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GENERAL RELATIONS OF SCIENCE

TO

AGRICULTURE,

BY

JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON. F. R. S. S. L & E.

HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. AVP
AUTHOR or '* LECTURES ON AGBICULTURAL CHEMISTRY \nD GEOLOGY."

DELIVERED BEFORE N. Y. STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

JANUARY, 1850.

REPORTED BY SHERMAN CROSWELL, ESQ

Fi^CCfcSSING-CNt

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U.B.C. LIBRARY

ALBANY:
1850.

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GENERAL RELATIONS OF SCIENCE

TO

AGRICULTURE,

BY

JAMES F. W- JOHNSTON, F. R. S. S. L & E.

HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OfJeNGLAND. AITO
AUTHOR OF '^ LECTURES ON AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY \nD GEOLOGY."

DELIVERED BEFORE N. Y. STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

JANUARY, 1850.

REPORTED BY SHERMAN CROSWELL, ESQ.

ALBANY:

CHARLES VAN BENTUUVSEN, PRl^TTER.

1850.

LECTURE FIRST.

the relations op physical geography to practical agriculture.

Gentlemen of the New-York State Agricultural Society :
I take this, the first public opportunity which has presented itself to
me, to thank you for the very kind attentions received at your hands at
Syracuse, and I take the liberty of craving from you, for the series of
lectures I am now about to commence, the same indulgent forbearance
which you shewed towards the address delivered to you on that occa-
sion. The general object of these lectures is to give you a brief sketch
of the relations, the general relations of natural science to rural
economy.

It will be impossible for me to fill up a single one of the numerous
outlines I shall have occasion to present to you. My purpose will be
to impress on you the great breadth of existing knowledge which bears
on the farmer's art. And first, to show the character, the true practical
position which his own art occupies among human pursuits. And in
the second place, to satisfy men engaged in other occupations, that
whatever farmers, as a class, may be, in any country, at any time, they
ought not, either for their own individual interest or for the interest of
the country to which they belong, to be less intelligent, or less instruct-
ed in general and special knowledge, than other classes of the com-
munity are.

Such a course of lectures is likely to be useful at the present time ;
in the first place, because of the position which according to my judg-
ment practical agriculture now occupies in this Slate ; and secondly,
becaise of the measures which the Slate Legislature, during the pre-
sent session, are likely to take — I hope will take in order to improve
that condition.

I shall also make it one of my objects to show you that natural science
has not only a direct money bearing on the pockets and property of the

farmer, but opens up also large views of the natural capabilities of
countries, and of the relations of these capabilities to the comfort and
welfare of man; which are not only interesting in themselves, but such
as belong to statesmen to become familiar with.

I have on many occasions, in various countries, and in different ways,
endeavored to illustrate the very numerous relations which natural sci-
ence bears to the art of agriculture. ' It is impossible for any man thor-
oughly to comprehend all branches of natural science, so as to be able
completely to exhibit these relations in all their details. I do not pro-
fess such knowledge, and if I did, time would fail me in the endeavor
to lay such details before you. I shall therefore select only a few points
for illustration — a few points from the broad branches of natural knowl-
edge enumerated in the syllabus already placed in your hands.

The first of these branches, the one I am to present before you this
evening, comprehends the relations of physical geography to practical
agriculture.

Physical geography is intimately connected with physical astronomy,
and if time permitted me to discuss the relations of all science to this
important art, I might enter on this branch before discussing the sub-
ject of physical geography. But the relations which the great pheno-
mena of Astronomy bear to the art of Agriculture, in so far as the
seasons — as the alterations of day and night in different seasons of the
year, and the modifications of those seasons which similar latitudes are
subject to, at various periods of the year — all these are so familiar to
you, that I need only to draw your attention to them to convince you
that a large branch of knowledge exists here, which it is of great im-
portance that the department of Agriculture should be familiar with.

The most important points in the relations of physical geography to
Agriculture, to which I beg to draw your attention, are the following :

First. That latitude very much influences the adaptation of the place
to the growth of plants. You know, that if you pass from the southern
extreme of this large country northward, you pass over different climates,
so to speak ; you pass over different parts of the earth, the latitude of
which differs. As, for instance, in passing from the extreme south to-
wards Maine, you know that you pass from the sugar and cotton-produc-
ing country, into the wheat-producing, and from this to the barley and
oat-producing country — which description properly represents Ma^'ne —
and that whatever is true along the sea-board, is true of all the inerior
portion, and of all America, from the extreme north to the exteme
south ; that latitude very materially modifies the kind of cultur< which
it is necessary to adopt to n^ake crops grow best.

o

On this I need not dwell ; but to show you how very small differences
in latitude most materially affect the growth of plants and crops, take
one single example. The growth of sugar presents this example. Ac-
cording to the results of experience, the sugarcane will thrive where
the mean temperature is from G4° to 67° of Fahrenheit. By mean tem-
perature, I mean that which is obtained by averaging the temperature
of every day in the year. If this temperature is from 64^ to 67^ in any
given place, there is the place where the sugarcane will thrive. But
though the sugarcane may thrive in such a latitude, and may be culti-
vated with success where the temperature ranges from 67^ to 68°, still,
it grows most luxuriantly, and yields the largest return at the least cost,
where the mean annual temperature ranges from 70° to 77°. All other
things being equal, the countries where the highest temperature prevails,
are those where the sugarcane can be grown at the least cost, and drive
all others out of the market.

The southern part of Spain, near the Straits of Gibraltar, presents
the first degree of temperature spoken of. Here the sugarcane will
thrive; and here was grown the first sugar that came into market. The
northern part of Africa has a temperature of the second grade — 67° to
68°, or nearly 70°. There, and in the Azores and the Canary Islands,
the sugarcane was cultivated profitably • and there it was cultivated
after southern Spain ceased the culture. But in Jamaica, and other
neighboring islands and countries, with which all are familiar, and
where the temperature is about 77°, there the sugarcane grows most
luxuriantly. But Cuba, and the northeastern part of Brazil, possei>s the
most favorable temperature for the growth of the sugarcane. Thus the
single circumstance of variety of temperature, depending on latitude,
designates the places where the culture of the sugarcane can be carried
on most successfully. All other things being the same, the cost of labor,
the energy and enterprize of the people, the institutions of the country —
all these conditions being equal — these two countries ought to drive
every other country out of the sugar market of the world. But these
conditions do not exist; and in other countries the energy of their popu-
lation, and the effect of their institutions, come into play, and they may
compete successfully even with those most favored by climate for the
culture of sugar.

So much for this branch. But the distribution of land and water, is

, a most important element in the determination of what crops will grow

best in countries having the same latitude. You know that all along

the seaboard of any one of these continents the climate differs from thai

of the interior ; and that the climate of the interior of the coun-

try differs from that of the sea-coast, whether of the Atlantic or Pacific
side. So in the interior, bordering on these lakes at the north and west,
you know that these bodies of water very much modify the climate.
AH who live near these lakes, know very well that the climate is very
much modified by them, that is to say, that the capability of the land
to produce certain crops, is modified by the position it occupies on^the
borders of these great inland seas. You know further, that the rivers
of a country have a great influence, not only on the agricultural profit, but
on the agricultural products of a country. Suppose the interior of this
country were not intersected by these great rivers. Large rivers, are
the great highways to market ; and you know how little would_,^be the
profit to the farmer, who is distant from market, but for these rivers,
though he might raise any quantity of grain.

All this I pass over. But a most important point in physical geogra-
phy, is the elevation of a place above the level of the sea. In various
parts of the world there are great ridges of mountains, all of which you
are familiar with, as well as with the high table lands, which are to be
found in many localities in Europe and America. All these mountain
elevations, table lands, and plains, are characterized from certain cir-
cumstances, by peculiar agricultural products, entirely depending on
physical conformation. These things are obvious and I pass over them.

But the effect of elevations is felt at a great distance. Two illustra-
tions will suffice, on the first, I do not dwell, I will merely name it.
Prof. J. here pointed to the map of Europe — to the North sea — to Hol-
land— to the Rhine, tracing its rise in the mountains of Switzerland,
until it empties into the North sea, forming at its mouth, islands or del-
tas. All of you, he continued, recollect the fact, I shall hereafter ad-
vert to, of the peculiar unhealthiness of the deltas there. Now, the
character of these islands, and of the low country at the mouth of the
Rhine, is determined very much by the nature of the elevations from
which, the water comes. What has been published of the Natural His-
tory of your own State, tells you how much the region through which
the water flows, determines its quality, what it holds in solution, and
how, when it reaches the sea, this matter is deposited in the form of
deltas and islands that occupy the mouths of rivers. This is an illus-
tration of the effect of elevations to modify the character of a country,
through which the rivers coming from them flow.

But a more striking illustration is presented in another part of the*
world. The river Nilf; rises in Abyssinia, flows through Nubia and
Egypt into the Mediterranean It is remarkable ^ihat the' countries

thfough which the Nile flows, are bounded by deserts. These coun-
tries would have formed part of these great deserts, but for the waters
of the Nile. This river rises in the Mountains of the Moon, which are
covered with snow at their summits. At certain seasons of the year,
this snow melts, and swells the Nile to such a degree as to overflow
and cover this vast plain, and fertilizes what would otherwise be bar-
ren, thus giving to the soil its capability to grow crops, and sustain a
population which, in remote times, was very great. It is interest-
ing to remark how, on apparently small things, which have their
connection with distinct branches of human knowledge, the comfort and
even existence of whole nations is found clearly and distinctly to de-
pend.

Among the most interesting phenomena of physical geography, are
the depressions in certain parts of the world, compared with the level
of the sea. I have spoken of elevations ; but there are parts of the
world, below the level of the sea, which notwithstanding, grow crops
and nourish a large population.

I draw your attention to the Caspian Sea. This is a large body of
water, from the edges of which, start plains in every direction. This
body of water is considerably below the level of the Black Sea and the
Atlantic. If any circumstance should happen, by which a connection
were formed between the Black Sea and the Caspian, the waters of the
latter would be raised from sixty to eighty feet ; a very great area of (Coun-
try would be submerged, and the borders of that sea greatly enlarged.

But the most remarkable case of this kind is presented in that part of
the world with which we are all familiar by name, and that is Pales-
tine. In the interior of this country, is the Dead Sea, into which
the river Jordan flows, through certain lakes, among them the
Lake Tiberias. The Dead Sea is twelve hundred or thirteen hun-
dred feet below the level of the Mediterranean. The Lake Tiberias is
some five hundred feet below the level of that sea. If any circum-
stance should open a track or canal from the Mediterranean into the
valley of the Dead Sea, its waters would rise twelve hundred feet and
drown a large portion of the people of that country, with which our ol(J-
est and most sacred associations are connected.

I shall have occasion m a subsequent lecture, to draw your attention
to the circutnstance of their being certain parts of the world in which
no rain ever falls, and certain other parts where the quantity of rain is
very small. It is because the rain that falls in this country, bordering
on the Dead Sea and the Caspian, is no greater than the evaporation,
that it remains as now, and has not been submerged long ago. With

such a climate as you have, and as we have in Great Britain, where
the rain that falls is greater than the evaporation, the population of
those regions would have been annihilated by the rising waters.

But there are large tracts of country, which are not either above or
below the level of the sea ; but which are so flat, that the wa-
ter that falls, remains and stagnates. In this country, large
tracts are rendered useless for agricultural purposes, by the extreme
evenness of the surface. In New Brunswick, there are large tracts of
this character, and which seem to defy all agricultural improvement.

Again, there is a tract of country on the bay of Chaleurs, which
though exceedingly flat, is naturally fitted to become as rich as some
of the richest lands of Scotland, even those celebrated for their rich-
ness. It is so flat, that the water cannot escape. It is not a bog, or a
swamp, but so wet that it cannot be cultivated profitably " by the set-
tlers.

Besides these phenomena, there are certain natural obstructions,
which present themselves, in the course of rivers, and give rise to new
conditions of the country bordering on them, which are more or less
unfavorable to the growth of crops, but which farmers make profitable.
In New Brunswick, there are many such — which may be called bogs,
or swamps. In your own State, in Cayuga county, I believe chiefly
on the outlet of Cayuga lake, lies the Montezuma Marsh. I have not
visited it myself, but am advised, that the marsh is formed by obstruc-
tions, which can only be removed by operations on a large scale, by
which a partial drainage is effected, and thus the water enabled to flow
from the lake, and thus a large extent of land, capable of being made
of the most productive character, may be redeemed from barrenness.
In other parts of your country, in Georgia, for instance, there are
large swamps, and in Florida, there are what are called ever-
glades ; in regard to which, I am happy to hear, that steps are talked of
for draining and reclaiming.

Another remarkable phenomena, which has attracted the attention
of physical geographers, is the large deltas formed at the mouths of great
rivers, everywhere. Those at the mouth of the Mississippi, are famil-
iar to you all. You know that these deltas found at the mouths of all
great rivers, being formed of rich alluvial soils, are generally of an un-
healthy character ; unhealthy, because of their richness, and because of
that unhealthy character in other situations, and under other circumstan-
ces, would not be cultivated at all. If time permitted, I might here
show you, how much the agricultural prosperity of a country, not its
capability, (for these deltas are capable of the highest degree of pro due-

tionj but how much agricultural products depend on the healthy char-
acter of the climate. Farmers thrive in countries far more cold and
severe, than others; because these cold and severe countries are mostly
healthy. I am sure the hardy farmers, who cultivate the soil of New
Brunswick, though they suffer from the extreme cold of the country,
and complain of it, yet certainly enjoy far more happiness, so far as hap-
piness depends on bodily health, than the inhabitants of other richer
countries, such as Georgia, the Carolinas, Florida, and other southern
States, which are far richer, and produce more, with far less labor.
Hence, in all cases, in the temperate and colder climates, rural econo-
my in general, attains a much higher state of improvement, than in the
richer and warmer, but less healthy countries.

There is one circumstance, in connection with these deltas, to which
I will draw your attention, and only one ; that is to say, of the lands at
the mouths of rivers, and the character of the banks of the rivers
themselves, when they are of great width, and when deposites have
formed of alluvial soil, as is the case at the mouth of the Mississippi,
and in other parts of the world. It is the character of these deposites
to assume a higher elevation at the exterior than the interior part; and
from this peculiar conformation — the depression of the interior parts —
marshes and bogs, and bogs of peat marsh, in some localities are
formed in these depressed portions.

I promised to draw your attention to the Rhine. The Rhine, when
it reaches the North of Europe, becomes loaded with mud to a great
degree — not so great as the Mississippi; but there is this difference :
the Rhine empties itself into a bay, where the waters from the north
and south-west meet, and a drawing back takes place, and a precipita-
tion of the earths in suspension goes on at the mouth of the river itself.
Now, there was a time when these deposites took place without being
heeded; when there were formed islands of small extent, the edges of
which being raised above the rest, by the action of the waves and the
current, formed strips of land on which trees and plants grew — the ex-
ternal being higher than the internal parts — thus forming a large extent
of boggy, muddy, and sandy country, stretching from the mouth of the
Rhine, north, to the Zuyder Zee ; that is to say, forming the country
now called Holland. Bv dejirees, the fishermen settled on these little
knolls, and their fertility being soon known, the farmers were attracted
thither, and by indomitable perseverance and enterprise, these and the
adjacent lands were reclaimed b} artificial works, and form what is
now the limited provinces of Holland. I will not dwell on the history
of this people ; but you must see that the character of a people in such
a country, formed originally by natural operations, and reduced to a

10

habitable region by human perseverance and skill — you must see in
the nature of the country, which must have moulded the character of
the inhabitants, and formed the national character of its people — some-
thing of their remarkable characteristics. If time permitted, I might
enter into details illustrative of these — the result of personal observa-
tion in that country — going over its dykes, sailing on its canals, and
witnessing everywhere the triumphs of human power and art over
extraordinary difficulties, in a country which, from the beginning of
the Christian era, has been subjected to continually repeated inunda-
tion. Records go back through a period of thirteen centuries, during
which there have been great inundations, which have broken up dykes,
let out canals, overflowed cities, and drowned large numbers of people,
once in seven years. For thirteen centuries, the Hollanders have been
subjected, on an average once in seven years, to these inundations. I
have thought, in going through that country, how many struggles that
people have undergone, what perseverance they have displayed, what
victories they have achieved over stubborn and apparently indomitable
nature, what effect the consciousness of having done all this must have
upon individual as well as national character, and what a great triumph
it is in itself thus to have fixed themselves firmly on the soil !

Gentlemen, it is useful to us — it carries with it a great moral les-
son— to survey such a country as this; teaching us that those who
possess great natural advantages, whether gs nations or as individuals,
are not always either most blessed or happiest ; that difficulties bring
out the energies of individuals and nations, and that those nations and
those individuals are not only happiest, but in general most successful,
who have these difficulties to encounter.

I leave this department of the subject. With the subject of rivers
are connected the tides. The flowing of rivers is naturally connected
with the flowing of tides, and the flowing of tides is a physical pheno-
menon intimately connected with agricultural prosperity in many parts of
the world. I need not go far 'for an illustration — if I take you to the
Bay of Fundy, which separates Nova Scotia from New-Brunswick — the
waters of which rush up with great velocity, and rise to a great height.
Fifty or sixty feet is no unusual tide at the head waters of the bay.
As they rush up, they sweep the banks on either side, which on the Nova
Scotia side are composed of a species of rock and clay, and arrive at
the extremity of the bay loaded with mud to a very great degree.
They are the muddiest waters I ever saw. This mud is deposited at
the head waters of the bay, in great quantities, and forms the richest
land existing in that part of the world. The richest land in Nova Sco-
tia and New-Brunswick, is formed of such deposites as these — mainly

11

from the waters of the Bay of Fundy, which not only bring with theni
the ingredients that fertilize the soil they form themselves, but bring to
the industrious farmer the means to fertilize the upland to a great ex-
tent. I do not mean to say that there or in other parts of North Ame-
rica that I have visited, the advantages of these deposites are fully put
to use J but still, the means these marshes afford of enriching the up-
lands is very great, and capable of producing enough to nourish a large
population.

But I pass over this also, and I shall take you next to the sea itself
and to the currents that traverse the sea. And here I am able to pre-
sent one or two interesting illustrations.

Prof. J. pointed out on his map certain shades, indicating the currents
of water. Here, said he, (pointing to the coast of Africa near the
equator,) the tendency of the water is to flow westward. And here he
began with it, tracing the course of what is called the great equatorial
current. This current, which is here three or four degrees colder than
the water of the main sea, breaks against the northeast corner of South
America, and then separates, one portion running to the north and the
other to the south. But here, having expended its force it seems to
lose itself, but proceeds on till it is taken up to the river Amazon, and
flows through the Caribbean sea. Here the water, which before was
colder than the surrounding sea, gets warmer, and flows along through
the Gulf of Mexico, as if trying to get further west. But it is edged
off by the main land, until at last it is obliged to take its way back
along the coast of Florida and thence along your sea-board, until it
comes opposite the southern part of Newfoundland. When the current
comes out of the gulf, it is warm, nine or ten degrees warmer than before.
Thence its natural direction is across the north Atlantic, until it strikes
the coast of Spain. But it does not all go there ; a part of it breaks
off and goes north, passing ihe southeastern coast of Iceland, and then
the warm water loses itself in the Arctic sea.

Now, what is the effect of this on the agricultural character of the
country ^\^ich this stream visits? Being nine or ten degrees warmer
than the surrounding sea, it retains this warmth to such a degree at the
north, that the climate of those northern regions, even as far up as
Spitzbcrgcn, is materially mollified by the water thus flowing up from
the southern country.

The indications of this, are very distinct in the norm of Europe.
(Prof. J. here pointed to a map of the globe, across which was affixed a
piece of red tape, which followed one of the northern parallels of lali-
titude, or nearly so, saying that it waa intended to represent more

12

clearly the nature of this modifying influence upon climate and upon
agricultural products.) That line, said he, covered by the tape, indi-
cates the line where the ground is frozen all the year round ; that is
the course of the line of perpetual frost. What is the reason of this
bend towards the north ? (pointing to the neighborhood of Iceland and
Spitzbergen, where the tape was carried several degrees north ;) the
reason is, that the warm water of this equatorial current, being heated
in its passage through the Gulf of Mexico, carries this warmVh so far
north, that it actually changes the course of this line of perpetual frost,
preventing a greater part of Lapland and Norway, and a greater part
of Sweden also, from being constantly frozen ; but for this, these parts
of those countries could not bear crops ; and in Norway, and a greater
part of Sweden, all of Finland, and a large portion of Northern Russia,
it would be perpetually frozen, but for the fact that thi:s stream mollifies
the severity of the temperature, and thus enabling this northern coun-
try to grow barley, oats, and other things, necessary for the sustenance
of man. This physical, geographical phenomenon, connects itself with
considerations of the highest moment. It shows you, on how slight a
circumstance, which might well escape unobserved, depends the fate of
a country, and the lives of millions of men.

Suppose for a moment, that this current in its flow towards the west,
in search of an outlet in that direction, could make its way through the
Isthmus of Panama, and could go right across the Pacific Ocean, in-
stead of being compelled to take its course north, what would happen ?
This water would flow straight on, through the Gulf of Mexico, into the
Pacific. The Gulf stream would cease to exist at the north, and the
climate in the regions spoken of, would cease to be modified by it, and
we should have an icy desert, without the capacity to sustain human
life, and an uninhabitable region in Norway, Sweden and Northern
Russia.

To give you an idea of the quantity of heat diffused by the Gulf
Stream, in these northern regions, I may mention that the quantity of
heat acquired by this stream, and thus thrown northwardly in its course,
is enough to warm the whole column of air, that rests on Great Britain
and France, from winter temperature to summer heat ; hence, there is
every reason to believe that the mollifying influences I speak of, are
produced in that way.

Another current called the Arctic current, originates in the masses
of ice which surround the North Pole. It runs along the eastern shores
of Greenland, to Cape Farewell, doubles the cape, and flows up the
western coast of Greenland, to about 66 degrees north latitude, where

13

it turns to the southward, along the coast of Labrador, forming the Hud-
son Bay current. This, being cold water, very materially affects the
climate of Newfoundland. In 1831, the harbor of Newfoundland was
closed with ice on the 1st of June, though it is two degrees further
south than Liverpool. Arriving at the north end of Newfoundland, it
sends a branch through the Straits of Bellisle, to the St. Lawrence,
while the main part joins the Gulf Stream, between 43 and 47 de-
grees west longitude; here it divides — one portion flowing south to the
Carribbean Sea, which it enters as an under-current, the other flowing
south-west forms the United States counter current. Here it serves a
useful purpose. It replaces the warm water sent through the Gulf
Stream, and mitigates the climate of the countries of Central America
and the Gulf of Mexico, which, but for this beautiful and benign system
of aqueous circulation, would have the hottest, if not the most pestilen-
tial climate in the world. I believe that the climate of the states of
North and South Carolina and Georgia, which is salubrious, even in
the summer months, is in a great measure the result of the mollifying
influence of this cold current, and thus rendered bearable in those parts
of the world, which would be otherwise unhealthy if not unendurable.
Another illustration :

I said I would show you why this equatorial current was colder when
it crossed the Atlantic. I have already given you one reason, that if it
flows from a certain point on the African coast, water must flow to that
point, either from the north or the south. Let me show you how it
comes from the south. Looking at the map of South America, you will
observe the Andes, which traverse the whole of South America, are
bordered by a fringe of land on the west forming Peru and Chili ;
these are low countries — bordered by the sea on the one side, and by
the mountains on the other. In these countries no rain ever falls — from
their position it should be a country in which nothing was to be seen
but barren and sandy wastes, where no people could live, and because
of the absence of its capacity to produce crops. Now, there flows
from the south-west a laroe body of water, which drifts up towards
the co:ist of Peru and Chili. It is called the great southern drift.
As it approaches the coast of Patagonia, it widens and separates into
two branches ; one flowing towards the south, the other the north.
This current is cold water, and is some ten degrees colder than the sea
through which it flows. Humboldt was the person who first observed
both the temperature and the efl^ect of this current ; hence by some it is
called the Humboldt current, by others, the Peruvian current. The efCect
of this current is very remarkable, upon the agricultural capabilities of

14

these two countries. You know that rain and mist are caused by the
commingling of currents of air of different temperatures. A current of
air from the north, meets the southern current, which is warmer and
moister, and the mingling of the two, causes the moisture of the air, to
be precipitated in the form of fogs and mist, and sometimes to fall in
the form of dew. Now the mingling of this warm air, as it passes over
this cold current, becomes cooled down. The moment it comes in con-
tact with the current of cold air, it forms a mist, and at certain seasons
of the year, a great deal of mist and fog hangs over this whole coast.
During the prevalence of these fogs and mists, the atmosphere loses its
transparency, and the sun is obscured for months together. The va-
pors are so thick, that the sun seen through them, with the naked eye,
assumes the appearance of the moon's disc ; sometimes as red as blood.
This fog is altogether the result of the causes I have mentioned. The
effect of these fogs, which cover the whole surface of this coast, to a great-
er or less extent, and fall in refreshing dews at night, is to cause vege-
tation to spring up, and flourish, where no rain ever falls, and thus, from
these simple, natural causes, this large area, which would otherwise be
a desert, is made capable of producing enough to sustain a large popu-
lation.

In this connection, permit me to draw your attention to another in-
teresting fact. This current combined with the prevailing south-east
wind, favors every voyage on this coast from south to north, to such an
extent, that one may easily sail in 4 or 5 days, from Callao to Guayaquil,
and in 8 or 9 days from Valparaiso to Callao, a distance of more than
1,600 miles. But the same current, flowing north, with the prevailing
wind, retards the passage of vessels in the opposite direction. But the
last difficulty which arises from the provision made for the sustenance
of man, in promoting the growth of that, on which he lives, has been
counteracted by human intelligence and skill. The power of steam, or
rather its application to the purposes of navigation, conquers this diffi-
culty, and a voyage which it took weeks to accomplish, is now made in
the same number of days, and the commerce of this coast, is carried on
with great facility.

Another compensation for this difficulty: in order that steam may be
employed upon this coast, it is necessary that there should be a supply
of fuel ; there is such a supply. At Valparaiso there is a large de-
posite of coal. Thus Providence, which is always kind to us, and
which always provides some way in which human ingenuity may over-
come obstachs, seems here to have provided the means for overcoming
the difficulties to navigation, caused by this cold current, which is so

15

necessary to the subsistence and comfort of the inhabitants of that part
of the world.

Gentlemen, I might here draw your attention to ancient physical
geography ; I have spoken of modern physical geography, as it exists
now. I might speak of ancient physical geography, as it existed at a
very remote period, and show you what currents and drifts existed then,
how far they have modified the face of the country, and, in fact, de-
termined not only the capabilities of the soil, but the modes of culture,
the crops best fitted to particular localities, the kind of husbandry neces-
sary to their growth. But in this lecture I have trespassed on the time
usually allotted to such an address, and therefore I shall not enter on
this new subject, but content myself with such illustrations as have
been already presented, hoping that the few points which I have put
before you, selected from a vast and extended field, will satisfy you
that the phenomena of physical geography not only present a vast fund
of information of the highest interest, and especially to those whose
leading pursuit is Agriculture; but that it does open up very large
views of the economy of Providence, which are elevating and improving
to the human mind, and which those who have lo do with the afl!airs of
nations, above all others, should be familiar with.

LECTURE SECOND.

THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY TO PRACTICAL AGRICUL-
TURE.

Gentlemen, — The subject of my lecture this evening is, the Relations
of Geology and Mineralogy to Practical Agriculture. In addressing
such an audience as this on such a subject, I can have no apprehension
lest my subject should be either undervalued or too little understood.
It is under the encouragement of the Legislature of the State of New-
York, that the Silurian system of rocks, which is so largely developed
in the western part of this State, has been made classic ground among
all geologists and paleontologists throughout the whole world; and
there is not in Europe a single lover of this branch of natural science
who does not feel grateful to you for the liberal patronage you have
bestowed on his favorite pursuit. It is very rare that a work so rich in
practical and money benefit to the community, as your series of volumes
on the Natural History of the State are sure to be, should be at the
same time accompanied by so large a harvest of reputation. My only
apprehension, in bringing this subject before you, is, that the skilful
and extended labors of your own Hall and Emmons may have already
made you so familiar with it as to rob of all novelty anything I may
have to offer, and to make my illustrations less interesting than they
might otherwise have been. But by drawing my illustrations mainly
from my own country, with the Geology of which I am more familiar,
I may possibly be able, in some measure, to weather this difficulty.

Gentlemen, Geology occupies itself with the crust of the globe ; that
is, with all the solid materials which we can get at — that forms the sub-
ject of geological investigation. Now, the surface of the earth consists
of a series of rocks, that lie generally one over another, like the leaves
of a book, forming generally stratified deposites, or rocks lying in beds
or strata. The greater part of them, though not now lying perfectly
flat, were at one time horizontal, but are now generally inclined a little.

17

Professor J. here pointed to a geological section, where the difTerenl
strata were represented by different colors, and showing their different
inclinations; and went on to say that these strata had certain relations
to each other — that is, in regard to position, one being generally high-
est, and the other lowest. Wherever you find these stratified rocks,
the same relative position which they have in one part of the world,
will hold good all over the globe, unless where, from some extraordinary
■circumstance, this natural position has been disturbed.

Besides these stratified rocks which form, by far, the largest portion
of the crust of the orlobe, there are rocks unstralified — rocks which do
not occur in strata, but which present themselves in large masses, rocks
which when broken, are found to be one solid mass, having no strata.
There are many stratified rocks, which are known by different names —
but those which are unstratified, and which cover a large portion of the
surface of the earth, are not so various. One portion of them is called
trap-rocks, which is a dark colored rock, and occurs in great quantities ;
and another is the granite, of which there is an abundance in your own
State. All the north-eastern part of the State of New-York, consists
of this granite.

So much in regard to the relative position of rocks — for this is quite
enough for our purpose. These rocks have generally definite composi-
tions, or definite component parts ; by that I mean a composition which
in some cases, is very easily ascertained, and in some cases is
characteristic of the rock. Prof. J. here pointed to the geolog-
ical section of the State, and remarked that this red indicates a
sand stone ; this blue, a limestone, &;c. Now, all stratified rocks, those
rocks which lie one above another, as represented on this map — all
consist of one or other of three things — of clay, or of sandstone more or
less hardened; or of limestone, clay, sand and lime, forming all of the
great number of stratified rocks occurring on the surface of the globe.
But these are not found always, occurring singly ; but sometimes we
find sand and clay mixed — partaking of the character of both ; some-
times lime is found mixed with either clay or sandstone — sometimes
all three are found together ; so that these three things, clay, sand and
lime, either singly or in combination, enter into the composition and
form the substance of the stratified bodies of which I have been speak-
ing. Now you will see from this at once, when I make you acquainted
with the further fact, that these rocks presenting themselves above the
general surface, are more or lests ground down, by the tctioo of the
ordinary atmospheric causes; the rains, the ice, and other forces (hat
are continually in operation ; you will see, I repeat, that, supposing a
2

18

\

rock to be clay, which is thus ground down, that it will form a peculiar
kind of soil — a clay rock will form one kind of soil, and sandstone an-
other, and limestone another, and a mixture of any two of them will
form a fourth ; a mixture of certain other two, a fifth ; and thus you
may go on multiplying varieties of soil, from these three kinds of rock,
all of them more or less varied, but having the same general character.
Now, practical farmers know very well, that the materials of these
different rocks crumbling down, by the action of the causes I have men-
tioned, will form each a different kind of soil ; each of which requires a
different kind of husbandry, and each suitable to the production of dif-
ferent crops, varying with the kind of rock that forms the soil. I mean
to say, that the husbandry and treatment do not differ in the same de-
gree as the soils ; but that because the soils differ, the treatment must
differ very much. The clay rocks will give a stiff and moist soil, capa-
ble of producing good crops in a hot year ; scarcely any in a wet year,
but can always be made to produce good crops, when thoroughly
drained. The sand stones produce a sandy soil, which is hungry and
poor ; which will drink up all the water, and eat up all the manure ;
an easy soil to till, but generally unproductive, except in the hands of
a skilful man. Again, if you have limestone rocks, the soil will be not
altogether consisting of lime. We have such in England, which is of
a rich character, and easily cultivated. Prof. J. here pointed to a geo-
logical map of England, on which were represented different kinds of
rock or soil by different colors. These colors (he continued) appear in
irregular masses, varying as the character of the rock or soil varies, or
rather as the edges of the different kind of strata come to the surface.
All the stratified rocks being inclined, they present only their edges, as
it were, on the surface. If they were horizontal, or nearly so, they
would spread over larger, if not the whole surface of the country)-, and
vast tracts would be represented by the same color. But being in-
clined, the surface is, of course, varied in the character of the soil, and
is represented by other irregularities of color. Prof. J. here pointed to
a geological map of New-York, presenting to the eye, the similar vari-
ations of rock or soil, of which its surface was composed. I was ob-
serving, (he continued) that a limestone rock has a soil composed alto-
gether of lime. Such a soil is very rare, but there are some countries
where such soils are found. Here, for instance, (pointing to the south-
eastern part of England) is a soil composed of chalk only. This is one
instance where a soil consists in a great part of limestone, for chalk is
a variety of limestone. But if, as is frequently the case, limestones are
more or less mixed with sandstone, or with clay ground down, then it

19

forms a calcareous or loamy soil ; and every farmer know?, who has
given any attention to the composition of soils, that this is not only an
easy soil to till and to plough, but in general, a fertile soil, and a soil
which does not need the peculiar management which sandy soils re-
quire to make them fertile, nor the drainage which the clay soils must
be subjected to, to make them productive.

Let me illustrate these general clmracterislics of the soils formed by
different kinds of rocks, by a more particular reference to this geologi-
cal map of England. The geologist has shown that the crust of the
globe consists, mostly, of a series of slrntified bodies having their pecu-
liar general characteristics, and which occur in a certain order, one
above another. The studies and researches of the Agricultural geolo-
gist, have shown that soils are generally formed from the materials of
the rocks that have crumbled down. By studying such a geological
map as this, you may see what rocks exist in different countries, and
from the combined observation, made by geologists and agriculturists,
it is at once seen, by an inspection of these colors, what are the quali-
ties of the soils.

Here, (said Prof. J., pointing to the easterly part of England,) is a
purple tint, representing the edge of one of the stratified rocks which
makes its way down south, until it is finally washed by the waters of
the sea. This rock, consisting chiefly of clay, forms a tenacious clay-
soil, of which there is no example in Scotland. It is so strong that it
cannot be cultivated, but has laid in grass for a long time, and there is
the finest and most luxuriant grass land in England.

Prof. J. here pointed to a yellow tinted strip of land in the neighbor-
hood of Oxford. There, said he, is a bed of clay 500 feet thick. It is
soft, but exceedingly tenacious. It forms a soil, which, when expo.~ed
to the sun, in a hot summer's day, hardens so much, that it will ring
under the stroke of a hammer, and when wet, is so tenacious that the
cattle, which walk over it, can hardly draw their feet out of it. Hence
in the county of Huntingdon, where a large portion of the surface is
covered with this kind of clay, the soil is so difficult and expensive to
work, that though the farmers are, on the whole, pretty well oflf", they
complain that they make little or no profit, ar.d that though in a hot
summer, they can grow good crops of wheat, in a wetsuinnier they can
raise no crops at all. These stiff' soils will not admit of profitable culti-
vation, naturally, though in hot summers, barley will grow well. Prac-
tical men well understand why this is so, when they know that a very
short period intervenes between the wet and dry seasons, during wh'ch

20

it can be brought to the condition in which it is proper to put the seed
into it. Thismakfes it exceedingly expensive land to work, and though
thorough draining is now bringing in much of this clay formation, still
the land, through the whole extent of country covered by it, bears a
very low price, and rents for much less than other lands, being so much
more difficult to work, from the fact that the work must all be done in
a short period of time, and requi^s a much larger force to do it, and
the crops are uncertain.

Now for another kind of rock or soil. I could give you ether instan-
ces of clay soil. In Scotland there are such instances, and the Scotch
farmers have found out a way of cultivating them ; but these are not
clay soils, of the character of which I have spoken. Hence it is, that
Scotch farmers who have emigrated into this clay region of Huntingdon
county, have uniformly failed. I was told of an instance, where twenty
Scotch farmers had emigrated into that county, and rented land there,
every one of whom went to the wall. So very difficult is it, for a man
to change his location, and go to a new kind of soil and country, hav-
ing only the habits and knowledge, which he has acquired in his own
country. If he goes into a new country, without knowing the nature of
the new soil, which he attempts to cultivate, or the mode of culture
best adapted to it — that man is sure to fail; success only goes with
knowledge. A man who has a knowledge of the nature of soils, a^d
the true principles of culture, can go upon any kind of soil in any coun-
try and meet with success.

But I said I would take you to another kind of soil. There (point-
ing to the northern part of England,) is a red sand-stone ; here is some
of it (pointing to the map) in Scotland — this is red sand-stone, known
by the name of old red sand stone. This consists of sand, cemented
with clay, presenting a red color, and forming a reddish soil, it is in
great part sandy. This red rock (pointing again to the map,) repre-
sents Wales. In some parts of that country, it is so sandy and hungry,
that it drinks up all the water that falls upon it, and eats up all the
manure that is put upon it. Of course it cannot be cultivated with
profit in the ordinary manner — but properly cultivated, it can be made
to yield very large profits. Supposing, as is frequently the case, a hill
of sand stone, is found in the neighborhood of a hill of clay, these two
when mingled in proper proportions, form a loamy soil, which is exceed-
ingly fertile and easy to work. This combination forms the whole of
the valley of Strathtnore in Scotland. (Strathmore means great valley.)
These soils are exceedingly rich and fertile, when cultivated with

21

skill, yielding large profits, both to the landlord and the tenant. To
give some idea of the value of this land, I may mention, that this tract,
at a period not far distant, paid about £8 an acre of rent ; on an average,
it now pays £5, and £6 per acre. The farmers who cultivate this land,
have become exceedingly skilful, in the working of this kind of land,
it is not difficult to plough, it can be early cultivated in the spring, and
the fall rains do not come on so early, as to prevent the proper prepa-
rations for the winter grain. These men, who cultivate this land, have
become so well attached to it, and know so well the value of it, that they
have overspread all this red tract in the northern part of England. By
which I mean, that they are all men of the same family or blood, and they
have extended all over the region where this red land prevails. They
have crept further north into Sutherland, and are now going into the
Orkney Islands. On this red land, though the climate is far different
from that below, far up into that extreme northern region, ihey are
raising crops of wheat, equal to those of more favorable climates.
Knowing as they do vvell, the kind of tillage the land requires, and the
general modes of culture, so that all this land, though lying far north,
is of as good a character, in all respects, as that I just pointed to, fur-
ther south. But after all, it is only in cases of necessity, that they go to
these cold countries. It is because they can find no better land to cul-
tivate, and when they can find no more land that suits them here, they
emigrate to the New World.

Prof. J., here pointed to another tract of clay soil. This, he said, is
a colder soil ; a marsh, covered with peat bog, lakes, and stao-nant
water, with here and there, rocks, and here and there, cultivated
spots. The inspection of such a map as this, tells me, tells you, if you
understand the efTect of the character of rocks, *or husbandry,
the kind of culture best suited to particular localities, and which
must be followed, if the land is to be cultivated with profit. It
lells me, also, what method is to be adopted to improve it. 1 know
that in such a country, the first thing to be done, is to drain ii.
Then again, if I find one kind of rock, lying at one pariicMjIar place.
I know that there is another rock of a particular character, lying some-
where about it, either far or near, and that a certain other rock, lies
under it, cither near or remote. See how this bears on the improve-
ment of such land as this. I find that loam is near it ; and this physio-
logy of the country, tells me at once, where to get the materials, with
which to improve my land.

It is of great consequence to know more in regard to these soiJs ; to
know more than that ii consists of sand or lime ; to krjow more ihan
that it consists of clay or sand ; it is of great consequence to know whe-

22

ther it contains more or less, of one or the other of these substances;
for, if a particular soil requires lime to improve it, it is quite clear that
ihe soil is naturally deficient in lime. Now, it is the character of this
formation, of which I am speaking, that it is deficient in licae. You
have all heard of the forest of Ardennes in the northern part of Francec
It is full of bogs, marshes and lakes, a most inhospitable tract of land.
This is precisely the character of land I have described, and which
has this feature particularly, of a great deficiency of lime. Knowing
that such is the character of the formation, then I know the nature of
the soil and the kind of husbandry best suited to it ; and, if there be a
farmer living there, whose condition is not one of the poorest kind, then
I know how the condition of things has been altered, and how the land
has beem improved.

Recollect, I was just stating, that if lime is to be used as an improver,
the quantity to be used is a matter of importance ; hence, we must
.know, how much the soil contains, if any, and hence our analyses of
the soils must be more rigid, if we would arrive at safe conclusions on
this subject. I have here a table, (which the Professor showed to the
audience) copied from one of the volumes of Dr. Emmons, representing
the composition of the slates and shales of New-York and other places.
Among them, I find some soils, which contain a great per centage of
lime. The Marcellus slate contains a great deal. This is a very valua-
ble table, but time will not permit me to go into its details. It is quite well
to know, if lime is to be applied to the soil, and a certain quantity of
lime is necessary to make all soils productive ; if that is to be done, it
is well to know, before you commence how much lime there is in the
land originally.

I do not know that time will permit me to go into this branch of the
subject farther. I proceed, therefore, to draw your attention to the un-
stratified rocks. In England there are very few trap rocks — there is
very little in New-York, but in Scotland there is a large extent of it.
These trap rocks are the old lava, thrown up by volcanic agencies.
These rocks crumble down and form a very good soil It is a remark-
able circumstance, that wherever these trap rocks are met with, in all
parts of the world, they, crumbling down readily, make soils of great
fertility, capable of fertilizing other fields in their vicinity. Prof. J.
here stated an incident illustrative of this fact. He was visiting the
farm of a farmer in Scotland, who was actually taking off twelve inch-
es of the surface of one field, consisting of this soil formed of trap, and
spreading it over other fields. This expensive operation he found yield-
ed a good return on the outlay.

23

Prof. J. here pointed to the north-eastern part of New- York, where
the granite occurs. Granite yields a poor soil, which is sandy and hun-
gry, consisting chiefly of gravel and sand, which does not presen
great attractions to the farmer, and in the old country is left to be
improved and settled when there is no other to cultivate.

Here, said Prof. J., let me take an illustration or two from your own
country. You know that a wheat country consists of a soil formed of
rocks, represented on the maps by a particular color, chiefly of lime-
stone. He then pointed to another strata, representing a hungry sand-
stone, then to another, representing the Helderberg limestone. Of all
the rocks, this forms the most fertile soil; it is a strong soil, not difficult
to work, and retains the water which falls upon it. He then pointed to
a clay series of rocks, which do not produce a fertile soil, but when
mingled with the sandstones they form a pretty good soil. The lime-
stone, which is in itself a good soil, mixed with clay, forms a great In-
dian corn growing country.

One point I desire to bring under your notice. I have told you that
if a scries of rocks be represented by my four fingers, they always
occur in a certain order, one above another — here is a sandstone and
there a clay ; this order is never inverted. This is a matter of very
great importance, with reference to the flowing of the water from one
end to the other of these strata, because it is obvious that by this means,
what is a sandstone at one end may become a clay rock at the other.
The Helderbergh series consists of clay and sandstone. Towards
the west it is clayey, and towards the east it is silicious ; hence the soil
is different as you proceed from west to east, so thnt the geologist not
only requires to know the relative position of one rock to another, but
whether the rock is liable to these changes in its composition. Hence
it is often difficult to determine absolutely, from an inspection of the
geological map, the precise quality of the soil in different positions.

One or two other illustrations which the United States present. If
you go south into Alabama, and pass from the rich alluvial sf»il of the
sea-islands, over this whole extent of country, from south to north, you
find nothing more convincing, from the different qualities of soil and
their capabilities of producing different kinds of crops, of the fuel, that
the geological sructure of the country, dcterinin»*s its agiicullurul pro-
ducts. I must draw your attention, in this connection, to France, which
presents another remarkable instance of the relations of CJeol> gv to the
general fertili'y of a country. M. Sullin in his *• Voyages Agrono-
miques," lias divided France into eight regions, according to their fer-
tility and agricultural productions. Climate, in so extensive a country.

24

has no doubt something to do with the fact^ that the vine and Indian
corn do not flourish in the first of these districts, that of the north ; and-
with the other fact, that the region of the south is also called that of
olives. But it is nevertheless remarkable, that this country divides it-
self naturally into as many geological regions, almost coincident vfith
the agricultural regions of M. Sullin, and thus geology and practical ob-
servation are coincident in their results.

Another point will admit of considerable illustration,, but I can only
spend a moment or two on this head, I have spoken of the composition
of soils and the great differences which exist between them; I have
spoken of clay as forming one great group of soils. But here is a re-
markable distinction. The same kind of material may under different
circumstances, present different varieties of soil. If I take this piece of
clay, and go into the market, offering a farm for sale, and saying, I
have a farm of this kind of clay, the ans^ver would be, we want nothing
to do do with your farm ; but if I tell a farmer, here is another farm, of
this soil, holding a piece of dry clay, he will at once say, I will go and
see it. Thus the simple inspection of these two kinds of soil, will telli
any practical man, that they are more or less suited to cultivation.
In Scotland, we produce magnificent crops on these clay soils. These
clay lands, being drained are thus rendered capable of culture, and
this depends, not on any new chemical combination, or change, but on
the state in which the material exists. It so happens in all parts of the
world, that there occur rocks of the same material, which are some-
times harder and sometimes softer; then again there are rocks which
are called metamorphic, which have been analysed and found to con-
tain the same elements, and yet are so different in their physical char-
acter, that when in one form, they are capable of growing green crops —
in the other fitted for wheat. This is an important point and has an in-
timate connection with the deductions drawn from an inspection of a
geological map. I should have liked here to have drawn your atten-
tion to the modifications which the action of water has produced on the
character of the soil. I showed you in my previous lecture that there
were currents in the sea, and how they affected the atmosphere and the
agricultural capabilities of various large sections of the globe. But, I
did not then speak of the transporting action of these currents. They
carry along with them icebergs on their surface, and gravel and sand at
the bottom depositing them in various places on their route. And when
I remind you that this part of the world (pointing to the northern part
of America,) was once below the level of the sea, and that the Arctic
current swept over it, with all the rocks and substances with which it

26

was charged, spreading ihem wherever it went, you may well expect
that traces of this current may be found on the surface of the globe.
This is the case, we find in the Genesee Valley, not only the materials
which now form the bottom of Lake Ontario, but we find that these
materials essentially modify the soils of this part of the country. It is
an interesting and curious fact in the Geology of your State, this Arctic
current swept through that valley, and carried the materials which it
brought with it over a large surface of country. All this is a matter of
interest, because it shows you that a knowledge of these drifts, and of
the loose materials which they bring with them is as of much conse-
quence as a knowledge of the rocks themselves. I shall have occasion
to revert again to this subject, I pass over it now; I could present, if
time permitted, many illustrations of the effects of this current on the
agricultural character of other districts.

I have shown you the general application and relations of Geology, to
Agriculture, and how the kind of rock determines the quality of the
soil, but there occur in these rocks, mineral substances of various kinds.
Now a knowledge of these substances, is an essential branch of geolo-
gical study ; if you find in any one rock, that there occurs a certain min-
eral substance, you have acquired a knowledge of the composition of that
rock in every other country. If you find in any one country, in England
for instance, what is valuable as an ingredient of the soil, you may
well infer that the same thing exists in other countries, in rocks of sim-
ilar character. One word of explanation ; if I light a match, an ordi-
nary lucifcr match, a white smoke will be observed ; at the end of this
match, there is a little phosphorus, that while smoke, is the smoke of
the phosphorus, and the substance produced, is phosphoric acid, it is a
white solid substance. This phosphoric acid, combines with lime,
and forms phosphate of lime. If I take a piece of bone and burn it,
it will blaze for a while, and bye-and-bye it will cease to burn, but the
part of the bone that is left, is bone-ash, and is white. This bone-ash,
as you all know, is phosphate of lime. This phosphate of lime exists
in all bones ; it is also found in the earth ; there are certain geological for-
mations in which it has been lately discovered in considerable quanti-
ties. In my subsequent lectures, I shall show you, that this is an important
material in the hands of the practical farmer. In the eastern corner of
England, there is a rock, called Crag, consi;>ting of snnd and shells,
among which were found lumps, which when examined, were found to
consist of this phosphate of lime. All know that bones are employed
as manure; they contain phosphate of limo ; now if that be the case,
it isobvious that if you can get it in the form of n mineral, and apply it to

26

the land, it would be valuable to you. Some farmers are in the habit
of employing guano; but this phosphate of lime has been found by ex-
periment, to be equally good ; and when I tell you that this phosphate
of lime, thus dug out of this formation, had been known to practical man-
facturers for years, who had all the machinery for getting it out, and
grinding it down, and that they are kept fully employed in preparing it
with sulphuric acid, in the form of super-phosphate of lime, you will
see that it must be an important material to the farmers. When you
learn that the manufacturers are making money by selling this sub-
stance to the farmers, who in England, do not throw away their money
in experiments, you may be sure, that there is something in it. Now,
wherever that rock occurs, it is very probable that that substance is
found in it. Professor J., here pointed to a green sand soil, which he
said was found in the southern part of England, and was remarkably
productive of wheat. All have heard of the marl pits, which exist in
this neighborhood, and the materials of which, for hundreds of years,
have been dug out to fertilize the land. In this marl are found little
nodules, that consist almost altogether of this phosphate of lime ;
here also, are found, bodies of marl, five and six feet thick, contaming
six per cent, phosphate of lime ; knowing this, you have a clue to the
fertile character of the soils in this region.

Professor J. here related an anecdote, illustrative of the great fer-
tility of some of the hop lands of Surrey, of the great value of the
hop crop, all of which was the result of the application of this fertilizing
substance, or of its existence naturally in the soil. This phosphate of
lime, he continued, explains this productiveness. Wherever this
green-sand comes to the surface, there you may look for th^se same
phosphates, and there you may look for good crops. This green sand
occurs in France and Germany, and other European countries. In New-
Jersey, in this country, you have a green sand, which belongs to the
same class as ours in England.

Now, gentlemen, you see how important the indications of Geology
are, in showing where to make selections of lands for farming pur-
poses. If, among your tertiary rocks, you find anything analogous to
this sand, you know that you have found a valuable fertilizing material.
Then there is another mode in which this phosphate occurs. Limestone
occurs in all countries; its qualities are various; some contain animal
remains ; the bones of animals contain phosphate ; therefore it is a
matter of great importance to know which of two limestones contains
the most phosphate. I shall show you, in a subsequent lecture, the de-
crease of crops from the absence of this phosphate in the soil, and how, by

27

restoring this ingredient, the land may be restored to fertility. In
Scotland there is some limestone that has been found, by experience,
to be better than others; and it turns out, by experiment, that it is in
consequence of the presence of more of this phosphate in one than in
the other. I have alluded to the existence of green sands in your coun-
try. I learn from Professor Emmons and from Professor Hall, and
Professor Logan of Canada, that there are great quantities of this
phosphale in different parts of the country; that it exists at Rof^sie, and
that the iron ore of Clinton county contains this phosphate of lime. If
it be true that it has been found profitable to buy this phosphate at six and
ten pounds sterling per ton, it cannot be unprofitable to inquire whether,
in your country, the material cannot be found in quantity enough to bring
it within the reach of farmers; and I am happy to find that there are
many inquirers in this Slate who are eager to explore and find out this
material which has been found so essential to agricultural improve-
ment. You see, said he, how wide a field this subject opens — you see
that the application of physical Geography tells on the pockets of the
farmer, and teaches him how he may p^row larger crops. This, after
all, is the test of the value of science, when applied to the practical
affairs of life. Unless you can show the practical farmer — I speak of
the farmers of England — that this will tell on his pocket, you will
scarcely prevail on him to give it his attention ; but when he convinces
himself that such and such a process of tillage or manuring will actually
enrich him, then he is ready enough to follow your suggestions. I
believe that before we get through, you will find that this subject
loaches, very nearly, the pocket of the farmer.

LECTURE THIRD<

THE RELATIONS OF BOTANY, VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, AND ZOOLOGY, TO

PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.

Gentlemen : — The subject of the lecture for this evening, is the re-
lations of Botany y Vegetable Physiology^ and Zoology^ to Practical Ag-
riculture.

If the other subjects, of which I have treated in the preceding lec-
tures, were far too wide to admit even of a sketch or outline of them in
a single lecture, I am sure you will appreciate the necessity, if I crowd
into one lecture the three subjects which I am now about to bring be-
fore you, of my being even more brief and desultory than heretofore.

First, as to the general relations of Botany. You will bear in mind,
that as botany is the science of plants, it must have a close relation to
the culture of plants, and as far as these general relations are concerned,
they involve the natural relations which all plants have one to another.

The general natural relations of plants are such, for example, as that
all the different kinds of corn plants, commonly known as cerealia, and
all the grasses, producing seeds of a similar character, possess nutritious
properties of a similar kind. The potatoe possesses a nutritive charac-
ter, different from the corn plant. This, however, is not so important
a matter, as it is to know that the entire family to which the potatoe
belongs, all possess a similar character ; so that, if you know the char-
acter of one, you know the character of the whole group of plants. So
far as these general relations are concerned, the subject is familiar
enough to all, to lead them to conclude that it is one of considerable in-
terest to the practical agriculturist.

Nor shall I enter into a minute analysis of the nature of plants, a
province peculiar to the medical man who knows what substances be-
long to particular plants, and in what plants he is to look for peculiar
medicinal properties.

Nor can I do more than bring to your notice the uses of Botany to
the art of Horticulture, giving new esculents to the gardener, bringing

29

new flowering plants, and new ornamental shrubs into your gardens,
and teaching us how to transfer successfully, plants of value and beau-
ty, from the climates in which they naturally grow, and how to realize
its importance to arboriculture, a branch which you do not follow as we
do in England, because the extent of your natural forests, rather gives
you employment enough, in cutting down than in rearing up, but which
in many parts of Europe, is an engrossing pursuit, and has led botan-
ists into all parts of the world, in search of new trees; and thus the
newly discovered continent has been made to contribute to the beauty
of the forests of the old.

Passing over these relations, at which I can merely glance, I must
now draw your attention to the structure of plants, and to a description
of their organs. In investigating the structure of plants, that of the
leaves becomes essential, to know as well how plants live, as how they
should be fed ; that is, to those who are desirous of understanding the
principal branches of knowledge, on which all sound agriculture must
be based. Amonjr the circumstances connected with the structure of
plants, the organization of the leaf is of the greatest importance. The
upper side differs generally from the under ; when subjected to the mag-
nifying power of the microscope, this difference is very striking. The
under part of the leaf is found to be studded with little holes, or pores
or mouths, which sustain important funclions or relations to the life of
plants. They are very numerous. To give you some idea of their
number, I may mention that on a square inch of a single leaf, twenty
thousand of these little pores have been seen and counted. The num-
ber of these pores indicates to those who have studied this subject, the
circumstances of climate and atmosphere to which the plant is adapted.

Prof. J. here pointed to a diagram representing, on a large scale, the
form of the pores of three different plants, showing their difTerence in
size and shape. This peculiar structure, continued he, is so intimately
connected with the functions of the leaf, that I must dwell upon it for a
moment, to illustrate in what manner plants live, so far as their growth
depends on the air. By means of these pores, they suck in aerial food
from the atmosphere, the mode in which they drink it in, the quantity
and the circumstances under which they absorb it most favorablvi that
is, the circumstances of temperature and moisture, are related to the
form and number of these pores, as they occur in particular kinds of
leaves.

The structure of the stems of plants, is also one much connected
with their growth. Those who have the curiosity to examine the struc-
ture of the stems of plants, have only to turn to Prof. Emmons* Tolum«

30

on the Agriculture of the State, where sections of plants and trees are
given with great accuracy and beauty. These, as Prof. E. well says,
exhibit in a strong light, the important relations which science bears,
to the practical cultivation of these plants.

The structure of the roots of plants, is another important point, re-
quiring a minute study into the manner in which the stem, tapers down
into the extreme fibres of the root, of the spongy form of the extremi-
ties of the rools, which enables it to draw to it, all of sustenance that it
gets from the soil. Thus the habits of these roots are important. Some
plants spread their roots over the surface, as the turnip, which spreads
its roots to the distance of four or five feet. You may readily trace
them to the distance of three or four and even five feet, showing from
how great a distance these plants draw their sustenance. Some plants
descend to a great depth. This is another important point ; for if the
habit of a plant, is thus to go down to a great depth, and if the deeper
it goes, the more food it extracts from the soil, then it is quite clear,
that the more shallow the soil is kept, the less the farmer has studied
the soil.

Now among the plants of this habit, wheat is one that will send its
roots three or four feet into the soil, in search of food; and the more
mellow the soil, the more easy is it to get the food, which enables it to
grow to a great height and to reach its maturity. Hence a knowledge
of this fact, in regard to wheat and flax, suggests the necessity that the
soil should be deeply cultivated — that the farmer should plough deep,
in order to avail himself of this store-house of natural food, which is
essential to supply the wants of the plant and enable it, through the
medium of its roots, to bring this food to the surface and make it use-
ful. Thus, some plants have roots so formed, that they will grow only
in light soils — others in stifT soils only. Wheat requires a strong and
stifT soil — the barley and the turnip a light soil, and this fact indicates
that where a farmer has only a strong soil, he must lighten it in order
to grow barley or the turnip ; and that some soils must be drained in
order to cultivate these two things.

On the other hand, the different kinds of plants indicate to the skil-
ful man different kinds of soil. If I had a geological map, and if time
permitted, I could have shown you how certain plants indicate certain
geological formations; how I could know from the kind of plants grow-
ing on a particular spot, of what rocks the soil was formed, and what
kind of rocks I could there look for with certainty. I have here a list of
different plants, with the different geological formations on which they
are found; but I cannot dwell upon it. I have a list of trees also, which

31

are peculiar to certain formations; but I prefer to draw your attention to
the agricultural indications of plants.

Certain plants, (the names of which I need not give, as they are sci-
entific names, and require a knowledge of Botany to understand them,)
certain plants indicate certain soils, as the thistle indicates a rich and
productive soil — keep down these thistles and you have a good soil.
Brambles indicate a loamy soil; the wild radish, a poor soil; the rush, a
good soil, but one that is useless for want of drainage ; the common
rag-wort, which occurs in arable lands, indicates that the land is badly
cultivated.

Then you all know that trees indicate different varieties of soil. The
beech, a light soil; maple, also a light soil of a very superior character.
I have here a list of forest trees, and the different formations which
they severally indicate, but I need not dwell on this part of the subject.

The habits of plants, particularly of those which infest the soil, are
important as teaching us how to exterminate them ; that is, it is impor-
tant to know whether they are annual, biennial, or perennial. Those
that are perennial, like the Canada thistle, indicate from that fact how
they are to be exterminated ; if annual, they must be kept down every
year; if biennial, they must, to be exterminated, be attended to once in
two years. Perennial plants require to be more effectually extermina-
ted, according to the character of their seeds — as, for instance, whether
they are strong, and will remain long in the ground without rotting.
The seed of the pigeon weed, for instance, is of this character, and may
be carried to great distances without being destroyed. This vitality of
seeds, therefore, is of great consequence to the practical man.

Again, the mode in which plants are propagated is another subject
of importance. Many of them are propagated only by seeds, and if yoa
destroy the seeds, you are certain they will not appear again. But there
are others which are propagated not only by seeds, but by running
roots; of this character is the Canada thistle, so that if you cut down
the plant, before the seeds are ripened, the roots will propagate and
increase the crop. So with the common twitch grass ; the more you
cut it down, the more it will grow. These facts bear closely on the
praclicnl operations of the farmer, and in this respect botany has a di-
rect and a special reference to t'le art on which the farmer lives.

I need not go farther into details, to convince you how far an igno-
rance of botany stands in the way of progress in agricultural pursuits.
But there are many different kinds of plants, which botanists suidy,
which are of particular interest to the practical farmer, or which, at
least, possess as high an interest to them, as any other.

32

I may mention mildew, smuts and rust. This is a subject of the
highest interest. By examining them closely through the microscope,
botanists have discovered how they grow — what they are — how they pro-
pagate— how they get into the plant and seed — and how they may be
exterminated. It is obvious that to exterminate smut, you must
either destroy the seeds, when they have come to maturity, or
destroy the plants before they have attained that state. But of
all the smuts or fungi, as they are called, that injuriously affect
plants, the potato disease is one of the most remarkable ; and when we
consider how important a root, potato is, and what great distress has
followed the effects of this disease, you cannot fail to see that this
branch of knowledge, the province of which, is to investigate the causes
of disease like this, is deserving of all possible encouragement. And
though no study arrives at maturity at once, still, because we cannot
discover everything in a moment, or by as short a process as we could
wish, we are not, on that account, to discourage these investigations.

Among the various kinds of smuts, affecting corn plants, that
which affects Indian corn, is the most remarkable. I have never
seen its effects myself; but it is described as remarkable from the fact,
that it can only be exterminated, by selecting the seed from localities
not affected by it, or by cutting it out as soon as it appears. But the most
singular and interesting, is that kind of fungus that affects rye. It
affects the ear of the rye, and the affected grains assume an appearance,
not unlike small spurs, sticking out. This ergot of rye, as it is called,
shows itself in most places, in low, wet and marshy lands, where rye
is grown ; or in better land, in seasons of great rain, succeeded by great
heat, and generally in moist years. When rye is affected in this way,
the ergot being ground up with the flour, produces disastrous conse-
quences, and persons have died who have eaten the bread made of it, un-
der circumstances of disease of a remarkable character. Inconsequence
of this discovery, this substance has been introduced into the list of
medicines, and employed with effect in certain cases. But it is a curious
fact that this same ergot is found not only in rye, but in various kinds
of common grasses on which cattle feed, particularly among the rank
grasses that grow in marshy places. It was immediately inferred that
this kind of fungus, thus produced in these grasses, on which cattle
feed, and which, in rye, produced the remarkable, feverish effects on
the human body, was the cause of similar effects in cattle — which in
many districts prevails to such an extent that the farmers find it im-
possible to secure calves. Of course, the remedy suggested is, the
removal of the cause ; and that is done by draining the marshes on

I

33

which these rank grasses grow. There are none of you who may not
see, that the application of the results of this branch of study, has a
direct bearing on the practical, pocket interests of the farmer, as it en-
ables him to avoid evils and prevent losses, to which he must be other-
wise liable. I pass over any further illustrations on this subject of
Botany, with a single additional remark: that this branch of science, in.
connection wiih Chemistry, to which now may be added, the modern
science of Histology, has led to important results, in reference to the
cultivation of plants.

Prof. J. here pointed to a diagram representing on a large scale, sec-
tions of the common carrot and beet. This is done altogether by the
microscope, and they are faithful delineations, but if you apply to these
small cells, which cover the surface, chemical substances, you can pro-
duce changes of color in one part and not in another ; and knowing
what kind of vegetable substances are lightened in color by chemical
substances, you draw conclusions as to the nature of the substance it-
self, though the particles are so minute that the chemist could not extract
them for examination. This constitutes that branch of science called
Histology, and being applied to plants and animals, makes us acquainted
with their entire nature, and on what circumstances these changes, when
healthy and when diseased, must depend.

I pass on to Zoology, and you cannot but perceive that the science
that developes the general habits and structure of animals, the natural
relations of one to another, and the functions of their several parts, how
they live, and how they live best, must be of importance to the agri-
culturist, and particularly that branch of it which relates to breeds of
slock.

As to breeds of stock, a knowledge of Zoology is necessary to under-
stand what is a breed, what qualities characterize different breeds, to
know how to distinguish one breed from another, and how to preserve
ihem pure — for the excellence of breeds is determined by the skill of
the breeder. The physiology of animals is another branch, but want
of time will not permit me to advance even the reasons necessary to
satisfy you, that a knowledge of the diseases of animals involves a
knowledge of the structure and habits of the animals themselves; and
particularly that the knowledge of the habits of animals that we desire
to rear, is of great consequence in the feeding of stock To know thai
the absence of light, and of all causes of disturbance and irritation pro-
motes the fattening of animals, is of consequence. To know that the
warmth of animals will enable you to save a portion of the food which

34

would otherwise be necessary, and to keep more stock than could other-
wise be kept, that you can keep some stock in better condition than
others, if warm ; these are matters of importance. I do not know how
your cattle houses are looked after, but in New-Brunswick, I know that
great attention is paid to this matter, and that the cold is carefully ex-
cluded from them. Exercise also wastes the substance of an animal,
and he who would save the food, must avoid unnecessary exercise of
his stock.

I do not dwell longer on the relations of Zoology to this department,
but proceed to draw your attention to Entomology, or the study of in-
sects. This stud)?- has been brought so prominently to your notice, in
the Natural History of your State, that you cannot fail to see, that it is
of great consequence to the practical farmer. There are insects which
attack our orchards. The apple tree is liable to this attack ; peach or-
chards are also liable to the attacks of certain insects. In England and
Scotland, the forest trees are liable to these attacks. The Scotch firs
particularly are subject to such attacks. Some sixty acres, covered
with this tree, were in one instance completely destroyed by insects.
The mountain-larch was, in one season, attacked throughout the whole
island, and millions of these fine trees destroyed by insects. There are-
insects also which attack our crops. The wire-worm, every farmer
knows ; the turnip beetle often destroys whole fields, so that the tur-
nips have to be sowed over and over again. Then there is the wheat
fly. You, in the northern part of America, for many years have been
subjected to the visitations of this insect. I should like to illustrate
how serious these visitations have been. I have here notes of the pro-
gress of the wheat-fly in different parts of the United Slates, during the
period alluded to ; but in a recent volume of your Society's Transac-
tions, I find an able paper on this subject, by Dr. Fitch, which precludes
the necessity of going into details. I may state, that since 1842, it
has spread from the east to the west, from the east to the north, and
that its ravages have been more or less destructive in certain localities,
gradually putting a stop to the growth of wheat, until during this
last year, the wheat crop was scarcely touched at all ; but in New-
Brunswick it has ceased to be cultivated.

I said I should like to draw your attention to the effects of the at-
tacks of these insects, where they have pervaded whole districts and
exterminated almost, certain crops, and sometimes changing the system
of cropping and husbandry. I take a single illustration in the case of
Canada, and I shall present to you on this board two or three numbers,
to show how striking have been the effects of the ravages of this fly on

35

the habits of a people, and on the nature of the exports of the country.
Prof. J. here marked on the black board, the relative proportions of
wheat and oats raised in Canada in three different years.

1527. 1S31. 1S44.

Wheat, bushels, 22,931,244 3,404,756 942,835

Oats, bushels, 2,341,529 3,142,274 7,233,753

The most striking change, is that between '27 and '44, between the
two main crops. This dimintition in the wheat crop, indicates many-
things, melancholly to contemplate ; not the least of which is, the in-
dividual misery and suffering, to say nothing of the loss of property
which this change in the kind of husbandry, has brought upon the people
visited by this insect.

Now there is only one other point, in reference to which I would call
your attention, and that is. Microscopic Entomology, and the use of ar-
tificial means of investigating the nature of these minute animals,
which can not be seen by the naked eye. First, in regard to the na-
ture of these animals. If I take a little pure water, and place it under
the microscope, I can perceive nothing like animal life in it ; if I put a
few grains of pepper into it, you will see the water teeming with mi-
nute animals, which are now named infusoria. This is pioduced by
the infusion of the vegetable ; hence the animals are called infusorial
animals. They exist in all river and sea water, in large quantities.
The number of their species and genera, are very great. It has been
found that those which live in the salt water, will not live as readily in
the fresh ; and when the fresh and salt water mingle, a change takes
place, and the animals die in great numbers. They are naturally,
short-lived, but this change of water causes them to die in greater
numbers than usual ; and mingle with the mud carried down by the
rivers, and deposited where the fresh and salt water meets ; thus form-
ing those rich deltas, at the mouths of rivers, of which I have spoken in
a former lecture. These rich deltas, as I have told you, are formed in
part from the kind of material brought down by the water, from the dif-
ferent geological formations, near its source, but the extreme richness
which characterises them, where the fresh and salt water meet, arises
from the circumstance, that there is a great deal of this animal matter
deposited on these deltas, and there undergoes decomposition, and min-
gles with the other materials of their composition.

When I tell you that if you lake the mud thus deposited and wash
out the sand, so as to leave the mud pure, it h.is been found to contain
sometimes 25 per cent of the remains of these animals, you will see
how much this animal substance must contribute to the chemical com-

' ^ 36

binations, which compose the soil, and to its fertility. It is interesting
to know, from what causes, this richness comes, if you would judge
correctly of the relative fertility of these soils, at the mouths of rivers
and further up beyond the reach of salt water. As far as the salt
water reaches, there the remains of animals, are found in the mud of
rivers, and the more of them as you approach the salt water. But,
gentlemen, these animals are also to be found in our soils^ and though
it has not been proved by investigation directly, that they are capable
of injuring the roots of plants, yet it is not improbable that they do in-
terfere with the profits of the farmer, and materially affect the growth
of plants. In some geological formations, which you see represented
on the map of the State of New-York, and of the United States, the
remains of animals of this infusorial kind, are found in great numbers,
and it is remarkable that in many of these formations, many of which
are marine rocks, their remains are precisely of the same kind as those
which are now found in the sea that washes your shores. I take great
pleasure in alluding to this, because the researches into the nature of
these animals, by Prof. Bailey, of the West point Institution, have
contributed to shed new light on this subject, and have reflected high
credit on Prof. Bailey, and the country to which he belongs.

I have been obliged to hurry rapidly over these subjects — but you
see from what I have said, how wide they are ; and you will see, as we
proceed, that the general inferences to be drawn from them, are im-
portant.

If a science takes hold of the plough handles and points it deeper
into the earth, in order that the roots of plants may reach a lower
depth, for roots will grow deeper, if you will let them, and the deeper
they go, the more robust the plant and the more profit to the farmer *
if it accompanies us to the field and teaches us to put trees and plants
at proper distances from each other, that they may have the benefit of
fresh air, and thus bring new food in reach of their leaves — and how
much of this sort of sustenance, they are able to take in — if it tells you
of the causes of the fertility of mud banks and sea-islands, and where you
are to look for soil of the richest quantity, and how you should select with
reference to that point — if it follows you into your barns and tells you how
to treat your cattle — and what is the effect of certain treatment — to
what diseases cattle are subject, and how they are to be prevented and
cured — and if it goes with you into the fields, and instructs you in the
nature of the insects that attack your crops, and as to the means of de-
stro5nng them; I put it to you to say, whether if science can do all this,
it is to be considered either as useless or unprofitable to the farmer.

37

Prof. J. closed his lecture by adverting to the feeling of contempt
with which ignorant persons engaged in the humbler pursuits of life,
and who are indebted to chemical science for success therein, regard a
knowledge of such science, instancing as an illustration, the case of a
washerwoman who used the soap which chemistry had taught the mode
of manufacturing, who would tell you, if informed that without the aid
of Chemistry she could do nothing — that she knew nothing of chemis-
try— that she washed her clothes as others had done before her, who
knew nothing of Chemistry, and that she cared nothing about it. He
remarked that this was true of a numerous class of farmers, in the old
country, who performed all their operations, as it were, at second hand,
which they had learned perhaps only from practical men; and if one of
these men were told that science had done much to improve his art, and
might do more, and he should reply that he was a plain practical
farmer, knowing nothing, and caring nothing about science ; gentle-
men, he is an agricultural washerwoman, [laughter.] We have a few
in England; I do not know, I hope at least, that there are none of them
here.

LECTURE FOURTH.

THE RELATIONS OF METEOROLOGY TO PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.

Gentlemen: The lecture this evening is on the relations of Meteor-
ology to Practical Agriculture.

You recollect that when treating of the relations of Geology to prac-
tical agriculture, I explained how it is that the rocks that form the solid
crust of the globe, gradually decomposed and crumbled down, so as to
form the materials that cover the surface, and from what hard materi-
als the soil is produced. I explained that the causes of this disintegra-
tion of the rocks, were ordinarily to be found in meteorological agencies ;
that is, the warmth of the sun, the influence of rains and peculiar kinds
of atmospheric action, combined with the severity of frosts and the al-
ternations of cold and heat. From this, you will perceive that the study
of meteorology is closely connected with the origin of the soils them-
selves, and with those geological phenomena which 1 presented as of
great importance to the agricultural inquirer. But into these branches
of the subject I do not propose to enter this evening with minuteness.
I will merely observe in passing, that the study of Meteorology in con-
nection with this branch of science, is highly important. But I propose
to treat more particularly of what is called climate and of its influences
on the growth of crops on various kinds of soil.

The main elements of climate are the temperature of the air, and of
the soil itself; the quantity of rain that falls, and the character of the
prevailing winds, and under these three several divisions are compre-
hended, minor branches of knowledge, each of which is of great con-
sequence, and to some of which I will draw your attention.

You will recollect that I explained to you, in a former lecture, what
is called mean temperature ; that is the temperature of a whole day,
month or year, taken on an average. To explain this matter fully,
would require a map of the globe, which I have not now. I have only
a map of England, which will serve, perhaps, to illustrate the subject
sufficiently, as it is sufficiently extensive to show the diflTerent degrees
of temperature in different latitudes, and though these differences are
not as striking as they would be on a map of this country, yet they are

39

enough so, to show the important influence which temperature has
upon the growth of plants, and how decisive they are of results. If you
have a map of the whole globe, and the ascertained mean temperatures
at every place on its surface, you will find that on a given latitude,
there are a certain number of places, where the mean temperature ap-
proaches nearly an equality ; that is, that if you add the cold tempera-
ture of winter with the high temperature of summer, throughout this
latitude, you get the average mean temperature of that latitude. Sup-
pose there are fifty different points on the same latitude all round the
globe, where the mean temperature has been ascertained, and you
draw a line connecting these places with each other; then take another
latitude, and draw a similar line connecting similar points, indicating
ano:her degree of mean temperature, and so on, you will then have a
series of lines, indicating the mean temperatures of different latitudes
in all the places through which these lines pass. These are called iso-
thermal lines, a word compounded of two Greek words, meaning equal
temperature.

You will recollect that I told you in a previous lecture, that where
the mean temperature was 70 or 72 degrees, the sugar plant thrived
most luxuriantly, and yielded the largest returns at the least cost of la-
lor. You see, then, that if you follow these lines around the globe,
vhenever you find the temperature as high as 72, you know that there
▼ou are to look for the places where the sugar cane thrives best, and
;hus knowing what crops grow best on a certain spot, having a certain
mean temperature, ihat other circumstances being the same, the same
crops will flourish elsewhere, under the same temperature.

This is an extensive subject, and a great many observations must
necessarily be made, in all parts of the globe, to determine these iso-
thermal lines, and I have elements enough before me to occupy the
whole evening, wilhout fatiguing you, were I to use them in illustrating
the interesting points which these lines present.

If you fix on two or more places, where from observation, you have
the temperature of the summer months, and another set of observations
of the temperature of the winter months, and another of the
summer and winter month?, and then connect all the places of which
the mean summer temperature is the same, then you will have a
line varying from the other lines, and thus you mny draw a new
set of lines. These are called isothermal lines ; that is, lines indica-
ting equal summer tempcraluve ; and so you may draw lines indicating
an e(jual winter temperature, and thus you will have three sets of lines ;
one indicating mean temperature, all the year; another the summer,
and another, the winter temperature. Now you will perceive the tx^v-

40

plication of these observations, when I tell you that there are places-
where the mean temperature of the whole year is the same, and yet
t he temperature of the winter and of the summer, is very different ; for
instance, where the summer is very hot, and the winter very cold ; yet
the mean temperature of both, will be 60, the heat of summer in the
one, compensating for the cold of winter; and in the other, the reverse.
Of course the climate of two such places, is very different. —
The climate of America, is different from that of England; and
the vegetable productions which grow naturally in each, vary ac-
cordingly. And yet the mean temperature of the two countries, is
about the same, the difference being caused by the different mean tem-
peratures of summer and winter in the two. Here then is another study.
The study of these isothermal lines, or of the temperature of summer
and winter in different places, and of the mean temperature of the year.
So that the more we enter into this stud)^, the more we perceive the
bearing of this branch of science, on the practical capital of the farmer.

Another point. I have spoken thus far of the temperature of the air
only. But this is not the only thing of interest to the farmer ; the tem-
perature of the soil itself is of equal consequence. This is a study into
which philosophers, whose researches are confined to the crust of the
globe, have entered largely. If you bore down into the earth to the'
depth of 60 feet, and let down a thermometer into the bore, you will findl
that in summer, the temperature at a certain depth, varies. It rises in !
summer, owing to the fact that the sun affects the temperature of the \
earth down to a certain depth, and so does the cold of winter. The
thermometer, indeed, will never remain stationary, until you reach a
certain depth — about 50 feet below the surface — there the thermometer
remains stationary the year through: showing that the summer and
winter do affect the temperature of the earth, to the depth of 50 feet.
The depth at which the thermometer remains stationar}^ indicates a
certain degree of temperature of climate. If at Albany, for instance,
it were fixed at 50 feet, it would be fixed at that depth, one hundred
years hence, as no doubt it was one hundred years ago. These simi-
lar observations made all round the globe, enable you to connect those
places, where the temperature of the earth is uniform, thus showing by
a line, that they have the same uniform temperature at this depth.

Such observations have been made, but not so extensively as with
reference to the temperature of the air. But as boring to such a depth,
is an expensive operation, the observations have been, of course, limited.
Such as have been made and connected by these lines around the globe,,
are called, when connected, iso-geo-thermal lines. But these observa-
tions are of no great interest to the farmer, but it does concern him to

41

know the temperature of the earth down to 3 or 4 feet below the sur-
face. Such observations as these have been made, to some extent, but
not so far as is desirable. The temperature of the first foot is of far
more consequence than that at a greater depth, because the seed is put
in at a shallow depth, and vegetates at that depth ; in the spring, and
as the summer advances, the roots go down deeper and deeper.

When I tell you, that in such climates as this, the temperature rises
to 100 degrees of Fahrenheit, 5 feet below the surface, and to 140 de-
grees half an inch below, it will excite, perhaps, some surprise. It
certainly suprised me. Such of you as rear plants in gardens, or have
read upon the subject, know something of the importance of bottom heat,
for the purpose of forcing plants, which it is difficult to grow, or which
it is desirable should grow luxuriantly. There are certain parts of the
earth, where there is a natural heat from beneath, as in volcanic regions
and from the sun — which heat causes a growth of great luxuriance.
In the neighborhood of ^tna and Vesuvius, this bottom heat is most
apparent, in the growth of plants. But of this, we, in these cold lati-
tudes, see nothing.

In a subsequent lecture, I shall draw your attention to the effect of
drainage upon the warmth of the soil. But you will see, from what I
have said, the great importance of a 'certain degree of warmth in the
soil where the plant is sown.

From experiments made one year, in this neighborhood — I know
nothing of them, but I speak from the representations of others — upon
Indian corn, which you know, often rots when put into the soil, it was
found that when the temperature of the earth was but 45 in the spring,
the seed all rotted ; but when planted, when the temperature was about
60, it vegetated. These facts show the great importance of knowing,
first of all, that the temperature of the soil has a close relation to the
operations of the farmer and to the profit of his industry; and next that
the study of the temperature of the earth is of great consequence ia
developing the various conditions of the soil, which are necessary to
profitable farming ; thirdly, that if any means, within the compass of
art can be found, which will make the soil warmer than it otherwise
would be. and which shall impart that warmth early in the spring, we
shall have arrived at a method of controlling nature, as it were, which
must lead to important results. Drainage is one of these modes, and
has been found of great practical utility in making the soil warmer at
all seasons, and of particular utility in making the soil ready for sow-
ing in the spring, as it enables the farmer to avoid losses by the seed
rotting. It is specially important, in my country, where scarcely half
the wheat sown, vegetates.

42

I pass on to another subject, or rather to another branch of this sub-
ject. I speak of the sun's rays, and of the warmth that the air and the
earth derive from the sun. The rays of the sun, by the interposition
of an instrument called a prism, can be decomposed, and separated into
several different colored rays. This is familiar to all. But other things
have been ascertained, which are not so well known. It has been found
that, besides the fact that the sun's rays consist of light of different
colors, which, when mixed, form a white color, that they contain three
different kinds of rays. There is a ray of light — that you know ; there
is a ray of heat, but the rays of heat are not the raj-s of light. On the
contrary, we can separate the one from the other. The sunbeam con-
tains, also, a chemical ray; so that, though colorless, it consists of
three different kinds of existences — not matter, but agencies — the one
being heat, another light, and the third a chemical agent. I shall go
into this subject further, in a subsequent lecture, when I will show you
how plants grow. At present, I shall merely glance at it. When a
plant takes root in the ground, chemical changes go on ; the more nu-
merous the parts of the plant, growing at the same time, the more
numerous these chemical changes. These changes are produced by
the agency of the chemical element of the sunbeam. Thus, when the
plant is beginning to approach maturity, and to ripen its seeds, then it
requires the aid of heat. The warmth of the sun is necessary to ripen
the grain.

Professor J. here pointed to a diagram exhibiting the colors of the
difl^erent rays ; the blue indicating the chemical ray, the yellow the ray
of light, and the red the heating ray. But, said he, the point of con-
sequence to the farmer, or at least the one of importance as showing
the relations of the science of light to the art of Agriculture, is this,
that these three agencies exist in diflferent proportions in the sunbeam,
in the spring, summer, and autumn. The blue, or chemical ray, is
greater in the spring ; the light greater in the summer. The chemical
ray is less in autumn, and then the heating ray predominates. It is
enough for me to state here the results of investigation, as represented
by these different colors and their relative lengths, and to say that, by
means which it is unnecessary to state, the proportion of these diflferent
agencies in the sunbeam vary in different seasons of the year, in order
that the growing plant may arrive at maturity, and thus be enabled to
perform the functions necessary to its healthy growth. But I cannot
dwell upon this further than to say that here is a most interesting
subject opened to us, which promises much interest, as further de-
velopments are made, because it has not only been ascertained that

43

these agents exist in different proportions in the sunhcam in different
seasons of the year, but the experiments of Dr. Draper, of New- York,
indicate very clearly that the proportion of these agents vary in different
latitudes and climates. This is in perfect consistency with what I have
stated, that the wants of plants are different in different seasons; and
it may well be inferred, therefore, that these results are founded in
truth. Thus, you see that this very interesting branch of study is also
of great importance, and must have a close relation to the operations of
the farmer.

But you will be interested while I draw your attention for a moment
to another fact. You know the difli^rent changes which take place in
the plant, in its progress to maturity, from the flower to the seed. It is
known, that generally the flower of a plant has a higher temperature
than the other parts of it. This is generally the case. It has been as-
certained also that the darker colored flowers absorb the heat of the
sun's ray, more than those of a light color; hence it is very probable
that the colors of the flowers of plants, are connected with the quantity
of heat which the flower requires to perform its functions, and that in
ripening the grain, the color of the flower is adapted to absorb from the
sun's rays precisely the degree of heat which is necessary to perform its
functions.

Another point : the influence of light on a clear bright day, is differ-
ent from that on a dark day. When the grain begins to fill, a cloudy
day is better for it than a bright one — that is, when the sun is obscur-
ed and the temperature not very low. The number of clear days and
cloudy days in a country, is one element of its climate, and one of those
which tell on the rapidity with which crops grow, with which certain
profitable crops can advance, and on the period of the year at which
they will ripen. Indian corn and buckwheat, for instance, are both lia-
ble to be touched by early frosts, and if the character of the year be
such as to enable these crops to come early to maturity, they escape the
danger of these early frosts, according to the prevalence of sunny days,
and the absence of cloudy weather. I need not dwell on the subject
of frosts, for all know their effects in spring and fall, and that to the
gardener, as well as the farmer, and to all engaged in husbandry, these
are matters of great importance.

Another circumstance of climate, connected with low temperature, is
the relative duration of the difl^crent seasons, especially of winter and
summer, as representing the whole year. The transition from summer
to winter, and vice vcraa^ is rery sudden at the north, so thai they hare
only summer and winter, so to speak. The relative duration of sura-

44

mer and winter, has an important bearing on the rural economy, which
the farmer should adopt, if he would derive profit from his labors.
Where the winter is long, the farmer must lay up winter food for his
cattle, to sustain them, when they cannot be turned out. Here, you
have six months, during which you must provide food for your cattle.
In New Brunswick, the average duration of winter is 6i months.

Another way in which winter operates, has reference to the period in
which out-door labor may be performed. In the spring, he must sow
early, that in autumn his crop may escape the early frost ; but if the
period which intervenes between the passing off of the snow and the
time for sowing is short, it is obvious that the farmer must not only
plough early, but must do it very rapidly, and the shorter the time, the
greater the force required to do it. Here, therefore, is a serious draw-
back on the profits of the farmer, and one of great interest to him. In
connection with this point, it is of great interest to know how far the
winters of different places differ.

One curious circumstance, perhaps, you would not anticipate, is this :
The average length of winter at Frederickton, New-Brunswick, which
exceeds yours by some 25 days, does not appear to interfere with the
produce of the land in the more northern climate. In the northern cli-
mate, vegetation grows more rapidly in spring. It is a curious fact, that
on examining the average products of New-Brunswick, New-York and
Ohio, the average produce of New-Brunswick is found to be greater
than that of New-York or Ohio, though the summer is longer in both
these States. Therefore, the farmer in these northern regions, has
every encouragement to occupy every leisure moment in the prepara-
tion of his land, for the soil is not niggardly in its returns, though they
must do more work in less time than in more southern countries.

Another fact ; though the severe frosts last so long, they are not alto-
gether without benefits ; if the frost descends to the depth of three or
four feet, as it does in the country between the St. Lawrence and the
Bay of Fundy, the effect of warmth is such that it heaves up the
ground, and renders it almost ready to sow wheat, as soon as the frost
is out; and it is a fact which practical men tell me, that the depth of the
frost actually aids in preparing the land for the crops, and makes the
work of plowing easier. Thus we see that nature is sometimes far
kinder to us than we to ourselves, and that while she is shutting up
land, as it were, she is preparing it, the better for use when the sum-
mer sun shines ; so much in regard to temperature.

I told you that the next element of consequence, was the quantity of
rain that falls. On a former occasion, I described to you the condition
of various parts of the earth, where no rains ever fall. In parts of Asia,

45

and Africa, no rain ever falls. Now the fall of rain, is a matter of in-
terest. First, in regard to the quantity. Secondly, the time when it
falls ; and thirdly, in regard to the manner. First, as to [quantity.
From the observations made in different places, I cite a few statistics^
In London, the quantity is 23 inches, that is to say, supposing all the
rain that falls, is dammed in and measured. la Edinburgh, it is 24
inches j in Liverpool, 34 inches ; in Manchester, 36 inches ; in Kes-
wick, a very wet place, 76 inches ; in New- York, 42 inches ; in Roch-
ester, 39 inches ; in Worcester, 39 inches ; in Portland, Maine, 44 m-
ches ; in Savannah, 55 inches ; in St. Dommgo, 150 inches ; in Bom-
bay, SO inches. In some parts of the world, I may state, as on the
Runn of Kutch, in India, between June and September, 240 inches of
rain falls, that is, during the rainy monsoons. Tou all know how im-
portant the quantity of rain is, to the growth of plants. Let me illus-
trate this, by reference to the statistics of my own island. On the west
side of the island, you will have seen, that the quantity of rain that
falls, is greater than on the eastern. At Edinburgh, it is 24 inches ; at
London, 23 and 24 ; but on the west side, at Liverpool, it is 34 inches ;
at Manchester, 36 ; at Keswick, 76. This is found to be universally
the fact, that more rain falls on the west, than on the east side ; and it
is known, that the green crops, the potato and the turnip, which re-
quire more moisture, are more grown on the western, than on the east-
ern coast of England. The average of these crops, in the western part
of the island, are nearly double the average of the same crops in the
eastern part. Thus you see that the kind of husbandry depends upon
the quantity of rain that falls. Where no rain falls, there is of course,
barrenness, unless certain causes come in to supply the deficiency.
Where rain falls periodically, as on the Runn of Kutch, therej you have
a season of growth, and a season of barrenness. Where rain falls in
autumn, it often impedes the ripening of grain. In Iceland, where the
temperature is high enough to ripen barley, the rain comes on in au-
tumn, to prevent it. But there are circumstances, which, whatever the
season at which the rain falls, modify the kind of husbandry, and render
the soil capable of producing certain things, which naturally could not
be grown. Suppose the rain to fall only in certain months; the consequence
is, that evaporation, not being as great as the rain that falls, the land be-
comes saturated with water, and the consccjucnccs of this are well known.
But art can do something to make such lands capable of producing
some crops which they otherwise could not, and that is, by drainage.
An artificial mode of relieving land of surplus water, not carried ofT by
evaporation, and which otherwise must remain and stagnate. Drainage

46

is of two kinds : one is for the removal of springs, the water that comes
from the earth — the other for the removal of the surface water which
falls from the clouds, and which cannot be evaporated. All know that
stiff clay soils require such drainage. In our climate, all the clay soils
can only be made productive beyond their natural capabilities, by drai-
nage. But there are other soils of a light character, such as the loamy
soils, approaching the character of gravel and sand, which have been
found to be improved by a thorough drainage for the removal of the
surface water. But drainage becomes more or less important, not mere-
ly with reference to the character of the soil, but to the quantity of rain
that falls. Take, for instance, London and Edinburgh, New- York and
Rochester. The quantity of rain that falls in these places, other things
being equal, determines the degree of necessity for drainage. When
I tell you that near Edinburgh, where the rain is only 24 inches, it is
found that an expense of five, and even eight pounds an acre, for drainage
only, is found to be profitable, in the removal of surface water, you
will perceive that it is a matter well deserving the consideration of the
practical man, who desires to improve his soil, whether this system of
thorough drainage, could not be introduced with advantage in this coun-
try, where the rain that falls is more than in England. We find that
in almost all soils, such expenditures are not only profitable, for the
time being, but that it pays its own expense in a few years, and leaves
the land permanently good. At Albany, you have 40 inches of rain,
and in other places mentioned, you have much more, showing that in
this State, at least, the land would be improved by this system of tho-
rough drainage. One observation here. It would appear that the ex-
treme heat of your summers ought to render drainage unnecessary, but
when I tell you that among the places with which I have had commu-
nication, by letter and otherwise, are Jamaica, and Barbadoes, and De-
marara, where the summers are as hot as yours are, and where the soils
are often stiff clays, liable to be dried up by the heat of summer, and
that in these places where I have recommended drainage, the results
of the experiment have been that the land has been improved in produc-
tiveness, and has yielded far greater crops than similar land, not drain-
ed. You will see that the removal of water from stiff clays, by drain-
age, even in climates where the summers are hot, and are characterized
by great drought, may be resorted to with advantage and profit, ^nd that
after all, the quantity of rain that falls is of more consequence than the
heat of summer.

In connection with this point, let me draw your attention to another
mode, by which wet and marshy lands can be benefited. It does not

47

properly come in here, but it will serve to show you what great results
may be accomplished by human ingenuity, when intelligently directed.
Prof. J. here pointed to the northern part of England, to the Humber
and the Trent rivers, saying that through the Trent, the tide runs with
great velocity, far up the river, carrying with it a very muddy water.
From the Trent, a canal has been cut for many years, for the purpose
of bringing this muddy water from the river into the interior of the
country, and pouring it over the surface of the land. Thus said he, the
water is let in upon the land, twice every day ; as the tide retires, the
mud is left, and in the course of six months, it sometimes leaves a
depth of six inches or a foot of sea mud, the fertility of which is well
known. The same process has been adopted on a smaller scale in
different parts of the island, and so it has in New Brunswick.

Another way of reclaiming land has been put to use in Italy. There
are celebrated tracts of country, famous for having been once marshes.
But in Florence, in Tuscany, there occur the most remarkable. It is
called the Val d'Arno, and it is said to have been the course of a river
which once flowed through the valley into the Tiber. The current
being sluggish, the valley was once an entire marsh. Various eflR)rts
have been made to drain it — but more recently a process has been
adopted which is exceedingly beautiful. The whole valley was divided
into square portions, considerably elevated at one end of the valley, and
the water being made to flow from one of these square enclosures into
another, so that the whole valley became gradually filled up, and is now
converted into one of the most fertile regions known in Italy. The
"water flowing, in fact, in a different direction from what it did originally.
Thus you see how by adapting your operations to circumstances, natural
difficulties may be overcome and made conducive to health and profit.

Among other things connected with this subject, I may draw your
attention to fogs and mists, which often cause great injury to the farmer.
You are accustomed to consider our climate as more foggy and misty
than yours ; but if these numbers I have given you are true, we have
less rain than you. Whether we have more fogs and mists at certain
seasons, I do not know; on the Thames and in London, fogs are more
frequent than in other parts of England ; and probably the ideas of our
climate, formed by strangers, are the result of impressions drawn from
visiting London alone, and not other parts of England. But the way
we remove fogs and mists, except in the neighborhood of London, is
by the removal of their causes — by drainage. Not having it in our
power to do as in many parts of Italy, we have been obliged to remore
water by drainage, and by this means, over a large portion of our coun-

48

try, fogs and mists have disappeared. In Lancashire, there was a lake,
which was celebrated for its mists and for the agues which prevailed in
the neighborhood. Every man nearly was affected by it, who lived
within the range of its influence ; and so notorious had this become that
the farmers in other and more favored localities, would never hire a
servant who came from the borders of that lake ; but by drainage, the
land about it has been rendered as fruitful and healthy as any of the
neighboring lands. So on the Tweed, a rich tract of country, the same
disease was prevalent to a great extent, until the system of drainage
was introduced, not merely for the sake of increasing the crops, but to
remove these causes of disease. But the crops were much greater af-
ter drainage, and the result was, that not only the profits of the farmer
were increased, but the ague and complaints of the lungs almost ceased.

I have now explained how fogs and mists were caused, and how they
were removed. I have explained to you how a cold and warm current
of air meeting, form a mist ; but how is it with the air on the surface
of the earth ? Whenever the surface is wet, it is continually cold. If
I pour water on my hand, the evaporation of the water causes a percep-
tible sensation of cold. Now, the air sweeping over marshy portions of
land, becomes cool, and deposites water in the form of mists, and thus
the injurious effects are produced, not only upon health, but upon the
crops, in the shape of mildew and rust. As to rust and mildew, they
are owing to the prevalence of too much moisture in the air, in the
shape of fogs and mists, and the remedy is drainage. But this is not
uniformly the case, because fogs come sometimes from large bodies of
water at a distance. In New-Brunswick it often overspreads the coun-
try, from the Bay of Fundy, settling on the damp lands, and even on
the dry. At the head of the Bay of Fundy, I am told, that the preva-
lence of mists, combined with a very hot sun, produces very injurious
effects on the crops. But it often happens that a farmer on one side of
a road suffers from the negligence of his neighbor on the other side ; he
perhaps drains his land, while his neighbor neglects his. Now, the
farmer who understands the advantage of draining, could well afford to
drain his neighbor's land at his own expense, as the fogs from the wet
land in the neighborhood are often the cause of gieat injury to the
crops on lands, which have themselves been thoroughly drained.

There are other topics connected with this subject, but I cann
touch upon them now ; but you will see from what I have already said,
that in this subject of meteorology, are involved many different
branches of study, every one of which might occupy the researches of
one man for many years, and every one of which has a bearing on

49

practical Agriculture, and the profit of it. And though the farmer may
not see the bearing of these researches immediately, yet results are al-
ways arrived at, which are capable of a direct and practical application
to the farmer's art, and when the range of the sciences shall be s:ill
farther extended, we can then extract from them all a system of princi-
ples, by which a practical and sound system of Agriculture can be es-
tablished.

LECTURE FIFTH.

(This Lecture was deli%'ered at the annual meeting of the Society.)

THE EELATIONS OF CHEMISTRY TO THE SOIL AND ITS PRACTICAL

IMPROVEMENT.

The Hon. John A. King, President of the State Agricultural Society,
called to order, and introduced to the Society Prof. Johnston, who ad-
dressed the society as follows :

Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen : As there are present this evening
a number of persons who were not in attendance at my former lectures,
perhaps you will excuse me for mentioning, in order that the object of
this course of lectures may be understood, that the purpose in view has
been to present a general idea of the relations which science bears to
practical Agriculture— not, of course entering into those details which
the wide field presents— but dwelling only on those general aspects
which hold a striking relation to this most important of all arts. Such
of you as were at Syracuse, may recollect that I then mentioned that I
might select illustrations, of the applications of science to Agriculture,
and present them to you on the occasion of your annual meeting. As'
that address is now in your hands, you may readily ascertain how far
this purpose has been carried out. The first of these lectures was on
the relations of physical Geography to Agriculture ; the second on the
relations of Geology to Agriculture; the third on the relations of Botany
and Zoology to Agriculture, and the last, on the relations of Meteorolo-
gy to Agriculture. I may, perhaps, add to what I have said, that each
of these lectures, being on a separate subject, is entire and complete in
itself, and therefore contains in itself all the elements necessary to a
comprehension of the general bearings of each subject to practical Agri-
culture. Thus this lecture, which has reference to the practical Im-
provement of soils, will not draw on previous lectures.

Gentlemen, in drawing your attention to the relations which Geology
bears to Agriculture, I pointed to this map of your own State and showed
you the different kinds of rocks represented by different colors, of which
the surface is composed, and I explained the process by which the i^a

51

xious kinds of soil were formed — that is, by the crumbling^ down of
rocks, of different formations, and that these materials constituted the
chief ingredient in all soils. By this crumbling down of the rock, a
loose material is produced, which formed, I would say, a substratum,
in which the seeds of plants might take root and Tcgetatc. These
plants coming to maturity and dying, and others succeeding them to
mature and die, with the insects and animals which feed upon them,
and the remains of all being mixed up with the rocks in a disintegrated
state — these form what we call soil, on which the labor of man is ex-
pended and crops are grown. Hence the origin of soils is, first,
the solid rock ; and second, the remains of vegetables and animals,
which, while they enrich the soil, also give to boiU that variety of char-
acter which exists.

In considering the quality of soils, there is one point to which it is
necessary to draw your attention — that is, to the chemical relations of
soils. I formerly drew your attention, and now do so again, to the fact
that if you take the same kind of matter, exactly, you may convert it,
without changing its chemical composition, from one mechanical con-
dition to another. Thus, this piece of plastic clay, which would be
difficult to till, may be converted into the hard, solid brick, which, if
pounded out by artificial means, or crumbled down by atmospheric
action, becomes a soil very easily cultivated. This mechanical character
of the soil very much controls the kind of plants that will naturally
grow on it. On very light lands, rye, of all grains, grows best; and of
all food for cattle, spurry grows best on light, sandy soil. In Europe,
it is considered an exceedingly milk-producing food for the cow.
On loamy and gravelly soils, you know, barley is a kind of grain
that grows best ; turnips and Indian corn also do well on such
soils. In fact, barley could not grow on a slifT clay, such as I have
exhibited here; but it would grow well on the brick that is made of it,
pounded up, and forming a loose and open soil. But on heavy, clay
lands, wheat, clover, and grass grow most luxuriantly ; and I showed
you, the other night, that a stiff' clay soil, though it would not pay for
cultivation, will pay well if devoted to pasturage.

These physical characters of soils are of great consequence ; and
whilst I shall show you that the chemical composition has much to do
with their fertility, and that after a soil is exhausted, and the art of
man is brought to restore it, success depends greatly on a knowledge of
this chemical composition, yet, I »hall show you that whilst a know-
ledge of chemistry is important, the physical or mechanical condition
of the soil is not to be slighted, and indeed is the first ihin^ to be re*

52

garded, and is, after all, considered more essential than that which we
cannot see, and for the most part know nothing of.

I pass this over, and turn now to the chemical composition of soils..
What does this piece of plastic clay contain, and what this hard brick?
Both contain the same matter. In order to obtain that knowledge
which shall be useful to us, as practical men, in tilling the soil, we
must begin with some soil of known value and fertility, and which is
known to produce good crops in ordinary seasons, and with ordinary
treatment. When such a soil is taken — and there are many such here,
particularly in the virgin soils of the West — we find it to possess a
great variety of combinations. Before going further, I will repeat what
I have said before, that all rocks consist of one or more of three kinds
of matter — limestone, sandstone, and clay, or we have mixtures of
them. This general view enables us to form an opinion of the physical
character of soils at once. Sandstone gives a light, open soil ; lime-
stone, also; and clay, generally a stiff soil. Sometimes the clay is
hardened, and the soil assumes a different character, like brick. But
when you come to put these soils in the hands of the chemist — I mean
these virgin, pure soils, which grow large crops, with little aid from
labor — the chemist is not satisfied with the knowledge of the fact that
they contain lime, sand, or clay, for he knows that clay itself is a com-
plex substance, before he submits it to chemical analysis. He finds, as
might be expected, that he extracts from soils these various substances,
exhibited in this table :

Composition of soils of different fertility.

Organic matter, . . . .

Silica,

Alumina,

Lime,

Magnesia,

Oxide of iron,

Oxide of manganese.

Potash,

Soda,

Chlorine

Sulphuric acid,

Phosphoric acid, . . . .

Carbonic acid,

Loss,

Fertile with
out manure.

97

648

57

59

8

61

1

2

4

2

2

4

40

15

Fertile with
manure.

1000

50

833

51

18

8
30

3

trace.

1000

Barren.

40

778

91

4

1

81

trace.
((

((

t(

(;
((

s

1000

53

But first of all, let me draw your attention to a fact. If I take a
match and ignite it, and allow it to burn away, you will find that a
small portion remains behind after the greater part is burnt away. The
part that remains is the wood ash. This is the result if you burn any
vegetable substance whatever, and as in soils there is both vegetable
and animal matter, if you burn it, a portion of it is burned away ; but
that portion always leaves a quantity of ash. Bat this matter will be
more fully explained at our next meeting. The part that burns away
is called the organic part, or organic matter; and the part that is not
burnt, consists first of silica, which means flint, and then alumina, that
is, the substance which gives tenacity to the clay. If I dissolve clay in
.water, and into that pour hartshorn, it immediately becomes milky, and
a white substance is precipitated, called alumina. It exists largely in
clay, and is what gives its tenacity.

The soil also is found to contain lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, pot-
ash, soda, chlorine, which is a. kind of gas, of a greenish color, having
a peculiarly strong odor and very heavy, and in this respect distinguish-
able from common air; a taper will burn in it, but will give but little light ;
it burns red, smokes, and soon goes out ; it is so heavy that it can be
poured from one vessel to another. This gas possesses many proper-
ties, but it is quite enough to know at present, how to distinguish it
from other gasses or air. It may strike you as curious, that this gas
exists in the soil, and chiefly in the form of common salt ; indeed, every
ten pounds of salt, contains about six pounds of this gas. Sulphuric
acid and phosphoric acid, abo form parts of the soil. Let me draw
your attention to the fact that if you ignite a lucifer match, it emits
a peculiar odor ; that is the odor of phosphorus. When the match is
first lighted, you perceive a white smoke ; that is phosphoric acid. Car-
bonic acid also exists in the soil, but I will not dwell upon that now, as
I shall speak of it in my next lecture.

The soil, therefore, when chemically analysed, is found to contain
many other substances, than sand, lime and clay, and enables us to enter
into the minutest kind of reasoning, as to the functions of tho soil, in
relation to the plant, and how the soil is to be improved. It is of great
consequence to understand this composition of soils, and any one who
wishes to know how to manage the soil intelligently, should attend to
many things besides the substances it contains. You will see by refer-
ence to this table, that 1000 parts of a given soil contain 64S parts of
silica, 57 parts of alumina, and 59 of lime — that is to say, ihot though
all these things are present in a fertile soil, ihcy are not so, in the same
proportions, but that they vary in a certain ratio, in the most fertile
soils.

54

Another conclusion : we find that other substances exist in the very
smallest quantity. I shall have occasion at our next meeting to show
how ipmortant these substances are to the existence of vegetable and
animal life. Though they exist in small proportions, yet that is not to
be the measure of their value or necessity to the growth of plants. The
importance of these substances is not measured by the numbers in this
table, because their presence in small quantities is just as necessary, as
that of those substances which exist in larger proportions. If I have the
small finger and thumb, I have a hand that is not altogether useless ;
but to make a complete and useful member, I must have all — the
smaller as well as the larger parts of the hand. The same parallel ex--
ists in regard to the soil. All the ingredients must be present, the
smaller as well as the larger to make the soil — but though all these in-
gredients are necessary, and though every soil which grows good crops,
either naturally or by art, must contain them all, I shall show you that
it is not necessary that they should all be present in these precise pro--
portions. It is enough to say now, that every fertile soil contains
them aih

One step further : If I take specimens of several fertile soils, one
from America, another from Asia, and another from Europe, and
analyse all of them, I find every one of these ingredients in them ;
but no two of them contain any one of the substances present in
all, in the same proportion. I exhibit here, (pointing to a diagram,)
the composition of the soil on the plains of Athens. You will see
that it contains 38 per cent of the carbonate of lime or nearly four-
fifths of the entire soil. Here lime constitutes only 59 parts in 1000
of the soil. The plains of Athens are celebrated for their fertility —
this, then is an illustration of the (act that a fertile soil, may contain
all these things, yet that two, equally fertile may contain them in
different proportions.

One step further; Soils of the same degree of fertility, may contain
different proportions of these ingredients, but it may happen, that one
of these substances is present in large quantity, and that may be inju*
rious to the soil. Soda and chlorine form common salt. Those who
have examined the soils on salt marshes on the borders of the sea, know
that common salt abounds in those soils, and in such large quantities
that crops cannot grow upon them. The soils reclaimed from the sea^
as on the Bay of Fundy, are found to be loaded with salt, so that at
first they do not produce even grass — the seeds do not come up — but af-
ter a time, the salt being washed out by the rains, the seeds grow.
This illustration is in point, and shows how the presence of this sub-
stance in large quantities, instead of enriching the soil, makes it worth-
less. If I could draw your atteution to many things that press upon

55

me, I might ask, why, in all fruitful soils, we find these things in small
quantities, and why it has been so ordered by nature, that where saline
matters existed once in large quantities, and contributed to your use and
mine, that the rains from the heavens should be the means of carrying
off these things, present in too large quantities, and the presence of
which precluded the growth of crops which sustain human life?

One step further : There are soils, not of this fruitful character — some
which will not grow crops at all, or not enough to pay the cost of tilling
them. There are other soils again which, with ordinary treatment,
grow good crops. We have soils which are fertile, others which are
barren, and others again which, naturally fertile, require proper treat-
ment to make them productive. In the little catechism which I have
published, and which has been republished in this country, with an in-
troduction by Professor Norton, you will find a tabular statement of the
composition of these three kinds of soils.

There is a soil (pointing to the table, ante 212,) which lacks three
things — soda, potash, and chlorine. Ycu see, also, that here are three
things of which a trace only could be found in a certain soil. If I were
to ask you how you would make that soil chemically equal to that in
the first column, where the three are present, you would say at once,
put in the three things that are wanting, and thus make up the deficient
numbers. That is common sense. To make the two soils chemically
equal, you have only to add these things that are wanting, in the proper
proportions. Now, manure adds these ingredienls.

Here is another soil which is barren. You sec here that no less than
six substances are missing-^half the whole number — potash, soda,
chlorine, sulphuric, phosphoric, and carbonic acids. This is a large gap ;
and ordinary manuring will not make it grow good crops, as it would
not restore the chemical agents present in other soils. Yom perceive
also that a large proportion of the soil consists of oxide of iron — SI parts
in 1,000. This illustrates the fact that certain things may be present
in too large quantities. I could point you to many places in England
where this is the case. It is a noxious substance, which creeps in under
the soil, forming a hardpan, lying between 'the under and upper soil,
and the roots of plants cannot penetrate it. If present in such quan-
tities, it presents a great difficulty, because it is necessary to re-
move the excess. Where the soil is overcharged with suit, rains will
wash it out ; but this is not affected by them. Nature does much for us,
however, by carrying it down below the surface, and thus j>oints out
the way which we must take to remove it, when necessary. Thus, the

56

barrenness^of a soil may arise either from its not containing the proper
substances, or from containing some of them in too large quantities.

What^are the purposes served by the substance of the soil? I do not
mean to enter fully into this matter to-night, for it would lead me into
too wide a field ; but you know a common purpose for which soils are
necessary to the growth of plants. It is illustrated by putting a piece of
wood into a piece of clay, it forms a basis in which the plant may an-
chor itself and maintain an upright position. That is an important
function of soils, though it be only mechanical. If a plant, like barley,
tends to go down into the earth, the soil must be open. So with other
plants like wheat, which however, requires a stiffer soil. This is the
first function of soils; a mechanical function entirely. But there are
others ; generally they feed the plant. This I shall illustrate particu-
larly at our next meeting. But I will now call your attention to the
fact that if you burn wood or other vegetable matter, the ash will re-
main, that is, the inorganic part. The part that burns is the organic
part. The inorganic portion it is the function of the soil to supply.

Another function of the soil is, that it not only fixes and feeds, but
carries in food to the plant. This flint will not dissolve in water, but if
I take potash and reduce the flint to powder and put it in, I can dissolve
it in the potash, and when dissolved it looks as clear as water; but it
will contain the flint in solution. I will show you that by a mechani-
cal contrivance of this sort, the plant actually acquires and contains a
quantity of flint, and that that being insoluble in water, is by the agen-
cy of potash, carried up into the plant and left there. This potash
makes the silica soluble. It serves as a car to carry in the silica to the
plant, so that the substance of the soil not only serves to feed and root
the plant, but there are things in the soil which carry into the plant
those substances which otherwise they could not get, and leaves them
there.

These are the principal functions of the soil. At our next meetirg I
will describe to you others, which will become more intelligible as I
open up the composition of plants. But on this subject allow me one
more observation. Take a fertile soil, however rich, and suppose it to
grow crops for 30 or even 60 years ; a time will come when it will not
produce crops. Every farmer knows that, and he knows also how much
the richness of the soil is abused. This is called exhaustion ; and the
tables before you illustrate what it means. Suppose a soil, having the
composition of that in the first column, will grow crops without manure.
Suppose one of the kind in the second, will grow crops with manure ;
but that they have become barren by a particular course of cropping,

57

and you know that where tobacco, cotton and sugar are cultivated,
great tracts of country have Lecorae exhausted. There is also what is
called g-eneral and special exhaustion. But this subject I shall advert
to more particularly when I treat of the application of chemistry to ma-
nures. If I take away phosphoric acid and potash from a soil, it will
produce no crop. If there was any process by which I could totally re-
move the phosphoric acid, the soil would be reduced to perfect barren-
ness. That would be special exhaustion. The loss could be repaired,
as general exhaustion is, by the addition of manures ; but the addition
of substances that contain the one thing only, or some other thing, is the
surest way to give the plants their supply. This subject of special ex-
haustion will be of use bye and bye, when I consider how soils may be
chemically improved.
[^ There are two modes of improving soils. I have spoken of the com-
position of soils. You see how they vary, and what difTerences there
are in the qualities of soils, and what it is that constitutes equality of
soil, and what tho relation between these and the chemical composition
of soils. But how are soils to be improved? There are two methods,
the mechanical and the chemical. Of the mechanical method I shall
now speak, and of the chemical in my last lecture. Among the various
mechanical methods of improvement, there are three principal kinds.
The first is deep ploughing; that in almost all cases is found to be im-
portant and profitable. In all countries where I have been, in all parts
of Europe which I have visited, experience has shown that the soil gen-
erally is not ploughed to a great depth, 3, 4 or 5 inches is almost the
maximum depth of exhaustion. It is very often the case, that persons
exhaust land, until they can raise no more crops, and arc then compelled
to leave. The person who succeeds them, seeing the system of tillage
that has been practised, instead of adopting the former system of shal-
low ploughing, goes down deeper and turns up a new soil altogether.
Very likely in this new soil, are found accumulated the materials which
the other soil once contained. The manure that has been put on and
accumulated below, is turned up, and the new comer get**, perhaps, not
only a good virgin soil, but much of the money that the old farmer has
buried there. This is no hypothetical case. If it wore, I would not /
state it, for speculation and hypothesis are good for nothing. Tn the
neighborhood of Edinburgh, there are farmers of the greatest skill, and
who make a great deal of money ; and as a general rule, you may
judge of the skill of a farmer by the number of sovereigns that he has
pocketed at the end of the year; it is a very good test. One of these
farmers, after hearing one of my lectures, in explanation of this siirple

58

principle, told me, that though he lived so near Edinburgh, the thing
had never occurred to him before, nor had he ever heard of it ; and he
immediately went to work to carry out the principle, and by ploughing
down, he had brought to the surface a fresh soil, and was then growing
luxuriant crops, where he had thought the land entirely exhausted.
Therefore, it is quite true, that in the under, or sub-soil, there accumu-
lates many substances which have drained through from the upper soil,
which make it full as rich as the upper soil once was, and that the far-
mer takes the cheapest steps to reclaim poor land, exhausted by severe
cropping, who ploughs deep.

This must be sufficient to show the value of the sub-soil, when turned
up and mixed with the upper. I need not dwell on this ; but I have
this remark to m.ake ; that it happens sometimes that various substan-
ces accumulate beneath, which are injurious to the plant, and in order
that they may not ir.jure the upper soil, it is not always advisable to
bring them up. There are districts in my country, where the sub-soil is a
white clay, which is so barren, that if brought up, it might destroy the
upper soil, and therefore it is carefully avoided. This is the case in
many parts of the world. It is quite proper not to do so ; but not an
unfrequent resort with us, as a means of deepening the soil, where the
sub-soil is impervious or noxious, is to cut it through, so that the water
sinks, and as it sinks below the level of the soil, the rain falls, filling
up all the pores in the soil to a certain point, which, with the fresh air,
effects a chemical action on these substances, changes them chemi-
cally, and gives them either a nourishing quality, or modifies the sub-
soil, so that when brought up, it will not be injurious or noxious to
plants.

This is the object of sub-soil ploughing; this is common in England,
after draining in stiff clay soils. But the practice is also adopted where
the land has been long drained. In Scotland, the farmers plough from 7
to 20 inches deep, and experience has shown that lands thus treated,
not only retain every thing put on them in the form of manure, but are
capable of growing crops for a longer time without exhaustion, than if
they did not plough so deep.

Another mode, besidesdeepploughingandsub-soiling, is called thorough
drainage. I have spoken of thorough drainage, as applied to large
areas ; also of the drainage for the removal of springs. The drainage of
lakes is going on in Sweden on a large scale, and that of springs in
Scotland ; but thorough drainage is only now begun, although probably
thirty millions of money have been already expended in it.

59

There are several questions in regard to drainage which are impor-
tant. What are the effects of drainage on land, and how these effects
are brought about ? How does this system of drainage affect the profits
of the farmer, and in what way does drainage pay him ? The first ef-
fect of drainage — for I cannot dwell upon them, but must put them
down here succinctly — is to carry oflfall the stagnant or surface water;
2d, it relieves land of water where it accumulates below, by the filtra-
tion of the rain through the surface ; 3d, it causes the rains, instead of
running over and washing the land, to descend where it falls, and this
is the perfection of thorough drainage ; 4th, as the rain sinks into the
soil, it carries with it a continual supply of fresh air, and thus adminis-
ters new doses of air to the substance of the soil ; 5ih, it makes stiff*
soils more crumbling, so that this kind of soil, instead of being hard to
work after drainage, requires but half the force to plow it ; Gth, it
makes the soil warmer. You remember that I told you, that evapora-
tion cools the surface ; of course, if the surplus water is carried off* by
drainage, the soil is warmer. Then it also enables the farmer to pro-
ceed to till his land much sooner after the rains fall, and thus get
ahead of others who do not drain their lands. So in the spring and
autumn, in the open weather, he who drains his land has great advan-
tage. And there is another advantage ; it benefits his neighbor as well
as himself, keeping the mists and fogs of his own land from that of his
neighbor, while the man who neglects this, injures his neighbor by the
converse process. Another point to which I have alluded, and at which [
will glance now, is that by this means, you compel nature to do the ar-
tificial work of taking out from the soil what is injurious to it, much
more cheaply than it could otherwise be done. I have spoken of the
importance of the healthiness of a climate. Among the means of im-
proving lands, this of drainage has been attended with one remarkable
result, in contributing to liuman happiness. It happens that drainage,
while it has improved the soil, has been the means of improving the
health of large districts, a result which every benevolent man must con-
template with high satisfaction. Drainage is attended not only with
these good effects, but it gives the farmer larger, surer and more
valuable crops. Land tliat would once only grow oali, has in this way
been made to grow wheat. Crops that were uncertain, Lave been
made certain, and the product doubled in quantity.

On what land dovs it do this ? on wet lauds, no doubt ; but when

I tell you that ii docs so not only on wet lands, but on lands liable to be

burnt up with the sun in summer, it may exciio surprise. I have a

uggcstion to make in regard to lands thus liable to be burnt up ; but

60

of course, in making the suggestion, I do not intend that you shall go
immediately to do it on a large scale, but that you should try the ex-
periment on a small scale. But it is a fact, that on such land as I have
described, thorough drainage has been found the most beneficial of all
methods of improvement. In this neighborhood, you have sandy plains,
and you have other stiff clay land. Now in summer, the sandy land
bears the extreme heat, better than loam, and the loam better than
clay ; tbat is the soil which is most open, is least acted on by the sun.
This is the case in the lands on the plains of Athens, of which I have
spoken, which is liable to be burnt up by the sun.

Now if we consider the several causes by which this drought is pro-
duced, and how drainage affects it ; you will see on what this experi-
ment is founded. If the soil is merely burnt up by drought, and you
suppose the roots to descend only to the depth of about 3 inches, it is ob-
vious that the heat of summer dries up the land to the roots. But if
by drainage, you open up the soil three feet deep, so that the rain, instead
of flowing off the surface, descends through the soil, thus made per-
vious to it, the roots will grow deeper, and while the upper surface is
dry, the drought does not reach the roots, which are thus enabled to
live longer than they otherwise would. But there is another singular
circumstance, with reference to soils that contain saline matter ; potash
is saline matter. The water with which it is saturated, comes to the
surface, and evaporates, and this substance which is held in solution,
is left on the surface, and kills the soil. Prof. J. here stated that he
had sent him a specimen of the soil on the plains of Athens, for his
examination and advice. On these plains, the grass grows luxuriantly
in the spring ; but as the sun grows more scorching, it gradually
withers and dies. Prof. J. said that knowing the character of the
rocks in that region, and that the sudden check to vegetation, was the
results of the salt held in solution in the soil, and left upon the surface
by evaporation the remedy was simple and easy ; and that was drain-
age and ploughing. So that when the rain brought down the salt from
the heights, it would also, run away with it, and not remain in the soil.
Thus, you see, that the practice of draining, has been found to succeed,
where it might have been least expected ; and that it is an experi-
ment well worth trying. I am sorry to detain you so long, but you will
excuse me if I occupy a few moments, in answering the question, will
drainage do in New-York ; will it pay ? I do not speak of this or
that county, for I believe a discussion of this question, has already
taken place, and that a great deal is to be found on the subject, in your
volum^es of Transactions; it is a discussion highly creditable in itself,

61

and from which I infer that you have confidence that it can be applied
with profit, to certain parts of your State; but some general considera-
tions, may be of use. The quantity of rain that falls, determines the
quantity that remains. The quantity in New- York, is much greater
than in Great Britain ; yet we find in Great Britain, that it is not only
necessary, but profitable. Now, the first question is, as to the quantity
of rain that falls. Without any other data, I should say, that the
quantity here, renders it probable, that drainage would do here. Know-
ing as I do, the profit of drainage, where there are but 24 inches of
rain, I infer that where there are 40 inches, thorough drainage must
also be profitable.

The way in which rain falls, is also important, and how many rainy
days there are in a year. I did not anticipate that I should be drawn into
this point, and cannot tell the number of rainy days in New Brunswick.
During four months, spent among the practical agriculturists there, and
after a thorough canvassing of the whole subject, I am satisfied, that
thorough drainage, though expensive, can be safely recommended. In
St. Johns, where it rains most, there are 74 rainy days in a year, In
New-York, 111 ; in Rochester, 115. Here is another argument which
strengthens the probability, that thorough drainage, might be resorted
to with profit. I do not recommend it, nor do I want you to adopt my
opinions, because I state them here. It was my duty to go into every
county in England and Scotland, with a view to this subject. I con-
versed with the most experienced, practical men, in whose way I was
thrown. The results are what I now tell you ; that drainage has been
found efiectual, in a country, where they have less rain than you ;
where the soil is not stronger, or heavier than yours, and where the
number of rainy days is not greater than at the places I have mentioned
in your State. This, being so, whatever opinions you or I may enter-
tain, the inference is irresistible, that the system may be tried with
eminent advantage to the practical farmer ; and I would say that there
is a probability, that thorough drainage may be the means of gradually
improving your soils. I think it is worth while seriously to consider,
whether you may not turn it to your own individual advantage, and thus
contribute to the wealth of all.

LECTURE SIXTH.

RELATIONS OP CHEMICAL PHYSIOLOGY TO THE PLANT, AND THE MODES OF

PROMOTING ITS GROWTH.

Gentlemen : There is one aspect in which th© art of farming seems
exceedingly simple. If you look at the procedure of one of those who cul-
tivates the rich land of the Genesee valley, which is a rich clay mixed up
with a calcareous gravel, you see the routine which he pursues in the al-
ternation of his crops, and you observe that he pursues this course regu-
larly every third year, and you may naturally infer that this is a simple
art, requiring no mental exertion to carry on all its details. It is be-
cause this art appears so simple, that farmers themselves are unwilling
to believe that there are any difficulties connected with it, that it has
been generally supposed that very little knowledge is necessary to prac-
tice such an art ; that it needs very little intellect or intelligence, and
that if a man is fit for nothing else he has brains enough for this. Be-
sides the obvious effect which this idea has upon the agricultural com-
munity itself, it has its effect also in lowering the character of the agri-
cultural body in the estimation of the other professions. Now, if the
agricultural body has reasons to complain of the estimation in which
they are held in other quarters — and it prevails among us and every
where — it appears to me that these persons themselves, that is the class
of agriculturists who refuse to believe that there is any difficulty in this
art, such as I have described, are themselves to blame for a state of
things of which they complain. Those are really the friends of the ag-
riculturist who show that this department of art can be made more cer-
tain in its results and more lucrative by the application to it of the va-
rious branches of natural knowledge, and that he is indeed the friend of
the farmer who seeks to bring to bear upon it the results of scientific
research, and to show the world that there is really something compli-
cated in this apparently simple art.

I have been led to these remarks in consequence of having reached
that stage in my progress which brings this most prominently in view ;

63

that is,' the relations of the soil to the science of Chemistry. You will
recollect I showed you at our last meeting, that the soil is a complicated
material, containing a great many substances, in diflferent proportions,
and on which proportions the quality of the soil depends. You will re-
collect that I showed you that the result o[ chemical research was the
development of the fact that all fertile soils contained a certain number
of certain things; and now I come to show you that all fertile soils do
and must contain them, and that if certain of these things are wanting
no soil can be fertile. To show the necessity of this I must bring under
your notice the composition of the plant.

I explained to you at our last meeting, that if I take a vegetable sub-
stance and burn it nearly the whole of it burns away, leaving but a
small quantity. I advert to this to show you that the same thing is
true of the soil — as part of the soil burns away, and a part of every
plant — but a certain quantity of each is left behind. Both contain a
certain quantity of combustible nnd incombustible matter. In both, the
first is organic, the second inorganic, or mineral matter. But they dif-
fer in this, that the part of the soil that burns away is very small com-
pared with the whole mass, while in a plant the converse is the case ;
the largest portion of the plant burns away; so much greater is the
combustible portion of it. [Prof. J. here pointed to a table showing the
different quantities of ash left after burning different vegetable substan-
ces, wood, wheat, straw, hay, tobacco, dec] Thus you perceive, said
he, that in the case of the plant, first, the quantity of mineral or incom-
bustible matter is less than in the soil, and second, that the quantity of
combustible or organic matter is greater. Now, as the plant consists so
largely of combustible matter, in order that we may know something of
it, I must make you acquainted with some substances of which I hare
not yet spoken, as it will be necessary to illustrate not only what I have
to say to-night, but at our next meeting. The part of a plant that burns
away contains six different things, in different proportions — one or two
of them in large proportions. This, [holding up a piece of it,] is com-
mon wood charcoal. If wood is ignited and closed from the access of
air, it becomes charcoal. It contains all the mineral or incombustible
matter of the plant. This charcoal, thore^'ore, is a material representa-
tion of carbon. There are various forms of carbon, the diamond ii one.
But carbon is one of four or five other substances which constitute the
combustible or organic portion of plants, and forms far the largest por«
lion of it. Another substance is oxygen ; a third hydrogen ; a fourth
nitrogen ; a fifth sulphur ; a sixth phosphorus.

Take any one plant, and the pari that burns away contains these six
different elements ; but there are certain plants that do not contain all

64

of them. Oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen are three different kinds of air.
Here are three bottles containing these different kinds of air. There is no
apparent difference in point of color, nor have they any smell; you
cannot distinguish them by these senses. But a very simple implement
enables us to do so. This little taper serves the purpose of a new sense
to us. I do not know which of these contains hydrogen, which oxygen,
or which nitrogen ; but this lighted taper will soon tell me.

Prof. J. here put the taper into the bottle containing nitrogen, and it
was extinguished ; he then re-lighted it, and put it into another, that con-
taining oxygen, and it burned brightly; next, he put it into the third
containing hydrogen, and there was a slight explosion, which put out the
taper, leaving, however, the snuff, which ignited again, when it was
withdrawn — the gas itself burning — and which ignited also when placed
in the oxygen. This, then, said he, enables me to distinguish these
three gases. This, in which the taper kindles and burns brightly and
re-kindles,~ is oxygen; this, which takes fire itself, is hjdrogen; this,
which extinguishes the taper, is nitrogen. These three substances, hydro-
gen, oxygen and nitrogen exist in plants in different proportions, not in
the shape of air, but in a solid form. We cannot imitate it ; but they
do assume this form naturally. Sulphur, you know exists in small
quantities in plants, and phosphorus in a still smaller quantity. Now,
these substances compose the organic part of plants, or that part which
burns away. But where does the plant get these things of which it con-
sists so largely ? the carbon comes partly from the air, and partly from
the soil ; oxygen partly from the air and soil ; hydrogen mostly from the
soil ; nitrogen altogether from the soil ; sulphur and phosphorus, alto-
gether from the soil. Oxygen and hydrogen compose water, and the
plant gets them either from the rain, or from the water in the soil; car-
bon it gets parti}'- from the air and partly from the soil. Now that you
may understand how it is that plants derive these things from the air
and soil, I must make you acquainted with another substance.

If I take a piece of limestone, reduce it to powder, put it into a ves-
sel, pour on it first a little water, and then an acid, as nitric acid, it will
boil up, or effervesce. This boiling up or effervescence is produced by
the evolution of a kind of air which produces these bubbles. In this
kind of air, the taper will be extinguished. It therefore corresponds in
this particular with the gas called nitrogen, in one of these bottles.
How are we to distinguish between these two gases ? It is in this way :
If I undertake to pour the nitrogen into this glass, I cannot do it ; if I
undertake to pour it on this candle, it has no effect upon it; but if I take
the gas which produces this effervescence and pour it into the glass, I

66

can fill it, and though the glass appears to be empty, it will be found to
be full of it, for if I put the taper into it, fhe blaze will be immediately
extinguished. There is, therefore, this marked difference between the
two gases: the one, the carbon, can be poured out into another vessel,
because it is heavier than common air ; but the nitrogen which is light-
er, cannot be poured out; but it will rise. Hence the extinguishment
of the taper is no test of the presence of carbonic acid or nitrogen ; but
they are distinguished altogether by their comparative weight. Com-
mon air is composed of 79 parts of nitrogen to 21 parts of oxygen, or
nearly — carbonic acid constituting about 4-100 of it. This small quan-
tity of carbonic acid exists in the air, and from this small quantity, plants
derive all the carbonic acid which they gel from the air.

How do they take it in ? I showed you in a former lecture, that the
under surface of the leaves of plants is covered with an immense num-
ber of minute pores, and that these pores vary according to the circum-
stances under which the plants live. They draw in through these
pores, carbonic acid during the day, but not during the night. The
very great number of leaves and surfaces thus presented to the air, en-
ables the plant to draw from it the minute portion of carbonic acid ne-
cessary to its growth. This is one of the wonderful things, of which
nature is full. You cannot but be astonished to find, that this never
ceasing operation is going forward, and that the countless leaves of
plants, which seem to us as intended merely for the ornament of trees,
and to gratify the eye, by their perpetual motion, as the winds pass
through them, are actually necessary to enable the plants to extract from
the air, or to drink in the element so necessary to their growth and
maturity.

I shall, at the next meeting, draw your attention to the substances
existing in plants ; that is to say, I shall show you that wood contains
these elementary substances — carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen —
but that it does not contain them in the states in which I have exhibited
them here, but in a diflerent form, and I shall also show you that the
plant consists oi other substances, which are necessary to its existence
as such. For instance, this piece of wood, (holding up a rod) consists
of what we call, woody fibre, m* stly. The stalk or straw of wheat, and
grain, contains more than one kind of matter; so the seeds of plants,
such as linseed, contain oil, among other things; so that we have all
these things, growing in plants, in the wood, in the seeds, Sec.

At the next meeting, I shall again call your attention to the function!
of the leaf, and the manner in which the leaf acquires carbon from the

66

atmosphere, in order to explain the functions of animal life, and to
show how these functions are related. I cannot do this now, hecause I
must introduce new names and things, and because the subject comes
in more strictly in connection with the next lecture. But I may make
one observation here in relation to these substances, nitrogen, carbon,
derived from carbonic acid, oxygen and hydrogen, which compose wa-
ter ; that nitrogen is obtained from the soil in various forms, and that
that is one form in which it is taken in by plants, but not so universally
as some have supposed. There is one form in which nitrogen exists,
and that is in ammonia or common hartshorn. The nitrogen, which is
necessary to the growth of plants, is often taken in, in this form, though
not universally ; and though it exists in plants, in small quantities, yet
it is of the greatest possible consequence to the existence of human and
animal life. Thus much of the organic parts of plants.

I pass on to the inorganic parts of plants; and here I shall show you
the necessity of those mineral substances of which I spoke at our last
meeting. If you take the ash of wood, or of any plant, and submit it
to the same chemical examination to which I submitted that part of the
soil remaining after being burnt, you will find what the chemist tells
you, that this ash consists, not of one or two substances, but of eight or
ten. It will be found that the soil and the plant contain the same sub-
stances ; the only one not in the plant being alumina. What is the
function of alumina in the soil ? Its mechanical function is to anchor
the plant. Tenacity is necessary for this purpose. Some plants grow
in mere sand, but the great majority of them require a certain degree of
tenacity in the soil, which is obtained by mixing silica with clay. This
alumina being clay, explains why it is that it is not in the plant, but
only in the soil. It does not enter into the plant but gives tenacity to
the soil, which is necessary to retain the plant. Take any plant, and it
will be found to contain this ash, and this ash you will find contains all
these substances, some in larger, some in smaller quantities. To show
the composition of the ash of different plants, Prof. J. referred to the ta-
bles exhibiting the composition of the ash and straw of different plants.

67

68

There you will see that all these different substances present in the
soil are also present in the plant, but the proportions differ. You will
observe that in the ash of wheat, oats, barley and rye, potash exists in
the proportion of about 23-100, whereas, in the soil, the same ingre-
dient is present in but a comparatively small proportion. So w^iih phos-
phoric acid ; it constitutes nearly half the ash of the grains, whereas in
the soil it is exceedingly small. Now, this phosphoric acid, though pre-
sent in small quantities in the soil, is so necessary to the growth of
plants that they are found to contain a large proportion of it. Now,
[pointing to the table exhibiting the composition of the ash of straw,] it
will be seen that the straw contains but a small quantity of phosphoric
acid. Potash in Indian corn is very like that in wheat. The straw of
wheat contains a large proportion of silica ; the ash of grain a large
proportion of phosphoric acid. This acid rises as the plants grow, while
the siliceous matter comes in by the roots and lodges itself in the straw.
We see similar differences if we look at the composition of the ash of
our green crops, as the turnip and potato ; the potato is more than half
potash, while the phosphoric acid is small compared with that in the
grains. In short, every plant, taken as a whole, contains these things
in proportions different from any other plant j and plants of different
kinds or families differ materially. So different parts of the same plant
contain these substances in different proportions. What is the infer-
ence from all this? Suppose a plant to be growing; it must get from
the soil those substances which it most requires. If, in forming the
flower and perfecting the seed, these substances must flow up readily,
and the soil must furnish them in sufficient quantities, or the plant must
cease to grow rapidly, this shows the practical applications or results
that we shall arrive at — to which practical men have not yet done — but
which when we shall have reached a system of refined Agriculture will
enable us more intelligently to adapt cur modes of cultivation to the
growth of plants; and to that we shall come bye-and-bye. But to the
practical application of these facts. First, you see what plants grow
better in some soils than in others; that if plants grow well on a given
soil, it must be because that soil supplies the wants of the plant. Now,
some soils contain very little phosphoric acid; if the soil contains much
potash and you put upon it a plant requiring little, it will not grow well,
whereas, if you put upon it Linother plant requiring a great deal, it will
grow well.

When speaking of tha relations of Geology to Agriculture, I showed
you that the kind of trees growing upon different tracts of land indica-
ted differences of soil — differences arising from the geological confer-

69

mation of the country, but they are in reality the result of chemical dif-
ferences, or of differences of materials that enter into the soils, and
which determine the trees that grow upon it. So with crops ; if you
select any soil and undertake to grow plants there, for a time they will
grow well, just in proportion as the soil contains what the plant requires
in greater or les=? abundance. If it requires a particular substance in
large quantities, the continual growth of it will exhaust the soil. Let
me explain this word exhaust. Suppose you plant green crops, as the
potato, for years in succession, without adding anything to the soil, if
the crops are large, you will take a large quantity of potash, particular-
ly from the soil ; besides taking out a portion of other matters belong-
ing to the soil, it selects this potash in large quantities. After cropping
for a long time, the land will cease to grow the potato, because of the
exhaustion of the potash. This is what is called special exhaustion,
that is, there may be enough of other substances left to grow the pota-
to. Hence, in many instances, the addition of wood ash has been found
to be a simple mode of making the soil grow the potato. Now, sup-
pose in a case of exhaustion, that you introduce a crop that contains or
requires but little potash or much phosphoric acid and alternate this crop
with the root crops, it is obvious that the soil will hold out longer, be-
cause in that case, you do not draw so constantly on any one substance
in the soil. This is one reason for the rola'ion of crops, and the most
skilful rotation is that which is governed by these rules. Thus you see
the meaning of the two terms, general and special exhaustion. Land
is generally exhausted where this alternation is pursued for a long series
of years, and will remain so until all those things are added which have
been taken from it, in sufficient quantities to feed the plant. If I grow
one crop continually, and that crop requires one thing to be present ia
the soil in large quantities, I exhaust it of that one thing only, and lean
add that and restore the soil, if I know what that is. This is the great
object of the researches and labors of science in this direction — a kind
of labor requiring more study thin you can well understand at a gl.ince.
The great object is to understand what a plant takes from the soil and
what to put in to bring it back again.

Prof. J. illustrated this point by showing that a system of cropping
might be adopted, which would lead to a pariia' exhau>tion of thr soil,
and which it was vain to try to bring back again by ordinary manure,
but which 'Toiild be easily restored, and without any great rXjM use,
by applying to the soil, the substances which mu^l have been i V. . '-^m
it by that system of cropping. Let me draw your alien ;id

he, to a fact familiar to you, in this country where there U ttle
intercourse with the large towns, and where the fiinncr ui? or

70

makes everything^ at home — his soap, candles, &;c. In making
soap for instance, you know that the wood ash is essential ; hut the far-
mer, whom I have described, does not take the ash of soft wood, hut of
hard wood ; he will tell you, that his reason is, that there is no potash
in the ash of pine, and so it is in reality. Prof. J. went on to state the
quantity of potash contained in the ash of different woods, adding, that
the ash of those trees which contain most potash, is the ash of those
which grow in soils where there is an abundant supply of potash. To-
bacco is a crop that contains much mineral matter. Suppose an acre to-
yield 800 lbs. of tobacco. These 800 lbs. contain about 160 lbs. of
mineral matter, which is carried off as it were, by this kind of crop,
and which will ultimately exhaust the soil specially. You may think
it remarkable, that in the rotation of crops, fijst, wheat, then turnips,
then barley, then clover, then wheat again, a very common rotation,
mineral matter may be carried off to the extent of 1300 lbs. per acre,
you would naturally suppose that this would exhaust it more than to-
bacco, which in 4 years carries off 600 lbs. per acre ; but here is the
difference : we do not sell off the straw ; we return that to the land in
the form of manure, and by this means, the yearly loss is confined to
that which is contained in th? grain ; the grain contains only 83 lbs.
for 4 years; whereas tobacco carries off 600. Of course, tobacco ex-
hausts the soil far sooner ; that, I repeat, is special exhaustion, and
knowing what tobacco carries off, we can supply it.* One other ob-

• We give an analysis, taken from Prof. Johnston's lectures, 2d edition, of the
ash of the tobacco leaf, and the composition of a special manure for tobacco :

Potash, 12.14

Soda, 0.07

Lime, 45.90

Magnesia,* 13.09

Chloride of sodium, 3.49

Chloride of potassium, 3.98

Phosphate of iron, 5.48

Phosphate of lime, 1.49

Sulphate of lime, 6.36

Sirica. 8.01

100 00

All the ingredients which are necessary to replace lOO lbs. of the ash of tobacco
leaves, are present in the following mixture:

Bone dust, sulphuric acid, 23 lbs.

Carbonate of potash, (dry,) 31 lbs.

Carbonate of soda, (dry,) 5 lb».

do magnesia, 25 lbs.

do lime, (chalk,) , 60 lbs.

144 lbs.

71

servatron, as to the particular operation of this. You see how a knowl-
edge of what the plant takes from the soil, is necessary lo know what
is the nature of exhaustion, and what lo put into the soil to bring
it back again so far as mineral matter is concerned. The organic
matter plays an important part in the growth of plants, but I do not
speak of that now. But you see how a knowledge of the inorganic sub-
stances taken out by a series of crops enables us to show what to put
in. But it does more; it enables us to prepare manure which shall
contain all the mineral matters that the crops have taken out, and to
make special manures adapted to special cases. I have prepared tables
of special manures thus adapted, in order to restore to the soil what the
crops have taken from it. This is important, for it points out how to
manufacture what a farmer wants to promote the growth of any crop,
and to restore land to fertility which has been exhausted. I do not pur-
sue this matter further. I think I have shown you illustrations enough
to satisfy you of the value of the application of refined chcmiral re-
search to the plant, and, that though complicated, they have a practical
bearing on the every day business of the farmer, and to show you
how many kindred branches of science have been actually brought to
bear directly upon the pecuniary profit of his pursuit.

At our next meeting I shall show you how science has been brought
to bear on the rearing and feeding of stock, and shall present to you
considerations on this topic which can scarcely fail to interest you; and
you will then see that this wide field of science, over which the prac-
tical farmer may travel with advantage, becomes wider and wider with
every step that he takes.

LECTURE SEVENTH,

RELATIONS OF CHEMICAL PHYSIOLOGY TO THE ANIMAL — ITS FOOD AITI?

ITS GROWTH.

Gentlemen: The subject which I propose to introduce this evening
is an exceedingly wide one, as indeed I may say of all the subjects of
which I have treated. At the same time, I think the points I shall be
able to present this evening are so plain and intelligible that you can
see plainly the width of the subjects of which I treat. You will recol-
lect that at our last meeting I presented to you the composition of the
elementary part of the plant ; and I showed you, that if you take any
part of a plant and burn it, that by far the largest portion burns away;
that the part that burns away consists of four elementary substances,
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. These three last being dif-
ferent kinds of air. I showed you, also, how they differed and how
they were to be distinguished. It is necessary to re-introduce this, to
make you acquainted with what is called the ultimate composition of
the organic parts of plants, animals and soils. I wish to make use of
these words, and unless previously explained you would not be able to
follow them. First, I draw your attention, not to the elementary con-
stituents of plants, but to the substances that exist in the plants which
we eat; for example, the great mas.< of this rod consists of woody fibre;
then, if you take a grain of ground wheat you know that it contains
much starch; that is another substance that the plant produces. The
suo-ar cane produces sugar ; this sugar exists in all plants. These sub-
stances all consist of the elementary bodies spoken of. There is no ni-
trogen in these I mention, but others contain it. Now, of the crops we
cultivate these three substances, woody fibre, starch and sugar consti-
tute a very large proportion. But before I show you of what they con-
sist and in what proportions, I must explain to you the nature of the
important substances existing in the plants which we cultivate for food.
If you take a quantity of wheat flour and make it into a dough, and
ut this dough on a piece of muslin, tied over a glass and pour water

73

on it, the water will pass through the muslin in a milky form. If you
continue the process until the water passes through quite clear, a sub-
stance will remain, which the chemists call gluten. The milky sub-
stance which passes through the muslin, falls to the bottom in the shape
of a white powder — that is starch — thus I separate wheat flour into
starch and gluten. Now, this gluten contains all four of the elementary
bodies I have named — it contains about 16 per cent of nitrogen — hence
the nitrogen in the atmosphere is of great importance in the growth of
wheat. Take any vegetable substance — the straw of wheat or of this
piece of wood ; and it contains a great quantity of fibrous substance
called woody fibre — that exists in all plants. If you take this gluten
and put it mto spirits of wine and heat it, you can extract from it a
quantity of oil. So with Indian corn, or oats, and from the stalk and
straw of either you can extract more or less oil. We have then, first
of all, the woody fibre, we have sta.ch, and gluten, and oil ; these four
are important to the nourishment of animals and exiat in all plants.
But before showing the importance of these substances to the growing
animal, I must show you the proportions in which they exists.

Average composition of 100 parts of the more common grains
rootsj and grasses, Sfc.

Water.

Wheat,

Barley,

Oats,

Rye,

•Indian corn, ....

Uuck wheat,

Rice,

Beans,

Peas,

Pota'ocs,

Turnips,

Carrots,

Manprci Wurtzel,.
Meatlow hay,....

Clover l»ay,

Pea straw,

Oat straw,

Wheal straw,....
Barley straw,....

Rye siraw,

Indian corn stalks

Id
16
12
14
15
13
11
U
75
88
85
85
14
It
10 to 15
12
12 to 15
12 to 15
12 to 15
12

Husk or

Starch,

1
Gluten al-

woody

gum &

bumen.

fibre.

sugar.

iic.

15

55

lotojy

15

bO

12 to 15

20

W

14toiy

10 to 20

60

10 to 15

6

70

12

26

60

8

3

75

7

8.11

40

24.28

9

60

24

4

18

2.0

2

9

1.5

3

10

1.5

2

11

2.0

30

40

7.1

25

40

y.3

25

45

12 3

45

35

1.3

f)()

30

1.3

50

30

1.3

45

38

1.3

2-}

62

3.0

Fatty

matter,

Salina
matter.

2 to 4

2 to 3

5 to 7

3 to 4

6 to 9

0.4
0.7
2.3
2.1
0.3
0.3
0.4
7

2 to 5

3 to 5

1.5
U.HI
2to3|

1
1.7

2
3

4
2

H
4

3
1

^ to 4-5
1 .1 to 2

ito 10
9

4 to 6
6
0
6
4

3 to 7

Some of the above ni.mhprs, arc ai>|»roximation», only, Ckjiocially the fatty mal-
teri wlu( h is very uncertain, and the buckwheat.

This table contains all we know of the composition of crops,
you see that there is water in all this food. Wheal contains 15
per •' itf of water, the turnip from 88 to DO per cent — showing the

*] M-m unslysis of Indian corn, by J. II. Salisbury, see Transactions of 1S48L
p. 1>.S. ^

74

difference between grain and roots. The next column represents the
woody fibre which animals cannot digest, and in which there is no nour-
ishment. This in wheat and other grains varies from 10 to 20 per cent.
Here are starch and sugar. Wheat contains about 55 per cent of starch ;
and here I must speak of this substance, for it affords us an exceedingly
beautiful illustration of the relations of the plant to the animal, espe-
cially to the life of the animal, and again of the animal to the life of
the plant. About half the weight of wheat consists of starch. So with
barley, Indian corn, rice, peas and beans. Then all grains contain a
substance analogous to gluten, but varying in this, that all do not con-
tain the same quantity. Of this gluten, there exists in flour from 10 to
19 per cent, in barley from 12 to 15, in oats from 14 to 19, in rye 15,
in Indian corn 12, in rice 8, in buck wheat 8, in beans and peas from 24
to 28, which is much more than is contained in any of the grains, and
hence these produce the greatest effect upon certain functions of animal
life. In the potato and the turnip it is very small, for nine-tenths of the
turnip consist of water. Pea straw is very rich in it ; all other straws
are comparatively poor. Wheat and barley have little oil, oats from five
to seven per cent, Indian corn five to nine, beans and peas from two to
three per cent. Therefore these latter are deficient in oil. You find,
going down, the quantity is small in the roots. So with the straws, they
contain but little oil. Prof. J. here pointed to a diagram, showing the
quaniiiy of saline matter in the ash of different straws. Now there are
two things of which I must remind you: 1st, that of all these different
kinds and forms of matter which exist in all plants, but in different pro-
portions, gluten, starch and oil are largest in the grains. Starch is the
largest in the grains, gluten larger in the grains than in the straws, ex-
cept pea straw, and is largest of all in the beans and peas. Oil or fat
is greater in the seeds, and especially certain seeds, cultivated for food,
greater in the oat and Indian corn than in other plants. Linseed I shall
speak of, though this is cultivated for the oil and not for food, yielding
about 60 per cent of it. Now these substances exist in all foods in dif-
ferent quantities. But how are these substances formed in the plant ?
where dees the plant get them ? This inquiry renders it necessary for
me to make you acquainted with a principle of great importance to a
clear understanding of the relations of different kinds of animated na-
ture, one to another, the relations of the plant to the soil and of the soil
to the animal. Time will not permit me to introduce some interesting
substances existing in the soil from which plants are enabled to build up
these kinds of food. But I will remind you, by way of illustration, of
an experiment made at our last meeting. I took a little limestone and

75

poured on it a quantity of acid ; I now repeat that experiment. The ef-
fervescence is owing to the evolution of a kind of air called carbonic
acid gas, one property of which was that it extinguished a taper when
put in it; another was, that it could be poured out from one vessel into
another; it is called acid, because in reality it is sour to the taste.
This carbonic acid consists of two of the elementary substances of
which I have spoken, carbon and oxygen. This carbon exists in plants
and forms a large portion of the wood, as the gluten and starch and fat
do, of the seed.

Perhaps you will recollect that I explained the structure of the leaves
of plants, and showed how the under side, particularly, was studded
with numerous pores or apertures, through which the plant sucked in
certain substances from the air. I told you at our last meeting, that
the leaves of plants, spreading through the air and exposing the large
surfaces to it, sucked in this carbonic acid gas, which exists in the at-
mosphere in a very small proportion. This table, (pointing to a dia-
gram) represents the proportion of carbonic acid gas which exists in
the atmosphere. You will see that but one gallon of this air exists in
2,500 gal'ons of atmospheric air. The leaves of plants, through these
little pores, suck out this gas from the atmosphere, in order that after
undergoing certain chemical changes, it may serve to build up the sub-
stance of the plant.

What are these chemical changes ? The plant sucks in the carbon
as long as the sun shines. This carbonic acid gas consists of carbon
and oxygen, and the plant sucks it in while the sun shines ; but the
leaves, at the same time that they suck in the carbonic acid, dis-
charge very nearly as much oxygen, as they take in of oxygen in the
form of carbonic acid ; that is, if the leaf sucks in a given volume of
the two gases combined, it dischorges the whole of the oxygen which it
contains, and retains the carbon ; therefore, the function of the leaf is
to suck in carbonic acid and throw oflf oxygen ; to retain the cirbon and
throw ofT the oxygen. But it retains the carbon, not as charcoal; on
the contrary, the plant exhibits green leaves, having no appearance of
charcoal about them. But it undergoes certain chemical changes, the
result of which is, that the oxygen is given off", and the carbon becomes
a new substance. That is one source from which the plant derives the
food, out of which the diflerent substances in the table are formed.

This illustration of the way in which leaves take in sustenance from
the atmosphere, shows you the mode in which plants, through the
roots, as well as leaves, tnke in their food and convert it inio another
form of matter, the result bring a change of what is thus taken in, into

76

starch, gluten and fat, which are found in all plants, and which are im-
portant to the nourishments of animals.

I shall not dwell on this now, but come back to it before I conclude,
having made you acquainted with the fact, as far as necessary, to ena-
ble you to understand the general principle I wish to fix on your minds,
in regard to the composition of plants. I now draw your attention to
the composition of animals.

If I take any portion of an animal, for instance, the end of one
my fingers, and burn it, a large portion will burn away, and there
would remain behind, also a large portion. The larger portion of the
finger, the bone, would remain, in fact, being nearly the w^hole of the
original bulk. So, if I take a piece of flesh, and cut off a bit of this
muscle, excluding both the fat and the bone, and burn it, I find that a
large portion burns away ; but there remains a quantity of ash. Here
we find precisely what we find in burning the plant. Every part of the
plant which burns, leaves behind it, a mineral matter or ash. So it
was with the soil, and so we find it now with the animal. These gen-
eral relations between the soil, the plant and animal, all resolve them-
selves into the fact, that all of them consist of a part which burns away,
and a part which does not ; of the soil, the part that burns away is
small ; in the plant, it is very large ; but in animals, we find both of
these conditions ; the soft parts of the animal, bear a similarity to the
plant, in that the quantity which burns away, is greater than what is
left ; but if you burn the bone, there will remain a large quantity of
mineral matter, the ash of the bone is greater than what burns away.
Thus a quantity of mineral matter is left by every part of the animal
which is burnt, and the quantity varies with the part of the animal
which we burn. But I do not dwell on the mineral substance left. I
draw your attention to the organic part that burns away. Look at
this piece of beef. Here are three different substances; the muscle,
or red part, the fat, and the bone. Now, in every part of the animal,
leaving out the viscera, you find these three forms of matter exist ; the
fat, the muscle, and the bone.

Consider these different substances. The fat has a strong analogy
to the fat existing in plants. If 1 take a portion of the fat — the suet
as it is called — and put it under a press, I can squeeze out oil, which
shows that in this solid fat, liquid fat is present. From this, candles
may be made, soap &c. I have said that this is analogous to the fat in
plants. Take olive oil, for instance ; in winter, it becomes a solid lump
of fat, but, put it under a press and you can squeeze out an oil, that
will not freeze, and it will leave a substance, that is oily and that will

77

remain solid even in the summer. Here you see the analogy between
the fat of plants and that of animals. The solid fat of olive oil is the
same as the solid fat of animals. If I eat oliva oil, I eat solid fat, pre-
cisely like that of my own body. But I pass over this, believing that
you will concede to be true what I cannot explain further — that the fat
of all animals has a relalion to the fat of all plants.

Now take this muscle, colored by blood — cut it out and wash it with
water, until you wash out all the blood, you get a perfectly white sub-
stance, which can be drawn or torn into fibres. This is called fibrin.
Now this fibrin is almost identical wiih the gluten of plants. Here
then, is another analogy between the plant and the animal. Therefore,
as the fat of animals is found to be identical wi'.h that of plants, so the
muscle of animals is almost identical with that part of the plant called
gluten. ""

But how with the bone ? In plants there are no bones, we have a
hard substance, which is not bone but which is sometimes very hard,
as the wood of ebony. Burn the wood of plants and you have a small
quantity of ash ; burn the bone of animals and you have a large quan-
tity. In tracing out the analogy between plants and animals, let me
draw your attention to the bones of animals. Here is the bone of the
ox ; the cartilege will burn away, one third of the dry bone will bu.Ti
away. Now of the phosphate of lime 57 per cent exists in the bone —
phosphate of lime consists of phosphoric acid and lime. You recollect,
I told you that phosphoric acid and lime both exist in plants — and in
the ash of the grain of wheat, to an amount equal to one half of the
whole bulk. You see therefore that we have in the bone and the ash
of the bone, those substances which seem to form the largest proportion
of the mineral matter existing in the different kinds of food that we
eat, and also in the food for cattle. Where does the animal get these
substances forming the different parts of the body — the muscle, the fat
and the bone ? It is obtained from the food which is eaten ; but ob-
serve, that whilst the plant draws from the soil and from the air, one
form of matter, and converts it into another, as for instance, carbonic
acid gas — does the animal do it ? No : on the other hand, the animal
takes in, not the raw material, as it were, but the material already pro-
duced by the plant — the animal takes in this gluten, in the form of
bread or grain, which gluten is almost identical with the solid part of
the muscle. The animal also takes in ful with its food. Whether we
eat vegetable or animal food, we take in fat substances closely related
to the fat of our own bodies ; and in regard to the bone, we take in food
that contains the material which forms the mineral matter of the bone

78

itself. Therefore, though the plant bears this relation to the animal,
the phint could exist without the animal, but not the animal without the
plant. The animal could not suck in the atmosphere and convert that
into the solid parts of its own body — it is so ordered that the plant
drinks in from the air, certain substances, and certain other substances
from the soil, which are necessaiy to its growth, just as we would take
a purse from the pocket and select a piece of money taking out of both,
what it wants, and nothing more. So when food is introduced into the
stomach, it is immediately placed in contact with the digestive organs,
which perform the same office for the body, as the leaves do for the
plant. The stomach has its peculiar functions and selects from the
material that the plant has prepared, the very things which are needed
to build up the several parts of the body, which require to be built up.
But there is a dififcrence which I must explain, I have shown a strong
analogy between the plant and the animal, we have seen that both con-
tain fat and gluten. But I said I would draw your attention more partic-
ularly, to these substances. Starch, we find, exists in wheat, to the extent
of half the weight of the grain, and we eat with our food, a large quantity
ofstar(»h. Is there any starch in the human body ? No ! Here then is the
striking difference to which I have alluded. We find that in this food,
which is supposed to be especially made to sustain the human family,
viz : the grains, we find starch forms nearly half of the whole bulk.
What is the end or purpose of this ? To understand this, it is necessary
to explain one or two functions of the animal.

Living animals perform various functions. The food they eat is di-
gested ; that is the most important function ; but we cannot compare
the importance of one function with another, in the living animal; for
if any one function ceases to be carried on, the animal ceases to live.
But what is the distinction ? First of all, the food is dissolved m the
stomach, and by means of the organization of the stomach, the animal
selects from it, the materials necessary for such parts as need it. But
the animal breathes. Stop our breath, and we could not live a mo-
ment. What is the efl^ect on animal life, of breathing? Here is the
difference between plants and animals. Compare the composition of air,
before it goes into the lungs, with its composition, when it comes out ;
you will find that the air comes out, charged with a greater quantity of
carbonic acid gas, than when it went in. In its passage through the
lungs, the volume of this gas is greatly increased. This carbonic acid
comes from the blood of the system ; it consists of carbon and oxygen,
and is obtained from the food. The animal, in fact, draws in air, and

79

throws out air of a different composition; the oxygen is diminished,
and the carbon increased.

Of what does starch consist ? Of carbon in large quantities. "When
the leaves draw in carbonic acid they throw ofT oxygen ; the carbon
only remain^, and that in a new state of combination ; it forms starch
among other things, by uniting with water — starch in fact consists of
carbon and writer only — so that in forming starch the carbonic acid
unites with water in the plant. It forms starch, which the sap of the
plant conveys to the part which requires it. We find it largely in the
seeds. Now, the function of the leaf is to change this carbonic acid and
form starch. The animal takes this starch into the stomach and de-
composes it, and it escapes from the lungs in the state of carbonic acid
and water. I say water, for if I take a clear, dry glass and breathe into
it, it makes it opaque; the moisture of the breath being condensed upon
the cool glass. The lungs, therefore, are continually throwing off car-
bonic acid and water, and these are thrown off at the expense of the
food which the animal eats ; that is, the starch which is conveyed into
the stomach in the. form of food, is by certain animal processes, convert-
ed into carbonic acid and water and thrown off by the lungs. If I take
a piece of starch and kindle it, it will burn much like wood, and give
out heat and light; and when it gives out ihi-' heat and light it is con-
verted into carbonic acid and water, or into the same things exactly as
it is by the respiration of the animal. Thus the functions of animal
life convert starch into the same substances as when we burn it.

You will ask, what is the purpose of all this ? The plant sucks in
carbon and water, and the animal takes it in in the shape of food and
discharges it again in the same form. Is this designed for the mere
amusement of the animal? No; the purpose is this: animals require
to be kept warm, and among the means to keep up warmth one is the
application of external heat. It is also kept warcn by its food. The an-
imal that is stationary will keep itself above the temperature of the air
without the application of heat, because the animal has within itself a
source of heat; and just as when starch is burned it gives out heat, so
in the interior of the bodj — though it does not burn as rapidly, and
gives no light — yet it undergoes a slow chemical change, which is
known to produce heat, that keeps the body warm, and ihui starch
serves to k^ep up the animal heat. That, at least, is the present opin-
ion. The animal takes in this starch with its food, the plant mixes it
up with what the animal eats. The animal must eat starch with other
substances, and thus the animal cannot eat what will not supply the
materials to enable it to discharge all the functions of the body. Na-

ture mixes up these things in order that respiration may go on, and that
the animal may be kept warm, and provides also that the plant may
undo what the animal has done, and thus renew the substances neces-
sary to keep up the animal functions.

Yon cannot fail to see how very beautiful this cycle is. Here is a
continual operation going on, by which the carbonic acid and water of
the atmosphere are converted by the plant into food, one of the compo-
nent pnrts of which is starch, and by which it is again returned to the
atmosphere, in the state of the same carbonic acid and water. But
there are la.rger cycles than this, on which the existence of animal life
depends.

To advance one step further: You see now the reason why it is
that the plant differs frcm the animal, in that it contains this large
quantity of starch. But what is the relation of other kinds of food that
the plant contains, to the animal ? What is the function of gluten, or
that substance which we have found to be nearly identical with the
fibre of the muscle ? When the animal eats vegetable food, it eats a
portion of this material, which is so nearly identical with its own mus-
cle. You understand, no doubt, that if certain parts of the animal are
building up or increasing, why it is necessary to give it continual sup-
plies of that substance, from which the muscle is built up. If this is
what supplies the growth of muscle, you might say that if the muscle
is full)?^ formed, it is not necessary to keep it up ; that if this substance
is introduced into the stomach, and the gluten is selected which goes to
form the muscle, that the gluten, in such a case, is not wanted. But
this is not so ; this law exists, though the body may appeal- to be iden-
tically the same, yet it is continually changing and undergoing reno-
Yation in different parts. There are certain parts, of every portion of
every animal, removed every day, and a quantity of new material put
in its place, so that the body is kept up by the continual addition of new
matter.

The way this takes place may be thus illustrated : Suppose you have
a scar that has remained as far back as you can recollect : if this doc-
trine be true, that the whole body is renewed once in five years, you
may well think it curious that this little mark should remain so long,
without any apparent change in its appearance ; but it is in fact, en-
graved as it were, not on the matter originally injured, but on other mat-
ter. You can understand this, by this simple illustration : Suppose
this building to be of brick, and that every day some small part of it is
taken out, a brick from this or that place and a new one put in, until the
whole building has been renewed, and yet no apparent change in it be-
yond the color of the new material j for you can Qoaceive how such «

81

process might go on, until every part of the building had been replaced
by other materials; and yet the building remain a complete building ia
all its parts, its interior accommodations and its outward proportions.
This is constantly taking place in your body ; from every part of it a
portion is removed every day, more or less, according to the (juantity of
material taken in, in the shape of food. Hence, the animal should have
a constant supply, in order that this daily waste may be made up. An
animal requires to sustain its body in good condition, or to supply what
is called the sustaining food, about one-si.xtieih part of its own weight,
and to keep it in condition, one-fiftieth or one-si.\tieth part of its own
weight, every day, to sustain its daily v/aste. If you want to give it
food, to increase its size, to enable it to do work, or to produce milk,
then you must give it more food If you feed it for milk you must give
it twice that quantity. You must adapt your food to the points for
which the animal is fed, and you can do this, for the art of feeding ani-
mals with a view to certain results, is one of those arts which science
has given to the farmer. If I want to lay on muscle, I must give food
that contains gluten, and looking over this table (pointing to a diagram)
you will see that beans and peas contain this in the largest quaniily, and
you know how important an article of food beans and peas are for hor-
ses and cattle, particularly for working horses. Cabbage contains
about nine-tenths of its weight of water. Wheat, 35 or 40 per cent of
gluten, or of this matter from which muscle is formed. The flower of
the cauliflower contains more of gluten than any substance we raise for
food. If you want to lay on fat, you will give the animal food that con-
tains more fat, such as Indian corn; so if you want to give it a good
coat, you will give it oats or Indian corn. You can make an animal
fat by giving it fat, but in general we select seeds or grain*, such as
linseed, that contains a large quantity of oil, sometimes twenty per cent.
Rape-seed contains 70 per cent, and poppy-seed contains a great per
centage of oil. In Flanders and France and other parts of Europe, it
is cultivated for its oil. The cake which is left after expressing the oil,
is exceedingly nourishing, and can be used advantageously in feeding
cattle. This poppy cake docs not contain opium enough to hurl an
animal ; when seed-cakes are employed to feed animals, oil cakes are
imported for this purpose. Here is a table of the composition of oil-
cakes. Three diflereot varieties can be made. This oil-cake contains
what forms muscle and fat, and farmers know that to lay on muscle
and fat, it is a most profitable kind of food. Hut the animal is often
fed for milk. Now milk has three ditferent qualities. ' The milkman

6

82

wants quantity and not quality, and therefore he gives his cattle graiaa^
from the brewery — drinks of various kinds and water — and if he finds,
after all, that the milk is too rich, he puts a little water in it [laughter. J
But where the dairyman wants butter or cheese, then he wants quality.
If he makes butter, the milk should be rich. He can add largely ta
the ordinary produce of the dairy, by the selection of food, rich in oil..
In England, we give them oil-cake, but not much at a time, as it gives
an undesirable taste to the butter ; but this is the result rather of inex-
perience, for the skilful dairyman, finds he can give a large quantity of
oil-cake and get a far better quality of milk than by giving any other
food. So if he wants milk for cheese, he gives the food that is rich in
the material to produce curd — that is precisely the food that produces
muscle — and when I tell you that that which produces muscle produces
the curd in the milk of the cow, you then have a clue to the mode in
which animals should be fed, when you desire to produce certain re-
sults. If I want a poor cheese, I would give the animal cabbage, which
contains little fat, but a large quantity of the muscle-forming or curd-
forming material — it produces a milk poor in cream and butter, but rich
in the material that forms curd. But if I desire milk for butter or rich
cheese, I give more fat, and of all the materials that we know of, lin-
seed oil-cake is the best.

I do not dwell on the feeding of animals, for growing young calves^
When the animal is growing it is necessary to adopt the food to its
condition. You must give it such food as is necessary to increase the
bone. The cow in calf must also hare a supply of food in proportion
to its condition, so if you are rearing young animals you must give
food to preserve the milk of its natural consistency, but we in England
feed animals with a view, merely, to fill up the farm yard with manure^
The farmer does it not for profit in such cases from his animal, but from
the richness of the manure. Under all circumstances the kind of food
should be selected with reference to the result of analytic research, and
according to the purposes for which the animal is fed — regarding also
the food which is the cheapest in market or which is most readily with-
in reach.

One of the circumstances, (for I have but five minutes more and must
hurry over this part of the subject) — it is of great importance to attend
to, the state in which the food is introduced into the stomach. If I select
Indian corn without mixing it with other food, the animal cannot digest it
readily. So with other food, this shows how important it is, that the food,
whatever its composition, if it is to produce its full feeding effect, should
be given in such a state that the animal can avail itself of it. The feeding

83

of animals with prepared food, is a branch of knowledge which has re-
sulted in great profit to the farmer. A mixture of difTerenl kinds of foodie
better than one kind ; better, because it is of different kinds, than be-
cause it has different compositions, and by mixing food we are more
likely to meet the wants of the animal. When food is mixed with cut
chaff, it is far more nourishing ; in short, food goes further, and per-
forms its functions more effectually, when mixed up in this way. Now,
you have all heard of malt being used in feeding stock; malt differs
from ordinary barley from its being sprouted a very little, and dried.
Barley contains starch and gluten ; when it sprouts, a certain quan-
tity of gluten changes its character, being converted into a substance
soluble in water. If you take malt and crush it, and put it into
water, the water will dissolve out this substance, which is found at the
root of the germ ; and the water, when poured off, will dissolve starch.
Put starch into water and it will not dissolve, but it will dissolve in this
water thus poured off. Take malt, then, as prepared by the brewers,
and put it into the food for cattle, and it performs in the stomach the
process of dissolving the starch in the food. This is a reason, not why
malt is not more nutritive than barley, but why malt may be profitably
used when mixed up with other food, as it expedites the conversion of
the food into a liquid form, and is more nourishing.

I should have made you acquainted, had I time, with another thing,
and that is the influence of the circumstances in which the animal is
placed on the effect of his food — such as the influences of warmth,
shelter, ventilation, quiet. All these circumstances have a great effect
on the influence that the food which he gets has on the animal. I
have a table of the effects of warmth and shelter, made up from ex-
periment, and showing results of the character which I have intimated ;
but I have said quite enough to show you that in addition to the slate in
which the food is given, which modifies the effect of that food, the
circumstances in which the animal is placed make the food more or less
nutritious. I think you cannot fail to have seen in this interesting de-
partment of science, which I have merely run over — for the time would
not permit me to go into the details — is not only one of f real importance
to the practical farmer, but as worthy of his consideration, and as closely
connected with the development of Agriculture, as an art, as any of
those branches which it has been my happiness to lay before you.

To-morrow night I shall show you, how the pursuit of ihis branch of
study throws light on the common practical operation of the farmer in
improving the soil, by manures.

LECTURE EIGHTH.

RELATIONS OF CHEMISTRY TO THE DOCTRINE OF MANURES.

Gentlemen : — The subject of the lecture this evening is, The Rela-
tions of Chemistry to the Doctrine of Manures, or in other words, the
jinprovement of the soil by chemical means. You will recollect, after
I discussed the composition of the soil, and showed you, that when fer-
tile it contained always certain substances in various proportions, that I
then drew your attention to the modes in which the soil might be im-
proved ; that I stated there were two methods of doing this, one me-
chanical, the other chemical, and that I discussed the mechanical me-
thod, which consisted chiefly in deeper ploughing, subsoiling and draining.
The improvement of the soil by chemical means, is more important,
though no one result is more important than another to the farmer, ex-
cept as one is more profitable than the other. It is quite certain, that no
chemical improvement whatever, can result in higher profit than one or
other of the mechanical modes I have stated : ploughing deep, subsoiling
and thorough drainage. Still, supposing the soil to be already improved
in this way, then come in the new, or chemical methods, by which it
can be still farther improved, and it is one of those indirect advantages
resulting from thorough drainage, that after it has been introduced and
the soil made dry, you can then employ the means which chemistry puts
within your reach. But if not thus improved, chemical means often
prove ineffectual.

As to the chemical mode, it is what we understand by manuring, and
by manure, we understand anything that feeds the plant, and corres-
ponds with the food given to animals. Now, to understand fully every
substance employed as a manure to feed the plant or prepare food for
it, we must know what a manure should contain, and why it should con-
tain these things. But as preliminary to the answer to this question,
we must inquire what kinds of food the plant needs, if the object or
purpose of manuring be to supply food to the plant. Thus, if we know
what food the plant requires, then we know what manure is to be put
on. I explained the evening before, that the plant consists in great
part, of two forms of matter, one of which, and by far the greater part,
was the organic form of matter, and that the inorganic or mineral part

85

was the smaller portion. In explaining the orgnnic part, the starch,
gluten and fat, and the woody fibre, I told you that there were certain
elements of these substances, which the plant derived from the air, in
large proportion, and certain other elements from the soil only, and that
of those elements derived from the air, nitrogen was one only. I told
you that the mineral part or ash, is wholly from the soil. Now, all ma-
nuring is applied to the soil ; therefore, whatever the plant draws from
the soil, these substances or manures should contain ; and the first thing
we must study in regard to manures is, what they should generally con-
tain, if they are to make all plants grow under all circumstances,
for we may have a very barren soil, and which itself would produce no
crop whatever, as you recollect I showed you on a previous occasion.
Now, on such a soil, if you apply a manure which shall make any crop
grow, then you know, it should be such as should bring it up to the
kind of land called fertile. These general manures should combine all
that a plant requires to build it up, the nitrogen, which I call gluten
and these mineral substances, lime, potash, magnesia, phosphoric acid,
and chlorine. All these substances, this manure must add to the soil, if
it is to make plants grow under any circumstances.

In considering the diflerent kinds of manure, our attention is drawn
to three different classes of substances, which naturally present them-
selves in divisions: 1st, vegetable manure; 2d, animal ; 3d, mineral.
The one derived from vegetable substances, another from pans of ani-
mals, and the mineral, from the substances occurring in nature, or
which can be extracted from rocks ; and there is a fourth class, more
important, perhaps, than all ; those which result from the application
of science to this subject, viz : the artificial manures, which are com-
pounded with reference to what we know to be the wants of the plant.
Let me draw your attention to these manures, with this preliminary
observation, however, that though we arrive, from ihesc considerations,
at certain conclusions, as to what the plant requires always, that is cer-
tain organic and mineral matter ; yet we cannot be sure that certain
vegetable or animal or mineral substances contain them all; but we
can be certain that those manures, which we make up, shall contain
them all. As to the several kinds of manures; and 1st, the ve^^elabU
manures. They are applied 1st, in the green or in the dry stale.
Green manuring is the turning into the soil vegetable matter which i.^
growing ; as when a crop of clover is ploughed in, or when the sward is
ploughed up, and the grass buried, or when green crops, grown for the
purpose, are left to decay ; for crops are often sown for the mere pur-
pose of ploughing them in. Liguminous crops are rcry good ; clorer m

86

very good ; lupines are cultivated largely in Europe and sold for ma-
nures. The crop is ploughed in before it ripens. So in northern Ame-
rica, buckwheat is sowed for a similar purpose, and many other plants
are sown, to be turned in for manure, when in a certain state. This is
one of those methods, within the reach of every man, and which in this
country may be used to advantage when the land is exhausted. In
many parts of America, where I have been — I do not refer to this
State — these exhausted soils occur, and where the difficulty of obtain-
ing these fertilizing substances, except from a distance, is very great.
Hence, any method which the farmer has within his reach, and by
which he can most easily restore strength to his land, must be the best;
and this method of ploughing in green manure is very effectual.

How does this act ? I have spoken of the lupine, which isanalygous
to peas and beans. You recollect that last night I showed yeu the
composition of different crops, and among the rest, that of the bean and
the pea. You will recollect that they contained 24 or 25 per cent, of
gluten, and that even in the straw of these, there is as much gluten as
in wheat. The nutritive quality of the straw, of the bean and the pea,
would be as great as that of wheat ; consequently, you see in this, one
of those deductions, which the analogies of plants enables us to draw.
The lupine has this quality ; it is rich in gluten, containing, among
other things, nitrogen, which it has taken from the soil only, and there-
fore if you bury it in the soil, you enrich it with this gluten, which is
so important an element to the growth of plants.

Further — by ploughing in green crops, you introduce another element.
You know that all plants contain mineral matter ; the bean and pea
contain considerable. The roots of a plant go down as far as possible^
if the habit of the plant is that way. Beans and peas go down to a
great depth, in search of food, and among this food, are the mineral
matters of which I have spoken — lime, potash, soda, &c. The roots
send this up into the stem of the plant ; they bring it from below, above
the surface, or into the stem of the plant. But in this way, they do
not get into the material of the surface ; but if you plough in the plant,
you supply the surface, not only with nitrogen, but with mineral mat-
ter. Thus you employ the roots of the plant to bring up from below
what you want, upon the surface. This is the philosophy of green
manuring. It does not put anything new into the soil, but it brings up
from below, and puts upon the surface that which renders the surface
fertile.

But besides green manuring, marine plants are often used — such as
sea weed. This is another form of green vegetable matter. It is used
on the sea coast ; and in Scotland, it is considered so valuable a manure^

87

ifhat the right of way to the sea-side, adds a large additional rental an
acre to lands. Now sea-weeds contain a large quantity of organic and
of mineral matter. There is a table, (pointing to a diagram,) showing
the composition of sea-weeds — that they contain about ten per cent of
mineral matter. They are exceedingly rich in it, as you might suppose
from their growing in salt water. They contain some 38 per cent of
salt ; phosphate of lime is also present in sea-weed ; phosphoric acid
also. In short, in this form of vegetable matter, we have a certain
quantity of what crops require ; so that i( you lay it on land, or plough
it in, it is found to be productive of great benefit.

Besides these forms of green vegetable matter, there are many others,
which I pass over ; but it is often applied in a dry state. You know
there is a form of vegetable matter, such as the husks of grain, known
as bran, which is given to cattle, pigs and other stock, for food, as well
as to fatten them. This bran contains much mineral and organic mat-
ter, of a very rich and fertilizing kind, and hence it is often applied,
instead of feeding it to stock, as a manure, and is found to be very
beneficial to land, causing it to produce very good crops. But there is
another form of dry vegetable matter, used with us, as a manure ; it is
one of those substances I spoke of last night, viz : the cake that is left
when oily seeds are crushed. This cake contains all the remainder of
the constituent parts of the seeds, the composition of which, I showed
you last night. The linseed cak« is too valuable to be used as a ma-
nure; but the rape cake, which cannot be much eaten by cattle, is ex-
tensively employed as a manure and with great effect. Perhaps I may
use this as an illustration of the mode in which our farmers profit by
high manuring, and though it may seem to partake of the nature of
speculation, it is an adventure which is certain in its results. Suppose
here are two farmers, occupying two farms, cultivating each 40 acres
of wheat. The one ploughs and manures his land in the ordinary' way,
and the wheat comes up like his neighbor's ; the other, after ploughing
and sowing, leaves the rest to providence. He does not trouble him-
self, except perhaps to take out the weeds, leaving his crops to the in-
fluence of the seasons. But the other man does more; as soon as the
grain is up, or when it begins to shoot, he applies a quantity of rape
cake. This is over and above what the other man does to his land ;
and for his crops, he gets perhaps 50 shillings worth of wheat for 40
shillings worth of rape dust — besides a great quantity of straw. This
is the way in which our farmers, by high farming, make money. It is
laying out money in fact, to get it back with interest in another form ;
and you will readily see what I have often seen, wherever I go, (hat the
man who farms highest, makes the most money.

88

I pass now to the subject of animal manure. This is of various
kinds, consisting of parts of animals ; blood and flesh are often em-
ployed as manure. In some parts of the world it is dried, and sold in
a dried state ; sometimes it is dried by artificial heat, and applied in a
dry powder, and is an exceedingly fertilizing substance. So with the
flesh of animals ; dead animals are often buried, as a manure. So the
refuse of animals is employed, more or less, as a manure. You know
the composition of the muscle of animals : it contains 77 per cent, of
water — a solid beef steak contains that amount of water. It will sur-
prise you, perhaps, to know that the blood in your veins, as well as in
animals, contains the same quantity of water that the muscle does, and
differs from the flesh in no degree. Dry flesh has exactly the same
composition as the blood. Burn them both, and the mineral matter
left is nearly the same. The ash of the blood and of the flesh contains
phosphoric acid and phosphate of lime in large quantities. Both, there-
fore, are extremely fertilizing, as they contain the mineral matter that
the plant requires; and the organic matter that burns away is identi-
cal with the gluten of the vegetable, and supplies the nitrogen of
which the gluten is built up.

Fish, in many parts of the world, are employed as a manure. On
the sea coast in this State, and other north-eastern States, fish are em-
ployed extensively as a manure. Muscles, in England, are often buried
in the soil as a manure. Sprats, also, are obtained in great quantities,
and employed in the same manner. Among other interesting things I
have learned in the State of Connecticut, is the fact that fish are ob-
tained there in large quantities, and are now manufactured into a fish
cake. The oil is expressed, and the cake is dried, and is found to be
exceedingly fertilizing, consisting of animal matter and bones, with a
little oil remaining in it. I understand that it is intended to export it
to Liverpool. I believe it will find a ready market there. Shell fish
are another form of animal matter, applied as a manure. In some parts
of northern America, the muscle is found in great abundance in the
mud banks on the coast. In England, we use them as I have said ; so
on the coast of New-Brunswick and on the borders of Maine. These
muscles are obtained and ploughed in. So with sea mud ; that is a fer-
tilizing substance. I have explained to you, in a previous lecture, how
it is that this alluvial mud is so rich, and you will recollect how large a
quantity of animal matter it contains.

But among the forms of animal matter most extensively employed in
Enf^land, where Agriculture forms a species of trade or profession, which
is pursued with great intelligence and skill, are bones, and they are ap

89

plied with great benefit. Hair and woolen rags are different forms of
the same thing. The animal matter of the bones is exceedingly rich
in nitrogen, and capable of supplying those substances which the root
of the plant can take in and enable it to build up the gluten, of which
it so largely consists. I shall presently discuss the use of bones in va-
rious forms, when on the subject of mineral manures. The farm-yard
manure, as it is called, the compost which the farmer applies to his
land, is another form of manure, which is very rich when properly trea-
ted. It is often poorer than it should be, owin j to a want of attention
to his own interests which the farmer sometimes exhibits. I cannot en-
ter now into the mode in which this manure is employed; but will
make one observation in regard to it. When it ferment?^, the straw and
other such matters contained in it, become more soluble, so that when
the rain falls on it, the liquid that oozes from it is exceedingly rich in
all the fertilizing substances which the heap contains, especially the
phosphoric acid. Here is a table, (pointing to a diagram,) showing the
composition of the draining of such heaps. It contains mineral matter
in large quantities, the phosphate of lime greatly predominating. But
I pass over this, and I draw your attention only to two facts in regard to
the manure produced in this manner : First, as to the effect which the
kind of food which the animal gets, has on this manure. I have said
that to sustain the body of the animal when full grown, or to build it
up when not full grown, or to increase the muscle for the market, the
food which the animal gets, supplies certain materials ; but that after
these materials arc taken out, by the operation of the stomach, all the
rest is rejected by the animal. Now, if the food is very rich and sup-
plies more of this nourishing matter than the body requires, the richer
the droppings of the animal, and the richer the manure of the farm-
yard, than when the contrary is the case. This is ao well understood
by cattle feeders and those who have poor lands to cultivate, that they
feed cattle high, simply to produce a rich maniire. This is done, not
directly for gain, though the cattle arc sold to the butchers, for ihey
often do not pay for the oil cajce on which they are fed.

Our Norfolk farmers sometimes feed out a ton of oil cake a day to
their cattle ; not to make money by the sale of the cattle, but indi-
rectly, through the richness of the manure obtained by it. In Lanca-
shire, where there was a large tract of very poor land, which thirty
years ago was a complete moor, in the middle of which was erected a
high tower, so that the traveller might know where he was, this preai
moor is now reclaimed and cultivated, and pays 20 shillingn rent annu-
ally, per acre. But it is kept in this state of culiivation by this high

90

farming. They keep cattle, feed them with oil cake, and though the
cattle may not be worth half the oil cake used in feeding, yet they ob-
tain in this way a manure, which enables them to raise barley and
wheat crops, sustain their families, pay their rent, and lay by some-
thing.

Another consideration, is the form in which the food is given to the
animal. I explained last night, that feeding is carried on wuth most
profit, when the food is prepared, various kinds being mixed up to-
gether. That is found to cause the oil cake to go further in the pro-
duction of a rich and bulky manure. Here let me call your attention
to an important point. You know that from an early period it has been
taken for granted that vegetable substances are richer as a manure,
after passing through the animal, than when applied in their natural
condition. If you take a ton of the droppings of the horse and the
cow in a fermented state, it is far more valuable as a manure, than a
ton of the substance with which the animal is fed, though it be oats, or
other rich food. Every man knows that. Now, this fact was early
presented to me for an explanation, and having satisfied myself of the
fact, the reason suggested itself. I have shown you that all the differ-
ent kinds of food given to animals, contain a certain amount of mineral
matter, which the plant contains ; it contains that form of matter,
called gluten, which is rich in nitrogen and starch also. Suppose an
animal is fed on wheat, which contains a great quantity of starch, glu-
ten and mineral matter ; but when the animal undoes what the plant
had done, that is, converts the starch into carbonic acid and water, by
the action of the lungs, it separates the starch, which in wheat forms
more than half of its weight, and all the other matter — the mineral
matter and the gluten, become changed into another form of matter,
and what the animal rejects, is richer in saline matter, and in the ma-
terial that contains nitrogen, than the food in its original state. It con-
tains double the quantity of nitrogen. This is a very beautiful and in-
teresting fact, showing that by the digestive organs of the animal, you

I)

can obtain a manure richer than the vegetable and green food, if ap-
plied directly to the surface. Another point : the animal grinds down
the food into a minute state with its teeth, and it is thus converted into
a substance more available to fertilize the soil, than the dry straw or
hay which it eats, if applied directly to the soil without mastication.

Among other forms of the droppings of animals, those of birds are
employed in large quantities. But among the kinds of this form of
matter, most extensively employed, is what is called the guano. In

91

England, something like 100,000 tons of South American guano are
used every year. It is imported at a large expense, and the demand
for it is such, that the islands near the coast of Africa, and other parts
of the world, from which it was first taken, have become exhausted.
The value of these, as a manure, depends on their containing a large
proportion of mineral matter, and of that matter which supplies nitro-
gen and ammonia. Here is the composition (pointing to a diagram,)
of the different kinds of guano. The South American, it will be seen,
contains, besides animal matter, ammonia and phosphate of lime, to the
extent of 21 per cent., so that it is very rich. There are some varieties
of guano, particularly one f jund at the Cape of Good Hope, containing
70 and even 80 per cent, of the phosphate of lime, the animal matter
having disappeared by the action of the weather.

I pass on to the subject of mineral manures. Of these, first I shall
speak of phosphate of lime. I showed you a certain form of mineral
phosphate of lime, which was capable of being applied to the fertilizing
of land. This phosphate of lime is brought in the form of bones, from
abroad. These bones are boiled, crushed, and sold in the form of dust
which is applied to land, and found to be exceedingly fertilizing. These
bones contain about 33 per cent of animal matter or cartilage, which
will burn away, or when boiled forms a glue, phosphate of lime and
magnesia. These bones therefore are fertilizing, because of the ani-
mal, as well as mineral matter contained in them; hence they will
raise good crops where mineral phosphates would not, for if the plant
requires organic as well as mineral matter, these bones supply it. But
if the soil is rich in the form of organic matter which supplies nitrogen,
then mineral matter alone without the animal would be more suitable ;
but if the soil be poor in both, then bones are better than either animal
or mineral matter alone. This is the explanation of the failures of a
trial of phosphate alone, or of burnt bone alone, instead of the natural
bone. Some have found one better than another, and persons who
have found the mineral part to produce good effects, have assumed that,
that is the only fertilizing substance in the bone — others, have found
the converse to be true and the two aiasses arc at loggerheads about it.
But both are in fact, consistent wiili each other ; for the bones contain
two elements, both of which arc necessary and valuable, and either of
which, under certain circumstances will be found to bo so. Bones are
applied, not only in a crushed state, but in a fermented state, and on
the principle that if the food of an animal must be in a state in which
the animal can digest it, so if you put into the soil any substance on
which the plant is to feed, it must be in a condition to be dissolred by

92

water, and thus capable of entering the roots of the plant. That this
may be so, bones are boiled and applied to land, in that state, for it is
found that a bone when crushed will remain for years in the land, ap-
parently unchanged. In Manchester, bones are used in the manufac-
ture of glue, which forms a sizing for fabrics. The bones thus boiled
come out soft, full of water. They are then easily crushed and decom-
pose easily when put into the soil. But to secure the easy dissolution
of bones in the soil, fermentation has been introduced. The crushed
bones, being mixed up with earth and allowed to ferment until the
mass is reduced to a fine powder. This method is found greatly to
facilitate the growth of crops. Thus a small quantity of the dust, goes
farther than in the other form. But, there is one form in which bones
are used with great profit — that is, when dissolved in sulphuric acid.
The pulp is dried, sometimes mixed with gypsum, powdered and applied
to the growth of turnips and with great effect. In England and Scot-
land, it is the only manure for the turnip. But these dissolved bones
are applied as a top-dressing for wheat and other grain, and when
strewed over the surface are found to be very effectual. I may
mention one instance, where 600 weight of dissolved bones were ap-
plied to a crop of wheat and the product was raised from 29 to 53
bushels an acre. Farm yard manure applied under the same circum-
stances, raised the product to within 6 bu&hels of that amount per acre.
This is an illustration of the superior effect of this bone manure. Bones
are applied in this form to the grass lands of Cheshire, and with great
profit. The lands there have been under dairy husbandry for many
centuries. You will recollect, that the substances contained in milk
when burned, are some of them, the very materials which the bones
leave when burnt. The cow extracts them from the soil on which it
feeds, and it appears again in the milk, as is found by analysis. This
has been going on for centuries, and this continual drain of the soil,
going on, it became impoverished. But the application of the bone,
was found to produce remarkable effects in restoring the soil, though
the principle was not understood. The explanation however, is found
in the fact, that the milk and the bones, contained essentially the same
substances, and that the latter restored to the soil, what had been taken
from it by the animal. Here you see an illustration of the application
of the knowledge acquired by the analysis of the bones and the milk,
to practical husbandry. The discovery of the value of this kind of
manure, applied to the grass lands of Cheshire, may be estimated from
the fact that lands which once paid but 5 shillings an acre of rent, have
been made to yield 40 shillings rent, besides a good profit to the dairy-

93

man. You see from this, how important it is to know the effects of
certain kinds of husbandry upon land. Dairy husbandry produces a
special exhaustion of the soil, and knowing this, and what substances
have been taken out of the soil and carried off in the shape of milk,
you know what to put in to reclaim it.

I have alluded to the circumstance that mineral phosphates are found
in certain geological formations, and the mode in which they are em-
ployed, when dissolved in sulphuric acid, as a manure. This is manu-
factured and sold with us, under the name of super-phosphate of lime,
and, as I have told you, it is made and used with great profit, both to
the manufacturer and the farmer.

Among the other mineral manures, this consists only of phosphoric
acid and lime ; but among the mineral manures which supply the
plant with all that it requires, I have a fourth class, of artificial mineral
manures, which can be made by putting together the substances which
the plant is found to contain. The tables which I have shown you
exhibit, in the composition of different crops, the mineral matters which
they take from the soil. I contrasted the exhaustion produced by the
tobacco plant with that produced by wheat and barley. Now, to rehlore
land by artificial manures, which has been specially exhausted by either
of these crops, I must make up a manure which shall contain the sub-
stances which they take from the soil, and in like proportions ; and thus,
by especial manures, I can restore to the land exactly what the crops
have removed ; or if I want to vary the crops, I vary the composition
of the manure accordingly. In this second edition of my Lectures,
(exhibiting the book,) the first of which has been printed in this coun-
try, I have published a series of recipes, by which special manures may
be compounded for all the crops we are in the habit of raising, and
which have been made up from the results of experience and analysis,
and which you will find worth your attention.

Experimental Agriculture is a branch now in r.s miancy ; but what
has been done has been sufficient to excite inquiry and induce experi-
ments, with a view to determine the ciTvzt of this and iliat substance,
when applied to this or that crop, under different circumstances. These
recipes to which I allude have been tried, but not always with success,
because not applied with care. Now, lo make any advance in this de-
partment of knowledge, we must have experimenli made in the field
as accurately as in the laboratory. I have taken up this subject, and
had just prepared, before I left home, a book on Kxporimcnial Agricul-
ture, a volume of which has been n-nl mo here. It is ■ history or

review of the experiments which have born made, and (he "" '•••"?«

drawn from them, as to what should bo done lo open up tb !

94

of research. It is exceedingly interesting to find theoretical results
practically exemplified and tested by actual experiment, as in the case
I have mentioned of the application of bones to the grass lands of
Cheshire. But after all, the result to which it is necessary to look, in
these days, is that which shall enlist the largest number in favor of
these researches, viz : the result which puts the most money in the
pocket of the farmer. This is the point with reference to which ex-
periments must be carried on. This will be the object of the succeed-
ing volume of my book, in which the results of succeeding experiments
will be given, in improving the condition of the soil.

I must pass over the application of lime as a manure, and several
oiher matters connected with this subject. It is an interesting depart-
ment of study. The subject of lime alone, of which I intended to
speak, might form the subject of two or three very interesting lectures,
but I cannot go into it.

Now you cannot fail to see from this course of lectures, the strictly
scientific part of which I bring to a close this evening, that there is an
exceedingly wide and extended application of science to the farmers*
art, arid that this is not merely theoretical, but has a positive and prac-
tical bearing^ upon the method by which the farmer may increase his
crops and his profits. The four last lectures are more or less connected
together, as the same chemical principles are comprehended in them
all. You must have seen how closely connected are the different
departments of the farmers' art, and how many beautiful relations sub-
sist between that art and the connection of man with the earth on which
he lives — the connection in fact, of all life, animal and vegetable, with
the present state of things. You will recollect the interesting facts I
have mentioned, showing the intimate connection between the circula-
tion of the blood, and vegetable as well as animal life. You recollect
the striking fact that the plant extracts the carbonic acid from the air
and the animal destroys it, reconverting it into carbonic acid and water.
Suppose this cycle should cease, and that either the plant or the animal
should not perform these functions, it is obvious that all animal and
vegetable life must cease. But in the larger cycle, viz : that subsisting
between the soil, the plant and the animal, it will have been seen that
the interruption of the functions of either would destroy all vegetable
and animal life. There is a still larger view of this subject, which
comprehends the contemplation of the earth as one of a system of bo-
dies revolving around the sun ; the sun traversing space and the earth,
and all the planets accompanying it. As a member of the system, it is
of no consequence whether its surface is covered with animal or vege.

96

table life. All animal and vegetable life might cease upon this earth,
and yet the earth continue its revolutions unchanged, and the system of
the universe would not be affected. Gentlemen, we are not essential
parts of the universe, but mere accessories, placed here at the will of the
Almighty for purposes of his own, which we can, perhaps, in some de-
gree fathom, and so far, it is our duty to follow them out. If the Deity has
made all these things which adorn the earth, animal as well as vegetable,
and above all has placed man as part of the system, I cannot help think-
ing, that it is His will that we should investigate them, and see if we
can, why he has put them before our eyes and under our feet. These
investigations furnish congenial employment for intelligent man, and
result in substantial rewards. But among them none yield more sub-
stantial returns than those which belong to the intellectual cultivator of
the soil, who studies nature in order to render the soil more fertile, and
contribute to the happinesss of the human family.

c.-.:

LECTURE NINTH.

MEANS BY WHICH GENERAL SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE MAY BE DIFFUSED, AND
MADE AVAILABLE FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE,
AND THE GENERAL ELEVATION OF THE AGRICULTURAL CLASS.

Gentlemen : — I take it for granted, that you are all satisfied of the
importance of scientific research to practical Agriculture. If satisfied of
this, you must he also of the importance of diffusing a knowledge of
the results of such researches, especially among practical farmers.

There are two objects we may have in vie»v, in our desire to shed
such knowledge. 1st. The improvement of the Agriculture of the
State, or along with this, the elevation, intellectually and socially, of
the agricultural community. All members of the community are in-
terested in the first of these objects or ends, viz : the general improve-
ment of the Agriculture of the State, and a large class are especially
interested in the second, which looks to the elevation morally, intellec-
tually and socially, of the agricultural community. In regard to the
first of these objects, the general improvement of the Agriculture of the
State, before we form any idea of what should be done, it is desirable
to know what is the actual condition of Agriculture now. I must ask
you to judge of the condition of Agriculture by the tests which I shall
name. By the state of the roads in the agricultural districts; the kind
of rotation practised throughout the State; the kind of stock reared, and
the mode of feeding them; the extent of land uncultivated, or poorly
cultivated, compared with the density of the population.

You can only obtain accurate notions on this subject, by actual ob-
servation. I have not seen enough of 3''our State, to form an opinion of
its agricultural character ; nor have I any data from which to form an
opinion, though I have heard and read much on the subject. But there
is one mode we have within our reach, and of which I propose to speak,
and that is, the average produce of the land. To a person unacquaint-
ed with the country, from personal observation, such data are generally
very decisive indications of the state of its practical Agriculture ; at the
same time, it is necessary to take into consideration with the average
product, the physical geography of a country, its geological structure,

n

its climate, &c. ; but supposing him to know all this, he could form an
accurate notion of the agricultural condition of a country from its pro-
ducts, and by comparing these with those of other countries. I hare
the average product of New-York, as shown by the last census, which
is the best data I have. The average product per acre of this State,
as so shown, is of wheat, 14 bushels ; of oats, 26 bushels ; of barley, 11
bushels ; of rye, 9J bushels, and of Indian corn, 25 bushels per acre.
These results are given as the average product of the State, in one of
the Tolumes of your Transactions. In one of the volumes of Prof. Em-
mons' Natural History of this State, I find another series of averages,
a little less than these ; but I adopt the larger one^. Now, I believe
there are few persons, acquainted with the early history of this State,
who will not tell you that the average returns were formerly far
greater than now. In fact, you may judge what the product of New-
York once was, from the present product of New-Brunswick. Accord-
ing to returns, the average product of that country is of wheat, 19
bushels per acre ; of oats, 34 bushels ; of barlpy, 29 bushels ; of rye,
20 bushels ; of Indian corn, 41 bushels per acre.

Now, I can very well judge of the former product of New-York from
these results obtained in New-Brunswick ; for, when I discoursed on
the relations of Geology to Agriculture, I demonstrated, from the
character of the soil of the two countries, as shown by the Geological
Map, that, generally speaking, the western portion of New- York was
naturally more fertile than a large portion of New-Brunswick, and
therefore I conclude that the average product of New-Brunswick is far
below what was formerly the case in New-York.

It may be interesting to you to present to you the average product of
Ohio. In the northern part of Ohio, after a cultivation of 20 years, the
average returns are scarcely half what they were when first settled,
showing that the soil there ia in the course of gradual exhaustion.
The averages for the year 1848, which I find in the Transactions of the
Agricultural Society of that State, are as follows: Of wheat, 15 bushels
per acre; barley, 24; oats, 33; rye, 16; Indian corn, 41.

You see, therefore, that in Ohio the condition of things is nearly the
same, so far as wheat and oats are concerned, as in New- York ; barley
rnd rye are greater, and corn much greater — many parts of that State
being peculiarly favorable to the growth of Indian corn.

I have also here the overage products of all the Slates; but I see I
have not put down the general average for the whole. It is enough,
however, for our purpose to sty, that the trcragc product of this State

7

98

.s about the average of Ohio, and that both States are sailing in the
same boat ; and that if you go on here in the same process of exhaus-
tion, you will soon compete with that State.

Compare, for a moment, with these statistics, the crops in England.
The average product there is, of wheat, 21 bushels. It is proper, how-
ever, to say here, that we have no statistics, and that this is altogether
guess work. Our censuses give us no statistics of agricultural pro-
ducts; our farmers, also, are very jealous about giving information on
these points; they have rents to pay, and they naturally think that if
they give in large returns, they will have to pay larger rents ; and that
is one reason why we never have this data. Hence, the results I give
you are but approximations. From the best information, the results
are these: of wheat, 21 bushels per acre; oats, 35; barley, 32. That
is all I can give you of the product of England. The averages of
Scotland are these: wheat, 30 bushels per acre; oats, 46; barley, 40.
These results are on the best quality of land.

I believe there is no reason to doubt that what has been produced in
England and Scotland might be produced in New-York. 1 infer this,
not only from comparing the character of both countries, but from the
fact that the prize crops, annually competed for in your State, are larger
than those given as the averages in England and Scotland. I have a
table of the amount of premium crops in '46, and they range thus :
wheat, 56 bushels an acre — that is the highest ; Indian corn, 142
bushels — the average is only 25; oats, 106 bushels. This is all I have
of the premium crops. Now, these are maximum results. I may state
that in England we have crops of wheat as high as 88 bushels ; of
barley, 80 bushels ; and of oats, 108. Indian corn we do not grow.

I regard this as certain, that if the climate and local circumstances
are the same, what one soil will produce, science may enable another
soil to produce ; and that it is reasonable that the farmer who exercises
a proper degree of skill in the culture of the soil, has a right to antici-
pate the same degree of success as has attended like efforts in other
countries, having similar advantages of soil and climate. If certain
parts of your country, which have a given geological character, will
produce these large premium crops which I have mentioned, it is fair
to presume that other parts of the State, having the same advantages
of soil and climate, should produce the same results. This is the
point which all interested in Agriculture hope for and desire, and wish
you to aid them in attaining.

One point of view I might have pressed on you in regard to our
Agriculture in Great Britain, and that is, that our farmers fancy they

99

^nner from the competition of the grain-growing districts of this coun-
tr)^; they helieve you can produce corn cheaper than they can ; whether
you can produce more from the same quantity of land, is another ques-
tion. I do not think you can, but you arc likely to be seriously affected
by the competition of the Western States. You are there^'ore in a con-
dition similar to, or approaching that of England, and you will have to
compete with the rich virgin lands, though already somewhat exhausted,
and you must do something to compete successfully.

In what way are you to compete successfully with those new and
fertile regions ? You can only do it by raising larger crops from the
same quantity of land, without more labor, and of course at less cost.
In the introduction of improved agricultural implements, which in Eng-
land is a matter of very great interest, you have perhaps an advantage
over the more remote States. But your object should be, to grow a lar-
ger quantity of grain on the same surface and at a less relative cost than
before. In this way, we, in England hope to compete with New-York
and the richest of the western prairies.

How is this to be done ? Nothing can be done in this direction un-
less effort is stimulated by necessity. Hence, because the necessity with
us at home, is great, we shall do something; and so here, as the neces*
sity becomes greater, you will make more effort to compete with those
districts, and when you do this, and not till then, will you be successful.
How is this to be done ? Those who possess the most knowledge will
be sure to distance those who compete with them, if that knowledge be
combined with prudence and discretion, for it is often thrown in the
teeth of the scientific farmer, that those who have gone before him,
have all failed. But the truth is, that those cases pointed at as illus-
trations of the unsuccessful results of scientific farming, have been gen-
erally those of mere enthusiasts, who had little practical knowledge, and
who, along with science, did not apply that common sense with which
prudent men always conduct their affairs. Knowledge must be applied
to the improvement of the soil, if we hope to succeed. I think I have
shown during these lectures, that we do possess the knowledge which
is capable of growing larger crops at a cheaper rate. Now, if we pos*
tess this knowledge, it must be diff'used to be applied ; no matter what
knowledge there may be in books, or in the heads of a few men, unless
it be diff*used among men who can apply that knowledge amoDg the
farmers, it is comparatively useless.

There are many ways of diff'using knowledge, and among these is
the establishment of agricultural societies. The establishment of agri-
cultural libraries, is another means of diff'using knowledge among far-

100

mers. Though in our country farmers are not generally reading meisy
still there always a few men in agricultural communities, everywhere,
who do read, and are anxious to improve themselves in this branch of
knowledge, and it is desirable in this view, that libraries containing
agricultural works should be established. Their ideas and their know-
ledge, like a pillar of fire, become, as it were, centers, from which
light radiates all around. Among us, there are organised farmers' clubs,
in subordination to agricultural societies, where agricultural topics are
discussed. We have also lectures occasionally, given sometimes in sta-
ted places, which are well attended, and by which knowledge is diffu-
sed. In the matter of agricultural periodicals, I do not think we have
anything better than yours. Some of those published in this country
are exceedingly good, and are well known in Europe. These are im-
portant instruments in the diffusion of sound knowledge on this subject.
But I pass over all this, and come to the only other mode of diffusing this
knowledge, and that is, by means of agricultural schools.

It is extraordinary, how little has been done for the difl^usioR of agri-
cultural knowledge in this way — how long a time has elapsed in every
country, before it has been found necessary to establish schools for this
purpose. It is also remarkable what applause has been bestowed on
those countries which first introduced this system, and who did the lit-
tle that was done, during the last century, in that direction. What was
done in Switzerland and Prussia, made a great noise at the time ; but
they did little after all. It is also remarkable that in those countries ia
Europe which have made the highest advancement in national educa-
tion, how slowly they avail themselves of the means of instruction in
this branch of knowledge. I hope and believe that the absence of
those old habits and prejudices which so much restrain and retard the
progress of such knowledge in Europe, will not retard its diffusion,
among the more enlightened population of the New Worlds

But there are causes at work in the old world, which under all the
efl^orts to diffuse agricultural knowledge, have retarded its diffusion by
such means. We have schools for agricultural instruction, in all its
grades; yet we find that in the neighborhood of these schools, not only
is knowledge not diff'used among the peasantry, but both they and the
lands they cultivate, are in the most miserable condition possible. In
my address at Syracuse, I alluded to some results in France and Bava-
ria, where in the latter particularly they have agricultural schools,
model farms, agricultural societies, and agricultural instruction in the
common schools, yet the Agriculture of Bavaria is of a grade among the
lowest in all Germany. So in France where Agriculture is in a bad
condition, there is an agricultural University,, and there afe ceatrali

101

agricultural schools in all the provinces. Instruction is also given to
the peasantry in the communes. Therefore, though instruction in this
branch of art is slow in being introduced, we are not to infer from the
existence of schools in any country that Agriculture is in a flourishing
condition there, nor are we to infer the contrary from the absence of
these schools. In Scotland there does not exist a single agricultural
school, yet its Agriculture is in a high state. In England, where ten
years ago there were no such schools, Agriculture ranks next to that of
Scotland. These instances, and those I have cited in France and
Bavaria^ show that the fact, that these schools exist in any country,
affords no information as to the itale of its Agriculture.

Hence in giving instruction in schools on agricultural subjects, ex-
perience in all countries that I have any knowledge of, shows that there
are certain things to be attended to. First, it is necessary to avoid as
far as possible the inculcation of organic changes in existing methods
and institutions, you know how difficult it is to introduce anything
new at all into our schools or seminaries. If you go for a great deal,
you get nothing, if you ask only for a small portion of time, or give a
little additional labor to the school master, requiring no new machinery
to carry it out, then you are more likely to succeed, than if you at onct
demand, as some have, a large portion of the time, both of the pupil
and the master in imparling new instruction. I do not know how far
this caution may be necessary in this country, but as prudent men you
would naturally adopt that course ; as you would find that the introduc-
tion of sueh instruction would be more generally acceded to if you ask
only what is necessary, and do not hurry on in advance of public senti-
ment,

Tc give you an idea of the manner in which this thing has been ma-
naged with us, I will state what provision has been made for agricultu-
ral instruction in Great Britain and Ireland. There are not many Ag-
ricultural schools in England, but there are a good many in Ireland.
We have no special Agricultural schools in Scotland. In England and
Ireland the principles of Agriculture were first introduced into the ele-
mentary schools. I say the principles, for you cannot expect to find a
schoolmaster who can instruct his pupils in practical Agriculture. In
general his education docs not fit him for it, and it is therefore belter
in the elementary schools to undertake nothing beyond instruction in
the principles of Agriculture. By principles, I mean those results to
which scientific investigation has arrived ; for instance, if I say that all
substances which contain nitrogen in a certain state, are more or lets
useful to vegetation, that is a principle — a fact, which is the result of

102

experiment and research ; that is one principle. If, again, I say thaff
all substances contain phosphate of lime, which forms a great part of
the bones of animals, is capable of being useful to the- growth of crops,
I announce another principle, which is the result of a great many in-
vestigations. Thus I can state principles of this kind, which a boy can
readily learn. It is such principles as these, that it is desirable to give
in elementary schools, and when presented in brief terms, is never for-
gotten, and the boy when he goes out upon the farm recollects it; he
casts about for these substances, and if they are applied to the soil, he
knows what the results will be ; for this is a procedure which is regula-
ted altogether by a knowledge of principles. To fit the school master
for teaching Agricultural principles, the study has been introduced into
our normal schools in England, Scotland and Ireland, as a regular
branch of instruction, and the school master now goes out able to give
instruction, which will qualify the boy to become master of the princi-
ples in a short time.

So there are established in England in some of the grammar schools,
and in some private academies, under the direction of individuals, ag-
ricultural departments, where instruction is given in the different
branches of natural science bearing on Agriculture, and some knowl-
edge also of practice obtained, not by a farm attached to the institution,
but from the farms in the neighborhood. Within the last two years I
established a school at Camelford, converting a grammar school into
it. The farmers of the district, all around, open their farms ta
the inspection of the pupils, who availed themselves of the opportunity
to view these farms at stated times, and observed all the processes
going on, particularly in the labor also, and thus were enabled to get a
practical knowledge of the subject, which very much facilitated the ef-
forts of the master to explain the theory of what they saw going on
around them.

We have also special agricultural schools in different parts of Ire-
land ; there they were established before they were in Great Brittain.
You know from the condition of Ireland, how desirable there a diffusion
of such knowledge must be among the agricultural classes, and how
important it must be to teach them how small farms may be made to
yield great returns. These agricultural schools have been found to be
productive of great benefits. The school of Temple Moyle has a large
number of pupils, who are made to till the farm attached to it, thus
applying practically the knowledge obtained! in the school, and the re-
sult has been that the whole expense of maintaining the pupils, amount-
ed to but eleven pounds a year each, or about fifty dollars, the farm pay-

103

^ng- all the rest of the expense of maintaing the institution, with the
addition of some subscriptions raised in the locality. Now we hare
special agricultural schools established by a national board of educa-
tion— they have introduced into them the little catechism of which I
have before spoken, in which the principles of Agriculture art slated in
a brief and clear manner. It is found that the boys nerer forget them,
and are never at a loss how to apply them. They have also established
district agricultural schools, and have made provision to fit teachers for
them. A model farm has been attached to the normal school near.
These are all schools established under the government in Ireland. We
have no such schools in Great Britain established by the national board
of education, but there too the study has been introduced in the com-
mon schools. But we have in England an agricultural college establish-
ed within a few years. Six or eight years ago a school was projected
at Cirencester, it had great diflicukies to contend with at the outset,
and one great difllculty was the apathy and indifTerence of the farmers
themselves. Instruction was cheap there, but the farmers did not avail
themselves of it. During the first years of its existence, out of forty
pupils only eight were sons of farmers. But that state of things is fast
disappearing, and a desire for this kind of knowledge has grown
stronger. It has now about one hundred pupils, and the institution
continues to flourish more and more every year.

Having given you this account of what we are doing in England and
Ireland, you see that we have done little as yet, and that we have ex-
perienced little or no benefit from agricultural education ; but we have
come to a slate, when we must, from necessity gel this education, in
order to compete with you.

You propose to do certain things here in New-York, and here
allow me to make one or two remarks. It has been proposed to
establish an Agricultural College. As to this I have no doubt what-
ever, that it is a proper measure to take ; as it is proper in England, to
it is in New-York. This should be done so soon as you are able to ac-
complish it — it is a right thing to aim at. The difficulty does not lie in
establishing the institution, but in the details; you should be cautious that
in the details you adopt no rash or hasty measures, but act with discretion
and judgment. Your eflTorts should not be divided ; you should set cut
with the deterininatijn to establish the college and nothing else — I mean
nothing else in the way of establishing colleges. I have been asked
whether I thought it would not be belter to have six small colleges in
difTerent parts of the State. I had not studied the circumstances of the
State, sufficiently to give advice on that point, but whaterer these cir-

104

cumstances may be, or whatever the intention hereafter, you should not
propose at the start to do more than establish one college^ and direct all
your efforts to get that in good working condition before you attempt
another. If you fail in one you certainly would in twenty, if you suc-
ceed in one, you can then go on and establish more. It is of great con-
sequence in reference to the character of the State and of the teachers,
that you should have one good school first. If you were to establish
thirty colleges in different counties of the Slate, I should like to know
where you would get teachers to fill them ? I do not think you will
find in all America sound men of knowledge and discretion, who could
be safely trusted to teach scientific Agriculture in thirty schools. I do
not think they exist in the Union, much less in the State of New-York.
You will act wisely and discreetly if you try to get one institution, it will
be useful to your State, and will turn out men to fill up any other schools
which you may afterwards establish.

Again, in any building which may be erected for this purpose, there
should be provision only for what is likely to be wanted, instead of
laying out money in erecting buildings to accommodate a large number
of pupils, who have not come yet; you should begin by making room
enough only for those who first come, and then you can add accommoda-
tions, as they are found to be necessary. One point I desire to impress
upon you — excuse the liberty I take : you should not encourage the
idea that any great and surprising results will spring out ©f this all at
once. I have been myself the victim of extraordinary expectations.
I have been attached to an institution in which persons were interested
who had these high-wrought expectations of what was to result from it,
and who almost supposed that one result would be, that gold would
.rise up, as it were, in the pockets of the farmers. These results not
being realized, many concluded that science was really of no use in
agricultural operations. If after the lapse of years you can, through
this college, increase the average product of the State — if you can
raise the average of wheat, alone, from fourteen to fifteen bushels per
acre — I ask if this one additional bushel only, taking the State through,
would not pay the cost of the college for ten years ? If you can raise
oats, from twenty-six to thirty-four bushels per acre, you will have ac-
complished a great result. But if you expect extraordinary results in a
few years, either on the general agricultural character of the State or
its farming population, you will be disappointed — not on account of the
fault of the teacher, or of the system, but because your expectations
were too high. As I have said, I have myself been the victim of such
expectations ; and I warn you not to stumble over the same stone. If,

J

105

after the lapse of years, you can raise the character of the a^icultural
community, so that a stranger, visiting your farms, finds the younger
men possessed of greater intelligence than their fathers, and applying
that knowledge intelligently in practice, so that the superior »kill and
science of the farmers of New-York are obvious, that will indeed be a
proud thing for you to see, and for a foreigner to discover and acknow-
ledge. But so great a result cannot be brought about in one year — it
may take ten years. Again : it has been proposed to give instruction
in scientific Agriculture, in the medical colleges of the State. All in-
struction in this branch of knowledge should be encouraged ; no
attempt should be made to put down such measures, if any are on fooL
Medical men, passing from the college into a rural district, to practice
their profession, cannot be less useful for having a knowledge of scien-
tific Agriculture. Therefore, in medical schools, encouragement should
be given to efforts to introduce this branch of study there. So in theo-
logical schools, the study should be encouraged. Clergymen may exer-
cise a salutary influence upon husbandry, as upon good morals; but the
great difHculty is, that the farmers will not send their sons to these
colleges, and hence the rural schools are best adapted to the ditfusion,
(in the right quarter, and directly,) of agricultural knowledge. Besides,
if they were to go to these colleges, they would be apt to learn unsound
doctrine. It is not to be expected that men, however profound in one
department of science, and whose habits of thought and study are all
in that direction, should be familiar with practical Agriculture. Hence,
they may take up crude notions and inculcate them, and do harm, rather
than good, to the pupils under them.

It has also been proposed to attach agricultural departments to some
of the colleges. To that there can be no objection ; at the same lime,
any encouragement which the State may give to this kind of instruc-
tion, should be given to the one school by which all other schools will
be regulated, when once you get it fairly organized. There is this
difllcully in regard to attaching agricultural departments to existing
colleges, that if this new department is under mere scientific men, the
proper wants of farmers' sons will not be properly looked lo. So sen-
sible am I of this, that in the suggestions I made to the Legislature at
New-Brunswick, as to the mode of improving its Agriculture, whilst I
recommended an agricultural school at Fredcricktown, where there is a
college, I have recommended that it should not be connected with the
college, because they are not practical men, and are not calculated to
give instruction to pupils Intended for practical life. What is true
there, is true all over the world. It is necessary that such a school

106

should he in charge of men who understand Agriculture^ and the wants
and wishes of agriculturists^ and who knoio what should he done to ini'
prove hoth.

I believe many persons look forward to the introduction of agricultu-
ral instruction into common schools, and I think it very important that
this should not be lost sight of. In the lower grade of schools I think
it most important, and it should commend itself to those having the af-
fairs of the State in charge. The mass of your countrymen get their in-
struction in these schools. You reach a greater number by introducing
this study into these schools, and you reach them at the least possible
expense of money and time. You only ask the school master to give a
little time to teaching one certain book, selected for its bearing on the
principles only of Agriculture. To facilitate this instruction, I drew
up this little catechism. It has been introduced extensively into the
schools in Great Britain, and translated into every European language.
But this obstacle has been found to exist, not only at home, but in other
countries, and that is, the want of qualification or inclination on the
part of the schoolmaster, to teach. In Scotland our schoolmasters are
well educated men, but they are fixed and stationary, pursuing their
vocations at one place generally all their lives, unless, as is rarely the
case, some of the more skilful ones are transferred to places of greater
emolument. These men find no difficulty in introducing this catechism.
It has also been introduced into the schools in England, but there the
grade of schoolmasters is lower. But we have there national schools
for the education of teachers, the effect of which is, that a race of men
are now coming out, who are capable of teaching this branch of know-
ledge. The same difficulty exists in Belgium and France, where their
schoolmasters are not sufficiently instructed themselves to teach it. Of
course this obstacle is only to be overcome by additional instruction to
the schoolmasters, and it is a reproach to them, that they have so little
application or capacity, that they cannot learn a catechism which a boy
seven years old can perfectly understand. I examined a class of about
a dozen boys, the eldest of whom was fourteen, the youngest seven
years of age ; the eldest got the first prize, the youngest the second.
It cannot, therefore, be difficult for a schoolmaster to learn to teach these
simple principles.

There is one obstacle, which in this State appears to me to be one of
some difficulty — an obstacle to the introduction of this kind of study
into the schools, and that arises from the unsettled condition of your
teachers. You have not schoolmasters who permanently remain in one
district; the trustees engage a teacher for a limited time, and then both

107

parties are at liberty to quit the engagement. In England ihey tre fix-
ed residents in the parish to which they belong. The difficulty here,
is therefore, one of some moment. It precludes a unity of system, a
concentration of effort in carrying it out, and it prerenta the schoolmaster
from taking that pride in the progress of his pupils, which he would
have if he knew that a school was to be under his care for years, and
he responsible for its management. This may stand in your way in in-
troducing this study into your common schools, but it is not insurmount-
able, and you would do well to inquire how far it is practical to sur-
mount it.

One or two observations as to the kind of instruction which should
go into the schools, with a prospect of agricultural improvement. I
have told you what branches of science tell on agricultural operations,
and bring out principles applicable to the growing of crops, that the
boy can learn in elementary schools ; but in learning them, it is neces-
sary to use scientific terms. Nitrogen, for instance, might puzzle a
farmer; the boy, therefore, must understand this; he must be shown
what it is. So with phosphate of lime; its nature must be explained
to him, and after that, the boy will always attach the right significa-
tion to the word, understand your principles, and apply them intelli-
gently. These two words belong to the chemical nomenclature ; but
in teaching these principles of which I have spoken, you do not leach
Chemistry. If I tell the boy that rocks form the difl^erent soils, that is
not teaching geology, but Agriculture. As to Chemistry, I do not ob-
ject to its introduction into schools. I have devoted my life to the study
of Chemistry, and it may well be supposed that I should not be averse
to it. I am not. So with Geology ; it is a study in which I feel a deep
interest, but I do not recommend either on behalf of Agriculture. I
recommend agricultural instruction, and Chemistry and Geology are
only necessary to explain the terms used, in the elucidation of agricul-
tural principles. At the same time, I have felt the difficulty of select-
ing what is necessary to teach, and what should be excluded from the
list of studies. The chemist and the geologist teach their peculiar
sciences. If they know, at the same time the principles of practical
Agriculture, then they know what it is necessary to teach, and what
not. If you tell a boy any more than is necessary to enable him, for
instance, to distinguish nitrogen from every thing else, you only confuse
him. In this little book, the catechism to which I have referred, there
are about twenty chemical words, which it is necesssary to explain, and
to do this, you must show the pupil what the substances arc which
these terms represent. Then he can follow you, and iheu he can un-
derstand all that is written in this book and the larger works. It ia

108

only to this extent, that Chemistry and other sciences ought to he intro*
duced into your common schools to teach Agriculture. I do not object to
the introduction of Geology, Botany or Chemistry, but on behalf of Agri-
culture, I do ask for it. I only ask, and have asked everywhere, one hour
a week during the last year of a boy's tuition, to impress upon his
mind fully all the elementary principles of practical Agriculture ; so
that little is required to be taught in the elementary schools, and this
little will produce good directly on the boy himself, and indirectly on
the boy's father. It is remarkable how a man, who is most obstinate in
resisting any new idea or process in regard to Agriculture when sug-
gested by a grown up man, I say it is very remarkable, how readily
he will listen to the same thing, coming from the mouth of his own
son. The boy tells what he learns in the school to his father. The
father is delighted at the wisdom of his own son, and he will allow his
son to adopt in practice on his farm, what he will not listen to a mo-
ment, if suggested by a stranger and an adult. What is suggested by
his son goes through his heart to his head, and that is the way to many
people's heads.

My time is so far exhausted, that I cannot detain you with any fur-
ther details. I will only make one other observation, and that is, that
it is of great consequence that a farmer who owns a farm now, should
make himself familiar with the best methods of improving the soil, in
order to retain his position, for if he does not, another who has more
skill, will drive him from his position, and take his place. As the son
generally thinks as the father does, there is no appeal stronger to such men
as are most unwilling to adopt new methods themselves, than that to a
father on behalf of his child and his future prospects. This is true, as
a general rule. I know that you have a strong desire that your sons
should thrive in their professions, as parents generally have, that their
sons should excel in their professions. This you can only do, by giving
them more knowledge than you have ; as much, at least, as the sons
of others, bringing up their sons to different pursuits. I can make no
stronger appeal to you, to exert yourselves, to take the proper steps to
secure that knowledge, if not for yourselves, at least for those who are
to follow you in the same profession. I cannot but think that you will
say with the old man, who in a remote part of Scotland, attended one
of my lectures, and drank in, open mouthed, all that I said, and who
after I had concluded, came to me with tears in his eyes, and told me
he was too old to learn all that, but he would like well to have his son
learn it. I hope you will all participate in that feeling and see to it,
that your sons shall not be ignorant of what concerns so nearly their
prospects in life.

109

Professor Johnston^ having concluded, Mr. Prentice, the President
of the State Agricultural Society took the Chair, and Mr. B. P. Joiln-
soNwas appointed Secretary.

Mr. Beeiman, of Columbia, remarked that Prof. Johnston having
now finished his course of lectures, it was due to him, as well as to the
Society, that we should express an opinion as to the merits of these lec-
tures, and to test the sense of the Society, he begged leave to offer a
resolution, which he read, as follows :

Rewlved, That we have listened with great interest, as well as profit,
to the very instructive course of lectures delivered by Prof. Johnstow,
on " The General Relations of Science to Practical Agriculture ;'* and
that we take great pleasure in expressing our united approbation of the
great practical value of his lectures to the practical farmer, as well as to
the man of science.

Dr. Beekman said he had another resolution in relation to the volume
which Professor Johnston had exhibited to us, being the second edition
of his lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, presenting the
results of scientific research adapted to practical Agriculture, which he
begged leave to offer for the consideration of the Society. It was as
follows:

Resolved, That as the principles advanced in the lectures which have
been delivered, are more fully developed in the second edition of Prof.
Johnston's lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, we would
respectfully request him, if consistent with his engagements, to pre-
pare an edition for re-publication in this country.

Mr. Baldwin of Syracuse, said he rose to second the resolutions offer-
ed by the gentleman from Columbia ; and in doing so, begged leave to
submit a few remarks.

When we contemplate, said Mr. B., the elevated position which the
learned Professor occupies in his own country, standing as he does at
the head of a profession which he so much adorns ; wlicu we consider
how extended, broad and profitable to himself as well as to others is
the field of his labors — anJ how great have been the sacrifices pecu-
niary and otherwise, which he has made in accepting the invitation of
our Society, to deliver its annual address last autumn, and in remaining
here, and in this vicinity since that time, to delivej the course of lec-
tures which have just now closed, and to which we have listened with
80 much profit and delight — and especially, when we reflect upon the
character of those lectures — the beautiful manner in which they hare
opened to us the great volume of nature, giving us a glance at its hid-

110

den mysteries and treasures — showing us the properties of the earth and
the soils, the connection and relation between the earth and the vege-
table kingdom, and the connection and relation between that kingdom
and the animal creation, with the means of improving each ; and, by
the knowledge thus imparted, provoked an appetite for more, and lead-
ing us by that knowledge, from nature up to nature's God, and thereby
making us not only better agriculturists, but better men, better citizens,
and better christians ; in view, sir, of these multiplied and high con-
siderations, I am sure that I but express a common sentiment when I
say that we sincerely thank our friend, the learned professor.

And, Mr. President, said Mr. B., if these lectures shall have as we
trust in heaven they may, the effect of awakening our Legislators to a
proper sense of their duty in regard to this great interest, and which
shall lead them fairly and fully to respond to the recommendations of
his Excellency the Governor in his late message — to respond to the
recommendations of the Agricultural Commissioners in their late and
able report on the subject of an Agricultural College and Experimental
Farm — to respond fairly and fully to the united voice of their con-
stituency, how deep and enduring will be that obligation and our
gratitude.

And sir, said Mr. B., why should they not thus respond ? Have not
all the other great interests of the State found protection at their hands,
while this, the parent of them all, has been lost sight of and neglected.
Is there any other interest in the State greater than this ? And why
should this alone be left without protection ?

By the lecture which has just now closed, you have learned that the
farming interests in this State are in process of deterioration ; that the
average of all crops is continually diminishing ; the tables of the pro-
ducts, exhibited by the learned Professor, show this; and he also shows
us the means by which these products may be increased — by which we
may be brought back to the products of a virgin soil.
I The learned Professor in his lecture this evening has also referred us
to the products ©f the fertile soils of our new States, the prairies of the
boundless west, and which are brought into direct competition with the
products of the soil of this State, and by which it appears most evident
that we cannot much longer sustain ourselves against this powerful
competition. What then, sir, is to be done ? Why, sir, there is but
one thing that can be done, and that is, to improve our system of Agri-
culture, and by that system to increase the quantity as well as the
quality of our agricultural products. The lights of experience and of
science will enable us to do this. But a knowledge of that experience

Ill

and science must be acquired, and how can it be 80 well acquired as at
an institution established for that purpose.

It is true that reference has been made by the learned professor to
the agricultural schools of Bavaria, Prussia and other countries in
Europe ; but it occured to him at the time, as he doubted not it did to
them, that as between the people of those countries and our own, there
was no analogy whatever. Their governments were diflercnl. They
were oppressed subjects ; were vassals and serfs, while we were free-
men ; they were ignorant — we enlightened. There the masses arc
uneducated, while here education like the light and dews of heaven,
under our common school system, descends as it should descend, alike
and equally upon all. Our farmers as a class are intelligent and educa-
ted men. But few of the farmers of tho5e countries own the soil they
cultivate, while ours, not only own it in fee, but are emphatically the
lords of the soil. Even in England, the learned professor has toU us,
that the farmers as a class were not reading men. How different the
case with us. Ours are reading men. Where is the farmer in thii
State that does not at least take his newspaper ? Look, sir, at the one
hundred thousand subscribers and readers of various agricultural
periodicals of the State, and it will be seen that there is not the slif hteit
analogy between the old world and the new in this respect.

Sir, continued Mr. B., the farmers of New- York are not only ready
for, but they demand this measure — the ground is already prepared —
the loaf is already leavened ; for eighteen years at least it has been at
work, and what are its fruits? Look, sir, to the general interest awa-
kened on this subject, look to the immense gatherings at your annual
fairs, look to the improved condition of stock and agricultural im-
plements ; and above all, sir, to the increased circulation of agricultural
papers and books, and you will agree wilh me, sir, that the time has
come ; that the harvest is ripe ; and the sickles are ready and only wait
the bidding of the law-making power, to commence the work. Yes,
sir, the time has come when the farmers of New-York, in view of the
almost overwhelming competition of the west, are called upon to look
at home — to protect their own interests. And how, sir, I repeat, is that
interest to be protected, except by the introduction into it of the llghtt
of experience and science? We have this evening been taught by the
learned Professor, how one acre can be multiplied into four acres ; or,
in other words, how one acre can, by an improved system of Agriculturei
be made to yield as much as under our present system, four produce.

Now, sir, suppose a proposition were to be submitted to this Legisla-
ture, by which the agricultural wealth of the Slate, for an outlay of a

112

few thousand dollars, could be doubled, does any one doubt that such
proposil-ion would at once be seized upon and adopted by that honorable
body? Surely not; and yet for a comparatively small outlay, by adopt-
ing the system proposed, that wealth may not only be doubled, but
quadrupled. And will not the Legislature adopt it ; will they not give
us an institcition where the farmer's boy may be educated — where he may
receive in reference to his calling, such an education as all other classes
in this community receive in reference to theirs? In a word, will it lon-
ger allow this numerous and highly respectable class of our fellow citi-
zens to be neglected ; will the Legislature longer allow this great interest,
which lies at the foundation of all others, to suffer for the want of that aid
which it, and the united voice of an impatient constituency so loudly and
imperiously demand? I trust not, sir. I trust, said Mr. B., that the
Legislature will not only give us an Agricultural College and Experi-
mental Farm, but that it will endow it with such ample funds, as to
place it upon a strong and permanent basis, a basis which shall alike
perpetuate throughout all time to come, the wisdom of this Legislature and
the liberality of the State.

Mr. B. begged pardon for trespassing so long upon the attention of
the house, but he could not have said less, either in reference to his
friend, the learned Professor, or of the great and interesting subject
now before the Legislature, without doing violence to his own feelings;
and he therefore hoped that he might be excused for the time which be
had occupied.

Mr. B. said he must also crave the indulgence of the house for a mo-
ment, while he considered the second resolution offered by the gentle-
man from Columbia. That resolution, sir, proposes to reprint in this
country a valuable work of Professor Johnston on the subject of Agri-
culture and its kindred sciences. I have not, said Mr. B., read the
whole of that work, but from the examination which I have given
it, I am satisfied that it will make a valuable addition to our agri-
cultural libraries ; indeed, such is its character that I am of the opinion
that any man who will make himself familiar with its contents, will be-
come a scientific farmer. But the English edition was too expensive for
general circulation ; he hoped, therefore, that a cheap American edition
might be issued, and that it might be found, as he had no doubt it
would be, on the shelf of every intelligent farmer of the Stale. And, in
conclusion, he desired that both resolutions might be adopted.

At the close of Mr. B*s. remarks, the resolutions were unanimously
adopted, and then the Society adjourned.

B. P. JOHNSON, Secretary.

University of British Columbia Library

DUE DATE

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