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A . . . z b ' ’ . 7 = a Fn a aa Ner a one ee rents P = a " a ee ert ee 8 ee AP a Oe eee nell AO AD Yet AML, eet eth? 6 1h ape delicnle Reo = — oo a = ew we fe, — am be b) aD hn Be > 0 eee we ee th or 4d. ow 6 Or, oe CEM OO BH see Boe CHwaKaks Kw . “a* ote &@ 4 ae OM dy a es Ser Peery r=! ~ au Aone A here is her es, aM i ha Lf wih _ L |) AV” CAH) oe / , —s . 5 Bo Bs we 4 Knowledge of Natura History 1 REVISED FROM Reason Why: Natural History Giving Reasons for Hundreds of Interesting Facts in con- * nection with Zoology; and throwing Light upon the Peculiar Habits and Instincts of the Vari- ous Orders of the Animal Kingdom. | BY THE AUTHOR OF “Knowledge of the Bible,” ‘Knowledge of General Science,” etc. Illustrated with Numerous Engravings We proceed here by the Induction Process, taking nothing on trust, nothing for granted, but reasoning upwards from the meanest fact estab- lished, and making every step sure before going one beyond it—like the engineer in his approaches to a fortress. We thus gain, ultimately, a roadway, a ladder, by which even a Child may, almost without knowing it, ascend to the summit of Truth, and obtain that immensely wide and extensive view which is spread beneath the feet of the astonished be- holder. J. B. SANDERS & COMPANY Publishers CINCINNATI, OHIO 16.5< ee) Lopyright d SANDERS, ti, Ohio. WHY WE HAVE REVISED AND eae THIS BOOK. First, realizing that the time has come that people in general want to know things and they want to learn it as easy as possible. Hence this volume is put -in print. If there is any other book of the same size that treats on the same subject that has as much real knowledge in it, we never have seen it nor we have never séen anyone else that. would say that they had seen its equal. When you have this book as your own, you have something that has - taken years of hard work and lots of gray matter to obtain and will be a great treasure for any library or home. — It will be as good as long as time lasts as its information is absolutely reliable. There is no one that has the least ~ asperation to know things that can deprive himself of this book. It will be a store-house of real information as long as time rolls on and will be used by your children’s chil- dren. It is sent out in the name of the Giver of all Wis- dom that it will gladden hearts everywhere on account of its simple way of revealing knowledge. Respectfully, J. B. Sanders & Co., Publishers, ee ‘ - CINCINNATI, OHIO. ~ — PUBLISHER’S PREFACE _ THE present volume of THE KNOWLEDGE OF NAT- URAL History is calculated to give not merely an in- creased interest, but a new application, to the science of Natural History. The old system of study comprehended merely a description of the external form, geographical hab- itation, and distinguishing habits, of individual species. The interest of the subject mainly rested upon anecdotes of ani- mal sagacity or ferocity, and the perils of adventure into the wilds of nature. Few writers had ventured to inquire * into reasons for the peculiarities of animal forms, or to seek Creative Design in their wonderful diversity, and mutual relations. THE KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL History is not a mere compilation. The Author has from boyhood been a close observer of the habits of animals, and both upon sea and land he has delighted to endeavor to interpret Nature’s works. Hence the conception of the plan of this volume, and the diversity—perhaps boldness—of the questions asked. ~ THE KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL History will par- ticularly commend itself to most readers by the. conversa- tional freedom of its style—by the bold pertinence of some of its questions, and the frank, straightforwardness of its answers. It will thus be seen that it is not a mere compila- tion of the arid facts of naturalists, or a dfowsy catechism »7 of the wonders of this branch of creation; it is, on the con- trary, a lively table-talk, as it were, between an eager, ob- Vv ~\ vi ; | PREFACE. | servant, curious inquirer, and a gossipy friend thoroughly — informed upon every point on which his friend is probing for enlightenment and entertainment. Besides the grand basis, therefore, of acknowledged scientific truths relative to the higher order of animal life, THE KNOWLEDGE OF NAtT- URAL HIsTorRY gives us a vast accumulation of interesting facts from the private storehouse of current experience. _ The interrogatories are just those which an inquisitive. stu- dent would be likely to put to this instructor im obediepee 6 _ the suggestions of the text; but, they are consequently those to which, in numberless instances, no work extant could furnish him with a satisfactory reply. He could obtain that reply from nothing but the practical knowledge of one familiar with the every day details, as well as the less com- mon-place class of information on the subject. In this volume, all he seeks is grouped before him. The mental food he craves is prepared to his hand, seasoned to his taste, and exquisitely fitted to his moral digestion. - ee : Lord’s Popular Physiology. LIST OF AUTHORITIES Knowledge of Natural History Bailey’s Habits of the Fish. Bechstein’s Cage Birds. Bell on the Hand. Bell’s British Reptiles. Bell’s British Crustacea. Broderip’s Leaves from the Note Book of a Naturalist. Buckland’s Curiosities - of Natural Buffon’s Natural History. [History. Burnett’s The Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God. . ‘Carpenter’s Physiology. Chalmer’s Power, Wisdom, and Good- ness of God. Conversations on the Human Frame. Couch’s Illustrations of Instinct. Crompton’s Birds, Fishes, and Insects. Cross’ Physiology of Human Nature. Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom. Davis’ Naturalist’s Practical Guide. Davy’s Salmonia. _Davy’s Researches. Dixon’s Domestic Poultry. Donovan’s Natural History of British Insects. Donovan’s Natural History of British Quadrupeds. Edward’s Influence of Physical Agents. Elliotson’s Human Physiology. Encyclopedia Metropolitana. paads Natural History of Quadru- peds. a Garratt’s Marvels and Mysteries of Instinct. Goldsmith’s Animated Nature. Gosse’s Life in its Lower Grades. Henfrey’s Natural History. Hoeven’s Handbook of Zoology. _ Howitt’s Calender of the Seasons. Jardine’s Naturalist’s Library. Jesse’s Gleanings from Natural His- tory. . Karr’s Tour round my Garden. Kidd’s Adaptation of External Nature. Kirke’s Handbook of Physiology. -Kirby and Spence’s Entomology. Lee’s Elements of Natural History. Lewes’s Seaside Studies. London’s Domestic Pets. = Lardner’s Animal Physiology. Latham’s Varieties of Man. Vii Laurence’s Lectures on Comparative Anatomy. Magazine of Natural History. Magendie’s Elementary Compendium. Martin’s Birds and Domestic Fowls. Maunder’s Treasury of Natural His- tory. Mudie’s Feathered Tribes. Natural History for Young People. Nutall’s Ornithology. Orr’s Circle of the Sciences. Owen’s Basis of Natural History. Paley’s Natural Theology. Partington’s Cyclopedia. Penny Cyclopedia. Philosophy of Common Things. Physiology of Health. Pliny’s Natural History. Pritchard’s Natural History of Man. Rennie’s Bird Miscellanies. Rennie’s Bird Architecture. Smellie’s Philosophy of Naturel His- tory. Smith’s Natural History of the Human Species. Stanley’s Familiar History of Birds. St. Pierre’s Studies of Nature. Swainson’s Natural History of Quad- rupeds. Swainson’s Natural History of Birds. Swainson’s Habits and Instincts of Animals. Swainson’s Natural History of Fishes. Swainson’s Natural History of Insects. Twining’s Short Lectures. Universal Powers of Nature. : Ward’s Natural History of Mankind. ‘Waterton’s Essays on Natural History. Waterton’s Wanderings in South America. : Wesley’s Compendium of Natural Philosophy. White’s History of Selborne. - Wilson’s Diseases of the Skin. Wilson’s Ornithology. Wonders of the Human Frame. Wonders of Organic Life. : Yarrell’s History of British Birds. Yarrell’s History of British Fishes. Youatt on the Horse. Youatt on the Sheep. Youatt on the Dog. ‘ INDEX The numbers, except where otherwise indicated, refer to the Questions. Acanthoptera, why is the first sub-order of fishes so called Accipetres, why is the first order of birds so called___-_ Agama, why has it the power of inflating its body __.--_- Age, why is the human body hard and angular when old__ Ai, why so called____________ Alligator, why so called_____~ American, he the race so OO) |S SR 2 ea TE aS at Amphibia Amphibia, why is the fourth or- der of reptiles so called_____ Anacanthina, why is the _ sub- order of fishes so named___- Anchovies, what are they___--- Animal bodies, why the varia- tion of most common in the center Animals, why classified by nat- uralists Animals, why do some undergo a state of torpor___________ ‘Animals, why has ‘every race its appointed enemies Animals, table of their fecun- dity Animals, why does their dura- ‘tion of life vary Animals, ~ periods Ant-eater, American, why such a long snout and protrusive POG he Sie Pe Ant-eaters, how are the glands gt’ furnished: (2... 3 VE ‘Ant-eaters, why of great portance in nature ________ Ant-hills, description of _______ Apes, how are they distinguished table of their life- from baboons and monkeys__. Arm, how are its motions per- _ formed Armadillo, why is it so called Aramadillo, how is its form - peculiarly adapted to its mode i Fh pCR ee SE A le eR Armadillo, how is it able to capture ants, although it is "unprovided with an extensile tongue Armadillos, why bak the num- ber of, increased in the col- es ee ee ee ee ee onies iM cnad:lice, why do Indians as- 1102 647 1016 39 403 1012 5 164 1026 1088 1061 16 161 628 1153 1155 1156 1157 422 423 424, 425 172 63 416 417 418 419 Vili ' rowing certain the presence of, the movements of mOacen tee Articulata, how classified —___ Ass, why better kept on com- mons than in pastures_______ by A20°. (165 — 501 Ass, why is the milk of, best - for .invalids Aves (i.300) 322 22 eee Avocet, why is its bill shaped like a scoop________________ Badgers, why erroneous to sup- pose that they burrow into graves and devour bodies____ Badger, why is the female more careful than the male in bur- Badgers, narrative of two, in a state of confinment__________ Badger-hunting, why in amuse- ment of former times_____-_ Badger, modes adopted of taking Barbel, why so called Barbel, why is the first ray of its dorsal fin deeply serrated Barbel, why has it four wattles on its lower jaw______-____ Barbel, tend it) 2S ee eee Bats, why not classed with birds Bats, why are the wings of, hooked) -2 3. eee Bats, why do they conceal them- selves during day ________ Bats, why do they fly by night Bats, why have their wings nerves | 2.22 lJ eee Bats, use of J 22345. 2 eee Bats, why do they hybernate__ Bats compared with moless___ Beagles, why they have large heads ©... eee eee Bears, why have they an awk- ward {gait Bears, why are they good climb- in ex- Bears, why uninjured posed places Bears, why do they easily stand upright Beasts of prey, why do they roar before they spring on — their victim | 2s. 2. 2 ee Beavers, why have they remark- ably broad and thin tails___ Beavers, why are their tails without far. 25> 22 Beavers, why are their incisor teeth remarkably developed__ why do small fish, at-. - a 502 . 164 903 239 240 1077 INDEX. ix Beavers, the peculiar habits of 378 linaceous, soon developed__. 860 Beavers, why are the hind feet Birds, why do short-tailed throw better adapyed for swimming their legs behind when flying 892 me Arie: 379 Birds, why have fish-eaters no Beavers, why do they build PROG oben ie oh Ee 893 their dams straight and ob- Birds, why are their necks long 0 SE Rall ne as 380 and moveable_______________ 994 Beaver-hats, why called ‘‘cas- Birds, peculiarities in the bills | SS ee ee a 381 Eee ae tee SULA ED Fk 906 Bee-eaters, why so called______ 793 Birds, why are aquatic, able to Behemoth, of scripture, identity emerge from water perfectly with the hippopotamus______ 454 i Oe ee ee 923 Belidens, why does the long Birds, why do the old ones pre- tailed, seldom descend to the cede the young ones in migra- ST REE i ce 346 10 RR co Rie, ak toe ee raion, RE ol Bn 943 ee INR ee eae 167 Birds, by what circumstance is Bimana, why man only included their migration governed ____ 944 i the order... 168 Birds, why, when flying in Birds, insectivorous, uses of__ 220 flocks, do they arrange them- Birds, why is the second order selves into a triangular body 946 called incessores____________ 684 Birds, why do those, which take Birds, why is the third order long flights, fly high__.______ 947 ; called scansores ____________ 694 Birds, why have those, which Birds, why is the fourth order winter out of England, black called gyratores_____________ 833 down under their feathers___£ 949 Birds, why is he fifth order Birds, why are those, brought to maleed +takores 854 England from distant regions Birds, why is the sixth order figrd-billed 22 5 951 called cursores —...________ 874 Birds, why have some, extreme- Birds, why is the seventh order ly hard “Tile eos 2 oe 952 called grallatores___._...______ 888 Birds, why do they lay eggs_. 953 Birds, why is the eighth order Birds’-eggs, why do they contain called natatores ____________ 918 white and yolk ~__.________ 954 Birds, why is the first order Birds’-eggs, incubation of, de- called accipetres ___________ 647 BORIS Se Bb Sa 955 Birds of prey, why they build Birds, why have young ones a their nests upon rocks_____ 648 hard scaly substance on their Birds of prey, why the legs and beaks Sse a 956 thighs of, are shorter than Birds’ egg,. description of the those of others_____________ 649 RC ne ek 28 kN 957 Birds of prey, why destitute of Birds, why can recently hatched gS See SES SS aR sei 651 chicks exist without food__._. 958 Birds of prey, why some destined Birds’ eggs, why does the num- ent carrion... 20: SW 653 eh |. APRN athe SS EME SE Gee 960 Birds of prey, instance of their Birds, why do they select silk, eS ye a 654 cotton, wool, fur, ete., for Birds, why the eyes of those MOT an a A 961 which prey by night are larger Birds’ nests, how built and pre- than those of others________ 672 FREON (602533 es ie ee ee 962 Birds of paradise, why so called 765 Birds’ nests, why are their ma- Birds of paradise, why supposed terials “‘varted | 22 322° et 964 to be suspended in air______ 766 Birds’ nests, why are some ~ Birds of paradise, plumage of__ 767 warmer than others________ 965 Birds of paradise, how is the Birds, why will they hesitate if profuse plumage of, useful__ 768 observed while building nests__967 721 etal Rao they, eralinw g55 Birds, why do some, require the Birds, action of their digestive parents care longer (han odr - i Sa Sees ae 856 ers) ----------~---------- 969 Birds, how do gallinaceous, re- Birds, why do the male parents - semble ruminating animals___ 857 evince an exceptional fond- Birds, why do gallinaceous, lay ness for their offspring -___ 970 4 and hatch upon the ground__ 859 Birds, structure of their heads Birds, why are the legs of gal- piaah “megs ee AS ee 995 =. x Birds, why does the _ breast- bone form an important part of their organization Birds, why is the gizzard an important organ Birds, why do they moult —___ Birds, why are the smaller spe- cies numerous and widely dif- ET i a ate eee a ON NE a Seeder Birds, why have they distinct voices Birds, why is- the plumage of females more somber than of BOLO ee tes BS sooty Birds, why is their plumage somber when young__-______ Birds, what provision is illus- trated in the disposition of their feathers Birds, how is their varied plum- age .accounted -for_.._________ Birds, how do they maintain a standing position ~-__-______ Birds, why do many roost pe Gile lep | a ee ee Birds, why do their beaks jade cate their peculiar food_____ Birds, why are their’ eyes adapted to any range of sight Birds, why does their hearing’ mainly depend upon the in- ternal structure of the organ Birds, .why do they perch with their faces to the wind —___ Birds, how are they able to sleep securely when perched on the branches oi trees____ Bison, why able to use its horns with more effect than the ox Bittern, why are its habits lit- We MO 22 ge Bittern, mode of squatting de- OY TE SO MASE Ne BEE ON Te! BES, Bleak, why called the water- swallow OE) Pa EE NNN GONE oko) tnt Bleeding, why when the opera- tion is performed, are the TT | 01010 CMa te ec oc atte RTD Blindness, a person cured of__ _ Blindness, sensibility of touch MR NTIRR take ae en Blood, how formed __________ Blood, the composition of____ Blood, how circulated and puri- EG BEERS Se IE Spree PE Blood, illustration of the heart’s 11h Eee ALS gas ta eae a Blood, why so important an agent in animal economy____ Blood, the circulation of ______ Bloodshot, why does the eye NS OEE ae RR RL pe NE in Bloodhounds, why efficacious in ‘the pursuit of fugitives____ 996 998 1000 972 974 976 977 979 980 982 984 985 987 989 990 992 530 128 266 Bodies, animal, most in the center ________ Bones, why covered with peri- osteum Bones, the distinct and mutual uses ef). 3.2 ee Bones, softness of, in infancy___ . Bones, cylindrical ~_.-___---_ Bones, why do they not touch 57 - Bones, why covered with car- — tilage) 0 eee < Bower-bird, why _so called ~-__ Bower- bird. habits of__.-__--__ Brain, the composition Pe Bite Brain, functions of the great and small. 2232 ee Brain, why not injured by the ‘movement of the spine___--_ Breathing,: why it causes the chest to heave’ —-_--_--+-_- Breathing, offices of the ribs and diaphragm ©2222) 22. 22322322 Buffaloes, why the horns of, are useful to the animal Bull-frog, how does it produce a noise Butcher-bird, whys so called __ Camel, difference between it and the dromedary Camel, why so called____----__ Camel, why is its neck long and flexible Camel, why is the formation of the stomach of, adapted for long journeys over deserts__ Camel, why have its feet large cushions... 2. e222 eee Camel, how are its eyes pro- tected) “222 ee eee Camel, adaptation of its teeth © for icod. 222 =) eee Canary, the plumage of mace 5 Canine teeth, why are carniv- orous animals provided with Carnaria, why is the third di-. vision of the Mammalia so called 2.2) a eee 183 Carnaria, why is the first sub- order called cheiroptera____ 184 Carnaria, why is the second sub- — order called insectivora____— 492 Carnaria, why is the third sub- _ order called carnivora ----_. 205 Carnivora, why is the third sub- order of carnaria so called__ 205 Carnivorous animals; why have they canine teeth ~-___-__~- 206 Carnivorous animals, why are ; their molar teeth fitted into each other: Sls Sue ee 207 Carnivora, atomy adapt modes of life Carnivorous animals, why are how does their an- itself to their why they vary 528. 1030 689 — 513 514 516 Cheek, why is a pale one an in- them INDEX. xi vio — - their eyes vari- omer! of i BY eae ee 80 wee euape@ —. -2 0 so est, why does it heave when arnivorous animals, why in- we: breative 200 NS 86 cluded in all the natural Chetrogtera 2222". Re 184 SS i ee 219 Chelonia, why is the first order Cartilage —- _______ Se Ce ie 66 of reptiles so called________ 1002 mead aor os a4 Chinche, = with an offen- iis at-Dird, Why so named______ SIVG. SMG, 22 Ss eee Cats, why when playing do they Chondrostea, why is the second turn on their backs and seize sub-order of ganoidea so called 1123 hhc ewe ee a 223 7h a oe the civet cat 319 ats, y does croppin eir ivet perfume, how is it pro- ears prevent their climbing GGecR re ae ea 320 a oe 224 So of animals, why am ats, why does their fur emit BOOB LOG is ee ie 5 See electrical sparks ~~___-_--~_~ 227 Classification of animals, signifi- Cats, purpose served by their cation of terms in __________ 162 ceeny Se 227 cae prige es of animals, prin- iol ats, why are they uneasy pre- ciples: pir SS ee ESS vious to a storm ~________~ 228 Climbing animals, how is the Cats, of what mers are Lorrie supply a eee in the legs . enabled to extend or with- of; “régilatere = eo 2 draw their talons ~_________ 229 Coati, why does it burrow be- Cats, why do they refuse vege- pente- trees. =. eo 234 nes Woes So 231 Cockatoos, why so called ______ 815 fore sree do they lap fluids Ae Gnd, wae gs i abound on the ae NM rem aS ee ewfoundland coast ~_______ 1 erie why said to have ‘“‘nine “ os why does it purple the Ls A take tin ER ae 3 Skin ners a Ga ee ~ Cats, why have they great diffi- Cold, why does moderate, stim- culty in masticating vegetables 302 ulate the system -_________ 78 Cattle, why is it customary in Conirostres, why is the sub- Switzerland to bell their order so named ___--_______ 726 necks 2 ae ee eel 543 Conirostres, why are the heads Cattle, why when flying ftom of, disproportionately large___ 728 ; ee Fee age they keep to a Cormorant Speen’ ‘in the the sides of copses_________ structure of its foot________ 6) Cattle, why, when wild meditate Coughing, why does it increase — an attack do they approach in neadache 2p tes SS 81 eer 550 Coursing, why are two dogs em- _ Cattle, why is the hair of tame, played on. he ee 263 ~spache e smoother than that a Cow, anecdote of a___________ 544 LEAS ee eee ea . wh - < MM teks aro. the -heras of ay totais og OR plage cae tame, generally shorter than | Cows, management of the teats eee. et Oveld 2s 554 ech ki 54 PRE cetlh teal thc * h d as We igte ge cd 556 Coypou, why, though identical Cc * . ere hacen es aa © with the beaver in habits, has “th ee ee ingé do —s—s«C-:«it-a dissimilar tail __.___>- 382 Saxe scatter, and graze rete 556 Creeper, why are its feet long C y aT ey Aenea and—‘bowerinl (3. se YS 780 momed ec Any nephammi ghee ca ts 3 Crocodile, = ae a sg Sh a Mitetes ee. BZ: Bie zee ta be familiar with 1¢ 1009 Cetacea, habits and structure of 578 Crocodile, why do both of its 0 eae. why separated from ¢C poten ky ee eo oe a 1011 rer a es A eS 579 , why erroneous to sup- -— Chetodons, why are they so pose that they destroy grass 763 brilliantly apact: peli oe he = 1106 Se = oe Pyee of, eg Chameleon, why has it the pecullarly constructed ______ power of changing its color__ 1014 Crows, why said that they can Cheeks, why do they turn pale smell gunpowder _____~____ 741 or red through fear or rage__ 79 Crows, why wrong to destroy EE OT ne Ae Oo 744 INDEX. xii : Cuckoo, why does it deposit lie breast high ~__-_____-__ 278 eggs in nests of other birds_. 821 Dogs, why does scent rarely lie - Cuckoo, why does it drop its with a north or east wind___ 279: eggs in the nests of. smaller Dogs, why is scent generally ’ PERG Cet ten i SL ye Se 822 good when the ‘wind is south- Cuckoo, why does it deposit its erly, of dogs (42222232 281 eggs in the nests of sparrows, Dogs, why does humidity favor ree, Wabiails; wets 2 3 oe 823 scent * 22_.._ Sefer 282 Cuckoo, why does it deposit its Dogs, why is Scent seldom good eggs with its foot-___-_-_-_- 825 when cobwebs hang on bushes 283 Cuckoo, why does it cause in- Dogs, why will scent sometimes jury to the eggs of other birds 826 ~ be good in a hard rain and | Cuckoos, why do they perch on mild)" air 2=_) 302 = eee 284 the backs of oxen while graz- Dogs, why is scent destroyed by : Rages aS oa Bee 827 sudden storms 222-235 23 285 Cursores; why is, the order so - Dogs, why is scent not good on SOTO RE A EE SO ee Os 973 sunshiny days) 220 2a 862 — Cuticie, why is it slightly rough ~33 Dogs, why is scent good on a _ Cuticle, special provisions for, warm day without sunshine__ 287 in various parts of the body 34 Dogs, why does scent lie badly Cuvier, anecdote of__________- 646 upon fallows and beaten roads 288 Cyclostomata, why is the sec- ~ Dogs, why is_ scent good _ by ond sub-order of fishes so hedgerows 223525. 53 eee 289 Be lleehe 6s ee ON en 1039 Dogs, why does scent differ in — Deaf persons, why do they place various breeds ~_____-____=_ 290 a hand behind their ears ____ 148 Dog, why is the Newioundiand, - Deaf persons, why do they hear of greatest service to man___ 293 more readily if addressed in a Dog, anecdote of a Newfound- moderate tone ~____-_______ 149° land 22 Ss eee 294 Deer, why furnished with sup- Dogs,’ why do they toss their plementary breathing organs__ 536 heads when wmasticating a Dentirosties, why is the _ sub- tough substance ~___________ 295 order so called ~___________ 686 Dogs, why are the habits of the isphrioms oe ee 87 shepherd’s, the result of edu- ~~ Dog and wolf, points of similar- cation rather than instinct___ 296 ity Butwoon fo se oe 253 Dogs, how may they be taught Dog and wolf, why a -difference to perform tricks with cards 298 -in the pupils of their eyes__._ 225 Dogs, why frightened at lame Dogs, why may it be supposed and stooping persons ~~ ~___~_ 299 that all the varieties of, Dogs, why do they turn round spring from a common origin 256 several times before lying | Dogs, influence of climate upon 257 down ~