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a
| LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. |
chape| = Net iy EE fe eae HW Shelf_.B.72
| UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. | “f
A LABORATORY MANUAL
IN
ELEMENTARY BIOLOGY
AN
INDUCTIVE STUDY IN ANIMAL AND PLANT MORPHOLOGY
DESIGNED FOR PREPARATORY AND HIGH SCHOOLS
“i,
EMANUEL R° BOYER, A.B.
INSTRUCTOR IN BIOLOGY, ENGLEWOOD HIGH SCHOOL. LECTURER IN BIOLOGY, EXTENSION DEPARTMENT, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
& \ 36 wd - hy \ BOSTON, U.S.A.
D.C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 1896
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.
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By D.C. HEATH & CO.
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Am Ses
" Cepr 24
PRED ACT.
It is important that the pupil should find included in his high school or preparatory course a line of work which embraces the study of natural objects and phenomena. Such are the so-called science studies, provided they are really
: studies of the objects instead of books. But in these studies the young beginner must be guided and directed, in order that his observations and inferences may be comprehensive, sys- tematic and accurate; hence the laboratory manual is an abso- lute necessity where the teacher is to direct a class of any con-
siderable number of pupils in practical work.
ee K ane
This book is the outgrowth of several years’ experience in an effort to place the subjects of elementary zodlogy and botany upon a strictly laboratory basis in preparatory and high schools, and to combine the study of animals and plants
as parts of one subject, Biology. It has been my effort to
ah he
make the laboratory studies as strictly zwductive as I could, bearing in mind the condition of the average young student, viz., his comparative ignorance of the subject-matter, and his limited experience in continuous and systematic observation, and in faithful, accurate description of what he sees.
To Prof. S. A. Forbes, University of Illinois, Prof. C. O. Whitman, University of Chicago, President J. M. Coulter, Lake
Forest University, Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska,
11)
iv PREFACE.
Prof. B. P. Colton, Illinois State Normal, Supt. G. W. Peckham, Milwaukee Public Schools, and to Dr. A. F. Nightingale, Superintendent of the High Schools of Chicago, I wish here to express my sincere thanks for their encouragement and val- uable suggestions.
I am much indebted to the teachers of biology in the Chicago High Schools for their cordial codperation, and especially to those who have kindly assisted in reading the proof.
Unavoidably the book has been hurried in its progress through the press and will not therefore be as free from error as could ordinarily be expected, and I respectfully request the forbearance of teachers of biology and educational friends.
EB. R=,
CHICAGO, February, 1894.
CON TEN ES.
PAGE. INTRODUCTION, - - = = 3 : : - xi PRELIMINARY EXERCISES, - - - - - - xiv PAR Te ANIMAL TYPES, - - = E . a! Sie SFUDY. 4. A STUDY OF AN AMG@BA, . - : = > 2 eee Laboratory Work, - - - = = : I General Appearance and Structure, - ~ = " z Concerning Organs and Functions, . ¥ Z Other Work, - : : = Z : ces STUDY IF: A STUDY OF A FRESH-WATER SPONGE, c 2 . =a Laboratory Work, - = - 2 aw . 4 Gross and Minute Structure, : . - ~ 4 Other Work, : = - = 3 : 5 STUDY III. A STuDY OF A FRESH-WATER HyDRA, - = - Ee ey Laboratory Work, - 5 . - S 2 6 General External Characters, - . . 6 Internal Structure, . ; : Ss 5 - 7 Other Work, - . - & . ee SlrUDY IV. A STuDy OF A STAR-FISH,~ - - - re Ee ts Laboratory Work, . - : . = 3 10 General Form and Topography, - : . : 7c Structures of the Aboral Surface, - - . “ ne Structures of the Oral Surface, - : : _ Body Cavity, - - - - : : has Other Work, - - 2 : : : ED Soe
vi CONTENTS.
| STUDY V. ae A STUDY OF AN EARTHWORM, - - > - a Laboratory Work, - - - - - - 17
Observations on the Living Worm, - : - - 17
General Topography and External Characters, as - - 18
Gross Anatomy, - - - - - ot 20
Minute Anatomy, - - : - = - 22 Other Work, - . - - : - ~ “Ss SDV VE
A STUDY OF A CRAYFISH, - : - - - ae Laboratory Work, - - - . - - 24
Observations on the Living Crayfish, - - - . 24
The General Form and Regions of the Body, - - - 25
The Thoracic and Abdominal Appendages, - - - 26
Cephalic Appendages,—Oral and Tactile, - - - - 279
The Gills and the Gill-chamber, - ° - - 28
The Heart and the Blood-vessels, - - - + - 29
The Alimentary Canal, - er - - - 31
The Central Nerve Cord, - im : - + (32 Other Work, - - - ° ~ - eee
Say Ere
A STUDY OF A GRASSHOPPER, - - - - - 34 Laboratory Work, - - z - : =e
General Appearance and Topography of the Body, - - = Rae
The Head and its Appendages, - - + . ac
The Thorax and its Appendages, - - ~ - -- 36
The Abdomen and its Parts, - . ° < - 38
Circulatory and Reproductive Organs, - : . - 39
The Digestive Organs, - - ° . 40 Other Work, ~ - - - < - - = Al
SDN VE:
A STUDY OF A FRESH-WATER MUSSEL, - - - =. 42 Laboratory Work, - - . - - - 42
The Topography and general Form of the Shell, . - 43
The outer Surface of the Shell, = - - : - Fiat
The inner Surface of the Shell, - - - = 44
The Structure and Composition of the Shell, - - - 45
External appearance of the Body in the opened Shell, . - 45
The Organs lying in the Pallial Cavity, - - - - 46
The Circulatory System, - - : - - 48
The Alimentary Canal, » - - - - = 88
Other Work, - - : - - - -* ae
CONTENTS.
STUDY IX.
A.STUDY OF A RIVER PERCH, -
Laboratory Work, -
t
The general Form of the Body, The Appendages, - - The Eyes, =o as - The Nostrils, ” +
The Mouth, - - “ - The Gill-covers, ~-~ °
The Gills, - . - The Scales, . ©
The Body Cavities, . - The Digestive Organs, -
- The Reproductive and Excretory Organs,
The Organs of Circulation and Respiration,
The Central Nervous System, - = The Endoskeleton of the Perch, - Other Work, - 2 : “ STUDY X. A STUDY OF A FROG, - :
Laboratory Work, - -
Observations on the Living Frog,
General Form and Regions of the Body.
The Head, - - - The Limbs, : - The Axial Skeleton, - - The Appendicular Skeleton, - The Body-wall and Muscles, - Digestive Organs, - -
The Reproductive and Excretory System,
The Respiratory Organs, -
The Organs of Circulation, - The Central Nervous Axis, -
The Brain, - - ° The Cranial Nerves, -
Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves, - The Blood and Blood Vessels, Tissues of the Organs of Digestion, The Minute Structure of the Kidneys, Nervous Tissue - -
Other Work. - =
vii
PAGE,
53 33
67 |
69 70
89
Vill CONTENTS.
STUDY: XE
A STUDY OF A TURTLE, - - é -
Laboratory Work, - - - = a
Observations on the Living Turtle, .
The Exoskeleton, - - - ~. - The Axial Endoskeleton, - . - - - The Appendicular Endoskeleton . - The Respiratory Organs, - - + - The Digestive Organs, - - . :
The Urinogenital System, > = : . The Circulatory System : -
Other Work, : 2 E
A STUDY OF A PIGEON, - - - - Laboratory Work, - - - -. : General Observations, - - - - The Axial Skeleton, - - . - © The Appendicular Skeleton, - - ort - General External Characteristics, - - - -
The Exoskeleton—Feathers and Horny Scales, - .
Other Work, - - : = =a
Sl UDY XIII.
A STUDY OF A Cart, = E 3 Z
|Laboratory Work, - - : : = Observations on the Living Cat, - . :
The General Framework of the Cat, - - . Observations on the Skul] and Teeth, - ‘
Other Work, - : : : 2
PARSE de
PEANT (TYPES, +o 2 : - - s : STUDY ei
A StuDY OF GREEN SLIME AND THE YEAST PLANT, - Laboratory Work, - - =
The Morphoiogy of Protococcus, : - - Minute Structure and the Effect of Reagents, . Morphology of the Yeast Plant, - - .
Minute Structure and the Effect of Reagents, -
Other Work, : - - = -
PAGE,
- 90
90 go QI Q2 93 94 95 94 95
| ae
& 98
S: 98 98 99 102 1C4 105
107
- 108
108 108 IIo I1r
= ee
ott
i
i
117 118 11g 119
- 120
CONTENTS. ix
oye UEP TF.
. PAGE A StTuby OF A BROOK-SILK, - a a - “ =, 525 Laboratory Work, - - - - - 122 General characters and gross Morphology of Spirogyra in its Vegetative Condition, : - - - - . 122 Minute Anatomy of the Vegetative Filament, - : - 122 Morphology of the Fruiting Filaments, > - 123 Other Work, - - - > . - - 24 SPrFUDY. 1H. A STUDY OF A GREEN FELT, - - - ° - 125 Laboratory Work, - - - - - - 125 General characters and gross Morphology, ; = - 125 Minute Anatomy, - - - - - 126 Other Work, ee : - - = 2 127 > PUDY: LV. A Stupy oF A STONEWORT, - : mice = : a Laboratory Work, - - - - - - 129 Gross Morphology of the Thallus, - - - . 129 Minute Anatomy of the Thallus, - - - > - 130 Morphology of the Gonads, - - - - - 131 Other Work, - - - . - . - 133 SEUDY. V: A STUDY OF A LIVERWORT, - - - - - - 134 Laboratory Work, - - = = : : 135 Gross Morphology of the Thallus, - - > : 135 Minute Structure of the Thallus, - - : - - 136 Morphology of the Fruiting Branches, : - - 137 . Morphology of the Gemma, - . . - 138 Other Work, - - - - fr = E39 Sl UD VL A STUDY OF A COMMON FERN, - - - - - 140 Laboratory Work, : . - - ; - I4I General Morphology of the Fern-plant ie ake sama - =" "342 Morphology of the Rhizome, - - - 142 Morphology of the Fertile Fronds, - - - - 144 Morphology of the Prothallium (Odphore), - . : 145
Other Work, : “ s M = a f 146
x CONTENTS.
SLUDY.-VIT.
A STuDY OF A SCOTCH PINE, - :
Laboratory: Work, - - - General Morphology of the Scotch Pine, Morphology of the Foliage Leaf, - - Morphology of a Young Branch,
Morphology of the Staminate or Male Branch, Morphology of the Pistillate or Female Branch,
Other Work, -- = : z
SLUDY VEE
A STUDY OF A TRILLIUM, : E
Laboratory Work, - = = General Morphology of Trillium, - Structure of the Stem and Aérial Branch, - Form and Structure of the Foliage Leaf,
The Flower, - - . -
Other Work, : : :
STUDY IX,
A STUDY OF SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS, - Laboratory Work, - - External Morphology of Seeds, - - Morphology of the Embryo, - : Morphology of Seedlings, - z Other Work, - : E Pack F TA ke CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS AND PIANTsS, - Classification of Animals, . - Classification of Plants, : - Artificial Key, : : pon
Key to the Orders, - - -
Key to the Genera and Species, - -
Special Glossary, - . LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND Ti WoRKS OF REFERENCE, - - INDEX AND DERIVATIONS, - -
154
155 155
161
162 163
166
fVTRODUCTION.
In arranging this Manual the author has attempted pri- marily to meet the demand of those high schools and prepar- atory institutions which desire to combine the subjects of zoology and botany into a continuous one-year study, and make laboratory work the basis. It has been the aim to arrange a series of studies which will give the pupil, through his own observations, a knowledge of the leading charac- teristics of the chief branches of animals and plants. In its nature the laboratory work consists almost entirely of morphology, and comparatively little actual dissection is required of the pupil; hence the course is more truly one in animal and plant morphology than biology in the broader sense.
The method of instruction is inductive and rests upon the individual observation of the pupil. The aim is to develop rather than inform ; hence the laboratory method of study is more important than the information involved. Accuracy in observation is a prerequisite to accuracy and clearness in description or statement, as well as to logical inference or con- clusion.
Each pupil should be provided with both material for study, and a copy of the Manual to direct him. The class being
so provided, the instructor is free to render such individual
Xl
x1] INTRODUCTION.
assistance as may be necessary in the technique and execu- tion of the work. ‘The pupil studies the material as directed in the Manual, and notes the facts of his observations and the conclusions drawn from them His notes, illus- trated by numerous sketches, of the structures studied, are subsequently to be cast into clear, concise, and connected statements, constituting a description of the plant or animal under consideration.
Careful drawings may also be made upon a standard draw- ing paper, the aim of which is to represent a summary of the principal structural characteristics of the type studied. ‘The sketches and drawings should be diagrammatic, clear and dis- tinct in outline, without any attempt to represent light and shade or to produce artistic effect.
The material required in this course is of mere nominal expense, but requires some time in its preparation. Any instructor acquainted with modern methods of laboratory technique can, by the aid of some of his pupils, make the necessary permanent preparations in course of one or two terms, and when once accumulated, the preparations may be kept from year to year. It is not necessary that all the material enumerated should be provided before introducing this course.
When a technical term is introduced for the first time it appears in full-face type and stands in a sentence embodying its definition. The /zdex contains the derivation of all such terms. The literal meaning of the technical terms, if associated
with their present or special meaning, will aid the pupil in
INTRODUCTION. Xill
understanding the force and propriety of their application, as well as aid his memory in retaining them.
The synopses of classification and the artificial key arranged for a few typical plants will afford some practical work in “plant analyses,” and will also aid in impressing the pupil with the natural affinity and unity in the world of living beings.
The references at the close of each Study refer to the Works of Reference on page 203. Im order to economize space and avoid many repetitions of titles, the references are made by
numerals.
PRELIMINARY EXERCISE.
REMARK. — A preliminary exercise on the manipulation and use of the microscope is necessary to successful work with beginners in this course. It should not fail to precede the practical use of the microscope. Owing to its compactness and simplicity, the pattern known as the “ Continental Stand” is to be preferred for beginners in an elementary course.* The following introductory exercise will, however, apply almost equally well to other forms of stand. The instructor should see that all accessories not recog. nized in the exercise are removed from the stand and that the eye- piece and objective are not in the tube at the time of beginning the exercise.
THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE.
(a) Observe the general appearance and construction of the body (stand) of the microscope. Note the part (base) which rests on the table. What is its shape? Examine the vertical part (column), which is attached to the base and gives support to the other parts. In some micro- scopes the column is provided with a hinge a short dis- tance above the base, which allows the column to turn back in an oblique position. Do you find such a hinge in this microscope?
(4) Observe the horizontal shelf-like part (stage) attached to the column. The use of the stage is to support the object or preparation while it is being studied with the microscope. Note the circular opening (eye) through the central part of the stage. The use of the cyeata allow light to pass up through the stage.
* See note on page 194. xly
THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. XV
(c) Tip the microscope to one side, and examine the lower surface of the stage. Do you find any device (dia- phragm), possibly a rotary disc, attached to the stage? Observe the series of openings in the diaphragm, and rotate the disc so as to bring successively openings of different size in range of the eye of the stage. The use of the diaphragm is to regulate the amount of light allowed to pass through the stage.
(d@) Observe the springs (clips) on the stage, one to the night and the other to the left of the column. Remove the clips and then return them to their proper places. The clips are used to hold a slip of glass (object-slide) in proper position on the stage. Take a clean object-slide and place it on the stage over the eye, and fasten it in position with the clips. Now remove it.
(e) Observe the slightly concave glass (mirror), a little dis- tance below the stage. ‘The mirror is used to collect the rays of light and reflect them through the eye of the stage to illuminate the object. Observe the free- dom and ease with which the mirror turns to enable you to get the light from almost any direction.
(7) Observe the large tube (sliding-tube) directly above the stage. With your left hand move the tube up and down, while you hold the stand firmly on the table with your right hand. Observe that the tube is loosely clasped within an outer tube (sleeve). Move the tube up and down, at the same time slowly revolving it in the sleeve, to see how steady and uniform and slow you can make the movement.
(g) At the top of the column observe the large head of a screw (milled head). Turn it back and forth, and at the same time carefully watch the lower end of the tube. What is the effect? The use of the milled head is to move the draw-tube up and down through a very short
XV1
PRELIMINARY EXERCISE.
distance (fine adjustment). When you wish to move the tube a long distance (coarse adjustment) , you accom- plish it by moving it through the sleeve by hand, in the way you have already practiced. In some microscopes the coarse adjustment is accomplished by means of a large milled head at the side of the tube, which oper- ates a rack and pinion.
(4) Remove the tube entirely from the sleeve. Let the left
hand do this while the right hand holds the stand firmly on the table. Point the tube toward the light and look through it. You see that it is merely an open tube without any glass. Now replace the tube, carefully observing the former directions.
(z) Take the small metallic cylinder (ocular or eye-piece) |
from the table and examine it. Observe that it has a glass lens at each end. You should be very careful not to touch a lens, especially zevex with your fingers. Hold the eye-piece toward the light, the smaller lens next to your eye, and look through it.
(7) Observe the circular illuminated area (field of vision).
Turn it toward the darkest part of the room to observe the difference in the illumination of the field. Now point the eye-piece toward the clear sky, or a white cloud, and observe that you get a beautiful field of white light. This is the best kind of light for the microscope. You should avoid getting the direct rays of the sun. Place the eye-piece in the upper end of the tube, which is its proper position.
(2) Now sit close to the table, allowing your forearms to rest on the edge. Move the microscope directly in front of
you, placing it so that the column shall be next to you and the stage extending away from you. This is the position which you should aways take with the micro- scope.
THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. XV1l
(7) Look down through the eye-piece and tube, and at the same time illuminate the field, using your left hand at the mirror. Get the light from the window which is most nearly in front of you and gives you the most favorable light. While you are moving the mirror, carefully watch the field in order to secure the best illumination. When you have secured a well-illu- minated field, turn the mirror very little until only a portion of the field has good light. This is to be avoided. You should always have the field lighted uni- formly. Now turn the mirror in a wrong direction, and see how quickly you can again get good illumination.
__ Let the instructor now see whether you have a good field.
sal When you have secured the best illumination, modify the light by the use of the diaphragm, carefully observing the effect on the illumination of the field. Observe that when the largest opening is in range of the field, the largest amount of light reflected from the mirror is admitted, while the other openings admit relatively smaller amounts. Move the microscope back out of your way.
(x) Now take the lower magnifying power (objective) from the table and examine it; observe the lens in the tapering end, and remember not to touch it. Observe that the larger end is an open tube and has a screw- thread. This end is intended to screw into the lower end of the tube. The objective, together with the eye- piece, constitute the magnifying parts of the micro- scope. The eye-piece is so called because it contains the system of lenses which is next to the eye of the observer while in use. The odjective is so called because it contains the system of lenses next to the object of study. A microscope which has these two systems of lenses is called a Compound microscope.
XVI111 PRELIMINARY EXERCISE.
(0) Take the objective, and look through it at a letter in your open book on the table. Hold the smaller end of the objective about a half-inch from the page. Bring your eye about one inch from the larger end of the objective. Now gradually move the objective farther away from the printed letter until you reach the place (focus) where you can see the letter most distinctly. Now look at other letters, and be sure to find the exact focus.
(/) Bring the microscope up into position again, and remove the tube, allowing your index finger to touch the upper rim of the eye-piece to prevent its sliding out of the tube. Now hold the tube horizontally and close to the table in front of the microscope, while you take the objective with your right hand and screw it into the tube. Return the tube, with objective, to the sleeve.
(g) Take a slide which contains a small letter or figure mounted, look through the slide toward the light, and see what it is. Observe that the object is fastened to the slide under a very thin film of glass (cover-glass). You should avoid touching the cover-glass of a prepa- ration, and, in placing a slide on the stage, the cover- glass should a/ways be uppermost. Now place the slide on the stage so that the object which is mounted under the cover-glass shall be in the centre of the eye of the stage. Fasten the slide in position by means of the clips.
(vr) Now, by means of the coarse adjustment, having your left hand on the draw-tube, gradually bring down the objective to about one-quarter of an inch from the slide. Do not look through the tube while you are moving it down toward the object, but carefully watcn the objec- tive on the outside, with your eye nearly on a level with the stage. The objective is now supposed to be nearer the object than the proper focal plane: hence when
THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. X1X
you move it slowly upward, while looking in the tube, you can find the focus and see the objeet, but before you focus, you should illuminate the field.
(s) Now, while looking through the tube, illuminate the field ;
and then, by gradually drawing the tube wz, find the focus. As soon as you discover any trace of the object, stop and use the five adjustment, to get the exact focus. If the object happens not to be properly in the field, you can move the slide very little on the stage.
(7) Now remove the clips entirely, and then remove the slide from the stage, being careful not to lift it, as it might touch the lens in the objective. In handling a prepa-
Ne ration on the stage, you should slide it on or off the stage, but never lift it.
(z) Remove the slide and hold it so that the figure or letter is in a proper position to be read ; now return it to the stage and observe its direction under the microscope. It seems that the right and left sides have exchanged places and that the object is inverted. Under the com- pound microscope an object is seen as if it had revolved 180°, or half a revolution, in a horizontal plane. Make sure that you understand this.
(v) Now remove the objective and put on the higher power - instead, being very careful to follow former directions. In using the higher power, it is necessary to bring it nearer to the object before beginning to focus with the coarse adjustment. With some higher powers you need to begin within an eighth of an inch. You may now find the focus, as you did in case of the lower power, only using greater care and making the adjustment more gradually.
XX PRELIMINARY EXERCISE.
SUMMARY OF THE STEPS IN MANIPULATING THE MICROSCOPE. Preparatory to Study.
Put on eye-piece and objective.
Illuminate the field.
Place preparation on stage.
Move objective below focal plane.
Find the focus.
Adjust object in the field.
Regulate the light.
Study the object.
Ont AONB W YN
After Study.
1. Raise objective (in case of higher power).
2. Remove preparation from stage.
3. Remove eye-piece* and objective.
4. Move the stand back from the edge of the table.
CAUTIONS CONCERNING THE CARE AND USE OF THE MICROSCOPE. —
1. Never touch a lens with your fingers.
2. To remove dust from the lens, gently wipe it with a clean rag of soft, worn linen. If this is not successful, blow your breath on the lens and wipe it again.
3. To remove balsam, or other adhesive substances from a lens, a drop of alcohol, turpentine, or benzol is neces- sary, but the young student should not attempt to use it. He should promptly submit the lens to the instructor. .
4. Lenses when not in immediate use should be protected against dust and injury, and all parts when stored should — be protected against moisture and the action of chemi- cals.
5. Ina microscope having its adjustment by means of sleeve and sliding-tube, the latter should be frequently cleaned with vaseline, or other mineral oil, to keep it in good working order.
* The eye-piece may remain in the tube.
THE HAND. MAGNIFIER. Xx
6. The fine adjustment sometimes fails. In such a case, it is likely that the screw attached to the milled head has been run to its limit and must now be turned back.
7. Never focus downward zwhzle looking in the tube, unless the object is already in sight. If the objective must come nearer to the object, you should watch the movement from the outside, in order to protect both the objective and the preparation against accident.
THE HAND MAGNIFIER.
(2) Take your hand lens, usually called a magnifier, and look ~
_at printed letters as you did with the low-power objec-
tive. Now look at the back of your hand. When you
use a magnifier, you should turn the object so as to let
the light fall directly on the exact spot which you are trying to see.
(4) Take a small piece of cardboard, on which a series of, about a dozen fine black lines have been drawn parallel, say about a sixteenth of an inch apart, and about two inches long, and lay it on the table. Now get a careful focus on the middle of this band of lines, and while the eye is observing the magnified space between two adja- cent lines, it can also see along the side of the lens and observe the real spaces between lines. Compare the magnified spaces with those outside. How many spaces outside are subtended by, or are required to reach across, one of the magnified spaces ? ‘This shows you the magnifying power of your lens. For example: if one magnified space seems as wide as three spaces really are, the lens has a magnifying power of three diame- ters, which is written thus, x 3.
(c) Get the magnifying power of other lenses. Now take your low-power objective, and, using it as you did the hand lens, find its magnifying power and write it.
SIGNS AND SYMBOLS EMPLOYED.
m == use hand magnifier.
lp = use lower power of microscope, forty to 150 diameters.
hp =-use higher power of microscope, 150 to 350 diameters.
2,0 25 K4, eve. = enlarge sketch 2, 3, 4, ete; diamema of the natural size of the object.
del. 2', 3’ 4’, etc., make a sketch having its largest diam- eter 2 inches, 3 inches, etc.
a= male:
© = female.
SEUDY. I. ari Or MAN AMCEBA:
AMCGBA PROTEUS. As an example of a unicellular type of animals.
Material Required. — (1) Living Amcebe; (2) preparations of stained Amcebe; (3) preparations showing stages in reproduction.
Habitat.
The Amceba* is an aquatic, microscopic animal, rarely large enough to be seen without the aid of a microscope. Ameebee may be found throughout the entire year, but are found most readily in summer, in standing water, attached to sub- merged plants, and in the mud at the bottom. A_ few fragments of such plants and a little ooze scraped from the bottom and placed in an aquarium jar will be quite likely to yield an abundance of Amcebz in a few weeks, although they may not seem to be present at first.
LABORATORY WORK. A.—GENERAL APPEARANCE AND STRUCTURE.
(2) Note the form and general appearance of the Amceba (7p). Make a sketch (Ap).
(4) Carefully observe the form of the outline (4f) and note any projections (pseudopodia) of the body substance (protoplasm).
(c) If any pseudopodium is changing its form, carefully note the result. What use (function) do you attribute to the pseudopodia? See whether you can verify, or prove this use. How?
_ * Any large species of Paramecium may be substituted for Ameeba in this study. A culture may be made in a few days by allowing fresh animal or vegetable tissue to decay in water. The “lily-pad” gives an excellent culture.
2 ANIMAL TYPES.
(7) By means of careful focusing (4) observe the structure of the protoplasm. Is it of uniform appearance (homo- geneous) in different regions ?
(e) Can you find a small body (nucleus) which is denser than the surrounding protoplasm (4p)? Where is it located ?
(7) Can you find one or more spots (vacuoles) which are clearer or less dense than the surrounding protoplasm ? Make a sketch (de/. 11%’) representing the Amceba with nucleus and vacuoles.
(g) Carefully examine the protoplasm along the edge (ecto- sarc) of the body and pseudopodia to determine whether it is clearer or denser than the interior pro- toplasm (endosarc). Which is the more homogeneous ? In your last drawing indicate by a faint line the bound- ary between .ectosarc and endosarc.
(x) Examine the interior, or endosarec of the Amceba body by carefully focusing a little lower than the surface or ectosarc. Can you find small particles (food parti- cles) which are evidently not protoplasm ? Represent these in your sketch.
B.—CONCERNING ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS.
_ (a) Have you found any structures or parts (organs) in the Amoeba which you infer are used in performing a particular work, or function? Ifso,name them. How do you suppose this little animal (animalcule) performs the function of moving from place to place (locomo- tion)? Of taking food (prehension)? Of digesting its food (digestion) ? Of breathing, or getting oxygen: and eliminating carbonic acid gas (respiration)? Of feeling (sensation) ?
(6) If possible observe an Amoeba undergoing division | (fission) and by this process forming two new Amcebze
STUDY OF AN AMCEBA. 3
as a second generation. In the process of forming a ~ new generation (reproduction) what became of the parent Amceba? Has there been a natural death?
(c) If possible trace the Amceba cell through its entire pro- cess of self division, and make sketches at intervals showing the successive stages.
(2) Amoeba is the simplest form of an animal body and is a single unit of structure (cell). All higher animals are composed of an aggregation of more or less modified cells.
(e) Make careful drawings on your drawing-tablet of an Amoeba and the various stages in its reproduction.
(7) Write up a description of the Amceba from your notes and sketches. ;
OTHER WORK.
Characteristic properties of protoplasm.
Essential elements and nature of a typical cell.
The general functions performed in the animal body.
Characteristics of Gregarina, Paramcecium, Foraminifera,
and Vorticella.
5. Comparison of Amceba with other forms of Protozoa with reference to morphology, physiology, and habits.
6. The parasitic habit of Gregarina and the nature of a parasitic animal.
7. The characteristics and the classes of Protozoa.
= td So:
References. — 20— 22— 24 — 27 — 31 — 38 — 43 — 44 — 52 — 62 — 79 — 80 — 87 — 88 — 89 — 91 — 106 — 116 — 120 — I22— 123 — 124 — 126 — 129 I40— I50.
STUDY If. A STUDY OF A FRESH-WATER SPONGE
SPONGILLA (S}.).
As a type of unicellular animals associated in a colony.
Material Required.—(1) Living specimens; (2) preserved material; (3) preparations of the amceboid cells; (4) preparations of spicules; (5) pre- parations of gemmules.
Habitat.
Spongilla, the fresh-water Sponge, consists of a mass, or colony of microscopic cells, or animals, supported in position by a skeleton of spicules. The colony may be read- ily seen by the unaided eye, and is found in streams, lakes, ponds and in reasonably clean ditches. It is attached to per- manent floats or rafts, submerged boards, rocks and plants, and may be found at any season of the year. Colonies containing gemmules should be collected late in the fall or during the winter.
LABORATORY WORK. GROSS AND MINUTE STRUCTURE.
(a) Note the general appearance of the living or preserved Sponge (m). Sketch.
(4) Examine a mass of Sponge (m) and note the structure. Is there a definite arrangement of the needle-like rods (spicules) which project beyond the mass?
(c) Take a small mass of living Sponge, crush it on a glass slip and examine it under a microscope (4%). Note the mass of cells (sponge-flesh) and the spicules, which constitute the supporting frame work (skeleton). Sketch.
SeunpY OF A FRESH-WATER SPONGE. 5
‘(d) Examine the sponge-flesh (7f) and note the form of the cells composing it. Do they adhere firmly to one another? Do you find a nucleus? In what respect do these cells (ameboid elements) agree with or differ from the Amceba? Sketch one or more ameceboid elements.
(ec) Examine the spicules (4f) and note their shape and structure. Sketch.
(7) In a mass of Sponge gathered in winter observe (7) the small seed-like structures (gemmules) found among the spicules. Sketch.
(g) Examine a gemmule (/%) and note the small, peculiarly shaped spicules (amphidiscs) upon its surface. Sketch gemmule and amphidiscs, and give a description.
(h) If possible determine the interior structure of the gem- mule, and describe and sketch.
(2) Makea careful drawing of a Sponge colony containing gemmules with amphidiscs, also drawings of amoeboid cells and spicules.
(7) Write up a description of the fresh-water Sponge from your notes and sketches.
OTHER WORK.
1. The anatomy of the Sponge colony. 2. Specialization of cells and a physiological division of labor. 3. Non-sexual reproduction and the simplest form of sexual
reproduction by two specialized cells. Comparison of the Sponge with Amceba. The character of calcareous, horny, and siliceous Sponges. Source, preparation, and use of the Sponge of commerce. The characteristics and the classes of Porifera.
OS
References. — 22 — 24 — 31 — 34 — 44 — 80 — 85 — 88 — 89 — 120— 122— 129— 140 — Ig4I — I50.
SPD Vic EE A STUDY OF A FRESH-WATER HYDRA.
HYDRA FUSCA. As a type of a true multiceliular animal in its simple gastrula form.
Material Required.—(1) Living and preserved specimens; (2) prepa- rations of the entire Hydra; (3) preparations of transverse and longitudinal sections; (4) preparations of teased tissue.
Habitat.
The fresh-water Polyp, or Hydra, may be found in reason- ably clean ditches, ponds and slowly moving streams. It isa small animal with a body about a quarter of an inch in length, and is usually attached to twigs or weeds, notably the duck- weed (Lemna), and water-weed (Anacharis). Hydra may be collected from early spring until winter and kept indefinitely with proper care, in aquarium jars. ‘Two species of Hydra are abundant, . fusca and H. viridis, the former being of a brownish color and the latter of a green color and smaller than H. fusca. Either species may be used in this study.
LABORATORY WORK. A.—GENERAL EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.
(a) Observe a live Hydra in a glass tumbler or aquarium, after it has been for some time attached to a weed or the side of the vessel, undisturbed. Note its general form, size, color, etc. “Sketch {x -4):
(4) Note any movements that you can observe, and the different forms which the animal assumes. Now, with
a fine wire or bristle, gently touch one of its arms and 6
SeupY OF A FRESH-WATER. HYDRA, 7
note the result. What do you infer concerning the function of these arms?
(c) If the Hydra is not in a favorable position for study, it may be removed to a watch glass or glass slip into a few drops of water, protected from pressure of the cover- glass in the latter case. A permanent preparation may be used instead. Note more carefully the form of the body (m or 4). Compare the attached end or foot (proximal end) with the opposite (distal) end of the
body, and note the differences.
(7) Note the circle of arms (tentacles) at the distal end of
| the body ; their arrangement, number, shape.
(e) Note the form of the distal region of the body (hypo- stome) above the base of the tentacles. At the tip of the hypostome, under favorable conditions, may be seen a small opening (mouth) leading into the digestive cavity.
(7) Observe whether there is a bud or young Hydra attached to the body of the adult. Note also any slight thickening or elevation (spermary) from the surface of the Hydra in its distal region, or any similar structures (ovary) more nearly in the middle region of the body. If these structures are present, represent them in your-former sketch.
(g) In a permanent preparation, examine the surface of the © body-wall (Z£f) and sketch a small region. Do the same for one of the tentacles.
B.—INTERNAL STRUCTURE.
(2) Examine a transverse section through the proximal region of the body (4). Note the large central digestive cavity (enteron, or primitive alimentary canal),
(2) Examine the body-wall and note the number of cell: layers (4). Note the general appearance of the outer
ANIMAL “FYERES,
layer of cells (ectoderm), and also of the inner (endoderm) layer. Which is the thicker layer ?
(c) Can you find a trace of a very thin layer (mesoglea, or supporting lamella) between the ectoderm and endo- derm (4s)? Makea diagram of the section, (de/. 7") showing the relative thickness of the different layers of cells.
(2) Examine a preparation of a longitudinal section through the middle of the body (@). Make a diagram (del. 2’), representing the proper proportions of the enteron and cell-layers. |
(ec) Examine the cells of the ectoderm (4) and note their form, structure, etc. Do you find their nuclei ? Can you find more than one kind of cells in the ectoderm ? Sketch a small region of cells.
(7) Examine the cells of the endoderm and describe them. Sketch.
(g) Examine a section through an ovary (Af). Note the peculiar form of the cells. Compare these (ovarian cells) with the typical ectodermal cells. Sketch.
(4) Among the ovarian cells, try to find one (ovum or egg) much larger than the others, and note its peculiar form .
- and . structure. What does this ovum resemble? Sketch.
(7) Examine a section through a spermary (#f) and note the peculiarity of the cells. Sketch.
(7) Examine a preparation of ectoderm with the cells teased out (2f). Note a kind of cell (interstitial cell) much smaller than the typical ectodermal cell. Observe a small, pear-shaped body (nematocyst) occurring among both ectodermal and interstitial cells. Sketch.
(k) Make careful drawings of the principal structures studied in Hydra. }
SLUDY OF A’ FRESH - WATER HYDRA, 9
(2) Write up a description of the form and structure (morph-
e.
ology) of the Hydra, from your notes and sketches.
OTHER WORK.
. The significance, in Hydra, of the remarkable powers of
recovery from injury.
The specialization and functions of ectoderm and endo- derin.
Specialization of ectodermal cells in structure and func- tion. |
Demonstration of the simplest form of muscular and nerve cells.
The two-fold method of reproduction, and a comparison of each with reproduction in Amoeba and Spongilla.
Comparison of Hydra with types already studied.
7. The general morphology of the Hydrozoa colony, Coral
Polyp, Sea-anemone, and Physalia.
foe relation between Hydra and other forms-of the
group.
g. The characteristics and the classes of Coelenterata.
References. — 20— 22— 27 — 31 —- 34 — 43 — 44 — 62 —79 — 80— 85 — 88 — 8g — gI— 106— 116 — I20— 124 — 126— 129 — I40— I50.
STUDY IV.
A STUDY OF A STAR-FISH.
ASTERIAS VULGARIS. As an example of the radial or Echinoderm type.
Material Required.—(1) A set of dried specimens; (2) a supply of alcoholic specimens; (3) one or more injected specimens; (4) some care- fully dissected preparations; (5) preparation of the hard parts; (6) trans- verse sections of a ray and other microscopical preparations of tissues.
Habitat.
The Star-fish belongs to a group of animals which live only insalt water. It may be found abundantly in certain locali- ties, notably in the oyster and clam beds along the coast, or attached to wooden piers and rocks below the surface of the water. The Star-fish, known among fishermen.as the “ five- finger,’ is the principal enemy of the oyster and clam along the coast, and is a great obstacle to successful oyster culture.
9?
LABORATORY WORK. EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY.
A.— GENERAL FORM AND TOPOGRAPHY.
(z) Note the general form of the animal. How many and what are the principal regions or parts of the body? (6) Note that if each arm (ray) were cut off at its base a central portion (central disc) would remain. (c) Note the consistency of the body-wall (perisoma) and the character of its surface. (Z7) Can you identify a head (anterior) region, and an oppo-
site (posterior) or tail region in this animal ? 10
SLUDY OF A STAR- FISH. II
(ce) Examine and compare the upper (aboral) and lower (oral) surfaces, or aspects. | (7) On the central disc of the aboral surface, note a wart-like structure (madreporite). Observe its structure (m) and sketch (xX 4). | (g) Note that the madreporite is located near the angle of two adjacent rays (interradial angle). How are the other rays arranged with reference to the madreporite? (2) Observe that one ray (anterior ray) is located directly opposite or across the central disc from the madrepo- rite. ‘The anterior ray, together with the two adjacent rays to the right and left of it, constitute the “rzvzum, the adjacent ones being designated respectively as the right and left rays of the trivium. ‘The rays adjacent to the madreporite constitute the dzvzum, and are des- ignated in a similar way. Now make a diagram (de/.2") representing the central disc, the rays and madreporite, and indicate the bivium and trivium, and name all the rays. (¢) Where could you cut the Star-fish so as to divide its body into two similar halves? Represent this by a dotted line in your diagram.
B.— STRUCTURES OF THE ABORAL SURFACE.
(z) Note the hard projections (spines) distributed over the surface. Any hard substance developed in or upon the skin of an animal may be regarded as an external skeleton (exoskeleton). Can you detect any definite plan in the arrangement of the spines? What do you suppose is their function ? 3
(4) Note the shape and structure of the spines (m). Are they all alike ? Sketch several (xX 5).
(c) Examine the surface between the spines (m or 46) and look for soft, tapering projections (aboral tentacles). Sketch.
12 ANIMAL TYPES.
(7) At the base of the spines (7) look for small, hard, pincer- like structures (pedicellaria). With your forceps pinch off a few and examine them under the microscope (4p). Of how many parts does a pedicellaria consist ? Sketch (X 10). What do you infer concerning their function?
C.—STRUCTURE OF THE ORAL SURFACE.
(a) Examine the oral surface. Note the deep, wide middle groove (ambulacral groove) which extends along each ray.
(4) Note the area of membrane (peristome) in the central! region of the oral disc, and the central opening, mouth, through this membrane.
(c) How are the inner (proximal) ends of the ambulacral grooves related to the peristome ? Where do the outer (distal) ends of the ambulacral grooves terminate? Make a diagram of the peristome and ambulacral grooves.
(2) Note the numerous flexible structures (ambulacra, or tube feet) in the ambulacral groove (wm), and observe their structure. Sketch an ambulacrum (x 5).
(ce) Observe how the ambulacra are arranged in the grooves? Describe their arrangement and indicate it by a diagram (xX 5).
(f) Note the spines along the edge of the ambulacral groove. In what respects do they differ from the | spines in other regions? Represent them in your last sketch. |
(g) Note a whitish, thread-like structure (radial nerve) ex- tending along the middle of the groove (m), and a similar structure (nerve ring) along the inner edge of the peristome. How are the radial nerves and the
SLUDY OF A STAK- FISH. 13
nerve ring related? Where are the distal ends of the radial nerves? Make a diagram (de/. 2’) of the nerve ring and radial nerves.
(2) Trace a radial nerve to its distal end at the tip of the ray (m) and observe that it terminates near the base of a median tentacle (terminal tentacle). At the base of the terminal tentacle (7) note a yellowish elevation (eye-spot).
_(z) Make two outline drawings, natural size, one of the abo- ral and the other of the oral aspect of the Star-fish.
(7) Write up a description, from your notes and sketches, of the external morphology of the Star-fish.
a INTERNAL. MORPHOLOGY.
D.—THE BODY CAVITY.
(2) With your scissors carefully cut a small opening through the perisoma on the aboral surface near the distal tip of the anterior ray. Into this opening insert the point of one of the blades of your scissors and care- fully cut through the body-wall along one side of the ray to the inter-radial angle. Now return to the point of beginning and cut the opposite side of the ray in the same manner. You are now ready to begin study of the shape, position and relations of the internal organs (anatomy).
(4) Note the space (ceelom, or body cavity) within the body wall which has now been laid open.
(c) Gently lift the loosened flap of the perisoma and note whether it is free or attached along its inner sur- face. Turn it back over the central disc, and note a pair of elongated, branched, greenish-brown bodies (hepatic ceca). Where are they attached?
14 ANIMAL TYPES.
(7) Note that each cecum is held in place by a thin mem- brane (mesentery). Is the membrane single or double? Make a diagram of the hepatic ceca of this ray.
(ec) Examine more carefully the structure of a cecum (#). Sketch a small portion.
(/) Extending longitudinally along the middle line of the inner surface of the aboral wall of the ray, note a yellowish band (extensor muscle). Examine a small piece of it under the microscope (#4). What do you suppose is its function?
(g) Open the two adjacent rays in the same way as you did the first. Now, with your scissors, carefully cut the body- wall across the inter-radial angles and turn back the cover of the three open rays and central disc. Observe a small duct (#) or membranous tube leading from the proximal end of each ccecum and uniting with its fellow in a common larger duct (pyloric duct). Can you demonstrate that the pyloric duct leads into a central sac? Use blow-pipe and tipped bristle.
(2) Just below the pyloric duct observe a membranous lobe (cardiac pouch) which extends a short distance back into the ray and opens into a central digestive cavity (stomach). Demonstrate that it is connected with the stomach. Can you finda cardiac pouch in the adjacent ray? What do you think is the function of the cardiac pouch?
(¢) Carefully trace the digestive tube (alimentary canal) from the mouth on the oral surface to the aboral surface of the central disc. Use blow-pipe and tipped bristle. Note the variations in the size of the alimentary canal in its different regions,—the spacious region (stomach) just beyond the mouth, the pyloric sac, and the minute slender portion (intestine) near the aboral
SLuUDyY OF A STARK = FISH. [15
wall. Try to locate the very small terminal opening (anus) from the intestine. Make a diagram (ded. 2’) to represent the alimentary canal, including its gen- eral form, regions and openings.
(7) In the floor of a ray look for two elongated branched structures, the reproductive organs (gonads), somewhat similar in appearance to the hepatic cceca, but during the spawning season much more conspicuous. Where are they attached? Are the two lobes of the same ray connected? Are those of the adjacent rays connected with each other? Where are their proximal ends attached? Sketch (X 3).
“(k) Examine a gonad more carefully (#) and sketch a small portion.
(7) Along each side of the median ridge in the floor of the ray note a series of thin-walled sacs (ampulle). How are they arranged (m)? Makea diagram (X 5) of a small patch showing their arrangement.
(m) Ascertain whether there is any relation between the am- pullz in the ccelom and the ambulacra in the external groove. Use blow-pipe and tipped bristle.
(z) Observe the hard parts (ossicles) constituting the floor of the ray and note (mm) their form and relation. Make a sketch of a small portion of the floor, includ- ing a region of the median ridge, to show the form and relation of the ossicles and the relative position of the ampullee.
(0) Study the end of a transverse section of the floor of a ray. Note (m) the cut end of a small tube (radial water-tube) extending above the radial nerve. Sketch the transverse section (X 4).
(~) Examine a preparation of a transverse section of a small ray (/ or Ap) and identify the various organs which
16 ANIMAL TYPES.
you have studied in the larger rays. Can you discover any connection between the water tubes, ampulle, and ambulacra? Make an outline sketch.
(g) Make outline drawings of the most important internal structures. Write up a description from your notes and sketches of the anatomy of the Star-fish.
OTHER WORK.
1. Demonstration of the water-vascular system in Star-fish.
2. Demonstration of other systems of organs, with explan- ations of their functions.
3. The Star-fish as a bisexual animal; its reproduction and development.
4. Concerning the structure, composition, and development of the exoskeleton.
5. Concerning the power of restoring mutilated and lost parts. | |
6. Comparison of Star-fish with types already studied.
7. The general morphology of the Sea-urchin, Sand-dollar Synapta, and Sea-cucumber.
8. Comparison of the forms of this group.
g. Characteristics and the classes of Echinodermata.
References. — 22— 24 — 31 — 34 — 44 — 80 — 85 — 88 — 91— 104 — 116 — I20— 122 — 124 — 129 — 140— 145 — 148 — I50.
STUDY V.
A STUDY OF THE EARTHWORM
ALLOLOBOPHORA TUMIDA. As a type of the Vermes or simplest forms of bilateral animals.
Material Required.—(1) Living earthworms; (2) a supply of alcoholic specimens; (3) a few dried preparations; (4) a set of preparations con- taining transverse sections through the most instructive regions of the body; (5) some egg-capsules ; (6) preparations of sete.
Habitat.
The Earthworm, or angleworm, is a very easily accessible animal, occurring everywhere in the soil near the surface, notably in gardens and heaps of old manure. The spring is the best time for collecting material intended for microscopical study; but for external study and dissection the worms may be collected at any time, and can be kept alive in pots or jars of loam, with proper care. The egy-capsules should be collected in the spring.
LABORATORY WORK.
A.—OBSERVATIONS UPON THE LIVING WORM.
(az) Take a living Earthworm, and after passing it through water to moisten its body, place it upon the laboratory table and observe its movements. Note its course. Does it always move with the same end of its body in advance? Can you discover by what means it is enabled to crawl? Note the course of its path on the table.
17
18 ANIMAL TYPES.
(6) Gently touch one end with your forceps, and note the result. Now touch the opposite end, and note the result. Which is the more sensitive?
(¢) Observe a blood vessel visible through the body-wall (m), extending longitudinally along the middle line,
and watch for its pulsation. Note the colors of the body.
B.—GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY AND EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.
(2) Examine an alcoholic or dried worm, and note the gen- eral shape of the body. Measure the exact length and greatest thickness of the body.
(2) Examine and compare the two ends of the body (m). Are they alike? Which do you regard the forward (anterior) end, and which the hinder (posterior) end of the body? Has the animal a head or tail? In what respects do the anterior and posterior ends differ?
(c) Which do you regard the lower (ventral) and which the upper (dorsal) surface of the animal? State your reasons. Are the dorsal and ventral surfaces exactly alike (m)? If not, in what respects do they differ?
(7) Imagine the animal divided vertically through the middle (median) line into nght and left halves.. Note that the two lateral halves are exactly alike (bi-laterally sym- metrical).
(e) Observe that the body is composed of sections or rings (somites). Can you find them in every region of the body? Are they everywhere exactly alike? :
(7) Note a thick band or girdle (cingulum) a little ways back of the anterior end of the body. Does the cingulum extend entirely around the body? Describe it. Over how many somites does it extend? Sketch (x 2) the
STUDY OF THE EARTHWORM 19
cingulum, including three somites a in front, and the three just back of it.
(g) Examine the first entire somite at the anterior end of the worm (mw). In front of the first somite note a pointed lip or lobe (prostomium). Is it attached prin- cipally to the dorsal or ventral region of the first somite? Sketch (X 2) the anterior end of the animal, dorsal view, including the prostomium and first ten somites. |
(2) Below the prostomium observe a small opening, mouzh, which perforates the first somite. |
(2) Observe the azus, a slit-like opening at the posterior end of the body. Does it extend up and down (dorso- ventrally) or from side to side (laterally)? Note the shape of the last somite and the form of the posterior end of the worm. Make a sketch (xX 2) of the posterior end of the animal, including the last ten somites.
(7) Make an accurate count and note the number of somites in front of the cingulum, the number occupied by the cingulum, the number back of the cingulum, and state the total number in the worm.
(2) Carefully examine the surface of the body (mw) to detect small bristle-like exoske/eta/ structures (sete) implanted in the body-wall and projecting a little distance beyond the surface. How many setz are there in each somite, where situated and how arranged? In what direction do they point? Can you find somites without sete? What do you suppose is the function of the sete? With your forceps remove a seta and examine it under the microscope (4%) and sketch. Make a diagram (x2) of a somite and indicate the position and arrangement of the sete.
(7) Observe the very delicate outer membrane (cuticle) which
20
ANIMAL TYPES.
covers the entire body. It is irridescent in the fiv- ing worm, and readily removed after the dead speci- men has been in water a few hours. Examine a small piece under the microscope (Af) and _ sketch its structure.
(m) Make a careful drawing of the Earthworm. Also make
two enlarged drawings (X 2) of the anterior end, a dorsal and a ventral view, each including the first forty somites, also a drawing of the posterior end dorsal view, including the last ten somites, and one of a seta.
(z) Write up a description of the topography and ex-
ternal structure.
C.—GROSS ANATOMY.
(a) Extend an Earthworm under water, dorsal surface up-
ward, and fasten it down with pins. With fine pointed scissors cut through the body-wall along the median, dorsal line from end to end. Note the transverse, membranous partitions (septa) which, in general, cor- respond to the external markings of the somites and divide the ccelom into many chambers.
(2) With your forceps carefully lift the flap on the left side,
and with a sharp scalpel cut the septa close along the body-wall. Now pin this flap back, and do the samc for the right side.
(c) Note the alimentary canal, which isastraight tube extend-
ing from the mouth to the anus, and observe its modifications in different regions. Note the thin- walled enlargement (buccal sac) in the region of the first three somites; the thick-walled portion (phar- ynx) extending from the fourth to the seventh somite; the straight tube (esophagus) extending from
STUDY OF THE EARTHWORM. 21
the seventh to the twelfth somite; the abrupt enlarge- ment (crop) extending from the twelfth to the sixteenth somite, and the similar one (gizzard) following and ex- tending back to about the twentieth somite. Trace the remaining portion of the alimentary canal from the gizzard to the anal opening. Make a diagram showing the various regions of the alimentary canal and name them. Note the fibrous structures passing from the surface of the pharynx. Where are they attached and what do you suppose is their use ?
(Zz) In a freshly killed animal which has not been in alcohol, observe a dark-red blood vessel (dorsal vessel) which extends from the hinder end of the body forward as far as the pharynx, over which it spreads in numerous branches. Observe that in one region the dorsal vessel gives off large swollen branches, so-called “hearts,” in pairs (lateral vessels) which pass around the alimentary canal. How many pairs of lateral vessels can you find? Can you find any other branches given off from the dorsal vessel ? Sketch (X 2) the dorsal vessel including its lateral branches.
(e) Back of the cingulum carefully remove a portion of the
3 intestine, about an inch in length, to expose the organs below. With your pipette wash out this region with water and then in the same way wash it with seventy per cent alcohol. In a few minutes place the animal under water again and examine (m) the body cavity along the ventral and lateral surfaces of the body wall. Note the long, slender excretory tubes (nephridia) thrown into loops. How many are there for each somite? Is the nephridium uniform throughout its entire length? Sketch (xX 20).
(f) In the median line, and extending longitudinally
22
ANIMAL TYPES.
along the floor of the body cavity, note a white thread- like structure (ventral nerve-chain). Observe (mm) that there are at regular intervals slight enlargements (nerve ganglia) of the nerve. How often do they occur with reference to the somites? Sketch (X 2).
D.—MINUTE ANATOMY.
(z) Examine a transverse section of the animal (4) through the intestinal region, placing the slide so that the dorsal view of the section shall extend away from you and the ventral view toward you. Observe the general outline of the section. Identify the body-wall, ccelom, intestine, dorsal vessel, lateral vessel, nephridia, and sete.
(4) Note that the intestinal wall in one place makes a deep fold (typhlosole) into the intestine and thus narrows its cavity. In which region of the intestine is the typhlosole situated ?
(c) In the ventral region of the ccelom note (4) an oval- shaped structure, ventral nerve-chain, with large cells (nerve cells) containing distinct nuclei.
(2) Between the nerve - chain and intestine, note a blood ves- sel (ventral vessel). Compare its size with that of the dorsal vessel. Make a careful diagram (/J) represent- ing in outline all the structures in this section which you have identified (de/. 2’).
(ce) Examine a favorable portion of the body-wall (Af) and note the number of cell layers and their arrangement. Note that the cells of each region are alike and inti- mately connected (tissue) and have apparently the same function. Observe the outer, thin, structureless layer, cuticle, and next to it the layer of columnar cells (epidermis) set side by side at right angles to
STUDY OF THE EARTHWORM. 23
the surface of the body. At which end of these cells are their nuclei? Note next a layer of tissue some- what thicker than the epidermis (circular muscles) with long fibers extending around the body; also the inner thicker layer (longitudinal muscles) whose fibers extend longitudinally to the body and are arranged in sheets, the cross sections of which have a feathery appearance. Make a drawing of the body wall showing the different cell-layers (de/. 7").
(f) Examine an egg capsule (7) and make two sketches, one of natural size and the other enlarged (xX 5).
(g) Study a preparation of the contents of a newly-laid cap- sule (7p) and observe the large spherical reproductive (2) bodies, ova, and the minute, lash-like reproductive ($) structures (spermatozoa).. Sketch.
(A) Examine a preparation (/#f) of the contents of an older capsule, and observe that instead of ova there are young Earthworms, more or less developed (embryos). Sketch.
(¢) Write a description of the gross and minute anatomy of the Earthworm, and make drawings of the principal structures included in this study.
OTHER WORK.
1. Demonstration of the digestive, circulatory, excretory, sensory, and reproductive systems in the Earthworm.
Habits of the Earthworm, and its relation to the soil.
Tapeworm, Trichina, Pasteworm, and Leech compared.
Degenerate condition of organs in parasitic animals.
The hfe-history of the Tapeworm, or of the Liver-fluke.
The characteristics and the classes of Vermes.
ANY P
References. — 22— 27 — 31 — 34 — 41 — 43 — 44 —62— 79 — 80— 85 — 88— gI — 106 — 116 — I20— 122— 124 — 126 — 129 — 137 — 140— I50— 156— 166,
STUDY VI. A STUDY OF A CRAYFISE
CAMBARUS IMMUNIS.
As a type of the Arthropoda or animals, showing more or less distinctly marked - body regions and segmented appendages. An example of the crustacean
ype.
Material Required.—(1) Living Crayfishes; (2) a supply of alcoholic material; (3) a few prepared exoskeletons of the Crayfish; (4) a prepared exoskeleton of the Lobster; (5) Carefully dissected preparations of the Crayfish and Lobster; (6) Injected preparations of the Lobster or Cray- fish ; (7) microscopical preparations of tissue.
Habitat.
The Crayfish is found in salt and fresh water. It is most accessible in ditches, along streams, in shady places and in low moist ground where it can reach water by burrowing a few feet below the surface. ._Its favorite hiding place is under stones lying near the edge of streams and in shallow water.
LABORATORY WORK.
A.—OBSERVATIONS UPON THE LIVING CRAYFISH.
(2) Study a living Crayfish in a tray of water and note its method of locomotion. By what method does it move forward? How many and which pairs of legs are employed ? How does it move backward? Explain - the process. In which direction can it move most rapidly P
(4) Frighten the animal by suddenly thrusting your hand toward it from in front and note the result. Now
24
THE CRAYFISH. 25
slowly move your pencil toward one of its large claws and note its action. Touch one of its long “horns.” What do you infer concerning their function ?
(c) With your forceps turn the animal on its back, upon the table, and note the result. In what way can you pick up the Crayfish with your fingers so that it cannot defend itself ?
EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY. B.—THE GENERAL FORM AND REGIONS OF THE BODY.
(z) Note the general form of the body as seen from the dor- sal aspect. Into how many principal regions is it dis- tinctly marked? |
(6) Note the anterior region (cephalo-thorax) including the head and anterior body regron with a continuous dorsal shell (carapace) covering. Note the posterior body region (abdomen), protected by a number of ring- like covers, one for each somite.
(c) Observe a more or less distinct transverse line or groove (cervical groove, or suture) which marks the carapace into two regions, the anterior (cephalic) or head region, and the posterior (thoracic) region. Trace the poste- rior and ventral edges of the carapace and note whether they are free or attached to the body.
(Z) Note the forward projection (rostrum) of the carapace, between and above the eyes. Makea careful sketch of the carapace, representing the cervical suture and
| rostrum. .
_ (e) Of how many somites is the abdomen composed? Bend and straighten the abdomen and note how the edges of the somites fit upon each other.
(f) In the last somite (telson) on its ventral aspect, note a longitudinal slit, the anal opening. Sketch the abdo-
26 ANIMAL TYPES.
men as seen from the dorsal aspect, representing nothing but the somites.
(g) Examine the shape of the third abdominal somite, tracing it entirely around thebody. Note the shape of the dorsal portion (tergite) of the somite shell; its lateral parts (pleurites); its ventral part (sternite). Note that the ventral edges of the pleurites end as scallops. Do all the pleurites terminate in this way? Sketch the left lateral view of the entire body, omit- ting the appendages, and number the abdominal somites from the thorax back.
C.—THE THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL APPENDAGES.
(2) Note the filament-like appendages (swimmerets) on the abdomen. Where on the somites are they located? {Jow many for each somite? How many pairs in all? Which somites, if any, have no swimmerets ?
(4) Examine carefully the swimmerets on the third somite (m). Note the stalk of the swimmeret, or proximal portion (protopodite) and its two branches, an outer branch (exopodite) and an inner (endopodite). Sketch (x 2). |
(c) Compare the swimmerets of different somites. Are they all alike? Describe any differences in appearance.
(7) Examine the distal end of the abdomen (caudal fin). Spread out the caudal fin and note the plan of its parts. Note the number and how the parts arrange themselves in folding. What is the function of the caudal fin? Sketch (X 2). 3
(ec) Note the large appendages of the ‘peas How many pairs are there? Examine the first having large jaws _ (chelz) and note the number of pieces (segments) of which it is composed. Note in how many places the
THE CRAYFISH. 24
segments unite to form joints (articulation). Sketch one of these appendages (chelapeds), carefully repre- senting all the segments and articulations (X 2).
(7) Examine one of the second pair of appendages and compare it with one of the first. Nowcompare it with one of the third pair and note the differences.
(¢) Examine one of the fourth and fifth pairs and compare them with the preceding pairs. Sketch one of the fourth pair (X 2).
(4) Can you discover any similarity between the thoracic and abdominal appendages? If you imagine the two parts of the jaws, or pincers in the thoracic append- ages as representing the exopodite and endopodite of the swimmerets, then which of these structures is not represented in the fourth and fifth thoracic append- ages?
D.—CEPHALIC APPENDAGES—ORAL AND TACTILE.
(z) Note three similar pairs of appendages (maxillipeds) just in front of the large pincers, or chele (m). With your forceps, lift the first pair and ascertain the number of segments in each. Describe and sketch (X 2). Examine the other two pairs of maxilli- peds and compare these with the first.
(2) Examine two pairs of thin appendages (maxille) in front of the maxillipeds (m). Sketch (xX 2). Can you identify exopodite and endopodite ?
(c) Note a pair of short, hard, toothed appendages (mandi- bles) in front of the maxille (m). Note that each mandible bears a jointed part (palpus). Sketch (x 2). Identify the mouth and describe its location.
(2) Note the long horn-like projections (antenne) on the front of the head. Describe their location with ref-
28 ANIMAL TYPES.
erence to the rostrum. Examine their large basal segments. How many segments in each antenna? Of what do the antennz consist? Sketch (X 2).
(ce) Near the base of the antennz, note a pair of smaller, similar appendages (antennules) How many branches altogether? Describe and sketch (X 2).
(7) Note the position of the eyes. What is peculiar concern- ing their attachment? Examine the stem or stalk upon which they are situated (7). With your forceps extend and retract the eye. Move it from side to side to determine its range of motion. Sketch (X 2). Examine the surface of the eye (m) and note the small spaces (facets) which are characteristic of com- pound eyes. Sketch a small portion to represent the facets.
(g) On the ventral surface of the basal segment of the anten- na, note a whitish cone (m) containing asmall opening from the excretory organs (green-glands).
(4) In the basal segments of each antennule, examine a small depression (ear-sac) having a thin membranous floor and beset by delicate sete, or hairs. What ex- ternal evidence is there of this structure being an ear ?
(¢) Make a drawing of a dorsal view of the Crayfish, first carefully arranging the appendages in a natural posi- tion. Write a description of the external morphology of the Crayfish.
INTERNAL ANATOMY. E.—THE GILLS AND THE GILL CHAMBER.
(a) With the points of your scissors carefully cut through the carapace along the dorsal median line as far for- ward as the cervical suture and then down on the left side, and remove the left portion of the carapace.
THE CRAYFISH. 29
Note the membranous lining and its extent, also the structure of the carapace and the fringe of sete or hairs along its ventral edges.
(4) Observe the feather-like respiratory structures (gills) now exposed. Observe the region or space they occupy (gill-chamber) and the character of its inner wall To what are the gills attached and how arranged ? How many sets of gills can you find? How many gills are there of each kind with reference to their place of attachment? Are the gills external or inter- nal structures ?
(c) Let some water flow over the gills so as to float them back into their natural position against the body. What is the natural course of the water through the gill- chamber in the living animal? Now make a sketch (X 2) of the gills attached to the left side of the body.
(7d) Examine a microscopic preparation (/f) of a small gill and sketch it.
F.—THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS.
(z) Remove the right side of the carapace and pin the ani- mal under water, dorsal surface upward. Begin at the first abdominal somite, and carefully cut through the body wall along each side of the abdomen backward to the telson, and remove the tergites. If the membrane lining the inner surface of the exoskeleton was left intact carefully remove it.
(6) Examine one of these tergites carefully and note its hard and elastic structure. The substance to which these properties are due (chitin) forms the hard parts of the Crayfish.
(c) In the dorsal region of the thorax, note a whitish oblong body (heart). The heart is the principal organ o!
ys
30 ANIMAL TYPES.
the circulatory system. Carefully move it from side ta side to discover its points of connection. Note the cavity (pericardial sinus) in which it is suspended.
(2) *At the anterior end of the heart, note the connection of several small whitish tubes or vessels (arteries) which convey the blood away from the heart when the latter contracts.
(e) Note the large median tube (ophthalmic artery) which extends forward and sends branches to the eyes. Observe a pair of vessels (antennary arteries) which take their origin near the base of the ophthalmic, one on each side, and pass obliquely downward and for- ward to supply the antenne. A short distance from their origin, the antennary arteries give off branches (gastric arteries) which supply the walls of the stomach with blood.
(f) At the posterior end of the heart, observe a large median blood vessel (superior abdominal artery) which passes back over the intestine and supplies the latter and adjacent regions.
(g) Examine the dorsal surface of the heart (m) to find a pair of valved slits (ostia), through which the blood enters the heart from the pericardial sinus. Can you find other ostia? Make a careful sketch ( X 2) of the heart and arteries, naming the parts.
(2) Below the pericardial sinus, observe the reproductive organs, either spermary (¢) or ovary (2). The sper- mary is a soft, white, three-lobed body; one lobe extending posteriorily and two anteriorly. Note at the
30 ~+‘junction of the lobes a pair of coiled tubes (sperm-— ducts) passing in a ventral direction. Sketch (x 2).
(¢) The ovary is a structure somewhat similar to the spermary,
* The student should have access to an injected preparation.
THE CRAYFISH. 31
excepting that its anterior lobes are situated more ventrally and that it may be relatively very large when the ova are nearly ripe. The tubes (oviducts) are straight and wider, and shorter than the sperm-ducts. Sketch (x 2). Can you find external openings of ovi- duct or sperm-ducts ?
G.—THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.
(2) Remove as much of the muscles along the left side of the thorax as is necessary to expose the ahmentary canal. Note the large muscles which lie in the abdomen, especially those (extensor muscles) which are situated above the alimentary canal. Observe that the alimentary canal is nearly a straight tube, extending through ae entire length of the body.
(6) Identify the short, wide tube, wsophagus, extending ver- tically from the mouth to the spacious enlargement, stomach, which occupies the greater part of the head and extends a little ways into the thorax.
(c) Note that the stomach consists of two regions, an ante- rior (cardiac chamber) and a posterior (pyloric chamber) separated by a constriction or infolding of the wall. *Note that the stomach is lined by a firm layer of chitin, which in one region is developed into a com- plex mechanism (gastric mill) of prominent internal folds, and three hard, dark structures (teeth).
(2) Back of the pyloric chamber, observe (m) the brownish lobed body (liver) on each side of the alimentary canal. The liver is a digestive organ whose function is to secrete a liquid (bile) which flows through a tube (bile duct) into the intestine. Can you find the bile duct P Sketch (xX 2) the liver and bile duct.
(e) From this point trace the intestine back to its external
* The student should have access to a dried preparation of the stomach of a Lobster.
32 ANIMAL TYPES.
opening, anus, in the telson. Make an outline sketch of the alimentary canal from a lateral view, naming all its parts. |
H.—THE CENTRAL NERVE CORD.
(2) With your scissors cut off the intestine near the anus and carefully lift it to one side, removing it from its nat- ural position as far forward as the cesopahgus. Observe the large white rolls of firm tissue (flexor muscles) which extend along each side of the median groove from which the intestine has been removed.
(4) Carefully press apart the two flexor muscles along the median line. In the floor of the abdomen along the median line, note the slender, white cord, central nerve chain, containing abrupt ganglionic enlargements. How many ganglia are there in the abdomen? Note . the branches (nerves) given off along the sides of the ganglia to supply the muscles of this region.
(c) Trace the central nerve chain forward through the thorax carefully cutting away all the hard parts necessary to. expose the nerve. Note the first large ganglion (sub- esophageal ganglion) back of the cesophagus. From this ganglion trace two branches (esophageal collar) which pass around the cesophagus, one on each side, and unite in a larger ganglion (‘‘ brain,’’ or supra-cesoph- ageal ganglion) some distance in front of the cesoph- —
agus and near the base of the antennules. This ganglion gives off branches to the eyes, antenne and antennules. | |
(7) Examine the ganglia situated in the thorax. How many are there ? Can you find nerves given off to the thoracic appendages? Make a careful sketch (X 2) representing the central nerve chain, ganglia, nerve collar, and. rain’
THE CRAYFISH. 23
(ce) Examine an eye of the Crayfish, which has been for about
five days in a .5% solution of chromic acid. Sketch it, including the eye-stalk. Strip off the clear cover (cornea) in front and examine it (4), and note your observations.
(7) Tease up a portion of the distal end of the eye in dilute
7:
glycerine and examine (/) it. Observe the elongated angular bodies (crystalline cones) which may be still continuous with spindle-shaped structures (rhabdomes). Where do you find the color cells (pigment cells) ? Sketch a few cones and rhabdomes.
OTHER WORK.
. A general view of the morphology and physiology of the
Crayfish.
The life-history and habits of the Crayfish.
The biology of food.
The general morphology of the Lobster, Spider-crab, Hermit-crab, and Sow-bug.
. The power in crustacea and lower groups of casting off
mutilated parts and developing new ones.
. A comparison of the forms of this group with reference
to structure and habits. Comparison of the crustacean type with types already studied.
8. The characteristics and the orders of Crustacea.
References. — 20— 22— 24 — 31 — 34 — 43 — 44 —72 — 79 — 80— 82— 85 — 88 — 91 — 96 — 106 — 108 — 115 — 116— 120 — 122 — 124 — 126 — 129 — 140 — 144 — 145 — 150— 170.
SLUDY FH.
A STUDY: OF A GRASSHOPEERE
*CALOPTENUS SPRETUS.
To present the type of arthropods which are organized for aérial respiration and flight. An example of the Insects.
Material Required.—(1) Live Grasshoppers; (2) a supply of alcoholic material; (3) a set of preparations of tissues; (4) several preparations of the hard parts; (5) carefully dissected specimens demonstrating the diges- tive system; (6) dissected specimens demonstrating the nervous system ; (7) aseries of stages in the development of the Grasshopper.
Habitat.
Grasshoppers inhabit nearly every section of the United States, and may be collected in abundance during the sum- mer and fall of the year. The supply of material can be stored in alcohol and kept indefinitely and ready for use.
LABORATORY WORK. EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY.
A.— GENERAL APPEARANCE AND TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BODY.
(z) Note the general outline of the body, viewed from its dorsal aspect, also as seen from a lateral aspect.
(2) Of how many principal regions is the body composed? Identify the head, thorax and abdomen.
(¢) Compare the general plan of the body with that of the Crayfish. Has the Grasshopper a more or /ess distinct head and neck?
* Any of the larger forms may be used instead of the species here named, and it is not important that the entire class be provided with the same species.
34
THE GRASSHOPPER., 35
B.—THE HEAD AND ITS APPENDAGES. .
(az) Observe the shape of the head. Is it movable? Make an outline sketch of the left view (<3).
(4) How many pairs of antennz are there? Note their attachment. How many segments (m) in each antenna? Sketch an antenna (X 3). Compare the antenne of the Grasshopper with those of the Crayfish.
(c) Observe the position and shape of the eyes. Examine (m) them to determine whether they are compound
eyes. In general, are tHey like or unlike the eyes in the Crayfish, and in what respects? In your last sketch indicate the shape and position of the left eye.
(2) Just in front of the large eye observe (m) a very small eye (ocellus). This is a single (simple) eye. Has it a mate on the other side of the head? Can you find (m) any more simple eyes, or ocelli on the head? If so describe their position and say whether they are in pairs. Represent the ocelli in your sketch.
(ec) In the lower part of the face, in front, observe a mov-
_ able flap, the upper lip (labrum). Move it, observe its . mode of attachment and its shape. Sketch the front view (X 3).
(7) Press the labrum up in front and with your scissors cut . it off close to the head. Observe back of its natural position a pair of hard, sharp-pointed jaws, manaiddes. Carefully pry them open with your forceps. In which direction do they move, laterally or longitudinally? Remove one, examine (m) its shape and make a sketch (X 3):
(g) Open the other mandible as far as possible and observe (m) a brown structure (tongue) a little ways back of the mandible. Identify the mouth.
(4) Examine the lower, posterior region of the head and
36
ANIMAL TYPES.
note a thin flap (labium) or lower lip. Move it and observe its shape. Note the pair of jointed append- ages (labial palpi) attached to its base. How many seg- ments (w#)in each labial palpus? Remove it and sketch the posterior view of the labium with its palpi (Xx 3).
(7) In front of the lower lip observe (m) a pair of smaller
jaws, maxillz, and note that each consists of three parts: a curved, toothed structure, which is the max- illa proper, a spoon-shaped structure covering the maxilla, and a jointed part (maxillary palpus). How many segments in this palpus (m). Remove one of the maxille and sketch it, representing all its parts
(X 3).
(.— THE THORAX AND ITS APPENDAGES.
(a) Observe the divisions of the thorax. How many are
thereP
(4) Examine the triangular anterior division (pro-thorax), sit-
uated just back of the head. Make an outline sketch — of the lateral view (X 3).
(c) Observe the first, or anterior pair of legs. To which
region of the thorax are they attached? Examine (m) one of the legs carefully and note the number of its | segments.
(7) Begin at the body and note the shape and relative size —
of the segments. Examine (m) the short, thick seg- ment (coxa) which moves upon, or articulates with the © hard covering of the thorax; observe the next segment (trochanter). How does it compare in size with the first? Now compare the third segment (femur) with
the first two. Compare the femur with the fourth seg-
ment (tibia) with reference to size, shape and struc- ture. elie
~
THE GRASSHOPPER. 37
(e) Examine (m) the remaining region (tarsus) of the leg. How many segments has it? Observe that one tarsus is provided with a pair of sharp hooks and others with soft pads or cushions. What do you suppose is the function of the hooks and pads? Make a careful sketch of the front view of this leg (X 3).
(7) Examine the middle division of the thorax (meso- thorax). Carefully trace the boundary between this division and the hinder portion of the thorax (meta- thorax), beginning on the ventral surface. Sketch the left lateral view of the mesothorax (X 3). ~/
(g) Examine (m) the pair of legs on the mesothorax, and state in what particular they differ from the first pair.
(Z) On the mesothorax just above the coxa observe a small narrow opening (spiracle) which is guarded by a pair of lips and serves as a breathing pore. Represent it in your last sketch.
(¢) Carefully examine the wings. Lift them and spread out those on the left side. How many pairs are there? To which division of the thorax are the first, or anterior pair attached? ‘To which division are the posterior wings attached ?
(7) Carefully note the shape and color of the left anterior wing. Examine () its structure. Sketch this wing (X 3):
(2) Study the posterior wings in the same way, and observe the system of thread-like ridges (veins) which consti- tute its framework. Spread out this wing, pin it and sketch.
(7) Compare the anterior with the posterior wing and note the principal points of difference.“ How are the two related when not in use? Do you think there is any difference in function?
\
38 ANIMAL TYPES.
(m) Examine the hindermost division or metathorax. Sketch the lateral view (X 3).
(z) Examine (m) the third pair of legs and identify all its
segments. Compare them with the corresponding
segments of the first pair. Sketch (X 3).
(0) What do you suppose is the function of the first and geeond pairs’ of legs? ‘The third “pam? o> Waa methods of locomotion has the Grasshopper ?
D.—THE ABDOMEN AND ITS PARTS.
(2) Observe the general shape of the abdomen, and the shape and arrangement of its somites. Does the covering of each somite extend entirely around the body as one piece? 2
(4) Examine the broad triangular piece in the dorsal region next to the metathorax. ‘This represents the first ab- dominal somite. Does it extend entirely around the body ?
(c) In the side of this incomplete somite observe (m) a large crescent-shaped cavity (auditory sac) contain- ing across its opening a delicate shiny membrane (tympanum), ear drum. Near the anterior edge of the auditory sac, observe (wz) a spiracle.
(2) Examine the covering or exoskeleton of the second ab- dominal somite. Of how many pieces does it consist ? Identify the ¢ergite, pleurite and sternite as you did in your study of the Crayfish. 3
(ec) How many abdominal somites has this Grasshopper ? Carefully count the tergites, beginning with the first or incomplete somite. Now count the sternites.
(f) Along the ventral edge of the pleurites observe (m) a series of spiracles. In which somites do you find spiracles ? ) |
THE GRASSHOPPER. 39
(g) Observe that the somites in the posterior region of the abdomen are much modified in- shape. This modifi- cation varies with the sex. In the female the abdomen is more tapering than in the male, and ends in two pairs of curved spines (ovipositor) which when brought together form a channel through which the eggs are deposited into the ground. Of which sex is your Grasshopper?
(z) Make a careful sketch of the abdomen, left view, repre- senting all your observations (X 3).
(¢) What are the principal points of similarity and difference between the Crayfish and Grasshopper ?
INTERNAL ANATOMY. E.—CIRCULATORY AND REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS.
(z) Take a large Grasshopper, either alcoholic or fresh, and remove the wings. Pin the specimen dorsal surface up, on the bottom of the dissecting tray. Remove the dorsal portion of the exoskeleton by begin- ning with the eighth or ninth somite and carefully cutting through the hard covering forward along the left side of the body to the head, using sharp pointed scissors. Now return to the point of beginning and with your forceps lift the cut edge of the upper wall, and with the point of your scalpel carefully loosen the tissues attached to its inner surface, turn the flap to your right and pin it down. The organs should should be studied under water.
{9) Examine the /ear?, which is a dorsal tube similar in posi- tion to that of the Crayfish. How does it differ from the heart in the latter animal? Sketch.
(¢) Observe (m) the row of white rounded bodies (air-sacs) along each side of the abdomen. The air-sacs are
40 ANIMAL TYPES.
likely to remain attached to the inner surface of the flap which has been turned back. Note the white branched tubes (trachee) connected with the air-sacs. Howare theair-sacs and trachee related to the spiracles? Carefully remove an air-sac and a portion of a trachea and examine them under the microscope (4). Sketch.
(2) If your specimen isa _ female, identify the ovartes which are likely to be quite prominent in the abdom- inal cavity. Note the shape (m or 4) and color of the ova. Sketch (X 4). Identify the ovzducfs, one on each side, leading to the ovipositor.
(ce) Remove all the eggs on the left side, being careful not to injure the organs which lie below.
(7) In the lateral regions of the thorax observe the large white bundles of muscles. Note their direction on the the right side. What do you suppose is their func- tion? With your forceps pull off a small bit of muscle, tease it out on a slide with your needles, and examine it under the microscope (4). Sketch.
(g) Examine (Af) a permanent preparation of stained muscle. ~ Note the fine thread-like structures (muscle fibres). Observe the more highly stained nuclei. Carefully focus upon a fibre .nd determine whether there are faint parallel markings across it (striated muscle fibre), or whether the fibre is without such série, or marks (unstriated muscle fibre). Make a careful sketch repre- senting a few fibres with nuclei, etc.
F.—THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
(a) Clear away all the muscles in the thorax lying above or along the left side of the alimentary canal.
(6) Trace the digestive tube or alimentary canal, beginning at the anterior end. Observe the dark portion of the tube, wsophagus, passing up from the meuth and
THE GRASSHOPPER. 4lI
curving backward. Note its enlargement, cvop~, in the prothorax.
(¢) Back of the crop, note several sandle: shaped pouches (gastric ceca) which extend parallel with the digestive tube. Are the gastric ceca connected with the digest- ive tube? How many are there? Make an outline sketch of the digestive tube up to this point (x3) and develop it as you continue your study.
(dz) Back of the gastric czca, observe an enlargement, the true stomach. ‘Through how many abdominal somites does it extend?
(ec) Trace the z#¢estine from the stomach to its external open- ing. Complete your sketch.
(7) Press the crop a little to the right and look for several clusters of small bodies (salivary glands) and note the small tube which connects them with the mouth. Sketch (X 3).
(g) Write up your notes on the anatomy of the Grasshopper,
and make careful drawings of the principal organs.
OTHER WORK.
1. The morphology and physiology of respiration and circula- tion in the Grasshopper.
2. Comparative review of the digestive ; a nervous systems in the Grasshopper and Crayfish. |
Characteristics of the Moth, Beetle, Bee, Fly, etc.
The characteristics of Spiders.
The life-history and metamorphosis in insects.
Intelligence in insects and lower types of animals.
Relation of insects to plants and to other animals.
The characteristics and the orders of Insecta.
COW AN Pw
References. — 8 — 22— 24 — 31 — 33 — 34 — 44 — 50 80 — 85 — 88 — 91 — 98 — 99 — IoI — 103 — 116 — 120 — 122 — 124 — 128 — 129 — 130 — 135 — 136 — 140— 148 — 150— 168,
STUDY VIII.
A STUDY OF A FRESH-WATER MUSSEL.
UNIO PLICATA. As an example of the soft-bodied unsegmented Mollusk type.
*Material Required.—(1) living mussels; (2) stock supply for dissec- tion; (3) a set of transverse sections for gross anatomy; (4) a supply of shells; (5) a few injected specimens; (6) the young stages of the mussels ; (7) microscopic preparations of tissues.
Habitat.
The Pond, or Swan Mussel is common in ponds, slow streams, and canals. It prefers a muddy or sandy bottom where it can sink until only the extreme posterior dorsal edge is exposed above the mud and sand. It is easily kept in the laboratory throughout the year. For observation and study the live Mussel should be kept in an aquarium containing several inches of clean sand in the bottom. A stock supply of live Mussels may be kept in a tub or tank and if the water _is changed once or twice per week they will not suffer for the want of a constant flow of fresh water.
The Mussels intended for gross sectioning should be killed in an aqueous solution of 0.25 per cent. chromic acid in which they remain about forty-eight hours, and are then transferred to alcohol. Mussels intended for dissection may be killed by being put into cold water and slowly warmed to a tempera- ture of about 70° C.
* Any species of Unio, Anodonta, or even the Quahog, will answer very well for this study. In the United States the general name for the Musselis Clam,
42
THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL. 43
LABORATORY WORK. EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY.
A.—THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GENERAL FORM OF THE SHELL.
(z) Observe the general shape of the shell. Note that one end, azzertor, is more blunt than the other, posterzor, end, and that one edge (dorsal margin) is thicker than the opposite (ventral margin). With the anterior end pointing away from you and the dorsal edge upward, sketch the outline of the dorsal edge and name the ends.
(4) Of how many pieces (valves) is the shell of the Mussel
| composed? Howcan you designate the valves with
reference to their position? )
(c) Determine which is the right and which the left valve. Make an outline sketch of the right valve and indicate the anterior, posterior, dorsal and ventral regions.
B.—THE OUTER SURFACE OF THE SHELL.
(2) At the dorsal margin observe a pair of elevations (umbones, or beak), one on each valve. Is the umbo nearer the anterior or posterior end?
(4) Between the umbones and extending back of them note asmooth band (hinge-ligament). How is the ligament related to the valves? What function do you attribute to the ligament > : ,
(c) Note the markings (lines of growth) on the surface of the valves. Describe their origin and direction. What is the nature of these lines, and how do you suppose they are formed? Do you find any other surface markings ? Describe them. Sketch the left valve and represent the umbo, lines of growth, etc.
(2) Observe the thin, horny membrane (periostracum) pro- jecting along the ventral edges of the valves (m). Do you find the periostracum in any other region (m)?
AA ANIMAL TYPES.
(ec) Note and describe the coloring of the valve. Make an outline drawing of the dorsal aspect.
C.—THE INNER SURFACE OF THE SHELL.
(2) *Place a Mussel in water sufficient to cover it and slowly warm to about 4o°C. Raise the left valve, and be- ginning at the ventral edge, with the handle of your scalpel carefully free the membrane attached to the inner surface of the valve. Now cut through the tough bodies which are attached to the valves, one near the anterior and one near the posterior end of
. the shell.
(4) Note the character of the inner surface of the shell. Observe its texture and color.
(c) Note the form and structure of the hinge ligament. Press the valves together and then release them and note the result. What is the function of the hinge ligament? Examine its structure carefully to deter- — mine how it performs its function.
(7) In the anterior region of the dorsal edge of the right valve note an irregular projection (hinge ‘‘tooth’’), and a little distance back of this structure note another of very different form. Can you find a mate for each of these structures on the left valve ?
(¢) Compare the anterior tooth (cardinal tooth) with the one farther back (lateral tooth). How do they differ? Are the mates of the cardinal teeth alike? Are those of the lateral teeth alike ? Ly
(7) What function do you attribute to the hinge teeth? Why? Sketch each pair. |
(g) Near the anterior end of the valve, note a scar-like struc-
*In order to economize the time of the class, the instructor should prepare the Mussels in advance.
THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL. 45
ture (anterior adductor impression) where a large muscle has been attached, and a similar one near the poste- rior end of the valve (posterior adductor impression).
(2) In each muscle scar observe (mz) the circular markings, lines of growth. Sketch a muscle scar and show these lines. }
(1) A short distance from the ventral edge and extending parallel with it, note a boundary line (pallial line). Where are the ends of this line? Sketch.
D.— THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE SHELL.
(2) Take a piece of shell and examine (m) the broken edge. How many kinds of layers can you distinguish?
(4) Is the structure in each layer the same? Compare the relative thickness of the layers. Sketch the broken edge.
(c) Put a small bit ,of shell into a test-tube and add a few drops of acid (at thesink.) Notetheresult. What do you infer?
(2) Examine a shell which has been exposed to great heat,
7 Zz. e., burnt. What do you observe?
—E.— EXTERNAL APPEARANCE OF THE BODY IN OPENED SHELL.
(z) In a specimen with the left valve removed, note the gen- eral appearance of the body. Note the character ot the body-wall. Identify it in the different regions. Which side of the body is exposed?
(4) Note the whitish circular structures, one near the anterior (anterior adductor muscle) and the other (posterior adductor muscle) near the posterior end of the body. What corresponding structure did you find in the valves?
(c) What relation between these muscles and the muscle
46 ANIMAL TYPES.
scars do you infer? What function do you attribute to the adductor muscles?
(2) Note the flap of membrane (left mantle-lobe) which cov- ers the left side of the body. With your forceps gently lift it by its ventral edge and trace and describe its free edge. Sketch the outline of the mantle and indicate the position of the adductor muscles.
(ec) Note the right mantle-lobe. Is it anywhere attached to the left lobe? If so, where?
(7) Lift the edge of the right mantle and note the line of attachment to the shell. What is this boundary line?
(g) At the posterior end of the mantle note the fringed edges (siphons) of the mantle. How are the two mantles related in this region? Examine (m) the dark tips (tentacular processes) on the siphons. Sketch the siphons, representing the processes.
(2) With your forceps lift the left lobe and note the space (pallial, or mantle cavity) between it and the right lobe.
(¢) Note how far dorsally the mantle is free from the body, or the extent of the pallial cavity.
F.— THE ORGANS LYING IN THE PALLIAL CAVITY.
(2) With your scissors carefully trim away the mantle along its line of attachment to the body, beginning at the anterior adductor muscle. Make a sketch locating the muscles and representing the course and position of the cut edge of the mantle. ‘This cut edge represents the dorsal boundary of the pallial cavity.
(4) Note the membranous _ structures, g7//s, which are attached to the body along the dorsal region of the pallial cavity.
(c) Play a stream of water from your pipette upon the ail and cause them to float and separate so that you may
THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL. A
observe their exact form and relation. Observe their attachment and relation to the body. How can you des- ignate them with reference to their position?
(2) With your forceps carefully lift the upper (left outer gill) and observe and note its size and shape? Which edge is attached and which edges are free P
(ec) Lay the outer gill back and lift the lower (left inner gill) and note its size and shape. How are the two gills related ? Now lay them into their natural position. Which is the larger, and in what directions? Make an outline sketch of them in their natural position.
(f) Examine (mz) the surface of the outer gill and sketch a portion of it. Examine (4) a microscopic prepara- tion of cross sections of the gill. Sketch.
(g) Just below the anterior adductor, observe (m) a pair of small membranes (labial palpi, or palps). Move them slightly with your forceps, or play the pipette upon them and note their position, shape, and relation. Designate the palps as you did the gills.
(A) At the anterior end, how is each palp related to its mate on the other side of the body?
(¢) Between the outer and inner palps, at their extreme anterior ends, search (w) for a small opening, “le mouth. Insert bristle. What do you suppose is the function of the palps ? Sketch the palps and indicate the position of the mouth.
(7) Observe the large firm structure (foot) lying below the left gills and palps. Note its shape and sketch its outline. Name the organs which you have thus far observed in the pallial cavity.
(2) Note that the part of the pallial cavity which extends from the base of the gills ventrally (branchial chamber) is more or less separated by the gills and
48 ANIMAL TYPES.
foot into several compartments. How many com. partments in the region of the foot? How many back of the foot ?
(4) Observe that at the posterior end of the gills the right and left mantle lobes meet and form a longitudinal partition through the siphon region. This partition thus forms an upper space or tube (exhalent, or cloacal siphon) and a lower (inhalent, or branchial siphon). _
(m) Which siphon connects with the branchial chamber? Which connects with the cloacal chamber ?
(z) In the cloacal siphon just back of the posterior adduc- tor, note a small opening, azus.
(0) Make careful drawings of the different views of the valves and of the Mussel lying in the shell. Write a description of the Mussel as far as now studied.
*7NTERNAL ANATOMY.
G.—THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.
(2) In the dorsal region of the body, between the hinge ligament and the base of the gills, observe the outline of a longitudinal cavity (pericardial cavity) protected only by a delicate portion of the body wall. With your scissors carefully cut away this delicate membrane as far as the anterior ends of the gills and back to the posterior adductor muscle. This somewhat triangular opening exposes the pericardial cavity.
(4) In the central region of the pericardial cavity, observe the pale muscular A/ear¢ consisting of three divisions of which two are readily seen. Examine first the elongated thick-walled sac (ventricle) lying in the
* The student should be impressed with fe fact that although a valve or exoskeleton of
the animal has been removed, yet his study up to this point has been external to the true body wall. ;
THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL. | 49
middle of the cavity. Note that it is somewhat coni- cal, its smaller end extending forward and the larger bi-lobed end backward.
_ (¢) Nowobserve a thin-walled, triangular sac (left auricle) hav- ing its apex connected with the lateral region of the ventricle and its base extending along the base of the gills. By carefully lifting the ventricle, a portion of a similar structure (right auricle) may be seen on the opposite side of the body. The auricles receive aérated blood from the gills and convey it to the ven- tricle, which in turn by its contraction sends the blood to all parts of the system.
(7) Trace the anterior end of the heart forward and observe that it gradually becomes a firm-walled tube (anterior aorta) which lies along the side of a larger tube, zvzes- time. ‘The anterior aorta conveys aérated blood from the ventricle to the “foot,” viscera and the anterior region of the body. At the posterior end of the ven- tricle observe a similar blood vessel (posterior aorta) which divides into right and left branches. This vessel supplies aérated blood to the posterior regions of the body. * Make a careful sketch of the pericar- dial cavity, showing the heart, aortas and intestine.
(ec) Examine blood corpuscles, either fresh, which may be taken from the auricle by means of a pipette, or in a permanent preparation. Note the form and size and color of the corpuscles. Sketch.
H.—THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. (2) Beginning at the mouth, determine the course and regions of the alimentary canal. Insert a seeker into
* The student should have an opportunity to see the pulsations of the heart in a live Mus- sel. For this demonstration the valve should be removed as described in the foregoing direc- lections (p. 44) and the animal kept under water.
50 -
ANIMAL TYPES.
the mouth and pass it in a dorsal direction as far as it will easily go. Now with your scissors slit open this region of the alimentary canal, esophagus, and note its position and length.
(4) Note the enlargement, stomach, at the inner end of
the cesophagus. Carefully examine the shape and size of the stomach. Along its ventral wall, seek a small opening which leads obliquely down and backward into another portion of the alimentary canal, zz/es- tine. Use the seeker to guide you in the direction of the intestine. Now slit open this portion of the intestine. Make a sketch of the alimentary canal from the mouth to this point, and develop it as you proceed to reveal the direction and position of the remaining portions of the canal.
(c) Observe a lobed gland, ver, surrounding the stomach
and a portion of the cesophagus. Represent the liver in your sketch..
(2) Carefully trace the intestine to its entrance into the
anterior end of ‘the pericardial cavity which begins just back.of the stomach. Note whether the diam- eter of the tube or the thickness of its wall has varied.
(e) Trace the remaining portion of the alimentary canal
(rectum) horizontally through the pericardial cavity, and observe that it seems to enter the anterior region of the ventricle. Carefully dissect away the ventricle, which really passes around the sides and over the rectum. Bring up your sketch to this point.
(7) Trace the rectum from the posterior end of the peri-
cardial cavity, and observe that it passes along over the dorsal region of the posterior adductor muscle, and then obliquely downward, and opens through a small slit, azuvs, into the cloacal chamber.
THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL. 51
(g) Examine a transverse section through the body of the Mussel in the region of the “foot” and identify all the structures which you have now learned. Make a careful sketch of this section.
(i) Examine (4) preparations of the young stages, or larve (glochidia) of the Mussel. Sketch.
(¢) Write a careful description of the anatomy of the Mussel from your notes and sketches, and make drawings of the alimentary canal and circulatory system.
OTHER WORK.
1. General view of the morphology and physiology of the Mussel.
2. The significance of the absence of appendages and the unsegmented body in the Mussel.
3. The life-history and habits of the Mussel.
4. The general characteristics of the Oyster, Snail, Squid, Cuttlefish and Nautilus with comparisons.
5. The characteristics of Bryozoa and the Ascidia.
6. Oyster culture and the economic interests in the Mol- lusca.
7. Characteristics and the classes of Mollusca.
COMPARATIVE REVIEW ON THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE INVERTE-
BRATE TYPES.
It is important at this point that the student should take a thorough review on the invertebrate types, and that this should embrace not only his laboratory work upon these types but also his lectures and collateral reading included under the
head of Other Work.
1. Comparative review of the general external appearance and the habits of the invertebrate types of animals. 2. The hard parts or exoskeletons,— spicules, spines and
52 ANIMAL TYPES.
ossicles, sete, chitinous shells and bristles, calcareous shells.
3. The organs of digestion and assimilation, forms of pre- hension, digestion in the simple cell, in the special- ized cell, the enteron or primitive alimentary canal, the true alimentary canal, the more highly specialized alimentary canal, the glands aiding in the process of digestion.
4. The organs of respiration,— by means of general sur- face; specialized regions; tracheze; gills.
5. The organs of circulation,—in the simple cell; in an aggregation of simple cells; true blood vessels, a heart and arteries; lacunz and veins; true capillaries and a closed system; the simple “arterial heart.”
6. The muscular system ;— contractility as a characteristic property of protoplasm ; specialized muscle processes ; muscle fibres; muscles and a complex system.
7. The sense organs ;—sensation in the animalcule; spe- cialized nerve fibres; nerves and ganglia; specialized nerve centres ; organs of sight; organs of hearing.
8. Reproduction ;—simple cell division; budding ; special- ization of two kinds of cells in the same animal; gonads, distinct sexes. ‘The course of development from the ovum.
g. A general view of the gradual advance from the simple to the complex in structure, and from the simple to the highly specialized in function.
References. — 31—43— 44—79— 80 — 88 — 89 — 91 — 106 — 115 —116— 120 — 122 — 124 — 126— I29— I40.
STUDY IX. PeshUbDY OF A: RIVER. PERCH.
PERCA FLAVESCENS+*
As an example of the simpler vertebrated type, having a true internal skeleton.
Material Required.__(1) Live minnows or any small fish in an aqua- rium ; (2) a supply of fresh Perch7; (3) a dissection showing the digestive and circulatory systems; (4) adissection of the central nervous system; (5) a mounted endo-skeleton of the Perch; (6) a supply of disarticulated bones ; (7) microscopical preparations of tissues; (8) preparations showing the principal stages in the development of the egg.
; Habitat.
The Common Perch inhabits the streams and lakes gener- aly throughout the northern regions of the United States. It is an important food-fish, and may be obtained from the market during all seasons of the year. The River Perch spawns in the Spring, depositing its’ eggs in large tubular, zigzag masses. The young (small fry) hatch in from two to four weeks, the period varying with the temperature of the water
LABORATORY WORK. EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY. A.—THE GENERAL FORM OF THE BODY.
(z) Note the outline of the body as seen from the lateral _ aspect. As seen from the dorsal aspect. Make sketches
*This guide will serve quite as well for the study of any Fresh-water Perch or Sea Perch, and will also answer fairly well for a Bass.
tDuring warm weather the fish should be kept on ice when not inuse. For general study alcoholic specimens are not so desirable.
53
54 ANIMAL TYPES.
(del. 2") representing these outlines. To what does its form seem to be adapted?
(4) If the body is narrower between the lateral aspects than between the dorsal and ventral, the fish is said to be compressed, if vice versa, it is said to be flattened. Which is true of the perch ?
(c) Take the following measurements in centimetres: (1) Length, from tip of snout to base of tail fin; (2) Depth, the greatest distance between dorsal and ventral edges; (3) Width, the greatest thickness between lateral aspects; (4) Length of head, from tip of snout to posterior tip of the flap situated on the side of the head. What are the relative lengths of head and body ?
(z) Note the general shape of the head. Observe the relation of the head to the body. Is therea neck? >
B.—THE APPENDAGES.
(a) Observe the fan-like structures (fins) extending along the dorsal edge of the body. With your forceps stretch them open. Are they alike in shape and size ?
(4) Observe the bony structures (fin-rays) which constitute the skeleton or frame work of the fin and determine its shape.
(c) Examine the anterior fin (anterior dorsal) and sheen
that its fin-rays are hard and stiff, and consist of only,
one piece (spinous, or inarticulated rays). How many spinous rays are there in the anterior dorsal fin? Do you find any other kind of ray ?
(7) Examine the other dorsal fin (posterior dorsal) and ~
observe the character of its fin-rays. Bend them with your fingers and examine (wv) their structure, and note that these (soft, or articulated rays) are of a different
LY
STUDY OF A RIVER PERCH. 55
kind. How many soft rays do you find in the poste- rior dorsal ? Are there any spinous rays P
(ec) Compare the soft rays with the spinous rays and note at least three differences. The soft rays of some fishes are composed of an elastic substance (cartilage) which represents bone in an incomplete state of develop- ment. Are any of the rays in the Perch cartilaginous ?
(7) Examine the membrane which constitutes a part of the fin. How isit related to the fin-rays with reference to position? Stretch open the dorsal fins and sketch them.
(g) Examine the fin at the posterior end of the body, caudal jin. Spread it out and note its general shape. Are its dorsal and ventral lobes symmetrical (homocercal) in every respect or does the back-bone seem to extend into the upper lobe and so render the external appearance of the tail unsymmetrical (heterocercal) ?
(2) How many and what kind of fin-rays do you find in the caudal fin? Make an outline sketch of the caudal fin.
(¢) Examine the fin (anal fin) on the ventral edge of the body just in front of the caudal fin. Note the num- ber and kind of rays. Sketch.
(7) Note that all the fins which you have already examined are in the median line of the body (median fins) and extend in a vertical plane, that they occur singly and not in pairs, there being only one of each kind.
(2) Observe a pair of fins (pectoral fins) one on each side of the body, just back of the head. Examine to ascer- tain the number and kinds of rays in each. Sketch.
(2) Observe another pair of fins (ventral fins), situated farther back and more nearly on the ventral region of the body. Ascertain the number and kinds of fin- rays. Sketch one of the ventral fins.
56 ANIMAL TYPES.
(m) The pectoral fins in the fishes are supposed to be homo- fogous to the wings of the bird, or the fore-legs of a higher animal. _ Are they also analogous to these appendages? Give yourreason. Explain the homo- logy and analogy of the ventral fins.
C.—THE EYES.
(a) Note and describe the exact location of the eyes. Iden- tify and examine the eye sockets (orbits) and eye-ball.
(4) Observe the bony walls of the socket, and note the small bone (ante-orbital) in front, and one below (sub- orbital) forming this wall. Sketch (xX 2) outline of a socket and these bones.
(c) With your forceps, touch the edge of the eye-ball at different points and observe its free motion (range of vision). Compare the range of vision in the Perch with that of higher animals and man.
(2) Observe the dark circular space (pupil) in the eye-ball. Note the colored membrane surrounding the pupil (iris). Describe its color in the Perch.
(ec) What is the pupil of the eye? Its color and why? Sketch the eye-ball with iris and pupil.
(f) Observe the transparent outer coat, cornea, over the iris and pupil. Note its smooth surface.
(g) Can you find eye-lids or eye-lashes in the Perch? Demonstrate that the eye-ball may be slightly pro- truded and retracted. What means of protection of the eye has the Perch?
D:—-THE NOSTRILS.
(2) Identify the nostrils (nares) and note their number, exact location and arrangement. |
(4) Examine with the bristle to determine their internal relation. Are any connected? If so, which ones?
STUDY OF A RIVER PERCH. 57
With bristle carefully determine whether the nostrils open through the roof of the mouth.
(c) Compare the nostrils in the Perch with those of man. What inference do you draw concerning the function of the nostrils in the Perch ?
E.—THE MOUTH.
(a} Identify the jaws and note the method and extent of opening. Note the shape of the mouth when open and when closed.
(2) Observe the large openings (gill-openings) along the side of the head. Pass your forceps through the mouth and out at one of these openings and note its extent.
(c) Observe the bones in the upper lip (pre-maxillaries). Move them slightly with your fingers and determine their number and shape. ‘Touch them with the tip of your little finger. Have they teeth? Sketch a pre- maxillary (xX 2).
(2) Observe the bones just back of the pre-maxillaries (max- illaries), and note their number and shape. Have they teeth? Sketch a maxillary (X 2).
(e) Are there any bones in man which are similar in structure and position, homologous, to the pre-maxillaries in the Perch ? Are there any which are similar in function, analogous? Name them.
(f) With the tip of your little finger feel in the roof of the mouth, and find a patch of fine teeth. Note the posi- tion of the bone (vomer) which bears these teeth.
(g) Note the bones (palatines) along the sides and a little way back of the vomer. Have they teeth?
(A) Study the shape of the lower jaw when the mouth is wide open. When it is closed. Of how many bones does it consist? Note the anterior bone
| | ANIMAL TYPES.
(dentary) of the lower jaw. Are these teeth on the dentary ? « Sketch (X 2). }
(¢) Examine the tongue. Note its shape. Can it be pro- truded beyond jaws?
F.— THE GILL-COVERS.
(a) Observe the large flap, or gill cover (operculum) along the side of the head. Note its shape and see which edges are free and which attached to the head. Note the large gill-opening between its posterior edge and the head.
(4) Observe the delicate bones of the operculum. Note the shape of the one extending farthest back (opercle) and ending in a spine. Note the shape of the one (sub- opercle) just below the opercle. And the one (inter- opercle) just in front of the sub-opercle. Note the bone (pre-opercle) in front of the opercle and observe its peculiarities.
(c) Note the patch of scales in the region (cheek) just in front of the pre-opercle. Now make a diagram of the en- tire operculum, showing the position and shape of the bones.
(2) Note a tan-like structure (branchiostegal apparatus) along the ventral edge of the operculum. With your forceps spread it open. What does it resemble ? Of what is it composed ? Where is it attached to the head ?
(e) Note the skeleton (branchiostegal rays) of this apparatus. How do the rays vary in size?
(7) Note the membrane (branchiostegal membrane) which cov- ers these rays. Now make a sketch of the branchios- tegal apparatus.
(¢) Observe the narrow-pointed region (isthmus) of the body between the branchiostegal apparatus of the two sides. Sketch
STUDY OF A RIVER PERCH. 59
G.—THE GILLS.
(2) Raise the left operculum and observe the red structures, gills, beneath it. With your forceps lift the upper or frst (anterior) gill. Where is it attached?
(4) Determine the central bony arch (branchial, or gill-arch) supporting the gill. Is it composed of several pieces or of a single piece?
(c) Examine (m) the red fringes (gill-filaments) along ae edge of the gill-arch, and designate their exact posi- tion.
(2) Note the arrangement and exact position of the teeth- like structure (gill-rakers) along the arches. Note at least two additional facts about the gill-rakers.
(ec) Depress the tongue with your finger and note the effect on the gill-rakers.
(7) Observe a red line, d/ood-vessel, along the base of the gill-flaments. What do you assume to be the function of the gill-arche Of the gill-rakers? Of the filaments? Make a sketch of a complete gill xe .2)-
(g) With your forceps lift the next, or second gill, then the nextand soon. Howmany gillsdo you find? How many pairs has the Perch?
(4) Compare the gills on the same side and note the points of difference.
(2) Note the large space (first gill-cleft) between the oper- culum and the first gill. Where is the second gill- cleft? The third, etc.P How many gill-clefts are there ? Compare their sizes.
(7) On the inner surface of the operculum in the dorsal region, note a red spot (false-gill). |
(2) Remove a small tuft of gill-filaments and examine it under the microscope (4). Sketch.
60 ANIMAL TYPES.
H.—THE SCALES.
(2) Observe the bony covering (scales), the exoskeleton of the body. Note their arrangement. Show by sketch.
(4) With your forceps pull out a scale from the ventral region of the body. Examine (7) it carefully and study the radiating and concentric markings, s/#7z@, on its outer surface.
(c) Note that the scales (ctenoid scales) have one scalloped edge, and fine, straight comb-like teeth on the opposite edge. In some fishes the edges of the scales are smooth (cycloid scales).
(2) Note a distinct line (lateral line) extending along the sides of the body. Where are the ends of this line?
(ec) Pull out and carefully examine a scale from the lateral line and note any peculiarity. Sketch. What is the true nature of the lateral line? Compare a lateral line scale with one from some other region.
(7) Examine (m) the delicate membrane, epidermis, which covers the scales. How _ is it related to the scales? Make a diagram representing a longitudinal sectiona! view of scales and membrane.
(g) Pull out a scale from a black spot and observe its color. Take one from a white or yellow spot and compare Where is the color, gzgment, of the spots; in the membrane or in the scale ?
(2) Make an outline drawing of a Perch, natural size, show- ing the left lateral aspect. Write a description of the external morphology from your notes and sketches.
THE INTERNAL ANATOMY.
I.— THE BODY-CAVITIES.
{z) Just in front of the anal fin, note an opening through the body wall, the external opening of the intestine,
STUDY OF A RIVER PERCH. 61
anus. Hold the fish in the palm of your left hand with its ventral edge upward and anterior end point- ing away from you. About half an inch in front of the anal opening thrust the point of one of the blades of your scissors through the body-wall and cut along the median line forward into the isthmus, being care- ful not to insert the blades so far as to injure the internal organs. Now lay the fish into the dissecting tray with its head pointing to your left and its ventral edge toward you. With your forceps lift the cut edge of the left body-wall, and beginning at the point of the first incision trim away as much of the body-wall as possible without injuring the organs. Lay this flap forward or remove it entirely.
(4) Note the form of the Jody cavity which is now laid open, Observe the silvery membrane (peritoneum) lining the body cavity.
(¢) Trace the outline or boundary of the body cavity as seen from the ventral aspect. At its anterior limit, observe the membranous cross-partition (false diaphragm) which separates the larger, or abdominal body cavity from a smaller cavity, pericardial cavity, in front. Note the shape of the pericardial cavity and make a dia- gram showing the outline of the body cavities (xX ¥%).
J.— THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
(2) Take a general view of the organs in the abdominal cav- ity. Move them slightly to ascertain their relation and connections. Identify as nearly as you can.
(4) Study the alimentary canal, beginning at its anterior end. Pass a probe back through the mouth into the straight wsophagus which leads into the abdominal
62 ANIMAL TYPES.
cavity, and locate the end of the probe back of the diaphragm. Now, without breaking or cutting any tissue, trace the alimentary canal from this point.
(c) Examine the large stomach. Turn the fish and exam- ine it also on its right side. Note the shape of the stomach. Find the point where the stomach ends and the smaller portion of the alimentary canal (small intestine) begins. From which part of the stomach does the intestine arise? Make an outline sketch of the alimentary canal up to this point, disregarding for the present any organs attached to it or lying upon it.
(7) Now trace the small intestine along its course and loops to the point where it becomes larger and more nearly straight. Represent the small intestine in your last sketch. .
(e) Trace the straight portion of the intestine (large intestine) to its external opening, a@zus, and complete your sketch of the alimentary canal.
(7) Observe the thin membrane, mesenzery, which holds the intestine in place. In which region of the abdominal cavity is the mesentery attached ?
(g) Study the large reddish organ, ver, lying in the anterior region of the abdominal cavity and chiefly on the left side of the median line. How many lobes has the liver? Where is it attached ?
(2) On the posterior surface of the liver, observe a greenish thin-walled sac (bile sac, or bile bladder). Can you find any connection between the bile sac and the intestine? Prick the bile sac with your dissecting needle and see the greenish liquid, dz/e, flow out. What is the function of the liver? Of what use to the perch is the bile? Sketch the liver and bile sac.
(7) Study the pointed, worm-like tubes (pyloric ceca) im-
STUDY OF A RIVER PERCH. 63
bedded in fat at the junction of the stomach and intestine. Carefully clear away the fat to expose the ceca. Snip off a cecum and carefully examine (m) it. What is the nature of it? How many ceca are there? Where are they connected. Sketch.
(7) Observe a small, reddish-brown body (spleen) a little way back along the intestine and in the mesentery. Has it any connection with the intestine? Sketch.
K.— THE REPRODUCTIVE AND EXCRETORY ORGANS.
(2) In the posterior region of the abdominal cavity, are the gonads or reproductive organs. In the Perch, as in all higher animals, the sexes are separate, hence only Ovaries or spermaries exist in the same individual.
(2) In the female Perch, the gonad (@) is a single struc- ture, varying much in size with the season.* During the spawning season it may occupy the larger por- tion of the abdominal cavity. Note its color. Examine the ova (m). Sketch a small patch of ova.
(c) Can you find a delicate membranous tube, oviduct, con- nected with the ovary? Where does it lead? Make an outline sketch of the ovary.
(Zz) In the male Perch, the gonads (4) consist of a pair of whitish structures in the dorsal posterior region of the abdominal cavity. Trace a small tube (sperm-duct) from each to an external opening just back of the anus.
(ce) Make a careful sketch of the gonad, sfermary or ovary,
_as the case may be, including the tubes leading away from it.
(7) In the dorsal region of the body cavity observe a white membranous sac (air-bladder). Carefully examine its
* NotEe.—If the female is studied during the spawning season it will be necessary to 2xamine and remove the ovary before the digestive organs can be studied,
64 ANIMAL TYPES.
form and determine whether there is a small tube (pneumatic tube) connecting the air-bladder with the anterior region of the stomach or the cesophagus. Make an outline sketch of the air-bladder.
(¢g) Above the air-bladder against the roof of the abdominal cavity, observe a pair of dark, slender bodies (kidneys). Note their form and position. Trace the left kidney back to a pinkish sac (urinary bladder) in the posterior end of the abdominal cavity. Can you find its exter- nal opening just back of the anal opening. Sketch the left kidney, including the urinary bladder.
L.—THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION AND RESPIRATION.
(2) *Examine the reddish, tubular structure, the heart, ex- tending through the middle of the pericardial cavity. Observe the angular portion, ventricle, located in the ventral and posterior region of the pericardial cavity. Turn it slightly to ascertain its connections.
(4) Observe the dark irregular portion, auricle, located in front of the ventricle and slightly more dorsal. Note its shape and connection with the ventricle.
(c) Observe the large blood-cavity (venous sinus) which extends back from the auricle and in front of the false- diaphragm. Note that the venous sinus extends across the pericardial cavity, z.¢. has two lateral divisions which enter the auricle.
(2) Observe the large blood vessel (hepatic vein) which passes forward from the liver through the false dia- phragm into the pericardial cavity and enters the venous sinus. Can you discover any other veins entering the venous sinus? Make a diagram of the venous sinus, showing its connections. |
* Injected specimens should be used whenever it is possible. Students can be directed to inject their own specimens, two working together, or several students may inject specimens for the entire class,
STUDY OF A RIVER PERCH. 65
(e) Observe the light-colored, conical structure (arterial bulb) in front of the ventricle. Note its continuation forward into a large blood vessel (branchial aorta). Trace the branchial aorta forward and note the branches (branchial arteries) which it gives off right and left to the gill. Make a careful sketch showing all the compartments of the heart and the branchial aorta and its branches. Ventral view (de/. 4’).
(7) Select one of the gills on the left side and carefully trace its artery along the base of the gill-flaments. At the dorsal ends of the gill arches, observe that this branchial vessel constitutes a branch leading into a larger longitudinal blood vessel (dorsal aorta). The dorsal adrta receives aérated blood from all the gills and conveys it into all parts of the body, and extends back along the ventral side of the backbone to the base of the tail. Make a sketch showing the relation of the branchial artery to the gill arch and its con- tinuation into the dorsal aorta.
M.—THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
(2) Remove* the head from the body by cutting across the anterior point of the isthmus and through the back- bone in the region of the gill openings. Carefully cut and scrape away all the muscles on the head.T Now with a sharp scalpel slice off the upper wall of the bony case (skull or cranium) inclosing the brain.
(2) Observe the white or grayish organ (brain) in the cranium. Note that it is composed of several lobes, How many of these lobes can you find? Do they Occur in pairs or singly? Does the brain fill up the
* If preferred, the head may remain attached to the body.
t The study of the central nervous system can be carried on to better advantage with material which ha$ been hardened in alcohol or chromic acid. The skull and portions of the back bone may be kept in alcohol several days before studying the brain and spinal cord.
66 ANIMAL TYPES.
entire cavity? What do you suppose is the function of the loose tissue (cellular tissue) surrounding the brainP
(c) Observe the large rod-like structure (spinal cord) extending
. back from the brain through the chain of bones (spinal column) which constitute the back bone. Carefully examine the spinal cord along its side, about an inch or more from the brain, to see whether you can find small nerves (spinal nerves) branching from the cen- tral, or spinal nerve cord.
(e) Observe the enlargement (medulla oblongata) of the an- terior portion of the spinal cord and the large nerves passing from its sides.
(f) Note the small median, somewhat triangular, lobe of the brain (cerebellum) which extends back over a portion of the medulla oblongata. Make a careful sketch of the parts of the central nervous system which you have thus far examined, and develop it as you proceed in your further study of the brain.
(g) In front of the cerebellum observe a pair of larger rounded lobes (optic lobes) which constitute the broad- est portion of the brain. Continue your sketch.
(Z) In front of the optic lobes, observe a pair of smaller, oval bodies (cerebral hemispheres) which meet in the median line. Note that the cerebral hemispheres taper forward into a pair of much smaller lobes (olfac- tory lobes) and that these continue into a pair of small nerves (olfactory nerves) which extend forward to the nasal cavities. Complete your sketch.
(¢) Below the olfactory and cerebral hemispheres, ae a pair of very large and conspicuous nerves (optic nerves) which arise from the ventral surfaceof the optic lobes. Trace one of these nerves forward to thereye, dissect-
STUDY OF A RIVER PERCH. 67
ing away any tissue necessary. See whether you can show that the nerve which arises from the left lobe passes to the right eye and the one from the right lobe to the left eye. Sketch (X 2).
N.—THE ENDO-SKELETON OF THE PERCH.
(4) (2)
() (/)
Bow ps
Examine a mounted specimen of the internal frame-work (endoskeleton) of the Perch.
Study the form of the back bone (vertebral column). Examine a separate bone of the vertebral column (vertebra) and note its central part (centrum) and its spinous projections (processes). How many processes has this vertebra? Compare the dorsal (neural spine) with the lateral ones (ribs). About how many pairs of ribs has the Perch?
Examine the anterior and posterior surfaces of a centrum and describe them. Sketch a vertebra as seen in an end view, also as seen from the left side (X 4).
Study a vertebra taken from the posterior region of the vertebral column. How many spinous processes has it? Are there any ribs? Sketch two views (X 4).
Identify the bones of the head which you formerly studied in their natural position.
Write a description of the anatomy of the Perch, and make careful drawings of the digestive, circulatory, and nervous systems.
OTHER WORK.
The central nervous system in the Perch.
Development of the Perch from the ovum.
Circulation and respiration in Fishes.
The general characteristics of Amphioxus and _ the Lamprey.
68 ANIMAL TYPES.
5. The general characteristics of the Elasmobranch and Ganoid fishes.
6. A comparative view of the exoskeletons and the endo- skeletons in Fishes.
7. The chief characteristics of vertebrates.
8. The economic and scientific interests in Fishes.
g. The characteristics and the orders of Pisces.
References. — 11— 27 — 31— 34 — 51 60 _72—_ 81 — 89 — 91 — 99 — 106 — 115 — 116— 120— 122— 123 — 124 — 125 — 129 — I50— I65.
poe CX.
ma STUD Or A Rh ROG
RANA PIPIENS.
As an example of the Amphibian type, and an animal possessing highly developed limbs.
Material Required.—(1) Live Frogs; (2) a supply of alcoholic mate- rial; (3) dissections of the injected circulatory system; (4) dissections of the digestive system ; (5) dissections of the central nervous system ; (6) dis- sections of the muscular system ; (7) a mounted skeleton; (8) a set of micro- scopical preparations; (9) a series of stages showing the development.of the tadpole.
Habitat.
In most localities throughout the United States several species of Frogs are common. Any species will answer equally well for this study. The Frog is amphibious in its modes of life, living in the water and breathing by means of gills during its early life, and later inhabiting the land and breathing by means of lungs. Inthe spring the adult Frogs take to the water in ponds and ditches, where they deposit and fertilize their eggs. During the summer and early fall they inhabit the land, keeping in moist places, and returning into the water only for food and refuge from enemies. In the late fall, on the approach of cold weather, they bury themselves in the mud in ditches or at the bottom of the water, where they remain inactive and without taking food (hibernate) until the following spring.
The young, known as “ polliwigs,” or ¢adpoles, are hatched in the water by the heat of the sun during the months of May and June, the exact time varying with the season and the lati-
69
70 ANIMAL TYPES.
tude of the different localities. The eggs, or spawn, which are gelatinous masses floating at the surface of the water, may be collected and hatched in laboratory aquaria. Frogs may be collected during the warm seasons of the year, but are perhaps most accessible in the fall just before they retire into winter quarters. ‘They may be kept alive and in good condition during the winter months in a wooden box properly ventilated. They should be allowed to creep under a moist cloth, and the box should be kept in a cool, damp cellar.
LABORATORY WORK.
A.—* OBSERVATIONS UPON THE LIVING FROG.
(2) Observe a live Frog while at rest, note his sitting posture and the position of his hind legs.
(4) Cause the Frog to jump, and note the process. In what way is it specially adapted to jumping ? Of what other animal is this also true? Can you cause the Frog to walk or crawl ?
(c) Observe the Frog in the water, and note its method of swimming. Howisit specially provided for this mode of locomotion? What have the Frog and Perch in common to facilitate their swimming ?
(7) While the animal is at rest, observe its throat, nostrils, and the sides of its body. What vital or life process is indicated by these actions? Observe the slow alternate distension and depression of your own chest. What vital process does this represent? How does the Frog perform the process of respiration ?
(e) Observe carefully the slight pulsations on the right and left of the posterior end of the backbone. What vital process do these movements indicate? Place two
* These observations may be made while the student is collecting, or they may be carried on in the laboratory.
STUDY OF A FROG. 71
finger tips upon the inner, thumb side of your wrist, and feel your pulse. What vital process do you observe ?
(f) Observe the frog’s eyes. Do you discover eye-lids? Gently touch the eye with the point of your forceps and note the result. How many eye-lids for each eye, and where are they located when not in use?
EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY. B.—GENERAL FORM AND REGIONS OF THE BODY.
(a) Observe the general shape and appearance of the Frog. Has the Frog any external constriction or boundary (neck) between the “ead and the body proper (trunk) ? Has it a tail P
(4) Note the outline of the head and trunk from the dorsal view. Observe the prominences over the eyes and the «angular projections in the hump of the back. Sketch the outline of the head and body from a dorsal view (X %).
(c) * Observe the prevailing color of the dorsal and lateral regions of the Frog. Note the color markings. Of what color is the ventral surface of the body? Exam- ine some of the pigment spots (#) and sketch.
C.—THE HEAD.
(2) Note the triangular shape of the head. Observe the form and extent of the mouth. Open it and note the shape of the wpper and lower jaws. Are they provided with teeth (wm)? If teeth are present, note their posi- tion and shape. Which bones have teeth?
(4) Examine the tongue. Can it be protruded beyond the jaws? Note its attachment. What is peculiar about
* The color and markings should be observed on the live Frog, if possible, and compared at different times,
72
ANIMAL TYPES.
the tongue of the Frog? What do you suppose is its special function? Compare it with that of the Perch.
(c) Examine the eyes and compare them with those of the
Perch. Name the points of resemblance and differ- ence between the eyes of the Frog and those of the Perch:
(2) A little way back and below the eye, observe a thin
portion of the skin, tympanum, or ear-drum, stretched over a firm ring, which outlines the external ear. With your needle prick a hole into the tympanum. Pass a tipped bristle through this pore and observe the points at which it appears in the mouth and the evident course of the tube (Eustachian tube) through which it has passed.
(¢) Identify the nostrils, za@ves, near’ the tip of the snout.
How many do you find, and how are they arranged? Pass a tipped bristle through one and cagefully deter- mine whether it connects with the interior of the mouth. Name the points of resemblance and of dif- ference between the nostrils of the Frog and those of the Perch.
(f) Open the mouth and in the back part of the floor
observe a small longitudinal slit (glottis) leading into a tube (bronchial tube) which conveys air to and from the respiratory organs.
(g) Observe () a small, spherical, sac-like body (brow spot)
in the median line just in front of the eyes. This has a connection with an internal structure (pineal eye) of peculiar interest.
D.—THE LIMBS.
(2) Note the position of the limbs. To which fins in the
Perch are they homologous? Why?
STUDY OF A FROG. reg,
(4) Examine the anterior pair of limbs. Note that each con- sists of a proximal segment or arm (brachium), a /fore- arm (ante-brachium), a and (manus), and fimgers (digits).
(c) Note the number of digits in each hand and their rela- tive sizes. Sketch the left anterior limb and name the parts.
(7) Examine the posterior limbs. Note the subdivision of each into segment or “high, femur, the leg Laide the foot (pes), and the “es (digits).
(e) Note the number of digits in each foot and their rela- tive lengths. Which is the jfrs¢ toe, the inner or outer? Note the membrane (web) between the digits. Sketch the left posterior limb, indicating and naming all its parts.
(f) Compare the two pairs of limbs in the Frog, stating the points of resemblance and difference. What is the general function of the limbs? With what structure in the Perch are they analogous, and why ?
(g) Write a description of the external morphology of the Frog, and make careful drawings.
; *THE ENDOSKELETON. E.—THE AXIAL SKELETON.
(2) Study the general plan and arrangement of the con- nected bones in a prepared skeleton. Observe that one series of bones forms a main central chain (axial skeleton) and the other bones, consisting of the limb bones and the bones to which they are attached (appendicular skeleton) constitute another series.
(4) Examine the axial skeleton and note that it consists of two principal regions, (1) the bones of the head (skull) and (2) the chain of bones, vertebral column,
74 +ANIMAL TYPES.
extending back from the skull and constituting the backbone.
(c) In the skull observe the bones forming the hollow brain case (cranium) and the other bones (facial bones).
(7) At the posterior end of the cranium, observe a large opening (occipital foramen) through which the spinal cord is continuous with the brain in the cranium. Locate some smaller openings (foramina) in the cran- ium through which nerves pass out from the brain.
(e) Observe the smooth, rounded processes (occipital con- dyles) at the posterior end of the cranium, below and outside of the occipital foramen. Observe that these condyles form the articulation with the first vertebra (atlas) of the vertebral coJumn.
(f) Identify the premaxillary, maxillary, and dentary. Which of these are provided with teeth? What points of resemblance have these bones to the corresponding bones in the Perch? How many bones enter into the lower jaw, mandible ?
(g) Identify the zasal and vomer. Locate the orbit of the eye and note the number of bones which together form its boundary.
(4) Examine the vertebral column. Observe that its pos- terior end terminates in one long, slender piece (urostyle). How many true vertebre are there in front of the urostyle?
(¢) Sketch the dorsal view of the axial skeleton.
(7) Examine in detail a disconnected vertebra, using any one between the fourth and eighth inclusive. Observe the centrum or body of the vertebra. Note its con- cave anterior face and the convex articular knob on its posterior face. Observe the large longitudinal foramen above the centrum. Note that the portion
STUDY OF A FROG. 75
of the vertebra above the foramen (neural arch) con- tains several processes. How many processes project horizontally forward? How many project horizon- tally backward or outward, and how many median fro- cesses project obliquely upward and backward?
(2) Take two vertebre and hold them in their natural rela- tion. Now note the relation of the vertebre in the mounted skeleton. Compare a vertebra of the Frog with a corresponding one of the Perch and name the points of resemblance and-difference.
(7) Sketch a lateral and an anterior view of a vertebra of the Frog.
F.—THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON.
(z) Observe that the bones of the anterior limbs are attached
to an incomplete girdle of bones (pectoral arch, or . Shoulder girdle) around the axial skeleton.
(2) Note that on the ventral side of the body there is a com- plicated bony structure, situated below the position of the heart. This consists of (1) a median, longitudinal, rod-like portion (sternum) composed partly of bone and partly of cart/age ; (2) an anterior pair of slender bones (clavicles) extending laterally ; (3) a posterior pair of more flattened bones (coracoids) which also extend lat- erally and enter into the articulation at the shoulder joint.
(c) Observe the dorsal portion of the girdle and note the triangular, flattened bone (scapula) which also enters into the articulation at the shoulder. Sketch the bones of the shoulder girdle and sternum.
(7) Examine the skeleton of the fore limb, and identify the bones in their order, beginning with the most proxi- mal one,— (1) the arm bone (humerus); (2) the con- solidated bones of the fore-arm (radio-ulnar) corre-
76
ANIMAL TYPES.
sponding to two distinct bones in the arm of man; (3) the wrist bones (carpi) consisting of two rows of three each ; (4) the hand bones (meta-carpi) consisting of five bones, and (5) the finger bones (phalanges) arranged in series. With which bones does the radio- ulnar articulate? The humerus?
(c) Place the skeleton of the hand, palm down, and the
shorter digits forward or inward and note the number. Now look for a very small digit (thumb) normally under the skin.
(7) Examine the second, third, fourth, and fifth fingers.
Which is the longest digit and how do the others rank? How many segments or phalanges has each digit? Sketch a fore limb and name the bones included.
(¢) Observe the relation of the hind limbs to the axial skel-
eton. Note that they are attached to a set of bones (pelvic arch or hip girdle) which articulate directly with the vertebral column, and with the ninth verte- bra (sacrum), form a complete girdle. Observe that the ventral portion (pelvis) of the hip girdle consists of several united bones and that these form the articulation with the leg. Sketch the hip girdle.
(i) Examine the skeleton of a hind limb and identify (1) the
thigh-bone, femur; (2) the shin-bone (tibio-fibula) ; corresponding to the tibia and fibula in man; (3) the ankle bones (tarsi) ; (4) the bones of the foot (meta- tarsi); and (5) the bones of the toes (phalanges). With which bones does the tibio-fibula articulate? The femur? .
(7) Note that the inside digit (hallux), corresponding to the
first or great toe in man is the smallest in the Frog. How do the digits rank in length? How many seg- ments or phalanges has each?
STUDY OF A FROG. 74
(7) Sketch a hind limb and name the different bones included. |
G.—THE BODY-WALL AND MUSCLES.
(z) Pin the animal down ventral side up and the head point- ing to your left. With your forceps lift the skin in the posterior region of the abdomen (pelvic region) and with scissors cut forward along the median line to the tip of the lower jaw, being careful not to cut into the body-wall. Observe the very loose attachment of the skin to the muscular body-wall.
(4) From the beginning of this incision, cut transversely through the skin just in front of the left thigh. Make a similar transverse incision just back of the left arm. Now draw this flap of skin away and pin it down, and as you do this note the chambers (lymph cavities) between the skin and the muscles of the body-wall.
(c) Observe the muscle bands in the body-wall of the trunk. Note the median longitudinal band of muscles (rectus abdominis) in the form ofa slender arrow-head. In which direction is the apex? At the anterior end of the rectus abdominis, observe on each side a wing-like band (pectoralis major) extending obliquely forward to the anterior limb. What is the function of the pectoralis major? Sketch these muscles.
(7) Observe a vein (anterior abdominalis) extending longi- tudinally along the median line through the rectus abdominis. Note also on the inner surface of the flap of skin a prominent vein (great cutaneous) run- ning forward.
(ec) Remove the skin entirely from the left hind limb as far distally as the foot, and study the form and arrange- ment of the muscles. Separate some of these mus-
78 ANIMAL TYPES.
cles by carefully tearing the connective tissue which binds them together, but leaving them attached at each end.
(7) Note the thickest region (belly) of one of the dissected muscles; also the end (origin) attached to the part less movable and the opposite end (insertion) attached to the more movable part of the leg. Observe the dense glistening substance (tendon) at the ends of the muscle.
(¢) Can you determine the special function of any of these muscles? Sketch one or two muscles of the leg.
(4) With your forceps lift the body-wall in the pelvis and with scissors cut along the median line to the lower jaw, being careful not to injure the organs lying beneath. In the region of the anterior limbs it will be necessary to cut through a thin bone, che sternum. Also cut the wall right and left transversely in the pelvic region and pin back the flaps and anterior limbs to the fullest extent.
H.—DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
(2) Note the general arrangement of the internal organs. Pass the blow-pipe through the mouth into the esophagus, and inflate the stomach. Note its position and shape.
(4) Trace the course of the Sarena canal and identify the wsophagus, stomach, and intestine. Sketch the cesophagus and stomach.
(c) Note the convoluted portion of the intestine, being the small intestine, and the short, straight portion, the large intestine. Note the color, shape, and position of each. Note the enlargement of the intestine (cloaca) near ‘the anus Represent these portions of Mtue alimentary canal in your last sketch.
STUDY OF A FROG. 79
(2) Identity the “ver, a large, brown, two-lobed mass. Note its position. Which is the larger lobe? Which lobe is subdivided? Identify the Jdz/e-sac and its duct, between the lobes of the liver. Sketch these organs.
(ec) Identify the spleen, a small red structure which is located in the mesentery in the median line just in front of the large intestine. Has it any connection with the intestine?
(f) Observe a V-shaped, pale yellowish mass (pancreas), located in the mesentery along the first bend of the intestine. Can you find any connection between the -pancreas and the alimentary canal? Add a sketch of the pancreas and spleen to your sketch of the intestine.
I.—THE REPRODUCTIVE AND EXCRETORY SYSTEMS.
(z) In the female Frog, identify the gonads or ovaries, which are dark masses situated in the abdominal cavity to the right and left of the median line. In the breed- ing season these organs may be relatively large and much lobed. Identify and trace the oveducts, which are long coiled tubes leading from the anterior part of the body cavity to the cloaca.
(4) Observe a pair of red, elongated, flattened bodies, £zdneys, situated along the back bone, just in front of the cloaca. See whether you can determine their ducts (ureters) leading into the cloaca. Sketch the ovaries and kidneys with their ducts.
(c) In the male Frog, identify the gonads or spermaries, which are a pair of yellowish bodies much smaller than the ovaries, situated in front of or upon the anterior end of the kidneys. Try to identify the minute tubes leading into the kidneys.
So ANIMAL TYPES. ‘
(Z) Observe the large bi-lobed sac (urocyst) situated just in front of the cloaca. If the urocyst is not easily observed, it may be inflated by the use of the blow-pipe. Sketch the gonads, kidneys, and urocyst.
J.—THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
(2) Observe the transparent oval sacs (lungs) situated along the sides of the cesophagus, and probably covered in part by the liver.
(2) Open the mouth of the animal wide and examine the glottis. Note the lateral folds of membrane and the chamber (larynx) below them.
(c) Insert the blow-pipe into the larynx and inflate the lungs. Observe that they are not very spongy, but more like hollow sacs. Note the short tubes (bronchi) which connect the lungs with the larynx. Sketch the respiratory organs.
(2) What organs in the Perch are analogous to the lungs in the Frog? Why?
K.—THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION.
(2) Note the position of the ear¢ and that it is enclosed in a thin-walled transparent sac (pericardium). Cut the pericardial sac away, taking care not to injure the heart or blood vessels.
(4) Observe the thick-walled conical apex (ventricle) of the heart, and the darker thin-walled base (atrium). Note the large vessel (arterial trunk) passing obliquely over the atrium from the ventricle and separating into two branches, one right and one left, at the base of the heart.
(c) Turn the apex of the heart forward and on its dorsal side note a dark-colored triangular sac (sinus venosus).
STUDY OF A FROG. 81
Observe two thin-walled veins (pre caval veins) which enter it from right and left. Note the branches form- ing each of these large veins. From what regions of the body do they bring blood?
(2) Observe another large vein (post caval vein) entering the sinus venosus at its posterior angle. ‘Trace this vein back from the heart and determine from what regions and organs of the body it brings blood. How does the blood from the hind limbs and the pelvis get to the post caval vein? Sketch the heart and its con- necting veins.
(ec) Examine the branches which unite to form the arterial trunk, and note that each subdivides into three divisions for its own side of the body. Note that (1) the most anterior of the three (carotid arch) passes to the side of the pharynx and forward ; (2) the middle one (systemic arch) passes around the cesophagus and back to unite with its fellow from the other side, and thence to the viscera and posterior regions of the body and fore limbs, and (3) the posterior arch (pulmo- cutaneous arch) which sends branches to the lungs and the skin. ‘Trace these arteries and sketch.
(f) Carefully examine the interior of the atrium and deter- mine a longitudinal membranous partition which divides the atrium into two chambers (a vzgh¢ and a left auricle).
(g) Make a diagram of the heart (de/. 2’), showing the ‘cavities and openings of vessels.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM,
L.—THE CENTRAL NERVOUS AXIS.
(a) Take an alcoholic specimen and pin it under water, dorsal surface upward. Make a longitudinal incision
82 ANIMAL TYPES.
in the skin along the entire median line, loosen the skin and pin it back. Remove the muscles from the dorsal surface of the head and a short distance back of it.
(6) Now insert a point of your scissors into the occipital foramen, and carefully cut around the outer edge of the roof of the cranium, and remove the bony lid to expose the drain. In a similar manner expose the spinal cord for a short distance back of the head. The nervous axis now in view (cerebro-spinal axis) con- stitutes the principal portions of the nervous system.
(c) Observe that the brain and spinal axis are closely invested by a thin membrane (pia mater) and that the bony case containing them is closely lined by a tougher, pig- mented membrane (dura mater). *Note the whitish liquid (lymph) which occupies the space between the pia mater and dura mater. Of what use do you suppose the lymph is?
M.—THE BRAIN.
(2) Study the dorsal view of the brain. Observe the pair of white elongated bodies, cerebral hemispheres, situated between the eyes, and note that they are separated longitudinally by a deep groove (fissure).
(2) Observe that the anterior extremities of the cerebral hemispheres merge directly into a pair of rounded bodies, olfactory lobes. Trace the olfactory lobes for- ward and note that they are continuous, with bands of nerves, olfactory nerves, which terminate in the nasal regions.
(c) Back of the cerebral hemispheres observe a pair of oval diverging bodies, optic lobes. Note the small median
* This observation is not very satisfactory on alcoholic specimen.
STUDY OF A FROG. 83
body (pineal body) between the posterior ends of the cerebral hemispheres. :
(dz) Back of the optic lobes note an enlargement, medulla oblongata, of the anterior end of the spinal cord.
(ec) Make a careful sketch of the brain, representing and naming all the regions which you have now identified.
W.—THE CRANIAL NERVES.
(2) You can now study the nerves which are given off directly from the brain (cranial nerves). Cut through the frst pair of cranial nerves, olfactory nerves, leav- ing as much of their stumps on the brain as possible, and carefully lift the anterior end of the brain and turn it slightly back to ascertain the origin of the second pair of cranial nerves (optic nerves). Cut these nerves, leaving long stumps as before.
(6) Note that the optic nerves diverge from an X-shaped prominence (optic chiasma), in which they really cross, the one from the left side of the brain passing to the right eye, and the one from the right side to the left eye.
(c) Carefully turn back the brain a little further and discover the ¢hzrd pair of cranial nerves (motor oculi). Note that they are smaller than the optic nerves, and take their origin in a spherical body (pituitary body) situated in the median line. The motor oculi supply certain muscles which move the eyes.
(2) Now carefully trace along the outer side of the medulla oblongata to identify the fourth pair of cranial nerves (trochlear) which supply a pair of muscles of the eye. Cut these as you did the former.
(e) A little way back of the trochlear note a pair of larger nerves (trigeminal nerves), which are really a union of
84 ANIMAL TYPES.
three cranial nerves,—the //¢/ (trigeminal) supplying the lining of the mouth and the muscles of the lower jaws ; the seventh (facial) supplying the skin and muscles of the throat; and the egh¢h (auditory), which is the special nerve of hearing.
(7) Observe a pair of small nerves (abducens) which arise from the median ventral surface of the medulla oblongata, being the szxfh pair of cranial nerves. These also supply certain muscles of the eyes.
g) In about the same region, but from the sides of the medulla, note a pair of larger nerves, which really include the zzzth (glossopharyngeal) and /en¢h (pneu- mogastric) nerves, the former supplying the tongue and muscles of the pharynx, and the latter the regions of the shoulder girdle and the lungs, heart, etc.
(i) Now turn back the brain so as to get a good ventral view and make a careful sketch, representing and naming all the regions of the brain and the cranial nerves. Now return the brain to its natural position.
O..-sPINAL CORD AND SPINAL NERVES.
(2) Examine the dorsal surface of the spinal cord in its natural position as far back as exposed to view. Note its form and size. Sketch it.
(2) Now take up the Frog, turn the animal on its back and pin it down, and remove the viscera, if this has not already been done. Remove all loose tissue, so as to leave the inner surface of the body-wall bare along the sides of the vertebral column. ‘The entire series of nerves, spinal nerves, arising from the spinal cord is now exposed.
(c) Note the fs¢ spinal nerve (hypoglossal), which arises from the cord between the first and second vertebre.
STUDY OF A FROG. 85
(7) Observe the second spinal nerve (brachial), a very large pair, leaving the vertebral canal between the second and third vertebrae. ‘Trace the brachial nerve a little distance and note that it forms a union (brachial plexus) with the ‘Aird spinal nerve. This nerve supplies the muscles of the shoulder and front limbs.
(ec) Identify the fourth, fifth, and s¢xth spinal nerves.
(f) Identify the seventh, ezghth, ninth, and tenth. Trace these nerves, and observe that they form a plexus (sciatic plexus) and then continue as one large nerve (sciatic nerve). ‘The sciatic nerve is the largest in the body, and supplies the muscles of the hind hmbs.
(g) Make a diagram to represent the arrangement of the spinal nerves, and their relation to the spinal cord (27. 2°.).
(2) Write a description of the gross anatomy of the Frog and make careful drawings.
MINUTE ANATOMY. P.—THE BLOOD AND BLOOD-VESSELS.
(a) Examine a microscopic preparation of blood (4) and note the minute discs (red corpuscles). What is their shape and *color? Note the shape and appearance of the nucleus. Sketch several red corpuscles.
(4) Can you find (Af) another kind of bodies (white corpus- cles) of various shapes and sizes? Sketch.
(c) Examine a preparation of lymph (4) and note the form and * color of the corpuscles (lymph corpuscles). Which kind of blood corpuscles do these most resemble ? Sketch. |
(2) Study (4) a microscopic preparation of a portion of the lung. Observe the larger vessels, avfevzes and veins,
* If the blood or lymph is studied from permanent preparations the natural color of the corpuscles has, of course, been changed.
86 ANIMAL TYPES.
and note their modes of branching. Can you distin- guish between the arteries and veins? ‘Trace a larger vessel into the minute net-work of blood vessels (cap- illaries). Note the black pzgment cells of various form andsize. Sketch afavorable portion of your preparation.
(ec) Examine more carefully (#4) the capillaries and note their connections and mode of branching. Can you find blood corpuscles in the capillaries? Sketch a portion of the preparation as seen under the high power (de/. 1%").
Q.—TISSUES OF THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION.
(a) Study a microscopic preparation containing a transverse section of the stomach, esophagus, and small intestine. Examine (7) the section of the stomach. Note the folds of tissue extending into the interior. Sketch the section (X 3).
(4) Examine (7) the section of the cesophagus and note the size as compared with that of the stomach. Study the different tissues (4#), of which the wall is composed. How many layers are there? Note (1) the outer layer, peritoneum, which encloses the others; (2) next to the peritoneum observe a double muscular layer, the outer portion of which has its fibres arranged longitudinally and the inner circularly; (3) next a layer (sub-mucosa) of connective tissue through which blood-vessels and minute absorbent vessels (lymphatics) pass. The lymphatics convey a colorless fluid (lymph) and generally closely accompany the blood-vessels; next (4) note the inner layer (mucous membrane) which constitutes the inner lining of the cesophagus. Sketch a portion of the section representing tissues of all the layers and in their relative thickness.
STUDY OF A FROG. 87
(c) Study (Z) the section of the small intestine. Note the minute projections (villi) on the mucous lining. Identify the four layers of tissue which you examined in the section of the cesophagus. Note (Af) the minute branches (lacteals) of the lymphatics in the villi, and their close relation with the capillaries. Sketch a villus, representing lacteals and capillaries.
(2) Study a microscopic preparation of the liver (4), cut perpendicular to the surface. Note that the substance of the liver is subdivided into numerous masses (lob- ules). What is the form or outline of the lobules? Note the tissue (interlobular connective tissue) which connects the boundaries of the lobules. Sketch sev- eral adjacent lobules.
(e) Note (Af) blood-vessels (interlobular veins) in the con- nective tissue. Carefully study the structure of the lobules and note nucleated masses (liver cells). Ob- serve their outline and the form and appearance of the nucleus. Sketch several adjacent liver cells.
R.—THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEYS.
(a) Examine (/) a microscopic preparation of a kidney, cut longitudinally and parallel with the flat surface. Note the twisted tubules (urinary tubules) extending in all directions, and hence cut, some transversely, some obliquely, and others longitudinally. Sketch.
(4) Observe the clear circular spaces (malpighian capsules) scattered through the tissue. Note the granular mass (glomerules) which are likely to be shown in some of the capsules. Sketch a capsule containing the glomerules.
(c) Examine the section (Af) more carefully and note the appearance of the above structures. Sketch small portions.
88 ANIMAL TYPES.
S.—NERVOUS TISSUE.
(2) Examine a permanent preparation of a transverse sec- tion of the spinal cord and determine (m and /) its general form. Note the deep, wide groove (ventral fissure) and a similar but narrower one on the opposite side (dorsal fissure). Note a small opening (central canal) situated near the middle of the section and in a line with the ventral and dorsal fissures. Is there a right and a left half of the spinal cord? Can you identify the two halves. How?
(4) Observe that the nervous tissue appears in general as two kinds, the darker tissue (grey matter) and the lighter tissue (white matter). Note the general plan and outline of the regions of grey matter. Where is it located with reference to the white matter? Are the lateral halves of the cord symmetrical ?
(c) Note a pair of posterior ends (dorsal horns) of the grey matter, one in each half of the cord, and a similar pair (ventral horns) in the ventral region. Note also the central region which connects the lateral halves of grey matter (grey commissure).
(2) Make a careful drawing of the spinal cord, representing the white and grey matter.
(ce) Examine more carefully (4) the tissue (histological ele- ment) of which the cord is composed. Note the cells of the grey matter. Do you find cells containing sev- eral processes (multipolar nerve cells) and a distinct nucleus? Can you find some with only two processes (bipolar cells) or only one process (unipolar cells) ? Of which kind do you find most? Carefully draw one or more of each kind.
(f) Examine the cells of the white matter. How many kinds do you find? Note the few branched cells
STUDY OF A FROG. &9
(neuroglia cells) which constitute the principal element of the connective tissue (neuroglia) of the spinal cord. Sketch one or more neuroglia cells.
(s. ) Note the circular structures (nerve fibres) in the white matter. In most regions of your section these fibres are cut transversely. Are the nerve fibres all of the same diameter? Note the central core (axis-cylinder) of the nerve fibre. Sketch.
(x) At the base of the anterior fissure nerve fibres pass from one half of the cord across to the other; here these fibres may be seen in longitudinal view. Examine the longitudinal fibres and sketch.
(2) Write a description of the minute anatomy of the Frog and make careful drawings.
OTHER WORK.
1. A review of the endoskeleton of the Frog, and compari- sons with that of the Perch.
2. The life history of the Frog.
3. The special characteristics of Salamanders and Newts.
4. A comparison of the different forms of adult Amphibia with the typical stages in the development of the Frog. Animal ontogeny and phylogeny.
5. The gradual transition from aquatic to terrestrial habits in the Amphibia.
6. A comparison of the general morphology of Amphibia with that of fishes.
7. The relation and interdependence of the organs in a higher animal.
8. The characteristics and the orders of Amphibia.
References. — 13 — 20— 31 — 34 — 43 — 44 — 60— 62 72-78 —79 — 81 — 104 — 105 — 107 — log — 112— 116 — 120— 122— 124 — 125 — 126 — 129 — 133 — I50— 165.
a UD Y: AF
A STUDY OF ATR Pee CHRYSEMYS MARGINATA.* As an example of the reptilian type.
Material Required.—(1) Some live Turtles; (2) a set of small, alco- holic specimens, zz ¢ofo, for external study; (3) a set of articulated bones of the axial endoskeleton and exoskeleton; (4) sets of bones of the appendicu- lar skeleton; (5) wet preparations of the injected vascular system; (6) dry preparations of the respiratory organs; (7) wet preparations of the diges- tive and urino-genital organs.
Habitat.
The Turtle inhabits the sandy and muddy shores along streams, lakes, ponds, and adjacent swamps and meadows. It is an inoffensive, timid animal, avoiding man whenever possi- ble. Its food consists of fish, frogs, crayfish, and aquatic insects and vegetation. The Turtle, like most of our reptiles, is oviparous, burying its large white eggs in the sand or earth to be hatched by the heat of the sun. The Turtle is an ani- mal of very slow growth. ‘Turtles may be kept alive in the laboratory indefinitely, provided the proper food is supplied. If the water in the aquarium is deep, provision should be made to enable the animals to come to rest above the surface of the water.
LABORATORY WORK.
A.—tOBSERVATIONS ON THE LIVING TURTLE.
(2) Observe the Turtle out of water and note its method of locomotion. Does it walk, crawl, or jump? Note the order in which its two pairs of limbs move.
* Any species of Chrysemys will answer equally well.
t See note on p. 70.
gO
STUDY OF A TURTLE. gi
(2) Hold a stick to its mouth and note the result. Observe the form of its jaws. Are they provided with teeth?
(c) Touch the eye and observe the number of eyelids. Note the inner one (nictitating membrane). Where is each attached ?
(Z) Cause the head and appendages to retract into the shell. Now turn the Turtle on its back and observe its method of getting right side up again.
(e) Observe the Turtle in water and note its method of swim- ming.
(7) How long does it remain under water? Do you see bubbles of air passing to the surface while its head is in the water? Why cannot the turtle remain under water indefinitely ?
B.—THE EXOSKELETON.
(a) Observe the general shape of the shell. Note that it consists of an upper portion (carapace) and a lower or ventral portion (plastron). Note the connection (bridge) between the carapace and plastron.
(4) Examine the carapace and note that it is marked off into sections (bony epidermal plates). Study the shape and arrangement of the bony plates.
(c) Note (1) the smaller plates arranged around the edge (marginal plates); (2) the row along the dorsal median line (dorsal plates); (3) those between the mar- ginal and dorsal rows (costal plates). How many plates of each kind and how many plates in the carapace ?
(Zz) Make an outline sketch of the carapace (de/. 2’), and in correct proportion, representing accurately all the bony plates.
(e) Examine the plastron and note its general shape and the arrangement of its plates. Do you find a median
g2 ANIMAL TYPES.
row as you did in the carapace? How many longi- tudinal rows are there?
(f) Observe the plates of the plastron by pairs and note their size and shape, (1) the triangular anterior pair (gular plates); (2) the larger pair just back of the gular plates (postgular plates); (3) the pair in the region of the pectoral girdle (pectoral plates); (4) the next (abdominal plates); (5) the next (preanal plates) ; (6) and the smaller triangular pair (anal plates). Make a diagram of the plastron, (de/. 2"), representing and naming the plates.
(g) Note also the two irregularly shaped plates on each side which form the bridge or connection between the plastron and carapace. Note the anterior pair (axilar plates), carved out to accommodate the fore limbs, and the posterior pair (inguinal plates) in front of the hind limbs. With which plates of the plastron proper do these join?
(2) Observe the exoskeleton (bony scales) on the head and appendages, and note their relation to the leathery skin.
(7) Examine the hand and foot and note the number of digits in each. Note the horny structures (claws) on the digits.
(¢) Write a description of the external morphology of the Turtle and make careful drawings.
INTERNAL ANATOMY. C.—-THE AXIAL ENDOSKELETON. : (2) Study the axial endoskeleton in a dry preparation of connected bones, examining the preparation from the ventral side. Note the modifications of the vertebre in different regions of the vertebral column.
STUDY OF A TURTLE. 93
(6) Note the form and number of vertebre in the neck (cervical vertebre) situated between the head and the shoulder girdle. Sketch the ventral view of a cervical vertebra.
(c) Note the form and number of vertebre in the series (dorsal vertebre) between the last cervical and the first one immediately back of the pelvic arch.
(2) Observe the flat bones (ribs or costal plates) extending from the vertebral column laterally toward the edge of the carapace and united with it. How many pairs of ribs can you identify? Observe their exact form and the order of arrangement.
(e) Sketch two adjacent dorsal vertebree and the ribs con- necting with them on one side (de/. 2").
(f) Examine the vertebre back of the pelvic arch (caudal vertebre). Note their varying size and shape and state their number. Sketch the fourth and eighth caudal vertebre.
D.—THE APPENDICULAR ENDOSKELETON.
(2) Study the bones which constitute the pectoral arch, and note that on each side three bones unite to form the articulation at the shoulder.
(4) Identify (1) the scapula, being the dorsal one, (2) cor- acoid, being the posterior ventral one, and (3) the precoracoid, being the anterior ventral bone. Which articulate with the humerus?
(c) Identify the humerus, radius, ulna, carpi, and phalanges. How many of each kind?
(Z) Sketch one of the anterior limbs including its bones of the shoulder girdle.
(e) Study the bones which constitute the pelvic arch. Note of how many bones on each side, it consists.
94 ANIMAL TYPES.
(f) Identify (1) the large bone (pubis) projecting in an ante- rior and ventral direction, (2) the peg-like bone (ischium) back of the pubis, and (3) the bone (ilium) extending obliquely upward and backward. Which of these bones articulate with the femur and which with the vertebral column?
(g) Identify the femur, tibia, fibula, tarsi, metatarsi, and
phalanges. How many of each kind ?
(4) Sketch one of the posterior limbs, including its bones of the pelvic arch.
E.—THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
(a) Identify the trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
(4) Pass a string around the cesophagus, inflate the lungs by inserting the blow-pipe through the mouth of the Turtle, and tie the string to retain the air in the lungs. Arrange the lungs in their natural position and sketch the respiratory organs.
(c) Note the rings of cartilage in the trachea. What is their function?
F.—THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
(a) In a wet dissected preparation identify the esophagus or gullet. Examine it and compare its wall with that of the trachea. Why the difference ?
(4) Identify the stomach, small intestine, large intestine,
cloaca, anus. |
(c) Identify the /zver, bile bladder, pancreas, and spleen.
(z) Arrange the digestive organs in a convenient order and make a careful sketch of the entire system.
G.—THE URINO-GENITAL SYSTEM.
(a) Identify the £idney, urinary bladder, and sketch.
STUDY OF A TURTLE. 95
(4) Identify the gonads, being either (2) ovary, including ova and oviducts; or (3) spermary, including spermatozoa and sperm-ducts. Sketch.
H.—THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.
(a) Note the position and general form of the heart. Observe the pericardial sac and the pericardium.
(4) Compare the heart of the Turtle with that of the Frog with reference to size and shape. Do you find external evidence of two auricles, a r7ght auricle and a left auricle ?
(c) Observe the great arteries originating from the ventricle and passing forward over the ventral surface of the auricles. Examine these vessels carefully and de- termine how many there are at the very beginning.
(7) Now observe the one most ventral of these arterial trunks (pulmonary artery) which takes its origin from the anterior edge of the ventricle and a little to the right of the median line. Trace the pulmonary artery forward and note its right and left branches leading respectively to the right and left lungs.
(ce) A short distance in front of the heart observe the remaining arterial trunks, and note that apparently there are three distinct arteries, one passing forward in the median line, and the other two curving upward and back, one to the right and the other to the left.
(7) Examine carefully this latter pair of arteries, and see whether you can determine that the one passing to the left side of the body (left aorta) really has its origin on the 7zgh¢ of the median line in the ventricle, and also that the one passing to the right side of the body (right aorta) has its origin on the /f¢ of the median line of the ventricle. Trace the right and
96
ANIMAL TYPES.
left aorte around their curves and a short distance back through the body cavity, and note that they unite and form a single artery (dorsal aorta) which Pe posteriorly along the vertebral column.
(g) Carefully examine the left aorta near the junction with its fellow, and note that two relatively large branches are given off. Trace the first (celiac artery) and determine to what organs it distributes branches. Trace the second (mesenteric artery) and determine its distribution.
(4) Trace the dorsal aorta back and learn what you can about its distribution.
(¢) Examine the right aorta at the point of its origin, and note that the artery which passes forward along the median line (innominate artery) is really a branch of the right aorta. Trace the innominate artery forward, and note that it divides into two branches, one pass- ing to the right and the other to the left.
(7) Trace the left branch of the innominate, and observe that it forms two branches, one passing outward (subclavian artery) and the other (carotid artery) pass- ing forward. Trace each of these far enough to determine their distribution.
(2) Now make a careful sketch of the heart and arterial system as far as you have studied it, and name its parts.
(7) Lift the heart forward and examine the veins entering the auricles. Note the short trunk (pulmonary vein) entering the left auricle. From what organ does this vessel bring blood and what kind? ;
(m) Now examine the entrance of veins into the right auricle. Note that there are three veins entering at the same point, through the venus sinus, two (precaval
STUDY OF A TURTLE. 97
veins) coming from an anterior direction and one (postcaval vein) from the posterior direction. (z) Learn what you can of the source of the caval veins, and make a sketch of the heart and the venous trunks. (0) Write a description of the anatomy of the Turtle and make careful drawings.
OTHER WORK.
1. General review of structure of the exoskeleton in the Turtle,and comparisons with that of the Snake and Lizard.
2. Morphology of the organs of respiration and circulation in the Turtle.
3. A comparative view of the anatomy of the Turtle, Snake
and Lizard.
4. The significance of hibernation in certain groups of Vertebrates.
5. The significance of cold-blooded” and “ warm-blooded” Vertebrates.
6. The characteristics and the orders of Reptilia.
References. — 31 — 60— 81 — 91 — 114 — 116 — 120 — 122— 124 — 125 —129— I50— 16s.
SrUDY Xt.
A’STUDY OF "X-PiIGroe:
* ECTOPISTES MIGRATORIUS.
As an example of the Aves, or the bird type of animals.
Material Required.—(1) Some live Pigeons; (2) one or more mounted specimens of the wild Pigeon; (3) one or more mounted skeletons of the Pigeon; (4) a supply of disarticulated bones; (5) a supply of the different classes of feathers ; (6) one or more dry Pigeon skins, including the head, limbs and feathers; (7) a preparation of the injected blood vessels; (8) a dissection of the digestive and urino-genital systems; (9) a dissection of the central nervous system.
Habitat.
The Wild Pigeons and Doves are common to most sections of the United States. They live in pairs or in flocks, and are usually migratory, feeding almost exclusively on seeds and grains. ‘The female lays two eggs in a rudely-constructed nest, and is assisted by the male bird in hatching and caring for the young. ‘The young are nourished by a creamy fluid, secreted in the crop of both sexes of the adult during the breeding season. The Rock-Pigeon is the ancestral form of all the numerous races of domestic and fancy Pigeons.
LABORATORY WORK. THE ENDO-SKELETON. A.—GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
(2) Examine a mounted skeleton of the Piece and note its general plan and form. Note the points of support which balance the body while the animal is standing. Where is the greater weight of the body, anterior or
* NoteE.—The common domestic Dove will serve quite as well as the Wild Pigeon for this study.
98
STUDY OF A PIGEON. 99
posterior of these supports? Why does the bird not topple forward? Note the points of support when the bird is flying. |
(4) Note the curvature of the vertebral column. Make a diagram, consisting of a pair of lines, to represent the curves of the vertebral column, as seen from the left side. Add to this diagram the outline of the head and body. Now add a diagram of the left wing and leg (del. 3’).
B.—* THE AXIAL SKELETON.
(z) Note the general outline of the head, lateral and dorsal views. Note the rounded cranzza/ portion, the taper- ing facza/ portion in front of the latter, and the large orbtts. :
(2) Examine the ower yaw, or mandible. Is it directly articu- lated with the skull? Note the three-knobbed bone (quadrate) which articulates with the jaws and the skull.
(c) Note the bone, dentary, which forms the anterior end of the mandible. How does the dentary in the Pigeon differ from those in the Perch, Frog, and Turtle?
(72) Examine the upper jaw and note the bone (pre-maxilla) which forms the anterior end of the beak. Note the slender rod-like bone (maxilla) extending back from the pre-maxilla.
(e) Note that the pre-maxilla contains two proximal projec- tions, one above and the other below the nasal cavity. These posterior projections articulate with the anterior ends of a bone (nasal) which connects the pre-maxilla with the skull.
* NorEe.—The student should have access to a mounted skeleton in studying the position and relation of the bones. He should also be provided with a supply of disarticulated bones for study in detail and sketching.
100
(2)
(7)
(4)
(7) (™)
ANIMAL TYPES.
Note the bone (frontal) which forms the upper boundary of the orbits, and the dorsal surface of the cranium. Note the bones (parietals) just back of the frontal and, if possible, trace their articulation with the frontal.
At the posterior end of the skull, note the nearly circu- lar aperture, foramen magnum, through which the spinal cord enters the cranium.
Note the rounded knob, occipital condyle, just in front of the foramen magnum. How does it differ from that of the Turtle?
Observe a cup-like depression (tympanic cavity) at the lateral and hinder end of the skull. Note the promi- nent lip on the bones which outline this cavity. Just within this lip is attached the zympanic membrane.
Note in the middle of the tympanic cavity an upper aperture (fenestra ovalis) and a lower one (fenestra rotunda). In life, the fenestra ovalis lodges a slender bone (columella), the outer end of which is attached to the tympanic membrane, and conveys the vibrations of the latter to the auditory nerve.
Note the bony frame-work (hyoid apparatus) situated just below the mandibles and extending in the same direc- tion. This apparatus is situated in the floor of the mouth and supports the tongue, and represents, in part, the branchial arches of the Perch.
Make a sketch of the lateral view of the skull and name the bones which you have studied.
Examine the vertebral column and note the dificeem regions. Note the first vertebra that bears a pair of ribs which are united ventrally with the sternum. This is the first thoracic vertebra, and all in front of this may be regarded as cervical vertebre. How many cervical —
STUDY OF A PIGEON. IOI
vertebre are there? Note their variation in size and form. How many have ribs? Sketch the dorsal and lateral views of a cervical vertebra belonging to about the middle region of the neck.
(z) Note the thoracic vertebra. Observe that they have free ribs and that they are closely united by their centra and the processes of their arches. ‘These vertebre are all included in the thoracic series, and all, except- ing the last, bear free ribs. How many thoracic vertebre are there?
(0) Note the form of the rzds (vertebral ribs) borne on the thoracic vertebre. Observe that they are united with a ventral series of ribs (sternal ribs) borne on the sternum. How many pairs of sternal ribs are there? Sketch the posterior view of a disarticulated thoracic vertebra, including its ribs.
(~) Back of the thoracic region, and including the last tho- racic vertebra, note a region of the vertebral column, “sacrum, in which the vertebre are intimately fused. The first two or three are the uméarvertebre. These are the most indistinct, and bear very short transverse processes. The next three or four are the sacra/, and bear somewhat longer processes. The following five are caudal vertebre, but are fused and enter into the formation of the ‘‘sacrum.’’
(g) Observe the free caudal vertebre back of the “sacrum,” and note the number and their dorsal and lateral pro- cesses. At the posterior end of the vertebral column, note the irregularly shaped bone (plowshare bone) which represents several fused vertebre.
(r) Examine the sternum, and note its upper concave sur- face and its broad ventral, vertical plate (keel). What do you suppose is the function of the keel? Givea
102 ANIMAL TYPES.
reason for your supposition. Make two sketches, a left lateral, and a dorsal view.
C.—THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON.
(2) Study the shoulder girdle. Identify the scapula and the coracotd, and note their form and relation. Note the cavity (glenoid cavity) for the articulation of the humerus. Sketch the scapula and coracoid of one side, representing them in their proper relations.
(2) Identify the clavicle. Note that the clavicles unite in the middle to form one bone (furcula), known as the “wish-bone” or ‘“merry-thought.”
(c) Describe the articulation of a coracoid, that is to say, name the bones with which the coracoid articulates at its anterior end, and state the kind of articulation, and then do the same for its posterior end. |
(2) Observe the plan of the azterzor limb or wing. Identify the humerus. Note that the antebrachium consists of two distinct bones, the w/za and radius, the former being somewhat larger than the latter. What marked differences are there between the antebrachium of the Pigeon and that of the Turtle ?
(¢) Describe the articulation of the humerus. Sketch either the humerus or ulna. Name the one which you have sketched, and designate its proximal and distal ends.
(f) Examine the very much modified hand, and note that there are only two small bones, the carfz, to represent the wrist; one (radiale) on the radial or thumb side, and the other (ulnare) on the ulnar or inner side of thehand.
(g) Note that only three metacarpals are present, the irs? is small; the second is long and stout; and the ¢hzrd is long and slender. All are fused together at their proximal ends.
STUDY OF A PIGEON. 103
(hk) Note that the first and third digits are completed with single phalanges, while the second is provided with two, the proximal one being large and much flattened.
(2) Make a sketch of the wing and name all the bones.
(7) Study the 42 gzrdle, consisting of the large bones which extend along the side of the ‘‘sacrum” and are fused with it. Note the round floorless cup (acetabulum) in in the lateral region of the girdle. This is the arti- cular cavity for the femur.
(2) Note that the zp gird/e consists of two large bones, one on each side of “sacrum,” and separate from each other. Each bone (os innominatum) is composed of three fused bones, the boundaries of which are not always easily found.
(7) Note that the largest bone (ilium) extends along the “sacrum” and above the acetabulum. Another (ischium) extends back of the acetabulum in the form of a vertical blade, and the third (pubis) is a slender rod which extends from the acetabulum back along the ventral edge of the ischium.
(m) Note that all the bones of the innominatum enter into the formation of the acetabulum. Sketch the lateral view of the os innominatum, and name the bones included.
(z) Examine the femur and note its articulating processes. Note the crus. How many bones do you find? Ob- serve the larger bone (tibio-tarsus) and the small one (fibula) at the proximal end of the former. Are they free or fused? Which joint of the leg represents the knee? Do you find any trace of the patella? Which joint represents the heel ?
(0) Note the third large bone (tarso-metatarsus), ae is formed by the union of the tarsi and metatarsi, there being no separate tarsi in the adult.
104 ANIMAL TYPES.
(~) Study the foot and note the number of digits present. The digit pointing backward represents the jirsé, hallux, or great toe, while the 7/tA digit is not present. State the number of phalanges for each digit. Make a sketch of the leg and name all the bones.
(7) Write a description of the endoskeleton of the Pigeon, and make careful drawings of the principal bones which you have sketched in your notes.
EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY D.—GENERAL EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS.
(z) Observe the general form of the Pigeon. How does the relative size of the head, neck and limbs compare with those of the Turtle and Frog?
(4) Note the form of the 4ead and its pointed beak. Note that the beak is composed of an upper and a lower part (upper and lower mandibles). Compare the mandibles and note how they are related.
(c) Observe the fongue, note its peculiarity, and compare it with that of the Frog. What difference in function is there
(Zz) Note the position and form of the nostrils. Determine whether they have internal openings. Compare with those of the Perch and Frog.
(ce) Just back of the nostrils, note a naked swollen patch of skin (cere), situated at the base of the upper mandible. What is the significance of this characteristic ?.
(f) Note the position, shape, and color of the eye. How many eye-lids do you find? Is a zctttating membrane present? Ifso, locate it. Make a diagram (X 2) of the eye, representing all the parts which may be seen externally.
STUDY OF A PIGEON. 105
(g) Carefully brush the feathers forward to find the external opening of the ear (external auditory aperture). Describe its location. Can you identify a tympanum and a tym- panic cavity? Compare the external ear of the Pigeon with that of the Frog. What peculiarity of the feathers which cover the external ear (auriculars) do you note?
(4) Observe the flexible zeck and compare it with that of the Turtle and Frog.
(¢) Make an outline sketch of the left lateral view of the head, representing the external characters which you have studied.
E.—THE EXO-SKELETON,—FEATHERS AND HORNY SCALES.
(z) Examine the feathery covering of the Pigeon. Why should the feathers be regarded as an exo-skeleton ?
(4) Are the feathers found on all regions of the body? Where do you find spaces (apteria) which are bare? What regions (pteryle) are covered with feathers ?
(c) How many kinds of feathers do you find? Note the largest and strongest (quill-feathers). Where are they located, and what do you suppose is their function ? Note the number of tail-quills.
(Z) Examine the wing-quills. Observe those borne on the hand (primaries) and note their number. Note the number borne on the forearm (secondaries). Do you find quills (tertiaries) on the arm? Make a simple diagram (de/. 2') representing the skeleton of the wing and indicate the position of the wing-quills.
(c) Note that the quill-feathers are overlapped by smaller feathers (wing-coverts). Do you find these on both the upper and lower surfaces of the wing? What do you suppose is their function ?
(/) Note the smaller feathers (contour-feathers) which cover nearly all parts of the body. What is their formation ?
106 ANIMAL TYPES.
(g) Observe the minute rudimentary feathers (filoplumes) which occur abundantly over the body.
(4) Examine the parts of a quill-feather. Observe the central portion (stem) and note its proximal hollow portion ~ (quill) and its distal solid portion (shaft).
(¢) Observe the small opening (inferior umbilicus) at the proximal end of the quill and another (superior umbil- icus) at its distal end. |
(7) Note the expanded portion of the feather (vane), extend- ing along each side of the shaft. Observe that the vane is composed of narrow branches (barbs) attached to the shaft. Sketch a quill-feather (de/. 3’).
(2) Remove a barb and examine it (# and %). Note the rows of small barbs (distal barbules) attached along its distal edge, and a similar row (proximal barbules) along its proximal edge. What differences do you observe between the proximal and distal barbules ().
(7) Examine (Af) two. barbs in their natural relation and describe the relation of the adjacent proximal and dis- tal barbules. Sketch.
(m) Examine the covering of a ¢arsuws and of the Zoes. Note the horny shield-like scales (scutella) which protect the tarsus in front. Note the shape and the relation of the scutella. Sketch a few adjacent scutella. On account of this covering the tarsi of the Pigeon are called scutellate.
(z) Now observe the form and arrangement of the scales (reticulum) on the posterior surface of a_ tarsus. Sketch. This surface is called reticulated, on account of the shape and arrangement of its scales.
(0) Note the horny scales on the toes. Is there a definite arrangement of these scales? Note the sharp, horny claws of the foot. Compare the horny covering and
STUDY OF A PIGEON. 107
claws ot the foot of the Pigeon with that of the Turtle.
OTHER WORK.
. Demonstration of the general anatomy of the Pigeon. . The principal types of Birds, and their distinguishing
characteristics. The affinity between Birds and Reptiles. The development of the bird from the egg.
. The significance of the high temperature of the blood in
Birds.
. The migration, habits, and distribution of Birds.
7. Variation and its cause. Example from Pigeons.
Q.
. The theory of Natural Selection and the leading facts
upon which it is based. The characteristics and the orders of Aves.
References. — 31— 34— 43 — 60— 81— 83 — 84 — 91 —93— 98 —99— 104 — EI fy 50 120-121 122 124 125 18 -—1e9 E30 — 131 — 138 — 148 —- I50— 160— 162— 163 — 164 — 165 — 168.
SI DY XT,
p A STUDY OF A CAT
FELIS DOMESTICATA. As an example of the higher vertebrate or mammalhan type.
Material Required.—(1) A live Cat ; (2) a mounted skeleton of a Cat; (3) specimens of skulls of other mammals; (4) a collection of disarticulated bones of the Cat and other mammals; (5) a dissected preparation of the digestive system of a. small Catt; (6) a preparation of the injected arteries and veins of a kitten; (7) a preparation of the central nervous system; (8) a set of microscopical preparations of the skin, showing the development of hairs.
Habitat.
The Wild Cat (eds catus) is the “ Common Cat” of zoology, but is now found native in only comparatively few countries. The common domestic Cat (feds domesticata) is found in every civi- lized community, and is represented by many varieties, all of which are probably descendants of the domestic Cat of Egypt, whose ancestors were probably the native Cat (eds maniculata) of northern Africa.
LABORATORY WORK. A.— OBSERVATIONS ON THE, LIVING CAT.] (2) Note the general form of the body and the different regions of the animal, vzz., head, neck, trunk, tail, and legs. (4) Note the covering of hair, or exoskeleton, its color and texture. In what regions of the body are no hairs present ?
* In this Study the Rabbit or Dog may be substituted for the Cat.
t Kittens of about five weeks of age, on account of their smaller size, are more desirable than adult specimens, for demonstration preparations, and are also more convenient to pre- serve in alcohol.
t The pupil may make these observations and notes at his home, and the instructor, if he prefers, may subsequently review the points before the class, with the aid of a live Cat.
108
ANIMAL TYPES. 109
(c) Compare the exoskeleton of the Cat with those of the Pigeon, Turtie, and Perch, with reference to form and structure. .
(z) Note the large, strong hairs, or whiskers (vibrisse) sit- uated on the upper lips. What do you suppose to be their function ? Make a sketch (X %) of the end of the nose and lips (muzzle), in front view, representing the whiskers.
(e) In what other regions are long hairs also present ? Has the Cat eyelashes or eyebrows ?
(7) Examine the eyes carefully and note their size, shape, and color. What is the shape of the pupil? Is its greater diameter in a vertical or horizontal direction ? What advantage or disadvantage do you see in this characteristic P Sketch an eye.
(g) Let the Cat look into a dark closet, or hold her eyes shut for about a minute, and then suddenly allow a bright light to shine into her eyes, and quickly observe the change in the pupil. Describe what took place and try to explain how and why.
(A) Examine the eyelids. Can you find the third eyelid ? If so, where is it located and how does it compare with that of the Pigeon ?
(¢) Examine the external ears carefully and note their posi- tion and shape. Are they movable? What is the function of the external ear ? Sketch one.
(7) Observe the limbs and note their position and shape. Are they similar as to structure and function? Com- pare the limbs of the Cat with those of other four- legged animals (quadrupeds) already studied.
(2) Compare the limbs of the Cat with those of a two-legged animal (biped) already studied. Which pairs of limbs are homologous ? Why P
IIo STUDY OF A CAT.
(7) Examine the paws of the Cat. Note their shape and the number of digits in each. Are they all alike? Sketch the ventral view of a paw.
(m) Observe the claws carefully and note that they are capable of being withdrawn (retractile) from sight and touch. What advantage can you see in retractile claws ? Compare the claws of the Cat with those of the Dog.
(z) Write a description of the external appearance of the Cat.
B.—THE GENERAL FRAME-WORK OF THE CAT.
(z) Study the general plan of the mounted skeleton of the Cat. What is the direction of the vertebral column or main axis of the trunk? Compare it with the direction of the main axis in the trunk of the human skeleton.
(4) Which of the typical animals of former studies have horizontal axes ? Do any possess a vertical axis ?
(c) Make a diagram (de/. 2’) to represent the general plan of the skeleton.
(z) Observe the shape and relative size of the vertebrz in different regions of the vertebral column of the mounted skeleton. Note the number of cervica/, dorsal, lumbar, and caudal vertebre, respectively. Compare with the human skeleton.*
(ec) From a collection of disarticulated bones of the Cat, select vertebree to represent each of the principal regions of the backbone. Sketch the anterior face of a cervical, dorsal, and lumbar vertebre, avoiding the first and second cervical.
(7) Observe and note the peculiarities in the form and artic-
ulation of the most anterior vertebra, @//as, and the
* See note on p. 111.
ANIMAL TYPES. EEF
second (axis) in the skeleton of the Cat. Note the pointed projection (odontoid peg) extending forward from the axis. How is it related to the atlas?
(g) Identify the atlas and axis among the disarticulated bones and note the number of processes for occipital condyles. Sketch an anterior and lateral view of the atlas and axis.
(4) Observe and identify the different bones in one of the anterior limbs in the skeleton of the Cat, and compare them with the corresponding bones in the arm of the human skeleton, as to position, number and shape.
(¢) Observe and identify the different bones in one of the posterior extremities, and compare with the leg of the human skeleton.
C.—OBSERVATIONS ON THE SKULL AND TEETH.
(a) Observe the general shape of the skull of the Cat. How does it differ from the human * skull ?
(4) Identify and compare in the two skulls, the superior maxillaries, infertor maxtillartes, molars, frontals, par- tetals, occtpttals, etc.
(c) Sketch the outline (de/ 2’) of a lateral view of the.skull of the Cat, carefully locating the external opening of the ear. Make a similar sketch of the human skull, reduced to the same size, being careful to retain the correct proportions.
(2) Now in your sketch of the skull of the Cat, with the aid of a rule, draw a sharp line from the anterior tip of the upper jaw through the opening of the ear, and another from the former point through the upper and most anterior point of the frontal bone. The angle formed by these lines is called the faczal angle,
* If a human skeleton is not available, a manakin or chart may be substituted.
{12
(é)
STUDY “OE MCAT:
and is an important measurement in the comparative study of skulls.
Draw similar lines on your sketch of the human skull. Estimate or measure the facial angle of each in degrees and compare. |
Examine the teeth in the jaws of the Cat. Note the size and shape of the front teeth (incisors). How many incisors are there altogether? How many on the right and how many on the left side of each jaw?
Indicate the arrangement and number of incisors in the upper and lower jaws in the form of a double fraction, thus, 7. *4 in which a, 4, c,d represent the number of incisors in the right and left upper, and right and left lower jaws respectively.
Back of the incisors note the large, sharp-pointed teeth (canines). Write the formula for the canines, using the letter c. as the abbreviation.
Observe the irregular-shaped teeth back of the canine (premolars), including all, excepting the last one in each row. Write the formula.
Describe the remaining teeth (molars), and write the formula.
Now write all the preceding formule in a line to repre- sent the complete dentition (dental formula) for the Cat.
What do you suppose is the special function of each kind of teeth in the Cat? State your reason.
Make a careful drawing of one of each type of teeth found in mammals. Write a description of the skull and teeth of the Cat.
OTHER WORK.
. The general anatomy of the Cat, and the principal
characteristics of Mammals.
6.
‘e 8.
-
ANIMAL TYPES. 113
. The circulatory system in Birds and Mammals. The
structural elements of blood. The shape of blood corpuscles in different groups of Vertebrates.
Dental formule in Mammals. Development of teeth. Temporary and permanent sets in Man.
. Morphology of the mammalian eye and ear. . Development and histology of bone. Classes of bones
as to form of development. Morphology of the nervous system in Mammals. Reproduction in Mammals. The characteristics and orders of Mammalia.
References. — 31 — 43 — 60 — 77 — 81 — 9I — 98 — I05 — 106 — 11lo— 112— 116 — 122— 124— 125 — 129 — I50— 165.
COMPARATIVE REVIEW OF THE VERTEBRATE TYPES.
The pupil should now make a comparative review of the morphology of Vertebrates, including his laboratory work, lectures, and collateral reading.
1. Comparative view of the endoskeleton in Vertebrates.
2.
Comparative view of the organs of locomotion, and the homology in the limbs in different groups of Vertebrates.
Dermal structures or exoskeleton,—scales, bony and horny plates, quills, feathers, hairs, claws and nails. Comparative morphology of the organs of digestion and the variation with food and habits in different
groups of Vertebrates.
. Comparative morphology of the organs of circulatioa,—
simple heart of two chambers; a heart of three chambers; the double heart of four distinct chambers; solitary aortic arch.
. Comparative morphology of the organs of resp Iago sa
gills, air-sacs; lungs; complete diagram.
. The phylogeny + the eciaVieete ear.
114 STUDY (‘OF cA> CAT:
8. Comparative morphology of the nervous system and relative degree of intelligence in different groups of Vertebrates.
g. Affinity of the groups in the animal kingdom.
to. Artificial and natural systems of classification in natural history.
General References. — 3 — 25 — 27 — 37 — 42 43 — 48 — 49 5I—_ 59 — 61 —
62—75— 81 —- 83 — 84 — 86 — 93 — 108 — 111 — I20— 139 — 143 — 160— 162— 163 — 164.
PARE AL
PANT TYPES.
NOTE.
Technical terms occurring in the Animal Studies, shot 7 also occur in the Plant Studies, do not, as a rule, again ap full-face type with definitions.
A eens . 2 . = * ‘ 9 ra y c Le ws = i es * as ‘a Pe ie Lie by ‘ee ay AES : at n “ as . a my ’ ‘ aes cages! ad " eee | ‘ + - 4 = 2 i 4 2 ee < * ; a, im ¥ <e oe
a nots el ea! be oh: : 4 et Agel: : » 5 Oe eae. ae Se ie
SEUDY: . I.
meee HY OF GREEN SLIME AND THE YEAST PLANT: |
PROTOCOCCUS VIRIDIS AND SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIA.
al ——#
As examples of the simplest forms of unicellular plants; a cholorophyll-bearing plant and a saprophyte. 10 represent the Protophytes, or sexless plants.
Material Required.—(1) Protococcus in a fresh condition; (2) brewer’s yeast.*
Habitat.
Protococcus is a minute, green, unicellular plant, growing on damp stones, flower pots and the trunks of trees, where it has the appearance of a dark green slimy coating. It may be collected with the bark from the trunks of trees at all times of the year. The protoplasm of the cell is enclosed by a relatively thick cell-wall which protects it against desiccation. Protococcus is found in all parts of the United States.
The Yeast Plant or sprouting fungus is a unicellular plant which can grow only in sugary or saccharine fluids. There are several species of these sprouting fungi, and all are capable of exciting alcoholic fermentation. The most easily obtained species is the brewer’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevist@).
LABORATORY WORK.
A.—THE MORPHOLOGY OF PROTOCOCCUS. (a) Note the general appearance of Protococcus, growing on a piece of bark from a tree. Observe how it has spread over the surface of the bark (m).
* Compressed or dried yeast may be used instead of the brewer’s yeast.
117
118 PLANT TYPES.
(4) With your scalpel scrape off a little, mount in water, and examine it (4). Note the general appearance of the cells.
(c) Note the relation of the cells; are they solitary or con- nected in clusters or colonies (one-cell, two-cell stages, etc.) ?
(7) Are the cells all of the same size? Sketch one of the largest (del. %"), and one of the smallest of the soli- tary cells to show their shape and relative size.
(¢) Find as many kinds of colonies or cell-stages (Z) as possible, and sketch a colony of each kind. Do you find a green coloring matter (chlorophyll) in the cells?
B.—MINUTE STRUCTURE AND THE EFFECT OF REAGENTS.
(2) Apply a drop of alcohol* and watch the effect (7), and note the result.
(4) Examine your preparation more in detail (4p) and deter- mine whether there is a nucleus and cell-wall present. Where is the chlorophyll found? Do you find chloro- phyll in the cell wall? ~In the nucleus? Sketch a typical cell and represent all its structures.
(c) Apply a drop of iodine* and note the effect (reaction) on the different structures of the cell, viz., the cell- wall (cellulose); the zucleuws and protoplasm. Do you find starch present ?
C.—MORPHOLOGY OF THE YEAST PLANT. |
(z) Observe some brewer’s yeast. Is it a thick liquid (semi- liquid), or a thin liquid? Note its color. ,
(2) Do you find a deposit on the sides and bottom of the vessel containing the liquid? This sediment consists of the minute Yeast Plant.
(c) Place a drop of the Yeast on a clean slide and lay on
* The instructor should give careful directions on using reagents on the slide.
GREEN SLIME AND THE YEAST PLANT. 119g
the cover-glass and examine it (4). Note the shape of the cells (torule).
(Z) Are the torule all of the same size and shape? - Sketch one of the largest and one of the smallest. How do they compare with the cells of Protococcus in size and shape P
(e) Are any of the cells connected into clusters or colonies (sprout-chains) >?) Note how the cells or torule of the sprout-chain are arranged. Compare their arrange- ment with that of the Protococcus cells. Sketch one or two sprout-chains (/f).
D.—MINUTE STRUCTURE AND THE EFFECT OF REAGENTS,
(z) Examine the torule more carefully (44) and decide whether there is a cell-wall, nucleus and vacuoles. Sketch a large torula and indicate its minute structures.
(4) Do you find any chlorophyll in the Yeast Plant? A plant which contains chlorophyll has the power of preparing its own food, which is sugar or starch, directly from the elementary substances,—that is to say, from the water, earth and air; but plants which have no chlorophyll are dependent for their food upon other plants or animals.
(c) Apply a drop of magenta and note the reaction. What is the effect on the cell-wall? Protoplasm? Nucleus ? Vacuoles ? ;
(Zz) Apply on a new preparation a drop of iodine and note the results. Do you find starch present:
(ec) Compare Protococcus and the Yeast Plant as to their mode of cell multiplication, *ep7oduction. Protococcus multiplies by fsston, the Yeast Plant by dudding. In which animals did you find these methods of repro- duction ?
(f) Examine the torule which about six or eight days ago
I20 PLANT “TYPES:
were sown on a fresh-cut surface of a potato and kept under a bell-jar. Do you find torule (Af) containing small internal cells (ascospores)? Note number and arrangement of the spores. This represents another method of reproduction in the Yeast Plant.
(g) Write a careful description of Protococcus and the Yeast Plant, at the close of which enumerate all the points of similarity and points of difference in the two plants.
OTHER WORK.
1. The nature of a unicellular plant and its essential ele- ments.
2. The effect of temperature and food supply on the growth of the Yeast Plant.
3. The formation of carbon dioxide gas.
4. The function of chlorophyll, starch, cellulose and sugar.
The foods of plants.
Or Ut
The nature and characteristics of a true or typical plant; of a saprophyte; of a parasite.
7. Morphology and physiology of Bacteria.
8. A synopsis of the characteristics of Protophyta and a
list of the classes.
References. — 5 — 12— 18 — 19 — 20— 26 — 27 — 38 — 43 — 44 — 62 — 66 — 71 — 79 — 92— 96 — 108 — 126 — 134 — 147 — 152— 158 — I69.
SPUBY. Lt:
Pees ku DY 2OF ae: BROOK-SILK.
SPIROGYRA QUININA.
As an example of a simple multicellular plant, which although composed of many cells ts yet physiologically unicellular. To represent the Zygophytes, or unisexual plants.
Material required.—(1) Fresh Spirogyra in the vegetative condition ; (2) fruiting Spirogyra, fresh or preserved in equal parts of 90 % alcohol and glycerine. Reagents: (1) iodine; (2) glycerine; (3) alcohol.
Habitat.
Brook-silk, or Pond-scum, is a filamentous alga, belong- ing to the genus Spirogyra, and is found almost everywhere abundant in fresh-water ponds and slowly-flowing brooks. It forms masses of long, unbranched, bright-green, silky threads which float at the surface or in the water. It is quite slippery to the touch. Spirogyra may be found in its vegetating con- dition at any time during the warmer seasons of the year, and in this condition is of a bright green color. Its fruiting occurs mainly from early spring to the latter part of July. In its fruit- ing condition the threads form crinkled and tangled masses of a yellowish color. Various species may be found intermixed and growing inthe same mass. Spirogyra may be kept in the vegetative condition throughout the year in aquaria jars in the laboratory, by supplying the proper food solution.* Any of the larger species will serve for this study.
* For Sach’s Food-solution for green plants see formula in List of Reagents, I2I
L222 PLANT “TYE.
LABORATORY WORK.
A.—GENERAL CHARACTERS AND GROSS MORPHOLOGY OF SPIROGYRA IN ITS VEGETATIVE CONDITION.
(z) Observe a mass of Pond-silk in the aquarium jar, and note its general appearance and color.
(4) Examine (m) a few threads (filaments) in water in a white dish. With your dissecting needles separate the fila- ments in order to determine their length. About how long arethey? Are all of the same length and diam- eter? Do you find any threads with branches?
(c) Place a few filaments in a phial, add some alcohol and after six or eight minutes note the result. What does this result indicate P
(7) Mount a filament in water and examine(Z) it. Of what is it composed? Howare the cells arranged? Are they uniform in size? Sketch a portion of the fila- ment showing several adjacent cells.
(ec) By careful focusing, examine the internal structures of the cell. Note the special bands (chlorophyll bands or chromatophores). In which direction of the cell do the chromatophores extend? How many do you find in one cell ? |
(7) Trace a filament to the end,* and note any difference between the size and form of the end cells and those in other parts of the thread. Sketch the terminal cells.
B.—MINUTE ANATOMY OF THE VEGETATIVE FILAMENT.
(a) Examine a favorable cell (Zf) and determine its exact shape. How manytimes does the chlorophyll band pass around the cell? Sketch a cell with its chloro- phyll bands (de/ 1%). |
* The filament may happen to be broken, hence you may not reach the natural end or ter- minal cells.
BROOK SILK. F23
(4) Examine by careful focusing one of the chlorophyll bands and note the small bodies (nodules) which occur at intervals. Apply iodine.
(c) Now observe the nodule again and note the central light structure (pyrenoid) and the deep colored bodies* (starch grains) surrounding it. What evidence have you that the latter are starch grains? Sketch achro- matophore representing nodules, pyrenoid, and starch grains.
(2) Identify the wwclews and note its position and shape. Can you find a nucleolus. Sketch.
(ce) Take a fresh thread and mount in water. Apply glycer- ine and watch for the result. What change is the protoplasm undergoing? Sketch the cell, showing the cell-wall and protoplasm. :
C.—MORPHOLOGY OF THE FRUITING FILAMENTS.
(z) Observe the general appearance of the plant in its fruit- ing condition (4), and note the marked contrast to the vegetative condition.
(4) Make a-temporary preparation and observe the threads which have joined and are connected in pairs (conjugat- ing filaments). Note the large round or oval bodies (zygospores) which are found in some of the cells.
(c) Carefully observe (4) how the conjugating filaments are related and note the small tubes (conjugating tubes) which connect some of the cells. Do you find conju- gating tubes between cells of the same filament ?
(2) Do you find protoplasm in all the cells? What do you presume has become of the protoplasm of the cells which are now empty? How were the zygospores formed ?
* Nore.—lf the plant has not been exposed to the sunlight within the preceding ten or twelve hours, starch grains may not be present.
124 PLANT TYPES.
(ec) Examine a mature zygospore and note its shape, color, and the dense wall and contents. Sketch a portion of the two conjugating threads and represent the struct- ural elements.
(f) Write a careful description of your observations of Spiro- gyra, and enumerate the points of resemblance and difference between Spirogyra and Protococcus. -
OTHER WORK.
1. The life history of Spirogyra and its two methods of reproduction.
2. Comparison of Spirogyra with some of its allies, includ- ing Diatoms, Desmids, Oscillaria, ete.
3. Comparison of Spirogyra and Protococcus and the Yeast Plant.
4. A synopsis of the characteristics of Zygophyta and a list of the classes.
References. — 5— 18— 19— 21 — 26 — 36 — 43 — 62 — 79 — 113 — 126— 147 — (57 — 158 — 159.
STUDY IIL. A STUDY OF A GREEN FELT.
MAUVCHERIA~ SES SITES.
As an example of the simplest bi-sexual plant. To represent the Oophytes or egg-spore plants.
Material Required.—(1) Fresh Vaucheria; (2) Vaucheria preserved in equal parts 90% alcohol and glycerine. Reagents—(1) Dilute glycerine; (2) iodine.
Habitat.
Vaucheria, or Green Felt, is an alga which appears as a large, dense, dark-green, felted mass of coarse, tubular, branching filaments. It may be found in almost every locality spreading over the mud in shallow ditches and on moist earth near springs, or floating on the surface of ponds and in quiet fresh water. Vaucheria may be found at all seasons of the year, growing on the soil in flower pots in the conservatories. Other species are quite as common as V. sessilis, and may be substituted for the latter in the following study. |
LABORATORY WORK. A.—GENERAL CHARACTERS AND GROSS MORPHOLOGY.
(2) Observe a mass of Green Felt on a flower-pot or culture plate, or in the water in an aquarium jar, and note its general appearance and color.
(4) Take a small tuft, and with your dissecting needles gently tease it out on the object-slide; mount in ‘water and examine (//).
(c) Note the size and appearance (/) of the filament. Can you find transverse partitions (septa), marking off the tubular threads into cells ?
125
126 PLANT TYPES.
(7) Trace one or more threads to determine the form of the natural tip. Sketch the tip, including a portion of the thread.
(e) Carefully search for branches that are given off from the main thread. How many kinds of branches can you find? How do they differ ?
(7) If the Green Felt has been growing on soil, you may find root-like processes (rhizoids). Note their shape and size. Do they contain chlorophyll? Sketch a rhizoid, including a portion of the filament.
(g) Look for two short lateral outgrowths or branches of peculiar form, and near to each other on the filament. One is a curved, cylindrical body (antheridium), or male reproductive gonad, and the other an oval body (oogonium), or female reproductive gonad.*
B.—MINUTE ANATOMY.
(2) Examine more carefully (#4) the odgonium. Do you find a transverse septum which separates it from the protoplasms of the filament? Look for an o6gonium which contains a thick-walled, oval reproductive body (odspore), or ripe egg. Note the character of its pro- toplasm and surrounding cell-wall. Does it contain chlorophyll? Sketch the odgonium.
(4) Examine carefully (4) the antheridium. Do you find a transverse septum similar to that of the odgonium ? Note the appearance of the protoplasm of the anthe- ridium, and its cell-wall. Does the antheridium con- tain chlorophyll? Sketch.
(c) Examine the protoplasm and other contents of, the fila- ment (4A). Do you find chlorophyll bodies, ‘chroma- tophores, in Vaucheria? Note their form.
*In V. sesszlzs there are frequently two odgonia near the same antheridium. In some other species there are three to five odgonia associated with one antheridium and situated with the latter on a branch of considerable length.
GREEN FELT. 127
(7) Observe the refractive bodies (oil globules) usually found abundantly among the chromatophores. Do you find nuclei.* Sketch (4f) a filament, carefully represent- ing all its cell contents.
(e) Observe the thickness of the wall of the thread. Where is the protoplasm most dense? Apply dilute glycer- ine and note result.
(f) Apply test for starch and note result.
(¢) Note that the form of the vegetable body (plant body) of Vaucheria is a branched thread or filament. What is the form of the plant-body in Spirogyra? In the Pea) Plant: In Protococeus? Any. plant body which has no true root, stem and leaves, ts known by the name of thallus.
(4) Write up a carefui description of Vaucheria from your notes, and at the close make a summary enumerating all the points of resemblance and points of differ-
. ence in Vaucheria and Spirogyra.
OTHER WORK.
1. The life history of Vaucheria and reproduction of odspores and swarm spores. 2. Morphology of the thallus of Rockweed. 3. General morphology of Volvox, Water-mould, Mildew, 4. The nature of a fungus. Life-history and economic interest in the fungi belonging to the branch Odphyta. 5. Asynopsis of Oophyta, and a list of the classes. References. — 19 — 36 — 44 — 50— 147 — 158. * The nucleus in Vaucheria is seldom seen excepting after the use of special reagents. t The uncertainty of the material renders it highly improbable that all the students of a class of considerable size should succeed in demonstrating the process of fertilization in Vaucheria, yet it is very desirable that it should be observed; hence it is thought best that
the teacher should secure material in proper condition and give this demonstration in connec- tion with the OTHER Work named on this page.
pa UDYy: 1y-
A STUDV" OF A SITONEWORE
CHARA FRAGILIS#*
As an example of a highly organized alga. To represent the Carpophytes or spore-frutt plant.
Material Required.—(1) Fresh specimens of chara; (2) specimens preserved in alcohol ; (3) specimens fixed in 0.2% chromic acid ; (4) speci- mens of Nitella; (5) a set of the preparations of the apical cell ; (6) a set of preparations of cross sections of the antheridium and odgonium,
Habitat.
The Stoneworts are plants of considerable size, consisting of simple jointed stems, bearing whorls of leaf-like structures, which are frequently only single rows of cells. They resemble the higher forms of plants, and are among the most highly developed of all the alge. Their size varies with the species, from a few inches to three feet. They are submerged fresh- water plants, found along the sandy margins of lakes and ponds, and in swampy marshes and bog-holes, forming dense tufts of thread-like stems, and attached by rhizoids, or thread- like roots. With very little care these plants may be kept growing in the laboratory almost indefinitely.
* Chara fragilis is selected for this study on account of its abundance and general distri- bution; but the closely allied genus Nitella, is more desirable, on account of its greater simplicity of structure. The most prominent distinctions between Chara and Nitella are— Chara has leaves in whorls of 6 to 12 with leaflets always single-celled; Nitella has leaves in whorls of 5 to 8 with leaflets usually more than one-celled. The sporocarp has a crown of one whorl of cells; that of Nitella a crown of two whorls of cells. Chara has its stem
strengthened by a firm internal crust of carbonate of lime. The stem and leaves in Chara contain a system of cortical cells; in Nitella no such system is present.
128
STONEWORT. 129
LABORATORY WORK. A.—GROSS MORPHOLOGY OF THE THALLUS.
(a) Examine a fresh Chara in water in a white dish or over a piece of white paper. Observe its general appear- ance, and note how it affects the touch of your fingers.
(4) Observe the size and plan of the thallus. Note the joints (nodes) and the segments (internodes) between the joints (m). Are the internodes everywhere of uniform length? Observe the summit (apex) of the stem and its opposite end (base).
(c) Observe the circles (whorls) of thread-like organs (leaves) on the primary or main axis (stem) of the plant. Where, on the stem, are the leaves inserted? Do you find any exceptions to your answer? How many leaves in the same whorl? Note the cluster of leaves (apical bud) crowded together at the apex of the stem. Sketch a portion of the stem including two nodes and two internodes (X 2).
(7) Examine the stem at the nodes above the whorl of leaves, and note whether you find small shoots or secondary axes (branches). Note that the branches are inserted in the angle formed by the leaf and the stem (axil of leaf). Sketch a branch.
(ce) Examine a leaf (wm). Of what does its main axis consist? How many internodes do you find in the larger leaves? Note the delicate thread-like structures (leaflets) attached to the main axis of the leaf. Where are the leaflets inserted? Sketch a leaf and its leaflets (de/. 2’).
(7) Observe (m) that on some leaves (fertile leaves) there are yellowish or orange-colored* structures, the reproduct-
*In alcoholic specimens the natural colors are not preserved.
130 PLANT TYPES.
ive gonads, which are arranged in pairs. Do you find some leaves (sterile leaves) on which no such structures appear?
Examine the gonads, and note that one, the male gonad (antheridium), is inserted below the whorl of leaflets, and the other, the female gonad (oogonium), above the whorl of leaflets. Describe the shape of the gonads and compare them in color. Sketch a portion of a fertile leaf, representing a pair of gonads and the adjacent leaflets (de/. 2").
(2) Observe (mm) the delicate hair-like filaments or vhzzozds attached to the lower portion of the stem. Where are they inserted? Do the rhizoids contain chlorophyll? Sketch.
B.—MINUTE ANATOMY OF THE THALLUS.
(2) Mount a portion of the stem in water and examine it (4). Observe the internode and note the surface or outer layer of cells (cortical cells). How are they arranged? Sketch a patch of cortical cells (de/. 11%").
(4) Examine a cross section®* of the stem (4) and note the cortical cells and a large central cell (internodal cell). Sketch (de/. 1°). | |
. (¢c) Examine a longitudinal section passing through one of the nodes (4%). Observe the cells at the nodes (nodal cells). How are they related in position to the inter- nodal cells? Sketch.
(7) Examine a fresh sterile leaf (4) and observe the nodal and znuternodal cells and the large end cell (terminal
: cell). Compare the plan of the leaf with that of the
3 stem. Sketch a portion of the leaf including the terminal cell.
*The student may here be taught to make hand sections with a sharp razor, or the instriictor may have the sections cut in advance, and supply them to the class.
STONEWORT. 131
(ec) Examine a fresh leaflet (24) and identify the ce//-wa/1,
(f)
protoplasm, chlorophyll granules, vacuoles, and nucleus. Sketch a leaflet representing these structures. Examine a terminal cell of a good fresh specimen (A) to observe the movement of the protoplasm.* Focus carefully into the central region of the cell, and study the directions of the different currents. Sketch an outline of the cell wall and represent the currents by dotted lines, and their directions by darts.
(g) Examine (Af) a preparation of a longitudinal section
through the apex of the stem, and study the size and arrangement of the end cells. Note the large, nearly hemispherical cell (apical cell) at the end of the stem. Sketch the apical cell with the adjacent cells.
C.—MORPHOLOGY OF THE GONADS.
(a) Examine a fresh, mature spermary, or antheridium (4).
Note the stalk by which it is attached to the leaf. Study the surface and note the large flat cells (shields), which form the wall of the antheridium. Note the outline and margin of the shield-cells. Sketch the antheridium, representing the shield-cells.
7 (2) Remove the cover-glass, crush the antheridium slightly
and tease it out with your needle and mount in water. Study the contents and make out, if possible, the cylindrical cell, or handle (manubrium) attached to the inner surface of the shield-cell. The manubrium may have been broken off in the process of making the preparation; if so, the thicker end is the one which was attached to the shield. Now study (A) the
* The stamen hairs of Tradéscantia will show the movement of protoplasm very satisfac- torily, in case sufficiently fresh specimens of Chara cannot be obtained when needed. Nitella is more favorable for studying the rotation of protoplasm than Chara.
ize PLANT TYPES.
opposite or distal end of the manubrium, and note the short cells (head cells) attached to it. Sketch a shield and a manubrium with its head-cells.
‘c) Study (Af) the tangled mass of delicate thread like structures (spermatic filaments) which have been pressed from the interior of the antheridium. Some of the filaments may still retain their original attach- ment to the head-cells. Represent several filaments in your last sketch.
(2) Study a favorable filament and decide whether it is com- posed of a single cell or more than one. If the antheridium is fully mature and in good condition, you may be able to discover minute, coiled, lash-like cells (sperm cells or spermatozoids). By careful focus- ing, study the exact shape of a spermatozoid. Sketch a spermatic filament and a sperm, if you have found one.
(ec) Mount a mature ovary or od6gonium in water and study (4p) it. Note its short stalk. Observe the form and snrface structure of the odgonium. At its distal end note the chimney-like circle of cells (crown). Do you find more than one circle of cells in the crown? How many crown cells are there?
(f) Observe the large opaque structure in the centre of the odgonium. Sketch the odgonium, representing care- fully the surface appearance and crown.
g) If possible, study preparations of cross-sections of the gonods, and identify the structures already seen bearing in mind their relative position. Sketch a cross-section of each gonad. .
(4) Write a description of the morphology of Chara, and make careful drawings of the principal structures.
STONEWORT. E44
OTHER WORK.
1. Comparative review of the morphology of Chara and Vaucheria.
2. The life history of Wheat-rusts, Smuts and Black Knot; their migration and parasitic habits.
3. The mode of vegetation and reproduction in such saprophytic fungi, as Mushrooms, Puffballs; etc.
4. The peculiarity of Lichens.
Sexual and non-sexual reproduction in Carpophyta.
. A synopsis of the characteristics of Carpophyta, and a list of the classes.
ON Un
References. — 5 — 12— 17 — 18 — 19 — 20 — 21 — 23 — 26— 35 — 43 — 44— 46— 50—62—73—74—79 — 126 — 147 — 149— 153.
STUDY V.
A - STUDY.OF AU LIVER WOR
MARCHANTIA POLYMORPHA.
As an example of a highly differentiated thalloid plant which at the same. time retains a remarkable degree of simplicity. To represent the mossworts or Bryophytes.
Material Required.—(1) Fresh vegetative thalli and both kinds of repro- ductive branches; (2) gemmez growing in a phial of water; (3) a set of preparations of the antheridium; (4) a set of preparations of archegonia in different stages of development.
Habitat.
Marchantia is a small, green, flattened, creeping plant whose thallus or vegetative body consists of a leaf-like stem about a half an inch wide and from one to four inches long. The reproductive branches are umbrella shaped, consisting of a slender upright stalk supporting a flat disc. Marchantia bears the male and female branches on different plants, and is there- fore @ecious in distinction from plants which bear both male and female gonads in the same plant and are known as mone- cious. The thallus is closely attached to the soil by a large number of silken rhizoids. Marchantia is common to all parts of the United States. It grows preferably in moist soil, on shaded rocks, walks, and fences, sometimes it may also be found along old roads and among the grass in exposed places. It should be transported to the laboratory attached to the soil, and may be kept indefinitely in a moist chamber, if protected from the direct rays of the sun. A closely allied form, Lunu- laria, can always be had at a greenhouse and may be distin-
134 ;
LIVERWORT. 135
guished from Marchantia by the form of its gemmule cups; in the latter plant the rim of the cup is a complete circle, while in Lunularia it is incomplete, leaving the outline somewhat cres- cent shaped
LABORATORY WORK.
A.—GROSS MORPHOLOGY OF THE THALLUS.
(z) Observe a Liverwort while it is still attached to the sod from which it grew. Note the general appearance of the plant; its flattened horizontal thallus and firm attachment to the sod.
(4) Observe particularly the size and shape of the thallus, and note its horizontal drvanches. Does the thallus con- sist of nodes and internodes? Name the points of resemblance between the main thallus or stem and its branches.
(c) Observe the indented apex of the vegetative thallus and note its mode of branching (dichotomous), by which it first diverges into two equal branches, but one soon develops more rapidly than the other and becomes the main axis or stem.
(7) Examine (m) the vegetative thallus and observe the dis- tinctly marked median line (midrib) which is the main axis of the stem or thallus. Note also the expansion of the thallus (wings) which extend along either side of the midrib.
(e) Do you find any branches (fruiting branches) which are umbrella-shaped ? What is their attitude and where are they inserted on the main thallus? Note the erect stalk (pedicel) and flattened disc (receptacle) of which the fruiting branches are composed.
‘f) Observe the little cups (cupules) which are almost cer- tain to be seen on the upper surface of the vegetative
136 PLANT TYPES.
thallus. Observe (m) their exact shape, and note the small flat structures (gemme) within the cupules. Sketch a cupule.
(g) Observe the silken rhizoids of the thallus. Where are they given off? Mount a few in water and examine (4). Do you find more than one kind? Sketch.
(h) Observe (m) the overlapping sca/es on the under surface of the thallus. These thread-like scales and the rhizoids | are forms of plant-hairs (trichomes). Mount a few scales in water and observe (/) their structure. Do you find more than one kind? Sketch. |
B.— MINUTE STRUCTURE OF THE THALLUS:
~
(z) Examine the upper surface (v7) of an older portion of. the thallus and observe the small areas (areola), and in the center of each a small breathing pore (stoma).
(4) Remove a thin portion from the upper surface tissue of _ the thallus and mount it in water. Study (4) this
surface layer of cells (epidermal cells) and note their — :
shape and contents.
(c) Study a stoma and observe (4) the cells aa cells) which surround it. How many guard cells are there and how are they arranged? Sketch a stoma with its surrounding cells. ?
(Z) Study across section of a thallus (%) and note the differ: ent kinds of cells. Near the margin, identify the upper epidermal cells. Look along the epidermal layer for a stoma. Carefully focus and make out the number and arrangement of the cells which form it. i
(ce) Examine the large chamber (air-chamber) into which the stomaleads. Note the chains of cells (chlorophyll cells) which grow from the bottom of the air-chamber. Note
LIVERWORT. . 137
the shape and contents of the chlorophyll cells. Sketch a chain of chlorophyll cells. | (f) Observe the thickened and closely packed cells (paren- _chyma) which form the sides and bottom of the air-chamber. Note the shape and contents of these cells. Sketch several adjacent parenchyma cells.
(g) Examine the layer of epidermal cells on the under side of the thallus. How do they differ from those in the upper layer? Doyou findany stomata? Sketcha few adjacent cells of this layer.
(4) Study your section in. the region of the midrib. Iden- tify the rhizoids, and among them the flat purplish
‘ structures (scales). Note the form and arrangement of the cells in the scales. Sketch one or more rhizoids and scales.
C.—MORPHOLOGY OF THE FRUITING BRANCHES.
(2) Examine (m) a male branch with the shield-shaped, scalloped receptacle (antheridial branch). Observe the general shape, margin and color of the receptacle. Note the minute axtheridia imbedded in its upper sur- face. Sketch the antheridial branch (de/. 2’).
(4) Observe the upper and lower surfaces of the receptacle
| (m). Note the rhzzords and Jleaf-like scales. Where -are these inserted ? What resemblance do you find between the fruiting and vegetative thalli ? Compare the upper surfaces; the lower surfaces.
(c) In a vertical section, cut in the plane of the stalk, observe (4p) the large cavities (antheridial sacs) and note their contents, the azthertdium. Sketch a favorable portion of the section; also make a separate’sketch of an antheridium as seen in the antheridial sac.
(d) Examine (m) the female branch with the spreading,
128 : PLANT TYPES. 3
strap-shaped rays (archegonial branch). Note the gene- ral shape of the disc, the number of its rays and the color.
(ec) Examine (7) the under side of the receptacle and note the peculiar grooves radiating from the stalk. How are these grooves related to the rays in regard to
position ?
(7) Observe the form of the stalk and note its deep, longi- tudinal furrow. Sketch the archegonial branch der 2*).
(g) Carefully examine (m7) the grooves in the under side of the receptacle, and note their contents. With your scalpel carefully remove the contents of one of the grooves and mount in water, and examine (4). Note the flask-shaped organs (archegonia).
(i) Examine a well developed archegonium and note its three regions,—(1) the short s¢fa/k, (2) the ventral portion or Jody, and (3) the tubular portion or zeck. Observe also in the central region a spherical body (oosphere). Sketch an archegonium, representing care- fully any cell-boundaries which you have been able to make out (de/. 2").
D.—MORPHOLOGY OF THE GEMMA.
(z) With the point of your scalpel remove one. or two gem- mz from the cupule and mount in water. Observe (4p) their form and general appearance. Note the two deep notches (vegetative notches) on opposite edges, and the scar where the pedicel was attached. Sketch outline of gemma (de/. 1’).
(4) Observe the cellular structure of the gemma. Do you find chlorophyll? Where is chlorophyll not present ? Note the oz/-bodies in the cells along the edge. Do
mm B&W WN
LIVERWORT. | 139
you find cell boundaries? Represent the cellular structures in your outline sketch.
(c) Examine (4) a gemma which has been growing in a phial of water for about a week. Study the changes which have taken place. Make a careful sketch of the gemma (del. 114").
(2) Write a description of the morphology of Marchantia and make careful drawings of the more important structures of the plant.
OTHER WORK.
Comparative review of the morphology of Marchantia and Chara.
The function of the stomata, air-chambers, rhizoids, etc.
The life-history of Marchantia. Reproduction by gemme.
The general morphology of a Moss.
Comparative review of the thallophytes and lower crypto- gals.
A synopsis of the characteristics of Bryophyta and a list
of the classes.
References. — 5 — 12— 17 — 18 — 19 — 21 — 26 — 44 — 95 — 126— 147 — 154.
SLPuDyY “vi.
A STUDY OF A COMMON FER
PTERIS AQUILINA.*
As an example of a vascular cryptogam, or higher flowerless plants. To represent the Fernworts, or Pteridophytes.
Material Required.—(1) A set of fresh specimens in fruiting condition; (2) alcoholic specimens; (3) prepared sections of the stem; (4) prepared sections of the root ; (5) prepared sections of the stipe; (6) prepared sections showing the cellular structure of the leaf; (7) germinating spores; (8) prothallia.t
Habitat.
The common Bracken or eagle-fern (Pierts aguilina) is one of the most widely distributed of the higher plants. In the United States it occurs under various conditions, being found in densely shaded groves, in open woodland among the under- growth, on the hillside, and in open pastures. In general, however, it favors damp, shady places. While in some coun- tries it grows to the proportions of a tree, throughout the northern United States it does not usually exceed the height of from two to three feet. The Common Bracken lives from year to year (perennial). In cold climates the leaves (fronds) die to the ground at the close of each season, while the under- ground stem (rhizome) survives the winter and sends forth a new set of fronds in the spring. |
In the course of its reproduction, the Fern passes througk
* Any species of Pteris, and in fact most any common Fern may be substituted for the one here named.
t It is desirable to have the sets of preparations on hand, even if the student is require to make his own.
140 ;
COMMON FERN. I4I
a cycle of two generations (alternation of generation), repre- senting a non-sexual plant (sporophore) and a sexual plant (oophore, or prothallium). The sporophore is the conspicuous fern-plant generally known, and bears on the lower surface of its frond minute seed-like structures (spores) which are capa- ble of germinating and developing into the odphore or true sexual plant. The odphore or prothallium, as it is usually called, is a small, inconspicuous, cushion-like plant which bears minute antheridia and archegonia, whose product after fertili- zation develops inio the sporophore or the well-known fern- plant.
The Fern is the lowest plant Type which represents all the members, or parts of the plant dody found in higher plants, wz. - a true root, stem, leaves and trichomes. In the Fern we meet for the first time with true woody (fibro-vascular) tissue. Mate- rial necessary for studying the Fern can usually be found in the -green-houses throughout the year, if the necessary stock is not available from other sources. ‘The spores of most Ferns retain » their vitality for more than a year and may be kept dry until needed. For germination the spores of the lady fern (Asf/e- nium filix-femina), or those of the ostrich fern (Onoclea stru- thiopterts) will perhaps prove most satisfactory. The spores may be sown on clean, moist sand, or on porous earthenware and kept under a bell-jar. With favorable conditions germi- nation will begin in four or five days.
LABORATORY WORK. A.—GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF THE FERN-PLANT (SPOROPHORE).
(z) Observe the general appearance of the Fern-plant. Which parts belong below and which above the surface of the ground? Note the attitude or directions in which these parts extend. Note the color of the dif- ferent parts of the plant,
142 PLANT TYPES.
(4) Examine the brown underground stem (rhizome), and note its form, size and direction. Note the light line (lateral line) extending along each side. Do you find nodes and internodes in the rhizome?
(c) Observe the slender appendages (roots) springing from the rhizome. Note the general appearance of the roots; their size as compared with the rhizome; their branches and color. Have the roots any definite arrangement and where are they attached? Do you find rhizoids ?
(7) Observe the green spreading leaves (fronds) arising from the rhizome. Note that the frond consists of, a leaf- stalk or main axis (stipe) and the blade or leaf proper (lamina) which is subdivided like a feather (pinnate) into a number of larger lobes (pinne) which are again subdivided into still smaller lobes or leaflets (pinnule ). Note that each pinnule or leaflet has a thickened axis or central rod, the mza77d, extending through its blade. Note the branches (veins) given off by the mid-rib.
(ec) Again, observe the surface of the rhizome and note the decaying stipes, and scars where older stipes were attached. Examine and compare the ends of the rhizome, and note the large buds, apical buds, growing at one end. What do you infer to be the habit or manner of growth of the rhizome ?
(f) Do you find thin, brown leaf-scales* (ramenta) covering portions of the surface of the rhizome. What do you infer to be the function of the ramenta ?
3-—MORPHOLOGY OF THE RHIZOME. | (z) Examine (m) a cross sectiont of a rhizome of medium size and note the general outline and appearance. Can you recognize the /ateral lines? Sketch outline (ded. 2).
* Some other species of Ferns develop the ramenta more than Pteris. t There is some advantage in using sections not stained for par. a, 4, ¢,
COMMON FERN. 143
(4) Study the interior of the section (w) and note that it con- sists of different regions or bands of tissue. How many kinds of tissue can you distinguish ?
(c) Observe (7) the (1) outer dark band or system of tissue, epidermis; (2) the strands of tissue which form an incomplete brown ring (sclerenchyma) in the interior ; (3) the scattered strands and circles of yellowish tissue (fibro-vascular bundles); and (4) the lighter colored tissue, Aarenchyma, which everywhere surrounds the last two named systems. Now represent in outline these systems in your sketch for (a), p. 142.
(72) Observe that the smaller fibro-vascular bundles are arranged in an outer circle, and that the large strands are located between the bands of sclerenchyma and near the center of the outer circle.
(ce) Examine more carefully (Z) a stained cross section of the rhizome, and study the epidermis. Note the outer layer of thickened cells, the epzdermis proper, and that inside of this layer the epidermal system gradually blends into the parenchyma.
(7) Do you find that the epidermis gives off trichomes at different points? Are these trichomes many-celled or single-celled? Note the leaf-sheath, or ramenta, if you find them represented in your section. Make a sketch of a portion of the epidermis in a favorable region including one or more trichomes (de/. 11%4").
(g) Examine (/) the strands of sclerenchyma. Can you find small patches of sclerenchyma outside of the main strands? Note the thick-walled cells of which the sclerenchyma is principally composed. Sketch a small portion of this tissue (de/. 1%").
(A) Examine (//) the fibro-vascular bundles. Note that the cells which constitute its border are arranged
144 PLANT TYPES.
in two layers or rows,—the outer row (bundle sheath) consisting of small flattened cells, and the inner | row (phloem sheath) of somewhat larger cells and containing starch. Note that within this double sheath there are several kinds of cells and tubes (vessels). Note the large tubes with woody walls (scalariform vessels). Sketch a portion of a fibro- vascular bundle, representing the various kinds of cells and vessels (del. 1%").
(¢) Examine the fundamental tissue or parenchyma and note the form and contents of the cells. Does it contain — Starch? Sketch a portion (de/. 1%").
C.—MORPHOLOGY OF THE FERTILE FROND.
(2) Examine (7) a cross section of the stipe and compare it with that of the rhizome. What systems of tissues do you find represented in the stipe? Do you find trichomes. Sketch the section (de/. 1).
(6) Remove a small patch of epidermis from the lower sur-_ face of the blade and mount in water. Observe (4p) the shape of the epidermal cells. Note their nuclei. Do you find trichomes? Sketch one or more trich- omes.
(c) Examine (/f) the stomata, and note the form of the guard-cells. Compare the stomata of Pteris with those of Marchantia. Sketch a stoma with its surrounding epidermal cells. | |
(2) Examine (m) the margin of a fertile leaflet or pinnule (sporophylla) and observe that its edge has folded under, forming a hem or tube, receptacle, along the margin.
(e) Observe (m) shape of the lid-like cover (indusium) formed by the incurved edge of the pinnule.
COMMON FERN. 145
(f) Examine (4) a small portion of the receptacle and ob- serve a row or ridge (sorus) to which are attached minute oval bodies (sporangia). Sketch a portion of the receptacle, showing indusium, sorus, and sporangium.
_(g) Examine (m) a preparation of sporangia, and observe their general shape and appearance. Observe that a sporangium consists of a globular portion (capsule) and a short stalk, pedice7. Sketch.
(2) Examine (4) an unbroken sporangium, and observe the shape and arrangement of the cells. Note the row of dark cells (annulus) in the margin of the capsule. Does the annulus extend along the entire margin ? Sketch a sporangium representing the cells.
(2) Examine a capsule in which you find the wall broken and its contents set free. Where, with reference to the annulus, did the wall of the capsule rupture? What do you presume is the function of the annulus ? Sketch a sporangium with ruptured capsule.
(7) Examine (#f) the minute seed-like, reproductive cells (spores) which have escaped from the ruptured sporan- gium. Note their form and appearance. Sketch a few spores.
D.—MORPHOLOGY OF THE PROTHALLIUM (OOPHORE).
(a) Examine (//) some germinating spores and observe their ruptured coverings. Note the blunt cylindrical pro- trusion (protonema) which is the first appearance of the young plant. Do you find one or more rhizoids attached to the protonema?
(2) Carefully observe and note the number of cells in the protonema. Examine others. Describe the cellular structure. Sketch a favorable protonema.
(c) Mount in water and examine (m) the young plant
146 PLANT TYPES.
which has developed from a protonema (odphore or prothallium). Observe its size, shape, and general | appearance. Note the rhizoids. Sketch the pro- thallium.
(7) Examine (4%) the prothallium with its lower a upward and note the shape of the cells and their struc- ture. Sketch the outline of the prothallium, represent- ing a few cells along the margin (de/. 1%’).
(e) Carefully focus and examine the central region of the prothallium and look for small spherical gonads, antheridia, which usually develop from the surface of the prothallium in the region where the rhizoids are attached. Look for the other kind of gonads, arche- gonia, usually situated nearer the notch (sinus) of the prothallium. If you have been able to find the anthe- ridia and archegonia, represent them in your sketch of the prothallium.
(f) Write up a description of the Bracken Fern and make careful drawings of the principal structures of the sporophore and odsphore. |
OTHER WORK.
1. The life-history of the Fern.
2. Comparative review of the Fern and Marchantia. 3. Characteristics of Equisetum, Fern, and Club-moss. 4. Trichomes and the development of spores.
s. A synopsis of the characteristics of Pteridophyta.
- 6. Comparative review of the types of cryptogams, with special reference to the development of root, stem, leaves, and trichomes.
. 7. Comparative review of cryptogamic types with refehelie to sexual reproduction. moines es een 12— 17 — 18— 19 — 20— 21 — 26— 43 — 44 — 62— 68 — 79 — 126 — 137 — 147 — I55.
STUDY VII.
Peet y Or 2h SCOPTEH PUNE:
PINUS SYLVESTRIS.
As an example of the lower form of seed-plants. To represent the Gymno- Sperms.
Material Required.—(1) Male flowers fresh and preserved in alcohol; (2) female flowers fresh and preserved in alcohol; (3) succulent cones pre- served in alcohol; (4) ripe cones dry; (5) ripe seeds dry; (6) young roots preserved in alcohol; (7) leaves tresh and preserved in alcohol; (8) two- year-old branch in alcohol; (9) fresh twigs.
Habitat.
The Scotch Pine, sometimes wrongly called “ Scotch Fir,” is one of the most familiar of our cultivated ‘‘ evergreens.” It is a tree of moderate size, and at least while young, of beau- tiful symmetry. ‘The trunk continues through the central part of the tree to the highest point, and can be readily distin- guished from the branches; this characterizes it as excurrent, in distinction from one which is lost by subdivision into its branches, and is known as a deliguescent trunk. The bark of the trunk and main branches is rough and scaly and of a brownish color. ‘The foliage consists of needle-shaped leaves which are arranged in pairs and are from five to ten centimeters in length, slightly twisted, and covered with a whitish powder. The Scotch Pine bears two kinds of reproductive branches, known as the male flowers, and the female flowers; the former are conspicuous yellow clusters which are borne at the base of young shoots; the latter are inconspicuous pinkish oval clus- ters which project slightly beyond the ends of young shoots.
147
148 PLANT TYPES.
The cones, or “fruit,” of the Scotch Pine are only from five to twelve centimeters in length, and require two years to develop.
The Scotch Pine represents the lower of the two great classes of “seed plants” or Spermaphyta ; it belongs to the class Gymnosperme, or “‘naked-seeded”’ plants, the seeds or ovules being borne in open carpophylls. ‘The other great class, includ- ing the highest of all plants, the Angiosperme, or “ covered- seeded” plants, in which the carpophyll forms a closed cavity known as the ovary. ‘The Pines are of very great importance on account of their valuable timber, turpentine, and resinous secretions.
The Scotch Pine and Austrian Pine bear a close resemblance, but the following characteristics of the Scotch Pine will dis- tinguish it from the Austrian: the Scotch Pine has smaller leaves; leaves covered with a whitish powder; free end of cene scales terminate in protuberances; cones smaller than in Austrian Pine. ‘The Austrian Pine is a good substitute in this study.*
LABORATORY WORK. A.—GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF THE SCOTCH PINE.
(z) Observe the general form and appearance of the Scotch Pine. Note its central stem or trunk, and the arrange- ment of the large branches along the stem. Is the trunk a central shaft (excurrent) readily traced to the apex or highest point of the tree; or is it lost by sub- division into its large branches or secondary trunks (deliguescent) 2+
*The proper time for collecting ripe male and female flowers is about June 1; the large cones and those of less than a year old may be collected during the early spring.
7 The student will hardly fail to find access to Scotch or Austrian Pines cr other con- ifers in the parks of the vicinity, and should be encouraged to make these observations of the form and appearance of the tree. He should at the same time compare the Scotch Pine with other ‘‘ evergreens,’’ and with other trees. If possible, all of Sec. A. of this study should be outdoor work.
SCOTCH PINE, 149
(4) Observe the main branches given off by the trunk. Are they few or numerous? Make a diagram representing the trunk and the arrangement of the main branches iae7. 2"' ).
(c) Examine a branch of this season’s growth with its leaves (shoot). Can you recognize a shoot of last season’s growth? A two-year-old shoot?
(7) At the apex of ashoot observe the large apical bud and several smaller ones (lateral buds), which are unde- veloped branches. Note the scales-leaves which con- stitute the covering of the bud. Sketch the apical bud, including the lateral buds (X 2).
(ec) Examine the condition and appearance of the bark on the trunk and main branches. Observe the scales (scale-leaves) on the branches, and compare them on shoots of different ages.
(f) Examine a small branch and observe the very short branches (dwarf branches) which bear the leaves. Note the green needle-like leaves (foliage leaves). How many foliage leaves are borne on each dwarf branch ? Find the average length in centimeters of six or eight foliage leaves.
(g) Observe the scale leaves at the base of the foliage leaves. How are they arranged? Note the black sheath which binds the base of the foliage leaves together. Sketch a dwarf branch representing the scale leaves and _ foli- age leaves.
B.—MORPHOLOGY OF THE FOLIAGE LEAF.
(a) Observe carefully the shape of the foliage leaf, its proxi- mal or attached end (base) and its distal end, (apex). What is the shape of the apex? Pass your finger from the apex toward the base. What do you observe ?
150 PLANT TYPES.
(4) Examine (m) the edge of the leaf and note your obser- vation. Draw a leaf between your thumb and finger and note that it is covered by whitish, waxy bloom or powder (glaucous). Do you know of any other plant whose leaves are glaucous ?
(c) Examine (m) the sides of the leaf and decide which is the upper side. Note the series of small dots, the stomata. Sketch a portion of the leaf representing the edge, surface, and position of the stomata (X 3).
(z) Examine (4) a cross section of foliage leaf and observe its outline. Which margin represents the upper, and which the lower side of the leaf? Sketch the outline of the section (de/. 144’) and indicate which is the upper and which is the lower side.
(ec) Identify (4%) the epzdermal tissue, bundle sheath enclos- ing two fbro-vascular bundles, and represent these in your outline sketch.
(f) Observe (4) the small openings (restu passages), sur- rounded by a circle of thick-walled cells. Represent the resin passages in your sketch.
(g) Examine (/f) carefully the fibro-vascular bundles, and note that each consists of two nearly equal parts, — one the woody tissue (xylem) and the other the bast (phloem). Which is toward the upper and which toward the lower surface of the leaf? Sketch a fibro-vascular bundle, representing and labeling the xylem and phloém (del. 1").
C.—MORPHOLOGY OF A YOUNG BRANCH.
(2) Examine a cross-section of a two-year-old branch, and
estudy its structure. Of how many different rings of
tissue does it consist? Observe the central region of parenchyma (pith). Note its outline and structure.
SCOTCH PINE. 151
(4) Observe the outer zone of tissue (bark), and note its structure. Note the row of large resem ducts which extends through the bark.
(c) Study the zone of firm xylem tissue extending between the bark and the pith (wood). Do you find that this zone of wood is marked off into two concentric zones (rings of growth). What do you presume in regard to the comparative age of these rings of growth ?
(2) Observe the many radiating lines extending from the pith to the bark (medullary rays). Observe their origin at the edge of the pith. Note the small resin ducts in the wood. Howare they arranged? Sketch the section showing the different tissue systems (del. 1%").
(ce) What points of similarity have you discovered between the structure of the leaf and that of the branch?
D.— MORPHOLOGY OF THE STAMINATE OR MALE BRANCH.
(2) Examine a young branch which contains at its base a compact cluster of small, lateral, sporophyll-bearing branches (flowers). Observe that each flower is a yel- low, scaly, cone-like body. Note the arrangement of the flowers along the main branch (inflorescence).
(4) Observe the general outline of the inflorescence. Note that the flowers are sessz/e in their attachment to the branch (catkin or spike).
(c) Do you find foliage leaves on the staminate shoot ? Note their position. Where along the main axis do you find scale-leaves? Sketch a staminate shoot, representing the inflorescence, foliage leaves, and scale leaves (del. 2’).
(2) Carefully remove one of the flowers from its flower clus- ter or spike, and observe (mm) its form and structure.
152 PLANT TYPES.
Note that it is composed of scale-like sporophylls (stamens) arranged along acentral axis. Sketch a flower (X 2).
(ec) With your forceps remove one or two of the stamens, mount in water and examine (4%). Observe its general shape, its base and apex. Has it a foot-stalk (fila- ment) or is it sessile ?
(f) Observe (46) two swollen sacs, the sporangia (pollen sacs) on one side of the stamen. Look for their con- tents, the sfores (pollen grains).*
(¢) Are the sporangia on the outer (lower) or inner (upper) side of the stamen or sporophyll ?
(i) Examine (4p) a preparation of the pollen grains, and observe its general shape and appearance. Note the central cell and the two lateral wing-like protrusions. Can you distinguish a nucleus? Sketch a pollen grain (del. 1’).
E.— MORPHOLOGY OF THE PISTILLATE OR FEMALE BRANCH.
(2) Examine a young shoot containing pistillate branches, and look for small, brown, scaly structures, the spo- rophyll-bearing branches (female flowers or cones). How many of these flowers or cones do you find ? Where, with reference to the dwarf branches, are the cones situated ?
(6) Observe (m) the form and general appearance of the female flower. Has it a stalk (peduncle), or is it ses- sile? Sketch a portion of the vegetative branch, including a dwarf branch and a cone.
(c) Observe (m) that the cone is composed of a large num- ber of thickened fruit-scales or female sporophylls (carpels), which are provided with a prominent me-
* The pollen sacs may already have opened and the pollen escaped,
SCOTCH PINE. 153
dian projection (keel). Is the keel on the upper or lower surface of the carpel? Note the thin scales (bracts). Where are they situated ?
(7) Examine (4%) a preparation of carpels, and observe at the base of the keel two enlargements (ovule) or un- developed seeds. Can you detect a small opening (micropyle) leading into each ovule? Sketch a car- pel showing the keel and the ovules.
(¢) Examine a yearling cone and observe its color, size, and shape. Observe the distal free ends of the car- pellary scales. Sketch.
(f) Examine a longitudinal section of a yearling cone. Observe the central axis and the ovules along its sides. Identify the bracts and carpels, and note their relative thickness. Sketch.
(g) Examine a two-year-old cone which is now mature and ready to scatter its ripened ovules (seeds). Observe its size and color. Observe the size of the carpels, and note the markings on their exposed distal ends.
(Z) Observe the spiral arrangement of the carpels on the central axis. In about the thickest part of the cone select a carpel, and with your pencil mark it “a.” Now find one that is situated in line directly above this, and mark it “b.” Beginning at “a” trace the spiral row of carpels around the cone until you reach “b,” and note how many revolutions of the cone you have made. Now return and, beginning again with “a,” count the carpels which you passed over before reaching “b.” Write the number of revolutions as the numerator of a common fraction, and the num- ber of carpels as the denominator. This fraction expresses the law or order of the arrangement of the
154 PLANT TYPESs
carpels or sporophyll on the axis (phyllotaxy), and is the method used for indicating the rank or arrangement of leaves on the stem.
(2) Study a carpel which has been removed from the cone, and note its color, shape and woody structure. On the upper side note the two depressions where the ovules were situated. Sketch the upper andthe lower view of the carpel.
(7) Examine the fully matured ovule or seed, and observe its shape and appearance. Note the wing-like ex- pansion and the surface markings. What function do you attribute to this expansion? Sketch a seed
OTHER WORK.
1. Pollination and Fertilization in the Pine. Life-history of the Scotch Pine. 3. Comparative review of the morphology and reproduc- tion in the Scotch Pine and Fern. : The nature of a seed contrasted with that of a spore. The characteristics of different types of Gymnosperms. 6. A synopsis of the characteristics of Gymnosperme and a list of the orders.
Gt
References. — 4—5 = 18 — 19 — 43 — 68
SeUDY VITT.
Ao STUDY “OF A TRILLIUM,
TRILLIUM RECURVATUM.,
As an example of a lower, typical flowering plant with seeds enclosed in zn ovary. To represent the class Angiosperme@.
Material Required.—(1) Fresh plants (entire) in bloom; (2) alcoholic specimens of roots, stems, flowers, and fruit; (3) sets of preparations show- ing cross sections of stem, roots, and fruit.
Habitat.
Trillium is a representative of the Lily order, one of the lowest of the class Angiosperme. It is easily recognized by its naked ‘“‘stem,” from eight to thirty centimeters in height, bearing a whorl of three broad, netted-veined leaves and asingle flower. The stem is an underground root-stock or rhizome, and sends up annually a single branch which dies to the ground at the close of the season. Trillium develops a flower of the typical kind, consisting of floral envelopes and reproductive organs in sets of modified leaves, arranged in whorls on the expanded apex of a short branch. The Trillium is found generally throughout the United States. The species named above, 7. recurvaium, occurs in rich, damp woods, and blooms in the early part of May, the time varying slightly with locality and season. Any species may be used in this study.
LABORATORY WORK. A.—GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF TRILLIUM.
(a) Examine a fresh specimen of the entire plant. Observe the underground stem or rhizome, the part aljove 155
156 PLANT TYPES.
ground, its aérial branch. Note the size and general appearance of the Trillium plant.
(4) Examine the stem and observe its nodes and internodes. Can you find lateral or terminal buds? Do you find scales or any modification of leaves?
(c) Observe the character of the roots. Where are they at- tached? Howmany for each node? Do they give off branches? Sketch the rhizome and its roots (de/. 2’).
(2) Observe the aérial branch, and note its size and color. Does it consist of nodes and internodes? Observe the scale leaves at the base of the branch, and note their form and structure (mw). Where are they attached? Sketch.
(e) Observe the whorl of leaves at the distal end of the aérial branch, and note their number, form, size, and arrange- ment on the branch. Observe the flower above the whorl of foliage leaves, and note its form and color. Sketch the aérial branch, including the leaves and flower (del. 214").
B.—STRUCTURE OF THE STEM AND AERIAL BRANCH.
(a) Study (7) a cross section of a portion of the rhizome, and observe the systems of tissue. Note the very nar- row cortical band of tissue along the margin, the fun- damental parenchyma, containing a large amount of food material and the scattered foro vascular bundles. Sketch a portion of the section representing the dilffer- ent kinds of tissue. |
(4) Study (%) a longitudinal section taken through the grow- ing tip of the rhizome. Observe the encircling sheath of thickened bracts, and in front the growing peint. Can you recognize the growing tips of young roots and branches? Note the difference.
TRILLIUM. E57
(c) Study (4) across section of the branch, and identify the three principal kinds of tissue. Note the arrangement of the fibro-vascular bundles, and the relative position of the phloém and xylem. Sketch the section (de/. 1").
C.—FORM AND STRUCTURE OF THE FOLIAGE LEAF.
(a) Examine a leaf and observe its general outline. Note the form of its dase, apex, and margin. Is the leaf sessile, or has it a petiole?
(4) Examine the leaf from its lower surface, and observe the plan and arrangement of its frame work (venation). Note its large vzds and their branches (veins), and the smaller branches (wz) of the veins (veinlets). Has the leaf a prominent mzdrzb ?
(c) Do all the principal ribs run nearly parallel from the base to the apex (parallel-veined), or do they diverge at the base and send their branches in every direction (netted-veined), forming a network throughout the lam- ina or blade of the leaf? Sketch a leaf (x ¥%).
(dq) Examine and compare the two surfaces of the leaf, and note in what respects they differ in appearance. Do you find trichomes (m)?
(e) Strip off a small piece of epidermis from the lower sur- face of the leaf, mount it in water, and examine it (/). Study the epidermal cells, the stomata and their guard cells. Sketch a stoma, including the adjacent epider- mal cells.
(f) Now strip off a piece of epidermis from the upper sur- face of the leaf, and study its cells. Sketch a small portion. What difference do you discover between the epidermis of the lower and upper surface?
(g) Make a transverse section of a portion of the leaf across one of the larger ribs. Mount it in water, and study
158 PLANT TYPES.
(4s) the fibro-vascular bundle. Toward which surface is the phloém and toward which the xylem?
(2) Examine (/) the structure of the lamina, and observe the epidermis of the upper and lower surfaces. Observe the parenchyma or tissue between the two epidermal layers (mesophyll). :
(2) Study (4%) the mesophyll cells along the upper layer of the epidermis (palisade cells). Observe their shape and arrangement. Sketch a small region of palisade cells.
(7) Mount a small portion of a scale from the base of the aérial branch and examine it (4%). Is it parallel or netted-veined? Note the dark spots, and examine their contents. Crush one of them, and observe the needle-shaped crystals (raphides).
D.—THE FLOWER.
(z) Observe the general form and appearance of the flower. Note the several leaf-like parts arranged in different whorls or sets. Note the slender stem or peduncle which bears the flower. At what point on the branch is the peduncle attached to the branch ?
(4) Observe the distal and somewhat enlarged end of the peduncle, receptacle, upon which are situated the parts of the flower.
(c) Observe the whorls of the leaf-like parts in the flower (floral envelope or perianth). Note the lower (outer) circle (calyx) and the upper (inner) circle of the floral envelopes (corolla).
(2) Note the number of separate parts (sepals) in the calyx. Note the number of parts (petals) in the corolla. How are the petals situated with reference to the sepals ? Is a petal always found attached directly above the attachment of a sepal (opposite); or is its point of
TRILLIUM. I59
attachment over the interval between the sepals (alternate) ?
(e) Observe a whor! of sporophylls, the stamens, situated above the petals. Are they less or more leaf-like in appearance than the floral envelopes ? Note the num- ber ofstamens. In how many circles are they arranged ? Are the stamens opposite to or alternate with the petals?
(f) Observe a central column situated above the stamens (pistil), formed by several carpels more or less united. How many carpels evidently formed the pistil? What evidence have you?
(g) Make a sketch of the flower, representing all its circles of parts.
(2) Carefully examine one of the sepals and note its color, general outline, venation, and the form of its base and apex. Is the sepal sessile or petiolate? Sketch a sepal.
(¢) Examine a petal and determine the same points. Sketch.
(J) Examine a stamen and observe its color and general form. Note the filament and its pollen-bearing sacs (anther). Sketch.
(24) Examine (4) a cross section of the stamen through the anther and note the lateral pockets, the pollen sacs. Can you explain how the leaf or sporophyll has modi- fied to form the pollen sacs ? -
(7) Identify in your section the efzdermis, parenchyma, and fibro-vascular bundles. Sketch the section (de/. 1").
(m) Examine (4p) some pollen grains and note their color and shape. Note their surface markings. Sketch several pollen grains.
(z) Compare a stamen of Trillium with one of Scotch Pine
160 PLANT TYPES.
and name the points of resemblance and points of difference.
(0) Examine the pistil and observe its general form and appearance. Observe the lower enlarged portion, ovary, formed by the union of several carpels, and con- taining the ovules. Note its prominent ridges.
(~) Observe the portion of the carpel above the ovary (style) and at its distal end (#) its numerous spongy branches (stigmas). Sketch the pistil, showing ovary, style and stigma (X 2).
(g) Remove one of the styles, mount it in water and examine (4). Observe the stigmas, and note the character of their surface. Do you find any pollen grains lodged onastigma? Sketch a portion of a stigma showing the appearance of its surface.
(r) Examine a cross section of the ovary and observe its general appearance. Is it composed of one carpel (simple ovary), or of several carpels (compound ovary) ? Can you identify the edges and middle portion of the carpels? How many cavities does the ovary contain (one-celled, two-celled ovary, etc.) ?
(s) Observe the ovw/es and note the surfaces along which they are borne (placente). Are the placente situated
» along the wall of the cavity (parietal placenta) or in its central part (central placenta) ?
(¢) Observe the tissues in the carpels. How many fibro- vascular bundles do you find in each carpel? Make a careful sketch of the cross section of the ovary, ae resenting all its parts (de/. 1’).
(z) In terms of morphology which of the plant members does the stamen represent ? Is it a leaf or some modifi- cation of a leaf (phyllome); a stem or some modifica-
TRILLIUM. 161
tion of a stem (caulome) ; a plant hair or some mod- ification of a plant hair, “zchome,; a root or some modification of a root? What is the pistil? The rhiz- ome? Therhizoid? The aérial branch? The pollen grains? ‘The spores in the fern? ‘The ovules?
OTHER WORK.
1. The life-history of Trillium.
2. Comparative review of the morphology of Trillium and Scotch Pine.
3. Trichomes and the origin of spores, pollen grains, and ovules.
4 Comparative review of the general morphology of the plant types studied.
5. Characteristics of the endogens and exogens.
6. Methods of pollination and the process of fertilization in Spermaphytes.
7. A synopsis of the characteristics of Angiosperme and a list of the orders.
References. — 2— 5 —7—9— 12— 18 — 19 — 21 — 26 — 39 — 44 — 47 — 62 — 64 — 68 — 76 — 79— 99 — 100 — 102 — 103 — 118 — 119 — 142.
STUDY 1X.
A STUDY OF SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS
COMMON BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris). INDIAN CORN (Zea mays). SCOTCH PINE (Pinus sylvestris).
To show the germination of a monocotyledon, a adicotyledon and a polycotyledon.
Material Required.—(1) Ripe seeds of a Common Bean;* (2) mature fruit of the Indian Corn; (3) ripe seeds of the Scotch Pine.
Concerning the Material.
The seeds should be soaked in water at least ten hours before the external features and the embryos are studied. Those seeds from which seedlings are to be studied, should be sown in advance in order to have the seedling ready when this study is begun. The seeds may be sown in clean moist sand of four or five inches in depth and kept in a warm place. ‘The tray or box containing the sand may be kept in a window, under the direct rays of the sun, provided the surface be protected by a moist cloth or paper until the seedlings appear. The common Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), on account of its rapid growth after germination, has some advantages over the Bean for this study, and the common Wheat (Triticum vulgare) is a good substitute for the Indian Corn. The Scotch Pine does not germinate as readily in this country as some other species of Pine. Seedlings of the Pine may usually be obtained from the gardeners.
* The large variety known as “ butter bean’’ is desirable. 162
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS. 163
LABORATORY WORK. MORPHOLOGY OF THE SEED AND SEEDLING.
A.—EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY OF SEEDS.
(@) Examine a bean and note its size, shape and color. Observe the scar (hilum) on one edge, left by the seed- stalk (funiculus) to which the bean was attached in the “pod” or ovary.
(2) Near the hilum observe (7) a small opening (micropyle), and note its exact position. Observe the outer cover- ing (seed-coat). With the point of your scalpel cut through the seed-coat and remove a small piece of it, and note its thickness.
(c) Study the external characters of a grain of Indian corn and observe the difference between its two sides. Can you find a hilum, funiculus,and micropyle? Examine its covering.
(Zz) Compare the external features of the bean and grain of corn with those of the seed of the Scotch Pine, and note the points of resemblance and points of differ- ence. Sketch side by side these three seeds, faith- fully representing all their external features (x 2).
B.—MORPHOLOGY OF THE EMBRYO.
(z) Remove the seed-coat from a soaked bean, by carefully cutting along the sides with the point of your scalpel. Observe the large thickened seed leaves (cotyledons), and note their appearance and position. How many are there ?
(4) In the region of the hilum observe the young plant (embryo), and note its relation to the cotyledons. What do you suppose to be the function of the cotyle- dons? Carefully separate the cotyledons, allowing the embryo to retain its attachment to one of them.
104
PLANT: ‘TYPES:
(c) Study the embryo arfd observe its size, form, and color.
Note the conical portion, the primitive stem (caulicle), and observe its relation to the cotyledons. Observe the flattened portion of the embryo (plumule), contain- ing the first set of true foliage leaves, and the rudi- mentary stem above the first node or attachment of the cotyledons. Note the position of the plumule, in what direction does the caulicle extend with reference to the position of the micropyle? |
(2) Remove the external covering of the grain of corn and
examine it. This represents not only the seed-coat but also the wall of the ovary; hence a grain of the Maize is a ripened ovary with its contents (fruit, in the true or botanical sense).
(ec) Examine (4) a section of the fruit, taken longitudinally
through the median plane of the embryo. Observe the two layers of the covering. Note the outer layer (pericarp), representing the wall of the ovary, and the inner or seed-coat. What is the botanical fruit of the Bean Plant? What important differences between the fruit of the Bean Plant and that of the Indian Corn?
(f) Observe the embryo and note its form and appearance.
Where is it situated and how related to the remaining large yellow portion of the fruit (endosperm) ? Observe the part of the embryo which is in contact with the endosperm (scutellum). Note the sheath of leaves or apical bud. Where is it situated? Have you found cotyledons in the grain of corn? Sketch the section representing endosperm, embryo, and scutellum.
(g) Examine a seed of Scotch Pine. Remove the seed-coat
and note its character. Examine (mm) the embryo and note the form, size, and general appearance. Iden- tify endosperm, caulicle, and radicle. How many
SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS. 165
cotyledons do you find? How are the cotyledons fetated to one another ? Sketch side by side, the three embryos which you have now studied, and name all the parts represented in each sketch (de/. 1%).
C.—MORPHOLOGY OF SEEDLINGS.
(z) Examine a seedling of the Bean and observe the stem, roots and cotyledons. Note the relative size of these parts and their general appearance.
(4) Study the roots. Do you find one principal or main root (taproot) which gives off other roots or branches; or do you find, instead of a taproot, many thread-like roots arising from about the same place (multiple roots}?
(c) Observe (m) the branches given off by the root. Remove a small portion of a branch, mount it in water and examine it (4%), and observe its tip. Sketch.
(2) Observe the young stem and note the distance below the cotyledons. How many nodes and internodes has the stem? Observe the relative length of the internodes.
(ec) Examine the cotyledons and observe their form and color. Do you find any remains of the seed-covering in connection with the young plant ?
(f) Study the first pair of foliage leaves, and note the outline, base, apex, margin, and venation. Are the leaves parallel-veined or netted-veined ? Wow are the leaves arranged on the stem? Sketch a foliage leaf (del. 2").
(g) Now examine a seedling of the Corn. Study the roots, stem, and leaves, as you did in the Bean, and make corresponding sketthes.
(4) Compare the seedlings of the Bean and Corn with refer- ence to their root, stems, form and venation of their leaves, and their leaf-arrangement or phyllofaxy.
166 PLANT TYPES.
(¢) Name the points of difference between the seedlings of the Bean and Corn.
(7) Examine the seedling of the Scotch Pine or Austrian Pine and study it as you were directed to study the seedling of the Bean, and compare the Pine seedling with those of the Bean and Corn. Sketch, side by side, the three seedlings which you have now studied, observing their relative size.
OTHER WORK.
1. Comparative review of the seedlings studied in the labor- atory.
2. The morphological significance and the physiology of germination.
3. Natural agencies in the dispersal of fruits and seeds.
4. Classification of the true or botanical fruits, with examples.
5. The nature and miscellaneous character of the “ edible” fruits, with examples.
6. The nature, function and correlation of the members of the plant body, and the transformation of energy in the plant.
7. The distinguishing characteristics of a mineral or inor- ganic object.
The distinguishing characteristics of a plant. The distinguishing characteristics of an animal.
1o. The relation between the inorganic and organic king-
doms ; between the animal and plant kingdoms.
References. — 12— 18— 19— 29— 32— 40— 43 —55 —57 —59— 61 — 65 — 60 — 75 —90— 93 — 96 — 97 — I1I — 113 — 132— 139 — 143 — 166— 168.
PAR) EYE.
PEE osotriICATION. QF ANIMALS AND PLANTS.
ie
NOTE.
It will be observed that each animal and plant selected as a Type in the Studies is chosen, in the following Synopses, as a repre- sentative of the Class to which it belongs. |
A SYNOPSIS
OF THE
BEASolhICATION,.OF. ANIMALS.
This synopsis is a modification of the classification adopted by Dr. C. Claus. Although it is not the latest, it seems rather better adapted to the present purpose than later systems.
SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS.
A.—Protista—The lowest organisms, not distinctly animal or plant. Homo- geneous structure. No nucleus known to be present.
B.—Protozoa—Unicellular animals, or simple colonies of similar organisms, each possessing one and frequently more than one, nucleus. Reproduction by fission or budding.
C.—Metazoa—Miulticellular animals, consisting of a large number of cells which form a community or individual. Each individual is composed of a few or many kinds of cells, each kind performing a special function for the individual. Sexual reproduction.
SYNOPSIS OF THE BRANCHES.
GROUP B—PROTOZOA. Branch I. Protozoa—Gharacteristics of the group. : Class A.—Rhizopoda: Ameba, Foraminifera, Heliozoa. Class B.—Infusoria: Paramecium, Vorticella. Class C.—Gregarinida: Gregarina.
GROUP 0—METAZOA. Branch Il. Porifera—A body composed of many cells capable of amceboid movements, more or less independent, and collectively supported by solid skeletal parts. There are internal canal systems and external pores. Class A.—Spongia: Spongilla, Grantia. 169
170 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS.
Branch III.
Ccelenterata—Radially symmetrical animals. Body consists of two ass, ecto- derm and endoderm. No true body cavity. A central cavityis present which serves both for digestion and circulation, and has only one external opening (mouth). The nervous system is entirely absent or but little specialized.
Class A.—Hydrozoa: Hydra, Hydrozoa, Fellyfish. Class B.—Actinozoa: Sea-anemone, Coral polyp. Class C.—Ctenophora: Ctenophore.
Branch Iv.
Echinodermata— Animals with apparently radial symmetry, but really bilaterally symmetrical. An exoskeleton of calcareous spicules and plates. An alimentary canal with two external openings. A true body cavity. A true water-vascular system. A nervous system. A complicated metamorphosis.
Class A.—Crinoidea: Sea-Lily.
Class B.—Asteroidea: Starjish.
Class C.—Echinoidea: Sea-Urchin.
Class D.—Holothuroidea: Sea-Cucumber, Synapta. —
Branch v.
Vermes— Bilateral animals with unsegmented or uniformly segmented bodies. Well marked anterior, posterior, dorsal and ventral regions of the body. No segmented lateral appendages. Adermal muscular system. Three germ-layers and usually no primitive stripe.
Class A.—Platyhelminthes: /lat-worms, Tape-worm. Class B.—Nemathelminthes: Round-worms, Trichina. Class C.—Annelida: Larth-worm, Leech.
Class D.—Rotatoria: Rotzfer.
Branch VI.
Arthropoda— Bilaterally symmetrical animals, with bodies not uniformly seg- mented. Jointed segmented appendages. Body with a chitinous exoskeleton. Heart situated above the alimentary canal. Brain (supra-cesophageal ganglion) and segmented ventral nerve cord.
Class A.—Crustacea: Crayfish, Cyclops, Barnacle.
Class B.—Arachnida: Spider, Scorpion, Mite.
Class C.—Onycophora: Peripatus.
Class D.—Myriapoda: Centipede.
Class E.—Insecta: Wasp, Beetle, Butterfly, Grasshopper.
Branch VII.
Mollusca — Bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented animals. Usually a calcareous univalve or bivalve shell. No locomotory skeleton. Heart with ven- tricle and two auricles. The central nervous system consists of the paired cerebral, visceral, pleural, and pedal ganglia.
SYNOPSIS OF BRANCHES. I71
Class A.—Lamellibranchiata: Clam, Oyster, Pecten. Class B.—Scaphopoda: Dentalium.
Class C.—Gasteropoda: Szazd.
Class D.—Pteropoda: Pteropod.
Class E.—Cephalopoda: Sguzd, Cuttle-jish.
Branch VIII.
Molluscoidea — Bilateral, unsegmented animals with crown of ciliated tentacles or spirally coiled buccal arms. Usually attached and enclosed by a cell or bivalve shell. One or more ganglia connected by a pharyngeal ring.
Class A.—Bryozoa: Crzstatedlla. Class B.—Brachiopoda: Brachiopod.
Branch IX.
Tunicata—Bilateral, sacular, or barrel-shaped animals with a gelatinous or carti- laginous mantle completely surrounding the body. Pharyngeal respiration and a distinct sacular heart. A simple nerve ganglion. Marine, fixed and free organisms.
Class A.—Tethyodea: Ascidian. Class B.—Thaliacea: Salga, Doliolum. Branch X.
Vertebrata—Bilaterally symmetrical animals with internal skeleton; notochord or backbone; brain and dorsal nervous cord separated from body cavity , never more than two pairs of limbs. .
Class A.—Pisces : Amphioxus, Lamprey, Shark, Perch. Class B.—Amphibia: Cecilia, Salamander, Frog. — Class C.—Reptilia: Sxzake, Lizard, Turtle.
Class D.—Aves: Duck, Pigeon, Ostrich.
Class E..—Mammalia: Ofossum, Cat, Man.
A SYNOPSIS OF THE CLASSES OF VERTEBRATA. Class A.
Pisces—Aquatic, cold-blooded vertebrates; exoskeleton of scales; permanent gills; median fins and paired pectoral and pelvic fins; heart consisting of an auricle and ventricle.
Order I.—Leptocardii: Amphioxus. Order II.—Marsipobranchii: Petromyzon, Lampreys. Order III.—Selachii: Shark, Skate, Ray. Order IV.—Ganoidei: Sturgeon, Gar-Pike. Order V.—Teleostei: Perch, Cod, Fel. Order VI.—Dipnoi: Ceratodus, Protopterus. Class B.
Amphibia—Cold-blooded vertebrates; usually no exoskeleton; two occipital condyles; heart consisting of three cavities; pulmonary and branchial respiration. Development with metamorphosis,
172 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS.
Order I.—Apoda: Ceczila. Order II.—Caudata: Vecturus, Newt, Salamander.
Order II].—Batrachia: ZYoad, Frog. Class C.
Reptilia — Cold-blooded vertebrates with exoskeleton of scales or bony plates; one occipital condyle; heart with three, or indistinctly four cavities, exclusively pulmonary respiration, embryo with ammion and allontois.
Order I.—Ophidia: Szaze.
Order II.—Lacertilia: Lizzard.
Order III.—Chelonia: Turtle, Tortoise.
Order IV.—Crocodilia: Crocodile, Alligator. Class D.
Aves— Warm-blooded, oviparous vertebrates with exoskeleton of feathers; one occipital condyle; heart with four complete cavities; right aortic arch persists; anterior limbs organized for flight, posterior for locomotion on land or water; three eyelids; pulmonary respiration.
Order I.—Natatores (Swimming birds): Swan, Gull. Order II.—Grallatores (Waders): Plover, Snipe. Order III.—Gallinacei (Fowls): Qzazl, Peacock. Order IV.—Columbinz (Pigeons): Dove, Pigeon. Order V.—Scansores (Climbers): Woodpecker, Parrot. Order VI.—Passeres (Passarines): Sparrow, Swallow, Lark. Order VII.—Raptatores (Birds of prey): Owl, Buzzard, Eagle. Order VIII.—Cursores (Runners): Ostrich, Cassowary. Class E.
Mammalia—Warm-blooded viviparous* vertebrates with exoskeleton of hairs; double occipital condyle; heart with four chambers; red blood corpuscles double concave; complete diaphragm; pulmonic respi- ration; suckle their young.
Order I.—Monotremata: Orzithorhynchus. Order II.—Marsupialia: Kangaroo, Opossum. Order III.—Edentata: Armadillo, Sloth. Order IV.—Cetacea: Whale, Manatee. Order V.—Perissodactyla: Horse, Rhinocero. Order VI.—Artiodactyla: Pig, Deer, Buffalo. Order VII.—Proboscidia: Elephant, Mastodon. Order VIII.—Rodentia: Mouse, Beaver, Rabbit. Order IX.—Insectivora: Hedgehog, Mole. Order X.—Pinnipedia: Seal, Walrus. Order XI.—Carnivora: Cat, Dog, Woff.
* Order XII.—Chiroptera: Bat. Order XIII.—Prosimiz: Lemurs. Order XIV.—Primates: Age, Man.
* The Monotremes lay eggs ; hence oviparous.
ACS YNOPSTS
OF THE
SP xsolPiICATION OF PLANTS.
This synopsis is intended for reference in connection with the study of the Plant Types. It gives, in a general way, the characteristics of the Groups and Branches of the Cryptogams, and more fully of the Orders of the Flowering Plants. It will give the student a general notion of the natural relationship of plants and an understanding of the scheme of sys- tematic classification. An attempt is made in the arrangement to co-ordinate the Groups, Branches. and Orders in accordance with the latest views of some of our best authorities. The classification here adopted is, with some modification, that given by Professor Bessey in his text-books on Botany.
SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS.
A.—Thallophytes—/lants with no distinction of stem and leaves, Plant body usually a thallus, and small.
B.—Bryophytes (Moss-worts)—//ants usually with distinction of stem and leaves, but with no woody system. Always chlorophyll-bearing. Leaves never bearing spores.
C.—Pteridophytes (Fern-worts)—/lants with a woody stem, but not producing seeds. Flowerless plants with leaves bearing spores.
D.—Spermaphytes (Seed-plants)—//ants which produce seeds. Flowering plants with highly complex systems of tissue.
SYNOPSIS OF THE BRANCHES. GROUP A—THALLOPHYTES.
Plant body usually a thallus or small, but sometimes large. Vo ¢rue stem, leaf, or root.
Branch I. Protophyta—(The Sexless Plants). The lowest, simplest, and most minute plants. Chiefly aquatic. Unicellular or cells in loosely united masses, No sexual cells known. Reproduction by fission and endo-spores. Class A.—Myxomycetes (Slime-moulds) .* Class B.—Schizomycetes (Bacteria and Yeast-plants). Class C.—Cyanophycez (Green Slimes).
* Note. — The Myxomycetes are regarded by good authorities as belonging more properly to the animal forms of life.
173
174 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
Branch II.
Zygophyta—(The Unisexual Plants). Plants extremely variable in size and complexity of structure. Aquatic and chlorophyll-bearing, or sapro- phytic. Sexual reproduction present. Very little if any difference in form, size, color and origin of the male and the female cells.
Class A.—Zodsporez.
Class B.—Conjugateze (Yoke-weeds). Branch III.
Oophyta —(The Egg-spore Plants). Plant-body variable in size and general appearance. Aquatic and chlorophyll-bearing. Saprophytic and para- sitic. A considerable difference between the male (antheridium) and the female (odgonium) sexual cell in size and appearance.
Class A.—Zo6dsporeze. (Valvox.)
Class B.—CEdogoniez.
Class C.—Ccoeloblasteze (Green Felts, Water-moulds, Mildews and White rusts).
Class D.—Fucacez (Rock-weeds). Branch Iv.
Carpophyta—(The Spore-fruit Plants). lant-body a thallus, well developed excepting in the parasitic and saprophytic forms. <A spore-fruit which as the result of fertilization.
Class A.—Coleocheetz.
Class B.—Florideze (Red seaweeds).
Class C.—Ascomycetes (Sac-fungi).
Class D.—Basidiomycetes (Puff-balls and Toad-stools). Class E.—Characez (Stone-worts).
GROUP B—BRYOPHYTES. Branch v.
Bryophyta—(Characters of the Group.) Class A.—Hepaticze (Liver-worts). Class B.—Musci (Mosses).
GROUP C—PTERIDOPHYTES. Branch VI.
Pteridophyta.—(Characters of the Group.) Class A.—Filicineze (Ferns). Class B.—Equisetinze (Horntails). Class C.—Lycopodinz (Lycopods).
GROUP D—SPERMATOPHYTES. Branch VII.
Spermaphyta—(Characters of the Groups. Class A.—Gymnospermz (Gymnosperms). Seeds not enclosed in an ovary, but naked upon a carpellary in the form of a scale, bract, or disc.
SYNOPSES OF ORDERS. 175
Fruit a cone or berry. Order I.—Cycadaceze (Cycads). Order I].—Coniferz (Conifers). Order I1I.—Gnetaceze (Joint-Firs). Class B.—Angiospermz (Angiosperms). Seeds enclosed in an ovary formed by carpellaries.
AK TIFICIAL KEY.
The aim of this Key is to give the student an introduction to the practical use of an “ Artificial Key” in identifying plants. It 1s not com- plete in the sense of including every known wild plant of a given locality, but for the object in view, it is believed, will serve much better than the complete Manuals of Botany. The Key is made as simple as possible, consistent with accuracy, and embraces sixteen Orders, twenty-eight of the most important Families, fifty common Genera, and sixty-eight representa- tive Species. These are among the most common plants and found gener- ally throughout the United States. |
The instructor, by glancing along the right-hand margin, can readily observe what plants are included in the Key and can see to it that such plants are provided for practical study and identification. The Glossary is an absolute necessity and the student should be required to make constant reference to it as long as he has the least doubt concerning the meaning of aterm. In the following Key the names of Families appear in full-face, those of genera in /talzcs, and those of species in Roman type.
CLASS B.—ANGIOSPERM, SYNOPSIS AND KEY TO THE ORDERS.
DIVISION A—MONOCOTYLEDONS.
Stem never with woody bundles arranged in concentric layers, but scattered without any definite order ; leaves usually parallel-veined; parts of the flower usually in threes, never in fives ; embryo with one cotyledon.
A. Ovary Superior.
(a) Flowers with the ordinary envelopes, usually regular. Order I. 3 Alismales.— Water Plantain, etc.—FParts of the flower all distinct. Perianth, 2 (3 fam.) or 3-parted or more; stamens, 1-indefinite; ovaries usually several or many, I-celled, 1-ovuled; herbaceous water plants ; oecasionally delicate and nearly colorless herbs of the tropics.
176 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. Order II. | Liliales. —Zzly, Spider-wort, etc.—Perianth, 3-parted; glumaceous, partly or (8 fam.) usually entirely petaloid, rarely irregular ; stamens 3-6; styles 1-3; ovary becoming a 1- wswally 3-celled capsule or berry. Plant often bulbous, with usually narrow leaves. (Pp. 181.) (4) Flowers usually spadaceous. Order III. Aroidales. —Aruwm, etc.—Iinflorescence a spadix, usually enveloped zz a sfathe. (5 fam.) Perianth never petaloid, usually abortive or inconspicuous. Flowers often unisexual; fruit superior; leaves and plants usually large, but small and foatimg in one family. (p. 182.) Order IV. Palmales. —Fa/m, etc.—Inflorescence a spadix. Perianth as in Order III. (3 fam.) fruit large or very large; \amineze broad-branched, pinnate or flabelliform; trees or shrubs. (c) Flowers glumaceous. Order Vv. Glumales. — Grass, Sedge, etc.—Flowers glumaceous and in the axils of scales (5 fam.) which are arranged in spikelets, or occasionally with an inconspic- uous 3-parted perianth; stamens 1-6, usually 1-3; ovary 1-3 celled, and 7-3-seeded. Grass-like plants. B. Ovary Inferior. (a) Flowers usually regular. Order VI. Hydrales. —/rog’s Sit.—Perianth 6-parted; regular stamens 3-12; ovaries infe- (1 fam.) rior, 3 or more, and I-seeded ; unisexual or polygamous; small water plants. Order VII.
Iridales. —Amaryllis, Iris, etc.—Perianth occasionally irregular, 3 or 6—parted,
(7 fam.)
Order VIII.
usually petaloid ; stamens 3 or 6, in one family only 1-5 pollen bear- ing; styles 7-3; fruit variable, 3-celled in northern plants. Plants often with eguztant leaves, occasionally climbing and with rzbded and netted-veined, petioled leaves. (p. 182.)
(0) Flowers very irregular.
Orchidales. —Orchis, Lady Slipper.—Perianth 6-parted, very zrregular ,; fertile sta-
(2 fam.) -
mens tI or 2, moreor less united with the style into a common column; ovary inferior, twisted and r-celled with many small seeds. (p. 183.)
DIVISION B—DICOTYLEDONS.
Stem with distinct bark, wood, and pith which are concentrically arranged ; netted-veined leaves; parts of the flower commonly in fives or fours, seldom in threes; embryo with a pair of cotyledons or several (Pines) cotyledons.
SYNOPSES OF ORDERS. E77
A. Flowers Choripetalous.
(a) Stamens usually more numerous than the petals, inserted on the receptacle. (2) Herbs ; stamens 12-indefinite. Order IX. Ranales. —Crow/foot, Barberry, Water Lily, etc.— Usually bisexual. Perianth (8 fam.) with both calyx and corolla, rarely afefa/ous; parts of the flower arranged spirally or in whorls which are usually dimerous or trimer- ous; stamens rarely definite; ovaries I-many, separate; seeds I-many. (p. 183.)
(2) Aromatic shrubs or trees. Order xX.
Laurales. —ZLawure/, efc.—Flowers mostly unisexual; apetalous; stamens free (3 fam.) or monodelphous; ovary superior, r-celled, 1-seeded. Aromatic herbs, shrubs or trees.
(3) Herbs ; stamens usually 5 or 6. Order XI.
Parietales. —Mustard, Violet, Poppy, etc.—F lowers bisexual; perianth with both (10 iam.) calyx and corolla; regular or irregular; stamens definite or indefi nite; ovary,wsually r-celled, with parietal placente. (p. 183.)
(4) Shrub or trees, except frequently ix Urder XII, stlowers usually unisexual, sometimes perfect. Generally apetalous. Order XII. Urticales.—Including Malvales. Nettle, Mallow, Linden, etc.—Perianth (7 fam.) commonly Zresent 3-g-parted, and calyx-—like, occasionally with both calyx and corolla; stamens few to indefinite, often in the corolla bearing families, united into a column; ovary superior, I-many- celled. Bark often mucilaginous or very tough. (p. 184.)
(5) Herbs or shrubs. Flowers very minute, usually perfect. Order XIII. Piperales. —/epper, etc. Flowers perfect or unisexual and in spikes; stamens (3 fam.) 6-20; ovary superior, and 1-celled and 1-seeded ; mostly herbs; some aquatic ; often pugnent.
(6) Herbs. Flowers usually unisexual, occasionally perfect, rarely with corolla. Fuice milky. Order XIV. Euphorbiales.—Sfurge, e¢c.—Flowers mostly unisexual; sepals present or absent; (10 fam.) stamens variable in number; ovary 2-many-celled, superior ; plants usually with milky juice. Occasionally shrubs or trees.
178 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
(7) Herbs without previous characters. Flowers often apetalous, Lenerally perfect. Order XV.
Caryophyllales.—Pinzk, Goose-foot, Buck-wheat, etc.—Calyx usually present (7 fam.) corolla occasionally; stamens usually of a different number from sepals ; ovary superior, z-ce/led, seeds 1 or more, dasal or borne on a central placenta, occasionally several celled, with axial placenta.
Occasionally shrubs.
(4) Stamens commoniy on a disc; variable in number, often only a few, never many except rarely in Order XVI.
(1) Herbs; stamens ro. Order XVI.
Geraniales.— Geranium, Rue, Flax, etc.—Flowers often irregular, 4 or 5-parted; (tr fam,) stamens often twice the number of petals; ovary superior, entire, lobed, or of nearly separate carpels. Herbs, shrubs, or trees, often
strong scented. (p. 184.)
(2) Climbing shrubs; stamens 5. Order XVII.
Celastrales.— Vine, Staff-tree, ete—Flowers regular, perfect; stamens usually (4 fam.) the same in number as the petals, alternate or opposite to them; ovary superior, entire; usually shrubs or trees, often climbing, gen-
erally with simple leaves. (p. 184.)
(3) Shrubs or trees; stamens variable. Order XVIII.
Sapindales.—Including Amentales and Quernales.—Maple, Walnut, Oak, ete. (1z2fam.) Perianth offen absent or represented by scales, occastonally present ; inflorescence commonly contracted, most commonly one or both kinds
of flowers in aments; stamens very variable in number (3-20);
ovary 1-several celled, wsually superior ; fruit often a mut. (p. 185.)
Order XIX. Santalales. —Sazdal-wood, etc.—Ovary inferior; shrubs or trees, rarely herbs, (3 fam.) mostly parasitic.
Order XxX. Olacales. —Ao/ly, efc.—Flowers regular, Stamens as in Order XVIII; ovary (3 fam,) superior, entire, I-many celled; shrubs and trees, often evergreen.
Usually tropical. Sepals rarely distinct, petals and stamens usually on the calyx.
(c) Stamens variable, usually equal to the number of petals, occasionally more numerous, usually on the calyx.
SYNOPSES OF . ORDERS. 179
(1) Flowers 4-parted ; stamens usually 8.
Order XXI. Myrtales. —Mjrtle, Evening Primrose, etc.—Flowers tetramerous, regular; (6 fam. ) stamens twice as many as petals, orin two whorls, or by branching,
very numerous; ovary usually inferior, syncarpous; placenta axial; leaves simple and usually entire.
(2) Powers, 3-parted, apetalous. Herbs. Order XXII.
Asarales. —Zirthwort, ete.—Flowers apetalous, mostly 3-parted; stamens defi- (2 fam.) nite ovary inferior,usually 6-celled and many-seeded. Herbs. (p.185.)
(3) Flowers usually g-parted, apetalous shrubs or trees. Order XXIII.
Daphnales.—WVazereum, etc.—Usually apetalous, flowers perfect; tetramerous; (4 fam.) calyx petaloid; stamens in one or two whorls; ovary superior, t-celled, with a szzgle seed; trees or shrubs.
(4) Flowers 5-parted, not in umbels, in some familtes trreg- ular. Order XXIV.
Rosales. —/ose, Pulse, Saxifrage, etc.—Flowers mostly regular, occasionally
(8 fam.) irregular; pentamerous, occasionally tetramerous; stamens 5-30, often united; carpels one or more, usually free in bud, sometimes united afterwards with calyx-tube or enclosed in the swollen top of the peduncle; styles usually distinct; fruit variable, in one large family (Leguminosz) a legume; leaves, often compound. Herbs, shrubs, or trees. (p. 185.)
(5) Flowers small, 5 or 4g-parted, in umbels or corymds; Stamens 4 OY 5.
Order XXV. Umbelalles.—Farsuip, Dog-wood, etc.—Perianth 4 or 4-parted; stamens as many (3 fam.) as petals and alternate with them; a nectiferous disc between
stamens and style; ovary inferior, 1-many-celled; flowers in wmde/s or corymds.
(6) Flowers usually many-parted. Order XXVI.
Ficodales. — Cactus, efc.—Perianth usually many-parted; sepals and petals often (2 fam.) alike; petals sometimes wanting; stamens usually many; ovary mostly inferior, 1-many-celled; mostly fleshy herbs, often stemless.
7) Flowers usually large; ovary usually inferior. Order XXVII.
Passiflorales.—Fassion Flower, Gourd, Begonia, etc.—F lowers usually regular; (7 fam.) stamens variable, often united; ovary usually inferior, syncarpous, I-several-celled, with parietal placentee; herbs, shrubs or trees,
often ¢razling or climbing.
180 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
B. Flowers Gamopetalous. (a) Corolla regular; leaves usually alternate excepting Phlox.
(1) Shrubs or shrubby plants; stamens usually twice as many as petals. Seeds many. Order XXVIII. Ericales. —/Heath, etc.—F lowers regular; stamens as many or twice as many as (3 fam.) the petals, free from the corolla; ovary superior, 2-many-celled,
style one. (p. 186.)
(2) Herbs; stamens as many as petals and opposite to them. Order XXIX. Primulales.—Flowers mostly regular; pentamerous; stamens usually 5, opposite; (4fam.) ovary superior, 1-celled (2-celled in Plantaginacez); leaves a/ter- nate, often radical. (p. 186.)
(3) Shrubs or trees; stamens usually alternate with petals. Seeds few. Order XOex. Ebenales. —dony, efc.—Flowers regular; 4-8-parted; stamens twice as (3 fam.) many as petals, or more numerous, usually alternate with the petals; ovary superior; 2-many-celled; seeds usually so/’ztary im the cells; shrubs or trees with alternate leaves.
(4) Herbs; flowers 5-parted ; stamens 5, alternate with the petals; leaves usually alternate, occasionally opposite. Order xXx. Polemoniales.—Phlox, Borrage, Night-shade, etc.—Flowers regular, pentamer- (5 fam.) ous; stamens 5, alternate with petals ; ovary superior, 2-several;
celled; leaves usually alternate. (p. 186.)
(2) Corolla usually irregular and more or less 2-lipped. (1) Ovary 2 or g-celled and seeds solitary. Order XXXII. Lamiales. —Mint, Verbena, etc.—Flowers irregular, usually bilabiate; stamens (3 fam.) usually 2or4; ovary superior with solitary seeds in the 2-4 cells; ? plants wth square stems and opposite leaves, often aromatic.
(2) Ovary 2-celled, seeds never solitary. Order XXXIII. Personales.—/ve-wort, etc.—Flowers irregular, usually bilabiate, stamen 4 or 5; (8 fam.) ovary superior, wth many seeds in the cells; leaves various, not aromatic.
° (c) Corolla regular ; leaves opposite. Order XXXIV. Gentianales.— Gentian, Milk-weed, Olive, etc.—Flowers regular; stamens (6 fam.) usually as many as petals and alternate with them; ovary superior; leaves opposite.
ARTIFICIAL KEY. ISI
(d@) Flowers regular or irregular; milky juiced plants. Order XXXV. Campanales.—Flowers usually irregular; stamens usually 5, sometimes less, often (3 fam.) united by their anthers, free from corolla; ovary inferior, I-to 6-celled, with many seeds in each cell.
(e) Flowers aggregated, juice not milky. Order XXXVI. Rubiales. —Madder, Honey-suckle, etc.—F lowers regular or irregular; stamens (2 fam.) on the corolla and isomerous with its lobes; ovary inferior; 2-to many-celled, each cell with 1 to many ovules; calyx never pappose.
(f) Flowers many on a common receptacle. Order XXXVII. Asterales. —Composite, etc.—Flowers regular or irregular; stamens on the (4 fam.) corolla, isomerous with its lobes; ovary inferior; 1-celled, t-ovuled (rarely 2-to 3-celled); calyx often greatly reduced, forming a pap- pus or wanting. (p. 187.)
KEY TO THE FAMILIES, GENERA AND SPECIES.
MONOCOTYLEDONS. Order II. Liliales. —A. Flowers regular, 6-androus ; perianth usually corolla-like ; fruit 3-celled, a -apsule or berry. Liliacez a Climbing shrubs or shrubby plants; flowers unisexual; leaves broad. Smilax (a) Almost herbaceous, not thorny; flowers greenish, very offensive. S. herbacea
b Herds. (a) Flower bracts scarious; flowers umbellate, scapose: leaves narrow, from a coated bulb; strong scented
plants. . Allium (1) Leaves keeled, linear; flowers pink, without bulb- lets intermixed. A. cernuum
(2) Leaves flat, linear; bulblets mixed with the flowers.
A. canadense
(4) Flowers bracts scarious ; parts of perianth wzzted, cylin- drical; flowers few, axillary, white or greenish; stem
leafy, from a rootstock. Polygonatum (1) Flowers 2-8; plant large, glaucous. /. giganteum (2) Flowers 2, plant small. P, biflorum
(c) Flowers bracts scarious ; parts of perianth distinct ; flow-
182 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
ers small, white, racemose; stem leafy, from a root-
stock. Smilacina (1) Fiowers in a racemose panicle. S. racemosa (2) Racemes simple, leaves 3-I2. S. stellata (3) Racemes small, leaves 1 or 2, broad, S. bifolia
(2) Flower bracts wanting, or greenish; fruit a capsule; scape from a solid bulb, with a pazr of leaves at base.
Erythronium
(1) Flowers nodding, pink-white. £. albidium
(e) Flower bracts wanting, or greenish; fruit a berry; stem
from a rootstock, bearing 3 leaves in a terminal whorl;
flower 1, large. Trillium (1) Ovary 6-angled; flowers sessztle, purple, sepals reflexed. 7. recurvatum
‘2) Ovary 6-angled, winged; flowers on long, usually declined peduncles, white or purplish; stigmas stout, recurved or spreading. 7. erectum
B. Flowers regular, or irregular, with three green sepals and 3 fugacious, colored petals; stamens 6; fruit a pod; sap very mucilaginous. Commelinacee a Flowers regular; petals blue, showy; leaves narrow.
Tradescantia virginica Order III.
Aroidales. —A. Flowers perfect, or moncecious upon the same spadix, occa- sionally dicecious; with 4-6 scale-like sepals or none. Aroideze a Flowers zaked, born on the base of the spadix, which is sur-
rounded by a spathe. Arisema (2) Leaves usually 2, 3-parted. A. triphyllum (2) Leaves usually 1, 7-11-parted. A. dracontium b Flowers with a calyx, covering the globular spadix; stemless, with purple spathe; very early. Syniplocarpus foetidus Order VII. Iridales. —A. Perianth corolla-like; stamens 6, anthers introrse; often bulb- ous rooted and scapose. Amaryllidacee a Leaves grass-like; stem scapose from a solid bulb; flowers 1-several, yellow. fiypoxts erecta B. Perianth corolla-like; from a sfathe; stamens 3, anthers extrorse; root not bulbous ; leaves often eguitant. Iridacez a Stigmas opposite to the anthers: leaves sword-shaped; styles petaloid. Tris (a) Flowers blue; plant large. Z. versicolor b Stigmas alternate with the anthers; stamens monodelphous ; g£rass-like plants. Sisyrinchium
(a) Flowers blue or whitish, opening in the sunshine, spathe solitary. S. augustifolium
Order VIII. Orchidales. —A.
Order IX.
Ranales. —A. B. e:
Order XI.
Parietales. —A.
ARTIFICIAL KEY, 183
Terrestrial, with very irregular flowers; stamens and style
connate; anzthers I, 2 or }. Orchidaceze a Flowers small in spiral racemes. Spiranthes b Flowers large, pink, few ona leafy bracted scape; leaves 2 large, not fleshy. Orchis spectabilis c Flowers large, moccasin-like, 1-3 in number. Cypripedium (a) Flowers yellow, lip 1’ or more long. C. pubescens (4) Flowers pink, very large; stem leafy. C. spectabile {e) Flowers smaller, white. C. candidum DICOTYLEDONS.
Flowers usually 5-parted, sometimes apetalous; stamens and carpels usually many and distinct ; the fruit an akene, follicle or
berry. Ranunculacee a Petals zone; leaves radical, 3-lobed, the lobes acute, flowers pink to blue, very early. Hlepatica acutiloba.
b Petals Zresent. (2) 5, spurred, reddish. Aquilegia Canadensis (4) 5, without spurs, yellow, with a scale at the base of each. Ranunculus (1) Low; flowers large, 1’, early; leaves divided, root fascicled. fe. fascicularis (2) Tall, 1°; flowers very small; leaves round, heart- shaped or kidney-shaped. FR. abortivus Sepals and fetals in 2 or 3 rows of 7; stamens opposite the petals; carpel I. Berberidacez a Sepals 6; petals 6-9; stamens 12-18; flowers large, white; leaves large. Podophyllum peltatum Aquatics ; sepals 4-6, petals many, stamens indefinite; flowers large and showy; leaves often peltate, large. Nymphacez a Sepals 4; ovary 12-35 celled; flowers wzte, greenish outside nearly scentless. Castalia tuberosa
Flowers 4-parted ; stamens 6; pod 2-celled \ong or short.
Crucifere
a Pod short, obcordate, wingless, many-seeded, flowers small, white. Capsella bursa-pastoris
b Pod long, flat, linear; flowers /arge, white or purplish ; stems leafy, leaves simple, dentate. Cardamine rhomboidea
c Pod long, linear, beaked or pointed; flowers yellow. Brassica sp. Flowers 5-parted, irregular, lower petal spurred; anthers 5, connate; pod 1-celled, 3-valved; several seeded. Violacez, Viola
184
Order XII. Urticales. —A.
Order XVI. Geraniales, —A.
Order XVII. Celastrales.—A.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
a Stemless, flowers blue. (a) Lateral petals bearded; leaves cordate or reniform. V. cucullata (4) Lateral petals, beardless; flowers large, pale; leaves
pedate. V. pedata b Leafy stemmed. (az) Flowers yellow, veined. V. pubescens
Trees with alternate, szmple pinnate veined leaves. Fruit a winged samara. Flowers crowded, small, in spring. Ulmacee, Ulmus a Inner bark very mucilaginous. U. fulva Trees, with large thin leaves; Fruit a globular nut. Flowers with sepals and petals, 5-parted, stamens many: mucilaginous.
Tiliaceze
a Leaves geveen, glabrous ; flowers cream-colored, very frag- rant, with peduncle united to a bract. Tilia americana Herbs, flowers usually 5-parted, complete; stamens many in a column. Maivacee a Stamen column anther bearing at the top; stigmas on inner face of styles; involucel of 3 bractlets. Malva (a) Creeping, flowers small, pink. M. rotundifolia
Flowers regular or irregular usually 5-parted; ovary 3-5-lobed ; mostly herbs with alternate leaves; often strong scented
Geraniacee a Flowers 5-parted; 5 glands alternating with the petals, style 5 cleft; stamens Io. Geranium (a) Rootstock perennial; leaves large 5-7 parted, flowers large, showy, pink. G. maculatum
b Flowers 5-parted; no glands; leaves 3-foliate; juice sour. Oxalis (a) Flowers pink. O. violacea (2) Flowers yellow. O. stricta
Climbing shrubs, with ¢exdrzls opposite the alternate leaves ; flowers small, crowded. Ampelide a Leaves simple, palmate-veined. Vitis b Leaves digitately 5-foliate; tendrils dilated at the tips, Ampelopsis quinquefolia Twining shrub with simple, alternate leaves, and small 5-parted greenish flowers in racemes; fruit orange, red within. Celastrus scandens
ARTIFICIAL KEY. 185
Order XVIII. Sapindales.—A. Trees with alternate pinnately compound \eaves; sterile flowers
in aments : fruit a nut. Juglandacee
a Sterile flowers in simple catkins. Fuglans
(a) Petioless, branches and fruit clammy. fF. cinerea
(4) Petioless, branches and /ruzt not clammy. F. nigra
b Sterile flowers in clustered catkins. flicoria
a. leaflets 5. bark in plates, rough. fT. ovata
B. Shrubs ortrees with alternate simple \eaves; fruit usually a nut. Cupulifere
a Sterile flowers in slender catkins, with a calyx, fruit a rounded nut, borne in a cup-like scaly involucre. Quercus
(a) Cup with mossy fringe, acorn large. Q. macrocarpa
C. Trees or shrubs, with opposite, simple, palmate veined leaves (in our examples); flowers crowded or cymose or corymbose.
Sapindacee
a Trees with winged fruit, simple leaves. Acer (a) Leaves s/lvery beneath ; flowers red in clusters in early spring. A. dasycarpum
(4) Leaves green beneath; flowers pale yellow, corymbed, later. A. saccharinum
Order XXII. Asarales. —A. Flowers afefalous, 3-parted; stamens 6-12; ovary 6-celled,
many-seeded. Aristolochiacee a Stemless, with 1 or 2 leaves; stamens 12, Asarum (a) Leaves reniform, velvety; flowers dull purple, the lobes abruptly spreading, pointed. A. canadense
Order XXIV. : Rosales. —A. Flowers regular, 5-parted; stamens usually numerous on the calyx, pistils 1-many, distinct or united with the calyx-tube;
leaves usually alternate. Rosaceze a Ovary superior. (a) Calyx deciduous ; pistil r; fruit a drupe. Prunus
(1) Flowers white, ~acemose ; small tree, thornless, with large oval leaves and astringent fruit. /. virginiana (2) Flowers white, wmdellate; small tree, thorny, with
oval leaves, after the flowers. /. Americana
(4) Calyx persistent, with bractlets ; pistils many, heaped in ahead; flowers white; fruit pulpy. Fragaria
(1) Leaves firm, silky-hairy beneath. fF. virginiana
b Ovaries superior, but enclosed in fleshy ealyx tube; flowers large and showy; often thorny. , Rosa
(a) Styles distinct; sepals spreading after flowering, and deciduous; leaflets 5-7, coarsely toothed; stipules xar- row, spines slender, straight, low, 1-3° . Humilis
186 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
c Ovary inferior. (a) Thorny tree with ovate, irregularly toothed leaves, aa large pink flowers in small corymbose clusters. Pistils
2-5e Pirus coronaria
B. Flowers usually irregular, 5-parted; stamens usually 10; car- pel 1 becoming a legume. Leguminose
a Stamens 7o, distinct; pod inflated; leaves usually 3-foliate; herbs. Baptisia
(a) Flowers small, yellow; plant smooth. £&. tinctoria
(2) Flowers large, cream-colored; plant /ow, soft, hairy. £B. leucophoea (c) Flowers large, white; plant tall, stout, glaucous. £&. leucantha C. Stamens 10, Monodelphous ; leaves digitate, many-foliate; flow- ers pale purple, in a raceme, showy. Lupinus perennis c Stamens 10, diadelphous. (a) Herb, creeping ; \eaves 3-foliate; flowers small, white, in
a head. Trifolium repens (4) Tree, thorny; leaves odd-pinnate; flowers in raceme white, sweet scented, showy. Feobinia pseud-acacia
Order XXVIII.
Ericales. —A. Shrubs or shrubby; flowers regular, 4-5-parted; stamens usually twice the zumber of petals and free from them; ovary supe- rior. Ericaceze
Order XXIX. Primulales.—A. Herds, flowers 5-parted, stamens as many as the petals and opposite to them. Style t. Primulaceze a Ovary superior; anthers conniving im a cone; perianth re- flexed, petals pink or white, showy, flowers 272 uméels ona naked scape. Dodecatheon meadia Order XXXI. Polemoniales.—A. Flowers regular 5-parted, petals convolute in bud; ovary 3-celled with 1-many seeds in each cell, axial; style 3-cleft. Polemoniacez a Corolla salver-shaped ; leaves opposite. Phlox (a) Flowers coryméed. (1) Petals Azz, entire; leaves narrow, tapering to a
sharp point; hairy. P. pilosa (2) Petals pzzkish, bifid; pubescent, low. P. bifida (3) Petals Zzlac or blue; leaves broad; stems loosely spreading, pubescent. P. divaricata
(4) Flowers panicled pink, stem tall without spots. P. paniculata B. Flowers regular 5-parted; ovary deeply z-lobed about the common
GLOSSARY TO ARTIFICIAL KEY. 187
style; usually rough herbs, with alternate leaves; inflorescence
usually 1-sided-cymose or racemose. Borraginacee
a Corolla trumpet-form with open throat, blue; filaments slen-
der, exserted; smooth, with large leaves and cymose, showy
flowers. Mertensia virginica
b Corolla salver-form, with the throat slightly closed, yellow, woolly bearded at the base within; plant hispid.
Lithospermum hirtum
C. Flowers regular, 5-parted; corolla zmdbricate or valvate in bud;
ovary entire 2-celled,; style 1; fruit usually a many-seeded
berry. Solanacez Order XXXVII.
Asterales. —A. Flowers usually manyon a common receptacle, surrounded by an involucre,; stamnes on the corolla; ovary r-celled, style 2-cleft; calyx often wanting or sreatly reduced, forming a pappus.
Composite
a Flowers all perfect, ligulate; pappus white, capillary; herbs
with milky juice.
(a) Flowers large, yellow; stemless, with long lobed and
toothed leaves. Taraxicum officinale
b Heads, with many disc and ray flowers, on naked peduncles ;
rays pistillate; pappus capillary, scanty; receptacle naked ;
flowers pink or white. Erigeron (a) Perennial, hairy; leaves mostly near the base of stem.
(1) Flowers large, few, (1-9); rays about 50, light
bluish-purple. £, bellidifolium
SPECIAL GLOSSARY. acaulescent: apparently stemless; the stem being very short or subterranean. achenium : a one-seeded, seed-like fruit. acute: merely sharp-pointed, or in a point less than a right angle. adelphous (stamens): joined filaments. f adnate: the anther fixed by its whole length to the filament or its prolongation. akene or akenium : see achenium. albumen the nutritious matter stored up in the seed. alternate (leaves): arranged one after another at different heights on the axis ament: see catkin. amorphous: shapeless; without any definite form. andrecium : a name for the stamens taken together. androus: referring to stamens. annual (plant): fruiting the year it is raised from the seed and then dying anterior : in the blossom, is the part next the bract, z. e., external. anther : the region of the stamen which bears the pollen. antheridium : a reproductive organ corresponding to the anther of flowering plants antrorse: directing upwards or forwards.
188 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
apetalous: destitute of petals.
apocarpous: (pistils): when the several pistils of the same flower are separate. arboreous, arborescent ; tree-like, in size or form.
awn; the bristle or beard of barley, oats, etc.; or any similar appendage: axis; the organ round which others are attached; the root and stem. axil: the angle on the upper side between a leaf and the stem.
axillary (buds, etc.): occurring in an axil.
berry: a fruit pulpy or juicy throughout.
bidentate : having two teeth (not twice or doubly dentate).
bifid : two-cleft to about the middle.
bilabiate : two-lipped, as the corolla of sage.
bilocular ; two-celled, as most anthers, the pod of fox glove, most saxifrages, etc. bisexual : with both stamens and pistils, :
bract : a small leaf associated with a flower. oe bractlet: a bract seated on the pedicel or flower-stalk.
bulb: a leaf-bud with fleshy scales, usually subterranean.
bulbous: bulb-like in shape, etc.
calyx: the outer set of the floral envelopes or leaves of the flower.
calyx-tube : the tube formed by the union of the sepals. = capillary; hair-like in shape; as fine as hair or slender bristles.
capsule : a pod; any dry, dehiscent seed-vessel.
capitate: having a gobular apex, like the head of a pin.
carpel: simple pistil; one of the parts of which a compound pistil is composed. carpellary: belonging to a carpel.
cartilaginous. firm and tough, like cartilage in texture.
catkin ;« a scaly deciduous spike of flowers, an ament.
caulescent : having an obvious stem.
cell : the cavity of an anther, ovary, etc.
chlorophyll: the green coloring matter in plants.
circinate : rolled inwards from the top, like a crosier, as the fronds of ferns. clustered : leaves, flowers, etc., aggregated or collected into a bunch. commissure : the line of junction of two carpels, as in the fruit of umbelliferze. compound : composed of two or more distinct parfs.
cone - the fruit of the pine family.
conjugate ; coupled; in single pairs.
connate : united or grown together from the first.
convolute - rolled up lengthwise, as the leaves of the plum in vernation. cordate : heart-shaped. .
corm - a solid bulb, like that of crocus.
corolia - the leaves of the flower within the calyx.
corona. a coronet or crown, an appendage at the top of the claw of some petals. corymb : a sort of flat or convex flower-cluster.
cotyledons ; the first leaves of the embryo.
crenate : the edge scalloped into rounded teeth.
GLOSSARY TO ARTIFICIAL KEY. 189
cryptogamous : relating to cryptogams, or flowerless plants.
culm : a straw; the stem of grasses and sedges.
cylindrical form. as that of stems, etc., which are round, and tapering. cylindraceous : approaching to the cylindrical form.
cyme.a cluster of centrifugal inflorescence.
cymose « furnished with cymes or like a cyme.
deciduous ; falling off, as a calyx and corolla which fall before the fruit forms. decompound : several times compounded or divided.
definite : when of a uniform number, and not above twelve or so.
dehiscence : the mode in which an anther or pod regularly bursts or splits open. dehiscent : opening by regular dehiscence.
dentate : toothed.
diadelphous (stamens): united by their filaments in two sets.
diandrous : having two stamens.
dicotyledonous : having a pair of cotyledons.
digitate (fingered): leaflets of a compound leaf borne on apex of the petiole. dimerous: made up of two parts, or its organs in twos.
diecious: where the stamens and pistils are in separate flowers on different plants. disk ; the face of any flat body; the central part of a head of flowers.
divided (leaves, etc.) : cut into divisions extending about to the base or the mid rib. drupe : a stone-fruit.
elaters : threads mixed with the spores of liverworts.
embryo : the rudimentary, undeveloped plantlet in the seed.
endosperm: (see albumen).
_ entire : the margins not at all toothed, notched or divided, but even.
epizynous : upon the ovary.
epiphyte: a plant growing on another plant, but not nourished by it.
equitant « leaves folded longitudinally, and overlapping without any involution. evergreen « holding the leaves over winter and until new ones appear.
exserted : protruding out of, as the stamens out of the corolla.
extrorse : the anther turned outwards and opening on the outer side.
fascicle : a compact cluster.
fascicled: growing in a bundle or tuft, as the leaves of a pine and larch. fertile: capable of producing fruit or good pollen.
filament : the stalk of astamen; also any slender, thread-shaped appendage. flabelliform : fan-shaped; broad, rounded atthe summit and narrowed at the base. fleshy : composed of firm pulp or flesh.
floating : swimming on the surface of the water.
floral envelopes : the leaves of a flower.
Joliate : relating to or bearing leaflets.
follicle : a simple pod, opening down the inner suture.
fruit: the matured ovary and its contents.
Jugacious : soon falling off or perishing.
Junnel-form ; expanding gradually upwards like a funnel.
IgO CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
gamopetalous : of united petals; same as monopetalous, and a better word. gemmation : state of budding, or the arrangement of parts in the bud.
germ: a growing point; a young bud; sometimes the same as embryo. . germination : the development of a plantlet from the seed.
glabrous - smooth, z. e., having no hairs, bristles, or other pubescence. glands : small-cellular organs which secrete oily or aromatic or other products. glaucous: covered with a bloom, viz., with a fine white powder that rubs off. glumes: the husks of floral coverings of grasses, as bracts of each spikelet. glumaceous: glume-like or glume-bearing.
£ynecium : a name for the pistils of a flower taken altogether.
habitat: the situation in which a plant grows in a wild state.
herbaceous : of the texture of common herbage.
hermaphrodite (flower): having both stamens and pistils in the same blossom. hispid : bristly; beset with stiff hairs,
hexamerous : its parts in sixes.
hypogynous ; inserted under the pistil.
imbricate : overlapping like shingles.
incomplete flower: wanting calyx or corolla.
tndehiscent ; not splitting open.
enfertor : growing below some other organ.
inflated ; turgid and bladdery.
inflorescence : the arrangement of flowerson the stem.
internode : the part of astem between two nodes.
entrorse ; turned or facing inwards, z. e., towards the axis of the flower. involucre : a whole or set of bracts around a flower, umbel or head. involucel: a partial or small involucre.
irregular : parts of same whorl, unlike.
tsomerous : organs of a flower composed of an equal number of parts.
keel ; a projecting ridge on a surface like the keel of a boat.
keeled : furnished with a keel or sharp, longitudinal ridge.
Rkidney- form. resembling the outline of a kidney.
labiate: same as bilabiate or two-lipped.
lamina. a plate or blade.
lanceolate: \ance-shaped.
leaflet: one of the divisions or blades of a compound leaf.
legume. a simple pod, dehiscent into two pieces like that of the Pe
ligule: the strap-shaped corolla in many composite.
ligulate: tongue-shaped.
limeay : narrow and flat, the margins parallel. membranaceous: of the texture of membrane; thin and more or less translucent. micropyle. the closed orifice of the seed.
monodelphous : stamens united by their filaments into one set. monocotyledonous (embryo): with only one cotyledon.
monectous (flower): having stamens or pistils only.
GLOSSARY TO ARTIFICIAL KEY. IQ!
monopetalous (flower): with the corolla of one piece.
monosepalous : a calyx of one piece, z. é., with the sepals united into one body. morphology. the form and structure which an organ (say a leaf) may assume. netted-veined - furnished with branching veins forming net work.
node. a knot; the joints of a stem or the part whence leaves spring. obcordate. heart-shaped with the broad and notched end at the apex. opposite: ON opposite sides of the stem from each other (z. e., in pairs). ‘oval: broadly elliptical. |
ovary . that part of the pistil containing the ovules or future seeds.
ovate: shaped like or having the outline of an egg.
palmate. parts spread like the hand with the outspread fingers.
panicle: an open cluster; like a raceme but more or less compound.
pappus ; thistle-down.
pappose: forming pappus.
parallel-veined (leaves): the veins running parallel to the mid-rib.
parietal (placente, etc.): attached to the walls of the ovary.
pedate: palmate or palmately cleft, with the side divisions again cleft. pedicel. the stalk of each particular flower of a cluster.
peduncle: a flower-stalk, whether of a single flower or of a flower-cluster. peltate: shield shaped.
pentamerous.: with its parts in fives or on the plan of five.
perennial: \asting from year to year.
perfect (flower): having both stamens and pistils.
perianth : floral envelopes, not readily distinguishable as calyx and corolla. pericarp: the ripened ovary.
perigynium . a body of bracts borne around the pistil.
perigynous : the petals and stamens borne on the calyx.
persistent: remaining beyond the period when such parts commonly fall. petiole: the stem or stalk at the base of a leaf.
petal: a leaf of the corolla.
petaloid: petal like; resembling or colored like petals.
pinnate (leaf): with leaflets arranged along the sides of a common petiole. pistil: the seed-bearing organ of the flower.
placenta. the surface or part of the ovary to which the ovules are attached. pollen ; the fertilizing powder of the anther.
polygamous: having both perfect and unisexual flowers.
polypetalous : petals distinct or separate (whether few or many).
pome : a fleshy many-celled fruit such as the apple.
prickles ; sharp elevations of the bark, coming off with it, as of the rose. pubescent ; hairy, or downy, especially with fine and soft hairs or pubescence. pungent ; very hard, and sharp-pointed; prickly-pointed.
raceme ; a flower-cluster having stalked flowers on a common axis.
racemose ; bearing racemes, or raceme-like.
radical ; belonging to the root or apparently coming from the root; first root.
192 CLASSIFICATION ‘OF PLANTS:
vay ; the marginal flowers of a head or cluster when different from the rest. receptacle :; the axis or support of a flower or head of flowers. : recurved : curved outwards or backwards.
refiexed ; bent outwards or backwards.
regular : having all the parts of the whorl, similar.
rhizome ; a root-stock. ;
voot-stock ; root-like trunks or portions of stems on or underground.
runner ; a slender, prostrate branch, rooting at the end or joints as the strawberry. salver-shaped:: border spreading at right angles to tube, as the corolla of phlox. samara ,; a winged fruit or key, as of maple, ash, or elm. - scale (buds and bulbs): modified leaf-like structures.
scape : a peduncle, rising from the ground, or near it, as of the stemless violets. scartous ; thin, dry, and membranous.
segment ; a subdivision or lobe of any cleft body.
sepal : a leaf or division of the calyx.
serrate ; Margin cut into teeth, pointing upwards.
sessile ; sitting; without any stalk, as a leaf destitute of a petiole.
simple : of one piece; opposed to compound.
sinus ; the re-entering angle or space between two lobes or projections. solitary : single; not associated with others.
Spadix ; a fleshy spike of flowers.
spadaceous ; resembling or furnished with a spadix.
Spathe ; a bract which inwraps an infloresence.
Spathaceous ; resembling or furnished with a spathe.
spike ; an inflorescence like a raceme, only the flowers are sessile.
Spikelet ; a small or secondary spike; the inflorescence of grasses.
spore ; a body resulting from the fructification of cryptogamous plants,
Spur : a projection of the flower, resembling a spur.
Staminate ; furnished with stamens.
sterile ; barren or imperfect.
stigma ; the porous end or surface of the pistil which receives the pollen. stipules ; the appendages, one on each side of the base of certain leaves.
style ; the part of the pistil which bears the stigma. syncarpous (fruit or pistil) : composed of several carpels consolidated into one. Zap-root : a root with a stout, tapering body.
tendrid : a thread-like structure used for climbing.
terete ; long and round, same as cylindrical, only it may taper.
terrestrial: living on the land.
tetramerous ; with its parts or sets in fours.
thallus :; a plant-body having no true stem, leaves and roots.
thyrse or thyrsus : a compact and pyramidal panicle.
torus ; the receptacle of the flower.
trimerous ; with its parts in threes.
triple-ribbed: midrib with branches near the base of the leaf, as in sunflower.
~o
GLOSSARY TO ARTIFICIAL KEY. 193
tuber : a thickened portion of a subterranean stem or branch, as a potato. tubular : hollow and of elongated form.
twining ; ascending by coiling around a support, like the hop.
umbel; the umbrella-like form of inflorescence.
umbellate : in umbels.
unisexual ; having stamens or pistils only.
valve ; one of the pieces into which a dehiscent pod, or any similar body, splits. valvate : opening by valves.
vascular ; containing vessels, or consisting of vessels, such as ducts,
veim ; the small rib or branch of the frame-work of leaves.
vesicle : a little bladder.
vine : any trailing or climbing stem.
viscous :; having a glutinous surface.
whorl (leaves, etc.): arranged in a circle round the stem.
wing ; any membranous expansion.
LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUE.
LABORATORY EQUIPMENT. +
A biological laboratory should be provided with a sink, water, and, if possible, gas. The tables, if properly constructed, will each accommodate four pupils at a time, and this number four or five times a day, providing each pupil with a separate locker. There should be at least half as many compound microscopes as the number of pupils working in the laboratory at one time, two pupils using a microscope in common. It is more satisfactory, however, that each pupil in the class should have the exclusive use of a microscope.* The laboratory should be provided with a microtome, paraffin bath, and a set of chemical reagents.
THE PUPILS’ EQUIPMENT.
Each pupil should provide himself with the following named articles : —
(1) A scratch-book and soft pencil.
(2) A hand towel and sponge.
(3) A-set of laboratory tablets, consisting of a drawing tablet, a writing tablet, a pair of covers and fasteners, a hard pencil (HHH or HHH#). |
(4) A copy of the Laboratory Manual.
* The Chicago High Schools import an outfit which, duty free, costs $15. It consists of Leitz’s stand, No. V; ocular, No. 2; objectives, No. 3 and No. 6, giving magnifying powers, respectively, of about 68 and 285 diameters.
+ D.C. Heath & Co., Chicago, have issued a pamphlet entitled The Biological Laboratory in Secondary Schools, which offers suggestions concerning the arrange- ment and equipment of a laboratory. On application, this pamphlet is sent free to teachers and principals of schools.
194
ALCOHOL. 195
(5) A simple set of tools,* consisting of a pair of sharp- pointed scissors, a pair of forceps, a scalpel, a blow- pipe, a pair of needles with handles, and a hand mag-
nifier. ALCOHOL. ++
Alcohol } is the most important reagent in the biological labo- ratory: the commercial alcohol varies from 90% to 95% in strength; absolute alcohol, 100%, is needed only in small quantities, and is usually put up in pound bottles. Some authors refer to ‘ Cologne spirits,” which is 909%. Alcohol is much used in lower grades, which can be prepared from the higher grades, by adding distilled water, either by the alcoholmeter, or in certain proportion by volume.
To prepare 190 cubic centimetres of the various grades from 95 %, or the standard commercial alcohol, the following table of proportions is sufficiently accurate for ordinary use : —
To make. Take of 95%. Add 20. 90%, 180 c.c. IO C.c. 70%, 140 C.c. "50 C.c. 50%, IOO C.c. go C.c. 35%, 70 C.C, 120 C.Cc.
The above grades should be kept on hand ready for use. Alcohol has a wide range of uses. In addition to its general use in preparing other reagents, it is also used in killing, fixing, hard- ening, and preserving tissue. Nothing lower than 70 % is a safe preserving agent. Material intended for histological purposes should be stored in g0 %. Material which has once been passed to 90 % may remain in lower grades for staining, without injury. As a good macerating agent 30 % may be used. Alcohol used
* Richards & Co., Limited, and E. H. Sargent & Co., Chicago, are manufacturers of these sets. Retail price, $1.00.
t Schools, by first complying with certain legal formalities of the United States Revenue laws, are permitted to withdraw alcohol from bonded warehouses free of the revenue tax. By this means it may be had at about 75 cents per gallon, instead of the usual price of about $2.50 including internal revenue. -
tt See Formalin, on page 202.
196 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUE.
in hardening or dehydrating tissue, and that used in preserving and storing material, will gradually become of a grade too low to be of practical use. Such alcohol and other waste alcohol should not be thrown away, but may be redistilled. :
Alcoholic Material. — Material which has been for some time in alcohol should be placed in water for a little while before it is studied, especially if dissections are to be made. When alcoholic material acquires a disagreeable odor, a few drops of the oil of Cassia may be added to the alcohol containing such material.
LIST OF REAGENTS.
Only a few of the more important reagents and formulas are given in this list. The attention of the instructor is called to the references at the close of this list, to the special works on micro- scopic technique. |
In preparing mixtures requiring definite per cent., into which ingredients enter both by weight and volume, 1 gramme is equal to 1 cubic centimetre.
ALBUMEN FIXATIVE (Mayer's). Formula.— Take 50 c.c. glycerine with 50 c.c. white of egg and add 1 gramme salicylate of soda. Shake together and filter. 3 Use. — Same as collodion fixation (¢.zv.). ALCOHOLIC BoRAX-CaARMINE ( Grenacher’s). Formula. — Take a 4% aqueous solution of borax and add 2 to 3% Carmine “No. 40” (2 to 3 parts carmine to 4 parts borax): add an equal volume of 70% alcohol and allow to stand 24 hours and filter.
Use. — For tissue which has been hardened. ‘Tissue should pass from 35 % alcohol into this stain. A good general stain. Decolor with 35 % acidulated alcohol.
ALuM COcHINEAL (Czokor’s).
Formula.— Rub together in a mortar 7 grammes of cochineal
and 7 grammes calcined alum. Add 700 c.c. distilled water
LIST OF REAGENTS. 1Q7
and boil down to about 400 c.c. When cool add about 5 drops of carbolic acid. Filter several times.
Use. — A good nuclear stain on animal tissue. Apply several hours. Wash out stain with distilled water and pass through grades of alcohol.
ANILINE Dyes (green, blue, violet, red, etc.).
Formula.— Strong alcoholic or aqueous solutions are prepared. _
Use. — Valuable chiefly in staining plant tissue. Apply a few minutes to 24 hours. Wash out stain with water.
AcETICc ACID.
Formula.— Dissolve to c.c. glacial acetic acid in 100 C.c. distilled water: add enough distilled water to make the solution 1 litre.
Use. — For clearing tissue and rendering nuclei in fresh plant tissue more distinct.
ACIDULATED ALCOHOL.
Formula. —To 100 c.c. of 35 % alcohol add from 4 to 6 drops of hydrochloric acid. Same with 70 % alcohol.
Use. — For removing excess of stains.
Canapa Basam.
Formula. — Take the best grade of Canada balsam or balsam fir, bake slowly until thoroughly dry ; powder and dissolve in chloroform, benzol, or turpentine.
Use.— Mounting medium. ‘Tissue must be perfectly dehy- drated with absolute alcohol and cleared with clove oil or other clearing agent before mounting. Keep in wide- mouthed -bottles, well stoppered. Apply by drops with glass rod.
CARMINE INJECTION FLUID.
Formula. — Rub up carmine in distilled water and add ammo- nia drop by drop, till the carmine is dissolved. Filter, and then evaporate over a gentle heat, while constantly stirring to get rid of the ammonia. The residue is to be dissolved in camphor water.
198 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUE.
Use.— For injecting small animals or portions of animals.
Shake thoroughly before use. | CHLOROFORM.
Use. — For killing all kinds of animals. Use in tight box or
jar. Used as liquid or vapor. CHROMO-NitTrRic AciD (ferenyt’s Fluid).
Formula. — ‘Take 4 volumes 10 % nitric acid: add 3 volumes 90 % alcohol; add 3 volumes o.5 % chromic acid. Allow to stand several hours before using. The mixture should assume a violet hue.
Use. — For general use one of the best fixing and hardening reagents. Apply from 2 to 5 hours. For ova from 20 minutes to 2 hours.
Curomic Acip (C7ystals of Cr. Os).
Formula. — Prepare a 5 % aqueous stock solution. Only the weaker solutions are in general use, which may be readily prepared from the stock solution.
Use. — For fixing plant tissue use a 1 % to 3 % solution. For animal tissue 0.5 % to 1 % solution. Material should be thoroughly washed in water before passing through grades of alcohol. |
For decalcifying bone, a 5 % to 10 % solution, with or with- out nitric acid, is used.
COLLODION FIxaTIVE (Schalibaum’s).
Formula. — Take 1 part of thin collodion and 4 parts of clove oil, and shake together. Should be made up in small quantities (1 ounce).
Use. — For fixing paraffin sections to the slide. A thin film is applied with a camel’s-hair brush, which may be kept in the cork of the phial containing the fixative.
CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE (solution). :
Formula.— Prepare a saturated solution of mercuric chloride in distilled water. A litre of water dissolves about 60 to 70 grammes. No metal should be allowed to touch the solution. Remember this is a deadly poison.
LIST OF REAGENTS. 199
Use. — For killing small organisms. Used either hot or cold. Wash material thoroughly before passing through grades. Used cold as a hardening reagent.
Foop SOLUTION FOR GREEN PLANTS (Sach’s).
Formula. — Distilled water, 1 gramme; potassium nitrate, 0.5 gramme ; sodium chloride, 0.5 gramme; calcium sul- phate, 0.5 gramme; magnesium sulphate, 0.5 gramme; calcium phosphate, 0.5 gramme. To this solution is to be added a trace of a weak solution of ferric chloride.
GELATINE INJECTION.
Formula. — French gelatine is soaked in water ; when soft the superfluous water is poured off. Melt slowly and stir into it Carmine Injection Fluid or other thin insoluble coloring matter. Add a few drops of carbolic acid. Stir while cooling.
Use. — For injecting specimens which are intended for section- ing. Should be used warm. In case of large specimen it is necessary to perform the injection in a vessel of hot water.
GLYCERINE (dilute, alcoholic, pure glycerine jelly).
Formula. — Dilute equal parts glycerine and distilled water. Alcoholic, equal parts glycerine and go % alcohol. Glyc- erine jelly (buy prepared).
Use. — Dilute on vegetable tissue (1) clears; (2) withdraws water from fresh cells and shrinks protoplasm from cell- walls ; (3) preserves material.
Alcoholic on vegetable tissue, softens hard alcoholic material.
Pure Glycerine is used in dehydrating, preserving, and mount- ing tissue. Glycerine jelly is a mounting medium.
HMATOXYLIN Stain (K/einenberg’s).
Formula.— Prepare a saturated solution of calcium chloride in 70% alcohol, adding a little alum. Filter this solution and then add from 6 to 8 volumes of 70 % alcohol. ‘This may be regarded as a “ mordant.’”’ Make a concentrated
200 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUE.
solution of hematoxylin in absolute alcohol. The stain is prepared by adding to the mordant a few drops of the concentrated hzmatoxylin solution. The stain should be at least two days old before using and show a bluish violet color.
Use.—A good general stain. Remove excess of stain from tissue with 70 % acidulated alcohol.
IODINE SOLUTION.
Formula.— Dissolve 1 gramme potassic iodide in 10 c.c. of dis- tilled water and add 0.25 gramme iodine. Dilute to 250 c.c.
Use. — Principally used on plant tissue. It turns starch blue or purple ; cellulose, yellow, when acting alone ; cellulose, blue, when acting with sulphuric acid (¢.v.); turns proto- plasm and nucleus brown.
MACERATING FLuIp (Schudtze’s).
Formula. — Dissolve a gramme of potassium chlorate in 50 c.c. of nitric acid.
Use. — For plant tissue. The tissue should be boiled in the mixture and then thoroughly washed in water. It may also be used on temporary preparations on the slide.
_ MAGENTA (s/ain).
formula. —In a litre of water dissolve .6 gramme of crystal- lized magenta (roseine). ‘To the solution add 6 c.c. abso- lute alcohol.
Use. — For staining fresh material. Used only in temporary preparations. |
NorMAL SALT SoLuTion (“ physiological salt solution”).
Formula. — To a given quantity of distilled water add o. 7 5 %. of sodium chloride. |
Use. — For retaining temporarily living or fresh animal tissue in its normal condition.
Osmic AcID.
Formula.— Prepare a 2% aqueous solution. Dissolve 1
gramme osmic acid crystals in 50 c.c. of distilled water.
LIST OF REAGENTS. 201
Great care is needed in preparing and storing this reagent to avoid contact with organic matter and light.
Use.— For staining fat in tissue. For killing microscopic animals. For fixing tissue. ‘The above solution should be reduced to one-third its strength before use.
Picric AcID (saturated solution).
Formula. — Prepare a saturated aqueous solution.
Use. — (1) For fixing plant tissue. Wash material thoroughly in water, and then pass through grades of alcohol. (2) Used in fixing animal tissue. (3) Used in preparing Kleinenberg’s Picro-sulphuric mixture.
PICRO-SULPHURIC ACID (K7einenbers’s mixture).
Formula. —Take 100 c.c. saturated aqueous solution Picric acid and add 2 c.c. concentrated sulphuric acid. Allow to stand several hours, then filter and add 300 c.c. distilled water.
Use. — An excellent killing and fixing reagent. May be used hot or cold. ‘Tissue should remain from 2 to 5 hours and pass to 70 % alcohol, which should be changed several times before material is passed to 90%. Used also as decalcifying reagent.
PLASTER OF Paris INJECTION.
Formula. — Fine Plaster of Paris is rubbed up with water in a mortar to the consistency of thin cream. Color to the required tint with Carmine Injection Fluid or French Blue. Strain through fine muslin. The Plaster of Paris may be mixed with a pigment and kept in stock. In making up the mass, about 1 part of Plaster of Paris to 3 parts of water should be used. 3
Use. — For injecting vessels, etc., of larger animals. Must be used immediately after preparation.
Potassic HyDRATE.
Formula. — Prepare a 5 % aqueous solution.
Use. — For clearing and bleaching plant tissue. Swells up shrivelled material and renders it plump.
202 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUE.
‘SULPHURIC ACID. |
Formula. — Prepare a 50 % aqueous solution, adding the sul- phuric acid slowly.
Use.—In fresh plant tissue this reagent turns protoplasm brown ; dissolves cellulose, but leaves protoplasm; turns cellulose blue when acting with iodine.
TURPENTINE (pure).
Use. — For dissolving paraffin from sections after they have been fixed to the slide. Also, clearing reagent to remove alcohol from tissue before mounting in Canada balsam.
FORMALIN.
A new hardening and preserving reagent is now taking the place of alcohol to a large extent. It is variously known as 40% solution Formaldehyde, Formol, Formatn, and Formolose, and is a good preservative for both animal and plant tissue. For ordinary purposes it may be used as a 1% to 24%4% aqueous solution.
The following works are largely or entirely devoted to micro- scopic and laboratory technique : —
References. — 14 — 16 — 28 — 30— 54 — 58 — 67 — 94 — 161 ~~ 167. The following works devote only a limited amount of space to technique : —
References. — a see 17 — 21 — 24 — 26 — 43 — 45 — 65 — 106 — 125 — 127 — 1375— 147-
works OF EEPERENCE.
THE following list of works, intended for reference and collateral reading, will be found helpful to both pupil and instructor. The list, as will be seen, js arranged in alphabetical order by authors. The references which occur at the close of each laboratory study are made by the serial number which ap- pears in the column along the left margin.
The numbers enclosed in parentheses, appearing to the right of the titles, refer to the List of Publishers on page 208.
z. AGASSIZ. Seaside Studies in Natural History. 1865. (18.) 2. ALLEN. On the Color of Flowers. 1882. (24.)
z. Common Sense Science. 1887. (23.)
4.-AXPGAR. Trees of the Northern United States. 1892. (1.)
a
A ARTHUR, BARNES, and CouLTER. Handbook of Plant Dissection. 1886. (17-) *6. ATKINSON. Biology of Ferns. 1894. (24.) 7. AVELING. An Introduction to the Study of Botany. 1891. (24.)
8. BADENOCK. Romance of the Insect World. 1894. (24.) 9. BALFour. Elements of Botany. 1876. (24.) 10. Manual of Botany. 1875. (24.) II. Treatise on Comparative Embryology. 1891. (24.) y12. Bastin. Elements of Botany. 1890. (II.) 13. BATES. The Naturalist on the River Amazon. 1892. (3.) 14. BEALE. How to use the Microscope. 1880. (4.) 15. BEDDARD.: Animal Coloration. 1892. (24.) 16. BEHRENS. Guide to the Microscope in Botany. 1885. (6.) 17. BeENNET and Murray. A Handbook of Cryptogamic Botany. 188c¢.
i - (an.) 18. Bessry. Botany for High Schools and Colleges. 7th ed., 1889. (17.) 19. — Elements of Botany. 4th ed., 1889. (17.)
20. Bipcoop. Elementary Biology. 1893. (22.)
21. BowER. A Course in Practical Botany. 3d ed., 1891. (24.) ~. 22. Brooks. Handbook of Invertebrate Zodlogy. 1882. (6.) 0 Oe 203
WORKS OF REFERENCE.
BURRILL and EARLE. Parasitic Fungi of Illinois. 1887. (35.)
. Bumpus. Course in Invertebrate Zodlogy. 1892. (30.)
. CALDERWOOD. Evolution and Man’s Place in Nature. 1893. (24.) . CAMPBELL. Elements of Structural and Systematic Botany. 1891. (13.)
Text-book of Elementary Biology. 1893. (24.) CARPENTER. The Microscope and Its Revelations. 7thed., 1891. (4.) Vegetable Physiology. 1894. (24.)
. CLARK. Practical Methods in Microscopy. 1894. (15.)
. CLAUS and SEDGWICK. Text-book of Zodlogy. 2 vols. 1890. (24.) . CLtopp. The Story of Creation. 1889. (22.)
. Comstock. Introduction to Entomology. 1888. (36.)
CoLTonN. Elementary Course in Practical Zodlogy. 1888. (15.)
. COOKE and BERKLEY. Fungi, their Nature and Use. 1874. (3.)
CooKE. Introduction to Fresh Water Algz. 1890. (3:)
. Cope. The Origin of the Fittest. 1887. (3) . Cox. Protoplasm and Life. 1890. (16.) . CREEVEY. Recreations in Botany. 1894. (14.)
. DARWIN and AcTON. Physiology of Plants. 1894. (8.) . DARWIN, CHARLES. Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms. ~
1881. (3.) On the Origin of Species. 18901. (3.)
. Davis. A Text-book of Biology. 1888. (4.) . Dopce. Introduction to Practical Biology. 1894. (14.) . Dre Bary. Lectures on Bacteria. 2d ed., 1887. (24.)
Comparative Morphology and Biology of Fungi. 1887. (24.) Comparative Anatomy of Phanerogams and Ferns. 1884. (24.)
. DE VARIGNY. Experimental Evolution. 1891. (24.) . ErMer. Organic Evolution. 1890. (24.)
. Fartow. Marine Algz. 1879. (12.)
. Fiske. The Doctrine of Evolution. 1891. (3.)
. FosTER and SHore. Physiology for Beginners. 1894. (24.)
. FOSTER and LANGLEY. Elementary Physiology and Histology. 1891.
(24.)
. Frey. The Microscope and Microscopical Technology. 1872, (37.)
. GEDDEs. Chapters on Modern Botany. 1893. (32.)
Variation and Selection. 1883. (10.)
WORKS OF REFERENCE. 205
. GOEBEL. Outlines of Classification and Special Morphology of Plants.
1887. (7-)
. GaGE, S. H. The Microscope and Histology. 1891. (2.)
. GAGE, SELINA. The Great World’s Farm. 1893. (24.)
. GEGENBAUR. Elements of Comparative Anatomy. 1878. (24.)
. GALTON. English Men of Science. 1893. (3.)
. Gipson. A Text-book of Biology. 1889. (22.)
. GILMAN. Lessons in Zodlogy. 1892. (27.)
. GOODALE and SprAGUE. The Wild Flowers of America. 1885. (6.)
Physiological Botany. 1885. (1.)
. GRADLE. Bacteria and the Germ Theory. 1887. (4.) . GossE. Evenings at the Microscope. 1884. (3.) . Gray. Manual of Botany. 6th ed., 1887. (1.)
School and Field Book of Botany. 1887. (1.)
. GRIFFITHS. Physiology of the Invertebrata. 1892. (3.) . GROVE. Synopsis of-Bacteria and Yeast Fungi. 1884. (38.)
. HADpDON. Introduction to Embryology. 1887. (4.) . HALSTEAD. American Species of Characez. 1879. (5.)
HARVEY. Sea Mosses. 1881. (6.)
. HEILPRIN. Distribution of Animals. 1886. (3.)
Henstow. The Origin of Floral Structures. 1888. (3.) HeERTWIG. Embryology of Man and Mammals. 1888. (34.)
. Howes. Atlas of Practical Biology. 1885. (24.) . HuxLey and Martin. Elementary Biology. 1892. (24.)
Hux.Ley: Anatomy of Invertebrates. 1888. (3.j— Anatomy of Vertebrate Animals. 1888. (4.) Study of Zodlogy. The Crayfish. 1879. (3.) On the Origin of Species. 1892. (3.) Evolution. 1889. (10.)
. HyatT. Guides to Science Teaching. 1878-90. (15.)
. JORDAN. Manual of the Vertebrates of the United States. 1890. (25.)
. Kent. Manual of the Infusoria. 1880. (39.) . KorscHELDT. Embryology of Invertebrates. 1894. (24.)
. LANKEsTER. Articles, Protozoa, Hydrozoa, etc. 1890. (10.)
The History of Creation. 4th ed., 1893. (3.)
. LANG. Comparative Anatomy. 1891. (24.) g2.
Lauri£. The Food of Plants. 1893. (24.)
WORKS OF REFERENCE.
. LEContTE. Evolution. 1891. (3.) . Lee. The Microtomist’s Vade Mecum. 1890. (4.) . LESQUEREUX and JAMES. Manual of North American Mosses. 1884.
(9.)
. Lewes. Physiology of Common Life. 2 vols. 1860. (3.) . LusBBock. Seedlings. 1892. (3.)
Instinct and Intelligence of Animals. 1888. (3.) The Beauties of Nature. 1892. (24.)
Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves. 1886. (24.)
Ants, Bees, and Wasps. 1882. (3.)
British Wild Flowers. 1875. (24.)
On Flowers and Insects. 1879. (24.)
. LYDEKKER. Phases of Animal Life. 1892. (22.)
. MARSHALL. Vertebrate Embryology. 1893. (33.) . MARSHALL and Hurst.+“A Course in Zodlogy. 1888. ( Pe esa . MARSHALL. The Frog. 4th ed., 1891. (33.)
Biological Lectures. 1894. (24.)
. Mivart. The Common Frog. 1874. (24.)
‘The Cat. 1881. (32)
. Mitt. The Realm of Nature. 1891. (32.) . McKENDRICK and SNopGRASs. The Physiology of the Senses. 1893.
(32.)
. MassEE. The Plant World. 1891. (24.)
Moate. A Hand-book of Vertebrate Dissection. 1881. (24.)
. MorGANn. Animal Biology. 1889. (22.)
Animal Life and Intelligence. _ 1891. (13.)
. Mortey. A Song of Life. 1894. (25.) . MULLER. Fertilization of Flowers. 1886. (24.)
. NEWHALL. The Shrubs of North-Eastern America. 1894. (29.) . NicHotson. A Manual of Zodlogy. 2d ed., 1893. (3.}—~
. Orr. A Theory of Development and Heredity. 1893. (24.)
ORTON. Comparative Zodlogy. 1892. (14.)
. OsBoRN. Columbian University Biological Lectures. “1894. (24.)
. PACKARD. Zodlogy for High Schools and Colleges. “th ed., 1889. (17.) . PARKER. A Course in Vertebrate Zodtomy. 1884. (24.)
Lessons in Elementary Biology. 1892. (24.)
12). 128.
— 29. 130. eie
Fe2. 133.
134.
¥35.
136.
137.
138.
139.
I 40 iat, 142.
143. M144. 145. 146. opi 147.
148. 149.
gel 50. I5I. 152. £53.
154. 155. 156. 1g:
158.
oe 159. 160.
WORKS OF REFERENCE. 207
PIERSOL. Text-book of Normal Histology. £503-""(21;) PouLTON. The Colors of Animals. 1889. (3.)
RALLESTON and JACKSON. Forms of Animal Life. 1888. (7.) ROMANES. Animal Intelligence. 1892. (3.) Darwin and After Darwin. 1892. (28.)
SACHS. Physiology of Plants. 1886. (24.)
SCHAFER. The Essentials of Histology. 3ded., 1892. (4.)
SCHUTZENBERGER. On Fermentation. 1893. (3.)
SCUDDER. Butterflies of Northern U.S. and Canada. 1894. (17.) The Life of the Butterfly. 1894. (17.)
SEDGEWICK and WILSON. General Biology. 1889. (17.)
SEMPER. Animal Life as affected by Natural Conditions. 1879. (3.)
SHALER. The Interpretation of Nature. 1893. (18.)
SHIPLEY. Zodlogy of the Invertebrata>-—T893. (24.)
SOLLAS. Article, Sponges. (10.)
SPALDING. The Study of Common Plants. 1893. (15.)
SPENCER. The Principles of Biology. 2 vols. 1866. 3.)
STEBBING. A History of Crustacea. 1894. (3.) Pik
STEVENSON. Boys and Girls in Biology. 1894. (3.)
STORMONTH. A Manual of Scientific Terms. 6th ed., 1885. (20.)
STRAUSBERGER. Hand-book of Practical Botany. 1889. (24.)
TAYLOR, J. E. The Playtime Naturalist. 1889. (3.)
TAYLOR, THOMAS. Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of the United States. 1892-94. (31.)
THomson. The Study of Animal Lifé—T892. _(32.)
THoMpPsoN. The Outlines of Zodlogy. 1892. (39.)
TROUESSART. Microbes, Ferments, and Moulds. 1885. (3.)
TUCKERMAN. A Synopsis of North-American Lichens. 1881. (9.)
UNDERWOOD. North-American Hepatice. (35.)
Our Native Ferns and their Allies. 1888. (17.) VAN BENEDEN. Animal Parasites and Messmates. 1889. (3.) VINEs. Lectures on the Physiology of Plants. 1886. (24.)
WOLLE. The Fresh Water Algze of the United States. 1887. (26.) Desmids of the United States. 1892. (26.) WALLACE. Darwinism. 1889. (24.)
208 LIST OF PUBLISHERS.
-
161. WHITMAN. Methods in Microscopic Investigation. 1885. (6.)
162. Biological Lecture at Wood’s Holl Laboratory. 2 vols. 1890 and 1893. (13.)
163. WEISMAN. The Germ Plasma. 1893. (32.)
164. Essays on Heredity, etc. 1892. (24.)
165. WIEDERSCHEIM. Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates. 1888. (24.) 166. WiLson. Embryology of the Earthworm. 1887. (19.) 167. WILDER. Anatomical Technology. 1886. (2.) 168. WRIGHT. The Friendship of Nature. 1894. (24.) 169. WOODHEAD. Bacteria and their Products. 1891. (32.) 7170. WooDWaRD. Article, Crustacea. 1889. (10.) Dl, Manual of the Mollusca. 1890. (40.)
EIST ‘OF “PUBLISHES
1. American Book Company, New York. 2. Andrus & Church, Ithaca, N.Y. 3. D. Appleton & Co., New York and Chicago. 4. P. Blakison, Son, & Co., Philadelphia. 5. Boston Natural History Society, Boston. 6. Bradlee, Whidden, Boston. 7. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 8. C. J. Clay & Sons, London. g. Cassino & Co., Boston. 1o. Encyclopeedia Britannica. 11. Englehard & Co., Chicago. 12. United States Fish Commission, Washington. 13. Ginn & Co., Boston. 14. Harper Bros., New York. 15. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston and Chicago. 16. N. C. Hodges, New York. 17. Henry Holt & Co., New York. 18. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. Ig. Journal of Morphology, Boston. 20. McLachlan & Stewart, London.
* See explanation on p. 203.
Elst: OF PUBLISHERS. 209
. J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia. . Longmans, Green & Co., London.
D. Lothrop Co., Boston.
Macmillan & Co., New York.
A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago.
Moravian Publishing Co., Bethlehem, Pa. New England Publishing Co., Boston. Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago.
G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York.
. Preston & Rounds, Providence, R.I.
. Reports of Agriculture of United States, Washington. . Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York.
. Smith, Elder & Co., London.
. Swan Sonnenschein & Co., New York.
. University of Illinois, Champaign, III.
J. H. Comstock, Ithaca, N.Y.
. Wm. Wood & Co., New York. . Chatto & Windus, London.
Bogue & Co., London.
. J. Y. Pentland & Co., London.
INDEX AND DERIVATIONS.
abdomen — L. abdomen, the belly, 25 — appendages, 26, abducens — L. aé, from; duco, I lead, 84. aboral — L. ad, from; os, mouth, 11, — aboral tentacles, 11. abortivus — L. abortus, an untimely birth, 158. acer — L. acer, a maple tree, 185. acetabulum — L. acetabulum, a cup-shaped vessel, 103. actinozoa — Gr. @&its, a ray; 2062, an animal, 170. acutiloba — L. acutus, sharp; /obus, a lobe, 183. adductor — L. ad, to; duco, to lead, — impression, 45, — muscle, 45. air-bladder, 63. air-chamber, 136 — air-sacs, 39. albidum — L. a/bus, white, 182. alga — L. alga, a sea-weed, 121. alimentary canal — L. alimentum, food, 14, 20, 31, 49, 61, 78. alismales — alisma, a water-plantain, 175. allium — L. a/lium, garlic, 181. k allolobophora tumida—Gr. allos, other; /obos, a pod; phoreo, I bear; L. tumidus, swollen, 17. alternate, 159. alternation of generation, 141. amaryllidacee — L. Amaryllis, a country girl celebrated by Vergil, 182. amblystoma — Gr. amdblus, blunt; s¢oma, mouth, 172. ambulacra — L. ambulacrum, a walking place, 12 ambulacral groove, 12. amentales — L. amentum, thong, 178. americana —N. L. americanus, pertaining to the Western Hemisphere, 185. amceba proteus — Gr. amozbos, exchanging; L. Proteus, a self-transformed sea-god, I. amceboid elements — Gr. amozbos, exchanging; ezdos, resemblance, 5. ampelid@ — Gr. ampelis, a small vine, 184. ampelopsis — Gr. amfelis, a small vine; ofszs, appearance, 184. amphibia — Gr. amphi, both; dzos, life, 89, 171. amphidiscs — Gr. amphi, both; diskos, a disc, 5. amphioxus — Gr. amphi, both; oxus, pointed, 67, 171. 210
INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. Zt
ampullze — L. ampulla, a bellied bottle, 15.
anacharis —Gr. ava, without; charis, grace, 6.
analogy — Gr. analogos, proportionate, 56 — analogous, 56.
anatomy — Gr. ava, up; femnetn, to cut, 13.
angiospermz — Gr. anggeion, a vessel; sperma, seed, 161, 175.
angustifolium — L. angustus, narrow; folium, leaf, 182.
animalcule — L. anzmalculum, a little animal, 2.
annelida — L. annellus, a little ring, 170.
annulus — L. annulus, a ring, 145.
anodonta — Gr. az, without; odo, tooth, 42.
ante-brachium — L. ane, before; brachium, arm, 73.
antennz — L. aztenna, a sailyard, 27, 35 —antennary arteries, 30.
antennules — small antenne, 28.
ante-orbital — L. ante, before; ordbzs, a circle, 56.
anterior — L. azéerzor, former, that which lies before, ro.
anthes — Gr. anthos, a flower, 159.
antheridium — Gr. aztheros, flowery, 126—antheridial branch, 137.
anus — L. anus, the posterior external opening of the alimentary canal, 15, 48, 55, 78, 94.
aorta — Gr. aezro, I raise up, 49, 65, 95, 96.
apetalous — Gr. a, without; etalon, a leaf, 177.
apex, 129.
apical — L. apex, a tip — buds, 129, 142; —cells, 131.
apoda —Gr. a, without; ozs, a foot, 172.
apteria — Gr. a, without; //eron, a wing, 105.
aquilegia canadensis — L. aguila, an eagle; L. canadensts, of Canada, 183.
arachnida — Gr. arachne, a spider, 170.
arch — carotid, 81; neural, 75; pectoral, 75, 93; pelvic, 76, 93; pulmo-cu- taneous, 81; systemic, 81.
archegonia — Gr. arche, beginning; gone, seed, 138—archegonial branch, 138.
areola — L. areola, a small open place, 136.
arisema — Gr. arum, and a sign, 182.
aristolochiaceze — Gr. aristos, best; lochia, childbirth, 185.
aroidales — L. arum, the plant wake-robin; ezdos, resemblance, 176, 182.
artery —Gr. aér, air; fereco, I preserve, 30; arterial bulb, 65; branchial —, ine, Oo, 90, -
arthropoda — Gr. arthron, a joint; fous, foot, 170.
articulations — L. articulus, a joint, 27; articulated.
artiodactyla — Gr. artios, even in number; dahéulos, a finger or toe, 172.
22 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS.
asarales — Gr. asaron, hazel-wort, 179.
asarum — Gr. asaron, hazel-wort, 185.
ascidians — Gr. askidion, a little bag, 171.
ascospores — Gr. askos, bag, 120.
ascomycetes — Gr. askos, a bag; mukés, a mushroom, 174.
asplenium filix-feemina — Gr. a, without; sf/ex, the spleen; f/x, a fern, femina, female, 141.
asterales — Gr. aszer, a star, 181.
asterias vulgaris — Gr. aster, a star; L. valgus, common, Io.
asteroidea — Gr. aster, a star; etdos, resemblance, 170.
atlas — Gr. a, intensive; tao, bear, 74.
atrium — L. atrium, a front hall, 8o.
auditory — L. audzo, I hear, 84; — sacs, 38, — apperture, 105.
auricle — L. aurzs, an ear; left, 49, 79, 95; right, 49, 79, 95.
auriculars — L. auris, an ear, 105.
austrian pine, 148.
aves — L. avis, a bird, 107, 171.
axial skeleton — L. axzs, a pole, an axle-tree, 73.
axillar plates — L. axzla, armpit, 92.
axil of leaf, 1209.
axis — L. axis, axle, III.
axis cylinder, 80.
bacteria — Gr. dacterion, a rod, 120, 173.
baptisia — Gr. dapiists, a dipping, 186.
barbs — L. darba, a beard, 106.
barbules — diminutive of preceding, 106.
bark, 151.
base — L. éaszs, the foundation, 129.
basidiomycetes — L. dasidium, a little pedestal; Gr. mwkés, a mushroom, 174.
bass, 53.
batrachia — Gr. datrachos, a frog, 172.
beak, 43.
bee, 41.
beetle, 41.
bellidifolium — L. de//us, pretty; /folcwm, leaf, 187.
belly, 78.
berberidacezee — L. derberis, the barberry, 183.
bifida — L. 07s, twice; fia, I split, 186.
INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 213
biflorum — L. 42s, twice; floreo, to bloom, 181; bifolium, 182.
bilateral — L. 47s, twice; /atus, a side, bilaterally symmetrical, 18.
bile — L. 4z/zs, bile, 31, 62 — bile sac, 62, 79.
biology — Gr. d7os, life; /ogos, a discourse; —of food, 33.
biped — L. 472s, twice; Zes, a foot, 109.
bi-polar — L. zs, twice; Gr. polos, pivot — nerve-cells, 88.
bivium — L. 7s, twice; wvza, the way, II.
black knot, 133.
bladder, 64.
blood-vessels, 21.
body-cavity, 13.
bone, frontal, 100, 141; malar, 111; nasal, 74, 99; occipital, 100, 101, 111.
bony scales, 92.
borraginacezee — Sp. doraja, borage, 187.
brachial plexus —L. brachium, arm; plexus, twisted, 85.
brachiopoda — Gr. drachion, arm; pous, foot, 171.
brachium — L. drachium, arm, 73.
bracken fern — L. Ger. drake, 140.
bracts, 152.
brain, 65, 82; white matter, 88; gray matter, 88.
branchial — Gr. drangchia, gills of a fish, 59; — arch, 59; — chambers, 47; — siphon, 48.
branchiostegal — Gr. drangchia, gills; stegé, a cover, 58.
brassica — L. brassica, cabbage, 183.
bridge, gI.
bronchi — Gr. drongchos, the wind-pipe, 80; bronchial tube, 72, ga.
brook-silk, 121.
brow-spot, 72.
bryophyta — Gr. druon, moss; phuton, plant, 134, 139, 174.
bryozoa — Gr. éruon, moss; 200”, animal, 171.
buccal sac— L. ducca, the cheek, 20.
bundle sheath, 144, 150.
bursa-pastoris — L. bursa, a purse; pastoris, of a shepherd, 183.
cecum — L. cecus, blind, 13, 62; gastric —, 41, 14.
caloptenus spretus — Gr. £a/os, beautiful; p/eron, winged; L. spretus, despised, 34:
calyx — L. a flower cup, 158.
cambarus immunis —N. L. cammarus, lobster; immunis, devoid, 24.
campanales — L. campana, a bell, 181.
214 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS.
canadense — pertaining to Canada, 181, 183, 185.
candidum — L. candidus, white, 183.
canine — L. canis, a dog, I12.
capillaries — L. cafzllus, a hair, 86.
capsella — diminutive of L. capsa, box, 183.
capsule — L. capsu/a, a little chest, 145.
carapace — Fr. carapace, gourd, 25, 91.
cardamine — Gr. kardamine, cress-like, 183.
cardiac — Gr. kardia, the heart; — pouch, 14; — chamber, 31.
cardinal tooth — L. cardo, door hinge, 44.
carnivora — L. caro, flesh; voro, I devour, 172.
carotid — Gr. karod, I stupefy, — arch, 81.
carpel — Gr. Zarpos, fruit, 152.
carpophyta — Gr. zarZos, fruit; phuton, plant, 133, 174.
carpophyll — Gr. Zarfos, fruit; phullon, leaf, 148.
carpus — L. carpus, the wrist, 76, 93, 102.
cartilage — L. cartilago, gristle, 55.
caryophyllales — Gr. Zaruon, a nut; phullon, a leaf, 178.
castalia, 183.
cat, 108.
catkin —(cat and little), 151.
caudal — L. cauda, a tail; — fin, 26, 55.
caudata — L. cauda, a tail, 172.
caulicle — L. cazdzs, stalk, 164.
caulome— L. caz/is, a stem, 160.
celastrales —Gr. 22@/astron, an evergreen tree (holly), 178; celastrus, 184.
cell —L. cella, a storeroom, 3, 8; guard —, 136; —, 131, 130; neuroglia —, 89.
cellular tissue, 66.
cellulose — L. ce//u/a, a small storeroom, 118.
central disc, Io.
centrum — Gr. entron, centre; L. centrum, the centre, 67.
cephalic — Gr. sephale, the head, — region, 25; —-appendages, 27.
cephalopoda -—— Gr. 2ephale, head; fous, foot, 171. |
cephalo-thorax — Gr. kephalz, the head; thorax, the chest, 25.
cere — L. cera, wax, 104.
cerebellum:— L. cerebellum, a small brain, 66.
cerebrum — L. cerebrum, the brain, 65, 82; cerebral hemisphere, 66; cerebro- spinal axis, 82.
ceratodus — Gr. eras, horn; ezdos, form, 171.
INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 215
cernuum — L. cernuus, bending forward, 181.
cervical — L. cervix, the neck; — groove, 25.
cetacea — L. cetus, a whale, 172.
characeze — Gr. chaizro, 1 am glad, 174; chara, 128.
chara fragilis — Gr. chaztro, I am glad; L. fragilis, brittle, 128.
cheek, 58.
chelzee — Gr. chélé, a claw, 26.
chelaped — Gr. ch2/2, claw or hoof; L. és, foot, 27.
chelonia — Gr. che/oné, a tortoise, 172.
chiroptera — Gr. chezr, a hand; péeron, wing, 172.
chitin — Gr. chiton, a coat of mail, 29.
chlorophyll— Gr. chloros, grass-greer; phullon, leaf, 118; —cells, 136; — bands, 122. |
choripetalous — Gr. chorzs, apart; petalon, leaf, 177.
chromatophores — Gr. chroma, color; phoreo, I bear, 122.
chrysemys marginata — Gr. chrusos, gold; emmys, turtle, go.
cinerea — L. cznereus, ashy, 188.
cingulum — L. cingulum, a girdle, 18.
circular muscle, 23.
clavicle — L. c/avis, a key, 75.
cloaca — L. cloaca, a common sewer, 78; cloacal siphon, 48, 94.
club-moss, 146.
coeca (See cecum.)
ceecilia — L. cecus, blind, 172.
celenterata — Gr. 4oz/os, hollow; enteron, a bowel, 9, 170.
ceeloblastez — Gr. £oz/os, hollow; é/astos, a sprout, germ, 174.
ceelom — Gr. £oz/os, hollow, 13.
coleochete — 4oleos, a sheath; chazzé, horse-hair, 174.
columbinze — L. co/umba, a dove, 172.
columella — L. co/umella, a small column, 100.
commelinacee — Commelin, a Dutch botanist, 182.
composite, 187.
compressed, 54.
condyle — Gr. ondu/os, a knuckle or knob; occipital —, 74, 100.
cone, 152.
conifer — L. conus, a cone; fero, I bear, 175.
conjugate — L. con, together; jugum, a yoke, 174.
contour — Fr. contour, turn, 105.
coracoids — Gr. korakos, of a crow; ezdos, resemblance, 75; pre —, 93, 102,
coral polyp — L. coralium, red coral; polypus, many feet, 9.
216 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS.
cornus — L. cornu, a horn, 152.
cornea — L. corneus, horny, 33, 56.
corolia — L. corolla, a small crown, 158.
coronaria — L. corona, a crown, 186.
corpuscle — L. corpus, a body, 85; lymph, 85; — red, 85; white, 85. cortical — L. cortex, bark, 131; — cells, 130; — band, 156. costal plates — L. costa, rib, 91.
cotyledon — Gr. otule, a cup-shaped cavity, 163. coxa — L. coxa, the hips, 36.
cranium — L. cranium, the skull, 65, 74.
crayfish, 24.
crinoidea — Gr. £rzzon, a lily; ezdos, resemblance, 170. cristatella — L. crzs¢a, a little crest or tuft, 171. crocodilia — L. crocodilus, a crocodile, 172.
Crop, 21.
crown, 132.
cruciferze — L. crux, a cross; fero, I bear, 183.
crus — L. crus, the leg, 73.
crustacea — L. crust¢a, skin or bark, 33, 170. crystalline — L. crystallum, ice, 33.
ctenoid — Gr. ¢enos, of a comb, 60.
ctenophora — Gr. &éenos, of a comb; phoreo, I bear, 170. cucullata — L. cucullus, a hood, 184.
cupules— L. cupudla, a little cup, 135.
cupuliferze — L. cupuda, a little cup; ero, to bear, 185. cursores — L. cursor, a runner, 172.
cutaneous — L. cztzs, the skin, —arch, 81.
cuticle — L. cztzs, the skin, 19, 24.
cuttlefish — L. czticaw/a, a little skin, 51.
cyanophycee — Gr. Zuanos, dark blue; phukos, sea-weed, 173. cycadace.— L. cycas, a kind of palm, 175.
cyclops — Gr. £uklops, round eye, 170. cypripedium — Gr. ugris, Venus; fpodion, slipper, 183.
daphnales —from Daphne, who changed into a laurel, 179. dasycarpum — Gr. dasus, thick; arpos, fruit, 185. deliquescent — L. deliguesco, I dissolve, 147, 148. dentary — L. dens, a tooth, 58, 74, 99.
dental formule, 112.
dentalium — L. dens, a tooth, 171.
INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 257
depth of fish, 54.
desmids — Gr. deswos, a bond, 124.
diatoms— Gr. da, through; /omé, a cutting, 125.
dichotomous — Gr. dicha, in two parts; ‘ome, a cutting, 124. dicotyledon — Gr. dis, twice; otulé, a hollow, — cotyledonous, 162, 176. digestion — L. digestio, the dissolving of food, 2.
digits — L. digitus, a finger, 73.
dipnoi — Gr. as, twice; fzoé, breath, 171.
distal — L. azs¢o, 1 stand apart, 7; — end, 7.
divaricata — L. divaricatus, spread asunder, 186. dodecatheon — Gr. dodeka, twelve; ¢heos, a god, 186.
dog, 108.
doliolum — L. do/io/um, a small jar, 171.
dorsal — L. dorsum, back, 18; — dorsal fissure, 88; —horns, 88. dove, 98.
dracontium — Gr. dracon, a dragon, 182.
dura mater — L. durus, hard; mater, mother, 82.
dwarf branches, 149.
ear-sac, 28.
earthworm, 17.
ebenales — L. ebenus, ebony, 180.
echinodermata — Gr. echinos, hedge-hog; derma, skin, 170.
echinoidea — Gr. echinos, a hedge-hog; ezdos, like, 16, 170.
ectoderm — Gr. e#/os, outside; derma, skin, 7.
ectopistes migratorius — Gr. ek/opfizein, to wander; L. mzgrator, wanderer, 98.
ectosarc — Gr. ef/os, outside; sar&, flesh, 2.
edentata — L. ¢, without; dems, tooth, 172.
egg, 8.
elasmobranch — Gr. e/asma, a plate of metal; drangchia, gills, 68.
embryo — Gr. en, in; bruo, I bud, 23, 163.
endoderm — Gr. ex, in; derma, skin, 7.
endopodite — Gr. exdon, within; odes, feet, 26.
endosarc — Gr. exdon, within; sar, the flesh, 2.
endosperm — Gr. evdon, within; sperma, seed, 164.
enteron — Gr. ev¢eron, the intestine, 7.
epidermis —Gr. ¢f7, upon; derma, skin, 22, 60, 143, 159; epidermal plates, 93.
equisetum — L. egzzus, horse; se/a, hair, 146.
equisetinze — L. eguws, horse; seta, hair, 174.
218 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS.
erecta — L. erectus, set up, 182. .
ericales — L. erica, heath, 180.
ericacezee — L. evzca, heath, 186.
erigeron — Gr. érigeron, early-old, 187.
erythronium — Gr. eruthros, red, 182.
euphorbiales — Euphorbus, an ancient physician, 177. eustachian tube — Eustachius, who discovered it, 72. excurrent — L. ex, out of; currems, running, 147, 148. exhalent siphon — L. ex, out; halare, to breathe, 48.
exopodite — Gr. exo, outside; podes, feet, 26.
exoskeleton — Gr. ex0, outside; skel/etn, to dry, 11.
extensor — L. extensor, that which stretches out; — muscle, 14. eye-spot, 13; compound eye, 28, 35; simple —, 35; pineal —, 72.
facet — Fr. facette, diminution of face, 28.
facial, 84; — bones, 74; —angle, 112.
fagopyrum esculentum — L. fagus, the beech; puros, wheat; L. esculentus, full of food, 162.
false diaphragm — Gr. diaphragma, a partition wall, 61.
false gills, 59.
fascicularis — L. fasciculus, a small bundle, 183.
felis — L. fe/zs, cat; —catus, 108; — domesticata, 108; maniculata, 108.
felis domesticata — L. felis, cat; L. domeus, house, 108.
femur — L. femur, the thigh, 36, 73, 76, 94, 103.
fenestra — L. fenestra, a window; — ovalis, 100; — rotunda, 100.
fertile leaves, 120.
fibro-vascular, 141; — bundles, 143, 150, 156, 159.
fibula — L. fidula, a buckle, 94, 103.
ficoidales — L. ficus, a fig; Gr. ezdos, resemblance, 179.
filament —L. fi/um, a thread, 122.
filicineee — L. filices, ferns, 174.
filoplumes — L. fi/wm, thread; pluma, a feather, 106.
fin, 54; anal—, 55; caudal—, 26, 55; dorsal—, 54; medium —, 55.
fission — L. fissus, cleft, 2.
fissure, 82; dorsal —, 88; ventral —, 88.
flexor muscle — L. flexor, that which bends, 32.
floral envelope, 158.
floridez — L. floridus, flowery, 174.
flowers, I5I.
fly, 41.
INDEX AND DERIVATIONS,
feetidus — L. fedo, fetid, 182. foliage leaves, 149.
food particles, 2.
foot, 47.
219
foramen magnum—L. foramen, an opening; magnus, great, 74, 100;
occipital foramen, 94. foraminifera — L. foramen, an opening; /fero, I carry, 169. fragaria — L. fraga, strawberries, 185. frog, 69. frond — L. frovs, a leaf, 140. frontal, 99. fruit, 164. fruiting branches, 135. fucaceze — L. fucus, the rock lichen, 174. fucus — L. fucus, the rock lichen, 127. fulva — L. felvus, deep yellow, 184. function — L. functus, to perform, execute, I. funiculus — L. funiculus, a slender rope, 163. fungus — L. fungus, a mushroom, 117. furcula — L. furca, a fork, 102.
gallinacei— L. gadl/ina, a hen, 172.
gamopetalous — Gr. gamos, union; petalon, leaf, 180. ganglia — Gr. gangelion, tumor, 22.
ganoid — Gr. ganos, splendor, 68.
ganoidei — Gr. ganos, brightness; ezdos, like, 171. gasteropoda — Gr. gaséér, stomach; fous, foot, 171.
gastric mill — Gr. gas¢er, stomach, 31.
gastrula — L. gastru/a, a little stomach, 6.
gemme — L. gemma, a bud, 136.
gemmules — L. gemma, a bud, 5.
gentianales — Gentian, ancient king of Illyria, 180. geraniales — Gr. geranos, a crane; Gr. geranion, crane’s bill, 178. geraniaceze — Gr. geranion, crane’s bill, 184; geranium, 184. giganteum — L. gzganéeus, like a giant, 181.
gill, 29, 46, 59; — arch, 59; — chambers, 29; — clefts, 59. gizzard — Prov. Fr. gres, gravel, 21.
glaucous —Gr. g/aukos, blue-gray, 149.
glenoid cavity — Gr. g/énz, a socket; ezdos, resemblance, 102. glochidia — Gr. glochis, a pointed end, 51.
220 _ INDEX AND DERIVATIONS.
glomerules — L. glomus, a ball of thread, 87. glosso-pharyngeal — Gr. g/ossa, the tongue; pharynx, the gullet, 84. glottis — Gr. glossa, the tongue, 72.
glumales — L. g/wma, the husk of corn, 176.
gnetacez — altered from its Malay name, 175.
gonad — Gr. govos, seed; of starfish, 15; of perch, 63; of frog, 79. grallatores — L. gra/e, stilts, 172.
grantia — Granz, proper name, 169.
grasshopper, 34.
gray commissures, 88.
gray matter, 88.
green felt, 125.
green glands, 28.
green slime, 117.
gregarina — L. grex, a flock, 1609.
gregarinida — L. grex, a flock, 169.
guard cells, 1306.
gular plates — L. gua, the windpipe, 92.
gymnosperme — Gr. gumnos, naked; sperma, seed, 154, 174.
hallux— L. allux, the thumb, 76.
head cells, 132.
heart — A.S. eorte, the heart; of cray-fish, 29; of grasshopper, 39; of mus- sel, 48.
heliozoa — Gr. elios, the sun; zod, animal, 160.
hepatic — Gr. A2far, the liver; — cceca, 13; — vein, 64.
hepatica — Gr. hefar, the liver, 183.
hepatice — Gr. hepar, the liver, 174.
herbacea — L. erba, an herb, 181.
hermit crab, 33.
heterocercal — Gr. heéeros, another; erkos, a tail, 55.
hibernate — L. Azbernus, relating to winter, 69.
hicoria — of doubtful origin, 185.
hilum — L* Az/um, a speck, 163.
hinge ligament, 43.
hinge tooth, 43.
hirtum — L. Azrfus, rough, hairy, 187.
histological — Gr. Aistos, a tissue; dogos, a discourse, 88.
holothuroidea — L. holothurium, plant-like animal; ezdos, form, 170.
homocercal — Gr. homos, alike; erkos, tail, 55.
INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 221
homogeneous — Gr. omos, alike; genos, kind, 2. homology — Gr. Zomos, alike; Jogos, speech, 56, 57. homologous — Gr. Zomos, alike; logos, speech, 56, 57. humerus — L. Aumerus, the shoulder, 75, 93, 102.
humilis — L. Aumz/is, low, 185.
hydra fusca — Gr. hudor, water; L. fuscus, dark-colored, 6, 170. hydrales — Gr. hudor, water, 176.
hydrozoa — Gr. Audor, water; z0dn, animal, 9, 170.
hyoid apparatus —Gr. /woerdes, shaped like the Greek letter Upsilon, 100. hypoglossal — Gr. Aufo, under; g/ossa, the tongue, 84. | hopostome — Gr. “ufo, under; stoma, mouth, 7.
hypoxis — Gr. /j‘Z0, under; oxus, sharp, 182.
iUlium — L. z/ium, flank, 94, 103.
inarticulated rays, 54.
incisors — L. zzczsus, cut into, 112.
indusium — L. zzduo, I put on, 144.
inferior umbilicus — L. zxzferior, lower; umbilicus, navel, 106. inflorescence — L. zz, on; /froresco, I blossom, 151. infusoria — L. zfusus, poured into, 169.
inguinal plates — L. zuguen, the groin, 92.
inhalent siphon — L. zz, into; alare, to breathe, 48. innominate — L. zz, not; omen, a name; — artery, 96. insecta — L. zz, into; seco, to cut, 41, 170.
insectivora — L. insecta ; voro, to devour, 172.
insertion — L. 77, on; serere, to join, 78.
interlobular — L. zz/er, between; /odus, a lobe, 87; — veins, 87. internodes — L. zzter, between; modus, a knot, 129; internodal cells, 130. inter-opercle — L. zzfer, between; operculum, a cover, 58. interradial angle — L. zx¢er, between; radius, a ray, II. interstitial cell — L. zzzer, between; szsto, I stand, 8. intestine — L. zz¢estinus, within, 14, 41, 78, 94; large —, 62, 86. iris — L. ir7s, the rainbow, 56, 182.
iridales — L. zrzs, the rainbow, 176.
iridacez — L. zris, the rainbow, 182.
ischium — Gr. zschion, the hip, 94, 103.
isthmus — Gr. 7s¢imos, a narrow passage, 58.
juglans — L. jugdans, a walnut tree, 185. juglandacee — L. jug/ans, a walnut tree, 185.
222 A INDEX AND DERIVATIONS.
keel, 101, 152. . kidney, 64, 79, 94.
labium — L. /adium, the lower lip, 36; labial palpi, 36.
labrum — L. /adrum, the upper lip, 35.
lacertilia — L. /acerfa, a lizard, 172.
lacteals — L. Zac, milk, 87.
lamiales — L. /amzum, the dead-nettle, 180.
lamellibranchiata — L. /amella, a plate; brangchia, gills, 171.
lamina — L. /amina, a plate or leaf, 142.
lamprey — L. lambera, to lick; petra, a rock, 67.
lateral— L. /atus, side; — line, 66, 142; — tooth, 44; — vessels, 121; bird, 149.
laurales — L. Zaurus, a laurel, 177.
larynx — Gr. /arungx, the upper part of the windpipe, 80.
leaflet, 129.
leech, -23-
leguminose — L. /egumen, pulse, 186.
lemna — Gr. /emna, a water plant, 6.
leptocardii — Gr. /epfos, thin; kardia, heart, 171.
leucantha — Gr. /ewkos, white; anthos, flower, 186.
leucophcea — Gr. leukos, white; pogoz, the beard, 186.
lichens — Gr. /ichen, tree-moss, 133.
liliales — L. “dium, lily, 176; liliaceze, 181.
line of growth, 43.
lithospermum — Gr. /ithos, a stone; sperma, seed, 187.
liver, 31; — cells, 50, 62, 79, 87, 94.
liver-fluke, 23; — wort, 134.
lizard, 97.
lobster — A. S. Jopustre, a shell-fish, 24, 33.
lobules — L. /adus, a lobe, 87.
locomotion — L. /ocus, place; mzotis, motion, 2.
longitudinal muscles, 23.
lumbar — L. Zudus, a loin, 101.
lungs, of frog, 80; of turtle, 94.
lunularia — L. /unz/a, a little moon, 134.
lupinus — L. /upus, a wolf, 186.
lycopodinze — Gr. /ukos, a wolf; pous, foot, 174.
lymph — L. lymph, water, 86; lymphatics, 86; — corpuscles, 85; — cavi- es 77:
INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 223
macrocarpa — L. mazro, long, high; arfon, fruit, 185.
maculatum — L. macula, a spot, 184.
madreporite — Fr. S¢. Madrepfore, mother of stone; foros, a light friable stone, II.
malpighian capsule — after Professor Malpighi, 87.
malva — L. malva, mallows, 184; malvacez, 177, 184.
malvales — L. mzalva, the mallow, 186.
mammalia — L. wamma, a milk gland, 113, 172.
mandible — L. mandibulum, a jaw; of cray-fish, 27; of grasshopper, 35; of frog, 74; of pigeon, 99.
mantle, 46; — cavity, 46; — lobe, 46.
manubrium — L. manubrium, a handle, 131.
manus — L. manus, the hand, 73.
marchantia polymorpha —after Marchant, a French botanist; Gr. jolus, many; #zorphé, form, 134.
marginal plates, 91.
marsipobranchii — L. marsupium, a pouch; brangchia, gills, 171.
marsupialia — Gr. marsifos, a pouch, 172.
maxilla — L. maxilla, jaw, 27; maxillaries, 57; pre —, 57, 99; maxillary palpus, 36. |
maxillipeds — L. maxz//a and pes, foot, 27.
meadia — L. medius, middle, 186; — line, 18; — fins, 55.
medulla oblongata — L. medulla, marrow; oblongus, long, 66.
medullary rays, 151.
mertensia, after Professor Mertens, of Bremen, 187.
mesophyll — Gr. mesos, middle; phzélon, leaf, 158.
mesentery — Gr. zesos, middle; ez¢era, intestine, 14,62; mesenteric artery, 96.
mesoglea — Gr. mesos, middle; gloza, glue, 8.
mesothorax — Gr. mesos, middle; ‘horax, the chest, 37.
meta-carpi — Gr. meta, beyond; arfos, wrist, 76.
metamorphosis — Gr. mefa, beyond; morphé, form, 116.
meta-tarsi— Gr. meta, beyond; /arsos, the sole of foot, 76, 94.
meta-thorax — Gr. meta, beyond; thorax, chest, 37.
metazoa — Gr. mefa, beyond; zon, animal, 169.
micropyle —Gr. mzkros, small; pulé, a gate, 153, 163.
midrib, 135, 157.
mildew, 127.
molars — L. mo/aris, a mill-stone,112.
mollusca — L. mollis, soft, 51, 170.
molluscoidea — L. mod/usca, a mollusk; Gr. e¢dos, form, 171.
224 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS.
monocotyledons — Gr. monos, single; otute, a cup-shaped cavity, 162, 175. monotremata — Gr. monos, single; ¢réma, an opening, 172.
morphology — Gr. morphé, form; dogos, description, 9.
mOss, 139.
moth, 41.
motor oculi— L. movere, to move; oculus, the eye, 83.
mouth, of hydra, 7; of starfish, 12; of earthworm, I9.
mucous membrane — L. mucus, slimy; wzenzbra, the skin covering an organ, 86. multipolar nerve cells — multi, many; polus, a pole, a point, 88.
musci —L. mwuscus, moss, 174.
muscle — L. mzzsculus, a muscle, a little mouse, 40, 77, 78; extensor —, 31. mushroom — Fr. mousse, moss, 133.
mussel, 42.
muzzle — Fr. musean, the snout, 109.
myriapoda — Gr. murzoz, ten thousand; odes, feet, 170.
myrtales — L. myrtus, a myrtle, 1709.
myxomycetes — Gr. muxa, slime; mukés, a fungus, 173.
nares — L. nostrils, 56, 72.
natatores — L. zazo, I swim, 172.
nautilus — Gr. zaztzlos, a sailor, 51.
feek, 28, 105:
nemathelminthes — Gr. vémza, a thread; elms, an intestinal worm, 170. nematocyst — Gr. zéma,a thread; ustis, a bag, 8. nephridia — Gr. zephros, a kidney, 21.
nerve, 12, 22, 32, 66, 82, 83, 84.
neural — Gr. meurvron, a nerve; — arch, 75; — spine, 67. newt, 80.
nictitating membrane — L. zzcéo, to wink with eyes, 91, 104. nigra —L. zzger, black, 185.
nitella — L. 22z¢ére, to shine, 128.
nodal cell, 130.
node — L. zodus, a knoll, 129.
nodules, 123.
nucleus — L. zzcleus, a small nut, a kernel, 2.
nymphaceez — L. xympha, a water nymph, 183.
ocellus — L. ocellus, a little eye, 35. odontoid peg —Gr. odous, a tooth; ezdos, resemblance, III. cedogonieze — Gr. ozdeo, I swell; gonos, offspring, 174.
INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 225
cwsophagus — Gr. ozo, I bear for another; phago, I eat, 31, 61.
csophageal collar — Gr. ozo, I bear for another; phago, I eat, 32.
officinale — L. officia/e, medicinal, 187.
oil globules, 127.
olacales — L. o/ax, having a smell, 178.
olfactory — L. olfacere, to smell; — lobes, 66; nerves, 82.
onoclea struthiopteris — Gr. ovos,a vessel; 4/ezo, I close; strouthos, ostrich: pleris, fern, 141. |
ontogeny —Gr. ovfos, a being; gennad, to bring forth, 89.
onycophora — Gr. onux,a claw; phoros, bearing, 170.
odgonium — Gr. od, an egg; gonos, offspring, 126.
odphore — Gr. of, an egg; foros, bearing, 141.
odsphere — Gr. od, an egg; sphaira, a ball, 138.
odspore — Gr. od, an egg; sporos, seed, 126.
oodphyta —Gr. oén, an egg; phuton, plant, 127, 174.
operculum — L. ofercu/um, a lid or cover; opercle, 58; inter —, 58.
ophidia — Gr. offzs, a serpent, 172.
opposite — L. oppositum, placed against, 158.
optic — Gr. offikos, relating to sight; — chiasma, 83; — lobes, 66, 82; — nerves, 66, 83.
oral — L. os, mouth, II.
orbit — L. ordzta, a path, 56.
orchis — Gr. orchis, a plant with thickened roots, 183.
orchidales, 176; orchidacez, 183.
organ — Gr. organon, an instrument or tool, 2.
ornithorhynchus — Gr. orzzthos, of a bird; rhynchos, snout, beak, 172.
oscillaria — L. oscz//um, swing, 124.
os innominatum — L. os, bone; zz, not; momen, name, 103.
ossicles — L. ossicu/um, a small bone, 15.
ostia — L. os, mouth, 30.
ovum — L. ovum, an egg, 8.
ovule— L. ovule, a little egg, 152.
ovary — L. ovum, an egg, 7, 40, 63, 79, 95, 160.
oviducts — L. ovum, egg; ductus, a duct, 31, 63, 79, 95.
Oviparous — L. ovum, egg; pario, I produce, go.
ovipositor — L. ovum, egg; positum, to place, 34.
oxalis — L. oxus, sour, 184.
oyster, 51.
palatines — L. pa/atus, the palate, 57.
226 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS.
palisade cells — Fr. palissade, a hedge-row of trees, 158.
pallial line —L. pallium, mantle, 45; — cavity, 46.
pallium — L. Aalium, a mantle, 46.
palmates — L. salma, the palm, 176.
palpus — L. Aalpo, I touch gently, 27, 36.
pancreas — Gr. pangkreas, the sweetbread, 79, 94.
paniculata — L. paniculus, a panicle, 186.
paramecium — Gr. para, side by side; méos, length, 169.
parasite — Gr. farasitos, one who eats at another’s table or food, 23, 120.
parenchyma — Gr. fara, side by side; exchuma, tissue, 137, 143, 159.
parietales — L. parzes, a wall, 177.
passeres — L. passer, a sparrow, 172.
passiflorales — L. passio, passion; /los, a flower, 179.
paste worm, 23.
pecten — L. fecten, a comb, 171.
pedata — L. Zes, foot, 184.
pedicel — L. Zes, a foot, 135, 145.
pedicellaria — L. es, a foot, 12.
peduncle — L. pedunculus, little foot, 152, 158.
peltatum — L. e//a, a target or buckler, 183.
pelvis — L. fe/vis, a basin, 76; pelvic arch, 76; — girdle, 76.
perch, 83.
perca flavescens — L. perca, a perch; flavus, yellow, 53.
perennial — L. fer, through; annum, the year, 140.
perennis — L. fer, through; azzum, the year, that lasts the year through, 186.
perianth — Gr. ferz, around; azzhos, flower, 158.
pericardium — Gr. fer7, round about; ardza, heart, 80, 95; pericardial cav- ity, 48, 61; — sinus, 30.
pericarp — Gr. ferz, about; arZos, fruit, 164.
periostracum — Gr. fer, round about; ostrakon, shell, 43.
peripatus — Gr. peripatein, to walk around, 170.
perisoma — Gr. Zerz, round about; soma, body, Io.
perissodactyla — Gr. ferzssos, uneven; daktulos, a finger, 172.
peristome — Gr. perz, around; stoma, mouth, 12.
peritoneum — Gr. ferz, round about; fezmo, I stretch, 61, 86.
personales— L. persona, a mask, 180.
pes — L. Zes, a foot, 73.
petal — Gr. petalon, a leaf, 158.
petiole — L. petzolus, a little foot, 157.
petromyzon — Gr. Zetros, a rock; mwuzon, sucking, 171.
INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 227
phalanges — Gr. phalangx, a line of battle, 76, 93, 94, 103. pharynx — Gr. pharungx, the windpipe, 20.
phaseolus vulgaris — L. phaselus, a bean pod; vulgaris, common, 162. phloém — Gr. phlozos, bark, 150; — sheath, 144, 158. phlox — Gr. phox, a flame, 186.
phyllome — Gr. prullon, a leaf, 160.
phyllotaxy — Gr. phullon, a leaf; taxis, order, 153. phylogeny — Gr. phy/e, a tribe; gennad, to bring forth, 89. physalia — Gr. phussalis, a bubble, a bladder, 9. physiology — Gr. phuszs, nature; /ogos, a discourse, 3.
pia mater — L. pia mater, a kind mother; a fanciful name, 82. pigeon — Fr. pzgeor, a pigeon, 98.
pigment — L. pigmentum, paint, 33, 60; — cells, 33. pilosa — L. pzloszs, hairy, 186.
pineal body — L. Zzvea, a cone of a pine, 83. pinne — L. fzzna, a feather, 142; pinnate; pinnule, 142, 165. pinnipedia —L. Azza, a feather; pes, a foot, 172.
pinus sylvestris — I.. pz7us, a pine tree; sylva, a wood, 147. piperales — L. pzper, pepper, 177.
pirus — L. firus, a pear tree, 186.
pisces — L. frscis, a fish, 68, 171.
pistil — L. Azstil/um, a pestle, 159.
pith, 150.
pituitary body — L. pzzuzza, slime, 83.
placenta —L. placenta, a cake; parietal —, 160; axial —, 160. plastron — Fr. plastron, a breastplate, 71.
plates, marginal, dorsal, costal, 91.
platyhelminthes — Gr. A/atus, broad; helmins, a worm, 170. pleurite — Gr. pleura, a rib, 26.
plexus — L. Alexus, to twist; brachial —, 85; sciatic —, 85. plumule — L. Al/umuia, a little feather, 164.
pneumatic tube —Gr. preuma, air, 64.
podophyllum — Gr. jous, foot; phullon, leaf, 183. polemoniales — Gr. Aolemonion, valerian, 180; polemoniacex, 186. pollen —L. foll/en, a fine flour; — grains, 152; — sacs, 152. polygonatum — Gr. fo/us, many; gonz, a knee, 181.
polyp —Gr. folus, many; fous, foot, 6.
porifera — Gr. foros, a pore; L. fero, I bear, 5, 169. posterior — L. Aosterior, after or behind, 10.
prehension — L. prehendo, I lay hold of, 2.
228 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS.
premolar — L. fre, before; molares, the grinders, 112.
primaries — L. primus, first, 105.
primates — L. przmus, first, 172.
primulales — przmus, first, 180; primulacez, 186.
proboscidea — L. prodoscis, a trunk, 172.
process, 67; tentacular —, 48.
prosimiez — L. pro, before; szmza, ape, 172.
prostomium — Gr. gro, before; stoma, mouth, 19.
prothallium — Gr. fro, before; ‘hallos, a sprout, 141, 146.
prothorax—Gr. pro, before; chorax, chest, 36.
protista — Gr. profos, first, 169.
protococcus viridis — Gr. Zroéos, first; Zokkos, a berry; L. vzrzdis, green, 117.
protonema — Gr. fro/os, first; ema, thread, 145.
protophyta — fro/os, first; phuton, plant, 120, 173.
protoplasm — Gr. voros, first; plasma, what has been formed, 1.
protopterus — Gr. frofos, first; pzeron, wing, 171.
protozoa — Gr. frofros, first; zodz, an animal, 3, 169.
proximal — L. proxzmus, nearest, 7.
prunus — L. prunwm, a plum, 185.
pseud-acacia — Gr. pseudes, false; L. acacia, a thorn, 186.
pseudopodia — Gr. pseudes, false; pows, foot, 1.
pteridophyta — Gr. pteron, wing; phuton, plant, 146, 174.
pteris aquilina — Gr. péeris, fern; L. aguzla, eagle, 140.
pteropoda — Gr. prtevon, wing; fous, foot, 171.
pteryle — Gr. pieron, a wing, 105.
pubis — L. pudzs, 94.
pubescens — L. pzudescius, hairy, 183, 184.
puff-balls, 133.
pupil— L. pupzlla, a little girl, the pupil of the eye, 56.
pyloric — Gr. fulores, a gate-keeper; — chamber, 31; — cceca, 61; — duct, 14; — sac, 14.
pyrenoid — Gr. purén, the stone of fruit, 123.
quadrate — L. guadratus, squared, 99. quadrupeds — L. guadrupes, four-footed, 109. quahog, an Indian name, 42.
quercus — L. guercus, an oak, 185. quernales — L. guercus, an oak, 178.
quill, 106; — feathers, 105.
quinquefolia — L. guingue, five; folium, leaf, 184.
4 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 229
rabbit, 108.
racemosa — L. racemus, a stalk of a grape cluster, 182.
radial— L. radius, a spoke; — nerve, 12; — water tube, 15; — radiale, 102; — radio-ulnar, 75.
radius — L. radius, a spoke of a wheel, 93, 102.
ramenta — L. ramenta, scrapings, shavings, 142.
rana pipiens — L. rena, a frog; pzpzo, I chirp, 69.
ranales — L. rana, a frog, 177.
range of vision, 56.
ranunculus — L. rana, a little frog, 183; ranunculacez, 183.
raphides — Gr. riaphis, a needle, 158.
raptatores — L. rap/fores, robbers, 172.
ray, II, 54, 56.
receptacle — L. receptaculum, a storehouse, 135, 144, 158.
rectum — L. rectus, straight, 50.
rectus abdominis — L. rectus, straight; abdomen, the belly, 77.
repens — L. repens, creeping, 186.
resin passages, 150; — ducts, I51.
reproduction — L. reproducere, to reproduce, 3, 119.
reptilia — L. refo, to creep, 97, 171.
respiration — L. ve, back; spzro, I breathe, 2.
reticulated — L. reticulum, a little net, 106.
retractile — L. retractus, withdrawn, I10.
rhabdomes — Gr. rhadbdos, a rod, 33.
rhizoids — Gr. rhiza, a root; ezdos, resemblance, 126.
rhizome — Gr. rhizoma, a root, 140.
rhizopoda — Gr. rhiza, a root; fous, foot, 169.
rhombeidea — Gr. romdos, a magical wheel; ezdos, resemblance, 183.
ribs, 67, 93, IOI.
right auricle, 49.
rings of growth, 151.
robinia — Robin, a French botanist, 480.
rockweed, 127.
rodentia — L. rodens, gnawing, 172.
roots, 142.
rotatoria — L. rota, a wheel, 170.
rotifera —L. rota, a wheel; fero, I bear, 170.
rotundifolia — L. rotundus, round; folium, leaf, 184.
rosa, 185; rosacez, 185.
rosales — L. rosa/is, pertaining to a rose, 179.
230 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS.
rostrum — L. rostrum, a beak, 25. rubiales — L. ruder, red, 181.
saccharomyces cereviseze — L. saccharum, sugar; miukés,a fungus; cervesia, beer, 117.
sacrum — L. sacrum, sacred, 76.
sacral, IOI.
salamander — Gr. sa/amandra, supposed to be a kind of lizard capable of extinguishing fire, 89.
salivary glands— L. salva, spittle, 41.
salpa — Gr. salfé, a kind of stock-fish, 171.
_sand-dollar, 16.
santalales — L. san¢alis, a kind of palm-tree, 178.
sapindales — L. safo, soap, 178; sapindaceze, 185.
saprophyte — Gr. sagvros, putrid; phuton, plant, 121.
scalariform vessels — L. scala, a ladder; forma, shape, 144.
scales, 60, 137; scale-bearers, 149 ; — leaves, 149.
scandens — L. scandens, climbing, 184.
scansores — L. scando, I climb, 172.
scaphopoda — Gr. skaphé, a bowl; pozs, foot, 171.
scapula — L. scapula, shoulder-blade, 75, 93, 102.
schizomycetes — Gr. schizo, I cleave; mukés, a fungus, 173.
sciatic plexus —L. sciatica, pertaining to the hip; plexus, twisted, 85.
sclerenchyma — Gr. sk/eros, hard; enchuma, tissue, 143.
scotch pine, 147.
scutellum — L. sczte//um, small shield, 164; scutella, 106; scutellate, 106.
sea-anemone — Gr. azemmos, the wind, 9.
sea-cucumber, 16.
sea-urchin — L. erzczus, a hedgehog, 16.
secondaries, 105.
seedlings, 162.
seeds, 153—seed-coats, 163.
segments, 26.
selachii — Gr. se/achos, a cartilaginous fish, 171.
semi-liquid, 119.
sensation — L. seztio, I discern by the senses, 2.
sepals — L. sepes, a hedge or fence, 158.
septa — L. septum, a partition, 20, 125.
sessile — L. sessz/e, in a sitting posture, 157.
sete — L. seza, a stiff hair, 19.
INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 231
shaft, 106.
shields, 131.
shoot, 149.
shoulder girdle, 75.
sinus venosus — L. szzus, a curve; vena, a vein, 80, 146. siphons — Gr. a tube, 46.
sisyrinchium — Gr. sésyrinchium, a bulbous plant, 182. skeleton — Gr. skellein, to dry, 4; endo —, 67, 73, 91; exo —, II. skull, 65, 74.
small fry, 53.
smilax — Gr. smzlax, yew; also a leguminous plant; also bindweed, 181. smilacina — Gr. smz/ax, the yew, smilax, 182.
smuts, 133.
snail, 51.
solanacee — L. salanum, nightshade, 187.
somites — Gr. soma, a body, 18.
sorus —Gr. soros, a heap, 145.
sow-bug, 33.
spawn, 53. , |
spectabile — L. sfectadz/is, visible, 183.
sperm-duct — Gr. sperma, seed; ductus, a duct, 30, 63, 95; — cells, 132.
spermaphyta — Gr. sperma, seed; phuton, plant, 148, 173, 174. spermary — Gr. sperma, seed; of hydra, 7; of perch, 63; of turtle, g5. spermatic filament — Gr. sferma, seed, 132.
spermatozoa — Gr. sperma, seed; z00n, animal, 23, 95.
spermatozoids — Gr. sferma, seed; 2007, an animal; eozdos, resemblance, 132. spicules — L. sficu/um, a sharp point, 4.
spider crab, 33.
spike, 151.
spinal — L. sina, the spine; — cord, 66; — column, 66; — nerve, 66. spine, 11; neural —, 67.
spiracle — L. sfcro, I breathe, 37,
spiranthes — L. sfzra, a coil or spire, 183.
spirogyra quinina —Gr. sfeira, a coil; guros,a circle; N. L. quinine, 121. spleen — L. sf/en, the milt or spleen, 63, 79, 94.
sponge — L. sfongia, a sponge, 4.
sponge flesh, 4.
spongia — L. sfongia, a sponge, 169.
spongilla — L. a little sponge, 4, 160.
spore — Gr. spora, a seed, 141, 152.
232 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS.
sporangia — Gr. sfora, seed; anggos, a vessel, 145, 152.
sporophore — Gr. sfora, a seed; phoros, bearing, 141; swarm spore, 127.
sporophylla — Gr. spora, a seed; phullon, leaf, 144.
sprout-chains, I109.
squid, 51.
stamens — L. sto, I stand, 152, 159.
starch grains, 123.
star-fish, Io.
stem, 106, 129.
stellata — L. stella, a star, 182.
sterile leaves, 130.
sternum — Gr. sternon, the breast bone, 75.
sternite — Gr. sternon, breast bone, 26.
stigma — Gr. s¢izo, I mark with a point, 160.
stipe — L. s¢ifes, a stock, 142.
stoma — Gr. séoma, a mouth, 136.
stomach, 14, 31, 41, 50, 62, 78, 86, 94.
stonewort, 128.
strie — L. stria, a furrow, 60.
striated muscle — L. s¢rza, a furrow, 40.
stricta — L. s¢rictus, drawn together, 184.
style — L. stylus, a stake, 160.
subclavian — L. sud, under; clavis, a key, 96.
superior umbilicus — L. zzfirzor, higher; wmzbilicus, navel, 106.
sub-mucosa — L. sud, under; mucus, slimy, 86.
sub-cesophageal ganglion — Gr. esophagus, gullet; gagglion, tumor, 32.
sub-opercle — L. swd, under; operculum, a lid, 58.
sub-orbital — L. sud, under; orbs, circle, 56.
supporting lamellae, 8.
supra-esophageal ganglion — L. supra, on the upper side, 32. (See wsopha- gus and ganglion.)
suture — L. sutura, a seam.
swimmerets, 26.
symmetry — L. symmetria, symmetrical, together and measure, 18.
symplocarpus — Gr. sumploke, a connection; arpos, fruit, 182.
synapta — Gr. sun, together; affo, I connect, 170.
systemic arch, 81.
tactile — L. ¢actilis, that may be touched, 27. tapeworm, 23.
INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 233
tap-root, 165; multiple—, 165.
taraxicum — Gr. ¢araxis, a disorder of the bowels, 187.
tarsus — Gr. farsos, the sole of the foot, 37, 76, 94; — tarso-meta-tarsus, 103. teleostei — Gr. ze/cos, perfect; osteon, bone, 171.
telson — Gr. ¢e/son, the end, 25.
tendon — L. zezdo, I stretch, 78.
tentacles — L. ¢ev¢o, I touch; tentacular processes, 46; terminal —, 13. tergite — L. zergum, the back, 26.
terminal cell, 130. .
tertiaries — L. ¢ertius, three, 105.
tethyodea, 171.
teeth, 44.
thaliacea — G. ¢haleza, blooming (with phosphorescence), 171. thallus — Gr. ¢hall/us, a shoot, 127.
thallophyta — Gr. thallus, a shoot; phuton, a plant, 173.
thoracic — Gr. thorax, the chest;— region; — appendages, 25, 26. thumb, 76.
tibia — L. “d7a, a pipe, 36, 94; tibio-tarsus, 103; tibio-fibula, 103. tilia — L. zz/ia, the linden, 184;— tiliacez, 184.
tinctoria — L. zzzctor, a dyer, 186.
tissue — Fr. z#ssw, woven, 22, 87, 136, 143, 156.
tongue, I5.
topography — Gr. /ofos, region; grapho, I grave, 10.
torula — L. orulus, a tuft of hair, 1109.
tracheee — Gr. ¢racheia, windpipe, 40, 94. tradescantia — Tradescant, gardener to Charles I. of England, 182. trichina — Gr. “riz, hair, 23, 170.
trichome — Gr. ¢hrix, hair, 161.
trifolium — L. ¢res, three; folium, a leaf, 186.
trigeminal — L. ‘res, three; geminz, twins; —nerve, 83.
trillium recurvatum — L. ¢res, three; vecurvatum, bent backward, 182. triphyllum — L. ¢res, three; Gr. Ahzdlon, leaf, 182.
trivium — L. res, three; via, the way, II.
triticum vulgare — L. ¢riticum, wheat; vulgaris, common, 162, trochanter — Gr. trechein, run, 36.
trochlear — L. ¢rochlea, a pulley, 83.
trunk, 71.
tube-feet, 12.
tuberosa — L. ¢uder, a small root, 183.
tunicata — L. ‘unica, a tunic, or close fitting shirt, 171.
ee,
234 INDEX AND DERIVATIONS.
turtle, 90. tympanum — L. tympanum, a drum, 38, 72; — cavity, 100, 105. typhlosole — Gr. zuphios, blind: soleéz, tube, 22.
ulmus — z/mus, the elm, 184.
ulmaceze — L. zdmzus, elm, 184.
ulna — L. w/a, the elbow, 93, 102.
ulnare — L. uw/za, the elbow, 102.
umbellales — L. wmzbella, a parasol, 179. umbones — L. zwzbo, the boss of a shield, 43. unipolar nerve-cell, 88.
unio plicata— L. unus, one; plicatus, folded, 42. unstriated muscle-fibre, 40.
ureter — Gr. oureo, I make water, 79.
urinary bladder — L. wrzza, urine, 64; — tubules, 87. urocyst — Gr. ouron, urine; ustis, a bladder, 80. urostyle — Gr. oura, the tail; s¢zos, column, 74. urticales — L. uréica, a nettle, 177.
vacuoles — L. vacuus, empty, 2.
valves, 43.
vane, 106.
vaucheria sesilis— Vaucher, a botanist of Geneva; L. sessz/e, having a sitting posture, 125, 126. ;
veins — L. veva, a blood vessel, 64, 77, 81, 96, 97, 142, 157, 165.
venation — L. vera, vein, 163.
venous sinus — L. vea, a blood vessel; szzws, a curve, 64, 80.
ventral — L. verter, belly, 18; —fins, 55; — fissure, 88; — nerve-chain, 22; — margin, 43; —horns, 88; —vessel, 22.
ventricle — L. wvezzer, the belly or a small cavity, 48, 80.
vegetative notches, 138.
vermes — L. vermis, a worm, 23, 170.
versicolor — L. versocolor, that changes its color, 182.
vertebra — L. veréo, I turn, 67; vertebral column, 67, 73,92; cervical —, 93; dorsal — , 93, 100, IOI, II0.
vertebrata — L. vertebra, a joint, 113, 171.
vessels, 144; lateral —, 21.
vibrissze — L. vibro, I shake, I09.
villi — L. hairs, 87.
violacez — L. viola, the violet, 183; viola, 183, 184.
INDEX AND DERIVATIONS. 235
virginica, pertaining to Virginia, 182, 187; virginiana, 185. vitis — L. vzzis, a vine, 184.
volvox — L. volvo, I roll, 127.
vomer — L. vomer, a plowshare, 57.
vorticella — L. vortex, a whirl, 169.
water mould, 127.
web, 73.
wheat rusts, 133.
whorls, 129.
- wings, of grasshopper, 37; of pigeon, 105; of liverwort, 105, 135.
xylem — Gr. xulon, wood, 150, 158. yeast, 117.
zea mays — Gr. zeza, corn; mays, Indian name, 162. zoospore —Gr. zodz, an animal; sora, seed, 126. zodsporee — Gr. 200, an animal; sfora, seed, 174. zygophyta — Gr. zzgon, a yoke; phuton, a plant, 124, 174. zygospores — Gr. zugon, a yoke; spora, seed, 123.
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