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PREFACE, THE main object of the excursion, the results of which are given in the following pages, was a purely scientific one, viz.: the study of the Natural History of the north- ern shore of Lake Superior. Another end proposed by Professor Agassiz, was, to afford to those of the party who were unaccustomed to the practical investigation of natural phenomena, an opportunity of exercising them- selves under his direction. The party was composed of the following gentlemen : Prof. Agassiz and Dr. William Keller, instructors, and Messrs. George Belknap and Charles G. Kendall, stu- dents, of the Lawrence Scientific School; Messrs. James McC. Lea, GeorgeH. Timmins, and Freeman Tompkins, of the Dane Law School; Messrs. Eugene A. Hoffman, Charles G. Loring, Jonathan C. Stone, and Jefferson Wiley, of the senior class of Harvard College; Messrs. Joseph P. Gardner and J. Elliot Cabot, of Boston; Drs. John L. Le Conte and Arthur Stout, of New York; and M. Jules Marcou, of Paris. Interspersed throughout the Narrative are reports, care- fully made at the time, of the Professor’s remarks on various pots of Natural History, that seemed to him * 1V PREFACE. likely to interest a wider circle than those more particu- larly addressed in the second part of the book, which consists of papers on various points connected with the Natural History of the region, written, where not other- wise specified, by Prof. Agassiz. This portion of the work, however, does not aim at a mere detail of facts, but is intended to show the bearing of these facts upon general questions. The Landscape Tlustrations are taken from sketches made on the spot, by Mr. Cabot. Those of the Second Part were drawn and lithographed by Mr. Sonrel, a Swiss artist of much distinction in this branch, and formerly employed by Prof. Agassiz at Neuchatel, but now resident in this country. Boston, Marcu, 1850. CONTENTS. IL. NARRATIY CHAP. I. BOSTON TO THE SAULT DE ST. MARIE. Boston to Albany—Lecture from the Professor—Valley of the Mo- hawk—Population of German descent—Wild scenery of Western New York—Niagara—Remarks by Prof. Agassiz on the Geology and Botany of this Region—Lunar rainbow—The suspension bridge—Rattlesnakes —Peculiar color of the water—Steamer to the foot of the Falls— Buffalo—Steamer for Mackinaw—Botanical Lecture—The Great Lakes— Boat in distress—Cleveland—Detroit—Lake St. Clair—Flats—Lake Hu- ron—Northern character of the seenery—Meteorological phenomenon— Mackinaw—Fishing party and Lecture on Fishes—Boat for the Sault— Les mouches—First experiment of camping out—The Detour—St. Jo- seph’s Island and the Major—Passage up the St. Mary’s Straits—Mus- quitoes—Arrival at the Sault..............06- states arate anes otek areversicvoretereve) aparate 9-31 CHAP. II. THE SAULT TO FORT WILLIAM. The Sault—Dissolute character of the population—Lecture on Fishes of the Sault—The black fly—Lecture on the Classification of Birds— Embarcation on Lake Superior—Canoes—Canadian voyageurs and In- dians—The Pointe aux Pins—Voyageur’s bread—Entrance of the lake —Resemblance to the sea-coast—Les gens du Lac—Arrangement of the messes—Routine of the day—Provisions—Drift-scratches and grooves —Mineralogical remarks by the Professor—Grand scenery of the lake —Catching the lake trout—Character of rocks and trees—Great va- riations of temperature—Coldness of the water—Mica Bay— Hospitality of Capt. Matthews—A proof of the ‘ Glacial Theory’’—Montreal River —Large red pines—Tamias quadrivittatus—Indian pictures—Transpa- rency of the water—Cautiousness of the voyageurs—Boat songs— Fishing Indians—Toad River—Character of river-mouths on the lake —Increasing grandeur of the scenery—Brilliancy of the lichens— Agate Bay—Indian legend—Cape Choyye—Pot-holes—Snow—Michi- picotin River—The factory—The plague of flies—Indian hunters— 1* vi CONTENTS. The fur trade—Climate—The fisheries—Our voyageurs—Terraces—Riv. a la Chienne—An Indian tombstone—Les Kcrits—Character of the woods—Cliffs—Otter Head—A cedar swamp—Alteration of temperature —The Northern Lights—The Pie—Birds and fishes—One of the party ill with fever—Drowned insects—Pic Island—Fires in the woods— Caribous—Parus Hudsonicus—Terraces—The Professor’s remarks on Metallic Veins—Les Petits Ecrits—Islands—An Indian Family —Usnea —St. Ignace—Deserted Mining Location—Ascent of Mt.-Cambridge— Furrows on the beaches—Masses of lichen—Ripple marks—Thunder Cape—Fort William—The Kaministiquia River—The Fort—Aquatic Cows—Excursion to Kakabeka Falls—Paddles and oars—The river— A Décharge—Character of the interior of this region—Heavy dew—., The Falls ..... oonueanee pueoooess Sun oplode Abe aobSoun be oddocoonT dae CLs!) CHAP. III. FORT WILLIAM BACK TO THE SAULT. The Pate—Remarks by the Professor on the Distribution of Animals and Plants—Prince’s Location—Minerals—Spar Island—the Victoria Islands—The Professor’s remarks on Mineral Veins—Swell on the lake —Structure of the Paté—Varieties of the lake trout—Spawning of the various fishes of the lake—Guls breeding—Sails of birch bark—Neepi- gon Bay—Cape Gourgan—Deserted mining location—Prof. Agassiz on the Outlines of Continents—The miner’s huts—Conjectures as to their winter life—Scudding before the wind—“ Dirty Water’—+Head winds —Remarkable trap dyke—Terraces. measured—Black River—Intricacy of the woods—Falls of Black River—Lecture on the Drift Formations of the Lake—The brown bear—Drift wood—Habits of the grouse—An Esquimaux dog—A port in'a storm—Degradées—Lake contrasts—La Vielle—A sweating house—Difference in vegetation—Trap dykes— Half breeds—A calm on the lake—Foxes—Trout fishing—Michipicotin again—Moisture of the atmosphere—Indian dogs—Excursion to Michi- picotin Falls—Features of the country—The Portage—The Falls— Paleontological pot-holes—The Sandy Islands—A fox in exile—“ Fran- ¢ais’’ and * Sauvages’—Difficult embarcation—Gros Cap—White flow- ering raspberry—The outlet of the lake—Arrive all together—Shooting the Rapids ic. ..5qae. exer eta faas AL valeraseleusie tees imate datedersiets 'ajekCL Renae Sis siatera oR OOO CEPAIP Li. FROM THE SAULT HOMEWARDS. Description of Lake Superior—Steamer for Sturgeon Bay—Scenery of the St. Mary’s Straits—The Bruce Mine—Miners injured by an explosion —St. Joseph’s—Remarkable boulder—Observations on it by the Profes- sor—The Theologico-geological question mooted—The Grand Manitou- lin—The “‘presents’’ to the Indians—Gross injustice of the present sys- tem—Penctanguishene—Sturgeon Bay—A rough road—Change in veg- CONTENTS. Vil etation—Cold Water—Lake Simcoe—Holland landing—St. Albans— Country on the Toronto road—Toronto—Lockport—Remarkable drift BLOOVE—HoMe....- esse eeesccecscccceeces ray aie /a\a/yis)islejsintese, opalefalstayavaiery + « 123-133 Di De TO A, ELS ORY. ; 1h THE NORTHERN VEGETATION COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE JURA AND THE ALPS. Geographical distribution ; animals and plants not scattered at ran- dom over the face of the. earth; causes of this; temperature, 137.— Moisture; light; atmospheric pressure, 138.—Evinced in the fragrance of Alpine flowers, 139.—Electricity ; geographical features, 140, 141.— But physical agents not originally causative; peculiarities of North America; latitude, 142.—Limits of these agencies, 144.—Evidences of a Supreme Intelligence, 145.—CoRparison of vegetation of temperate regions, 146, 147.—Of Alpine and Northern vegetation, 148-9.—Of recent and fossil species; coincidence of European tertiary fossils with living species in America, 150-2....... dieverersie cousoode Jooodonoagoodnd 137-152 Il. OBSERVATIONS ON THE VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. Agreement of vegetation of Lake Superior with that of the higher tracts of the Jura, 153.—Parallel lists of the plants of these regions, 154-170.—Enumeration of lichens collected at Lake Superior, 170-4.— Parallel lists of Lake Superior plants in general and their analogues in Europe, 175-9.—Comparison of the vegetation of North America in general with that of Switzerland, 179-188.—-List of Huropean plants obseryed along several lines of railroad, 188-90......-+.....eeeeeeeees 153-190 ii CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS FROM EMBRYONIC AND PALAOZOIC DATA, Internal structure an insufficient basis for classification, 191-2.— Embryonic features of various animals, as denoting a respectively inferior VATE, OS —2) Olney ateretetrateyaieterrstaletoleleustoleradetelelielsvefeloterate wile siete stotatalelateteciatehee LOL —I00 IV. GENERAL REMARKS UPON THE COLEOPTERA OF LAKE SUPERIOR, BY DR. JOHN L. LECONTE. Geographical distribution, 201-2.—List of species collected, 203-239.— Observations on the characters of the insect fauna of Lake Superior, 239-241.—Account of the larva and pupa of a coleopterous insect from Niagara Falls, referred by Dekay to the Crustaceans, 241-2.......... 201-242 vill CONTENTS. We CATALOGUE OF SHELLS, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES, BY DR. A. A. GOULD. Watalocue)eeic ceil clolcle Sieteteters Baeee te cate Saloereteiteeineee ferns trate ce 243-246 VA, FISHES OF LAKE SUPERIOR COMPARED WITH THOSE OF THE OTHER GREAT CANADIAN LAKES. Geographical distribution; the prevalence of general laws over mere peculiarities of position and circumstances, 246-7.—Migrating animals do not wander, but regularly return: light thrown on the question of unity or plurality of creations by the examination of the fishes of Lake Superior, 248.—Examination of the question whether the Petromyzons should form a subclass by themselves, or be classed with the skates and sharks, and conclusion that they are simply embry- onic forms of the latter type, 249-52.—Description of Ammocetes borealis, 252-4.—LupiposrEvs, as showing the reptilian character of the ancient fishes, 254-63.—The sturgeons ; their geographical distribution, 263-4.—Cireumscribed within narrow limits in various parts of the world, yet linked together by intermediate forms; peculiarity of their distribution in America, 265-6.—Acipenser levis, Agass., 267-71.—A. carbonarius, Agass., 271-6.—A. ryncheus, Agass., 276-7.—A. Rupertianus, 277-8.—On the position of the Siluride and Goniodonts as aberrant families of the order of Ganoids, 278-9.—The genus Prmetopus; proba- bly to be further subdivided; remarks on several species, 279-80.— P. felis, Agass., 281-4.—Genus Prrcopsis, Agass., representative of an ancient type of the tertiary period; intermediate between Percoids and Salmonide, 284-5.—P. guttatus, Agass., 286-9.—Prrcorps; great dif- ference in their distribution, between Lake Superior and the Lower Lakes, 289-91.—Observations on Perca flavescens, 291-3.—On Pomotis vulgaris, 293.—Lucioperca Americana; value of the opercular spines as distinctive mark in this genus, 294-5.—Grystes fasciatus, Agass., 295-7. Huro nigricans, Cuy., a Grystes, 297.—Corrorps; importance of correct appreciation of the connecting character, rather than the amount of external variation, in classification, 297-8.—Subfamily of Erarosromara ; Erxzosroma; Prrzoma; Pacitosoma, Agass., Bonzosoma, 298-9.—Cor- Tus; character of genus; various opinions as to number of species, 300.—C. Richardsoni, Agass., 300-3.—C. Franklini, Agass., 303-4.— Boxeosoma, characters of, 304.—B. maculatum, Agass., 305-7.—PILEOMA ; characters of this genus, 307-8.—P. zebra, Agass., 308-10.—Gasterosteus nebulosus, Agass., 310-14.—G. pygmeus, Agass., 314-15.—Family Esocip#, 315-17.—Esox boreus, Agass., 317-21.—Family Gaporps ; ob- scurity of their real affinities; disagreements and uncertainties as to certain North American genera and species, 321-4.—Lota maculosa, CONTENTS. 1x 325-6.—Family SatmMonipm, observations on their classification and geographical distribution, 326.—Showing plan of Supreme Intelligence, 327-30.—Salmo fontinalis, 330-31.—S. namaycush, observations upon, 331-3.—S. siscowet, Agass., 333-36.—CorzEGONUS, Observations on the, 336-9.—C. clupeiformis, 339-42.—C. albus, 342-4.—C. sapidissimus, Agass., 344-48.—C. latior, Agass., 348-51.—C. quadrilateralis, 351-2.— Family Cyprinorps, distribution, 352-3.—Rurnicuruys, Agass., 353-4.— R. marmoratus, Agass., 354-6.—Catosromus, difficulties in the study of this genus, 356-7.—C. aureolus, 327.— C. Forsterianus, Agass., 8358-60.—C. aurora, Agass., 361-3.—ALBURNUS, 363,.—A. rubellus, Agass., 364-6. Gobio plumbeus, Agass., 366-8.—Leuciscus frontalis, Agass., 368-70.—L. gracilis, Agass., 370-2.—L. Hudsonius, 372-3.—General observations ; all freshwater fishes of North America different from those of Europe; Lake Superior and the lakes north of it constitute a distinct zoélogical district, 373-5.—These fishes must have been created where they now live, 376.— Deductions from this fact, 37 (iececcewces ccs sevsrcecve ne t40—O0 f VII. DESCRIPTION OF SOME NEW SPECIES OF REPTILES FROM THE REGION OF LAKE SUPERIOR. Hylodes maculatus, Agass., 378-9.—Rana nigricans, Agass., 379-80.— Crotophorus, sp., probably identical with C. tergeminus, 381.—Further list of reptiles of Lake Superior; large size of some species; turtles not found on northern shores of the lake, 882.........00c0sceeeeeeee+d/8-082 Vill. REPORT ON THE BIRDS COLLECTED AND OBSERVED AT LAKE SUPERIOR. BY J. E. CABOT. Striking scarcity of birds and quadrupeds; causes of this, 383-4.—List OL BPECLES WS OAKO ie clellola afer'aleieie eye ne ish slots elie) clare a)e}/v\elwiale)s)alatelelclohe ole»! elelslelsiejOS—GOO IX. DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME SPECIES OF LEPIDOPTERA, FROM THE NORTHERN SHORES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. BY DR. THADDEUS WILLIAM HARRIS. Pontia oleracea, 386.—Deilephila Chamenerii, 387-8.—Smerinthus mo- desta, 388-9.—Hepiolus argenteo-maculatus, 3889-90.—Arctia parthenos, 890-1.—Arctia Americana, 891.—Ennomos macularia, 392.—List of Lep- idopterous insects, taken by Professor L. Agassiz on the northern shore Of Lake Superior, 892=4.0... 0 cums cn econ sacelele'e oeisiela win cvicle elses vee eS00—O94 X. THE ERRATIC PHENOMENA ABOUT LAKE SUPERIOR. The most minute and careful investigation of drift by the glacialists ; whereas their opponents simply deny, 395.—The various erratic basins x CONTENTS. of Switzerland distinct, and the materials in well-determined order, 596.—Similar phenomena observed in other parts of Europe, 396-7.— Points necessary to be settled; first, the relation in time and character, between the Northern and the Alpine erratics, 397.—Traced in North America, 397-8.—Not yet settled whether any local centres of distribu- tion in this country; but the general cause must have acted in all parts simultaneously, 398.—The action ceased at 35° north latitude; this incompatible with the notion of currents, 399.—In both hemispheres a direct reference to the polar regions, 400.—Difficulty as to so extensive formation of ice, removed; difficulties on the theory of currents, the effects contrary to experience of water-action, 401.—Erratic phenomena of Lake Superior, 401-4.—The iceberg theory, 405-6.—Description of appearances at Lake Superior, 406-9.—Drift; contains mud, and is without fossils, 409.—Example of juxtaposition of stratified and un- stratified drift, at Cambridge, 410.—Date of these phenonema not fully determined, but doubtless simultaneous all over the globe, 410-411.— The various periods and kinds of drift distinguished, 412.Accompanied by change of level in the continent ; terraces at Lake Superior, 413-14.— Not from a subsidence of the water, but from upheaval of the land, 414-416....... Soaucds Ro SaouauSopdbd HousuaTiCBOdase ado galgacsneas Xi. THE OUTLINES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. The present physical state of our globe the result of gradual and suc- cessive changes, 417.—Necessity of studying out in detail minor and secondary phenomena, 418.—Position and general features of the Great Lakes, 419-20.—Lake Superior; the dykes correspond in direction with the trend of the shores, 420.—Details, 421-2.—Enumeration of the various systems of dykes, 423-4.—These dykes have cut up the primi- tive formations so as to produce the present outlines of the lake, 424-6. —The rocks of Lake Superior as evidence that the erratics of more southern localities were derived from the primitive range extending north of the lakes to the Atlantic, 425-6........ i ioleisteteists ariel tevelete Bie XII. - 395-416 -417-426 GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE VARIOUS COPPER DEPOSITS OF LAKE SUPERIOR. The distribution of the copper ores at Lake Superior, as indicating their origin; the native copper plutonic and unchanged near the centre of eruption, but modified and combined ata distance, ..........+- «2+ 427-428 ara nr wh ILLUSTRATIONS. I. LANDSCAPES. Page. Lake TERRACES NEAR Brack RIVER.......+see+eee+ee0ee0++Frontispiece. ERT VEE RMCRAGHS: PAI! ECRUENR « «: 1a: s, «12,01 sjnjaraiajel's) Sielever eis wil siwielet side's dia cule Oe. CAMB ATEE VTC HITE TCOLEN ss sjaistate sieve iat w atliodistib® whe Lents wheal “hl wie aby bedtime uu mils’ een Ww aosionmn ner. te nll me slut taut eal, Me. Ka, scarey abhagt egies, pata. nisl | ix, nf srardegetiy aul So Mr - ‘We tmaayyalorois at biew ei: te Linpurng.. ‘site smrooliad yhax ) aonwaitut tb) ate Letornnd, up oth ad, fiom. ould Yor Sonia est eee ara Aly devel: wer wil, went aged engptind be ae" Baer dh trae Baan: y-toaf 5 Bateel qmten pealiy a Mnbnediy je mit tect: | et a pean ang area, pers suey : te stiaw ‘gaint. adi dae ceeding," ? i: sult a sale #0il Taam. mate ec A save ea inc a nak gal LAKE SUPERIOR. im THE NORTHERN VEGETATION COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE JURA AND THE ALPS. It is now universally known that living beings, animals and plants, are not scattered at random over the surface of the whole globe. Their distribution, on the contrary, is regulated by particular laws which give each country a peculiar aspect. We call climate the physical conditions which seem to regulate this distribution, however diversified the causes thus acting may be. The distribution of heat all the year round; the mode of succession of temperature, either by sudden or gradual changes ; the degree of moisture of the atmos- phere ; the pressure of the air; the amount of light; the electric condition of the atmosphere ; all these and perhaps some other agents continually influence the growth of plants and the development of animals. ‘The nature of the soil is no less powerful in its influence upon organized beings, though here also very different agents are considered under one head; as the chemical properties of the ground are evidently as efficient as the physical. Let us for a moment examine these circumstances. Temperature seems to be the all-ruling power. With the returning smile of spring, vegetation bursts out with new vigor, and dies again as the cold of winter brings back its annihilating rigors. Under the hot sun of the tropics the beauty and variety of vegetation exceed all that is known in more temperate regions, whilst as we approach the polar plains we see it grow gradually less diversified and more dwarf- 10 188 LAKE SUPERIOR. ish, thus exhibiting all over the globe a close connection between the modifications of temperature from the equator to the poles, and the geographical distribution of vegetable and animal life. The more powerful influence of temperature upon vegetation does not, however, preclude the influence of other agents; even the manner in which the same amount of heat is distributed over the earth in a given time, will produce differences. It is well known, that coun- tries in which the summers are short but very warm, and the winters very long and cold, have a vegetation totally different from those where the seasons are more equable and succeed each other by gradual changes, although the mean annual temperature of both be the same. Next in importance we may perhaps consider the degree of moisture of the atmosphere, which differs widely in different re- gions; the damp valleys of the Mississippi, for instance, present the most striking contrast with the rolling country farther west. Again, the swamps and the sandy plains, the rocky hills and the loamy soils, the snow-clad barrens and the frozen gravel of the North, even under circumstances otherwise most similar, afford the greatest diversity of vegetation. There is still another way in which moisture may act in a particular manner; as vegetation is not influenced simply by the annual amount of moisture, but also by the quantity of water that falls at one time, and the periods at which it falls. A low tem- perature in a moist climate will mdeed produce some remarkable peculiarities ; for instance where early winters cause an extensive sheet of snow to be accumulated over the ground, and to protect vegetation from the destroying influence of frost; as is the case in the Alps, where the most delicate flowers prosper admirably under their white blankets, and show themselves in full development as soon as the snow melts away, late in the spring, when the warm season is already fairly set in. Light, again, independently of heat, will also show its influence; shaded places are favorable to plants which would be killed under the more direct influence of the rays of light. Atmospheric pressure would at first seem to have only a very sub- ordinate influence upon vegetation. But comparing Alpine vegetation with that of higher latitudes, which from their situation must have climates otherwise very similar, we shall be led to the conclusion that atmospheric pressure has its share wm bringing about the diversity o f x THE NORTHERN VEGETATION COMPARED, ETC. 139 plants ; for though analogous, the flora of the high North is by no means identical with that of the most elevated Alpine ridges, over which vegetation continues to extend. The influence of atmospheric pressure seems to me particularly evinced in the great, I may say the prevailing number of Alpine species endowed with a volatile fra- grance which adds so much to the sweet and soothing influence of mountain rambles; whilst the northern species, however similar to those of the Alps, partake more or less of the dullness of the heavy sky under which they flourish.* Whatever may be the intensity of other causes, and even when they are most uniform, the chemical nature of the soil acts perhaps as powerfully as the physical conditions under which the plant may grow. ‘To be fully impressed with the important influence of the soil we need only be familiar with the differences noticed in the growth of wheat or other grains in different soils, or with the different aspect of pastures on rich or poor grounds, and to trace the same modifica- tions through any small tract of land with the view to understand similar changes over wider countries.+ * It would be a mistake to ascribe to reduced atmospheric pressure the peculiar aspect of most plants in the higher Alps, as they are undoubtedly more influenced by the temperature, and especially by the pressure of the snow of those high regions. These plants are commonly covered with a thick and close down, which reminds us of the soft fur of the northern animals; they creep for the most part attached to the compact and tenacious soil among the clefts of rocks, where their roots can penetrate and where they find shelter. Several of them have fleshy and succulent leaves, filled with liquid, derived rather from the atmosphere, than from the stony and dried soil upon which we generally find them. These phenomena of Alpine vegetation occur successively at a less considerable elevation the more we advance northwards, and show themselves on the plains towards the polar regions, where the temperature agrees with that of the high Alpine summits. The fact that many plants of the highest summits live very well at the foot of the glaciers which descend into the lower valleys, would seem to show that atmospheric pressure has only a limited influence upon Alpine plants; but the mo- ment we have satisfied ourselves that the most fragrant of these species never prosper below, we must admit that the relation between fragrance and atmospheric pressure to which I have alluded above, is well sustained. The Alpine plants are, it is well known, very difficult to cultivate; Mr. Vaucher, at Fleurier, assisted by Mr. Lesquereux has however succeeded in bringing together a magnificent and numerous collection of spe- cies of the high Alps. In order to preserve them, they took care to harden and press the soil, or to introduce small blocks of limestone into it, and to cover them with snow in the spring, but especially to press the roots very often into the ground in the spring, as they are otherwise pushed out after every frost, and perish in a single day if care be not taken to put them again without delay into the ground. + The chemical elements of the soil seem, however, to have less influence upon the geographical distribution of the large vegetables or phenogames, than upon the cryp- 140 LAKE SUPERIOR. To satisfy ourselves of the powerful influence of electricity upon vegetation, we need only remember the increased rapidity with which plants come forth, during spring, after thunder storms. Many other causes still more intimately connected with the aspect of our globe have also a great influence upon the distribution of the animals and plants which live on itssurface. The form of continents, the bearing of their shores, the direction and height of mountains, the mean level of great plains, the amount of water circumscribed by land and forming inland lakes or seas, each shows a marked influ- ence upon the general features of vegetation. Small low islands, scattered in clusters, are covered with a vegetation entirely different from that of extensive plains, under the same latitudes. .The bearing of the shores again, modifying the currents of the sea, will also react upon vegetation. Mountain chains will be influential not only from the height of their slopes and summits, but also from their action togames. The attempts made to group the former according ‘to the nature of the soil upon which they grow, have afforded no satisfactory results. It is otherwise when we consider the hydrodynamic capacity of the soil, that is to say, the property which it has to retain the water for a longer or shorter time. Tracing our investigations in this direction we arrive, on the contrary, at very important conclusions. A sandy desert and a peat-bog for instance, as the two extremes, have quite peculiar flore, which stand completely isolated from the vegetation of soils whose essential component material is humus. This fact is in perfect accordance with recent discoveries in vege- table physiology, which seem to prove that plants extract nothing from the soil except water, or nourishment in a liquid state, and that their other components, the carbon in particular, are furnished them from the atmosphere. As we descend the scale, and arrive at the cryptogames, the chemical influence of the soil is gradually more and more felt in the distribution of the genera, and even of the species. The mosses even may be readily grouped according to the locali- ties where they live. The Orthotriche occur almost exclusively upon the bark of trees, and upon granite and limestone; the Phascacee inhabit clayey soils, with the Gym- nostomee, Pottiew, Funariee and some Weissie. The Sphagnee occur only in peat- bogs, or in waters charged with ulmic acid; the Splachnez generally upon animal sub- stances in decomposition; the Grimmiez upon granitic rocks; whilst the greatest num- ber of the Hypnums and Dicranums cover large surfaces of rotten vegetables. And if we take into consideration the modifications which temperature introduces in the habitation of some mosses, we are enabled to account even for the cosmopolitism of some species which, like the Bryums, would seem to be less influenced than others by the nature of the soil upon which they grow. The examination of the lichens which attach themselves commonly to the surface of woods and rocks leads to conclusions still more striking. Some species live exclusively upon limestone; others upon mica schist; others upon various kinds of granite ; and others finally upon certain species of trees or other vegetables. The analysis of the substances upon which lichens live, has, if not completely explained, at least led to the understanding of the causes of the remarkable distribution of these plants. THE NORTHERN VEGETATION COMPARED, ETC. 141 upon the prevailing winds. It is obvious, for instance, that a moun- tain chain like the Alps, running from east to west, and thus forming a barrier between the colder region northwards, and the warmer southwards, will have a tendency to lower the temperature of the northern plains, and to increase that of the southern, below or above the mean which such localities would otherwise present; while the influence of a chain running north and south, like the Rocky Moun- tains and the Andes, will be quite the reverse, and tend to increase the natural differences between the eastern and western shores of the continent, and, laying open the north to southern influences and the south to those of the north, render its climate excessive, i. e., its summer warmer and its winter colder. Again, the equalizing influence of a large sheet of water, the tem- perature of which is less liable to sudden changes than the atmos- pheric air, is very: apparent in the uniformity of coast vegetation over extensive tracts, provided the soil be of the same nature, and also in the slower transition from one season into the other along the shores; the coasts having less extreme temperatures than the main land. The absolute degree of temperature of the water acts with equal power; as the aquatic plants of the tropical regions, for in- stance those of Guyana, differ as widely from those of Lake Supe- rior, as the palms differ from the pine forests. * * One of the most prominent causes of the dispersion, not to say of the distribution of plants, is certainly the direction and the swiftness of water-courses. On one hand the rivers bring down from the summits or the elevated parts of the country a large number of plants and seeds, which are stopped and take root farther below, on their banks; on the other, they spread in their neighborhood a greater or less amount of moisture. This is, I think, the best cause to assign to the uniformity of vegeta- tion over large plains, traversed by rivers, or to that of the sea-shores, or especially to that of the low islands and peninsulas of little extent. We must also admit, how- ever, that there are along the course of rivers a great variety of stations, which we may find nowhere else, valleys, abrupt rocks, shaded places, constantly or alternately lighted by the sun according to their bearing ; and that in this manner secondary agents + may have their influence in varying greatly the aspect of vegetation. It is also a curious but positive fact, that high mountain chains haye a direct influ- ence upon the dissemination of the species over the neighboring secondary chains, even at a considerable distance. This fact is plainly shown in the Jura for instance, where from the summits of the Dole to those of the Chasseral we observe a true Alpine vegetation, less and less abundant the more we recede from the Alps in one or another direction. At an equal elevation the summits of the northern Jura lose every trace of Alpine plants which we find so abundantly upon its southern summits, especially upon the ridges near the Alps, as the Dole, the Mount Tendre, for instance. The same takes ae LAKE SUPERIOR. But however active these physical agents may be, it would be very unphilosophical to consider them as the source or origin of the beings upon which they show so extensive an influence. Mistak- ing the circumstantial relation under which they appear, for a causal connection, has done great mischief in natural science, and led many to believe they understood the process of creation, because they could account for some of the phenomena under observation. But however powerful may be the degree of the heat; be the air ever so dry, or ever so moist; the light ever so Laine or ever so bright; alternating ever so suddenly with darkness, or passing gradually from one condition to the other; these agents have never been observed to produce anything new, or to call into existence anything that did not exist before. Whether acting isolated or jointly, they have never been known even to modify to any great extent the living beings already existing, unless under the guidance and influence of man, as we observe among domesticated animals and cultivated plants. ‘This latter fact shows indeed that the influence of the mind over material phenomena is far greater . than that of physical forces, and thus refers our thoughts again and again to a Supreme Intelligence for a cause of all these phenomena, rather than to so-called natural agents. Coming back from these general views to our special subject, it will be observed that North America must, a priori, be expected to have, in some parts, a very diversified vegetation, owing to the peculiarities of its natural geographical districts, and in others, viz., over its extensive tracts of uniform plains, a vegetation as uniform as anywhere in the world. The physical agents whose influence upon organized beings we have just examined, show a regular progression in their action, which agrees most remarkably with the degrees of latitude on one side, and the elevation above the level of the sea on the other. Hence the difference in the vegetation as we proceed from the tropical regions towards the poles, or as we ascend from the level of the place westwards. The list of Alpine species found upon the Dole amounts to one hundred, whilst upon the Weissenstein, where even the Anemones have disappeared, we find no other representative of that beautiful flora of the snow regions, than the sole Erinus Alpinus. THE NORTHERN VEGETATION COMPARED, ETC. 143 sea to any height along the slopes of a mountain. In both these directions there is a striking agreement in the order of succession of the phenomena, so much so, that the natural products of any given latitude may be properly compared with those occurring at a given height above the level of the sea; for instance, the vegetation of regions near the polar circles, and that of high mountains near the limits of perpetual snow under any latitude. The height of this limit, however, varies of course with the latitude. In Lapland, at 67° north latitude, it is three thousand five hundred feet above the level of the sea; in Norway at lat. 60° it is five thousand feet ; in the Alps at lat. 46° about eight thousand five hundred ; in the Himalaya at lat. 30° over twelve thousand ; in Mexico at lat. 19° it is fifteen thou- sand; and at Quito under the equator, not less than sixteen thousand. — At these elevations, in their different respective latitudes, without taking the undulations of the isothermal lines into consideration, vegetation shows a most uniform character, so that it may be said that there 1s a corresponding similarity of climate and vegetation be- : tween the successive degrees of latitude and the successive heights above the sea. As a striking example I may mention the fact of the occurrence of identical plants in Lapland in lat. 67° at a height of about three thousand feet and less above the level of the sea, and upon the summit of Mount Washington in latitude 44° at a height of not less than six thousand feet, while below this limit, in the wooded valleys of the White Mountains, there is not one species which occurs also about North Cape. There is nevertheless one circumstance which shows that. climatic influences alone, however extensive, taking for instance into account all the above-mentioned agents together, will not fully account for the geographical distribution of organized beings, as their various limits do not agree precisely with the outlines indicating the intensity of physical agents upon the surface of the earth. A few examples may serve to illustrate this remark. ‘The limit of forest vegetation round the Arctic Circle, does not coincide with the astronomical limits of the Arctic zone; nor does it agree fully with the isother- mal line of 52° of Fahrenheit; nor is the limit of vegetation in height always strictly in accordance with the temperature, as the Ce- rastium latifolium and Ranun-ulus glacialis, for instance, occur in the 144 LAKE SUPERIOR. Alps as high as ten, and even eleven thousand feet above the level of the sea. Again, eastern and western countries within the same continent, or compared from one continent to the other, show such differences under similar climatic circumstances, that we at once feel that some- thing is wanting in our illustrations, when we refer the distribution of animals and plants solely to the agency of climate. But the most striking evidence that climate neither accounts for the resemblance nor the difference of animals and plants in different countries, may be derived from the fact that the development of the animal and vegetable kingdoms differs widely under the same latitudes in the northern and in the southern hemispheres, and that there are entire families of plants and animals exclusively circumscribed within certain parts of the world; such are, for instance, the magnolia and cactus in America, the kangaroos in New Holland, the elephants and rhi- noceros in Asia and Africa, &c. &e. From these facts we may indeed conclude that there are other influences acting in the distribution of animals and plants besides cli- mate; or perhaps we may better put the proposition in this form: that however intimately connected with climate, however apparent- ly dependent upon it, vegetation is, in truth, independent of those influences, at least so far as the causal connection is concerned, and merely adapted to them. ‘This position would at once imply the existence of a power regulating these general phenomena in such a manner as to make them agree in their mutual connection ; that is to say, we are thus led to consider nature as the work of an intelligent Creator, providing for its preservation under the combined influences of various agents equally his work, which contribute to their more diversified combinations. = The geographical distribution of organized beings displays more fully the direct intervention of a Supreme Intelligence in the plan of the Creation, than any other adaptation in the physical world. Generally the evidence of such an intervention is derived from the benefits, material, intellectual, and moral, which man derives from nature around him, and from the mental conviction which conscious- ness imparts to him, that there could be no such wonderful order in the Creation, without an omnipotent Ordainer of the whole. This evidence, however plain to the Christian, will never be satisfactory to the man THE NORTHERN VEGETATION COMPARED, ETC. 145 of science, in that form. In these studies evidence must rest upon direct observation and induction, just as fully as mathematics claims the right to settle all questions about measurable things. There will be no scientific evidence of God’s working in nature until na- turalists have shown that the whole Creation is the expression of a thought, and not the product of physical agents. Now what stronger evidence of thoughtful adaptation can there be, than the various combinations of similar, though specifically different assemblages of animals and plants repeated all over the world, under the most uniform and the most diversified circumstances? When we meet with pine trees, so remarkable for their peculiarities, both morpholo- gical and anatomical, combined with beeches, birches, oaks, maples, &c., as well in North America as in Europe and Northern Asia, under most similar circumstances ; when we find again representa- tives of the same family with totally different features, mingling so to say under low latitudes with palm trees and all the luxuriant vegetation of the tropics; when we truly behold such scenes and have penetrated their full meaning as naturalists, then we are placed in a position similar to that of the antiquarian who visits ancient monuments. He recognizes at once the workings of intelligence in the remains of an ancient civilization ; he may fail to ascertain their age correctly, he may remain doubtful as to the order in which they were successively constructed, but the character of the whole tells him that they are works of art, and that men, like him- self, originated these relics of by-gone ages. So shall the intel- ligent naturalist read at once in the pictures which nature presents to him, the works of a higher Intelligence ; he shall recognize in the minute perforated cells of the Coniferse, which differ so wonderfully from those of other plants, the hieroglyphics of a peculiar age; in their needle-like leaves, the escutcheon of a peculiar dynasty ; in their repeated appearance under most diversified circumstances, a thought- ful and thought-eliciting adaptation. He beholds indeed the works of a being thinking like himself, but he feels at the same time that he stands as much below the Supreme Intelligence in wisdom, power and goodness, as the works of art are inferior to the wonders of nature. Let naturalists look at the world under such impressions 146 LAKE SUPERIOR. and evidence will pour in upon us that all creatures are expressions of the thoughts of Him whom we know, love and adore unseen. After these general remarks let us consider more closely the vegetation of the temperate and of the colder parts of North Ameri- ca, and compare it with that of the elevated regions forming i Central Europe the ridge which separates the nations of German tongue from the Roman. In these notes I shall, however, hmit my- self mostly to trees and forest vegetation, as this is the characteristic vegetation of those tracts of land, and only introduce now and then occasional remarks upon the other plants. It is indeed a peculiarity of the northern temperate regions all over the world, to be wooded, and to afford room for an extensive development of other plants only in those places where permanent accumulations of water ex- clude forests, where a rocky soil does not afford them a genial ground, or where artificial culture has destroyed them, introducing in their place agricultural products. A few families, however, constitute the whole arborescent vegeta- tion of temperate regions, and the uniformity of the forests all over that zone in the Old and New World is quite remarkable. In the first rank we find the Amentaceze and Coniferze, with their various sub- families and tribes; next to them maples, walnut, ashes, linden, wild cherries, &c., &c. In the special distribution of each of these fam- ilies, we observe, however, some peculiarities which will equally claim our attention. There is, for instance, a striking contrast within these limits, between the vegetation of Coniferze, which are evergreen, and that of Amen- tacez, Juglandez, Fraxinez, Acerine, Tiliaceze, &c., which lose their foliage in the fall. Again taken as a natural assemblage, the plants which constitute the northernmost forests are farther remarkable for covering extensive tracts of land with one and the same species, to the exclusion of others. Or else a few species are combined together in various ways, the Coniferze generally excluding the trees with deciduous leaves, or occurring together but rarely, and vice versa, In the warmer parts of the temperate regions, the diversity of forest trees with deciduous leaves is greater than farther north, where Coniferze appear almost exclusively. Another difference is ob- served in the more continuous distribution of northern forests, while THE NORTHERN VEGETATION COMPARED, ETC. 147 in the warmer climates of the temperate zone they alternate more frequently with shrubs or grazing grounds, with smaller plants grow- ing among them. Whatever may be the peculiarities which we observe in the details of this arrangement, there is, nevertheless, a remarkable coincidence between the vegetation of the plains from the middle latitudes northwards, and the vegetation of mountainous districts, especially in the Alps, as we ascend from the plains towards their snowy summits; the same variety of Amentacez, Fraxinee, Juglandez, Acerine, Pomacez, interspersed with corresponding shrubs, occur in the lower regions, while in the higher the Coniferze come in more extensively, to the almost entire exclusion of the others. The correspondence between this ascending forest vegetation, and the distribution of trees over the whole extent of the temperate zone, is so great, that it may be considered as a most positive and universal law. The Juglandez and various forms of Amentacex, especially those which produce eatable fruit, as the chestnuts, occur in the lower latitudes under the influence of a more genial climate, and disappear entirely below the parallels where agriculture ceases. So also we find them in the lower regions of mountainous countries. Farther north we have a variety of poplars, oaks, willows, maples, ashes, etc., imterspread with pines, which begin to form more continuous forests, till they make room northwards for the almost uniform pine and birch forest, which covers in unbroken continuity the northern countries as far as tree vegetation extends; and again in a similar succession we observe Amentaceze, Acerine, &c., &c.,in ascending higher and higher on the slopes of mountains, the conifer- ous trees gaining gradually the ascendency over those with deciduous leaves, until these disappear below the limit of perpetual snow. A more detailed comparison of this resemblance between northern and Alpine vegetation, will show that they agree in almost every respect, and that there are corresponding species under similar circumstances in different parts of the Old and New Worlds, following each other in the same succession from south to north, or from the plains to the “mountain summits, modified only by those influences which constitute the contrasting peculiarities of the eastern and western shores of ~ America, Europe and Asia; but in the main agreeing most extensively 148 LAKE SUPERIOR. over the whole range of forest vegetation throughout both continents. The tabular view of these plants which is given below, will at once show the correspondence and divergence. From these facts it might be inferred that the aspect of wooded lands, whether mountainous or level, would be very similar; that in the northern regions, it compares in every respect with that of high mountain chains. Such an impression is almost universally prevalent among those who are conversant with these laws of the geographical distribution of plants, without having had an opportuni- ty actually to compare such countries. It havmg been my good fortune, after having been for years familiar with the vegetation of the Alps, to visit the northern regions of this continent within the limits of the temperate zone, I was at once struck with the great difference in the general aspect of their vegetation. Indeed, the picturesque impression is an entirely different one, and nevertheless the above-mentioned laws are correct; but the fact is that the changes of mean annual temperature in this country take place at the rate of about 1° of Fahrenheit for every degree of latitude, or for every sixty miles; or in other words, as we travel north or south, we reach successively every sixty miles, localities the mean annual temperature of which is 1° Fahrenheit lower or higher; while in the Alps we meet, in ascending or descending, the same change of 1° Fahrenheit in mean annual temperature, for every three hundred feet of vertical height; so that we pass within the narrow limits of between six to seven thousand feet, from the vine-clad shores of the lakes of Northern Italy and Switzerland, to the icy fields of snow- mountains, whose summits are never adorned by vegetation; a journey which can easily be performed in asingle day. Whilst on the other hand from the 40th degree of northern latitude, where the mean annual temperature is nearly the same as that of the foot of the Alps, we find towards the northern pole a diminution of one degree of tem- perature for every degree of latitude, or for every sixty odd miles ; so that we should travel over twenty degrees of latitude, or more than twelve hundred miles from south to north, for instance, from Boston to Hudson’s Bay, before passing over the same range of climatic changes as we do in one day in the Alps; thus causing a narrow ver- tical stripe of Alpine flora to correspond to a broad zone of northern THE NORTHERN VEGETATION COMPARED, ETC. 149 vegetation stretching over a widely-expanded horizon. So that not- withstanding the correspondence of species, we have in the first case, in the Alps, a rapid succession of highly-diversified vegetation, whilst in the other case, in northern latitudes, we have a monotonous uni- formity over extensive tracts of land, although the elements of the picture are the same. But it is a picture seen in a different perspec- tive: in one case we have a simple vertical profile, which in the other case is drawn out into disproportionate horizontal dimensions ; like the far-reaching shade of a steeple cast under the light of the setting sun, which may change all proportions, and destroy all resem- blance between the shade and the object itself, simply because it is so much elongated. Fantastic images presented at various distances before a light falling at various angles, may prepare us to understand these different aspects of the landscape, be it a wooded plain along a gentle slope, or a forest along a more abrupt mountain chain. There is another feature in the geographical distribution of organ- ized beings which deserves to be particularly noticed, and which con- tributes to increase the diversity of aspect of vegetation in any given part of the world. There are in all continents remarkable differ- ences between the vegetation of the shores of a continent, east and west, within. the same latitude or the same isothermal line. The forests of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of temperate America are not altogether composed of the same plants; we remark that in the East there will be a tendency in the different families to develop in different proportions, and perhaps with the addition or disappear- ance of one or two peculiar types ; for instance, the walnut family contains several more representatives on the eastern side of the con- tinent than on the western, and they prosper here in latitudes where in Europe there is only one introduced species of that family growing wild. Again, we find Liquidambar on the American side of the Atlantic, which has no representative either on the Pacific coast, or in Europe. ‘This comparison might be traced farther, and we should see the same correlation even among the shrubs. But these indications will be sufficient for my object, which is to show that, although there is an intimate correlation between climate and vegetation, the temperature and other influences which consti- tute climate do not reveal the whole amount of causes which produce 150 LAKE SUPERIOR. these differences, as they are repeated under the same isothermal lines, between the eastern and western shores of the Old World in the same order as along the eastern and western shores of North America ; so much so that the northern Chinese and Japanese vegetation coin- cides very closely with that of the Atlantic States, whilst that of the Pacific coasts of America and that of Europe agree more extensively. This picture would be incomplete did I not institute a farther com- parison between the present vegetation of those regions and the fos- sil plants of modern geological epochs. If we compare, namely, the tertiary fossil plants of Europe with those living on the spot now, we shall be struck with differences of about the same value as those already mentioned between the eastern and western coasts of the continents under the same latitudes. Compare, for instance, a list of the fossil trees and shrubs from Oeningen, with a catalogue of trees and shrubs of the eastern and western coasts, both of Europe, Asia, and North America, and it will be seen that the differences they ex- hibit scarcely go beyond those shown by these different floree under the same latitudes. But what is quite extraordinary and unexpected, is the fact that the European fossil plants of that locality resemble more closely the trees and shrubs which grow at present in the east- ern parts of North America, than those of any other part of the world ; thus allowing us to express correctly the differences already mentioned between the vegetation of the eastern and western coasts of the continents, by saying that the present eastern American flora, and I may add, the fauna also,* and probably also that of Eastern Asia, have a more ancient character than those of Europe and of Western North America. ‘The plants, especially the trees and shrubs growing in our days in this country and in Japan, are, as it were, old-fashioned; they bear the mark of former ages; a peculiarity which agrees with the general aspect of North America, the geological structure of which indicates that this region was a large continent long before extensive tracts of land had been lifted above the level of the sea in any other part of the world. The extraordinary analogy which exists between the present flora * The characteristic genera Lagomys, Chelydra and the large Salamanders with per- manent gills remind us of the fossils of Oeningen, for the present fauna of Japan, as well as the Liquidambar, Carya, Taxodium, Gleditschia, etc. etc. THE NORTHERN’ VEGETATION COMPARED, ETC. 151 and fauna of North America, and the fossils of the miocene period in Europe, would also give a valuable hint with respect to the mean annual temperature of that geological period. Oeningen, for instance, whose fossils of all classes have perhaps been more fully studied than those of any other locality, could not have enjoyed during that period a tropical or even a sub-tropical cli- mate, such as has often been assigned to it, if we can at all rely upon the indications of its flora, for this is so similar to that of Charleston, South Carolina, that the highest mean annual temperature we can ascribe to the miocene epoch in Central Europe must be reduced to about 60° Fah.; that is to say, we infer from its fossil vegetation that Oeningen had, during the tertiary times, the climate of the warm temperate zone, the climate of Rome, for instance, and not éven that of the northern shores of Africa. We are led to this conclusion by the following argument :—The same isothermal line which passes at present through Oeningen at the 47th degree of northern latitude, passes also through Boston, lat. 42°. Supposing now, (as the geolog- ical structure of the two continents and the form of their respective outlines at that period seem to indicate,) that the undulations of the isothermal lines which we notice in our days existed already during the tertiary period, or in other words, that the differences of temperature which exist between the westrn shores of Europe and the eastern shores of North America, were the same at that time as now, we shall obtain the mean annual temperature of that age by adding simply the difference of mean annual temperature which exists between Charles- ton and Boston, (12° Fah.,) to that of Oeningen, which is 48° Fah., as modern Oeningen agrees almost precisely with Boston, making it 60° Fah. ; far from looking to the northern shores of Africa for an analogy, which the different character of the respective vegetations would render still less striking. The mean annual temperature of Oeningen during the tertiary period would not therefore differ more from its present mean, than that of Charleston differs from that of Boston. This old-fashioned look of the North American forests goes also to show the intimate connection there is all over the globe between the physical condition of any country, and the animals and plants peculiar 152 LAKE SUPERIOR. to it. But far from supporting the views of those who believe that there is a causal connection between these features of the creation, we must, on the contrary, conclude from the very fact that there are so many special thoughtful adaptations for so long successive periods in their distribution, that those manifold relations could only be intro- duced, maintained and regulated by the continuous intervention of the Supreme Intelligence, which from the beginning laid out the plan for the whole, and carried it out gradually in successive times. What is true of plants is also true of animals; we need only re- member that it is in North America that Lepidosteus and Percopsis are found ; that species of Limulus occur along the Atlantic shores ; and that Trigonia and Cestracion live in New Holland along paleozoic rocks. Liar OBSERVATIONS ON THE VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. THE vegetation of the Northern shores of Lake Superior agrees so closely with that of the higher tracts of the Jura, which encloses the lower and middle zone of the subalpine region, that on glancing at the enumeration below, one is astonished to find so great a number of species entirely identical. Making full allowance for the influ- ence of the lake, and leaving out of consideration a small number of species peculiar to North America, there remains about Lake Superior a subalpine flora which is almost identical with that of Europe, with which it is here compared. Although this fact is very striking, it is nevertheless in accordance with the general laws of botanical geography, and is another proof that the vegeta- tion of the two continents becomes more and more homogeneous the more we advance northwards. I have divided the catalogue of the phzenogamous plants collect- ed about Lake Superior into four lists: The first containing such plants as are really subalpine in their character, or correspond to those of the forests of the lower Alps ;* the second containing the plants of the lake proper, or the aquatic plants ; + the third comprising the plants purely American,} and the fourth the cosmopolitan plants, or those which extend beyond the subalpine region. In the different * Only such plants are introduced in the first list as have true representatives in Central Europe. + Lacustrine Flora and Faunz present so many peculiarities that it has been thought best to separate the plants of the lake, which are aquatic, from those of the main land enumerated in the first list. t Besides the plants which have true analogues in Europe, there are some about Lake Superior which are truly American types ; these constitute the third list. 11 154 LAKE SUPERIOR. lists I have indicated as nearly as possible the analogous species whose location is the same in Europe.” Supavrine Piants OF LAKE EvurRoOPEAN PLANTS OCCURRING IN SUPERIOR. THE SUBALPINE REGION. RANUNOULACE. Anemone parviflora Micha. Anemone sylvestris L. us nultifida DC. In Europe the Anemones are for the most part alpine plants, but those “ * pennsylvanica L. only whose carpels are plumose, and which ought to be generally considered as a peculiar genus. Anemone sylvestris, the only European species which agrees with the American ones, occurs in the plains. Ranunculus repens L. Ranunculus repens L. vs micranthus Nutt. Jura and Alps. In the Alps it rises to the height of 4,000 feet. Thalictrum Cornuti L.t Thalictrum minus L. Creux du Vent. Actxa rubra Willd. Acta spicata L. Woods of the high- “ alba Bigel. er Jura. CISTACEZ. Helianthemum canadense M. Helianthemum vulgare J. Pastures of the lower Alps and Jura. * All the plants enumerated below were collected by me and some of the gentlemen of our party, who took particular interest in the study of botany, as C. G. Loring, Jr., T. M. Lea, J. E. Cabot and Dr. Keller. They were for the most part determined on the spot with the excellent work of my friend Prof. Asa Gray on the Botany of the Northern United States. Afterwards my collection was revised by Dr. Gray himself, and by Messrs. Leo Lesquereux and Ed. Tuckerman; the latter of whom examined the lichens with particular care, while Mr. Lesquereux revised more particularly the mosses, and furnished me with very minute information about the distribution of plants in Switzerland, to which I had myself paid a good deal of attention in former years. L owe it nevertheless to his contributions upon this particular point, that I have been able to carry my comparisons of the plants of Lake Superior and Central Europe so much into detail as I have done. Prof. Gray has also furnished me with very import- ant documents respecting the distribution of many species, beyond the regions I, have examined myself. The general views, however, derived from this study, as I have expressed them in the preceding and following pages, so far as they are new, are my own. + This and several other plants of this list have a rather extensive range southwards ; but this seems to be in accordance with the general direction of the mountain chains and the form of the American continent itself, in w ich both animals and plants pecu- liar to the arctic and temperate zones extend farther south, than their analogues in the Old World. VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES. 155 LAKE SUPERIOR. EUROPE. CRUCIFERZ. Arabis petrea L. Arabis petrea L. Mts. of Auvergne. “ lyrata ZL. Sysimbrium canescens Nutt. Sysimbrium pinnatifidum DC. Cen- tral Alps. Draba arabisans Mz.* Drabra incana L. Turritis glabra. Turritis glabra L. DROSERACEZ. Drosera rotundifolia LZ. Drosera rotundifolia L. (Peat bogs of Br re the higher “longifolia L. “longifolia L. Saeaans OXALIDEZ. Oxalis acetosella LZ. Oxalis acetosella LZ. Woods of the mountains. PARNASSIEE. Parnassia palustris L. Parnassia palustris Z. Meadows of the mountains. HYPERICINE. Hypericum ellipticum Hook. Hypericum Elodes Z. In peat bogs in Central Europe. CARYOPHYLLACEX. Stellaria longipes Gold. Stellaria graminea L. Subalpine pas- tures. “ borealis Bigel. “ _uliginosa Murr. Peat bogs. Cerastium arvense L. Cerastium arvense L. Sagina nodosa L. Sagina nodosa L. Lower Alsine Michauxii Fenzl. Alsine stricta Wahl. Peat fare. and bogs ; Jura and Alps the_bigh- } > Ler Jura. It is a remarkable fact, that the family of Caryophyllacez, so extensive in the alpine regions of Europe, has so few representatives about Lake Superior. The reason is, that the Caryophyllacez, like the Crucifere, belong for the most part, to the alpine flora properly, and to the flora of the plains, and are missing in the subalpine, or intermediate regions. * A small species of Draba with yellow flowers, found at Michipicotin, was lost. 156 LAKE SUPERIOR. LAKE SUPERIOR. EuRopE. ANAOARDIA CEL. Rhus Toxicodendron, and several oth- Rhus Cotinus LZ. does not correspond er species which were not collected. to any of the North American species. ACERINACEE. Acer saccharinum Wang. Acer Pseudoplatanus Z. Pastures of “ spicatum Lam. the higher Jura. This truly sub- alpine species ascends as high as the Pines (Abies excelsa and pectinata.) GERANIACEZ. Geranium carolinianum L. Geranium dissectum ZL. Meadows of La Chaux de Fonds. ¢ robertianum L. id robertianum LZ. Every- where. LEGUMINOS#. Vicia americana Muh. Vicia sylvatica Z. Higher Vosges. Hedysarum boreale Nutt. Hedysarum obscurum DC. Alpine pastures. Lathyrus ochroleucus Hook. Lathyrus pratensis Z. Common. ROSACEZ. Cerasus pumila Mz. Cerasus avium Z. Marks in the Ju- “© pennsylvanica Lois. and var. ra the limit between the region borealis Mz. of the beech, (Fagus sylvatica,) “ serotina DC. and that of the pines. Prunus americana Marsh. Prunus insititia Z. Cultivated. Spirza opulifolia L. Spirea aruncus LZ. Mts. of the Jura. “ salicifolia L. “ salicifolia Z. Mounts of Au- vergne. Agrimonia Eupatoria L. Agrimonia Eupatoria Z. Mid. Jura. Geum rivale L. Geum rivale L. “ macrophyllum Willd. “ montanum J. Alpine. . “ strictum Ait. Potentilla norvegica L. Potentilla aurea LZ. Subalpine. & tridentata Ail. u Pa eee hee du ee fruticosa L. ji ; Vent. “ simplex Micha. 3 salisburgensis DC. “ “ arguta Pursh. gs rupestris LZ. Jura and Alps. VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES. TST LAKE SUPERIOR. EuUROPE. ROSACEZ. Comarum palustre Z. Very abund’t. Comarum palustre Z. Abounds in the peat bogs of the higher Jura- Fragaria vesca L. Middle Jura. Rubus saxatilis L. Higher Jura. “ Ideus Z. Everywhere in the Fragaria vesca L. Rubus triflorus Rich. “ strigosus Mz. Everywhere. “ canadensis L. Jura. Rosa stricta Lindl. Rosa alpina L. ? Pastures “ Dblanda Ait. “ rubrifolia DC. of the “ tomentosa L. Ss higher Jura. Sorbus Aucuparia Z. The higher limit of the trees in the Jura. Amelanchier vulgaris DC. Middle Jura. Sorbus americana DC. Amelanchier canadensis Torr. & Gr. The Malvacez are generally plants of warm countries. This family is not represented about Lake Superior by a single species, nor are the intermediate families between this and the Leguminosee. The Leguminose themselves are very rare, since they are, like the Caryophyllacee, plants of the higher Alps, or of the plain. The Rosacez, on the contrary, generally extensive in the sub- alpine regions of Europe, are also abundant around Lake Superior. ONAGRARLE. Circea alpina L. Circea alpina L. Woods of the high- Epilobium angustifolium L. er Jura. - coloratum Mull. Epilobium angustifolium Z. Forest. es palustre L. af tetragonum L. Moist places. & palustre LZ. Peat bogs. RIBESIEZ. Ribes prostratum L. § Ait. “ hirtellum Mz. - “ lacustre Pers. “© oxyacanthoides H. Ribes petreeum Jacg. Higher Jura. * alpinum L. a We “ Uva-crispa. “ Grossularia Z. In rocky places. “ (74 SAXIFRAGEZ. Saxifraga Aizoon Jacq. ie tricuspidata Fetz. “« _-virginiensis Mz. Saxifraga Aizoon Jacq. Higher Jura “¢ aizoides L. Alps, and lower Alps. 158 LAKE SUPERIOR. LAKE SUPERIOR. EUROPE. SAXIFRAGEH. Mitella nuda L. These two species have no other analogues in Europe “ diphylla Z. aa the Saxifraga rotundifolia, and the species similar to it. In general, the Saxifragex, which have few rep- resentatives about Lake Superior, belong to the alpine region, so that in order to meet them in the plain, we have to go as far as Greenland, where they are numer- ous. The species of the plains are represented in America by the genera Sullivantia, Heuchera, Mitella, and Tiarella. UMBELLIFERZ. Sanicula marilandica L. Sanicula europea LZ. Creux du Vent. Archangelica atro-purpurea Hoff: Archangelica oflicinalis Hoff. Jura, also in the Valtellina. Osmorrhiza brevistylis DC. Cherophyllum hirsutum LZ. Jura. Sium lineare Micha. Sium latifolium Z. ARALIACEE. Aralia hispida Micha. This family has but one representative in Central Europe, Hedera Helix L. CORNACEZ. Cornus stolonifera Mx. Cornus sanguinea Z. Middle Jura. CAPRIFOLLE. Linnea borealis Giron. Linnea borealis Gron. Lower Alps: Symphoricarpus occidentalis 2. Br. Valais. ‘ ft ; Oy ud In the re- Lonicera parviflora Lans. Lonicera Caprifolium L. gion of “hirsuta Katon. Var. Douglasii. “ Periclimenum Z.} the vine- L yards. rag involucrata Spr. Saskatshew- “* involucrata, Spr. Siberia L. an, Oregon, Rocky Moun- alpigena which resembles it tains, California. somewhat, occurs in the Jura and the Alps. Sambucus pubens Mz. Sambucus racemosa JL. Cr. du Vent. Viburnum Opulus L. Viburnum Opulus Z. Belongs in Eu- rope to the region of the beech. (Fagus sylvatica.) 6 pauciflorum Pyl. VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES. 159 LAKE SUPERIOR. EUROPE. RUBIACEZ. Galium trifidum L. Galium rotundifolium L. ) Character” “ triflorum Mz. y istic of the Asperula odorata and subalpine s taurina L. flora. COMP OSIT#. Eupatorium purpureum L. Eupatorium cannabinum L. Common in wheat places. Aster corymbosus L. “ macrophyllus L. “* puniceus L. ‘“* laxifolius Nees. « ptarmicoides Torr. et Gray. “ graminifolius Pursh. Aster alpinus Z. Creux du Vent. Of these six American species, the last is exclusively northern, and occurs as far as Labrador, to the pine region. It has its analogue in the fine Aster alpinus of the Creux du Vent, and of the lower Alps. The other species, more widely distributed, are represented in Europe by the Aster Amellus and A. salignus, Z., which are plants of the plains. Erigeron philadelphicum L. Erigeron alpinum Z. Creux du Vent. “« strigosum Miihl. Diplopappus umbellatus Torr. & Gr. Solidago stricta At. Solidago virgaurea L. Var. alpestris, ic Sbicolor, LZ: which grows at Chasseron, and “ thyrsoidea FE. Meyer. in the lower Alps. “ arguta Ait. Var. juncea. “canadensis L. “ lanceolata L. The genera Aster and Solidago are exceedingly numerous in America, where, on the contrary, the Inula and the Hieracium, which abound in Europe, are very rare. The same is the case with the Senecionide, the Centaurez, and the Carduacex, which are as few in America as they are numerous in Europe. Achillea Millefolium ZL. Achillea Millefolium Z. Var. setacea. Var. setacea. Declivities of the lower Alps, in the Valais. Tanacetum huronense Nutt. Tanacetum vulgare ZL. Chaux de Fonds. 160 LAKE SUPERIOR. LAKE SUPERIOR. EUROPE. COMPOSIT#. Artemisia canadensis Mz. We might take as analogous of that plant in the subalpine flora of Europe, the Artemisia pontica, which grows in the Valais. But this approaches more the Artemisia maritima Z., and belongs thus to the flora of the shores. Antennaria margaritacea R. Br. Antennaria margaritacea R. Br. Mt- ae plantaginifolia Hook. Cenis. ; A MUSE ] Three spe- Senecio aureus L. Senecio viscosus L. cies of the « «var. Balsamite « sylvaticus Z. subalpine “ sarracenicus Z. | flora of the J Jura. Cirsium horridulum Mz. Cirsium spinosissimum Scop. Sub- “ muticum Mz. alpine Alps. Al wit ee acaule L. YE h : several other “ eriophorum L. | species. Cirsium rivulare DC. | Subalpine Hieracium canadense Mz. Hieracium umbellatum L. ? Sub Alps as scabrum Mz. < amplexicaule and high- ¢ Jaquini DC. ) er Jura, with many other species. CAMPANULA CE. Campanula rotundifolia Z. Campanula rotundifolia Z. #2 ee var. linifolia. aparinoides Pursh. rhomboidalis LZ. This plant is one of the most extensive and the most characteristic of the subalpine region of the whole of Europe, and agrees in its habitat with the Campanula aparinoides, but not in its forms. ERICACEZ, VACCINIOE#, ERICINEZ, AND PYROLE#, Vaccinium Oxycoccus L. Vaccinium Oxycoccus LZ. Subalpine macrocarpon At. peat bogs. - Vitis Idea L. Vaccinium Vitis Idea LZ. » Forests of 2 uliginosum L. uliginosum L. ba high- ss pennsylvanicum Lam. ue Myrtillus Z. er Jura. < cespitosum Mz. & canadense Kalm. VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES. 161 LAKE SUFERIOR. EvuRopE. VAOCINIEZ. Chiogenes hispidula. Torr. & Gr. Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi Spreng. Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi Spreng. La Tourne, higher Jura, and lower Alps. Loiseleuria procumbens Des. Loiseleuria procumbens Des. Pas- tures of the Alps. Andromeda polifolia L. Andromeda polifolia L. Peat bogs of the higher Jura. Ledum latifolium At. Ledum palustre Z. Peat bogs of the North. Pyrola rotundifolia LZ. Pyrola rotundifolia Z. Pastures and forests of the Jura. “ asarifolia Mz. “rosea LZ. Forests. “ chlorantha Sw. “ chlorantha Sw. Forests. “ secunda L. “ secunda. LZ. Woods of the higher Jura. ; Monotropa uniflora LZ. Monotropa hypopythys Z. In the for- ests of the Jura. Moneses uniflora Salisb. Moneses uniflora Salisb. Woods of the Vosges. Chimaphila umbellata Nutt. Chimaphila umbellata Nutt. Forests of the Vosges. No family is more homogeneous in its distribution, or more equally spread in the North of America and Europe, than that of the Ericacex, which charac- terizes rather the region of the pines than the subalpine flora; for these species follow the pine forests in their more or less elevated stations. PLANTAGINEZ. Plantago major* L. Plantago major Z. Rich, moist soil. PRIMULACEZ. Primula mistassinica Michz. “ farinosa L. Primula farinosa Z. Marshes of the North. Higher Jura. Trientalis americana Pursh. Trientalis europea L. Damp forests. OROBANCHEZ. Aphyllon uniflorum Torr. § Gr. Orobanche epithymum Z. And sey- eral other species abundant on the declivities of the Jura. * Can scarcely have been introduced where it was found. 162 LAKE SUPERIOR. LAKE SUPERIOR. EvuROpPE. UTRIOULARIEL. Pinguicula vulgaris L. Pinguicula vulgaris Z. Sub-Alps and Jura. SOROPHULARINE#. Veronica scutellata LZ. Veronica scutellata Z. Peat bogs, Jura, and Sub-Alps. Euphrasia officinalis L. Euphrasia officinalis LZ. Pastures of the Jura. Rhinanthus Crista-galli. - Rhinanthus Crista-galli. Var. minor. Var. minor. L. Pastures of the Sub-Alps and high Jura. Melampyrum pratense L. Melampyrum pratense ZL. Pine for- ests. LABIATE, Clinopodium vulgare* L. Clinopodium vulgare L. Dry decliv- ities of the Jura. Prunella vulgaris L. Prunella vulgaris L. do. Scutellaria galericulata L. Scutellaria galericulata L. Shores of é lateriflora L. the Lake Etailléres, high Jura. Stachys aspera Mz. Stachys alpina L. Subalpine. Mentha canadensis L. Mentha arvensis Z. Moist grounds. Dracocephalum parviflorum Nutt. Dracocephalum Ruyschiana LZ. In Wallis. ASPERIFOLLE. Cynoglossum virginicum L. Cynoglossum montanum LZ. Creux du Vent. Mertensia pilosa DC. Pulmonaria angustifolia LZ. High Jura. GENTIANEZ. Gentiana alba Mil. Gentiana punctata L. . rubra L. “ saponaria L. Var Frolichii. ft acaulis L. 2 Pneumonanthe ZL. And sev- eral other species of Gentiana, which characterize the subalpine declivities. Menyanthes trifoliata L. Menyanthes trifoliata Z. Marshes of the mountains. Halenia deflexa Griseb. Swertia perennis L. Peat bogs of the high Jura. * Probably native where it was found. VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES. 163 LAKE SUPERIOR. EUROPE. OLEACE. Fraxinus sambucifolia Lam. Fraxinus excelsior L. The Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and the Sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) are, with the Pines, the trees which ascend highest in the mountains of Central Europe. CHENOPODEZ. Corispermum hyssopifolium* L. Corispermum hyssopifolium ZL. Cau- casus. POLYGONEZ. Polygonum viviparum J. Polygonum viviparum L. - cilinode Mz. Se Convolvulus L. sagittatum L. Polygonum viviparum is the most extensively spread in the subalpine pas- tures, and the most characteristic of that region. It is also very common about Lake Superior. The same is also true of Empetrum nigrum Z., which marks the higher limit of the pine region. EMPETREZ. Empetrum nigrum L. Empetrum nigrum Z. Region of the pine trees. — Higher Jura and Sub-Alps. CUPULIFER. Quercus rubra Z. A few dwarfish specimens occur south of Mich- ipicotin. Fagus ferruginea Mz. Begins to lose Fagus sylvatica £. Grows dwarfishly its majestic appearance, and. and disappears in the subalpine forms only meagre forests as regions of Europe. far north as Mackinaw. Corylus rostrata Ait. Corylus Avellana. LZ. Forests of the Jura. Everywhere. * T found this plant on the northernmost shore of Lake Superior, near the entrance of Nepigon Bay. Sir W. Hooker mentions it from the Saschatchewan, Athabasca, and Red River. 164 LAKE SUPERIOR. LAKE SUPERIOR. EUROPE. BETULACEX. Betula papyracea Ait. Betula pubescens Pall. High Jura. «“excelsa Att. “ nana L. Peat bogs of the high Jura. “pumila L. Alnus incana Willd. Alnus glutinosa LZ. Valleys of the Jura. & > waridis D.C. “ viridis DC. The Handeck, in the Bernese Alps. SALICINEE. Salix pedicellaris Pursh and others. For the willows and poplars, which are rather extensively distributed aquatic plants, see the second list. About Lake Superior the Amentacee are represented only by species of cold countries, or subalpine regions, and are, with a few exceptions,'the same as those of Europe. The Quercus rubra is scarcely an exception, since the Quercus pedunculata ascends the valleys of the high Jura; we find very large trunks of it in the marshes of the Verrieres, on the frontier of France and Switzerland. ULMACEE. Ulmus fulva LZ. Ulmus effusa Willd. Banks of the “ americana L. Doubs. URTICACEZ. Humulus Lupulus LZ. Humulus Lupulus Z. Hedges of Val de Travers. Urtica canadensis L. Urtica dioica Z. Everywhere. These two species spread diversely in various regions, and have no-. thing characteristic. CONIFERZ. Pinus Strobus. L. Pinus sylvestris Z. Deeclivities of the Jura. “ resinosa L. “ Pumilio Clus. Peat bogs of the higher Jura. “ Banksiana Lamb. *“* Cembra L. Declivities of the Alps. Handeck. Glacier of the Aar. VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES. 165 LAKE SUPERIOR. EUROPE. CONIFER. Abies alba Mz. Abies excelsa DC. Forests of the “ canadensis Mz. Jura. “ nigra Poir. “ palsamea Marsh. “ pectinata DC. Forests of the _ dura. Larix americana Mz. Larix europea DC. High Jura. Thuja occidentalis L. Juniperus communis L. Juniperus communis L. “ virginiana L. « Sabina L. Q Forests of Taxus canadensis Willd. Taxus baccata L. 5 ares; The resemblance of the Coniferee of Lake Superior to those of the subal- pine region is very striking, for though they are not of the same species, the analogy of the forms is so great, that it requires the eye of a botanist to be satis- fied positively that these forests are not composed of identical trees in the two hemispheres. \ ALISMACE. Triglochin elatum Nutt. See also the second list. ORCHIDEZ. Microstylis ophioglossoides Nutt. Microstylis monophyllos Lindl. In the Sub-Alps. Corallorhiza multiflora Nutt. Corallorhiza innata FR. Br. Pine forests a Macrei* Gray. in the Sub-Alps. Creux du Vent. Gymnadenia tridentata Lindl. Gymnadenia conopsea L. Platanthera psycodes Gr. Platanthera bifolia Lich. ae orbiculata Lindl. s Hookeri Lindl. i: dilatata L. « obtusata Lindl. Goodyera repens R. Br. Goodyera repens #. Br. ss pubescens &. Br. Listera cordata R. Br. Listera cordata R. Br. Sub-Alps. Cypripedium pubescens Willd. Cypripedium Calceolus L. a acaule Ait. * “CoRALLORHIZA MAcR&I (sp. nov.): scapo multifloro; floribus (pro genere maxi- mis) brevissime pedicellatis; petalis ovali-oblongis; labello ovali integerrimo basi utrinque auriculato-inflexo, palato prominulo subbilamellato in plicam antice produc- tam desinente; calcare plane nullo; columna subalato-triquetra; capsula ovoidea. In umbrosis humidis ad ‘ Caledonia Springs,’ Canada Occidentali detexit beatus W. F. Macrae, ann. 1843, exemp. fructif. Nuper in insula ‘Mackinaw’ floriferam legerunt celeb. Agassiz et C. G. Loring, Jr.—Radix ignota. Scapus pedalis. Flores purpuras- centes: sepala et petala semiunciam longa!’’ A. Gray. 166 LAKE SUPERIOR. These Orchidew, and several more which correspond by their forms to those of Europe, or are even identical with them, characterize all the subalpine re- gions. The Orchidez are among the most characteristic plants, in a geographi- cal point of view, for their forms vary in a striking manner, the more we descend towards the warmer latitudes, where they assume more and more brilliant colors, whilst their flowers become larger and more diversified. LAKE SUPERIOR. Smilacina racemosa Desf. id stellata Desf. bifolia Ker. Allium schoenoprasum L Lilium philadelphicum L. Streptopus amplexifolius DC. Tofieldia glutinosa Willd. és calyculata Wahl. Scirpus cespitosus L. “Eriophorum Mz. Eriophorum alpinum L. nS virginicum L, Carex trisperma Dew. “ eanescens L. “ straminea Schk. “ oligocarpa Schk. “ aurea Nutt., var. “bicolor All. “ Vahlii Z. Var. elata. EUROPE. SMILAOINES. Middle 4 Polygonatum L. Tera. Convallaria multiflora L. Smilacina bifolia Ker. LILIACEA. Allium schoenoprasum J. Common in the Alps to the height of 7000 feet. Lilium Martagon LZ. Pastures of the Sub-Alps. Streptopus amplexifolius DC. High Jura. Tofieldia calyculata Wahl. Pastures of the Sub-Alps and high Jura, Creux du Vent, &c. OYPERACEZ. Scirpus cespitosus LZ. Peat bogs of the higher Jura. Eriophorum alpinum Z. This plant and the preceding are very char- acteristic of the peat bogs of the high Jura. Carex bicolor All. In the highest Alps, in grazing places, occurs also in Labrador. “ Vahlii Z. Found in Lapland Occurs also in Greenland. VEGETATION OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR. NORTHERN SHORES. 167 EUROPE. GRAMINEZ. Alopecurus aristulatus Mz. Phleum alpinum ZL. Cinna pendula Trin. Agrostis scabra Willd. Muhlenbergia sylvatica T. et Gr. Calamagrostris arenaria Trin. “canadensis P. de Beaur. Oryzopsis canadensis Torr. Reboulea pennsylvanica Gr. Spartina cynosuroides Willd. Glyceria fluitans R. Br. “aquatica Smith. “«< ~6nervata 2r. Poa alpina L. “ serotina Erh. Festuca ovina LZ. Alopecurus pratensis Z. Meadows of the Jura. Phleum alpinum LZ. Pastures of the ' Sub-Alps. Micheli. Z. Summit of the Chasseron. Highest ridge of the Jura. “cc Agrostis vulgaris Willd. oe is vulgaris W2 Wich Jura. alba, et 5 Calamagrostis arenaria Trin. North- ern shores. baltica. Skr. 4“ Baltic. Glyceria fluitans R. Br. Brooks of the Jura. aquatica Smith. Brooks of Jura. &é Poa alpina £. One of the most char- acteristic plants of the subalpine regions. Festuca ovina LZ. Peat bogs. Bromus secalinus* LZ. (Introduced?) Bromus secalinus Z. Fields of the Triticum repens L. . dasystachyum Gray. Elymus canadensis L. Var. glaucifolius. & mollis R. Br. Hordeum jubatum L. Jura. Triticum repens LZ. In sandy places. Elymus europzus LZ. Forests of the high Jura. Judging from its form, this species is rather a plant of the shores. Hordeum murinum JL. *T could not discover indications of this plant having been introduced where it was found. However, even an accidental landing might account for the presence of a plant which can scarcely be a native of the northern shores of Lake Superior. 168 LAKE SUPERIOR. LAKE SUPERIOR. EUROPE. GRAMINEZ. ’ Aira flexuosa L. Aira flexuosa L. Sub-Alps. Trisetum molle Kunth. Avena flavescens L. Subalpine mead- ows. Phalaris arundinacea L. Phalaris arundinacea L. Banks of the brooks of the Jura. Hierochloa borealis Rém. & Sch. Hierochloa borealis Rim. & Sch. Northern Europe. : Milium effusum L. Milium effusum Z. Characterizes the subalpine forests. EQUISETACEZ. Equisetum sylvaticum L. Equisetum sylvaticum LZ. Woods of the high Jura. ue arvense L. eS arvense L. se limosum L. ae limosum ZL. Brooks of the Jura. FILICES. Struthiopteris germanica Willd. Struthiopteris germanica Willd. Mountains of the Vosges. Polypodium Dryopteris L. Polypodium Dryopteris Z. Creux du Vent. Pteris aquilina, L. Pteris aquilina LZ. Woods of the Jura. Allosorus gracilis Presi. Allosorus crispus P. Cystopteris bulbifera Bernh. Cystopteris fragilis B. Woodsia ilvensis Rh. Br. Woodsia ilvensis R. Br. Dryopteris dilatata Gray Dryopteris dilatata Gray. Higher Jura. “intermedia Gray. Botrychium virginicum Swariz. as Lunaria L. Botrychium Lunaria Z. Summit of the Jura. LYCOPODIACEZ. Lycopodium lucidulum Mz. Lycopodium Selago Z. Higher Jura. é inundatum L. a inundatum ZL. Marshes of the higher Jura. m annotinum L. . annotinun Z. Summit -: dendroideum Mz. of the Jura, Creux du Vent, ete. Mg clavatum L. ‘ clavatum L. Higher Ju- Ta. “ complanatum L. | = complanatum L. Higher Vosges. VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES. 169 LAKE SUPERIOR. EUROPE. Selaginella selaginoides Spring. < rupestris Spring. Selaginella selaginoides Spr. Pastures of the lower Alps and the higher Jura. The Equisetacex, the Ferns, and the Lycopodiacee of Lake Superior are almost absolutely the same species as those of the subalpine region of Europe. As we descend the scale of the vegetable kingdom under higher latitudes, vege- tation seems to follow the sides of an angle, as it were, which become convergent about the zone of pine forests. Thus the Lichens and the Mosses are already entirely the same species here as in Europe, and it will be sufficient to make a single list of them, without indicating the corresponding European species, since all are identical. Few Hepatice are also enumerated. Mossrs oF LAKE SUPERIOR. Sphagnum capillifolium Brid. be cuspidatum Brid. & squarrosum Hedw. Funaria hygrometrica L. Grimmia apocarpa Var. rivularis B. et S. Hedwigia ciliata Hedw. Orthotrichum Hutchinsize ZH. et T. « strangulatum Beauv. Ud leiocarpum B. et S. a anomalum Hedw. Ceratodon purpureus Brid. Dicranum scoparium Hedw. a undulatum Eihrh. g congestum Brid. te Schraderi W. et M. Gs fulvum Hook. ae longifolium Ehrh. G: virens Hedw. As polycarpum rid. “ — majus Turn. “« glaucum L, 12 LOCALITIES IN THE JURA. Peat-bogs of the high Jura. 6c “ “ “cc ce oe Peat-bogs of the Vosges and Hartz. This species belongs to the granitic peat-bogs. Grows everywhere. Dripping rocks in the Alps and Jura. Everywhere on granite. oe cc 66 Is missing in Europe, but replaced in the forests by a great number of analogous species. Forests. Stones. Everywhere. Forests. Moist forests. Forests of the higher Jura; descends never in the middle region of the pine forests. Peat-bogs of the higher Jura. Forests of the Alps. Granitic blocks. Forests of the Alps and higher Jura. Fissures of rocks, and the forests in the Alps. Higher Jura; descends never in the middle region. Peat-bogs of the Jura. 170 LAKE SUPERIOR. Mosszes OF LAKE SUPERIOR. LOCALITIES OF THE JURA. Distichum inclinatum B. et S. Summits of the Jura. Declivities of the Alps. . capillaceum B. et S. Fissures of the rocks. Subalpine re- gions. Encalypta ciliata Hedw. On the ground in the higher Jura. Pogonatum alpinum rid. Sub-Alps. Polytrichum formosum Hedw. se piliferum Hedw. Woods of the mountains. Everywhere. ft juniperinum Hedw. Bartramia pomiformis Hedw. Granite in the Vosges and Alps. s Oederi Brid. ° Rocks of the Jura. Kt fontana L. Everywhere near springs. Aulacomnium palustre Br. Peat-bogs of the higher Jura. Bryum pseudo-triquetrum L. Moist places in the forests. Every- “ nutans L. where. Var. elongatum B. et S. Elevated peat-bogs. Mnium cuspidatum Hedw. Skirts of the forests. Hypnum Schreberi Willd. Pine forests. “ tamariscinum Hedw. 3 “© splendens Hedw. 3 “ “ —adunecum L. Ns mn “ uncinatum Hedw. a uf “ _ cupressiforme L. = Ke “ — Crista-castrensis L. “ ua “ abietinum L. 22 “ — nitidulum ZL. ~ = Neckera intermedia Hedw. ms “ Marchantia polymorpha L. Moist places. Jungermannia barbata Hook. Pine forests. Ptilidium ciliare. Nees. 2 4 ENuMERATIO LicHENUM a D. Prof. Agassiz ad Lacum Superiorem, anno 1848, lectorum, ab Edvo. TuckERMAN, Cantabr. Vidi olim in Museo Parisiensi aliquot plantas a D. Comite de Castelnau in itinere suo ad Lacum Superiorem decerptas, inter quas Lichenes decem inse- quentes reperi : — Usneam barbatam, Var. pendulam. Everniam jubatam Fr. Ramalinam calicarem . Fr. Cetrariam islandicam Ach. C. glaucam Ach. C. lacunosam 8 Atlanticam Tuck. VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES. ol Stictam pulmonariam~ Ach. Parmeliam saxatilem Ach. * P. caperatam Ach. Cladoniam rangiferinam Hoff: Hisce primitiis incrementum attulit, quantum scio, nemo usque donec oras insulasque Lacus perlustrans Professor noster illustriss. Agassiz, dum plantarum nobiliorum distributionem geographicam persequitur, Lichenum etiam, hac in re multum adjuvantibus discipulis ejus commilitonibusque, viris amicissimis J. E. Cabot, J. M. Lea, C. G. Loring, and Dr. Keller,—messem satis largam fecit. Has igitur opes Lichenosos, mihi benevolentia VY. ill. mandatos, pro viribus explicare pergam. LICHENES. UsNEA. 1. barbata Fr. var. dasypoga, Fr., infert. 2. longissima Ach., cum cephalodiis. 3. cavernosa Tuckerm. mss. Thallo pendulo laxo molli glaberrimo tereti- compresso plus minus cavernoso ochroleuco, ramis primoribus simpli- ciusculis subventricosis attenuatis ad apices dichotome ramosis, ramulis ultimis tenuissime capillaceis; apotheciis sessilibus radiatis disco albi- do-pruinoso demun subcarneo margine obscuriori evanescente. Has. ad arbores in oris Lacus Superioris; C. 7. Jackson, 1845; Agassiz, 1848. Ipse legi sterilem in Montibus Albis, anno 1843. Specimen habeo omnibus conveniens e Madras, Ind. Orient., ex Hd. Hook. Thalli rami majores e subtereti demum compressi, angulati annula- tim rupti, lacunis regularibus subellipticis plus minus insignes, apici- bus dichotomis elongatis teretiusculis tenuissime demum capillaceis. Apothecia omnino Usnez, at discus strato gonimo viridi impositus ! albido-pruinosusque! Hos characteres Usneis a Friesio plane dene- gatos, iis primum tribuit Montagne (Annales 1834, t. 2, p. 2, p. 368, and Cryptog. Canar. in Webb & Berth. Hist. Nat. d. Iles Canar., p. 93). Ex observationibus Montagnei U. ceratina discum habet pru- mosum, et U U. Jamaicensis Ach., et Ceruchis Montag., discum pruinosum strato gonimo impositum. Species nunc descripta pluribus notis cum U. Ceruchi (Americ tropice adhuc prive, a Montagneo (Ann. |. c.) luculentissime ustratz) convenit; distat facie, statuque (normali ut videtur) pendulo. Disci characteribus jam laudatis facil- lime distinguenda est U. cavernosa ab omni (ni fallor) Usnea boreali- americana. EVERNIA. 1. jubata Fr. 8. chalybeiformis Ach., inf. y. implexa Fr., infert. 2. Prunastri Ach., infert. 172 LAKE SUPERIOR. RAMALINA. 1. calicaris Fr. 8. fastigiata Fr., fert. 5. farinacea Sch.., fert. CrerraRiA. 1. islandica Ach. y. crispa Ach., fert. . nivalis Ach., infert. . glauca Ach. 8. sterilis Fr., infert. . ciliaris Ach., fert. . lacunosa, 8. atlantica Tuck., fert. . Oakesiana Tuckerm., infert. 7. Pinastri Sommerf., infert. QA oO Pm oo vO PELTIGERA. 1. aphthosa Hoffm., fert. 2. canina, Hoffm. fert. 3. rufescens Hoftmn., fert. 4. polydactyla Hoftm., infert. 5. horizontalis Hoffm., infert. SoLorIna. saccata Ach., fert. STICTA. 1. pulmonaria Ach,. infert. 2. linita Ach., infert. 4. glomerulifera Delis., fert. PaRMELIA; subsect. Jmbricaria. 1. perlata Ach., infert. . tiliacea Ach., fert. . Borreri Turn. 8. rudecta Tuckerm., infert. . saxatilis Ach., fert. . aleurites Ach., infert. . physodes Ach, infert. . olivacea Ach., fert. . caperata Ach., fert. conspersa Ach., fert. . centrifuga Ach., fert. 11. parietina, y. rutilans Ach., fert. Subsect. Physcia. 12. speciosa Ach., fert. 13. stellaris Ach. a. fert. Subsect. Placodium. 14. saxicola Ach., fert. 15. chrysoleuca Ach., fert. 16. elegans Ach., fert. oc On mm OT — CO DD (i Oo VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES. 173 Subsect. Patellaria. 17. subfusca Fr. 8. distans Fr. 18. albella Ach. : 19. ocrina Ach. Subsect. Urezolaria. 20. oncodes, Tuckerm. mss. Thallo crustaceo tartareo (farinoso-pulveru- lento) contiguo rimoso-areolato ambitu verrucoso-subplicato glauco- albicante ; apotheciis innatis mox protrusis sessilibus disco pruinoso demum protuberante nigro margine proprio tenui erecto thallodem tumidum demum obtegente. Turner Island, in rupe porphyri- tico; Agassiz. P. Glaucome, Ach. Fr. et P. repande, Fr. affinis, Distincta videtur crusta tenui, apotheciisque nigris infantia solum conspicue pruinosis, margine proprio erecto persistente. STEREOCAULON. 1. tomentosum Fr., fert. 2. paschale Laur., fert. Adsunt quoque specimina S. coralloidi forsan re- ferenda. Craponia. Ser. Glaucescentes. 1. turgida Hoffm. a. fert. 6. grypea, Tuckerm. mss. Podetiis majoribus fastigiato-ramosis glauco-viridibus, scyphis obscuris in ramos fastigiatos radiato-dentatos, y. subulatos abeuntibus.- Major, pulchre glauco-viridis. Formis majoribus americanis C. uncialis 8. similis et analoga, reipsa vero C. turgide omnino referenda. Thallo foliaceo destituta sunt speci- mina; squamule tamen (iis C. turgid similes) hic illic apparent. Ser. Fuscescentes. 2. pyzidata Fr. a. fert. . gracilis Fr. y. hybrida, Fr., fert. . degenerans FI. a. fert. . cornuta Fr. a. fert. . sqguamosa Hoftm. a. fert. - furcata, F\. 3. subulata F |. infert. . rangiferina Hoffm. a, fert. B. sylvatica FI., fert. y- alpestris F'., infert. co mf eR OD Ser. Ochroleuce. 9. amaurocrea F'1., fert. 10. uncialis Fr. 8. adunca Ach., fert. y. turgescens Sch., fert. Ser. Coccifere. 11. cornucopioides Fr., fert. 12. Floerkeana Fr., fert. 13. deformis Hoffm., fert. 174 LAKE SUPERIOR. BIATORA. 1. rufonigra Tuckerm., fert. 2. temadophila Fr. 3. vernalis Fr. LECIDEA. 1. parasema Fr. Specimina in Betula aliquantum differe videntur. 2. geographica, a. Scher. UMBILICARIA. 1. pustulata, 8. papulosa Tuck., fert. 2. hirsuta Ach., fert. ; 3. Dilleniti Tuckerm., infert. 4. Muhlenbergiui Ach., fert. OPEGRAPHA. scripta Ach. Scher. a. ENDOCARPON. 1. miniatum, 8. complicatvm, Sch. Status pusillus, teneritate etiam a Lichene Nove Anglice distans. 2. Manitense Tuckerm. mss. Thallo cartilagineo-membranaceo tenui fra- gili levi lobato ex olivaceo-nigricante, lobis ambitus rotundatis incisis planis margine subplicatis crenatis, ceteris flexuosis irregular- ibus, subtus e fusco-nigrescentibus; ostiolis prominulis nigris per- tusis. Proxima E. fluviatili, at colore, superficie nitidiuscula, lobatione fere Imbricariz, apotheciisque diversa. PERTUSARIA. pertusa Ach. a. COLLEMACE, CoLLEMA saturninum, Ach., infert. Fungi were not collected, except a few of the more solid ones, which have not yet been determined. The softer species are very difficult to preserve during such a journey, when travelling constantly upon water in birch-bark canoes. To this first enumeration of the species of plants occurring about Lake Superior, and which belong to the subalpine region as such, we subjoin a list of species, which cannot strictly be referred to this one, though they occur in it. They are few in number and still fewer of them belong to the Cryptogamous plants. VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES. 175 Il. Plants of the lake and shores, which have or have not their analogous representatives in Europe.* LAKE SUPERIOR. Ranunculus aquatilis L. a reptans L. Cardamine hirsuta L. Barbarea vulgaris R. Br. Nuphar lutea Smith. Var. Kalmiana. Cakile americana Nutt. Callitriche linearis Pursh. c: verna L. Lathyrus maritimus Bigel. ‘¢ palustris L. Oenothera biennis L. Myriophyllum spicatum Z. Sium lineare Mz. Bidens cernua L. Lysimachia stricta Ait. = ciliata L. Naumburgia thyrsiflora LZ. Veronica americana Mz. Lycopus virginicus L. “ sinuatus Ell. Polygonum amphibium ZL. Myrica Gale L. Salix candida Willd. “ lucida Miihl. “discolor Miihl. “ angustata Pursh. “ pedicillaris Pursh. “ pumilis Marsh. EUROPE. Ranunculus aquatilis LZ. Everywhere. reptans LZ. Sand of the lake shores. Cardamina hirsuta LZ. Moist places. Barbarea vulgaris R. Br. Along ditches. Nuphar pumila Sp. Black forest. Meadows and margin of lakes. Cakile maritima LZ. Baltic Sea. Callitriche autumnalis L. ee verna LZ. In brooks. Lathyrus maritimus B. Marine plant. & palustris Z. Marshes of the lakes. Oenothera biennis Z. Lake of Neu- chatel. Introduced into Europe. Myrioph. spicatum Z. Quiet waters. Sium angustifolium Z. In brooks. Bidens cernua L. Ditches. Lysimachia vulgaris Z. Marshes. a ciliata Z. Marshes. Naumburgia thyrsiflora Z. Near St. Blaise, Lake of Neuchatel. Veronica Beccabunga L. Brooks and lakes. Lycopus europeus LZ. Margins of waters. Polygonum amphibium Z. Margins of quiet waters in diverse regions. Myrica Gale LZ. Shores of the Baltic. In Europe the same species of wil- lows are found at the margin of waters in diverse latitudes, but most of them differ from the Amer- ican species. The extensive dis- tribution of these trees along the shores of lakes and rivers at various * The number of aquatic plants found along the shores of Lake Superior, is so small, that I have put them all together in this list, whether they have, or not, their analo- gies in Europe. 176 LAKE SUPERIOR. LAKE SUPERIOR. Populus balsamifera Mz. “ tremuloides Mz. Sparganium natans L. Potamogeton natans L. ms lucens L. a prelongus Wulf. “6 heterophyllus Schreb. 7 pectinatus L. éé pauciflorus Pursh. Triglochin elatum Nuit. ° Alisma Plantago L. Sagittaria variabilis Engl. Echinodorus subulatus Engl. Udora Canadensis Nutt. Vallisneria spiralzis L. Tris versicolor L. Juncus effusus L. “ acuminatus Mz. “ paradoxus HE. Meyer. “ nodosus L. “ balticus Willd. Eleocharis obtnsa Schultz. palustris R. Br. sf tenuis Schult. Us acicularis R. Br. Scirpus lacustris L. Carex stipata Miihl. “ scoparia Schk. “ festucacea Schk. “ vulgaris Fries. “ stellulata Good. EUROPE. latitudes, shows their closer con- nection with the nature of the ground than with the temperature of the country where they grow. Populus nigra L. “ tremula JZ. Jura. Sparganium natans L. | Quiet Potamogeton natans L. Mies es lucens. L { it a, rf perfoliatus L. | ers of Europe. Triglochin palustre Z. This species occurs also in N. America. Alisma Plantago L. i f, Sagittaria sagittifolia L. Echinodorus is an aquatic type peculiar to the American flora. Udora occidentallis Pursh. Northern Germany. Vallisneria spiralis Z. Lombardy and Tessino. Iris pseude-acorus LZ. Margins of waters. Everywhere. Juncus effusus L. “ —acutiflorus Ehrh. “ balticus Willd. Northern Sea and Baltic. Eleocharis palustris R. Br. Marshes. od acicularis R. Br. Margin of lakes and marshes. Scirpus lacustris Z. Common in all lakes of Switzerland. Many of these species are the same in the two continents; but there are at the margin of waters of the whole middle and northern Europe, many more Cariees re- VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES. 177 LAKE SUPERIOR. Europe. Carex crinita Lam. sembling those of North America, which are however not identical. «“ tentaculata Muhl. “ —hystricina Willd. “ Ocderi Ehrh. “ intumescens Rudge. “ retorsa Schwr. Nitella flexilis Agardh. Nitella flexilis Agardh. Lake of Gen- eva. Fontinalis antipyretica. Fontinalis antipyretica. In the brooks of the Jura. It seems at the first glance to be a contradiction to unite in a separate table the aquatic plants of the lakes, leaving as characteristic of the subalpine region the aquatic plants of the peat-bogs. That is, however, not the case, for the peat-bogs and the plants which form them, (the peat-bogs with Sphagna at least,) never descend below the Pine region, which they follow in its whole ex- tent, whilst lake and marine plants follow the shores in various latitudes. The former being of course under the direct influence of the temperature, the latter, on the contrary, being more dependent upon the moisture of the soil. Il. American plants of Lake Superior, which have no analogous a ieinikerh tives in Central Europe.* Sarracenia purpurea L. Hudsonia tomentosa Nutt. ‘ Truly American types. Rubus Nutkanus Mog. There are no Rubus of the type of odoratus and nutkanus in Europe. Potentilla fruticosa L. Cultivated in the gardens of Europe, where it succeeds very well in temperate plains and in the moun- tains. Cornus canadensis L, A charming little plant of which we find no other analogue in Central Eu- rope than a few Umbellifere, for their general form, the Buplevrums for instance, which grow in the Sub Alps. But Cornus suecica L. is its strict analogue in Northern Europe. * Besides the genera which have no representatives at all in Central Europe, there are several introduced in this list which have only remote analogues, or indeed, real representatives ; but in such countries of the Old World which are far distant from the mountain chains, the vegetation of which has been compared here with that of Lake Superior. 178 LAKE SUPERIOR. Diervilla trifida Moench. Mitchella repens L. Coreopsis lanceolata L. Mulgedium leucopheum D. C. Nabalus racemosus Hook. Lobelia Kalmii Z. Dianthera americana L. Mimulus ringens L. Castilleja coccinea Spr. ss septentrionalis Lindl. Monarda fistulosa L. Calystegia spithamea Pursh. Apocynum androsemifolium L. Polygonum articulatum L. Shephardia canadensis Nutt. Comandra livida L. ff umbellata Nutt. Clintonia borealis Raf. Sisyrinchium bermudianum L. i Truly American types. This genus, one of the finest of the Composite, is wanting in Europe. Comes near the Mulgedium alpinum of Lapland. Entirely wanting in Europe. + The Lobelice are not numerous in Eu- rope, being replaced there by the Campanule and Phyteumata, of which genera the first is scantily represented in America, and the second not all. , i Truly American types. > Bartsia alpina Z. Found upon the highest peaks of the Jura, is the nearest relative to Castilleja cocci- nea in Central Europe. Castilleja pallida Z., closely allied to C. septentrionalis, occurs on the N. E. confines of Russia. We cannot consider this plant as cor- - responding to the Apocynum Ve- netum, which belongs to the sea- shores of the Adriatic. These two species differ in form and habitat. Of this type of Polygonum there is no analogous form in Europe. Truly American types. IV. The few plants of Lake Superior, indicated in the following list, have either a very wide range or are perhaps introduced. Corydalis aurea Willd. - glauca Pursh. Corresponds to Corydalis lutea L. Vauxmarcus. The Corydalis are cosmopolites of the middle region. Capsella Bursa — Pastoris D.C. (In- Everywhere in Europe. troduced ?) VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES. 179 Astragalus canadensis Z. (Cosmop- Corresponds to Astragalus glyciphyllos olite.) L. Equally cosmopolite. Trifolium repens LZ. (Introduced?) Everywhere in Europe. Potentilla anserina L. « Mentha piperita LZ. (Introduced.) Mentha piperita Z. Everywhere in Europe, especially in the plains. Galeopsis Tetrahit Z. (Introduced.) Everywhere in Europe. Physalis viscosa L. Corresponds to Physalis Alkekengi L., cosmopolite like the Solanez in general, and all plants which at- tach themselves to man. Blitum capitatum L. Blitum capitum Z. In Wallis. Amaranthus albus Z. (Introduced.) The sands of Europe. Polygonum dumetorum. L. Grows in Europe in diverse latitudes. From these various tables it is easy to see that the veyetation of the northern shores of Lake Superior is perfectly similar to the subalpine vegetation of Europe, at that zone which, in the Jura for instance, extends from 3,000 to 3,500 feet, and which in the Alps extends from 3,500 to 5,000 feet. Now removing some plants of the lakes, and some few peculiar American types, the subalpine flora remains in its integrity, and will be found to form chiefly the vegetation about the northern shores of Lake Superior. SPECIAL COMPARISON. Distribution of the Trees and Shrubs of Switzerland from the Plains to the Summit of the Mountains, compared with those of North America. 4 As it is easier to perceive the regular order of succession of the different growths which follow each other along the slope of a moun- tain, and to determine under such circumstances the precise limits of their distribution, than to ascertain the natural range of the corres- ponding vegetation northwards over extensive tracts of land, in level countries, I shall first introduce a general picture of the arbores- cent vegetation of the Swiss mountains, before I undertake to show that it agrees most minutely in its internal arrangement with that of the lake districts. The vines which cover the margins of the Lake of Neuchatel, 1338 feet above the level of the sea, characterize, of course, the lower 180 LAKE SUPERIOR. regions, which we call, for that reason, the region of vineyards. The trees which are cultivated there, the mulberry, peach, apricot, and even the fig in the warmest places, are all exotic. All fruits of the temperate zone, however, succeed there perfectly well, and among the wild trees and shrubs which characterize this zone, we find especially Rubus: Rubus corylifolius, Rubus fruticosus Z., Rubus tomentosus W.; some Roses: Rosa pimpinellifolia Z., Rosa eglanteria L., Rosa alba Z.; the Pyrus communis L., the Cratzegus torminalis Z., Mes- pilus germanica L., and Mespilus eriocarpa DC. The most common ornamental shrubs which are cultivated there on level ground, are the Philadelphus coronarius and the Lilac, which we find as far as the lower valleys of the Jura. ‘This zone is almost entirely cultivated, and has few indigenous trees. We meet now and then with forests of oak trees (Quercus Robur Z.,) and of chestnut trees (Castanea vesca).* Immediately above this horizon, at an elevation of some hundred feet higher, from 1600 to 1700 feet begins the zone of oaks, which ascends somewhat into the valleys. The two species of this genus, the Quercus Robur Z., and the Quercus sessiliflora Sm., grow in the same places; the latter ascends, however, a little higher, and occurs but very thinly, it is true, in the Val de Ruz, and in the Val de Travers. On the slopes of the Alps it ascends 1,500 feet higher, especially in sheltered valleys. The shrubs and trees which follow these are not numerous, (for the vegetation of the oak forests, like that of the pine trees, excludes other trees ;) they are the hedge-plants, which are found as far as the region of the pines, (Viburnum Opulus Z. et Viburnum Lantana L.) ; the yew, (‘Taxus baccata L.) ; the box-tree, (Buxus sempervirens Z.) ; the hornbeam, (Carpinus betulus Z.,) very rare ; the alder, (Alnus glutinosa Gertn.) At the margins of the brooks, some briars, the honeysuckle, (Lonicera Caprifolium,) cultivated ; the buckthorn, (Rhamnus ca- tharticus Z.) ; the holly, (Ilex Aquifolium). The fruit trees culti- vated with the greatest success in this zone, are the walnut, the apple, the pear, &c. * Along the margin of the lakes grow the Populus nigra and several species of willows, which are characteristic, but have no direct affinity with the localities in which they occur. The Clematis Vitalba, on the contrary, attaches itself to the trees of the region of the vines and oak trees, but never ascends higher. VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES. 181 Between the region of the oak and that of the beech, we have at a height of 2,000 feet, as a transitory zone, a narrow tract characterized by the wild cherry tree and the Pinus sylvestris, which is, however, particularly adorned by a large variety of shrubs. ‘T'o this zone belongs in the first place the linden tree, (‘Tilia microphylla V., and Tilia platyphylla Scop.) ; three maples, (Acer opulifolium Z., Acer platanoides Z., and Acer campestre LZ.) ; the Evonymus europzeus L., Cerasus Padus DC., Prunus spinosa L., Crateegus Aria L., Mespilus oxyacantha, Lonicera Periclymenum Z., Sambucus nigra Z., Cornus mas J., Cornus sanguinea Z., Viscum album Z., Ligustrum vulgare L., Daphne Cneorum L., Populus tremula L., with the introduced Ais- culus Hipocastanum, which succeeds in this zone better than anywhere else. This is the region of shrubs, properly speaking, with which is mingled the beech tree, whose zone, however, is more extended, and ascends in the Jura to 3,500 feet, and to 4,000 feet in the Alps. To the region of the beech tree, which extends over a thousand feet of vertical height, from 2,500 to 3,500 feet, belong the following shrubs :—Rhamnus Frangula L., Cytisus Laburnum Z., Rubus saxa- tilis Z., Rubus cxsius L., Rubus idzeus L., Rosa eglanteria L., Rosa villosa Z., Rosa canina Z., Rosa rubiginosa Z., Cratzeegus Amelan- chier Z., Lonicera Xylosteum Z., Sambucus Ebulus Z., Daphne Mezereum Z., Daphne alpina Z., Daphne laureola L., Ulmus campestris L., Corylus Avellana L. The region of the pmes or Coniferze extends from 8,500 feet to 4,500 feet in the Jura, and to 6,000 feet in the Alps. It is well characterized in its lower and middle parts, where we find Frax- inus excelsior Z., Abies excelsa DC., Abies pectinata DC., J uniperus communis J, and in the higher part the Pinus Cembra Z., Pinus Pumilio Clus, Larix europea DC. In this zone live the Betula alba L., Betula pubescens Hhr., and Betula nana Z., and some bushes which never leave it, the Ericinez especially ; Vaccinium Myrtillus £., Vaccinium uliginosum L., Vaccinium Oxycoccos L., Vaccinium Vitis-ideea L., Andromeda polifolia Z., Arbutus Uva-ursi Z., Arbu- tus alpina L., Pyrola rotundifolia Z., Pyrola minor, Z., Pyrola chlor- antha Sn., Pyrola secunda L., Pyrola umbellata Z., Pyrola uniflora L., Linnea borealis L., Lonicera alpigena Z., Lonicera cerulea L., Rosa rubrifolia Willd., Rosa alpina L., Rhamnus alpinus, L., 182 LAKE SUPERIOR. and in the higher parts, Crateegus Chamzemespilus Z., Azalea pro- cumbens Z., Empetrum nigrum L., Acer pseudoplatanus L. Above all these we meet already in the Jura the Rhododendrons and the Salix herbacea, which belong truly to the alpine flora char- acterized by all those handsome plants covered with a light cotton down, which we find along the margin of the glaciers in the Alps, and as high as the uppermost limit where all vegetation ceases some- what suddenly, at a level of about 8,000 feet above the level of the sea. Trees of the Lake Superior Region. We may place at about 40° northern latitude the zone of vegeta- tion, which in America corresponds to the upper limit of the cultiva- tion of the vine, as we observe it on the banks of the Swiss lakes. At about this latitude the family of the Magnoliaceze dies out, though we may still meet the Magnolia glauca in the swamps, as far as the 43° N. lat., and though the tulip tree still flourishes there. This is also the northern limit of the Anonaceve, Melastomacex, Cactaceze, Santalaceze, and Liquidambar; and though in Europe we have no representatives of these families, it is easy to perceive, on reflecting upon the examples just mentioned, that the limits of vegetation under consideration are natural, and correspond to each other, though characterized in the two continents by different plants. Again, the numerous species of wild vines which America produces, although they do not extend farther northwards than the cultivation of the vine in Europe, yet prosper on this continent in a colder climate. The State of Massachusetts, with its long arm stretched into the ocean eastwards, or rather the region extending westward under the same parallel through the State of New York, forms a natural limit between the vegetation of the warm temperate zone, and that of the cold temperate zone, whose forests G. B. Emerson, Esq., has so well described in his admirable Report upon the Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts. With this book, we may become well acquainted with the arborescent vegetation of the zone which corresponds to the horizon of oaks and shrubs in the Jura; so that I need not enumer- ate these characteristic species. Not only is this also the northern limit of the culture of fruit trees, but this zone is equally remarkable for the great variety of elegant shrubs which occur particularly VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES. 183 on its northern borders, where we find so great a variety of species belonging to the genera, Celastrus, Crategus, Ribes, Cornus, Hamamelis, Vaccinium, Kalmia, Rhodora, Azalea, Rho- dodendrum, Andromeda, Clethra, Viburnum, Cephalanthus, Prinos, Direa, Celtis, &e. I shall only add, that in the latitude under which the St. Lawrence winds its course from the great Canadian lakes, and takes a more independent course north-eastwards, we perceive already great changes in the growth of trees. About Niag- ara, or rather somewhat farther north along the northern shores of Lake Ontario, and the hills which rise above Toronto, the following species begin to disappear: Sassafras officinale, (I have not seen this species north of Table Rock,) Juglans nigra and cinerea, Carya alba and amara, Castanea americana, Quercus alba and Castanea, Pla- tanus occidentalis, Tilia americana, (this species occurs, however, as far north as Sturgeon Bay, on Lake Huron,) Rubus odoratus. Though the Beech is extensively distributed among the forests of this zone, we cannot but be struck with their splendid growth further north, where the Elm, Red Oak, Hornbeam, Hop-hornbeam, several species of Birches, various Maples, Ashes, Wild Cherries, &c., &c., more or less mixed with Coniferze, form the most beautiful forests of the temperate zone, particularly remarkable for their diversified shades of green and dark foliage, and which almost uniformly cover the ground along the shores of the Great Lakes as far as Lake Superior, the Coniferze gradually coming in im a larger proportion to the suc- cessive exclusion of the trees with deciduous leaves. As soon as we reach Mackinaw we find the Beech has almost entirely disappeared, or become so dwarfish as no longer to be a handsome tree, while Ostrya, Carpinus, Betula populifolia, Quercus rubra, and indeed all Cupuliferze are entirely gone, and the Canoe-Birch, the Black Ash, with Pinus balsamifera, alba, nigra, Larix americana, Pinus Strobus, Sorbus americana, and some Poplars on the lake shore, form the mass of forests, with a few low shrubs among them, such as Arctostaphylos Uya-ursi, Vaccinium, Chiogenes, &e. ‘This zone, which corresponds to the horizon of Pines in the Jura, extends all along the northern shores of Lake Superior. North of Fort William are extensive forests of Pinus Banksiana, with Pinus resinosa and Strobus. We noticed no Cupulifersee beyond Batcheewauaung Bay, and we learnt 184 LAKE SUPERIOR. that but a few dwarfish Red Oaks are seen in the Island of Michipi- cotin; but the Elm is still handsome about Fort William, though it is very scarce in other parts of the northern shores. The shores of Nipigon Bay, the northernmost point we visited, are covered with Pine forests, with a few Ashes and Maples, and here and there a Sorbus americana among them. At this latitude, the 49°, we had therefore not yet reached the zone of the true alpine vegeta tion, and remained for the whole extent of our journey within the limits of the sub-alpine flora. The highest point which we visited, the summit of a mountain upon St. Ignace Island, which we called Mount-Cambridge, afforded the following harvest for our herbarium :—Abies balsamea, Abies alba, Betula papyracea, Alnus viridis, Sorbus americana, Amelanchier canadensis, Acer montanum, Diervillea trifida, Sambucus pubens, Rhus Toxicodendrum, Vaccinium uliginosum, Corylus rostrata, Lin- na borealis, Cornus canadensis, Spirzea opulifolia, Salix, Cory- dalis glauca, Epilobium angustifolium, Polygonum ciliare, Melam- pyrum, Clintonia borealis, Stereocaulon paschale, Gyrophora hirsuta, Cladonia pyxidata, and rangiferina, Parmelia tiliacea and Sphagnum acutifolium. From this list it is obvious, that even a thousand feet of height will introduce very slight differences in the vegetation of these re- gions. For, though Mount Cambridge is about a thousand feet above the level of the lake, its whole slope is covered with the same vege- tation which occurs at the very level of the lake. This fact would seem in flat contradiction with the general laws of the geographical distribution of plants, to which we have alluded above, but for the presence of the lake itself and its peculiar character. So large a sheet of so deep water as Lake Superior, preserving all the year round a very equable and low temperature even on its shores, which are generally very precipitous, must of course influence greatly the temperature of the main land in its immediate vicinity, at considerable heights above its surface. There is, therefore, nothing very surprising in our finding so uniform a vegetation at rather considerable heights above the surface of the lake and on its immediate shores. This fact is to be attributed to the equalizing local influence of the VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES. 185 lake, and does not form an exception to the law of distribution, and ~ change of the character of vegetation in the interior of continents, upon the slopes of high mountains ; for we have, even a few degrees farther south, in the same continent, a striking example of the fixity of these laws, in the White Mountains, which are sufficiently distant from the seashore, and not surrounded by any large sheet of fresh water, so that the zones of vegetation are very well marked on their slopes, and can be traced in gradual succession beyond the range of the Mountains proper to the level, where the vegetation has the char- acter which distinguishes it, in this latitude, near the level of the sea. In the vicinity of the White Mountains, the changes of vegetation are rather conspicuous, owing to their gradual elevation above the surrounding flat country, and also to the more sudden rise of several of their peaks. We no sooner begin to ascend the head waters of the Connecticut valley towards Littleton, than the forest vegetation begins to assume a different character from what it has lower down in the main valley nearer the sea. Juglans cinerea and Carya porcina disappear in that’ village. The oaks also are fewer and smaller. The mountain maple, which is not found below, here makes its appearance. ‘The following trees may be seen between Windsor and Littleton : — Abies Canadensis, Pinus strobus, Thuya occidentalis, Larix Americana, Platanus occidentalis, Fagus ferruginea, Compto- nia asplenifolia, Betula populifolia, B. lenta, B. excelsa, B. papy- racea, Quercus alba, Q. rubra, Q. bicolor, Ulmus Americana, Car- pinus Americana, Ostrya Virginica, Fraxinus alba, Populus tremu- loides, Tilia Americana, Acer saccharinum, A. montanum, A. Penn- sylvanicum. The chestnut has already disappeared at Windsor, where the height above the level of the sea is three hundred feet. From Littleton, eight hundred and thirty feet above the sea, to Fabyan’s, which is fifteen hundred feet,* we notice Abies alba, A. balsamifera, A. Canadensis, Pinus strobus, Larix Americana, Tilia Americana, Fraxinus alba, Acer saccharinum, A. monta- num, A. Pennsylvanicum, Ulmus Americana, Sorbus Americana, Betula excelsa, B. papyracea, B. populifolia, Alnus incana, Comp- * This and the following measures were ascertained barometrically by Professor A. Guyot. a 13 186 LAKE SUPERIOR. tonia asplenifolia, &. The Cupuliferze have disappeared; Pinus rigida, also, is no longer observed, and thus vegetation continues from Fabyan’s to a level of two thousand and eighty feet, where the pine vegetation forms the larger proportion of the features of the forest. This height of two thousand and eighty feet is a very natural level in the chain of the White Mountains, and especially on the slope of Mount Washington. It indicates the horizon where the slope begins to be much steeper, and where the variety of trees combined in the forests is greatly reduced; for above this level to the height of four thousand three hundred and fifty feet we may say that the vegetation consists entirely of Abies alba and balsamea and Betula excelsa and papyracea, which grow gradually more and more stunted, till at the height of four thousand three hundred and fifty feet, those species even, which form tall, splendid trees one or two thousand feet lower, appear here as mere shrubs, low bushes, with crooked branches so interwoven as almost entirely to hedge up the way, excepting in places where a bridle-path has been cut through. Above this level the mountain is naked, and many fine plants make their appearance which remind us of the Flora of Greenland, and many of which grow on the northern shores of Lake Superior, such as Arenaria Groenlandica, Vaccinium cespitosum, uliginosum, Xe. The summit of the mountain, at the height of six thousand two hundred and eighty feet, produces several plants which have no representatives south of Labrador. Such are Andromeda hypnoides, Saxifraga rivularis, Rhododendron lapponicum, Diapensia lapponica. Before leaving this subject I ought to make an additional remark about the identity of so many plants which are common to both continents. It is a general fact, that the farther north we proceed, © the greater is the primitive uniformity of the plants, as well as the animals, in both hemispheres ; so much so, that the arctic flora and the arctic fauna are identical, not only in their general character, but also in almost all the species which characterize that region as a natural botanical and zoélogical province. But there are a great many plants and animals occurring in the temperate zone, which are equally identical in Europe and America, and which, nevertheless, do not VEGETATION OF THE NORTHERN SHORES. 187 belong originally to both hemispheres," but were introduced into America since the settlement of Europeans in this part of the world, many of which, though foreigners, have spread so extensively, as to be generally considered as natives of this country. But if we carefully examine their distribution, we soon perceive that they follow everywhere the tracks of civilization, and occur nowhere except in those districts and in those soils where the hands of white men have been at work. In such localities, however, they have almost com- pletely replaced the native weeds, which have disappeared before them as completely as the Indian tribes have disappeared before the pressing invasion of the more civilized nations. ‘These plants are chiefly such as occur in Europe by the road-sides, or near the habita- tion of man, and which to a certain degree may be considered as sat- ellites of the white race. Their occurrence is particularly striking along the new lines of railroads, where they settle almost as soon as the tracks are marked out, and increase in a few years so* rapidly within the enclosure of the roads, as to suppress the primitive vegeta- tion almost completely, with the exception of a few hardy natives which resist the new invaders. Several of these plants occur natur- ally, in America, in more northern latitudes. Nevertheless, I have no doubt that in most cases they were introduced into the more temperate and cultivated latitudes from Europe, rather than from their northern residence in America. The following list of these plants was chiefly made from an examination of the railroad tracks between Boston and Salem, in company with that liberal cultivator of botany, Hon. John A. Lowell, and also from materials collected durmg an excursion made with * T do not wish by this remark to be understood as intending to deny the identity of any native plant in the temperate zone of Europe and America. I know that many species which occur very far north, and are there truly identical in both continents, are also found among the plants of the temperate zone on the two sides of the Atlantic; but there still remains a large number, the identity of which ought to be ascertained by direct comparison of authentic specimens from the two continents, before it can be finally admitted that there is no specific difference between them. As such, I may mention Hepatica triloba, Geranium Robertianum, Oxalis Acetosella, Spireea Aruncus, Circa lutetiana, Calystegia sepium, Agrimonia Eupatoria, Majanthemum bifolium, and many aquatic plants. The identity of these with European species seems to me the more questionable, as the freshwater animals, the fishes, mollusks and insects differ specifically throughout. 188 LAKE SUPERIOR. the same gentleman to Niagara Falls and the White Mountains. The European weeds which are limited to cultivated ground, as Lychnis Githago, Centaurea cyaneus, are entirely omitted in this list, as well as plants escaped from gardens, which are found only occasionally, in an apparently wild condition, in the United States, as Abutilon Avicennze, Althzea officinalis, &c. _ Ranunculacee. Ranunculus acris. “ bulbosus. “ sceleratus. Berberidee. Berberis vulgaris. Papaveracee. Chelidonium majus. Fumariacee. Fumaria officinalis. Crucifere. Nasturtium officinale. Lepidium ruderale. Often side by side with Lepid. virginianum. Barbarea vulgaris. Sisymbrium officinale. thalianum. Draba verna. Sinapis nigra. “¢ arvensis. Capsella Bursa-Pastoris. Raphanus Raphanistrum. Hypericinee. Hypericum perfoliatum. Caryophyllacee. Saponaria officinalis. Silene inflata. Arenaria serpyllifolia. Stellaria media. Cerastium vulgatum. Spergula arvensis. Scleranthus annuus. } Portulacacee. Portulaca oleracea. Malvacee. Malva rotundifolia. Geraniee. Erodium cicutarium. Leguminose. Trifolium pratense. arvense. ‘s repens. i procumbens. Medicago lupulina. Vicia sativa. me them with skates and sharks, as Cuvier has done? ‘To answer such a question, it is necessary to discuss beforehand principles of the utmost importance in the study of natural history, and above all to settle the follow- ing difficulty :—Is the study of anatomical structure an absolutely safe guide in the estimation of the relations of animals to each other ¢ Cuvier, who made the study of comparative anatomy the foundation of classification, carried out this principle in a most remarkable man- ner, and improved the natural arrangement of animals most sur- prismgly ; indeed, he made zodlogy truly a science by it; but with a tact that characterizes genius, he limited the absolute consequences of this law by a true appreciation of the relative value of characters ; introducing at the same time with the principle of classification ae cording to the structure of animals, that of subordination of *charac- ters, without which the first great principle might mislead us, stead of helping to ascertain the true relations of organized bemgs. Now it seems to me as if zodlogists and anatomists had of late msisted too strictly upon the absolute differences which exist between animals, instead of attempting to appreciate the relative value of the differ- ences noticed. Of course, as this latter point rests almost within the limits of individual appreciation, it is more difficult to find the right path here, than in almost any other department of zodlogical investi- gations ; but I hope to be able to introduce another great principle of zodlogical classification, which shall afford a safe guide to setile such doubts; I mean the study of embryonic development. Let me now show, in the present instance, how I consider it possible 17 250 LAKE SUPERIOR. to be led by anatomical evidence considered in its absolute results, to combinations strictly opposed to those which an additional acquaint- ance with embryonic development might indicate. Guided by his admirable natural feeling of affinities, Cuvier placed in one and the same great division, sharks, skates, and lamprey-eels. Influenced by anatomical investigation, and indeed by the most min- ute and admirable knowledge of their anatomical structure, derived from unparalleled investigations, Joh. Miiller concluded, on the con- trary, that the Cyclostomata were to be separated from the’ other cartilaginous fishes, and placed by themselves at the other end of the class. Who is right in this case cannot be ascertained by any farther anatomical mvestigation ; it has thenceforth become a matter of individual appreciation, unless we introduce another principle, by which we can weigh the real value of these remarkable differences. Such a principle, I think, we have in the metamorphosis of embryonic life. Indeed, if it can be shown, that besides the differences which exist in all fishes between their earliest forms and their full-grown state, there are peculiarities in sharks, skates, and lamprey-eels common to all of them, from an early period of development, which remain characteristic throughout life, it must be acknowledged that these families belong to one and the same great group, notwithstand- ing their extreme differences in their full-grown condition. Now, such facts exist. In the first place, it is impossible, without disturb- ing their true affinities, to consider an extraordinary development of pectoral and ventral fins as a standard to appreciate fundamental relations between fishes, as in all fishes, without exception, they are both wanting in earlier life, and as there is scarcely a family in which ventrals at least, are not wanting in some genus or other. We might just as well place Petromyzons among the eels, as their common English name purports, on the ground of the deficiency of their abdominal and thoracic organs of locomotion, as separate them from the other Placoids. Again, the peculiarities in the development of the dorsal, caudal, and anal fins in sharks and skates, and the differ- ences which exist between them and the Petromyzons, indicate in no way their affinity or their difference ; in Petromyzon we have the embryonic condition of vertical fins, where a continuous fold in the skin of the middle line extends, as in all embryo fishes, from the back FISHES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. yin round the tail, towards the abdominal region. In the sharks we have distinct vertical fins, as they generally grow out of the continu- ous, embryonic odd fin; whilst in skates these fins disappear almost entirely, or are considerably reduced. ‘That animals in their embry- onic condition are neither so elongated as many of cylindrical form in their full-grown state, nor so short as some others, is ascertained by the embryology of snakes and toads. ‘Thus, all the great external differences which exist between skates and sharks on one side, and Petromyzon on the other, do not show that these animals do not belong to the same natural group, as we have even among the full- grown ones, what we may call transitions between the extreme forms ; for instance, sharks with more elongated body than others, with more extensive vertical fins, even with two dorsals and some without ven- trals. Again, the remarkable form of skates arises solely from an extraordinary development of the pectorals ; they are nevertheless closely allied to sharks, notwithstanding the striking difference in the position of the gill-openings. As for the anatomical differences which exist among these fishes, and upon which so much stress is placed as to make the want of a heart, in Amphioxus, the foundation for a peculiar class to include that single fish, let us not forget, that there is an epoch in embryonic life, when no vertebrated animal has yet a heart; when the vertebral column is a mere soft continuous cord; when the brain is scarcely subdivided into lobes; when the head, as such, is not yet distinct from the trunk ; when the mouth is a mere circular opening at the anterior extremity of the body ; when the gills are simple fissures on the sides of the head, or at what is to be a head, without branchio- stegal rays or operculum, or protecting covering of any kind. Whoever is familiar with the anatomy of fishes must perceive, after these remarks, that the peculiarities which characterize Petromy- zon, have a bearing upon the embryonic condition of their structure even in their full-grown state, and do not by any means mark a dif. ference between them and the sharks and skates, any more than between them and any other family of fishes. On the contrary, should it be possible, after these statements, to show that there are important characters, common to Petromyzon, sharks and skates, notwithstanding - their extreme external differences, it should be 252 LAKE SUPERIOR. acknowledged that Cyclostomata and Plagiostomata are only different degrees of one and the same great type. Now, such characters we have ; in the first place, in the structure of the mouth, which differs so widely from that of the other fishes, and agrees so closely in all Placoids, as Miiller himself has shown in his Anatomy of Myximoids. Next, the teeth also agree, in bemg arranged in several concentric series, and also in their microscopical structure, as well as in their mode of attachment to the skin lining the jaw, and not to the bone itself. We have other hints of the relation between Cyclostomes and Plagiostomes in their spiracles, and also in their numerous respi- ratory apertures, so that, after due consideration, I come to the con- clusion that the Myxinoids and Petromyzons, far from being the types of peculiar subclasses, are simply embryonic forms of the great type to which sharks and skates belong, bearing to these powerful ani- mals, in a physiological point of view, the same relation which exists between Ichthyodes and the tailless batrachians, Of Cyclostomata, two species have been mentioned as occurring in the colder parts of North America, both referred by Dr. Richardson to the genus Petromyzon proper, but of which I have seen no trace myself in the great lake region, though I know Petromyzons to occur below Niagara Falls. However, I am able to add a new species of this family to the fauna of those waters, which belongs to the genus Ammoceetes, and was found in the mud in Michipicotin River, at the landing place of the Factory, the first specimens of which were picked up by the students when dragging their canoes along the shore. AMMOCETES BOREALIS, Ayass. This pretty little species differs from all those already known, by easily appreciable characters. It is at first sight plainly distinguished from the Ammocetes bicolor, Les. and A. branchialis, Dum. whose dorsal fin is, as it were, divided into two lobes by a very low emargina- tion; but it resembles the Am. concolor, Kirt. and unicolor, Dekay, in its dorsal fin, being uniformly continuous. It differs, however, from this latter, whose form is much more elongated, by the extent of its dorsal fin, which equals one half of the whole length of the body, whilst in the Am. wnicolor it extends scarcely before the anus. In the FISHES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. 258 individual which has served for this description, the whole length exceeds a little five inches. The general form of the body is compressed, differing still in that respect from A. wnicolor, which is subcylindrical, whilst the concolor is cylindrical at its anterior, and compressed at its posterior part. Our species is, on the contrary, in some manner ribbon-like, and its length goes on diminishing regularly from the neck towards the tail, where it ends in an attenuated and obtuse caudal lobe. The neck is prominent, but the skull is declivous. The upper lobe of the mouth, which terminates the anterior extremity, is concave, the opening of the cavity which it circumscribes bemg turned downwards. The anterior margin of the lip is concave, the lateral margins describe a convex lobe to the angles of the mouth. The lower lip is completely distinct from the upper, small and fixed upon the anterior of the lateral margins of the upper; it is slightly con- cave about the middle of its circumference. The convex lateral lobes are elliptical. The mouth, placed in the centre of the funnel formed by the two lips, is proportional to the size of the fish. When it is shut it seems to be cleft vertically, though in reality it is cir- cular. The branched fringes which surround the mouth, are especially developed on the lower lip and at the angles of the mouth ; they lengthen, but are reduced in thickness, on the inner side of the upper lip, under the form of an isosceles triangle, whose interior is equally furnished with them. ‘The opening of the nose is situate im a circular depression between the anterior extremity of the skull and the inner margin of the upper lip. ‘This depression is continued upwards, and terminates about the middle of the skull. The eyes are very small and placed on the sides of the head, at the height of the angles of the mouth, in a slight furrow of the face. The branchial openings are subcircular or convex in front, truncated behind, and open in a wrinkled furrow half an inch long, in form of a very elliptical curved line. ‘The first branchial opening is ata dis- tance of ¢ of an inch behind the angles of the mouth. The anus opens in a depression at a distance of = of an inch from the extremity of the caudal fin ; it is cleft longitudinally, and bordered by two thinned lips. The anal fin, very low at its origin immediately behind the anus, widens a little as it advances towards the caudal, with which it unites after 254 LAKE SUPERIOR. having produced a more marked lobe. The dorsal fin is higher, but like the anal grows in height towards the posterior extremity, and forms like it a more dilated lobe before it unites with the caudal. This latter extends over an equal length above and below the tail. It is separated from the dorsal and anal fins by a notch, beyond which the fin arises to the height of the terminal lobes of the two anterior fins, and preserves the same height along the whole circumference of the tail, under the form of an elongated oval. Undulated, annular, transverse lines, distinct enough on the sides of the body, corres- ponding with the lateral muscles of the trunk, are very marked. This species is from Michipicotin, where we have picked up a rather large number of specimens. LEPIDOSTEUS. This genus of fishes is known throughout the United States under the name of gar-pike. It is a very singular animal, and its his- tory is closely connected with the most important progress which has recently been made in ichthyology. The first knowledge naturalists had of this remarkable fish was derived from Catesby, who published a figure and a short account of it in his Natural History of South Carolina. Linnzeus, who received specimens of the same species from Dr. Garden of South Carolina, introduced it into his Systema Nature under the name of Hsox osseus, supposing it allied to the common pickerel, because its dorsal and anal fins are opposite to each other and far back, near the end of the tail.* Lacépéde, who first noticed some of its peculiarities, removed it from the genus Esox, and established a distinct genus for it, under the name of Lepisosteus, which name, however, not being quite grammatically correct, I afterwards modified to Lepidosteus, which is now generally received. The French naturalist knew a second species of that genus, from the Mississippi, which he called Lepidosteus Spatula. Afterwards * For some zovlogical particulars respecting this fish, see preceding Narrative, page 33. FISHES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. 956 Rafinesque described several more, which, however, can scarcely be identified, as his descriptions are so very short and imperfect as to give little information upon their structure. In his Animal Kingdom, Cuvier characterized the genus Lepidosteus more correctly than his predecessors, without, however, noticing the great difference which exists between this genus and the common Abdominales among which he places it. It was my good fortune early in the course of my scientific studies to perceive the striking differences which exist between these Lepidos- tei and all the other fishes now living upon our globe ; and at the same time to call the attention of naturalists to the close relationship which exists between them and the fossil fishes of the earlier geologi- calages. So that, after an extensive study of the remains of these ancient inhabitants of olden time, Lepidosteus has become notable as the only living representative of the large group of fishes which peo- pled, almost exclusively, the waters during the early ages of the earth’s history, and which has gradually decreased in number, until, at last, he was left almost alone to remind the observers of the present age, of a once powerful and widely spread dynasty among the watery tribes. These facts call for a close examination of this singular fish. In the first place, let me say, that all the species of Lepidosteus, of which I now know ten distinct species, inhabit exclusively the fresh waters of North America. This is, in itself, a remarkable fact, most important in the history of nature, as it shows that far from de- riving its inhabitants from other parts of the world, America has had, and has now, animals which are entirely pectliar to it, and which have nowhere any near relatives. I am well aware that the Bichir of the Nile is remotely allied to the gar-pikes, and that another species of Polypterus occurs also in the Senegal; but this genus constitutes also by itself a peculiar group, and can only be considered as distantly related to the Lepi- dostei. Another remarkable peculiarity in the geographical distribution of these fishes consists in the fact that different species are limited to different water basins, as the species of the Middle and Southern Atlantic States are as different from those of the Western waters as 256 LAKE SUPERIOR: they are from the species which occur in the Northern lakes ; so that, not only is the genus located in a peculiar continent, but the individual species are also confined to special regions of this coun- try, from the great Canadian lakes to the freshwaters of Florida, and from the Atlantic rivers to the numerous affluents of the Mississippi. New England, however, has no species, and this is the more surpris- ing as they occur further north in the St. Lawrence, and further south in the Delaware. The question now arises, how this genus of fishes stands in its class; and whether, notwithstanding their peculiarity, they may not be associated with some other families. Before answering this question, let me msist upon another fact, that, even if we take into account the nominal species of Rafinesque and that beautiful species of the Northern lakes first described by Dr. Richardson, the Lepidostei are only ten m number. And if we introduce into the same general division, the Polypteri, we shall have a natural group of fishes containing in the present creation not more than a dozen species. And even should we suppose that some more relatives of that group may be discovered in the course of time, we can by no means suppose that this family would ever contam as large a number of species as most of the other families of the class. We need only remember the innumerable species of suckers, or of cat-fishes, which occur every where in our fresh waters, or the various kind of perch, mackerel, codfish, &c., which swarm in the ocean, and among which the new discoveries to be expected can hardly be fewer than among our Lepidostei, to be satisfied that there is here a remarkable contrast between these families. It is therefore a fact plainly shown by this evidence, that the most natural groups of animals which we discover in nature, differ widely among them- selves in the number of their representatives. Tt is not less obvious, that these groups differ from each other in a very unequal degree, taken as general groups or considered in the isolated members of their families. The amount of difference which distinguishes the gar-pikes from the common pickerels, or from the trouts, or from the herrings, ‘or from the suckers, is far greater, for instance, than that which dis- tinguishes the pickerels from the trouts, or the trouts from the —————————— FISHES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. psi herrings ; and again, the generic differences which occur among the trouts, the graylings and white-fishes, and distinguish them from true salmon, are far greater than that which exists between the chubs, gudgeons, barbels or carps; and the specific distinctions which may be noticed in these different genera are again of an unequal value. So that we arrive at once to this important conclusion, that natural groups in the animal kingdom show naturally differences of unequal value, and that all attempts on the part of naturalists to equalize the divisions which they acknowledge in their researches, must, as a matter of course, result in failure; and I have not the slightest doubt that our classifications have not been more improved, and that we have made less extensive progress in the knowledge of the true relationship between the various groups of the animal king- dom, for the very reason that we have too often aimed at an arrange- ment which the most familiar facts im nature plainly contradict. Instead of this desired uniformity, we sometimes observe a numer- ous group of closely allied species corresponding to another group with few, but more distinct and more widely different species, and even isolated types, the relation of which seems to branch in all directions, without ever coming very close to any other group. Now, unless our classifications admit, as a natural limit, this diver- sity, it will be impossible ever to form a system which will answer to the natural affinities really existing in nature. As I have said on another occasion,” classification should be a picture from nature, and not an artificial frame of our own invention, into which natural objects are more or less conveniently brought together. Another important point of view, of which naturalists should never lose sight, is the relation which exists between animals now found alive on various parts of the surface of our globe, and those known to us only from fossil remains discovered in strata of a different geo- logical age. The Lepidosteus, however isolated in the present creation, had once many and very diversified representatives all over the globe. Fossils of the same family of which the gar-pike is the type, have been found all over Europe in the oldest fossiliferous beds, in the strata of the age of the coal; in the new red sandstone ; in the odlitic deposits, 4 * See Principles of Zovlogy, by L. Agassiz and A. A. Gould, Vol. II. 258 LAKE SUPERIOR. and even in the chalk and tertiary beds. They existed in the same wide range upon the continent of North America, and have been found in Asia as well as in New Holland; so that this family, now limited to the continent of North America, and, if we include in it the Bichir also, to two river basins of Africa, —was once cosmopolite in its geographical distribution. The natural consequence from such evidence is, that we cannot arrive at a true insight into the relations of the afimnsl creation, unless we study, at the same time, the living animals, and those which have become extinct; and that a natural classification must associate the fossils promiscuously in their natural relationship with the living types. The separation of paleontology from zodlogy, for the ‘sake of convenience in the study of geological phenomena, has been very injurious to the real progress of zodlogy, and is so entirely unscientific, that until they are-again combined under the same head, even in our elementary text books, we can hardly expect that zoology will make the progress which extensive investigations carried on singly, in the study of living and fossil animals, would lead us to expect. Moreover, the identification of fossils requires a close investiga tion of such characters as are shown in the only remains of extinct species which have been preserved, and which are, almost exclusive- ly, their solid parts. It is therefore very important that, in zodlogical investigations, more attention should be paid to the characters derived from such parts as are the only ones accessible in the study of fossils. The mutual advantages to be derived from such a course cannot but be strikingly felt by those who have devoted their attention to the study of fossils. It may even be said that the condition of fossil re- mains, as they generally occur in rocks, has led naturalists to study more carefully the living species, than they did before. I need only mention the minuteness with which the skeletons of living animals have been described since it has been necessary to identify extinct species from isolated bones. The skeletons of fishes, which were neither correctly figured in zoological drawings of these animals, nor minutely examined in their structure, are no longer considered as unworthy of the attention of minute observers. Even our knowledge of the structure of the shells in mollusca and of the wings of insects, has been improved with FISHES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. 259 reference to the identification of fossil remains. It is therefore plain that comparative anatomy should be more extensively and intimately combined with zodlogy than is generally the case. The classification of the animal kingdom should no longer be based simply upon the structure of the animals, but form and structure should everywhere and always be considered in their intimate connections. I have already alluded to the narrow circumscription of the genus Lepidosteus, within the limits of the temperate zone of North Amer- ica. In like manner, also, the Marsupialia, for instance, are almost’ wholly confined to New Holland, and the Edentata to Brazil. All this goes to show that there is an important connection between a given country and its inhabitants, which rests with the primitive plan of the creation. The limited existence of Lepidosteus in North America in the pre- sent creation has, no doubt, reference to the fact that North America was an extensive continent long before other parts of the globe had nndergone their most: extensive physical changes. Or in other words, that the present character of this continent has not been much altered from what it was when the ancient representatives of Lepidosteus lived; while in other parts of the world, the physical changes have been so extensive as to exclude such forms from among the animals suited for them. We have therefore here a hint towards a more natural and deeper understanding of the laws regulating the geographical distribution of animals in general. There are animals and plants whose detailed history is, as it were, at the same time, the history of that branch of science to which they belong. ‘This is particularly the case with those animals, which, from particular circumstances, have thrown unusual light upon the relations which exist between them and their allied types. There are even a few such animals, the study of which has actually marked the advance of science. I cannot notice on this occasion the gar- pike without being strongly reminded how strikmgly this has been the fact with Lepidosteus. The first sight I had of a stuffed skin of that fish in the Museum of Carlsruhe, when a medical student in the University of Heidelberg, in 1826, convinced me that this genus stood alone in the class of fishes ; and that we could not, by any possibility, 260 LAKE SUPERIOR. associate it with any of the types of living fishes, nor succeed in finding, among living types, any one to associate fairly with it. It was a faci, at once deeply impressed upon my mind, that it stands iso- lated among all living beings; and this early impression has gradually led me to the views respecting classification which I have expressed above, and which have frequently guided me in appreciating both the various degrees of relationship, and also the differences which I have noticed among different families ; and, I may say, has also-kept me free from fanciful attempts at symmetrical classifications. Somewhat later, my investigations of the fossil fishes led me to the distinct appreciation of the great difference there is between the characters of the class of fishes in early geological ages; I also noticed that all the bony fishes of former ages are more or less allied to the gar-pike, and widely different from the types of fishes now prevailing. But the real nature of this difference was only gradually understood. I had not yet perceived that the fishes of older times had peculiar characters of their own, not to be found either among the more recent fossils or among the liv- ing representatives of that class. But the opportunity of study ing the skeleton of Lepidosteus, which was afforded me in Paris by Cuvier, showed at once, that these fishes have reptilian characters.* The articulation of their vertebree differs from that of the verte- breve of all other fishes no less than the structure of their scales. Their extremities, especially the pectoral limbs, assume a higher development than in fishes generally. ‘Their jaws also, and the structure of their teeth, are equally peculiar. Hence, it is plain that, before the class of reptiles was introduced upon our globe, the fishes, being then the only representatives of the type of verte- brata, were invested with the characters of a higher order, embody- ing, as it were, a prospective view of a higher development in another class, which was introduced as a distinct type only at a later period; and from that time the reptilian character, which had been so prominent in the oldest fishes, was gradually reduced, till, in more recent periods, and in the present creation, the fishes lost in * For further details, see my Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, Vol. II. part 2, p. 1—73. FISHES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. 261 the successive creations all this herpetological relationship, and were, at last, endowed with characters which contrast as much, when com- pared with those of reptiles, as they agreed closely in the beginning. Lepidosteus alone reminds us, in our time, of these old-fashioned characters of the class of fishes, as it was in former days. An opportunity afforded me by John Edward Gray, Esq., of the British Museum, of examining a specimen of this genus, preserved in alcohol, furnished another evidence that the reptilian character of Lepidosteus was not only shown in its solid parts, but was even exemplified in the peculiar structure of its respiratory apparatus and its cellular air bladder, as I have pointed out in the Proceedings of the Zodlogical Society of London.* One step further was made during this excursion, when, at Niag- ara, a living specimen of Lepidosteus was caught for me, and to my great delight, as well as to my utter astonishment, I saw this fish moving its head upon the neck freely, right and left and upwards, as a Saurian, and as no other fish in creation does. This reptilian character of the older fishes is not the only striking character which distinguishes them. Investigations into the em- bryonic growth of recent fishes have led me to the discovery that the changes which they undergo agree, in many respects, in a very remarkable manner, with the differences which we notice be- tween the fossils of different ages; so much so, that the peculiar form of the vertebral column, and especially its odd termination in very young embryos, where the upper lobe of the caudal fin is pro- longed beyond the lower lobe, and forms an unequal, unsymmetrical appendage upwards and backwards, agrees precisely with the form of the tail of the bony fishes of the oldest geological deposits ; so that these ancient fishes may be said to have embryonic peculiarities in addition to their reptilian character. This fact, so simple in itself, and apparently so natural, is of the utmost importance in the history of animal life. It has gradually led me to more extensive views, and to the conviction that embryonic investigations might throw as much light upon the successive development of the animal kingdom during the successive geological periods, as upon the physiological develop- * Proceed. Zo’l. Soc. of London, Vol. II. page 119. 262 LAKE SUPERIOR. ment of individual animals; and, indeed, I can now show, through all classes of the animal kingdom, that the oldest representatives of any family agree closely with the embryonic stages of the higher types of the living representatives of the same families; or, in other words, that the order of succession of animals, through all classes and families, agrees, in a most astonishing measure, with the degrees of development of young animals of the present age. This being the case, it is obvious that a minute investigation of the embryology of Lepidosteus would throw a vast amount of light upon the history of the succession of fishes, of all geological periods; and also would probably give the first indication of the manner in which the separation of true ichthyological characters from reptilian char- acters, was gradually introduced; as it is more than probable, from all we know otherwise of the embryology of animals, that the young gar-pike, im its earliest condition, will have characters truly ichthy- ological, and only assume, gradually, the peculiar reptilian charac- ters which distinguish it. But notwithstanding all my efforts to secure the Lepidosteus in the breeding season, I have failed up to this day to gain the desired information. It only remains for me, therefore, to urge naturalists living near the waters inhabited by Lepidosteus to take up the subject as early as an opportunity is afforded them. Although Lepidosteus does not occur in Lake Superior, I have deemed it sufficiently important to introduce these remarks here, as this fish occurs in all the northern lakes except Lake Superior, as far north even as Mud Lake, below Sault St. Marie. Its presence in these waters is another of the striking differences which exist between the ichthyological fauna of Lake Superior, and that of the other lakes ; and shows once more, within what narrow limits animals may be circumscribed, even when endowed with the most powerful means of locomotion, and left untrammeled by natural barriers. This Lepidosteus is one of the swiftest fishes I know. He darts like an arrow through the waters, and the facility with which he overcomes rapids, even the rapids of the Niagara, shows that the falls of St. Mary would be no natural barrier to him, if there were no nat- ural causes to keep him within the limits in which he is found, and which extend from Lake Michigan, Lake St. Clair, and Mud FISHES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. 263 Lake, through Lake Erie, and Ontario, down to the St. Lawrence and its outlet into the sea, into which this fish never ventures far, though he does not altogether avoid brackish and salt water. Dr. Richardson was the first naturalist who described the northern Lepidosteus. He mentions it in his Fauna Boreali-Americana, under the name of Lepidosteus Huronensis, and gives a correct and detailed description of it. Nevertheless, it has been since mistaken, and referred to the southern species first described by Catesby and Linnus, from which it is however very distinct, both by the pro- portions of its parts, its scales, its fins, and especially by the form of its frontal bones, in which the supra-orbital emargination is much lower and more elongated. Again, notwithstanding the descrip- tion of Dr. Richardson, Dr. Dekay has redescribed it under the name of Lepidosteus Bison; and Zadock Thompson has described a young specimen under the name of Lepidosteus lineatus. At first, his description would seem to indicate a really distinct species ; but I have ascertained, by a series of specimens, that the differences pointed out are really the characters of the young, and have no value as specific characters; the detached lobe formed by the upper raylets of the caudal fin is gradually united with the lower rays,” and the longitudinal stripe, which is well marked in young specimens of a few inches in length, gradually vanishes, to leave only a few spots upon the sides, which even disappear entirely in the oldest individuals. ‘The vertical fins alone remain spotted in the adult. The natural color of this fish is a light greenish gray, | passing downwards into a dull white. ACIPENSERIDE (Sturgeons.) The family of Sturgeons is well characterized and easily distin- guished from any other in the class. ‘These fishes have generally been placed in the order of Chondropterygians, near the sharks, until I objected to this association, and attempted to show that, not- * It is a very remarkable fact that several fishes of the old Red Sandstone period have, in their full-grown state, a peculiar form of their caudal fin, which is nearly identical with the form of the caudal fin of the young Lepidosteus; a form which is otherwise unknown to me at present in the whole class of fishes. 264 LAKE SUPERIOR. withstanding their extraordinary peculiarities, they are more closely related to the gar-pikes, than to any other group of fishes. This view, though at first strongly opposed, is now generally admitted, having been sustained both by anatomical and __ paleontological evidence. The sturgeons are generally large fishes, which live at the bot- tom of the water, feeding with their toothless mouths upon decom- posed organized substances. Their movements are rather sluggish, resembling somewhat those of the codfish tribe. Their geographical distribution is quite peculiar, and constitutes one of their prominent peculiarities. Located as they are, in the colder portions of the temperate zone, they mhabit either the fresh waters or the seas exclusively, or alternately both these elements, remaining during the larger part of the year in the sea, and ascend- ing the rivers in the spawning season. Although adapted to the cold regions of the temperate, they do not seem to extend imto the arctic zone, and I am not aware that they have been observed in any of the waters of the warmer half of the temperate zone. The great basin of salt water lakes or seas which extends east of the Med- iterranean, seems to be their principal abode in the Old World, or at least the regron in which the greater number of species occur; and each species takes a wide range, extending up the Danube and its tributaries, and all the Russian rivers emptying into the Black Sea. From the Caspian they ascend the Wolga in immense shoals, and are found farther east in the lakes of Central Asia; even as far as the borders of China. The great Canadian lakes constitute another centre of distribution of these fishes in the New World, but here they are neither so numerous, nor do they ever occur in contact with salt water in this basin. Northwards, there is another great zone of distribution of stur- geons, which inhabit all the great northern rivers emptying into the Arctic Sea, in Asia as well as in America. They occur equally in the intervening seas, being found on the shores of Norway and Sweden, in the Baltic and North Sea, as well as in the Atlantic Ocean, from which they ascend the northern rivers of Germany, as well as those of Holland, France, and Great Britain. Even the Mediterranean and the Adriatic have their sturgeons, though few FISHES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. 265 in number. There are also some on the Atlantic shores of North America, along the British Possessions as well as the Northern and: Middle United States. They seem to be exceedingly numerous in the northern Pacific, bemg found everywhere from Behring’s Straits and Japan to the northern shores of China, and on the north-west coast of America, as far south as the Columbia River. Again, the so called western waters of the United States have their own species, from the Ohio down to the lower portion of the Mississippi, but it does not appear that these species ascend the rivers from the Gulf of Mexico. I suppose them to be rather entirely fluviatile, like those of the great Canadian lakes. Beyond the above limits southwards there are nowhere sturgeons to be found, not even in the Nile, though emptying mto a sea in which they occur; and as for the great rivers of Southern Asia and of tropical Africa, not only the sturgeons, but another family is wanting there, I mean the family of Goniodonts which in Central and Southern America takes the place of the sturgeons of the North. Again, all the species in different parts of the world are different. . It is a most extraordinary fact, which will hereafter throw much light upon the laws of geographical distribution of animals and their mode of association, viz., that certain families are entirely circum- scribed within comparatively narrow limits, and that their special location has an unquestionable reference to the location of other ani- mals; or in other words, that natural families, apparently little related to each other, are confined to different parts of the world, but are linked together by some intermediate form, which itself is located in the intermediate track between the two extremes. In the case now before us, we have the sturgeons extending all around the world in the northern temperate hemisphere, in its seas as well as in its fresh waters, all closely related to each other. Neither in Asia nor in Africais there an aberrant form of that type, or any representative type in the warmer zones; but in North America we have the genus Scaphirhynchus, which occurs in the Ohio and Mississippi, and which forms a most natural link with the family of Goniodonts, all the species of which are confined exclusively to the fresh waters of Central and South America. The closeness of this connection will be 18 266 LAKE SUPERIOR. at once perceived by attempting to compare the species of true Loricarize with the Scaphirhynchus. I know very well, that the affinities of Goniodonts and Siluroids with sturgeons are denied, but I still strongly insist upon their close relationship, which I hope to establish satisfactorily in a special paper, as I continued to insist upon the relation between sturgeons and gar-pikes, at one time positively contradicted, and even ridiculed. I trust then to be able to show, that the remarkable form of the brains of Siluridze comes nearer to that of sturgeons and Lepidostei, than to that of any other family of fishes. This being the case, it is obvious, that there must be in the physical condition of the continent of America some inducement not yet understood, for adaptations so special and so different from what we observe in the Old World. Indeed, such anal- ogies between the organized beings almost from one pole to another, occur from man down to the plants in America only, among its native products ; while in the Old World plants as well as animals have more circumscribed homes, and more closely characterized features in the various continents at different latitudes. As for the species of sturgeons which occur in the Canadian lakes, I know only three from personal examination, one of which was obtained in Lake Superior, at Michipicotin, another at the Pic, and the third at the Sault: though I know that they occur in all other Cana- dian lakes, yet it remains to be ascertained how the species said to be so common in Lake Huron, compare with those of Lake Superior, and with those in the other great lakes and the St. Lawrence itself. As for the Atlantic species, ascending the rivers of the United States west and south of Cape Cod, I know them to differ from those of the lakes, at least from those which I possess from Lake Superior. The number of species of this interesting family which occur in the United States is at all events far greater than would be supposed from an examination of the published records. Upon close comparison of the specimens in my collection from different parts of the country, and in different museums, as those of the Natural History Society of Boston, of Salem, of the Lyceum of New York, my assistant, Mr. Charles Girard, and myself have discovered several species not yet described. For this comparison I was the better prepared as I had FISHES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. 267 an opportunity in former years of studying almost all the European species in a fresh condition, during a prolonged visit in Vienna. ACIPENSER LEVIS, Agass. This species, one of the largest of the genus, is from the Pic. The length of the specimen, of which I possess the head and the fins, and which was in fresh condition when I examined it, was four feet six inches. The head, which is contained two and a half times in the whole length, is subconical and a little flattened below ; the upper surface forms an uniformly descending line from the occiput to the ex- tremity of the snout, somewhat elliptical beyond the eyes, thus giving to the latter a slightly recurved appearance. From the level of the eyes to the centre of the skull, on the middle line of the head, there exists an equally elongated surface, more flattened, being the rudi- ment of a longitudinal dimple; finally, on the occipital part of the skull we observe a small keel, where the two bones of this region begin to become convex, in order to pass to the cutting plates of the back. The surface of the bones which form the exterior covering of the head, is invested with small tubercles of enamel, of a circular form with obtuse summits. At first without apparent order, at the very centre of the bone they become linear, radiating to the cireumfer- ence. ‘Their greatest development occurs in the occipital region and on the transverse line level with the nostrils. On the middle part of the head these tubercles become thinner, and on the extremity of the snout they are reduced to a fine reticulation. The sides of the head have only a very few asperities. The only bone on which they * are developed is the operculum, and it is only in its posterior half that they radiate from the centre towards the margm. A few rows only are directed towards the upper part of the head. The other bones constituting the opercular apparatus are covered with a membrane finely roughed at the surface. The bones placed at a small distance behind the eye and limiting the anterior margin of the branchial cavity, bear a few blunt tubercles irregularly dis- tributed on their surface. The branchiostegal membrane is naked and smooth, attached by a thin shred to the posterior part of the operculum, and passes before the pectoral fin, to which it is con- 268 LAKE SUPERIOR. tiguous ; beyond this it dilates, in order to shut the branchial cavity at the lower part of the head, forming a very open curved line ; finally it terminates at a small distance from the mouth. The eyes are at a distance of three and six-eighths inches from the end of the snout. Their form is subcircular, their pupil transversely cleft. Their immediate covermg is a smooth membrane, which continues below to the anterior extremity, where it becomes reticulated, but without any appearance of the smallest plate on its surface. At the anterior and upper part of the eye is a small protuberance projecting over the depression in which the nostrils are situated. These latter open at the surface by two orifices on each side. The one of an elliptical form with a free opening, occupies a prominent position, so that it would be observed from both sides of the head, looking at it from above. The other, a larger one, has the form of a crescent, with its convexity turned towards the eye, and placed a little obliquely on the vertical line, extending below the lower line of the eye for two-thirds of its length. The lower portion of the head appears as a flat surface rising msensibly from the anterior margin of the mouth to the extremity of the snout. ‘This latter rises gradually in an oblique line, which begins in front of the barbels. The middle line is convex, the margins are inclined. The barbels, four in number, are situated in pairs on both sides. The two pairs are a little more distant from each other than the two barbels of the right and left side. ‘Their length is nearly the same, of about two inches; their form subconical, growing thinner at their extremity. Behind the barbels we notice a subquadrangular depression in which their base is concealed when they bend back- wards. The mouth is situated on the anterior half of the lower part, in a transversal notch; it extends from one side of the head to the other, the posterior margin being almost straight, the anterior having an elliptical outline on the middle line. A thick membrane, with a glandular and undulating surface, surrounds the jaws, leav- ing the symphysis of the lower jaw free. Both extremities are attached to the anterior third part of both lower maxillary bones, sending a small membranous expansion towards the symphysis, tak- ing afterwards the direction towards the angles of the mouth. FISHES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. 269 Here the membrane is thickened considerably, and continues so on the whole circumference of the upper jaw, following its outlines. The mouth is protractile, and when projected outwards carries with it the surrounding membrane. ‘The jaws are weak, both max- illary branches of the upper and lower jaw uniting by means of a tendinous membrane. ‘The extremity of the tongue is round, cov- ered with a thick membrane, with a wrinkled surface perforated with small mucous holes. A thick layer of mucosity covers the surface of the head. This mucosity is secreted by the crypts of the skin; these are especially very conspicuous on the space situated between the mouth and the snout, and on the upper side of the latter. They have the appear- ance of irregular meshes excavated im the skin, at the bottom of which we distinguish, by means of a magnifying glass, the crypts which line its surface. The body is of a regular form, diminishing insensibly from the anterior side backwards to the dorsal and anal fins, behind which it decreases rapidly towards the tail. This latter goes on tapering, then turns up obliquely, arching itself slightly over the lower lobe of the caudal. The surface of this caudal prolongation is covered with small elongated escutcheons, which become the more slender the more they rise along the caudal arch. They begin above the last escutcheon of the lateral row, much resembling the scales of the tail in Lepidosteus. The five rows of escutcheons on the sides of the body and along the back are scarcely visible, for they are hidden in the thickness of the body. The upper lobe of the caudal fin is composed in its whole extent of spious rays, generally short and much inclined backwards, di- minishing in length the more they recede, and becoming rudimen- tary at their termination. The lower lobe, which gives to the cau- dal fin its general form, is exclusively composed of articulated and dichotomous rays. ‘Those of the lower margin, much the largest and longest, remain undivided for two-thirds of their length; they seem even to follow a direction peculiar to-them by a slightly con- cave line. The other rays grow more and more slender the more they rise above the lobe. ‘They bifurcate first in the middle, and 270 LAKE SUPERIOR. subsequently several times at a distance which varies for every ray. ‘The lower lobe of the caudal extends not so far backwards as the upper. ‘This latter has the form of a very open arch; the lower is convex below. The line which jois both extremities is oblique within the upper half; on the middle line it becomes con- cave, giving to the posterior margin of this fin the form of an irregular crescent. The dorsal fin is equally notched, forming a crescent on its termi- nal margin. All the rays which compose it are articulated. Those of the anterior margin, four times longer than those of the posterior, are arched backwards, undivided through their whole extent. The other rays dichotomize in the same manner as those of the caudal. The anal, longer than broad, is placed opposite and somewhat behind the dorsal. Its form is oblong, the inner and outer margins are rounded; the posterior margin is straight, bending slightly inwards at the middle. ‘The rays are similar to those of the dorsal. Those of the lower margin being the longest and remaining undivided through the whole extent; those of the outer margin dichotomize like those of the dorsal. The ventral fins, as broad as they are long, are placed half way between the pectorals and the anal. Their posterior margin is almost square, the inner slightly sinuous, the outer rounded. The rays of the former dichotomize from their basis, those of the latter are undivided, like those of the other fins. The pectorals are of all fins the most developed. Their greatest length is seven inches and a half, and their breadth nearly four inches. Their form is a rather recular oval, setting aside their margin of inser- tion, which for two-thirds of its extent, from the outer margm, forms a straight line, directing itself obliquely towards the interior of the fin, whilst on the other third we observe a curve which brings the inner margin of the fin back upon itself. The rays of this margin become excessively slender, and remain undivided, like those of the outer margin. ‘Those of the centre dichotomize according to the common rule. The number of rays in the fins is as follows: P. 39 to40 ; D. 34; V.26; A.23. Wemay count as many as fifty to sixty on the lower lobe of the caudal, but they become indistinct beyond this number. FISHES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. Oth A character common to all fins is to have the outer margin sen- sibly thicker than the inner, which becomes thin and membranous. It is also in this outer margin that are found the largest rays, arched from within outwards, undivided in the greatest part of their extent, thus giving them a peculiar aspect. Small tubercles are observed in the outer third of the rays where they are most dichotomized. The color is of an uniform blackish brown, which extends to the fins ; it is a little less intense on the head, on the lower half of the sides below the middle line it has a yellowish reflection. A pale white exists over the lower part of the head and the abdomen, as far as the under surface of the tail. This species resembles the A. rubicundus of Lesueur, who describes two varieties of it, one found with the true rubicundus in Lakes Erie and Ontario; the other inhabiting the River Ohio. The descriptions which he has given of them do not enable us to recog- hize our species in either of these varieties. ACIPENSER CARBONARIUS, Agass. The general form of this species is rather thick and short than slender. ‘The back is proportionally very elevated and very convex from the occiput to the anterior margin of the dorsal fin, from whence the body begins to grow considerably slender towards the tail, which last rises obliquely in order to form the higher arch of the caudal fin. (Plate 5, fig. 1.) The total length is one foot two mches and a half. The head is contained three times and a half in this length. ‘The face, from the anterior margin of the branchial cavity to the extremity of the snout, equals the fourth part of the length of the trunk. The snout, from the orifices of the nostrils is contained seven times in this length. The head itself is depressed, flattened, uniformly inclined from the occiput beyond the nostrils, where the snout rises considerably, growing thinner on its margins, which circumstance gives it a convex form. Seen from above, its shape is that of an elongated triangle. The upper surface is quite uniform, having only one slight depression on the middle line, bordered by two small carinz of the frontal and pei ga LAKE SUPERIOR. parictal bones. Small plates continue on the snout to its extremity, and are prolonged on the sides before the nostrils, but do not reach the lower circumference of the eye. All these bones are covered with fine granules, disposed m linear rows in the direction of the head. The eyes occupy the upper region of the face. They are oval and have their largest diameter longitudinal. They are sur- rounded with a smooth zone on their lower circumference, limited above by the bones of the skull, and behind by a bone which sepa- rates them from the opercular apparatus and the branchial cavity. Another bone, which is triangular, bemg the continuation of the preceding, limits the posterior margin of the face and completes the anterior margin of the branchial cavity. The nostrils, situated in a depression which is reserved for them, before the eyes, open, as is common, at the surface, by two holes pierced laterally, of which the upper, the smallest, is subcircular and free, the lower oblong, vertical and protected by a small membrane at its anterior margin. ‘The small plates which cover the snout reach not so far as the bone of the lower angle of the face. ‘The opercular bone is covered with these fine granules disposed in striz radiating from the centre. ‘The membrane which invests it and which shuts the respiratory opening in front, is covered with a fine rasp, which continues on the sides of the head to the angle of the mouth. The branchiostegal mem- brane proper is naked and very thin. It surrounds the opercular bone from the upper margin of the branchial cavity, and is prolonged and becomes wider a little above the branchial opening behind the pectoral fins and beneath the head. The inferior surface of the head is level, with the snout a little raised. The mouth opens in a depression behind the eyes. Its general form is the same as in the A. lwvis, (see pl. 5, f. 2.5) it is protractile as in this latter, but the membranous fold which surrounds the jaws, is smooth on its whole anterior circumference, where it appears only as a wrinkle surrounding the jaw. It thickens at the angles of the mouth and terminates in a flattened flap, of glandular appearance, on the third quarter of the extent of the lower jaw, leaving the symphysis bare. ‘The palate and the tongue have sinuous and transverse wrinkles on their surface. Four thread-like barbels half an inch long, are placed mid-way FISHES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. Wa between the mouth and the termination of the snout, alittle nearer however to the mouth. On this face, though generally flattened, we may observe a median longitudinal swelling, having on each side a depression with widened margins. This skin is bare, although cov- ered upon its surface with a net of irregular meshes in which we observe small holes which secrete the mucosity, as in A. levis. The escutcheons of the dorsal row are twelve in number, well de- veloped, and arudimentary thirteenth applied to the anterior margin of the dorsal. They are so near to one another that some are even slightly imbricated. Their general form is heart-shaped, broader than long, the two sides limited by a regular denticulated curved line, rising abruptly so as to form a very sharp median carina, terminated at the two posterior thirds in a hook, whose point is turned backwards. Their surface is covered with radiating lines, owing to the linear arrangement of their tubercles, which are exces- sively small, and acute. On the space between the posterior mar- gin of the dorsal and the origin of the caudal we observe three small plates. The largest is situated on the side of the dorsal, the ‘two smaller follow immediately and are arranged in pairs. Their surface is equally covered with small acute tubercles, but the cen tre is scarcely indicated by a larger tubercle, whence the others radiate. (See pl. 5, fig. 3.) The lateral eseutcheons are from thirty-two to thirty-three in num- ber, of irregular oblong form, with the two sides retracted. The anterior margin is concave, the posterior convex, slightly notched in the middle. The median carina is but slightly prominent, the sides of course but little inclined ; the hook which rises above it is slightly curved backwards; sometimes it is bifurcated at its point. The surface, as usual, is covered with small granules in radiating rows. ‘Their position in relation to the body is oblique from before backwards. They are less serrated than those of the back, and di- minish gradually as they approach the tail. The escutcheons of the abdominal region, from seven to eight in number, extending over the spaee contained between the posterior margin of the pectoral and the anterior margin of the ventral fins, resemble much in their general outlines those of the back. Their form is perhaps more rounded, though they do not form a 274 LAKE SUPERIOR. regular circle. They are quite as much inclined, and their hooks are stronger, and more arched at the point. The radiating strie are also more visible. In front of this double row of escutcheons and as if forming their immediate continuation on the inner side of the pectoral fins, and in front of them, we observe a subtriangular bone, the anterior side of which is concave, bordering the branchial opening beneath. These two bones are contiguous on their anterior angle, and form by their reunion a convex curved line along the sides of the mouth, to which the branchiostegal membrane is attached. A prominent carina, but unprovided with hooks, extends along the median line from the posterior angle. A single wrinkle indicates on the middle of the anterior angle the rudiment of a carma. ‘The strie radiate from those two centres. The bone of the anterior part of the pecto- rals and upon which these fins articulate, is small and hidden under the skin. An odd elliptical escutcheon with regular outlines is situated in the middle of the space between the anus and the anal fin. It has a slight median caria, over which projects an elliptical hook. A rudiment of an escutcheon leans towards the anterior margin of the anal. The anus opens in a small depression immediately behind the ventrals, at a distance of about two-thirds of an inch from their pos- terior margin, and one inch and three-sixteenths from the anterior margin of the anal. It is small and surrounded by a cutaneous membrane, bilobed on the posterior side. The skin over the whole space which the escutcheons do not cover is rough to the touch. Small tubercles with acute points cover uniformly its surface, beimg every where of equal size and at an equal distance from each other. - On the terminal arch of the tail they become lengthened and flattened, and invest the whole space like scales. The fins are generally small; the dorsal, broader than it is high, is triangular with the upper margin concave. It is com- posed exclusively of soft rays, with the exception of a fulcrum situated on its anterior margin. The rays are articulated and subdivided only at their extremity. The upper lobe of the caudal is formed of small bony rays, short FISHES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. 275 and strongly inclined backwards, not reaching the extremity of the fin. The rays of the lower lobe do not differ from those of the dorsal. They bifurcate like these latter, but at the extremity only. The posterior margin of this lobe is notched, in the form of a crescent and elongated in its upper part, along the arch of the tail. The notch is not deep in the lower part. The anal is opposite to the dorsal, beyond which it extends backwards.. It is narrow, elongated, almost twice as high as it is broad. The inner and outer margins are almost straight, the terminal oblique margin slightly curved. ‘The rays are slender, bifurcated at their extremity only. The ventrals, similar in their form to the anal, are situated at the posterior third of the body. Their ee has nothing that distinguishes them from the anal. The pectorals are as in the A. levis the largest of all the fins. Their form is lengthened, the terminal margin is obliquely rounded, and passes to the inner margin by an arch. ‘The anterior and outer margin bears a spinous ray, bent beyond its insertion, and curving inwards a little before the pomt. It does not reach the extremity of the fin. It is flattened in the. horizontal diameter of the fin; its basis is three-sixteenths of an inch broad and terminates in an obtuse point, in the margin of the fin. The surface is striated longi- tudinally on both surfaces, alternating with small furrows and wrinkles. ‘The soft rays are as in the other fins. The general color is of a yellowish brown on the upper half of the body, the yellow growing purer on the sides and beneath the belly.