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ROYAL ONTARIO MUSEUM OF ZOOLOGY

TORONTO
LEAFLET NO. 4*

THE STARLING IN ONTARIO

Winter Plumage Summer Plumage

The starling, which is now so abundant in southern Ontario, is not
native to North America, but was introduced from Europe in 1890
and 1891. On March 6, 1890, eighty starlings were liberated in Central
Park, New York City, and on April 25, 1891, forty more were released
at the same place. From these 120 birds originated all of the millions
of European starlings now found throughout eastern North America.
For six years these starlings and their progeny remained about the
point of introduction. Gradually, however, they spread farther and
farther from New York and in 1919, twenty-nine years after its libera-
tion in New York, the starling reached Ontario. The first starling
was seen in Ontario in July, 1919, five miles west of Brockville. During
the following winter (1919-20), it was observed at St. Catharines and
in the summer of 1920 at Toronto. Their dissemination over a wide
range in Canada has progressed rapidly, so that at the present time
they are a numerous and important element of the bird fauna of the
southern parts of the Maritime provinces, southern Quebec and
southern Ontario. Starlings are now apparently permanently estab-
lished as far northwest as Port Arthur, Ontario, and birds have been
seen as far north as Moosonee and York Factory. Occasional records
from Manitoba and a single report from as far west as Alberta seem
to presage the general occupation of suitable territory throughout the
more southerly portions of the Dominion.

*Reprinted from Bulletin 6

The native home of the common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is the
temperate region of Europe and corresponding latitudes in western
Siberia. In the old world, the starling is migratory, most of its popula-
tion travelling south in autumn to the countries bordering the Mediter-
ranean and eastward as far as India. From its native range this species
has been successfully introduced into Australia, Tasmania, New
Zealand, and South Africa as well as North America.

The starling is a bird of cultivated areas, apparently equally at home
about cities, towns or farms. Although it is sometimes seen in wilder-
ness areas, it is never common in such places. Starlings frequently
select their nesting territory as early as March and their first nesting
occurs, as a rule, in April. Most pairs probably nest twice in the year.
The eggs are pale blue and usually four to six in number. The young
are cared for in the nest until they are nearly full grown. Young
starlings, just out of the nest, wear a rather uniform grey-brown
plumage.

Starlings feed on a wide variety of food materials. Both animal
and vegetable matter is taken, the proportions varying according to
availability which in turn is dependent on the season. In spring and
summer, a large proportion of their food consists of insects, both adults
and larvae. Cultivated fruits are taken in season, particularly the
smaller kinds. In autumn, plant foods bulk large, including rose
hips, wild cherries, wild grapes, elderberries and sumac seeds. In winter,
they forage about habitations ; in cities they resort to garbage dumps,
where a great variety of animal and vegetable refuse is consumed.

In late summer, when the last broods of young can look after them-
selves, family groups congregate into flocks which in turn merge into
still larger flocks for roosting. The size of these roosting flocks in-
creases as autumn approaches, finally attaining prodigious proportions,
greater than those of any native bird. They are joined, however, by
certain native species such as cowbirds, grackles and robins. These
large flocks resort for roosting to such widely different situations as
small groves in the country, shade trees or wooded plots in cities, or
to the ledges and architectural irregularities on the faces of city build-
ings. These flocks may be seen coming into their roosting places in
the early evening. ■ Their settling down for the night is accompanied
by considerable shifting about and chattering, which may continue
throughout the night. In the early morning, they fly to their outlying
feeding grounds. Birds from city roosts travel to country districts,
covering many square miles of territory. The fall roosts usually break
up in early October. Many of the birds migrate southward to return

in the spring but a plentiful population remains throughout the winter
along the southern border of Canada.

The song- of the starling is a more or less extended and continuous
series of chatters and squeaks, but one usually hears a variety of notes,
phrases and songs of other birds interspersed with its native repertoire.
Among North American birds whose songs the starling imitates ex-
ceedingly well are the bluebird, killdeer, wood pewee and meadowlark,
but thirty or more species are imitated more or less successfully.

Whatever attitude we may adopt towards the starling as a new
bird in our midst, it is certain that it adds seasonal interest to our en-
vironment. During March, before most of our native birds have
returned, the starling rills in the bird calendar with its song and other
prenuptial activities.

One of the most characteristic attributes of the starling is its wari-
ness. Although it prefers the proximity of man, it avoids complete
familiarity with him, suspicion and alertness characterizing its every
movement. Even where they are invited to accept food and nesting
boxes about dwellings, their circumspect manners are never completely
overcome.

The starling is a serious competitor of many of our native birds.
This competition does not usually take the form of direct struggle,
although occasionally they do dispute with other species for particular
nesting sites. Since the starling selects its territory early, several
native species which habitually occupy situations identical to those
selected by starlings are, in effect, crowded out by this newcomer.
Birds which nest in cavities and crevices suffer most severely. Such
species include bluebirds, flickers, crested flycatchers, house wrens,
tree swallows, martins, nuthatches, chickadees, screech owls, sparrow
hawks and downy woodpeckers. The starling is also a competitor of
many native birds in the matter of food. The seeds and fruits of many
trees and plants are consumed by the fall and winter population of
starlings. This food would formerly have served as food for native
species.

There is increasing evidence that the starling is becoming a menace
in fruit-growing districts. Small fruit crops are attacked, more par-
ticularly grapes in September, but also cherries in season. By far the
most serious nuisance which has arisen as a result of the increase of
this bird to date is the city starling roost. The night congregations of
starlings in restricted urban areas, often in mid-summer, offer a prob-
lem to civic officials. In such places, the countless hosts of starlings
soon create unsanitary conditions. The accumulation of their excreta
defoliates trees, kills ground vegetation and results in a very objection-

able stench over extensive districts. The effect is not only unwholesome
but unpleasant in appearance. Buildings where roosts are established
are defaced in an unsightly manner. In addition, the noise from these
roosts during the evening and often throughout the night is a serious
disturbance to residential sections of a city.

Control

It is impossible now to exterminate the starling in North America
although some reduction of numbers could undoubtedly be brought
about by the continuous use of some efficient large-scale trap during
the flocking season. Efforts to reduce the population in particular
sections, unless continued year after year, will merely offer oppor-
tunities for birds from neighbouring areas to move into territories
where competition would be less keen. It is highly improbable that
every community in the province could be induced to wage a continuous
war on starlings. Any effort short of this will give only partial and
temporary relief.

Only time will tell whether starlings will continue to increase in
southern Ontario although the number of resident birds must be Hear-
ing the maximum that can find a living in that part of the province.
Their numbers may also fluctuate to some extent from year to year
and it is even possible that they may ultimately come to be less numer-
ous than they are at present. This depends entirely on the action of'
natural forces destructive to them. The chief forces which tend to
keep all kinds of birds and other animals from expanding their numbers
are the absence of sufficient food of the particular kind they require
and the prevalence of diseases and enemies. It is probable that the
starlings introduced from Europe did not bring diseases with them.
Whether diseases will develop and spread among them as a result of
the crowding effect of their immense numbers remains to be seen.

The natural enemies of starlings are the bird-eating hawks. In this
country, Cooper's hawk and the sharp-shinned hawk are known to turn
to the starling flocks as a convenient food supply. These bird-eating
hawks take the prey which they can catch most easily, and when starlings
are more abundant than other birds more of these are eaten than of
other species. Of 40 Cooper's hawks killed in 1931 and 1932, 17 had
eaten starlings, 8 English sparrows, 4 song birds, 3 grackles, 2 domestic
pigeons and 1 game birds. (The crops of some were empty when killed.)
On account of the prejudice which exists against all kinds of hawks and
owls, it is unlikely that these natural agencies of control will be allowed
to exercise their natural influence on starling numbers. — L. L. S.