HORSES THEIR EXAMINATION AS TO SOUNDNESS SALE 8c WARRANTY LECTURES EXAMINATION of HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS. ■ (Delivered at the Edinburgh Veterinary College.) WITH AN APPENDIX ON C&e lato of Worses anD CQarrant^ WILLIAM FEARNLEY, M.R.C.V.S, LATE PRINCIPAL AND PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY SURGERY, EDINBURGH VETERINARY college; formerly EXAMINER IN VETERINARY ANATOMY TO THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND ; FORMERLY VICE-PRESIDENT AND TREASURER OF THE YORKSHIRE VETERINARY MEDICAL SOCIETY, ETC., ETC. .^3il4^ BAILLIERE, TINDALL, AND COX, 20, KING WILLIAM STREET, STRAND. 1878. Hazell, Watson, and Viney, Printers, London and Aylesbury. PREFACE It is under a feeling of great responsibility that the author lays before the profession his views on one of the most difficult subjects connected with veterinary science. The lectures were delivered at the Royal Veterinary College, Edinburgh, during the summer session of 1874. They are for the most part based on the teachings and practice of the late Professors Dick and Barlow, but have, the author ven- tures to hope, a further value in being based also on the notes and observations of about five hundred cases of horse examination by the author himself. This is exclusive of the extensive experience gained by the author as the pupil of one of the busiest practitioners in Yorkshire for a period of nearly four years. iv PREFACE. Including this time, they are the result of fourteen years' close attention to a subject which always had a peculiar interest with the author. There being no text-book or guide on the subject, so far as the author is aware, he feels that, though no longer in the profession, he has contracted an obligation to impart to others that which dearly-bought experience has taught him ; and his end will have been answered if, with the help of these pages, young practi- tioners learn the subject at an easier rate than he did. It is also humbly hoped that these pages may be of some use to those whose years and maturity have secured them that confidence in their skill which is the laudable ambition of all. W. F. London, ist Jan., 1878. CONTENTS LECTURE I. PAGE Introduction — Horse Examination might well form a Speciality — General View — The Horse remains a Living Testimony to your Opinions — Importance of Method — Professor Dick's Method — Watch the Horse in his Stall — Cribbing, Weaving, Windsucking — Weaving — Attitude in Standing — Spavin and Stringhalt — Latent Spavin — Examination of Eyes — Ophthalmia — Iritis — Tension compared . . i LECTURE IL Examination of Eyes {continued^ — Tension — Oblique or Focal Illumination — Catoptric Test — The Conjunctiva — Cornea — Iris — Corpora Nigra — Ruptured Lens Capsule — Mirror of Ophthalmoscope of very great use — Horse is now brought out of Stable — Shaky Fore Legs — Bent Fore Legs . LECTURE HI. Examination outside the Stable— Place on Level Ground- Great Superiority of Automatic Movement— Nostrils — Mouth— Milk Teeth Extracted— Lampas— Parrot Mouth- Worn and Broken Incisors— Irregular Molars — Signs of Hard Mouth— Intermaxillary Space— Poll— - Poll Evil" —Cribbing Strap— Parotid Gland— Jugular Vein— Ob- literation, Partial and Complete — Evidence of Phlebotomy may indicate Serious Disease— Shoulder— Pined Shoulder —Collar Marks I9 CONTENTS. LECTURE IV. PAGE Shoulder — Shoulder Slip — Causes — Slight Cases "doctored up " — Case — Caused by Sprain — Curability — Point of Shoulder — Space between Shoulder Point and Elbow — Knee — Broken Knees— Five Degrees — First Degree — Second Degree — Third Degree — Fourth and Fifth Degrees — Severe Blow on Knees ....... 28 LECTURE V. Knees {continued) — Broken Knees — Term Misleading — Law on Subject — Case in Point — Another Case — To decide on Intermediate Cases of Broken Knees — Enlargements about the Knee — Ganglions — Nature of Ganglions — Cannon Bone, Subcutaneous — Front Part seldom affected — Pastern Joint 36 LECTURE VI. The Fore Foot— Only a Part of a Whole— Its Relation to the Fore Leg — When the Horse is Awake — When Asleep — Not so much Weight on it when Awake as when the Horse Sleeps Standing — The Fore Legs have efficiejit Mainstays, except at the Navicular Joint — The Navicular* Joint very Defective — The Relation between the Phalanges and the Column of Bones above — Importance of the Line of the Coronary Band being always Noted — Its Tendency to become Horizontal — Long Pasterns, Low Heels, and Long Toes — A Good Foot and Pastern — A Boxy Foot — Shoeing Blamed for every Ailment of the Foot — Shoe Inventions — The Charlier Shoe 41 LECTURE VII. The Fore Foot {continued) — Horse Examination very Difficult : Why. Cases as Examples — A Classification : I. Anoma- lies of Size ; II. Anomalies of Shape ; III. Anomalies of Position; IV. Injuries; V. Diseases — Feet compared with each other, and with the Horse's Bulk — Too Large Feet — Feet too Small — Sigits of previous Fever in the Feet — Test for a previous Inflammation in the Feet — Frogs Atrophied — Frogs too Large ...... 50 LECTURE VIII. Showing how Heels become High and Contracted . . .58 CONTENTS. LECTURE IX. FACE Evils of Calkins — Evils of Paring and so Weakening the Sole — Flat Soles — Degrees of Flatness — Positive Flatness and Seedy Toe — Low Heels — Calkined Heels — Knuckling Fore Legs — A Horse with Low Heels may be Quite Sound — Long Toes and Sprain on Back Tendons — Pasterns Short and Upright — Toes Out-turned — Brushing — In-turned Toes, Digging and Stumbling — The Unnerved Foot .......... 6; LECTURE X. The Unnerved or " Nerved " Fore Foot — Discovers itself in the Gait — The Tissues of the "Nerved" foot degenerate — Brittle Hoof — Pricks in Shoeing — Gathered Nails — Bruised Sole — Bruised Coronet — Speedy Cut — Diseases Obvious — Grease — Ringbone — Sidebones — Corns . . 72 LECTURE XL Navicular Disease . . . . . . . . .81 LECTURE XII. Sandcrack — Thrush — Thrush as a Constitutional Disease com- pared to Fistula in Ano — Thrush always a Bad Form of Unsoundness — Elbow : Tumour on Elbow — The Back Tendons examined — "Wind-gall" — "Thoropin " — Filled Legs ............ 90 LECTURE XIII. Mallanders — The Back Tendon — Signs of Injury to the Back Tendon — Suspensary Ligament — Its Signs of Injury — The Sesamoid Bones — Splints — The Foot Lifted . . . 100 LECTURE XIV. Fractured Ribs — Herniae — Down in the Hip or Fractured Ilium — The Stifle Joint — The Tibia — Fracture of Tibia — The Hocks — Curbs in Human Beings — Mechanism of the Hocks — Coarse Hocks — Spavin ..... 106 CONTENTS. LECTURE XV. PAGE Spavin (continued) . . . . . . . .121 LECTURE XVI. Spavin (continued) — Bog-spavin — How the term. Blood-spavin arose — Thoropin — Curb — ' ' Sprung Hock " — * ' Occult Spavin" 131 LECTURE XVII. Sallanders — Ring-bone — Sandcrack — Tuberosity of Ischium knocked off— Go over the off side like the near side, but look under the Mane for Poll-evil — Case— Time required for the whole of these Movements Five Minutes — Advised to Practise these Movements on a Sound Horse — The Third Part of the Examination — Testing for Lameness — Testing the " Wind " — How best accomplished . . 140 LECTURE XVIII. The "Wind" or Respiration — The Respiration and Circulation Interdependent — Mechanism of Respiration — " High Blowers " — " Whistlers " — Snoring — Nasal Polypi— Dis- tended Guttural Pouches — Roaring, Grunting, Trumpeting — Warts on Vocal Cords — Tumours in the Ventricles of the Larynx — Chronic Laryngitis— Ulceration of the Larynx —Chronic Cough— Thick Wind— Broken Wind— "A Wheezer" — Conclusion — Backing the Horse — Turn him round Quickly on the Ground he stands upon— Lastly, Remove his Fore Shoes .148 APPENDIX. I. Unsoundness 163 II. Vice 163 III. Fraud . . ■ 164 IV. Malformation 164 V. W^arranty ...... 165 VI. The Mode or Custom of Returning a Horse 171 VII. Trial in County Court 173 VIII. Trial at Assizes 175 SOUNDNESS IN HORSES. LECTURE I. Introduction — Horse Examination might well form a Specialty — General View — The Horse remains a Living Testimony to your Opinions — Importance of Method — Professor Dick's Method — Watch the Horse in his Stall — Cribbing, Weaving, Windsucking — Weaving — Attitude in Standing — Spavin and Stringhalt — Latent Spavin — Examination of Eyes -^ Ophthalmia — Iritis — Tension compared. Gentlemen, — It is customary, on delivering the first lecture of a course, to refer the students attending the class to the best text-books on the subject; but, unfortunately for me and for you, there are no works at all on the matter which is to occupy our attention now; so that you will have to rely entirely on what you hear and see, and take notes as best you may. There is possibly no subject in connection with horses of more importance than their examination as to sound- ness and fitness; and I venture to assert that if the same spirit for specialism existed in our profession as I EXAMINATION OF HORSES obtains so conspicuously in the sister profession, we should have had a hundred workers in the field, each with his book, and that book containing the same matter, in another form, of every other book on the same subject, embodying the one idea — too often forced — which has acted as the excuse for its author. Without further comment we will, if you please, take a general view of the ground we propose going over, and then enter into particulars ; the importance of which must be ever present before you, in order that what may seem to you trivial and of little importance may not be overlooked or passed by Hghtly. You will be called upon frequently in your pro- fessional career to decide, not upon the particular ailment, its causes, effects, and probable termination, from which an anmial may be suffering; but upon the far weightier question, in many cases, as to whether the horse is or is not in sound health in wind and limb, and if not, as to how far he is unsound, and how far the unsoundness is likely to interfere with those duties which are to be expected of him. So that you see there is this difference in the latter case as compared with the former, you have a patient which is likely to live, and be a living testimony to the truth or error of your prognosis. But this is not all : your mistakes, if any, will too often be set down for something worse, and your actions will not seldom be interpreted as dishonesties. Such, then, being the importance of the duties you will have to perform AS TO SOUNDNESS. hereafter, I hope the remarks which may fall from me may at least point out the thousands of pitfalls which beset every young veterinary practitioner who attempts the examination of a horse as to soundness. I shall make it no part of my duty to instruct you how to examine a horse under unfavourable conditions, such as we meet at a sale or in an open market, but at once proceed to give as clear an account as it is in my power to frame of the most exact method I know of ascertaining the soundness of a horse. Method is a thing which I wish particularly to draw your attention to. For any veterinarian to attempt the task without method is a folly which will as often land him in difficulties as not. Science does not recognise slipshod work, and if you are to perform the task of going over ground beset with so many hidden pitfalls, you will either have to follow the path which I, or some other who knows the road, am about to point out to you, or find it for yourselves, and in doing so find it after repeated and humiliating failures that may spread over one-third — as it too often does — of professional life. After you have traversed this beaten track for years, you will still be unable to leave it with safety, although sorely and often tempted to do so. Of course, there are numbers of cases brought to us for examination where we see flaws at once, and where we can in one minute give a sound opinion : and there are times when we have not an opportunity EXAMINATION OF HORSES of making a thorough examination, — then there is every excuse for any but the most glaring errors ; but, even in these cases, we are bound in honour to take every advantage which offers. There are more methods than one ; indeed, you will hardly ever find two veterinarians have the same way of going about the task; but a method of some kind you must have, and if it be imperfect, you must study to perfect it; but whatever it is, you must follow it always, if you wish to avoid mistakes. The one I have followed, and which has seldom led me wrong, is the one taught at this college by the late Professor Dick. It consists of, or rather is capable of being considered under, three divisions: i. Seeing a horse for as long a time as possible in his stable ; 2. Seeing him and feeling his several points when standing on level ground outside the stable; and 3. Seeing him in his various paces, and watching and listening to his respi- ration, and afterwards removing his fore shoes. Just a word as to the class of horse we must take for our example. Fortunately the hunter will do for our type. There is nothing in the world a horse can do which we do not find the hunter capable of. He sadly too often sees all sides of horse life, and fills all situations creditably; indeed, the hunter is wrong nowhere where the services of the horse are required ; so that we will, if you please, take as our type a hunter standing fifteen-two and up to thirteen stone across country. Every point of any value which a AS TO SOl/.VDA^ESS. man has to look to in purchasing a horse has to be well looked to in the type we propose to take, — eyesight, wind, limb, everything. Suppose such a horse is for examination : look at him in a stall, if possible in his own stall, and spend ten minutes in seeing 7C'/iaf he is doing, and /lozu he is doing it. Ic not unfrequently hapj^ens that the very tying of a horse is objectionable, and has to be rectified j he is often tied short for various reasons, so that your first care is to have the horse tied so that he may have plenty of liberty. We may often learn a great deal by merely looking at a horse as he stands in his stall ; but watching a horse for some time is of the greatest importance to us in making a thorough examination. "Crib-biting," "weaving," and position in standing, are what we are for the most part looking for. Crib- biting can only be practised when the horse has something to pull at ; but if he be more accompHshed, he will be able to "suck wind,'' as it is called, by elevating his head, and having nothing to grasp. As veterinary surgeons, you have litde to do with vice, and these come under that head ; but it is always to your advantage to get every information you can about any horse you examine, and both "cribbing" and "wind-sucking" are, or lead to, real unsound- ness. Crib-biting is at first a nervous disease, and may be the result of imitation ; or it may result de 710V0 from gastric discomfort long continued or fre- EXAMINATION OF HORSES quently repeated, and which is brought about by any of the forms of indigestion. Crib-biting is very ob- jectionable. The victim of it imparts it, through imitation, to others, and injures his own teeth, and his digestive track generally, directly he begins to "suck wind." It is truly astonishing how soon these diseases of imitation are contracted. I at one time rode a white pony for six months, during which period I scarcely could tire him ; when one day I had the misfortune to tie him in a stable alongside a "cribber:" he certainly was not in the stable more than twenty minutes, but from that day he began to " crib." This at first was of little consequence, but in a very short time — certainly in less than six weeks — he began to " suck wind ; " then every time I wanted him he was full of wind, and for the first mile or two on the road he was wet all over with perspiration, and he could not be kept in condition. Watching a horse in the stable will not at all times detect this. Sometimes a horse may be for hours, or for days, without the habit ; but we have still another way of detecting it, which I shall mention afterwards, of looking at the incisor teeth for their benig broken and worn, and at the top of the neck for marks made by the "cribbing" strap. " Weaving " is a vice which may generally be de- tected by watching a horse in the stable. This, like the last, is a nervous habit which is very objection- able, as it keeps the fore legs in a constant state of AS TO SOUNDNESS. wear when they should be at rest ; so that they are very much sooner worn out. Upon the whole, it is even more objectionable than crib-biting, and should you fail to detect it while in the stable, your chance of doing so is remote, as it leaves no marks that can be distinguished from the ordinary wear of the fore legs. The horse's attitude you must pay particular attention to. He, like ourselves, often " stands at ease " with his hind legs, but never rests the fore legs unless from disease ; so that a horse not standing equally on both fore legs should immediately arrest your attention, and arouse your suspicions.' When lame before, and resting the limb, he will either " point " by throwing the foot forward under the manger, as in Navicular disease, or he will swing the limb — let it hang, as it were, from his side ; but in any case, if he rest a fore limb, you must not only note the attitude, but the limb "near" or "off," so as to examine it very particularly when he is outside the stable. It frequently happens that a very slight amount of lameness may be detected in this way, when it would be overlooked at any other time. In the stable there is nothing to excite the horse ; he is doing what he finds most comfortable, and favouring his weak points, if he has any. With regard to the hind limbs, nothing so definite can be said. Here there are fruitful sources of error. It is quite natural for a horse to rest his hind limbs one at a time, and the attitude is familiar EXAMINATION OF HORSES to every stableman. But he may be lame on a hind leg j and what is more, he may be standing upon it, and resting the sound leg, on account of his having stood so long on the latter as to tire it and make it painful, so that nothing short of an unusual attitude or some visible defect can justify your coming to any definite conclusion with regard to the hind legs, seen merely in the stable. If you have spent ten minutes very quietly watching, and, provided there is no disturbance, have seen nothing unusual, you may now make the horse "stand over" briskly in his stall, and watch for evidences of "spavin" or " stringhalt." It is not the best situation for seeing either; but we can frequently detect them in this way, and we should resort to all tlie means of detecting disease we know. There are sources of error here which have to be attended to, with regard to this test ior " stringhalt." If a horse has been used to standing deeply in new straw, he will get into the habit of catching up his feet higher than usual when "standing over," even though there should be at the time no straw at all. Of course, such an occurrence is rare ; but it is these rare occurrences that are so apt to be overlooked. "Spavin" is by no means rarely detected under these circumstances, and when it can be detected under no others. You will read of, and be told of, such a thing as " latent spavin." We all know what latent disease is, but latent " spavin," I may tell you, is that form of lameness referable to the hock, when AS TO SOUNDNESS. nothing can be either seen or felt, and which only manifests itself occasionally ; but when it does, the symptoms are unmistakably those of " spavin." If you are quite satisfied with what you have seen in the stable, you then have the horse brought out. In doing so it is best, if you have your choice, to have a snaffle bridle put on ; but before the horse leaves the stable you had better examine his eyes. There is no contrivance so good for examining the eyes as a " top light," which we often find over a stable door. Bring the horse quite up to the door, and shut it. By this means you can examine the anterior half of the eyes thoroughly, and it is seldom we want to examine the posterior half — the fundus — which we can only do by means of the ophthalmoscope. The first thing in examining the eyes is to see that they are of equal size. Repealed attacks of ophthalmia leave the eye smaller than its fellow, together with other serious changes. One attack usually leaves be- hind it very perceptible changes, of which the fore- mentioned diminution in size is one. The smaller eye will also show signs of previous disease in the shape of the pupil ; the iris being involved, we not unfre- quently have adhesion of its posterior part to the lens. This usually is only partial ; so that on contraction of the iris, the part adherent does not move, and so alters the general outline of the margin of the pupil. To see this to the greatest perfection, place both hands gently over the eyes, so as to exclude the light, and EXAMINATION OF HORSES on quickly uncovering and observing the affected eye, the impaired movement of the iris may be seen. Often it happens that the iris has been adherent to the lens, and the adhesions have given way and liberated the iris. When this is so, we may generally see bits of iris adherent to the lens, and the pupil ragged in that locality, and showing evidence of being torn. The tension of the two eyes is also altered after a severe ophthalmia. To try the tension, rest the three last fingers of both hands upon the eyebrow, and then press your index fingers alternately upon the globe of the eye — covered by the upper lid, of course — and compare the resistance of the two eyes. The first healthy pair of eyes you come across do this, and once feel the tension effectually, and you are not likely to ever forget it. This knowledge of the feel of normal tension is quite necessary, because it may happen that you come across both eyes of the same horse with abnormal hardness or softness ; but this is seldom the case. What commonly happens — probably in nineteen cases out of twenty — is that one eye only is showing signs of a previous ophthalmia, and you have the other eye to compare it with. But, as I have before said, when once you feel the tension of a sound eye, you never forget the peculiar elastic feeling of resistance which it gives. AS TO SOUNDNESS. ii LECTURE II. Examination of Eyes (continued) — Tension — Oblique or Focal Illumination — Catoptric Test — The Conjunctiva — Cornea — Iris — -Corpora Nigra — Ruptured Lens Capsule — Mirror of Ophthalmoscope of very great use — Horse is now brought out of Stable — Shaky Fore Legs — Bent Fore Legs. Gentlemen, — At our last meeting you will remember that we had brought the horse out of his stall, and having closed the door of the stable, were examin- ing his eyes by the light over the door. I men- tioned trying the tension of the two eyes, and shall only further observe that so much is tension resorted to as a test in the sister profession, that Mr. Bowman, of London, the distinguished oculist, indicates nine degrees of tension. We ought at least to distinguish three degrees : i, normal; 2, increased; 3, diminished. The anterior half of the eye, when apparently sound, or, still more, when evidently affected, claims our attention, seeing that the tension test and the relative size test have disposed of the posterior half satisfac- torily. I mean by the anterior half of the eye, the conjunctiva, cornea, iris, and the lens, with its capsule ; the aqueous humour seldom suffering, so far as we EXAMINATION OF HORSES can make out, independently of the structures I have named. The oblique or focal illumination is the readiest and best way of examining the anterior half of the eye. By its aid we are enabled to examine, with great minuteness, the appearances presented by the cornea, iris, pupil, lens, and even the most anterior portion of the vitreous humour. A candle or small lamp, and an ordinary pocket lens of from two-and-a-half to four-inch focus, is all we require. The light is held in front and to one side of the eye, at a distance of about a foot to eighteen inches, and on a level with the eye; the flame is then brought to a focus with the lens, and thrown first on the cornea, then on the iris and crystalline lens; the examiner's eye, being placed on the opposite side, in front of the horse's eye, catches the rays emanating from the latter. By shifting the cone of light from one portion of the cornea or lens to another, we may rapidly, yet thoroughly, examine its whole expanse, and detect the slightest opacity. Opacities of the cornea or lens appear by this reflected light of a light grey or whitish colour. The catoptric test is a very useful one in diagnosing cataract, and had better be used along with the obHque illumination. It is conducted as follows : — A lighted candle or taper is moved before the eye. If the organ be healthy, three images of the light are seen. Two of these images are erect, the third is inverted. The AS TO SOUADNESS. 13 first is an erect image of the light, and is produced by reflection from the surface of the cornea ; the second is also erect, and is produced by reflection from the anterior surface of the lens ; the third is inverted, and is due to reflection from the concave posterior surface of the lens. The first two images move in the same direction as the light, the third in the opposite direc- tion. If the lens becomes opaque, of course the image from the posterior surface is lost, and that from the anterior surface also soon becomes indistinct. Before proceeding further, let me say, once for all, that this is not a course that admits of any discussion on disease, further than considering those disorders, and their various degrees of intensity, which are open to doubt as to their rendering a horse unfit for the ordinary requirements of work, and therefore unsound. The conjunctiva being more vascular, is less liable to permanent change than the cornea, so that we seldom look for alterations in it ; but there are passing emergencies, such as conjunctivitis (cold in the eye), foreign bodies, and wounds inflicted with the whip, which prevent our examining either the conjunctiva or the eye. In these cases, time should be allowed for a cure to be effected before offering an opinion. If, however, the case cannot wait, then examine and give an opinion on the other points of the horse ; but make yourself clearly understood by your client that you give no opinion whatever as to the ultimate sound- ness of the affected eye. I have known a piece of 14 EXAMINATION OF HORSES wheat husk purposely introduced under the upper eyelid of a horse suffering from cataract, for reasons too obvious to mention. The cornea, of all other structures of the eye, most frequently shows signs of previous disease ; and when we allow ample room for enlargement of the pupil in comparative darkness, the cornea in front of the pupil so dilated claims our special attention ; for any opa- cities, from whatever cause, are unsoundness so long as they may last, and it is for us to determine whether they are temporary or permanent. The degree of opacity within this area must be entirely set aside, as there is no opacity which can be seen by us that will not materially interfere with the rays of light, and therefore with vision. When we come to remember how frequently the whip is abused, we must be care- ful in noticing the cornea of the right eye more espe- cially; and since we do not find the pupil fully dilated, we may safely allow that the eye is prac- tically sound if the opacity is so near the margin of the cornea as the sixth of an inch, and is of long standing — that is, that it is not progressive. Should any cicatrix from wound or ulcer, no matter on what part of the cornea it occur, alter its convexity, then it is unsoundness; indeed, you should always look at the convexity of the cornea; for if conical or too flat, we have not the means of rectifying the ingoing rays by lenses (spectacles) ; therefore such eyes cannot be considered sound. AS TO SOUNDNESS. 15 The iris we have already partially noticed. Care should be taken to ascertain whether this important muscle is in proper tone. Excluding the light from the eye with both the hands, then suddenly uncover- ing the eye under examination, will determine the amount of tone the iris possesses. It should diminish and enlarge the pupils slowly and steadily, but ob- viously. Sometimes the "corpora nigra" hang more loosely than usual, or they may be actually torn. I have known several instances of hunters falling on their heads and displacing these little black bodies. When so displaced, the circumstance is not of import- ance in itself, but the blow which caused it may have displaced the lens, or even partially ruptured the cap- sule of the lens, when — the aqueous humour being admitted into that body — cataract results in the course of a few hours. This is the explanation of cataract suddenly forming after a severe fall or blow on the head. The lens and its capsule next engage our attention. After the cornea they are of most importance. Since the use of the ophthalmoscope has become general, the catoptric test is now no longer used by skilful surgeons in examining the lens, the oblique illumination and the mirror of the ophthalmoscope having quite displaced it. Although you may not be able to use an ophthalmoscope in its entirety, still you ought to carry one. The lens you use for oblique illumination, and the mirror part, with a light, can be i6 EXAMINATION OF HORSES employed by the most unpractised ; so much so, that frequently when I have been asked regarding the cause of " shying," and on examining the horse's lens with a lighted candle and the mirror part of the ophthalmoscope, have found the most minute speck of cataract, I have delighted the owner by allowing him to see that which has been the cause of the shy- ing in this way. To use an ophthalmoscope effi- ciently requires almost as much practice as it does to play the pianoforte, it being the most difficult to use of any instrument in the whole of surgery, not excluding the lithotrite ; but any one may use the mirror part at once. When doing so, any opacities of the cornea or lens appear as dark spots upon a bright red background. I need hardly say that any trace of opacity in either the lens or its capsule is an unsoundness which cannot be passed over. Having got so far, and the eyes being found all right, we next bring the horse out of the stable, and, when possible, place him on level ground. During the next manoeuvre — that of walking round the horse, and taking a general view of him — we have often to find fault with dealers' men for holding the animal with the head up, instead of their taking a long hold of the bridle or halter, and allowing the horse to have his head free. This is really important, for at this stage it often happens that we find blemishes which would render it unnecessary to continue the examination; some of which blemishes may be con- AS TO SOUNDNESS. t; cealed by the trick of holding up the head and fright- ening the horse into the attitude of " attention." In going round the horse at this stage, a practised eye soon finds a spavin, a fractured ileum, odd eyes, odd fore feet, and so many other things, that it is of im- portance to do this carefully, as we may frequently cut short the examination. Of the thousand-and-one blemishes, one or more of which we may now perceive, I have nothing to say at present ; but it is at this stage one sees "shaky" fore legs, with or without broken knees. With regard to broken knees, we can dispose of the case quickly and without a second thought ; but if, as often happens, we come across them when in other respects they are perfect, we frequently find a difficulty in deciding. I may here tell you that this trembling condition of the fore legs is due to a loss of balance in the tone of the extensor and flexor muscles of the leg ; this may be congenital, or be brought about by overwork, or, suddenly, by over-exertion. In some cases, this loss of balance between the two opposing sets of muscles is sufficient to throw the knees forward, and give the fore legs a permanent bend. I have no doubt you will all have seen such cases in horses of unblemished reputation as hunters and as harness horses ; but in these cases safety of the " forehand " is ensured by the limbs accommodating themselves to the altered circumstances. Almost at any cover-side you may observe this bent condition of the fore limbs. I have frequently seen 1 8 EX AM IN A TION OF HORSES hunters carrying heavy weights while labouring under this, at all times, unfavourable condition ; but when it may be looked upon as safe, the neck and shoulders are fine,the latter are well back, and the legs thrown forward. In not a few of these cases you may learn that ^he horse has been so from the time he was a foal. Without signs of broken knees, you will be unable, and mostly unwilling, to condemn such as unsound. When, however, you find shaky legs, and upright clumsy shoulders, with or without a heavy "forehand," and without broken knees, you will have little hesitation in condemning the horse. At our next meeting we will begin to review the second stage of the examination. AS TO SOUNDNESS. 19 LECTURE III. Examination outside the Stable— Place on Level Ground — Great Superiority of Automatic Movement — Nostrils — Mouth — Milk Teeth Extracted — Lampas — Parrot Mouth — Worn and Broken Incisors — Iiregular Molars — Signs of Hard Mouth- Intermaxillary Space— Poll — "Poll Evil" — Cribbing Strap — Parotid Gland — ^Jugular Vein — Obliteration, Partial and Com- plete— Evidence of Phlebotomy may indicate Serious Disease — Shoulder^ — Pined Shoulder — Collar Marks. Gentlemen, — With your permission I will preface the remarks I have to make on the second part of the examination by a few words on the three methods of performing it ; also, on the advantage of going through the movements of the method we adopt, until by their repetition they are removed from the sphere of thought and become automatic. Most veterinarians begin by placing the horse on level ground ; after that they adopt one of three methods : either they begin at the nose on the near side and go back-wards, finishing at the near hind foot ; or they go entirely round the horse, passing along the off side from behind forwards. The third mode I shall not dignify by the name of method, as 20 EXAMINATION OF HORSES it is a slipshod proceeding, born of the certainty which accompanies ignorance : fostered by idleness or indiffe- rence ; and ending in either a lucky " fluke," a lawsuit, or professional disgrace. It consists in handling the most important points, and seeing the rest without the aid of touch. The first method is the one I adopt; relying, as I do, on the superiority of aittomatic movements over movements under the direction of the will. The second method involves going through a set of movements, then repeating the same movements in reverse order. This we should avoid, if we wish to perform automa- tically. As examples of the superiority of automatic movements over those directed by the will^ I would advise you to go up or down a familiar flight of steps, thinking at each step how to advance your foot for the next ; or take an example without the trouble of experiment, and look at those beautiful products of automatic movements — the honeycomb or the spider's web. Such being the case, then, after the movements are perfected by repetition, your examina- tion will be none the less perfect if your thoughts are not immediately dwelling upon each successive step. Begin your examination by looking at the opening of the nostril, making a speculum of the thumb and index finger of the left hand, and observe the Schneiderian membrane. The nostrils are liable to accidents, such as being torn by projecting nails. I saw one the other day so affected. A slough had AS TO SOUNDNESS. 21 evidently taken place, and there was much contraction from cicatrisation. In such a case the horse is unsound; because a horse, not being able to breathe through his mouth, requires a healthy pair of wide nostrils when used for speed or heavy draught. Again, from affec- tions of the facial division of the poi'tio dura, or seventh pair of nerves, we not unfrequently have paralysis of the nostrils, complete or partial. When partial, it may escape a casual glance, and is only to be detected by the distress shown in a smart gallop, and the noise made under those circumstances. The Schneiderian membrane should not be dry, nor too wet, but be- dewed by innumerable drops, and should show no signs of ulceration nor evidence of catarrh; You next pass on to open the mouth in order to observe the teeth, gums, and tongue. The teeth are noticed most, and you are now to look for the indica- tions of the horse's age as shown by them. It is not my duty now to teach you this ; so that I pass on to remark that it is a common trick with " dealers " and others to extract the corner " milk "' teeth, to ** for- ward'^ the mouth. It is evident that, in such a case, you have not the proper corner teeth to observe, but you should notice the signs of youth in those that are left, and be guided more by their appearance than by the general aspect of the horse. Among others, two signs of extreme youth in the permanent incisors are their shelliness, and the prominence of the gums immediately behind them [lampas). Then, again, thg 22 EXAMINATION OF HORSES incisors should come into exact apposition ; " parrot mouth," produced by the upper teeth overhanging the lower, although not an unsoundness, is unsightly. Should these teeth be in perfect apposition, and their edges worn and broken, it may be from " crib-biting," or from feeding out of an iron or stone manger. On finding this condition, you will have to trace its cause. Old horses frequently have the edges of the incisors worn and chipped ; but you must inquire about the material of the manger, unless you find, besides the worn teeth, the marks of a cribbing strap that has been worn. The molar teeth we too frequently fail to ex- amine, though, as you have already seen, irregularity in these is frequent, and sometimes interferes with the horse's feeding. The gums between the incisors and molars are to be looked at for evidences of injury by the bit. If the marks are old cicatrices, and alike on either jaw, the horse may be a ''puller;" or if con- fined to one side, it is very likely he has that very objectionable mouth, " hard," on one side. Either condition, if exaggerated, amounts to a dangerous vice, and is therefore an unsoundness. The tongue you can seldom object to. You next pass your right hand beneath the jaws. The intermaxillary space should be a hollow in which you can lay your hand. We frequently meet this space filled up, so that its surface is flush, or nearly so, with the under surface of the jaw. This latter condi- tion is usually due to a severe attack of strangles, or AS TO SOUNDNESS. 23 to a mild attack in which the intermaxillary abscess has been badly treated. In such a case we often find an old cicatrix or other unmistakable sign. Now when you come to think that, next to the eye itself, one of the most delicate organs of the body (the larynx) has been, it may be, for weeks, half, if not wholly, surrounded by inflamed tissue, and involved in the inflammation, you will readily understand how guarded you should be in your examination of the " wind " of such a one for evidences of " roaring." The glands of this part should be normal. A hardened, slightly enlarged gland ma,, indicate disease in the nasal chamber, or in a molar tooth. Next pass your right hand to the "poll" (vertex of the occiput) gently, and use pressure; there should be no soreness, tumefaction, nor evidence of a strap having been worn. The hand is then passed over the parotid gland, and the end of the second finger should be buried as it travels along the posterior border of the jaw. Inflamed parotids are not un- common, but almost the same may be said regarding them as was said of the evidence of strangles ; though the larynx, being further away, is less liable to suffer. Calcareous degeneration of the parotids is by no means unfrequent ; usually only one is affected, and the subject is aged. Beyond being an eye-sore, this affection is of little or no consequence in itself, though it points unmistakably to the horse being the subject of degeneration in one gland which 24 EXAMINATION OF HORSES can be seen, and we have no evidence of its being the only gland affected by degenerative change. However, they are for the most part aged subjects, and so are of less importance. You now pass your left hand over the course of the jugular vein, and raise it as though you were going to bleed. Distend it to its utmost by keeping pressure upon it for some time. By so doing you see its capacity, also any evidences (cicatrices) of phlebotomy. Besides cicatrices, we have often another evidence of phlebotomy in a sacculated condition of the vein. If there is only one sac or two, their apices should be closely observed for cicatrices. We often find this latter condition without there having been phlebotomy, from unequal power of resistance in the coat of the vein. Prior phlebotomy is of importance locally, as pointing to possible injury to the vein itself; and remotely, as pointing to the cause requiring this operation — such as inflammation of important organs like the lungs, bowels, and feet. With regard, first, to injured vein. The injury may be obliteration, partial or complete. When complete, the vein has a hard, corded feel, and pressure upon it fails to raise (distend) it. I have used the words *' complete obliteration," for practically it is so; but in nearly all cases, even the very worst, there yet remains a small irregular channel through which a thin stream of blood meanders. This condition is one of the worst of unsoundnesses, as the subject AS TO SOUNDNESS. 25 of it cannot hold down his head to eat or drink without congestion of this part of the body following, from inability of the remaining veins to transmit the blood with due celerity, except under favourable con- ditions. Slight obliteration, again, may be felt, or, still better, seen, on trying the capacity of the vein, and should be regarded as an unsoundness ; as at least the elasticity of the vein has gone, and its transmitting powers diminished. The vein quite sound, yet showing evidences of phlebotomy, should put us on our guard. Why has the animal been bled? For anything we know, it may have been for acute inflammation of an important organ ; and, as I had occasion during the winter to tell you, of all the causes predisposing to inflam- mation of a part, not one is to be compared for frequency and effect with previous inflammations. The tissues are altered in • some way, and, if I may be allowed the expression, they are never themselves again. But now, how are we to know for what the horse has been bled ? The feet may plainly show a prior attack of inflammation, but we can have no evidence of a previous enteritis or pneumonia; and I regret to say that I cannot advise you to enquire the occa- sion for the bleeding, as experience will show you that you will be often grievously deceived if you beheve what the vendor has to say concerning the merits of his horse in regard to soundness. For my 26 EXAMINATION OF HORSES part, I have found it best to explain very fully to the purchaser, in writing by preference, the whole matter. It is clear that you can do nothing else ; as a horse that has had an acute attack of inflammation in any vital or essential organ cannot be sound for the reason I have named ; yet you may not be able to say where and how the horse is unsound. You know how subject some horses are to periodic attacks of colic, and what a common remedy bleeding is for it, and how anxious owners are to get rid of such horses, for fear of their having a fatal attack. So that an unmistakable mark of a horse's having been bled from the neck is not to be passed over, although the jugular vein may be perfect. You next proceed to the shoulder, and look for injuries to the skin caused by the collar ; for atrophy of the muscles occupying the spaces in front and behind the spine of the scapula; and for evidences of injuries from accident or surgical remedies about the point of the shoulder. With regard to "collar marks," as they are called, we are too apt to overlook them, or pass over them lightly. About five years ago I was much annoyed with a case. One market day, a gentleman brought into Leeds for my inspection an aged horse that had carried his owner with hounds, to my own knowledge, for some years. The gentleman was selling this horse to one of my best cHents. I noticed the collar marks, which I took as little notice of as of the marks on his fore legs, made by timber and stone walls. The horse was passed as practically sound, and I assure you that AS TO SOUNDNESS. 27 for the next twelve months he was a constant patient of mine. The collar never went on to his shoulders a third time without making them " raw." Alterative and other treatment for irritable skin proved of no use ; so that it taught me this lesson, and it may teach you the same, that there are some horses whose skin will not bear the pressure of harness. Or it would, perhaps, be wiser to say that there are some horses whose skin, to all appear- ance healthy, may at the same time be so sensitive as to be rendered inflamed and sore by the pressure of harness. 28 EXAMINATION OF HORSES LECTURE IV. Shoitkler — Shoulder Slip— Causes — Slight Cases "doctored up" — Case — Caused by Sprain — Curability — Point of Shoulder — Space between Shoulder Point and Elbow — Knee — Broken Knees — Five Degrees — First Degree — Second Degree — Third Degree — Fourth and Fifth Degrees — Severe Blow on Knees. Gentlemen, — At our last meeting we had got so far in our examination as the near-side shoulder, and I warned you about collar marks, and what they occa- sionally pointed to. The shoulders are liable to injury in one or two ways, and show it either as atrophy of the muscles on either side of the spine of the scapular, or by some mark at the point of the shoulder from injury or from surgical treatment. Atrophy of the shoulder, vulgarly known as "Shoulder Slip," is rather a common disease, more especially among young horses used for much collar work. Those used for ploughing and harness are perhaps more liable to it than others. It has been supposed that slipping in the furrow pro- duces it in the one case; but in the other I am not aware that even a guess has been made as to its cause. This is scarcely the place to discuss the matter j but I AS TO SOUNDNESS. 29 believe it to be caused by prolonged over-exertion of the muscles of the shoulder, so that the sarcous elements are so worn out and enervated that they are incapable of reproducing themselves in their integrity, and some degree of degeneration results. However, we know that wasting of the parts is a common disease, and often incurable, so far as I have observed ; and it has, and this is most important to us now, degrees of intensity — from an almost imperceptible diminution, to the most bony, wasted flatness, where the outline of the scapula is nearly as well seen as in the skeleton itself. In the more confirmed cases, a horse would more probably be brought to you for treatment than examination as to soundness ; so that we have rather to do now with the slighter cases. When a shoulder is well nourished, the muscles on each side of the ridge so fill their respective fossae, that little besides the asperity on the spine of the scapula for the insertion of the trapezius, is seen ; and both your hands laid flat on the shoulder at the same time, meet from these muscles a firm elastic resistance on pressure, and do not come in contact with the spine of the scapula except at the point I have mentioned. Then, again, the surface of these muscles, from before backwards, is rather convex; indeed, very convex in such as are of good healthy tone. You fail to find the firm, elastic resistance and the convexity in such as are diseased to any great extent. I rely more on these signs than on a comparison of one shoulder with its fellow, which we can eftect by standing in front of the horse 30 EXAMINATION OF HORSES and elevating his chin above our head : because, in the first place, both shoulders may be atrophied; and further, we so very frequently find the shoulder of the leading leg rather larger than its fellow. This is a part of the examination in which you cannot be too careful. The injury leading to the affection may be inflicted one week, and the lameness and stiffness, treated by rest, hot fomentations, and physic, may have so far been overcome the next, that physical signs are absent, and the lameness only is to be detected ; and this may be so slight that an expert dealer's man, in trotting the horse for you, may effectually conceal it. I cannot too much impress upon you the necessity of being on your guard in these slight cases ; for in not a few instances do they become serious within the time that a horse, found to be unsound^ may be returned. I remember passing a three-year-old bay carriage horse, that became lame from this cause soon afterwards. I detected no difference in the two shoulders at the time; not that I was very closely looking for any, but when he had been driven alongside another horse for three weeks or less, he became decidedly lame. The gentleman took him to an elderly veterinarian in whose district my client happened to be staying for a time, when atrophied shoulder was made out, and an opinion given that it was of some standing. Now, there happened to be a distinct history of accident in this case. The coachman, a hard driver, in going down a hill, saw the horse half fall on what afterwards became his lame side ; recovering AS TO SOUNDNESS. 31 himself, the horse went home all right, but next morning he was lame — stiff on that shoulder. Here, no doubt, was a sprain, followed by partial disuse of the parts, and consequent atrophy. The horse was treated by rest, hot fomentations, physic, counter irritation, etc., and when brought home some weeks after, the shoulder, much less than its fellow, showed symptoms of having been well blistered; so that inflammatory action had ceased. I recommended the owner to have the cold- water hose turned on to the animal's shoulder for three minutes night and morning, the part to be afterwards rubbed till it was not only dry but hot, and the horse to be allowed to run in a small paddock during the day. In a few weeks he was quite well. Please to note the difference between these cases, through enforced idleness of the muscles from the pain of inflammation of a part of the shoulder, and those which arise from exhaustion, and consequent innervation of the whole muscle from prolonged exertion. In the former case, we have a very curable condition, but not so in the latter. Again, should the atrophy be due to enforced rest of the muscles from disease in the shoulder- joint, it is not likely to be overlooked by you ; inasmuch as you have two distinct evidences of it, in the diminished size of the parts, and the lameness, which is always pro- nounced. The point of the shoulder should claim your attention. Marks of setons, blistering, or firing, are not unfrequently to be found. Should the horse be a valu- able one, and he be at the same time sound, so far as 32 EXAMINATION OF HORSES you can make out, you will often be at no little loss how to act when there are evidences of treatment. What was said with regard to evidences of a horse having been bled at the jugular vein, might here be repeated. It may be that the horse has really been lame in the shoulder, and the lameness now absent may recur ; or it may be that he has never been lame in the shoulder, and yet has been treated for shoulder lameness. In any case, should the horse pass muster in everything except these marks, by all means let him pass with the whole of that limb (and not the shoulder only) warranted to stand sound for a prescribed time. The parts from the point of the shoulder to the elbow are seldom found to require much of our attention at these times, and the elbow joint is remarkably free from ailment at all times ; and, as the parts from the elbow to the "carpus" (knee) are also singularly free from disease, practically we can pass from the point of the shoulder to the knee almost at once. We are, in our plan, examining the front part of the limb first. Having come to the knee, we are arrived at an im- portant part— a part much liable to injury, and one which can receive none but the most trivial scratch with impunity. The sight and touch do a good deal for us here, but by no means all. On passing the fingers over the front of the knee, and smoothing the hair, we may feel and see any injury to the skin. Unfortunately, the term "broken knees" is such a vague one that it includes every degree from mere clipping or chipping AS TO SOUNDNESS. 33 off of the hair, to laying open of the joint and exposure of the bones. And yet, strange as it may appear to you, I can assure you that, throughout the whole horse universe, there is almost as strong an objection to the very mildest blemish at this part as there is to the very worst. Why this widely- prevalent suspicion of "broken knees " ? We ought never to altogether ignore a popular belief, and therefore not this. The degrees of injury to the knee, all ahke known opprobriously as " broken knee," I will enumerate as they actually occur, i. You may have mere chipping or clipping of the hair, with or without a bruise of the integuments beneath. 2. You may have the above, together with wounded skin. 3. You may have the first two together, with a clean incision of the subcutaneous (cellular) tissue ; or this tissue, instead of being simply incised, may be bruised and lacerated. 4. You may have the three foregoing conditions, together with exposure and wounding of the hard tissues forming the extensor tendons and their sheaths, as they pass in front of the knee. 5. You may have the knee joint itself laid open. Now as to your diagnosis of these respective conditions, beginning at the first. It is evident that, if the hair only is cut, it will grow again, and you would fail to find any evi- dence of the injury after two or three weeks. If, however, as more frequently happens, the knee receives a blow at the time of the accident — although the skin may not be cut — the skin may have been damaged and the hair bulbs so injured, that they for ever afterwards 3 34 EXAMINATION OF HORSES are more vascular, and consequently the hair grows stronger^ and will not lie smooth ; or, again, the hair bulbs may be so encroached upon by the organized hyperplasia which has become permanently lodged in the skin, that atrophy takes place through absorption, and you find thin, wiry, starved Avhite hairs. The second degree, or wounded skin, shows itself in either condition of hair already enumerated, if the injury has been severe, or in the form of a bruise ; but if only a clean incision — a condition seldom seen — you would have no evidence whatever after the hair had grown, as the cicatrix would be entirely covered. If the cellular tissue have suffered, as well as the skin, here again a clean incision leaves no evidence ; but when, as in the majority of cases, it has been crushed and lacerated, a slough forms, and the cicatricial tissue being hard and inelastic, renders the skin fixed and immovable. The fourth and fifth degrees of injury cause adhesion between the extensor tendons and their sheaths ; so that if you flex the limb, and endeavour to make the fetlock touch the elbow, you. find it will not do so. It must be evident to you that a horse suffering from the effects of the fourth and fifth degrees is unsound, inasmuch as he cannot bend his knee; but how about the remaining three?' It is just as evident that the lesions, if any, remaining after any one or all combined of the first three degrse&-of injury, will not mechanically interfere with the free flexion and use of the knee. But, unfor- tunately, there happens to be a-n injury, the nature, AS TO SOUNDNESS. 35 extent, and consequences of which we have no means of estimating. I refer to the weakness following a severe bloiii upon a joint. Question a man who has suffered at any time from a severe blow upon one of his joints, and he will tell you that the joint is weak, and yet he may have no scar whatever to show you. Four years ago I received a blow from a horse on the knuckle of the index finger of my right-hand while bleeding him at the toe. At first I thought the joint was laid open, but this proved not to be the case. The only evidence left now is a cicatrix of the skin, which is freely movable, and can be pinched up as high as the skin on the fellow knuckle ; the tendon over it is also freely movable, and so is the joint ; and yet, with all this seeming perfection, the joint is weak. This being so, then you see we have two forms of imperfection only to look for in the knee of the horse: namely, mechanical impedim.ent and weakness. The former arises out of either of the fourth or fifth degrees of injury, which we have such a ready and sure means of detecting; the latter we are not so certain about — the evidences of a blow sufficient to cause permanent weak- ness being more equivocal. But, practically, we look to evidences of injury to the hair; such as absence, stiff- ness, or discolouration ; finding any of these, unsoundness is our verdict, although the action may be perfect, and the horse in every other respect sound. This is such an important part of our present study, that I shall make a few more remarks upon it at the beginning of my next lecture. 36 EXAMINA TION OF HORSES LECTURE V. Knees (continued) — Broken Knees — Term Misleading — Law on Subject — Case in Point — Another Case — To decide on Inter- mediate Cases of Broken Knees — Enlargements about the Knee — Ganglions — Nature of Ganglions — Cannon Bone, Subcuta- neous— Front Part seldom affected — Pastern Joint. Gentlemen, — At our last meeting, in speaking of in- juries to the knee I laid much stress on the two con- ditions, mechanical ivipedimejit and weakness. With regard to the former you have physical signs, but this is not always the case with the latter. We have no more unsatisfactory term in the whole of our nosology than the term " broken knees." Every degree of injury, from the mere chipping off of a few hairs to the injury that breaks open the joint, breaks the bones, and drains the joint of its oil (synovia), is alike termed " broken knee." This vagueness, bad as it is in itself, becomes a fruitful source of injustice in the law courts. The law holds that broken knees are unsoundness according to the ex- tent of the injury. What are veterinarians to do, with the law on the subject in its present state ? With the law as at present, all we can do is to make the best of it. Here is a case in point. About ^ year ago a very re- AS TO SOUNDNESS. 37 spectable dealer sent his most trustworthy stableman leading a valuable six-year-old bay carriage gelding in a snaffle bridle to my premises to be examined, and a written certificate was to be sent back along with the horse, which was to be purchased by a wealthy woollen manufacturer, if sound, — only if sound. When turning a corner he was startled by a passing vehicle, jumped on one side, came down on one of his knees, and a Httle piece of hair was neatly taken out of the front of the knee as if cut with a pair of sharp scissors. This happened not a stone's throw from my infirmary. I examined the horse and found him sound in all other respects, but I could not write a certificate of soundness because I should have to say he had a "broken knee." I knew the intending purchaser, he was one of my em- ployers, and a certificate with qualifying remarks he would not have looked at twice, so that, in fairness to the dealer as well as to the purchaser, I waited upon the latter personally, and explained the whole matter, at the same time explaining the vague interpretation of the law upon the subject. The result of the interview was the purchase of the horse subject to my giving a certificate of " soundness in every other respect." From the diffi- culty I experienced in gaining the attention of this gentleman in explanation, I feel sure a certificate would have been thrown into the waste-paper basket in three seconds, and the clerk ordered to write to the dealer saying, " That in consequence of Mr. Fearnley being unable to give a certificate of soundness, Mr. must 38 EXAMINATION OF HORSES decline to purchase the horse," or something to that effect. The dealer would have been incensed against me, and the intending purchaser would have missed a really good bargain. The mere accident of my personally knowing the purchaser, and of being able to wait upon him, are not available in many cases. Take another case. The same dealer as in last case had bought a horse with his knee " chipped,^' that is, the hair was cut and the sTiin a little bruised, and had to keep the horse on his hands for nearly five months before he could pre- sent him as a sound horse, and procure a certificate accordingly. It was five months before the signs of the injury were obliterated. These are cases of unsoundness pro tern., but are not so physically but only through a rotten vagueness of a term. These very trivial cases, along with the graver defects I have mentioned, are at least clear to us, and we can estimate them at their proper value. In the very slightest cases we can at the most advise the owner to wait a few months for the evi- dences to become obliterated. It seems to me that I have a good opportunity now of ofi'ering a piece of advice which will, if followed, be of real service, and save you from much unmerited blame. It is to assure you that there is a wide difference between a veterinarian's certifi- cate and a business letter, much more a friendly letter ; and when you are going to put a good deal of qualifying matter into a certificate, it is in many cases best to pre- pare the recipient by a friendly letter sent first, that is, of course, when you are not able to wait on him personally. AS TO SOUNDNESS. 39 So few horses are quite sound that there must be qualify- ing matter in many pass certificates, and this may be of so formidable a character from its length as utterly to drown the few words in which an opinion is offered. But of this I shall say more further on. Lastly, with regard to broken knees, you have the intermediate cases to decide upon, and you will find it a good rule to reject as unsound all cases in which you find distinct evidence of injury which has failed to become entirely obliterated in six months. This I do without any qualification whatever, irrespective of form and action, for both are of little moment when the horse gets "' leg tired ; " it is then that the weakness left after a severe blow shows itself. Enlargements about the knee are sometimes of no importance. We not unfrequently find enlargements, just above the joint, of the hard tissues, caused by leaping over timber and stone walls, which are of no importance physically if they do not prevent the perfect flexion of the joint, tested by lifting the foot and causing the pad of fetlock to touch the elbow. There are other enlarge- ments, called ganglions^ which appear about the knees and hocks, generally in front of the former and at the sides of the latter. Sometimes these are of considerable size, and are, either from their size or from their causing im- paired mobility of a joint, unsoundnesses. They do not seem to arise from inflammation, but rather to be of the nature of simple cysts. They are slightly movable, indolent, and painless, and appear to be situated in the 40 EXAMINA TION OF HORSES reticular tissue, which immediately covers the sheath of the extensor tendons. To the latter they are connected firmly, to the skin but loosely. The consistence of their contents varies very much, but they seldom communicate with the articular synovial cavity. If nothing else, they are unsightly, being sometimes as large as cricket-balls, or larger. A horse bought with such a tumour would have to be taken for better for worse, because, if an un- soundness, they are unmistakably apparent. Sometimes you will see more than one on the same animal, just as you will frequently see several enlarged burss on the same animal. These ganglions impede mobility or not, according to their size and position. You must remember we are examining the front part of the fore leg, and having finished the knee pass our hand over the front part of the cannon bone down to the front of the fetlock joint. The bone all this way is nearly subcutaneous, the tendon of the extensor of the foot only passing obliquely in front of it. Practically, it is subcu- taneous, so that here we have only the skin, the front of the cannon bone, and the tendon, just mentioned, to examine \ and I might also have said that practically we can pass over this part without a thought, as we seldom find it affected in any way. The front part of the pastern joint comes next. This and the pasterns are so intimately connected with, and influenced by, the foot, that I shall here make a wide digression, and describe all the parts beneath the fetlock joint together. AS TO SOUNDNESS, 41 LECTURE VI. The Fore Foot — Only a Part of a Whole — Its Relation to the Fore Leg — When the Horse is Awake — When Asleep — Not so much Weight on it when Awake as when the Horse Sleeps Standing — The Fore Legs have Efficient Mainstays, except at the Navicular Joint — The Navicular Joint very Defective — The Relation between the Phalanges and the Column of Bones above — Importance of the Line of the Coronary Band being always Noted — Its Tendency to become Horizontal — Long Pasterns, Low Heels, and Long I'oes — A Good Foot and Pastern — A Boxy Foot — Shoeing Blamed for every Ailment of the Foot — Shoe Inventions — The Charlier Shoe. Gentlemen, — We have now come to the most im- portant part of the examination, namely, the fore foot. Although there are no end of treatises on this subject, I shall be obliged to describe the mechanism exhibited here, because authors take a view of the subject which I consider to be radically wrong — all seeming alike to regard the horse's foot as a thing J)er se and not, as really is the case, as only a part of a whole. You cannot understand numerous causes of the diseases of the foot by looking upon it as a whole. Of course you may say that it is only a part of the body technically, but, prac- 42 EXAMINATION OF HORSES tically and anatomically, it is neither more nor less than a part of a phalanx, much modified by being surrounded by hoof and otherwise, but still dLpart of a phalanx, and one (the distal) of three parts whose bones, from above downwards, are named respectively the suffraginal, coronal, and pedal. This being so I utterly ignore all descriptions of the foot as such, and proceed to describe all the structures from tke fetlock joint dowmoards as a wJiole. The fore legs, as you know, are the weight-bearers and the hind legs are ik\t propellers. You will best see this by letting fall an imaginary plumb line through the long axis of the fore leg. This line, as the horse is standing on level ground, comes up through the root of the neck at its upper end, but at its lower (in a well- shaped Umb) finds the fetlock joint its lowest point, and reaches the ground slightly behind the heel of the foot. Here I am speaking of a well-made horse, irrespective of breed, standing on level ground, thoroughly awake, and in attention. Notice how little weight there now is in front of this line, for you have only the — I. Head. 2. Neck. 3. Half the shoulders. So that in this position, when the horse is awake and in attention, you .see, the fore and hind limbs bear the weight of the body equally ; because, if the fore limbs have the head, neck, and half the shoulders in front of them, they have the large light thorax immediately behind them, whilst the hind limbs have their own AS TO SOUNDNESS. 43 weight, the pelvis, and most of the abdomen for their share. Still using our plumb line, let us watch the well-made horse, or any other for that matter, standing on level ground asleep ; and we find the column of bones from the fetlock to the elbow, not perpendicular as before, but inclined very much forward, so that our plumb line, instead of passing through the long axis of the fore leg and falling behind the foot, actually passes tJwough the foot, obliquely through the phalanges, and out of the leg just below the knee ; again comes through the body at the girth place, and comes out above on the posterior part of the withe7-s. You can verify this any day you like by going to a street cab-stand. It v/ill be strange if you do not find some horse in the stand either sound asleep or nodding. Now what weight have we before the line ? You have — 1. Nearly all the fore legs. 3. Thorax. 2. Shoulders. 4. Head. 5. Neck. And to balance this extensive weighty m.ass you have little more than the hind legs and pelvic organs ; so that when the horse is asleep you see the fore legs are truly the weight- bearers. In this attitude the hind limbs have themselves only to take care of, and very little else. In the walk and trot we find the fore limb similarly related to our plumb line as in sleep, but only one limb so at a time, and not both. When. the hoiselies down, all the 44 EXAMINATION OF HO^RSES fore limb rests, and does not concern us here, so that we have left us to consider the fore limbs when the horse is 1. Standing at attention. 2. ,, asleep. 3. During motion. I next wish to draw your attention to the column of bones themselves. It is necessary for them, when the horse is in action, to be bent one moment and to be rigidly stiff the next. I need not dwell on how freely they bend forwards, but must lay special stress on the very narrow limits in which they bend backwards. In order that they may be rigid, stiff, and fixed, they are provided with back stays, and these stays are, for the most part, in every instance but one, powerful, unyield- ing, true ligaments. Enumerated from above downwards, these are the — 1. Superior Carpal and Interosseous. 2. Superior Sesamoidean or Suspensory. 3. Inferior Sesamoidean. The superior carpal and the interosseous ligaments act as a main stay to the knee, the two sesamoidean act as main stays to the fetlock joint ; the inferior sesa- moidean also acts as a main stay to the joint below the fetlock joint, which is placed between the suffraginal and coronal bones ; but to the last joint of all (the coffin or pedal joint) we have a complicated stay capable of some considerable extension and therefore 7iot rigid. I refer to AS TO SOUNDNESS. 45 the flexor tendon and navicular bone ; the former push- ing the latter, wedge-like, against and into the joint. Here I have enumerated the chief or main stays, and am not forgetting that there are others to each joint, even to the coffin joint ; but all others are insignificant as compared with the ones enumerated. Next, I wish to draw your attention to the phalanges as a whole. We find when the limb is rigid and bearing more or less of the weight of the body, the phalanges are placed obliquely to the long axis of the bones of the leg, from the fetlock to the elbow joint. That the long axis of the phalanges themselves is straight. That the line (seen on taking a side view) formed by the upper margin of the hoo^ or line of the coronary band, as we shall call it, is very nearly at a right angle with the long axis of the phala/iges — thus : That the angle formed by the li7te of the cojvnary band with the hoof is of necessity the same whether the horse be lying, standing, or in motion. This angle, when the Hmb is bearing the horse's weight (rigid), is just a trifle 46 EXAMINATION OF HORSES over a right angle; that is, instead of being 90°, it is about 95°. {See Fig. 1,2.) This lower angle being unalterable by any movement or position, it follows that where the phalanges bend in either way, it is at the expense of the upper angle or that formed by the pasterns with the top of the hoof; and it was shown that in a state of rigidity of the limb, or when the horse was standing fully upon it, that this angle was 5° less than a right angle (85°), the other angle below it being 5° more ; therefore when bent, as when a horse is trotting, galloping, or jumping, and gathering his limbs well under him, this- angle is still less ; or in other words it is this angle which is alterable. The lowermost phalangeal bone {ps pedis) bears a constant unalterable relation to our loiuer angle, because it \?> fixed m the hoof; and we have seen that the lower angle is altogether formed by the hoof. We have also seen that in a state of great rigidity of the limb, as when the weight of the body is thrown forwards upon it in sleep, or when in motion, that the column of bones, from the pedal joint to the elbow joint, becomes one rigid column, practically as stiff and unyielding as if it were made of iron. It is a rigid bent lever having a very long arm and a very short arm. {See Fig. 2.) This being so, we have the foot below on the one hand, and the whole leg above on the other, as two rigid pieces, with their juncture and yielding point at the coffin joint — the joint with the tendinous yielding stay. AS TO SOUNDNESS. A7 The /I'/ie of the coronary baiid has a constant tendency to become more horizojital, or, in other words, our lower angle has a tendency to become larger. This is effected by more rapid growth of hoof at the heels than at the toes. Long pasterns, low heels, and long toes, are Weight, of Horse. Fig. 2. accidents of the same condition, and give the side view of the foot a triangular appearance. {See Fig. i,\) Well-made pasterns of proper length are not too obliquely placed, and cannot, except under most un- usual force, be too obliquely placed, and are generally found with good heels of moderate height and strength. EXAMINATION OF HORSES The side view of the foot is neither too triangular nor too square. (^See Fig.i,^.) The pasterns have a strong tendency to assume the perpendicular when we may or may not have the line of the coronary band approaching the horizontal. When short pasterns assume the perpendicular, we have almost invariably a high-heeled boxy hoof. {See Fig. i,^.) I might have added to the above propositions, but trust that by their aid we shall be able to further discuss the subject in a clear and intelligible manner. You will often read and hear of shoeing being a necessary evil, and of its being the cause of foot lameness and so forth. Now please note that the shoe is nailed on to the end of the phalanges. At the other end of the phalanges is applied the weight and the power of its distribution. Those who blame shoeing for all the ills of the foot, either invent, or stimulate others to invent, all kinds of contortions and vagaries in the name ot horse -shoes. They will even go into a state of ecstatic mania over what they call "this most beautiful mechanism." They will wrangle and quarrel over the question whether the heel contracts or expands, and look steadfastly and for ever to the end of the phalanx for the interpretation of the ailments from which the foot suffers. They will watch a horse drawing a heavy load up a hill violently digging his toes into the ground; or, backing a load down a hill, digging his heels into the ground, sliding and wrenching ; and then go home and invent a shoe. The late Professor Dick used to delight in showing his AS TO SOUNDNESS. 49 class about half-a-ton's weight. He would have one lot brought out of the museum after another for eight or ten successive lectures, and at the end hold up to the class in triumph the every-day shoe. This shoe has been slowly evolved, and answers every purpose as a shoe, and has undergone little change for 300 years at least. But these shoe inventors do not seek a shoe as such at all; they rather seek for some iron, leather, or india- rubber contortion which, being applied to one end of the structure, will save the structure from all adverse influences soever. But no doubt there will always be an army of shoe-inventors in the profession, as there is a restless army of pessary inventors in the medical profession. In both cases each may be able to apply his pet contortion to seeming advantage. These vagaries have a short life in very limited areas, then they quietly die, are museumed, and forgotten. The day will come, but perhaps it will not be in our lifetime, when the streets of our large towns will be paved rationally (with wood pavement) ; and then — happy day ! — ^we shall have horses wearing on their fore feet at once the most scientific as it is the most common-sense shoe, the Charlier. The stone pavior will cost the country many millions of pounds in horse-flesh before this revolution comes about, but no doubt it will one day be discovered to be a State question. 50 EXAMINATION OF HORSES LECTURE VII. The Fore Foot (continued)— Horse Examination very Difficult : Why: Cases as • Examples — A Classification: I. Anomalies of Size; 11. Anomalies of Shape ; III. Anomalies of Position ; IV. Injuries ; V. Diseases — Feet compared with each other, and with the Horse's Bulk — Too Large Feet — Feet too Small — Signs of previous Fever in the Feet — Test for a previous Inflam- mation in the Feet — Frogs Atrophied — Frogs too Large. Gentlemen, — It occurs to me that the last lecture and the present one will give you some idea of the great diffi- culty of the task of any one, I don't mind how wide his experience may be, who undertakes to examine a horse as to soundness. The points you have to look to at this stage are so numerous that we cannot do better than classify them first, and then go over them in detail, but not necessarily one by one, because you will find that there occur endless combinations. These combinations are often extremely embarrassing, for whilst the least experienced can at once give an opinion and have no doubt in his mind upon well-marked cases of disease — such as corn, sand-crack, and so on — we find the most experienced sometimes at a loss when combinations of minor defects are met with. Let us suppose a few cases AS TO SOUNDNESS. 51 such as you will frequently have to decide upon. I^et us take six cases, of minor combinations, but quite sound in every other respect. Case i. — A gentleman asks you to examine a six- year-old carriage gelding in hard working condition. The horse has been in regular work. You find his knees tremble just a very little when he comes to stand; his feet are just a shade warmer than common ; he has soles not too flat, but inclined to be flat ; and he is shod with shoes having a little more cover than common, and with a shade more iron in them. Case 2.— A seven-year-old carriage gelding is sent for your examination. You find him sound in every other respect, but you find him " leggy," flatsided, wearing " calkined " fore shoes, shreddy half-atrophied frogs, with no discharge (thrush), but the bottom of the cleft of the frog has a white appearance. Case 3. — A horse, sound in every other respect, is brought to you. You find him five years old ; fore feet small ; lateral cartilages less yielding than common, but yet not at all ossified ; toes turned a little in, and the least possible hypertrophy on the top of one hoof on the outside, and the part of the shoe immediately under this hypertrophy a little more worn than is common in this situation. Case 4. — A carriage horse, sound in every other re- spect, has fore feet of unequal size, and the wall of the smaller foot is dry and brittle, yet so far there is plenty of wall to nail to, and no undue heat. 52 EXAMINA TION OF HORSES Case 5. — A horse sound in every other respect is brought to you ; you find him aged, wearing leather soles, has been newly shod, his feet neatly rasped, has rather upright short pasterns, and has the slightest touch of hypertrophy of both fetlock joints, frogs half atrophied, but no corns. Case 6. — A horse sound in every other respect has long, very oblique pasterns, long toes, low heels, has lYiarks of speedy-cut on both heels, has flat feet, and brittle, as shown by their being chipped, and has a very small hypertrophy of one fetlock joint. In these cases you are supposed to have to say whether the horse is or is not sound. Could you give an opinion at once, without having any doubt, in any one of these cases? I don't think you could; and yet I might have multiplied these cases a hundredfold and still not have given you examples of a tenth part. They are practically unlimited, and the only satisfac- tory method of dealing with so wide a subject will be for us (i) to go over each departure from the normal one by one, and (2) to enumerate and discuss the more common combinations. With this method in view I will now proceed to plaoe Jpefore you the fol- lowing classification : — I. Anomalies of Size : 1. Feet too small. 3. Feet unequal in size. 2, ,, ,, large. 4. Frogs atrophied. 5. Frogs large, "fleshy." AS TO SOl/.VD.VESS. S3 II. Anomalies of Shape : I. Contracted feet. 3. Heels too high. 2. Flat soles. ,, lo-.v. 5. Toes too long. III. Anomalies of Position : 1. Pasterns upright. 3. Pasterns short. 2. „ long. 4. Toes out-turned. 5. Toes in-turned. IV. Injuries : I. Brittle hoof. 5. Bruised coronet. 2. Pricks in shoeing. 6. Speedy cut. 3. Gathered nails. 7. Brushing. 4. Bruised sole. 8. Unnerved. V. Diseases: I. Canker. 8. Laminitis chronic. 2* Carbuncle of coronary 9. Navicular disease. band. 10. Quittor. 3. Corns. II. Ringbone. 4. Disease of Pyr. Pro- 12. Sand-crack. cess oi OS pedis. 13. Seedy toe. 5. False quarter. 14. Side-bones. 6. Grease. 15. Thrush. 7. Laminitis subacute. 16. Villitis. I. Anomalies of Size. — In judging these we of course are regarding the foot alone and leaving out of considera- 54 EXAMINATION OF HORSES tion the remaining part of the phalanx. We usually com- pare one foot with its fellow, but there are times when we have to ask ourselves the question, Are these feet as large as feet usually are belonging to horses of this size and class? or, on the other hand, we may have to regard them as too large. Now, when feet are of equal size, and are free from disease, but are larger in proportion to the body than common, you may regard it as of no conse- quence. So far as you are concerned, as it is neither an unsoundness nor does it of itself lead in any particular way to unsoundness ; but it is very different when they are too small, that is, small out of proportion to the body. They may be perfectly sound, but you will not so readily satisfy yourselves on this point as on the last. You know that when a part is inflamed, nutrition, and therefore growth, is arrested. Now the foot of the horse, as also the entire body, enlarges by growth up to the fifth year, or more in many cases, and it comes to be a question whether small feet have not, during the period of their growth, suffered from inflammation in some degree. Inflammation would necessarily be of a mild form that would leave the foot without further evidences than those of arrested growth. If it had been present in a mild form it must have been of considerable duration, because after recovery from a mild attack a growing part resumes its growth. I have before told you that a part once acutely inflamed is "never itself again," and that there is no cause of inflammation nearly so potent as a previous inflammaticn. When inflammation'has attacked the foot AS TO SOUNDNESS. of the horse it hivariably leaves behind it permanent and observable pathological changes, such as alterations in shape, and in quality of texture of the horny box, or it leaves a badly balanced vascular system within this structure. The altered physical conditions of the horny box are — 1. Laminated, shelly, diverging rings round the hoof. 2. Diminished convexities of sole. There are others, but these are the most constant and obvious. Should the feet we are now considering have these two altered conditions, of course we have no doubt in condemning the horse as unsound. Suppose we have sound-looking feet, no matter of what size, we can at all times test their vascular system by a battering canter on a hard road. This will tax the capacities of the vascular mechanism to its utmost, and it is only a vascular mechanism that has never been damaged that can, after such an ordeal, immediately resume a quiescent state. After the canter tie up the horse in a cool shade for twenty minutes, then trot him slowly in hand. If he has had inflammation in his feet you will now find that he goes on his heels and picks up each foot as soon as he puts it down, or, as horsemen say, he will go "feely, Uke a cat on hot bricks." You will alL no doubt, have ex- perienced the painful and highly unpleasant jar or sting when leaping from a height and alighting flat on your feet when they are hot and swollen. The horse no doubt feels this on moving, and this is why he goes on his heels* 56 EXAMINATION OF HORSES The bloodvessels within the unyielding horny box are dilated and crowded with blood. Healthy vessels would have followed the example of their near kinsmen in the skin and have contracted upon their contents, and the excited blood flow would have quieted down. This is a capital test for feet suspected of having suffered from inflammation. It is a test you should never fail to apply under such conditions. Feet may be of unequal size, and still both may be quite sound. It not unfrequently happens that the right foot is distinctly the larger. Here we account for this by the right foot being more used, which is quite a natural thing; or we look for signs of previous inflammation in the lesser foot, . and apply our test when there are no pathological changes of structure visible in the horny box. Should there be no physical signs, permanent or pro- duceable, it would be a grave mistake to certify the horse as unsound, but you would be justified in mentioning it in your certificate. You would, were the foot very much less than its fellow, need to ■ be very careful. It often happens that young unshod horses gather foreign bodies, such as thorns, nails, and other sharp penetrating sub- stances, whilst running in an ordinary pasture, or they bruise their soles. We frequently find inflammation of a severe character, and prolonged, under these circum- stances. This being so, we cannot be too careful when we find odd feet. Frogs that are atrophied and frogs that are large (fleshy), are neither of them conditions which exist AS TO SOUNDNESS. 57 singly, and if they did would not constitute unsoundness. They are nearly always, if not always, associated with other defects, and as such we shall discuss them at another time. 58 EXAMINATION OF HORSES LECTURE VIII. SHOWING HOW HEELS BECOME HIGH AND CONTRACTED. Gentlemen, — We now come to consider anomalies of shape, and we cannot do better than spend our hour to-day by going carefully over the functions of the foot, and, by rigid adherence to strict logical method, investi- gate the causes of high " boxy" and contracted heels. If you examine a healthy fore and hind foot of a five- year-old horse, you will find that they are both incHned to be oval ; and all ovals, as you are aware, have a long and a short axis. The long axis of the healthy fore foot is from side to side, but in the hind foot it is from befoj-e backwards. This long axis has a strong tendency to alter its position in the fore foot, and to become like that of the hind foot — from before backwards ; but the long axis of the hind foot has no tendency to alter. Again, I have before told you that the line of the coronary band in the fore foot has a tendency to become horizontal. A foot having undergone these two revolutions is known as a '^ long contracted foot with high boxy heels,'' or, as some have it, a miiley foot. These two alterations of shape occur in the same AS TO SOL/NBNESS. 59 structure, take place simultaneously, and spread over a considerable time. I have before showTi that f/ie line of direction of weight is through the long axis of the pha- langeal bones, and we find that this comes out at the point of the frog. For purposes of illustration to-day we take two sections of the foot — both vertical sections, but one from before backwards, exactly through the centre {see Fig. 3'), and the second from side to side, Fig. 3. through the long axis of the phalangeal bones, coming out at the point of the frog using the anterior section [see diag. 2, fig. 3). In the first section we get sym- metrical halves ; but the section of the cofiin bone will mislead you if you do not remember its wings, which you do not see, but which extend much further back than the surface of the same bone which is open to view. The anterior part of the second section of the foot shows the coffin bone resting upon an arch. This arch is formed of the bottom part of the wall of the foot, on 6o EXAMINATION OF HORSES either side as its buttresses^ and of the sole for its spa7i. Keystone it has none. Take either half of the Jirst section of the foot, and you again find the coffin-bone resting upon an arch. This arch differs from the last in its posterior half. Its anterior half, like the former arch, has the wall of the foot as a buttress and the sole for a span ; but for the posterior half of the span and buttress it has one structure, and this structure is yielding and highly elastic, and diverges as it proceeds backwards. Seen from above, or as we see it when looking into an empty hoof, we find it like this — (y AS TO SOUADNESS. 6i We have, then, two arches crossing each other at right angles, which have the same centre of weight. The centre or focus of weight is at the coffin-joint, — please remember that. After passing this joint the weight radiates, and so gets diffused. In radiating, the rays pass from this joint through the coffin bone, which is itself a radiating structure, on to the ejittre base of the foot, the most direct, therefore the shortest rays, as I have already told you, pass out at the point of the frog. Let us stop a moment to consider the difference in iiite7isity between focused and diffused rays. In the case of light, you can focus with a magnifying glass the rays on the back of your hand until you get an intensely bright spot about the size of a pea, when all the rest of the back of your hand appears in shade ; but move the glass nearer to or further away from your hand, and you see the bright spot becomes larger and larger, darker and darker, until it ceases to be discerned as a spot at all, and the back of your hand is not now in the shade, but is faintly lighted up. The rays have radiated, and now cover a wider area, dead faintly light up this area, instead of lighting an area the size of a pea intensely and leaving all the rest dark. This you can see. In your penny- peep-show days you will no doubt have seen a large muscular mountebank lie upon his back, and have a large size forge anvil placed upon his chest, and this struck by the swinging blow of a very large sledge- hammer. The centre, or focus of weight, here is the face of the hammer upon the anvil, and the rays have the 62 EXAMINATION OF HORSES large area of the anvil bottom whereon to diffuse them- selves, and are of considerable length. The weight, moreover, is momentary, and is not confined to the face of the anvil, but diffused through most of the body of the anvil. The rays are so faint when spread over this large area that they scarcely alter the inertia of the anvil, and are therefore barely felt by the bearer, who rises, supposed to have survived a crushing blow. Had the anvil been one-tenth the size the rays would have been in focus, or nearly so ; there would have been one-tenth the inertia to overcome \ and the earthly career of our friend would have been cut short. Distance, then, is, as we have endeavoured to show, an important factor in radiation and in concentration. Without proper distance there can neither be radiation nor concentration ; so that if the coffin joint be our focus or centre of weight, and we wish the weight to be diffused over the base of the whole foot, it is of the very first importance that this joint be u^ell above the surface of the foot. Again, referring you to our two arches, you will notice that in addition to their cutting each other at right angles, and having the same ceiitre of weighty the weight is placed in the middle of the transverse arch, but further forward in the arch, which is formed from before back- wards, so that we may represent this diagramatically by a cross {see Fig. 4). This cross also represents the direction of shortest rays; therefore at all points between these lines there are longer rays. It will further occur to you that the rays AS TO SOUNDNESS. 63 alighting on the points at and between a c and ^ ^ do not in the shod foot terminate in the bottom of the wall of the foot, but in unyielding iron, and the hoof at these points is bound tightly down to this iron by nails, so that it cannot move ; the remaining parts between a d and d b, not being so nailed to iron, can move. If you Fig. 5. observe a shoe that has been worn for a time, you will see this is so for yourselves. The bright mark left by the constant movement is familiar to every horseman. It also follows that (as less pressure yields to greater pressure), the line of greatest weight passing through the middle of the frog, and the other lines being longer between a d and d b respectively, the heels recede from 64 EXAM IN A TION OF HORSES this line of greatest weight, — or in other words they expand. Again, physiology teaches us that when a part is deprived of functional activity by enforced rest it loses in weight and bulk; therefore the front half of the foot being deprived of function (expansion), grows less rapidly than the heels, which, as we have seen, do actually expand ; and as we know that growth of the horny fibre of the hoof takes place from above down- wards, therefore we have the heels, whose functions are freely exercised, growing in height at a faster ratio than the front half of the foot. It further follows that the deeper the heels grow the higher does the frog become lifted from the ground, a?id approximate to the level of the centre or focus of weighty and therefore the more horizontal do the rays become ; so that as the frog is lifted higher and higher, the less and less weight has it to bear, it there- fore melts away, and allows the heels to come together. It is thus we get high heels and contraction. Quod erat demonstrandwn. AS TO SOUNDNESS. 65 LECTURE IX. Evils of Calkins— Evils of Paring and so Weakening the Sole- Flat Soles— Degrees of Flatness — Positive Flatness and Seedy Toe — Low Heels — Calkined Heels— Knuckling Fore Legs— A Horse with Low Heels may be Quite Sound — Long Toes and Sprain on Back Tendons — Pasterns Short and Upright — Toes Out-turned — Brushing — In-turned Toes, Digging and Stumbling — The Unnerved Foot. Gentlemen, — The conclusions at which we arrived at our last meeting lead to practical results of the highest value, and although they have been empirically well known since, and before, tlie days of St. Bel, known alike in our ranks, among horse owners and shoeing- smiths, yet they have led to no higher results than those degrading sights of lame ambling horses, which are to be witnessed in any street in this or any other town of Great Britain. Although shoeing-smiths do not know that the focus or centre of weight ought to be kept well above the ground surface of the foot for the reasons we have just exemplified, yet practically they know it, and yet take no pains to accomplish it, but on the contrary use means to tilt up the heels by wedge shoes and calkins. 5 66 EXAMINATION OF HORSES If the ruinous process sketched yesterday is to be averted, it is evident that it can only be so by keeping the heels and quarters low by careful rasping of the horn at those parts, and the thinnest possible piece of iron put upon them. We have also seen what indispensable services the arch renders ; and yet we see the smith weakening it by paring with the drawing knife. Taking into consi- deration the vast wealth invested in horseflesh in this country and the enormous deterioration of this capital through lameness in the fore feet, which everybody sees and admits, there could be no better service rendered to the horse universe, and therefore to the State, than the passing of an Act of Parliament rendering it a misde- meanour for any person in shoeing a horse to reduce the thickness of his soles or frog, or to put under his heels and quarters iron exceeding a defined thickness, except under the certificate of a qualified veterinary surgeon, which should, after defining the horse, explain the need for the same. Horses, like every other property, are national property, and a man owning them mediately has no more right to deface them than he has to deface the coin of the realm, which he also owns only mediately. '* What's mine's my own," is still the creed, not only of the vulgar, but of those who ought at least to know the riidime?its of political economy. Again, referring to our classification, we find flat soles are the next anomaly of shape. We have already arrived at the main conclusion regarding this defect. The causes of flat soles are three : — AS TO SOUNDNESS. 67 1. Paring with the drawing knife. 2. Laminitis. 3. Congenital. From whatever cause, this is a grave defect, for the rea- sons we have seen. It may be an unsoundness of the greatest magnitude, or it may not be an unsoundness, legally, at all. In judging it you will have to be guided by its 1. Cause. 2. Degree. The degree of flatness varies between the just perceptible lowering of the arch down to, not only flatness, but actual convexity. We may leave out of count actual convexity, as you will not have such a case brought for your opinion under present circumstances. Cases are brought some- times where the flatness is either absolute or nearly so. In such cases a leather sole stuffing, and a broad webbed shoe having in it more iron than common, will be re- quired in order that the horse may go sound. So that you have this test : have him shod carefully in ordinary shoes, and then see if he goes sound. If he now goes lame or "feely," he is unsound, because a sound horse can go with ease in ordinary shoes. Before leaving the subject of flattened soles, let me remind you that in these cases " seedy toe " is frequently present, so that whenever you see the former suspect the latter and test for it by tapping the front of the hoof lightly with a hammer. " Seedy toe " to a very slight 68 EXAMINATION OF HORSES extent is frequently present without lameness resulting. Of course this can only be to a limited extent. You may have it without flattened sole, but in these cases you usually have a dry brittle hoof, which of itself would put you on your guard. Low heels, though not in themselves legal unsound- ness, yet are frequently associated with radical un- soundnesses, such as corns, bruises, and great tenderness. They are natural concomitants of long oblique pasterns and long toes. When such is the case the fetlock joint, or rather the sesamoid bones, and the ligaments at the fetlock joint are frequently the seat either of simple en- largement or are actually diseased. In either case you would reject a horse as unsound. Shoeing smiths take special pains in thes^ cases to lame the horse by raising his heels by calkins and wedge shoes. This, by making the tendon heels either bear pressure or get out of the way, tilts up the oblique pasterns, and then presently -we find low heels, long upright pasterns, and knuckling fore legs. This latter most undesirable combination is all brought about to save the thin tender heels from their calkined penalty, and is an unsoundness for evident reasons. A horse may have low heels and yet be quite sound. We see such cases every day, but you will need to take care such is the case. Long toes, like low heels, are no unsoundness, but are very apt to lead to it. Smiths usually avoid great length of toe by shortening it when they shoe the horse. It often happens, however, that a horse wears his shoes AS TO SOUNDNESS. 69 over the regular time, and then when he has a tendency to have long toes, the strain upon his back tendons for some time before he is re- shod is very great. In all cases you will do well to bear this in mind in examining the back of the leg from the knee downwards, when you either find long toes or see that the toes have a tendency to become long. We now come to the third division of our classification, namely, ano7nalies of position. Upright pasterns, as a general thing, are short as well, but I have already pointed out that they may be long and upright. With short upright pasterns the line of weight passes through the foot {see Fig. 2, ^). The jar in such cases is so great that the foot is extremely likely to be the seat of grave malformation or disease. We frequently have shaky thickened fetlock joints. The stilty crambling gait of such horses is highly jarring and disagreeable to the rider, and renders the horse liable to fall. Such are highly unsafe for riding or for driving in two-wheeled vehicles. When the weight comes through the foot we look for corns, sandcrack, boxy heels, withered frogs, and thrush. We may not have all these, but some of them are sure to be present. More difficult cases for us are those where the weight does not pass through the foot, but very nearly so. A horse perhaps that is growing old is brought to us. We find that he is sound, but the pasterns are growing year by year more upright. We cannot reject such a case, although we may feel certain that in another year he 70 EX AM IN A TION OF HORSES will be unsound. Happy will it be for the purchaser if he be in a position to let his purchase work a year on land and take him off the hard roads altogether. Toes out-turned or in-turned are not of themselves an unsoundness, but lead to it. Out-turned toes are frequently the effects of badly- formed legs ; and we cannot be too careful in examining the inside of the fetlock joint for signs of " brushing." The fetlocks often receive such severe blows with this defect that the horse comes down. We often find thickening of the parts and scars. In such cases the thicke?iing is not from simple hypertrophy, but from in- flammatory deposit set up by the blows, and can only be of a very limited extent for a horse to remain technically sound. If he has to go fast with a weight on his back, he is with such a conformation practically unsound. There is often a thickening about the sesamoid bones in such cases. This is on account of the parts having more than their share of weight, also to the internal lateral ligaments of the fetlock participating in the inflammation and becoming softened, and therefore relaxed. I have in- variably rejected horses with out-turned toes and enlarge- ments on the inside of the fetlock joints, and have never had cause to regret it, although a horse might be sound in every other respect, because I regard it as so very pro- bable that the internal lateral ligament may have become deteriorated. In-turned toes are very objectionable when the defect is very pronounced. The conformation which leads to it is AS TO SOUNDNESS. 71 highly conducive to defective action, such as *' digging " of the toes and stumbUng ; we also find enlargements on the outside of the pastern and foot which render the limb stiff and awkward. In-turned toes can only be so to a slight degree with- out being accompanied by organic defects amounting to unsoundness, so that if there be this condition to any extent, organic defects will almost be sure to be found, when you will reject the horse on their account. If no organic defects are present, of course you will have to pass the horse just as you would with any other defect of form. We now come to our fourth division in classification, which is injuries. Eight forms are set down, but as every injury to the foot is aggravated when occurring to feet deprived of the salutary influence of its nerves, we shall consider first of all the foot that has been deprived of its nerves (unnerved). 72 EXAMINATION OF HORSES LECTURE X. The Unnerved or "Nerred" Fore Foot — Discovers itself in the Gait — The Tissues of the "Nerved" Foot degenerate- Brittle Hoof — Pricks in Shoeing — Gathered Nails— Bruised Sole — Bruised Coronet — Speedy Cut — Diseases Obvious — Grease — Ringbone — Sidebones — Corns. Gentlemen, — We now come to one of the most re- pulsive forms of unsoundness to which the horse is exposed, namely, the un-nerved fore foot. However neatly executed the operation, the unnerved foot is betrayed in two ways — by the marks where the inci- sions have been, and by the numb, awkward manner the horse has in using his feet, which is seen when he walks, and is felt when ridden in the trot. Last year I examined two valuable-looking hunters at York, aged respectively eight years and nine. The younger one I passed, and the elder one I was perplexed over. I had handled every part of him, tried his wind, had his fore shoes off, and in the second part of my examination — the one we are now going over — I had searched for cicatrices over the positions of " nerving," as is my custom ; had his shoes carefully replaced, and had him AS TO SOUNDNESS. 73 walked and slowly trotted. There was nothing in the gait to be called lameness, and yet there was a some- thing in the gait which I thought was awkward — something wrong. He seemed physically such a perfect horse, and was not too old. In trying his wind, I had ridden him hard in a grass field and at a swinging canter. Now in walking on the hard road his gait was wrong. I got on him again, and im^nediately felt his numb wooden feet. On dismounting I carefully searched for and found the very neat cicatrices. He had been " nerved " on both his fore fetlocks, very neatly indeed, and so effectually that it was discovered in his gait on the hard road. The hard, metalled road was as much a paradise to him as a soft grassy park, — which, as I have said, betrayed him. The man who can have pleasure in riding a " nerved " horse has no claim to the title of horseman. You cannot be too careful in looking for "nerving" marks, in order that one so vilely mutilated may be rejected at any price. If the foot has been " nerved," it has been deprived of the most precious gift of organic life — the power to feel, therefore the power to feel pain ; and, in consequence, it has lost the first essential of self-conservation. Degenera- tion of the tissues may be delayed for a time in the " nerved " foot, but if it has been effectively done, that is, done so that there shall never be reunion of the nerve, then it is physiologically impossible for de- generation of tissue to be delayed over a very short time. Having satisfied yourself that there has been no 74 EXAMINATION OF HORSES " nerving," then all other injuries declare themselves through paiii^ or if of a painless character, can usually be seen. Brittle hoof is an unsoundness when it won't bear the nails with which the shoe is fastened. You may, and often have, " seedy toe " as a complication. Brittle hoof is frequently present in the autumn when the coat is being cast. You then often find a dry, dead coat; and, as hair and hoof are identical tissues, the hoof also suffers with the coat. Prolonged derangement of the digestive organs will also similarly affect these structures at any time. It may be also due to con- gested feet ; if so you have increased heat, quite per- ceptible to the feel, and if you have not a "feely" ambling gait, this is soon induced in the way before described. In this latter case the brittleness will be of a permanent character very likely, but in the former far more temporary, but yet an unsoundness. Pricks in shoeing may be of any magnitude, from the simple " drawback," to use the smith's phraseology, to a suppurating sinus appearing at the top of the hoof (Quittor). In their minor forms they will be detected by 1. Lameness. 2. A left-out nail 3. Tapping the sole and wall with a hammer. Gathered nails almost invariably penetrate the highest part of the arch formed by the sole (the point of the frog), and give rise to marked lameness. AS TO SOUNDNESS. 75 Bruised sole, when freshly done, also gives rise to much lameness, and to discolouration of the sole seen on paring with a drawing knife. If the lameness has all gone, and there be no undue flatness of the sole — which there often is — although there may be discoloration still visible, such a horse could not, for this reason alone, be properly rejected as unsound. The blood extravasation is only a sign of what has been, and is not a physical detriment, nor will it lead to any. Very different is it when the sole from any cause is flatter than it ought to be ; then, unless protected in some way, as by a leather sole, a bruise to the sole may re-occur at any time. In such a case a bruised sole of any degree whatever is an unsoundness, occurring as it does in a conformation suffering from it, and predisposed to it. We should condemn such a case for the same reasons that we should condemn the faintest possible thickening in the curb place occurring in " curby hocks." Bruised coronet, however slight, can seldom be looked upon as a trivial injury. Without the greatest care such injuries are apt to assume a most aggravated character. If the only evidence you can find is a simple peeling off of the skin, accompanied by increased heat, such cases you will do well to reject, at least till the effects of the injury, slight as it may appear, have gone. Speedy-cut when fresh done only can be looked upon as unsound. No matter how many scars we may have, no harm can arise from them. It shows, however, a somewhat grave defect in the horse's action. 76 EXAMINATION OF HORSES Unlike brushing, it has Uttle tendency to throw him down. The last division of our classification is the greatest numerically, but is hardly the most important, because actual disease in the foot is as a rule not only soon detected but the subject of it is rarely brought for examination as to soundness. Some of these are so obvious to all con- cerned that we can erase them at once. These are — T. Canker. 2. Carbuncle of Coronary Band. 3. Disease of the Pyr. Process of Pedal Bone. 4. False Quarter. 5. Quittor. 6. ViUitis. Others, though obvious, require some little comment. These are three, namely, 1. Grease. 2. Ringbone. 3. Sidebones. The remainder are, or may be, obscure. For this reason, as well as for their great importance, we must dwell upon them more at large. These are : — 1. Corns. 2. Laminitis, Subacute and Chronic. 3. Navicular Disease. 4. Sandcrack. 5. Seedy-toe. 6. Thrush. AS TO SOUXDXESS. yj Passing over the first division, in which six unmistakable diseases are enumerated, we come to the second division, which contains three. Grease affects the skin of the heels, but more often the hind ones. We frequently have it or cracked heels in the hollow of the heels of the fore extremities. If it is unmistakably present, of course the horse is for the time unsound. If, how- ever, the skin of the heels be swollen and only slightly cracked, or not cracked at all, if you can make out that it is an attack of grease which threatens, the horse is for _the time unsound, because work would aggravate the seemingly trivial disease ; therefore, before he would be fit to use he would require cooling medicine, and a horse actually requiring even so little as a dose of physic does not answer the definition of a sound horse. However you may regret having to reject such a one, you will either have to do so or give an opinion such as no law court would support you in. It is best in all temporary and easily removable cases of unsoundness to advise proper treatment, and ask to be allowed to prosecute your examination at the expiration of a spe- cified time, which you name. On no account ought you to give a certificate of soundness in these cases and trust to the purchaser or any other person to remove the temporary unsoundness and make your certificate good. It is a matter of daily experience of parties buying horses and regretting it within twenty-four hours. If they are really dishonest, they will even try and cripple the horse by " beaning," in order that they may return him. The 78 EXAMINATION OF HORSES consciences of most men are extremely elastic in matters equine. So that a temporary and easily removable un- soundness has not, under such circumstances, a fair chance. Then again it is far less satisfactory to have to give either in writing or orally a qualified opinion. Ringbone more usually affects the hind pasterns, but may be found on the fore ones. Ringbone is an un- soundness which cannot for a moment be regarded in any mitigated light. You ought, however, to bear in mind that the asperities at the sides of the heads of the coronal bones for the insertion of the lateral ligaments may be so prominent as to mislead un- guarded persons into the belief that ringbone is present. When ringbone is present, you have a most unmistak- able ''ring" of bone, if not actual lameness and stiffness, Sidebones (ossified lateral cartilages) are among the commonest forms of ailment of heavy cart horses, but we seldom find them in the lighter breeds. We not unfre- quently find the lateral cartilages strong but yielding, and when that is the case a horse with a good foot otherwise may be considered as sound. About nine months ago I passed such a horse for one of my best clients, which was to cost Httle short of three hundred pounds. These strong lateral cartilages are not ossified, and have no particular tendency that way. If you can feel them yield, no matter how little, they are not ossified. Very different, however, is it in the heavy-bodied dray horse in which they have a strong tendency towards ossification. AS TO SOUNDNESS. We now come to the last of our subdivisions, which contains six. They are — 1. Commonly met with. 2. All concealed (more or less). 3. All unsoundnesses. Corns are among the last things you look for at an examination, because in order to make sure of finding them you must remove the fore shoes and have the corn places carefully pared out. Removing the fore shoes is deferred to the last by all veterinarians for obvious reasons. You will constantly meet with those who do not remove the shoes in searching for corns at an examination as to soundness. This, however, is un- pardonable in all cases where you have an opportunity. Extremely bad corns can quite easily be detected with a searcher without removing the shoe, but then such dis- cover themselves also by causing lameness. It is the slight corns for which you are looking, quite as much as for the more aggravated ; and, in order to find them, you will have to have the heel pared out thoroughly. You must remember that the extravasated blood constituting a slight corn is not embedded in the crumbly exfoHating material that the knife first cuts through, but is embedded in the living hor?i beneath, so that you will have to clear away all this debris thoroughly before you will find a small corn. All corns are very properly regarded as unsoundnesses ; because, if they do not already lame the horse, the feet require more than ordinary skill on the 8o EXAMINATION OF HORSES part of the smith when being shod. Pathologically- regarded, corns, one would think, could be easily re- moved ; but such is not the case — plainly showing, to my mind, that their tendency to form is very strong in such feet as those in which we find them. Let me cau- tion you against being satisfied by looking for corns on the inner side; the very fact that they do occur on the outer heel shows us that we have no more right to pass over this than we have to pass over any other point because defects found in it are oi less frequent ocaxrx&ncQ. We do not pass over unnoticed the hind foot because it is less frequently the seat of disease than the fore foot. I mention this because so many persons only search for corns in the inner heel and pass over the outer one. Whilst you have the shoe off, you can observe better than with it on the state of the sole as to its convexity. It is astonishing how one may be deceived in this matter when the shoe is on, especially if the shoe be rather thick. In such cases a somewhat flattened sole may appear to be far more concave (arched) than it really is. Laminitis, subacute and chronic, I have already told you about, and I shall reserve the subject of navicular disease till to-morrow. AS TO SOUNDNESS. 8i LECTURE XI. NAVICULAR DISEASE. Gentlemen, — We now come to the subject of navi- cular disease, vulgarly called " groggy lameness." This is no place for much pathological reasoning, but as very different explanations have been given as to both the causes and nature of the affection, I feel bound to say a few words about it, although I would like alto- gether to evade the question. A.nd it would be not only possible but reasonable for me to do so were the affec- tion always apparent, as quittor or canker is apparent ; but it is in many cases so concealed that we can only arrive at the conclusion that we have navicular disease by a process of exclusion, that is to say, when we find a case of lameness of the fore extremity, and we fail to find any physical defect we conclude that it must be navicular disease which is causing the lameness, or, in other words, we have to guide us. Negative Signs and Symptoms. Before going any further I will trespass on your time by defining the difference— the vast difterence — between 6 82 EXAMINA TION OF HORSES a sig7i and a symptom. A mare supposed to be far advanced in pregnancy is brought to you, and you are requested to give an opinion as to whether or not she be in foal. You find an enlarged abdomen, an enlarged udder, and perhaps the udder contains milk, as you can see by squeezing some of it out. You then, for protec- tion, have the mare's fore foot lifted, take off your hat and press your ear against the abdomen, far underneath, and shift your ear from place to place till at last you hear the beating of the foetal heart. You may fail to find it on one side, but you go to the other — well under the belly. By patience you at last find it ; you hear the tick-tac, tick-tac, just like the beat of a large watch. This is the beat of the foetal heart, it is nothing else, — it can be nothing else; nothing in the animal economy, normal or abnormal, could produce such a sound except the foetal heart. Here then is a sign. You can say for certain not only that the mare is in foal, but that she has within her a living foal. You can mark the place with a piece of chalk and delight your employer by letting him hear it, — and he can disappoint himself and his boon companions by taking them next day to listen over the chalked spot, and fail to hear the foetal heart. He calls you again. You have to explain that a living, healthy foetus takes regular exercise, and sports about in a fluid of its own specific gravity (amniotic fluid), and that it will have altered its position most likely, and will give you another hunt with your ear. But what were the enlarged abdomen, and udder containing milk ? We call them symptoms \ and AS TO S0?7XD.V£SS. 83 they are symptoms of the most unreliable kind. A hundred things will cause enlarged abdomen, from gross feeding on succulent food, down to the most aggravated tumour; and anything occupying the womb, no matter whether it be a healthy, living foal, or a fibroid tumour, may cause the udder to swell and fill with milk. A g?'oiiJ> of symptoms constitutes a sign, but never can a single symptom. I have said that we diagnose navicular disease by the most unsatisfactory of methods, namely, by absence of signs and the presence of symptoms. We have lameness, and we fail to find signs of disease such as would account for it, — as a hot tender splint, a gaping sand- crack, or a suppurating corn. We have to all appearance, it may be, a perfectly sound limb and a good irreproach- able foot, but when the horse trots he goes lame, and when he comes to stand he "points." Now I believe that there neither is nor can be a greater delusion than to suppose that "pointing " is a sign of navicular disease^ It is no such thing; and as a symptom, which it un- doubtedly is, I don't know of a more unreliable one. Regarded as a sign, we have only to find out that a horse, feeling pain in the back part of his foot, as for instance from a corn, points, and it at once condemns " pointing " as a sign of navicular disease. There is another delusion in the horse universe. Ex- cepting among veterinary surgeons, and a very few others, it is generally believed that where you have contracted wiry heels you also must have navicular disease. Very early on in these lectures I advised you always to pay 84 EX A MINA TION OF HORSES some regard to popular belief. In this case the great frequency with which we find contraction and navicular disease to co-exist, has given rise to their being looked upon as cause and effect. When we come to think how frequently we find the two conditions co-existing we can scarcely wonder at this ; it even led the late Professor Coleman to see cause and effect in it. We do, however, often find contracted wiry heels without navicular disease, and, on the other hand, we often find well-formed feet with wide open good heels afliicted with navicular disease. In the latter case we have an acute form of the disease, and the heels, should the disease continue, will not be long before they become atrophied (contracted) from suspended function. When we have navicular disease in a well- formed foot, we have it then of an acute kind, and accordingly we have a group of symptoms which constitute a sign ; these are — 1. A frequent shifting of the weight from one foot to the other, and pointing with the rested foot, when standing. 2. Increased heat in the hollow of the heel and tender- ness on pressure with the thumb in the hollow of the heel. 3. Throbbing of the plantar arteries. 4. The horse goes on his toes, tripping and stumbling, and is lame. Unfortunately, however, we have no such distinctive signs of the disease in an examination as to soundness. If it be present at all it will be in a chronic form, and giving rise to an unnatural gait, only to be detected by the AS TO SOUNDNESS. practised eye, and by this only with care and attention. Frequently we find a horse with this disease coming out of his stable stiff and crambly, and after he has gone awhile he will go sound. If you suspect him to have groggy lameness of an obscure nature, do as the late Professor Dick used to do. He would have the horse stabled and have him brought out at intervals throughout a whole day. This of course was when he had either seen symptoms of lameness or thought he had. Prolonged rest in a loose box has sometimes a wonderful remedial effect in the more chronic forms. When this is so, I suspect the disease is in one of two conditions : it is either at the very beginning of the disease, before patho- logical changes have far advanced; or there are adhesions, or a state suitable for adhesions, between the ulcerated navicular bone and the ulcerated flexon tendon, the rest allowing these adhesions to organise and attain resisting power. Of course this is a mere guess, but you can take it for what it is worth. But what I wish to impress upon you is that you may have to all appearance a sound horse who all the time has navicular disease, and you are therefore to take means for discovering it. Have the horse warmed with exercise and taken straight into a stable, and let him stand wrong end first in his stall secured by pillar reins, and leave the stable door open. You can watch him and see if he " points," then in half an hour or so have him quietly led out of the stable and notice his shoulders and pasterns. If he has any navicular disease at all, no matter whether he has been cured by 86 EXAMINATION OF HORSES rest or not, you will find his shoulders stiff, his pasterns t/p7'ight, and that he goes on his toes. If you do not watch him yourself during the time he is resting, something like the following may happen. About six years ago I drove a distance of a few miles from Leeds to examine a horse that I suspected had a slight touch of groggy lameness, and used the means I have above recommended, but went and sat down with the vendor after warming the horse and putting him in the stable. On my making my appearance the vendor's man quarrelled with the horse and excited him so that, instead of his walking quietly out of the stable, he made a rush for the door so as to eftectually mask any stiffness of gait the horse might otherwise have evinced. It was late in the afternoon on a winter's day, and darkness ap- proaching; there was no time for a repetition of the exercise and standing, so that I bid the intended seller good-day and started home, and for my own sake I had to make a second journey, because it was clearly my fault for not having watched the horse myself. Indeed •you miss a good deal by not watching how he disposes of his feet during his rest, to see if he points and keeps shifting his feet. If you see the symptoms named as the horse is being led out of the stable, you may be pretty certain that navicular disease is causing them, and condemn the horse as unsound. You are not bound to specify the particular disease, either in a certificate or orally, to either your employer or any other body. It is far safer AS TO SOUNDNESS. 87 to say that you reject a horse because he is lame in his fore foot, than to certify that he has navicular disease ; because you have not in these masked cases a group of symptoms amounting to a sign. The stiff shoulders, the upright pasterns, and the going on the toes, do not con- stitute a group of symptoms amounting to a sign, because tenderness and pain at the back of the foot, from any cause, produces the same symptoms, and your not being able to find any cause that could give rise to these symptoms is but a negative proof. Without being infaUible, this group is found by the profession to be a sufficiently good working hypothesis. Lastly, in what class of horse have you to suspect its presence? Undoubtedly in the lighter breeds, because we find that these have — 1. Less feet than the heavier breeds, and therefore the radiation of the rays of weight is limited to a narrower area, and the shock is consequently the greater to the foot. 2. They batter their feet more on the hard roads with having to go at quicker paces. 3. They are not used for walking, but faster paces, and when not moving they are standing, and often sleeping while standing. Having gone somewhat at length into the mechanism of the fore Hmbs, and explained that the centre of radia- tion is at the coffin joint, I have only to ask you to look closely at a section of this joint {see Fig. 3,'), and see that the navicular bone is not a hair's-breadth from EXAMINATION OF HORSES this focus or centre of weight ; indeed it helps to form part of it, and but for the obHque direction of the phalanx would certainly have transmitted through it a portion of the rays in their most intense form. This obliquity of the phalanx saves it in every position save one, and that is when the foot is planted on the ground far under the body as in sleep. In some paces, such as the walk and trot, the foot occupies at every pace almost, but not quite, the same relation to the body. It is in sleep only that the body is thrown over the fore feet to such an extent that the posterior rays of weight pass through the navicular bone. If you take a perfectly fresh section of the fore leg and foot from the knee, plant the foot surface on the ground, and place your whole weight on the knee of the section and bend it forward, you tighten up the navicular bone by the per- forans tendon as though it were held in a vice ; then notice the direction of the long axis of the phalanx, and you find that it still does not pass through the navicular joint; but you are not to suppose that with thCj-weight of your body the direction of the axis is directed backward to the same extent as it is with the weight of the horse's body. But above all, you are not to lose sight of the fact that the centre or focus of the rays of weight is the ivhole of the lower articular surface of the coronary bone. When therefore the line of the axis of weight passes i7timediately in front of but not through the navicular joi?it, this joint is in the very blaze of the focus of weight, besides acting as the mainstay of the coffin joint. The AS TO SOUNDNESS. 89 wedge-shaped navicular bone acts as a mainstay to the coffin joint, and the more the coffin joint needs staying the tighter and firmer is the wedge pressed in the cleft by the per- forous tendon. The bone, having an extremely precarious nutrient supply, and being compressed for hours together, no wonder that disintegrating changes take place in it so often as they do. Where surface meets surface you find the elastic buffer-like provision of articular cartilage opposed to the surfaces of the navicular bone at the coffin joint ; but the articular cartilage over the navicular surface, pressed upon by the perforous tendon, does not meet with the same amount of yielding elastic resistance from the tense hard tendon which presses it forward into the joint; hence the prevalence of degenerative changes in the bone nearest this surface, and involving this surface and the tendon which presses it in perhaps most cases. 90 EXAMINATION OF HORSES LECTURE XII. Sandcrack — Thrush — Thrush as a Constitutional Disease compared to Fistula in Ano — Thrush always a Bad Form of Unsoundness — Elbow : Tumour on Elbow — The Back Tendons examined — " Wind -gall " — " Thoropin " — Filled Legs. Gentlemen, — We now come to the consideration of the last three diseases of the foot that we have named, which need not occupy much of our time, inasmuch as there are no disputed points about any of them. Sandcrack is a split or crack in the hoof, running from above downwards, occurring in the direction of greatest pressure ; and therefore we find it on the inside of the fore foot, and on the front of the hind foot. As a rule, we find it on the inside of the fore foot ; but where, from toes very much either in-turned or out-turned, we have the line of weight abnormally directed, we may at times find it elsewhere. If the crack is wide and deep, it is of, course easily recognized; and it has only to be deep — that is, to involve the deep, sensitive structures — to give rise to lameness, by which alone it may be discovered. When the crack is limited, so that no lameness results, it is an easy matter to overlook it. AS TO SO[y\VDN£SS. It is often concealed by being neatly plastered up and the feet greased ; but such means do not hide it from a close view. When you lift the fore foot forivai'd^ and rest it on and above the opposite knee, you must invariably lift the fringe of hair overhanging the coronet, and you will find the beginning of the crack. No sand- crack can be overlooked, if looked for, however neatly " doctored." However slight — although there be no present lameness — the horse having one is unsound ; because it may get larger and deeper, and cause '"dead" lameness ; and if not, it at least shows a hoof incapable of performing its functions and retaining its integrity. Seedy-toe has already been considered. Thrush is a disease in which a stinking morbid product wets the cleft of the horny frog, the result of degenerative changes in the fibro-fatty frog. It is sometimes due to local causes ; but far more frequently is it the local expression of grave constitutional defects. I daresay you will have heard or read oi fistula in ano in human beings. The discharge in this case is by the side of the anus, from a large space (ischio-rectal fossa) filled with fat. Fistula in ano may have a local cause, such as an abscess ; but is very frequently indeed connected with constitutional derangement, and frequently accompanies pulmonary phthisis. Mr. Bryant, in his " Practice of Surgery," says of it : "Of the causes of this disease little positive information can be given. The abscess, in the majority of cases, begins ivithout any evident cause ^ and careful questioning generally fails in obtaining defi- 92 EXAMINATION OF HORSES nite information upon the point As a rule, the abscess is obscure in its origin^ and slow in its progress, as in its repair; some patients even profess to have been quite unconscious of its existence till it was about to burst. In other cases they are very acute in their action, and very painful." Had Mr. Bryant been writing of thrush, he might have used exactly the same description, with the exception of the abscess formation, which, of course, depends on different anatomical relations in the two cases. Like "thrush," fistula in ano is easily cured if it depend on a local cause. Heat and moisture long applied to the parts, either from the horse standing in his litter, or having his feet stuffed, or a sudden change from a low diet to a high liberal diet, perhaps consist- ing of beans, are what we may term local causes. In these cases, removal of the cause, physicing, dryness and warmth to the feet, and the application (after cleansing the cleft by see-sawing thick soft rope through it) of calomel, with tow to the bottom of the cleft, will affect a cure almost at once. Very different is it with thrush and with fistula in ano when it depends on a constitu- tional cause. If you are ever tempted to pass a horse with a thrush, and give a qualified certificate or opinion, see that it is not constitutional thrush. A " leggy," flat- sided horse having a thrush you should never either pass or recommend at any price higher than the value of the horse's hide. In the very early part of my career, I remember examining a "leggy," flat-sided horse, with one slight thrush, at York, for a personal friend. It so AS TO SOUNDNESS. 93 happened that the gentleman who was selhng the horse was an old acquaintance of my friend, and persuaded him, in spite of my warning, to purchase the brute. When the horse arrived in Leeds I was requested to give him an alterative ball, which I did, containing two drachms each of powdered nitre, rosin, ginger, and purging mass, beat up into a ball ; and super-purgation followed its exhibition. \Ve could hardly believe that • so little aloes — less than two drachms — could have such an effect ; therefore a like ball was administered again one Saturday night, when our '• leggy," flat-sided friend with the thrush was in his best condition, and in less than six hours he was nearly raked to death. The thrushes in his fore feet kept discharging, with slight intervals, all the twelve months I knew him, and left the back part of his fore feet a complete wreck. I have seen so many cases of the above description that, if I am ever so certain in my own mind that the thrush is local and not constitutional, on no account will I pass such a horse or recommend him to be purchased. There is just one other case I must mention, because it was a most remarkable case in itself, and lost me one of my best employers. I examined two horses on the Yorkshire wolds in one day for a gentleman at Halifax. One was a three-year-old, the other, I think, was seven or eight. Both horses were quite well known to my employer's friend Sir G. W. ; but the latter was espe- cially well and favourably known to this gentleman. I thought him just a little flat-sided, but that I had nothing 94 EXAMINATION OF HORSES to do with; and I remarked his fine open feet and perfect frogs to the farmer who was seUing him. I thought I had never seen two such beautiful feet. On arriving at HaHfax, I heard on good authority that the gentleman's head groom struck the horse on the ribs, and exclaimed, " What's 'e passed sich a flat-sided brute as this for ? " About a month, or less, afterwards, I was sent for to see the horse, and found him a complete wreck. He had thrushes on both fore feet, which had both contracted (collapsed) at the heels, a large bone spavin on the off-side hock, a large splint on his near fore leg ; he was " hide-bound," had a staring coat, and I could count his ribs ten yards off. All this change in less than a month. He cost one hundred and fifty pounds ; and was sent in about a fortnight afterwards to Tattersall's, and sold for thirty-three guineas. I was assured that a thrush was found immediately upon his arrival at Halifax ; but be this as it may, what a frightful constitutional change he had undergone in five weeks or less. Suppose again that you really have thrush from local causes; the discharge is so acrid that it has a great tendency to destroy the horny frog — a thing of no mean importance. Having now gone through a thorough review of the phalanges, including the foot, I beg to refer you to the place at which we began to digress. You will remember we were examining the front of the leg, and had got down to the fetlock joint. Grasp AS TO SOUNDNESS. 95 the joint with your right hand, then the pasterns, and screw your hand round the parts to feel if there be any ringbone. Do the same to the top of the coronet ; then lift the iool forward, resting it above, and in front of, the opposite knee, when you will have a good view of its inner wall ; and now lift the fringe of hair from the coronet, and look for sandcrack. Being satisfied, drop the foot, and examine the back of the leg, beginning at the elbow. The elbow joint is frequently the seat of fibrous tumour, from injury with the heel of the shoe in lying down, or the subcutaneous bursa may be enlarged. If the tumour becomes large it is very unsightly ; so that with a small tumour, with or without scar, you ought to caution the purchaser. It is no unsoundness, so far as I know, however large the tumour, as it does not inter- fere with his usefulness, but is an eyesore, and an attendant has to buckle on a pad to cover the heel of the shoe at night to prevent crushing of the elbow. I have kno'v\Ti such tumours give rise to much incon- venience and anxiety, and after removal to recur. From the elbow to the heel we have flexor muscles, ending in long tendons, which have to glide easily, and without friction, through well lubricated sheaths ; and, as both the tendons and the sheaths through which they glide are liable to overstretching and other accidents set- ting up inflammation, we have to look for some of the ( 1 ) Effects of inflammation ; (2) Natural attempts at repair. EXAMINATION OF HORSES When a tendon and any synovial sheath through which it glides suffers injury, which sets up inflamma- ticn, however slight, the first effect of the inflammation is to arrest the function of the synovial membrane — that is to say, to arrest the secretion of joint oil — and we feel the parts swollen, hot and tender to the touch ; and just as an engineer on feeling a shaft revolving in a collar getting hot would stop his engine, and apply cold water to cool the shaft, and re-oil the collar before again starting the engine, so have we to take means to let the machine rest, and subdue the inflammation which has arrested the secretion of oil. In our case, now, we have to follow the example of the engineer, who goes from time to time to feel the temperature of the various shafts which are revolving through collars, to feel that they are cool, by which he infers that the collar is well oiled. By the term well oiled an engineer means — 1. Sufficiency of oil; 2. Oil of good quality ; 3. Covering evenly the entire surface of the shaft which is grasped by the collar. The practical horseman does the same. The groom, on removing the leg bandages in a morning, runs his hand slowly and carefully down the back of the fore leg, from above the knee to the pastern, to feel that the synovial sheaths (collars) are cool. Perhaps the previous evening, when he put on the bandages, the synovial apparatus was hot, and a little swollen from overwork; but a night's rest and the gentle pressure of his bandage AS TO SOUNDNESS. c)7 has been sufficient to cool the parts, and the engine is fit to be started once more. By constant hard work, by-and-bye the time comes when he finds that he also has to apply cold water to reduce the heat ; and this he does by means of bandages dipped in cold water applied through the night. After a time these means fail, and thickness occurs in various places ; and it is only then that work is stopped altogether, which ought to have been done at the very time when cold water bandages had to be resorted to. ' At the present time it remains to decide how much evidence of over- work of these parts, in the form of distended synovial membranes, glorying in the name of "wind gall," "thoropin," according to their situa- tion, may we overlook, and still consider the horse sound. We are told that these are more a sign of over- work than of unsoundness. What is meant by this I never knew. There may be no local impediment to move- ment ; but if movement cannot be repeated a reasonable number of times without heat and swelling of the parts, necessitating sedative means, surely the machine is un- sound. You may, and very frequently, have oedema of the areolar tissue of the legs (filled legs), and heat with this; but then the swelling is not confined to one or two localities, but evenly spread over the whole of the leg down to the top of the hoof and //Vj- on pressure. Then, again, you may have this oedema plus distended synovial sheaths ; and when such is the case a little exercise will take down the " filled legs," and leave you free to judge 7 98 EX AMI N A TION OF HORSES of the remaining condition. This being so, exercise, which will disperse the one — at least for a time — will aggravate the other; consequently, you have the horse thoroughly well exercised, and if the parts get too hot and swollen you reject him as unsound. In old chronic conditions, where over-heat is not induced in these so- called "wind galls" and "thoropins," you have to see that they do not produce mechanical impediment. General oedema of the legs (swelled legs) is a very grave unsoundness while it lasts, inasmuch as it denotes a deteriorated condition of the most important tissue of the body — the blood. While it lasts a horse is quite as unsound as a horse suffering from a blood disease. AVe naturally look for this disease in the autumn, when the blood is loaded with debris, at the time when the system is undergoing observable changes. Impure blood de- velops dropsy, with its ghastly train of evils, by lessening arterial tension. It does so in this way : — 1. The heart walls, fed with impure blood, contract more feebly. 2. Feeble heart contraction lessens aortic distension, 3. Lessened aortic distension 4. Lessens aortic recoil (the propelHng power of the coronary arteries), which 5. Lessens the coronary circulation, and so the heart walls become weakened for want of a due amount, and proper quality, of blood, and become too weak tb contract thoroughly upon their contents. They never fairly empty themselves ; so that the right heart, never AS TO SOUNDNESS. 99 being fairly emptied, keeps the veins overloaded ; and the veins, in holding their liquid load unduly long, and not being relieved of it in time, allow some of its more watery portions to filter through their coats into the surrounding cellular tissue ; the greatest amount escaping, as you might expect, through the parts subject to the greatest pressure, the most dependent parts — the legs. If, then, you have filled legs, recollect that the horse has an enfeebled heart, and therefore lessened arterial tension, which shows itself by sweating on exertion and distressed breathing ; and that the horse cannot do the work of a healthy horse without the risk of congested lungs, cardiac asthenia, and death itself. We shall resume our subject to-morrow. loo EXAMINATION OF HORSES LECTURE XIII. Mallanders — The Back Tendon — Signs of Injury to the Back Tendon— Suspensary Ligament — Its Signs of Injury — The Sesamoid Bones — Splints — The Foot Lifted. Gentlemen, — Having satisfied yourselves that there is no tendency to filled legs, which condition you must remember passes away with exercise, and of itself shows the folly of examining a horse while warm, you now pro- ceed down the limb and examine each part separately. We are now supposed to have found no enlarged burs^e, so that the skin at the back of the knee claims our atten- tion. Here we look for what we seldom find, namely, " mallanders," a skin disease occurring only from shameful neglect. It is a very trifling ailment, but is an unsound- ness while it lasts. If neglected, the skin cracks and a most intractable sore results, necessitating absence ot motion (rest) for a longer or shorter period. Withhold your certificate until the malady, a most trivial one under proper treatment, disappears. If the limbs are clean and cool, your left thumb and fore-finger grasps the back tendon and slides down it from the knee to the fetlock. It ought to be quite free AS TO SOUNDNESS. loi from all enlargements whatever. Should any elongated enlargement be encountered you have to determine its nature and extent. In horses having long oblique pas- terns, the strain on these back tendons is very great. Sometimes cicatrices on the skin give you at first an im- pression of knots on the tendon, but these cicatrices you can move from side to side, plainly showing they have no connection with the tendon. Should you meet with a thickening and filling of the bursse of some considerable length, depend upon it there has at some time been a severe injury to these parts, and you must reject such a one as unsound. Next make another sweep with the same parts of your hand over the suspensary ligament. The outUne of this should be very clear, if sound, and the horse be bearing his weight on the limb. Knotty enlargements encountered on this in any part of its course indicate previous injury. Please notice the difference of the remains of the injury upon the tendon and the suspensary ligament. In the former the enlargement is elongated from above downwards., in the latter a knotty enlargenient remains. Injuries to the suspensary ligament are usually on its lower fourth pretty near the sesamoid bones. It, like the tendon, has enormous stretching when the horse has long oblique pasterns. The sesamoid bones should claim your at- tention simultaneously with the tendon and hgament. You frequently find them enlarged, which gives the whole joint an enlarged appearance, when their duties as main- stays of the fetlock joints are made too onerous by long 102 EXAMINATION OF HORSES oblique pasterns. Increased functional requirements in giving rise to hypertrophy usually stop short of inflamma- tion, but when they do not, of course lameness results. When you have no lameness, but have extreme hyper- trophy, which is on the verge of inflammation, you will do well to reject such a one as unsound, and leave the onus of proving that there is only hypertrophy and no inflammation to others. You can scarcely call a house a sound house whose end wall is bulging, and has to have a wooden stay to prop it up. Next, slide your left fore-finger and thumb down the cannon bone and feel for splints. Splints most often occur on the inside, but are found on the outside, or scattered over the bone indefinitely. They are — ■ 1. Of two kinds. 2. Variously situated. 3. Varied in size. 4. Recent. 5. Old. 6. Single. 7. Multiple. / 8. May interfere with the functions of other parts. Splints are of two kinds, the first kind being due to irritation of the cartilage between the large and small metacarpal bones at a time when this cartilage is being converted into bone. The second kind is periosteal entirely, and due to excitation of the periosteum, which AS TO SOUNDNESS. 103 throws out a deposit that becomes roughened and spreads over a large area, and is known by the elegant name of " sore shin " when it attacks the front of the cannon bone, as it is apt to do in race-horses from concussion ; but retains the name of splint when situated at the back of the bone where the periosteum is dragged upon and irritated by the suspensary ligament. You will have all or most of these points to bear in mind in judging of splints, for reasons I shall name, also because while technically and in law splints are unsoioid- ness, yet you will give great dissatisfaction by rejecting every horse because he has a splint. I believe the law to be quite right in regarding all splints as unsoundness, because by doing so it puts a well-defined limit to what would be a chaos of opinion. Seeing that you have a far higher function to perform than merely to say whether or not the horse you are examining is sound or unsound in the eye of the law, we must dwell on the consideration of splints awhile. Splints may be situated so high up as actually to inter- fere with the lower bones of the knee. When so situated they are, whether recent or old, of grave importance, and render the horse unsound under any circumstances. It is often a most difficult matter to detect them when so situated. The late Professor Dick used to tell of such a case in his lectures. He was sent for to examine a lame horse which three or four veterinarians had seen, and had failed to localize the lameness. The ill-defined angle formed by the upper part of the cannon bone and I04 EXAMINATION OF HORSES the lower part of the knee was, as he pointed out to them, filled up, so that instead of there being a sHght depression, as in sound horses, the lower part of the knee had no well-defined border. On running the hand over these parts you will, under such circumstances, fail to detect a splint if you are not careful, but a comparison of the two knees, seen from the front, always discloses the ailment. Splints, in their usual situation, in the upper two-thirds of the cannon bone on the inside, are to be judged according to their age, but more especially according to the age of the horse. I never yet heard of a good horseman thinking any worse of a horse because of his having a single splint favourably situated and thoroughly formed, provided the horse was sound in every other point, and not less tha7i seven years old. Splints, wherever situated, lame horses during their for- mation, but after they are once well formed, they hardly ever cause lameness, unless they encroach upon an impor- tant structure. Their sizes are various, being often no larger than a small split bean, but are occasionally seen the size of half an orange ; when situated at the back of the bone and between the two small splint bones they are often moulded by the parts which press upon them, and so interfere with these parts less than one would at first suppose. Their being single or multiple on the same bone is of little importance if well situated and fully formed. Should they encroach upon and inter- fere with either the tendon or ligament, they are a grave defect. AS TO SOUNDNESS. 105 You are supposed to have run your fingers down the tendon, the hgament, and the cannon bone successively, while the horse has been bearing his weight upon the limb ; you are now to lift the limb and hold it by the pastern with your right hand, and by pushing aside the tendon with your left thumb, you will be enabled to feel the back of the cannon bone. Occasionally splints occur in this situation, and do not appear on the outer aspect at all. You will now be enabled also to feel the upper part of the suspensary ligament before it bifurcates. We now pass on to the fetlock joint; look for evi- dence of neurotomy ; the back of the pasterns ; and come down upon the top of the back of the foot and try the lateral ligaments ; observe the width of the heel, then lift the foot and hold it with the sole looking well up- wards and observe — 1. If the shoe is evenly worn. 2. The amount of concavity of the sole. 3. The frog, its size, shape, etc. 4. The cleft of the frog, for thrush. Seeing that all matters pertaining to the foot, and there- fore these last conditions, have had a full share of atten- tion, we now pass on to other parts. 1 06 EX A MINA TION OF HORSES LECTURE XIV. Fractured Ribs — Hernia — Down in the Hip or Fractured Ilium — The Stifle Joint— The Tibia— Fracture of Tibia— The Hocks — Curbs in Human Beings — Mechanism of the Hocks — Coarse Hocks — Spavin. Gentlemen, — Having now finished the "fore hand " we pass along the trunk to the hind limb. The walls of the chest are usually free from disease, but occasionally we find evidences of broken ribs. Some shoeing smiths have a vicious habit of striking a horse with a hammer with which they are nailing on the shoe when he happens to be restless during the process. Should a rib have been fractured and have healed, well and good, the only evidence remaining will most likely be an enlargement on the rib which is of httle conse- quence if the injury is of old standing. It sometimes happens, however, that you have disease of the rib remain- ing, and a discharging sinus leading to it, which is rather serious, inasmuch as remedial measures may have to be adopted that will endanger the horse's life, or at least that will lay him off work. Herniae are the next things you look for. We frequently AS TO SOUNDNESS. 107 find them, but they are mostly umbilical or ventral — • scrotal hernia being seldom met with on account of the custom of castrating the horse in this country. Umbilical and ventral herniae are objectionable, — 1. From their unsightly appearance. 2. From the bowel being more exposed to external injury. 3. From their liabihty to become strangulated. If they are of large size their appearance is highly objec- tionable; but in any case you will do well to reduce them and notice 1 . The size of the aperture, and 2. Its situation. If the appearance of the hernia is no objection to the purchaser you ascertain how much danger there is of strangulation by the size and situation of the aperture. If there be a large aperture, larger than a half-crown piece, and it be placed in the centre of the hernial tumour, the chances of its ever becoming strangulated are very remote indeed, but on the other hand these con- ditions are favourable to its becoming larger. If the aperture be small and not in the centre of the hernial tumour, the risk of strangulation is somewhat greater, whilst the chance of its getting larger is less. Should the hernia be irreducible this is another great objection. Scrotal hernia will claim your attention when examining entire horses. If you find one, on no account should you pass the horse. Should you have scrotal enlargemient you will have to determine whether it is hernia or hydrocele. If io8 EXAMINATION OF HORSES it be a hernia and you gently grasp it whilst someone '' coughs " the horse, you feel it momentarily enlarging ; to test for hydrocele you hold a candle in a dark place, close to the scrotum, and you find the scrotum semi- transparent. In passing along the near side of the body you now come to the prominent point of the ilium (anterior iHac spine), and not unfrequently find some of it fractured. When it is whole you can grasp its two ends and feel that both points are in situ, or you can, on standing square behind the horse, compare these prominences on each side. When this prominence is knocked off it gives the horse's quarter a comely rotund appearance. When it is fresh done it sometimes causes lameness for a few days, but it rarely does so afterwards, — indeed I never heard of it being any detriment in any way beyond giving the horse an odd appearance when viewed from behind. See that the large gluteal muscles are well-developed and are all right, then pass over the front part of the thigh occupied by the quadrati muscles down to the stifle joint. This is the largest joint in the body, and is frequently the seat of disease, but when it is so lameness results, which prevents our ever having to examine such a subject for soundness. The patella has over it a large bursa, which sometimes, but rarely, is found enlarged. This may be filled with serum and so require a trifling operation before being considered sound. Whilst at this part cast another glance at the scrotum, sheath, and inside of the thigh, and pass down to examine the part AS TO SOUNDNESS. 109 between the stifle joint and the hock. There is one pecuUarity of this region you should not overlook, namely the exposed condition of the whole length of the tibia on account of its being covered by skin only. Were it not that it is more on the inside than in front, or the outside of the limb, doubtless it would often come to grief. As it is, it is frequently the seat of undisplaced fracture received from the blow of another horse standing in the next stall. When this is so the late Professor Dick strongly advised rest for six weeks, although there might only be the least possible mark upon the skin over it, if there was lameness too. You can, if need be, feel the entire length of this subcutaneous surface of the bone and so detect any evidence of injury, should there be such, -and an absence of lameness, which, fortunately for all concerned, there seldom is, then in all probability there is no material injury. We now come to the hock, which is one of the four principal points we have to see are sound. It is difficult to say which of the four points (eyesight, fore feet, wind, and hock) is of most importance ; but I rather thmk the above order represents their relative importance, so that the hocks, though of least importance of the four points, are still one of the most important parts of a horse. It will be best for us to take a survey of the hock before going into any description of its diseases, and treat it much in the same way as we did the foot. The hock and the structure below it, judging from their homologue, the human foot, are one structure. In other words, the no EXAMINATION OF HORSES parts below the lower end of the tibia are one in struc- ture and function, and bear the same relation to the tibia and parts above them that the human foot does to the tibia and parts above it. The long axis of the human foot is horizontal, and the tibia is placed about perpen- dicular to this. The bones of the foot form an arch on which the tibia rests. This arch has a strong set of ligaments stretched between its two extremities as a string binds together the ends of a bow, by one structure (the strong plantar fascia), which has no homologue in the horse. This is marked by dotted lines in the figure (Fig. 5). Otherwise both structures have like ligaments, binding like structures, and have the same names. Now I wish to draw your attention to one ligament (the calcaneo cuboid), which in both subjects is the frequent seat of disease, and from the same cause. You know what a "curb" is, but you may not have heard that human beings "spring curbs;" and yet they do. Poor growing boys and girls standing for hours together at the loom "spring curbs;" their calcaneo cuboid ligaments inflame and soften and let down the arch of the foot, and they have to be taken to hospitals and have repeated blisters applied while they are resting in bed, when in many cases the inflammatory softening gives way and the arch is either fully restored or nearly so ; but if not, they remain flat-footed; and if they are boys and wish when they grow up to become soldiers, they are particu- larly examined as to the arch of the foot, and if found fiat-footed (to have curbs), they are rejected, because it is AS TO SOUNDNESS. Ill well known that a march of any length would lame them by " springing a curb " afresh. Now I have told you all this in order to draw your attention to the fact that the nearer to a right angle the tibia makes with the parts below it in the human being and the horse, the more does the line of weight pass through the calcaneo cuboid ligament (the ligament which is sprained and inflamed to con- stitute a curb), and it follows that the more this condition exists the more you must look for results at the back of the hock in the one case, and under surface of the foot in the other case. Then again, you will have heard judges of horses say they like a big, flat, square hock, (they mean the iytner aspect of the hock, and not the outer), and they are quite right too, as I shall show you presently. Let us draw a big, flat, square hock (Fig 6). It will be Fig. 6. seen that the squareness is only approximate, and the flat- ness, if you look at such a hock, you will also find is not 1 1 2 EXAM IN A TION OF HORSES absolute flatness, but it is what gives you an impression ot flatness. The bigness is really so. Now to all squares there are four sides and four angles, and so in our square hock. Take the four angles as in our diagram, and you find them formed by — 1. The internal maleolus (Fig. 6,'). 2. The point of the hock (Fig. 6,^). 3. Head of tibia (inner anterior aspect) (Fig. 6,^). 4. Head of inner splint-bone (Fig. 6,*), Please to notice that the last three of these never alter their relative positions. You do not find the point of the hock approaching or receding from the head of the inner splint bone ; neither do you find the head of the inner splint bone approaching or receding from the inner anterior aspect of the head of the tibia. These points are always the same distance from one another. The re- maining point, however, formed by the internal maleolus, approaches ^ and recedes from ^^ whenever the hock bends {see Fig. 7), when our square disappears. So that 4^ Fig. 7. you see when the horseman speaks of his admiration of AS TO so UNDNESS. 1 1 3 a big, flat, square hock, he means a hock having these qualities when it is not bent or flexed. What is it that allows our point number ^ to alter its relative position so much ? It is as your anatomy teaches you, the com- paratively small articular lower end of the tibia which gUdes over the large wide and deep articular surface of the astragalus. Just one other point to which I must draw your attention. I have told you that all the parts below the lower end of the tibia may be regarded as one structure ; the relative positions of these parts are always the same, hence the articular surface of the astragalus always has the same relative position to the other structures, of which it forms a part — that is to say, it never looks more up or more down, more inside or more outside, without all its belongings altering their positions with it (except in the curby hock) ; so that it follows that when you have not a square hock our point number * approaches point number ^ by the lower articular end of the tibia having glided more or less over the large articular surface of the astragalus, and it follows that the more it does so the nearer does the long axis of the tibia approach the parts beneath it at a right angle. In the next place, I wish you to notice what it is that gives size to the hock, or perhaps I ought rather to have said, gives it apparent size. Doubtless you will see that the apparent size depends upon the relative position of our point number * to point number », or in other words, if the articular lower end of the tibia be well 8 1 14 EXAMINA TION OF HORSES up and back on the larger articular surface over which it glides, and so exposes this latter surface, then the apparent larger size is manifest, — indeed the front of the hock is very largely made up of this large articular surface. What is the lesson which all these considerations teach us? Is it not this, that all hocks are of the same size, or nearly so, relatively to the size of the animal, and their difference is apparent only, and not real, in more cases than at first sight appears ? That they differ in size in relation to the horse is quite true, but not nearly so much as do the feet. I hope by the above to have made it clear why straight hocks are preferred to crooked ones by all using horses except for cavalry purposes ; for these it is needful that the hind legs be well under the belly, that the movement, consisting of turning short round, called "wheeling," be the more rapidly and easily accomplished ; but for all other purposes that I know (fast trotting perhaps excepted), the hocks cannot be too straight, because, as has been shown, the straighter they are the more advantageously are they placed, as has been shown. The diseases of the hock are due to concussion and sprain entirely if we except capped hock, and this is just what we should expect. They are — 1. Bone Spavin. 2. Beg „ AS TO SOUNDNESS. 115 3. Thoropin or Thorough Pin. 4. Curb. 5. Capped Hock. Bone spavin is perhaps the commonest of all diseases for which a purchased horse is returned to those who have sold it. This is rather a bold assertion, but it is the result of experience, I am sure again that there is no prejudice in the horse universe of such strength with such slender foundations. From the first year of my apprenticeship (i86c) to this day, I have kept thi^ particular matter ever before me, because in that year my attention was so strongly drawn to the subject by reading the notes of the late Professor Barlow's lectures. Gentlemen, you may not have heard of Professor Barlow. He, I may tell you, taught anatomy in this college many years ago, and he was without doubt perhaps the most promising member this profession has ever had. He killed himself by his devotion to his profession. His principal tool was the microscope — the instrument without which no sound pathology can be established — the trowel which alone can surely lay the medical science foundation-stone, which a sound pathology surely is. From Professor Barlow's notes I feel sure that he held a very liberal opinion with regard to the hock joint. He pointed out strongly, and Professor Dick agreed with him, that hocks might be very coarse at their lower parts without being necessari^ly spavined. The bones involved in spavin — give them wtiat names you please — are made ii6 EXAMINATION OF HORSES up of a light spongy open texture, highly elastic, and which we know as cancellated tissue. They are subject to much occasional pressure, which as you know as surely tends to enlargement (hypertrophy) of any structure as constant pressure tends to the diminution (atrophy) of any structure. When these lower bones are well de- veloped, the hock is said to be " coarse." Horses use their hocks as they do their fore feet in making one do more work than its fellow, in which case its lower, spongy bones will be larger — further developed. Hence we so often find in cases where we have this coarseness that these hyper-developed bones are larger in one hock than the other. The very fact of their coarseness shows their propensity to accommodate themselves to their requirements. Where we find coarse hocks, I again re- peat, we find structures that both can and do accom- modate themselves to exigencies. The process of nature to which we give the name "spavin," is neither more nor less than one of nature's attempts at ankylosis disturbed dim fig the attempt. The cure which she begins she is very frequently indeed not able to finish on account of the forced exercise of the parts. What she aims at is to glue the bones at the bottom of the hock together by means of an ulcero-plastic inflammation. Now I have got to explain what I mean by this in- flammation, seeing that the College of Physicians only enumerates six inflammations, viz.: — i. Ulcerative; 2. Suppurative; 3. Plastic; 4. Rheumatic; 5. Gouty; and 6. Gonorrhoeal. To these veterinarians may add AS TO SOUNDNESS. 117 the ulcero-plastic. You find the best example of it occasionally on macerating bones to make up a skeleton. You find the cuneiform bones, as it were, glued to the tibial without any outgrowth soever. This takes place first by removal by ulceration of the cartilage, when the blood-vessels from the respective surfaces throw out lymph, which in turn gets tunnelled by blood-vessels and so organized. There is a very strong tendency for the parts in question to undergo this change. The first skeleton I ever put up when I was an apprentice was the skeleton of a pony we knew to be over thirty years old, which had spent an easy life. The cuneiform bones and the scaphoide of one hock were as I have described, and no doubt this was due to the animal being at liberty to rest the part whilst this change was proceeding. Rest of the parts must have been perfect during this time, because movement would have so disturbed the plastic lymph that some of it would undoubtedly have oozed out between the bones, and we then should have had spavin. We have plenty of instances of this form of inflammation (?) The vertebrae are very prone to become glued together (ankylosed) on account of their limited mobility, more especially the lumbar vertebras. The lower bones of the hock have no movements one on the other to make it worth the while, so to speak, of nature to maintain these joints* with their synovial membranes, cartilage, etc., so that these parts, like the lumbar vertebrae, have a very strong tendency, like the little-used lumbar joints, EXAMINATION OF HORSES to be removed by absorption and ankylosed in the manner above described. I have no doubt that in the course of time — and here I refer to time as counted by the geologist rather than as counted by the historian — these lower bones of the hock will become one and lose their light spongy texture, and a more perfect hock will result. // is du?'i?ig this trans- formation stage that spavi7i is produced. All the parts are then more vascular and more susceptible to the effects produced by being pushed and pulled from here to there. Whenever we find a part changing the cha- racter of its life — whether it be from a lower form to a higher, or from a higher to a lower form — we find in it extra activity of the parts whose office it is to build it up and to pull it down (the blood-vessels and the absorbents). And if these builders and carriers are unduly meddled with they at once revolt. Let us take one striking example. Let us look at the mammary gland immediately its owner becomes a mother, and notice how the least extra excitement induces abscess in the generous gland, which is already in the full height of its activity. Then again look at the mammary gland and the uterus in womankind, how extremely prone these structures are to become the seat of cancer at the end of child-bearing, or, in other words, when the need for their activity is past, and when they are therefore passing from a higher to a lower life. Of the several forms of exostosis to which we ourselves are liable, the one which is most like in its nature to splint occurs AS TO SOUNDNESS. almost always in the epiphysal cartilage at the lower end of the femur in young men and women at a time — according to anatomical text-books — when the epi- physal cartilage is being converted into bone (Gray gives it at the twentieth year). We could easily multiply these examples, but you will already have learned the fact as one of the fundamental principles in physiology- Then if you find that these bones have little movement one on the other, and have a tendency to become con- solidated, as has been abundandy proved ; and that during the process of consolidation the functional activity of their nutrient parts is intensified, and that under full functional activity a part is soon thrown into a state of disease, — I say, if you grant all this, why need we look for ''concussion" acting upon healthy bones as the cause of spavin, as is usually done? You will perhaps have heard of the theory that spavin is produced by the concussion to which these parts are subjected when the horse sets his foot down, and that it occurs on the inner rather than on the outer side, because the inner side is more under the centre of gravity. Now this is just nonsense. Look at any hock, and you will find that the direction of weight is from within outwards, and not from without ifiwa?'ds. This is evident to all who examine the hip joint, also direction of the articular surface of the astragalus ; but most evident of all when you watch a horse that is either standing or moving. Gentlemen, spavin is caused by concussion, but it is the concussion of extreme flexiori ; and this is why we find 1 20 EXAMINA TION OF HORSES it most in horses that have the most hock action, and are so bent as to admit of extreme flexion ; hence our big, flat, square hock, which we have before seen is necessarily a straight hock, and therefore one not subject to extreme flexion, is rarely^ very rarely, the subject of spavin. AS TO SOUNDNESS. LECTURE XV. Spavin {co?iti?iuea). Gentlemen, — It is to be sincerely hoped that you give the subject of each lecture room in your already much occupied thoughts after leaving this theatre. If you have done so with regard to the subject of our last dis- course, I venture to assert that you will have concluded that if " concussion " were the cause of spavin — I mean the concussion produced when the horse puts his foot to the ground — then the straight hock, and not the bent one, ought to be the more frequent subject of spavin. Now this is not so, as any judge of "horse flesh" will tell you. It is your bent hock that is alike the most frequent subject of spavin and of curb — the hock that can be extremely flexed. We come next to the important question — what spavins lame horses? This to. some of you may seem an absurd question. Most horsemen think that all spavins lame horses. And yet they do not, as all veteri- narians and all really good judges of horses will tell you. We know, for a certainty, that it is the spavin that is 1 22 EXAMINA TION OF HORSES situated well forward that lames a horse. And why ? How is it, if the pain, and therefore the lameness, is caused by the concussion which is produced when the foot is brought to the ground, how is it that spavins situated far back do not cause lameness ? Are the parts so situated less concussed? Most certainly not, as a moment's thought will convince you. But how is it with the concussion of flexion ? Flex a hock-joint and you will see at once where the concussion comes. You will see that the bones at the back of the hock are actually less compressed in extreme flexion than in any other position, and that is why spavin situated well back never lames a horse of itself. I say, of itself, because, if you have spavin well forward at the same time, which you often have, then of course you may have lameness, and no doubt will have lameness, if the process before de- scribed is not completed. These considerations lead us to the detection of spavin. Upon this subject the late Professor Dick held very strong opinions. I don't know anything that irritated him more than to see a pupil look for spavin. He trusted to the sense of touch alone, and he was quite right. I believe that if hocks were never viewed at a less distance than fifteen yards ; but instead, were always handled by the tactus eruditus, we should have far less *' Horse CaJuses " in our courts of justice than we have — on this subject at least. It is the looking, and the prying, and the comparing of the two hocks, that lead us wrong ; that lead us to give decisions which end in an unjust AS TO SOUNDNESS. 123 lawsuit. Here is a drawing of a hock, having upon it a spavin that, until treated, will always lame a horse. If there be an absence of this neat little enlargement which you can fee/ with the tips of your index and middle fingers (using none other), and the horse goes sound, the less you say abo'it his being spavined the better. By all Fig. 8. means compare the fee/ of this locality with the same locality on the opposite hock, but mind you do it with the same parts of the same hand. Do not go behind the horse and make a pretence of placing hands on the spavin place of each hock and comparing them simul- taneously ; because, let me tell you, no one can do this. 124 EXAMINATION OF HORSES The senses of the two sides of your body are always, at best, a little dissimilar. No physician would attach much weight to your opinion if he caught you comparing the respiratory murmurs of the two sides of the chest, one side with one ear, the other side with the other ear. No. Compare the spavin place of the two hocks always by the touchy but let it be by the same touch. Recollect, of course, that it is the small spavin you have need to do this in the case of— not in the case of the spavin on which you can hang your hat. And you will find that it is the small, just perceptible spavin, which lames a horse. The spavin that is forming. In comparing the two spavin places use a gentle touch, and at once pass your same touch to the opposite spavin place. By the same touch I not only mean the same part of your person, but let it be from the index to the middle finger in each case. I saw one of you the other day trying to accomplish a tremendous physiological feat. He felt the right hock very properly with the fingers I have named of his right hand, and then went round to the other side of the horse and felt the other hock with his other hand. This at once led me to the conclusion that he and Kirke were not boon companions. The larger spavins can, of course, be quite well seen, and we frequently do see them the first thing, but in the all-important spavins, the very small spavins situated far forward, never trust to your sense of sight, as the very least deviation in the aspect of the two limbs you are comparing will lead you wrong. The wearing away of the toe of the shoe is also a mis- AS TO SOUNDNESS. 125 leading symptom. And yet some attach much import- ance to it. If the toe of the hind shoe is more worn than common it may be from 1. Spavin causing pain and stiffness. 2. Spavin causing stiffness but no pain. 3. Slight contraction of hind tendons and ligaments. 4. Habitual ''near" action. There are other causes, but if you are satisfied that other causes than spavin will cause the toe of the shoe to be unduly worn, then it is at best only a symptom and needs much further evidence. Some horses with good clean hocks are veiy liable to wear their shoes at the toe, and you must not forget that the hind shoe is always worn more in this situation, and that shoeing smiths always make extra provision for it by putting an extra quantity of iron in this part or upon it. When however the toe of the foot itself is worn, then the defective action is very pronounced ; but still, this is a symptom and not a sign of spavin. I cannot too strongly impress upon you the advantage of the sense of touch on which nine-tenths of your evidence should be placed. Throughout my pro- fessional life there is one operation for the cure of spavin which has always been a favourite with me, believing as I do that it is almost a certainty that a three months' rest in a loose box will of itself " cure " spavin ; and I should not mention it here except to warn you that this opera- tion is performed on the sound hock to induce an enlarge- ment over the seat of spavin so as to make both hocks 1 26 EX AM IN A TION OF HORSES alike. I shall explain this operation that you may know how to perform it, and by that means learn to detect the appearance a hock presents after it has been successfully accomplished. The operation is neither more nor less than a rowel placed over the seat of spavin in a neat way, but goes by the name of *' causticking." It was, I be- lieve, performed first, and I know very extensively, by the late Mr. Fryer, of Kirkby Fleetham, in Yorkshire, who got such a reputation in the performance of this operation that his services were sought far and near. The ''caustic" he used, so far as I know, was never made known even to his profession, but I have always used a simple digestive made of equal parts of oil of cantharides, oil of turpentine, and oil of thyme. After the horse has been cast and secured properly, an incision through the skin and cellular tissue only is made, about an inch in length, in the long axis of the limb, about an inch and a \\2i\i behind the spavin place, and an inch below this again. You then take a probe-pointed seton needle, and push it upwards diXid forwards, and sweep it all over the site of spavin, taking care in doing so that your needle is well under the cellular tissue as well as the skin, because, as you know, the cellular tissue contains the blood-vessels and nerves which nourish the skin and holds the same relation to the skin that the periosteum does to bone, and therefore, as the bone beneath the stripped- off periosteum must die, so does the skin separated from its cellular tissue. Take care then in doing this operation not to fall into such an error, or a "slough" of the skin may result. Having AS TO SOL/jVB.YESS. 127 swept the seton needle over the part freely, you will have made a pear-shaped separation of the parts. Now, by means of a fine probe, introduce two or three small pledgits of tow dipped in the " caustic," taking care that the end of each pledgit hangs well out of the wound, that it maybe caught hold of and withdrawn on the third day. Neglect of this latter precaution I have twice known to lead to unsightly blemishes from a piece of tow being left in the cavity. The neglect of this simple precaution has made one eminent veterinarian I know, discard the operation in favour of the common seton. When it has been successfully done, in a proper case, the size of the spavin is very materially lessened if not altogether re- moved, and the only evidence left is the cicatrix of a clean incision, which has, however, been of necessity the seat of some granulation. The strength and endurance of the granulation tissue ''proud flesh" will determine the character of the cicatrix which remains. When this operation has been performed for roguish purposes on a sound hock to make it like its spavined fellow in size, to succeed, the incision has to be immediately over the lower part of the seat of spavin, and not behind and beneath it as is done for honest curative purposes. Low class horse-dealers often try to persuade you that " the 'jack' is owin' to a kick from another 'os," even when no mark is present over the parts ; so that you see how extremely plausible such an explanation would appear when you have the mark left by the operation of caustick- ing over an otherwise sound hock. 128 EXAMINATION OF HORSES When both hocks have been causticked, and only one of them has had a spavin, and the incisions have both been behind and below the spavin place, you will still have the two cicatrices and enlargements over the seat of spavin in one or other if not both hocks. Indeed I scarcely see how you can be deceived, after you have once had your suspicions awakened, and your minds educated what to look for. Firing is always obvious. Setons, to be of use, it is thought, ought to remain in three weeks, and if so, you have thickened cicatrices in two" places — above and beneath the spavin place. Blistering leaves the hair stronger over the place, if it does nothing further. The hair is seen not to lie well over the parts. There is nothing in the way of active treatment for spavin that does not leave evidences, always to be found when looked for by one who knows what to look for. We frequently come across clean hocks that have been fired ; hocks having not the faintest trace of spavin ; then what are we to do ? What I have always done, when the horse is sound in other respects and has well-formed hocks, has been to pass the horse without even a comment on the firing marks. Some really practical veterinarians, in firing a spavined hock, fire — but more slightly — its fellow hock at the same time, although it may have no spavin ; because, they say, horses so often throw out spavin on the sound hock during the time the fired, spavined hock is being pained and rested, on account of their resting too much on the sound leg at AS TO SOUNDNESS. 129 this time, so they fire both, that he may not unduly rest upon the sound Hmb. That horses throw out spavins in their sound hocks during the few days or few weeks that first elapse after the spavined hock has been fired, is matter of common observation. Professor Dick used to condemn the practice, in the early part of his career, of firing a sound hock at the time its spavined fellow was undergoing the ordeal. His motto was, " Let sleeping dogs lie." Now, gentlemen, that is just what one would like to do, only they woji't lie when trodden upon. When a spavin is thrown out upon a hock, it is not necessarily because that hock is inferior in form and quality to its fellow, neither is it on account of its having been more used than its fellow, but rather that the lower bones of each hock are in the transitmi (functionally active) state I have before pointed out to you. The lower bones of each hock are alike preparing to become glued together ; and in this sensitive state, the least extra weight thrown on them wakes up a process which at best is only lightly sleeping. This being so, the custom of firing what, to all outward appearance, is a sound hock, is an empirical proceeding based on true observation, but which is, after all, a scientific, as it most certainly is a most useful, proceeding, which can only be con- demned on the plea that firing is an extremely painful operation, or that we have no physical evidence of the hock being on the verge of disease. I cannot leave this subject without adverting to the rather prevalent notion that is abroad among horsemen in many parts. 9 1 30 EXAMINA TION OF HORSES You will hear numbers say they actually prefer a horse that has been fired, especially one who has been fired on the hock, because, they say, he is not so likely to fall lame. So far as I have observed, such is really the case. It may be from either or both of two causes, — either that the irritation set up hastens the consolidation of the bones involved in spavin, or that fired parts act as a bandage to the parts beneath. I have no doubt the former is the reason in the case of spavin, but most undoubtedly the latter is the reason in the case of injured back tendons of either fore or hind legs, inas- much as firing, if sufficiently deep, causes more or less destruction of the highly elastic subcutaneous tissue, which is replaced by white fibrous (inelastic) tissue. You know how inpossible it is to " skin " such a part without cutting into the skin on the one hand, or scoop- ing out pieces of the tissue to which the skin is, as it were, glued, on the other. I have perhaps encroached too much on your time by entering, it may be, at too great a length on the two subjects of ''causticking" and "firing; " but I trust that you will be the better able to estimate each at its just value, remembering that a horse may be and often is even technically as well as practically sound, who has been the subject of either operation. AS TO SOl/iVDAESS. 131 LECTURE XVI. Spavin (continued) — Bog-spavin — How the tenn Blood-spavin arose — Thoropin — Curb — " Sprung Hock" — " Occult Spavin." Gentlemen, — I cannot leave the subject of spavin without adding a few more words. You will often be called upon to pronounce an opinion as to the presence or absence of spavin, in which case it does not follow that the enlargement should be of a trifling character, and that a doubt should exist as to the presence of any enlargement ; for strange as it may appear, the less the spavin the more certain can you be that it is a spavin and not merely a hypertrophy. In cases where the enlargement is of some considerable size, and in which the enlargement is well rounded and extends as far forward as a typical spavin, but also extends well back, or in other words seems to involve both cuneiform bones, should there be an absence of lameness or stiff ness, it is impossible for any one to say " this is a case of spavin ; it is not a case of hypertrophy of the bones involved in spavin." It would be to the last degree unscientific to pronounce such a case spavin, although 132 EXAMINATION OF HORSES you have two odd hocks. In such cases, however, you ahvays have — so far as my experience goes — distinct coarseness of the fellow bones on the opposite hock. That is to say the horse has coarse, odd hocks, with which he neither goes lame nor stiff. Where spavins occur on hocks that are coarse to begin with, they must be larger than they need be on clean hocks before you can say positively that you have spavin ; because in the one case all is coarseness together, but in the other you have the spavin standing out clearly to be defined on a clean, flat surface. When we have clean hocks to do with, we can easily say for certain that we have spavin, however small or however large ; the enlarge- ment is a sign of itself; but with coarse hocks any enlargement not common to the two hocks, unless it is very pronounced indeed, is at best only a symptom, and as such requires other symptoms of spavin — such as lameness or stiffness, or wearing of the toe of the foot before you can be sure about it. Then, again, suppose your opinion to be asked where sravin in some form is known to exist. Of course, in this case, your opinion is asked regarding a " sound screw,'' as these blemished but practically sound horses are called. In such cases much depends on the evi- dence you may have as to the consolidation of the bones involved, and this is more likely to be completed if the hock has been fired, or punched and bhstered, — which latter, I ought to have before told you, frequently leaves a mark over the seat of spavin similar to and AS TO SOUNDNESS. 133 not to be distinguished from " causticking" badly per- formed, or the blow from another horse. If hocks have been well fired, not too early in life, they are far less likely to become lame from spavin than those which have not been treated at all. Spavins situated very far back on the hock I have never known to produce lameness. I have again and again passed such, and have never had occasion to regret it. Perhaps you had better mention it in your certificate; or what is better, write a note with your certificate and let your employer know you have not overlooked the fact. Bog-spavin is one of the most wretched terms in our nosology. It used to be called blood-spavin, from an error in observation. You know the true hock joint is a very large joint, and the bag, bursa, or purse which secretes and contains the oil for its lubrication, is apt to secrete and therefore to contain a little more oil than is perhaps needful, and when this is so the bursa is dis- tended and tense. A very large vein, called the saphena vein (from the Greek o-a^ out the object of his agency, and it is a question for the jury to determine what is usual." An auctioneer can, and does, give warranties on behalf of his employers. A horse dealer's ser^^ant used to assisting his master in selling horses can also give a warranty on behalf of his master, though unauthorised to do so, or even instructed not to do so. With regard to agents or servants holding positions more anomalous, Chief Justice Erie said, in the case Fen v. Harrison: "If we laid down for the first time that the servant of a private owner, entrusted to sell and deliver a horse on one particular occasion, is therefore, by law, authorised to bind his master by a warranty, we should I70 APPENDIX. establish a precedent of dangerous consequence. For the liability created by a warranty extending to unknown as well as known defects, is greater than is expected by persons inexperienced in law, and as everything said by the seller in bargaining may be evidence of warranty to the effect of what he said, an unguarded conversation with an illiterate man sent to deliver a horse may be found to have created a liability which would be a surprise equally to the servant and the master. We therefore hold that the buyer, taking a warranty from such an agent as was employed in this case, takes it at the risk of being able to prove that he had the principal's authority, and if there was no authority in fact, the law does not, in our opinion^ create it from the cir- cumstances." Warranty and Patent Defects. "A general warranty does not usually extend to defects apparent on simple inspection, requiring no skill to discover them, nor to defects known to the buyer." (Benjamin on Sales, 2nd Ed., 502.) Note. — In horse cases the above holds good in very few cases indeed, and is not at ail to be relied on. Warranty and Skill in Buying. A buyer is not bound to exercise his skill when a warranty is given. In Tye v. Fy?imore (3 Camp. 462), Lord Ellen- borough said : — " He (the buyer) was not bound to exercise his skill, having an express undertaking from the vendor as to the quality of the commodity." APPENDTX. 171 VI. THE MODE OR CUSTOM OF RE- TURNING A HORSE. A person wishing to return a horse that has turned out not as warranted, ought to proceed as follows : — Immediately upon finding that his purchase is not as warranted he should write to the vendor to that effect. If the vendor live next door plaintiff must write, and he must keep a copy of the letter so written and sent. He must keep a copy of all his letters. The letters must contain no friendly sentiments whatever, but must be cool, straight- forvvard, business tetters. This golden rule is sadly too often unheeded in the case of friends and relations. The letters ought not to deal with any other subject than the one It is a matter of common experience, that the best of friends are turned into the bitterest enemies over a horse deal, therefore the author repeats, with emphasis, let all communi- catiofis be i7i black and white, and keep copies of them, and don^t be soft-headed through fear of being thought hard- hearted. In a deal with a dear friend or a relative, that has turned out badly, it is all the more necessary to employ a sohcitor from the first. ' Again, as soon as you have found out that your deal does not answer to the warranty, place the horse out of your possession at the best Uvery stables you know. This is highly essential, or a question as to injury, accident, or mis- management may arise after the horse has left your posses- sion, and before it has been claimed by the vendor. All this should be, irrespective of price of horse, price of keep, or any other matter. If the reply from the vendor is unfavourable, that is to say, if he refuses to take back the horse and refund the money, the horse.should be sold by public auction, taking care that the vendor is duly informed of the fact, also of the place, 172 APPEADIX. day, and hour of sale. The plaintiff, or his solicitor, must see that defendant is duly informed of this, that he (defend- ant) may have a chance of being present at the sale, or being duly represented. It is best, and indeed usual, to send a printed bill. Every care must be taken to thoroughly ad- vertise the horse in the leading journals of the district, and in any other way thought desirable, so as to procure the best price for the horse. All evidence of having duly and effec- tively advertised the horse should be collected, as in case of trial in any court the defendant is very likely to closely investigate the means used in selling the horse. It is in defendant's power to watch the sale personally, or by agent ; but not in his power to command a good attendance of likely purchasers ; for this the plaintiff is wholly responsible, and therefore the matter should be executed so as to be above suspicion. The auctioneer ought also to be carefully chosen, and if possible one having large opportunities in selling horses. In such a case there is little danger of reproach of the horse being unduly advertised. The plain- tiff ought also to be present, or be represented at the sale. The services of the plaintiff's veterinarian are called in when the case is one of unsoundness, and he in turn should advise the plaintiff as to a second veterinarian being called in to give a confirmatory opinion. The plaintiff, or his solictor, has then to sue the defendant for money out of pocket. If this be ^50, or under, in the County Court. If over ^50 it must be in a superior Court. The author strongly urges the same advice to intending plaintiffs in horse causes that Punch gives to those about to marry — " Don't." In horse causes, if the pecuniary loss, the worry, and the thousand and one disagreeables are put into the balance, they far outweigh any or every gain ot whatever form. Arbitration would be far less expensive and more satisfactory. If each party would appoint his veterinary surgeon and a farmer (who, if possible, should be APPENDIX. 173 a breeder of horses), justice or something approaching it would result, provided the bare facts only were submitted to the four. It is foohsh and illogical to expect a judge and a common jury to judge between experts. Each side can bring expert veterinarians who give, and that conscientiously, the most polemic evidence. Most Englishmen think they know something about horses, therefore most English juries are likely to contain one or more men who " know a horse when they see one." Granted that they are judges of " horseflesh," unless they are medical men, or veterinary surgeons, they know nothing of horse pathology ; and, in cases of un- soundness, they have to decide questions into which pathology enters largely. In questions as to vice it is different, and even then it is desirable that a jury should know something of the ordinar}^ habits of horses, in order that they may judge of habits extraordinary. VII. TRIAL IN COUNTY COURT. For sums of ^50, and under, the aggrieved party usually seeks redress in the County Court, because it is a quicker and less expensive procedure. He may employ a solicitor, or not, as he thinks fit. If he does not employ a soHcitor he should proceed as follows : — First. He must write out three clear copies of his claims, giving in detail each item ; for instance, the amount he has lost in buying the horse and in selling him ; the cost of the horse's keep, reckoned at half-a-crown to three shillings and sixpence a day ; veterinary surgeon's expenses, and any reasonable expenses he may have incurred in advertising and seUing the horse. These copies must be exactly alike. One he keeps for his own use ; the other two he takes with him to the Court. 174 APPENDIX. Arrived at the Court a plaint-note is produced which is to be filled up. The two copies of his claims are taken by the officers of the Court, who send one copy to the defendant along with the summons, and the other copy they pin to the plaint-note, which is for the use of the Judge. Whilst at the Court he should give his opponent notice to produce all docu- ments or letters which may have been sent to him having bearing on the case in hand. Again, whilst at the Court he must direct the officers to issue subpoenas to any witness or witnesses he may require, whom he has reason to think would not come forward without being legally obliged to do so. The Court's officers serve the subpoenas. When a written warranty can be produced, expressed in proper terms, no witnesses need be summoned. If the warranty was by word of mouth, all hearing it should be summoned, to bear witness as to the words used ; also that the words amounting to warranty were used before the bargain was struck. The exact words used ought, as far as possible, to be called to remembrance, which is, as a rule, easily done. Great care must be taken to give the words as they occurred — that is to say, not to add anything on the one hand or leave out anything on the other. In all cases of unsound- ness a veterinary surgeon ought to be employed to examine the horse, and he will have to give his evidence in Court — his certificate alone will not do, as the writer is not present, and therefore cannot be cross-examined upon it. Should, however, the case be one of vice, then almost any one with common sense can enter the witness-box — indeed, veterina- rians are here seldom called for. Much trouble can be saved ^^dlen the purchaser can bring proof that the vendor knew at the time of sale that the horse was unsound or vicious. The case then turns on a question of fraud or no fraud. If fraud can be thus proved to have taken place — that is to say, if it can be proved that the seller knew that the horse was unsound or vicious at the APPENDIX. 175 time of sale, then warranty or no warranty, the sale is rescinded. If the plaintiff recovers less than ^20 he must take care to ask the Judge for his costs and his witnesses' expenses. A recover}' of £20 or over carries costs . The plaintiff will learn the day and hour of hearing from the officers at the Court when he goes to enter his case. The defendant may try to get out of it by declaring that the horse was sound and free from vice at the time of sale. Again, he may deny warranty, and will be most likely to do so when no written warranty has been given. Or he may put questions to the plaintiff before the Court. If the sum be over ;^20, either party has a right to put questions to the other before the Court. Should defendant employ a solicitor the plaintiff need not expect extra danger or embarrassment provided he keep his temper and be not too anxious. Finally, the plaintiff ought to bear in mind that after he and his witnesses have told the Court their version of the affair, they will he followed by the defendant and his wit- nesses. This ought to be ever present in the mind of the plaintiff, so that he and his witnesses may give evidence, of the ti?ne, place, and ch-nmistaiice of everything having the least bearing on the case. VIII. TRIAL AT ASSIZES. Subpoenas, Fact, Opinion. It need hardly be observed that every witness is bound to obey a subpoena, when with it his reasonable ex- penses for the journey, etc., are tendered to him, but he is not bound to attend at the trial except upon a subpoena. There are some questions connected with 176 . APPENDIX. this subject which it will be proper to consider in this place. If a subpcena is served on an ordinary or skilled veterinary witness^ is he bou7id to obey it? In Belts v. Cliffo7'd (Warwick Lent Assizes, 1858) the late Lord Campbell stated, in answer to a question, that a scientific witness was not bound to attend upon being served with a subpoena, and that he ought not to be subpoenaed. If the witness knew any question oi fact he might be compelled to attend, but he could not be compelled to give his attendance to speak to matters of opiftion. In Rich V. Pie7'poi?it, an action for malapraxis, Dr. Lee was summoned against his will to give evidence on the part of the plaintiff. He stated that on the evening before the trial a solicitor called on him and left a subpoena with him. Dr. Lee would not hear any account of the case which the solicitor proposed to give, and expressed his resolution to have nothing to do with the trial. The solicitor informed him that he would be required to pay the usual penalty if he did not attend. He went down to Kingston, and was warned not to leave the Court until the trial was over. He heard the evidence on the part of the plaintiff, and upon this and the medical evidence he gave his opinion — not much in favour of the party who summoned him, and not much against him. Dr. Lee considered that he could not avoid attending the trial under these circumstances. {Medical Times and Gazette, April 12, 1862, p. 389.) In the case of Webb v. Page (" Carrington and Kirwan's Reports," p. 23), the late Mr. Justice Maule ruled as follows : — " There is a distinction," said his Lordship, " between the case of a man who sees a fact and is called to prove it in a Court of justice, and that of a man who is selected by a party to give his opinio7i on a matter on which he is peculiarly conversant from the nature of his employment in life. The former is bound, as a matter of public duty, to speak to a fact which happens to have fallen within his own knowledge APPENDIX. 177 for without such testimony the course of justice must be stopped. The latter is under no such obligation j there is no such necessity for his evidence, and the party who selects him must pay him." In the case referred to by Mr. Justice Maule, a skilled witness had been subpoenaed, but he re- fused to give evidence unless first paid for his serv'ices and loss of time {Medical Times and Gazette, April 26, 1862, p. 432). A barrister, who quotes this ruling, goes on to say : " There is one reason why I should not advise any person in the position of a skilled witness totally to disregard a subpcKna. It is quite clear that should such a person fail to attend a trial no attachment could issue, even if he were called as is usual upon the subpcena, because the party subpoenaing him could not make the requisite affidavits that he was damnified by the witness's absence and in what respect. But such party might bring an action for damages ; and although he would recover none, he might not only worry, but might even put the defendant to a considerable expense, as taxed costs by no means include the entire costs in such cases. Although, therefore, I could not advise a total neglect of the subpoena, the safest course would be to obey it, and demand expenses before giving evidence. Such expenses would be only those allowed for a professional witness (not special fees) ; but if the person so subpcenaed were willing to run the risk of an action, he might safely absent himself without any fear of an attachment from the Court for contempt." With regard to the question whether a skilled witness would be permitted to demand a high fee for his attendance under such circumstances, the writer adds : " To permit him legally to demand a high fee would perhaps look somewhat like legally countenancing a bribe." At all events there is no such legal recognition. In a case which came before the Court of Exchequer in May 1868 {Maxted V. Morris), a witness wilfully disobeyed a subpoena. In consequence of this the trial was postponed 12 [78 APPENDIX. and the parties were put to great expense. An arrangement was made by which the witness bound himself to pay a part of the expenses. The Chief Baron said : It must be dis- tinctly understood that in all cases where it appeared to the Court that there had been a wilful disobedience of a subpoena after proper service, such a contempt of Court would be visited with the punishment it deserved. Martin, B. : It was not to be tolerated that a man should exercise any discretion as to whether he would or would not attend a Court in pursuance of subpoena. Enormous costs were in- curred in preparing a case and bringing it down to trial, the whole of which were to be thrown away and wasted, because a man refused to obey a lawful summons to attend as a wit- ness. Pigott, B. : A subpoena was not to be treated as mere waste paper. Public justice required that persons wilfully committing contempt of Court should be dealt with in such a manner as to teach them that they could not commit a contempt of Court with impunity. Lord Campbell's dictum in reference to the distinction between fact and opinion confers no practical benefit on witnesses. It is at all times difficult in science, and in the medical sciences particularly, to separate them ; and if a man appears to testify to a medical or scientific fact, he cannot avoid giving an opinion arising out of the fact. Expenses. In a case tried at the Carnarvon Assizes, August T872, a medical man had refused to sign the depositions which had been taken before the magistrates without being guaranteed a higher fee than that allowed by the county tariff. Bovill, C.J., told the witness that the Act of Parliament imposed an obligation upon him, and he had no power to refuse ; and if he did so on another occasion, he would be liable to be indicted for disobedience. The judge held that a medical APPENDIX. 179 man has no right to fix the amount of his expenses, but must always take the allowance which the law gives him. {Lancet^ 1872, vol. ii., p. 204.) Veterinary Witnesses, Assuming that the veterinarian has obeyed a subpoena, he will now be required to attend before the Court, and to state, in the face of adverse counsel, the opinions which he has formed from the medical facts of the case, as well as the grounds for these opinions. He will then undergo the ordeal of a public examination. Some medico-legal writers have considered it necessary to lay down rules respecting the manner in which a medical witness should give his evidence ; how he is to act on a cross-examination, and in what way he is to recover himself on re-examination. Any advice upon this head appears to me to be quite superfluous, since experience shows that these rules, like those given to prevent drowning, are invariably forgotten at the very moment when a person is most in need of them. A man who goes to testify to the truth to the best of his ability should bear in mind two points : — i. That he should be well prepared on all parts of the subject on which he is about to give evidence. He should act on these occa- sions upon the advice contained in the Latin motto, ne tentes ant ferfice. 2. That his demeanour should be that of an educated man, and suited to the serious occasion on which he appears, even although he may feel himself provoked or irritated by the course of examination adopted. A medical witness must not show a testy disposition in having his professional qualifications, his experience, his means of knowledge, or the grounds for his opinions very closely investigated : he should rather prepare himself to meet with good humour the attempts of an adverse counsel to involve him in contradiction, and show by his answers that he has only a desire to state the truth. Law and custom have long i8o APPENDIX, established that a barrister, in defending a case, has a right to make use of all fair and even what may appear to the witness unfair means for the defence. Nothing can tend more to lower a witness in the opinion of the Court and jury, or diminish the value of his evidence, than the mani- festation of a disposition to deal with his examiner as if he were a personal enemy, to evade the questions put, or to answer them with flippancy or anger. All such exhibitions invariably end in the discomfiture of the witness. It has been suggested that medical men on these occasions might take a lesson from lawyers, and observe how little they allow forensic differences, which they put on with their professional costume, to influence them in their intercourse with each other or with an adverse judge or ]\\ry. License of Counsel. Medical men have complained, and on many occasions justly, of the li'cejise of counsel. On this subject it may be well to consider what has been said by one of the highest authorities on the Bench, Chief Justice Erie: — "The law trusts the advocate with a privilege in respect to the liberty of speech which is in practice bounded only by his own sense of duty ; and he may have to speak upon subjects concerning the deepest interests of social life, and the inner- most feelings of the soul. The law also trusts him with a power of insisting upon answers to the most painful ques- tioning, and this power again is in practice only controlled by his own view of the interests of truth." (Judgment in Kennedy v. B7'ou7i, 1862.) Thus it will be seen that almost unlimited powers of interrogation are intrusted to counsel by the law, and it is a serious question whether the unrestricted use (which it has been justly remarked means only the fre- quent abuse) of these enormous powers, is necessary or even favourable to the administration of justice. One of the most severe reprimands on this abuse came APPENDIX. from the same learned judge in a case which was before him in 1857; it was addressed to a learned Serjeant, now de- ceased, and was to this effect: — A question had been put throwing on the witness an imputation for which there was really no foundation. The learned judge then said : " The freedom of question allowed to the bar was a pubhc nuisance, and the barrister who made such an imputation ought to be prosecuted. If a question had relation to the truth, he was most anxious it should be put ; but to cast haphazard impu- tations at the suggestion of a person (an attorney) who might have no scruples as to what he did, was a degree of mischief that made him wish that a party should be prosecuted. He begged leave to say that in his experience he had seen counsel so abuse their privilege, that he had cordially wished a power could be instituted that they might be prosecuted for a misdemeanour." It is the general practice to say that the obnoxious questions are in the instructions, but a barrister can always exercise a power of putting or not putting a question which may be found there. By putting it he clearly adopts it, and frequently to the great damage of his own case. This is at present the only check upon the practice, for learned judges seldom interfere unless directly appealed to by the witness. Privilege. Some medical men have claimed a privilege not to answer certain questions which are put to them. No man is bound to reply to any question if the answer would tend in any way to incriminate himself — for no man is compelled to be a witness against himself. With this exception all questions must be answered, provided they are relevant to the case, and their relevancy is a matter for the consideration of the learned judge who presides. Sometimes a witness makes a frivolous objection and refuses to answer an ordinary question, thus bringing only 1 82 APPENDIX. ridicule upon himself. A skilled expert, at an important trial, was asked his age. Instead of answering so simple a question at once, he angrily appealed to the judge to know whether he was bound to give an answer on a matter which, as he said, could have nothing to do with the case. The judge informed him that unless he had some very strong reasons for concealing it, he had better state it. At a trial for murder by poison, when, in the course of a cross-exami- nation, counsel for the prisoner asked the medical witness what remedy or antidote he had employed when he was first called to attend the deceased. He appealed to the judge to know whether he was bound to answer such a question as that. Judge : " Yes, unless you have reason to believe that your antidote killed the deceased. In that case you are not bound to answer it." The question was immediately answered. As there is no special privilege granted to members of the profession, a witness must remember that there are no jnedical secrets. In Wright v. Wilkin (June 1865), a suit involving the validity of the will of a lady, the only question before the Vice-Chancellor (Kindersley) was as to the costs, occasioned by the refusal of a medical witness to answer a question in reference to the disease of which the testatrix had died. The witness had attended the testatrix, and on being asked of what disease she died, he refused to answer, on the ground of professional privilege and also that the question was irrelevant. The Vice-Chancellor said that he could not possibly see the relevancy of the question, and further, of what use it was to examine witnesses at all in the cause. No reason was given for so doing. The question of costs would, pri7nd facie, have been left till the hearing but that it was a dangerous precedent to allow a witness to decline answering on such grounds. His Honour was clearly of opinion that the witness could not claim professional con- APPENDIX. 183 fidence or irrelevancy, as an excuse for not answering the question, and he must pay the costs. From this judgment it will be perceived that even the refusing to answer an irrelevant question may lead to the infliction of a heavy penalty on a medical practitioner. A man who refuses to answer a question which the Court considers to be relevant and proper, may render himself liable to imprisonment for contempt of Court. Examination- in- Chief . The ordinary course of proceeding is as follows : — After opening the case, the counsel for the prosecution calls the witnesses, and examines them according to the rules of evidence — that is, he brings out, by questions which do not suggest their ansivej-s, the facts relevant to the issue to be tried which are within his personal knowledge. Those questions which do suggest the answers, are called "leading" questions. With one exception it is not the practice to allow these to be put in this part of the examination. The exception, according to Mr. Stephen, is : ""When the judge is satisfied, either by a witness's demeanour or by contra- dictions between the evidence and the depositions, that he is trying to keep back the truth and favour the prisoner, he may, in his discretion, allow the counsel for the Crown to ask leading questions and, as the phrase is, to treat the witness as hostile." When the examination-in-chief is closed, the next step is the cross-examination. Cross-examination, In this, the second stage, the counsel for the defence extracts from the veterinary witness, by questions tuhich viay suggest the answers in the strongest forfn, any facts that may appear to be favourable to his client, and which he believes to be within the witness's knowledge. Leading 1 84 APPENDIX. questions are not only allowable in this part of the exami- nation, but, according to good authority, a counsel for the defence can hardly lead too much. The theory of the law is that the witness is unfavourable to the defendant, and has come to bear evidence against him. The more he has shown himself by conduct or conversation a par- tisan in the case, the more severely will he be treated. Anything which he may have said in the hearing of others, or published in journals, or even written in private letters (if the contents transpire), in reference to the case, is now brought to light, although he may have supposed that what he did say was in perfect confidence. It is at this stage of the case that any exaggerations which may have been most favourably received by the counsel for the prosecution, are reduced to their true proportions. Any bias by which the mind of a witness may have been influ- enced, or any imperfection or confusion of memory as to facts, is here brought out. It is in this part of his exami- nation that a witness will be closely questioned as to his qualifications, his age, the time during which he has been engaged in practice, the accuracy of his judgment, his general professional knowledge, and his special experience in reference to the matter in issue, the number of cases he has seen, etc. Straightforward answers should be given to all these questions. No harm can be done to the witness by the answers unless they are given evasively, since it is not to be supposed that a witness wishes to represent himself differently from what he is. If he does make the attempt he will assuredly fail. The most striking distinction between the examination-in-chief and cross-examination is in refer- ence to leading questions. It rests upon the assumption that there is a danger that a witness will say whatever is suggested to him by the one side, and conceal everything that is not extorted from him on the other. It need scarcely be observed that witnesses whose evidence is of httle im- APPENDIX. 185 portance in the case, are rarely cross-examined. This is reserved in its most stringent form for those whose facts and opinions are likely to affect the case. In dealing with a skilled witness whose evidence may be of importance, the questions in cross-exaniination are usually put by the counsel for the defence with great caution, or the answers brought out may be even more adverse to his own case than those elicited in the examination-in-chief. Re-examination . The cross-examination is usually followed by a re-exami- nation on the part of the counsel for the prosecution, or of the counsel by whom the witness has been called. The object of this is to clear up or explain any portion of the evidence which may have been rendered obscure or doubtful by the cross-examination. It is sometimes unnecessary to put a question, and if the witness has given his evidence consistently and fairly, no questions may be asked. As a rule, the re-examination must be confined to those matters which have arisen out of the cross-examination. Any ques- tions upon new subjects may render a further cross-exami- nation on them necessary. In reference to yh;^/j-, a veterinary witness must bear in mind that he should not allow his testimony to be influenced by the consequences which may follow from his statement of them, or their probable effect on any case which is under trial. In reference to opiniotis^ when once formed should be honestly and candidly stated without regard to consequences. It will be well to remember, in reference to each stage of the examination, what a great medical authority has said : — " To make a show and appear learned and ingenious in natural knowledge may flatter vanity. To know facts, to separate them from supposition, to arrange and connect them, to make them plain to ordi- nary capacities, and above all to point out their useful apphcations, should be the chief object of ambition." (William Hunter.) 1 86 APPENDIX. Quotations from Books. It is a not unfrequent custom with counsel to refer to veterinary works during the examination of a witness. He is expected to have a fair knowledge of the writings of pro- fessional men on the subject of inquiry. The authority is mentioned, the passage is quoted, and the witness may be then asked whether he agrees with the views of the author or whether he differs, and if so, his reasons. In cases con- nected with medical treatment, the views of the profession are and have been so various, that a barrister would have no great difficulty in finding some book to oppose to the opinions of a witness. Standard works of recent date are so well known to the profession, that there are few men engaged in practice who are not well acquainted with and able to explain the views of the writers, and how far they agree or conflict with his own. The witness must be on his guard that the quotation is fairly made, and that it is properly taken with the context, or he may unexpectedly find himself involved in a difficulty. On one occasion a learned gentleman stopped in his quotation at a comma, and on another occasion the quotation ended at a colon, the remainder of the sentence in each case materially weakening the inference which it was intended to draw with the apparent sanction of the witness. When a quotation from a standard work is thus opposed to the evidence of a veterinary witness, he should take care by reference to the work itself to see that the passage is correctly quoted. A reference at the time to the work which is quoted, is always necessary if any use is to be made of a quotation. Without suggesting that there is intentional misrepresentation to bear out a particular view of the case, a barrister, in dealing with the medical facts, may wholly misunderstand the author's views and statements, and in APPENDIX. some instances wrongly assign to the author himself opinions which he has merely quoted from other authorities for com- ment or illustration. Presence in Court. In England scientific witnesses, except under special cir- cumstances, are allowed to be present in court and hear the whole of the evidence in a case. This is in some instances absolutely necessary if the Court requires medical opinions, for unless the witnesses are fully acquainted with the facts they can give no opinions, and they can only become well acquainted with the facts by being allowed to be present and hearing the evidence in court. If excluded, the judge or counsel will be compelled to read to the witness notes of the evidence before an opinion can be given, and it may then appear that some small point which counsel did not think of importance, has been omitted ; this, if known to the witness, might, however, materially affect his opinion. A failure of justice is likely to occur when medical witnesses are excluded, and it is generally when there is no defence or a false defence that the right of excluding them is exercised. The rule in Scotland is similar ; scientific witnesses are allowed to be in court during the trial. Browbeating and Intimidation— Wilful Mis- statement of Witness's Evidence. There are many obligations which affect each side equally. Neither is at liberty to attempt to browbeat, intimidate, or confuse a witness, although they may expose any real con- fusion which exists in his mind, or test, by the strictest cross-examination, the accuracy of his statements. Neither is at liberty wilfully to misunderstand a witness, or to mis- state^ hi his address to the jury, the effect of what he has said, either by distortion or suppression. The neglect or APPENDIX. observation of these and other rules of the same kind prac- tically establishes a wide distinction, and one which is easily recognized between those who exercise a noble profession and those who disgrace it. The treatment of a veterinary witness, in passing through the ordeal of an examination, will depend very much upon the class of counsel who is opposed to him. Assuming that he is properly prepared for the discharge of his duties, and that the questions put to him are answered fairly and truly, according to his knowledge and experience, without exag- geration or concealment, he has no reason to fear any attempt at intimidation. Barristers, for the most part, know that by this line of conduct they lose more with the jury than they gain by the attempt to confuse the witness ; and as their ultimate and sole object is a favourable verdict, they will generally avoid conduct which must necessarily place this verdict in jeopardy. The normal barrister, as depicted by Mr. Fitzjames Stephen, is not at liberty, in his address to the jury, to misrepresent, either by distortion or suppression, the medical facts or opinions given in a case. According to my experi- ence, however, misrepresentation is a not unfrequent practice, and one of which veterinary witnesses have very strong reason to complain. Whether such misstatements are wilful or not it may be difficult to determine, but their effect on the jury is well known to those who employ them ; and they frequently escape the observation of the counsel on the other side, and even of the learned judge, unless he is well versed in veterinary subjects. It is also worthy of remark, that if a misstatement is thus made, it is, by a remarkable coincidence, always in favour of the view of the counsel who makes it, when a proper examination of his notes would, in general, show him that he was wrong. Then, as to the question of intimidation, this is sometimes carried very far. " On your oath, sir, and in the face of the APPENDIX. whole profession, will you venture to persist in that state- ment?" etc. Again, the intimidating modes of address — "Do you mean to swear?" "Will you pledge your pro- fessional character ?" etc., intermingled with the admonitions, " Pray be careful," " Be cautious," etc. — of course suggest to the witness that his examiner already regards him as per- jured, and that however truly he may state the facts within his knowledge, he will not be beheved. A public writer, in commenting on this subject, says, " But the hardest and most unfair part of the system (of cross- examination) is when witnesses have to bear a loud and insulting tone or gesture without remonstrance or retaliation. A counsel may very plainly imply that a respectable witness is a person of doubtful character, and not to be believed on his oath, or that he is ignorant, and a bungler in his pro- fession ; but if the witness retorts that the barrister's eloquence and sympathies are hired, or if he gives vent to any other words of retahation in his natural indignation, the Court is against him." At the trial of Kelly for the murder of Police Constable Talbot {^Reg. v. Kelly, Dublin Commission Court, November 1871), Mr. Tuffnell, a surgeon of repute, and formerly Professor of Surgery, was summoned as a witness for the prosecution. Having deposed to the nature of the wounds, and that the deceased had died from the effects, he was subjected to the usual ordeal of a cross- examination, but in a somewhat unusual form. Counsel foi; prisoner having begun by addressing him in a loud and offensive tone, he turned to the Chief Baron, and said, " My Lord, I am very excitable, and if this gentleman has a right to roar at me, I consider that I have a right to roar too." The Court expressed a hope that it would not be necessary for him to roar, and intimated, after a short trial of vocal strength between the two opponents, that counsel's manner to the witness was not what it ought to be. Counsel dis- claimed any intention of being offensive, but claimed the I90 APPENDIX. liberty which is usually conceded in cases of importance. Whatever may be the importance of a case to a prisoner, nothing ca7t justify the putting of questions in a loud and instilting tone to a skilled professional witness. The very mild rebuke administered to counsel on this occasion was not likely to produce much effect, and accordingly this trial presents, in a concentrated form, all the defects of our method of getting at truth by cross-examination. The result is seen in the unsatisfactory nature of the verdict, which was against the medical and general evidence in the case. Witness should be Master of his Subject, and clear in his own Mind. However anxious an incompetent witness may be to ap- pear learned, and however hard he may labour to show it, he will ever find it a difficult business to make the Court and counsel believe that he is really so. To appear really learned he must be able to make the subject on which he gives an opinion clear., and to give satisfactory reasons for this opinion. He must be not only a thinker, but must satisfy others that he is master of the subject. Take almost any one of the important scientific questions upon which a professional witness is called to pass an opinion, and unless he has looked at the subject before with a purpose to under- stafid it — comprehending its extent, w.eight, and relations — he will find it to have suddenly assumed an importance he has not suspected, just at the time when the discover}^ will add to his confusion. It is better to make this discovery in the quiet stillness and security of solitude, than under the eye of a judge and the severe scrutiny of counsel A man, whether learned or not — whether in court or out of court — will talk clearly upon a subject he well understands, whether it is scientific or otherwise : but unless it is clear APPENDIX. 191 171 his own 7nind his account of it will be confused and imsatisfactory. This is undoubtedly the test to which every man should rigorously submit himself before entering the witness-box. The case should be viewed in all possible aspects ; and if an opinion has been formed, it should be dealt with and criticised as if it were that of an adversary. As in controversy, a disputant should place himself as much as possible in the position of his antagonist, and see the question from his point of view. In this kind of self- examination it may be well to remember two points— first, that there is no opinion so certain as that the human mind, if left to itself, will not infaHibly raise a difference of opinion upon it ; and secondly, that a man is never so near an error as when he claims a complete immunity from error. Rules for the Delivery of Evidence. There are a few rules bearing upon medical evidence which, if observed, may save the witness from interruption or reproof and place him in a favourable position with the Court. Direct Answers. The questions put on either side should receive dit'ect answers, and the manner of the witness should not be per- ceptibly different, whether he is replying to a question put by the counsel for the prosecution or for the defence. Most of the questions put by counsel in cross-examination will admit of an answer "yes" or "no." If, from the in- genious or casuistical mode in which the question is framed, the witness should feel that the simple affirmative or neg-ative might mislead the Court, then, after giving the answer, he can appeal to the judge to allow him to qualify it, or add to it any matter within his ow7t knowledge and which is at the same time relevant to the case. The witness must remember 192 APPENDIX. that he takes an oath to state the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. On the other hand, while the counsel for the defence is bound not to introduce falsehood, his object is 7iot the discovery or development of truth. Unless the witness is on his guard, he may find, when the learned counsel who has cross-examined him addresses the jury, that his affirmatives and negatives may be worked into a shape representing the reverse of what he intended. Counsel's dodge of putting more than one question at the same time. Some counsel adopt the ingenious plan of compressing two or three questions into one. A witness unthinkingly answers the last, or that which most fixes his attention. The same answer may not be strictly applicable to all, but the witness may find, when too late, that it is made so in the defence. In this case he should ask for a severance of the questions and give separate replies. Direct answers are necessary, because it is only by them that the case can be brought clearly before the Court and jury in all its details. Medical witnesses sometimes forget this, and fall into answers to questions floating in their own minds, or which they think are likely to be put to them. They are also sometimes disposed to anticipate many ques- tions by one general answer. This simply creates confusion, and the witness will be told by counsel to keep to the question, and that he is coming to the other matters pre- sently. Argument not Evidence. Care should be taken by a medical witness not to argue with the learned counsel. Argument is not evidence, and the entering into it disturbs the order of the proceedings. Arsmments between counsel and witnesses, and even between APPENDIX. 193 medical witnesses themselves, are freely allowed in the French Courts, but in England such a practice is not recog- nised. The mode in which questions are put by counsel in cross-examination sometimes tends to the introduction of argument, but the witness should avoid the temptation to enter into it. What he says under such circumstances is not evidence, except in the form of answers to questions, and he is there only for the purpose of stating what is rele- vant to the case. Evidence not I'estimony. There is a difference between evidence and testimony. A medical witness sometimes gives much in the form of testimony which amounts to very little as evidence. When he does not attend to the questions, he testifies to a variety of subjects which have no bearing on the case, and do not constitute evidence. The decision on what is and what is not evidence lies with the judge. Slow and Distinct Speaking Essential. The replies should be concise, distinct, and audible, and, except where explanation may be necessary, they should be confined strictly to the terms of the questions. The learned judge who tries the case, generally takes full notes of the medical evidence — hence the necessity for a slow and dis- tinct delivery of the evidence. Some witnesses have a singular habit of not answering the question which is asked, but one which is not asked. Others give an answer in such a voluble form, in the shape of a small speech or lecture, that there is great difficulty in reducing it to its proper proportions. A witness who is so profuse of information generally supplies abundant matter for a long and trouble- some cross-examination. 13 194 APPENDIX. Volunteered Evidence. It has been a question whether a witness should volunteer evidence, assuming that the examination-in-chief and cross- examination have failed to bring out all that he knows of the case. If that which he has to state is some matter of fact within his own knowledge, or an opi'nion based on facts within his knowledge, he will be allowed, on application to the judge, to make the statement in spite of the efforts of counsel on either side to shut it out. Avoid Technical Terms and Ambiguous Matters. It is scarcely necessary to observe that the language in which the answers are returned should neither be technical nor metaphorical. Counsel who are unacquainted with vete- rinary medical terms frequently misapply them, or use them in a wrong sense. A judicious witness will avoid anything like a triumph over his examiner under such circumstances, and simply put him right. An ambiguous answer necessarily leaves the witness's meaning doubtful, and calls for an explanation. An unde- cided answer — indicated by the words " I believe," or " I think," or " It might be," is not sufficient for evidence. If, by a proper consideration of all the medical facts, the witness has come to a conclusion on the subject, his answer should be expressed in plain and decided language, either in the affirmative or negative. A man who has formed no con- clusion is not in a position to give evidence. No opinion should be given for which the witness is not prepared to assign reasons ; and, except by permission of the Court, no medical opinion should be expressed on facts or circum- stances observed by others. A hesitating witness will be met with the question. Have you any doubt about it? or, Was it so or not ? — to which a reply in the affirmative or negative must be given. If the witness fairly entertains APPENDIX. 195 doubts about the matter at issue, it is his duty to express them, and not allow them to be extorted from him piecemeal by a series of questions. The replies should be made in simple language, free from technicality. If medical men could be made aware of the ridicule which they thus bring on their evidence, otherwise good, they would at once strive to dispense with such lan- guage. A witness is perhaps unconsciously led to speak as if he were addressing a medical debating club, instead of plain men like the members of a common jury, who are wholly ignorant of the meaning of medical terms, and barristers who are but imperfectly acquainted with them. There are few Assizes which do not afford many illustrations of the injury done to scientific evidence and the clear under- standing of a case, by the technical language in which it is given. A Court may be told that the " integuments were reflected from the thorax, and the costal cartilages laid bare, when a wound was found which had penetrated through the anterior mediastinnm^^'' and had involved the arch of the aorta, etc. A simple cut in the skin is described as '' an incision in the integuments." In a case of alleged child murder, a medical witness being asked for a plain opinion of the cause of death, said that it was owing " to atelectasis and a general engorgement of the pulmonary tissue."' On a trial for an assault which took place at the Assizes, some years since, a surgeon, in giving his evidence, informed the Court that, on examining the prosecutor, he found him suffering from a severe contusion of the integuments under the left orbit, with great extravasation of blood and ecchy- mosis in the surrounding cellular tissue, which was in a tumefied state. There was also considerable abrasion of the cuticle. " yndg-e : You mean, I suppose, that the man had a bad black eye.? Witness: Yes. Judge: Then wh)^ not say so at once ?" This is not science but pedantry, and if such language is 196 APPENDIX. employed by a witness with a view of impressing the Court with some idea of his learning, it wholly fails of its effect. Barristers and reporters put down their pens in despair, and the time of the Court is wasted until the witness has con- descended to translate his ideas into ordinary language. Lord Hatherley well observes that " a scientific witness, in giving his evidence, should avoid as much as possible the use of technical scientific language, if the case is before a iury. This is especially desirable when the evidence is medical, for really many technical words in medicine seem to be invented to cover ignorance. But be this as it may, a witness is always suspected of affectation, and the Court and jury are but little instructed when a vast amount of learned phraseology is poured forth instead of a clear state- ment of the witness's opinion.'' Medical Opinion is not to be Based on the State- ments of Others or Public Rumour. In giving evidence oi opinion a medical witness must take care not to base it on any statements made by others, or on circumstances which may have come to his knowledge by pubhc rumour. Again, his evidence should be confined only to subjects properly within the rabge of medical science, and on which, as a professional man, he is competent to speak. Use of Exaggerated Language to be Avoided. There is a great tendency among some medical witnesses to express their views in the superlative degree. If a part is simply inflamed, it is frequently described as "intensely" inflamed. One witness may speak of patches of ulceration in the intestines, another will describe the same condition an " extensive ulceration." The End. A FEW OF THE PUBLICATIONS OF BaILLIERE, TlXDALL, A\D COX. THE VETERINARY JOURNAL, And Annals of Comparative Pathology. Edited by George Fleming, Veterinary Surgeon, 2nd Life Guards. Established to promote the interests of the Veterinaiy Profes- sion, independent of every school or party. Published on the 1st of each month. Price \s. 6d. NEW WORK FOR STOCK-BREEDERS. About %oo pages, royal 8vo, "djith 212 lihtstj-afions. pries 2,0s. A Text-Book of Veterinary Obstetrics, including the diseases and accidents incidental to pregnancy, parturition, and early age in the Domesticated Animals. Bv George Fleming, F.R'.C.V.S., F.G.S., Editor of The Veterinary Journal, Member of Council and of the Examining Board Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, etc. By the same Author. The Contagious Diseases of Animals: their influence on the health and wealth of the nation. Read before the Society of Arts. Price 6d. The Management and Diseases of the Dog. By J. W. Hill, M.R.C.V.S. Price lOo. 6