population of some inhospitable regions. Such is the case, for example, in the
boreal parts of this continent, whither vast bands of water-fowl resort to breed
during the fleeting arctic summer. Their coming marks a season of comparative
plenty in places where hunger often pinches the belly, and their warm downy
covering is patched into garments almost cold-proof.

The general traits of the anserine birds are too well known to require more than

A
4
}

280 ANATIDH, SWANS.

passing notice. They are salacious to a degree remarkable even in the hot-blooded,
passionate class of birds; a circumstance rendering the production of hybrids
frequent, and favoring the study of this subject. If we recall the peculiar actions
of geese nipping herbage, and of ducks ‘‘dabbling” in the water, and know that
some species, as the mergansers, pursue fish and other live prey under water, we
have the principal modes of feeding. Nidification is usually on the ground;
sometimes in a hollow tree; the nest is often warmly lined with live feathers;
the eggs are usually of some plain pale color, as greenish or creamy; the clutch
varies in number, commonly ranging from half a dozen to a dozen and a half.
The young are clothed with stiffish down, and swim at once. Among the ducks
and mergansers, marked sexual diversity in color is the rule; the reverse is the
case with swans and geese. A noteworthy coloration of many species, especially
of ducks, is the speculum; a brightly colored, generally iridescent, area on the
secondary quills. Most of the species are migratory, particularly those of the
northern hemisphere; the flight is performed in bands, that seem to preserve
discipline as well as companionship; and with such regularity, that no birds are
better entitled to the claim of weather-prophets.

There are upward of 175 species of this family, inhabiting all parts of the world.
They differ a good deal in minor details, and represent a number of peculiar genera
aside from the ordinary types, though none are so aberrant as to endanger the
integrity of the group. It is difficult to establish divisions higher than generic,
because the swans, geese and ducks, if not also the mergansers, are closely united
by intermediate genera. But the five groups presented as subfamilies in the
following pages, and representing the whole of the family, may be conveniently
recognized, and are readily distinguished, so far as our species are concerned,
by the characters assigned.

Subfamily CYGNIN4!. Swans.

A strip of bare skin between the eye and bill; tarsi reticulate. In the swans, the
neck is of extreme length and flexibility ; the movements and attitudes on the water
are proverbially elegant and graceful. The bill equals or exceeds the head in length ;

it is high and compressed at base (where sometimes tuberculate), flatter and _

widened at the end; the nostrils are median. Some of the inner remiges are
usually enlarged, and when elevated in a peculiar position of the wing, they act as
sails to help the course of the bird over the water. The legs are placed rather far
back for this family, so that the gait is awkward and constrained. The tail is short,
of 20 or more feathers. Although the voice is sonorous at times, an habitual
reticence of swans contrasts strongly with the noisy gabbling of geese and ducks ;
it is hardly necessary to add, that their fancied musical ability, either in health or
at the approach of death, is not confirmed by examination of their vocal apparatus ;
this is in many cases convoluted as already described, but there are no syringeal
muscles nor other apparatus for modulating the voice. There are eight or ten
species, of various countries, among them the celebrated black swan of Australia,
Chenopsis atratus, the black-necked swan of South America, Cygnus nigricollis ;
and the Coscoroba anatoides of the same country, a species with feathered lores; in
none of these does the trachea enter the breast-bone. Our two species belong to
the subgenus Olor, distinguished from Cygnus proper by absence of a tubercle
at the base of the bill. The sexes are alike throughout the group.

ANATIDE, SWANS.—GEN. 247. 281

247. Genus CYGNUS Linneus.
** Adult plumage entirely white; younger, the head and neck washed with
rusty brown; still younger, gray or ashy. Bill and feet black. Length 4-5 feet.
Trumpeter Swan. Tail (normally) of 24 feathers. No yellow spot on
bill, which is rather longer than the head, the nostrils fairly in its basal half.
Mississippi Valley, westward’ and northward; Canada (C. passmorei
Hincks). Sw. and Ricw., Fn. Bor.-Am. ii, 464; Nurr., ii, 370; Aup.,
PEO plSdG4, OOO sD. (OS. ~ sss +. « » «© «© BUCCINATOR.

Fig. 182. American Swan.

Whistling Swan. ‘Tail (normally) of 20 feathers. A yellow spot on bill,
which is not longer than the head; nostrils median. N.Am. C. bewichii
Sw., Fn. Bor.-Am., 465; C. ferus Nutt., ii, 3663 C. bewickit Nurr., ii,
372; C. americanus Aup., vi, 226, pl. 384; Bp., 758. . . AMERICANUS.

Subfamily ANSERINAE. Geese.

Lores completely feathered; tarsi entirely reticulate. Neck in length between

that of swans and of ducks; cervical vertebre about 16; body elevated and not so

much flattened as in the ducks; legs relatively longer; tarsus generally exceeding,
or at least not shorter than, the middle toe; bill generally rather short, high and
compressed at base, and tapering to tip, which is less widened and flattened than is
usual among ducks, and almost wholly occupied by the broad nail. The species
as a rule are more terrestrial, and walk better, than ducks; they are generally
herbivorous, although several maritime species (gen. 249, and an allied South
American group) are animal-feeders, and their flesh is rank. Both sexes attend to
the young. A notable trait, shared by the swans, is their mode of resenting
intrusion by hissing with outstretched neck, and striking with the wings. With
some exceptions the plumage is not so bright and variegated as that of ducks, and
the speculum is wanting; there is only an annual moult, and no seasonal change of
plumage; the sexes are generally alike. Most of the geese fall in or very near
gen. 248 and 250, and are modelled in the likeness of the domestic breeds. ‘The
more notable exotic forms are:—the Australian Anseranas melanoleuca and
Cereopsis nove-hollandice, the former having the feet little more than semipalmate,
the latter scarcely aquatic, with very long legs, much bare above the suffrago, and the
bill small, very membranous ; the African Plectropterus gambensis, a purplish-black

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 36

282 ANATIDH, GEESE.—GEN. 248.

bird with spurs on the wings and a tubercle at the base of the bill; the Asiatic
Cynopsis cygnoides, frequently domesticated, a true goose with a swan-like aspect ;
the Egyptian goose, Chenalopex cegyptiaca. The geese appear to pass directly into
the ducks through the rather large shieldrake group, the species of which resemble
the latter in many external features, but are more essentially like geese. Charac-
teristic examples of this group are the European Tadorna vulpanser and Casarea
rutila ; there are several others in the southern hemisphere; our long-legged
arboricole genus Dendrocygna belongs in the immediate vicinity, while the domes-
ticated musk duck, Catrina moschata, is not far removed. Through such forms
as these we are brought directly among the ducks proper.

248. Genus ANSER Linneus.

* ,* Bill and feet light or bright colered; plumage white, or much variegated.
American White-fronted Goose. Bill smooth; the lamine moderately
exposed ; tail normally of 16 feathers. Under parts white or gray, exten-
sively blotched with black ; back dark gray, with paler or brownish edgings
of the feathers ; upper tail coverts white ; head and neck grayish-brown, the
forehead conspicuously pure white (in the adult; dark in some states) ; bill
pale lake; feet orangé, with pale claws. About 27 long; wing 16-18; tail
5-6; tarsus 22-3; middle toe and claw about the same. North America;
only differs from the European in an average longer bill (12-2, instead of
13-13). Sw. and Ricu., Fn. B.-A. ii, 466; Nurr., ii, 346; Aup., vi, 209,
pl. 880; Bpo., 761; A. frontalis Bp., 762 (young). ALBIFRONS var. GAMBELII.
? Blue Goose. With nearly the size, and exactly the form, of the next
species, but the plumage ashy, varied with dark brown, the head, upper
neck, tail coverts and most of the under parts white, the wing coverts silvery-
ash. Questionably the young of the snow goose. Wits., viii, 89, pl. 69, f.
5; Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1856, 12; Ex. pl. 43. . . C#@RULESCENS.
Snow Goose. Bill smooth; the lamin very prominent, owing to arching

of the edges of the bill. Adult plumage pure white, but in most specimens —

the head washed with rusty-red; primaries broadly black-tipped;_ bill
lake-red with white nail; feet the same, with dark claws. “Young, dull
bluish or pale lead colored on the head and upper parts of the body” ( Cassin).
Length about 30; wing 17-19; tail 54-63; bill 24; tarsus 34. North
America; U.S. in winter; extremely abundant in the West, much less so
in the East. WIts., viii, 76, pl. 68, f. 5; Sw. and Rios., Fn. B.-A. ‘ii,
467; Nurt., li, 844; Aup., vi, 212, pl. 381; Bp., 760. . HYPERBOREUS.

Var. arBatus. Lesser Snow Goose. Smaller; “length about 25 inches; wing
153; tail 52; bill 2; tarsus 3.” Western N. Am. Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad.
1856, 41; 1861, 73; Bp., 760, 925; Exxtior, pl. 42.

Ross’ Goose. Bill studded at the base with numerous elevated papillz.
Color white, with black-tipped quills, exactly as in the snow goose, but less
than 24 long; wing 14-15; tail 5; bill 13; tarsus 24. Arctic regions (U. S.
in winter?). “Horned Wavey” of Hearne, Journ. 442 ; A. rossii Bp. ; Cass.,
Proc. Phila. Acad. 1861, 73; Haanthemops rossii ExxroT, pl. 44. ROSSI.

ee

ateen

ee

ANATID, GEESE.—GEN. 249, 250. 283

249. Genus PHILACTE Bannister.

Painted Goose. Emperor Goose. Wavy bluish-gray, with lavender or
_ lilac tinting, and sharp black crescentic marks; head, nape and tail white,
_ former often washed with amber-yellow; throat black, white-speckled ;

tarsus 38. N.W. coast; abundant at mouth of Yukon. Chloephaga canagico.
Sep. (08; ExL., pl. 45; Dauu., Trans. Chicago Acad. i, 296; Philacte

CANAGICA.
3

a

Fig. 183. Emperor Goose.

250. Genus BRANTA Scopoli.

*,* Bill and feet black; head and neck black, with white spaces.

Barnacle Goose. Blackish; tail coverts, sides of rump, forehead, sides
of head, and throat, white; interscapulars and wing coverts bluish-gray ;
under parts plumbeous-white ; 28; wing 17; tarsus 23; bill 14. Europe;
_ very rare or merely casual in N. Am.
Bo., Am. Nat. ii, 49 (Hudson’s Bay) ;
Lawr., ibid. v, 10 (North Carolina).
Norr., ii, 355; Avp., vi, 200, pl. 378;
arentoo. . . %- . . LEUCOPSIS.
* Brant Goose. Head, neck, body
anteriorly, quills and tail, black; a
small patch of white streaks on the
middle of the neck, and usually white
_ touches on the under eyelid and chin;
upper tail coverts white ; back brown-
_ ish-gray ; under parts the same, but paler, and fading into white on the lower
_ belly and crissum; black of jugulum well defined against the color of the

4

FG. 184. a, Brant Goose; b, var. nigricans.

284 ANATIDH, GEESE.—GEN. 251.

breast ; 2 feet long; wing 13; tail 5; bill 14; tarsus 24. Hudson’s Bay;
Arctic and Atlantic (and Pacific?) Coast, S. in winter to Carolina or further ;
common. WILS., viii, 131, pl. 72, f. 1; Sw. and Ricn., F. B.-A. ii, 469 ;
Nurt., ii, 859; Aup., vi, 203, pl. 379; Bp., 767... - . = BUERNICEAS

Var. niericans. Black Brant. Similar; black of jugulum extending over most
of the under parts, gradually fading behind ; white neck patches usually larger and
meeting in front. Both coasts; very abundant on the Pacific; not common on the
Atlantic. Lawr., Ann. Lyc. N. Y. 1846, 171;
Cass., Ill. 52, pl. 10; Bo., 767.

Canada Goose. Common Wild Goose.
Tail normally 18-feathered. Grayish-brown,
below paler or whitish-gray, bleaching on
the crissum, all the feathers with lighter
edges; head and neck black, with a broad
white patch on the throat moutiting each side
of the head; tail black, with white upper
coverts. About 36; wing 18-20; tail 64-74;
bill 12-2; tarsus usually over 3. N. Am.,
abundant; U.S. chiefly in winter, but also
occasionally in summer, breeding sparingly.
WIELS., viii, 52, pl. 67, f. 4; Sw. and Ricw., Fn. B.-A. ii, 468; Nurt.,
11,7549); -Aub., vi, 178, pl: 376) Bp. (G4). <9 CANAD ENG ESE

Fig. 185. a, Canada Goose; b, var. leuco-
pareia.

Var. teucopareIA. Black of neck bounded below by a white jugular collar ;
under parts rather darker than is usual in the Canada goose, well defined against
the white of the jugulum and crissum. Size of the last; tail feathers 18. Cass.,
Ill. 272, pl. 45; Bp., 765. B. occidentalis Bp., 766 (in text).

Var. nurcuinsi. Tail usually 16-feathered. Colors exactly as in the Canada
goose, but size less. About 23 feet long; wing 15-17; tail 5-6; bill 14-12;
tarsus rather under 3. N. Am., but chiefly northern and western. Svw. and Ricu.,
EF. B.-A., ii, 470% Norn, ii, 362); Aup., vi, 198) spl 3775) Bp... coo.

251. Genus DENDROCYGNA Swainson.

* .* Duck-like arboricole geese, with the bill longer than the head, terminated by
a prominent nail, the legs very long with the tibize extensively denuded below, the
hind toe lengthened, more than one-third as long as the tarsus. In addition to the
following species, a third, D. arborea, of the West Indies, may occur in the South.

Fulvous Tree Duck. Pale cinnamon or yellowish-brown, darker on the
crown, the nape with a black line, the bend of the wing chocolate-brown ;
rest of the wing, rump and tail, black, its upper and under coverts white ;
scapulars and fore back dark with pale cinnamon edgings; Dill and feet
blackish ; 20; wing 94; tail 34; bill 14; tarsus 24. S$. and Cent. Am. and
Mexico; Southwestern U. S., not common. Fort Tejon, Cal. (Xantus),
Bo., 770; Fort Whipple, Ariz., Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 98; Gal-
veston, Tex. (Dresser; breeding) ; New Orleans, La. (Moore). . FULVA.

Autumnal Tree Duck. Blackish, including a nuchal stripe; crown, most
of neck and fore breast, middle of back and scapulars, reddish-chocolate ;

2
= |
F.

—

ANATID, DUCKS.—GEN. 252. 285

a large white wing-patch; bill and legs reddish. Size of the last. South
and Central America and Mexico, to Texas (Scholt). Lawr., Ann. Lye.
em Soames eseClO. a 6 6: ee ve owe LAUTUMINAETS:

Subfamily ANATINA. River Ducks.

Tarsi scutellate in front; hind toe simple. This expression separates the present
group from all the North American examples of the foregoing and succeeding sub-
families, although not a perfect diagnosis. The neck and legs are shorter than
they average in geese, while the feet are smaller than in the sea-ducks, the toes and
their webs not being so highly developed. None of the Anatine are extensively
maritime, like most of the Muliquline ; yet they are not by any means confined to
fresh waters, and some species constantly associate with the sea-ducks. They feed
extensively, like most geese, upon succulent aquatic herbage, but also upon various
animal substances; their flesh is, almost without exception, excellent. They do
not dive for their food. The moult is double; the sexes are almost invariably
markedly distinct in color; the young resemble the 9 ; the wing has usually a
brilliant speculum, which, like the other wing-markings, is the same in both sexes.
Unlike geese, these and other ducks are not doubly monogamous, but simply so if
not polygamous ; the male pays no attention to the young. Excluding the shield-
rake group, already mentioned as pertaining rather to the geese than the ducks,
there are about fifty species, generally distributed over the world. They are split
into a large number of modern genera, most of which indicate little more than
specific characters; the majority are represented in this country. Of those here
following, only two, Spatula and Aix, represent any decided structural peculiarity ;
the rest might all be referred to Anas, type of the group. The Mulacorhynchus
membranaceus, of Australia, is a notable exotic form.

252. Genus ANAS Linneus.

Mallard. % with the head and upper neck glossy green, succeeded by a
white ring; breast purplish-chestnut; tail feathers mostly whitish ; greater
wing coverts tipped with black and white, the speculum violet, black-
bordered ; bill greenish-yellow; feet orange-red; @ with the wing as in the
3; head, neck and under parts pale ochrey, speckled and streaked with
dusky. Length about 24; wing 10-12. N. Am., abundant; rare or casual
in New England and further eastward. Wu1s., viii, 112, pl. 70, i (he i haptatye
Hipsios AuD.. vi, 206, pl. doo; BD. (74. . . . « « ~ = BOSCHAS:

Oss. This is the well-known original of the common tame duck. An anoma-
lous duck, with the general aspect of this species, but nearly as large as a goose,
is occasionally taken on the Atlantic coast. It is unquestionably part mallard, but
the balance of its parentage is unknown—supposed to be muscovy. (A. maxima
Gossr, Birds of Jamaica, 399; Fuligula viola Beit, Ann. Lye. N. Y. 1852, 219%)
A. glocitans or A. breweri of Aup., vi, 252, pl. 387 (A. audubonii of Bonar.) is
supposed to be a hybrid between the mallard and gadwall. The mallard is known
to cross with various other species. Upwards of fifty kinds of hybrid ducks are

recorded; some of them have proved fertile, contrary to an assumed rule.

Dusky Duck. Black Duck. Size of the mallard, and resembling the ¢
of that species, but darker and without decided white anywhere except under

We)
Wh
1 i

ry

286 ANATIDH, DUCKS. —GEN. 253, 254, 255.

the wings. Tail 16-18-feathered. Eastern N. Am., abundant, especially
in New England and eastward. Wits., viii, 141, pl. 72, f. 5; Nurr.,
i; 392 5 AWD: , -V1,-244, pl. d80:3)) bDes (don - ee een eel ORR eC UiRAe

253. Genus DAFILA Teach.

Pintail. Sprigtail. Tail cuneate, when fully developed the central
feathers much projecting and nearly egualling the wing in length; much
shorter and not so narrow in the @ and young; 4 to 9 inches long; wing
11; total length about 24. Bill black and blue, feet grayish-blue ; head and
upper neck dark brown, with
green and purple gloss, sides
of neck with a long white
stripe; lower neck and
under parts white, dorsal
line of neck black, passing
into the gray of the back,
which, like the sides, is
vermiculated with black;
speculum greenish-purple,
anteriorly bordered by buff
tips of the greater coverts,
elsewhere by black and white; tertials and scapulars black and _ silvery ;
? and young with the whole head and neck speckled or finely streaked with
dark brown and grayish or yellowish-brown; below, dusky-freckled ; above,
blackish, all the feathers pale-edged; only a trace of the speculum between
the white or whitish tips of the greater coverts and secondaries. N. Am.,
abundant. WHUts., viii, 72, pl. 68, f. 3; Nurr., ii, 386; Aup., vi, 266,
390; Bpo., 776. Anas caudacuta Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 441. acura.

Fig. 186. Female Pintail.

254. Genus CHAULELASMUS Gray.

Gadwall. g with most of the plumage barred or half-ringed with black
and white, or whitish; middle wing coverts chestnut, greater coverts black,

speculum white; known by these wing-marks; 19-22; wine 10-11;
y fo} a oD aug

N. Am., common. Sw. and Ricw., F. B.-A., ii, 440; Wus., vii, 120;
pl. 71, f.1; Nurr., ii, 383; Aup., vi, 254, pl. 388; Bp., 782. sTREPERUS.

255. Genus MARECA Stephens.

*.* Bill shorter than head, grayish-blue like the feet; tail 14-16-feathered,
pointed, but hardly or not half as long as the wing; top of head white or nearly
so, plain or speckled, its sides, and the neck, more or less speckled; fore breast
light brownish-red ; belly pure white; crissum abruptly black; middle and greater
coyerts white, latter black-tipped; speculum green, black-bordered ; 20-22; wing
11; tail 5; tarsus 2; bill 14-11; 9 known by the wing-markings.

European Widgeon. Head and neck reddish-brown, scarcely varied ; top
of head creamy, or brownish-white, its sides with mere traces of green.

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ANATIDH, DUCKS.—GEN. 256-7. 287

Europe; casually on the Atlantic coast, Greenland to Florida; California

(Cooper). Grraup, Birds Long Island, 807; Bp., 784. . . PENELOPE.

American Widgeon. aldpate. Head and neck grayish, dusky-speckled ;
top of head white (in full plumage), its sides with a broad green patch.
N. Am., abundant. Scarcely distinct from the last. Sw. and
Ricw., F. B.-A. ii, 445; Wits., viii, 86, pl. 69, f. 4; Nurr.,
il, 989; AtD., vi, 259, pl. 389; Bp., 783 . . AMERICANA.

256-7. Genus QUERQUEDULA Stephens.

* Subcrested ; head and upper neck chestnut, with a broad glossy
green band on each side, whitish-bordered, uniting and blackening on =
the nape ; under parts white, the fore breast with circular black spots; ria. 187. Ameri-
upper parts and flanks closely waved with blackish and white; crissum °*“" "8°"
black, varied with white or creamy; speculum rich green, bordered in front with
buffy tips of the greater coverts, behind with white tips of the secondaries; no
blue on the wing; bill black; feet gray. @ differs especially in the head mark-
ings, but those of the wings are the same. Small; 14-15; wing
73; tail 33; bill 14; tarsus 1}. (Nettion.)

English Teal. No white crescent in front of the wing; long
= scapulars black externally, creamy internally. Europe; acci-
dental on the Atlantic Coast. Cours, Proc. Phil. Acad. 1861,
PZSSNGMADTACOR) 3) Des giCSs 5 2 «sss. . \« CRECCA-

Green-winged Teal. A’conspicuous white crescent on the
pe ae side of the body just in front of the bend of the wing; scap-
~ winged Teal. ulars plain. N. Am., abundant. Wiuts., viii, 101, pl. 70,
f. 4; Nort., ii, 400; Aup., vi, 281, pl. 392; Bp., 777. . CAROLINENSIS.

** Wine-coverts in both sexes sky-blue, the greater white-tipped ; speculum green,
white-tipped ; axillars and most under wing coverts white; scapulars striped with
tawny and blue (not in the 9) or dark green; fore back barred; rump and tail

dark, plain; crissum dark or black; bill black; feet not dark. (Querquedula.)

Blue-winged Teal. Head and neck of the ¢ blackish-plumbeous, darkest

on the crown, usually with purplish iridescence ; a white crescent in front of

the eye; under parts thickly dark-spotted ; 9 with head and neck altogether
different ; under parts much paler and obscurely spotted ; but known by the
wing-markings from any species except the next one. 15-16; wing 7; tail
3; tarsus 14; bill 14-12. Eastern N. Am. to the Rocky Mountains, abun-
dant; also, Alaska (Dall). Sw. and Ricn., F. B.-A. ii, 444; WILS., Vili,
7A, pl. 68, f.4; Nurv., ii, 397; Aup., vi, 287, pl. 393; Bp., 779. Discors.

Cinnamon Teal. 3 with head, neck, and whole under parts, rich
purplish-chestnut, darkening on crown, chin and crissum, and blackening on
middle of belly ; rather larger than the last; bill longer, 12-12. 9 with the
chestnut replaced by mottled brown and tawny, and difficult to distinguish
from 9 discors; but darker, usually with some chestnut traces; head, and
especially chin, more spotted; bill longer. A generally distributed S. Am.
species, now abundant in the U. S. west of the Rocky Mountains ; of casual
occurrence in the Gulf States (Louisiana, Pélaté; Florida, Maynard).

288 ANATIDH, DUCKS. —GEN. 258, 259.

Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1848, 195, and Ill. 82, pl. 25; Lawr., Ann.
Lye. N. Y. 1852, 220; Bp., 780, and Stansbury’s Rep. 322. cyYANOPTERA.

258. Genus SPATULA Boie.

Shoveller. Broad-bill. Bill twice as wide at the end as at the base ; with
very numerous .aud prominent luminz. Head and neck of g green; fore
breast white ; belly purplish-chestnut ; wing coverts blue; speculum green,
bordered with black and white ; some scapulars blue, others green, all white-
striped; bill blackish; feet red. ¢
known by bill and wings. 20; wing
94; tarsus 14; bill 24-22. N. Am.,
abundant. Wuxs., viii, 65, pl. 67, f.
(5) NUET..) loo GeeAUID saviors
pl. 394; Bp.,. 781. . : CLyPEATA:

259. Genus AIX Swainson.

Summer Duck. Wood Duck.
Crested; head iridescent green and
purple, with parallel curved, white
superciliary and postocular stripes,
Z and a broad, forked, white throat

Fic. 189. Summer Duck. patch ; 18-20; wing 83-94; tail
43-5; tarsus 14-14; bill 14; ¢@ with the head mostly gray. N. Am.,
abundant, breeding in most sections, nesting in trees. WU1s., vili, 97, pl.
10, 4.3; Nurr.5 a, 394; Aun. vi, 271, plo; Bp.) (Sonne mSEONS ae

Subfamily FULIGULIN A. Sea Ducks.

Tarsi scutellate in front; hind toe lobate. The large membranous flap depending
from the hind toe distinguishes this group from the preceding, probably without
exception. While the general form is the same as that of the Anatine, the feet are
notably larger, with relative shorter tarsi, longer toes, and broader webs, and placed
somewhat further back, in consequence of which the gait is still more awkward and
constrained than the ‘‘ waddle” of ordinary ducks; but swimming powers are
enhanced, and diving is facilitated. A large number of the species are exclusively
maritime, but this is no more the case with all of them, than is the reverse with the
river ducks. These birds feed more upon mollusks and other animal substances
(not, however, upon fish, like the mergansers) than the river ducks do, and their
flesh, as a rule, is coarser, if not entirely too rank to be eaten; there are, however,
single exceptions to this, as in the case of the canvas-back. The sexes are unlike,
as among the Anatine ; and besides the difference in color, the 9 is often distin-
guished by the absence or slight development of certain tuberosities of the bill that
the @ of several species, as of scoters and eiders, possesses. A large majority of
the species inhabit the Northern Hemisphere ; there are some forty in all, exhibiting
a good deal of diversity in minor details, but to no such extent as the number of
current genera would imply. Among notable exotics, we have the soft-billed
Hymenolemus malacorhynchus of New Zealand, and the short-winged Micropterus

4

:
&
é
sf

ANATIDEH, DUCKS.—GEN. 260-1. 289

cinereus of South America, both related to our gen. 264; there are but very few

others. .The genus Hrismatura is the type of a small remarkable group, as noticed
beyond, sometimes considered as a subfamily. Biziura lobata of Australia,
with a fleshy appendage under the bill, the African Thalassornis leuconota, the

$ Nesonetta aucklandica, and several species of Hrismatura, compose the subgroup.

260-1. Genus FULIGULA Stephens.

*@ with the head, neck, and body anteriorly, black, the former glossy ; lower
back, rump, tail and its coverts, blackish ; below, white, with fine black waving on
the sides and lower belly; 9 with the head and anterior parts brown, with or
without pure white around the-bill, and. other black parts of the ¢ rather brown ;
é Q bill black and blue, or dusky; feet livid. (fuliz.)

Greater Scaup Duck. Big Black-head. Blue-bill. Raft Duck. Flock-
ing Fowl. Shuffler. No ring round neck ; speculum white; back and sides
whitish, finely waved in zigzag with black; gloss of head green; bill dull
blue with black nail; legs plumbeous; ¢ with the face pure white, the
black-and-white vermiculation less distinct. About 20 long; wing 9. N.
Am. WILs., viii, 84, pl. 69, f.3; Nurr., ii, 437 (includes next perieaye
Aup., vii, 395, pl. 498 (not of vi, 316); Bp., 791. ... . . .. MARIA.

?Lesser Scaup Duck. Little Black-head Gath other names of the fore-
going). Extremely similar; smaller, about 16; wing 8; gloss of head
chiefly purple; flanks and scapulars less closely waved with black? It is
very difficult to define this bird specifically, and it may be simply a small
southern form; but it appears to preserve its characters, although constantly

associated with the last. #. marila Aup., vi, 316, pl. 397;-#. minor

Giravup, Birds of Long Island, 323; F. affinis Bp., 791. . . AFFINIS.

Ring-necked Duck. An orange-brown ring round the neck; speculum
gray; back nearly uniform blackish; bill black, pale at base and near tip ;
2 with head and neck br own, and no collar, but loral space and chin whitish,
as is a ring round eye; bill plain dusky. In size between the foregoing.
N. Am. Ww ILS., viii, 60, pl. 67, f. 5; Nurt., ii, 489; Aup., vi, 320, pl.
398; Bp. 792. . .~ coOLLaRIs.

** @ with the head and neck
chestnut, pure or obscured, in the
& plain brown; body anteriorly,
rump and tail coverts, black, in the
9 dark brown ; back, scapulars and
sides plumbeous-white, finely waved
with black, less distinct in the 9 ;
speculum bluish-ash. Length about
20; wing 9-10; tarsus 12-12.
(Aythya.)

Red-head. Pochard. Bill
dull blue with a black belt at pepe eae
the end, broad and depressed, shorter than head (2 or less), the nostrils
within its basal half; color of head rich pure chestnut, with bronzy or red

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 37

i hs.

290 ANATIDZ, DUCKS.—GEN. 262.

reflections ; of back, mixed silvery-gray and black in about equal amount, the
dark waved lines unbroken. N.Am., abundant. Wiuzs., viii, 110, pl. 70, f. 6;
Nurtt., ii, 484; Aup., vi, 311, pl. 396; Bp., 793. FERINA var. AMERICANA.

Canvas-back. Bill blackish, high at the base and narrow throughout, not
shorter than head (24, or more), the nostrils at its middle; head much
obscured with dusky ; black waved lines of the back sparse and much broken
up into dots, the whitish thus predominating. N. Am., especially abundant
along the middle Atlantic Coast in winter, where from feeding on the wild
celery ( Vallisneria) its flesh acquires a peculiar flavor, though not particularly
excellent under other circumstances. WH1S., viii, 103, pl. 70, f. 5; Nurr.,
ii, 480; Aup., vii, 299, pl..395; Bp: 794... : 2 = VALUISNERTAR

262. Genus BUCEPHALA Baird.

*,* @ with the head puffy, dark colored, iridescent, with large white patches ;
lower neck all around, under parts, including sides, most of the scapulars, wing
coverts and secondaries, white ; lining of wings and axillars dark; most of upper
parts black ; no waving on back and sides. 9 with the head less puffy, brown or
dark gray, with traces of the white patches, or not; somewhat less white on the
wings ; fore breast and sides with gray, the feathers paler-edged. Bill much shorter
than head, very high at the base, tapering, with median nostrils.

Golden-eye. Garrot. & with the head and upper neck glossy dark green,
and a white oval or rounded loral spot, not touching the base of the bill
throughout ; white continuous on outer surface of wing; bill black with pale
or yellow end, with nostrils in anterior half; feet orange ; webs dusky ; eyes
yellow; head uniformly puffy; 9 with head snuffy-brown, and no white
patch in front of the eye. Length 16-19; wing 8-9. N. Am., abundant.
Our bird does not appear to differ in the least from the European. Wus.,
viii, 62, pl. 67, f. 6; Nurr., ii, 441; Aup., vi, 362, pl. 406 (describes the
next species as summer plumage); Bp., 796. . . . . . CLANGULA.

Barvow’s Golden-eye. Locky Mountain Garrot. Very similar; gloss of
head purplish and violet; the loral spot larger, triangular or crescentic,
applied against the whole side of the bill at base; white on surface of wing
divided by a dark bar; rather larger than the last; 19-22; wing 9-10;
occipital feathers lengthening into a slight crest; bill shorter; 9 probably
not distinguishable with certainty from that of the foregoing, unless by the
dark bar on the wing. Arctic America to the N. States in winter, not common.
Also N. Europe. It is doubtfully distinct from the last, with which, however,
Tam not prepared to unite it. Sw.and Ricu., F. B.-A. 456, pl. 70; Nurr.,
ii, 444; Bpo., 796; Extior, pl. 46, and Aun. Lyc. N. Y. 1862. .. IsLanpIca.

Bufile-headed Duck. Butter-ball. Spirit Duck. Dipper. @ with the
head particularly puffy, of varied rich iridescence, with a large white auric-
ular patch confluent with its fellow on the nape; small; 14-16; wing 6-7;
bill 1, with nostrils in basal half; 9 still smaller, an insignificant looking
duck, with head scarcely puffy, dark gray, with traces of the white auricular
patch. N. Am., abundant. Wiuzs., viii, 51, pl. 67, f. 2,3; Nurr., ii, 445;
Aup., vi, 369) pl. 4085 Bp eC. eal se ree arent denen ATT nO

ie “Ss

ANATIDZ, DUCKS. —GEN. 263, 264, 265, 266-8. 291

263. Genus HARELDA Leach.

Long-tailed Duck. South-southerly. Old-wife. Tail of 14 narrow
pointed feathers, in the ¢ in summer the central ones very slender and much
elongated, nearly or quite equalling the wing; nail of bill occupying the
whole tip; seasonal changes remarkable. ¢ in summer with the back and
the long narrowly lanceolate scapulars varied with reddish-brown, wanting
in winter, when this color is exchanged for pearly-gray or white; general
eolor blackish or very dark brown, below from the breast abruptly white ;
no white on the wing; sides of head plumbeous-gray; in winter the head,
neck and body anteriorly, white, but the gray cheek-patch persistent, and a
large dark patch below this ; bill at all seasons black, broadly orange-barred.

9 without lengthened scapulars or tail feathers, the bill dusky greenish, and
otherwise different ; but recognized by presence of head- and neck-patches,

and absence of white on the wing. Length 15-20, or more, according to
tail; wing 8-9. N. Am., northerly, coastwise; U. S. only in winter;
common. Also Northern Europe. Wuts., viii, 93, pl. 70, f. 1, 2; Nurv.,
Pisce ATDeavioto., pl. 4105 Bp. 800. +: . . . . « GLACTALIS.

264. Genus CAMPTOLAMUS Gray.

Labrador, or Pied Duck. Bill enlarged towards end by membranous
expansion, the nostrils in its basal third; cheek feathers rigid; g with the
body and primaries black; rest of the wing, with neck and head, white, with
a black collar and lengthwise coronal stripe; 9? plumbeous gray; about 2
feet long; wing 9. N. Atlantic Coast, to middle districts in winter;
formerly common, now apparently rare. Wiuzs., viii, 91, pl. 69, f. 6;
Nuorr., ii, 428; Aup., vi, 329, pl. 400; Bp., 803. . . . LABRADORIUS.

265. Genus HISTRIONICUS Lesson.
- Harlequin Duck. Bill very small and short, rapidly tapering to tip, which
is wholly oceupied by the nail, and with a membranous lobe at its base ;
tertiaries curly ; plumage singularly patched with different colors; g deep
leaden-bluish, browner below; sides of head, and of body posteriorly,
chestnut; coronal stripe and tail black; a white patch at base of bill,
another on side of occiput, of breast and of tail, two transverse ones on
side of neck, forming a nearly complete ring, and several on the wings;
a white jugular collar; speculum violet and purple; @ dark brown, paler
below, whitening on belly; a white patch on auriculars and before eye.
15-18; wing 8; Northwestern Europe; N. Am., northerly, and entirely
coastwise, U. S. only in winter, not abundant. Whus., viii, 139, pl. 72,
f. 4; Nurr., ii, 448; Aup., vi, 374, pl. 409; Bo., 799. . . TORQUATUS.

266-8. Genus SOMATERIA Leach.
* Bill without frontal process, not feathered to the nostrils. (Polysticta.)
Steller’s Hider. Head white, with a pearly gray tinge, a green occipital

4

292 ANATIDH, DUCKS. —GEN. 266-8.

band, and a black chin-patch and eye-ring; collar round neck, and upper
parts, lustrous velvety black, the lengthened curly scapulars and tertiaries.
silvery-white on the inner webs, the lesser and middle wing coverts white,
the greater coverts and secondaries white-tipped, enclosing the violet
speculum; under parts rich reddish-brown, blackening on the belly and:
crissum, fading through buff to white on the breast and sides, where there
are black spots. ¢ reddish-brown, blackening below, varied with darker on’
the head, neck and fore parts; tips of greater coverts and secondaries alone
white, enclosing the speculum. Length about 18; wing 8. Northwest:
Coast. ‘Nutr., ii, 451 3:
Aup.,vi, 368, pl. 407 ;
Bo., 801. sreLLERI.:
** Bill without frontal
processes, feathered to
the nostrils. (Lampro-
netta.). :
Spectacled Hider.
$ black or blackish,
the throat, most of
neck, fore back, wing
coverts, scapulars, ter-
tials and flank-patch,.
white ; nape and occi-
put green; a whitish.
space round eye,
bounded by black; 9.
said to be brown, varied with darker, the chin and throat whitish, the eye
patch obscurely indicated ; after the summer moult the ¢ is said to be like
the 9. Length about 2 feet. Northwest Coast, common about St. Michaels.
Dat, Trans. Chicago Acad. i, 299; Exxior, pl. 47; Bp., 803. ¥FIscHERI.
*** Bill with frontal processes, not feathered to the nostrils. (Somateria.)
Eider Duck. Bill with long club-shaped processes extending in a line
with the culmen upon the sides of the forehead, divided by a broad feathered
interspace. ¢ in breeding attire white, creamy-tinted on breast and washed
with green on head; under parts from the breast, lower back, rump, tail,
quills, and large forked patch on the crown, black. 9 with the bill less
developed, general plumage an extremely variable shade of reddish-brown or
ochrey-brown, speckled, mottled and barred with darker; @ in certain stages
resembling the ¢. Length about 2 feet; wing 11-12 inches. Arctic and
N. Atlantic Coasts, abundant, S. in winter to New England commonly, to
the Middle States rarely. This celebrated bird, semi-domesticated in some
places, yields most of the prized eider-down of commerce, which the parent
plucks from the breast to cover the eggs; eggs commonly 3-4, pale dull
greenish. WI£Ls., viii, 122, pl. 71, f. 2,3; Nurr., ii, 407; Aup., vi, 349,
pl. 405; Bp., 809. The American bird has lately been separated from the

Fic. 191. Spectacled Eider.

seit hag htp ll) Rah sd Wy hela IS

x

b

t

¥

~
;
f

\

ing angularly out of line /)

and fore parts of the body,

ANATIDH, DUCKS.—GEN. 269. 293

European under name of S. dresser?, by Mr. Sharpe, but I doubt the

.

exclusive pertinence of the assigned characters. . . MOLLISSIMA (var?).
. Pacific Hider. Precisely like the last, excepting a V-shaped black: mark
on the chin; :may require to be treated as merely a variety. Arctic and
North Pacific coast, com
mon. Bop., 810; Exuior
mpl48....0 3. . “V-NIGRA
. King Hider.. Bill with |
broad squarish nearly ver- |
tical frontal processes bulg- |

with culmen. ¢ in breed-
ing attire black, including
a forked chin-patch, a}
frontal band, and small
space round eye; the neck

part of interscapulars, of
wing coverts and of lining
of wings, and a flank patch,
white, creamy on the jug-
ulum, greenish on sides of
head ; crown and nape fine =
bluish-ash. 92 resenblijag SS —*
that of the common eider, Fig. 192. Eider Ducks. Upper fig., #; lower fig., 2.

but bill different. Size of the last, or rather less. Both coasts, arctic
and northerly; S. in winter sometimes to New York. Nurv., ii, 414;
MUD, Visa.) pl. 4045)Bp., 810. . 1. » .» » + + «+ “SPECTABILIS.

269. Genus G2DEMIA Fleming.

*,.* Embracing the black sea-ducks, surf-ducks, scoters or ‘‘coots” as they are
variously called: maritime mollusk-eating species, scarcely fit for food; ¢ black,
relieved or not by definite white patches on head or wings, or both, with brightly
_parti-colored bill, very broad at the end, singularly gibbous at base, but of different
form in each of the following species, unnecessarily causing their separation into
the three genera, mentioned below; @ sooty-brown, etc., bill simply turgid at base,
much widened at end; but may be known by having the nostrils at the middle of
the bill or beyond it, the nail broad, fused, occupying all the tip, the frontal feathers
reaching further on culmen than on sides of upper mandible, and forming no
reéntrance at its back upper corner; young g resembling the @. Our three
species inhabit both coasts, and sometimes the larger inland waters, breeding
northward; they occur abundantly in winter along the whole length of the U-S.

American Black Scoter. Bill scarcely encroached upon by the frontal
feathers, shorter than the head, black, the gibbosity superior, circumscribed,
orange ( g); nostrils at its middle ; tail normally 16-feathered. ( Hdemia.)
Plumage of ¢ entirely black. 9 sooty-brown, paler below, becoming

294 ANATIDE, DUCKS. —GEN. 269.

grayish-white on the belly, there dusky-speckled, on the sides and flanks
dusky-waved ; throat and sides of head mostly continuous whitish ; bill all
black; feet livid olivaceous, with black webs. @ nearly 2 feet long;
wing about 10 inches: 9 18-19 inches; wing 8-9; gape 2; culmen 13.
Differs from the European in the shape and coloration of the protuberance
on the bill. Wus.,
Villy, lS 5 yap leweidez eat
23 Num aati oe |
and 423; Avup., vi,
343, pl. 403; Bp.,
807. . AMERICANA.
Velvet WScoter.
White-winged Surf- |
duck. Bill broadly
encroached upon by
the frontal feathers,
on the culmen nearly
or quite to the nostrils, and on its sides to a less extent, shorter than head,
black, broadly orange-tipped (g¢); nail broad and truncate; gibhosity
superior, circumscribed. (Melanetta.) @ black, with a large white wing-
patch, and another under the eye; feet orange-red, with dusky webs. Size
of the last, or rather larger; 9? smaller, sooty-brown, pale grayish below,
with much whitish about head, but showing white speculum ; bill all black.
Said to differ from the European by greater encroachment of feathers on bill,
but the ascribed feature is not tangible. Whus., viii, 137, pl. 72, f. 3;
Nutt, ii, 419; Aup., vi, 332, pl. 401; JZ. velvetina Bo., 805. Also, Fuli-
gula bimaculata Hersert, Field Sports, ii, 2d ed. 366; O. bimaculata Bo.,
SOSN(e@mmature). Fic 2) i ..) Va ee eee pe enero
Surf Duck. Sea Coot. Bill narrowly encroached upon by the frontal
feathers, on the culmen nearly or quite to the nostrils, but not at all upon
its sides, about as
long as head, with
the nail narrowed
anteriorly, the
swelling lateral as
well as superior;
nostrils beyond its
middle; bill of g
orange-red, whitish
on the sides, with a
large circular black
spot on each side at

the base; tail nor-
mally 14-feathered. Fig. 194. Young male Surf Duck, with outline of bill viewed from below.

Fic. 193. Female Black Scoter, with outline of bill viewed from below.

(Pelionetta.) @ black, with a triangular white patch on the forehead and
another on the nape; no white on wings; feet orange, with dusky webs. |

ANATIDZ, DUCKS.—GEN. 270. 298

Size of the first; gape of bill about 24; 9 smaller; bill black, shorter,
gape about 24; feathers of culmen hardly or not reaching nostrils; feet
dark, tinged with dusky-reddish ; webs black; plumage sooty-brown, below
silvery-gray, sides of head with much whitish, chiefly in two patches, one
loral, the other auricular. Wits., viii, 49, pl. 67, f. 1; Nurv., ii, 416;
UM ev, eoots pla 4023) BDs.806. - + . =>. «-'. |. “PHRSPICIELATA,

Var. TROWBRIDGEI. With the bill longer, exceeding the head, and of slightly -
different shape; feathers falling short of nostrils; gape about 22; white frontal
patch small, its posterior border anterior to a line between the eyes, instead of
reaching or passing beyond this. Cala. Bp., 806; Exxior, Introd. B. A., No. 64.

270. Genus ERISMATURA Bonaparte.

*,* Remarkably distinguished from other Puligqulince by the stiffened, linear-
lanceolate tail feathers (16-20 in number) exposed to the base, by reason of extreme
shortness of the coverts ; bill broad, flattened, the nail large, overhanging.

Ruddy Duck. The ¢g in perfect plumage with the neck all round and the
upper parts brownish-red, the lower parts silky silvery-white watered with
dusky, the chin and sides of the head dead-white, the crown and nape black ;
but not often seen in this condition in the U. S. As generally observed, and
the 9 at all times, brown above finely dotted and waved with dusky, paler
and duller below with darker undulations and sometimes a slight tawny
tinge, as also occurs on the sides of the head; crown and nape dark brown ;
bill dusky; crissum always white. Length 14-17; wing 5-6; tarsus 1}.
N. Am., abundant. WixS., viii, 128, 130, pl. 71, f. 5, 6; Nurr., ii, 426;
MOD VIO t ROOM EISD atolls co. oe) tents sper ue pee) RUBIDA.

St. Domingo Duck. @ head anteriorly and chin black; hind-head, neck
and breast deep ferrugineous; above brownish-red, blotched with black ;
below lighter ferrugineous; speculum white. 9 similar, but less strongly
marked. 134; wing 64; tail 33; bill 14, smaller and less expanded than
in the preceding. S. Am. and W. Indies, accidental in U.S. The only
known instances are Lake Champlain (Cazor, Proc. B. 5. INSEL Evisgoe) is
Wisconsin (Kumuein; ibid. xiv, 154; Am. Nat. v, 441). 2. dominica
Bp, 925; L. ortygoides Gossx, Birds of Jamaica, 405. . . DOMINICA.

Subfamily MERGIN AZ. Mergansers.

Bill more or less nearly cylindrical, the nail hooked and overhanging, the
lamellz highly developed into prominent retrorse serrations. Excepting these
characters of the bill, the fishing-ducks are simply Fuwligulinee, somewhat modified in
adaptation to a more exclusively animal regimen; the principal point in their
economy is ability to pursue fish under water, like cormorants, loons and other
birds of lower orders. The nature of their food renders their flesh rank and
unpalatable. The gizzard is rather less muscular than in most ducks; the intes-
tines and their ececa are shorter; the laryngeal capsule of the males is very large,
irregular, and partly membranous; the trachea has other dilations. Birds of this
group inhabit fresh as well as salt water, and are abundant in individuals if not in
species. There are only about eight species, chiefly of the Northern Hemisphere ;
but several occur in South America.

296 ANATIDZ®, MERGANSERS. —GEN. 271-2.

Oss. The smew, or white nun, Mergellus albellus, of Europe, has been attributed
to N. Am. upon insufficient evidence, though very possibly occurring. WILS., Vili,
126, pl. 71, f. 4; Norr., ii, 467; Avp., vi, 408, pl. 414; Bop., 817.

271-2. Genus MERGUS Linneus.

* Bill not shorter than head, mostly red. (Mergus.) ;

Merganser. Goosander. Fish Duck. Nostrils nearly median; frontal
feathers reaching beyond those on sides of bill; g with the head scarcely
crested, glossy green; back and wings black and white, latter crossed by
one black bar; under parts salmon-colored ; about 24; wing 11;. 9 smaller;
occipital crest better developed, but still flimsy ; head and neck reddish-
brown; black parts of the ¢ ashy-gray; less white on the wing; under parts
less tinted with salmon. N.Am., common. Wrts., viii, 68, pl. 68, f. 1, 2;
Nurt., ii, 460; Aup., vi, 387, pl. 411; 1. americanus Bp., 813. MERGANSER.

Red-breasted Mer-
ganser. Fish Duck.
Nostrils sub-basal ;
frontal feathers not
reaching beyond those
on sides of bill; along
thin pointed crest in
both sexes. Smaller
than the last; wing
8-9; general color-
ation, and sexual differences, the same, but the ¢ with the jugulum rich
reddish-brown, black-streaked, the sides conspicuously finely waved with
black, a white, black-bordered mark in front of the wing, and the wing
crossed by two black bars.. N. Am., abundant. Wauts., viii, 91, pl. 69, f.
2; ‘Norv., ii,'463; Aup., vi,-395,, pl. 412; Bp.5-814. 9. 1. “sHRRATons

** Bill shorter than head, mostly or entirely black. (Lophodytes.)

Hooded Merganser. Nostrils sub-basal; frontal feathers reaching beyond
those on sides of bill; a compact, erect, semicircular, laterally compressed
crest in the g¢, smaller and less rounded in the 9; ¢g black, including two
crescents in front of wing, and “bar across speculum; under parts, centre of
crest, speculum, and stripes on tertials, white; sides chestnut, black-barred ;
18-19; wing 8; @ smaller; head and neck brown; chin whitish ; back and
sides dark brown, the feathers with paler edges; white on the wing less ; bill
reddish at base below. N.Am., common. Wits., viii, 79, pl. 69, f. 1;
Nurr., ii,465;° Aup., vi,.402, pl. 413;-Bp.,.816. ...+ . eUGUBEATUBS

Fic. 195. Red-breasted Merganser, with outline of bill from above.

Order STEGANOPODES. Totipalmate Birds.

Feet totipalmate, with three full webs; hind toe semi-lateral, larger and lower
down than in other water birds, connected with the inner toe by a complete web
reaching from tip to tip. Nostrils minute, rudimentary or entirely abortive. A
gular pouch. Bill not membranous nor lamellate, but tomia sometimes serrate.

ie

STEGANOPODES, TOTIPALMATE BIRDS. 297

This is a definite and perfectly natural group, which will be immediately recog-
nized by the foregoing characters, one of which, the complete webbing of the
hallux, is not elsewhere observed among birds. It is represented by six genera,
all North American, each the type of a family.

The nature is altricial throughout the order. The eggs are very few, frequently
only one, usually if not always plain-colored, and encrusted with a peculiar white
chalky substance ; they are deposited in a rude bulky nest on the ground, on rocky
ledges, or on low trees and bushes in the vicinity of water. The dietetic regimen
is exclusively carnivorous, the food being chiefly fish,
sometimes pursued under water, sometimes plunged
after, sometimes scooped up. In accordance with this,
we find the alimentary canal to consist of a capacious
distensible cesophagus not developing a special crop,
a large proventriculus with numerous solvent glands, a
small and very moderately muscular gizzard, rather
long and slender intestines, with small coca, if any,
and an ample globular cloaca. The tongue is extremely
small, a mere knob-like rudiment (as we have seen in
the piscivorous kingfishers). The characteristic gular
pouch varies greatly in development. The condition of
the external nostrils is a curious and unexplained feature ; they appear to be open at
first, and in some species, like the tropic-bird, they remain so; but they are gener-
ally completely obliterated in the adult state. There are probably no intrinsic
syringeal muscles in any birds of this order. But the most notable fact in connec-
tion with the respiratory system is the extraordinary pneumaticity of the body,
which reaches its height in the pelicans and gannets; it is described by Nitzsch
substantially as follows: The interior air receptacles are of an ordinary character,
but the anterior of these cells are more subdivided than usual; from them, the air
gets under the skin through the axillary cavities, and diffuses over the entire
pectoral and ventral regions, in two large parallel inter-communicating cells on
each side, over which the skin does not fit close to the body, but hangs loosely. It
is further remarkable that the skin itself does not form a wall of these cavities, a
very delicate membrane being stretched from the inwardly projecting bases of the
contour-feathers. Thus there is yet another, although a very shallow, interval
between this membrane and the skin, this also containing air, admitted from the
larger spaces by numerous minute orifices close to the roots of the feathers. This
subcutaneous areolar tissue is that which, in ordinary birds and mammals, holds the
deposit of fat, no trace of which substance is found in these birds.

The pterylosis of Steganopodes adheres throughout to one marked type, there
being little variation except in the density of the plumage, which would seem to
accord with temperature, the tropical forms being the more sparsely feathered.
Excepting one genus, the gular sac is wholly or in part bare. The contour
feathers appear to always lack aftershafts. The remiges are from 26 to 40 in
number, of which 10 are always long, strong, pointed primaries. There are
usually 22-24 tail feathers in the pelicans, but 12, 14 or 16 in the other genera.
All have the oil gland large, with a circlet of feathers and more than one orifice ;
sometimes, as in the pelicans, it is protuberant, heart-shaped, and as large as
pigeons’ eggs, with two sets of six orifices; in the gannets it is flat and disc-like.

The palatal structure is desmognathous; there are no basipterygoids; the
maxillo-palatines are large and spongy; the mandibular angle is truncate; other

Fic. lvb6. Totipalmate Foot.

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 38

298 SULIDH, GANNETS.—GEN. 273.

cranial characters appear under two aspects, one peculiar to the pelicans, the other
common to the rest of the order. (Huxiey.) The sternum is short and broad,
with transverse, entire or emarginate, posterior border; the apex of the furculum
commonly, if not always, anchyloses with the sternal keel. The upper arm bones
are very long; the tibia does not develop the long proximal apophysis seen in
many Pygopodes. The carotids are double.

The species of this order are few—apparently not over fifty, of which the
cormorants represent half—very generally distributed over the world.

Family SULIDA. Gannets.

Bill rather longer than the head, cleft to beyond the eyes, very stout at the base,
tapering and a little decurved toward the tip, which however is not hooked, the
tomia irregularly serrate, or rather lacerate. Nostrils abortive. Gular sac little
developed, but naked. Wings rather long, pointed. Tail long, stiff, wedge-shaped,
12-14-feathered. Feet more nearly beneath centre of equilibrium than in some other
families of this order. General configuration somewhat that of a goose; body
stout ; neck rather long; head large, uncrested ; plumage compact.

Gannets are large heavy sea-birds of various parts of the world. There are only
five or six well established species, of which the two following, with the S. piscator
of the Indian Ocean, and the Australian S. cyanops, are the principal ones. They
are piscivorous, and feed by plunging on their prey from on high, when they are
completely submerged for a few moments; but they do not appear to dive from the
surface of the water, like cormorants. The gait is firm; the flight vigorous and
protracted, performed with alternate sailing and flapping. Although so heavy, they
swim lightly, owing to the remarkable pneumaticity of the body, already noticed.
They are highly gregarious; the common gannet congregates to breed in almost
incredible numbers on rocky coasts and islands, of high latitudes, while the booby
similarly assembles on the low shores of warmer seas. The nest is a rude bulky
structure of sticks and seaweed, placed on the rock or in low thick bushes; the egg,
generally single, is plain in color and encrusted with calcareous matter. Both
sexes appear to incubate; they are alike in color, the young being different.

273. Genus SULA Brisson.

Common Gannet. Solan Goose. White, with black primaries, the head
washed with amber-yellow; bill not yellow; lores, sac and feet blackish.
Young: dark brown speckled with white, below from the neck grayish-white,
each feather darker-edged ; quills and tail blackish. Length about 31; extent
60; wing 17-21; tail about 10; bill 4. Atlantic Coast; swarming in sum-
mer at certain northern breeding places, S. to the Gulf of Mexico in winter.
Nortr., ii, 495; Avup., vii, 44, pl. 425; Lawr. in Bp., 871. . BASSANA.

Booby Gannet. Brown; below from the neck white ; bill and feet yellow.
Young: grayish-brown, merely paler below; bill dusky. Rather smaller
than the last. S. Atlantic and Gulf States, very abundant. Norv., ii, 500;
AUD.; Vil; Of; pl4265) Awe. an) BD...O0 2mm ee ten ley ene EBs

Family PELECANIDA., Pelicans.

Bill several times as long as the head, comparatively slender but strong, straight,
broad, flattened, ending with a distinct claw-like hook. Mandibular rami joining

_

ae

—

—_— oe

' like a gannet, and makes

PELECANID®, PELICANS. 299

only at their apex; the long broad interramal space, and the throat, occupied by an
enormous membranous sac. Nostrils abortive. Wings extremely long, in the
upper and fore-arm portions, as well as the pinion, with very numerous remiges.
Tail very short, of 20 or more feathers. Feet short, very stout. Size large.

The remarkable pneumaticity of the body (shared however by the gannets) has
been already described. A principal osteological character is, that ‘‘the inferior
edge of the ossified interorbital septum rises rapidly forward, so as to leave a space
at the base of the skull, which is filled by a triangular crest formed by the union of
the greatly developed ascending processes of the palatines” (Hualey). The tongue
is a mere rudiment. But the most obvious peculiarity of these birds is the immense
skinny bag hung to the bill, capable of holding several quarts when distended ; its
structure is as follows: The covering is ordinary skin, but very thin; the lining is
skin modified somewhat like mucous membrane ; between these ‘‘ is interposed an
equally thin layer, composed of two sets of very slender muscular fibres, separated
from each other, and running in opposite directions. The outer fibres run in
fascicles from the lower and inner edge of the mandible, those from its base passing
downward, those arising more anteriorly passing gradually more forward, and reach
the middle line of the pouch. The inner fibres have the same origin, and pass in a
contrary direction, backwards and downwards. From the hyoid bone to the
junction of the two crura of the mandible, there extends a thin band of longitudinal
muscular fibres, in the centre of which is a cord of elastic tissue. By means of
this apparatus, the sac is contracted, so as to occupy but little space. When the
bill is opened, the crura of the lower mandible separate from each other to a
considerable extent [in their continuity —not at the symphysis], by the action of
muscles inserted into their base, and the sac is expanded” (Audubon). This organ
is used like a dip-net, to catch fish with ; when it is filled, the bird closes and throws
up the bill, contracts the
pouch, letting the water
run out of the corners of
its mouth, and swallows
the prey. Pelicans feed
in two ways; most of
them, like our white one,
scoop up fish as they
swim along on the water ;
but the brown species
plunges headlong into ~
the water from on wing, Z

Fic. 197. Bill and gular pouch of White Pelican.

a grab, often remaining submerged for a few seconds. Neither species often catches
large fish ; they prefer small fry of which several hundred may be required for a full
meal. The prevalent impression that the pouch serves to convey live fish, swimming
in water, to the little pelicans in the nest, is untrue; the young are fed with par-
tially macerated fish disgorged by the parents from the crop. As Audubon remarks,
it is doubtful whether a pelican could fly at all with its burden so out of trim.

The gular pouch varies in size with the different species, reaching its greatest
development in the brown pelican, where it extends half-way down the neck in front,
is a foot deep when distended, and will hold a gallon. Besides this singular
adjunct, the bill of our white pelican has another curious structure, not found in
other species. The culmen is surmounted near the middle by a high thin upright

es

300 PELECANID®, PELICANS.—GEN. 274.

comb or crest, the use of which is not known. It is supposed to be a weapon of
attack or defence in the combats that occur at the breeding season between rival
males, being found only in this sex, and during the breeding season alone. It
appears to be shed and renewed in a manner analogous to the casting of deer’s
a remarkable circumstance first noticed, I believe, by Mr. Ridgway. Its
structure explains how this can be: ‘The crest-like excrescence on the ridge of
the upper mandible is not formed of bone, nor otherwise connected with the osseous
surface, which is smooth and continuous beneath it, than by being placed upon it,
like any other part of the skin; and when softened by immersion in a liquid may
be bent a little to either side. It is composed internally of erect slender plates of
a fibrous texture, externally of horny fibres, which are erect on the sides, and
longitudinal on the broadened ridge; these fibres being continuous with the cutis
and cuticle” (Audubon). ;

Pelicans are found in most temperate and tropical countries, both coastwise and
inland; they are gregarious birds at all times, and gather in immense troops to
breed. A large rude nest is prepared on the ground, or built of sticks in a low bush
near the water; the eggs appear to be one to three, plain dull whitish, with a thick
roughened shell. The gait of these cumbersome birds is awkward and constrained ;
but their flight is easy, firm and protracted, and they swim lightly and gracefully,
buoyed up by the interior air-sacs. The sexes are alike; the young different ; most
species are white, with yellow or rosy hue at times, and a crest or lengthened
feathers, at the breeding season; while nearly every one of them has a peculiar
contour of the feathering at the base of the bill, by which it may be known. There
are only six unquestionable species, although some authors admit eight or nine.
The four exotic ones are: JP. onocrotalus of Europe, Asia and Africa (including
the P. minor and javanicus of authors), with the frontal feathers extending in a
point on the culmen; P. crispus of the same countries, the largest of the genus,
and P. rufescens (with philippinus) of various parts of the Old World, in both of
which the frontal outline is concave on the base of the culmen; and, finally, the
Australian P. conspicillatus, in which a strip of feathers cuts off the naked cireum-
ocular region from the base of the bill. This is an entirely peculiar feature; and
our white pelican shows another, having the sides of the under mandible feathered
at base for a short distance. Excellent accounts of the genus have been given by
Dr. Sclater and Mr. Elliot (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1868, 264, and 1869, 571).

horns

274. Genus PELECANUS Linnezus.

American White Pelican. White; occiput and breast yellow; primaries,
their coverts, bastard quills, and many secondaries, black; bill, sac, lores
and feet yellow. About 5 feet long; expanse 7-9; wing 2; bill 1 or more;
tail 4, normally 24-feathered. N.Am.; N. to 61°; very abundant in the
west; only accidental in the Middle and Eastern States. Rion. and Sw.,
F. B.-A., ii, 472; Nutrt., ii, 471; Aup., vii, 20, pl. 422; Lawr. in Bp.,
868.0 cigGoecce dese bie pee ls oe een oe aa es ene, RUA Eve ER CEU

Brown Pelican. Dark-colored, variegated; neck of the adult mostly
reddish-brown, head mostly white; bill dark, varied with red; sac blackish ;
feet black; rather smaller than the last; tail normally 22-feathered.
S. Atlantic and Gulf Coasts and California, abundant, strictly maritime.
Norr., ii, 476; Aup., vii, 82, pls. 423, 424; Lawr. in Bp., 870. ¥Fuscus.

(oe)

oo

GRACULIDH, CORMORANTS. 301

Family GRACULIDZ. Cormorants.

Bill about as long as head, stout or slender, more or less nearly terete, always
strongly hooked at the end; tomia generally found irregularly jagged, but not
truly serrate; a long, narrow, nasal groove, but nostrils obliterated in the adult
state; gape reaching below the eyes, which are set in naked skin. Gular pouch
small, but forming an evident naked space under the bill and on the throat, variously

encroached upon by the feathers. Wings short for the order, stiff and strong, the

2d primary usually longer than the 3d, both these exceeding the 1st. Tail rather
long, large, more or less fan-shaped, of 12-14 very stiff, strong feathers, denuded to
the base by extreme shortness of the coverts; thus almost ‘scansorial” in struc-
ture, recalling that of a woodpecker or creeper, and used in a similar way, as a
support in standing, or an aid in scrambling over rocks and bushes. The body is
compact and heavy, with a long neck; the general configuration, and especially the
far backward set of the legs, is much like that of pygopodous birds. While other
Steganopodes can stand with the body more or less nearly approaching a horizontal
position, the cormorants are forced into a nearly upright posture, when the tail
affords with the feet a tripod of support. They also, like the birds just mentioned,
dive and swim under water in pursuit of their prey, using their wings for submarine
progression, which is not the case with the other families, excepting Plotide.

Among osteological characters, aside from the general figure of the skeleton, a
long bony style in the nape, in the position of the ligamentum nuche of many
animals, and ossified with the occiput, is the most remarkable. It occurs in the
anhinga also, but is there much smaller. The desmognathous structure is seen in its
highest development; the palatines being not only soldered, but sending down a
keel along their line of union; the interorbital septum is very defective, with
horizontal inferior border (a general character of the order except in the pelicans).
The pterylosis agrees essentially with the ordinal pterylographic characters, but
the plumage is peculiar in certain details. Excepting a few speckled species, and
some others that are largely white below, the plumage is glossy or lustrous black,
often highly iridescent with green, purple and violet tints, commonly uniform on
the head, neck and under parts, but on the back and wing coverts, where the
feathers are sharp-edged and distinct, the shade is more apt to be coppery or
bronzy, each feather with well defined darker border. This concerns, however,
only the adult plumage, which is the same in both sexes; the young are plain
brownish or blackish. The cormorants have other special featherings, generally of
a temporary character, assumed at the breeding season and lost soon after; these
are curious long filamentous feathers (considered by Nitzsch filoplumaceous), on the
head and neck, and even, in some cases, on the upper and under parts too. These
feathers are commonly white, as is also a large silky flank-patch acquired by several
species. Many cormorants are also crested with ordinary long slender feathers ;
the crest is often double, and when so, the two crests may be either one on each
side of the head, or they may follow each other on the middle line of the hind head
and nape. Our species illustrate all these various featherings. The naked parts
about the head vary with the species and afford good characters, especially con-
sidering the shape of the pouch, as noted by Mr. Lawrence and Prof. Schlegel; the
skin is usually brightly colored, and sometimes carunculate. The eyes, as a rule,
are green—a color not common among birds.

Twenty-five species of cormorants may be considered established. Their study

302 GRACULIDH, CORMORANTS. —GEN. 275.

is difficult, owing to the great changes in plumage, the high normal variability in
size, and their close inter-relation, which is such that the single genus Graculus
does not appear capable of well founded division. Species are found all over the
world, excepting the uttermost polar regions, and are usually very abundant in
individuals ; they are all very much alike in their habits. Many are maritime, but
others range over fresh waters as well. They are eminently gregarious, especially
in the breeding season, when they congregate by thousands—the boreal kinds
generally on rock-begirt coasts and islands, those of warm countries in the dense
fringes of shrubbery. They often migrate in large serried ranks. The nest is rude
and bulky ; the eggs are commonly two, of elliptical form and pale greenish color,
overlaid with a white, chalky substance. They feed principally upon fish, and their
voracity is proverbial, though probably no greater than in the cases of allied birds.
Under some circumstances they have shown an intelligent docility ; witness their
semi-domestication by the Chinese, who train them to fish for their masters, a close
collar being slipped around the neck to prevent them from swallowing the booty.

Fic. 198. Double-crested Cormorant.

275. Genus GRACULUS Linnzus.

* Tail of 14 feathers (and gular sac heart-shaped behind).

Common Oormorant. Shag. Glossy greenish-black, feathers of back
and wing coverts bronzy-gray, black-edged ; quills and tail grayish-black ;
gular sac yellow, white-bordered; feet black; in summer a white flank
patch, numerous long thready white plumes on head and neck, and a small
black occipital crest ; length 36; wing 12-14; tail 6-7; tarsus over 2; bill
4 along the gape. Atlantic Coast of Europe and North America; breeds in
great numbers in Labrador and Newfoundland; S. to the Middle States in
winter. Nurr., ii, 479; Aup., vi, 412, pl. 415; Lawr. in Bp., 876. CARBO.

** Tail of 12 feathers.

+ Gular sac convex, or nearly straight-edged, behind.

White-tufted Cormorant. Glossy greenish-black, the back and wing
coverts with the feathers gray, black-edged ; lateral crests, of a superciliary
bundle of long curly filamentous feathers, white. Size of the last. Alaska.
I have never seen this bird, and do not know of any specimen in this
country: description compiled from the original account. Branpt, Bull.
Imp. Acad. St. Petersburg, iii, 55; Bonap., Consp. Av. ii, 168; ScHLEGEL,
Mus. Pays-Bas, iv, 22; Lawr. in Bp., 877; Exxior, pl. 51. CINCINNATUS.

GRACULIDZ, CORMORANTS. —GEN. 275. 303

Double-cresited Cormorant. Glossy greenish-black; feathers of the back
and wings coppery-gray, black-shafted, black-edged ; adult with curly black
lateral crests, and in the breeding season other filamentous white ones, over
the eyes and along the sides of the neck; white flank-patch not observed in
the specimens examined, but probably occurring ; gular sac and lores orange.
Length 30-83 inches; wing 12 or more; tail 6 or more; bill along gape
3%; tarsus a little over 2. Young plain dark brown, paler or grayish
(even white on the breast) below, without head-plumes. N. Am., at large,
the commonest species. Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 473; Nurv., ii, 483;
‘ADD:, Vi, 425, pl. 416; Lawr.in Bp., 877. . . . ... . DILOPHUS.

Var. rLormpanus. Florida Cormorant. Similar, smaller (wing 12 or less; tail
6 or less; tarsus a little under 2), but bill as large if not larger; gape nearly 4.
The plumage is exactly the same, excepting, probably, that white plumes are not
developed. There are said to be certain differences in the life-colors of the bills
(blue instead of yellow on under mandible and edges of upper— Audubon), but
none show in my specimens. ‘This is simply a localized southern race of dilophus,
smaller in general dimensions, with relatively larger bill, as usual in such cases ; the
sac seems to be more extensively denuded. Resident on the Floridan and Gulf
coast, breeding by thousands on the mangrove bushes ; in summer, ranging up the
Mississippi valley to Ohio (Audubon) and along the coast to North Carolina (Coues).
Aup., vi, 430, pl. 417; Lawr. in Bp., 879.

Mexican Cormorant. Resembling the last; lustre more intense, rather
violet-purplish than green; long filamentous white feathers on head and

-neck (but no definite black lateral crests?) ; sac orange, white-edged.

Small; length about 24; wing about 10; tail 6, thus relatively long; tarsus
under 2; gape of bill under 3. The sac is not strongly convex in outline
behind, the feathers passing across in a straight or even convex line.
Central America and West Indies; Texas; up the Mississippi to Illinois
(Ridgway). Branvt, /. c. 56; Lawr. in Bp., 879. . . . MEXICANUS.

++ Gular sac heart-shaped behind, owing to a narrow pointed forward extension
of the feathers on the middle line.

Brandt’s Cormorant. Deep lustrous green, changing to violet or steel-blue
on the neck, the back proper like the under parts, but the scapulars and wing
coyerts showing narrow dark edgings of the individual feathers (much less
conspicuous than in any of the foregoing species : nothing of the sort is seen in
any of the following ones). Sac dark blue, surrounded by a gorget of fawn-
colored or mouse-brown plumage, largely naked, the feathers extending on it
little if any in advance of those on the lower mandible. White filamentous
plumes, 2 inches or more long, straight and stiffish, spring in a series down
each side of the neck; a few others are irregularly scattered over the back
of the neck; many others, still longer, grow on the upper part of the back.
No black crests, nor white flank-patch, observed. Wing nearly 12; tail
scarcely or not 6, thus relatively very short ; bill along culmen 22; tarsus 24.
Does not particularly resemble any other species here described. Young:
blackish-brown, rustier below, the belly grayish ; scapulars and wing coverts

304 GRACULIDH, CORMORANTS. —GEN. 275.

with edges of the feathers paler than the centres; gorget fawn-colored, as in
the adult (Phalacrocorax townsendii! Aup., vi, 438, pl. 418). Pacific
Coast, U. S., common. Branpv, J. c. 55; GamBen, Journ, Phila. Acad.
1849, 227; Lawm: in Bp., 880:.2° 2 5 = =.) 2. . |) RENICIUMAmUSS

Pallas’s Cormorant. Deep lustrous green, above and below, with blue
gloss on the neck, and rich purplish on the scapulars and wing coverts, the
latter not edged; shafts of tail feathers (said to be) white; if this holds, it
is a unique character among our species. Adult with coronal and occipital
crests (not lateral paired crests) ; a white flank-patch in the breeding season ;
face and neck with long sparse straw-yellow plumes; sac orange. Large ;
36; wing 13; tail 7? 9? tarsus 3; bill (along gape?) 4, very stout, 3 deep
at base. N. Pacific Coast. I have not seen this species, which seems to be
well marked. Pauuas, Zoog. R.-A. ii, 305; Gouxp, Voy. Sulphur, 49, pl.
32; SCHLEGEL, J. c. 17; Bonar., Consp. Av. ii, 167; Lawr. in Bp., 877;
ELEIOT;, pli: DO By A. o aa, os! ce geen oes aie nee ERS RIO More Ati

Red-faced Cormorant. Frontal feathers not reaching base of the culmen,
the bill being entirely surrounded by naked red skin which also encircles the
eyes, somewhat carunculate, forming a kind of wattle on each side of the
chin; base of under mandible blue; feet black, blotched with yellow.
Crown with a median black crest, and nape with another, in the same line.
In the specimen examined, a large white flank-patch, but no white plumes on
neck. Plumage richly iridescent, mostly green, but violet and steel-blue
on the neck, purplish, violet and bronzy on the back and wings, the feathers
there without definite dark edgings. Length 83; extent 48; wing 12; tarsus
23; gape of bill 3. Kadiak, Alaska; described from the single recognized
specimen, No. 52, 512, Mus. Smiths. Inst., the same noticed by Barrp, Trans.
Chicago Acad. i, 321, pl. 33, believed to represent the Phalacrocorax bicris-
tatus of Patuas, Zoog. R.-A. ii, 183. Probably the “red-faced cormorant,”
Pelecanus urile, of Pennant, Latham and Gmelin, but as this point cannot
be decided, I accept Baird’s identification. . . . . . . BICRISTATUS.

Violet-green Cormorant. Frontal feathers reaching culmen; gular sac
inconspicuous, very extensively feathered, the feathers reaching on the sides
of the under mandible to below the eyes, and running in a point on the sac
far in advance of this. Small; length 24-28; wing 10-11; tail 6 or less;
tarsus 2 or less; bill along gape 3 or less, very slender, and smooth on the
sides, its depth at base about $. Deep lustrous green, including the back ;
the scapulars, wing coverts and sides of the body iridescent with purplish or
coppery, the neck with rich violet and blue; gular sac orange; feet black;
Two median lengthwise crests as in the last two species. Among the speci-
mens before me, one has no white flank-patch, but a few white scattered
plumes on the neck; another, marked 9, has none of these, but a large
snowy tuft on the flanks. A third, labelled “datrdii, g , Farallones, Apr.’61,”
has both the flank tufts and the neck plumes ; it is very small, the wing being
under 10, the tarsus 1%, the gape 28, and the bill is extremely slender; it
possibly represents a small southern race, bearing somewhat the relation to

— <*s

PLOTIDH, DARTERS. —GEN. 276. 305

violaceus that floridanus does to dilophus. Pacific Coast, N. A.— Pelecanus
violaceus GM., 1, 575? Graculus violaceus Lawn. in Bp., 881; ScHLEGEL,
l.c. 17; Urile bicristatus Bonap., Consp. Av. ii, 175 (nee Pall.) ; Phala-
crocorax resplendens AuD., vi, 430, pl. 419; G. bairdit Coor., Proc. Phila.
cr eSGD seo. OM EonIOr,, pl. 49.00 9. 2) 2... VIOUACEUS.

Family PLOTIDA:. Darters.

Bill about twice as long as the head, straight, slender, very acute, paragnathous,
the tomia with fine serratures. Gular sac moderate, naked. Nostrils minute, entirely
obliterated in the adult. Wings moderate, the 3d quill longest. Tail rather long,
stiff, broad and fan-shaped, of 12 feathers widening towards the end, the outer web
of the middle pair curiously crimped (in our species).

There is an occipital style, as in cormorants, but it is very small. The digestive
system shows a remarkable feature; instead of the lower part of the cesophagus
being occupied by the proventricular glands, these are placed in a small distinct
sac on the side of the gullet. As in other Stegunopodes, the gizzard develops a
special pyloric cavity. There are no proper coca, but there is a small rounded
termination of the rectum (Audubon).

The darters are birds of singular appearance, somewhat like a cormorant but
much more slightly built, and with exceedingly long slender neck and small con-
stricted head that seems to taper directly into the bill. As in the cormorants, there
are long slender feathers on the neck; the sexes are commonly distinguishable, but
the 9 is said sometimes to resemble the ¢. Other changes of plumage appear to be
considerable, but not well made out. The feet are short, and placed rather far
back, but the birds perch with ease. Unlike most of the order, they are not mari-
time, shunning the seacoast, dwelling in the most impenetrable swamps of warm
countries. They fly swiftly, and dive with amazing ease and celerity. They are
timid and vigilant birds; when alarmed they drop from their perch into the water
below, noiselessly and with scarcely a ripple of the surface, and swim beneath the
surface to a safe distance before reappearing. When surprised on the water, they
have the curious habit of sinking quietly backward, like grebes; and they often
swim with the body submerged, only the head and neck in sight, looking like some
strange kind of water serpent. They feed on fish, which they do not dart down
upon, but dive for and pursue under water like cormorants and loons. The eggs
are three or four, pale bluish, with white chalky incrustation. There are only three
or four species: the African P. levaillantii; the P. melanogaster of Southern Asia,
with the Australian P. nova-hollandic, if distinct from the last ; with the following :

276. Genus PLOTUS Linnezus.

Darter. Anhinga. Snake-bird. Water-turkey. Glossy greenish-black ;
a broad gray wing-band formed by most of the coverts ; lower neck behind
and scapulars ed with grayish-white; tertiaries striped with silvery
ash; tail pale-tipped; filamentous feathers of neck purplish-ash; ¢ with
parts of the head, neck and back brown, the jugulum and breast fawn-color
sharply margined with rich brown. Length about 56; extent nearly 4; wing
14; tail 11; bill 34; tarsus 14. S. Atlantic and Gulf States, common; in
summer to North ence (Audubon), and up the Mississippi to S. Illinois

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 39

306 TACHYPETIDH, FRIGATES. PHAETHONTIDH, TROPIC BIRDS.—GEN. 277.

(Kennicott) ; Fort Thorn, New Mexico (Henry). Nutv., ii, 507; Aup., vi,
443, pl. 420; Lawre. in Bp., 883; P. melanogaster Wits., ix, 79, 82, pl.
TA, £01525 oc ce GR ee eo Se EAN ETTON CHA

Family TACHYPETIDA. Frigates.

Bill longer than the head, stout, straight, wider than high at the base, thence
gradually compressed to the strongly hooked extremity. Nostrils very small, linear,
almost entirely closed, in a long narrow groove. Gular sac small, but capable of
considerable distension. Wings exceedingly long and pointed, of about 34 remiges,
of which the 10 primaries are very powerful, with stout quadrangular shafts ; upper
and middle portion of the wings greatly lengthened. Tail very long, deeply forked,
of 12 strong feathers. Feet exceedingly small, the tarsus, in particular, extraor-
dinarily short (§ 75, p. 45), feathered; middle claw pectinate. Bulk of body
slight compared with the great length of the wings and tail. Here only in this
order is found the os wncinatum, a peculiar skull-bone occurring in nearly all the
petrels, the turacous (Musophagide, p. 178) and many cuckoos.

The frigates are maritime and pelagic birds of most warm parts of the globe.
Their general contour is unique among water-birds, in the immense length and
sweep of the wings, length of the forked tail and extreme smallness of the feet.
In command of wing they are unsurpassed, and but few birds approach them in this
respect. They are more nearly independent of land than any other birds excepting
albatrosses and petrels, being often seen hundreds of miles at sea, and delight to
soar at an astonishing elevation. They cannot dive, and scarcely swim or walk;
food is procured by dashing down on wing with unerring aim, and by harassing
gulls, terns and other less active or weaker birds until they are forced to disgorge or
drop their prey. Their habit is gregarious, especially during the breeding season,
when thousands congregate to nest in low thick bushes by the water’s edge. The
nest is a shallow flat structure of sticks; the eggs, two or three in number, are
greenish-white with a thick smooth shell. ‘‘The young are covered with yellowish-
white down, and look at first as if they had no feet. They are fed by regurgitation,
but grow tardily, and do not leave the nest until
they are able to follow their parents on wing”
(Audubon). The following is the principal if
not the only species.

277. Genus TACHYPETES Vieillot.
Frigate. Man-of-war Bird. & brownish-
black, glossed with green or purplish, duller
on the belly, wings showing brown and
j gray; 92 with white on neck and _ breast.
Fig. 199. Frigate. Length about 34 feet ; extent about 8; wing
2; tail 14; bill 5 or 6 inches; tarsi 1 inch or less. S. Atlantic and Gulf Coast.
Nurt., ii, 491; Avup., vii, 10, pl. 421; Lawr. in Bp., 873. - aqguinus.

Family PHAETHONTIDA. Tropic Birds.

Bill about as long as the head, stout, straight, compressed, tapering, acute,
paragnathous. Gular sac rudimentary, almost completely feathered. Nostrils

LONGIPENNES, LONG-WINGED SWIMMERS.—GEN. 278. 307

small, linear, but remaining patulous. Tail with the two middle feathers in the
adult filamentous and extraordinarily prolonged, the rest short and broad.

The tropic birds resemble a large, stout tern in their general figure; the bill,
especially, being almost exactly like that of a tern. The principal external
peculiarity is the development of the middle tail-feathers; the feathering of the
gular sac and the permanent patulence of the nostrils are other features. They
are graceful birds on the wing, capable of protracted flight, venturing far from land.
They are gregarious at all times, and nest in communities along coasts and on
islands, in rocky places or among low trees and bushes. As implied in their name,
they are birds of the torrid zone, though i in their extensive wanderings they visit
Southern seas, and have even been reported from latitude 40° N. There are but three
well determined species: P. flavirostris (below) ; P. etherews, and P. rubricauda.

278. Genus PHAETHON Linnzus.

Tropic Bird. White, satiny, rosy-tinted; long tail feathers reddened,
black-shafted ; sides of head, wings and flanks varied with black ; bill orange ;
tarsi yellow; toes and webs black; young with more black on upper parts.
Wing 11; bill 12-2; tarsus 1; tail 4-5, its middle feathers up to 15-20.
Gulf Coast, rare or casual. P. ethereus Nurv., ii, 503; Aup., vii, 64, pl.
427; P. flavirostris Branpt; Lawr. in Bp., 885. . . . FLAVIROSTRIS.

Order LONGIPENNES. Long-winged Swimmers.

Wings long, pointed, reaching when closed beyond the base, in many cases
beyond the end, of the tail, which is usually lengthened and of less than 20 rec-
trices (oftenest 12). Legs more or less perfectly beneath centre of equilibrium
when the body is in the horizontal position; the crura more nearly free from the
body than in other Natatores, if not completely external. “Anterior toes palmate ;
hallux never united with the inner toe, highly elevated, directly posterior, very small,
rudimentary or absent; tibize naked below. Bill of variable form, but never exten-
sively membranous nor lamellate, the covering horny throughout, sometimes dis-

- continuous. Nostrils variable, but never abortive. No gular pouch. Altricial.

This order, which may be recognized among web-footed birds by the foregoing
external characters, is less substantially put together than either of the two preceding
—not that its components are not sufficiently related to each other, but because the
essential points of structure are shared to a considerable extent by other groups.
Thus the osteological resemblances of longipennine birds with loons, auks, and
plover, are quite close, as noted by Huxley; while the digestive system agrees in
general characters with that of other fish-eating birds. In some of the lower
members of the order, the tibia develops an apophysis, as in the loons; while
even in external characters, one genus at least, Halodroma, resembles the Alcide.
It is not certain, that the order must not be broken up, or rather enlarged and
differently defined, to include some of the genera now ranged under Pygopodes.

The palate has the schizognathous structure; ‘‘the maxillo-palatines are usually
lamellar and concayo-conyex, but in the Procellariide they become tumid and
spongy” (Hualey) ; basipterygoid processes may be often wanting, but they are
certainly present in many more cases than Huxley supposed. There is appar-
ently one pair of syringeal muscles throughout the order. The cesophagus is capa-

308 LARIDA, GULLS, TERNS, ETC.—GEN. 279-80.

cious and distensible ; there is no special crop; the proventriculus is a bulging o
the gullet; the gizzard is small and little muscular; the coca are variable; the
cloaca is large. Certain genera offer peculiarities of this general type of alimentary
canal. According to Nitzsch, the pterylosis of the gulls ‘‘approaches very closely
that of the Scolopacide, and can hardly be distinguished therefrom with certainty
by any character.” In the terns, ‘‘in consequence of the slender and elegant form
of the body, the tracts are very narrow, and perfectly scolopacine.” The jaégers
differ ‘“‘in having the outer branch of the inferior tract united with the main stem
in the first part of its course, and all the tracts still broader and stronger than in”
the gulls ; while in the petrels, ‘‘ the tract formation of the jaégers is elevated into
the type of a group, undergoing scarcely any change in the form of the inferior
tract, but showing some little modification of the dorsal tract.”

As here constituted, the order embraces two families, to be known by the char-
acter of the nostrils ; both are well represented in this country.

Family LARIDA. Gulls, Terns, etc.

Nostrils not tubular (linear, linear-oblong, oval or drop-shaped), sub-basal or
median, lateral, pervious. The hallux, though very small and elevated, with its tip
hardly touching the ground, is, except in one instance, better developed than in the
petrels. The habitat is fluviatile, lacustrine and maritime, rather than pelagic.
The family contains four leading genera, each of which may be assumed as the
basis of a subfamily; all four occur in North America,

Subfamily LESTRIDIN A. Jaégers, or Skua Gulls.

Covering of bill discontinuous, the upper mandible being saddled with a large
horny ‘‘ cere,” beneath the edges of which the nostrils open (unique, among water-
birds) ; bill epignathous. Tail nearly square, but the middle pair of feathers
abruptly long-exserted. Feet strong, the podotheca granular or otherwise roughened
behind, scutellate in front; webs full. Certain pterylographic characters have been
already noted. A leading anatomical peculiarity in the large size of the ceeca, as
compared with the cases of the other subfamilies. There is but one genus, and only
four species are well determined. They belong more particularly to the northern
hemisphere, although some also, inhabit southern seas; they mostly breed in
boreal regions, but wander extensively at other seasons. ‘They inhabit sea coasts,
and also large inland waters; the nidification resembles that of the gulls; eggs,
2-3, dark-colored, variegated. The sexes are alike; the young different, excepting
one species; there is also a particular melanotic plumage, apparently a normal
transient condition. At first the central tail feathers do not project, and they grow
tardily. The skua gulls are eminently rapacious, whence their name of ‘jacger”
(hunter) ; they habitually attack and harass terns and the smaller gulls, until these
weaker and less spirited birds are forced to drop or disgorge their prey. Their
flight is vigorous ; lashing the air with the long tail, they are able to accomplish the
rapid and varied evolutions required for the successful practice of piracy. Thus
in their leading traits they are marine Raptores; whilst the cered bill furnishes a
curious analogy to the true birds of prey.

279-80. Genus STERCORARIUS Brisson.

* Bill shorter than middle toe without claw ; tarsus shorter than middle toe and
claw ; central rectrices little projecting, broad to the tip. (Buphagus.)

a

LARIDA, JAEGERS.—GEN. 279-80. 309

Skua Gull. Length about 2 feet; wing 17 inches; tail 6; tarsus 23,
middle toe and claw 3; bill about 2, its depth at base 8. Above, blackish-
brown, varied with chestnut and whitish ; throat and sides of neck yellowish-
brown, streaked with white ; below, fusco-rufous, with an ashy ‘shade ; quills
blackish, with white shafts and a conspicuous large white area at base; tail
feathers blackish, white at the base; very old birds are much darker and
more uniform brown, almost blackish above, rather smoky brown below.
Northern N. Am., rare or casual; “California.” Lestris cataractes Nurv.,
ii, 812; Stercorarius cataractes Lawr., Ann. Lye. N. Y. 1853, 71, and in
Bo., 838; Buphagus skua Cours, Proe. Phila. Acad. 1863, 125. . sxua.

** Bill and tarsi relatively longer than in the foregoing ; central rectrices finally
projecting far beyond the rest. Smaller and less robust. (Stercorarius.)

Pomarine Jaéger. Middle tail feathers finally projecting about 4 inches,
broad to the tip. Length about 20 inches; wing 14; bill 14-12; tarsus
about 2. Adult: back, wings, tail, crissum and lower belly blackish-brown,
deepening on the top of the head and slight occipital crest to brownish-
black ; below, from bill to belly, and neck all round, pure white, excepting
acuminate feathers of sides of neck, which are pale yellow; quills whitish
basally, their shafts largely white ; tarsi above blue, below, with the toes and
webs, black. Wot quite adult: as before, but breast with dark spots, sides
of the body with dark bars, blackish of lower belly interrupted ; feet black.
Younger: whole under parts, with upper wing and tail coverts, variously
marked with white and dark; feet blotched with yellow. Young: whole
plumage transversely barred with dark brown and rufous; feet mostly
yellow. Dusky stage (coming next after the barred plumage just given?) ;
fuliginous, unicolor; blackish-brown all over, quite black on the head,
rather sooty brown on the belly; sides of the neck slightly gilded.
Northern N. Am., ranging S. to the Middle States in winter. Sw. and
Riew., F. B.-A. ii, 429; Nurv., ii, 315; Aup., vii, 186, pl. 451; Lawr.
PHB GUROO Orme OOUNS@iacr 129. © .. 6 s.c0 « % ss POMATORHINUS:

Parasitic, or Richardson’s Jaéger. Middle tail feathers finally projecting
about 4 inches, ¢apering, acuminate; smaller; wing 12-13; tarsus 197-1];
bill 14-13; tail 5-6, the long feathers up to 9 inches. Adult: upper parts,
including top of the head and slight occipital crest, and crissum, blackish-
brown, deeper on wings and tail; chin, throat, sides of head, neck all round
and under parts to the vent, white, the sides of the neck pale yellow; quills
and tail feathers with whitish shafts ; feet blue and black. Younger: clouded
below with dusky in variable pattern and amount. Young: barred cross-
wise with rufous and dusky; feet mostly yellow. There is a fuliginous
stage, precisely:as in the last species. Northern N. Am.; U.S. in winter.
Lestris richardsonii Sw., F. B.-A. ii, 433, pl. 73 (in dusky plumage) ;
Nurr., ii, 319 (dusky) ; Aup., vii, 190, pl. 452; Stercorarius richardsonii
Cougs, 1. c. 135; Lestris cepphus Nurtr., ii, 818 (adult); Stercorarius
parasiticus Lawr. in Bp., 839; Cours, /.c. 1382. . . . . PARASITICUS.

- Arctic, Long-tailed, or Buffon’s Jaéger. Middle tail feathers finally pro-

310 LARIDZ, GULLS.

jecting 8 or 10 inches, very slender and almost filamentous for a great part of
their length; smaller still; wing about 12; tail about 6; tarsus 14-13; bill
1-14; plumage as in the last. Same habitat. Lestris parasiticus Sw. and
Rion., F. B.-A. ii, 430; Nurr., ii, 317; Aup., vii, 192, pl. 453; S. cep-
phus Lawr. in Bp., 840; S. buffonit Cougs, 1. c. 136. . . . BUFFONIIL.

Subfamily LARINA. Gulls.

Covering of bill continuous, horny throughout: bill more or less strongly epi-
gnathous, compressed, with more or less protuberant gonys ; nostrils linear-oblong,
median or sub-basal, pervious. Tail even or nearly so, rarely forked or cuneate,
without projecting middle feathers. Certain of the smaller slenderer-billed species
alone resemble terns, but may be known by the not forked tail (except Xema) ; in
all the larger species, the hook of the bill is distinctive. Gulls average much larger
than terns, with stouter build; the feet are larger and more ambulatorial, the wings
are shorter and not so thin; the birds winnow the air in asteady course unlike the
buoyant dashing flight of their relatives. They are cosmopolitan; species occur in
abundance on all sea coasts, and over large inland waters ; in general, large numbers
are seen together, not only at the breeding places, but during the migrations, and
in winter, when their association depends upon community of interest in the matter
of food. This is almost entirely of an animal nature, and consists principally of
fish ; the birds seem to be always hungry, always feeding or trying to do so. Many
kinds procure food by plunging for it, like terns; others pick up floating substances ;
some of the smaller kinds are adroit parasites of the pelicans, snatching food from
their very mouths. They all swim lightly —a circumstance explained by the small-
ness of the body compared with its apparent dimensions with the feathers on. The
voice of the larger species is hoarse, that of the smaller shrill; they have an
ordinary note of several abrupt syllables during the breeding season, and a harsh cry
of anger or impatience; the young emit a querulous whine. The nest is commonly
built on the ground; the eggs, 2-3 in number, are variegated in color.

Several circumstances conspire to render the study of these birds difficult.
With few exceptions, they are almost identical in form; while in size they show an
unbroken series. Individual variability in size is high; northerly birds are usually
appreciably larger than those of the same species hatched further south; the ¢
exceeds the 9? a little (usually) ; very old birds are likely to be larger, with espec-
ially stouter bill, than young or middle aged ones. There is, besides, a certain plas-
ticity of organization, or ready susceptibility to modifying influences, so marked
that the individuals hatched at a particular spot may be appreciably different in some
slight points from others reared but afew miles away. One pattern of coloration runs
through nearly all the species : they are white, with a darker mantle (stragulwm ; § 38,
p- 17), andin most cases with black crossing the primaries near the end, the tips of the
quills white. The shade of the mantle is very variable in the same species, accord-
ing to climate, action of the sun, friction and other causes; the pattern of the
black on the quills is still more so, since it is continually changing with age, at least
until a final stage is‘reached. Incredible as it may appear, species and even genera
have been based upon such shadowy characters. One group of species has the
head enveloped in a dark hood in the breeding season, the under parts tinted with
peach-blossom hue. The sexes are always alike; the moult appears to be twice a
year, so that a winter plumage more or less different from that of summer results ;
while the young are never like the old. The change is slow, generally requiring

LARIDE, GULLS. —GEN. 281-5. 311

2-8 years; in the interim, birds are found in every stage. They are always darker
than the old, often quite dusky ; usually with black or flesh-colored bill; and of those
with black on the primaries when adult, the young usually have these quills all
black. There being no peculiar extra-limital species, those of our country give a
perfect idea of the whole group. Some seventy-five species are currently reported ;
there are certainly not over fifty, and I doubt that there are over forty unques-
tionable species. For these, thirty! generic names have been invented, nine-tenths
of which are simply preposterous.

N.B. In using the following descriptions, understand that the color is white,
unless otherwise stated.

281-5. Genus LARUS Linneus.

A. Species of largest to medium size, of robust form, with a stout bill, more or
less strongly hooked, and protuberant at the symphysis ; the white of the under parts
never rosy-tinted, nor the head enveloped in a dark-colored hood.

a. Hind toe well developed, bearing a perfect claw.

* Tail of the adult entirely white.
+ Feet not black; and with full webs.
{ Primaries without any Dlack.

Glaucous Gull. Ice Gull. Burgomaster. Primaries entirely white, or
palest possible pearly-blue fading insensibly into white at some distance from
the end, their shafts straw-yellow; mantle palest pearly-blue; bill yellow,
with vermilion spot on lower mandible; feet flesh colored or pale yellowish.
In winter, head and hind neck lightly touched with dusky. Young: impure
white, with or without traces of pearly on the mantle; head, neck and upper
parts mottled with pale brownish (sometimes quite dusky on the back), the
under parts a nearly uniform but very faint shade of the same, the quills and
tail often imperfectly barred with the same; bill flesh-colored or yellowish,
black-tipped. Very large; length about 50; extent 60; wing 18, or more ;
bill 22 or more; tarsi 3 or more. Arctic America; S. coastwise in winter

-to the Middle States. Ricn., F. B.-A. ii, 416; Nurr., ii, 306; Aun., vii,

170, pl. 449; Lawr. in Bp., 842.—Z. hutchinsti Ricu., FE. B.-A. ii, 419?
Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 294, and Proc. Essex Inst. v, 806; Exuior,
pl. 53 (young). . . . GLAUCUS.

White-winged Gull. eroniadly iilze ihe races tae Sense ; length about
24 (rather less than more) ; wing 16-17; bill 13-2; tarsus 2-23. Same
habitat. Ruicu., F. B.-A. ii, 418; Nurr., ii, 305; Aup., vii, 159, pl. 447;
WAWRASIN De hO4o. «8 oss : . . LEUCOPTERUS.

Glaucous-winged Gull. Primaries a tHe goles of ie: mantle to the very
tips, which are occupied by definite small white spots; the Ist also with a
large white sub-apical spot. Mantle average “gull-blue ;” bill yellow with
red spot; feet flesh-colored ; in winter, the head and hind neck clouded with
dusky. Young: gray, more or less variegated with whitish, chiefly in bars
on the back and Hee: bill black, or pale with dark tip. Size and shape of
argentatus; the adult is exactly like that species, excepting that the primaries
have the color of the mantle, instead of black; the young are much paler
than young herring-gulls. I have seen no specimens not instantly distin-

312 LARID&, GULLS.—GEN. 281-5.

guishable from the foregoing. Pacific Coast, common; breeding northerly ;

U.S. in winter. Z. glaucescens and LL. chalcopterus (younger) Lawr. in

Bp., 842, 843; Couns, /. c. 295; Bonar., Consp. Av. ii, 216; Laroides

glaucopterus BRUCH. -= 9. a2) -) ae te) Jee teen eee GNU OMS Ormn se
{{ Primaries crossed with black (adult), or all black (young).

Great Black-backed Gull. Saddle-back. Coffin-carrier. Cobb. Feet
flesh-colored ; bill yellow with red spot. Mantle blackish slate-color; 1st
primary with the end white for 2-3 inches; 2nd primary with a white sub-
apical spot, and, like the remaining ones that are crossed with black, having
the tip white (when not quite mature, the 1st with small white tip and sub-
apical spot, the 2nd with white tip alone). In winter, head and neck streaked
with dusky. Young: whitish, variously washed, mottled and patched with
brown or dusky ; quills and tail black, with or without white tips; bill black.
Very large; equalling or even exceeding ZL. glaucus. N. Atlantic; S. along
the U. S. coast in winter; Florida (Audubon). Nurr., ii, 308; Aup., vii,
172, pl. 450; Lawr. in Bp,, 844... . . . . . . . + MARINUS.

Oss. JL. fuscus, a European species bearing the same relation to marinus that
leucopterus does to glaucus, has been attributed to this country, upon insufficient
evidence. Bonar., Synopsis U.S. Birds, No. 298; Nurt., ii, 302.

Herring Gull. Common Gull. Feet flesh color; bill yellow with red
spot; mantle pale dull blue (darker than in glaucus, but nothing like the
deep slate of marinus—much the same as in all the rest of the species) ;
primaries marked as in marinus (but the great majority of specimens will be
found to have the not quite mature or final condition) ; length 22-27; wing
15-18; tarsus 24-22; bill about 24 long, about 3-3} deep at the base, and
about the same at the protuberance. In winter: head and hind neck
streaked with dusky. Young: at first almost entirely fuscous or sooty-
brown, the feathers of the back and wings with paler edges; bill black;
quills and tail black, white-tipped or not; size at the minimum above given.
As it grows old, it gradually lightens; the head, neck and under parts are
usually quite whitish, before the markings of the quills are apparent, and
before the blue begins to show, as it does in patches, mixed with brown ;
the black on the tail narrows to a bar, at the time the primaries are assuming
their characters, but this bar disappears before the primaries gain their
perfect pattern. At one time the bill is flesh colored or yellowish, black-
tipped. The American bird proves to average larger than the European in
all its parts, as observed in several other water-birds: whence L. smithsoni-
anus Cougs, J. c. 296. N. Am., abundant, both coastwise and in the
interior, breeding northward, generally distributed at other seasons. L.
argentatoides Bonar., Syn. No. 229; Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 417. Norr.,
ii, 8304; Aup., vii, 163, pl. 448; Lawr. in Bp., 844. . . ARGENTATUS.

Var. occipentaLis. Mantle notably darker, rather slaty-blue than grayish-blue ;
bill stouter, especially towards the end, the depth at the protuberance usually rather
ereater than at the base; greatest depth ~; at the nostrils 3. Pacific Coast,
abundant. Avup.,-vii, 161; Lawr. in Bp., 845 ; Couns, /.¢c. 296; Exxror, pl. 52. The

eos oe

re eee mere rete aar erent ern, emer

LARIDH, GULLS.—GEN. 281-5. 313

ordinary Californian bird is distinguished by the above particulars ; but connects
directly with argentatus by the North Pacific strain (ZL. borealis Branpr; Barrp,
Trans. Chicago Acad. i, 324), and the Siberian bird (L. cachinnans Paty.; L.
argentatus var., MipDDENDORF, SCHRENK).

Ring-billed Gull. Adult plumage precisely like that of the last species,
and its changes substantially the same; bill greenish-yellow, encircled with
a black band near the end, usually complete, sometimes defective, the tip
and most of the cutting edges of the bill yellow; in high condition, the
angle of the mouth and a small spot beside the black, red; feet olivaceous,
obscured with dusky or bluish, and partly yellow; the webs bright chrome.
(Observe the coloration of the feet in this and in californicus, as compared
with argentatus.) Notably smaller than argentatus; length usually 18-20
inches ; extent about 48 ; wing about 15; bill wnder 2, and only about 4 deep
at the protuberance; tarsus about 2, obviously longer than the middle
toe. N. Am., abundant and generally distributed. LZ. delawarensis Orv,
Guthrie’s Geog. 2d Am. ed. ii, 319; Lawr. in Bp., 846; Z. canus Nur., il,
299; L. zonorhynchus Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 421; Nurr., ii, 300; Aup., vii,
152, pl. 446. Cours, 1. c. 302. Reeth eer ae oe Pa een un DHT AW AEN SIGs

Var. catirornicus. Apparently larger than ordinary delawarensis, and sometimes
nearly equalling argentatus, averaging perhaps 22 inches; bill about 2, the black
band probably never perfect, the red spot more obvious ; feet colored as in the last ;
tarsus 24, yet not, or not obviously, longer than the middle toe and claw. Tn all the
adult birds observed, the white spot on the 1st primary had enlarged to occupy the
whole end of the feather for about 2 inches; while the subapical spot on the 2d was
large—a state I have not observed in typical delawarensis. Arctic and Western
America, abundant. Lawr., Ann. Lye. N. Y. 1854, 79, and in Bp., 846; Cours,
1. c. 300 (excl. syn.). (Type specimen examined.)

American Mew Gull. Small; length 16-18 inches; extent about 40;
wing 13-14; bill 14, slender, its depth hardly or not over 3; tarsus about
equal to the middle toe and claw, both about 13. Bill bluish-green, yellow-
tipped, without any red or black; feet dusky bluish-green, webs yellow.
Mantle considerably darker than in delawarensis. Arctic and Western N.
Am., in the interior and along the Pacific Coast to California ; I am not
aware that it occurs on the Atlantic, or anywhere in the United States east
of the Rocky Mountains ; Nuttall and Bonaparte seem to refer to the pre-
ceding species in giving this range. It will be seen at once to be different
from any of the foregoing: and it appears to show constantly some slight
discrepancies from the European Z. canus. ZL. canus (adult) and L.
brachyrhynchus (young—type specimen examined) Ricu., F. B.-A. ii,
420, 422; Nurr., ii, 299, 301; Cours, J. c. 302; Rissa septentrionalis
(adult) and Z. suckleyi (young —types of both examined) Lawr., Ann. Lye.
N. Y. vi, 265, 264, and in Bp., 854, 848. CANUS var. BRACHYRHYNCHUS.

+} Feet black, stout, rough, with short tarsi and excised webs. (Pagophila.)

Ivory Gull. Adult plumage entirely pure white, the shafts of the
primaries yellow; bill yellow, more or less extensively greenish or dusky
toward the base; feet black. Young: more or less spotted and patched

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 40

314 LARIDH, GULLS.—GEN. 281-5.

with blackish, and bill often black. Length 16-20 inches; wing 11-13;

bill 14-14; tarsi about the same, and rather shorter than the middle toe and

claw. Quite different from any other species. Arctic America and Europe,

coastwise, rarely S. to U. S. in winter. Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 419;

Nurr., ii, 301; Aun., vii, 150, pl. 445 ; Pagophila eburnea and P. brachytarsi

Laws. in Bp., 856; Couss, J. c. 308, 309. . . . . . . EBURNEUS.
** Tail of the adult almost entirely’black. (Blasipus.)

White-headed Gull. Adult with the head white, gradually merging on
the neck and under parts into pale ash; mantle dark plumbeous; upper tail
coverts whitish ; ends of secondaries and tertiaries white ; primaries and tail
feathers black, some of the former usually with white specks at the end, the
latter white at extreme tip and base; bill red, black-tipped; feet dark.
This is the final plumage; but the blanching is very gradual and tardy, a
more usual condition being leaden-gray all over, the mantle slate-gray, the
quills and tail black. Very young birds are fuliginous brown, paler or
grayish below, the feathers of the upper parts with lighter brown edges,
the bill pale with dark tip. Length 16-20 inches; wing 13-14. Pacific
Coast, U. S. and southward, abundant. JZ. belchert Vicors, Zool. Voy.
Blossom, iv, 358; L. fuliginosus Goutp, Zool. Voy. Beagle, Birds, 141;
LL. heermanni Cass., Proce. Phila. Acad. vi, 1852, 157, and Ill. 28, pl. 5; B.
heermannt Lawr. in Bp., 848; Cours, /.c. 304. . . . . BELCHERII.

6. Hind toe rudimentary or minute, usually without perfect claw. (?issa.)

Kitliwake Gull. Hind toe only appearing as a minute knob, its claw
abortive. Mantle rather dark grayish-blue ; 1st primary with the whole outer
web, and the entire end for about 2 inches, black; next one, with the end
black about as far, but outer web elsewhere light, and a white speck at
extreme tip ; on the rest of the primaries that have black, this color decreases
in extent proportionally to the shortening of the quills, so that the base of
the black on all is in the same line when the wings are closed (a pattern
peculiar to the species of fissa); and these all have white apex. Bill
yellow, usually clouded with olivaceous; feet dusky olivaceous. Rather
small; 16-18 ; wing 12 long; bill 14-14; tarsus about the same; middle toe
and claw longer ; tail usually slightly emarginate. In winter, nape and hind
neck shaded with the color of the mantle. Young: bill black; a black bar
on the tail, another across the neck behind; wings and back variously
patched with black; dark spots before and behind the eyes; quills mostly
black. Arctic America and Europe, chiefly coastwise, very abundant; in
winter, commonly 8. to the Middle States; breeds from New England
northward. Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 423; Nurt., ii, 298; Avup.,
vii, 146, pl. 444; Lawr. in Bp., 854; Cours, /. c. 304. . TRIDACTYLUS.

Var. xorzeBur. It is a curious fact, that the common kittiwake of the North
Pacific usually has the hind toe better formed — sometimes nearly if not quite as
long as in ordinary gulls, with a nearly or quite perfect, though small, claw. But
I cannot predicate a specific character on this score, since the development of the
toe is by insensible degrees. See Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1869, 207 (footnote).
Bonap., Consp. Av. ii, 226; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 505; Exxior, pl. 54.

LARID®, GULLS. —GEN. 281-5. 315

Short-billed Hittiwake. Red-legged Hittiwake. Bill very short, stout,
wide and deep at the base, with very convex culmen; its color clear yellow;
feet coral-red, drying yellow; tarsus only about two-thirds as long as the
middle toe and claw; hind toe very small (little if any larger than in an
Atlantic kittiwake, smaller than in the best marked var. kotzebu?), its rudi-
mentary claw showing as a little black speck. I do not know the young
bird, in which the color of the bill and’ feet is probably materially different.

Adult with the mantle leaden-gray, much darker than in the common kitti-

wake ; pattern of the primaries essentially the same as in that species. Wing
13; bill 14-14, its depth at base $, at angle little less; tarsus 14; middle
toe and claw nearly 2. North Pacific Coast, abundant. This is unques-
tionably a different bird from the foregoing, and in adult plumage it would
seem impossible to mistake it. Here belong the following names : —
Rissa brevirostris Branprt; Lawe. in Bp., 855; Datu and Bann., Trans.
Chicago Acad. i, 305 (breeding by thousands about St. George’s, Alaska) ;
Larus brachyrhynchus Gouup, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. , and Zool. Voy.
Sulphur, 50, pl. 34; Lissa brachyrhyncha Bonar., Consp. Ay. ii, 226;
Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 306; R. brevirostris and R. nivea Lawre. in
Bp., 855; £2. nivea Exxior, pl. 54 (not Larus niveus PALu.). BREVIROSTRIS.

B. Species of medium to smallest size, of less robust form and slenderer bill
than most of the foregoing; in the breeding season the white of the under parts
rosy-tinted, and the head enveloped in a dark-colored hood. (Chroecocephalus.)

Black-headed, or Laughing Gull. Tarsus one-fourth longer than middle
toe and claw. Large; 16-19; wing 12-13; tarsus 2; middle toe and claw
14; bill about 13, the tip elongated and decurved, so that the point comes
down nearly or quite to the level of the
small, acute prominence of the gonys.
Mantle grayish-plumbeous; hood dark
plumbeous; eyelids white; black on y
primaries taking in nearly all the Ist 4
quill, but rapidly decreasing to the 6th;
the white tips very small, few, or want-
ing; bill and feet dusky carmine. In Fic. 200. Bill of Black-headed Gull.
winter : not rosy, and unhooded ; head white, with dusky or grayish patches
on the nape and auriculars. Young: quite brown, paler, grayish or whitish
below and on the upper tail coverts; feathers of the back dark with paler
edges; quills and tail black, or latter white or partly grayish-blue, with a
black bar; bill and feet dusky or brownish. United States, chiefly coast-
wise, breeding northward to Bay of Fundy (Boardman), but more abund-
antly southward; extremely numerous along the South Atlantic coast.
New Mexico and Arizona (Coues); Pacific Coast (Xantus). Larus
ridibundus Wits., ix, 89, pl. 74, f. 4; Z. atricilla Nurr., ii, 291; Aup.,
vii, 136, pl. 443; Lawr. in Bp., 850. . . . . . ATRICILLA.

Franklin's Rosy Gull. hs about equal ts the fiddle toe and claw.
Medium; 14-16; wing about 11; bill 14-14; tarsus 13; bill and feet

316 LARIDH, GULLS. —GEN. 286.

carmine, former usually with a black mark near the end; mantle bluish-
plumbeous, the ends of the secondaries white nearly an inch; hood blackish-
plumbeous, with white eyelids. Final pattern of primaries :—shaft of Ist
entirely white, of next 5 white except in the portion of the quill occupied
by black; 1st with its outer web and a bar on the inner web, black, leaving
the tip wholly white an inch or more, rest of the feather pearly white ;
next 5 crossed by a black bar on both webs, 2-3 inches wide on the 2nd
quill, narrowing to a mere spot on the 6th; tips of all these broadly white.
Younger birds have much more black on the wing, in a different pattern,
and the tail washed with bluish (Ch. cucullatus Licut. ; Lawr. in Bp., 851,
pl. 95; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 309). Central America and
Mexico in winter, migrating in the interior, west of the Mississippi, to
the Arctic regions ; abundant; has not been observed in the Atlantic States.
Larus franklint Ricw., F. B.-A., ii, 424, pl. 71; Nurr., ii, 293; Avp.,
vii, 145; Ch. franklint Lawr. in Bp., 851... . . . . FRANKLINII.

Bonaparte’s Gull. Tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw. Small;
12-14; wing 93-104; tarsus 14; bill 14-14, very slender, like a tern’s.
Adult in summer: 67] black; mantle pearly blue, much paler than in the
foregoing ; hood slaty-plumbeous, with white touches on the eyelids ;|' many
wing coverts white; feet chrome yellow, tinged with coral red; webs ver-
milion. Primaries finally :—the first 5-6 with the shafts white except at tip ;
1st white, with outer web and extreme tip black; 2d white, more broadly
crossed with black ; 3d to 6th—8th with the black successively decreasing. In
winter, no hood, but a dark auricular spot. Young: mottled and patched
above with brown or gray, and usually a dusky bar on the wing; the tail
with a black bar, the primaries with more black, the bill dusky, much of the
lower mandible flesh-colored or yellowish, as are the feet. N.Am.; breeds
in the Arctic regions; very abundant in the U. 8. during the migration.
Sterna philadelphia Orv, Guthrie’s Geog. 2d Am. ed. ii, 319; Ch. phila-
delphia Lawr. in Bp., 852; L. bonapartet Ricu., F. B.-A., ii, 425, pl. 72;
Nurtt., ii, 294; Aup., vii, 131, pl. 442; Cougs, 7. c. 310. PHILADELPHIA.

Ozs. The sexes of this gull are alike, as in all other cases. Audubon is wrong
in figuring the 9 with a brown hood. But it is a question whether the ‘ brown-
headed gull,” Larus capistratus of Bon., Syn. p. 358, No. 293—Norr., ii, 290,
should be considered as this species, or as the true European bird, ZL. ridibundus,
erroneously attributed to this country. The European Least Gull, Z. minutus, has
been introduced to our fauna upon erroneous information, the single authority
(SaBrne) for its occurrence having doubtless mistaken the last species for it.
Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 426; Nurt., ii, 289; Lawr. in Bd. 853. See Cougs, l. c. 311.

286. Genus RHODOSTETHIA Macgillivray.

Wedge-tailed, or Ross’ Rosy Gull. Adult: white, rosy-tinted; a black
collar, but no hood; mantle pearly-blue ; primaries marked with black; bill
black ; feet vermilion; length 14; wing 103; “bill along the ridge ?,” very
slender; tarsus little over 1; tail 53, cuneate, the graduation being one

i
'
:

LARIDH, TERNS.—GEN. 287-8. 317

inch. Arctic America, apparently very rare; I have never seen a specimen,
and do not know of any in this country. Rron., F. B.-A. ii, 427; Nurt.,
li, 295; Aup., vii, 130; Lawr. in Bp., 856; Couns, /.c. 311. . ROSEA.

287-8. Genus XEMA Leach.

Fork-tailed Gull. Adult: white, including inner primaries, most of
secondaries, and greater coverts; head enveloped in a slate-colored hood,
succeeded by a velvety-black collar; mantle slaty-blue, extending quite to
the tips of the tertiaries; whole edge of the wing, and first 5 primaries,
black, their extreme tips, and the outer half of their inner webs to near the
end, white; bill black, tipped with yellow; feet black; length 15-14; wing
10-11; bill 1; tarsus 14; tail 5, forked an inch or more. The changes of
plumage are correspondent with those of L. philadelphia; in the young the
tail is often simply emarginate. Arctic America, both coastwise and in the
interior, common, but still rare in collections; in winter, S. occasionally to
New York (Audubon) and Utah (Allen). Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 428; Nurv., ii,
296; AuD., vii, 127, pl. 441; Lawn. in Bp., 857; Couns, /.c.311. SABINET.

Swallow-tailed Gull. Head and nearly all the neck grayish-brown; a
white spot on each side of the forehead; mantle grayish-white ; lesser wing
coverts white, greater slate, white-bordered ; bill black at the base, white at
the end, much bent; eyes and feet red; eyelids orange; claws black; tail
white, very much forked. Length about 2 feet.
“California.” This bird appears to be exceedingly
rare; no one in this country has seen it. The de-
scription is compiled from the original account.
Larus furcatus Nesoux, Rev. Zool. 1840, 290;
Prevost and Des Murs, Voy. Venus, pl. 10;
Creagrus furcatus Bonar.; Lawr. in Bp., 857;
Counswiewole weer ees |) | | L FURCATUM.

Subfamily STERNIN A. Terns.

Covering of bill continuous (no cere), hard and horny
throughout; bill paraynathous, relatively longer and
slenderer than in the gulls, very acute, the commissure
straight or nearly so to the very end; nostrils generally linear. Tail never square,
almost invariably forked (often deeply forficate), in one group double-rounded.
Wings extremely long, thin and pointed. Feet small, weak, scarcely ambulatorial.

The terns are not distinguished from the gulls by any strong structural pecu-
liarities, but they invariably show a special contour, in the production of which the
longer, slenderer and acutely paragnathous bill is a conspicuous element. Only one
species has the bill in any noticeable degree like that of a gull. A few of the terns
are as large as middle-sized gulls, but the normal stature is much less; and they
are invariably of a slenderer build, more trim in shape, with smoother, closer-fitting
plumage. The great length and sharpness of the wing relative to the bulk of the
body confer a dash and buoyancy of flight wanting in the gulls; in flying over
the water in search of food, they hold the bill pointing straight downward,
which makes them look curiously like colossal mosquitoes; and they secure their

Fic. 201. Roseate Tern.

318 LARID/, TERNS.

prey by darting impetuously upon it, when they are usually submerged for a
moment. The larger kinds feed principally upon little fish, procured in this way ;
but most of the smaller ones are insectivorous, and flutter about over marshy spots
like swallows or nighthawks. The general appearance and mode of flight have
suggested the name of ‘“sea-swallow,” the equivalent of which is applied in nearly
all civilized languages. A forking of the tail is an almost universal character.
In the Caspian and marsh terns, the black tern and its allies, and some others, the
forking is moderate, and not accompanied by attenuation of the lateral feathers ; but
ordinarily, these are remarkably lengthened and almost filamentous, as in the barn
swallow. It should be observed that in all such cases the narrowing elongation is
gradual, and consequently less evident in the young ; and that it is very variable in
its development. The noddies offer the peculiarity of a tail lightly forked centrally,
but rounded laterally. The feet are small and relatively weak throughout the
group; the terns walk but little, and scarcely swim at all. Ordinarily the webbing
is rather narrow, and excised, particularly that between the middle and inner toe ;
in Hydrochelidon, this occurs to such extent that the toes seem simply semipalmate.
The webs are fullest in Anows, where also the hallux is unusually long; in some
species, this toe is slightly connected with the tarsus by a web. The inner toe is
shorter than the outer, and much less than the middle, which, especially in Hydro-
chelidon, is much lengthened, and has the inner edge of its claw dilated, or even
slightly serrate. The coloration is very constant, almost throughout the subfamily.
Most of the species are white (often rosy-tinted below), with a pearly-blue mantle,
a black cap on the head, and dark-colored primaries, along the inner web of which
usually runs a white stripe. These dark-colored quills, when new, are beautifully
frosted or silvered over; but this hoariness being very superficial, soon wears off,
leaving the feathers simply blackish. The black cap is often interrupted by a white
frontal crescent; it is sometimes prolonged into a slight occipital crest; in a few
species, it is replaced by a black bar on each side of the head. One species, Inca
mystacalis, has a curious bundle of curly white plumes on each side of the head.
Another, Gygis alba, is pure white all over; Procelsterna cinerea is wholly ashy :
the noddies are all fuliginous; the upper parts of Haliplana are dark; the species
of Hydrochelidon are largely black. These are the principal if not the only excep-
- tions to the normal coloration just given. ‘The sexes are never distinguishable,
either by size or color; but nearly all the species, in the progress toward maturity,
undergo changes of plumage, like gulls; while the seasonal differences are usually
considerable. As a rule, the black cap is imperfect in young and winter specimens,
and the former show gray or brown patching instead of the pure final color of the
mantle. In all those species in which the bill is red, orange or yellow, it is more or
less dusky in the young. The changes are probably greatest in the black terns.

The general economy is much the same throughout the group. The eggs are laid
in a slight depression on the ground—generally the shingle of beaches, or in a
tussock of grass in a marsh, or in a rude nest of sticks in low thick bushes; they
are 1-3 in number, variegated in color. Most of the species are maritime, and such
is particularly the case with the noddies; but nearly all are also found inland.
They are noisy birds, of shrill penetrating voice; and no less gregarious than
gulls, often assembling in multitudes to breed, and generally moving in company.
Species occur near water in almost every part of the world, and most of them
are widely distributed; of those occurring in North America, the majority are
found in corresponding latitudes in the Old World. About seventy species are
currently reported; these must be reduced nearly one-half; the true number is

LARIDZ, TERNS.— GEN. 289-92. 319

apparently just about that of the gulls. Some twenty “genera” have been imposed
upon the terns—three-quarters of these are of no account whatever.

N.B. Understand white, the pilewm black, the quills silvered-dusky with long
white stripe, unless the descriptions state otherwise.

289-92. Genus STEHRNA Linneus.

* Bill remarkably short, stout and obtuse, hardly or not half as long again as
the tarsus. (Gelochelidon.)

Gull-billed, or Marsh Tern. Bill and feet black; mantle pearly grayish-
blue, this color extending on the rump and tail; primaries with the white
stripe restricted to their base, their shafts white. Length 13-15; extent
about 384; wing 10-12; tail 4, forked only 2 or less, the lateral feathers little
narrowed; tarsi 1-14; bill 1$. Eastern United States; apparently not
abundant in this country. Europe, ete. S. aranea Wits., viii, 143, pl. 72,
f. 6; Lawr. in Bp., 859; S. anglica Nutr., ii, 269; Aup., vii, 81, pl. 430;
Gelochelidon anglica Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 536. . . ANGLICA.

** Bill of an ordinary sternine character.

7 Occiput slightly crested. Feet black. Size large. (Thalasseus.)

Caspian Tern. Bill red. Mantle pearly grayish-blue; cap extending
below the eyes, but the under eyelid white; primaries without any white
band. In winter, black of the cap chiefly restricted to the occiput; young,
with the bill dusky and yellowish, the back, wings and tail patched with
brown or blackish. Much the largest of the terns; length 20 or more;
wing 15-17; tail 5-6, moderately forked, without narrowed feathers ; bill
24-22, very stout, ? or more deep at base, 4 wide opposite nostrils ; tarsus
13-13; middle toe and claw rather less. Arctic America and Europe, S.
in winter to the Middle States; apparently not abundant in this country.
Lawre. Ann. Lye. N. Y., 1851, v, 37 ; Cousrs, /. c. 537 (var. imperator), and
irdesbssex inst. vy, 508; Bemor, pl. 56. . . . . . + »« » GASPIA.

Royal Tern. Bill orange. Mantle pearly grayish-blue. In winter, bill
duller colored ; cap mostly restricted to occiput: rump and tail shaded with
the color of the mantle. Young, with the crown much like that of the adults
in winter; upper parts without bluish, or this only showing in patches, and
variously spotted with dusky. Scarcely shorter than the last, owing to
length of tail, but much less bulky; length 18-20; wing 14-15; tail 6-8,
deeply forked, with narrowed lateral feathers; tarsus about 14, middle toe
and claw rather more than less; bill 25-2? (in the young sometimes only
2+), 4$-§ deep at base, the gonys about 1 long. Atlantic Coast, U. S., to
New York (Lawrence), abundant southerly ; California? S. cayana Nurr.,
ii, 268; Aup., vii, 76, pl. 429; S. regia GampBet, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1848,
128; Lawr. in Bp., 859; Thalasseus regius Couns, 1. c. 538. REGIA.

Elegant Tern. Similar to the last; mantle very pale; under parts rosy-
tinted in high plumage. Smaller and somewhat differently proportioned ;
bill much slenderer; tarsus obviously longer than middle toe and claw.
Length about 17; wing 12-13; tail 6-7; bill 243, under 4 deep at base, the
gonys about 14 long; tarsus rather over 1; middle toe and claw under 1.

320 LARIDA, TERNS. — 289-92.

California, Mexico, Cent. and S. Am., and Africa. S. galericulata Licut.,
Verz. 1823, 81; WS. elegans Gamp., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1848, 129; Lawr.
in Bp. 860; TLhalasseus elegans Cours, 1. c. 540. . . . GALERICULATA.

-Sandwich Tern. Bill black, tipped with yellow. Plumage as in regius
or galericulata, but mantle extremely pale; smaller; length 15-16; wing
about 12; tail 5-6 ; bill
. 2-24, the yellow part
from ? of an inch to a
mere point; tarsus 1;
middle toe and claw 14.
Atlantic and Gulf Coast
of U. S., abundant.
Europe. S. boystt
Nutr., ii, 276; S. can-
tiaca AwD., vii, 87, pl.
431; S. acuflavida Cazot, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 1847, 257; Lawr.
in Bo., 860; Thalasseus acuflavidus Couns, 1. c. 540. . . . CANTIACA.

Fic. 202. Sandwich Tern.

+} Occiput not crested. Feet not black. Medium and small. (Sterna.)

Common Tern. Wilson's Tern. Sea Swallow. Bill red, blackening on
the terminal third, the very point usually light; feet coral-red. Mantle
pearly grayish-blue ; primary shafts white except at the end; below white,
washed with pale pearly plumbeous, blanching on throat and lower belly.
Tail mostly white, the outer web of the outer feather darker than the inner
web of the same. Length of g 144 (13 to 16); extent 31 (29-32) ; wing
104 (93-112) ; tail 6 (5-7); tarsus 2 (§-%); bill 12 (14-4); whole foot
averaging 13; 9 rather less; averaging toward these minima: young birds
may show a little smaller, in length of tail particularly, and so of total length ;
length 124-; wing 9++; tail 44+-; bill 14+. In winter, this species does not
appear to lose the black cap, contrary to a nearly universal rule. Young:
bill mostly dusky, but much of the under mandible yellowish; feet simply
yellowish ; cap more or less defective; back and wings patched and barred
with gray and light brown, the bluish showing imperfectly if at all, but this
color shading much of the tail; usually a blackish bar along the lesser
coverts, and several tail feathers dusky on the outer web; below, pure white,
or with very little plumbeous shade. N. Am., abundant; breeds at various
points along the Atlantic States, and northward. It does not differ in the
least from the European. S. hirundo Wis., vii, 76, pl. 60, f. 1; AuD., vii, *
97, pl. 483; Nurr., ii, 271; S. wilsont Lawr. in Bp., 861. . MHrRUNDO.

Forster's Tern. like the last; larger, tail longer and wings shorter.
Wing of adult 93-103; tail 63-8, thus often beyond the extreme of hirundo,
and nearly as in macroura; bill 13 (14-1}), and about 2 deep at base
(in hirwndo rarely if ever so deep) ; tarsus seldom down to §; whole foot
about 2. Little or no plumbeous wash below; inner web of the outer tail
feather darker than the outer web of the same. Young and winter birds
may be distinguished from /Adrundo at gunshot range ; the black cap is almost

aneqere>

LARIDZ, TERNS.—GEN. 289-92. 321

entirely wanting, and in its place is a broad black band on each side of the
head through the eye; several lateral tail feathers are largely dusky on
the znner webs; their outer webs are white. (Sterna havelli! Aupuson,
vii, 103, pl. 334.) N. Am., at large, abundant. S. hirundo Sw. and Ricu.,
F. B.-A. ii, 412; S. forstert Nutv., ii, 274; Lawre.
in Bp., 862. See Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862,
DAS TOs IDs 201s LOM Ade 2s 3 . | KORSTERIT.

Arctic Tern. Bill carmine or lake-red throughout ;
feet vermilion. Plumage like that of-hirundo, but
much darker below, the plumbeous wash so heavy
that these parts are but little if any paler than the
mantle ; crissum pure white in marked contrast; the
throat and sides of the neck pale or white. In
winter, cap defective; in young, the same; upper
parts patched with gray, brown or rufous; under
parts paler or white; a dark bar on the wing; outer
webs of several tail feathers dusky; Dill blackish or dusky-red with
yellow on the under mandible; feet dull orange. Smaller than hirundo,
but tail much longer. Length 14-17; extent 28-30; wing 10-12; tail
5-8 ; bill 14-12; tarsus only 4-3 ; whole foot about 13. Europe; N. Am.,
especially coastwise and northerly; breeds plentifully in New England and
northward; abundant in Alaska. S. arctica Sw. and Rion., F. B.-A. ii,
414; Nurvt., ii, 275; Aup., vii, 107, pl. 436; S. macroura Lawr. in Bop.,
SOF SOUNG UNG AQ mee, hots a hey ie gh pa) a ald al bea MACROURA.

Pikes Tern. Bill black, or reddish-black, the point often whitish. Plum-
age resembling that of hirwndo, and size about the same; wings and tail
relatively longer ; bill 14-14, very slender, 1-2, high at the base; tarsi 4-3.
Pacific Coast, N. Am. I have never seen an adult, nor indeed any authentic
specimen of this bird; but the type of Sterna pikei (a young bird, in poor
condition) which I have examined, seems almost unquestionably referable
here ; if not this species, it is a young macroura. SS. longipennis NorpMann,
Verz. 1835, 17; MippEnporr, Sibirische Reise, 246, pl. 25, f. 4; ScuLEGEL,
M. P.-B. Sterne, 23. S. pikei Lawr., Ann. Lye. 1853, 3 and in Bp., 863;
Compe teca 0 Oveetamaeth Gece Seyrecp cc pe Poco seTe ls, Goren) LONGIPENNIS.

Roseate Tern. Bill black, usually orange at base below. Mantle very
pale pearly blue; primaries with the white band broad and usually extending
to the very tip; below, pure white, or rosy-tinted; feet coral-red. Changes
of plumage as in other species. Length 12-16; wing 9-10; ¢ail 5-8; bill
14-13, very slender; tarsus 3-3. Atlantic Coast, U. S., abundant. S. doug-
allii Nutv., ii, 278; Aup., vii, 112, pl. 437; S. paradisea Lawr. in Bp.,
DUB PRCOUNGT a Ga Mire chea tues 0 Ue walt eam ech on 3 925s) 0 ow PARADISAAS

Least Tern. Bill yellow, usually tipped with black. Mantle pale pearly
grayish-blue, extending unchanged on the rump and tail; @ white frontal
crescent, separating the black cap from the bill, bounded below by a black
loral stripe reaching the bill; shafts of two or more outer primaries black on

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 41

Fic. 203. Foot of Forster’s Tern.

322 LARIDEH, TERNS.—GEN. 289-92.

the upper surface, white underneath ; feet orange. Young; cap too defective
to show the crescent; bill dark, much of the under mandible pale; feet
obscured. Very small, only 8-9; wing 6-63; tail 2-33; bill 1-1}; tarsus 3%.
U. S. and somewhat northward, chiefly coastwise, abundant. Appears to be
perfectly distinct from the European bird. S. minuta W11s., vii, 80, pl.
60, f. 2; Aup., vii, 119, pl. 439. S. swperciliaris Virmuor, Dict. Deterv.
1819, xxxii, 176. S. argentea Maxtm., Voy. i, 67; Nurr., ii, 280. S.
antillarum and melanorhyncha Lesson, 1847; Couns, J. c. 552. WS. frenata
Gams., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1848, 128; Lawr. in Bp., 864. SUPERCILIARIS.

Trudeaws Tern. Bill orange, crossed by a blackish band, the tip yellow.
Entire plumage pearly grayish-blue, little if any paler below than above
but whitening on the head; a black band through the eye; no black cap.
Size and proportions precisely as in /forsteri (excepting shorter tail?).
South and Central America, rare or only casual on the Atlantic Coast
(New Jersey and Long Island, Trudeau). Avp., vii, 105, pl. 4385; Lawr.
in Bos, 861; Couns, 1. co425 8. ee ELROD HAUI

ttt No occipital crest. Feet and bill black ; colors darker
than in any of the foregoing. Size medium. (Haliplanda.)

Aleutian Tern. Top of the head black, with a
white frontal crescent; back very dark ash, or dull
slaty-blue; under parts similar, paler; tail white;
chin and sides of head, edge and lining of wings, and shafts of primaries,
white. Length about 14; wing 103; tail 74, forked nearly 4; bill 14;
tarsus .55; middle toe and claw 14. Alaska; one specimen known. A
remarkable species, entirely different from any other known to me; it stands
exactly between Sterna proper and Haliplana, and appears related to
S. lunata Pears (Cass., U. S. Expl. Exp. 1858, 382). Barrp, Trans.
Chicaco’ Acad’, 1,7°186959240 plaola ds ae tee :> CAE UBICAS

Sooty Tern. Brownish-black, continuous from Head £6 tail; under parts,
outer web of outer tail feather, and a frontal crescent, white. The frontal
lunule is short and wide, its horns not reaching beyond the eyes; the black
loral stripe does not quite reach the bill. Very young birds are fuliginous,
speckled with white. Length 15-17; wing 11-12; tail 6-8; bill 13-2;
tarsus %. Atlantic and Gulf Coast, southerly; breeds by thousands in
Florida, with the noddies. Wuts., viii, 145, pl. 72, f. 7; Norr., ii, 284;
AUD evil. 00); plat32)- AW Rin BD. cole. momar . . FULIGINOSA.

Bridled Tern. Slaty-gray, bl: enae on crown aa quills, the color of
the head separated from that of the back by an ashy-gray interval on the
cervix ; white frontal crescent very narrow, with long horns reaching beyond
the eyes, involving the upper eyelid and forming a superciliary line ; black
loral stripe reaching the bill; under parts, and most of 2-3 outer tail
feathers, white; smaller than the last, and easily distinguished. Central
America, and various warmer parts of the world; I introduced it to our
fauna upon the strength of a specimen from Audubon’s collection, now in
Mr. Lawrence’s cabinet, labelled “Florida.” 8. anosthetus Scorouti (fide

Fic. 204. Aleutian Tern.

POs me,

covery
aq

LARIDH, TERNS.—GEN. 293, 294. 323

Gray); S. panayensis of aurnors: Faliplana discolor Cougs, Ibis, 1864,
392; Lawrence, Ann. Lyc.N. Y. viii, 105; Exxior, pl. 57. sanosrHara.

293. Genus HYDROCHELIDON Boie.

Black, or Short-tailed Tern. Adult in breeding plumage: head, neck
and under parts, uniform jet-black; back, wings and tail, plumbeous;

_ primaries unstriped; crissum pure white; bill black. In winter and young

birds, the black is mostly replaced by white on the forehead, sides of head
and under parts, the crown, occiput and neck behind, with the sides under
the wings, being dusky gray; a dark auricular patch and another before the
eye; in a very early stage, the upper parts are varied with dull brown.
Small; wing 8-9, little less than the whole length of the bird; tail 34,
simply forked; bill 1-14; tarsus 3; middle toe and claw 14. N. Am.,
chiefly inland, breeding in marshy places. S. plumbea
Wus., vii, 83, pl. 60, f. 3 (young) ; H. plumbea Lawr.
in Bp., 864; S. nigra Nutt., ii, 282; Avp., vii, 116,
pl. 438; H. jissipes Couns, J. ¢. 554. . . FISSIPES.

294. Genus ANOUS Leach.

Noddy Tern. Frontal feathers in convex outline on \
the bill (the anti, shown by all the foregoing, here jy¢. 095. Foot of Black
wanting) ; webs remarkably full; tail graduated laterally, aaa
emarginate in the middle, the feathers broad aud stiffish. Plumage
fuliginous, blackening on quills and tail, with a plumbeous cast on the
head and neck, the crown more or less purely white; bill black; length
15-17; wing 10-11; tail 6-7; bill 1$-1$; tarsus 1; middle toe and claw
12-13. S. Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, breeding in vast multitudes ; the nest
is placed on bushes. Nurv., ii, 285; Aup., vii, 123, pl. 440; Lawr. in
Bp., 865. A. stolidus and A. frater Couns, 1. c. 558. . . . STOLIDUS.

Subfamily RHYNCHOPIN A. Skimmers.

Bill hypognathous. Among the singular bills of birds that frequently excite our
wonder, that of the skimmers is one of the most anomalous. The under mandible
is much longer than the upper, compressed like a knife-blade; its end is obtuse ;

Fic. 206. Bill of Skimmer.

its sides come abruptly together and are completely soldered ; the upper edge is as
sharp as the under, and fits a groove in the upper mandible; the jawbone, viewed
apart, looks like a short-handled pitch-fork. The upper mandible is also com-

324 LARIDE®, SKIMMERS. —GEN. 295.

pressed, but less so, nor is it so obtuse at the end; its substance is nearly hollow,
with light cancellated structure, much as in a toucan ; it is freely movable by means
of an elastic hinge at the forehead. There are cranial peculiarities. Conformably
with the shape of the mouth, the tongue differs from that of other Longipennes in
being very short and stumpy, as in kingfishers, and the Steganopodes. The wings
are exceedingly long, and the flight more measured and sweeping than that of terns ;
the birds fly in close flocks moving simultaneously, rather than in straggling com-
panies. They seem to feed as they skim low over water, with the fore parts inclined
downward, the under mandible probably grazing or cutting the surface; but they
are also said to use their odd bill to pry open weak bivalve mollusks. The voice
is very hoarse and raucous, rather than strident. They are somewhat nocturnal or
at least crepuscular; their general economy is the same as that of terns, as are all
points of structure excepting those above specified. Besides the following, there
are only two species: &. flavirostris and R. albicollis, of Asia.

295. Genus RHYNCHOPS Linneus.

Black Skimmer. Cut-water. Glossy black, the forehead, sides of head
and neck and all under parts pure white, or rosy-tinted ; tail ashy and white ;
bill red, black-tipped; feet orange. Young: grayish-black or dull brown
above, varied with white ; bill yellow, dusky-tipped. Length 16-20 inches ;
extent 3-4 feet ; wing 13-15; tail 4-5, forked ; under mandible 34—4$, upper
24-3. Coast of South Atlantic and Gulf States, very abundant; frequently
to the Middle States, and even straying to New England. W11s., vii, 85, pl.
60, f.4; Nurr., ii, 264; Aup., vii, 67, pl. 428; Lawr. in Bp., 866. NiIGRA.

Family PROCELLARIIDA. Petrels.

Nostrils tubular. Bill epignathous; its covering discontinuous, consisting of
seyeral horny pieces separated by deep grooves. Hallux small, elevated, func-
tionless, appearing merely as a sessile claw, often minute, absent in two genera.

These are oceanic birds, rarely landing except to breed, unsurpassed in powers
of flight, and usually strong swimmers; excepting the sea-runners, none of them
dive. With the same exception, the wings are long, strong and pointed, of 10 stiff
primaries and numerous short secondaries ; the humeral and ante-brachial portions
are sometimes extremely lengthened. ‘The tail is short or moderate, of less than
20 feathers, of variable shape. The feet are usually short, with long full-webbed
front toes, and a rudimentary hallux, as above stated, or none. In size, these birds
vary remarkably, ranging from that of a swallow up to the immense albatrosses,
probably unsurpassed by any birds whatever in alar expanse, and yielding to few
in bulk of body. The plumage is compact and oily, to resist water; the sexes
appear to be always alike, and no seasonal changes are determined ; but some color
variation with age, or according to individual peculiarities, certainly occurs in most
cases, and in the Pufini, for instance, in which some currently admitted species are
uniformly fuliginous, it is not proven that this feature is not temporary, as in the
jacgers. The food is entirely of an animal nature, and fatty substances, in partic-
ular, are eagerly devoured ; when irritated, many species eject an oily fluid from the
mouth or nostrils, and some are so fat they are occasionally used for lamps, by
running a wick through the body. The eggs are few, or only one, laid in a rude
nest, or none, on the ground or in a burrow. Petrels are silent birds, as a rule,

ww

ore

PROCELLARIIDH, ALBATROSSES.— GEN. 296-7. 325

contrasting with gulls and terns in this particular; many or most are gregarious,
congregating by thousands at their breeding places or where food is plenty.
Birds of this family abound on all seas ; but the group is yet imperfectly known.
Bonaparte gaye 69 species, in 1856 ; my memoirs upon the subject (1864-6) present
92, of which 17 are marked as doubtful or obscure; last year, Gray recorded 112;
there are probably about seventy good species. They are sharply divided by the
character of the nostrils into three groups; two represented in North America, as
beyond, and the Halodromine. These last, consisting of one genus and three species
or varieties, are remarkably distinguished from the rest, resembling auks in external
appearance and habits ; the wings and tail are very short; there is no hind toe; the
skin of the throat is naked and distensible ; the tubular nostrils, in fact, are the prin-
cipal if not the only petrel-mark, and these organs are unique in opening directly
upward, the nasal tube being vertical instead of horizontal as in all the rest.

Subfamily DIOMEDEINA. Albatrosses.

Nostrils disconnected, placed one on each side of the bill near the base. No hind
toe. Of largest size in this family. There are eight unquestionable species, with
two or three doubtful or obscure ones. Only three have proven their right to a place
here. As Mr. Lawrence observes (Bp., 821), there is no well authenticated instance
of the occurrence of the great wandering albatross, D. exulans, off our coasts ; but
it has been taken in Europe, and is liable to appear at any time. It is distinguished
from the first species following by its great size, and the outline of the frontal
feathers : deeply concave on the culmen, strongly convex on the sides of the bill to a
point nearly opposite the nostrils. The yellow-nosed albatross, D. chlororhyncha of
AUDUBON, Vii, 196; Lawr. in Bp., 822, is the D. culminata, a species of Australian
and other Southern seas, said to have been taken ‘‘ not far from the Columbia river,”
but there is no reason, as yet, to believe it ever comes within a thousand miles of
this country. It has the bill black with the culmen and under edge yellow. Other
well known species of Southern seas are D. chlororhyncha, cauta and melanophrys.

stout, moderately compressed, with rounded
culmen, the feathers running nearly straight»
around its base. Wing three or more times as S&
long as the rounded tail. (Diomedea.)
Short-tailed Albatross. Bill 5 or 6 inches
long, with moderately concave culmen and
prominent hook. Tail very short, contained
about 34 times in the wing. Length about Fic. 207. Short-tailed Albatross.
3 feet ; extent 7; wing 20 inches; tail 55; tarsi 32. Adult plumage white,
| with a yellowish wash on the head and neck; primaries black; other quills,
the wing coverts and tail feathers, marked with blackish ; bill and feet pale.
Young dark colored, resembling the next species. Off the Pacific Coast,
abundant. Cass., Ill. 289, pl. 50; Lawr. in Bp., 822. . . BRACHYURA.
Black-footed Albatross. Bill about 4 (never 5) inches long, extremely
stout, with the culmen almost perfectly straight to the hook, which is com-

326 PROCELLARIIDZ, PETRELS.

paratively small and weak; the horny piece forming the culmen very broad,
especially at base, where it overlaps the lateral piece; depth of bill at base
13, its width there 14. Tail contained about 3 times in the wing. General
dimensions of the last species, or rather less; tail longer. Adult plumage
dark brown, paler and grayer, or rather plumbeous below, lightening or
even whitening about the head; quills black with yellow shafts; bill dark ;
feet black. A final plumage may be lighter than as described, but is never
white; and other characters seem to prove the validity of the species.
Pacific Coast, very abundant. Avp., vii, 198; Scuurcen, M. P.-B., Pro-
cellarie, 33; SWINHOE, Ibis, 1863, 431; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866,
178 3"Cass:, M1Fs2KO%
pl. 35. D. gibbosa
GOULD? . NIGRIPES.

** Sides of under
mandible with a long
colored groove; bill
comparatively slender,
strongly compressed,
with sharp culmen;
frontal feathers forming
a deep reéntrance on
the culmen, a strong
salience on the sides of

Wing about twice as
long as the cuneate
tail. (Pheebetria.)
Sooty Albatross. Fuliginous brown, nearly uniform, in some cases lighten-
ing on various parts; quills and tail blackish with white shafts; eyelids
white; bill black, the groove yellow; feet yellow. Length about 3 feet ;
wing 20-22 inches ; tail 10-11, its graduation 383—4$; tarsi 3; bill 4-43, at
base 14 deep, but only $ wide. D. fusca Aup., vii, 200, pl. 454; D. fuli-
ginosa Lawn. in Bp., 823; Phoebetria fuliginosa Couns, 1. c. 186. FULIGINOSA.

Fic. 208. Sooty Albatross.

Subfamily PROCELLARIINA. Petrels.

Nostrils united in one double-barrelled tube laid horizontally on the culmen at~

base. Hallux present, though it may be minute. Five groups of petrels may be
distinguished, although they grade into each other; four of them are abundantly
represented on our coasts. The fulmurs are large gull-like species (one of them
might be taken for a gull were it not for the nostrils), usually white with a darker
mantle, the tail large, well formed (of 14-16 feathers), the nasal case prominent,
with a thin partition. They shade into the group of which the genus Zstrelata is
typical, embracing a large number of medium sized species, chiefly of Southern
seas, in which the bill is short, stout, very strongly hooked, with prominent nasal
case ; the tail rather long, usually graduated. The shearwaters have the bill longer
than usual, comparatively slender, with short low nasal case, obliquely truncate at
the end, and the partition between the nostrils thick; the tail short and rounded;

the lower mandible. -

iinet

PROCELLARIIDH, PETRELS.— GEN. 298-300. 327

the wings extremely long; the feet large. The elegant little “‘ Mother Carey’s
chickens” or ‘‘stormy petrels” (genus Thalassidroma of authors; gen. 303-8,
beyond) are a fourth group, marked by their small size, slight build, and other
characters ; their flight is peculiarly airy and flick-
ering, more like that of a butterfly than of ordinary
birds ; they are almost always seen on wing, appear
to swim little if any, and some, if not all, breed in
holes in the ground, apparently like bank-swallows.
Like other petrels they gather in troops about
vessels at sea, often following their course for many ‘
miles, to pick up the refuse of the cook’s galley.
Some of them, like gen. 307, have remarkably long
legs, with fused scutella, flat obtuse claws, and the
hallux exceedingly minute ; in the rest, the feet are
of an ordinary character. The exotic genus Prion typifies a fifth group, of five
or six species; here the bill is expanded, and furnished with strong laminz, like a
duck’s; the colors are bluish and white.

Fic. 209. Stormy Petrel (Leach’s).

298-300. Genus FULMARUS Leach.

* Tail 16-feathered ; bill longer than the tarsus. (Ossifraga.)

Giant Fulmar. The largest of the petrels, equalling most of the alba-
trosses in size; length 3 feet; extent 7; wing 20 inches; tail 8; bill 4, the
nasal case nearly 2. Plumage dark dingy gray, paler below, often whitening
in places; bill and feet yellow. Pacific Coast; “common off Monterey”
(Cooper). Nutr., ii, 329; Aun., vii, 202; Lawr. in Bp., 825. GIGANTEUs.

** Tail 12=14-feathered ; bill not longer than the tarsus. (/ulmarus and Priocella.)

Fulmar. Bill obviously shorter than the tarsus. Adult white, the mantle
pale pearly blue, frequently extending on the neck and tail; quills blackish-
brown; usually a dark spot before the eye; bill yellow, feet the same tinged
with greenish. Young: smoky gray, paler below, the feathers of the back
and wings dark-edged; colors of bill and feet obscured. Length usually
about 164, but from 15 to 18; wing 11-13; tail 4-5; tarsus about 2; bill
14-13, about ? deep and almost as wide at base; nasal tubes 3. Extraor-
dinarily abundant in the North Atlantic; S. to U.S. in winter. Nurrv., ii.
331; Aup., vil, 204, pl. 455; Lawr. in Bp., 825. . . - . GLACIALIS.

Var. pactricus will probably average considerably darker on the mantle, with a
weaker bill. N. Pacific Coast. Avp., vii, 208; Lawr. in Bp., 826; Cousrs, Proc.
Phila. Acad. 1866, 28.

Var. nopGErsi. The mantle dark, as in pacificus, but much restricted, most of
the wing coverts and inner quills being white ; primaries mostly white on the inner
webs, their shafts yellow. A particular condition of the last variety? N. Pacific
Coast. Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 290; Couns, ibid. 1866, 29; Bp., Trans.
Chicago Acad. i, 323, pl. 34, f. 1.

Slender-billed Fulmar. Bill little if any shorter than the tarsus. Adult
white, with pearly blue mantle; primaries pearly whitish basally, white-
tipped, crossed with definite black, much as in a herring cull; usually a small
dark spot before the eye; feet yellow; bill yellow, obscured on the tube, at

328 PROCELLARIIDH, PETRELS.—GEN. 301, 302, 303, 304.

tip, and often at base. Changes of plumage as in the foregoing ; size the same,
but bill 2 long, scarcely 3? wide or high at the base, the tube about 3 long.
Pacific Coast; only casual? P. tenwirostris Aup., vii, 210; Lawr. in Bp.,
826; P. glacialoides Smira ; Thalassoica
glacialoides Rricu. ; Cougs, /. c. 30; P.
smithii SCHLEGEL; Priocella garnoti
Home. and JacQ. . . TENUIROSTRIS.

301. Genus DAPTION Stephens.
Pintado Petrel. Cape Pigeon.
Bren 2W), 5 blender Pelee rolmar, Speckled above with blackish and white ;
white below; tail black-barred; bill black; 15; wing 11; tail 43; bill 13;
tarsus 13. Accidental on the Coast of California. Lawr., Ann. Lye.
N> ¥.018583°6,andtin Bp: 8282.) ae ee ee! 2, eee CARENATOE

302. Genus AISTRELATA Bonaparte.

Black-capped Petrel. Adult: forehead, sides of head, neck all round,
upper tail coverts, base of tail and all under parts, white; back clear bistre-
brown (nearly uniform, but the feathers often with paler or ashy edges),
deepening on the quills and terminal half of tail; crown with an isolated
blackish cap, and sides of head with a black bar (younger birds with the

_white of the head and neck behind restricted, so that these dark areas run
together) ; bill black; tarsi and base of toes and webs, flesh-colored (drying
yellowish) ; rest of toes and webs black. Young extensively dark below?
Length 16; wing 12; tail 54, cuneate, its graduation 14: tarsus 12; middle
toe and claw 24; bill 12, % deep at base, 2 wide; tube 4. Of casual occur-
rence on the Atlantic Coast, U.S. P. hesitata Kuni, Monog. 142, No. 11;
Tremm., Pl. Col. No. 416; Newron, Zool. x, 1852, p. 3691; Scuuxne., M.
P.-B. 13; Z. hesitata Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1866, 139 ; P. meridionalis
Lawr., Ann. Lyc. N. Y. iv, 475; v. 220, pl. 15; in Bp., 827. HasrraTa.

303. Genus HAGLOCYPTENA Coues.

Wedge-tailed, or Least Petrel. Blackish, more fuliginous below, the
greater wing coyerts more grayish, the quills, tail, bill and feet black; no
white anywhere. Length 53; wing 43; tail 24, cuneate, the graduation $5;
bill 4, its height at base 4; tarsus .90; tibie bare 4. Lower California ;
one specimen known (No. 11, 420, Mus. Smiths. Inst.). Cours, Proc.
Phila. Atcad)., 1864, 795 Huron, pl.61. s:9. >< ee |. eee MLCROSOMAG

3804. Genus PROCELLARIA Linneeus.

Stormy Petrel. Mother Carey’s Chicken. Coloration of the last species,
but upper tail coverts white, with black tips, and usually some white under
the tail and wings; no yellow on the webs; tail a little rownded. About the
size of the last. Common off the Atlantic Coast. Nurv., ii, 327; Aup.,
Vii; 228, pls 461; Lawren Bp. sal 2) 2-2 eee eB EAGTOAS

PROCELLARIIDH, PETRELS.—GEN. 305, 306, 307. 329

305. Genus CYMOCHOREA Coues.

Leach’s Petrel. Coloration as in the last species, with conspicuous white
upper tail coverts, but apt to be lighter —rather of a grayish or even
ashy tint on some parts. Much larger: length about 8; wing 6-64; tail
3-34, forked; tarsus about 1; middle toe and claw the same; bill 3, strong.
Both coasts; abundant on the Atlantic. P. lewcorrhoa Vinitu., Nouv. Dict.
xxv, 422; ©. leucorrhoa Cours, 1. c. 76. Thal-
assidroma leachiti Nutt., li, 326; Aup., vii, 219,
pl. 459; Lawr. in Bp., 830. . . LeucORRHOA.

Black Petrel. Coloration as in the last species,
but no white anywhere. Very large; 9; extent
184; wing 62; tail 4, forked an inch or more;

tarsus 14; bill 2. Coast of California. _Pro- Fic. 211. Black Petrel.
cellaria melania Bonar., Compt. Rend. 1854, 662; C. melania Cours,
I. c. 76 (described from No. 13,025, Mus. §. I.).. . . . MBELANIA.

Ashy Petrel. Somewhat similar to the last, like it having no white any-
where, but plumbeous rather than fuliginous, and much smaller. Length
ubout 74; wing about 5; tail 34, forked about $ an inch; tarsus under an
inch; bill $. California. Thalassidroma melania Lawr. in Bp., 829, pl. 90
(nec Bonar.). C. homochroa Cours, l. c. 77; Exxtot, pl. 87. HoMOCHROA.

306. Genus OCEANODROMA Reichenbach.

Fork-tailed Petrel. Bluish-ash, paler below and on the greater wing
coverts, dusky around the eye; quills and tail brownish, outer web of the
external tail feather white; bill black; feet dark. Length about 8; wing
6; tail 32, forked; bill 3; tarsus §. N. Pacific Coast, common. Cass.,
Wi 2945 pl.47 3) Lawr. in) Bp., 829. . . - 2.) HUROATAS

Hornby’s Petrel. “Front, Alleles: throat, collar punt hind part of neck,
breast and abdomen, pure white,” quills black, other parts dark gray. Size
of the last. N.W. coast. I have never seen this species, of which there are
not to my knowledge any specimens in this country. Thalassidroma hornbyi
Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853, 62; Lawr. in Bp., 829. . . . HORNBYI.

307. Genus OCEANITES Keys. and Blas.

Wilson’s Petrel. Dark sooty brown, pale gray on the wing coverts; the
upper tail coverts, and frequently the crissum and sides of rump and base of
tail, white; bill and feet black, but webs with a yellow spot. Legs very
long ; tibix bare an inch or more ; tarsi ‘‘ booted,” much longer than the toes ;
claws flat, obtuse; bill small and weak; hind toe very minute, liable to be
overlooked. Length 7-8; wing about 6; tail 3, nearly even; tarsus 1};
middle toe and claw 14; bill only 4. Atlantic Coast, common. Proc.
oceanica Kunt, Monog. 136, pl. 10, f. 1; Oceanites oceanica Cougs, l. ¢.

2; Proc. pelagica Wits., vii, 90, pl. 60, f. 6; Thalassidroma wilsont
Nurv., ii, 322; Avp., vii, 223, pl. 460; Lawr. in Bp., 831. . OCEANICA.

KBY TO N. A. BIRDS. 42

330 PROCELLARIIDZ, PETRELS.—GEN. 308, 309-10.

308. Genus FREGETTA Bonaparte.

White-bellied Petrel. Blackish-gray of variable intensity, blackening on
the quills and tail, the whole under parts from the breast, the upper tail
coverts, most of the under wing coverts, and bases of all the tail feathers
except the middle pair, white; bill and feet black. Length about 8; wing
6-63; tail 3, about even, with very broad, square-tipped feathers; bill 3;
tarsus 14; longest toe (outer) and claw 1 or less; tibix bare 1 or more.
Florida, accidental, one instance (LAwr. Ann. Lyc. N. Y.v,117). Procel-
laria grallaria Vinitu. Procellaria fregetta Kuni, and many authors.
Thalassidroma leucogastra Goutp. SF regetta lawrencit Bonar.; Lawr., in
Bp., 832 (unquestionably this species). . . . . . . . GRALLARIA.

309-10. Genus PUFFINUS Brisson.

* Nasal tubes vertically truncate, with thin septum. (Priofinus.)

Black-tailed Shearwater. Upper parts cinereous, nearly uniform, but
some of the feathers with paler edges; under parts white, without line of
demarcation from the color of the upper parts ; tail, crissum and vent blackish ;
lining of wings, axillars, and some feathers on the sides of the body,
brownish-cinereous ; quills blackish-cinereous on outer webs and tips, paler
internally and basally, with brown shafts; bill yellow, the nasal case, culmen
as far as the hook, cutting edge and groove of lower mandible, black ; feet
(dried) dingy greenish with yellow webs. Large; 19; wing 13; tail 5-53,
wedge-shaped, 12-feathered, the outer feathers an inch or more shorter than
the middle; bill 14, 3 high at base, the nasal tubes nearly 4; tarsus 22;
middle toe and claw 2g. Accidental off the coast of California. A peculiar
species, very different from any of the following, approaching the fulmars.
Proc. cinereus Gm.? Proc. melanura Bonn. Proc. hesitata Forsr., Descr.
Anim. 1844, 208; Goutp, B. Aust. pl. 67; Pufinus hesitatus Lawr., Ann.
Lyc. N. Y. vi, 5. Proc. adamastor ScnteceL. -Adamastor typus Bonar.
Puffinus cinereus Lawr. in Bp., 835; Adamastor cinereus Cours, Proc.
Phila. Acad. 1864, 119; Priofinus cinereus Cours, Proc. Essex Inst. v, 303.
Puffinus kuhlii Cass., Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 327 (err.). . MELANURUS.

** Nasal tubes obliquely truncate, with thick septum. (Puffinus.)

+ Below, white or nearly so, the upper parts different.

Cinereous Shearwater. Above, pale brownish-ash, interrupted by paler
or white edges of the feathers, most of the upper tail coverts white ; below,
entirely pure white, except some slight gray touches on the flanks; on the
sides of the head and neck the ash and white gradually mingling; lining of
wings and axillars white; quills dark with large white spaces on the inner
webs; bill and feet mostly yellowish. Younger birds are darker, the bill
and feet obscured. Length about 18; wing 15; tail 54, outer feathers nearly
an inch shorter; bill 1g, 3 high at base, nasal tube only about } its length ;
tarsus 13; middle toe and claw 24. A common bird of the North Atlantic,
not hitherto introduced into our fauna. Proc. kuAlii Born, Isis, 1835,

———

PROCELLARIIDH, PETRELS.—GEN. 309-10. 331

257. Puffinus kuhlit Bonar., Consp. Av. ii, 202; Couns, Proc. Phila.
Woeadvelsed at 28.e- Chroc.. cinereus GM?) oS Se ss KURI,
Greater, or Wandering Shearwater. Dark bistre-brown, somewhat plum-
beous on the head, most feathers of the back and wings with pale edges, most
upper tail coverts partly white; below, white, with a plain line of demar-
cation from the color of the upper parts on the side of the head and fore neck,
and dark flank patches; quills and tail blackish, paler or whitish at bases
of inner webs; lining of wings mostly white; crissum mostly dark; d7il
dark; outside of tarsi and outer toe dark, rest of feet pale. Length 18-20;
extent 45; wing 13; tail 53, outer feathers an inch less; bill 2; tarsus 22;
middle toe and claw 24. Whole Atlantic coast, abundant. P.cinereus Nurr.,
ii, 334; AUD., vii, 212, pl. 456; P. major Lawre. in Bp., 833. . Magor.
Flesh-footed Shearwater. Similar to the last ; no white on upper or under
tail coverts or bases of quills; bill yellowish flesh color, with dark tube, cul-
men and hook, short, very stout at base, with turgid tube; feet flesh color.
Size of the last, but bill only 1%, height or width at base nearly %; tarsus
24; middle toe and claw 23. San Nicholas Island, Cal. (No. 31,964, Mus.
Smiths. Inst.). A doubtful species; I have little faith in its validity, but
cannot refer it to any species known to me; it looks like one of the following
section (tf) passing to a bicolor plumage. Cougs, /.c. 131. . CREATOPUS.
Manks Shearwater. Blackish, this color extending below the eyes,
leaving the under eyelid white; under parts, including crissum and lining of
wings, white; bill greenish-black; outside of foot mostly blackish, inner
side dingy orange; zbout 15; extent 33; wing 94; tail 4, graduated 3; bill
14-14, but nearly 4 deep at base; tarsus under 2; middle toe and claw 2 or
rather less. Very distinct from the rest. N. Atlantic Coast, common.
Nourr., ii, 336; Aup., vii, 214, pl. 457; Lawr. in Bp., 834. ANGLORUM.
Dusky Shearwater. Resembling the last, but rather grayish- or plum-
beous-black, the dark color not reaching below the eyes; crissum mostly
white ; bill dark leaden-blue ; much smaller and otherwise distinct. Length
about a foot; extent 26 inches; wing 74-8; tail 44, graduated an inch; bill
14; tarsus 12; middle toe and claw under 2. S. Atlantic Coast, as far as
the Middle States, common. Norr., ii, 337; Aup., vii, 216, pl. 458;
NA MET DE Oo) rane ects Pepe} ous aes fo.) =, ap OBSCURUS.
Black-vented Shearwater. ike the last; crissum and lining of wings
mostly blackish; sides of head dark below the eyes ; rather larger; bill 12;
wing 9; tail 32, thus shorter; tarsus 14; middle toe and claw 24. Cape
St. Lucas (Nos. 16,990-1, Mus. Smiths. Inst.). Seems to be distinct from
the last, but may be the same as an exotic species of prior name. CouEs,
BroceeehilaeANcada 1364. la9:e sos ss -. - = - OPISTHOMELAS.
+} Below, dark, much like the upper parts.

Sooty Shearwater. Dark sooty brown, blackening on the quills and tail,
paler and grayish below, usually with some whitish on the lining of the
wings; bill dark; feet dark outside, pale on the inner aspect. Length 18;
extent 40; wing 12; tail 4; bill 13-2; tarsus 21-24; middle toe and claw

332 PYGOPODES, DIVING BIRDS.

24. North Atlantic, abundant; S. at least to Carolina (Cowes). A special
state of P. major? SrrickLanp, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1832, 129; DrKay,
New York Birds, 287, pl. 136, f. 298; Lawr. in Bp., 834; Cougs,
Proc. Phila. Acad. 1864,
123. . ‘¥ULIGINOSUS.
Dark-bodied Shear-
water. Similar to the
last; feet flesh color,
slightly obscured out-
side; lining of wings
. mostly white ; smaller;
FG. 212. Sooty Shearwater. wing 11, etc. Cape St.

Lucas. Very doubtful. I allow this, and several others, to stand, because
it is still uncertain what reduction of the species of this genus will prove
necessary. Vectris amaurosoma Cours, 1. c. 124. . . . AMAUROSOMA.
Slender-billed Shearwater. Plumage as in the foregoing; size less; tail
shorter; bill smaller. Bill dusky-greenish, with yellow; feet yellowish,
blackish behind and under the webs. Length about 14; wing 10; tail
34, graduated an inch; bill 14; tarsus under 2; middle toe and claw 2%.
N. Pacific Coast. Trmm., Planches Color. No. 587; Trem. and Scutu., Fn.
Japon. 131, pl. 86; Bonar., Consp. Av. ii, 202; Couns, /. c. 126; Barren,
Trans. Chicago Acad. i, 1869, 322, a 34, f. 2. PP. tristis, curilicus and
brevicauda of authors? . . . . SUT eee Soe SP eLENUIROSPRISS

Order PYGOPODES. Diving Birds.

In the birds of this order the natatorial plan reaches its highest development.
All the species swim and dive with perfect ease; many are capable of remaining
long submerged, and of traversing great distances under water, progress being
effected by the wings as well as by the feet. Few other birds, such as cormorants
and anhingas, resemble the Pygopodes in this respect. The legs are so completely
posterior, that in standing the horizontal position of the axis of the body is impos-
sible; the birds rest upright or nearly so, the whole tarsus being often applied to
the ground, while the tail affords additional support ; progression on land is awkward
and constrained, only accomplished, in most cases, with a shuffling motion, when
the belly partly trails on the ground. The penguins, and one species of auk, cannot
fly —the former, because the wings are reduced to mere flippers with scaly feathers,
the latter because the wings, although perfectly formed, are too small to support
the body. The rest of the order fly swiftly and vigorously, with continuous wing-
beats. The rostrum varies in shape with the genera; but it is never extensively
membranous, nor lamellate, nor furnished with a pouch. The nostrils vary, but are
neither tubular nor abortive. The wings are short, never reaching when folded to the
end of the tail, and often not to its base. The tail is short, never of peculiar shape,
generally of many feathers; there are, however, no perfect rectrices in the grebes.
The crura are almost completely buried, and feathered nearly or quite to the heel.
The tarsus is usually compressed, sometimes, as in the loons, extremely so; in the
penguins, on the contrary, it is much broader across than in the opposite direction,
being nearly as wide as long. The front toes are completely palmate in the loons,

PYGOPODES, DIVING BIRDS. 333

auks and penguins, lobate with basal webbing in the grebes; the hallux is present
and well formed, with a membranous expansion, in loons and grebes, very minute
and lateral in position in the penguins, wanting in the auks. The plumage is thick
and completely water-proof; once observing some loons under peculiarly favorable
circumstances in the limpid water of the Pacific, I saw that bubbles of air clung to
the plumage whilst the birds were under water, giving them a beautiful spangled

«appearance. The pterylosis shows both contour and down-feathers, both after-
shafted ; in the penguins the feathers are implanted evenly over the whole skin; in
the rest there are definite apteria; the auks have free outer branches of the inferior
tract-bands, wanting in the loons and grebes. The oil-gland is large with several
orifices. Among osteological characters should be particularly mentioned the long
apophysis of the tibia found in the loons (fig. 8) and grebes, but not in the auks
and penguins: in the latter, the patella is of great size, and it is stated to develop
from two centres. In penguins and auks, the elbow has two sesamoids ; among the
former, there is a free ossicle in the heel joint. The thoracic walls are very exten-
sive ; the long jointed ribs grow all along the backbone from the neck to the pelvis,
and form with the long broad sternum a bony box enclosing much of the abdominal
viscera as well as those of the chest, perhaps to prevent their undue compression
under water. The top of the skull has a pair of crescentic depressions for lodg-
ment of a large gland; the palate is schizognathous. The sternum has a different
shape in each of the families. There are two carotids, except among the grebes.
The digestive system shows minor modifications, but accords in general with the
piscivorous regimen of the whole order. The sexes are alike; the young different ;
the seasonal changes often great. A part of the order are altricial, the rest
preecocial. There are four families of Pygopodes, sharply distinguished by external
characters ; three of them are represented in this country. The penguins (Sphen-
iscide) are confined to the seashores of the southern hemisphere. This group is
well marked by the solidity of the skeleton, and the flatness of most of the bones,
with many peculiar osseous details; by a very special ptilosis, both in the lack of
tracts, and the structure of the feathers themselves, many of which are curiously
scale-like ; by the completely posterior set of the legs with extremely short tarsus,
and especially, among external features, by the reduction of the wings to mere
paddles, lacking specially formed remiges, unserviceable for flight, but highly
efficient as fins to aid progress under water. There are twelve species of penguins,
referable to three or four genera. One of the most singular facts in ornithology is,
that some species of penguin do not lay their egg in a nest in the ordinary way,
but carry it about with them in a pouch temporarily formed by a fold of the
abdominal integument (Verreaux) ; thus affording a wonderful analogy to marsu-
pial mammals. The author’s monograph of the Spheniscide will be found in the
Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy, of the present year.

Family COLYMBID:. Loons.

Bill stout, straight, compressed, tapering, acute, paragnathous, entirely horny.
Nostrils narrowly linear, their upper edge lobed. Head completely feathered, the
anti prominent, acute, reaching the nostrils; no crests nor rufis. Wings strong,
with stiff primaries and short inner quills. Legs completely posterior, buried,
feathered on to the heel-joint; tarsi entirely reticulate, extremely compressed, the
back edge smooth; toes four, the anterior palmate, the posterior semilateral and
having a lobe connecting it with the base of the inner. Tail short, but well formed,

334 COLYMBIDAE, LOONS.—GEN. 311.

of many feathers. Back spotted. Loons are large heavy birds with broad flattened
body and rather long sinuous neck, abundant on the coasts and larger inland waters
of the Northern Hemisphere ; they are noted for their powers of diving, being able
to evade the shot from a gun by disappearing at the flash, and to swim many
fathoms under water. They are migratory, breeding in high latitudes, generally
dispersed further south in winter. They are priecocial, and lay two or three dark-
colored spotted eggs in a rude nest of rushes by the water’s edge. The voice is
extremely loud, harsh and resonant. The 9 is smaller than the ¢. There is but
one genus, with only three well-determined species.

311. Genus COLYMBUS Linnzus.

Great Northern Diver, or Loon. Black; below from the breast white,
with dark touches on the sides and vent; back with numerous square white
spots; head and neck iridescent with violet and green, having a patch of
sharp white streaks on each side of the neck and another on the throat ;
bill black. Young:
dark gray above,
the feathers with
paler edges ; below
white from the bill,
the sides dusky ;
bill yellowish-green
and dusky. Length
24-3 feet; extent
about 4; wing about
14 inches; tarsus 3
or more; longest
toe and claw 4 or more; bill 3 or less, at base 1 deep and 3 wide; the
culmen, commissure and gonys all gently curved. N. Am., abundant;
the whole U. S. in winter. Wuus., ix, 84, pl. 74, f. 3; Nurr., ii, 513;
AUD., Vii, 282, pl. 476; Lawr. m Bp., 888. .-- . “. 9.) 2 “©ToRQUATUS:

Var. apamsit. Yellow-billed Loon. Similar; larger; spots on the back larger,
not so nearly square ; gloss of the neck rather steel-blue, the white patches smaller,
but the individual streaks larger; bill mostly yellowish-white, nearly 4 long, higher
and comparatively narrower at the base, the gape straight, the culmen and gonys
nearly so (fig. 215 shows the shape exactly, although intended for the common
species). Northwestern America, chiefly; England; Asia. Gray, Proc. Zool.
Soc. 1859, 167; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862,.227; Extror, pl. 63.

Black-throated Diver. Back and under parts much as in the last species ;
upper part of head, and hind neck, bluish-ash or hoary gray; fore neck
purplish-black with a patch of white streaks, the dark color ending abruptly ;
bill black. The young resemble those of that species, but will be known
by their inferior size. Length under 24 feet; extent about 3; wing
13 or less; tarsus 3; bill about 24. N. Am. and N. Europe; said to be
common and generally dispersed throughout the U.S. in winter, which is
contrary to my experience. Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii, 475; Nurr., ii,
D1; Aun, vu, 295, pl. 44 ¢; awe: in BD. 66.8. se 5-2) ARCTIONS:

Fic. 213. Great Northern Diver.

a

PODICIPIDH, GREBES. 335

Var. paciricus. Colors the same; size less; length about 2 feet; wing about
11; tarsus 23; bill 2-21, very weak and slender. Northwestern Am., abundant
on the Pacific Coast of the U.S. in winter. Lawr. in Bp., 889; Cours, J. c. 228.

Rted-throated Diver. Blackish ; below white, dark along the sides and on
the vent and crissum; most of head and fore neck bluish-gray, the throat
with a large chestnut patch; hind neck sharply streaked with white on a
blackish ground ; bill black. Young have not these marks on the head and
neck, but a profusion of small, sharp, circular or oval white spots on the back.
Size of the last, or rather less, N. Am. and N. Europe, common; dispersed
over most of the U.S. in winter. Sw. and Ricn., F. B.-A. ii, 476; Nurr.,
ii, 519; Aup., vii, 299, pl. 478; Lawr. in Bp., 890.. | sEPTENTRIONALIS.

Family PODICIPIDA:. Grebes.

Bill of much the same character as that of loons, but generally weaker, in one
genus only- quite stout and somewhat hooked. Nostrils linear, linear-oblong or
oval, not lobed. Head incompletely feathered, with definitely naked lores, the
feathers not reaching the nostrils; commonly adorned in the breeding season with
lengthened gayly-colored crests, ruffs, or ear-tufts. Back not spotted; under
plumage peculiarly silky and lustrous, usually white. Wings very short and con-
cave, the primaries often attenuated at the end, covered by the large inner quills
when closed. Tail a mere tuft of downy feathers, without perfectly formed rectrices.
Feet lobate, the front toes also semipalmate; tarsi compressed, scutellate, their
hinder edge rough with a double row of protuberant scales; toes flattened; claws
short, broad, flat, obtuse, something like human nails.

The grebes are strongly marked by the foregoing characters, especially of the
feet and tail, though they agree closely with the loons in general structure and
economy. Principal internal characters are the absence, it is said, of one carotid,
the greater number of cervical vertebrae (19 instead of 13) and shortness of the
sternum, with lateral processes reaching beyond the transverse main part (the
reverse of the case in loons). The gizzard has a special pyloric sac. These birds
are expert divers, and have the curious habit of sinking back quietly into the water
when alarmed, like anhingas. Owing to the virtual absence of the tail the general
aspect is singular, rendered still more so by the almost grotesque parti-colored ruffs
and crests that most species possess. These ornaments are very transient; old
birds in winter, and the young, are very different from the adults in breeding attire.
The eggs are more numerous than in other pygopodous birds, frequently numbering
6-8 ; elliptical, of a pale or whitish color, unvariegated ; commonly covered with
chalky substance. The nest is formed of matted vegetation, close to the water, or
even, it is said, floating among aquatic plants; the young swim directly. Grebes
are the only cosmopolitan birds of the order, being abundantly distributed over the
lakes and rivers of all parts of the world, though they are less maritime than
the species of either of the other families. There are not over twenty well deter-
mined species, for which fifteen generic, and about seventy specific, names are
recorded. The genera requiring recognition are only two. In Podilymbus, the bill
is short, stout, and bent at the end, the lores are broadly naked, the frontal feathers
are bristly and there are no ruffs or crests; in all the rest of the grebes the bill is
slender, straight and more or less acutely paragnathous, the naked loral strip
is narrow, and the soft feathers of the head form lengthened tufts of various kinds.

336 PODICIPIDH, GREBES.—GEN. 312-4.

312-4. Genus PODICEPS Latham.

* Large, with very long neck; bill very slender and sharp-pointed, longer than
the head, straight or almost recurved; tarsus as long as the middle toe and claw.
No colored ruffs at any season? (d#chmophorus.)

Western Grebe. Length about 30; extent 36; wing 8-9; bill and tarsus,
each about 3. Above, blackish-gray, with paler edges of the feathers,
blackening on the hind neck and top of the
head, the loral region gray; quills ashy-
brown, bases of the primaries and most of
¥ the secondaries white; below, from bill to
tail, pure silky white, with dark touches
on the sides; bill obscurely olivaceous,
brighter along the edges and at tip. Adult

FIG. 214. Western Grebe. in the breeding season with a short occipital
crest, and slight indications of a ruff; but no brightly colored feathers on the
head or neck as yet observed. Pacific Coast, U.S., abundant. P. occidentalis
Lawre. in Bp., 894 ; _chmophorus occidentalis Couns, 1.¢. 229. OCCIDENTALIS.

Var. cLarku. Similar; loral region white; bill bright yellow, the ridge black,
shorter, slenderer, extremely acute and almost recurved ; smaller; length 2 feet or
less; wing 7; tarsus 22; bill 23. Same habitat. Lawr. in Bp., 895; Cougs,
l.c. 229 and 404. *,* The foregoing species has been united with the ordinary
bird of Central and South America (P. major, cayennensis, bicornis and leucopterus)
by Dr. Schlegel. This seems premature, but it may be required if occidentalis
proves to assume the red neck and other coloration of major.

** Medium, with moderately long neck; bill not longer than the head, shorter
than the tarsus, moderately stout and acute; tarsus shorter than the middle toe
and claw. Conspicuous crests, ruffs or tufts, in the breeding season. (Podiceps.)

Crested Grebe. Tarsus equal to the middle toe without its claw; bill
equal to the head, about 4 the tarsus; crests and ruff highly developed.
About 24; extent 34; wing 74-84 ; bill 2-24; tarsus 24-23. Adult: throat
and sides of head white changing to brownish-red on the ruff, which is tipped
with black; fore part and sides of neck like the ruff; top of head and long
occipital tufts dark brown, as are the upper parts generally, the feathers of
the back pale-edged; primaries brown, part of them and nearly all the
secondaries white; under parts silky silvery white, without dark mottling,
but the sides dark-marked. Young: without any lengthened colored feathers
on the head or neck. N. Am. at large; U.S. in winter, but not nearly so
common as the next species. Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A, ii, 419; Nurr., ui,
250; AUD., vii, 308, pl. 479; Lawr. in Bd., 893. P. coopert Ib., ibid. ;
Cougs, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862, 230. ?P. affinis Satvaport; EL.ior,
Introd. No. 98, with figure of head. . . . . . . . «| ORISTATUS.

Red-necked Grebe. Tarsus about * the middle toe and claw; bill little
shorter than tarsus; crests and ruff moderately developed. Medium; length
about 18; wing 7-8; bill 13, to nearly 2; tarsus 2; middle toe and claw 2%.
Adult: front and sides of the neck rich brownish-red ; throat and sides of

PODICIPIDH, GREBES.—GEN. 312-4. 337

head ashy, whitening where it joins the dark color of the crown, the feathers
slightly ruffed; top of head with its slight occipital crests, upper parts
generally, and wings, as in the last species, but much less white on the inner
quills; lower parts pale silvery-ash, with dark sides (not pure white, but
watered or obscurely mottled, sometimes obviously speckled, with dusky) ;
bill black, more or less yellow at base. The young will be recognized by
these last characters, joined with the peculiar dimensions and proportions.
N. Am.; common in the U. S. in winter. P. rubricollis Sw. and Ricu., F.
B.-A. ii, 411; Nurv., ii, 253; Aup., vii, 312, pl. 480; P. griseigena Lawr.
in Bp., 892; P. holbilli Retnnarpr; Cours, /. c. 231. Our bird appears
to differ constantly from the European in being larger, with the bill dispro-
portionately large, and differently colored. . GRISEIGENA var. HOLBOLLII.

Horned Grebe. Tarsus about equal to the middle toe without its claw;
bill much shorter than head, little more than half the tarsus, compressed,
higher than wide at the nostrils, rather obtuse ; crests and ruffs highly devel-
oped. Small; length about 14; extent 24; wing 6 or less; bill about 2;
tarsus 14. Adult: above, dark brown, the feathers paler-edged; below,
silvery-white, the sides mixed dusky and reddish; most of the secondaries
white ; fore neck and upper breast brownish-red ; head glossy black, including
the ruff; a broad band over the eye, to and including the occipital crests,
brownish-yellow ; bill black, yellow-tipped. The young differ as in other
species, but are always recognizable by the above measurements and propor-
tions of parts. N. Am., abundant. Sw. and Ricua., F. B.-A. ii, 411; Nurr.,
254; AUD., vii, 316, pl. 481; Lawr.in Bp., 895. . . . . CORNUTUS.

Eared Grebe. Proportions substantially the same as in the last species ;
size rather less; bill shorter and more acute, depressed, wider than high at
the nostrils. Adult: above, blackish-brown, the feathers with scarcely or
not paler edges; below silky-white, reddish along the sides ; all the prima-
ries chocolate-brown, most of the secondaries white; head and neck all
round black, the auriculars lengthened into a rich golden-brown tuft, but no
obvious crests or ruff. Young: known from the last by the different shape of
the bill. Arctic America, chiefly western; common in the Pacific States in
winter; has not been observed in the Atlantic States. P. auritus Nurt.,
li, 256; Aup., vii, 322, pl. 482; P. californicus HeERMANN, Proc. Phila.
Acad. 1855, 179, and Pac. R. R. Rept. x, Cala. Route, pl. 8 (young) ;
Lawr. in Bp., 896; Cours, J. c. 231. All the American specimens I have
seen, differ from the European ones examined, in having less white on
thejwines- 9. 5... . |. « .« = - AURITUS var. CALIFORNICUS.

*** Very small; bill much shorter than the head, 2 or less of the tarsus;
tarsus about 2 the middle toe and claw. No colored crests or ruffs. (Sylbeocyclus.)

St. Domingo Grebe. Adult: top of head deep glossy steel-blue; rest of
head and neck ashy-gray, deepest behind, the, throat with whitish ; upper
parts brownish-black, with greenish gloss; primaries chocolate-brown,
a great part of most of them, and all the secondaries, pure white; under
parts silky-white thickly mottled with dusky. Length 93; wing 33; bill §;

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 43

338 ALCIDEH, AUKS.—GEN. 315.

tarsus 14; middle toe and claw 13. Central America, West Indies and
Mexico, Texas, Southern Colorado, Lower California. Sylbeocyclus domi-
Micus COUESs (ls Cl Olt ee ke Ghee) Mee ener Uo eiaetie ce eee me OMIM ONan

815. Genus PODILYMBUS Lesson.

Pied-billed Grebe. Dab-chick. Dipper. Diedapper. Water-witch.
Length 12-14; wing about 5; bill 1 or less; tarsus 13. Adult: bill
bluish, dusky on the ridge, encircled with a black bar; throat with a long
black patch ; upper parts blackish-brown ; primaries ashy-brown, secondaries
ashy and white; lower parts silky-white, more or less mottled or obscured
with dusky; the lower neck in front, fore breast and sides, washed with
rusty. Young: lacking the throat patch and peculiar marks of the bill,
otherwise not particularly different ; in a very early plumage with the head
curiously striped. N. Am., very abundant. Nurv., ii, 259; AUD., Vil,
324,-pl..483> Lawre. in tBD., 898: 5 2 )oes) 2) een 0 eee PE ODICK ER:

Family ALCIDA. Auks.

Feet three-toed, palmate. Bill horny, non-lamellate, of extremely variable shape,
often curiously appendaged; nostrils variable, but not tubular. Wings and tail
short; tarsi shorter than the middle toe and claw. Form heavy, thickset.

Birds of this family will be immediately recognized by the foregoing circum-
stances, taken in connection with general pygopodous characters. Agreeing closely

= in essential respects, they differ among
themselves to a remarkable degree in the
form of the bill, with every genus and
==] almost every species; this organ frequently
| assuming an odd shape, developing horny
| processes, showing various ridges and
furrows, or being brilliantly colored. It
is the rule that any soft part that may be
observed on the bill will finally become
hard, or form an outgrowth, or both; and:
such processes, in some cases at least, are
temporary, appearing only during the
breeding season. ‘The bill, besides, varies
ereatly with ‘age, in size and shape, often
showing at first little trace of its adult
character. In gen. 316-7 the bill is high,
compressed, with curved vertical colored
erooves, the nostrils densely feathered ; in
318-23, the feathers are remote from the
nostrils, and the bill reaches its maximum
of diversity and singularity of contour ;
in the rest, the bill is of simpler shape,
Fie. 215. Great Auk. usually conico-elongate, with more or less
perfectly feathered nostrils. The general coloration is simple; but many species
develop very remarkable frontal or lateral crests; the sexes are alike; the
young different; seasonal changes are almost always strongly marked.

ALCIDZ, AUKS.—GEN. 316, 317. 339

The family is confined to the Northern Hemisphere, where it represents the pen-
guins of the Southern; several species occur in the North Atlantic, in almost
incredible numbers, or are of circumpolar distribution; but the majority, including
all the stranger kinds, inhabit the North Pacific ; some range as far south, in winter,
at least as the Middle States and Lower California. They are all marine; feed on
fish and other animal substances, exclusively ; lay 1-3 eggs on bare ledges, in rifts
of rocks, or in burrows; and are altricial. The voice is hoarse; the flight swift
and firm, performed with vigorous rapid wing-beats; one species is deprived of
flight owing to the shortness of the wings, although these members are well formed
with perfect remiges; all swim and dive with great facility. They are eminently
gregarious, and mostly migratory. All the species are represented in this country.
The number of species given by Brandt in 1837 (Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Petersburg), by
Cassin in 1858 (Baird’s B. N. A.) and by myself in 1868 (Proc. Phila. Acad.), must
be materially reduced, as Brandt himself has since shown (op. cif. 1869), and as
I now admit. Only twenty-one are unquestionably valid.

316. Genus ALCA Linnsus,

Great Auk. Coloration as in the next species, but a large white area
before the eye; length about 30; wing 6; tail 3; bill 3, along gape 4, its
depth 1%. Nourr., ii, 553; Aup., vii, 245, pl. 465; Cass. in Bp., 900.
Special interest attaches to this bird, which is now on the point of extinction,
largely through human agency. It formerly inhabited this coast from Massa-
chusetts northward, as attested by earlier observers, and by the plentiful
occurrence of its bones in shell-heaps; also, Greenland, Iceland, and the
N. W. shores of Europe, to the Arctic Circle. On our shores it was appar-
ently last alive at the Funks, a small island off the S. Coast of Newfound-
land; while in Iceland, its living history has been brought down to 1844.
Of late years, it has been currently, but, as it appears, prematurely, reported
extinct. Mr. R. Deane has recently recorded (Am. Nat. vi, 368) that a
specimen was “found dead in the vicinity of St. Augustine, Labrador, in
November, 1870;” this one, though in poor condition, sold for $200, and
was sent to Europe. I know of only four specimens in this country—in
the Smithsonian Institution, in the Philadelphia Academy, the Cambridge
Museum, and in Vassar College, Poughkeepsie (the latter the original of
Audubon’s figures). There is an egg in each of the first two mentioned
collections. About 60 skins appear to be preserved in various museums.
See Srerenstrur, Viddensk. Meddel., Copenhagen, 1856-7, 33-116;
Newton, Ibis, 1862, p.—; Cours, Proc. Phila. Acad. 1868, 15; Orron,
PME ate MOORE see. aoe N tee Aire om ivpois 2 he cle) Seta 3) UMPENNISS

317. Genus UTAMANIA Leach.

Razor-billed Auk. Tinker. Brownish-black, browner on the head and
throat; under parts from the throat (in summer; from the bill in winter,
and in young), tips of secondaries, and sharp line from bill to eye, white ;
bill black with a white curved line; mouth yellow; 16-19; wing 7-8; tail
3-34, graduated 1 or more; tarsus 1-14; bill 14, along gape 24, nearly 1
deep. N. Atlantic, extremely abundant on rocky shores and islands with

340 ALCIDH, AUKS.—GEN. 318-9.

murres, puffins and gannets; egg generally single, and deposited in a rift of
rocks; 8X2, white or whitish variously speckled and blotched with brown.
Comes S. in winter to the Middle States. N. Pacific, casually. Nurr.,
ii, 547; Aup., vii, 247, pl. 466; Cass. in Bp., 901; Couss, J. ¢. 18,
and, op: cut. W861, 249 ais eee tae: caer Noles toate ne

818-9. Genus FRATERCULA Brisson.

* Not crested; eyelids appendaged; under mandible sulcate, like the upper,
the grooves convex forward; culmen simple, with one curve; base of bill bossed ;
corners of mouth callous. Blackish, including the throat, the sides of the head
ashy-gray, with dusky maxillary patches (whole face dusky in the young) ; below,
white ; bill red, blue and yellow; feet red. (Fvratercula.)

Horned Puffin. A slender sharp spur on upper eyelid. Black of throat
reaching the bill. 144; wing 74; tail 23; bill 2; tarsus 13. N. Pacific;
not authentic on our Atlantic Coast. Mormon glacialis Aup., vii, 236, pl.
463; MM. corniculata Cass. in Bp., 902; Couns, J. c. 24. . CORNICULATA.

Common Puffin. Sea Parrot. <A thick blunt excrescence on eyelids.
Black of throat not reaching the bill. 133; wing 64; tarsus 1; bill 2, depth
at base 14. N. Atlantic, breeding in vast numbers, in burrows ; egg 24X12,

Fic. 216. Common Puffin,

broadly ovoid, rough-granular, white or whitish, more rarely brownish,
obsoletely or not at all variegated. SS. in winter to the Middle States (to
Georgia, Audubon). Nurtr., ii, 542; Aup., vii, 238, pl. 464; Cass. in
Bp:,)903); Couns, 77¢: 21, and op. cit. 1861,-25ea) ae eee ee ROTIGUSS

Var. GLAcIALIs, from the Arctic Coasts, is rather larger, especially the bill,
which is about 24 long, 14-12 deep at base. Cass. in Bp., 903; Couss, J. c. 23.

** Adult with a long flowing crest of filamentous feathers on each side of the
head ; eyelids simple ; under mandible smooth, upper sulcate, the grooves concaye
forward ; culmen with two curves, the basal part bossed. (ZLunda.)

Tufted Puffin. Blackish, duller and more fuliginous below; face white ;
crests straw-yellow ; bill red and livid; feet red. Young not crested, face
not white, and at an early age the undeveloped bill has a different shape,
represented in fig. 217 (this is Sagmatorhina lathami Br., Proc. Zool. Soc.
1851, 202, pl. 44; Couns, J. c. 31; 8. labradora Cass. in Bp., 904; Ent.,

ALCIDH, AUKS.—GEN. 820, 321. 341

pl. 66. See Branpt, 7. c. 244). Length 15-16; wing 73-8; tail 2;
tarsus 14; bill 24, nearly 2 deep. N. Pacific, abundant; S. to Cala. in
winter; rare or casual on the
Atlantic (Maine, Aud.). Mor-
mon cirrhatus Nutt., ii, 539;
AUwD., vii, 234, pl. 462; Cass.
in Bp., 902... . CIRRHATA.

320. Genus CERATORHINA
Bonaparte.

Horn-billed Auk. Glossy
blackish, below ashy-gray,
breast and belly white. Adult
with two series of stiffish lan-
ceolate white feathers on each Fic. 217. Undeveloped bill of very young Tufted Puffin.
side of the head, and a stout upright horn at base of culmen; immature
birds without these lateral crests, and with soft membrane, more or less
bulging, in place of the horn; some specimens ( ¢ ?) in perfect plumage
have no trace of a horn (C. suckleyi Cass. in Bp., 906; Sagmatorrhina
suckleyi Cougs, l. c. 32; see Exxior, Introd. No. 102, with figs.; Branprt,

am 2s

~

Saree

FIGS. 218-21. Various stages of the bill of Horn-billed Auk.
1. c. 239. Figs. 218-21 show several conditions). Length 154; wing 74;
tail 24; tarsus 14; bill 14, including horn ; nostril to top of horn sometimes
#. Pacific Coast to Cala.; breeds S. to the Farallones. Uria occidentalis
Aup., vii, 264, pl. 471; Nurr., ii, 538; Cerorhina monocerata Cass. in
Bo., 905; Ceratorhyncha monocerata Cours, |. c. 28. . . MONOCERATA.

321. Genus PHALERIS Temminck.

Parroquet Auk. Bill smooth; upper mandible oval, under falcate, rictus
recurved. Blackish, below paler, gray, white, or varied; adult with a
series of filamentous white feathers behind each eye; bill red, yellow-tipped.

Se ae

342 ' ALCIDH, AUKS.—GEN. 322.

9; wing 54; tarsus 1; bill 3. N. Pacific. The curious bill is used to
pry open bivalve mollusks (Brandt). Nurr., ii, 5384; Ombria psittacula
Cass. in Bp., 910; Simorhynchus psittaculus Cours, —~

1G. 36 se Bao @, spl (Ole ee) ees PSE AOUIEAS 5 nS,

322. Genus SIMORHYNCHUS Merrem.

Orested Auk. Adult in summer: blackish, paler
and grayish below. A recurved frontal crest of
12-20 narrow feathers, dark ; a bundle of lengthened — Fie. 222. Parroquet Auk.
filamentous feathers over and behind each eye, white. Bill red, yellow-tipped,
with singularly irregular rictus, sides of lower mandible wholly naked, and
a horny development at the commissural angle. Phaleris cristatella AuD.,
vii, 253, pl. 467; Cass. in Bp., 906 ; Simorhynchus cristatellus Cougs, 1. ¢. 38.

Fia. 223. Crested Auk: adult in summer. Fic. 224. Crested Auk: immature.

Fig. 223. In winter, bill dark, without the horny plate: Uria dubia PAu. ;
Simorhynchus dubius Cours, l. c. 40. Younger birds with a white spot
under the eye, base of lower mandible feathered, gape straighter, and no
horny plate at the angle. -Alca tetracula Pau. ; Phaleris tetracula Cass. in
Bo., 907; Simorhynchus tetraculus Cougs, !. c. 43 ; Exxror, pl. 67. Fig. 224.
See Branpr, J. c. 224. All the foregoing stages show the crest, but it is
wanting in very young birds. Length about 9; wing 53; tail 14; tarsus under

1; bill4. N. Pacific; not observed in U.S. orIsTaTELLUS.

By, Whiskered Auk. Similar; smaller; two series

(postocular and maxil-

if eS lary) of filamentous white
| feathers on each side of
4 head; bill smaller, never
irregular. Very young:

aN blackish-plumbeous, paler
pe. below, no crest, bill dark
e (S. cassint Cougs, l. c.

Fic. 225. Whiskered Auk: adult. Fic. 226, The same, young. 45 ; Bp., py Chicago
Acad. i, 324, pl. 31, f. 2; Alca pygmea Gm.?). N. Pacific. Phaleris
camtschatica Cass. in Bo., 908; Simorhynchus camtschaticus Cours, l. ¢.
41; Uria mystacea Pati; Mormon superciliosum Licut. CAMTSCHATICUS.

ALCIDH, AUKS.—GEN. 323, 324, 325. 343

Finob-billed, or Least Auk. Very small; under 7; wing 4 or less; tarsus
3; bill 2. No crest, but white hair-like feathers on forehead and often about

eyes. Blackish, with eas
more or less white on Fi @

scapulars; below white,
pure or much varied with
dusky; bill of adult in ASS fix
summer with a little ==

knob at base. N. Pacific.

Phaleris nodirostris Fic. 227. Knob-billed Auk: adult. Fic. 228. The same, young.
AwD. vii, 255; pl. 468; P. microceros BranpT ; Cass. in Bp., 908 ; S. micro-

ceros Cours, J. c. 46. Uria pusilla Pati; P. pusilla Cass. in Bp., 909; 8.
pusillus Exu., pl. 68 ; Couss, /. c. 49 (young or winter specimens). PUSILLUS.

323. Genus PTYCHORHAMPHUS Brandt.

Aleutian Auk. Blackish-cinereous, paler below, white on breast and
belly; no long feathers about head; bill conic, acute, about 3 the head,
wrinkled at base, nostrils scaled; 9; wing 5; tarsus 1; bill 3, 2 deep at
base, $ wide. Pacific Coast to L. Cala. Cass. in Bpo., 910; Exxior, pl.
69; Cours, J. c. 52. Mergulus cassini GAMBEL. . . . . ALEUTICUS.

S 324. Genus MERGULUS Auctorum.

Sea Dove, or Dovekie. Glossy blue-black,
below from the breast (in winter, and in young,
from the bill) white; scapulars white-striped ;

: secondaries white-tipped ; white speck over eye ;

ee ae oe: bill black, short, obtuse, turgid. 83; wing 43;

tarsus 4; bill $, about 4 deep or wide at base. N. Atlantic, abundant, S.
in winter to New Jersey (to Florida, Maynard). Wruts., ix, 94, pl. 74, f.
a; Nort; i; 095 Aup., vil, 257, ‘pl. 469; Cass. in\Bp., 918... anne.

325. Genus SYNTHLIBORHAMPHUS Brandt. ©

*.* Tarsi much compressed, broadly scutellate in
front and on the sides, not shorter than middle toe
without its claw; bill compressed, shorter than head or
tarsus; nostrils broadly oval, reached by feathers. 7

Y ss Fia. 230. Black-throated
Length 93-11 ; extent 161-181; wing 5-51; tail12; bill Guillemot.
2-$; tarsus 1. Head and neck black or blackish, with white stripe over eye
and numerous others on nape and side of neck; upper parts and sides under the
wings black or blackish-plumbeous; other under parts white, from the throat in
summer, from the bill in winter, and in young birds.

Black-throated Guillemot. Not crested. White superciliary stripe not
running in advance of the eye. Bill stout, obtuse, at base 4 or more of the
length of culmen, pale, culmen and base black. N. Pacifie. Uvria senicula
Pati. Mergulus cirrhocephalus Vicors. Uria antiqua Aup., vii, 263, pl.

344 ALCIDZ, AUKS.—GEN. 326, 327.

470, f. 1 (fig. 2, of supposed young, is B. kittlitzii) ; Brachyrhamphus
_ antiquus Cass. in Bp., 916; S. antiquus Cours, 1. c., 56. Brachyrhamphus
brachypterus BRANDT; Cass. in Bp., 917; Cours, 7. c. 67. . . ANTIQUUS.

Temminck’s Guillemot. Adult in the breeding season crested. White
superciliary stripe advancing far in front of the eye. Bill slenderer and more
acute, scarcely or noé $ as deep at base as long, yellow, with black on culmen.

Fic. 231. Temminck’s Guillemot. Adult. Fic. 232. Temminck’s Guillemot. Young.

Young (and adult each winter?), uncrested, bill black; above nearly
uniform cinereous, below entirely white except along the sides: this is
Brachyrhamphus hypoleucus Xantus; Cougs, 1. c. 64; Exuior, pl. 72;
Uria craveri SaLtvapor1; Cours, /. c. 66; Exxuior, Introd. No. 172, with

fig. of head. Whole Pacific Coast to Cape St. Lucas, abundant. JB. tem-.

minckit Cass. in Bp., 916; S. wurmizusume Cougs, I. c. WURMIZUSUME.

326. Genus BRACHYRHAMPHUS Brandt.

* ,* Tarsi little compressed, entirely reticulate, obviously shorter than the middle
toe without its claw; bill shorter than head, very slender and acute, with inflected
tomia; nostrils minute, overlaid by feathers. No crest.

Marbled Guillemot, or Murrelet. Adult in summer blackish, singularly
variegated with chestnut or rusty, and white; bill black; adult in winter
plumbeous, the feathers with darker centres, the scapulars and entire under
parts, excepting some dark touches on the flanks, pure white. Length
9-10; wing 5; tail 14; tarsus and bill ? or less. Pacific Coast to Cala.
Uria townsendii Aup., vii, 278, pl. 475 (winter and summer, not old and
young as supposed) ; Uria marmorata Nutt., ii, 525; B. marmoratus Cass.
in Bp., 915; Cougs, 1. c. 61; B. wrangeli Branpr; Cass. in Bp., 917;
Cougs, l. c. 63 (winter, not different species as supposed) . MARMORATUS.

Kittlitz’s Murrelet. Described as differing from the foregoing by its much
shorter bill (only 1 along gape), deeper at base, and lateral tail feathers
white, black-striped lengthwise. N. Pacific. Unknown to me ; no recognized
specimens in American collections. JB. kittlitzii Branpt, 1837, 346; 1869,
213; Cass. in Bp., 917. Brandt holds that Audubon’s fig. 2 of pl. 470
represents this species. ?Uria brevirostris Vicors, Zool. Journ. vi, 1827,
3503 Voy. "Blossom ro2-0 asa) iel Weert ee) ee) opt Oa nie

327. Genus URIA Brisson.

* .*Tarsi entirely reticulate, little, if any, shorter than middle toe without its
claw ; bill straight, smooth, about equal to tarsus ; nostrils incompletely feathered ;

ae

ALCIDH, AUKS.—GEN. 327, 328. 345

outer claw smooth; tail contained less than 3 times in length of wing. In summer,
black, with white on wings or head; in winter, largely white; bill black, feet red.
Length 12-15; wing 53-73; tarsus 1}-11; re
pill 13-12.
Black Guillemot. Sea Pigeon. A ©)
large continuous white area on both
upper and under surface of the wing,
(rarely imperfect or wanting); head and
neck with greenish gloss; tail feathers
123 wing 54-64 5 bill rather acute. FIG. 233. Black Guillemot.
N. Atlantic, very abundant, S. in winter to New Jersey. Eggs laid in
fissures of rock, 2 (3?) in number, 23X1% in size, nearly elliptical in
= shape, greenish-white, variously blotched
with brown and purplish. Arctic Seas;
© rare or casual in the N. Pacific? Nurr.,
ieee 523; AUD., vii, 272, pl. 474; Cass.

a in Bp., 911. Couns, J. c. 68; and op.
Aes loOlennoste dea pet a ae CRY EES

Pigeon Guillemot. A large white area

Fic. 234. Pigeon Guillemot. on upper surface of wings only, partly

divided by a black line; head and neck with opaque ashy shade; tail

feathers 14 (always?) ; bill rather obtuse ; size rather greater, wing about 7.

N. Pacific. Cass. in Bp., 912; Cougs, l. c. 72. 1) ee = JOOLUMBAG
Sooty Guillemot. No white on

the wings, but usually whitish _

patches on the head. Larger; »)

wing nearly 8; bill 13-13. North

Pacific. Cass. in Bp.,.913, pl. 97;

@oOuUrs./-wGto- . <.° «. CARBO.
328. Genus LOMVIA Brandt. She
*.* Tarsi scutellate in front, much Fic. 235. Sooty Guillemot.

shorter than middle toe without claw; bill with decurved commissure, much longer
than tarsus, its end, and the outer claw, grooved; nostrils feathered ; tail gradu-
ated, contained more than 3 times in the length of wing. Size and coloration
almost exactly as described under Utama-
nia, \ut no white line from bill to eye.
Common Guillemot, or Murre.
Depth of bill at nostrils not nearly $
the length of culmen; tomia of upper
mandible at base feathered, not notice-
ably dilated, nor brightly colored. In
Fig. 236. Common Guillemot. some cases, edges of eyelids, and line

behind eye, white. N. Atlantic, Arctic and Pacific coasts, S. to New Jersey
and California; breeding in myriads on rocky islands. Egg single, on bare
ledges ; 3-34 long, by 1g-24 broad; the ground color varying from white

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS. 44

346 ALCIDE, AUKS.—GEN. 328.

to dark green; sometimes perfectly plain, usually fantastically streaked or
blotched in interminably varying pattern. Sw. and Rron., F. B.-A. ii,
477; Nurr., ii, 526; Aup., vii, 267, pl. 473 ; Uria lomvia and ringvia Cass.
in Bp., 913, 914; Zomvia troile and L. ringvia Couns, 1. c. 75, 78.

Pacific specimens have a somewhat differently shaped bill, constituting var.
californica Bryant, Proc. Bost. Soc. N.

H. 1861, p. 11; Cougs, /.c.79. TROILE.

Thick-billed, or Briinnich’s Guillemot.

Depth of bill at nostrils about 4 the

length of culmen; tomia of upper man-

dible at base dilated, denuded, usually

yellowish. Distribution as in the last

Fig. 237. Thick-billed Guillewoi. ~~ species. Uria briinichii Sw. and Ricu.,

F. B.-A. ii, 477; Nurr., ii, 529; Aup., vii, 265, pl. 472; U. arra Cass. in
Bp., 9145): Lomvia-svarbagCouus, Uc. 80... = = mat a eARE AS

Fic. 238. Murres,

ot etn MY b>

ide ee a ee

het a)

|
{
;
?

ge ed ea

SYNOPSIS OF THE FOSSIL FORMS.

There is at present no satisfactory evidence of the existence of Birds in this
country earlier than the Cretaceous period. The footprints in the sandstone of
the Connecticut Valley, which have been attributed to Birds, were probably all
made by Dinosaurian Reptiles.

The species which have been described from the Cretaceous formation are nearly
all known only from fragmentary remains. Those from the Tertiary and Post-
tertiary are generally represented by better preserved specimens.

The following synopsis has been revised by the accomplished palzontologist
who has described nearly all the known species. Through his courteous atten-
tions, the list has been completed to the date on which these pages go to press.
This first connected account of the Extinct Birds of North America will unques-
tionably be very largely supplemented by future discoveries. Work in this field
of research was neyer more actively and successfully prosecuted than at present,
and new species are almost continually being brought to light.

PICARIZA.

UINTORNIS LUCARIS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, iv, 259. Oct., 1872.

This bird was about as large as a robin, and apparently related to the
Woodpeckers. The only known remains are from the Lower Tertiary

formation of Wyoming Territory. They are preserved in the museum of
Yale College.

RAPTORES.

AQUILA DANANA Marsh.

American Journal of Science, ii, 125. August, 1871.

This species was nearly as large as the Golden Eagle (A. chrysaétos).
The only known remains were found in the Pliocene of Nebraska, and are
now in the Yale museum.

BUBO LEPTOSTEUS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, ii, 126. August, 1871.

A species about two-thirds as large as the Great Horned Owl (B. virgin-
ianus). The remains were discovered in the Lower Tertiary beds of
Wyoming, and are also in the Yale museum.

GALLINZ.

MELEAGRIS ANTIQUUS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, ii, 126. August, 1871.

This species was nearly as large as the Wild Turkey (JM. gallopavo).
The remains representing it were found in the Miocene of Colorado, and
are preserved in the Yale museum.

(347)

348 FOSSIL BIRDS.

MELEAGRIS ALTUS Marsh.

Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy, 11. March, 1870. — American
Naturalist, iv, 817. July, 1870.— American Journal of Science, iv, 260. Oct.,
1872. (MM. superbus Cope. Synopsis Extinct, Batrachia, etc., 239.)

“Represented by portions of three skeletons, of different ages, which
belonged to birds about the size of the Wild Turkey, although proportionally
much taller. The tibize and tarso-metatarsal bones were, in fact, so elon-
gated as to resemble those of wading birds.” From the Post-pliocene of
New Jersey. The remains are mostly in the museum of Yale College.

MELEAGRIS CELER Marsh.

American Journal of Science, iv, 261. Oct., 1872.

A species much smaller than the foregoing, but with legs of slender pro-
portions. Also from the Post-pliocene of New Jersey, and preserved in
the Yale museum.

GRALLATORES.
GRUS HAYDENII Marsh.

American Journal of Science, xlix, 214. March, 1870.

A species about as large as the Sandhill Crane (G‘. canadensis). From
the Pliocene of Nebraska. Remains preserved in the museum of the Phila-
delphia Academy.

GRUS PROAVUS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, iv, 261. Oct., 1872.

This species was nearly as large as a Sandhill Crane. The remains repre-
senting it were found in the Post-pliocene of New Jersey, and are now in
the Yale museum.

ALETORNIS NOBILIS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, iv, 256. Oct., 1872.

Nearly as large as the preceding species. Found in the Eocene deposits
of Wyoming, and now in the museum of Yale College.

ALETORNIS PERNIX Marsh.

American Journal of Science, iv, 256. Oct., 1872.

About half the size of the above, and from the same locality. Also in
the Yale museum.

ALETORNIS VENUSTUS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, iv, 257. Oct., 1872.

A smaller species, about as large as a Curlew (umenius). From the
same locality, and likewise in the Yale museum.

ALETORNIS GRACILIS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, iv, 258. Oct., 1872.

A bird about the size of a Woodcock (Philohela minor). From the same
formation and locality, and now preserved in the museum of Yale College.

FOSSIL BIRDS. 349

ALETORNIS BELLUS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, iv, 258. Oct., 1872.

A still smaller species, probably belonging to a different genus. From
the same locality, and also in the Yale museum.

TELMATORNIS PRISCUS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, xlix, 210. March, 1870.

A species about as large as the King Rail (2allus elegans), and probably
allied to the /tallide. From the Cretaceous formation. Found near Horn-
erstown, New Jersey, and preserved in the Yale museum.

TELMATORNIS AFFINIS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, xlix, 211. March, 1870.

A somewhat smaller species from the same formation and locality. Also
in the museum at Yale.

PALMOTRINGA LITTORALIS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, xlix, 208. March, 1870.

About equalling a Curlew in size. The remains were found in the Creta-
ceous green-sand, at the above mentioned locality, and are now preserved
at Yale.

PALHOTRINGA VETUS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, xlix, 209. March, 1870.

A smaller species, from the same formation, found at Arneytown, New
Jersey. The known remains are in the Philadelphia Academy.

PALMOTRINGA VAGANS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, iii, 865. May, 1872.

Intermediate in size between the two preceding species. Discovered in
the same formation, near Hornerstown, New Jersey; now in the museum
of Yale College.

NATATORES.
SULA LOXOSTYLA Cope.

Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, xiv, 236. Dec., 1870.

A species not so large as the common Gannet (S. bassana). From the
Miocene of North Carolina. Remains preserved in Prof. Cope’s collection.

GRACULUS IDAHENSIS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, xlix, 216. March, 1870.

A typical Cormorant, rather smaller than G'. carbo. From the Pliocene
of Idaho. Most of the known remains are deposited in the Yale museum.

GRACULAVUS VELOX Marsh.

American Journal of Science, iii, 363. May, 1872.

This bird was related to the Cormorants, and was rather smaller than
Graculus carbo. The remains were found in the green-sand of the Cretaceous
formation, near Hornerstown, New Jersey, and are now at Yale College.

350 FOSSIL BIRDS.

GRACULAVUS PUMILUS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, iii, 364. May, 1872.

A smaller species, from the same formation and locality. The remains
are in the Yale museum.

GRACULAVUS ANCEPS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, iii, 364. May, 1872.

Apparently a species.of Cormorant, about as large as Graculus violaceus.
From the Cretaceous of Western Kansas. Remains in the Yale College
museum.

ICHTHYORNIS DISPAR Marsh.

American Journal of Science, iv, appendix, 344. Oct., 1872.

A bird about as large as a pigeon, and differing from all known birds in
having biconcave vertebre. The remains were found in the Cretaceous shale
of Kansas, and are in the museum of Yale College.

PUFFINUS CONRADII Marsh.

American Journal of Science, xlix, 212. March, 1870.

A shearwater about the size of P. cinereus. From the Miocene of Mary-
land, and now preserved in the museum of the Philadelphia Academy.

CATARRACTES ANTIQUUS Marsh.
American Journal of Science, xlix, 213. March, 1870.

A Guillemot rather larger than the Common Murre (Lomvia trotle). From
the Miocene of North Carolina. Deposited in the Philadelphia Academy.

CATARRACTES AFFINIS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, iv, 259. Oct., 1872.

A species about as large as the preceding, and nearly related. From the
Post-pliocene of Maine. The original specimen is in the Philadelphia
Academy.

HESPERORNIS REGALIS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, iii, 360. May, 1872.

This bird was a gigantic Diver, related to the Loons (Colymbide). The
skeleton measured about five feet nine inches in length. The known remains
were found in the upper Cretaceous shale of Western Kansas, and are now
in the Yale museum.

LAORNIS EDVARDSIANUS Marsh.

American Journal of Science, xlix, 206. March, 1870.

This species was nearly as large as a Swan. The remains were discovered
in the Middle Marl bed, of Cretaceous age, at Birmingham, New Jersey,
and are now in the museum of Yale College.

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

INTRODUCTION, passim. For Order Scansores read zygodactyle birds.

P.9, §19.—The Phenicopteride were not considered as belonging to Lamellirostres when
the fourth sentence of this paragraph was penned.

P. 22, last two lines. For 117 read 123; for 177 read 176; dele 154; insert 149, 151, 189,
222-3-4, 230.

P. 30, last line but one. For no read a. (This important error is also repeated in fig 6,
where the phalanx in question is omitted.)

P. 35, eighth line. After in insert nearly.

P. 38, end of ninth line from bottom. After Strisores insert of some authors.

P. 39, tenth line. After no insert perfect.

P. 47, § 81, tenth line. After (307) insert and a species of Accipiter (156).

P. 49, § 86, fourth line. After 1t insert when present. Next line, after 2t, insert when
developed.

P. 55, third line. After belongs to the read: family Picide, of the sub-order Pici, of the
order Picariz.

P. 58. Among “abbreviations used” insert; —1. ¢., locus citatus —the place (of a work)
just cited. op. cit., opus citatum— the work just cited.

P. 59. Among “works referred to” insert ; — Sw. and Ricu., F. B.-A. ii. Swainson, W.,
and Richardson, J.; Fauna Boreali-Americana. Vol. ii. 4to. 1831.

P. 61. After Hydrochelidon, for 292 read 293; after Haliplana, for 293 read 292.

P. 63. For Giorris 215, SympHemia 214 and Ruyacopuitus 216, read TOTANUS 214-6.

P. 68. For Furrx 260, and Ayruya 261, read FuLiGuta 260-1.

P. 75. Curve-billed Thrush. Specimens lately received indicate that the Arizona bird
constitutes a variety of H. curvirostris: the following is a better description than that given
in the text. — Var. palmeri Ripaw. Ms. Above, grayish-brown, nearly uniform; wing
coverts and quills with slight whitish edging, the edge of the wing itself white; tail feathers
with slight whitish tips; below, a paler shade of the color of the upper parts, the throat
quite whitish, the crissum slightly rufescent, the breast and belly with obscure dark gray
spots on the grayish-white ground; no obvious maxillary streaks, but vague speckling on
the cheeks; bill black; feet blackish-brown; bill 1}; wing 44; tail 5; tarsus 14; middle toe
and claw 14. (Described from 61589, Mus. Smiths. Inst., Tucson, Arizona, Bendire.)

P.77. Kennicott’s Sylvia. Add to the quotation: Tristram, Ibis, 1871, 231.

P. 85. Allied Creeper Wren. In all probability distinct from the preceding species.

P. 87. Alaskan Wren. May be best treated as a variety of the Winter Wren; and this
last may be considered as Anorthura troglodytes var. hyemalis.

P. 122. Plumbeous Vireo. Additional material shows that most probably this is a variety
of V. solitarius, as intimated in the text.

P. 129. For Genus Curvirostra Scopoli read Genus Loxta Linneus. The Red Crossbill
may be considered as var. americana of the European Loxia curvirostra.

(351)

+

31533) ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

P. 130. Gray-crowned Finch. It is hardly necessary to recognize by name more than one
variety of this bird—‘‘campestris” being referred to tephrocotis proper, and ‘‘littoralis” to
var. griseinucha. 9

P. 135. Baird’s Bunting. As very strongly hinted in the text, the supposed specimens of
Centronyx bairdii from Massachusetts are not this species at all, but a Passerculus, apparently
new. (P. princeps Maynarp, Am. Nat. vi, 1872, p. 637). Although perfectly aware of this at
time of writing, I refrained from anticipating publication of the fact. I venture to foretell,
that a second specimen of ‘‘ Centronyx” will never be found.

P. 136. St. Lucas Sparrow. Doubtless only a variety of P. rostratus.

P. 140. Good authority contends for the specific validity of Peucea cassinii, but I am not
prepared to yield my position.

P. 147. It may be as well to allow Passerella townsendii to stand as a species, until its
intergradation with tliaca is proven. P. schistacea goes with townsendii as a slight variety.

P. 174, first line. For features read feathers.

P. 183. Vauex’s Swift. Iam more inclined to doubt its validity.

P. 186. Linné Hummingbird. The implication is, that the specimen accredited to Massa-
chusetts came from a dealer’s stock, in exchange for a specimen of 7. colubris spoilt in stuffing.

P. 207. Ferrugineous Owl. To the extralimital specimens described, add :—No. 61585,
Mus. Smiths. Inst., from Tucson, Arizona, since transmitted to me by Lt. C. Bendire, U.S. A.
It is the specimen of which some fragments furnished my note in the American Naturalist, as
quoted in the text.

P. 213. Gyrfaleon. The specimens from the Mackenzie's river region, noticed by Baird
(i. c.) under name of F. sacer, have since been determined by Prof. Newton to be indistin-
guishable from ordinary var. islandicus. I omitted to state, that var. gyrfalco is a N. European
form, not recognized, I believe, from this country. The name sacer has priority over all the
others as the specific designation.

P. 222. Cathartes burrovianus, there is, reason to believe, may be a valid species; it does
not, however, occur within our limits.

P. 248. After Genus PHALAROPUS insert Brisson.

P. 270. Before Gruiwx insert: — SuBorDER ALECTORIDES. Cranes, Rams anp
OTHER ALLIES. SEE p. 241.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Note. A few English synonyms, not in the body of the work, are introduced. “No.” refers to number

of genus; “§” refers to paragraph of Introduction; other references are to pages.

A.

Abdomen, n. Belly, § 39.
Aberrant, a. Deviating from ordi-
nary structure, § 24.
Abert’s Towhee, 153.
Acadian Flycatcher, 174.
Owl, 206.
Accipiter, No. 156.
Acicular, a. Needle-shaped, § 47.
Acropodium,n. Top of toes, § 77.
Acrotarsium, 7. Instep, § 77.
Actiturus, No. 219.
Actodromas, No. 207.
Echmophorus, No. 312.
Bgialitis, No. 191.
Hgiothus, No. 61.
Hstrelata, No. 302.
Affinity, . Quality of direct rela-
tion, § 26.
Agelwinz, 154.
Agelzus, No. 89.
Agyrtria, No. 124.
Aix, No. 259.
Ala, n.; pl. ale. Wing, § 51-64.
Alar, a. Pertaining to the wings.
Alaskan Wren, 87, 351.
Alaudidz, 88.
Albatrosses, 325.
Alca, No. 316.
Alcedinide, -inze, 187.
Alcide, 338.
Alectorides, 241, 352
Aletornis bellu f
~ gracilis, 348.
nobilis, 348.
pernix, 348.
venustus, 348.
Aleutian Auk, 343.
Tern, 322.
Alice’s Thrush, 73.
Alimentary, a. Pertaining to fune-
tion of nutrition.
Allen’s Towhee, 152.
Allied Creeper Wren, 85, 351.
Orchard Oriole(var. affinis),

158.
Altrices, n. pl. Birds reared in
the nest.
Altricial, a. Having the nature of
Altrices.

Alula, x. Bastard wing, § 58.

American Avocet, 247.
Black Scoter, 293.
Creeper = Brown C., 84.
Cuckoos, 189.
Dipper, 77.
Dunlin, 256.
Flamingo, 278.
Goldfinch, 131.
Mealy Redpoll, 131.
Mew Gull, 313.
Partridges, 236.
Snipe, 252.
Starlings, 153.
Swan, 281.
Teal = Green-winged

7, 287.

Vultures, 220.
Warblers, 91.
White Pelican, 300.
White-fronted Goose,282

KEY TO N. A. BIRDS.

45

American Widgeon, 287.
Woodcock, 251.

Ammodromus, No. 68.

Amotus, a. Remote, § 87.

Ampelide, 114.

Ampelinz, 115.

Ampelis, No. 50.

Analogy, n. “Counterfeit present-
ment,” § 26.

Anas, No. 252.

Anatide, 278

Anatinz, 285.

Ancylocheilus, No. 209.

Angle of the jaw, § 41, b.

Angulated.a@. Bent abruptly.

Anhinga, 305.

Ani, 189.

Anisodactyle, @. Unequal-toed,178.

Anna Hummingbird, 185.

Anorthura, No. 23.

Anous, No. 294,

Anser, No. 248.

Anserine, 281.

Anserine Birds, 277.

Anteorbital, @ In front of the
eye, § 41, b.

Anthinee, 90.

Anthus, No. 28.

Antiz, n. pl. Projections of feath-
ers on either side of base of cul-
men, § 52.

Antrorse, a. Turned forward, § 52.

Antrostomus, No. 114.

Aphelocoma, No. 101.

Aphriza, No. 193.

Apteria, n. pl. Spaces between
feathered 8,

Aquatic Birds, 276.

Aquila, No. 163.

Aquila danana, 347.

Aramid, 271.

Aramus, No. 239.

Arboricole, @. Tree-inhabiting.

Archzopteryx, 69 (footnote).

Archibuteo, No. 160.

Arctic Bluebird, 76.

Jaéger, 309.

Puftin = Common P., 340.
Tern, 321.

Towhee, 152.

Areuate, a. Bovw-shaped.

Ardea, No. 228.

Ardeide, 264.

Ardeinz, 265.

Ardetta, No. 238.

Aridz, 199.

Arizona Chipbird, 143.

Goldfinch, 132.
Quail, 238.
Arkansas Flycatcher, 170.
Goldfinch, 132.

Arquatella, No. 210.

Articulation, n. Joint; jointing.

Ash-colored Sandpiper, 256.

Ash-throated Flycatcher, 171.

Ashy Petrel, 329.

Astur, No. 157.

Asturina, No. 160bis.

Asyndesmus, No. 136,

Attenuate,a. Abruptly narrowed,
§ 60, ¢ and fig. 110.

Atthis. Under No, 122.

a, adjective; mn, noun.

Audubonia, No. 229.
Audubon’s Oriole, 159.
Thrush, 72.
Warbler, 100.
Auks, 338.

Aural, Auricular.
the ear, § 41, b.
Auriculars, x. pl.

§ 41, b.
Auriparus, No. 15.
Autumnal Tree Duck, 284.

Warbler, 101.

Aves aéree, 69.

aquatic, 276.

terrestres, 228.
Avocet, 247.
Axilla, n. Arm-pit.
Axillar, «. Pertaining fo armpit.
Axillars, n. pl. Certain longer

under wing coverts, § 59.
Aythya, No. 261.

B.

Bachman’s Finch, 140.
Oyster-catcher, 246,
Warbler, 94.

Pertaining to

Ear-feathers,

Back, § 38.
Baird’s Bunting, 135, 352.
Sandpiper, 255.
Bald Eagle, 219.
Baldpate, 287.
Baltimore Oriole, 158.
Band, x. Straight
color-mark, § 41, d.
Banded Three-toed Woodpecker,
4.
Band-tailed Buzzard, 217.
Pigeon, 225.
Bank Swallow, 114.
Bar, n. See Band.
Barb, 7. Lamina of a vane, § 3.
Barbicel,n. Fringe of barbule, § 3.
Barbule, n. Lamina of barb, § 3.
Barn Owl, 201, A
Swallow, 113.
Barnacle Goose, 283.
Barred Owl, 204.
Barrow’s Golden-eye, 290.
Bartramian Sandpiper, 260.
Vireo, 119.
Basipterygoid, a. or n. _ Process
of bone at base of skull.
Bay-breasted Warbler, 101.
Bay-winged Bunting, 136.
Beak. See Bill.
Bee-martin, 169.
Beetle-headed Plover, 243.
Bell’s Finch, 141.
Vireo, 123.
Belted Kingfisher, 188.
Berlandier’s Wren, 86.
Bewick’s Wren, 86.
Big Black-head, 289.
Bill, § 42-53.
Bird. Feathered Animal, § 2.
Birds of Prey, 199.
Bittern, 269.
Black Brant, 284.
Duck, 285.
Flycatcher, 172.
Guillemot, 345.

crosswise

Black Hawk, 218.
Logcock = Pileated Wood-
pecker, 192
Oyster- catcher, 246.
Parrot = Ani, 189.
Petrel, 329.
Ptilogonys, 6.
Rail, 274.
Scoter, 293.
Skimmer, 324.
Swift, 18:
Tern, 3
Vulture=Carrion Crow, 222.
Black and White Creeper, 92.
Yellow Warbler, 102.
Black-backed Woodpecker, 194.
Black-bellied Plover, 243.
Sandpiper, 256.
Black-billed Cuckoo, 190.
Blackbirds, 154, 159.
Blackburnian Warbler, 100.
Black-eapped Petrel, 328.
Chickadee, 81.
Black-chinned Hummingbird, 184.
Sparrow, 143.
Black-crested Titmouse, 80.
Black-faced Finch, 150.
Black-footed Albatross, 325.
Black-head, 289.
Black-headed Gnateatcher, 79.
Grosbeak, 149.
Gull, 315.
Turnstone, 247.
Vireo, 124.
Black-necked Stilt = Stilt, 247.
Black-poll Warbler, 100.
Black-shouldered Kite, 211.
Black-tailed Godwit, 258.
Shearwater, 330.
Black-throated Blue Warbler, 98.
Bunting, 148.
Diver, 334.
Finch, 140.
Gray Warbler, 98.
Green Warbler, 97.
Guillemot, 343.
Hummingbird,184.
Black-vented Shearwater, 331.
Black-whiskered Vireo, 120.
Blanding’s Finch, 153.
Blasipus, No. 282.
Blue Crow, 165.
Golden-winged Warbler, 94.
Goose, 282.
Grosbeak, 149.
Hawk = Marsh Harrier, 210.
Heron, 267, 268.
Jay, 165.
nfoustatn Warbler, 105.
Quail. 2
Yellow- rt iickedl Warbler, 92.
Blve-bill, 289.
Iluebird, 76.
Blue-eyed Yellow Warbler, 97.
Blue-gray Gnatcatcher, 78.
Blue-headed Grackle, 160.
Ground Doy @, 227.
Pigeon, 227.
Sawbill, 187.
Vireo, 121.
Blue-stocking, 247.
Blue-winged Teal, 287.
- Yellow Warbler, 94.
Boat-billed Heron, 265 (in text).
3oat-tailed Grackle, 160.
Bobolink, 154.
Bob-white, 236.
Bog Bull, 269.
Bogsucker. 251.
Bohemian Waxw ing, 115.

Bonaparte’s Flycatcher = Cana-
dian F., 109.
Gull, 316.
Sandpiper = White-

rumped S., 205.
Bonasa, No. 182.
Booby Gannet, 298.
* Boot,” * booted,” § 81.
Botaurus. No. 237.
Brachyotus, No. 143.
Brachyrhamphus, No. 326.
Brandt’s Cormorant, 303.
Brant Bird 246.

Branta, No. 250.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Breast. n. Swelling anterior part
of gastreeum, § 39.
Brent. See Brant Goose.
Brewer's Blackbird, 160.
Sparrow, 143.
Brewster’s Linnet, 151.
Bridled Tern, 322.
Titmouse, 80.
Broad-bill, 288.
Broad-tailed Hummingbird, 185.
Broad-winged Buzzard, 217.
Bronchus, pl. bronchi, n. Fork
of the windpipe, § 2.
Brotherly-love Vireo, 120.
Brown Crane, 271.
Creeper, 84.
Jay, 164.
Lark, 90.
Pelican, 300.
Thrush. 75.
Towhee, 152.
Brown-back, 252
Brown-headed Creeper Wren, 85.
Nuthatch, 83.
Woodpecker, 195.
Briinnich’s Guillemot, 346.
Bubo, No. 140.
Bubo leptos
Bucephala, No. 262.
Budytes, No. 27.
Bufl-breasted “Fiycatcher, 176.
Sandpiper, 261.
Buflle-headed Duck, 290.
Butlon’s Jaéger, 309.
Buill-bat, isl.
Bullfinches, 126, 128.
Bull-head, 243.
Bullock’s Oriole, 158.
Buntings, 126, 133, 154, 185, 136.
Buphagus, No, 279.
Burgomaster, 311.
Burion, 129.
Burrowing Owl, 207.
Bush Quails, 229 (in text).
Butcher Bird, 125.
Buteo, No. 159.
Butorides, No. 234.
Butter Ball, 290.
Buzzards, 209, 215-20.

Cc.

Cabanis’ Kingfisher, 188.
Cabot’s Tern=Sandw ich Tern, 320.
Cerulean Warbler, 99.
Calamospiza, No. 78.
Calamus, x. Barrel of feather, §3.
Calandritina, 88.
Calcareous, a. baler
Calico-back, 246.

Calidris, No. 212.
California Grebe = Eared G., 337.

Jay. 166.
Mockingbird, 75.
Ps urtridge, 238.
Quail, 238.
Squirrel Hawk = Ferru-
gineous Buzzard, 218.
Vulture, 222.
Woodpe r, 196.
Calliope Hummingbird, 185.
Callipepla, No. 187.
Campephilus, No. 129.
Camptolamus, No. 264.
Campylorhynchus, No. 18.
Camtschatcéan Auk = Whiskered
Auk, 342.
Canada Flycatcher, 109.
Goose, 284.
Grouse, 232.
Jay, 166.
Canaliculus, n. Groove.
Canon Towhee, 152.
Canthus, n. Corner of eyelids.
Canvas-back, 290,
Cape May Warbler, 102.
Cape Pigeon, 328.
Caprimulgide, 179; -ine, 180.
Caput, n. Head, §31.
Caracara Buzzard, 220.
Carbonated Warbler, 105,
Cardinal Redbird, 151.
Cardinalis, No. 84.
Carina, n.; pl., -®.

Keel or ridge.

Carinatz, 69 (footnote).
Carinate, a. Keeled or ridged.
Carnivorous, @. Flesh-eating.
Carolina Dove, 226.
Parroquet, 199.
Rail, 273.
Titmouse, 81.
Waxwing, 116.
Wren, &6.
Carotid Artery. Principal artery
of the neck.
Carpal, x. Pertaining to carpus.
Carpodacus, No. 58.
Carpus,n. Wrist, § 55, 56.
Carrion Crow, 222.
Carunele, n. "Any natural fleshy
outgrowth. § 41, e.
Carunculate, @. Having natural
fleshy outgrowths.
Caspian Tern, 319.
Cassin’s Auk = Whiskered A., 342.
Bullfineh, 128.
Finch, 140, 352.
Flycatcher, 170.
Purple Finch, 128.
Vireo, 122.
Catarractes aflinis, 350.
antiquus, 350.
Catbird. 74.
Cathartes, No. 166.
Cathartida, 220.
Catherpes, No. 20.
Cauda, n. Tai), § 65-70.
Caudal, a. Pertaining to the tail.
Cedar Bird, 116.
Centre of gravity, § 54.
Centrocercus, No. 179.
Centronyx, No. 64.
Centurus, No. 134.
Ceratorhina, No. 320.
Cere, n., § 48.
Certhia, No. 17.
Certhiidz -inz, 83.
Certhiola, No. 42.
Cervix, n. ruff of neck, § 40.
Ceryle, No. 113.
Cheetura, No. 118.
Cheturin®, 183.
Chamea. No. 11.
Chameide, 79.
Chamiepeleia, No. 172.
Chaparral Cock, 189-
Character, n., § 15.
Charadriida, -ine, 242.
Charadrius, No. 190.
Chats, 108 (also 76).
Chatterers. See Waxwings.
Chaulelasmus, No. 254.
Cherry Bird, 116.
Chestnut-backed Chickadee, SL.
Chestnut-collared Lark Bunting,
134.
Chestnut-sided Warbler, 101.
Chewink, 151.
Chiaealaca, 231.
Chickadees, 79. —~
Chicken Hawk, 212.
Chimney Swift o7 Swallow, 183.
Onip bum or Chipping Sparrow,
Chondestes, No. 75.
Chordeiles, No. 115.
Chr cocephalus, No. 283.
Chrysomitris, No. 62.
Chuck-will’s-widow, 180.
Ciconiide, 241.
Cilia, n. pl. Barbicels, § 3. (Hairs.)
Cinclide, 76.
Cinclus, No. 7.
Cinereous Shearwater, 330.

Snowbird, 141.

Thrush, 7B.
Cinnamon Teal, 287.
Circumorbital, a.

eyes, § 41, b.
Cireus, No. 151.
Cistothorus, No. 25.
Clamatores, es
Clapper Rail, 2
Clarke’s Crow, Ges

Grebe, 336.
Class, n., § 16.
Clavicle, x. Collar-bone, § 2.
Clay-colored Sparrow, 148.
CluY Swallow, 114.

Around the

Cloaca, n. End of large gut.
Cnemial, a. Pertaining to the shin.
Cobb, 312. i
Coccygeal, a.
tail.
Coccyx, n. Last tail-bone, § 65.
Coccyzine, 189.
Coccyzus, No. 128.
Cock of the Plains, 233.
Cecum, n.j pl. coca.
cul-de-sac, § 2
Ceerebida, 110.
Coffin-carrier, 312.
Colaptes, No. 137.
Collum, n. Neck, § 32.
Collurio, No. 5t.
Columba, No. 167.
Columba, 223.
Columbian Magpie, 164.
Columbidie, 223.
Colymbide,
Colymbus, No. 311.
Commissure, n. Line of closure
a mouth; also, corner of mouth,
53.
Common Cormorant, 302.
= Crossbill, 129.
* Crow, 162.
~ Dove, 225.
Gannet, 298.
Gu 845,

Pertaining to the

Intestinal

Wild Goose, QBL.
Compressed, a. Flattened side-
ways.
Conirostral, @ Having a cone-
shaped bill, § 46.
Conirostral Birds, 126.
Connecticut Warbler, 105.
Continuity, n. Part of a thing
between its ends.
Contopus, No. 108.
Conurus, No. 138.
Cooper’s Buzzard, 215.
Flycatcher = Olive-sided
.¥F., 173.
Hawk, 212.
Sandpiper, 255.
Tanager, 111.
Coot, 275. Coots (Sea), 293.
Coracoid, a. orn. Bone connecting
shoulder with sternum.
Cormorants, 301.
Corn Crake, 274.
Corneous, a. Horny.
Cornu, n.; pl. cornua.
Corona, n. Crown;
pileum, § 41, a.
Corpus callosum,n. Mass of white
brain substance connecting right
and lett hemispheres, § 2.
Corvidew, 161; -inw, 162.
Corvus, No. 95.
Costa Hummingbird, 185.
Coturniculus, No. 67.
Cotyle, No. 47.
Couch’s Flycatcher, 170.
Coues’ ay catober, 1738.
Courlan, 2
Cowbird, 15 =Cowpen Bird, 155.
Cracide,” ae
Cranes, 241, 2
Craxirex. Seo Tater, No. 159.
Creagrus, No. 288.
Creepers, 83.
Crenulate, a. Wavyy-edged.
Crest, n., § 41, f.
Crested Auk, 342,
Flycatcher = Great Crest-
ed F., 171.
Grebe, 336.
Titmouse = Tufted T., 80.
Crex, No. 212.
Cr eon eres Finch, 129.
ri Pertaining to under

Horn.
middle of

Crissum, n. Under tail coverts,

§ 39, § 66.
Crista, n. Crest, § 41, f.
Crossbills, 126, 129.
Crotophaga, No. 126; -ine, 189.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Crow-blackbird, 159.
Crows. 161, 162.
aes n. Leg from knee to heel,
72, a.

Gryine Bird, 271.
Cuckoos, 188.
Cuculi, 178, 185; -idae, 188.
Culmen, n. Top ridge of bill, § 50.
Culminal, a. Pertaining to cul-

men, § 52.
Cultrate, a. Like a knife-blade.
Cultrirostral, a. § 46.
Cuneate, a. We ige-shaped.
Cuneiform, a. Wedge-shaped.
Cuneiform, n. One of the wrist-

bones, § 55.
Cupidonia, No. 181.
Curassows, 231.
Curlew idpiper, 255.

5 2.

d Thrush, 75, 351.
a, No. 59 (Lege Loxia)
and p. 851.
Cuticle, n.
skin.
Cutis, n.
Cutwater,
Cuvier’s Icinglet t, 78.
Cyanospiza, No. SL.
Cyanurus, No. 100.
Cygninz, 28
nus, No. is
lymochorea, No. 305.
ypseli, 178, 179.
Oypselidee, -inze, 182.
Cyrtonyx, No. 188.

D.

Dab-chick, 338.

Datila, No. -

Daption, No. 301. ‘

Dark-bodied Shearwater, 332.

Darters, 305.

Day Owl, 205.

Deciduous, a. Falling off.

Decuryed, @ Curved downward.

Dendrocygna, N iF

Dendreeca, No. 3

Dentirostral, a. Havyinga bill with
toothed or notched tomia, § 46.

Depressed, a. Flattened up and
down.

Dermal, a Pertaining to skin;
cutaneous, § 8.

Desmognathous, a.
palate-bones united.

Diaphragm, n. Muscular partition
between breast and belly, § 2

Diedapper, 338.

Dietetic, a. Pertaining to food.

Digit, n. Finger or toe,

Digitigrade, a That walks on
toes only.

Diomedea, No. 296.

Diomedeinze, 325.

Dipper, 77. (Duck, 290).
3:

Disk, n. Set of radiating feathers,
§ 41, f.
Distichous, @. Two-rowed, § 65.
i ul Birds of Prey, 208.
ate,a. Branching off.
Loo 333.
Diving Bir
Dolichonyx 7
Dorsal, a. Pertaining to the back,
Dorsal Woodpecker, “L94.
Dorsum, 7. Back; part of no-
frum, § 58.
Double-crested Cormorant, 303.
Dough-bird. 262.
Dovekie, 343.
Doves, 223.
Dowitcher, 252.
Downy Woodpecker, 194.
Duck Hawk, 213.
Ducks, 278, 285, 288.
Dunlin, 2¢
Dusky Duck, 285.
Grouse, 233.
Redpoll,
Shearwater
Dwarf Cowbird, 155.
Thrush (var. nanus), 72.

Outermost layer of

w
or

Having the

(Grebe,

Eagles, 209, 2
Rared Grebe
Eastern B luebird, 76.
Baye Swallow, 114.
Ecdysis, n. Moult. § 10.
Ectopistes, No. 168.
Egrets, 267, 268.
Hiders, 291, 292
Bider Du
Blanus, No. 15
Hlegant Tern, 319.
Emarginate, a. Slightly forked ;
also, incised, § 60, ¢; fig. 110.
Embernagra, No. 80.
Emperor Goose, 283.
Hmpidonax, No. 109.
English‘ lipe”=Wilson’s S., 252:
irrow, 146.
Teal, 287.
Epigastrium, x.
§ 39.
Epiglottis, n. Gristly flap on top
of windpipe, § 2.

Epignathous, a. Hook-billed, §45.
Epiphysis,n. Gristly or bony cap
on end of a bone, 32 (footnote).
Epithelium, nx. Superficial layer of
mucous membrane, as cuticle

is of skin, § 8.

Eremophila, No. 26.

Ereunetes, No. 206.

Erismatura, No. 270.

Esquimaux Curlew, 262.

European Goldfinch, 146.
Widgeon, 286.
Woodcock

Euspiza, No. 79.

Evening Grosbeak, 127.

Everglade Kite, 211.

F.

Scythe-shaped.
0. 225 (with Ibis).

Pit of stomach,

Faleate, a.
inellus,

Fale onidee, 208.
Falcons, 210, 213.
Family, n, § 19.
Reso n. Broad band of color,
§41,d
FE: ted Tit, 79.
le, fasciculum, n.
Feather By he
birds, §3.
Femoral, a. Bertainine to thigh.
Wenioral ee on, 215.
Femur, Thigh-bone.
Rennie IneOuH Buzzard, 218.
Owl, 205, 352.
Fibula, n. Smaller outer leg-bone,

Bandle.
Pec uliar covering of

§ 72
Fila ‘Lark. 157.
Plover, 260.
Sparrow, 143.
Fiery Redbird, 151 (var. ignens).
Filamentous, a. Thread-like.
Filopluma, x. Hair-like feather, §5.
Filoplumaceous, a@., § 4.
Finches, 126 et seq.
Fire-bird, 158.
Fissirostral, n.
cleft bill, § 46.
Fissirostral Birds, 126.
Oscines, 112.
Fish Crow, 163.
Duck, 296.
Hawk,
Flamingoes, 277.
Flammulated Owl, 203.
Flesh-footed She iwwater, 331.
Plexure, n. A bending; a bent
place.
Flicker, 197.
Flocking Fowl, 289.
Florida, No. 230.
Florida Cormorant, 303.
Crow, 163.
Ge ulinule. : 3
Beton,
Jay, 1
Flycatchers, 167.
Flycatching Thrushes, 116.

Having deeply-

219.

356

Flycatching Warblers, 108.
Fly-up-the- “Creek = Green Heron.
Follicle, n. Minute sac secreting
various substances, § 7, §8

Forficate, a. Deeply forked, § 70.
Fork-tailed Flycatcher, 169.

Gull, 317.

Bebrele
Forster’s met n,

s parrow, MG.
Franklin’s Grouse, 253.
Rosy Gull, 315.
Fratercula, No. 318.
Fregetta, No. 308.
French Mockingbird = Thrasher,
75.
Frenum, n. Cheek-stripe.
Fresh-water Marsh-hen, 273.
Frigates, 306.
Fringillid, 126.
Frons, 7. Forehead, § 41, a.
Frontal, a. Pertaining to the fore-
head.
Frost-bird, 243.
Fulica, No
Fulicinz, 275.
Fuligula (* ‘Fulix”); No. 260.
F uligulinze, 2 88.
Fulix = Fuligula, No. 260.
Fulmar Petrel, 327
Fulmars, 327.
Fulmarus, No. 299.
Fulvous Tree Duck, 284.
Furculum, n. Merry-thought, § 52.
Fusiform, a. Spindle - ‘shaped;
cigar-shaped.

G.

Gadwall, 286.

Gairdner’s Woodpecker, 194.

Gallinaceous Birds, 228.

Gallinze, 228, 347.

Gallinago, No. 203.

Gallinula, No. 243.

Gallinules, 274.

Gallinuline, 274.

Gambel’s Partridge, 238.

Sparrow, L4t.

Gannets, 298.

Garrob, 290.

Garrulinze, 163.

Garzetta, No. 231.

Gastreum, n. Under parts, § 36.

Geese, 278. 281-4.

Gelochelidon, No. 289.

Gena, n., pl. genw. Cheeks, § 41, b.

Genito-urinar: y, a. Pertaining to
the sexual organs.

Genus, n., § 20.

Geococcyx, No. 127.

Geothlypis, No. 38.

Geotrygon, No. 174.

Giant Fulmar, 327.

Gila Woodpecker, 196.

* Gilded Woodpecker, 197.

Glacial Puflin, 340.
Glaucidium, No. 148.
Glaucous Gull, 311.
Glaucous-winged Gull, 311.
Glossy Ibis, 263.
Glottis = Totanus, No. 215.
Gnatcatchers, 78.
Gnathotheca, n.

der jaw, § 48, b.

skers, t79, 180.

0, 257.

Covering of un-

Robin, 15:

Warbler, 97.

Golden-cheeked Warbler, 98.

Golden-crowned Kinglet, 78.
Sparrow, 145.
Thrush, 105.

Golden-eye, 290.

Golden-winged Woodpecker, 197.

Goldfinches, 131, 132; 146 (Obs.).

Goniaphea, No. 80.

Gonys, vz. Outline of mandibular

symphysis, § 49.
Goosander, 296.
Goose. See Geese.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Goshawk, 212.
Gould’s Sparrow, 139.
Grace’s Warbler, 103.
Graculayus anceps, 350.
pumilus, 350.
velox, 349.
Graculide, 301.
Graculus, No. 275.
Graculus idahensis, 349,
Gradate, a@., § 70.
Grallatores, 239, 348.
Granular, a.. § 8.
Granulate, § 79.
Grass Finch, 136.
Snipe, 255.
Gray WS = Gadwall, 286.
Hawk, 218.
Kingbird, 170.
Rutfed Grouse, 235.
Snipe, 252.
Vireo, 122.
Gray-back, 256.
Gr rowned Finch, 130, 352,
Gray-eared Finch, 130.
Great Auk, 339.
Black-backed Gull, 312.
Blue Heron, 267.
Carolina Wren, 86.
Crested Flycatcher, 171.
Gray Owl, 204.
Horned Owl, 202.
Marbled Godwit, 257.
Northern Diver, s
Shrike
White Egret, 267.
Heron, 26
Greater Scaup Duck
Shearwater,
Tell-tale, 258.
Yellowshanks, 258.
Great-tailed Grackle, 160.
Grebes, 335
Green Black-capped Flycatcher,
109.
Green Crested Flycatcher, 174.
Finch, 153.
Heron, 268.
Greenland Sea Eagle, 220.
Greenlets, 117.
Greenshanks, 259.
Green-tailed Finch, 153.
Green-winged Teal, 287.
Grosbeaks, 126, 127.
Ground Cuckoo, 189.
Dove, 226, 227.
Wren, 79
Grouse, 232.
Gruber’s Buzzard, 219.
Gruide, 270.
Grus, No. 223.
haydenii, 348.
proayus, 348.
Guans, E
Guinea 30.
Gula, vn. Upper throat, § 40.
Gular,a. Pertaining to the throat.
Gull-billed Tern, 319.
Gulls, 308, 310.
Guttur, n. Throat, § 40,
Gymnokitta, No. 97.
Gyrfalcon, 213, 352.

H.

Hemantopodide, 246.

Hematopus, No. 194.

Tairbird, 142.

Hairy Woodpecker, 193.

Haliaétus, No. 164.

Haliplana, No. 292.

Halocyptena, No. 303.

Halodromine, (in text).

Hammond’s Flycatcher, 176.

Hamulate, a. Hooked.

Hamulus, 7. Hooked fringe of a

barbule, § 3.

Hangnesf. 158.

Harelda, No. 263.

Harlan’s Buzzard, 216.

Harlequin Duck, 291.

Harporhynchus, No. 4.

Harrier s, 209.

Harris’ 's Buzzar d, 215.
Sparrow, 145.
Woodpecker, 193.

Hastate, a. Spearhead-shaped,
§ 41, d (footnote.)
Hawk Owl, 205.
Hawks, 208, 209, 212.
Heerman’s Song Sparrow, 139.
Gull = White-headed
G., 314.
Heliopxdica, No. 119.
Helminthophaga, No. 34.
Helmitherus, No. 33.
Heloise Hummingbird, 185.
Hemlock Warbler, 100.
Hen Hawk, 216.
Henry’s Night- hawk, 181.
Henslow’s ‘Sparrow, 137.
Hepatic Tanager, 112.
Hermit Thrush, 72.
Herodias, No. 2382.
Herodiones, 240, 262.
Herons, 240, 264-5.
Herring Gull, 312.
Hesperiphona, No. 55.
Hesperocichla. Subg. of No.1.
Hesperornis regalis, 350.
Heteroscelus, No.
High Holder — Flic er, 197.
Himantopus, No. 197.
Hirundinidee, 112.
Hirundo, No. 44.
Histrionicus, No. 265.
Hoazin, 229.
Honey Creeper, 110.
Hooded Flycatcher, 109.
Gull = Franklin’s
G., 315.
Merganser, 296.
Oriole, 159.
Warbler = H. Flycatcher.
Horn-billed Auk, 341. 7
Hornby’s Petrel, 329.
Horned Grebe, 337.
Lark, 89.
Owl = Great H. O., 202.
Puffin, 340.
House Finch, 129.
Wren, 86.
Hudsonian Curlew, 262.
Godwit. I
Humeral, a. Pertaining to the
upper arm.
Humerus, n. Upper arm-bone, § 55.
Hummingbirds, 183.
Huron Scoter = White-winged do. :
Hutchins’ Goose, 284.
Hutton’s Vireo, 123.
Hybrid, nm. Cross between two
species, § 22.
Hydranassa, No. 233 :
Hydrochelidon, No. 293.
Hylocichla. Subg. of No. 1.
Hylotomus, No. 130.
Hyoid,a. Pertaining to tongue, 191.
Hypochonarium, n. Flank, § 38.
Hypognathous, a. Having under
mandible longer than upper.
Hyporhachis, x. Aftershaft, § 3.

ie

Rosy

Tbidinz, 263.

;

Ice Gull, 311.
Iceland F: con = Gyrfale on, 213. 4 {
:3

-

Ichthyornis dispar, 350.
Icteria, No. 39.
Teteride, 153.
Icteriinz, 108.

Ictinia, "No. 153.
Imbricated, a. Fixed aldnglewise,
Imperial Tern = Sterna caspia,
var. imperator, 319
(in text).
Woodpecker = Campe-
philus imperialis, 191.

Incised, a. Cut away. Narrow-
ing abruptly, § 60, ¢; fig. 110.

Incumbent, a. Overlyi ing, § 87.
Indian Hen, 269.
Indigo Bird, 150.
Inferior maxillary,n., § 44.
Infraorbital, a. Under the eye,
§ 41, b. ’

Insessores, 69.

Tnsistent. a., § 87.

Intermaxillary. See premaxillary.

Internode, xz. Any bone of finger
or toe, § 72, f.

Interorbital, a. Between the eyes.

Interramal, a. Between forks of
the lower jaw, § 41,c.

Interscapular, a. Between shoul-
ders, § 38.

Tridescent, a. Of changeable glit-
tering color, § 41, d (footnote).

Ivory Gull, 3138.

Iyory-billed Woodpecker, 192.

J.

Jack Curlew, 262.

Snipe, 255.
Jackdaw, 160.
Jaégers, 308.
Jaw, n., § 44.
Jays, 161, 163.
Jerfalcon, 213:
Jugulum, x. Lower throat, § 40.
Junco, No. 72.

K.

Kennicott’s Owl, 203.
Warbler, 77, 351.
Kentucky Warbler, 106.
Key West Pigeon (Dove), 22
Kildeer Plover, 244.
King Eider, 293.
Rail, 273.
Vulture, 222.
Kingbird, 169.
Kingtishers, 187.
Kinglets, 77.
Kirtland’s Warbler, 104.
Kites, 209, 211.
Kittiwake Gull, 314.
Kittlitz’s Murrelet, 544.
Knob-billed Auk, 343.
Knot, 255.
Kotzebue’s Gull, 314.

L.

Labrador Duck, 291.

Lagopus, No. 183.

Lamellate, a. Having lamelle,
§ 47.

Lamellirostral, a.
late bill, § 46.

Lamellirostres, 277.

Lampornis, No. 120. .

Lampronetta, No. 267.

Lanceolate, a. Lance-head-
shaped.

Lanier Falcon, 213.

Laniidie,-inze, 124.

Laornis edvardsianus, 350.

Lapland Longspur, 133.

Lapwing, 243.

Large-billed Water Thrush, 106.

Laride, 308.

Larinze, 310.

Lark Buntings, 134, 147.

Finch, 146.

Larks, 88, 157.

Larus, No, 281.

Larynx n.; pl. larynges.

Haying lamel-

Adam’s

apple; hollow cartilaginous
organ at either end of wind-

pipe, § 2.
Laughing Gull, 315.
Lawrence's Flycatcher, 171.
Goldfinch, 132
Lawyer, 247.
Lazuli Finch, 149.
Leach’s Petrel, 329.
Leaden Titmouse, 82.
Least Auk, 343.
Bittern, 270.
Flycatcher, 175.
Gull. 316.
Petrel, 328.
Sandpiper, 254.
Tern, 321.
Titmouse, 82.
Vireo, 123.
Leconte’s Sparrow, 137.
Thrush, 75.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Lesser Redpoll = Redpoll, 130.
Scaup Duck, 289.
Snow Goose, 282.
Tell-tale, 259.
Lestridina, 308.
Leucosticte, No. 60.
Lewis’ Woodpecker, 197.
Ligamentum nuche, n. Strong
fibrous band in the nape of
many animals.
Limicole :
Limoss 3.
Lincolw’s Finch, 138.
Linear, a. Of uniformly narrow
shape.
Linné Hummingbird, 186, 352.
Linnets, 127, 130, 181.
Linota, No. 61bis.
Little Black-head, 289.
Blue Heron, 268.
White Egret, 267.
Lobate, a. Finished with mem-
branous flaps, § 89.
Lobipes, No. 199.
Logcock = Pileated Woodpecker.
Loggerheac rike, 125.
Lomyia, No. 328.
Long-billed Curlew, 262.
Marsh Wren, 87.
Thrush, 75.
Long-crested Jay, 165.
Long-eared Owl, 203.
Long-exserted. Said of tail feath-
ers abruptly longer than the
rest.
Longipennes, 307.
Longirostral, a, mies:
Longshank
Longspur,
Long-tailed Chat, 108.
Chic kadee, 81.
Duc
Jaeger, 309.
Long-winged Swimmers, 307.
Loons, 333.
Lophodytes, No. 272.
Lophophanes, No. 12.
Lophortyx, No. 185.
Lore, n. Space between eye and
bill, § 41, b.
Lorum. See Lore.
Louisiana Egret, 268.
Sh

= Loggerhead

Tan aa 112.
Loxia = Curvirostra, No. 59.
Lucy’s Warbler, 94.
Lunda, No. 319.

M.

Maccall’s Owl, 203.

Maccown’s Bunting, 154.
Macerated, a. Soaked to softness.
Macgillivray’s Warbler, 107.
Macrorhamphus, No. 204.
Magnolia Warbler, 102.

Magnum, n. A certain wrist-bone,

5).
Magpie, 164.
Mala, n. Side of upper jaw.

Mallard, 285.
Mandible, n.
jaw), § 44.
Mandibular, a. Pertaining to the

mandible.
Mangrove Cuckoo, 190.
Mank’s Shearwater, 331.
Man-of-war Bird, 306.
Mantle, n. See xulum, § 38.
Marbled Godwit,
Guillemo At
Marbling, ». Fine spotting and
streaki § 41, d (footnote).
Mareca, No. 255
Marginal F
Marlin, 257.
Marsh Blackbirds, 154.
Harrier or Hawk, 210.
Robin = Towhee Bunting,
151.
Tern, 319.
Wrens, 87, 88.
Martins, 114.
Maryland Yellow-throat, 107.

Jaw (usually under

nges, § 90.

357

Massena Partridge, 239.

Matrix, n. Mould; tissue or or-
gan containing something and
determining its nature.

Maxilla, x. ipl. maxille. Generally
re einen to upper mandible,

44.

Maxillo-palatines, n.
bones of upper jaw.

a milian’s Jay = Blue Crow,

Meadow-lark, 157.

Mealy Red-poll, 131.

Megapodide, 230.

Melanerpes, No. 135.

Meleagridz, 231.

Meleagris, No. 177.

altus. 348.
antiquus, 347.
celer, 348.

Melopeleia, No. 171.

Melospiza, No. 69.

Members, n. Bill, wings, tail and

feet.
Chin, § 41, c.

Certain

Mentum, n.
Mergansers, 295-6.
Mer, gine, : 2!
Mergul

rpal, a. ‘Pertaining to the
hand.
Metacarpus, n. Pinion; bones
of hand, § 55.
ee enatnous a. Cross-billed,
§ 45.

Metatarsal, @. Pertaining to the
shank, § 72, d

Met itarsus, n. Shank; foot (leg)
poween heel and base of toes,

72, ¢

Mexican Cormorant, 303.
Coen
Flicker, 1¢
Goldfinch, 133.
Trogon, 186.
Woodpecker, 198.
Wren, 85.

Mew Gull, 313.

Micrathene, No. 149.

Micropalama, No. 205.

Migratory Thrush = Robin, 71.

Milvulus, No

Mimine, 7;

Mimus, No.

Mississippi Kite, 211.

Missouri Skylark, 91.

Mitrephorus, No. 110.

Mniotilta, No. 30.

Mockingbird, 74.

Mocking Thrushes, 73.

Mollipilose, a Softly downy-
feathered.

Molothrus, No. 88.

Momotide, 186.

Momotus, No. 112.

Morelet’s Finch, 150.

Morton’s Fineh, 145. -

Motacillidz, 89; -inze, 90.

Mother Carey’s Chicken, 328.

Motmots, 186.

Mottled Owl, 202.

Mound-birds, 230.

Mountain Chickadee, 81.

Mockingbird, 74.
Plover, 245.
Quail, 237.

Mourning Warbler, 107.

Mucous membrane, mn. Lining of
alimentary and some other in-
terior tracts of the body.

Muceronate, a. Spine-tipped.

Mud-hen, 273.

Murre, 345.

Murrelet, 344.

Myiadestes, No. 52.

Myiadestinw. 116.

Myiarchus, No. 106.

Myiodioctes, No, 40.

Myrtle Bird, 99.

N.

Nashville Warbler, 9:
Natatores, 276, 349.
Nauclerus, No. 155.

358

Nebulation, n. Clouding.

Neocorys, No. 29.

Nepheecetes, No. 117.

Nettion, No. 256.

New World Warblers, 91.

New York Thrush—Water Thrush.

Night Heron, 269.

Night-hawk, 181.

Night-jar, 180.

Nocturnal Birds of Prey, 200.

Noddy Tern, 323.

Node, n. Swelling; hence joint,

§ 72, f.

Non-melodious Passeres, 167.

Nonpareil, 149.

Northern Phalarope, 248.

Sea Eagle, 220.

Sharp- tailed Grouse, 234.
Noteum, n. Upper parts, § 36, § 38.
Nucha, n. Nape, § 40.

Nuchal Woodpecker, 195.

Nucleated, a. Oaving a special

cell or cells within,§ 8.

Numenius, No. 222.

Numididie, 230.

Nuthatches, 82.

Nuttall’s Magpie, 164.
Whippoorwill, 181.
Woodpecker, 193.

Nyctale, No. 147.

Nyctea, No. 145.

Nytherodius. No. 236.

Nyctiardea, No. 235.

oO.

Oceanites, No. 307.
Oceanodroma, No. 306.
Occiput, n. Hind-head., § 41, a.
Ocellus, m. Small sharp round
spot, 21 (footnote).
Odontophorine, 236.
(demia, No. 269.
@sophagus, 7.
Oil-gland, n., § 7.
Old-wife, 291.
Old World Vultures, 208.
Warblers, 77.
Olive-backed Thrush, 72
Thrush (var.
Jatus), 73.
Olive-sided Flycatcher, 173.
Olor, 280.
Onychotes, No. 161.
Opisthocomus cristatus, 229.
Oporornis, No. 37.
Orange-crowned Warbler, 95.
Orbite fal, a. Pertaining to the eye-
socket, § 41, b.
Orchard Oriole, 157.
Order, 7, § 18.
Oregon Snowbird, 141.
Towhee, 182.
Oreortyx, No. 185.
Oreoscoptes, No. 2.
Orioles, 157.
Ornithology, n.
Ortalida, No. 176.
Ortolan, 273.
Ortyx, No. 184.
Os, Bone.
Oscines. Singing Birds, 70.
Osprey, 219.
Ossified, a.
by bone.
Ossifraga, No. 298.
Otus, No. 142.
Ouzel= Dipper, 77.
Ovary,n. Organ that makes eggs.
Oven-bird, 105. .
Oviduct, n. Tube that carries
eggs to anus, § 2.

Gullet.

ustu-

Science of Birds.

Become bony; joined

Ovum, n.; pl. ova. Egg.
Owls, 200.
Ox-bird,

Ox-eve, 243.
Oyster-catcher, 246.

Paci

Pagophila, No.:
Painted Finch, 149.
Flycatcher, 110.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Painted Goose, 283.
Lark Bunting, 134.
Paisano, 189.
Paleotringa littoralis, 349.
vagans, 349.
vetus, 349.

Palate, n. Bony roof of mouth.
Palatine, a. Pertaining to palate.
Palatine, x. Bone in roof of

mouth.

Pallas’s Cormorant, 304.

Thrush = Hermit Thrush.
Palm Warbler, 104.
Palhnev’s Thrush.

p. 301.
Palpebra, n.;

§ 41, b.
Pancreas, n. Sweet-bread: lobu-

lated gland near stomach, the

secretion of which aids diges-
tion.
Pandion, No. 162.
Panyptila, No. 116.
Papilla, n.; pl. -w2.
prominence.
Papillose, a. Having papille.
Paragnathous, a. Having the
mandibles meeting at the point,

itie Jaéger, 309.
Parauchenium, n. Side of neck,
§ 40.
Paride, 79.
Parine, 80.
Parkmann’s Wren, 87.
Parroquet, 199.
Auk, 341.
Parrots, 198.
P: fay

See Additions,

pl. -2 Eye-lid,

Small fleshy

Passerculus, No. 65 and p. 352.

Passerella, No. 77.

Passeres. Perchers Proper, 69.

Patella, m. Knee-cap, § 72.

Peabody-bird, 144.

Peile’s Egret. Reddish Egret.

Pectinate, a. Toothed like a
comb, § 91.

Pectoral Sandpiper, 255.

Pectus, vm. Breast, § 39.

Pedicecetes, No. 180.

Peep, 254.

Peetweet, 260.

Pelecanidx, 298.

Pelecanus, No. 274.

Pelicans, 298.
Pelidna, No. 208. 9
Penelopine, 231.

Penguins, 333 (in text).

Penna, n. Contour feather, § 5.

Pennaceous. a. Of complete feath-

_ery structure, § 4.

Perchers, 69.

Peregrine Falcon, 213.

Perisoreus, No, 103.

Pernis (genus), 209.

Pes, n. Foot, § 71 et seq.

Petrels, 324, 326.

Petrochelidon, No. 46.

Peucwa, No. 70.

Pewee, 172, 173.

Pewit, 172.

Phebetria, No. 297.

Phenopepla. No. 51.

Phaéthon, ;

Phavithontide, 306.

Phalanx, n.; pl. phalanges. Any
bone of a finger or toe, § 55,
§ 72, a.

Phalaropes, 247.

Phalaropodide, 247.

EINE No. 200.

Phaleris, No. 321.

Phas mide, 3

Philadelphi: mn V ireo, 120.
Philohela, No. 201.
Philomachus, No. 218.
Phebe, 172.
Pheenicopteridz. 277, sol.
Pheenicopterus,
Phonipara, No. 82bis.

Phyllopneuste, No. 8.

Pica, No. 99.

Picariz, 177.

Picarian Birds, 177, 347.

Pici, 179, 190.

Picicor vus, No. 96.

Picidie, 190.

Picoides, No. 132.

Pictura, x. Pattern of coloration,
§ 41, ad (footnote),

Picus, No. 131.

Pied Duck, 291.

Pied-billed Grebe, 338.

Pigeon Falcon (Hawk), 214.

Guillemot, 345.

Pigeons

Pike’s Tern, 321.

Pileated Woodpecker, 192.

Pileum, x. Top of head, § 41, a.

Pine Grosbeak, 127.

Linnet (Finch), 181.
Warbler, 10L.

Pine-creeping Warbler, 104.

Pinicola, No. 56.

Pinion, n. Part of wing beyond
carpus, § 55 and § 56.

Pinnated Grouse, 234.

Pintado peels 328.

Pintail, 286

Pipilo, No. ‘5.

Piping Plover, 244.

Pipit, 90.

Pisciyorous, a. Fish-eating.

Plaga, n. Stripe, §41, d.

Plain Titmouse, 80.

Planesticus. Subg. of No.1.

Plantigrade, @. Walking on whole
sole of foot, § 73, b

Platalea. No. 227.

Plataleinz, 254.

Plee troph nes, No. 63.

Plotidee. 305.

Plotus, No. 276.

Plover, 242.

Plumage, § 9.

Plumbeous Gnatcatcher, 79.

Vireo, 122, 351.

Plumed Partridge, 23

Plumula, n. Down-feather, § 5.

Plumulaceous, a. Of downy
structure, § 4.

Pneumatic, a.
air.

Pochard, 289.

Podasocys, No. 192.

Podiceps, No. 313.

Podicipide, 335.

Podilymbus, No. 315.

Podiun, n. Toes, collec tively, §84.

oda iece: n. Covering of foot,

76.

Polioptila, No. 10.

Polioptilinze, 78.

Polyborus, No. 165. Also p. 208.

Polygonal,a. Of more than 3 sides.

Polymorphic >a Of many forms.

Polysticta, No. 266.

Pomarine Jaéger, 309.

Pooecetes, No. 66.

Poospiza, No. 71.

Porphyrio (not Porphyrula), No.

2h.

Permeated with

Porzana, No. 241.
Postorbital, a.
§ 41, b.
Powder-down feathers, § 6.
Pretoces. Birds that run about
at birth.
Precocial, a.
at birth.
Prairie Hen, 254.
We GY 103.
Principal upper

Behind the eye,

Able to run about

Premaxillary.
jaw-bone, § st
Pressirostral, @.. § 46.
Primary. n.; pl. -ies.
pinion, S G1.
Priocella,
Priofinus
Procella
Procella
Procellariin
Progne, No. 49.
Prothonotary Warbler, 93.

Quill of

Protonotaria, No. 32.
Proyentriculus,n. Part of gullet
next to gizzard where are sol-
vent glands.
Psaltriparus, No. 14.
Psilorhinus, No. 98.
Psittaci, 19s.
Ptarmigan, 235.
Pteroclide, 230.
Pteryla, . Place where feathers
grow on the skin, § 9.
Pterylography, n. Account of
feathers, § 9.
ee Gas n. Mode of feathering,
IB
Ptilogonydine, 116.
Ptilogonys, 116.
Ptilosis, n. Plumage, § 9.
Ptychorhamphus, No. 323.
Puflinus, No, 310.
Puflinus conradii, 350.
Punctate, a. Dotted; pitted.
Punctum, rn. A point.
Purple Finch, 128.
Gallinule, 275.
Grackle, 160.
Martin, 114
Sandpiper, 255.
Pygmy Auk = = Least Auk, 343.
Nuthatch, 83.
Owl, 206.
Pygopodes, 332.
Pygopodous, a. Rump-footed.
Pygostyle, n. Last tail-bone.
Pyranga, No. 43.
Pyrocephalus, No. 111.
Pyrrhula No. 57.
Pyrrhuloxia, No. 83.

Q.

elec 269.

Quail, 2:

Gaetdaeauls, No, 257.

Quin UnX, 2. Set of five, arranged
thu

Quises ding, 1 159.

Quisealus, No. 94.

R.

ma a n. Outer bone of forearm,
ov
Ratt Duck,
Rails, 241, 272.
Rallidi, -inze, 272
Rallus, No, 240.
Ramus, v. Branch or fork.
Raptores, 199, 347.
Ratitwe, 69 (footnote).
Raucous, « LIRoarse.
Ravens, 162.
Rizor-billed Auk, 339.
Rectrix, n.; pl. rvectrices. Tail-
feathers, § 67.
Recurved, a. Curved upward.
Recurvirostra, No. 196.
Recurvirostridz, 247.
Red Crossbill, 129.
Owl, 202.
Phalar ‘ope, 2
Red-and-whit TF alder ed Black-
bird, 156 tricolor).
Red-backed Sandpiper, 256.
Red-bellied Nuthatch, 83.
Woodpee ker, 196.
Red-billed Pigeon, 225.
Redbird, 151.
Red-breasted Lark, 157.
Merganser, 296,
Sandpiper. 256.
Snipe, 252.
Teal=Uinnamon T.
Woodpecker, 195.
Red-cockaded Woodpecker, 192.
Reddish Egret, 268.
Red-eyed Vireo, 119.
Red-faced Cormorant, 304,
Red-head, 28).
Red-headed Woodpecker, 196.
Red-legeed Kittiwake, 315.
Red-necked Grebe, 336.
Red-poll Linnet, 130.
Red-shafted Woodpecker, 198.

s~

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Red-shouldered Blackbird, 156
(var. guberna-
tor).

Buzzard, 216.

Redstart, 110.

Red-tailed Buzzard, 216.

Red-throated Diver, 335.

Red-winged Blackbird, 156.

Reedbird, 154.

Reeve, 260.

Regimen, n. Habit of life.

Regulina, 77.

Regulus, No. 9.

Remex, n.; pl. vemiges. Quills of

wing, § 57, § 60.

Reticulation, rn. Mosaic, § 78.

Retrorse, a Directed backward.

Rhachis, vn. Part of scapus, § 3.

Rhamphotheea, n. Covering of

either jaw, § 48, b.
Rhinotheca, x. Covering of upper
jaw, § 48, b.

Rhodostethia, No. 286.

Rhyacophilus, No. 216.

Thynchopinze

Rhynchops, No. 295.

Ricebird, 154.

Richardson’s Falcon, 214.

Jaéger = Parasitic

ow T Tengmalm’s
O., 205.
Pewee, 174.
Rietus, n. Gape.
Ring Plover, 244.
Ring-billed Gull, 313.
Ringneck, 244.
Ring-necked Duck, 289.
Ring-tailed Eagle=Golden Eagle.
Marlin, 258.
Rio Grande Jay, 166.
Rissa, No. 284

River Ducks 3.
Road-runner, 189.
Robin, 71.
Robin Snipe, 256.
Rock Ptarmigan, 235.

Wren, 8).
Rocky Mountain Garrot, 290.
Rodger’s Fulmar, 327.
Roseate Spoonbill, 264.

Tern, 321.
Rose-breasted Grosbeak, 148.
Ross’ Goose, 282.

Rosy Gull, 316.
Rostrhamus, No. 152.
Rostrum, n. Bill, which see.
Rough-legged Buzzard, 218.
Rough-winged Swallow, 114.
Royal Tern, 319.
Ruby-crowned Kinglet, 78.
Ruby-throated Hummingbird, 184.
Ruddy Duck, 295.

Plover, 2
Ruff, 260.
Ruff,n. Long feathers of gula, § 40.
Ruifed Grouse, 255.
Rufous-backed Hummingbird, 185.
Rufous-crowned Finch, 140.
Ruga, 2.; pl.-x. Wrinkle.
Rugous or rugose, a. Wrinkled.
Rusty Grackle, 159.
Rusty-crowned Falcon, 214.

s.

2auee back, 312.
Sage Cock, 233.
S: igittate, a. Arrowhead-shaped,
§41,d open ote:
Salpinctes, No. 19.
Salt-water Mz -hen, 273.
Sand Martin, 114.
Sanderling, 257.
Sand-grouse, 230.
Sand-hill Crane, 271.
Sand-lark, 260.
Sand-pipers, 249, 253-6, 260.
Sandwich Tern, 320.
Sandy Mockingbird, 75.
Sapsuc ker = Yellow-belliedW ood-
pecker,
Saurotherine, 189.
Savanna Sparrow, 135.
Saw-bills, 186.

he

359

Saw-whet Owl, 206.

Saxicola, No. 5,

Saxicolidex, 76.

Sayornis, No. 107.

?s Flycatcher, 172.

abrous, a. Seabby, scurfy, §80.

ed Partridge, 238.

y Dove, 297,

Scansores. See 351.

Scapholunar, rn. One of the wrist
bones, § 55.

Seapula, n. Shoulder-blade.

Scapulare, x. Region of the shoul-
der-blade,

Scapulars, x. Feathers over shoul-

_ der-blades, § 38, § 64.

Scapus, zn. Stem of a feather, § 3.

Scardafella, No. 1738.

Searious, @. Same as scabrous.

Scarlet Ibis, 264.

Tanager, 111.

Scaup Duck, 289.

Scissor-tail, 169.

Schizognathous, a. Waving the
palate bones separate.

Scolecophagus, No. 9:

Scolopaceous Courlan, 2 71.

Scolopacide, 248.

Scolopacine Birds, 248.

Scolopax, No. 202.

Scops,

Scoters, 293.

Scott’s Oriole, 159.

Screech Owl, 202.

Serotum, 2. _ Bag holding testi-
cles, §2.

Scutellate, a.
scales, § 77.

Scutellum, 7.; pl. scutella. Scale,

Furnished with

Parrot, 340.

Pigeon, 345.

Swallows, 320.
Sea-coots, 294.

Sea-runners, 324 (in text).
hore Sparrow, 136.
Seaside Finch, 137.
Secondary, 7.; pl. secondaries.
Quills growing on the forearm,
62

§

Seiurus, No. 36.

Selasphorus, No. 122.

Semi- (in composition). Half.

Semilunar, @ Crescentic, § 41, d.

Semipalmate, @. Half webbed, §89.

Semipalmated Sandpiper, 254.

Plover, 244.
Tattler, 258.

Semiplume, § 5.

Septum, m. Partition.

Serin Finch, 146.

Serrate, a. Saw-like.

Setaceous, a Bristly or bristle-

like.

Setophaga, No. 41.

Setophagine, 108.

Shag, 302.

Sharp-shinned Hawk, 212.

Sharp-tailed Finch, 1
Grouse, 2%

Shore-birds, 239.

Shore-lark, 89.

Short-billed Kittiwake, 315.
Marsh Wren, 88.

Short-eared Owl, 204.

Short-tailed Albatross, 325.
Tern, 325.

Shoveller, 288,

Shrikes, 124.

Shufiler, 289.

Sialia, No. 6. .

Siberian Finch, 130.

Sickle-bill, 262.

Sickle-billed Thrush, 75.

asber’s Jay, 166.

xmoid, @ Shaped likean 8.

Simorhynchus, No. 322.

Sineiput, n. Forehead,

Sinuate, a. Wavy.

Si ta, ath 16.

Biigantes
Skua Gulls, 308.

360

Slender billed Fulmar,~327-.
Nuthatch, 83.
Shearwater, 332.

Small-headed Flycatcher, 109.

Smew, 206.

Snake-bird, 305.

Snake-killer, 189.

Snipe, 248-9, 252.

Snowbird, {141. 3

Snow Bunting, 133.

Goose, 282.
Snowflake, 153.

Plover, 245.
Solitary Tattler, 259.
Vireo, 121.
Somateria, No. 268.
Song Sparrow, 139.

Sooty Albatross, 325.
Guillemot, 34.
Shearwater, 331.

Tern, 322.

Sora, 273.

South-southerly, 291. §

Spanish Curlew = White This, 264.

Sparrow Hawk, 214.

Sparrows, 127, 135, etc.

Spatula, No. 258.

Spatulate, a. Spoon-shaped.

Species, § 21.

Spectacled Hider, 292.

Speculum, n. Mirror; bright col-

ored area on ducks’ wings.

Spermophila, No. 82.

Spheniscide, 333 (in text).

Spheotyto, No. 150.

Sphyrapicus, No. 133.

Spinal, a. Pertaining to the back-

bone.

Spine-tailed Swifts, 183.

Spirit Duck, 290.

Spizella, No. 73. r

Spleen, n. A vascular abdominal

organ, § 2.
Spoonbills, 262, 264.
Spotted Sandpiper, 260.

Towhee, 152.

Sprigtail, 286.

Spruce Partridge, 232.

Spurious, a. See § 58 and § 62.

Squamous, a. Scaly.

Squatarola, No. 189.

Squawk, 269.

Stake-driver, 269.

Starlings, 153.

Starncenas, No. 175.

St. Domingo Duck, 295

Grebe, 337.

Steganopodes, 296.

Steganopus, No. 198.

No. 48.

Stellula, 3
Stercorarius, No. 280.
Sterna, No. 291.
Sternine, 317.
Sternum, 7.
Stilt, 247.
Stilt Sandpiper. 253.
St. Lucas Sparrow, 136, 352.
Stone Chat, 76.

Snipe, 298.
Storks, 241 (in text).
Stormy Petrel, 328.
Stragulum, n. Mantle, § 38.
Stratum, 2. Layer.
Strepsilas, No. :

Breast-bone.

Strix, No. 139.

Structure, § 14.

Sturnella, No. 91.

Sub- (in composition).
less than; not quite.

Sub-basal, @. Near the base.

Sub-ch n., § 17.

Sub-typical, a. Between typical
and aberrant.

Subulate, @ Awl-shaped.

Suffrago, n. Heel-joint; tibio-tar-
sal joint

Sula, N 73+

Sula loxostyla, 349.

Under;

273

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Suleate, a. Furrowed.

Sulcus, zn. Furrow.

Sulide, 298.

Summer Duck, 288.

Redbird, 111.
Warbler, 97.
Yellowbird, 97.

Super (in composition), Over, be-
yond, more than.

Superciliary, a. Over the eye.

Supraorbital, a. Over the eye sock-
ets, § 41, b.

Surf Bird, 245.

Duck, 294.
Surnia, No. 146.
Swainson’s Buzzard, 217.
Vireo, 121.
Warbler, 93.

Swallows, 112.

Swallow-tailed Flycatcher, 169.

Gull, 317.
Kite, 211.

Swamp Sparrow, 138.

Swans, 2580.

Swifts, 182.

Swimming Birds, 276.

Sylbeocyclus, No. 314.

Sylvia, 77.

Sylvicolide, 91.

Sylvicoline, 92.

Sylviidee, 77.

Sylviine, 77.

Symphemia, No. 214.

Symphysis,n. A growing together.

Syndactylous, § 59.

yngnesious, § 8).

Synthliborhamphus, No. 320.

Syringeal, a. Pertaining to lower
larynx.

Syrinx, n. Lower larynx; the
vocal organ of birds, situate
where windpipe forks into bron-
chi.

Syrnium, No. 144.

ibe

Tachycineta, No. 45.
Tachypetes, No. 277.
Tachypetide, 306.
Tanagers, 111.
Tanagride, LLL.
Tantalidz, 262.
Tantalinz, 263.
Tantalus, No. 224.
Tarso-metarsus, 2., § 72, ¢.
Tarsus, n. Shank, § 72, e, § 83.
Tattlers, 251, 255-9.
Taxonomy, 7. Classification, § 12,
§ 1.
Tawny Thrush = Wilson’s T., 73.
Teal, 287.
Tectrices, m.; pl.
or tail, § 59, § 66.
Teeter-tail, 260.
Tegumentary, § 11.
Telmatodytes, No
Telmatornis afli
priscus, ¢
Tell-tales. See Tattle
Temminck’s Guillemot, 34.
Tempora, n.; pl. temples, § 41, b.
Tengmalm’s Owl, 200.
Tennessee Warbler, 99.
Tenuirostral Picarie, 183.
Tergum, 7. Lower back, § 38.
Terns, 317.
Terrestrial Birds, 228.
Tertiary, n.; pl. tertiaries. Inner-
most quills of wings, § 64.
Testis, n. Gland secreting male
seed.
Tetradactyle, a.
Tetrao, No. 178,
Tetraonide, -inw, 232.
Texas Cardinal, 150.
Guan, 231.
Night-hawk, 181.
Woodpecker, 193.
Thalasseus, No. 290.
Thick-billed Guillemot, 346.
Thistle-bird, 151.
Thrasher, 75.
Three-toed Woodpeckers, 194.

Coverts of wing

24.

Four-toed.

Thrushes, 71.

Thryothorus, No. 21.

ie n. Larger inner leg-bone,
Tinamide, 229.

Tinamous, 229.

Tinker, 339.

Tip-up, 260.

Titlark, 90.

Titmice or Tits, 79. "7
Tomium, n.; pl. tomia. Cutting
edge of either mandible, § 49.

Totanus, No. 215. 2

Totipalmate birds, 296.

Towhee Bunting, ll.

Townsend’s Bunting, 148.
Flycatehing Thrush,

117.

Fox Sparrow, 147, 352.
Warbler, 98.

Traill’s Flycatcher, 175.

Tree Ducks, 28}.

Sparrow, 142.
Tridactyle, a. Three-toed.
Tringa, No. 211.

Tringoides, No 217.
Trochilida, 183; -inz, 184.
Trochilus, No. 121.
Troglodytes, No. 22.
Troglodytide, St.
Trogon, No, 125.
Trogonide, 186.
Trogons, 186.
Tropic Bird, 307.
Trowbridge’s Surf Duck, 295.
Trudeaw’s Tern, 322.
Trumpeter Swan, 281.
Truncate, a. Cut squarely off. 4
Truncus, 7. Body without its

members, § 33.
Tryngites, No. 220.
Tufted Titmouse, 80.

Putin, 340.
Turdide, 71.
Turdinae, 71.
Turdus, No. 1.
Turkey, 251.
Turkey Buzzard, 222.
Turnicide, 229.
Turnstone, 246.
ey n.pl. Pads under the toes,
80.

Typical, § 24.
Tyrannide, 167.
Tyrannine, 168.
Tyrannus, No. 105.
Tyrants, 167-8.

U.

Uintornis lucaris, 347.

Ulna, n. A bone of the forearm.

Ultramarine Jay (Aphelocoma ul-
tramarina), 165.

Umbilicus, n. Pit, § 3.

Under parts, § 36.

Unguiculate, a. Clawed.

Upland Plover, 260.

Upper parts, § 36.

Uria, No. 327.

Uropygium, n. Rump, § 38.

Utamania, No. 317.

Vv.

Valley Quail, 238.

Vane; n. Web of a feather, § 3.

Varied Thrush, 72.

Variety, § 22- 4

Vaseuiar, a. Having many small j
bloodvessels, § 2.

Vaux’s Swift, 183, 352.

Veery, 73.

Velvet Scoter, 294.

Venter, n. Belly, § 39.

Ventral. a. Pertaining to.the belly.

Vermiculation, n. Very fine cross-
wise marking, § 41, d (footnote).

Vermilion Flycatcher, 177.

Versatile, n. Capable of turning
either way.

Vertebrate, a.or n. Backboned
animal.

Vertex, n. Middle of pileum,§41.a.
Vexillum, m. Web or vane of a
feather, § 3.
Violet-green Cormorant, 304.
Swallow, 113.
Vireo, No. 53.
Vireonide, 117.
Vireos, 117.
Virginia Nightingale, 151.
“* Partridge, 236.
Rail, 273.
Virginiws Warbler, 94.
Mere = Broad band of color,
41, d.
Vomer, 7”. A skull bone; last tail
bone, § 65.
Vultures, 220.

WwW.

Waders, 239.
Wagtails, 89, 90.
Wandering Albatross, 325.
Shearwater, 331.
Tattler, 261.
Warblers, 77, 91, 92 to 109.
Warbling Vireo, 120.
Washington Eagle = Bald Eagle.
Water Ouzel, 77.
Thrush, 106.
Turkey, 305.
Wag-tail, 106.
Water-witch, 338.
Waxwings, 115.
Wedge-tailed Gull, 316.
Petrel, 328.
Western Barred Owl, 204.
Bluebird, 76.
Grebe, 336.
Gull, 312.
Meadow Lark, 157.
Nonpareil, 149.
Titmouse, 81.
Warbler, 97.
Warbling Vireo, 121.
Wood Pewee, 174.
Wheatear, 76.
Whippoorwill, 180.
Whiptomkelly, 120.
Whiskered Auk, 342.
Whiskey-jack, 166.
Whistle-wing = Golden-eye.
Whistling Field Plover, 243,
Swan, 281.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

White Crane, 271.
Curlew = White Ibis.
Grouse = Ptarmigan.
Heron, 257.
This, 264.
Nun, 296.
Owl = Snowy Owl.
White-bellied Nuthatch, 82.
Petrel, 330.
Swallow, 113.
White-crowned Pigeon, 225.
Sparrow, 144,
White-eyed Vireo, 122.
White-fronted Goose, 282.
White-headed Eagle, 219.
Gull, 314.
Woodpecker, 192.
White-necked Raven, 162.
White-rumped Sandpiper, 255.
Shrike, 125.
White-tailed Godwit, 258.
Kite, 211.
Ptarmigan, 236.
White-throated Sparrow, 144.
Swift, 182.
Wren, 85.
White-tufted Cormorant, 302.
White-winged Blackbird, 147.
Crossbill, 129.
Dove, 226.
Gull, 311.
Surf Duck, 294,
Whitney’s Owl, 207.
Whooping Crane, 271.
Widgeons, 286-7.
Wild Goose, 284.
Pigeon, 225.
Turkey, 231.
Willet, 258.
Williamson’s Woodpecker, 195.
Willow Ptarmigan, 235.
Wilson’s Petrel, 329.
Phalarope, 248.
Plover, 244.
Snipe, 252.
Tern, 320.
Thrush, 73.

Ibis, 263.

Pewee, 173.

Thrush, 72.

Wren = House Wren.

361

Woodcock, 249, 251, 252.
Woodhonse’s Jay, 166.
Woodpeckers, 190.
Worm-eating Warbler, 93.
Wren-tits, 79.

Wrens, 8t.

Wright’s Flycatcher, 176.

x.

Xanthocephalus, No. 90.
Xanthoura, No. 102.
Xantus Hummingbird, 184.
Xema, No. 287.

MSc

Yellow Rail, 274.
> Red-poll Warbler, 104.
Wagtail, 90.
Warbler, 97.
Yellow-bellied Flycatcher, 175.
Woodpecker, 195.
Yellow-billed Cuckoo, 190.
Loon, 3384.
Magpie, 164.
Yellowbird, 131.
Yellow-breasted Chat, 108.
Yellow-crowned Night Heron, 269
Warbler, 99.
Yellow-faced Woodpecker, 196.
Yellow-headed Blackbird, 156.
Titmouse, 82.
Yellow-nosed Albatross, 325 (in
text).
Yellow-rumped Warbler, 99.
Yellow-shatted Woodpecker =
Flicker, 197.
Yellowshanks, 259.
Yellow-throat, 107.
Yellow-throated Vireo, 121.
Warbler, 103.
Yellow-winged Sparrow, 137.
Yucker = Flicker, 197.

Z.

Zenda, No. 170.

Zenzdura, No. 169.

Zenaida Dove, 226

Zonotrichia, No. 74.

Zygodactyle, a. Yoke-toed, § 84.

Zygoma,n. Malar bone and its
connections.

ane cherie
Wes

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Record of American Entomology,

A YEAR BOOK OF PROGRESS IN AMERICAN ENTOMOLOGY FOR
Pee 2869; 1870), 1874.

Price of Parts for 1868 and 1869, 75 cents each. For 1870 and 1871,
50 cents each, or the four Parts for $2.00,

Address THE NATURALISTS’ AGENC Y, Salem, Mass.

THE BIRDS OF FLORIDA.

BY. Cogs EASY IN Ae

Tus work will be issued to subscribers in parts. (Part one was published in October, 1872.)

PRICE $1.00 FOR EACH PART,

payable on delivery, or
$10.00 in Advance for the Complete Work.
The work will consist of at least TWELVE PARTS, and will make a volume of about

THREE HUNDRED LARGE QUARTO PAGES,
containing FIVE COLORED PLATES of new or little known species of birds and eggs. Upwards
of 250 species of Birds found in Florida by the author will be described in detail from the
specimens, and the observations on their habits, etc., will be entirely from the author's
original notes.

The usual arrangements will be made with the trade, and parties can subscribe through
any bookseller, or by sending direct to the

Naturalists’ Agency,
SALEM, MASS.

THE MAMMOTH CAVE

AND ITS INHABITANTS,

Or Descriptions of the Fishes, Insects and Crustaceans
found in the Cave; with figures of the various species, and an account of allied
forms, comprising notes upon their Structure, Development
amd HWebits; with remarks upon subterranean life in general.

By A. Ss. PACKARD, Jr. ann F. W. PUTNAM.
Svo, 62 PAGES, 2 STHEL PLATES AND 74 WOODCTTS,
FULL CLOTH BINDING AND APPROPRIATE STAMP IN GOLD ON SIDE.
RO ae) abel Sy JAC VGN OE vee
Published by the NATURALISTS’ AGENCY, Salem, Mass.

PUBLICATION OF

WORKS ON NATURAL HISTORY.

ase) EA ee Aare i Ge iG

HAS, BY ITS CONNECTION WITH

THE SA‘ Ea RSS,

unrivalled facilities for the printing of works on Natural History, while the several artists and engravers
employed in illustrating the NATURALIST, and other publications issued from the Salem Press, enable us to
have any desired style of engraving executed with despatch at the lowest prices.

The valuable medium of advertising furnished by the NATURALIST, and the connection of the AGENCY
with the trade throughout the country and with the leading houses of Europe, enable us to place a work on
the market at once, in a thorough and desirable manner.

With these favorable conditions at hand, we request authors of proposed publications in any department
of Natural History to communicate with us in relation to the printing and publication of their works.

Address WATURALISTS’ AGENCY, Salem, Mass.

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