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LABORATORY PRACTICE FOR
BEGINNERS IN BOTANY

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LABORATORY PRACTICE

BEGINNERS IN BOTANY

BY

WILLIAM A. SETCHELL, PH.D.

PROFESSOR OF BOTANY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDON : MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
1900

All rights resided

LIBRARY
G

COPYRIGHT, 1897,
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set up and electrotyped March, 1897. Reprinted May,
December, 1897; August, 1899; July, 1900.

Nortoooli 3P«8B

J. S. Cmhing & Co. - Berwick & Smith
Norwood Mass. U.S.A.

PREFACE

THE writer has been frequently asked to express to others
his ideas on the subject of the teaching of botany in the
schools. He has been led to consider the problem from a
number of different points of view and to try a number
of different methods in attempting a satisfactory solution.
After experimenting with a number of classes of beginners
both in the preparatory schools and in the university, he has
arrived at the following conclusions : —

Botany in the preparatory schools should be taught —

1. As a science, to cultivate careful and accurate observa-
tion, together with the faculty of making from observations
the proper inferences ; and

2. As a means of leading the mind of the student to inter-
est itself in the phenomena of nature for its own further
development and profit.

In order to make the study of botany more effective under
the first head, it seems best to bring the student into imme-
diate contact with the object itself, in the laboratory ; and
not only that, but to avoid interposing apparatus, as far as
possible, between the student and the object to be studied.

• ^f '.,,

PREFACE

For this purpose, the writer has practically confined his
attention to the larger plants.

Desiring also to cultivate, as far as possible, the ability to
draw correct inferences from exact observations, the writer
has deemed it best to consider the subject from a somewhat
different point of view from that usually adopted, and has
attempted to make the morphological study bear fruit
in this direction. The great difficulty in most laboratory
work is to make the students realize the significance of
the morphological details. They may observe accurately
and record their observations carefully, but what of that?
The physiological significance is overlooked — even in many
cases where experiments are used to illustrate physiological
phenomena.

That the plant is a living thing, is a fact that must be
borne actively in mind, both by teacher and by student.
The plant must obtain the materials for its support, and to
do this it must compete with other plants ; it must protect
itself against or seek the aid of animals ; it must obtain the
energy and materials to reproduce its kind, and endeavor to
place its offspring where they may have a proper chance for
development ; and, destitute of a mind as it is, it exercises
an ingenuity, so to speak, that is of no mean order. We
must, then, think of the plant as a living, working, struggling
being with a single object in life, viz. to reproduce its kind ;
and every variation in structure, be it great or little, is to be
examined to determine, if possible, its use or history.

The writer has had the teachers particularly in mind in

PREFACE vii

arranging the order of study. The seed is taken up first,
because it is not only readily obtained, readily studied,
and its meaning clear, but it is also one of the most con-
venient starting-points for a study of the life-history. After
a few studies to show how the plants start upon an indepen-
dent existence, typical stems, roots, and leaves are consid-
ered, both as to their structure and as to their usefulness to
the plant. Then follows the study of the modification of
these organs, especially in plants which store away nourish-
ment, which protect themselves from grazing animals, which
climb up above their neighbors for light and air ; of plants
which are robbers or huntsmen, taking their food from other
plants or by capturing animals ; and finally, a glance at the
different ways in which plants propagate their kind.

If both teacher and student can conceive of the plant in
this way, an abundant harvest of interesting and instructive
phenomena will be presented to view, and both will have
come into far closer communion with nature than is possible
in any other way.

In conclusion, the writer wishes to say that this sketch is
intended for beginners, either in the higher grades of the
primary schools, or in the secondary schools. It is not
intended to hamper the teacher with too explicit directions,
but to assist in directing attention to certain details and
leave the teacher free to suggest farther work and thought
upon each subject. In the second appendix, especial
hints and suggestions are given to teachers, and references
through which the writer hopes to convey to the teacher

viii PREFACE

the point of view which he himself takes in the particular
exercise.

It remains to the writer to thank his colleagues in the
University of California for their valuable aid in the prepara-
tion of this guide, and especially to Willis L. Jepson, who
has made valuable suggestions at every point.

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA,

BERKELEY, CAL., Sept. i, 1896.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PACK

INTRODUCTION xi

I. SEEDS i

II. SEEDLINGS 11

III. ROOTS 17

IV. STEMS 19

V. LEAVES. I 25

VI. LEAVES. II 33

VII. PHYLLOTAXY 39

VIII. BUDS 46

IX. PR/EFOLIATION 51

X. PROTECTION 55

XI. STORAGE 58

XII. CLIMBING PLANTS 64

XIII. EPIPHYTES, PARASITES, AND SAPROPHYTES ... 68

XIV. INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS 73

XV. REPRODUCTION 76

XVI. VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION 77

XVII. SEED REPRODUCTION 81

XVIII. A TYPICAL OR PATTERN FLOWER .... 82

XIX. FERTILIZATION 87

CONTENTS

XX. IMPERFECT, INCOMPLETE, IRREGULAR, AND UNSYM-

METRICAL FLOWERS 90

XXI. COALESCENCE AND ADNATION 93

XXII. WIND- AND INSECT-POLLINATION .... 95

XXIII. SELF-POLLINATION 100

XXIV. ANTHOTAXY 101

XXV. METAMORPHOSIS 106

XXVI. FRUITS 109

XXVII. FLESHY FRUITS in

XXVIII. DRY DEHISCENT FRUITS 116

XXIX. DRY INDEHISCENT FRUITS 120

XXX. SEED DISPERSAL BY ANIMALS . . . . .121

XXXI. SEED DISPERSAL BY WIND 123

XXXII. SEED DISPERSAL BY WATER 125

XXXIII. SPORE REPRODUCTION 126

APPENDIX I. SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS . . . .131
APPENDIX II. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS . . . .137
INDEX 183

INTRODUCTION

BEFORE we begin to study plants in any way, we may, with
profit, consider what sort of things are to be the objects to
which our attention will be given. In taking a general sur-
vey of the objects we know in nature, and inquiring as to
how we separate the plants from the rest, we consider,
roughly at least, the following subjects : —

1. Life. — We readily separate, as far as most things are
concerned, the members of the mineral kingdom from those
which belong to the animal and vegetable kingdoms, distin-
guishing the two latter from the former by the fact that they
are living. We need not undertake to investigate the nature
of life, i.e. what life really is ; we may be content with con-
sidering it as a certain kind of force which manifests itself in
certain ways through matter, and that upon the cessation of
this force what we call death ensues.

2. Plant and Animal Life. — We distinguish, popularly,
animal life from plant life in that the animal life is animated
while the plant life is not. The ordinary animals exhibit
various movements which they can control, — they eat, etc.,
— and we do not question their living activities ; but the
plants, with few exceptions, do not appeal to us as being

xi

xii INTRODUCTION

actively alive. We do not observe directly efforts that they
are making to accomplish their life work. It is only by
careful watching and observing that we can even begin to
obtain any conception of their actual activities. On this
account, it is especially necessary to keep in mind the fact
that the plant is a living thing.

3. Life-History. — Each and every living thing has what is
called a life-history ; /.<?. there is a certain beginning of its
own separate life, which runs through certain stages, and
there is finally an end to the life of that separate individual
at least ; i.e. it dies. This sequence of events from birth on
to death is the life-history. With an ordinary flowering plant
the life-history of the independent individual begins with the
germinating seed, goes through the stages of seedling, mature
plant, blossoming, fruiting, and ends with the mature seed.
The parent dies, living on only in its offspring. Every plant,
being a living thing, has a certain definite life-history, and
this must be borne in mind throughout the work.

4. Struggle for Existence. — We ordinarily think that a
plant simply grows and do not consider it a matter needing
any forethought or trouble of any kind. But when we come
to look at plants carefully, we find that forethought, or in other
words, provision, exists by means of which seeds of different
plants have a chance to get to favorable places for germina-
tion ; that when there they may be able to hold their own
to a certain degree, and not be crowded out by their neigh-
bors ; that certain ones can protect themselves against graz-
ing animals ; and that in every way each plant tries to obtain

INTRODUCTION xiii

a place to live in, to obtain its nourishment, to develop a
healthy, vigorous body ; all in order that it may produce a
crop of good sound seeds. Every plant, we may say, is
struggling against every other and against the animals, great
and small, against certain unfavorable conditions of temper-
ature, moisture, dryness, etc., and only the stronger and
better equipped survive, while the weaker perish. This
struggle, while not so evident, is fully as real as that going
on between the different animals, and many peculiarities of
plant structure are more or less readily explained upon this
basis. What we must look for in our different laboratory
studies, then, is to see how different plants have changed or
modified very different parts to accomplish practically the
same object.

5. Individuals, Species, and Genera. — Each separate
plant is an individual. It is easy to distinguish the individ-
ual in almost all the higher plants, but occasionally the
technical distinction may be somewhat difficult to establish.
These technical difficulties need not, however, disturb us in
our work at all.

We recognize that many individuals are of the same kind
or species. They resemble one another so very closely, that
there are no essential differences. We further recognize
that there are groups of kinds or species more nearly resem-
bling one another than they do other species ; such as the
different kinds of violet, the different kinds of roses, etc.
These species we group under the head of genus (plural
genera} ; e.g. we speak of the genus violet as including the

INTRODUCTION

pansy, the English violet, and the various blue, white, and
yellow violets. Genera are grouped into orders on account
of resemblances, and orders under still larger divisions, etc. ;
but the genus, species, and individual are all the beginner
need trouble about, at least as far as the present work is
concerned. When systematic work is taken up, the scheme
of arrangement of the different subdivisions will gradually
unfold itself.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

CHAPTER I

SEEDS

I. Take the ripened pod of a Bean Plant, and splitting it
open, notice : —

1. That the seeds (Beans) are attached along one edge of

each valve (or half) of the pod.

2. That each Bean is attached to the pod by a short stalk,

\hefunifuhts.

3. Make a sketch of a valve of the Bean pod with its en-

closed beans, representing and labelling the parts.

II. Take a Bean which has been well soaked in water
and examine, noticing : —

1. The general shape.

2. The color.

3. The scar or hilum on one side. (What caused the pro-

duction of this scar ?)

4. The • heart-shaped purplish protuberance at one side of

the hilum (more readily seen by the aid of a lens or
magnifying glass) . This is called a strophiole, and is
present only in a few seeds. (!/•••

'LABORATORY PRACTICE

" '5*. *TRe*sho*rf *ridge*(ase the lens) running from it toward
one end of the seed. This ridge (called the rhaphe}
runs from the hilum along upon the outside of the seed
for a short distance, and then penetrating through the
coverings of the seed, disappears into the interior.
That portion of the rhaphe next to the hilum is
covered, in the Bean, by the strophiole.

6. The small hole at the side of the hilum just opposite the

strophiole. This is the micropyle, and is usually
readily seen by the aid of the lens. If the surface
of the seed is dried carefully, water may be made
to ooze out of the micropyle, if the Bean is gently
squeezed. This shows that the hole extends through
the coats or coverings of the seed.

7. Sketch the Bean in such position as to show all of these

parts, and label each distinctly.

III. With a scalpel or sharp penknife, make a cut along
the edge of the Bean opposite the scar.

1. Remove the seed-coats. There'are really two seed-coats,

but they are so firmly united in the Bean as to be
inseparable. The strophiole comes away with the
seed-coats, for it is really a rudimentary third coat.

2. It will be noticed that the seed-coats are not attached to

the contents (or kernel) of the seed except at one
point, which is just under the place where the rhaphe
penetrates the seed-coats. This point is called the
chalaza. It is somewhat difficult to demonstrate, but
if one takes a dry Bean (of the small white variety,
commonly used for baking), and cuts out a crescent-
shaped piece on the hilum side, taking care to include
the free end of the rhaphe, one or both pieces of the

SEEDS

0-'
kernel will separate from the seed-coats, and the k \

thread-like connection may be seen.

3. Examine and sketch the kernel of the seed, removed :

whole, noting : —

4. The two thick halves, the cotyledons or seed- leaves, and

5. The single median structure, the caulicle,

6. Determine (in another Bean if necessary) whether the

caulicle lies on the hilum side of the Bean or not, and V
whether its free end points toward the micropyle or
not.

IV. Separate the cotyledons carefully along the side
opposite to the caulicle, lay one of them over on its side
and sketch the parts in this position, noting : —

1. The two cotyledons, their shape, thickness, and consist-

ency.

2. The small projection (auricle) upon the inner side of

each, beside the groove into which the caulicle fits.

3. The caulicle, its shape, consistency, and attachment to

each cotyledon.

4. The small bud or plumule, showing two folded leaves on

the outside, and lying upon the inner face of one of
the cotyledons.

5. Notice carefully the veins of these two outer leaves of the

plumule and also the character of the margins. How
do they lie, relatively to one another ?

V. It i? to be noticed that the cotyledons, the caulicle,
and the plumule are all joined together into one structure,
which is called the embryo, or the part which is to grow into
a new plant when the seed sprouts. We may represent the
relations of the different parts we have learned about, as
follows: —

LABORATORY PRACTICE

two seed-coats (inseparable),

hilum,

coverings,

strophiole,

rhaphe.

Bean,

(chalaza,

two cotyledons,

[ embryo,

caulicle,

plumule.

VI. Take a Pea which has been well soaked in water,
examine it as you did the Bean (II-V), and make sketches.

Are all the parts noticed in the Bean present in the Pea
also?

Do you notice any differences in the shapes of the parts
in the two seeds ? If so, state them concisely.

VII. Take a Castor Bean 1 and notice : —

1. The general shape and coloration.

2. The resemblance to a beetle, such as a "June-Beetle " or

a "Tick." (Could such a resemblance be of use to
the Castor Bean?)

3. The prominence (or caruncle) at one end.

4. The depression in the caruncle, leading to the micropyle

(sometimes difficult to find). The caruncle is an
outgrowth similar to the strophiole of the Bean (see
§§ II, 4, and III, i), only it grows out around the
micropyle instead of at the hilum.

5. The ridge (or streak) on one of the broader sides, the

rhaphe.

1 The pupil is warned not to taste the kernels of the Castor Beans, as they
are poisonous.

CHAP. I SEEDS 5

6. The slight projection at the end of the rhaphe opposite to

the caruncle (the chalaza).

7. The hilum is at the side of the caruncle toward the

rhaphe, but is usually little prominent and hard to
find.

8. Make a sketch showing these points.

VIII. Remove the dark-colored " shell," the testa or outer
seed-coat, and notice : — £ 0,-

1. That the kernel is found to be enclosed in a thin, white,

closely fitting inner seed-coat, the tegmen, which can
be peeled off. fa fa) UfL^-U^L^t^.

2. After removing the tegmen, carefully split the kernel paral-

lel to the broader surfaces. (This should be done
very carefully so as not to injure the delicate parts
within.) Notice the embryo adhering to one of the
inner faces. By gently inserting the scalpel or pen-
knife blade under the caulicle and loosening the
cotyledons, the embryo may often be removed un-
injured. Study and sketch : —

1. The two thick pieces of oily endosperm, and the embryo

consisting of ^^ , ,

2. A short thick caulicle and

3. Two thin, flat cotyledons, reticulated with prominent

" veins " and clo'sely applied to one another. Sepa-
rate them after sketching and demonstrate that there
are really two of them.

4. Is there any plumule present?

IX. Examine a seed of the Morning Glory which has
been soaked a few hours in water. Answer the following
questions : —

LABORATORY PRACTICE

1. How many seed-coats can you find ?

2. Is endosperm present?

3. If so, of what character is it?

4. What parts of the embryo are present? -

5. How is the embryo packed away within the seed-coats?

X. Take a grain of Corn, softened and well swollen out by
prolonged soaking, and notice : —

1. Its size.

2. Its shape.

3. At which end it was attached to the cob.

4. The differences between the two broader sides, viz. that

on one side there is an indented tongue-shaped area
wanting on the other. This tongue-shaped area indi-
cates the position of the embryo.

5. At the top of the indented area there is either a small

hole or a short fibre present, the remains or the point
of attachment of a strand of "corn-silk."

6. Make sketches to show these points.

XI. Cut a grain of Corn into two pieces, in a median lon-
gitudinal plane, perpendicular to the broader surfaces. On
one of the cut surfaces, notice : —

i. The outer thin skin. This is more complex than the
coverings of the Bean, for the grain of Corn is not
merely a seed, but a one-seeded fruit, and the outer
covering is made up not only of two seed-coats, but
also of several layers belonging to the ovary or sack
in which the seed is formed. Therefore the micro-
pyle, rhaphe, chalaza, etc., are covered up, and the
place where the grain was attached to the cob does
not correspond to the hilum.

CHAP. I SEEDS 7

2. The lower firmer portion, the embryo.

3. The upper softer, more mealy portion, the endosperm, or

food stored away for the use of the embryo when it
begins to grow. This part of the kernel of the Corn
is lacking in the Pea and the Bean, where the food for
the use of the embryo is all stored away in the thick-
ened cotyledons.

4. Examining the cut surface of the embryo, notice that the

inner portion lying against the endosperm is solid
and represents the single cotyledon.

5. The outer portion consists of two parts : an upper part

of several pieces, one within the other (the plumule},
and

6. A lower solid part (the caulicle}.

7. Make a detail sketch of the cut surface and label carefully.

XII. Remove the embryo whole from a softened grain of
Corn and notice : —

1. Its general shape.

2. The size of the cotyledon proportional to the rest of the

embryo.

3. The plumule and caulicle, hidden from sight.

4. Sketch the embryo in different positions.

XIII. Examine a seed of the Onion and notice : —

1. That there is a notch at one end.

2. That there is a hole (the micropyle} on one side of the

notch, and

3. A scar (the hiluni) on the other.

XIV. Holding the seed between the thumb and first fin-
ger, cut it into two pieces, in a longitudinal plane passing

LABORATORY PRACTICE

through both micropyle and hilum. Examine the cut sur-
faces with the lens and notice : —

1. The seed-coats.

2. The white, translucent endosperm.

3. The coiled embryo, lying within the endosperm.

4. Removing the embryo, examine it with the lens and

notice that there are no distinct parts. The end
towards the micropyle is the caulicle, the other is the
single cotyledon.

5. Make sketches showing these points.

XV. Take a seed of the Pinon Pine and notice : —

1. Its size, shape, color, etc.

2. The micropyle at the narrower end.

3. Remove the thick shell, which in the Pine Seed repre-

sents the single seed-coat characteristic of this group
of seeds and notice : —

4. The kernel.

XVI. Cut a longitudinal slit in the side of the kernel, and
carefully split (by the aid of your thumb-nails) the kernel
into two halves, thus exposing : —

1. The embryo in the centre surrounded by the firm white

endosperm.

2. Study and sketch the embryo, noticing : —

3. The caulicle, straight and undivided, and

4. The several (6-n) narrow cotyledons.

XVII. Take the kernel of another seed and make a cross-
section through the region of the cotyledons. Examine
with the lens and make a sketch, noting : —

1 . The ring of endosperm, enclosing

2. The cotyledons, arranged in a circle or whorl.

SEEDS

•uinnH

•USUI33J,

LABORATORY PRACTICE

XVIII. In reviewing the work done upon seeds, fill out
the blanks in a table copied into the note-books from the
form on page 9.

XIX. Questions about Seeds. — The answers should be
written out carefully in the note-books.

1. What are the essential parts of a seed (i.e. what parts

must be present in order that any object can be
called a seed) ?

2. What is the embryo?

3. What are the parts of the embryo ?

4. In what two ways is food stored away for the use of the

embryo ?

5. How do embryos differ from one another as regards the

number of cotyledons?

6. Is the dry seed alive or dead? Give the reasons for

your answer.

7. What characterizes the cotyledons which contain all the

nourishment for the embryo ?

8. Is the resting condition of the dry seed of any especial

use to the plant? If so, of what use or uses may it
be?

9. Why are the embryos folded up and packed away in so

small a space ?

SEEDLINGS

CHAPTER II

SEEDLINGS

I. Take some Peas which are just beginning to sprout,
and notice : —

1. What organ protrudes itself first from the seed-coats?

2. Make sketches showing this.

II. Take some sprouting Beans, notice the same point
and make sketches.

III. Take some sprouting grains of Corn, notice the same
point and make sketches.

IV. Take a pot of well-grown seedlings of the Pea and
notice : —

1. The position of the cotyledons relative to the surface of

the soil.

Dig up some of the seedlings carefully and
notice : —

2. That the cotyledons remain closely pressed together and

within the seed-coats.

3. That the caulicle remains short, but that

4. A fairly long root (a primary roof) with branches has

grown out and downward from its tip.

5. That the plumule has grown out from between the coty-

ledons and upwards into the light.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

6. This elongated plumule consists of several joints (nodes},

each bearing a/<f#/(or scale representing a leaf) and
intervals between these (the internodes).

7. Make a sketch showing these different parts and label

each carefully.

V. Take a pot of well-grown Bean Seedlings and notice : —

1. The position of the cotyledons relative to the surface of

the soil.

Examine some seedlings which have been carefully
removed from the soil and notice that : —

2. The cotyledons have cast off (as a general rule) the seed-

coats and have separated from one another. In the
older seedlings they have become greenish ; and in the
oldest seedlings of all they have dried up and fallen off.

3. The caulicle has elongated to many times its original

length and has become stouter and green in color.

4. A stout main root (a primary roof) with branches has

grown from the tip of the caulicle.

5. The plumule has lengthened and consists of several

nodes, internodes, and leaves.

6. The leaves borne upon the first node above the cotyle-

dons number two, are on opposite sides of the node,
and are different in size, shape, color, and texture from
the cotyledons. They are also placed upon the stem
at right angles to the cotyledons.

7. The second node above the cotyledons bears a single

leaf, having its flattened portion (the blade) in three
separate pieces instead of in one as in the cotyledons
and the first pair of green leaves.

8. Make a sketch of the Bean Seedling showing these

points.

CHAP. II SEEDLINGS 13

VI. Examine several pots containing seedlings of the
Castor Bean of various ages. Notice that : —

1. The caulicle first breaks through the surface of the soil

and is bent into a " loop," both ends being still
buried.

2. The " loop " increases in size and rises higher and higher

until

3. At length the main body of the seed begins to break

through the surface of the ground.

4. The outer seed-coat {testa) is usually left behind in the

ground, but the inner seed-coat (tegmeii) with the
enclosed endosperm and cotyledons is pulled out of
the ground by this action of the caulicle.

5. Older seedlings will show how the cotyledons gradually

separate from one another while still absorbing nour-
ishment from the endosperm, but —

6. They finally separate widely along their whole .length,

throwing off the tegmen and what is left of the endo-
sperm, and are ready to do the work of leaves, as is
shown by their expanding and turning green.

7. Make a series of sketches to illustrate these points.

8. Compare the cotyledons with one of the leaves of an

adult plant of the Castor Bean as regards size, shape,
color (of both surfaces), and venation (arrangement
of the veins or ribs) .

VII. Take a pot of fairly well grown seedlings of Indian
Corn and notice that : —

i.

The plumule, enwrapped in the tip of the cotyledon,
is the first part of the seed to appear above the
ground.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

Examine a seedling which has been carefully re-
moved from the earth and notice that : —

2. The cotyledon remains within the seed-coats closely

applied to the endosperm, which becomes semi-fluid
and milky, is gradually absorbed by the cotyledon
(acting as a sort of sucker) and transferred to the
growing parts, which are : —

3. The primary root or roots, arising from the tip or sides

of the caulicle, which lengthens very little, and

4. The elongated plumule, which consists of nodes, each

bearing a single grass-like leaf, and short internodes.

5. Notice that roots are also given off just above the coty-

ledon and from the nodes of the plumule. These
are adventitious roots. The difference between ad-
ventitious and primary roots is, that the primary roots
grow from the caulicle, i.e. originate below the cotyle-
dons, while adventitious roots originate above the coty-
ledons.

6. Sketch a seedling of the Indian Corn, showing these

points.

VIII. Examine several pots of Onion Seedlings of various
ages and notice : —

1. The green loops just appearing above the ground and

becoming larger until they pull the seed-coats and the
endosperm out of the ground.

The examination of seedlings which have been
carefully removed from the soil, shows that : —

2. The green loop is in each case the single cotyledon

which, by its elongation, has pushed the short cau-
licle out from the seed-coats and has finally pulled
the seed-coats and endosperm from the ground, while

CHAP. 11 SEEDLINGS 15

3. The short caulicle has not lengthened at all, but has given

rise to one or more primary roots from its tip.

4. Very old seedlings will show the tip of the cotyledon

withering away and losing the now emptied seed-
coats, while the plumule emerges from a longitudinal
slit at the base.

5. Make a series of sketches to show these points.

IX. Take some Pine Seedlings (of different ages if possi-
ble) and notice that : —

1. The lengthening caulicle bends to form a loop and pulls

the cotyledons with the seed-coat and endosperm
out of the ground. (This does not always happen,
however, in the species with large seeds or " nuts.")

2. The spreading cotyledons cast off the seed-coats and

expand to form a circle or whorl of needle-shaped
leaves.

3. The plumule appears only after some time has gone by.

4. Make a series of sketches to show these points.

X. In order that an ordinary seed may germinate, it is
placed usually in a light soil whose particles have been
loosened, well watered, and kept warm. We may infer
from this that access of air, water, and a sufficiently high
temperature are necessary.

1 . Place dry Peas in dry, loose sawdust, add no water, keep

in a warm place, and watch several days, after which
uncover the Peas and examine to see whether any
changes have taken place.

2. Place dry Peas in dry, loose sawdust, occasionally sprin-

kle well with water, keep in a warm place, watch, and
examine as in (i).

LABORATORY PRACTICE

3. Place dry Peas in dry, loose sawdust, occasionally sprin-

kle well with water, keep in the refrigerator at a low
temperature, watch, and examine as in (i),

4. Make careful notes of any differences observed as regards

the behavior of the three sets of peas from day to day.

XL Questions for Summary and Review.

1. What part of the embryo protrudes first from the seed-

coats?

2. In what plants does the caulicle form a loop and appear

above the ground first?

3. In what plants does the cotyledon form a loop and

appear above the ground first?

4. In what plants do the cotyledons emerge from the

ground ?

5. In what plants do the cotyledons remain below the

surface of the ground ?

6. In what plants do the cotyledons bring the endosperm

up above the ground ?

7. In what plant does the cotyledon remain below the

ground absorbing nourishment from the endosperm ?

8. In what plants does the plumule appear above the

ground first? *

9. In what plants does the caulicle lengthen considerably?

10. In what plants does it remain short?

11. In what plants do the cotyledons turn green, live for

some time, and act like ordinary leaves?

12. In what plants does the plumule grow out promptly?

13. In what plants does it grow out only after some time?

14. What reasons can you give for the different shapes of the

cotyledons in different plants?

15. Why are they different from the adult leaves of the

same plant?

ROOTS

CHAPTER III

ROOTS

I. Examine the root of a well-grown plant of the Bean
and notice that : —

1. It is a single main root. We know from our previous

study (cf. Chapter II, § V, 4) that it is a primary
roof. A single, persistent, primary root, such as this
of the Bean, is called a tap roof.

2. From the sides of the primary root are given off

branches growing obliquely outwards. These are
secondary roots. They in turn give rise to tertiary
roots, etc.

3. There are no nodes and internodes on these roots.

4. All the roots grow more or less downwards and away

from the light.

5. Make a sketch showing these points.

II. Examine the roots of a well-grown seedling of the
Squash and notice that : —

1. The several roots all spring from near the same point at

the base of the elongated caulicle. Such roots as
these are called multiple primary roots, as distin-
guished from the single primary root of the Bean.

2, 3, 4, and 5 as in I.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

III. Adventitious roots have already been examined in
the seedlings of Indian Corn. Examine the base of an
adult Corn Stalk and notice that : ^-

1. The primary roots have disappeared long ago.

2. Each of the lower nodes of the "stalk" or stem bears

a circle of secondary roots, extending out obliquely
downwards, and as the nodes and roots die away
below, new secondary roots are formed at the nodes
above.

3. Make a sketch showing these points.

4. Why does the farmer " hill up " the Corn?

IV. Root Hairs. — Examine the roots of the Pea, Bean,
and Corn, grown in loose, damp sawdust (or in a moist
chamber), with a lens. Notice and sketch the root hairs.
Upon what portions of the roots do they occur? Of what
use are they to the plant?

V. Summary and Questions.

1. Of what two principal uses are the ordinary (or typical}

roots to the plant?

2. Why do we water the roots of the plants?

3. Why are fertilizers placed about plants or in the soil in

which seeds are sown or plants are planted?

4. Why do the roots spread out below ground ?

5. What are the differences between primary and secondary

roots ?

6. What are the differences between primary and adven-

titious roots ?

7. What is a tap root ?

8. What are multiple primary roots?

STEMS

CHAPTER IV

STEMS

I. Take a piece of Sunflower stem, several inches long,
examine and notice : —

1. The regular succession of nodes and internodes. (For

definitions turn back to § IV, 6, under Seedlings,
p. 12.)

2. The consistency of the stem (in this case not very

woody) .

3. How long does the Sunflower stem live?

4. The Sunflower is an herb and its stem is said to be her-

baceous. Why? i / J^\JtA^^

5. Make a sketch of this piece of stem. VW-

II. Examine a thin section of the Sunflower stem, cut
transversely. (These sections are best, if prepared by the
teacher and examined under the lens of the dissecting
microscope, or under the lower power of a compound
microscope.) Notice : —

1. The central softer portion, the pith, made up of larger

or smaller polygonal spaces, the cells.

2. The ring of rather irregularly shaped bodies surrounding

the pith, the woody or vascular bundles.

3. The outer bark or cortex, including everything outside of

the vascular bundles, except

LABORATORY PRACTICE

4. The very outermost skin-like layer, the epidermis.

(This, in the Sunflower, is rough, with hair-like
outgrowths.

5. Make a sketch or diagram to show the arrangement of

these parts.

III. Examine one vascular bundle carefully and notice : —

1. The inner porous portion, the woody portion or xylem.

2. The outer denser portion, the hard bast.

3. The central portion, a band-like layer, which under the

higher powers of the compound microscope may be

seen to consist of two parts.

(a) the cambium or actively growing portion, a nar-
row layer next the xylem, and

(h) The soft bast or phloem, occupying the greater
part of this region and lying toward the hard
bast. (The hard bast makes up that part of
the stem known as the inner bark.)

IV. The parts of the Sunflower stem are : —

Pith.
Vascular bundles,
Cortex.
Epidermis.

xylem or wood,
cambium,
bast, { soft bast or Phloem.
1 hard bast.

V. Take from half to three-quarters of an inch of an
internode of Sunflower stem, and with a sharp scalpel or
penknife blade, scrape away carefully the epidermis and
cortex, exposing : —

i. The vascular bundles. Notice their longitudinal course
and the fact that they run parallel to one another.

CHAP, iv STEMS 21

2. Detach one or two of the vascular bundles at one end

and peel them away from the pith. Notice the
fibrous character of the bundle. (Very frequently
the hard bast is the only portion which will come
away from the pith.)

3. Test the strength of a vascular bundle as compared with

a piece of the pith.

4. Make a sketch with notes to record these points.

VI. The Sunflower stem is a good type of an exogenous
stem, or one which has the vascular bundles arranged in a
cylinder about a central pith. (In some plants the pith
disappears during growth and the stem becomes hollow.)
Plants with exogenous stems have netted-veined leaves, di-
or poly-cotyledonous embryos and the parts of the flower
usually arranged in fours or fives.

VII. Take a piece of the stem of Indian Corn several
inches long, examine carefully and notice : —

1. The regular succession of nodes and internodes.

2. The consistency of the stem (see § I, 2, of this chapter).

3. How long does the Corn stem live?

4. Is it herbaceous or not? (see § I, 4, of this chapter).

5. Make a sketch of this piece of stem, representing and

labelling the parts.

VIII. Examine a thin transverse section of the stem of
Indian Corn in the way indicated in paragraph II of this
chapter. Notice : —

1. The vascular bundles. These are scattered through the

pith, leaving no central portion free.

2. The outer bundles We placed closer together and

approach the outer edge very closely, but there is

LABORATORY PRACTICE

3. An outer dense layer, the rind. What is this rind for?

4. Make a sketch of the section to show these points.

IX. Take several inches of an internode of the stem of
Indian Corn, cut a thin slice lengthwise from the middle,
hold it up to the light, examine with the lens, and notice : —

1. The vascular bundles pursue direct longitudinal courses

through the pithy portion and are approximately
parallel.

2. Make a sketch or diagram to show this.

X. The stem of Indian Corn is a good type of an endoge-
nous stem, or one which has the vascular bundles distributed
fairly uniformly through the pith and not forming a cylinder
outside it. Plants with endogenous stems, usually have
parallel-veined leaves, monocotyledonous embryos and the
parts of the flower arranged in threes.

XI. Take a piece of a Walnut or Butternut about a foot
long and notice : —

1. The regular succession of nodes and internodes.

2. The consistency of the stem (see § I, 2, of this chapter).

3. How long does the stem of the Walnut or Butternut live ?

\ (see § I, 4, of this chapter) . Plants with considera-
.v^ 1 ble wood and which remain from year to year without
> Y dying down to the ground (as the Sunflower and

Indian Corn do) are either shrubs or trees.
A shrub is smaller than a tree and does n
vA? " possess a distinct trunk. Give some examples.

The stem of a shrub is said to be fruticose, suf-
fruticose or suffrutescent. How do the stems to which V*
these terms are applied, differ from one another ?

^ **"

>

:.

CHAP, iv STEMS 23

The stem of a tree is said to be either arboreus

/ * f /

or arborescent. What is the difference? ju/^ t j

/&«*• ^4; ,

XII. Examine the surface of a branch of Walnut or But-
ternut which has been cut across with a sharp knife (or
razor), and with the aid of the lens notice : —

1 . The central pith.

2. The ring (or rings — notice the number in different

twigs) of wood (xylem) about the pith.

3. The fine white lines radiating out from the pith through

the wood. These are the medullary ra\s.

4. Outside the rings of wood, a narrow whitish ring, the

inner part of which is the cambium, the outer part
the soft bast.

5. Outside of this a ring of dots, the hard bast.

6. Then a fairly wide, yellowish green ring, the cortex, and

finally

7. A narrow brown ring, the corky bark.

8. Make a sketch, representing and labelling the parts.

XIII. i. Is the stem just studied, exogenous or endoge-
nous ? Why ?

2. How old was the branch you were studying?

3. How may we tell the age of a tree?

4. Can you name any tree or trees possessing the other

kind of stem?

5. The trunk and branches of exogenous trees increase in

girth through the activity of the cambium ring which
forms new wood or xylem on the inner side and new
bast or phloem on the outer side. Most endogenous
stems, having no cambium ring, do not increase very
much in girth.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

XIV. Reviewing the work done upon both roots and
stems, write the answers to the following questions in your
note-book : —

1. What differences exist between the growth of roots and

stems as regards gravity?

2. What differences as regards light?

3. What differences as regards the possession of leaves?

4. What differences as regards nodes and internodes?

5. How, then, may we always tell a stem from a root?

XV. Considering the different stems studied and exam-
ined, either in connection with the book or in addition to
those mentioned there, answer the following : —

1. How do we classify stems according to their structure?

2. How do we classify stems according to their consistency

and duration?

3. In what different directions may stems (i.e. those above

the ground) grow?

XVI. Having considered the structure of several different
characteristic stems, we may examine them to see of what
service the stem is to the plant. We notice : (i) that the
upper part of the stem bears the leaves and carries them up
into the light and air; (2) that the lower part bears the
roots which make their way down into the ground.

The stem serves not only to support the leaves, but also
as a pathway by which whatever the roo£s absorb from the
earth may be transported to the leaves — and also for
the transfer of whatever the leaves may manufacture to the
roots ; in other words, it connects these two important sets
of organs.

- u

$L\JL. '.

LEAVES

CHAPTER V
LEAVES. I ^M , J

I. Take a piece of stem of the Japanese Quince which
has several leaves attached to it. Examine the leaves and
notice that : —

1. They are all borne on the sides of the stem (i.e. that

they are lateral structures} .

2. They are broad and thin (i.e. they are also expanded

structures).

3. Their color is green. (This is not true for all leaves, e.g.

examine the leaves of some common red Coleus of
the garden or greenhouse, in which another coloring-
matter is present and hides the green.)

4. They are borne at the nodes of the stem. (We may con-

sequently separate that portion of the plant above the
root into a number of similar parts, each of which
may be called a phytomer or plant part. Each phy-
tomer will consist of an internode, and a node with
its leaf or leaves. Sketch a phytomer of the Japanese
Quince and label it.)

5. They grow only to be of a certain size and then stop /

(being flnlike stems or branches in this respect).

6. Notice that each leaf has a small bud in its axil, i.e. in

the angle between its upper surface and the stem.

7. We may define a leaf as being an expanded, lateral struc-

ture of limited growth, borne on the stem and usually

LABORATORY PRACTICE

with a bud (or branch} in its axil. (This definition,
while a good working definition, will not apply in a
few exceptional cases. But the same thing will be
found true of almost any definition of any natural
object.)
8. Make a sketch to show these points.

II. Remove one leaf carefully so as to retain all the parts,
and notice : —

1. The broad expanded portion, the blade or lamina.

Notice its outline.

2. The slender stalk or petiole.

3. The pair of small expanded structures, the stipules, at the

base of the petiole.

4. Make a sketch to show these parts and label carefully.

5. This leaf is a good type of a simple leaf (i.e. of a leaf with

a single blade} having all the three parts represented;
viz. blade, petiole, and stipules.

III. Examine the blade of the leaf of the Japanese
Quince (or better, that of some thinner leaf such as the
Mock Orange or the Pittosporum) and notice the venation
or method of arrangement of the veins or ribs.

1. A prominent midrib.

2. Side veins or ribs running outward toward the edge and

obliquely upwards.

3. These in turn branch, and then these branches branch

again, and so on, the finer branches anastomosing or
joining to form a fine network. Such a leaf as this
is said to be netted-veined.

4. Make a sketch to illustrate this.

LEAVES

IV. Take a leaf of the common " English Ivy," which is
also netted-veined, and compare it with the one just studied,
noting the similarities and differences. Notice also : —

1. The different shape of the leaf blade. It is said to be

palmately-lobed.

2. Make a rough sketch.

V. Take a leaf of the Lily of the Valley and study the
venation, noticing : —

1. The central stouter vein.

2. The other veins running approximately parallel to it.

3. The absence of conspicuous anastomosing veins to form

a network.

4. Such a leaf as that of the Lily of the Valley is said to be

parallel-veined.

5. Make a sketch to show this kind of venation.

VI. Take a leaf of the Calla Lily and study the venation.
Notice : —

1. The central vein or rib.

2. The side veins running out from it.

3. This leaf is also said to be parallel-veined and represents

simply a different arrangement.

4. Draw a sketch to illustrate this method of venation.

VII. Netted-veined leaves are usually associated with ex-
ogenous stems, dicotyledonous embryos, and the parts of the
flower arranged in fours or fives.

Parallel-veined leaves are usually associated with endoge-
nous stems, monocotyledonous embryos, and the parts of the

LABORATORY PRACTICE

flower arranged in threes. (See also §§ VI and X of the
preceding chapter.)

VIII. Take a leaf of the Five- Finger (or the Garden
Strawberry), examine carefully, and notice : —

1. The stipules.

2. T&z petiole.

3. The blade composed of several pieces or leaflets (3 to 8).

4. Make a sketch to show these parts.

IX. The leaf just studied is called a compound leaf, be-
cause the blade consists of more than one piece. It is
also called a palmately compound leaf because the leaflets
radiate out from one point, as the fingers do from the palm
of the hand.

X. Take a Rose leaf, examine, and notice : —

1. Ite stipules.

2. '\\itpetiole.

3. The compound nature of the blade consisting of several

leaflets.

4. The differences between this and the last leaf studied, as

regards the position of the leaflets ; viz. that in the
Rose they arise from different points along what cor-
responds to the midrib of the simple blade.

5. Such a leaf as that of the Rose is said to be pinnately

(from pinna, a feather) compound.

6. Make a sketch of the Rose leaf.

XI. Examine a Parsley leaf and notice : —

r . That it is several times compound, or decompound.
2. That the parts are arranged in a palm ate fashion.
1. Sftetch.

CHAP. v. LEAVES 29

XII. Take as many different simple leaves as you can.
Examine them as regards the following points : —

1. Parts present or absent ; i.e. blade, petiole, and stipules.

2. General outline of the blade.

In this respect they may be classified as follows : —
(a) Of the same width throughout = linear or oblong,
(b} Broadest at the base = lanceolate, ovate, or ovate-
lanceolate.

(f) Broadest at the middle = elliptical, oval, or or-

bicular.
((£) Broadest at the apex = spatulate, oblanceolate,

obovate, or cuneate.
(<?) Special shape of the base, e.g. : —

cordate, reniform, auriculate, sagittate, hastate,

or peltate.
(/) Special shape of apex, e.g. : —

(*) pointed = acuminate, acute, cuspidate,

mucronate, or aristate.
(**) blunt = obtuse or truncate.
(***) notched = refuse, emarginate, or ob-
cordate.

(g) Character of margin = entire, serrulate, serrate,

denticulate, dentate, crenate, undulate, lobed,
cleft, parted, or divided.

(li) Character of the surfaces = smooth, glabrous,
glaucous, rugose, scabrous, pubescent, tomen-
tose, sericeous, pilose, hirsute, hispid, etc.

XIII. Take a piece of the leaf of a Calla Lily and study
its structure.

i. With a scalpel or blade of a penknife strip off a piece of
the transparent outer skin or epidermis.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

2. Examine the green pulpy material thus laid bare and

notice —

3. That it is spread out upon a woody framework composed

of the veins.

XIV. Examine a bit of the Calla leaf with the lens and
notice the numerous small dots upon its surface. These are
the stomata, or breathing pores, through which an interchange
of gases goes on between the outside air and the small
spaces in the green pulp of the leaf. (A single stoma may
be studied by examining a small piece of the epidermis
under the lenses of a compound microscope.)

XV. The services rendered a plant by its ordinary, or
foliage leaves cannot readily be inferred without careful
experiment. We notice, however, that the plant sends up
its leaves into the air and sunshine. We notice, also, that
leaves developed in the dark (as e.g. on potatoes in the
cellar) are pale yellow, but become green again if placed in
the light. We conclude that the leaves need air and sun-
shine to do their proper work. The existence of breathing
pores helps us to understand that the leaves are gas-absorb-
ing organs ; that is, that they take something (in this case
carbonic acid gas) from the air, and in their turn give
something back (in this case oxygen). It can be demon-
strated that water, in the form of vapor, escapes from the
leaf, and that this loss must be made good by the stem
giving up some of its water, and the stem, in turn, receives
water from the roots. In this way a current of water is
helped to move from the roots up through the stem into the
leaves.

The water thus obtained contains, dissolved in it, small
quantities of various substances, parts of which are combined

CHAP. v. LEAVES 31

in the leaves, with the carbon of the carbonic acid gas
absorbed from the air, and from these various elements
thus obtained are manufactured, partly in the leaves and
partly elsewhere in the plant, all the plant substance.

The leaves, then, are what we may call absorbing, excreting,
and assimilating organs : absorbing, because they take up
gases from the atmosphere ; excreting, because they get rid
of the superfluous water and oxygen gas ; and assimilating,
because they take substances unlike plant substance and
manufacture them into plant substance itself, in order to
repair the " wear and tear " of the various parts of the plant
and in order to furnish material for the formation of new
parts.

XVI. Questions about Leaves.

1 . What is a leaf ?

2. What are the parts of a typical leaf?

3. What is the difference between a simple and a com-

pound leaf?

4. What is meant by venation ?

5. What is a netted-veined leaf?

6. What is a parallel-veined leaf?

7. What is the difference between a pinnately and a pal-

mately compound leaf?

8. Describe the differences between the two types of

netted-veined leaves.

9. Describe the differences between the two types of

parallel-veined leaves.

10. When is a leaf said to be decompound?

11. What three sets of things make up the substance of a

leaf?

12. Describe the epidermis.

13. Describe the green pulp.

32 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP. V

14. Describe the woody framework.

15. Why is a leaf an expanded structure?

16. Why does it need air and sunlight?

1 7. What would happen to a plant if it were kept stripped

of its leaves ? Why ?

LEAVES 33

CHAPTER VI

LEAVES. II

THE several leaves studied in the last chapter were, we
may say, typical foliage leaves. They all possessed distinct
blades and petioles, and most of them possessed stipules.
The blades also possessed distinct upper and distinct lower
surfaces. The leaves to be studied in this chapter differ
from typical leaves while still serving as foliage.

I. Take a piece of the stem of a Chrysanthemum bearing
several leaves and notice : —

1. That the leaf blades are attached directly to the stem,

there being no petiole. Such a leaf is said to be
sessile or " sitting."

2. The general shape, shape of apex, etc.

3. The venation.

4. Make a sketch.

II. Examine the leaf of the Bellwort ( Uvularia perfoliata)
and notice : —

1. The general shape, etc.

2. The venation.

3. The absence of petiole and stipules.

4. The clasping base completely encircling the stem. Such

a leaf is said to be perfoliate.
q. Make a sketch to show these characters.

34 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, vi

III. Examine a flowering branch of one of the true
Honeysuckles and notice that : —

1. The lower leaves are in pairs and entirely separate.

2. The leaves toward the end of the branch are also in

pairs and are sometimes united around the stem by
the growing together of their bases.

3. The uppermost pair are grown completely together.

4. Such leaves as these uppermost ones are said to be con-

nate-perfoliate.

5. Make a sketch of the branch and the various pairs of

leaves to show these characters.

IV. Examine an Acacia leaf (not an Acacia with the
compound leaves, but one with what appear to be simple
leaves) and notice : —

1. The general shape.

2. The venation.

3. The position upon the stem. It is attached to the stem

in such a way that its edges point up and down, i.e.
it is vertical in position.

4. This vertical attachment shows that it is really a peti-

ole (without any blade at all) very much flattened,
serving the purpose of a blade. Such structures are
called phyllodia. (An additional proof that these
phyllodia are flattened petioles is afforded by the
fact that seedlings of the phyllodia-bearing Acacias
usually have the first few phyllodia bearing regular
compound blades at their tips.)

5. Make a sketch to show the phyllodia.

V. We have studied leaves without stipules, leaves with-
out either petioles or stipules, and leaves consisting only

CHAP. VI LEAVES 35

of a flattened petiole without a blade. If a specimen of
Lathyrus Aphaca (either fresh or pressed) can be obtained,
examine its leaves and notice : —

1. The absence of blades ;

2. The prolongation of the petioles into tendrils; and

3. The increase in size of the stipules (to make up for the

loss of the blade).

4. Make a sketch of one leaf.

VI. Many plants have leaves without distinction of parts ;
e.g. examine and sketch : —

1. The needle-shaped leaves of a Norway Spruce or a

Pine.

2. The awl-shaped and scale-shaped leaves of the Arbor-

Vitse or the Lawson's Cypress.

VII. Examine a rootstock of Iris to which the leaves are
attached. Notice that : —

1. Each leaf stands erect and presents its tip to the sky.

How does this compare with the ordinary leaves ?

2. Each leaf is folded together lengthwise so that the upper

surface (or what corresponds to it) is inside, fr

3. Make a sketch.

VIII. Examine one of the upper leaves of a Eucalyptus.
Notice that : —

1. The two surfaces are vertical (instead of horizontal).

2. This is brought about by a twisting of the petiole.

3. Examine the leaf of a young Eucalyptus and notice that

it has a horizontal position instead of a vertical one.

4. What are the reasons for these two positions?

5 . Sketch each leaf to show its position.

36 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP. VI.

IX. Examine a piece of the so-called Smilax (Myrsiphyl-
lutri) and notice : —

1 . The slender stem.

2. The expanded leaf-like structures. Notice their shape

and venation.

3. The delicate scale at the base of each of these leaf-like

structures. This scale is the true leaf, and the ex-
panded structure in its axil (see § I, 7, of Chapter V)
is a branch flattened to serve as a leaf. A branch
structure modified thus is called a cladophyllum
(plural is cladophylla) .

4. Make a sketch of one cladophyllum, its subtending scale-

like ka/a.nd the piece of. stem upon which it is borne.

X. Examine some plants which have been grown before
a window (and consequently strongly lighted from one side) .
Notice : —

1. That the leaves present their upper surfaces to the light.

2. Turn the plants around and notice, after a day or two,

that the leaves have turned so that their upper
surfaces are again directed toward the light.

XI. Examine a plant of some species of Oxalis and
notice : —

1. The trifoliate, palmately compound leaves.

2. The position of the leaflets during the day-time.

3. The position of the leaflets during the night-time.

4. Sketch both positions.

5. What causes the so-called " sleep " of plants?

XII. Examine a Sensitive Plant and notice : —

i. The character of the expanded undisturbed leaf. Sketch.

LEAVES

2. The method of folding together the parts of a leaf after

it has been touched. Sketch.

3. The time elapsing, after touching, before it begins to fold

together.

4. The time elapsing before the parts are completely folded

together.

5. Make sketches to show these changes.

6. How long does it require to open again?

XIII. Examine the leaf of the Orange (or of the Bar-
berry of New England) and notice : —

1. That the stalk is flattened -and jointed at the insertion of

2. The blade.

3. Make a sketch to show this.

4. This joint indicates that the " blade " answers to a leaf-

let of a compound leaf, and if we examine some of
the nearly related Barberries or members of the
Orange family, we shall find that the leaves are
pinnately compound with several leaflets. Such a
leaf as the one studied is called a tinifoliolate com-
pound fea/a.nd it is considered that the side leaflets
have failed to develop.

XIV. Longevity of Leaves.

1. How long (i.e, how many months) do the leaves of the

Willows, the Maples, or the Elms live?

2. How long do the leaves of the Live-oaks live? (Take a

piece of stem with the oldest leaves you can find, cut
it across, and count the rings.)

3. How long do the leaves of the Norway Spruce, the various

Pines, or Cypresses live ?

LABORATORY PRACTICE

XV. Defoliation or the Fall of the Leaf. — Examine va-
rious leaves as they are falling or after they have fallen and
notice how they separate from the branch which bore them.

1. The Willows, Elms, Maples, Alders, and Hazels. The

leaves separate from the stem at the base of the
petiole and fall off, leaving a clean scar. This is
characteristic for simple leaves.

2. The Rose or the Locust-Tree, having pinnately com-

pound leaves. The leaflets usually fall away first,
leaving the petiole and axis, and this falls later,
separating from the stem at the base of the petiole.

3. The Horse-Chestnut or the Buckeye, having palmately

compound leaves, may behave in either of two ways.
(ci) The whole leaf may separate at the base of the

petiole and fall ; and then the leaflets fall away

from the apex of the petiole ; or
(b) The leaflets may fall away from the petiole while

it is still attached to the tree, the petiole itself

falling afterward.

4. It may be seen that the blade does not separate from

the petiole in simple leaves, but does in compound
leaves.

5. Notice that the blade of the leaf of the Grape Vine, or

of the Japanese Creeper, falls away from the petiole.
This shows that the apparently simple leaf of the
Grape Vine, or of the Japanese Creeper, partakes of
the nature of a compound leaf. (Some nearly re-
lated vines and creepers have compound leaves, and
some of the leaves of the Japanese Creeper may be
compound.)

6. Make sketches and notes.

PHYLLOTAXY 39

CHAPTER VII

PHYLLOTAXY

PHYLLOTAXY is the arrangement of leaves upon the stem.
Leaves are arranged upon the stem in one of two ways as
illustrated by Fuchsia (§ I) and by Begonia (§ IV)

I. Examine a branch of some species of Fuchsia and
notice : —

1. The number of leaves at each node.

2. The relative arrangement of the leaves at two successive

nodes.

3. Make a sketch to show these points.

4. The arrangement of leaves just studied is a good example

of the opposite or cyclical arrangement.

II. Look at the branch of Fuchsia from above and
notice : —

1. The four vertical ranks of leaves.

2. Make a diagram to represent this.

III. Examine a plant of the common Bedstraw or Cleavers
(species of Galium) and notice : —

1. The number of leaves (3 to 8 or 10) at each node.

2. The relative arrangement of the^ leaves at two successive

nodes.

40 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP. Vlt

3. Look at a branch from above and notice the number of

vertical ranks.

4. Make sketches.

5. This is also an example of the cyclical arrangement.

When there are more than two leaves arranged in a
circle about a node, it is said to be a whorl.

IV. Examine a branch of some species of Begonia having
a conspicuous stem above ground. Notice : —

1 . The number of leaves at each node.

2. The relative position of the leaves at two successive

nodes.

3. Draw a line from one leaf to the next, winding around

the stem, and continue this line in a direct curve to
the next, and so on, until a leaf is reached directly
above (i.e. vertically) the one from which the line
starts. Notice : —

4. That this line is a spiral.

5. The number of leaves through whose bases it passes be-

fore it arrives at the leaf immediately above the one
from which we started. (In this we count the leaf at
which we start, but not the one at which we end.)

6. The number of turns of the spiral.

7. Make a sketch or diagram to show this spiral.

8. The Begonia illustrates what is known as the spiral

arrangement. (Compare it with the cyclical?)

V. If we view the stem and leaves of the Begonia from
above, we shall see that the leaves are arranged not only in
this one spiral rank, but also in vertical ranks (see also §§ II
and III, 3). Notice that, in this case, there are two vertical
ranks. For this reason such an arrangement as this is called
a two- ranked arrangement.

PHYLLOTAXY

VI. It is found very convenient to represent any of the
alternate or spiral arrangement of leaves such as the Begonia
by a common fraction. The number of turns of the spiral
is taken for the numerator, and the number of leaves passed
through for the denominator. What would be the fraction
for the Begonia?

VII. Take a young plant of the White Hellebore ( Vera-
trum viride) and notice : —

1 . The three vertical ranks.

2. That the spiral makes one revolution and passes through

three leaves before it reaches the one directly above
the one from which it started.

3. What fraction will express the phyllotaxy of this three-

ranked arrangement?

4. Make sketches of the White Hellebore, including views

from the side and from above.

VIII. Examine the arrangement of the leaves upon a ver-
tical branch of the Apple or Pear Tree, noticing : —

1. The number of leaves at each node.

2. The number of leaf-insertions passed through to reach

one exactly above the one from which you start.

3. The number of revolutions of the spiral.

4. Make a diagram to show this.

5. What is the fraction representing this arrangement?

6. What should the number of vertical ranks be?

7. Do you notice any twisting of the internodes so as to

make the determination of the phyllotaxy difficult?

IX. Examine a vertical branch of Holly or of Pittosporum
i . Find the number of vertical ranks.

42 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, vi

2. The number of leaves through which the spiral passes

to the leaf directly above the initial leaf.

3. The number of revolutions of the spiral.

4. The fraction expressing the phyllotaxy.

X. Arrange the fractions found thus far in a series, and
notice that we may determine the third one found, by adding
together the numerators of the first and second to make its
numerator, and the denominators of the first and second to
make its denominator. Notice also that the fourth may be
formed in the same way from the second and third.

What would be the fifth, sixth, etc., of this series?

XI. Examine a cone of the Norway Spruce or of some
species of Pine. Notice : —

1. The scales of the cone (being really modified leaves) are

closely packed together, and it is difficult to determine
the original spiral.

2. Two series of secondary spirals, however, appear, one

series running from left to right, and the other series
from right to left.

3. Count the number of secondary spirals running from left

to right.

4. Count the number of spirals running from right to left.

5 . Beginning with some scale near the base, number (in ink)

this scale i.

6. Number the next scale in the same secondary spiral run-

ning to the right i plus the number found in 3, the
next one this number plus the number found in 3, and
so on.

7. Beginning again with scale number i, number the next

scale in the secondary spiral running to the left i plus
the number of spirals found in 4, and so on.

PHYLLOTAXY

8. Continue this numbering, beginning with any numbered

scale, until the majority of the scales of the cone are
numbered.

9. Take the scale next above scale number i in a vertical

line, subtract i from the number upon this scale, and
the result will be the number of leaves passed through
in going from one leaf to the one directly above the
one from which we started. This, of course, will be
the denominator of the fraction.

10. Verify this number several times, taking other numbered

scales for starting-points. (The accuracy of this
method may be proven upon cones with few scales
such as those of the American Larch.)

11. The numerator will be the smaller number of secondary

spirals.

XII. Examine all the cones of different kinds you can get,
and determine the phyllotaxy of each. In this way, arrange-
ments represented by the fractions |, ^, and ^ may be
found, and sometimes || and |4 may be made out.

Compare these fractions in the same way as in § X.

XIII. Examine an erect branch of some species of Maple
and notice : —

1 . The regularly opposite leaves.

2. That the pairs of leaves upon adjacent nodes are decus-

sate, i.e. are at right angles to one another.

3. The petioles of both leaves in each pair are equal or very

nearly so.

4. Look down upon the top of the stem and notice the

four regular vertical ranks.

5. Make sketches to show these points.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

XIV. Compare with the preceding the arrangement of
leaves upon a branch of the same Maple which has grown
out in a horizontal direction. Notice that : —

1 . The leaves are also opposite.

2. They do not decussate, for the internodes are twisted.

3. The petioles in the different pairs are very unequal ; while

that of one leaf remains short, that of the other often
becomes very long to carry its leaf blade out from
under some other leaf blade, in order to obtain its
share of light and air.

4. The effect thus produced (when seen from above) of a

green surface, made up of leaf blades fitted together,
is called a leaf mosaic.

5. Make a sketch to show this.

6. Notice the same thing in the phyllotaxy of the horizontal

branches of other trees.

XV. Twisting or Torsion of the Internodes has been
noticed in one or two cases. This tends to make it difficult
to determine the phyllotaxy by bringing the leaves away
from their proper positions. It is usually seen best upon
horizontal branches of the Forsythia or of young Eucalyptus
trees. Notice : —

1. The opposite leaves.

2. They are arranged very nearly in two ranks.

3. Each internode, as shown by the lines or angles, is

twisted through a right angle.

4. Make a sketch to show this.

XVI. Sometimes vertical ranks of leaves are made spiral
by such torsion of the internodes.

Examine the Pandanus or Screw Pine of the conservato-
ries and notice : —

PHYLLOTAXY

1. The three ranks of sessile leaves.

2. The very short internodes.

3. The spiral course of each rank.

4. This seems, at least, an entirely different thing from the

secondary spirals of the cones we have examined.

XVII. Examine branches of some species of Pine and of
the Larch or Deodar and notice : —

1. The leaves, arranged in small bunches ex fascicles. (Two

to five in the Pines, a larger number in the Larch
and Deodar.)

2. These leaves really belong to short branches whose inter-

nodes are so short as not to be visible.

3. Make sketches of ^^fasciculate leaves.

XVIII. Questions upon Phyllotaxy.

1. What is phyllotaxy?

2. In what two different sets of ways may leaves be ar-

ranged upon the stem?

3. What name do we give to each? Why?

4. Describe some varieties of the cyclical arrangement.

5. What is meant by the spiral arrangement?

6. How may any spiral arrangement be expressed in the

form of a fraction ?

7. Give the series beginning ^-, \, etc.

. 8. How does torsion of the internodes affect the phyllotaxy ?
9. Describe the differences between the arrangement upon

vertical and upon horizontal branches.
10. What is meant by fasciculate leaves? Give and explain

examples.

n. Why should there be such a variety in the phyllotaxy
of the different plants?

LABORATORY PRACTICE

CHAPTER VIII

BUDS

I. BUDS may be defined as incipient shoots. What does
this mean ?

II. Examine a leafless branch of Beech, Birch, or Alder,
and notice the buds.

1. There is a single terminal bud.

2. The rest of the buds are lateral, i.e. situated upon the

sides of the stem.

3. The lateral buds are placed just above a leaf-scar, so

that they occupy the vertex of the angle formed by
the junction of the leaf with the stem. This angle is
called the axil of the leaf and such buds are called
axillary buds.

4. Sketch a portion of the branch so as to show both axil-

lary and terminal buds ; and notice that the terminal
bud does not exceed the axillary buds very much in
size.

III. Examine a leafless branch of Walnut or Butternut
and notice the buds.

1. The terminal bud 'is larger than the lateral buds.

2. There are several (2-4) buds above each leaf-scar.

3. The one directly in the axil, i.e. nearest the leaf-scar, is

usually very small. This is the axillary bud.

BUDS 47

4. The buds above it are larger. They are called accessory
buds (i.e. additional buds). They are also said to
be superposed (i.e. placed one above the other).

5.. The Walnut and Butternut, therefore, have three kinds
of buds as classified by position: i, terminal buds ;
2, axillary buds, and 3, superposed accessory buds.

IV. What difference does this make as regards the branch-
ing of the Walnut or Butternut Tree ?

V. Examine a leafless branch of the Maple and notice
the buds.

1. The large terminal bud.

2. The upper lateral buds, in threes, above the leaf-scars.

Distinguish

3. The middle axillary bud.

4. The accessory bud at each side.

5. The accessory buds of the Maple, being arranged side

by side with the axillary buds in a horizontal line, are
called collateral accessory buds.

6. Make a sketch to show the collateral accessory buds.

VI. Examine the terminal buds of the Buckeye or any
of those of the Currant. (They are in best condition for
this when just bursting open in the spring.) Notice : —

1. The overlapping brown scales which cover the bud.

Buds with such coverings are called scaly buds.

2. Pick off the scales one by one, beginning with the lowest,

until well-developed leaves are reached, arrange
them, in order, in a row, and notice : —

3. That the inner scales are less brown, larger, and more

of a greenish color.

48 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, vin

4. That the innermost have small structures at their tips,

shaped something like the blades of ordinary leaves.

5. Draw the series.

6. From this series we learn that the bud scales really rep-

resent altered leaves, are, as we say, homologous with
leaves ; and not only this, but they are really flattened
petioles. Q(jdi farwn*^

VII. Examine the scales of opening buds of the Lilac or
of a Pittosporum in the same way.

1. With what part of the leaf are these bud scales homolo-

gous?

2. Make a sketch of the series.

VIII. Examine the scales in opening buds of the Tulip
Tree, the Fig, the Beech, or the Hazel. Notice : —

1. That they are in pairs at the base of each petiole.

2. With what part of the leaf are these scales homologous?

3. Make a sketch of the series.

IX. Examine the terminal buds of the Walnut, Butternut,
or Witch Hazel. Notice : —

1. The absence of scales.

2. These buds are called naked buds.

3. Make a sketch.

X. Examine several terminal and lateral buds of the
Buckeye, Maple, or Lilac, cutting them into halves, longi-
tudinally. Notice : —

1. That some of them contain leaves only. They are leaf

buds.

2. That some contain both leaves and flowers. They are

mixed buds.

CHAP, vni BUDS 49

3. That some contain flowers only. They are flowe r buds.

4. Make sketches of the cut surfaces in each case.

XI. The buds which we have been studying, have all been
winter buds, formed towards the end of the season of growth
and then resting before expanding to furnish the shoots of
the next season. But we may find buds at the end of any
stem or branch which is actively growing.

Examine the end of a branch of some actively growing
plant, such as a Sunflower, a Fuchsia, a Bean, or a Pea,
and notice : —

1. The smaller or larger bunch of leaves, more or less

closely folded together. This is a vegetative bud.

2. Watch this or any winter bud as it unfolds and notice : —

3. The lengthening internodes separating the leaves from

one another.

4. The unfolding and expanding of the leaves.

XII. The buds which we have been studying thus far
have all be«n regularly placed either at the top of the stem
or upon the sides, in or near the axil of a leaf.

Sometimes buds appear upon the internodes of the stem,
upon the roots, or even upon the leaves. Such buds appear-
ing out of the ordinary positions are called adventitious buds.

1. Examine the buds which appear upon a Sweet Potato (a

root) which has been kept partly immersed in water
for two or three weeks. They are adventitious buds.
Sketch.

2. Examine the buds which appear in the indentations of a

leaf of Bryophyllum (a not uncommon greenhouse
plant) which has been cut off and pinned up against
the wall for a week or two. They are adventitious
buds. Sketch.

So LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP. VIII

3. Adventitious buds appear upon the older stems of many
plants after they have been injured.

XIII. Examine the plumule of a well-soaked Bean. It is
the first bud.

XIV. Classification of Buds.

POSITION. COVERINGS. CONTENTS.

Terminal. scaly. leaf.

axillary- naked, flower.

Lateral.
Adventitious.

accessory.

f superposed.
\ collateral.

mixed.

XV. Questions about Buds.

1. What is a bud?

2. What is the difference between an ordinary vegetative

bud and a winter bud ?

3. How do we classify buds as regards their positions on

the stem?

4. As regards their coverings ?

5. As regards their contents ?

6. What are bud-scales homologous with ? Explain several

cases.

7. What do buds develop into ?

8. How may we tell this year, how many buds (and branches

if they all develop) will be provided for next year ?

9. What is the axil of a leaf?

10. How may we tell a branch-structure from a leaf-struc-

ture by attending to its position in connection with
the axil ?

11. What are adventitious buds?

12. Where may they occur?

13. What is the purpose of the accessory buds in the But-

ternut ? In the Maple ?

PRjEFOLIATION

CHAPTER IX

PRjEFOLIATION

I. Freefoliation (called also vernation} refers to the man-
ner in which different leaves are packed away in the bud.
We may regard the scaly winter bud as a sort of trunk full
of foliage with which the branch or stem is to be clothed
next season. The ordinary vegetative and naked buds are
merely bundles of clothing. As is the case with garments
put away for future use, each leaf must be packed in with
the others so as to occupy as little space as possible. Con-
sequently each leaf is, in most cases, carefully folded or
rolled up in some particular way. A short study of the
different ways adopted by different plants is very instructive.
The botanist has a special term to indicate each particular
method.

II. Examine the terminal bud of the Lilac (one which
is just unfolding will be best suited for the purpose). Re-
move the bud-scales and notice : —

1. That the leaves are not folded, but lie flat, one against

another.

2. The small size of these young leaves as compared with

an adult leaf.

3. Cut across the middle of such a bud and examine the

cut surface with a lens. Make a sketch, showing
the way in which the leaves fit together.
\. These leaves are s\m\i\y plane.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

III. Examine a large opening bud of a Maple or Currant,
and after removing the bud-scales notice : —

1. The short petioles of the young leaves.

2. The blades folded together so as to make several longi-

tudinal plaits or folds.

3. Cut across the middle of a bud, examine the cut surface

with a lens, and make a sketch, showing

4. The relative positions of the folded leaf-blades and

5. The method of folding in each case.

6. Such praefoliation as this, is called plicate or plaited.

IV. Examine a terminal opening bud of a Magnolia and
after removing the bud-scales, notice : —

1. The young leaves, folded together along the midrib,

bringing the inner surfaces together.

2. Cut across the middle of a bud, examine the cut surface

with a lens, and make a sketch, showing

3. The relative arrangement of the folded leaf-blades and

4. The method of folding in each case.

5. Such prsefoliation as this, is called conduplicate.

V. Examine the opening buds of the Tulip Tree in the
same way and notice : —

1. The conduplicate blades.

2. That the blades are also bent forward upon the petioles.

3. Make a sketch of a single leaf to show these points.

4. The leaves of the bud of the Tulip Tree, then, show not

only conduplicate but also reclinate pr&foliation.

VI. Examine a large opening bud of the Cherry or of
the Japanese Quince, and after removing the bud-scales,
notice : —

PR^FOLIATION

1. That each leaf-blade is rolled up, beginning at one

margin.

2. Cut across the middle of a bud, examine the cut surface

with a lens and make a sketch, showing

3. The relative arrangement of the folded leaf-blades and

4. The method of folding in each case.

5. The prsefoliation of the leaves just studied is said to be

convolute. (This is also well shown by the opening
leaves of the Calla.)

VII. Examine the opening leaves of the Violet and
notice : —

1. That each margin of the leaf is rolled inward until the

two rolls thus formed meet at the central line.

2. Cut a leaf across the middle, examine the cut surface

with the lens, and make a sketch.

3. This is called involute prcefolia tion.

VIII. Examine the opening leaves of an Azalea or of
a Dock (the species with large leaves are the best) and
notice : —

1. That each margin of the leaf is rolled backward until the

two rolls thus formed meet in the middle line.

2. Cut across the middle of a leaf, examine the cut surface

with a lens, and make a sketch.

3. This is called revolute prafoliation.

IX. Examine the opening leaf of a Fern and notice : —

1. That the apex of the leaf is curved downwards and in-

wards and that a scroll is thus formed, looking like a
crozier.

2. Make a sketch from the side.

3. This is called circinate prafolia tion.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

X. Questions upon Praefoliation.

1. What is praefoliation ?

2. Why should there be different kinds of prsefoliation ?

3. What kinds of praefoliation are there ?

4. Which part of the leaf is generally concerned in prgefoli-

ation?

PROTECTION 55

CHAPTER X

PROTECTION

THE plant finds itself exposed to numerous enemies, and
many peculiarities of habit and structure assist directly in
protecting the plant against them. For the present we need
consider only the ways in which the plants protect them-
selves against the attacks of those animals which eat its
substance, either grazing animals, or insects and their larvae,
such as caterpillars and the like. We are to notice not only
the particular means employed, but also which of the three
primitive organs (i.e. root, stem, or leaf) of the plants is
modified, in each case, to provide the means.

I. Examine a branch of the Orange or Thorn and

notice : —

1. The stout thorns, and

2. The relation of each to the adjacent leaf (or leaf-scar if

the leaves are not present).

3. Make a sketch of a portion of the branch with one thorn

and its adjacent leaf.

4. Bo these thorns represent stem-, leaf-, or root-structures?

5. Write down your answer and the reasons for it.

II. Examine a branch of the Barberry, the Gooseberry,
or the Currant, and notice : —

1. The weak spines, and

2. The relation of each to the adjacent leaf or bud.

56 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP. X

3. Make a sketch to show this.

4. Do these spines represent stem-, leaf-, or root-structures ?

5. Write down your answer and the reasons for it.

III. Examine a branch of the Locust Tree or of the
Spiny Acacia and notice : —

1. The pairs of spines and

2. The relation of each to the adjacent leaf (or leaf-scars if

the leaves are not present).

3. Make a sketch to illustrate this.

4. Do these spines represent stem-, leaf-, or root-structures?

5. Can you state even more exactly just what particular

structures they represent?

6. Write down your answers, and the reasons for them.

IV. Examine branches of the Rose or of Brambles (Black-
berry, Raspberry, Thimbleberry, etc.) and notice : —

1. The prickles, and

2. Their relations to the leaves (or leaf-scars).

3. Make a sketch to represent this.

4. Cut one into two halves longitudinally, and make a

sketch.

5. Do these prickles represent stem-, leaf-, or root-

structures ?

6. Write down your answer, and give your reasons for it.

V. Examine a leaf of the Thistle and notice : —

1. The numerous sharp spines upon each leaf.

2. Make a sketch of this leaf.

3. What other leaves can you think of, that are protected

in the same way? Write down the list.

VI. Examine the leaves and stems of some Buttercups,
Wormwood, Mayweed, or Eschscholtzia, and notice : —

PROTECTION 57

1. That there are no thorns, spines, or prickles to protect

the plant.

2. Bite into a leaf or stem, and taste the juice. Describe

the taste.

3. Offer, at some time when you can, some of these plants

to a cow, and make notes of her actions.

4. Observe whether cattle readily eat these plants in the

pastures, or whether they leave them untouched.

VII. Mention any plants found in your vicinity which
have poisonous juices, i.e. either to the touch or when eaten
by men or by cattle.

VIII. Examine the leaves and stems of the common
Nettle and describe how this plant protects itself.

IX. Examine the very woolly leaves of the Common
Mullein. Cut it across and notice : —

1. The thick covering of white hairs on each surface.

Examine with the lens.

2. Make a sketch of one of the cut surfaces to show this.

3. How may this protect the leaf against insects or even

grazing animals.

X. Mention and describe many other ways in which
plants protect their foliage and tender stems from being
eaten ; such as, by placing it above their reach (consider the
giraffe as an animal especially adapted to feed on such
plants), or by growing too close to the ground, etc.

XI. (a) Do plants need to protect themselves against

any other enemies than grazing animals? If
so, from what? and how?

(<£) Sum up, briefly, the different ways by which
plants protect their foliage and stems from
being eaten.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

CHAPTER XI

STORAGE

MANY plants arise from the seed, develop stem, leaves,
flowers, and seeds, and die within the same twelve months in
which they began their life. Such are the common plants
which we call annuals. Other plants live on from year to
year and produce successive crops of flowers and seeds.
Such are the plants called biennials and perennials. Plants
living merely for a single year provide only for their off-
spring in maturing suitable seeds, but plants which live for
more than one year store away reserve materials which are
used for the growth of the succeeding year or years. In
this way plants living on indefinitely are using this year the
materials which they stored up last year, and are storing up
materials for use next year.

The parts of the plant in which the materials are stored
are usually very noticeably thickened. If we examine thin
sections of these parts under the lenses of a compound
microscope and apply the proper tests, we shall find that
these storehouses of the plant contain starch, sugar, oils,
and various albuminous substances.

I. Take a Cactus and examine, noticing : —

1. The much thickened stem and

2. The leaves, reduced to small spines.

3. Make a sketch of the plant showing these features.

CHAP. XI STORAGE 59

4. In what sorts of countries or in what sorts of places do

Cacti grow?

5. How does this explain the much thickened stem and lack

of leaves?

6. Of what use are the spines to the Cactus ?

II. Take a plant of the Agave or Century Plant and
notice : —

1. The short stem.

2. The stout thickened leaves.

3. Make a sketch of this plant.

4. How often does the Century Plant blossom?

5. What happens to the plant after blossoming?

6. Find out whatever you can about the Pulque, manufac-

tured by the Mexicans from the juice of the Agave.

7. In what sorts of countries are Agaves found?

8. Loosen the epidermis of one of the leaves with a knife

and peel off a piece. Notice its thickness and firm-
ness. What is the reason for this?

9. How does the Agave protect itself against grazing ani-

mals? Why should this be necessary? '/
&// <U*~^- ^ \iw*<s4i*~~f - I

III. Examine a plant of Iris which has been removed
carefully from the soil in which it was growing. Notice : —

1. The thickened, horizontal, underground portion and

2. The transverse scars. What caused them ?

3. Is this thickened portion, root, stem, or leaf?

4. Write down your answer and give your reasons for it.

5. Make a sketch of the Iris.

IV. Take a Potato and examine it, noticing : —

1. Its general size, shape, and color.

2. Does the Potato grow above or below ground?

60 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP. XI

3. What sort of plant-structures are the " eyes " of the

Potato? Why?

4. At what point was the Potato attached to the rest of the

plant ?

5. Make a sketch of the Potato.

6. Is the Potato stem, root, or leaf?

7. Write down your answer and give your reasons for it.

8. The Potato is a good example of a tuber. Write down

the best definition for a tuber which you can find.

V. Examine the conn or solid' btilb of a Gladiolus or
Brodisea and notice : —

1. The general shape, size, and color.

2. The roots (or remains of them) from the lower surface.

3. The buds (or leaves and flowers) from the upper surface.

4. Make a sketch of one corm.

5. Is the corm situated above or below the surface of the

ground during the life of the plant ?

VI. Cut the corm into two longitudinal halves. Examine
one of the cut surfaces and notice : —

1. The thin outer skin, separate from

2. The solid inner portion.

3. The buds (or leaves and flower stems) at the upper

portion.

4. The roots coming off from the upper portion.

5. Make a sketch of one of the cut surfaces and label care-

' fully the different parts.

6. Is the corm stem, root, or leaf ?

7. Write down your answer and the reasons for it.

VII. Take a bulb of some Lily and examine it, noticing : —
i. The general shape, size, and color.

STORAGE

2. The roots, all from the lower end.

3. The thick, pointed, fleshy scales which make up the

greater part of the bulb.

4. Make a sketch of the Lily-bulb as seen from one side.

5. Is the bulb of the Lily situated above or below the ground

during the life of the plant?

VIII. Cut the bulb of a Lily into two longitudinal halves.
Examine a cut surface and notice : —

1. The small solid piece at the base from which the roots

are given off. Is this root, stem, or leaf ?

2. The cut surfaces of the separate scales.

3. The bud (or leaves and stem) at the top of (i).

4. What plant-parts do the scales represent?

5. Make a sketch of the cut surface to show these parts.

6. What plant-parts, then, does the Lily-bulb represent?

7. The Lily- bulb represents what are called scaly bulbs.

IX. Examine the bulb of a Hyacinth or an Onion.
Notice : —

1. The general shape, size, and color.

2. The roots from the lower side.

3. Make a sketch of this bulb.

4. Is the bulb of the Hyacinth or the Onion situated above

or below the ground during the life of the plant?

X. Cut the Hyacinth or the Onion into two longitudinal
halves. Examine one of the cut surfaces carefully and
notice : —

1 . The small solid piece at the base from which the roots arise.

2. Is this stem, root, or leaf ?

3. The narrow, curved layers which make up the greater

part of the substance.

62 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, xi

4. What do these layers represent?

5. The bud or young leaves at the very centre.

6. Make a sketch of one of the cut surfaces.

XI. Cut a bulb of the Hyacinth or the Onion across the
middle. Examine one of the cut surfaces and notice : —

1 . The concentric arrangement of the coats and

2. How closely they are applied one to the other.

3. The Hyacinth and Onion represent what are called

tunicated bulbs.

XII. i . How may we distinguish between a corm and a
bulb ?

2. Write down the best definition you can find for each.

3. How may we distinguish between tunicated and scaly

bulbs ?

4. Examine the so-called bulbs of the Tuberose, the Tulip,

the Star-of-Bethlehem, the Soap- Root, the Dog-tooth
Violet, and any others obtainable, and name each
correctly.

XIII. Take a Radish, Carrot, or Beet, examine the un-
derground portion carefully, and notice : —

1. The size, shape, and color.

2. Any markings upon the surface.

3. Make a sketch.

4. Is the part studied root, stem, or leaf ?

5 . Write down your answer and give your reasons for it.

6. How long does the Carrot, Radish, or Beet live?

XIV. How is nourishment stored up in the seed for the
use of the embryo ?

CHAP. XI STORAGE 63

XV. If thin slices of the wood of the trunk, branches, and
roots of trees be examined under the compound microscope
during the resting season (winter) and tested with the proper
chemicals, it will be found that considerable quantities of
starch are stored away in the pith, medullary rays, and even
in the wood cells for use during the season of rapid growth.

XVI. Of what advantage to the plant are the supplies of
nourishment thus stored away?

XVII. Write a summary of this chapter, stating what
plant-parts are used for the purpose of storing food ma-
terials, and how they are modified to do so.

64 LABORATORY PRACTICE

CHAPTER XII

CLIMBING PLANTS

IN our work upon stems (compare Chapter IV), we
found that one of the functions or uses of the stem was to
support the leaves and to carry them up into the air.

When we examine plants as regards height of stem, we
find that this varies from almost nothing to several hundred
feet. We find also, as a general rule, that the higher the
plant rises into the air, the stouter the stem becomes, until
we have such stems as the trunks of trees.

There is one set of plants, however, which do not follow
this rule. They rise above their neighbors to obtain the air
and sunshine they covet, while still possessing weak and
slender stems. Such are the plants which have climbing
habits.

I. Take a plant (or the upper portion of a plant) of the
Hop or of Manettia. Examine it carefully and notice : —

1. The very slender stem.

2. That it has entwined itself spirally about a slender

support.

3. That it twines about the support with the sun or from

right to left (as one faces it).

4. The tip, usually extending out at nearly right angles to

the support, and then curving abruptly.

5. Make a sketch to show these points.

CLIMBING PLANTS

6. If the Hop is used, examine the surface of the stem to
see how it manages to obtain a firmer hold upon the
support.

II. Take a plant (or the upper part of a plant) of the
Morning Glory. Examine it carefully and notice : —

1. That it is very similar to the Hop, except

2. That it twines around its support in exactly the opposite

direction, i.e. directly against the sun, or from left
to right.

3. Make a sketch to show this.

III. i. Watch both plants for several days, and notice
how they twine about the support.

2. Try to make each twine in the opposite direction by

twisting it about its support in the opposite way and
tying it. Notice : —

3. That as soon as the tip grows out beyond where it has

been tied, it returns to its former way of twining.

IV. Examine all the twining plants you can, and com-
pare them with those you have studied.

V. Examine a plant of the common Squash and notice : —

1. The slender weak stem.

2. The tendrils ; slender lateral prolongations which curve

at the tips and coil about slender objects with which
they come into contact.

3. That the tendrils contract spirally (i.e. shorten them-

selves by coiling), and

4. That, at the end next the stem, they coil in one direction,

while at the end nearest the support, they coil in the
opposite direction.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

5. Notice also the relation, as regards position, existing be-

tween each tendril and the adjacent leaf.

6. Make a sketch to show these points.

7. Is the tendril a stem, root, or leaf ?

8. Write down your answer, and give your reasons for it.

9. How, then, does the Squash raise itself into the air and

sustain itself there ?

VI. Examine a Pea Plant and notice the tendrils.

1. How do they differ from those of the Squash?

2. Are they stems, roots, or leaves?

3. Sketch the tendril of the Pea and the adjacent structures

to show these parts.

VII. Examine tendrils in as many different plants as you
can, and compare them with those you have studied.

VIII. Examine a plant of the Jasmine-flowered Night-
shade (Solanum Jasminoides) and notice : —

1. That its tip twines about the support. In what direction ?

2. That the petioles of the leaves clasp the stem tightly,

and become much thickened.

3. Make a sketch to show this.

IX. Examine a plant of Clematis or Virgin's Bower and
notice : —

1. The twining habit and its direction'.

2. The compound leaves, clasping the support both by

means of the main petiole and by means of the
petioles of the leaflets.

3. Make sketches to show this.

X. Examine the English Ivy and notice : —
i. That the stem does not twine.

CLIMBING PLANTS

2. That the stem fastens itself to large objects by means of

numerous small rootlets (aerial rootlets) .

3. Make a sketch to show these points.

XL Do you know of any other plants which climb as the
English Ivy does?

XII. Write out a short essay upon the different methods
in which plants climb, explain the advantages of each, and
show what different parts of the plant are modified to form
climbing organs.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

CHAPTER XIII

EPIPHYTES, PARASITES, AND SAPROPHYTES

WE have, thus far, been studying plants with roots spread
out under ground and obtaining food for the plant from the
earth. These plants have also been in the possession of
green leaves, well developed, acting as foliage, to obtain
materials from the air for the use of the plant and working
over the materials thus obtained by themselves and by the
roots, and manufacturing from them the substances needed
by the plant for its own processes of life.

Since we are about to study several plants which live in
different ways from the ordinary plants, we shall find it to
our advantage to remember that the ordinary or typical plant
behaves as follows : —

1. It buries its roots under the surface of the earth in order

that it may obtain water and whatever is dissolved
in it.

2. It spreads out its leaves into the air to expose them to

the air and the sunlight.

3. Its leaves are green as long as they are healthy, but turn

yellow as they begin to die or are deprived of sun-
light.

I. Take one of the Orchids of the greenhouses which are
grown on hanging pieces of wood. Notice : —

CHAP. XIII EPIPHYTES. PARASITES, SAPROPHYTES 69

1. That the roots hang down into the air and do not seem

to need to penetrate the earth.

2. That the air of the greenhouse is damp and warm.

3. That the leaves are expanded and green.

4. Make a sketch of the Orchid to show these points.

5. This is an epiphyte, or a plant which grows upon another

plant and yet does not draw any nourishment from it.

6. The roots are called aerial roots, and obtain nourishment

from the damp air. The most conspicuous epiphytes
are found growing in the tropical zone.

II. Take a Lichen, such as are common upon the bark of
trees. Notice : —

1. That it simply grows upon the surface.

2. It is a good example of an epiphyte, but it belongs to an

entirely different class of plants from those we have
been studying It has no distinct stem and leaves,
no flowers, no real roots, etc. (It belongs to those
plants which we call flowerless plants, while we are
studying the flowering plants chiefly.)

III. Take a piece of Mistletoe, together with a portion
of the branch to which it is attached. Notice : —

1. The distinct stem.

2. The expanded, green leaves.

3. The close union with the host (i.e. with the tree or shrub

upon which it is growing) .

4. Make a sketch to show these characteristics.

IV. Cut through the base of the Mistletoe and the branch
of its host at the point of union (longitudinally as regards
the mistletoe). Notice : —

i. The extension of the Mistletoe under the bark of the
host.

70 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, xm

2. The close contact between this extension and the wood

of the host.

3. The suckers or projections from the extension into the

wood of the host. (These are found only in the
European Mistletoe ( Viscum album).

4. Make a sketch to show these points.

V. The Mistletoe, then, not only grows upon another
plant, but it sends its roots (viz. the " extensions ") down into
the substance of that plant to draw away its sap instead of
hanging them out into the air as the Orchid does. The
Mistletoe is a parasite, living at the expense of another plant.

It is also a green parasite, and takes only crude sap (i.e.
the sap passing up from the roots to the leaves) from its
host, but it still possesses green leaves like other plants to
take materials from the air and to work over or elaborate
the materials obtained in these two ways for its own benefit.

VI. Take a piece of the Dodder together with a portion
of the host plant around which it is entwined. Notice : —

3. The slender twining stem destitute of leaves.

2. The direction in which it twines about the stem of the

host plant. (Compare Chapter XII, §§ I and II.)

3. The absence of a root at the lower end. (For the pur-

pose of demonstrating this point, it will be necessary
to examine young plants where they grow.)

4. The small suckers, arising from the stem and penetrat-

ing the host plant.

5. The color of the stem and suckers.

6. The flowers, if any are present.

7. Make a sketch to show these points.

8. Are the suckers root-, stem-, or leaf-structures?

9. Why does the Dodder lack leaves of any appreciable

size?

CHAP. XIII EPIPHYTES, PARASITES. SAPROPHYTES 71

10. Write down your answers and give your reasons for
them.

VII. In the case of the Dodder, we have a parasite which
is not green, i.e. a pale parasite.

VIII. Place a piece of stale bread in a soup plate, wet it
thoroughly, cover with a bell-glass or cake-jar, keep in a
warm place for a week (or even two weeks), and then ex-
amine. Notice : —

1. The cobwebby grayish mass that has grown upon the

bread.

2. This is the " Bread-Mould." It is made up of

3. Fine threads, the hyphcz, and

4. Small black globes, the sporangia.

5. On examining the latter under the dissecting microscope,

we shall find a mass of small blackish bodies, the
spores. Spores differ from seeds, especially in hav-
ing no embryo within the spore-coats ; but we shall
study a little more about spores later on. We are
now interested in the way in which the Bread-Mould
obtains its food. Notice : —

6. The absence of a green color.

7. The small rooting organs which attach the Mould to the

bread.

8. This is an example of a class of plants called saprophytes,

which live upon dead organic matter (in the case of
the Mould, represented by the bread).

IX. Does the bud or scion, grafted upon a stock in the
orchard, resemble a parasite? If so, in what way? Write
your answers and give your reasons for them.

72 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP. XIII

X. Write out a set of comparisons, stating resemblances
and differences between the following sets : —

1. The typical green plants and the green parasites.

2. The green parasites and the pale parasites.

3. The pale parasites and the saprophytes.

XI. Show how a typical plant might be led to become a
saprophyte and what changes would take place. Write out
your opinions on these points in the form of an essay, stat-
ing facts supporting them.

CHAP, xiv INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS 73

CHAPTER XIV

INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS

WE have seen in the preceding chapter how some plants,
departing from the simple habits of the ordinary green plant,
obtain their nourishment from other plants or even from
dead organic matter. There are still several of the larger
and more complex plants which capture and digest (to some
extent at least) small animals, such as insects, water-fleas,
etc., and are provided with special apparatus for the pur-
pose. We call them Carnivorous or Insectivorous Plants.

I. Examine the leaf of the Common Pitcher Plant (Sar-
racenia purpurea) , and notice : —

1. The hollow, pitcher-shaped petiole.

2. The small blade, forming the lip of the pitcher.

3. The contents, both liquid and solid.

4. The inner surface of the blade, i.e. the hairs clothing it,

the direction in which they point, etc.,

5. That they stop abruptly at the lower limit of the blade,

and that the surface of the inside of the pitcher is
perfectly smooth.

6. How does this arrangement of hairs and smooth surface

help to entrap an insect? Where would it alight
and what would happen to it ? Write out the story
of its capture.

7. Make sketches of the whole leaf and of its parts.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

II. Examine a leaf of the Californian Darlingtonia and
notice : —

1. The general shape, size, color, etc.

2. The parts —

(a) lower slender portion and

(b) upper hood-shaped portion of the petiole ;

(c) the split blade hanging out "mustache fashion"

beyond

(d) the elliptical opening with its incurved rim.

3. Make sketches to show these parts and label.

III. Cut a leaf open and notice : —

1. The transparent spots (^windows"} and

2. The downwardly projecting hairs within the hood.

3. The smooth inner walls of the slender tube.

4. The contents, solid and liquid, of the lower part of the

tube.

5. Write out the story of the trapping of an insect by this

leaf.

Where does it alight?
What is the rim of the opening for ?
What are the hairs for?
Why do they point the way they do ?
What are the windows for?
What is the smooth surface for?
What is the liquid for?

Is this liquid produced by the plant or not? Give
the reasons for your answers.

IV. Examine the leaves of a healthy plant of the Venus
Fly-trap, and notice : —

i. The petiole, flattened, with a longitudinal groove through
the middle.

CHAP, xiv INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS 75

2. The contraction just under the

3. Blade which consists of two parts.

4. The teeth upon the margins of the blade.

5. The bristles upon the upper surface of the leaf-blade.

6. Notice especially this upper surface of the blade.

7. Make sketches to show these points.

V. Irritate the blade by touching the bristles upon the
upper surface and notice the details of its movements.
Describe them. How long does it take to close? Does
it open again?

VI. Place a small piece of meat upon the upper surface
of the lamina. Watch and take notes for several days.

VII. Examine an expanded (i.e. open) leaf of the
Common Sundew and notice : —

1. The slender petiole.

2. The thick rounded blade with

3. The projecting glands upon their stalks, covering the

upper surface.

4. Make sketches to show these characters.

VIII. Place a small piece of meat upon the centre of the
upper surface of an expanded leaf, and notice what happens.
What parts move first? next? next? and so on. Keep
watching the plant as you have opportunity for several
days.

IX. What is the difference as regards the method of
capturing the prey between the two Pitcher Plants on the
one hand, and the Venus Fly-trap and the Sundew on the
other? Write your answer.

X. Are the Insectivorous Plants parasites or saprophytes r
Why?

LABORATORY PRACTICE

CHAPTER XV

REPRODUCTION

A SINGLE plant is an individual. Any method, by which
the number of individuals of a species is increased, is called a
method of reproduction.

A plant may produce new individuals, i.e. increase the
number of independent plants, by simply splitting or divid-
ing itself up, by detaching parts of itself, or it may produce
special bodies which are unlike any of its ordinary vegeta-
tive parts, and these bodies finally produce new plants.
Accordingly, we may distinguish the two general methods
of reproduction, as follows : —

I. Vegetative Reproduction.
II. Seed and Spore Reproduction.

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION

CHAPTER XVI

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION, in its broadest meaning, in-
cludes all those methods of increasing the number of the
individuals of a species other than by the special bodies
called seeds and spores. Some plants have a number of
ways of multiplying vegetatively, others very few or none at
all. We shall examine a few typical cases.

I. Take a well-grown stem of the Tiger Lily of the gardens
and notice : —

1. The stem.

2. The leaves.

3. The black bodies in the axils of the leaves. They are

called bulblets.

4. Sketch a piece of stem, a leaf, and a bulblet.

5. Are the bulblets leaf- or branch-structures? Write down

your answer and give reasons for it.

II. Detach a bulblet, dissect it and make sketches.

1. Do the bulblets drop off or not?

2. What is the bulblet for?

3. How does it produce a new individual?

III. Examine the flowering portions of a number of culti-
vated Onions and notice : —

78 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP. XVI

1. That some of the flowers have been replaced by bulblets.

2. Make a sketch to show this.

IV. Examine the axils of the leaves of a Yam (if oppor-
tunity presents) and notice the small tuber-like bodies
(resembling small Potatoes) found there.

V. Examine the underground portion of an old Raspberry
Plant and notice : —

r. That branches are given off from the main plant below
the ground, which run along for a short distance,
then turn upward and produce a new shoot which
makes its way into the air.

2. Make a diagram of this.

3. Such a branch is called a sucker.

4. How does the gardener take advantage of suckers to

obtain new Raspberry Plants?

VI. Examine a group of Strawberry Plants and notice : —

1. One of the slender, tendril-like branches sent out from

the main plant.

2. That it curves over so that the tip may rest upon the

ground.

3. That roots, springing from the tip, penetrate the ground ;

that leaves are produced ; and that finally there is a
young plant attached to the parent plant by a slender
piece of stem.

4. That finally this stem dies and the young plants are

free.

5. Make diagrams to show these points.

6. Such a slender branch, behaving in this way, is called a

runner.

CHAP. XVI VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION 79

VII. Plants having underground stems which branch, in-
crease in number by the dying away of the older portions
of the stem. When the dying portion reaches a place where
a branch is situated, the union between the two parts is
broken and instead of one plant we have two. After this
has been repeated several times, there are several plants, all
from the same original stock.

To realize how this may happen, examine the slender
root-stock of some Mint or Grass and notice : —

1. The branches, which may be numerous or may be few.

2. The nodes and internodes.

3. The buds at the nodes, which may develop into lateral

branches.

4. The terminal buds at the ends of the branches.

5. How the root-stock is dying away at the other end of the

root-stock.

6. Make sketches to show these points.

VIII. Examine the underground portions of Iris, notice
how it is multiplied (as described in VII) and make dia-
grams to show it.

IX. Examine slips or cuttings of Pelargoniums, English
Ivies, or Willows, which have been planted in moist sand
for several weeks. Make sketches and describe what has
happened. What are the advantages of propagating a plant
by cuttings over propagating by seed? Write your answers.

X. Examine leaves of Bryophyllum (or leaf-cuttings of
some species of " tuberous Begonia ") which have been
lying upon moist sand. Notice and sketch the buds formed
at the notches in the margin of the leaf (or at the cut ends
of the ribs of the leaf of the Begonia) — sketch and label.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

XI. Explain how grafting and budding enable man to
propagate a particular form and why he resorts to this
method.

XII. Examine the stem of the Prickly Pear Cactus
(Opuntia), and notice the joints of which it is made up.
Each joint may separate, or be separated, and grow into a
new plant. Make notes and sketches.

XIII. Do you know of any plants other than those just
studied which multiply vegetatively ? If so, name and
describe them.

XIV. Compare the different methods of vegetative repro-
duction which you have studied, stating particularly whether
root-, stem-, or leaf-structures were employed.

CHAP, xvn SEED REPRODUCTION 81

CHAPTER XVII

SEED REPRODUCTION

IN our earliest work we examined carefully a number of
different seeds and learned that a seed must contain an
embryo or rudimentary plantlet — showing, usually, distinct
stem- and leaf-portions, with a provision, also, for the pro-
duction of a root or roots.

We know, also, that flowers precede fruits and that the
fruits contain seeds, in the ordinary plants. Consequently
we shall first consider various kinds of flowers as well as
matters pertaining to them and then fruits, in order to study
the important details of reproduction by seeds and the phe-
nomena attending it.

LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, xvm

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CHAPTER XVIII

A TYPICAL OR PATTERN FLOWER

I. Take a flower of some species of Crassula and
notice : —

1. Its size, shape, color, etc.

2. Its structure : —

(a) A circle of green, leaf-like pieces on the very
outside. These are called sepals and the
circle of sepals is called a calyx.

(£) How many sepals are there ?

(*) Are they all alike ?

(</) Next to these a circle of colored parts, the co-
rolla, composed of petals. How many petals
are there? Are they all alike ?

(e) Following the petals, a circle of stamens. How
many are there ? Are they all alike ?

(/) Each stamen is made up of two parts, the stalk
or filament below and the anther or sack con-
taining the yellow dust (polleii) above.

(g) The innermost circle of green bodies, the pistils,
each of which is composed of three parts : —
the lower swollen portion, the ovary; the
slender portion above it, the style ; and the
small body at the tip, the stigma.

(h) How many pistils are there ? Are they all alike ?

CHAP, xvni A TYPICAL OR PATTERN FLOWER 83

II. Remove several stamens entire, examine one a little
more carefully under the lens and notice : —

1 . The size, shape, and color of the filaments.

2. The way in which the anther is attached to the filament.

3. Examining the anthers in some buds or flowers not yet

opened, notice the two longitudinal halves of each
anther — each is called an anther cell.

4. Examining the stamen of an older flower, notice how

each anther cell opens to allow the pollen to escape.

5. Make sketches to show this.

III. Remove several pistils carefully and examine the
different parts under the lens (or better, under a dissecting
microscope) . Notice : —

1. The stigma, its size, shape, and structure. (Compare if

possible the stigma of the pistil of a Lily or Begonia
and notice the roughness and moistness of the stigma.
Touch such a stigma to the tongue and notice its
taste. Sometimes the stigma of the Lily has enough
moisture upon it to form a distinct drop.)

2. The slender style, its smoothness as compared with the

stigma.

3. The swollen ovary. Carefully cut the ovary longitudi-

nally along one edge and open it. Within will be
found

4. A hollow, the cell of the ovary — within the cell may be

seen

5. A row of small bodies, the ovules. These are the bodies

which ripen into seeds.

6. The surface to which the ovules are attached is called

the placenta. This pistil has only one placenta.

7. Make a sketch (or diagram) to show these points, and

label carefully.

84 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, xvm

IV. Such a pistil is called a simple pistil because it has
only one stigma, one style, one ovary, one cell to the ovary,
and one placenta. (Any pistil having more than one style
stigma, ovary-cell, or placenta, is called a compound pistil.
Compound pistils are more common than simple ones.)

V. Pick off all the parts of the flower in regular order,
beginning with the sepals. The small conical tip of the stem
upon which they are inserted is called the receptacle.

VI. This flower is an example of a perfect, complete, reg-
ular, and symmetrical flower.

1. It is perfect because it has both stamens and pistils.

2. It is complete because it has all the organs possible for a

flower to have : viz. sepals, petals, stamens, and
pistils. (A complete flower must necessarily be
perfect.)

3. It is regular because in each circle all the parts are of

the same size and shape (i.e. without any striking dif-
ferences) .

4. It is symmetrical because each circle contains the same

number of parts as each other circle.

VII. Alternation of the Parts of the Flower. — Take an
uninjured flower and notice : —

1. Whether the petals are in front of the sepals or in front

of the spaces between the sepals.

2. Does the same thing hold true for the stamens in relation

to the petals ?

3. For the pistils in relation to the stamens?

4. This is called the alternation of the parts of the flower

and is true for the parts of most flowers.

CHAP, xvin A TYPICAL OR PATTERN FLOWER 85

VIII. Ground Plan of the Flower. — Draw by the aid of
a pair of compasses four faint concentric circles, one within
the other.

1. Upon the innermost, represent the five pistils (drawing

cross-sections of the ovaries) .

2. In the next outer circle, represent the stamens (by cross-

sections of the anthers) alternating with the pistils.

3. In the next outer circle, represent the petals (by cross-

sections) alternating with the stamens, and finally

4. Represent the sepals in the same way in the outermost

circle.

5. This is what is usually called a ground plan of the flower

and represents the number and alternation (or lack
of it) of the parts in such a way that they may be seen
at a glance. To be especially accurate, the particular
way, which varies somewhat in different flowers, in
which the sepals or petals overlap one another, should
also be represented.

IX. The Numerical Plan of the Flower. — The numerical
plan of a flower is represented by the number which pre-
dominates in the different circles of the flower. In the
flower just studied the same number is represented in each
of the four circles. What is its numerical plan ?

X. The Crassula is a type or pattern flower because it is
complete, regular, and symmetrical, has alternation of parts,
and all the parts free and distinct one from the other. A
flower must have these five qualities to be a pattern flower.
Few flowers are pattern flowers.

XI. A flower must contain either pistils or stamens (or
both). Some flowers are reduced to a single stamen or a

LABORATORY PRACTICE

single pistil, but such flowers are neither common nor con-
spicuous. The stamens and pistils are therefore called the
essential parts.

XII. Carefully review the terms given in this chapter
and become thoroughly acquainted with the definition of
each.

FERTILIZATION 87

CHAPTER XIX

FERTILIZATION

WE all know that the fruit and seed follow the flower, and
as we go on to study the flower further, we see that every-
thing about it is constructed to favor the development of the
seed. Color, fragrance, position on the plant, time of open-
ing and shutting, the massing of flowers together ; in short,
every detail of structure to be found in any flower, is to help
in this work.

We found in the ovary-cell certain ovules, which develop
into seeds under proper conditions. Let us consider one of
the most essential conditions to the development of the seed
from such ovules.

Within the ovule there is no embryo at first, but there is,
among other things, a very small body, visible only under
the higher powers of the compound microscope, called the
nucleus. Within each little particle or grain of pollen there
is another microscopic nucleus. These two nuclei must
come together in the body of the ovule and unite into one
before the processes which result in the growth of an embryo
may be started. The process of accomplishing this is called
the fertilization of the flower.

But in order that the nucleus from the pollen grain may
unite with that in the ovule, it must get over from the anther,
in some way, and down to the ovule itself; for the ovule
remains stationary, while the pollen grain is free to be

LABORATORY PRACTICE

moved. Consequently, first, the pollen grain must get from
its home in the anther cell to the stigma. This is the first
step in fertilization, and is called pollination. Pollination
deals with the transfer of the pollen from the anther to the
stigma.

Then the pollen grain must "grow down" through the
stigma and style into the ovary cell, and penetrate the
ovule, so that the two nuclei may unite. When the pollen
grain falls upon the stigma, it is caught and held there by
the roughness of the stigma and by a sticky sugary fluid
upon it. Under the influence of this sticky fluid, the pollen
grain grows out into a tube which bores its way down into
the stigma and through the style (if there is any) until it
comes to the ovule. The end of the tube finds its way into
the ovule [through the small opening which persists in the
ripened seed and is called the micropyle (compare Chapter
I, § II, 6, etc.)], the nucleus which it carries comes into
contact with the nucleus in the ovule, and they unite.
Fertilization is then complete, and the embryo begins to
form.

This second step in fertilization is called the descent of the
pollen tube. It is very similar in all plants, and can be stud-
ied only by the aid of the compound microscope and careful
and complicated preparations. But the first step, that of
pollination, is very different in different plants, and can be
much more easily made out.

We distinguish first as to whether the pollen which acts
upon the stigma of a particular flower comes from the sta-
mens of the same flower or from those of a different flower.
If the former, it is called close-fertilization; if the latter,
cross-fertiliza tio n .

Cross- fertilization is more common, and we shall study
that first. Of course the pollen grains, having no motion

FERTILIZATION

of their own, must be carried by something from the anther
of one flower to the stigma of another. Two agencies are
active in this work, the wind and insects. Flowers which
depend upon insects for cross-pollination (i.e. pollination
resulting in cross-fertilization) must, as we can readily see,
have some means of attracting them. We find that flowers
do this by providing bright (or conspicuous) colors, odors,
or honey. Further, the flower must be constructed so that
it cannot readily be self-pollinated, and from this point of
view the different shapes of flowers must be studied. We
shall study some of these peculiarities under the following
heads : Irregular Flowers, Unsymmetrical Flowers, Coales-
cence, and Adnation, which are, in most cases, devices to aid
in securing cross-pollination.

The wind-pollinated flowers are less complicated in struc-
ture, have no conspicuous color, no odor, and no honey.

During our whole study of the flower, we must ask our-
selves how the flower is fertilized, i.e. whether it is cross- or
self-pollinated, whether insect- or wind-pollinated, and what
special devices are present to secure cross- or close-pollina-
tion or to prevent the one or the other. These things are
the keys for unlocking to us the mystery of the variety of
flower structure and coloration.

90 LABORATORY PRACTICE

CHAPTER XX

IMPERFECT, INCOMPLETE, IRREGULAR, AND
UNSYMMETRICAL FLOWERS

THE pattern flower which we have just studied was per-
fect, complete, regular, and symmetrical. We may now
study, hastily, several flowers, to understand what is meant
by the converse of these terms.

I. Imperfect Flowers. — Examine the flowers of different
plants of Begonia and notice : —

i. That some of the flowers of the same plant are provided
with stamens only and others with pistils only.

3. These flowers are consequently imperfect, lacking one or
other of the essential parts ; viz. stamens in one case
and pistils in the other.

3. Make notes and sketches;

4. Where the two different kinds of flowers are borne on

different plants, the plant is said to be dioecious, but
if they are borne on the same plant, as in Begonia,
it is said to be monoecious. (Do you know of any
dioecious plant?)

5. Is close-pollination possible in a monoecious or a dioecious

plant? Write down your answer and give your rea-
sons for it.

6. Distinguish between the two kinds of cross-pollination

which are possible in monoecious and dioecious

CHAP. XX INCOMPLETE, IRREGULAR FLOWERS 91

plants. Which is most thoroughly cross-pollination ?
Why?

7. The student should make a special note of the fact that

imperfect flowers are constructed so as to prevent
close-pollination and compel cross-pollination.

8. Is the cross-pollination in the Begonia effected by the

agency of the wind or of insects ? Why ?

u fii+i.e^iAJ

II. Incomplete Flowers. — An imperfect flower is neces-
sarily also incomplete, since it lacks entirely one of the four
circles. But a perfect flower may also be incomplete ; for
example, take the flower of an Anemone, Hepatica, or
Prince's Feather, and notice : —

1. That both stamens and pistils are present.

2. That only one circle of floral leaves is present, and when

only one is present, it is called the calyx, without
regard to its coloration.

III. Irregular Flowers. — Take the flowers of a Pea,
Bean, Wistaria, Locust, or some other leguminous plant, and
examine the corolla carefully. Notice : —

1. The upper broad petal of a different shape (and perhaps

of a different color) from the rest. It is called the
standard or banner, and is spread out to attract the
insects.

2. The tivo side petals, called the wings, upon which the

insects alight.

3. The two lower petals, cohering more or less at their tips

(but seldom really grown together), forming the keel,
enclosing the stamens and pistil. .

4. Remove these five petals, lay them down in order, and

sketch each to show relative size and shape.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

5. The Pea Flower is a type of irregular flower found upon
the 'majority of the plants of the pea family. It is
called a papilionaceous or butterfly flower.

IV. Study also, if possible, flowers of the Larkspur and
the Pansy or Violet for excellent irregular flowers ; notice
that one or more of the petals or sepals in each is pro-
longed into a tube or spur which contains honey. What is
this honey for? Are the stamens all alike? Is the flower
insect- or wind-pollinated? What is the numerical plan?

V. Examine, with the aid of the teacher, the flower of
some Orchid, if possible, and notice the great irregularity
and the devices for compelling the insect to touch first the
stigma, leaving upon it the pollen brought from the last
flower visited, and then, upon backing out, to smear itself
with the pollen of this flower, to carry to another.

VI. Unsymmetrical Flowers. — Returning to a flower
with a papilionaceous corolla, notice : —

1. The calyx — how many sepals are there?

2. The corolla — how many petals are there?

3. The stamens — how many are there?

4. The pistils — how many are there ? How many styles ?

How many stigmas ? How many cells in the ovary ?
How many placentae?

5. What is the numerical plan of this flower ? Write out the

reasons for your answer.

VII. Review and distinguish carefully between these varia-
tions in structure and fix in mind the significance of each.

CHAP, xxi COALESCENCE AND ADNATION 93

CHAPTER XXI

COALESCENCE AND ADNATION

I. Take a flower of Convolvulus or Morning Glory
(Ipomcea) and notice : —

1. That the corolla is made up of one piece.

2. That there are five points or stripes to indicate that five

petals are joined together at their edges.

3. Make a sketch of this corolla.

4. Such a corolla is said to be sympetalous, or having the

petals united.1

II. When parts of the same circle are joined together, as
in the case of the petals of the Morning Glory, it is called
coalescence. Parts of any of the four circles may be joined.

Take the Pea Flower again, and notice : —

1. The calyx, — it is synsepalous. Notice the lobes indicat-

ing the sepals composing it.

2. Removing the corolla, notice that nine of the stamens

are united into one piece by their filaments, the
tenth remaining free.

3. Such stamens are called diadelphous (in two brother-

hoods)— if in one piece, as in some flowers of this
family, monadelphous, etc.

1 When the petals are separate (or " distinct "), the corolla is said to be
choripetalous.

94 LABORATORY PRACTICE

III. Coalescence between the pistils of a flower is ex-
tremely common, giving rise to what is called a compound
pistil, or one in which the number of styles, stigmas, cells of
the ovary, or placentae exceed one.

Take the flower of a Lily or a Hyacinth and notice : —

1. The number of stigmas.

2. The number of styles.

3. Cut across the ovary and notice the number of cells and

placentas. Draw a diagram of this cross-section.

4. It will be seen, then, that the compound pistil of this

flower is made up of three coalescent simple pistils
or carpels.

IV. In the pattern flower we noticed that all the parts
of the flower were inserted upon the receptacle and that the
parts of different circles were not united in any case. Some-
times the parts of different circles are united. When this is
the case, it is called adnation.

V. Examine the flower of some species of Fuchsia
(with single flowers) or some species of Evening Primrose
(CEnothera^. Notice : —

1. The calyx (synsepalous), colored (i.e. not green), with

four lobes.

2. The petals, grown to (" inserted upon") the calyx. This

is a case of adnation.

3. The stamens, also inserted upon the calyx.

4. The ovary, bearing the " tube " of the calyx upon its

summit.

VI. Try and find cases of adnation in the flowers you
may see, and notice the differences between the different
flowers.

CHAP. XXII WIND- AND INSECT-POLLINATION 95

CHAPTER XXII

WIND- AND INSECT-POLLINATION

FEW flowers can be said to be pollinated exclusively either
by the wind or by insects, but their special structure adapts
them to be pollinated generally by either one or the other.

I. Wind-Pollinated Flowers. — These are usually not
showy, that is, neither large nor of conspicuous colors, nor
do they possess odors or nectar. The student should exam-
ine the flowers of the various Plantains, the Nettles, the
Alders (but not the Willows), the Walnuts, Hickory-nuts,
Butternuts, the Oaks, and the Birches for examples of the
wind-pollinated flowers. This should be done out of doors
and the results written in the note-books. The Grasses,
particularly Rye, Oats, Timothy, and above all Indian Corn,
should be examined. The method in which the anthers are
attached to the filaments and the protruding feathery stigmas
of the Grasses should be noted and sketched ; and the way
in which these assist in pollination described.

II. Insect-Pollinated Flowers. — Studies in the field
should be made upon this subject also, attention being
directed to the following points : —

i. Color.

(a) What colors are more conspicuous by day?
What by night?

96 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, xxil

(b) What proportion of the flowers do you find
yellow? blue? red? white? Do these vary
during the seasons?

(f) Observe the flower clusters of the Lantana, and
of the Clovers, and notice the change of color,
as well as position, during the blossoming and
withering. Sketch and describe them. What
are the reasons for these occurrences?

(d} Observe flowers whose petals are variegated
with stripes of color or ridges. Where do
these lead to, and of what use are they?

2. Odor.

(a) With what colors (white, yellow, blue, or red),
which you can study, are odors mostly associ-
ated?

(6) Observe that while the odors of most flowers are
agreeable to most of us, some flowers have
very disagreeable odors : such are the Purple
Trillium (T.erectuni) and the Carrion Flower
(Smilax herbacea). Such odors attract flies
and carrion beetles.

3. Nectar.

(a) Examine the Columbine, Pansy, Larkspur, vari-
ous Orchids, etc., to see where the nectar is
stored ; notice that in these cases the honey
is out of the reach of insects with short pro-
bosces, and can be obtained only by insects with
the longer probosces and by humming-birds.

(£) Examine a Buttercup, and notice the small,
deeply colored scales at the base of each
petal, under each of which is a pit contain-
ing honey. What sort of an insect could util-
ize this honey?

CHAP. XXII WIND- AND INSECT-POLLINATION 97

4. Special devices. These are particularly to help the insect
do the work properly. We have seen some in the
flowers with papilionaceous corollas, in the Larkspur,
Pansy, and in imperfect flowers. The number of
devices is manifold. Two very striking ones may be
studied in the laboratory if the plants are in blossom,
viz. : —

(a) Examine an open flower of some species of
Mimulus or Monkey Flower (any species, or
of Torenia of the greenhouses), and notice
the stigma. It consists of two flat pieces, an
upper and a lower. Selecting a stigma in
which the two parts are separated from one
another, gently stroke the inner surfaces with
a pin or bristle. They will soon begin to
move and come together. Look at them
from time to time and make a note of how
long it takes them to open. (It may require
an hour or more.) What is gained to the
flower by this device ? Write out your answer
in your note-books.

(£) Examine a cluster of flowers of some species of
Barberry. Selecting an open flower, notice
that the stamens are lying back against the
petals. Gently stroke the filament of a stamen
and notice its movements. Do the same
thing to another. Make a note of this phe-
nomenon, and write out your opinion as to its
usefulness to the flower.

(f) Kalmia or Calico-bush (called erroneously Lau-
rel) also shows stamen movements worthy of
attention.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

5. Dichogamy. A more or less complete separation of the

sexes is made in perfect flowers by the maturation of
the pollen and the stigmas at different times. It is
found both in wind- and in insect-pollinated flowers.
The effect is to render the flowers functionally im-
perfect although perfect morphologically ; in fact, to
render them more or less perfectly monoscious. Such
cases are very common, occurring in most perfect
flowers. There are two kinds of this method of
separating the sexes, or dichogamy, as it is called : —

(a) Proterogyny (or protogyny), where the stigma

matures first ; and

(b) Proterandry (or protandry), where the anthers

open before the stigma is receptive (i.e. ma-
ture) .

Dichogamy, I Prot°gynv>
y' 1 Protandry.

6. Examine a flower cluster of a species of Figwort

(Scrophularia) or of the common Plantain, and

notice : —

(a) That in the upper flowers the stigmas are pro-
truded while the anthers are still unopened.

(£) In the lower flowers, the anthers are opening,
but the stigmas are withered.

(<:) Is this protogyny or protandry?

7. Examine the flower clusters of a Geranium or some

kind of Mallow (Malva, Lavatera, Abutilon, or

Hibiscus} and notice : —

(a) That in the upper flowers, the anthers are shed-
ding their pollen, but that the stigmas are not
opened, while

(£) In the lower flowers, the anthers are empty and
the stigmas are open.

CHAP, xxn WIND- AND INSECT-POLLINATION 99

(r) Is this protogyny or protandry?

8. Heterostyfy.

(a) Examine flowers of a number of different plants of
the Bluet (Houstonia coerulea) or of some species
of Primrose, and notice : —

1. The fact that some flowers have long styles and stamens

inserted about half-way up the tube of the corolla,
while

2. Others have short styles and the stamens inserted near

the top of the tube of the corolla.

3. Explain, if you can, how this structure serves the same

purpose as a separation of the sexes in these flowers.

4. (Examine, also, the stigmas and pollen of both kinds

of flowers under the compound microscope.)

9. Examine the Purple Loosestrife (Ly thrum Salicaria)

or the Swamp Loosestrife (Nesaa or Decodoti) in the
same way, and notice that there are three kinds of
flowers, representing three lengths of filament and
three lengths of styles. What is the use of this ?
10. Examine flowers from a number of plants of Esch-

scholtzia and notice : —

(a) The fact that in some flowers two of the four styles
are longer than the other two. What advantage
does the plant derive from this ?

LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, xxm

CHAPTER XXIII

SELF-POLLINATION

CROSS-POLLINATION seems to be the rule. Many flowers,
however, are so constructed thatx if they fail to be cross-
pollinated, they are self-pollinated. But such flowers pro-
duce fewer and less vigorous seeds than the cross-polli-
nated flowers. But some flowers are especially constructed
for self-pollination alone. They are called cleistogamous
flowers.

I. Examine the greenish flowers (produced close to the
ground) of the Fringed Polygala (P. paucifolia and P.
pofygama, of the East or any Pacific Coast species) and.
notice : —

1. The contrast in color between them and the upper

flowers.

2. The fact that fertilization takes place when the flowers

are very small, for the ovary begins to enlarge very
soon.

3. The fact that the flowers never open.

(Dissection to demonstrate the floral organs is rather too
difficult for beginners.)

4. Make sketches and notes.

ANTHOTAXY/;, \ .J lot'.

CHAPTER XXIV

ANTHOTAXY

ANTHOTAXY treats of the arrangement of flowers upon the
stem. Flowers are borne either singly or in clusters. The
advantage of flowers being brought together into clusters is,
that the same pollinating agency, bringing pollen to one
flower, may benefit the rest or at least some of them. In
this way the flowers " club together," as Grant Allen says,
to share favorable pollinating influences. We shall study a
few of the more important common arrangements.

I. The Raceme. — Examine a flower cluster of the Lily
of the Valley, Red-hot- Poker Plant, Zygadenus, Currant, or
similar plant and notice : —

1. The general shape of the cluster (elongated}.

2. The main stem with

3. The flowers arranged at different heights.

4. The order of blossoming, beginning at the base and pro-

ceeding towards the top.

5. Examining each flower, notice : —

6. The short stalk, of nearly the same length in each flower.

7. The small leaf (or leaf scale) in whose axil each flower

is borne. (Notice that consequently all the flowers
are lateral structures.)

8. Make a sketch and diagram to show these points and

label the parts, as follows : —

(a) Peduncle, the main axis or stem.

102 cj iLABQK;ATaRY PRACTICE CHAP. xxiV

(&} Pedicels, the stalks of the individual flowers.
(f) Bracts, the leaves or scales subtending each
flower.

II. The Corymb. — Examine the flower cluster of a Haw-
thorn and notice : —

1 . The general shape of the cluster {flat-topped} .

2. The peduncle.

3. The pedicels of different lengths, so as to bring all the

flowers to the same level.

4. The order of blossoming. Compare it with that of the

raceme.

5. That all the flowers are lateral axillary structures.

6. Make a diagram to show these points.

III. The Umbel. — Examine the flower cluster of an
Onion or a Pelargonium (the so-called Geranium of the
gardens) and notice : —

1. The pedicels of equal length.

2. The fact that they all spring from the same point.

3. Make out the order of blossoming if you can.

4. Make a diagram of an umbel.

IV. The Compound Umbel. — Examine the flower cluster
of a Carrot, Parsnip, Fennel, Caraway Seed, or Poison Hem-
lock and notice : —

1. The fact that a number of small umbels are themselves

arranged after the fashion of an umbel.

2. Study one umbellet (small umbel) as directed in III.

3. Notice the circle of bracts at the base of the umbel

(called an involucre}.

4. The circle of smaller bracts (bractlets} at the base of

each umbellet (called an involucel}.

CHAP, xxiv ANTHOTAXY 103

5. Make a diagram to show these points.

V. The Spike. — Examine the flower cluster of one of
the various species of Plantain and notice : —

1. Its general shape.

2. The order of blossoming.

3. The long peduncle.

4. The sessile (i.e. without pedicels) flowers. (Lateral,

axillary structures here also.)

5. Make a sketch to show this.

VI. The Spadix. — Examine the flower cluster (often
erroneously called a flower) of the Calla and notice : —

1. The broad white bract (called in this case, a spathe) at

the base of the flower cluster.

2. The general shape of the flower cluster.

3. The peduncle.

4. Whether the flowers are sessile or not. (Lateral and

axillary ?)

5. The order of blossoming (noticing that the flowers are

imperfect with pistillate below and staminate above).

6. The fleshy consistency of the whole cluster.

7. What is the spathe for ? Why is it so conspicuous ?

8. Make a sketch of the Calla.

9. Compare it, if possible, with the Flamingo Plant or

Anthurium of the greenhouse and notice the same
parts, but also noting the very different color of the
spathe.

VII. The Head. — Examine the flower cluster of a Red
Clover, Lantana, or Verbena and notice : —

1. The general shape of the cluster.

2. The insertion of the flowers.

104 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, xxiv

3. The order of blossoming.

4. Whether the flowers have pedicels or not.

5. Make a diagram of the cluster studied.

VIII. Indeterminate and Determinate Anthotaxy. — The
order of blossoming in all the clusters studied thus far, has
been practically the same ; that is, from below upward or, in
the flattened clusters, from without inward. All arrange-
ments having this order of blossoming are classed under the
head of indeterminate anthotaxy. But in some clusters, the
order of blossoming is just the opposite ; that is, from above
downward, or in the case of flat- topped clusters, from within
outward. Such arrangements fall under the head of deter-
minate anthotaxy. The cyme is the most common example.

Another distinction, and the one upon which the order of
blossoming depends, is that, in indeterminate anthotaxy, the
flowers are all lateral, while, in determinate, they are all
terminal.

IX. The Cyme. — Selecting a Begonia (preferably one
of the " tuberous " species with lax flower clusters and large
flowers), examine several clusters of different ages and
notice : —

i.. That the central flower blossoms first.

2. That the two axes (one at each side) next the central

flower, elongate, bear clusters of buds and that the
central bud of each cluster blossoms.

3. That the two axes adjacent to each of these central

flowers repeat the same process and so on regularly
for several times.

4. Make diagrams to show this.

5. Notice also that all the flowers are terminal upon short

branches.

ANTHOTAXY 105

X. In reviewing the work on flower clusters, be careful to
consider the following points : —

1. The exact difference between the determinate and inde-

terminate anthotaxy.

2. What characters have-the following indeterminate clusters

in common : raceme, corymb, and umbel?

3. How may they be distinguished from one another?

4. What characters have the following indeterminate clusters

in common : spike, spadix, and head?

5. How may they be distinguished from one another?

6. How may the group of clusters mentioned in 2 be dis-

tinguished from those mentioned in 4?

7. Write out concise (i.e. using no unnecessary words) defi-

nitions of all the flower clusters you have studied.

XL Many flowers are not in clusters at all, but occur
singly. They may be : —

1 . Terminal in some cases, as in the Rose, but mostly

2. Axillary, at least if considered very carefully.

106 LABORATORY PRACTICE

CHAPTER XXV

METAMORPHOSIS

THUS far everything that we have studied has been either
root, stem, or leaf, or a combination of these. The flower
itself is nothing more than an altered branch, and we may
consider briefly the arguments for considering the various
floral organs to be simply leaves, modified to perform the
special duties of reproducing the plant by seed.

I. Position of the Flower upon the Stem. — Looking back
over our study of anthotaxy, we find that the flowers are
either terminal (either solitary terminal flowers or in deter-
minate clusters) or lateral and axillary (either solitary axil-
lary flowers, or in indeterminate clusters).

Turning back to our study of buds, we find that they were
either terminal or lateral structures and that the ordinary
lateral buds were axillary. From leaf buds grow branches ;
from flower buds grow branches with their leaves altered to
form the various parts of the flower.

Consequently we see that the flower occupies exactly the
same position upon the stem which an ordinary branch does,

II. The parts of the flower follow the laws of phyllotaxy
in their arrangement. — The parts of the flower are arranged
in whorls, with the whorls alternating in most flowers, and
consequently follow the cyclical arrangement (see Chapter

METAMORPHOSIS 107

VII, § III), even where the phyllotaxy of the plant in gen-
eral is spiral. But we have in many plants a change from
the one arrangement to the other upon the same plant evi-
denced even by the ordinary foliage leaves.

III. The parts of the flower grade into one another ; that
is, give evidence that they are all modifications of the same
kind of structures. The evidence here is of two kinds.

1 . (a) Examine the flower of a white Water-Lily (Nymphaa) .

Passing from the outside, the sepals are partly green
and partly white ; the white petals grow narrower
and begin to show small anthers at their tips ; the
white portion becomes narrower and narrower until
the typical stamens are found.

(3) The Sweet-scented Shrub ( Calycanthus) shows sepals
gradually passing into petals, petals into stamens,
and stamens into pistils. It is difficult to tell in
some cases whether we are examining stamens
or pistils.

2. In double flowers such as Roses, stamens are transformed

into petals by cultivation, and in the double Althaea
(Hibiscus Syriaca) even the stigmas become petaloid ;
and, upon opening the ovary, the ovules are often
found to be changed to petal-like bodies.

(The pupil should examine all double flowers for
evidence and make notes.)

IV. Green Flowers. — Occasionally Roses, Trilliums, Fig-
worts, Buttercups, and other flowers are found, in which some
or all of the floral organs are changed into green leaves.
Examples of such flowers are to be sought and examined.
This is called "reversion to a primitive condition,"

io8 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, xxv

V. These four kinds of evidence support the doctrine
called the doctrine of the metamorphosis of parts, which holds
that the flowering plant has only three kinds of structures,
root, stem, and leaf, and that it produces structures to do all its
work by altering (or modifying) one or more of these three
parts. We found this to be true in studying the bud scales
(Chapter VIII), Protection (Chapter X), Storage (Chap-
ter XI), Devices for Climbing (Chapter XII), Epiphytes,
Parasites, and Saprophytes (Chapter XIII), Insectivorous
Plants (Chapter XIV), Vegetative Reproduction (Chap-
ter XVI) ; and now we find that the complicated structures
necessary for seed reproduction form no exception.

FRUITS

CHAPTER XXVI

FRUITS

AFTER the two nuclei, the one from the pollen tube and
the one in the ovule, have united, important changes take
place in the ovule. From the resulting nucleus and the
parts immediately surrounding it, the embryo is formed while
the rest of the ovule is transformed into seed-coats, endo-
sperm, etc. But the ovary surrounding the ovules, also grows
and undergoes changes, and, gradually, the ripened structure
called the fruit is formed. The fruit is, strictly speaking,
the ripened ovary ami its contents.

In many cases, the petals and stamens fall away soon after
fertilization is accomplished or remain in a withered condition,
but do not undergo any further changes.. The calyx often
remains without further change during ripening, but may fall
away also.

But in many cases, also, one or more of the circles of
structures outside the pistils may remain, undergo further
growth, and form with the altered ovary and its content of
seeds a complex body which is also commonly spoken of as
the fruit ; even the receptacle is sometimes enlarged and
made a part of the fruit in this looser sense. Consequently
we find a considerable variety of kinds of fruits.

The fruit serves two purposes : —

1. It protects and helps nourish the ripening seeds.

2. It assists in the scattering or dispersal of the seeds.

LABORATORY PRACTICE

It is especially from this latter point of view that we shall
study fruits. It is very necessary that the seeds should be
scattered in such a way that the plants produced from them
may not grow so near to one another as to be limited for
space in which to grow. Some fruits are evidently so con-
structed as to send their seeds only a short distance, others
so as to scatter them to a considerable distance. Some
simply expel their seeds to a comparatively small distance
from where they were produced, while others make use of
animals, of the wind, and of water to send their seeds a
greater distance away.

Fruits are classified according to their consistency into
fleshy and dry fruits. Dry fruits are classified into dehiscent
and indehiscent, according to whether they split open or not.

CHAP. XXVII FLESHY FRUITS

CHAPTER XXVII

FLESHY FRUITS

WE shall be able to find many fruits in which all or a por-
tion of the ripened ovary wall (called in these cases, as well
as in those of dry fruits, the pericarp} is soft and fleshy.
The fruits help to disperse the seeds they contain by being
eaten by animals (particularly by birds). In such cases the
outer fleshy portion is digested, and the seeds, protected by
their own resistant coats or by a hardened portion of the
pericarp, remain undigested, pass from the intestine of the
animal with the other excreta, and are thus left at a greater
or less distance from the places where they were produced.

In studying fleshy fruits we distinguish two general
classes : —

1. Berries, in which the entire wall is fleshy and

2. Drupes or Stone Fruits, in which the outer portion of the

pericarp wall is fleshy, but the inner wall is hard and
resistant.
We shall study the stone fruit first.

I. The Drupe. — Take a ripe Peach, Apricot, Cherry, or
Plum, examine it carefully and notice : —

1. The general shape, size, color, odor, etc.

2. The point of attachment.

3. The small protuberance at the other end (where the base

of the style joined the ovary).

ii2 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, xxvn

4. Make a sketch of the fruit studied.

5. Why do these fruits remain hard and green until the seeds

are nearly ripe and then become soft and bright-
colored?

II. Cut a ripe Peach, Cherry, or Plum into two longitudi-
nal halves and notice : —

1. The outer skin of the pericarp.

2. The fleshy middle portion of the pericarp, called the

sarcocarp.

3. The inner stony portion of the pericarp, the putamen,

enclosing

4. The seed, whose seed-coats are thin and delicate.

5. Make a sketch of one of the cut surfaces.

III. The drupes just studied are all formed from the
ovary of a simple pistil, whose ovary was one-celled and one-
seeded. Drupes occur also in the Huckleberries, Bear-
berries, Manzanitas, etc., but contain several putamina. In
such cases they are distinguished from berries with some
difficulty, the putamina looking much like seed-coats.

IV. The Berry. — Take a Cranberry, examine it care-
fully, and notice : —

1. The general shape, size, and color.

2. The short stalk (or the place where it was attached).

3. The four blunt teeth surrounding a hollow at the opposite

end. (These are the tips of the sepals which are
adherent to the ovary and help to form the pericarp
of the fruit.)

4. Make a sketch to show these characters and label.

V. Cut the berry being studied across at the equator and,
examining one of the cut surfaces, notice : —

CHAP. XXVII FLESHY FRUITS 113

1. The fleshy pericarp enclosing

2. Four spaces (the cells) > in each of which are

3. Several seeds.

4. Make a sketch of one of the cut surfaces and label.

VI. Gooseberries, Currants, Bananas, Tomatoes, and
Grapes are also good typical berries (in the last two the
pericarp consists of the changed ovary wall simply, while
in the others, as in the Cranberry, the pericarp is the ovary
wall plus the adherent calyx-tube), but the seeds appear
buried in fleshy material. There are also several kinds of
fruits that are really berries and yet have certain peculiar-
ities. Such are i\\epome, the hespcridium, and \h& pepo.

VII. The Pome. — Examine a ripe Apple and notice : —

1. Its general size, shape, color, and odor. UJ^-N

2. The stalk at one end.

3. The five} sepal-lobes in the depression at the other.

4. Make a sketch and label.

VIII. Cut the Apple across at the middle and, examining
the cut surface carefully, notice : —

1. The outline of the section.

2. The five openings (cells) each with a papery wall. (This

can be demonstrated by prying it away from the flesh.
It represents the wall of the ovary and forms with
No. 3 the "core" of the apple.)

3. The fleshy portion outside of No. 2, bounded by a

greenish lineJrom

4. The outer flesh bounded upon the outside by :

5. The outside skin.

6. Make a sketch of the section and label the parts.

7. (Notice the tough seed-coats.)

II4 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, xxvn

IX. Cut the pome being studied into two halves (length-
wise) and, examining one of the crt surfaces, notice : —

1. The general shape of the surface.

2. The cells and the seeds.

3. The papery core.

4. The irregular core flesh.

5. The outer flesh.

6. The outer skin.

7. Make a sketch of the cut surface and label.

X. The Hesperidium. — Take a Lemon or an Orange,
examine, and notice : —

1. The general shape, size, color, and odor.

2. The point at which it was attached.

3. The protuberance at the other end representing the

Ib^ef "endx of the style.

4. Make a sketch of the fruit studied.

XI. Cut the Lemon or Orange across the middle and,
examining one of the cut surfaces, notice : —

1. The outer rather thick " rind."

2. The inner fleshy portion separated into several distinct

portions by walls (septa), running from the rind to
the centre. (These are the cells of the fruit.)

3. The juicy pulp filling the cells, in which (in most

Lemons and Oranges) may be found

4. The seeds. Notice the character of the seed-coats and

the attachment of the seeds.

5. Make a diagram of the cross-section and label the parts.

XII. The Pepo. — Take a Cucumber, Melon, Gourd, or
Pumpkin, examine carefully, and notice : —

CHAP, xxvn FLESHY FRUITS 115

1. The general shape, size, color, and odor.

2. The point of attachment.

3. Make a sketch of the fruit being studied.

XIII. Cut the pepo being studied across the middle and,
examining one of the cut surfaces carefully, notice : —

1. The outer, tougher portion of the "rind."

2. The softer inner portion.

3. The seeds imbedded in a pulpy mass.

4. The attachments of the seeds.

5. The resistant seed-coats.

6. Make a sketch of the section studied.

XIV. Have you ever seen animals eating fleshy fruits?
If so, write down what kinds of animals were doing the
eating and what kinds of fleshy fruits were being eaten.
How does this help the dissemination of the seeds ?

n6 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, xxvm

CHAPTER XXVIII

DRY DEHISCENT FRUITS

DEHISCENT fruits are those which split open to release or
even expel the seeds. We may distinguish two classes : —

1. Explosive Fruits, which forcibly expel some or all of

their seeds, sending them out into the air.

2. Those which simply open and allow the seeds to fall out,

leaving them to be dispersed by other means.

EXPLOSIVE FRUITS

I. Take the ripening pods of some member of the Pea
Family, such as Wistaria, Pea, Bean (with less fleshy pods),
etc., and, leaving them in a dry place, examine them from
time to time. Sooner or later, they will be found to have
split longitudinally, each half or valve of the pod will be
found to have twisted itself and to have thrown most of the
seeds to some distance.

Make sketches and notes to illustrate this.

II. Take also the ripe pods of some species of Violet and
watch them in the same way.

III. Take plants of the garden Balsam (Impatient}, or of
Oxalis, and touch the ripe fruits.

Notice how they suddenly open and eject the seeds.
Make notes and sketches.

CHAP, xxvin DRY DEHISCENT FRUITS 117

METHODS OF DEHISCENCE

The fruit produced by the ripening of a compound pistil
is called a capsule, if dry and dehiscent. The capsules open
to release the seeds in several different ways.

IV. Loculicidal Dehiscence. — Take capsules of Iris,
Funkia or Day Lily, Althaea, Hibiscus, Gerardia, etc., which
have split open and notice how the splitting has taken place.

1. The splitting is longitudinal.

2. The split is directly along the middle line of the outer

wall of one of the cells (loculi) of the capsule.

3. The partitions remain coherent with the outer walls and

separate from one another at the centre.

4. Make a diagram — or rather a ground plan — to show

this method of dehiscence.

V. Septdcidal Dehiscence. — Take capsules of Azalea
Rhododendron, Turtle Head ( Chelone) , or St. John's Wort,
which have split open and notice how the splitting has taken
place.

1. The splitting is longitudinal.

2. Each partition (septum] is split into two thin pieces.

3. The partitions remain adherent to the outer walls and

separate from each other at the centre.

4. Make a ground plan of this method of dehiscence and

show how it differs from the loculicidal method.

VI. Septifragal Dehiscence. — Take capsules of the
Morning Glory which have become thoroughly dried, but
which are either just splitting or which are still whole,

n8 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, xxvm

and using a pin or needle, gently pry off the outer parts.
Notice : —

1. That the splitting is longitudinal.

2. That the splitting is directly along the line of the par-

titions.

3. That the three partitions {septa} are left standing (by

the complete falling away of the valves) .

4. Make a diagram to show this method of dehiscence and

contrast it with each of the methods just studied.

VII. Circumscissile Dehiscence. — Take plants of the
Common Pimpernel (Anagallis), the Portulaca of the gar-
dens, or the Purslane, which have ripe, dry capsules and
examine the method of splitting.

1. The splitting is horizontal (at the equator, so to speak,

of the capsule) .

2. The upper part falls off, leaving

3. The lower portion as a sort of cup still holding most of

the seeds.

4. Make sketches to show this method of dehiscence.

VIII. Dehiscence by Pores. — Examine dry capsules of
some Poppy and notice : —

1. The general shape.

2. The swollen portion.

3. The terminal discoid portion with scalloped edges (the

remains of the stigmatic portion) .

4. The row of small holes or pores at the top of the swollen

portion and just under the edge of the disk.

5. Make sketches.

6. How do the pores arise ? (For determining this, examine,

if possible, ripe capsules just forming pores.)

CHAP. XXVIII DRY DEHISCENT FRUITS 119

IX. Determine, wherever possible, what advantage each
method of dehiscence has for the particular kind of plant
in which it is found.

X. Write out concise and clear definitions for the kinds
of dehiscence you have studied.

LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, xxix

CHAPTER XXIX

DRY INDEHISCENT FRUITS

THE dry fruits (that is, those whose pericarp at maturity
is not fleshy) which do not open, remain to be considered.
If we were to go into the classification of such fruits, we
should need to consider in each case whether it resulted
from the ripening of a simple or of a compound pistil, dis-
tinguishing two classes as follows : —

1. Nuts, dry indehiscent fruits from compound pistils.

2. Achenes, dry indehiscent fruits from simple pistils.

But without considering this matter too carefully, we shall
devote our attention to the different methods and agencies
employed by these fruits to travel abroad and to carry the
seeds contained within them to some more or less distant
place.

The three different agencies most commonly employed
are : —

1 . Animals of various kinds.

2. The wind.

3. Water.

SEED DISPERSAL BY ANIMALS

CHAPTER XXX

SEED DISPERSAL BY ANIMALS

WE have seen how fleshy fruits may be dispersed or
scattered abroad by animals, but they do not as a rule eat
dry fruits unless it is for the sake of the seeds, in which case,
of course, the seed is crushed and digested, and ceases to
exist. But most dry fruits, achenes or even dry fruits dehis-
cent only after a considerable interval of time, have appen-
dages of various kinds which catch hold of animals and are
transported by them.

I. Take a fruit of the Common Clotbur (Xanthium) and
notice : —

1. Its shape, size, color, and consistency.

2. The two strong spines or hooks at the top.

3. The smaller hooks thickly placed upon the sides.

4. Make a sketch of this "fruit," or more properly bur.

5. The involucre (enclosing two achenes) is modified to

form the bur. A similar case is the Common
Burdock.

II. Examine an achene of the Beggar-ticks (Bidens)
and notice : —

1. The body of the achene, its shape, etc.

2. The terminal bristles (varying in number in different

species) provided with

LABORATORY PRACTICE

3. Small downward-pointing hooks or barbs (readily visible

under a lens) .

4. Make an enlarged sketch to show these points.

III. Examine the fruit of the Common Bedstraw or
Goose Cleavers and notice: —

1. The two small rounded portions (called mericarps).

2. The hooked bristles with which each is provided.

3. Make a sketch of this fruit.

IV. Gather and study all the specimens of fruits which you
can find provided with organs for attachment to animals.

V. But some fruits possess spines which do not appear
to serve the purpose of aiding dispersal by animals. The
Chestnut, Chinquapin, Beechnut, and Thorn Apple {Datura)
are provided with spines surrounding the fruit, but the cov-
ering opens, and the seeds drop out. The spines in these
cases probably protect the seeds, while ripening, from squir-
rels and such animals. (Some ripening berries have spines
which fall off when the seeds are mature.)

VI. Small animals, such as squirrels, store away nuts and
grain in the ground and forget the place or are killed. The
seeds of these fruits may germinate. This is a very effec-
tive means for seed dispersal in some regions, but of rarer
occurrence than the other methods. Ants, too, store seeds
and fruits in their underground homes.

SEED DISPERSAL BY WIND 123

CHAPTER XXXI

SEED DISPERSAL BY WIND

IN order that seeds may be carried any appreciable dis-
tance by the wind, they must be rendered buoyant. The
structures existing for this purpose may, for the most part, be
classed under three heads, — wings, tufts of hairs, and blad-
ders. These are more often, perhaps, attached to the fruits,
but may, also, be attached directly to the seeds.

I. Samara, or Key Fruit. — Examine dry, ripe fruits of
Ash, Elm, Ailanthus, or Maple and notice : —

1. The swollen seed-bearing portion and

2. The flattened wing.

3. Throw up some specimens into the air and notice the

twirling motion which helps to support them for
some distance.

4. Make a sketch of the fruit studied, to show the parts

and describe the motion in the air.

II. "Winged Seeds. — Examine some of the dry seeds of
Catalpa, Yam (Dioscorea), Butter-and-Eggs (Linaria),
Trumpet Creeper, Day Lily (Funkia), or of the Pine or
Cypress, and notice : —

1. The compressed seed-bearing portion, with

2. The broader or narrower wing.

3. Make a sketch tp show these characters.
\

124 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, xxxi

III. Fruits with Tufts of Hairs. — The achenes of many
of the Composite Family, particularly such as those of the
Dandelion {Taraxacum) , or the western Troximons {Agose-
ris), are provided with parasol-shaped tufts which act after
the fashion of a parachute. The student should examine
and draw as many of these as possible. (Examine also ripe
Thistle Heads.)

IV. Seeds with Tufts of Hairs. — Examine the dry seeds
of the Milkweed or of Cotton and notice the arrangement
of hairs and how they assist the seed in being carried by the
wind. Make sketches.

V. Bladdery Fruits. — Examine the ripe and dry fruits
of the Bladder Nut (Staphylea), of Isomeris, or of some
Astragalus species with swollen pods and notice : —

1. The general size, shape, color, etc.

2. The much distended ovary wall.

3. The buoyancy of the fruit.

4. Make sketches.

VI. Examine the dry, ripe fruits of the Hop, Hop Horn-
beam, or of the Ground Cherry (Physalis) and notice : —

1. The bladdery portion, either an enlarged investing bract

(Hop) or the enlarged calyx {Physalis}.

2. Make sketches and notes.

VII. Tumble Weeds. — Many species of plants which are
annuals dry up entirely upon the ripening of the seeds,
break away from their attachment, and are rolled about from
place to place by winds. They drop seeds as they travel
and thus often disperse their seeds over a very wide area.

CHAP, xxxn SEED DISPERSAL BY WATER 125

CHAPTER XXXII

SEED DISPERSAL BY WATER

MANY marsh plants growing near running or even quiet
waters, upon the margins of the ocean, or in the water itself,
depend in most cases upon the currents of water or upon the
breezes at the surface of the water for their dispersal. They
are usually, therefore, rendered buoyant in some way or
other.

I. Examine a Cocoanut, still retaining its husk, and
notice : —

1. The general shape, size, color, etc.

2. The attached end.

3. The opposite pointed end.

4. The three blunt angles (longitudinal).

5. Make a sketch to show these points.

II. In a Cocoanut which has been cut into two longitu-
dinal halves, examine one of the cut surfaces and notice : —

1. The outer thin, firm, smooth skin.

2. The fibrous portion of the husk.

3. The shell (seed-coats) of the nut.

4. The " meat " (endosperm) of the seed.

5. The small embryo under the " soft eye " at one end.

6. Make a sketch of one of the cut surfaces.

III. Examine the bladdery fruits of some Sedge or the
seeds of the Water-Lily, if obtainable and notice their buoy-
ancy in water.

126 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, xxxm

CHAPTER XXXIII

SPORE REPRODUCTION

THE plants possessing reproduction by spores are usually
much more simple than those which reproduce by seeds.
Many of them are decidedly microscopic and hardly, if at
all, visible except under the lenses of the compound micro-
scope. But others, such as the ferns and the mosses, are
larger and more complicated plants, approaching very nearly
to the seed-plants in the degree of the complexity of their
structure and their size.

The principal groups of plants which reproduce by spores
are the Ferns (in the broadest sense of the word), the Mosses,
the Sea-weeds or Algae, the Lichens, and the Fungi (including
Toadstools, Puff-balls, Mildews, Rusts, Smuts, and Moulds) .

Spores are of several kinds, and need extended study with
the compound microscope and more complicated methods
than we have been using. We may, however, study several
kinds in a rough sort of way.

I. Examine a Fern Plant removed from the soil, and
notice : —

1. The stem (usually underground).

2. The leaves, their shape, size, etc.

3. The dots upon the backs of the leaves. These are the

son, which are of different shapes in different Ferns
and which, in some cases, are covered partially by a
thin skin, called the indusium.

4. Make a sketch of the Fern Plant to show these points.

CHAP, xxxill SPORE REPRODUCTION 127

II. Selecting a leaf upon which the sori are growing,
remove a few sori and examine them under the lens of the
dissecting microscope. Notice : —

1 . The small stalked bodies, sporangia or spore cases, most

of them split open at one side.

2. The very small brown bodies scattered about, which are

the spores.

(These points will show much more plainly under
a compound microscope. Simply place the sporan-
gia, spores, etc., upon a glass slide, moisten with
strong alcohol, add a drop of water, and cover with
a cover glass.)

III. Examining the fruiting plants of some Moss such as
the Hair-Cap Moss (Poly trie hum) or Funaria, notice : —

1. The rooting portion.

2. The stem with

3. Its leaves.

4. The capsule upon its stalk or pedicel.

5. Make a sketch of the Moss Plant.

IV. Examine the capsule more carefully with the aid of
the lens and notice : —

1. The calyptra (hairy in Polytrichum but smooth, thin, and

hyaline in most Mosses). Remove it and examine —

2. The operculum, a small cap, which may be picked or

pried off, and then appears

3. The peristome, a row of teeth about the mouth of the

capsule proper.

4. Make sketches of these various parts.

Take a thoroughly dry capsule and, removing, if
necessary, the calyptra and operculum, tear open the

128 LABORATORY PRACTICE CHAP, xxxiu

body and examine the fine, dust-like, greenish spores
(with the compound microscope, if possible) .

V. Take fresh specimens of the Common Mushroom (or
any Toadstool with gills) which has thoroughly expanded
and notice : —

1. The stem or stipe.

2. The expanded top, the pileus, upon the under side of

which are found

3. The gills or lamella, numerous thin plates, colored, and

radiating from the stipe outward.

4. Make sketches.

VI. Removing the stipe, place the pileus, with gills
downward upon a piece of white paper and cover with a
bell glass or cake cover. After several hours a " spore print"
will be found upon the paper resembling the arrangement of
the gills. Examine the spores of this print with a lens,
or with the compound microscope. Notice the color and
minute size of the spores. Make a sketch of the spore print.

VII. Examine again, or review, the Bread Mould (confer
Chapter XIII, § VIII), and notice the sporangia and- spores.

VIII. Our study of spores has necessarily been very slight
and fragmentary. We find, however, that they differ from
seeds in two principal respects : —

1. Their minuteness. (Of course, some seeds are very small

for seeds and some spores are very large for spores,
yet their very much smaller size will usually distin-
guish spores from seeds.)

2. The fact that the spores are simple practically homoge-

neous bodies without an embryo. This can be seen
under a compound microscope and when the spores

CHAP. XXXIII SPORE REPRODUCTION 129

germinate. Such spores as those of the Bread Mould
and of the Mushroom might not be expected to con-
tain an embryo, but when we find no embryo in those
of mosses and ferns, we see the necessity for distin-
guishing* spore from seed reproduction. If we could
pursue the subject further, we should see further
reasons for emphasizing this distinction.

IX. Spores are never preceded by any structures which
can be called, botanically, flowers, that is, by structures
containing stamens, or pistils, or both.
K

APPENDIX I

SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS

Spirit of Study. — The students should attempt to get at
the reasons which lead to the selection of a natural science
as a portion of their course of study. It is not only a matter
of acquiring a certain amount of information which will be a
source both of profit and of pleasure in the future, but also
to train certain faculties to act in an orderly and effective
manner. To learn to observe carefully is a matter of the
utmost importance in all the ordinary things of life. Many
of our mistakes are the direct result of hasty observation and •
inference. Without accurate observation, we can have no
certainty as to the accuracy of our inferences and whenever
we think -it over we realize that even the simple matter of
recognizing an object, its shape, etc., is really a matter of
inference. But after we make out what the shape and
general structure of an object is, we have still to infer from
these details its use, relations to other objects, etc.

Consequently, in laboratory work of any kind, the name of
the object or of its parts are purely matters of convenience,
to assist the memory and to enable us to talk to others con-
cerning these things, but the principal matter in hand is to
notice every detail and variation in form both of the object
being studied and of its parts; then, from this as a basis, to
reason out why the object and its parts are constructed as they
are ; and finally to make a permanent record, both of the

132 APPENDIX I

observations and of the conclusions arrived at, in such a way
that the memory may be readily refreshed concerning them.

Students should look to the teacher for inspiration as to
the proper spirit with which to regard their work. Many
times the reason why particular attention is paid to certain
things may not be apparent, but this should furnish no
excuse for not carrying the work through thoroughly as
directed. If the reason is obscure at the time, we should
have perfect confidence that it will be revealed later on ; as
the work proceeds, the plan underlying it will unfold itself,
and we shall finally find ourselves in possession of the whole
and recognize the value of each of its parts. We should en-
trust ourselves to the teacher's guidance with perfect faith
that all which now seems dark and hidden will be cleared
away before the course is completed.

Instruments. — Few instruments are absolutely necessary
for the work planned in this book. The pupil should, how-
ever, possess the following : —

Laboratory note-book,

Pencils and eraser,

Pair of small forceps,

Scalpel or penknife,

Pocket lens or dissecting microscope,

Pair of needles in handles.

Note-Book. — The note-book should be of fair size. One
with a page about 10 inches long and 6 to 8 inches wide is
preferred by the writer. The paper should be white, un-
ruled, fairly heavy, and with sufficient gloss to take the mark
of the pencil readily, but not so much so, as to make erasing
difficult.

Pencils. — A fairly hard pencil should be used, certainly
hard enough so that it will be possible to keep it well

APPENDIX I 133

sharpened. Some students will need to use a harder pencil
than others and each will need to experiment a little per-
haps. The teacher can advise in such matters.

Eraser. — A good soft rubber eraser will answer very well,
but students may consult their own tastes in this matter.

Forceps. — For handling small objects, even very slender
fingers are too large and clumsy, and the student should
possess a pair of small forceps for this purpose. Steel ones
are the best, but brass ones may be used. The tips of the
forceps should be fairly slender, and the points should be
roughened (not toothed) upon the inside so as to grasp the
object firmly. The " spring " of the forceps should be fairly
but not too strong. Too strong a spring tires the fingers
unnecessarily, while too weak a spring (so that the forceps
do not open promptly) renders them practically useless.

Scalpel. — A small scalpel is most useful for cutting small
objects. A penknife, provided the blades are kept sharp,
will do very well. A small razor with one side ground nearly
flat is perhaps even more useful at times than either the
penknife or scalpel.

Pocket Lens. — A pocket magnifying-glass mounted in
metal or hard rubber (or better a series of two or three
mounted lenses) is indispensable for the examination of
small parts. Almost any of the common ones in the market
will do. A simple dissecting microscope is, however, very
much more effective. Some of the cheaper ones will answer
very well, but the only really satisfactory one, is one possess-
ing besides a good stage (upon which the object may be
placed) and a good adjustable arm for carrying the lens,
also a mirror, adjustable to any angle. (Such a model as
the " Educational Dissecting Microscope " of the Bausch
and Lomb Optical Company of Rochester, N.Y.).

Dissecting Needles. — For use with the dissecting micro-

134 APPENDIX I

scope the student will need a pair of needles with handles.
They may be purchased already made, or they may be pre-
pared readily by forcing the " eye " end of a needle into
some such object as the wooden portion of a penholder.
The needles should not be either very coarse or very fine.

Drawing. — The student should not begin to draw the
object until he is sure that he knows what he is to represent.
Examine the object thoroughly, make out the points called
for in the directions and then draw the object in such a
position that these structures or details asked for may be
brought out most clearly and advantageously. It is the
greatest of all mistakes to start to draw the object before it
has been thoroughly examined.

The size of the drawing depends partly upon the size of
the object and partly upon the number and nature of the
details to be represented. Large objects must be reduced
in the drawing in order to be represented at all, while smaller
objects must be enlarged or the details of structure either
cannot be represented at all or will be so small and crowded
together as to make their recognition difficult.

The outline of the object and of its parts must be sharp
and clear. The drawings made in this course are to repre-
sent the objects, and not to suggest them. Consequently,
shading should be avoided as a usual thing unless the
student has considerable skill in that line of work. The
shading done by the student usually obscures the details of
structure without adding anything either to the scientific or
the artistic worth of the drawing. Good, continuous, bold
lines are the best. Sketchy, disconnected, indefinite out-
lines are to be avoided and yet these are the ones which
the student usually draws unless a special effort is made to
avoid them.

While the size of the drawing may suit the details to be

APPENDIX I 135

represented and the area of the page used, the relative pro-
portions of the object should be represented as accurately
as possible. Especially this matter needs attention, when
the drawings are either enlarged or reduced copies of the
object. The relative curvature of the different lines and the
accuracy of the angles go hand in hand with proper general
proportions, and if the student will try to keep these points
carefully in mind, his success in drawing will be greater than
it could possibly be otherwise.

Labelling and Notes. — Drawings and notes are for future
use, it must be remembered, and not introduced simply to
give the student something to do, as is sometimes thought.
He should represent accurately, concisely, and clearly the
results of his study and be able to recall the work in its
detail to his mind at any time, as well as to make his results
comprehensible to another. Each drawing should be made
large enough and its parts distinct enough, to call up a
mental picture, perceptible, in most of its details at least,
at a glance. This must be borne in mind, also, in labelling
the drawings.

1. Label the entire drawing, stating what it represents;

how much enlarged or reduced.

2. Label each of the parts so distinctly that you may not get

two names mixed ; nor apply them to the same part ;
nor have to turn the drawing round one way to read
some names, and other ways to read others.

3. Leave a space about the drawing with its labelling and

place your notes near to it, but not crowded up
to it.

As to notes, the questions asked in the book should be
answered in regular order and anything shown by the speci-
men, but not by the drawing, should be written down.

I36 APPENDIX I

Say what you have to say in as few words as possible con-
sistent with clearness and completeness. Let your notes be
concise but to the point, but do not let conciseness interfere
with the completeness of your statement. See to it, that
your note is worded in such a way as to convey to others
whatever it should to you.

APPENDIX II

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS
INTRODUCTORY

THIS little book was written perhaps more for the teachers
than for the pupils. Many teachers ask to have some book
recommended which will give to them a definite idea of
what to do in an elementary course in laboratory practice
suitable for the secondary schools. Many teachers are
troubled about the method of teaching to be pursued, the
amount of ground to be covered, and the materials to be
used. The writer has attempted to indicate these in the
outline for the student, but feels that he may be able to help
many teachers by adding, in this appendix, certain additional
directions not to be incorporated into the outline without
confusing the student.

Method and Spirit of Instruction. — The teacher may
read what is said to the student under the head "Spirit,"
and also what has been said in the preface upon this point.
The ideal way is to teach the student without any book,
giving him the object, requiring him to work out the struct-
ure and make the proper inferences, aiding him by means
of questions designed to stimulate his thoughts and to lead
him in the proper direction. But many teachers have too
many students and too little time to apply this method, and
must use the outline.

The outline needs a good teacher to be really effective.
The teacher should be enthusiastic, that is, should enter

138 APPENDIX II

thoroughly into the spirit of the nature-study proposed.
The plant should be to the teacher, a living thing whose life-
history is a reality and he must contrive to raise the minds
of his pupils above the drudgery of the work to the lessons
to be drawn from it. No book can take the place of the
teacher ; it can only assist and counsel.

The outline will admit of much amplification in most
subjects, and the teacher will find, even in using it, much
chance for original methods and subject matter.

Material. — The selection of material has been made with
much care by the writer and he believes that he has suc-
ceeded, in almost every case, in recommending something
available throughout the more populous portions of this
country, from ocean to ocean. On account of the wide
diversity in flora, the writer has recommended garden plants
wherever possible. The teacher should become acquainted
with the local flora, however, and study it with reference
to the particular needs of the laboratory instruction. Such
a knowledge will enable the teacher to introduce mate-
rial, often more suitable than that recommended or to
substitute one thing for another which is not accessible for
the time being.

Preserved material must necessarily be used, instead of
living, in many cases. Many things, such as leaves, twigs
with buds, dry fruits, etc., may be simply dried, and laid
away ; but flowers, fleshy fruits, etc., must be preserved in
liquid. One of the best preservatives is Formalin * or For-
malose, a 40 % solution of Formaldehyde. It is a clear liquid
with a penetrating and irritating odor, and is prepared for
use by mixing one or two parts (by measure) with 100 parts

1 Any druggist can readily obtain the Formalin, Formalose, or 40%
Formaldehyde, all three being practically the same article under different
trade names.

APPENDIX II 139

of water (distilled water is best, but any clean water will
do). The best jars in which to store materials, are, in the
writer's estimation, the "Lightning" or the "Hero " preserve
jars which come in half-gallon, quart, pint, and half-pint
sizes. In such jars specimens of flowers, fruits, buds etc.,
may be preserved for dissection, or insectivorous plants,
parasites, etc., may be stored for class demonstration.

A collection of material put up in these ways, either dried
or in liquid, especially of things likely to be unobtainable at
the time when they are wanted, will greatly facilitate the
teacher's work and, in the suggestions concerning the par-
ticular chapters, certain farther suggestions will be given.
Living material is, in general, much preferable if it can be
obtained.

Reading. — The teacher should do as much reading as
possible to broaden his horizon and a list of books is given
below with comments. Under the notes upon each chapter
which are to follow, special references will be given and it
will be well to recommend some of these particular refer-
ences to the pupils ; but usually after their laboratory work
upon the special object is completed.

Every teacher should have ready access to, and make full
use of, the following : —

Kerner and Oliver .l The Natural History of Plants. 2 vol-
umes (4 parts). Henry Holt & Co. New York. 1895.

Lubbock (John). Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves. Macmillan
& Co. London and New York. 1894.

Lubbock (John). A Contribution to our Knowledge of Seed-
lings. 2 volumes. Kegan Paul, French, Trlibner, & Co.
London. 1892.

1 This, although an expensive book (about $15.00), is really indispen-
sable. The abundant and excellent illustrations greatly increase its useful-

140 APPENDIX II

Gaye (Selind). The Great World's Farm. (2d Edition.)

Macmillan & Co. London and New York. 1894.
Hardinge (E. At.). With the Wild Flowers. The Baker

and Taylor Co. New York. 1894.
Allen (Grant). The Story of the Plants. D. Appleton &

Co. New York. 1895.
Weed (Clarence Moores).1 Ten New England Blossoms and

their Insect Visitors. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Boston

and New York. 1895.

There is much more to be gained by having a few good
books and making their contents thoroughly familiar to
ourselves, than having a whole library simply for superficial
acquaintance. The writer has recommended these few
books because of the spirit in which they are written, as
well as the subject matter. The teacher may look to them
for inspiration, and not only inspiration in a general way,
but also in a particular way, with reference to special objects
for his own study and that of his class. They, also, of
themselves will indicate farther reading.

The teacher will do well to have access to a certain num-
ber of text-books, especially those treating the subject wholly
or partially from a laboratory standpoint.

Some of the more recent and most suggestive are the
following : —

Spalding (Volney M.). Guide to the Study of Common

Plants. An Introduction to Botany. D. C. Heath & Co.

Boston. 1894.
Darwin (Francis). The Elements of Botany. Macmillan

& Co. New York. 1895.
Bergen (J. K.). Elements of Botany. Ginn & Co. Boston

and London. 1896.

1 Although this refers to New England blossoms, yet plants very nearly
related to several of them being found in most parts of the country, its
usefulness is not confined to that particular corner of the United States.

APPENDIX II 141

For various morphological questions and especially, for
definitions, both teacher and students should consult Gray's
well-known text-books — with the glossaries. The writer
fully believes that the students should be taught to define
and to interpret definitions, and that it is well for them to
consult several glossaries and dictionaries ; comparing and
selecting the good definitions.

Beyond these books are many others, but the writer
believes that this list will be sufficient for a beginning and
that by these books others will be suggested.

Reviews. — The teacher should try to review the work of
each chapter with the students at the close of the work upon
it. Quizzing upon the special points brought out and any
questions bearing upon them, help in this. Each chapter
should be a sort of unit in the minds of the students, and
the inter-relationships of the various units making up the
book should be brought out and emphasized.

Time. — Each laboratory session should be at least an
hour and a half long. Two hours is about the best labora-
tory period for beginners. Three times a week is about the
proper frequency for laboratory exercises. If a course is to
run through the year, it should begin, of course, at the begin-
ning of the year, i.e. in most cases in the late summer or
early autumn. By properly preparing certain materials
ahead, the course as laid out in this volume may be given
at almost any time of the year and a considerable portion
of the material be procured in a living condition.

Laboratories. — If the laboratory can have tall, wide win-
dows facing mostly to the north, it will possess more advan-
tages than any other. But almost any airy and well-lighted
room will serve very well for students beginning in this
simple way.

Laboratory Equipment — The laboratory should possess

I42 APPENDIX II

tables and chairs conveniently proportioned and arranged
so that each pupil's place may be as well lighted as possi-
ble. If dissecting microscopes such as those recommended
on page 133 can be supplied by the institution, the work
will be much facilitated. Each institution should possess
at least one compound microscope with powers ranging
from 65 to 500 diameters, for demonstrating points un-
satisfactorily brought out under the lenses of the simple
microscope. However, most of the details called for in
the laboratory directions may be fairly satisfactorily demon-
strated under the lenses of a good dissecting microscope.

CHAPTER I

SEEDS
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 420-427.
Gray, Elements of Botany, pp. 15-26 and 125-128; Text-
book, pp. 9-27 and 305-314.
Lubbock, Seedlings, Volume I, pp. 4-8.

THE teacher should allow the laboratory work upon seeds
to proceed very slowly, taking care that the students make
their observations very carefully, finishing the work called
for by one paragraph before proceeding to that demanded
by the next. Very careful attention should be paid to the
manner in which the drawings of the different seeds and
their contents are made. They are very easy objects for
the most part; each detail can be plainly indicated and
labelled. If the student begins his work properly, the future
study will be made easier and better.

APPENDIX II 143

I. If a Bean pod is not available, any leguminose pod
resembling it will do.

II. Beans should be soaked six to twelve hours, until
fully swollen out. The larger " colored " Beans are the best
ones for study ; but Lima Beans show all parts, especially
the plumules, very well.

4. Strophiole; read Gray's Text-book, p. 308, § 596.
3, 5, 6, etc. Hilum, Rhaphe, Chalaza, Micropyle ; read Gray's
Text-book, p. 305, § 588.

VII. Castor Bean. Read Bastin, Laboratory Exercises
in Botany (Philadelphia, 1895, W. B. Saunders), pp. 235-
239 (with figures).

1. The Castor Beans in the market are of two kinds, large

and small. The larger ones are better. They do
not need soaking as a usual thing.

2. Read Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 93-95.

IX. Read Gray, Elements, p. 21, or Text-book, pp.

X. Read Gray, Elements, pp. 25, 26, and Text-book,
pp. 25, 26.

Corn should be soaked in warm water at least thirty-six
hours, to become well swollen.

XIII. Read Gray, Elements, p. 24.

XV. Read Gray, Elements, pp. 23, 24, and Text-book,
p. 23.

" Pine Nuts," of the Pinon or Digger Pines, may be ob-
tained from the markets of many western and Californian
cities in the autumn, and even from the New York markets

APPENDIX II

at times. But teachers may obtain, through seedsmen, the
seeds of Pinus Pinea, P. Cembra, P. Lambertiana, P.
edulis, or /*. Sabiana, all of which are large and good.
The seeds do not need soaking at all in water. They are
better without it.

XVIII and XIX. The teacher should not confine him-
self to the tables, summaries, and lists of questions appended
to various chapters, but should ask all sorts of questions to
develop and implant the subject in the student's mind.

XIX. As supplementary work, the students may examine
thin sections of the Bean, Castor Bean, etc., under the com-
pound microscope, and learn to apply simple tests for starch,
cellulose, proteids, oils, etc.

CHAPTER II

SEEDLINGS
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part 2, pp. 598-623 (and p. 650

under hypocotyl = caulicle).
Lubbock, Seedlings, especially Volume I, pp. 8-77.
Gray, Elements, pp. 15-26; Text-book, pp. 9-27.
Gaye, The Great World's Farm, pp. 277-299.

I, II, III. Early Peas are soaked over night, then placed
upon cotton which is slightly dampened, covered, and kept
in a room at about 70-75° F. The caulicle will begin to
protrude in about three days.

Beans need about five days.

Corn (soaked thirty-six hours) needs about five days.

APPENDIX II 145

Morning Glory (soaked over night) needs about three
days.

Onion (soaked over night) needs from eight to ten days.

The caulicle is the first organ to protrude beyond the
seed-coats in almost all ordinary seeds. A detailed con-
sultation of Lubbock's Seedlings will show this.

IV, V. It is well to plant in loose soil (or sawdust) about
three lots of well-soaked Beans and Peas. The first lot should
be planted about three weeks before they are needed ; the
second lot a week later ; the third lot about a week before
they are needed. In regard to such matters as having seed-
lings in good condition, i.e. particularly in the right stages
for class work, a little experimentation on the part of the
teacher will afford a much more satisfactory basis for the
teacher than anything else. Seeds vary and conditions
vary. A good florist, to advise with the teacher, or even to
undertake the work of supplying the materials, will be a
great help. The student, however, should have a chance to
watch the seedlings as they develop.

VI. Castor Beans should be soaked in warm water for
about twenty-four hours, sown in pots or a box of loose
earth, about four weeks before they are wanted. They
usually start growing one or two at a time, so that after
three or four weeks, all stages in germination may be repre-
sented in the same pot. The teacher should request the
students to compare the caulicle and cotyledons in a well-
grown seedling with those organs in the embryo, as regards
both size and color. The adult leaf mentioned under 8, may
be a pressed leaf, if fresh ones are not available.

VII. What was said of Peas and Beans, applies as well to
Indian Corn.

146 APPENDIX II

VIII. Onion Seedlings need about twenty days for the
cotyledon to develop well and to pull the seed-coats out of
the ground, and a week or two longer before any plumule
will show.

IX. Pine Seedlings are not very easy to obtain. The
smaller seeds (of such species as Pinus Laricio and P. Aus-
triaca}, after soaking for about forty-eight hours, were
planted and began to appear in eighteen to twenty days ;
but the larger seeds (of P. Lambertiana and P. Pinea) did
not appear until after thirty (P. Pinea) to fifty-three days
(P. Lambertiana}. Pine seeds may be obtained from the
larger seed dealers, but few out of many sown are likely to
germinate.

CHAPTER III

ROOTS
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part 2, pp. 749-767 ; I, Part i,

pp. 82-99.

Allen, The Story of the Plants, pp. 53-63.
Gray, Text-book, pp. 27-33.
Gaye, The Great World's Farm, pp. 124-148.

I. This use of " secondary root " and of " adventitious
root" is contrary to that of Gray's Text-book, but is
more in accord with the general usage of secondary and
adventitious.

II. Squash Seedlings are not always easy to raise within
doors. Care should be taken to get " sound " seed and not
to keep the soil too damp. A few good seedlings preserved

APPENDIX II 147

in formalin solution will furnish a proper safeguard against
the failure to grow.

III. The " base of the adult cornstalk " may simply be
dried and the same specimens used year after year.

IV. Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part i, pp. 86-
91. The student may examine the root-hairs under the
lenses of the compound microscope and even study the
finer structure of the whole root from the point of view
of the function of each of the different tissues.

CHAPTER IV

STEMS
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part 2, pp. 710-723, and 724-

736; also 465-482.

Gray, Text-book, pp. 45-51 (top) and 69-85.
Allen, The Story of the Plants, pp. 161-182.

I. Cosmos stem will do equally well. The pieces may
be dried and kept in that condition until a few hours before
using, when they should be placed in boiling water and
allowed to stay there until it becomes cool. Formalin
material, however, is better, and a supply in this fluid for
smaller classes does not occupy much space.

II. It is well for the teacher or the assistant to prepare
thin sections for the class. Very thin and uniform sections
may be cut with a sharp razor in such a hand microtome as
that designed by Professor Bastin (Bausch and Lomb Optical
Co., Rochester, N.Y., No. 2550, fifteenth edition of their

148 APPENDIX II

Catalogue). Very thin sections may be placed in strong
alcohol to bleach, and kept there indefinitely. They should,
however, be placed in water for about an hour before being
examined.

If compound microscopes are available, the study of the
histology of the stems of the Sunflower, Cosmos, Corn, Wal-
nut, etc., may be carried on more thoroughly, and several
exercises devoted to it.

VI. The teacher should explain thoroughly the signifi-
cance of the ordinary association of these three kinds of
structures.

VII. Indian Corn stem may be preserved in the same
way as the Sunflower or Cosmos stem.

VIII. Sections may be cut in the same way as in the
case of the stem of the Sunflower.

X. To be contrasted with the statement in § VI.

XII. The Basswood or Linden and the Sycamore or But-
tonball are excellent stems for this purpose. Sections may
also be cut of these stems upon the hand microtome.

CHAPTER V

LEAVES. I
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part 2, pp. 593-597, 626-640.
Allen, The Story of the Plants, pp. 33-53.
Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 97-147.
Gaye, The Great World's Farm, pp. 157-176.
Gray, Text-book, pp. 85-106; Elements, pp. 49-59.

APPENDIX II

I, 7. Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part 2, p. 595
(the italicized portion), for a definition of a leaf, and then
the discussion leading up to it upon pp. 593 and 594.

I. Any simple leaf with an unlobed blade, a good petiole,
and stipules will do. Apple leaves, Pear leaves, Quince
leaves, etc., are good. The round-leaved Pelargoniums
also have good leaves for this purpose. In all the work
upon leaves in I-XII the specimens may be dried and even
glued to paper. Fresh living specimens, however, are
better.

III. The Pittospomm eugenioides (with yellowish foliage
and black twigs) occasionally grown in greenhouses East,
but a fairly common ornamental shrub in middle California,
is most excellent for showing the netted venation. Species
of Cherry, etc., are also very good.

V. Besides the Lily of the Valley, the leaves of Scoliopus
Bigelovii of California, of the Belhvorts (Oakesia, etc.),
Cypripediums (native sp.), etc., are fairly good.

XII. The teacher may emphasize the descriptive terms
as much as may be thought best under the circumstances.
It is excellent drill to make the students apply terms with
accuracy. At the same time, suggestions as to the reasons
for the various shapes will be found in the reference to Lub-
bock's book given at the beginning of the notes upon this
chapter, and for matters of the same kind concerning the
different character of different leaf surfaces, read Kerner
and Oliver, Volume I, Part i, pp. 307-325.

XIII-XIV. Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part
i, pp. 279-283; and Gray, Text-book, pp. 85-90; Ele-
ments, pp. 142-144. It will be well for the student to make
a careful study of the internal structure of the leaf, with the

ISO APPENDIX II

aid of the compound microscope. The function of each of
the different tissues should be emphasized.

XV. Read the reference in Grant Allen's The Story of
the Plants, given above. The various kinds of work done
by the leaves should be very decidedly emphasized by the
teacher.

CHAPTER VI

LEAVES. II
General Reading

Gray, Text-book, pp. 106-110; Elements, pp. 60-62.
Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 117-147.

I. Various species of Aster, Solidago, Flax, Butter-and-
Eggs, etc., will do ; in fact, any species with well-developed
sessile leaves.

II. Plants with good perfoliate leaves are not at all com-
mon, and at present the writer can recommend only this
species of the eastern portion of the United States, and the
European Bupleurum rotundifolium.

III. Eupatorium perfoliattim, the common Thoroughwort
or Boneset of the eastern half of the United States, is also
excellent. Likewise the Fuller's Teazel common in many
parts of the country.

IV. Acacias with phyllodia are commonly grown through-
out middle and southern California and are very frequently
met with in the greenhouses in the rest of the country. Seed-
lings are not uncommon in California.

Read Gray, Text-book, p. no, § 217; Elements, p. 61,
§ 162 ; Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 120, 121.

APPENDIX II 151

V. Lathyrus Aphaca is a European species and not acces-
sible, as far as the writer knows, to students in this country.

The student may be shown pictures of this, and the rela-
tionship to the forms with imparipinnate and cirrhiferous
pinnate leaves brought out.

Read Gray, Text-book, p. 109, § 216, and pp. 100, 101,
§ 195 ; Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 137, 138.

VI. Read Gray, Text-book, p. 109, § 215 ; Lubbock,
Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 106, 107.

VII. Read Gray, Text-book, pp. 108, 109.

VIII. Read Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp.
119, 121, and 122, Figs. 76 and 77 ; Kerner and Oliver,
Volume I, Part i, pp. 326 (under " Australian Proteaceae "),
335 (bottom line), 336, and II, Part i, p. 471.

The Eucalyptus species are abundant in California and
are occasionally found in greenhouses in other parts of the
country. Dried and pressed specimens may be used where
fresh material is not available.

IX. The so-called " Smilax " of the greenhouses (Myrsi-
phyllum asparagoides or Asparagus medeoloides} is very gen-
erally accessible all over the country. In studying this plant,
it is well to emphasize the fact that we consider a structure
borne in the axil of a leaf as a branch structure, and a struct-
ure bearing another structure in its axil as a leaf structure.
These points cannot be emphasized either too strongly or
too often.

Read Gray, Text-book, pp. 65, 66, § 127; Elements,
pp. 61, 62, § 164.

XI. Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part i, p. 339
(under Oxalis).

152 APPENDIX II

Read also Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part i, pp.
338 (bottom) and 339.

XII. Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part 2, pp.
532-539-

XIII. Read Gray, Text-book, p. 102.

XIV. Read Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, p. 123.

Live Oaks are excellent for Californian students. Leaves
of the so-called Laurel of the East (Kalmia\ of Rhododen-
drons, Azaleas, Hollies, etc., are also excellent.

XV. Pressed specimens, illustrating the different methods
of defoliation, may be mounted upon sheets of Bristol board.

Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part i, pp. 355-361.

CHAPTER VII

PHYLLOTAXY
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part i, pp. 396-400 ; Part 2,

pp. 401-430.

Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 97-118.
Gray, Text-book, pp. 119-131 ; Elements, pp. 67-71.

I. Almost any plant with opposite leaves will do just as
well as Fuchsia. It is recommended because it is usually
very readily obtainable. Erect branches are desirable.

III. Any plant with whorled leaves may be used. Certain
Lilies (Lilium sp.) are good. The Galium species, how-
ever, occur almost everywhere.

APPENDIX II 153

IV. Elms, Basswoods or Lindens, Indian Corn, and various
Grasses are good. But Iris, Hemerocallis (Day Lily), etc.,
while showing the two ranks excellently, do not allow the
insertion of the leaves to be determined with sufficient
readiness.

VII. Three-ranked arrangements are by no means com-
mon. Those who live in the eastern portions of the United
States may obtain the Veratrum in the spring, and no more
excellent object can be found. The upright shoots of Alders,
Hazels, and Beeches sometimes show it very distinctly, and
teachers who have not access to Veratnim should seek
suitable materials from these plants.

VIII. The upright wand-like shoots, lighted equally or
nearly so from all sides, of young plants or of branches
from the roots or bases of the plants mentioned should be
used. Sumachs, Willows, and Oaks are excellent. Where
Willows have been pollarded, the adventitious vertical
branches which spring out make excellent objects, especially
in the case of the broader leaved S. discolor, S. cordata,
and S. lucida.

IX. Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part i, p. 400,
for further cases.

XI. Cones of Larch, Sequoia gigantea, Sugar Pine, etc.,
are excellent. Read carefully the references to this subject
in Kerner and Oliver and in Gray, recommended above.
The numbering of the scales of cones is an excellent task for
students to perform outside of the laboratory.

XIII, XIV. Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part 2,
pp. 414-417 and 419, 420, especially compare Figs. 106
and 109 ; Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp.
108-111.

154 APPENDIX II

XV. Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part 2, pp.
405 (bottom line)-407.

XVI. Another view is frequently expressed ; for which
read Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part 2, p. 402.

Read Gray, Text-book, p. 127.

The latest writers disagree with Sachs, however, and con-
sider these spirals as secondary and the number of ranks
as greater than three.

CHAPTER VIII

BUDS
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 25-45.
Gray, Text-book, pp. 40-45 ; Elements, pp. 27-32.

MATERIAL, consisting of branches with buds, may be tied
up into bundles and dried. If placed in boiling water and
allowed to remain there until the water is cool, all the parts
will swell up to their normal size again and will serve the
same purposes as fresh material.

V. The large-leaved Maple of California and the Red or
the Silver Maple of the East are excellent.

VI. Material should be fresh or preserved in formalin.
Read Gray, Elements, p. 63, § 166 (Buckeye); Text-
book, p. 116, § 227 (Buckeye).

The scales of large specimens of the Buckeye or of the
Red Currant may be carefully picked off, pressed, and the
series of transitions from scales to leaves pasted upon cards
and given to the students in that form.

APPENDIX II 155

The teacher should explain homology and analogy at this
point and emphasize all cases hereafter.

VII. The Pittosporum is the P. eugenioides, common in
cultivation in California, with yellowish green foliage and
black-stemmed twigs. The winter bud is pronounced and
the homology between the bud-scale and the blade of the
leaf is readily demonstrated. Series of scales pressed and
mounted upon cards may be made in either of these cases
or the class may work from fresh or formalin material.

VIII. The same recommendations apply also to this
paragraph.

Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part i, pp. 351-353,
Fig. 91 (Tulip Tree) and Fig. 92 (Beech).

IX. Compare Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part i,
Fig. 90, 3 and 4 (p. 349) (Walnut).

XII. Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp.

25-28, 29, 30, 37-45.

CHAPTER IX

PRJEFOLIATION
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part i, pp. 347-355.
Gray, Text-book, pp. 132, 133 (also 134-140 for flower buds
especially).

FORMALIN or fresh material is necessary for the study of
praefoliation. The buds should be taken as they are just
opening if winter buds, but the vegetative buds also furnish
good demonstrations. If opening winter buds are not avail-
able, large quiescent buds will do, but they are not so easily
manipulated.

156 APPENDIX II

CHAPTER X

PROTECTION
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part 2, pp. 430-451.

Hardinge, With the Wild Flowers, pp. 217-258 (Poisonous
Species) .

Gray, Text-book, pp. 55 (§§ 112, 113), 117 (§ 227 a) ; Ele-
ments, pp. 41 (§§ 101, 102), 64 (§ 167).

Croupin, The Thorns of Plants (Popular Science Monthly,
Volume 46, pp. 498-501 (with figures), 1895).

I. The Orange, Lemon, or any of the Cratcegus sp.,
i.e. Scarlet Thorn, Hawthorn, or Cockspur Thorn, are ex-
cellent. Leafless branches may be dried and soaked out
again as recommended under Chapter VIII.

II. In the Eastern Barberry (Herberts vulgaris}, after
the leaves have appeared in the spring, a complete series of
gradations from leaves to spines may be traced in many
instances. Read Gray, Elements or Text-book, referred to
above.

III. The long, slender, upright shoots from the base of
Robinia Pseudacacia show these spines beautifully. The
Acacia armata or Spiny Acacia is fairly commonly grown
in California and to some extent in the greenhouses East.
The stems of the Euphorbia splendens, common in green-
houses all over the country, is also armed with spines occupy-
ing the places of stipules. The spines in Xanthium spinosum,
a frequent weed in California, are also stipular.

APPENDIX II 157

IV. The prickles of Roses and of Brambles are in many
cases especially adapted more for climbing than for protec-
tion. Read Kerne r and Oliver, Volume I, Part 2, pp. 671
(bottom line)-673.

VIII. Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part 2, pp.
441-443.

XL Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part i, pp. 307-
346, 347-355 ; and Volume I, Part 2, pp. 548-552.

CHAPTER XI

STORAGE
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part 2, p. 749 (bottom), 750,

751 (bottom), 752, 624.
Gray, Text-book, pp. 31, 32, 57-64, 115, 116, and 14-26;

Elements, pp. 35, 36, 43-48, 62, 63, and 17-26.
Allen, The Story of the Plants, pp. 68-72.

THE materials for illustrating storage are generally acces-
sible. Small specimens of Cacti, Agaves, Aloes, etc., may be
obtained from the florist in pots. Corms, bulbs, etc., can be
obtained from the florist at certain seasons, when it is well
to preserve a supply in formalin. Radishes, Carrots, Beets,
Potatoes, etc., can be obtained in the market at almost any
time.

Besides the rough morphological study outlined, the
student may with advantage study thin sections of the thick-
ened parts and test for the particular reserve materials as
recommended in the case of seeds (see p. 144).

II. Species of Live-for-ever are also good.

158 APPENDIX II

III. The root-stocks of the Solomon's Seal are also excel-
lent for this purpose.

IV. The Jerusalem Artichoke has excellent tubers. The
teacher should provide, if possible, a young plant of the
Potato or Artichoke, with as much of the underground
portion as possible, showing at least the slender under-
ground branches with the tubers at the ends.

V. The Corms of the Crocus and of the Indian Turnip or
Jack-in-the-Pulpit are excellent. Gladiolus is usually readily
obtainable from the florist at the proper season for planting.
Various Brodiaeas are common throughout California.

VII. Scaly bulbs are not always readily obtainable. One
of the best is that of Lilium auratum, obtainable in the
spring from the florist, but they are somewhat expensive.
The Bermuda or Easter Lily is cheaper and may be ob-
tained usually during the winter. The native Lilies are
good. Californians may generally obtain excellent Lilium
bulbs in Chinatown, at any rate in the larger cities. The
Chinese use them for food.

IX. The Ornithogalum, or Star-of-Bethlehem, has also
very good tunicated bulbs.

CHAPTER XII
CLIMBING PLANTS
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part 2, pp. 669-710.
Gray, Text-book, pp. 34, 35, 51-53, 54, 55> 117-118.
Allen, The Story of the Plants, pp. 178 (bottom)-iSo.
Darwin, Climbing Plants.

APPENDIX II 159

THE hints contained in the introductory paragraph should
be emphasized by the teacher and illustrations suggested or
called forth from the class. The struggle for light and air
thus illustrated will not be easily impressed upon their
minds in any other way. It is important that these points
should be made plain in order that the student may under-
stand why it is that plants take to climbing.

I. Manettia is a common plant with the florist. Small
ones, trained about slender stakes, may often be obtained in
pots, and in this condition are readily available for observa-
tion in the laboratory.

II. Any species of Ipomxa will do. Several species are
grown in the greenhouses. 7. purpurea, the common Morn-
ing Glory, may be readily raised from seed in pots and
allowed to twine about slender stakes.

IV. Especially Beans, Cypress Vines, Dutchman's Pipes,
Yams, etc.

V. The Grapevine also has excellent tendrils, but their
homology with branches is not easily made out. Ampelop-
sis sp., i.e. the Virginia Creeper and the Japanese Creeper,
have tendrils which form suckers at the ends and attach
themselves to flat surfaces in this way.

VI. Peas can be raised very easily in boxes in the labo-
ratory. Five to six weeks will generally be sufficient for
their growth.

VIII. Solatium jasminoides may often be obtained from
florists, during the winter, in small pots and will climb about
slender supports.

Compare Gray, Text-book, p. 117, Fig. 235.

IX. Pressed specimens often show the habit very well.

APPENDIX II

CHAPTER XIII
EPIPHYTES, PARASITES, AND SAPROPHYTES

General Reading

EPIPHYTES :

Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part i, pp. 115 (bottom) -117;

Part 2, pp. 753, 754.
PARASITES :

Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part i, pp. 171-215.
SAPROPHYTES :

Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part i, pp. 99-1 19.

As the laboratory work proceeds, the relationships exist-
ing between epiphytes, parasites, and saprophytes should be
brought out and the gradations between the various kinds.

I. These Aerial Orchids, as they are called, are generally
obtainable, and may perhaps be borrowed or hired of the
florist.

II. The Rock Lichens are also good examples. The
" symbiosis " character of the Lichen may be explained by
the teacher if desirable.

Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part i, pp. 243-248.

III. Mistletoes are fairly readily obtainable in California
and in the southern portion of the United States from the
Rocky Mountains eastward, from oaks, etc. Pieces of the
branches upon which they grow should be taken with them.
In other parts of the country, supplies must be drawn from
correspondents or from the florists who have supplies about
Christmas time, but such specimens usually lack any portion
of the host plant.

APPENDIX II

IV. Compare Kerne r and Oliver, Volume I, Part i,
p. 209, Fig. 48.

VI. Species of Dodder (Cuscuta} are common all over
the country. Material is best when fresh or preserved in
formalin, but may also be dried and soaked out again.

VIII. The Bread-Mould is a very good example of a
saprophyte and also of a group of plants of which we have,
as yet, had no example in our work ; viz. of flowerlcss-
or spore-plants. The Coral Roots (species of Coral-
lorhiza) are fairly widely distributed and may be studied.
The Indian Pipe (Monotropa) is perhaps more properly
a parasite upon a mould. The insectivorous plants treated
under the next chapter are also saprophytes, but as they
obtain their organic materials in an entirely different way,
they are not included here. The teacher, however, should
call the attention of the students to this fact.

IX. Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part i, pp.
213-215.

CHAPTER XIV

INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS

General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part i, pp. 119-158.
Allen, The Story of the Plants, pp. 63-68.
Gaye, The Great World's Farm, pp. 149-151.
Gray, Text-book, pp. 110-115 ; Elements, pp. 64-66.
Darwin, Insectivorous Plants.

I. In the eastern United States, both to the north and
to the south, some species of Pitcher Plant (Sarracenia)

APPENDIX II

may be obtained. Other districts must needs be supplied
by friends or by some botanical supply company. (The
Cambridge Botanical Supply Co., Cambridge, Mass., adver-
tises that it will obtain botanical materials for teachers.)
Plants may be kept growing in the laboratory if the pots are
kept immersed in several inches of water. Dried leaves
may be kept from season to season, being soaked up in
water when needed. Species of Nepenthes are often grown
in conservatories.

II. The Darlingtonia is difficult to obtain except occa-
sionally from florists who deal in native plants.1 It is easily
grown in the same way as Sarracenias are.

IV. The Venus Flytrap is very restricted in its range,
but is fairly readily grown in sand in a pot immersed in
a few inches of water. It may be obtained through dealers
in native plants.1

VII. The teachers in the eastern United States can obtain
Drosera species. Others may sometimes obtain them from
florists. They should be grown in peat and Sphagnum, but
do not flourish as well as the plants previously mentioned.

The Bladderworts (Utricitlaria sp.) may also be used if
accessible to the teacher, as they are in much of the country
east of the Rocky Mountains.

If laboratory material is unobtainable, the teacher will lect-
ure upon this chapter and show specimens or illustrations.

i Such as Edward Gillett, Southwick, Mass., or F. H. Hosford & Co.,
Charlotte, Vt.

APPENDIX II 163

CHAPTER XV
REPRODUCTION

IN beginning to consider the matter of reproduction, it
must be borne in mind that it is to this end that the plant
works. It strives first to build up a strong healthy body or
vegetative portion, and to accumulate proper materials, both
in kind and in quality, in order that the provisions made for
reproducing its kind and perpetuating the species may be
adequate.

It is for the purpose of providing for this that some
plants find it advantageous to protect themselves against
unfavorable conditions and animals which would otherwise
prey upon them, to store up nourishment to be expended
for this purpose, to adopt the habits of epiphytes, parasites,
saprophytes, or insectivorous plants, to grow high, to remain
low, or to climb up over their neighbors. In fact, every
variation in plant structure and habit is probably explainable
upon the idea that the plant has to struggle to maintain
itself in a condition to reproduce its kind. That some
plants adopt one set of methods, and others, another, leads
to the infinite variation in plant life which we find.

I64 APPENDIX II

CHAPTER XVI

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 25-45 and 452-463.
Gray, Text-book, pp. 43 (§§ 73, 74), 45 (§ 77), 53 (§§ ">$-
108), 56-60 (§§ 115-117), 63 (§§ 123, 124).

I. Lilium tigrinum, or Tiger Lily, is in common cultiva-
tion in the East, and may be obtained through florists there
or elsewhere. Cicuta bulbifera, of the East, has also very
excellent axillary bulblets. Some species of Calochortus,
or Mariposa Lily, have subterranean axillary bulblets.

III. In the eastern United States many Wild Onions
produce bulblets instead of flowers.

IV. Cultivated species of Dwscorea, obtainable from
florists.

CHAPTER XVII

SEED REPRODUCTION

THE general reading is so extensive and the number of
subjects so great that the references will be given under the
heads of the several succeeding chapters. It has seemed
simplest and best in this little guide to distinguish seed and
spore reproduction, since we shall have no means of examin-
ing the finer details of the embryology of the forms either

APPENDIX II 165

higher or lower. They are related to one another some-
thing as oviparous and viviparous reproductive methods in
the animals, i.e. they are not different in kind, but in spore
reproduction the reproductive body (the spore) is separated
from the parent while still in a very simple and very primi-
tive condition ; while in seed reproduction, it is retained
longer in connection with the parent until it has developed
within it a rudimentary plantlet, with provision for rapid
development of root, stem, and leaf. A number of plants
possess a kind of reproduction intermediate between the
two.

CHAPTER XVIII

A TYPICAL OR PATTERN FLOWER

General Reading

Gray, Text-book, pp. 176-179 (§§ 323-325); Elements, pp.
81, 82 (§§ 239, 240). _ .

I. Crassula species are to be obtained from the green-
house, and it will be best to preserve a quantity in formalin
solution. If Crassula is not available, some species of Sediim
may be obtained. Sedum has two circles of stamens, and
the alternation of the circles seems to be disturbed. With a
little foresight the teacher can usually obtain the flowers of
some species either of Sedum or Crassula, either fresh or
preserved in fluid.

VIII. The teacher will do well to study the floral dia-
grams or ground plans given in Gray and also in Kerner and
Oliver under various paragraphs.

Compare Gray, Text-book, p. 176, Fig. 327; Elements,
p. 82, Figs. 225 and 227.

166 APPENDIX II

CHAPTER XIX

FERTILIZATION
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 401-420.
Gray, Text-book, pp. 215-218 and 283-285.
Allen, The Story of the Plants, pp. 73-86.
Gaye, The Great World's Farm, pp. 190-207.

THE distinction between pollination and the descent of the
pollen tube upon the one hand and fertilization upon the
other is one demanding much emphasis, and the teacher
must not only impress it upon the pupil, but must constantly
guard against the misuse of the terms both upon his own
part and upon that of the pupil as well.

Fertilization refers to the whole process upon which the
development of the embryo depends. This technical use
must be guarded from confusion with the fertilization of the
soil either natural or artificial. The process of pollination is
the process which may be studied with the facilities open
to the ordinary student, and must be studied in the field to
be comprehended in its variety of interests. Some typical
examples may be brought into the laboratory, but excur-
sions with the view of examining the plants in their natural
habitat, and encouragement to the pupils to make excur-
sions for themselves, to watch and attempt to make out the
details of the fertilization in as many different kinds of flow-
ers as possible, is very necessary. Such work as this is far
better than any laboratory work which can be conceived of.

APPENDIX II 167

CHAPTER XX

IMPERFECT, INCOMPLETE, AND UNSYMMETRICAL FLOWERS

IMPERFECT FLOWERS:

Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 291-299.
Gray, Text-book, pp. 193 (§ 353) and 218 (§ 405).
Allen, The Story of the Plants, pp. 105 (bottom line)-lO9.
Gaye, The Great World's Farm, pp. 208-212.

I. 6. In this case it is intended to call attention to the
more complete crossing in dioecious plants than must neces-
sarily take place in monoecious plants. Read, also, Kerner
and Oliver, Vol. II, Part i, pp. 300 (section at bottom of the
page), 301; and Gray, Text-book, pp. 215 (note under
Kerner's " Flowers and their Unbidden Guests"), 216, for
the terms Autogamy, Allogamy, Geitonogamy, and Xenogamy.

II. The perianth, i.e. the floral envelopes (calyx and
corolla), serves two separate kinds of functions. First, it
protects the maturing essential organs until they are in a
condition to perform their functions. Second, it serves,
in insect-pollinated flowers, to attract insects both by its
color, and by the nectar which it secretes. It is by no
means easy to determine in most cases why one or both
circles of the perianth are absent.

Read Gray, Text-book, pp. 187-195.

III. IV. Irregtilarity is generally explainable after more
or less careful study upon the basis of adaptation to insect-
pollination. The papilionaceous flower in its various forms,
and the flowers of the Larkspur, Monkshood, Pansy, etc.,
are excellent examples and worthy of detailed study.

APPENDIX II

Read Kerne r and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 228,
260, 261, 267, 268; Gray, Text-book, pp. 184-189,
225-229 ; Allen, The Story of the Plants, pp. 90-98 ;
Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 27-30.

V. Orchids of various kinds may generally be obtained from
the greenhouses. The pollen masses may be demonstrated
and the method of their withdrawal. Certain native species,
especially of Habenaria, may often be obtained. The
material used should be alive and a pencil tip or a bristle
be employed to represent the proboscis of an insect.

Read Kerne r and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 254-257,
269, 270; Gray, Text-book, pp. 230-234; Weed, Ten New
England Blossoms, pp. 72-89 ; also Darwin, On the Fer-
tilization of Orchids by Insects.

Species of Milkweed (Asclepias) have pollinia, and living
material may be introduced into the laboratory whenever
possible and the process of pollination be demonstrated.

Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 257-260 ;
Gray, Text-book, p. 233 (bottom).

VI. The lack of symmetry is usually connected more or
less directly with irregularity and is brought about by the
suppression of parts of different circles.

Read Gray, Text-book, pp. 187-190.

CHAPTER XXI

COALESCENCE AND ADNATION

COALESCENCE and adnation are directly concerned in the
same way as irregularity, in devices to ensure insect pollina-
tion. They modify the structure of the flower so as to
exclude insects of no use for this purpose, and to cause the

APPENDIX II 169

proper insects to enter the flower in such a fashion as to
benefit it in the most satisfactory way. Hints of this may
be obtained by reading from this point of view Kerner and
Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 221-243 and 243-276.

I. Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, p. 249.

III. Read Gray, Text-book, pp. 259-268; Kerner and
Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 72-84.

V. Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, p. 247,
Fig. 266.

CHAPTER XXII
WIND- AND INSECT- POLLINATION.

I. Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 129-151.
Gray, Text-book, pp. 217, 218.

Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, p. 7 (top).
Allen, The Story of the Plants, pp. 124-135.
Gaye, The Great World's Farm, pp. 208-214.
Hardinge, With the Wild Flowers, pp. 47-55.
Weed, Ten New England Blossoms, pp. 1-17.

The Indian Corn is certainly a most excellent example of
a wind-pollinated plant, and may usually be obtained or, at
least, explained, as its general arrangement is known to all.
The feathery stigmas of other Grasses are also extremely
instructive, taken into connection with the versatile anthers.

II. Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 152-167.
Gray, Text-book, pp. 218, 219.

i. Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 182-198.
Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 13, 14.
Allen, The Story of the Plants, pp. 86-96, 103, 104.
Allen, The Colors of the Flowers.

170 APPENDIX II

2. Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 198-209.
Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, p. 43.

3. Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 167-182.
Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 32-42.

4. (a) Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 280 (bot-

tom line), 281, Fig. 280.

4. (ti) Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 263 (bot-
tom paragraph), 264.

4. (c) Gray, Text-book, p. 229 (§ 419, Figs. 455-457)-

The Special Devices, however, are not limited to these
examples which are introduced here especially to show auto-
matic movements of the essential organs. The teacher after
carefully studying the various devices described in the first
part of Kerner and Oliver's Natural History of Plants,
and Gray's Text-book, will doubtless be able to provide a
number of interesting forms and to demonstrate the working
of the particular mechanism or structure. Attention may be
called, however, to two cases, viz. : —

Salvia. Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 262,
263. Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 20-22 ; and

Composite, Gray, Text-book, pp. 223, 224. Lubbock,
Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 25, 26 ;

as being easily obtainable and demonstrable. Composite are
readily obtainable everywhere, the common Sunflower and
Cosmos are good, and species of Salvia are commonly culti-
vated.

5. Dichogamy. Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i,

pp. 306-317 ; Gray, Text-book, pp. 219-225 ; Allen,
The Story of the Plants, pp. 101, 102 ; Lubbock,
Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 16-19.

6. Scrophularia nodosa and S. Calif or nica are equally suit-

able and allow the use of this plant in almost any

APPENDIX II 171

portion of the United States. Plantains are common.
The species with the longer spikes are preferable.
Specimens in formalin solution may be used when
fresh material is not available.

7. Some Pelargoniums, also, are excellent, but others are not.

For Geranium, compare Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits,
and Leaves, p. 8, Figs. 5 and 6. The various Mal-
lows are excellent, for the stigmas of most species
remain within the stamen tube until the anthers have
shed their pollen, then emerge and expand. The
larger flowered Willow-herbs (Epilobium species) are
excellent also, as may be seen from Gray, Text-book,
p. 222, and Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i,
p. 309, Fig. 293. Preserved material will answer very
well, but the teacher will find that a very large num-
ber of different species of flowers are protandrous and
a considerable number protogynous.

8. Heterostyly. Read Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part

i, pp. 302, 303, 396-399, and 405 ; Gray, Text-
book, pp. 234-239 (under Hcterogonous Dimor-
phism and Trimorphisin) ; Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits,
and Leaves, pp. 30-33 ; Weed, Ten New England
Blossoms, pp. 18—32 (Mayflower, Epigcea repens).

The Bluets are well adapted for the demonstration of
heterostyly, but are available for the most only east of the
Mississippi River. Other species of Houstonia extend some-
what west of that. The blossoms of the Partridge Berry
(Mitchella repens) and of the Mayflower {Epigcea repens}
are also excellent, but the range of these plants is limited
and Eastern.

The Primroses of the gardens and greenhouses do very
well, but very frequently one can find only one " length of

I72 APPENDIX II

style." Teachers will do well to obtain supplies of preserved
material either by their own efforts or those of their friends,
or purchase them from the " Botanical Supply Co." at Cam-
bridge, Mass.

9. The Purple Loosestrife is occasionally planted and seeds

may be obtained through the larger florists. Other
species of Lythrum may do fairly well, such as the
western and Pacific coast species. Nesiza occurs in
the United States east of the Mississippi River.

10. Read the reference in Kerner and Oliver given above.

Some Eschscholtzias have four long styles, and some
two long ones, but the majority have two long ones
and two short. The Eschscholtzia is easily obtained
in California and is frequently cultivated elsewhere
in the United States.

Protection of Pollen. — The teacher may read and call
the attention of the students to the various devices (such
as opening and closing, possession of glutinous coverings
etc.) for protecting the pollen from unfavorable weather
and from undesirable insects. Many cases illustrative of
these points will suggest themselves from the following
references : —

Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 104-129,
and 230-243 ; Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp.
37-42.

APPENDIX II 173

CHAPTER XXIII

SELF- POLLINATION
General Reading
Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 331-401.

THESE pages give a review of the general subject of self-
pollination or Autogamy which results in close- fertilization,
a phenomenon of much more frequency than has been gen-
erally supposed.

Gray, Text-book, pp. 240-242.

I. Weed, Ten New England Blossoms, pp. 90-98 ; Kerner
and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, p. 393.

Species of Polygala with cleistogamous flowers occur over
nearly the whole of the United States. Pressed specimens
may be used as well as fresh ones. P. polygama is one of
the best species, since the cleistogamous flowers are numer-
ous and may be obtained in all stages.

In regard to the cleistogamous flowers of Violets, read
Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 53-57.

APPENDIX II

CHAPTER XXIV

ANTHOTAXY
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part 2, pp. 736-749.

Gray, Text-book, pp. 141-162.

Allen, The Story of the Plants, pp. 135-149.

THE general work upon the flower clusters is morphologi-
cal and comparative. It shows how practically the same
result is obtained by the different plants in very different
ways. Besides those flower clusters mentioned in the guide
the following may be studied : —

HELIOTROPE. Gray, Text-book, pp. 153 (§ 280-155.

DOGWOOD. Species of Cornus, such as C. Canadensis,
C.florida, and C. Nuttalliana. Gray, Text-book, pp. 152,
153 ; Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 183, 184,
231, Fig. 260.

CHAPTER XXV
METAMORPHOSIS
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume I, Part 2, pp. 594-597
Gray, Text-book, pp. 5-8, 167-174.

AT the close of this chapter, it will be well for the teacher,
assuming that three primary organs, root, stem, and leaf, are
modified in one way and another to do all the work of the
plant, to review all the previous chapters from this point of

APPENDIX II 175

view, showing how one plant modifies one of these three
organs to do a certain kind of work, and another plant
another one of the three to do the same kind of work, and
so on.

CHAPTER XXVI

FRUITS
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 426 (bottom)-436.
Gray, Text-book, pp. 285-287.

THE teacher will need to emphasize the distinction be-
tween the popular and the scientific uses of the term fruit.
Fruit is used as a household term in a loose way to designate
those fruits which are ordinarily eaten raw, while such fruits
as Tomatoes, Egg-plants, etc., which are cooked, are classed
with Cabbages, Potatoes, etc., under the general head of
" vegetables."

CHAPTER XXVII
FLESHY FRUITS
General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part I, pp. 427, 428 ; Part 2,

pp. 862-866.

Gray, Text-book, pp. 297-303.
Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 73-75.
Gaye, The Great World's Farm, pp. 270-276.
Allen, The Story of the Plants, pp. 154-158.

FLESHY fruits may usually be obtained in the market.
Some kinds are sold dried and may be soaked out before

176 APPENDIX II

being given to the class. Formalin solution also preserves
them well.

I. Preserved Cherries are useful when no fresh ones are
obtainable, and Prunes may be soaked over night.

I. 5. Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part 2, p. 865 (top).

IV. Cranberries remain in the market for a considerable
time, but it is well to preserve a quantity in formalin
solution.

XIV. The Rose-hip and the Fig may be studied if time
and material allow, to show fruits in which the receptacle
enclosing the real fruits becomes fleshy, while the Strawberry
is a good example of dry fruits (achenes) borne upon the
outside of a very fleshy and succulent receptacle.

CHAPTER XXVIII

DRY DEHISCENT FRUITS

General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 429-432; Part 2,

pp. 833-840.
L^ibbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 53-65.

I-III. The references given above apply especially to
fruits which are noticeably explosive. Perhaps all dehiscent
fruits are more or less explosive, but the evidence is not so
plain in the majority of cases. In the paragraphs that fol-
low, more attention is paid to the method of dehiscence.

III-VIII. Gray, Text-book, pp. 288-293 ; Lubbock,
Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, p. 65, Fig. 46.

APPENDIX II 177

Materials for explosive fruits may be dried and the explo-
sive character may be inferred after explosion. Occasion-
ally the phenomenon may be observed in the laboratory, or
the student may keep the fruits under observation at home
until it occurs. For methods of dehiscence, the plants rec-
ommended are generally accessible at the right season (i.e.
after flowering) and the dried, opened capsules may be
stored in pasteboard boxes until needed. Care must be
taken to obtain a suitable Poppy. The smaller red or white
garden species are usually excellent.

CHAPTER XXIX
DRY INDEHISCENT FRUITS

General Reading

Gray, Text-book, p. 294 (§ 562).

Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part I, p. 429.

IN addition to the reading recommended in the following
chapters, it will be well for the teacher to read what is said
in Kerner and Oliver's " Natural History of Plants " upon
Creeping Mechanisms (Volume II, Part 2, pp. 843, 844).

CHAPTER XXX

SEED DISPERSAL BY ANIMALS

General Reading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part 2, pp. 866-876.
Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 75-80.

V. Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 442-450.

VI. Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part 2, pp. 866, 867.

I78 APPENDIX II

THE carrying of seed, even from one continent to another,
by water-birds in the mud adhering to the feet or feathers
should be brought to the notice of the class by the teacher,
and the pupils induced to be upon the lookout for any cases
which they can find, of dispersal by animals.

CHAPTER XXXI

SEED DISPERSAL BY THE WIND
General Heading

Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part 2, pp. 848-862.
Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves, pp. 79-82.
Hardinge, With the Wild Flowers, pp. 202-204.
Allen, The Story of the Plants, pp. 149-154.
Gaye, The Great World's Farm, pp. 253-256.
Gray, Text-book, pp. 294, 295.

MATERIALS of the fruits necessary for the work under this
chapter may be procured at various times during the season
and preserved dry in paper bags or boxes. The different
powers and styles of sailing through the air should be tested
in the laboratory.

CHAPTER XXXII

SEED DISPERSAL BY WATER

General Reading
Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part 2, pp. 845-848.

WATER dispersal is neither so common nor so frequently
observed as that by wind or animals. Yet the students will
find in the autumn that the quieter portions of brooks, and

APPENDIX II 179

especially of ponds, contain larger or smaller quantities of
small floating fruits, mostly of the dry and indehiscent class.

I. Cocoanuts with the husks on, may often be obtained
through the wholesale dealers in fruits.

CHAPTER XXXIII

SPORE REPRODUCTION

General Reading
Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 8-25 and 49-70.

THE subject of spore reproduction, even in the narrower
and limited sense in which the writer has used it, is so com-
plex that it should really be considered in a course of study
devoted especially to it, and requiring the use of the com-
pound microscope and more complicated methods of ma-
nipulation than the writer considers best for beginners in
botanical observation. At this point, however, the students
may, with profit, if time and the facilities allow, take up a
short course devoted entirely to the cryptogams.

Spores are of two kinds, as may be seen from the refer-
ences above. They may be the result of a sexual process,
i.e. of fertilization ; or they may arise without any sexual
process whatever. The spores recommended in the guide
are all of the latter kind. They are introduced here simply
to illustrate this kind of reproductive body, and the examples
recommended are chosen first because they are fairly
readily obtainable, and second, because they represent
several of the more conspicuous and important groups of
spore-plants. If compound microscopes are available, the
spores and sporangia, at least, may be examined more care-

APPENDIX II

fully, and a few other forms such as Spirogym, Fatiilieria,
Peronospora or Cystopus, Pucdnia, Uredo, and sEcidiutn
added.

FARTHER STUDY

When the student shall have finished a careful study of
the morphology of the more conspicuous plants, and has
seen some of the more important modifications of the dif-
ferent organs to perform different services to the plant, it
will be well for him to study as many species as are readily
accessible in suitable condition, with especial attention to the
consideration of the life-history. It will be well to use some
suitable manual of the botany of the region from which the
name and the relationships of the species may be obtained.
But the teacher should prevent this searching out of the
name and the practice in the use of the analytical key from
absorbing the principal portion of the attention. The prac-
tice in using the key is excellent logical discipline of a cer-
tain kind, but the training of the powers of observing
correctly, and of making the proper inferences, should not
be subordinated to it. The name should not be the end for
which the work is done. The name serves two purposes :
first, it furnishes a convenient designation to be used when
studying, talking, or writing of the plant ; and second, it
enables the student to find out what others have written
or think about the subject.

The principal attention of the student should be directed
towards the morphology of the plant in as many of its dif-
ferent stages of development as possible. This study of the
life-histories of the different species forms as profitable work
as can be recommended for the student. Teachers may
obtain suggestions in this direction from the chapter upon

APPENDIX II 181

Some Plant Biographies of Grant Allen's little book, " The
Story of the Plants."

It is well, also, at this time, to introduce the student to
some idea of species, genera, orders, etc., from the point
of view of descent or phylogeny.

Read Gray, Text-book, pp. 315-331 (especially §§ 657-
662) ; Kerner and Oliver, Volume II, Part i, pp. 486, 487,
and 495, 496 ; Part 2, pp. 497-600.

INDEX AND SUMMARY

Abutilon, dichogamy, 98.

Acacia, phyllodium, 34, 150.

Acacia armata, protection, 156.

Achene, definition, 120.

Acuminate, 29.

Acute, 29.

Adnation, 89, 93, 94, 168, 169 ; Even-
ing Primrose, 94; Fuchsia, 94;
GEnothera, 94.

v^Ecidium, reproduction, 180.

Agave, storage, 59, 157.

Agoseris, seed dispersal, 124.

Ailanthus, samara, 123.

Alder, buds, 46; defoliation, 38;
phyllotaxy, 153 ; pollination, 95.

Allogamy, 167.

Aloe, storage, 157.

Althsea, capsule, 117 ; double flowers,
107.

Ampelopsis, climbing, 159.

Anagallis, capsule, 118.

Anemone, flower, 91.

Annual, definition, 58.

Anther, cells of, 83 ; Crassula, 82.

Anihotaxy, Anthurium, 103; Bego-
nia, 104 ; bractlets, 102 ; Calla,
103; Caraway Seed, 102; Carrot,
102; Corymb, 102; Currant, 101 ;
Cyme, 104, definition, 101 ; deter-
minate, 104 ; Fennel, 102 ; Haw-
thorn, 102 ; indeterminate, 104 ;
involucel, 102; involucre, 102;
Lantana, 103 ; Lily-of-the- Valley,
101; Onion, 102; Parsnip, 102;
Pelargonium, 102; Plantain, 103;
Poison Hemlock, 102; raceme,

101 ; reading upon, 174 ; Red

Clover, 103 ; Red-hot-Poker Plant,

101 ; spadix, 103 ; spathe, 103 ;

spike, 103 ; umbel, 102 ; umbellet,

102; Verbena, 103; Zygadenus,

101.
Anthurium, spadix, 103; spathe,

103.
Apple, phyllotaxy, 41; leaf, 149;

pome, 113, 114.
Apricot, drupe, in.
Arborescent, 23.
Arboreus, 23.
Arbor Vitse, leaves, 35.
Aristate, 29.
Artichoke, storage, 158.
| Asclepias, pollinia, 168.
Ash, samara, 123.
Asparagus medeoloides, cladophylla,

151 ; leaves, 151.
Aster, leaves, 150.
Astragalus, seed dispersal, 124.
Auricle, Bean seed, 3.
Auriculate, 29.

Autogamy, 167 ; reading upon, 173.
! Axil, definition, 25, 46.
; Axillary, buds, 46.
Azalea, capsule, 117; leaves, 152;

praefoliation, 53.

Balsam, pod, 116.

Banana, fruit, 113.

Banner, Bean, 91; Locust, 91 ; Pea,
91 ; Wistaria, 91.

Barberry, protection, 55, 156 ; sta-
mens, 97 ; leaf, 37.

INDEX AND SUMMARY

Bark, Butternut, 23 ; corky, 23 ; outer,
19 ; Walnut, 23.

Basswood, phyllotaxy, 153 ; stem,
148.

Bean, auricle, 3 ; buds, 49 ; caulicle,
3 ; chalaza, 2, 143 ; climbing, 159 ;
cotyledons, 3 ; embryo, 3, 4 ;
flower, 91; hilum, i, 143; kernel,
2; micropyle, 2, 143; pod, i, 116,
143, 144 ; plumule, 3 ; primary
root, 12 ; rhaphe, 2, 143 ; root
hairs, 18 ; secondary roots, 17 ;
seed, i ; seed-coats, 2 ; seed-leaves,
3; seedling, n; strophiole, i, 143.

Bearberry, drupes, 112.

Bedstraw, phyllotaxy, 39 ; seed dis-
persal, 122.

Beech, buds, 46; bud scales, 48;
phyllotaxy, 153; protection of fruit,

122.

Beet, storage, 62, 157.

Beggar-ticks, seed dispersal, 121.

Begonia, cyme, 104 ; flower, 90 ; phyl-
lotaxy, 40 ; stigma, 83 ; vegetative
reproduction, 79.

Bellwort, perfoliate leaf, 33, 149.

Berberis vulgaris, protection, 156.

Bermuda Lily, storage, 158.

Berry, Banana, 113; cells of, 113;
Cranberry, 112; Currant, 113;
Gooseberry, 113; Grape, 113; hes-
peridium, 113; pepo, 113; peri-
carp, 113; pome, 113; seeds, 113;
spines, 122; Tomato, 113.

Bidens, seed dispersal, 121.

Biennial, definition, 58.

Birch, buds, 46; pollination, 95.

Bladder Nut, seed dispersal, 124.

Blade, leaf, 26 ; Darlingtonia, 74 ;
Pitcher Plant, 73; Sarracenia pur-
purea, 73 ; Sundew, 75 ; Venus Fly-

traP. 75-

Blackberry, protection, 56.
Bluet, heterostyly, 99, 171.
Boneset, leaves, 150.
Books, list of, 139, 140.
Bract, definition, 102.

Bractlet, Caraway Seed, 102 ; Carrot,

102; definition, 102; Fennel, 102;

Parsnip, 102; Poison Hemlock,

102.
Bramble, climbing, 157; protection,

56. IS7-
Bread Mould, hyphae, 71 ; review of,

128 ; saprophyte, 71, 161 ; sporan-
gia, 71 ; spore, 71.
Brodiasa, storage, 158.
Bryophyllum, adventitious buds, 49;

vegetative reproduction, 79.
Buckeye, buds, 47, 154 ; bud scales,

48 ; defoliation, 38.
Budding, 80.
Buds, accessory, 47 ; adventitious, 49,

50 ; Alder, 46 ; axillary, 46, 47 ;

Bean, 49 ; Beech, 46 ; Birch, 46 ;

Buckeye, 47, 48, 154; Butternut,

46, 47, 48; classification, 50; col-
lateral, 47 ; contents, 50 ; cover-
ings, 50 ; Currant, 47, 154 ; defini-
tion, 46; flower, 49; Fuchsia, 49;
grass, 79 ; in axil of leaf, 25 ; lat-
eral, 46; leaf, 48; Lilac, 48; Maple,

47, 48, 154; material, 154; Mint,
79; mixed, 48; naked, 48; on
underground stems, 79 ; parasitic
in grafting, 71 ; Pea, 49 ; questions
upon, 50; Red Maple, 154; rela-
tion to leaf, 46; scaly, 47; Silver
Maple, 154 ; Sunflower, 49 ; su-
perposed, 47 ; Sweet Potato, 49 ; '
terminal, 46 ; Walnut, 46, 47, 48 ;
winter, 49 ; Witch Hazel, 48 ; vege-
tative, 49.

Bud scales, Beech, 48 ; Buckeye, 48 ;
Butternut, 48; Currant, 48; Fig,
48; Hazel, 48; homologous with
leaves, 48 ; Lilac, 48 ; Pittospo-
rum, 48 ; Tulip Tree, 48 ; Walnut,
48 ; Witch Hazel, 48.

Bulb, Gladiolus, 60; Hyacinth, 62;
Lily, 61 ; Onion, 62 ; scaly, 61 ;
solid, 60; tunicated, 62.

Bupleurum rotundifolium, leaves, 150.

Butter-and-Eggs, winged seeds, 123.

INDEX AND SUMMARY

185

Buttercup, green flowers, 107 ; nec-
tar, 96 ; protection, 56.

Butterfly flower, Pea, 92.

Butternut, buds, 46 ; bud scales, 48 ;
cambium, 23 ; corky bark, 23 ; cor-
tex, 23 ; hat d bast, 23 ; internodes,
22; medullary rays, 23 ; nodes, 22;
pollination, 95 ; pith, 23 ; rings of
wood, 23; soft bast, 23; stem, 22;
xylem, 23.

Buttonball, stem, 148.

Cactus, storage, 58, 157.

Calico Bush, stamens, 97.

Calla Lily, breathing pores, 30; epi-
dermis, 29 ; green pulp, 30 ; leaf,
27; praefoliation, 53; spadix, 103;
spathe, 103; stomata, 30; woody
framework, 30.

Calochortus, vegetative reproduction,
164.

Calycanthus, flower, 107.

Calyptra, Funaria, 127; Moss, 127;
Polytrichum, 127.

Calyx, Crassula, 82 ; Evening Prim-
rose, 94 ; Fuchsia, 94 ; in incom-
plete flowers, 91; CEnothera, 94;
Pea, 93 ; synsepalous, 93.

Cambium, Butternut, 23 ; Sunflower,
20 ; Walnut, 23.

Capsule, definition of, 117; Funaria,
127; Moss, 127; Polytrichum, 127.

Caraway Seed, umbel, 102.

Carpel, definition, 94.

Carrion Flower, odor, 96.

Carrot, storage, 62, 157 ; umbel, 102.

Caruncle, Castor Bean, 4.

Castor Bean, caruncle, 4 ; caulicle, 5 ;
chalaza, 5 : cotyledons, 5, 13 ; em-
bryo, 5; endosperm, 5; hilum, 5;
kernel, 5 ; rhaphe, 4 ; seed, 4, 143,
144; seed-coats, 5; seedling, 13;
tegmen, 5, 13 ; testa, 5, 13.

Catalpa, winged seeds, 123.

Caulicle, Bean, 3, 4 ; Castor Bean, 5 ;
Corn, 7, 14; Onion, 8, 15; I'inf,
8,15-

Century Plant, storage, 59.

Chalaza, 143; Bean, 2, 4; Castor
Bean, 5.

Chelone, capsule, 117.

Cherry, drupe, in, 112, 176; leaf,
149 ; praefoliation, 52.

Chestnut, protection of fruit, 122.

Chinquapin, protection of fruit,
122.

Choripetalous, corolla, 93.

Chrysanthemum, leaf, 33.

Clcuta bulbifera, bulblets, 164.

Circumscissile dehiscence, 118 ; Ana-
gallis, 118; Pimpernel, 118; Portu-
laca, 118; Purslane, 118.

Cirrhiferous, pinnate leaves, 151.

Cladophyllum (plural cladophylla),
Myrsiphyllum, 36 ; Smilax, 36.

Cleavers, phyllotaxy, 39; seed dis-
persal, 122.

Cleistogamous, flowers, 100 ; Fringed
Polygala, 100 ; Polygala paucifolia,
100 ; P. polygama, 100.

Cleft, 29.

Clematis, clasping petioles, 66 ; climb-
ing, 66.

Climbing, Ampelopsis, 159; Bean,
159 ; Bramble, 157 ; by aerial root-
lets, 67 ; by clasping petioles, 66 ;
by tendrils, 65, 66; Clematis, 66;
Cypress Vine, 159; direction of
twining, 64, 65 ; Dodder, 70 ;
Dutchman's Pipe, 159 ; Grape
Vine, 159; Hop, 64; Ipomcea,
159; Ipomcea purpurea, 159; Ivy,
66 ; Japanese Creeper, 159 ; Jas-
mine-flowered Nightshade, 66;
Manettia, 64, 159 ; Morning Glory,
65; Pea, 66, 159; plants, 64;
reading upon, 158 ; Rose, 157 ;
Solanum Jasminoides, 66, 159 ;
Squash, 65; twining, 64, 65; Vir-
ginia Creeper, 159; Virgin's Bower,
66; Yam, 159.

Clotbur, seed dispersal, lai.

Clover, flower, 96; head, 103.

Coalescence, 89, 93, 168, 169; Co-

1 86

INDEX AND SUMMARY

rolla, 93 ; Ipomoea, 93 ; Morning

5; Corn, 7, 14; Onion, 8, 14;

Glory, 93.

Pine, 8, 15.

Cockspur, Thorn, protection, 156.

Cranberry, berry, 112, 176; pericarp,

Cocoanut, embryo, 125 ; endosperm,

113 ; seeds, 113.

125; "eyes," 125; fruit, 125; husk,

Crassula, alternation in the flower,

125 ; seed-coats, 125 ; seed dis-

85; anther, 82; anther cell, 83;

persal, 125, 179.

calyx, 82; corolla, 82; filament,

Color of flowers, 95, 96 ; change of,

82 ; flower, 82 ; number of parts

96 ; variegated, 96.

in the flower, 85 ; ovary, 82 ;

Columbine, flower, 96.

ovary cell, 83 ; ovule, 83 ; pattern

Compositas, pollination, 170.

flower, 85, 165; petal, 82; pistil,

Compound leaves, Barberry, 37 ; de-

82; placenta, 83; pollen, 82; re-

foliation, 38 ; Five-Finger, 28 ;

ceptacle, 84; sepal, 82; stamen,

Orange, 37; palmately, 28; pin-

82; stigma, 82; style, 82; typical

nately, 28; Rose, 28; Strawberry,

flower, 85.

28 ; unifoliolate, 37.

Crataegus, protection, 156.

Cones, American Larch, 43; Nor-

Crenate, 29.

way Spruce, 42 ; phyllotaxy, 42.

Crocus, storage, 158.

Corallorhiza, saprophyte, 161.

Cryptogams. See Flowerless Plants.

Coral, Root, saprophyte, 161.

Cucumber, pepo, 114.

Cordate, 29.

Cuneate, 29.

Cork, Butternut, 23 ; Walnut, 23.

Currant, berry, 113; buds, 47, 154;

Corm, Gladiolus, 60.

bud scales, 48; praefoliation, 52;

Corn, adventitious roots, 14, 18 ;

protection, 55 ; raceme, 101.

caulicle, 7, 14; cotyledons, 7, 14;

Cuscuta, parasite, 161.

embryo, 7; endosperm, 7, 14; in-

Cuspidate,. 29.

ternodes, 21; nodes, 21; phyllo-

Cyme, Begonia, 104.

taxy, 153; pith, 21, 22; plumule,

Cypress, Lawson's, leaves, 35 ; lon-

7, 14 ; pollination, 95, 169 ; pri-

gevity of leaf, 37 ; winged seeds,

mary root, 14 ; rind, 22 ; root hairs,

123.

18; seed, 6, 143; seed-coats, 6;

Cypress Vine, climbing, 159.

seedling, n, 13 ; stem, 21, 22 ; vas-

Cypripedium, leaf, 149.

cular bundles, 21, 22.

Cystopus, reproduction, 180.

Cornus, anthotaxy, 174.

Cornus Canadensis, anthotaxy, 174.

Dandelion, seed dispersal, 124.

Cornus florida, anthotaxy, 174.

Darlington ia, blade, 74; insectivo-

Cornus Nuttallii, anthotaxy, 174.

rous, 74, 162 ; leaf, 74 ; petiole, 74 ;

Corolla, choripetalous, 93 ; Crassula,

" windows," 74.

82; Morning Glory, 93; papilio-

Datura, protection of fruit, 122.

naceous, 92 ; sympetalous, 93.

Day Lily, capsule, 117; phyllotaxy,

Cortex, Butternut, 23 ; Sunflower, 19;

153; winged seeds, 123.

Walnut, 23.

Decodon, heterostyly, 99.

Corymb, Hawthorn, 102.

Decompound, leaf, 28 ; palmately,

Cosmos, pollination, 170; stem, 147,

28 ; Parsley, 28.

148.

Decussate leaves, 43.

Cotton, seed dispersal, 124.

Defoliation, 38, 152 ; Alder, 38 ;

Cotyledon, Bean, 3, 4 ; Castor Bean,

Buckeye, 38; compound leaves,

INDEX AND SUMMARY

187

38 ; Elm. 38 ; Grape Vine, 38 ;

123; Water Lily, 125; Yam, 123;

Hazel, 38; Horse Chestnut, 38;

Xanthium, 121.

Japanese Creeper, 38 ; Locust, 38 ;

Divided leaf, 29.

Rose, 38; simple leaves, 38; Wil-

Dock, praefoliation, 53.

low, 38.

Dodder, leaves, 70 ; pale parasite,

Dehiscence, advantages of, 118 ; by

71, 161 ; suckers, 70 ; twining stem,

pores, 118 ; circumscissile, 118 ;

70.

loculicidal, 117 ; methods of, 117,

Dog-tooth Violet, storage, 62.

118; septicidal, 117; septifragal,

Dogwood, anthotaxy, 174.

117. See also circumscissile, lo-

Drawing, 134.

culicidal, septicidal, and septifra-

Drosera, blade, 162 ; glands, 162 ;

gal.

leaf, 162 ; petiole, 162.

Dehiscent, fruits, no, 116.

Drupe, Apricot, in ; Bearberry,

Dentate, 29.

112; Cherry, in; definition, in ;

Denticulate, 29.

Huckleberry, 1 12; Manzanita, 112;

Deodar, phyllotaxy, 45.

Peach, in; Plum, in; putamen,

Determinate, anthotaxy, 103.

in ; sarcocarp, 112.

Dichogamy, Abutilon, 98; definition,

Dry fruits, no, 116.

98; Geranium, 98; Hibiscus, 98;

Dutchman's Pipe, climbing, 159.

Lavatera, 98 ; Mallow, 98 ; Malva,

98; Plantain, 98; reading upon,

Easter Lily, storage, 158.

170; Scrophularia, 98.

Elliptical leaf. 29.

Dicotyledonous, embryo, 21, 27.

Elm, defoliation, 38 ; longevity of

Dimorphism, heterogonous, 171. See

leaf, 37; phyllotaxy, 153; samara,

Heterostyly.

123.

Dioecious, definition, 90.

Emarginate, 29.

Dioscorea, vegetative reproduction,

Embryo, Bean, 3, 4; Castor Bean, 5 ;

164; winged seeds, 123.

Cocoanut, 125 ; Corn, 7 ; dicotyle-

Dispersal, Agoseris, 124 ; Ailanthus,

donous, 21 ; essentials of, 81 ;

123; Ash, 123; Bedstraw.122; Beg-

monocotyledonous, 22 ; Morning

gar-ticks, 121 ; Bidens, 121 ; Blad-

Glory, 6 ; Onion, 8 ; Pine, 8 ; poly-

der Nut, 124; Butter-and-Eggs, 123 ;

cotyledonous, 21.

by animals, 121 ; by tumble weeds,

Endogenous, stem, 22, 27.

124; by water, 125 ; by wind, 123 ;

Endosperm, Castor Bean, 5, 13;

Catalpa, 123 ; Clotbur, 121 ; Cocoa-

Cocoanut, 125 ; Corn, 7, 14 ;

nut, 125, 179 ; Cotton, 124 ; Cy-

Morning Glory, 6 ; Onion, 8, 14 ;

press, 123; Dandelion, 124; Day

Pine, 8, 15.

Lily, 123; Dioscorea, 123; Elm,

Entire leaf, 29.

123 ; Goose Cleavers, 122 ; Ground

Epidermis, Calla, 29 ; leaf, 27 ; stem,

Cherry, 124 ; Hop, 124 ; Hop

20; Sunflower, 20.

Hornbeam, 124 ; Isomeris, 124 ;

Epigaa. repens, heterostyly, 171.

Linaria, 123; Maple, 123; methods

Epilobium, dichogamy, 171.

of, 120; Milkweed, 124; of fleshy

Epiphyte, aerial roots, 69; Lichen,

fruits, ill ; of seeds, 109 ; Physalis,

69, 160 ; Orchid, 68, 69, 160 ; read-

124; Pine, 123; Sedges, 125;

ing upon, 160.

Staphylea, 124; Taraxacum, 124;

Equipment, laboratory, 141.

Troximon, 124 ; Trumpet Creeper,

Eraser, 133.

188

INDEX AND SUMMARY

Eschscholtzia, heterostyly, 99, 172 ;

169; color, 95, 96; Columbine, 96;

protection, 56.

complete, 84; Composite, 170;

Eucalyptus, horizontal leaves, 35 ;

Cosmos, 170; Crassula, 82, 165;

leaves, 151 ; torsion of internodes,

Currant, 101 ; Decodon, 99 ; defi-

44 ; vertical leaves, 35.

nition, 85; diagrams, 165; dioe-

Eupatorium perfoliatum, leaves, 150.

cious, 90 ; essential parts, 85 ;

Euphorbia splendens, protection, 156.

Eschscholtzia, 99; Fennel, 102;

Evening Primrose, adnation in, 94 ;

Figwort, 107 ; Geranium, 98 ;

flower, 94.

ground-plan, 85, 165 ; green, 107 ;

Exogenous, stem, 21, 27.

Habenaria, 168 ; Hawthorn, 102;

Explosive fruits, 116; Bean, 116;

Hepatica, 91 ; Hibiscus, 98 ; Hibis-

Balsam, 116; Impatiens, 116; Ox-

cus Syriaca, 107 ; Houstonia cceru-

alis, 116; Pea, 116; Violet, 116;

&a, 99 ; imperfect, 90 ; incomplete,

Wistaria, 116.

91; intergradation of parts, 97;

irregular, 89, 167 ; Kalmia, 97 ;

Fascicle of leaves, 45.

Lantana, 96, 103 ; Larkspur, 92,

Fennel, umbel, 102.

96; Lavatera, 98; Lily-of-the-

Fern, indusium, 126; leaves, 126;

Valley, 101 ; Locust, 91 ; Lythrum

pragfoliation, 53 ; sori, 126 ; sporan-

Salicaria, 99 ; Mallow, 98 ; Malva,

gia, 127; spores, 127; stem, 127.

98; Mimulus,97; Monkey Flower,

Fertilization, agencies, 89 ; close, 88 ;

97; monoecious, 90; nectar, 96;

cross, 88 ; dichogamy, 98 ; essen-

Nesaea, 99 ; numerical plan, 85 ;

tials of, 87 ; of flower, 87 ; proter-

Nymphasa, 107 ; odor, 96 ; Orchid,

andry, 98 ; proterogyny, 98 ; read-

96, 108 ; Pansy, 92, 96 ; papiliona-

ing upon, 166 ; steps in, 88.

ceous, 92; Parsnip, 102; parts of,

Fig, bud scales, 48 ; fruit, 176.

82 ; pattern, 82 ; Pea, 91 ; perfect,

Figwort, dichogamy, 98 ; green

84 ; perianth, 167 ; Plantain, 98, 103 ;

flowers, 107.

Poison Hemlock, 102; Primrose,

Filament, Barberry, 97 ; coalescence

99; Prince's Feather, 91; Purple

of, 93 ; Crassula, 82.

Loosestrife, 99 ; reading upon im-

Five-Finger, leaf, 28 ; leaflets, 28 ;

perfect, 167; reading upon irregu-

petiole, 28 ; stipules, 28.

lar, 168; reading upon typical or

Fleshy fruits, no, in.

pattern, 165 ; Red Clover, 103 ;

Flower, Abutilon, 98 ; adnation, 89,

Red-hot-Poker Plant, 101 ; regular,

168 ; alternation of parts, 84 ; Al-

84; Rose, 107; Salvia, 170; Scro-

thaea, 107 ; Anemone, 91 ; Anthu-

phularia, 98; Sedum, 165; sessile,

rium, 103 ; arrangement of, 101 ;

103 ; Smilax herbacea, 96 ; spur,

arrangement of parts, 106 ; Ascle-

92 ; Sunflower, 170 ; Swamp Loose-

pias, 168; axillary, 105; Barberry,

strife, 99; Sweet-scented Shrub,

97 ; Bean, 91 ; Begonia, 90, 104 ;

107; symmetrical, 84; terminal,

Bluet, 99 ; buds, 48 ; Buttercup, 96,

104; Torenia, 97; Trillium, 107;

107; butterfly, 92; Calla, 103;

Trillium erectum, 96 ; typical, 82 ;

Calico Bush, 97; Calycanthus,

unsymmetrical, 89, 92 ; variegated,

107 ; Caraway Seed, 102 ; Carrion

96; Verbena, 103; Violet, 92;

Flower, 96 ; Carrot, 102 ; change

White Water Lily, 107 ; Wistaria,

of color, 96 ; cleistogamous, 100 ;

91 ; Zygadenus, 101.

Clover, 96 ; coalescence in, 89, 168,

Flowerless Plants, 69 ; yEcidium, 180 ;

INDEX AND SUMMARY

189

Bread Mould, 71; Cystopus, 180;
Fern, 126, 127 ; Lichen, 69 ; Moss,
127; Mushroom, 128; Perono-
spora, 180; Puccinia, 180; Spiro-
gyra, 180 ; Uredo, 180 ; Vaucheria,
180.

Forceps, 133.

Forsythia, torsion of internodes, 44.

Fringed Polygala, cleistogamous
flowers, 100.

Fruit, achene, 120 ; Agoseris, 124 ;
Ailanthus, 123 ; Althaea, 117 ; Ana-
gallis, 118; Apple, 113, 114; Apri-
cot, in, 112 ; Ash, 123 ; Astragalus,
124; Azalea, 117; Balsam, 116;
Banana, 113; Bean, 116; Bear-
berry; 112; Bedstraw, 122 ; Beech-
nut, 122; Beggar-ticks, 121; Berry,
in, 112; Bidens, 121; Bladder
Nut, 124 ; bladdery, 124 ; capsule,
117; Chelone, 117; Cherry, in,
112; Chestnut, 122; Chinquapin,
122; circumscissile, 118; Clotbur,
121 ; Cocoanut, 125 ; Composite
Family, 124; Cranberry, 112; Cu-
cumber, 114; Currant, 113; Dan-
delion, 124; Datura, 122; Day Lily,
117; definition, 109; dehiscence,
117; dehiscent, no, 116; dehis-
cent by pores, 118; dispersal, 120;
dry, no, 116, 120 ; drupe, in ; Elm,
123; explosive, 116; fleshy, in ;
Funkia, 117 ; general reading upon,
175; Gerardia, 117; Gooseberry,
113; Goose Cleavers, 122 ; Gourd,
114; Grape, 113; Ground Cherry,
124; hesperidium, 113: Hibiscus,
117 ; Hop, 124 ; Hop Hornbeam,
124; Huckleberry, 112; Impatiens,
116 ; indehiscent, no, 120: Iris, 117 ;
Isomeris, 124; key, 123; Lemon,
114; loculicidally dehiscent, 117;
Manzanita, 112; Maple, 123; ma-
terials of explosive, 176; Melon,
114; Morning Glory, 117: nut,
120; Orange, 114; Oxalis, 116;
Pea, 116; Peach, in, 112; pepo,

| 113; pericarp, in ; Physalis, 124 ;
Pimpernel, 118; Plum, in, 112;
pome, 113; Poppy, 118; Portulaca,
118; protection of, 122 ; Pumpkin,
114; Purslane, 118 ; putamen, 112;
reading upon dry dehiscent, 176;
reading upon dry indehiscent, 177 ;
reading upon fleshy, 175 ; Rhodo-
dendron, 1 17 ; samara, 123; sarco-
carp, 112 ; sedges, 125 ; septicidally
dehiscent, 117; septifragally de-
hiscent, 117; Staphylea, 124; St.
John's Wort, 117; storage by
animals,- 122; Taraxacum, 124;
Thistle, 124; Thorn Apple, 122;
Tomato, 113; Troximon, 124;
Turtle Head, 117; Violet, 116;
Water Lily, 125; Wistaria, 116;
with tufts of hairs, 124 ; Xanthium,
121.

Fruticose, 22.

Fuchsia, adnation in, 94; flower, 94;
phyllotaxy, 39; vegetative buds,
49-

Funaria, calyptra, 127 ; capsule, 127 ;
operculum, 127; peristome, 127";
spores, 128.

Funiculus, Bean, i.

Funkia, capsule, 117; winged seeds,
123.

Galium, phyllotaxy, 39, 152.
| Geitonogamy, 167.
1 Genus, xiii.

Geranium, dichogamy, 98, 171.

Gerardia, capsule, 117.

Germination, conditions of, 15.

Gills, Mushroom, 128.
! Glabrous, 29.

'. Gladiolus, corm, 60, 158 : storage, 60.
' Glands, Sundew, 75.

Glaucous, 29.

I Gooseberry, berry, 113 ; protection,
1 55-
I Goose Cleavers, seed dispersal, 122.

Gourd, pepo, 114.
| Grape, berry, 113.

INDEX AND SUMMARY

Grape Vine, defoliation, 38 ; tendrils,

159-

Grafting, 80.
Grass, phyllotaxy, 153; pollination,

95, l69-
Ground Cherry, seed dispersal, 124.

Habenaria, fertilization of, 168.
Hard bast, Sunflower, 20; Walnut,

23-

Hastate, 29.

Hawthorn, protection, 156.
Hazel, bud scale, 48 ; defoliation, 38 ;

phyllotaxy, 153.
Head, Lantana, 103; Red Clover,

103 ; Verbena, 103.
Heliotrope, anthotaxy, 174.
Hemerocallis, phyllotaxy, 153.
Hepatica, flower, 91.
Herb, 19.
Herbaceous, 19.
Hesperidium, Lemon, 114; Orange,

114; pulp, 114; rind, 114; seeds,

114; septa, 114.
Heterogonous, dimorphism, 171 ; tri-

morphism, 171.
Heterostyly, Bluet, 99 ; Decodon, 99 ;

Eschscholtzia, 99 ; Houstonia cceiu-

lea, 99 ; Lythrum Salicaria, 99 ;

Nesaea, 99 ; Primrose, 99 ; Purple

Loosestrife, 99.
Heterostyly, reading upon, 171 ;

Swamp Loosestrife, 99.
Hibiscus, capsule, 117; dichogamy,

98.

Hibiscus Syriaca, double flowers, 107.
Hickory, pollination, 95.
Hilum, Bean, I, 4; Castor Bean, 5 ;

Onion, 7.
Hirsute, 29.
Hispid, 29.

Holly, leaves, 152; phyllotaxy, 41.
Honeysuckle, connate perfoliate

leaves, 34.
Hop, climbing, 64; seed dispersal,

124.
Hop Hornbeani, seed dispersal, 124.

Horse Chestnut, defoliation, 38.
Houstonia, heterostyly, 99, 171.
Huckleberry, drupe, 112.
Hyacinth, pistil, 94; storage, 61, 62;
tunicated bulb, 62.

Imparipinnate, leaves, 151.

mpatiens, pod, 116.

mperfect (flower), definition, 90.

ncomplete (flower), definition, 91.

ndehiscent, fruits, no.

ndeterminate, anthotaxy, 104.

ndian Pipe, saprophyte, 161.

ndian Turnip, storage, 158.

ndividual, definition, xiii.
Indusium (plural indusia), Fern, 126.
Insectivorous Plants, 73; Darling-

tonia, 74, 162 ; Drose
penthes, 162 ; Pitche
161 ; reading upon,
cenia, 161 ; Sarracen
73 ; Sundew, 75 ; Utri

a, 162 ; Ne-
Plant, 73,
61 ; Sarra-
a purpurea,
ularia, 162 ;

Venus Fly-trap, 74, 75, 162.

Insect-pollinated flowers, Barberry,
97 ; Buttercup, 96 ; Calico-Bush, 97 ;
Carrion Flower, 96; Clover, 96;
color, 95 ; Columbine, 96 ; Kalmia,
97 ; Lantana, 96 ; Larkspur, 96 ;
Mimulus, 97 ; Monkey Flower,
97; nectar, 96; odor, 96; Orchids,
96 ; Pansy, 96 ; Smilax herbacea,
96; Torenia, 97; Trillium erec-
tum, 96.

Instruments, 132.

Internodes, 12, 25; Butternut, 22;
Corn, 21 ; Grass, 79; Mint, 79;
Sunflower, 19 ; torsion of, 44 ; Wal-
nut, 22.

Involucre, Caraway Seed, 102 ; Car-
rot, 102; definition, 102; Fennel,
102; Parsnip, 102; Poison Hem-
lock, 102.

Ipomoea, climbing, 159; corolla,

93-

Ipomaaa purpurea, climbing, 159.

Iris, capsule, 117 ; leaves, 35; phyllo-
taxy, 153 ; reproduction, 79 ; stor-

INDEX AND SUMMARY

191

age, 59; vegetative reproduction,

Darlingtonia, 74; definition of, 25,

79-

149; defoliation, 38; Deodar, 45;

Irregularity, of flower, 91 ; reading

Elm, 37, 38; English Ivy, 27; Eu-

upon, 168.

calyptus, 35, 44, 151 ; Evpatorium

Isomeris, seed dispersal, 124.

perfoliatum, 150; fasciculate, 45;

Ivy, aerial rootlets, 67 ; climbing, 67 ;

Five-Finger, 28; Forsythia, 44;

cuttings, 79 ; leaf, 27.

Fuchsia, 39 ; Fuller's Teazle, 150 ;

function of, 28, 29; Galium, 39;

Jack-in-the-Pulpit, storage, 158.

Grape Vine, 38 ; Hazel, 38 ; Holly,

Japanese Creeper, climbing, 159 ; de-

41, 152; Honeysuckle, 34; Horse

foliation, 38.

Chestnut, 38 ; imparipinnate, 151 ;

Japanese Quince, leaves, 25 ; midrib,

Iris, 35 ; Japanese Creeper, 38 ;

26; prsefoliation, 53; venation, 26.

Japanese Quince, 25 ; Kalmia, 152 ;

Jasmine-flowered Nightshade, clasp-

Larch, 45 ; Lathyrus Aphaca, 35,

ing petioles, 66 ; climbing, 66.

152 ; Laurel, 152 ; Lawson's Cy-

Jerusalem Artichoke, storage, 158.

press, 35; Lily-of-the- Valley, 27;

Live Oak, 37, 152; Locust, 38;

Kalmia, leaves, 152 ; stamens, 97.

longevity of, 37; Maple, 37, 38,

Kernel, Bean, 2; Castor Bean, 5;

43,44; midrib, 26; Mistletoe, 69;

Onion, 8.

Mock Orange, 26 ; mosaic, 44 ;

Key-fruit, Ailanthus, 123; Ash, 123;

Myrsiphyllum, 36 ; Myrsiphyllum

Elm, 123; Maple, 123.

asparagoides, 151; netted- veined,

21 ; Norway Spruce, 35, 37 ; Oake-

Labelling, 135.

sia, 149; Orange, 37; Oxalis, 36;

Laboratory, 141.

palmately compound, 28 ; pal-

Lanceolate, 29.

mately decompound, 28 ; Panda-

Lantana, flower, 96 ; head, 103.

nus, 44; parallel-veined, 22; Pars-

Larch, phyllotaxy, 43, 45, 153.

ley,28; Pear, 41, 149; Pelargonium,

Larkspur, flower, 92; nectar, 96;

149 ; perforate, 33, 150 ; petiole,

spur, 92.

26; Pine, 35, 37, 45 ; Pitcher Plant,

Lathyrus Aphaca, leaf, 35, 151; stip-

73; Pittosporum, 26, 41; Pittospo-

ules, 35 ; tendrils, 35.

rum eugenioides, 149; questions

Laurel, leaves, 152.

upon, 31; Quince, 149; reading

Lavatera, dichogamy, 98.

upon, 149, 150; relation to bud, 46;

Leaf, 25; Acacia, 34, 150; Alder, 38;

relations to light, 36; Rhododen-

Apple, 41, 149; arrangement, 39;

dron, 152; Rose, 28; Sarracenia

Arbor Vitae, 35 ; as foliage, 30 ;

purpurea, 73 ; scar, 46 ; Scoliopus

Aspara/nis medeoloides, 151 ; Aster,

Bigelovii, 149 ; Screw Pine, 44 ;

150 ; axil of, 25 ; Azalea, 152 ; Bar-

Sensitive Plant, 36 ; sessile, 33 ;

berry, 37 ; Bedstraw, 39 ; Begonia,

shapes of, 29, 149; simple, 26;

40; Bellwort, 33, 149; blade, 26;

sleep of, 36 ; Smilax, 36, 151 ; Soli-

Boneset, 150 ; Buckeye, 38 ; Bupleit-

dago, 150; stipules, 26; Straw-

rum rotundifolium , 150 ; Calla Lily,

berry, 28 ; structure of, 27, 28, 149 ;

27, 29; Cherry, 149; Chrysanthe-

Sundew, 75 ; unifoliolate, 37 ; vena-

mum, 33 ; cinhiferous pinnate, 151 ;

tion, 26 ;• Venus Fly-trap, 74, 75;

Cleavers, 39 ; connate-pet foliate,

Veratrum viride, 41 ; vertical, 34,

34 ; Cypress, 37 ; Cypnpedium, 149 ;

35 ; White Hellebore, 41 ; Willow,

I92

INDEX AND SUMMARY

37. 38 ; without distinction of parts,

37; phyllotaxy, 43, 44; prsefolia-

35-

tion, 52 ; samara, 123.

Leaflets, Five-Finger, 28 ; Rose, 28 ;

Mariposa Lily, vegetative reproduc-

Strawberry, 28.

tion, 164.

Lemon, hesperidium, 114 ; protec-

Material, preservation of, 138.

tion, 156.

Mayflower, heterostyly, 171.

Lens, 133.

Mayweed, protection of, 56.

Lichen, epiphyte, 69, 160; rock, 160.

Medullary rays, Butternut, 23 ; Wal-

Life, xi ; animal, xi ; plant, xi.

nut, 23.

Life-history, xi ; reading upon, 181.

Melon, pepo, 114.

Lilac, bud scales, 48 ; prsefoliation,

Mericarp, Galium, 122.

S1-

Metamorphis, of flower parts, 106,

Lilium auratum, storage, 158.

108 ; of plant parts, 108 ; reading

Lilium tigrinum, vegetative repro-

upon, 174.

duction, 164.

Micropyle, 143; Bean, 2; Castor

Lily, pistil, 94; scaly bulb, 61 ; stigma,

Bean, 4 ; Onion, 7 ; Pine, 8.

83 ; storage, 60.

Microscope, dissecting, 133.

Lily-of-the- Valley, leaf, 27; raceme,

Milkweed, seed dispersal, 124.

IOI.

Mimulus, stigma, 97.

Linaria, winged seeds, 123.

Mistletoe, green parasite, 69, 70, 160 ;

Linden, phyllotaxy, 153 ; stem, 148.

leaves, 69; roots, 70; stem, 69;

Linear, 29.

suckers, 70.

Live-for-ever, storage, 157.

Mitchella repens, heterostyly, 171.

Live Oak, leaf, 37, 152; phyllotaxy,

Mock Orange, leaf, 26 ; midrib, 26 ;

152.

venation, 26.

Lobed, 29.

Monkey Flower, stigma, 97.

Loculicidal, dehiscence, 117; in Al-

Monocotyledonous, embryo, 22, 27.

thaea, 117; in Day Lily, 117; in

Monoecious, definition, 90.

Funkia, 117; in Gerardia, 117; in

Monotropa, saprophyte, 161.

Hibiscus, 117; in Iris, 117.

Morning Glory, capsule, 117; climb-

Loculus (plural loculi), capsule, 117.

ing, 64 ; embryo, 6 ; endosperm, 6 ;

Locust, defoliation, 38 ; flower, 91 ;

seed, 5 ; seed-coats, 6 ; sympetalous

protection, 56.

corolla, 93.

Longevity, of leaves, 37; Cypress,

Moss, calyptra, 127 ; capsule, 127 ;

37; Elms, 37; Live Oaks, 152;

operculum, 127; peristome, 127;

Maples, 37 ; Norway Spruce, 37 ;

plant, 127 ; spores, 128.

Pine, 37 ; Willow, 37.

Mucronate, 29.

Lythrum, heterostyly, 172.

Mullein, protection, 57.

Lythrum Salicaria, heterostyly, 99.

Mushroom, gills, 128; pileus, 128;

spores, 128; stipe, 128.

Magnolia, prasfoliatum, 52.

Myrsiphyllum, cladophyllum, 36, 151;

Mallow, dichogamy, 98, 171

leaves, 36, 151.

Malva, dichogamy, 98.

Manettia, climbing, 64, 159.

Nectar, flower, 96.

Manzanita, drupe, 112.

Needles, dissecting, 133.

Maple, collateral accessory buds, 47 ;

Nepenthes, insectivorous, 162.

defoliation, 38 ; longevity of leaf,

Nesasa, heterostyly, 99.

INDEX AND SUMMARY

193

Nettecl-veined, leaves, 21, 27.

Ovate-lanceolate, 29.

Nettle, pollination, 95 ; protection, 57.

Ovule, Crassula, 83 ; nucleus in, 87.

Node, of stem, 12, 25 ; Butternut, 22 ;

Oxalis, leaf, 36; pod, 116.

Corn, 21 ; Grass, 79; Mint, 79;

Sunflower, 19 ; Walnut, 22.

Palmately lobed, Ivy-leaf, 27.

Norway Spruce, cones, 42 ; leaves,

Pandanus, phyllotaxy, 44.

35; longevity of leaves, 37 ; phyllo-

Pansy, flower, 92; nectar, 96; spur,

taxy, 42.

92.

Note-book, 132.

Papilionaceous flower, Pea, 92.

Notes, 135.

Parallel-veined leaves, 22, 26, 27.

Nut, definition, 120.

Parasites, 68 ; Cuscuta, 161 ; Dodder,

Nymphsea, flower, 107.

70, 161; green, 79; Mistletoe, 69,

160; pale, 71 ; reading upon, 160;

Oak, leaves, 152; phyllotaxy, 153;

sinkers, 70; suckers, 70; twining,

pollination, 95.

70 ; y is cum album, 70.

Oakesia, leaf, 149.

Parsley, palmately decompound leaf,

Obcordate leaf, 29.

28.

Oblanceolate leaf, 29.

Parsnip, umbel, 102.

Oblong leaf, 29.

Parted, leaf, 29.

Obovate leaf, 29.

Partridge Berry, heterostyly, 171.

Obtuse leaf, 29.

Pea, butterfly flower, 92 ; calyx, 93 ;

Odor, of flowers, 96. "

climbing, 66, 159 ; cotyledons, 4 ;

CEnothera, adnation, 94 ; flower, 94.

flower, 91; papilionaceous flower,

Onion, bulblets, 77,78, 164; caulicle,

92 ; pod, 116 ; primary root, 12 ;

8, 15; cotyledons, 8, 14; embryo,

root hairs, 18; seed, 4; seedling,

8; endosperm, 8, 14; hilum, 7;

ii ; tendrils, 66; vegetative buds,

micropyle, 7 ; plumule, 15 ; seed,

49-

7; seed-coats, 8, 14; seedling, 14,

Peach, drupe, in, 112.

146; storage, 61, 62; tunicated

Pear, leaf, 149 ; phyllotaxy, 41.

bulb, 62; umbel, 102; vegetative

Pedicel, definition, 102.

reproduction, 77, 78.

Peduncle, definition, 101.

Operculum (plural opercula), Funa-

Pelargonium, dichogamy, 171; leaf,

ria, 127; Moss, 127; Polytrichum,

149 ; slips or cuttings, 79 ; umbel,

127.

102.

Opuntia, vegetative reproduction, 80.

Peltate, 29.

Orange, hesperidium, 114; protec-

Pencils, 132.

tion, 55, 156; unifoliolate com-

Penknife, 133.

pound leaf, 37.

Pepo, Cucumber, 114; Gourd, 114;

Orbicular, 29.

Melon, 114; pulp, 115; Pumpkin,

Orchid, aerial, 160; aerial roots, 69;

114; rind, 115; seeds, 115.

epiphyte, 68, 69, 160 ; fertilization,

Perennial, 58.

92 ; flower, 92 ; nectar, 96. | Perfoliate, leaf, 150.

Order, xiv.

Perianth, functions of, 167.

Ornithogalum, storage, 158.

1'eristome, Funaria, 127; Moss, 127;

Oval, 29.

Polytrichum, 127.

Ovary, cells of, 83 ; Crassula, 82.

Peronospora, reproduction, 180.

Ovate, 29.

Petal, Bean, 91 ; Crassula, 82; Even-

o

I94

INDEX AND SUMMARY

ing Primrose, 94 ; Fuchsia, 94 ;

seed, 8, 123, 143; seed-coat, 8, 15;

Locust, 91 ; CEnothera, 94 ; Pea,

seedling, 15, 146.

91 ; Wistaria, 91.

Pinus Cembra, P. edulis, P. Lamber-

Petiole, 26; clasping, 66; Clematis,

tiana, P. Pinea, P. Saiiniaaa.seeds,

66 ; Darlingtonia, 74 ; Five-Finger,

144.

28 ; Japanese Quince, 26 ; Jasmine-

Pistil, coalescence, 94; compound,

flowered Nightshade, 66; Pitcher

84,94; Crassula,82; Hyacinth, 94;

Plant, 73 ; Rose, 28 ; Sarracenia

Lily, 94; simple, 84.

purpurea, 73 ; Strawberry, 28 ;

Pitcher Plant, blade, 73 ; insectivo-

Sundew, 75 ; Venus Fly-trap, 74.

rous, 73, 161 ; leaf, 73 ; petiole,

Phloem, Sunflower, 20.

73-

Phyllodium (plural phyllodia), Aca-

Pith, Butternut, 23; Corn, 21, 22;

cia, 34.

Sunflower, 19 ; Walnut, 23.

Phyllotaxy, Alder, 153; American

Pittosporum, bud scales, 48 ; leaf, 26;

Larch, 43 ; Apple, 41 ; Basswood,

midrib, 26; phyllotaxy, 41; vena-

153 ; Bedstraw, 39 ; Beech, 153 ;

tion, 26.

Begonia, 40; Cleavers, 39; Corn,

Pittosporum eugenioides, buds, 155 ;

153; cyclical, 39, 40; Day Lily,

leaf, 149.

153 ; Deodar, 45 ; Elm, 153 ; Eu-

Placenta, Crassula, 83.

calyptus, 44 ; Forsythia, 45 ; frac-

Plantain, dichogamy, 171 ; pollina-

tion representing, 41 ; Fuchsia, 39,

tion, 95 ; spike, 103.

152; Galium, 39, 152; Grasses,

Plum, drupe, lii, 112.

153 ; Hazel, 153 ; Hemerocallis,

Plumule, Bean, 3, 4; Corn, 7, 14;

153 ; Holly, 41 ; Iris, 153 ; Larch,

Onion, 15; Pine, 15.

45, 153; Lily, 152; Linden, 153;

Poison Hemlock, umbel, 102.

Maple, 43, 44; Oak, 153; oppo-

Poisonous Plants, protection, 57.

site, 39, 40; Pandanus, 44; Pear,

Pollen, Crassula, 82; descent of

41 ; Pine, 42, 45 ; Pittosporum, 41 ;

pollen tube, 88 ; masses, 168 ;

reading upon, 152 ; questions upon,

nucleus, 87 ; protection of; 172.

45 ; Salix cordata, 153 ; S. discolor,

Pollination, agencies for, 89 ; by in-

153 ; Salix lucida, 153 ; Screw

sects, 89, 95 ; by wind, 89, 95 ; Com-

Pine, 44; secondary spirals, 42;

positse, 170; Corn, 169; Cosmos,

Sequoia gigantea, 153 ; series of

170; cross, 89; devices for secur-

fractions, 42; spiral, 40; Spruce,

ing cross, 89 ; Grass, 169 ; reading

42; Sugar Pine, 153; Sumach,

upon insect p., 169 ; reading upon

153 ; Veratrum viride, 41 ; White

self p., 173 ; reading upon wind p.,

Hellebore, 41, 153; Willow, 153.

169; Salvia, 170; self, 89, 100;

Physalis, seed dispersal, 124.

special devices for securing cross

Phytomer, 25.

p., 97, 169; Sunflower, 170.

Pileus, Mushroom, 128.

Pollinia, Asclepias, 168 ; Orchid, 168.

Pilose, 29.

Polycotyledonous embryo, 21.

Pimpernel, capsule, 118.

Polygala, cleistogamy, 173.

Pine, caulicle, 8, 15; cone, 42; coty-

Polygala, paucifolia, P. polygama,

ledons, 8, 15 ; embryo, 8 ; endo-

cleistogamous flowers, 100, 173.

sperm, 8, 15; kernel, 8; leaves, 35 ;

Polytrichum, calyptra, 127 ; capsule,

longevity of leaves, 37 ; micropyle,

127; operculum, 127; peristome,

8 ; phyllotaxy, 42, 45; plumule, 15 ;

127; plant, 127; spores, 128.

INDEX AND SUMMARY

I9S

Pome, Apple, 113, 114; core, 113,

Purslane, capsule, 118.

114.

Putamen (plural putamina), drupe,

Poppy, capsule, 118, 177.

112.

Portulaca, capsule, 118.

Potato, storage, 59, 158; tuber, 60.

Quince, leaf, 149.

Praefoliation, 51 ; Azalea, 53 ; Calla,

53; Cherry, 52; circinate,53; con-

Raceme, Currant, 101 ; definition,

duplicate, 52 ; convolute, 53 ; Cur-

101 ; Lily-of-the- Valley, 101 ; Red-

rant, 52; Dock, 53; Fern, 53;

hot-Poker Plant, 101 ; Zygadenus,

involute, 53; Japanese Quince, 53 ;

IOI.

Lilac, 51 ; Magnolia, 52 ; Maple.

Radish, storage, 62, 157.

52; Material, 155; plaited, 52;

Ranks, of leaves, 39, 40, 41 ; spiral,

plane, 51 ; plicate, 52 ; questions

40, 41 ; two, 40 ; vertical, 39, 40,

upon, 54; reading upon, 155; rec-

41.

linate, 52; revolute, 53; Tulip

Raspberry, protection, 56 ; suckers,

Tree, 52 ; Violet, 53.

78 ; vegetative reproduction, 78.

Prickly Pear, joints, 80; vegetative

Reading, 139.

reproduction, 80.

Receptacle, Crassula, 84.

Primrose, heterostyly, 99, 171.

Red Clover, head, 103.

Prince's Feather, flower, 91.

Red-hot- Poker Plant, raceme, 101.

Barberry, 55, 156; Beechnut, 122;

Rrniform, 29.

Berbtris vulgaris, 156 ; Blackberry,

Reproduction, definition, 76, 163;

56 ; Brambles, 56, 157 ; Buttercup,

See also seed reproduction, spore

56; Chestnut, 122; Chinquapin,

reproduction, and vegetative repro-

122; Cockspur Thorn, 156 ; Cratae-

duction.

gus, 156 ; Currant, 55 ; Datura,

Retuse, 29.

122; Eschscholtzia, 56; Euphorbia

Reviews, 141.

splendent, 156; fruits, 122; Goose-

Rhaphe, 143; Bean, 2, 4; Castor

berry, 55 ; Hawthorn, 156 ; Lemon,

Bean, 4.

156; Locust, 56; Mayweed, 56;

Rhododendron, capsule, 117; leaves,

Mullein, 57; Nettle, 57; Orange,

152-

55. J56 1 poisonous plants, 57 ; pol-

Rind, of Corn stem, 22.

len, 172 ; Raspberry, 56 ; reading

Rings of wood, Butternut, 23 ; Wal-

upon, 156; Robinia Pseudacacia,

nut, 23.

156 ; Rose, 56, 157 ; Scarlet Thorn,

Robinia Pseudacacia, protection,

156; Spiny Acacia, 56, 156 ; Thim-

156.

bleberry, 56 ; Thistle, 56 ; Thorn,

Root, adventitious, 14, 18, 146; as

55 ; Thorn Apple, 122 ; Worm-

suckers, 70; aerial, 69; Bean, 12,

wood, 56 ; Xantliium spinosum, 156.

17; Corn, 14, 18 ; hairs, 18, 147;

Proterandry, definition, 98.

Mistletoe, 69; multiple primary,

Proterogyny, definition, 98.

17; Pea, ii ; primary, n, 12, 14;

Pubescent leaf, 29.

questions upon, 18 ; reading upon,

Puccinia, reproduction, 180.

146; secondary, 17, 146; Squash,

Pulque, 59.

17; tap, 17; tertiary, 17.

Pumpkin, pepo, 114.

Root hairs, Bean, 18; Corn.iS; Pea,

Purple Loosestrife, heterostyly, 99, 172.

18.

I96

INDEX AND SUMMARY

Rootlets, aerial, 67 ; English Ivy, 67.

table, 9 ; Trumpet Creeper, 123 ;

Rose, anthotaxy, 105 ; climbing, 157 ;

winged, 123; with tufts of hairs,

defoliation, 38; green flowers, 107,

124; Yam, 123.

107 ; hip, 176 ; leaflets, 28 ; petiole,

Seed-coats, Bean, 2, 4 ; Castor Bean,

28 ; pinnately compound leaf, 28 ;

S ; Cocoanut, 125 ; Corn, 6 ; Morn-

protection, 56, 157; stipules, 28.

ing Glory, 6; Onion, 8, 14; Pine,

Rugose, 29.

8.

Rye, pollination, 95.

Seed dispersal, by animals, in, 121;

by water, 125 ; by wind, 123 ; read-

Sagittate, 29.

ing upon, 177, 178.

Salix cordata, S. discolor, S. lucida,

Seed-leaves. See Cotyledons.

phyllotaxy, 153.

Seedlings, Bean, n; Castor Bean,

Salvia, pollination, 170.

13; Corn, n, 13; Onion, 14; Pea,

Samara, Ailanthus, 123 ; Ash, 123 ;

ii ; Pine, 15; Squash, 17.

Elm, 123; Maple, 123.

Seedlings, Bean, 11, 12, 144; Castor

Saprophytes, 68; Bread Mould, 71,

Bean, 13, 145; Corn, 13, 14, 145;

161 ; Corallorhiza, 161 ; Coral Root,

Morning Glory, 145 ; Onion, 14,

161 ; Indian Pipe, 161 ; Monotropa,

15, 145, 146; Pea, ii, 144; Pine,

161 ; reading upon, 160.

15, 145, 146; questions upon, 16;

Sarcocarp, drupe, 112.

reading upon, 144 ; Squash, 146.

Sarracenia purpurea, blade, 73 ; in-

Seed reproduction, definition, 76,81;

sectivorous, 73, 161 ; leaf, 73 ; peti-

reading upon, 164.

ole, 73.

Self-pollination, 100; reading upon,

Scabrous, 29.

173-

Scalpel, 133.

Sensitive Plant, leaves, 36.

Scaly, buds, 47.

Sepals, coalescence of, 93 ; Crassula,

Scarlet Thorn, protection, 156.

82.

Scion, 71.

Septicidal dehiscence, Azalea, 117 ;

Scoliopus Bigtlovii, leaf, 149.

Chelone, 117 ; Rhododendron, 117 ;

Screw Pine, phyllotaxy, 44.

St. John's Wort, 117 ; Turtle Head,

Scrophularia, dichogamy, 98.

117.

Scrophularia Californica, S. nodosa,

Septifragal dehiscence, Morning

dichogamy, 170.

Glory, 117.

Sedge, seed dispersal, 125.

Septum (plural septa), capsule, 117,

Sedum, flower, 165.

118.

Seed, Bean, i, 143 ; Butter-and-Eggs,

Sequoia gigantea, phyilotaxy, 153.

123 ; Castor Bean, 4 ; Catalpa, 123 ;

Sericeous leaf, 29.

Corn, 6; Cotton, 124; Cypress, 123;

Serrate leaf, 29.

Day Lily, 123; Dioscorea, 123;

Serrulate leaf, 29.

dispersal, 109; essentials of, 81,

Sessile, definition, 103 ; flowers, 103.

128; Funkia, 123; Linaria, 123;

Shrub, 22.

Milkweed, 124; Morning Glory, 5 ;

Silver Maple, buds, 154.

Pea, 4 ; Pine, 8, 123 ; Pinus Cembra,

Sleep, of plants, Oxalis, 36.

P. edulis, P. Lambertiana, P. Pinea,

Smilax, cladophylla, 36, 151 ; leaves,

and P. Sabiniana, 144; questions

36, 151-

upon, 10 ; reading upon, 142 ; re-

Smilax herbacea, flower, 96.

production by, 76, 81 ; storage, 62 ;

Smooth, 29.

INDEX AND SUMMARY

197

Soap-Root, storage, 62.

Soft bast, Sunflower, 20; Walnut, 23.
See also Phloem.

Solatium Jasminoides, clasping peti-
oles, 66; climbing, 66, 159.

Solidago, leaves, 150.

Solomon's Seal, storage, 158.

Sorus (plural sori), Fern, 126.

Spadix, Anthurium, 103 ; Calla, 103.

Spathe, Anthurium, 103 ; Calla, 103.

Spatulate, 29.

Species, xiii.

Spike, Plantain, 103.

Spiny Acacia, protection, 56, 156.

Spirogyra, reproduction, 180.

Sporangia, Bread Mould, 71 ; Fern,
127.

Spores, Bread Mould, 71; characters
of, 128; Fern, 127; kinds of, 179;
Moss, 127; Mushroom, 127; re-
production by, 126.

Spur, Larkspur, 92 ; Pansy, 93 ; Vio-
let, 93-

Squash, climbing, 65; multiple pri-
mary roots, 17 ; seedling, 17, 146.

Stamens, Barberry, 97; Calico Bush,
97; Crassula, 82; diadelphous,
93 ; Kalmia, 97 ; monadelphous,

93-

Standard, Bean, 91 ; Locust, 91 ; Pea,
91 ; Wistaria, 91.

Staphylea, seed dispersal, 124.

Star-of- Bethlehem, storage, 62, 158.

Stem, Basswood, 148 ; branching, 79 ;
Butternut, 22, 23 ; Buttonball, 148 ;
Corn, 21, 148; Cosmos, 147, 148;
endogenous, 22 ; exogenous, 21 ;
functions of, 24 ; Linden, 148 ;
Mistletoe, 69 ; questions upon, 24 ;
reading upon, 147 ; Sunflower,
19, 148 ; Sycamore, 148 ; under-
ground, 79 ; Walnut, 22, 23. '

Stigma, Begonia, 83; Crassula, 82;
Lily, 83; Mimulus, 97; Monkey
Flower, 97 ; Torenia, 97.

Stipe, Mushroom, 128.

Stipules, 26: Five-Finger, 28; Japa-

nese Quince, 26; Lathyrus Aphaca,
35 ; Rose, 28 ; Strawberry, 28.

St. John's Wort, capsule, 117.

Stomata, Calla Lily, 30.

Storage, 58 ; advantages of, 63 ;
Agave, 59, 157 ; Aloe, 157 ; Beet,
62, 157 ; Bermuda Lily, 158 ; Bro-
diaea, 158 ; Cactus, 58, 157 ; Car-
rot, 62, 157 ; Century Plant, 59 ;
corm,6o; Crocus, 158; Dog-tooth
Violet, 62 ; Easter Lily, 158 ; Gladi-
olus, 60, 158; Hyacinth, 61, 62;
Indian Turnip, 158; in seed, 62;
in trees, 63; Iris, 59; Jack-in-the-
Pulpit, 158 ; Jerusalem Artichoke,
158; Lilium auratum, 158; Lily,
60 ; Live-for-ever, 157 ; materials,
58; Onion, 61, 62; Ornithogalum,
158; Potato, 59, 157; Radish, 62,
157; reading upon, 157; scaly bulb,
61 ; Soap-Root, 62 ; solid bulb, 60;
Solomon's Seal, 158; Star-of-Beth-
lehem, 62, 158; tuber, 60; Tube-
rose, 62 ; Tulip, 62 ; tunicated
bulb, 62.

Strawberry, fruit, 176 ; leaf, 28 ; leaf-
lets, 28 ; petiole, 28 ; runners, 78 ;
stipules, 28 ; vegetative reproduc-
tion, 78.

Strophiole, Bean, i, 4, 143.

Struggle-for-existence, xii.

Style, Crassula, 82.

Suckers, Viscum album, 70.

Suffrutescent, 22.

Suffruticose, 22.

Sugar Pine, phyllotaxy, 153.

Sumach, phyllotaxy, 153.

Sundew, blade, 75 ; glands, 75 ; in-
sectivorous, 75; leaf, 75; petiole, 75.

Sunflower, cambium, 20 ; cortex, 19 ;
epidermis, 20; hard bast, 20; in-
ternodes, 19 ; nodes, 19 ; outer bark,
19; phloem, 20; pith, 19; soft bast,
20; stem, 19,148; vascular bundle,
19, 20, 21 ; vegetative buds, 49 ;
xylem, 20.

Swamp Loosestrife, heterostyly, 99.

INDEX AND SUMMARY

Sweet Potato, adventitious buds, 49.

Umbel let, Caraway Seed, 102 ; Car-

Sweet-scented Shrub, flower, 107.

rot, 102 ; definition, 102 ; Fennel,

Sycamore, stem, 148.

102; Parsnip, 102; Poison Hem-

Synsepalous, calyx, 93.

lock, 102.

Undulate, 29.

Tap root, Bean, 17; definition, 17.

Unsymmetrical, flower, 92.

Taraxacum, seed dispersal, 124.

Uredo, reproduction, 180.

Teazle, leaves, 150.

Utricularia, insectivorous, 162.

Tegmen, Castor Bean, 5, 13.

Uvularia perfoliata, leaf, 33.

Tendrils, Lathyrus Aphaca, 35 ;

Grape Vine, 159 ; Pea, 66 ; Squash,

Valve, of pod, 116.

65-

Vascular bundle, Corn, 21, 22 ; Sun-

Terminal bud, 46.

flower, 19, 20, 21.

Testa, Castor Bean, 5, 13.

Vaucheria, reproduction, 180.

Thimbleberry, protection, 56.

Vegetative reproduction, Begonia,

Thistle, protection, 56 ; seed disper-

79 ; budding, 80 ; Bryophyllum,

sal, 124.

79 ; by bulblets, 77, 78 ; by cuttings,

Thorn, protection, 55.

79 ; by runners, 78 ; by suckers,

Thorn Apple, protection, 122.

78; Calochortus, 164; Cicuta bul-

Tiger Lily, bulblets, 77 ; vegetative

bifera, 164 ; definition, 77 ; Dio-

reproduction, 77, 164.

scorea, 164 ; grafting, 80 ; grass,

Timothy, pollination, 95,

79 ; in underground stems, 79 ;

Tomato, berry, 113.

Iris, 79 ; Lilium tigrinum, 164 ;

Tomentose, 29.

Mariposa Lily, 164 ; Mint, 79 ;

Torenia, stigma, 97.

Onion, 77, 78, 164 ; Opuntia, 80 ;

Torsion, of internodes, 44.

Pelargonium, 79 ; Prickly Pear,

Trees, 22.

80; Raspberry, 78 ; reading upon,

Trillium, green flowers, 107.

164; Strawberry, 78; Tiger Lily,

Trillium erectum, flower, 96.

77,164; Willow, 79; Yam, 78.

Trimorphism, heterogonous, 171.

Venation, English Ivy, 27; .Japanese

Troximon, seed dispersal, 124.

Quince, 26 ; Mock Orange, 26 ;

Trumpet Creeper, winged seeds, 123.

netted, 26 ; parallel, 27 ; Pitto-

Truncate, 29.

sporum, 26.

Tuber, Jerusalem Artichoke, 157 ;

Venus Fly-trap, bristles, 75 ; insec-

Potato, 60.

tivorous, 74, 75, 162; leaf, 74, 75.

Tuberose, storage, 62.

Veratrum •viride, phyllotaxy, 41.

Tulip Tree, bud scales, 48 ; prafolia-

Verbena, head, 103.

tion, 52.

Vernation, 51.

Tumble Weeds, seed dispersal, 124.

Violet, cleistogamy, 173 ; flower, 92 ;

Turtle Head, capsule, 117.

praefoliation, 53 ; pod, 116 ; spur,92.

Twisting, of internodes, 44.

Virginia Creeper, climbing, 159.

Virgin's Bower, clasping petioles, 66 ;

Umbel, Caraway Seed, 102 ; Carrot,

climbing, 66.

102 ; compound, 102 ; Fennel,

Viscum album, suckers, 70,

102; Onion, 102; Parsnip, 102;

Pelargonium, 102; Poison Hem-

Walnut, buds, 46; bud scales, 48;

lock, 102.

cambium, 23 ; cork, 23 ; cortex,

INDEX AND SUMMARY

199

23 ; hard bast, 23 ; internodes, 22 ; '
medullary rays, 23; nodes, 22;
pith, 23; pollination, 95 ; rings, 23 ;
soft bast, 23 ; stem, 22 ; xylem, 23.

Water Lily, flower, 107 ; seed dis-
persal, 125.

White Hellebore, phyllotaxy, 41.

Whorl, of cotyledons, 8 ; of leaves,
40.

Willow, cuttings, 79; defoliation, 38 ;
longevity of leaf, 37 ; phyllotaxy,
153-

Willow-herb, dichogamy, 171.

Wind-pollinated flowers, Alder, 95;
Birch, 95; Butternut, 95; charac-
teristics of, 95 ; Corn, 95 ; Grasses,
95 ; Hickory Nut, 95 ; Nettle, 95 ;

Oak, 95; Oat, 95; Plantain, 95;

Rye, 95 ; Timothy, 95 ; Walnut, 95.
Wistaria, flower, 91 ; pods, 116.
Witch Hazel, buds, 48.
Wormwood, protection, 56.

Xanthium, seed dispersal, 121.
Xanthium spinosum, protection, 156.
Xenogamy, 167.

Xylem, Butternut, 23 ; Sunflower, 20 ;
Walnut, 23.

Yam, bulblets, 78 ; climbing, 159 ;
seed dispersal, 123 ; vegetative re-
production, 78.

Zygadenus, raceme, 101.

, i

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