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Publications of the

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LECTURES ON MAN.

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LECTURES ON MAN:

HIS

PLACE IN CREATION, AND IN THE HISTORY

OF THE EARTH.

BY

De CARL SOG

PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GENEVA, FOREIGN ASSOCIATE
OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF PARIS, AND HONORARY FELLOW
OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON,

EDITED BY

JAMES HUNT, ~

PH.D., F.S.A., F.R.S.L., F.A.S.L., '

FOREIGN ASSOCIATE OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF PARIS, HONORARY FELLOW OF THE
ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE UPPER HESSE
SOCIETY FOR NATURAL AND MEDICAL SCIENCE, PRESIDENT OF THE
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

=

LONDON:
PUBLISHED FOR THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY, BY
LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, AND ROBERTS,
PATERNOSTER ROW.

1864.

Aan 3 5 518

T. RICHARDS, 37, GREAT QUEEN STREET, W.C.

TO

De: LRAUL. BROCA;

SECRETAIRE GENERAL DE LA SOCIETE D’ANTHROPOLOGIE DE PARIS,
HONORARY FELLOW OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON,
PROFESSEUR AGREGE& A LA FACULTE DE MEDECINE DE PARIS, CHIRURGIEN
A LHOPITAL SALPETRIERE, VICE PRESIDENT DE LA SOCIETE
DE CHIRURGIE DE PARIS, AND HONORARY FELLOW
OF THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

My pEAR Dr. Broca,

Your kind permission to dedicate the following
translation to you, affords me the opportunity which I
have long desired of expressing my sense of the honour
which your personal friendship confers upon me ; and at
the same time enables me to testify my appreciation of,
and admiration for, the incalculable services which your
zeal and ability have rendered to the noblest of all sci-
ences, the science of Man—Anthropology.

To those unacquainted with your labours* for this
young science in France, and their triumphant results,

* The following list of Professor Broca’s scientific works, especially bearing
on the science of Man, will give some little idea of his industry, although
they constitute but a small part of what that accomplished Anthropologist
has published during the last few years :—

Recherches sur U Ethnologie de la France, dans ““Mém. de la Soe. d@ Anthrop.,”
t. 1, p. 1, 4 56, Paris, 1860, gr. in 8vo. Tiré & part, brochure de 56 pages
avec une carte. Mémoire sur V Hybridité et sur la Distinction des Espéces Ani-
males, “Journ. de Physiol.,” 1858, t. i, p. 432-471, p. 684-729 ; 1859, t. ii,
p- 218-250, et p. 345-390. Resume des faits relatifs aux Croisements des Chiens,
de Louwps, de Chacals, et de Renards, “ Journ. de Physiol.,” 1859, t. ii, p.
390-396. Sur les principaux Hybrides du genre Equus, sur UHerédité des
Caractéres chez les métis-et sur la Fécondité des Mules, “Journ. de Physiol.,”
1859, t. ii, p. 250-258. Mémoire sur les Phenoménes W Hybridité dans le genre
humain, “Journ. de Physiol.,” 1859, t. ii, p. 601-625, et 1860, t. iii, p. 392-439,
Sur VInfluence durable de certains Croisements de Races, «Bull. de la Soe,
d@’ Anthrop.,” 1859, t, i, p. 19-26. Sur les capsules surrénales d’un Negre, ibid.,
t.i, p. 30. Sur les Races primitives, contemporaines de Vépoque dite du Dilu-

v1 DEDICATION.

a recapitulation of them here would sound more like
a panegyric, than the simple recital of what one man
has accomplished. I am therefore glad that the majority
of those who will peruse this volume are already ac-
quainted with what you have done for the establishment
of Anthropology in your own country, and will join with
me in a public recognition of your valuable services to
science generally, and also in paying homage to the noble
example you have set to lovers of truth, and students
of mankind throughout the world.

Some seven years since, when I first had the honour

vium, ibid., t. i, p. 70-76, p. 87-92. Instructions pour te Sénégal, ibid., t. i,
p- 121-137. Tiré 4 part, broch.in-8vo de 16 p. Remarques sur les Langues
Polynésiennes, ibid., 1860, t. i, p. 250-255. Documents relatifs aux Oroisements
des Races trés différentes, ibid, t. i, p. 255-264. Sur le Défaut de perfectibilite
de certaines Races, ibid., t. i, p. 337-342, p. 368-376. Sur le volume et la forme
du Cerveau, suivant les individus et suivant les Races, ibid.,1861, t. ii, p. 139-
204, et 301-321. Tiré 4 part, brochure in-S8vo de 75 pages. Sur les Poids
relatif du Cerveau des Francais et des Allemands, ibid., p. 441-446. Rapport sur
les fouilles Pratiquées dams Vancien Cimétiére des Célestins, Publié par la Ville
de Paris: Paris, 1850, in-4to, 19 pages. Sur des Crdmes provenant d’un Cimé-
tiére dela Cite, antériewr au xiite siécle, “ Bull. de la Soc. d’Anthrop.,’’ 1861,
t. li, p. 501-513. Sur la Capacité des Crémes Parisiens des diverses époques,
ibid., 1862, t. iii, p. 102-116. Ces deux mémoires ont été tirés 4 part, bro-
chure in-8vo de 32 pages. Mémoire sur le Crdmiographe et sur quelques-unes
de ses Applications, dans “ Mém. de la Soc. d’Anthrop.,” t. i, p. 349-378.
Tiré & part, brochure gr.in-8vo, de 30 pages, avecl pl. Sur la Détermination
des Points singuliers de la Votite du Crane qui limitent les angles awriculaires,
«Bull. de Soc. d’Anthrop.,” 1862, t. iii, p. 17-24. Sur les Proportions Rela-
tives dw Bras, de Vavant-bras et dela Clavicule chez les Négres et les Euro-
péens, ibid., t. ii, p. 162-172. Tiré 4 part, brochure in-8vo de 12 pages. La
Linguistique et VAnthropologie, “ Bull. dela Soc. d’Anthrop.,” 1862, t. iii, p.
264-319. 'Tiré a part, brochure in-8vo de 55 pages. Sur les Projections de la
Téte et sur un nouveau Procédé de Céphalometrie, “ Bull. de la Soc. d’An-
throp.,” t. iti, Novembre 1862. Tiré 4 part, brochure in-8vo de 30 pages.
Sur les Caractéres du Crane des Basques, “Bull. de la Soc. d’Anthrop.,” t.
iii, Decembre 1862. Tiré 4 part, brochure in-8vo de 15 pages. Second Mé-
moire sur les Caractéres du Crane des Basques, “ Bull. dela Soc. ad’ Anthrop.,”
Février 1863, t. iv. Instructions Générales pour les Recherches Anthropologiques
(Anatomie et Physiologie).—“ Mém. de la Soc. d’Anthrop.,” Par., vol. ii, in
the press.

DEDICATION. Vil

of being introduced to you, by our late lamented col-
league, Dr. Robert Knox, I held, as you may remember,
the office of Honorary Secretary to the Hthnological
Society of London. Most heartily did I welcome the
birth of your society, on behalf of that of which I was
then an officer, believing at that time, the Société d’An-
thropologie de Paris to be merely an Ethnological So-
ciety under another name. In watching the develop-
ment of your Society and tracing the vastness of its
extent and objects, under the administration of yourself
and your illustrious colleagues, I soon perceived that
pure Ethnology merely formed a part of the grand science
then inaugurated by you. With the most intense plea-
sure and admiration, I witnessed the gradual establish-
ment and progress of your Society, endeavouring at the
same time with all my power to incite the Ethnological
Society to similar efforts. This attempt, however (truth
compels me to record), proved a signal failure—a circum-
stance which caused me disappointment at the moment,
but which I now consider fortunate ; for I soon became
aware that Anthropology and Ethnology could never be-
come synonymous terms, inasmuch as the latter merely
constitutes a part of the comprehensive science of An-
thropology.

I am glad to state that, at the present time, this
profound distinction is fully admitted by unbiassed
persons in England. My failure, however, in arousing
the Ethnological Society from its torpor, was not attri-
butable to this confusion of terms, the matter not having
then received public attention in this country, but
arose entirely from the opposite views held by myself
and my colleagues as to the objects of the Ethnological
Society, and its duties as a scientific body.

Vili DEDICATION.

The stand-point claimed for the science of Ethnology
by the late Dr. Knox, by Captain R. F. Burton, the —
present senior Vice-President of the London Anthropo-
logical Society, by myself, and by some others, was that
of a grave, erudite, and purely scientific study, requiring
the most free and serious discussion, especially on anat-
omical and physiological topics, for the elucidation of
the many difficult problems arising out of the subjects
brought forward. This, however, was far from being the
opinion of a large and powerful section of the Society,
headed by my venerable friend, Mr. John Crawfurd.
The party under his leadership desired to place the
Kthnological Society on a footing with the Royal Geogra-
phical Society, and to render its meetings fashionable
and popular by the admission of ladies. You will, doubt-
less, smile at the strange idea of admitting females to
a discussion of all Ethnological subjects. However, the
supporters of the “fair sex” won the day, and females
have been regularly admitted to the meetings of the
Kthnological Society during the past three years.

Even now the advocates of this measure do not admit
their error, nor do they perceive how they are practi-
cally hindering the promotion of those scientific objects
which they continue to claim for their society. On the
contrary, they rejoice at their victory, and Mr. Crawfurd
has publicly on more than one occasion ascribed the suc-
cess which attended the Ethnological Society under his
régume to the admission of ladies. ;

Apart from this fatal mistake, you will readily understand
that other important, and indeed vital differences, existed
as to the mode in which such a society should be conducted.
Finding myself, therefore, unable to give my cordial sup-
port to a society whose apparent objects were so utterly

DEDICATION. 1x

at variance with my own views—views in which I was
not without supporters—the idea occurred to me of
establishing. in this country a really scientific society,
which, taking yours as a model, might become worthy of
a great nation.

Here, my dear sir, I will pause : what we have achieved
is already known to you; what we hope to do I trust
you will live to see in a great degree accomplished. I[
cannot however, dismiss the subject of the formation
of our Society, without a hearty acknowledgement of
the kindness and encouragement received by myself and
my fellow-workers, from you and your able colleagues
when our plan was first mentioned to you. As a body,
we shall not easily forget the valuable assistance you then
rendered us ; and from myself, personally, your kind and
friendly advice on all occasions calls for a still warmer
acknowledgment.

I am aware that in France, and, indeed, throughout
Europe, an impression prevails that the science of Anthro-
pology is now formally recognised in this country.
That this is correct to a certain extent, is proved
by the flourishing condition of the London Anthropo-
logical Society. Still, after what I have before stated,
you will not be surprised to learn that there are
some eminent scientific men in England who believe,
or profess to believe, that the sciences of Anthropology and
- Ethnology are identical. I feel ashamed to mention, that
at the last annual meeting of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science, at Bath, it was not only
contended that Anthropology and Ethnology were syno-
nymous terms, and that both sciences had the same aim
and object, but recognition was denied to Anthropology
as a science, on the plea that Ethnology was an older

DEDICATION.

and a prettier word! These were the profound reasons as-
signed for the exclusion of a science represented by a
society, which numbers nearly five hundred members,
from the yearly scientific congress of the country.

You will thus perceive, my dear colleague, that as yet
this country is behind your own in the appreciation of our
science, although some progress has been made in this
direction during the past few years. We shall, therefore,
still look to you for encouragement and assistance, and
so long as we receive your sympathy in our work, we
shall not fail to labour. We shall not, of course, rest until
a formal recognition of our science is afforded to us by the
British Association, and I know we may rely on your
kind assistance to promote this end. We are confident
that a full recognition must come in time, but we would
gladly be spared the contention and ill feeling which are
both prejudicial and derogatory to scientific men.

I will not enlarge here, my dear sir, either on your
future work or our own. May you long live to further
the cause of science, and to deserve the gratitude and
esteem of your fellow-workers, and especially of

Your faithful and obliged Colleague,
JAMES HUNT.

Ore House, near Hastings,
November 28th, 1864.

EDITOR’S PREFACE.

THE great reputation which Professor Vogt enjoys in
Germany as a naturalist and as an independent thinker,
and the favourable reception of many of his works* by
the scientific men of Europe, has induced the Council of
the Anthropological Society of London to publish, with
the sanction of the author, a translation of his recent work
entitled “ Vorlesungen iiber den Menschen, seine Stellung

in der Schopfung und in der Geschichte der Erde.”

* As none of Professor Vogt’s works have, to my knowledge, been trans-
lated into English, it may, perhaps, not be out of place to give here a bio-
graphical sketch of our author, which is condensed from Meyer’s “ Grosses
Conversations Lexicon :’—

Carl Vogt, the eminent naturalist and parliamentary orator, was born at
Giessen, July 5, 1817. He received his education first at the Gymnasium,
and subsequently at the University of Giessen, where he studied chemistry
under Liebig. In 1835, he followed his father—the celebrated author of
Pharmaco-Dynamics—to Berne, where he studied physiology under Valentin.
Having taken his degree as Doctor of Medicine, he repaired to Neufchatel,
where he pursued the study of zoology and geology in conjunction with
Agassiz. He then, on the recommendation of Liebig, became Professor of
Zoology in the University of Giessen, which he left on the breaking out of the
revolution of 1848. Having been elected a member of the German Parliament,
where he always voted with the opposition, he fled, after the failure of the
Baden insurrection, to Switzerland, settled at Berne, until he was, in 1852,
appointed Professor of Geology in the University of Geneva. Besides
numerous contributions to scientific journals, Professor Vogt is the author
of many sterling works, among which are the following :—Recherches sur
Vembryogénie de Salmones, 1843; Im Gebirg und auf den Gletschern, 1844 ;
Lehrbuch der Geologie und Petrefaktenkunde, 1846; Ocean und Mittelmeer,
1847; Untersuchungen iiber Thierstaaten, 1851; Zoologische Briefe: Lehrbuch
der Zoologie, 1853-51, 2 vols.; Bilder aus dem Thierleben, 1852; Kohlerglaube
und Wissenschaft, 1855; Die Kiimstliche Fischzucht, 1859; Grundriss der Geol-
ogie, 1860.

xl EDITOR’S PREFACE.

One of the great objects contemplated by the An-
thropological Society is the publication in the English lan-
guage of all important foreign works bearing on the present
state of the science of man. It was considered by the
Council of the Society that this work afforded a good illus-
tration of the popular treatment of Anthropology in Ger-
many, and that it contained facts so useful to the student
as to warrant its publication. And here it may be stated,
that whilst the presence of so-called sceptical opinions will
er se never induce the Anthropological Society to publish a
work under its auspices, neither will such views, according
to the catholic principles upon which the society is founded,
prove a bar to the introduction to the public of a work
otherwise valuable. It is especially necessary to men-
tion this, on account of the polemical character of parts
of the present work. ‘The author is not simply a fearless
writer, but his tone will, I imagine, occasionally be offensive
both to the general and scientific reader. I had some
conversation with Professor Vogt on this subject, and he
gave his sanction to such alteration being made as I
thought most desirable. I accordingly omitted a few pas-
sages which I did not think in good taste. On pro-
ceeding with my labour I found that to cancel all the
passages which might offend, would be entirely to
alter the character of the work ; these few passages have
therefore been printed as an appendix. I, moreover,
felt that the author had entrusted me with a most
dangerous power, which, if abused, would, render the
translations published by the society comparatively
useless. The Fellows of the Anthropological Society
of London are happily neither women nor children ;
and I have not, therefore, felt it my duty to encumber
the work with notes expressive of my views on matters of

EDITOR’S PREFACE. xiii

opinion, and thus become, in addition to editor, critic and
commentator. If the work had not been published under
the auspices of the society, I might have felt it my duty to
state where I differed from the author ; but under actual
circumstances, I have only done so when I considered there
was an absolute necessity, or where the discovery of new
facts had invalidated the author’s conclusions.

Nor do I think it necessary here to advance my own
views respecting some Anthropological questions upon
which this work treats. I need only say that I am willing
to accept such of the facts as shall on future inquiry
prove to be true. Possibly, no man will agree with all
the conclusions arrived at by Professor Vogt, but I am
quite ready to accept such of his opinions as can be
logically deduced from well-ascertained facts.

While, however, I hold both myself and the society
entirely free from any responsibility as to the author’s
asserted facts or deductions, I should not be doing my
duty as Editor if I were not to make some excuse
for the attacks made by him on theological dogmas. In
Germany men of science and theologians look upon one
another with a mutual contempt, while in this country
scientific men entertain respect for theologians, and the
latter fortunately have a profound admiration for students
of science, and (when properly educated) have not the
effrontery to combat the teachings of pure inductive
science. In Germany, too, science is used as a political
engine to overthrow the arrogant assumptions of kingcraft
and priestcraft, from the evil influence of which we now in
England suffer little.

If M. Vogt had been an Englishman I should certainly
have highly censured a man of such profound and
extensive views for wasting his energies in attacking

XIV EDITOR’S PREFACE.

the opinions of theologians (as such) respecting scien-
tific facts or scientific deductions.

Sometimes the author conveys the impression that he
writes merely with a view of destroying belief in generally
received theological dogmas. I cannot think this impres-
sion to be well founded, and the list of his published
writings will show that M. Vogt has really been a hard-work-
ing scientific student. Scientific men naturally have a con-
tempt for those who study theology with a view to attack
the deductions of men of science: but it is equally con-
temptible for a man to study and write on science with
the view to overthrow theological dogmas. The search
after truth is the only object the scientific student ought
to keep in view.

The author of this work will have the aise to
find opponents amongst those who agree with, and those
who differ from, him. M. Vogt expresses himself with
very great freedom when he happens to differ from any
of his scientific brethren, and the exposure of the foibles
of his fellow-workers seems to afford him infinite
pleasure and satisfaction. But all who know the author
will entirely acquit him of malice; and his conduct, un-
like that evinced in some of the quarrels of scientific men
in this country, is not the result of bad temper.

At the same time I cannot but express my regret that
the accomplished author has spoken of our much respected
countryman, Professor Owen, in the manner he has done. I
equally regret his remarks on Dr. Pruner-Bey and M. A. de
Quatrefages, and dissent from his interpretation of the
conduct of Dr. Falconer respecting the Abbeville jaw. I
think, also, that Prof. Vogt has not sufficiently acknow-
ledged his obligations to many English men of science,
amongst whom I would especially: name Mr. Prestwich,

EDITOR’S PREFACE. XV

Sir Charles Lyell, and Mr. John Evans. Had the work
assumed a more systematic form, this, perhaps, would
not have happened.

In Lecture X it will be seen that the author has un-
fortunately accepted the wild speculation of Professor
Huxley respecting the resemblance of the Neanderthal
calvaria to that of the Australian. The important observ-
ations of Dr. Barnard Davis respecting the synostotic con-
dition of this fragment bid fair to solve the question by
showing that the Neanderthal skull is merely an abnormal
relic, and that all the theories founded thereon as to
the extreme savage state of the primitive inhabitants of
Europe are utterly worthless.

Prof. Vogt acknowledges that, to a great extent, he is
willing to accept the conclusions of England’s great modern
naturalist, Charles Darwin ; but, unlike many of that pro-
found observer’s followers in this country, he entirely
repudiates the opinions respecting man’s unity of origin
which a section of Darwinites in this country are now
endeavouring to promulgate. The author’s views on this
point I hold, in the present state of science, to be
especially sound and philosophical: and I hope that this
work may help to counteract the inconsistent and an-
tiquated doctrines now being taught by one of our
government Professors respecting the small distinction
which exists between the members of the genus Homo.

Nor is the author, like some of our fellow countrymen,
afraid to accept the logical consequences of his opinions
respecting transmutation and development. On the con-
trary, none can charge M. Vogt with ambiguity as to his
real sentiments. From his opponents I hope he will
receive the credit of being honest and open in the ex-
pression of his opinions, although few may agree with

XV1 EDITOR’S PREFACE.

the tone he adopts. I think, moreover, M. Vogt is a less
dangerous foe to the generally received theological
opinions of the day, than some other men of science, who
express themselves with more reserve, but with far less
honesty.

The scope of the present work is great, and the
author treats his subject with ‘such a comprehen-
sive grasp, and in such an interesting manner, that he
can scarcely fail to elicit the admiration of both friend
and foe.

It must be strictly borne in mind that this work is not
put forward as a text-book on the subject, but simply as
a specimen of the popular treatment of Anthropology in
Germany, and, in my opinion, it contrasts very favour-
ably with anything of a similar nature which has ap-
peared in this country.

The woodcuts are chiefly those used in the original, the
exceptions being a drawing of the Abbeville jaw, which
in the German version was taken from the sketch of M.
Oswald Dimpre, but which has now been cut from
-a photograph presented to the Anthropological Society
by M. A. de Quatrefages. The delineation of the sutures
in the woodcut of the Neanderthal calvaria in Lecture
XIII, has also been altered to agree with the description
sent by Dr. Fuhlrott to Dr. Barnard Davis.

In the present translation, the German text (with the
exception of some corrections and additions by the author)
has been followed as closely as possible: but there were
some forms of expression, so utterly intractable when at-
tempted to be rendered into English, that when intelligible,
they have been sometimes adopted in preference to the
removal of all traces of foreign idiom and colouring. In
works of this description it is advisable to render, not

EDITOR’S PREFACE. XVil

merely the substance of the author’s opinion, but also,
to some extent, the mode in which he conveys them.

In conclusion, I would beg to remind the reader that the
present translation is one of a large and extensive series
of works, some of which contain opinions diametrically
opposed to the conclusions of this book. The Council of
the Anthropological Society, having allotted to each Fel-
low who is willing to undertake the task, a volume for
translation, it has afforded me great pleasure to assist in
such a vast project, which cannot fail to give considerable
impulse to the study of Anthropology in this country.
I am aware there are some men in England who totally
object to this free-trade in science, and who believe
themselves authorities on certain scientific questions,
and that no one else should dare to enter upon what they
consider to be their preserves. I hope that this book
may help to demolish such feudal ideas, which are totally
unworthy of the lover of truth and science.

I hope that my readers will agree with me that Prof.
Vogt has produced a most interesting, suggestive, and
useful volume ; and one which I trust may assist in the
elucidation of some of the great problems of Anthro-
pological Science.

4, St. Martin’s Place, Trafalgar Square,
London. December 1st, 1864.

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CONTENTS.

Dedication - - = e a 2 5 Vv

Editor’s Preface = = = = ” - wx

Contents - = = 2 “ e - xix

Author’s Preface - - - = 3 a 1
LECTURE I.

Introduction.— Difficulties of the subject.—Materials.—Collections of
Crania.—Skeletons.—Anatomy of the Races.—Man to be studied
like any other Mammal.—Objections of Theologians.—Morton and
Bachman.— Comparative Study of Domestic Animals.—Antiquity
of the Human Species.—Objections of Naturalists.—Researches of
Boucher de Perthes - - - - - 5

LECTURE II.

Method of investigation.—Mixed Types.—Average Man and Skull.—
Use of the French Metrical System.—Scherzer and Schwarz’s
System of Measurement.—Craniometry.—Fixed Points in the
Skull.—Choice of the Thinnest Places.—Busk’s System of Mea-
surement.—Aeby’s System.—Horizontal and Vertical Planes.—Re-
lation of the Skull to the Face.—Camper’s Facial Angle.—Mea-
surement of the Base and Vault of the Cranium.—Welcker’s
System of Measurement.—Cranial Angle ; Skull; Net.—Von Baer’s
Nomenclature for Cranial Forms.—Coronal View: Longheads,
Medium Heads, and Short Heads.—Profile View: Prognathism
and Orthognathism.—Anterior and Posterior View: Tower Heads,
Pyramidal Heads, and Roof Heads.—Scherzer-Schwarz’s Scheme.
—Tables of Cranial Measurements after Virchow, Welcker, Von
Baer, and Busk - = = = 3 a il)

LECTURE Iii.

Pictorial representations.—Ethnic portraits generally Caricatures.—
Photographic Drawings.—Perspective delineations.—Geometrical
Drawings after Lucae.—Instruments required.—Casts.—Casts of
the internal Cranial surface.—Proportions.—Sexual differences in
the formation of the Cranium.—Examination of the Brain.—
Weight.—Weight of the Brain in relation to the body.—Estima-
tion of the Cranial Capacity.—Method and results.—Broca’s
researches on Parisian Skulls.—Increase of Cranial Capacity in
relation to Civilisation aay! - - - 73

b

xx CONTENTS.

LECTURE IV.

Structure of the Brain.—Elementary Constituents of Brain-substance.
—Cerebellum.—The primitive Brain—The Cerebrum the seat of
intellectual activity.—Localisation of individual functions.—Ap-
plication to Phrenology.—The Cerebral Lobes.—The Convolutions :
their relation to the Intellect and the Size of the Body.—The
development of the Convolutions, and their arrangement according
to Gratiolet and Wagner.—Huschke’s Opinions.—Comparative In-
vestigation of various Cerebral Forms.—The Cerebral Cavities.—
Dispute about them, especially in England - - - 93

LECTURE V.

Examination of other parts of the body.—The Pelvis: the Extremities.
—The Skin; its coloration, structure, perspiration, and hair.—The
soft parts.—The Face.—Hyes, nose, mouth, lips, cheeks, ears, and
chin.—Internal organs - - - - - 118

LECTURE VI.

Comparison of the Structure of Man with that of the Ape.—Differ-
ences. — Defencelessness. — Erect position. — Equilibrium of the
Skull—Free mobility of the Anterior Extremities.—Formation of
the Pelvis.—Proportions of several parts of the body.—Proportion
of the Cranium to the Face.—Development of the Jaws.—Propor-
tion of the Cranial Angles.—Cubic capacity of the skulls of Men,
Idiots, and Apes.—Herr Bischoff and the Idiots.—Nose, inter-
maxillary Bone, and Teeth.—Signification of the Diastemata.—
Structure of the Pelvis.—Proportions of the Limbs.—Hands and
Feet.—Differences in the Form of the Brain.—Dispute between
Owen and Huxley.—Researches of Gratiolet and Wagner.—Rela-
tions of the Transition Convolutions and the Operculum.—Devel-
opment of the Brain.—Form of the Brain in Microcephali. - 132

LECTURE VII.

Comparison of Negro and German.—Bodily proportions of the Negro.—
Skull.—Pelvis.—Proportions of extremities: arm, hand, leg, foot.—
Internal Parts.—Brain.—Face.—Deviations from the normal type.
—Differences of Colour.—Insensibility of the Negro.—Babies, and.
their development.—Remarkable change about the period of pu-
berty.—Mental Inferiority of the Negro.—Constancy of differ-
ences.—Resemblance to the Brute.—Intermediate form between
Man and Ape.—Microcephali.—The Aztecs - - - 171

LECTURE VIII.

Comparative Examination of two species of monkey, Cebus albifrons
and Cebus apella.—Skull and Brain.—Other parts.—Affinities in
Nature.—Families.—Definition of Species, Variety, and Race.—

CONTENTS.

Inbreeding of Races and Species.—Mutability of Species.—Classi-
fication of Mankind.—Relation to the Ape.—The Human Kingdom
according to Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Quatrefages.—Objections

LECTURE IX.

Primeval period of Mankind.—Discovery of Human Remains associated
with those of Extinct Animals.—Cuvier’s Objections.— Human Re-
mains in Caverns.—Formation of Caverns.—Stalactites.—Osseous
breccia.—Preservation of Bones.—Mode in which the Caverns were
filled—The Extinct Cavern Inhabitants.—Extinct and Living
Species.—Extinction of some species within the Historical Period.
—Schmerling’s Discoveries.—The Cavern of Engis.—Caverns of
Lombrive and Lherme.—Grottoes of Arcy.—Grotto in the Neander
Valley.—Grotto of Aurignac - - - -

LECTURE X.

Human Remains from Denise, near Puy.—Fraudulent speculations.—
Diluvium in the Somme Valley.—F lint Implements.—Human Jaw.
—Diluvium of Joinville.—Diluvium of Hoxne.—Brazilian Caverns.
—Alluvium of North America.—Civilisation of Primitive Peoples.
—Skulls of Engis and the Neander Valley.—Proportions of these
Crania compared to those of living races of Mankind and Apes -

LECTURE XI.

The Diluvial Period.—Revolutions and Transitions.—Glacial forma-
tion.—Boulder-Clay.—Old Alluvium.—Terminal Moraines and Er-
ratic Blocks.—Slate-Coal, and its Formation.—Ice-sea and Glacial
Formation in the North—Inm England.—Table of Diluvial Strata.
—Length of Time.—Chronological Calculations in the Deltas of the
Mississippi and the Nile-—Impossibility of a Universal Deluge. -

LECTURE XII.

Stone Period in the North.—Refuse-heaps.—Peat-bogs.—Graves in
Denmark and Mecklenburg.—Grotto of Chauvaux.—Pile-works on
the Swiss lakes and moors.—Civilisation of the Stone Period.—
Agriculture of the Pile-builders.—Skull of Meilen.—Pile-works
in Italy.—Chronological Calculations of Morlot, Gillieron, and
Troyon.—Pious Fancies of the latter - - =

LECTURE XIII.

Distinctive Characters of the Cavern- and Stone-Period.—Skulls of
Denmark.—Arching of the Forehead.—Apostle-Skulls of Switzer-
land, and their Age.—The Jaw of Moulin-Quignon.—Skulls of
Lombrive compared with those of the present Basques.—Danish
Stone-Skulls compared with the present Lapps.—Skull of Meilen.—
Relation to the present Swiss Skulls—Romanic Short-Heads.—

XX]

203

308

333

XXil CONTENTS.

Relation to the Etruscans.—The Oldest Domestic Animals.—The
Dog.—Swine.—Wild Hog, and Marsh-Hog.—Horned Cattle: Urus,
Bison, long-fronted, and -curved-horned Cattle—The Sheep.—
The Goat.—The Horse.—Cultivated Plants = = =837(0

LECTURE XIV.

Transmission of Characters.—Natural Races.—Theory of Nathusius.
—Objections to it.—Distinction between Races and Species.—
Transformation of Varieties into Races and real Species.—Influ-
ence of Time.—Raceless Animals.—Mongrels and Hybrids.—Their
Propagation. — Wolf-Dogs.— Buck-Sheep. — Rabbit-Hares. —Their
Breeding.—Conclusions and Inferences from the preceding facts - 402

LECTURE XV.

The Tradition of Adam.—Geographical Distribution of Human Races.
—Constancy of their Characters in the course of time.—Pliability
of Races——Development of the Skull by Civilisation.—Degenera-
tion of Races.—An Example from Iveland.—Modifications of Ne-
groes in America, Yankees, Jews.—Time requisite for such modi-
fications.—Intermixture of Races.—Differences in Prolificacy in
various Mongrels.—Intermixture of White Races between them-
selves.—Mulattoes in South Carolina and Louisiana.—Hombron’s
Remarks.—Indians and Whites.—Whites and Malays.—Whites
and Polynesians.—Whites and Australians.—Inferences regarding
the Original Diversity of the Human Races, and the Products of
Intermixture.—Direct Divine Influence, according to Dr. Sagot - 423

LECTURE XVI.

Origin of Organic Nature.—Differences between the Organic Kingdoms
and their sub-Divisions.—Origin of Organic Cells.—Theory of
Darwin.—My change of Opinion.—Creation of Species.—Muta-
bility of Type.—Consequences of this Theory.—Adaptation and
Fixation of Types.—Practical Conception of Species.—Variation
in Adaptation and Slowness of Transformation.— Present and
Former Transition Types.—Cebus.—Bears.—The Greek Monkey
of the Tertiary Period.—Exclusive Views of Cuvier and Agassiz.—
Rarity of Transition Forms.—Progression and Retrogression.—
Fundamental Plan in the Structure of Animals.—No single Original
Organic Form.—Derivation of the Human from the Ape Type.—
Derivation of the three Anthropoid Apes from three different
Families.—The various original Human Races must be derived
from different Ape Families.—Lamentations of Moralists - 443

AUTHOR’S PREFACE.

One of the objects of the Useful-Knowledge Society of the -
canton of Neufchatel is to advance popular education by means
of public lectures, which are delivered during the winter, not
merely in Neufchatel—the chief town—but also in the in-
dustrious Jura, in Locle, Chaua-de-fonds, and the valley of
Travers, as well as in the villages on the wine-producing slopes
of the lake, in all which places they are attended by intelligent
and attentive audiences. Natural science, the history of Switzer-
land, political economy, and social life, are the chief subjects
treated of. In localities where spacious rooms cannot be ob-
tained, the use of the church is readily granted; nor has it
occurred to any one to consider this a desecration any more
than the Icelander objects to the stranger finding a night’s
shelter in the church. The success of this Useful-Knowledge
Society, it is true, only dates from the period when Neuf-
chatel, having ceased to be a Prussian principality, became a
canton of the Swiss Confederation. It is very probable that, in
that happy period when a Prussian general, with a few knights
of the red eagle governed the country, the lamentations of
those, who condemn every result of science which does not
agree with the ancient Jewish lawbook, would have prevailed
and suppressed this society.

The invitation of the Society to deliver some lectures on
subjects at present engaging my attention, induced me to give
to my investigations the present form. The subject-matter is
connected with those studies which, though with many interrup-
tions, I have continued since the time of the struggles to which
Kéhlerglaube und Wissenschaft* owes its origin. I cannot deny

* Superstition and Science, a controversial work by the author, which has
passed through four editions in Germany.—Eprror.

B

2 AUTHOR’S PREFACE.

that since that time some of my views have undergone a
partial change, not on the main points, but only upon second-
ary questions, which in their very change but confirm former
results.

Whilst preparing the first part of these lectures for publica-
tion, I had an opportunity of making use of two recent works
treating of the same subject. The one, Sir Charles Lyell’s Anti-
quity of Man, the other, Professor Huxley’s instructive and at-
tractive treatise, Man’s Place in Nature. Lyell’s book afforded
me the pleasure of seeing the Glacial theory, which at Gottingen
is to be buried again, revived and acknowledged by such high
authority. There is also found in it a collation, though a some-
what imperfect one, of facts which undeniably establish the
high antiquity of man upon the globe. I have been enabled in
the second part of this work to offer additional facts, owing to
the steady support of my scientific friends, Aeby, Claparéde,
Desor, Fuhlrott, Gastaldi, His, Huxley, Morlot, Pictet, Quatre-
fages, Spring, Valentin, Broca, Busk, Collomb, Keller, Messi-
komer, Schild, and Schwab. It was, moreover, my good fortune
to be permitted to examine and to take the outlines of the only
two perfect skulls which have hitherto been found associated
with the reindeer and the aurochs in caverns. I am indebted
for the use of these invaluable relics to the kindness of their
discoverer and owner, Dr. Garrigou, of Toulouse, who was so
obliging as to bring the skulls to Geneva himself.

As the printing of this work, which was published in Ger-
many in parts, was somewhat delayed, opportunity was afforded
me to correct it and render it more complete in several parti-
culars, partly by further researches of my own, partly by further
communications from my friends. The additions and remarks
thus rendered necessary in the German edition have been in-
corporated in the text of the English translation.

But during this time attacks have not been wanting—we must
always be prepared for them. If they grow out of a scientific
soil, they cannot but be useful, by laying bare weak points and
stimulating to their correction; but if they proceed from that
soil, from which the hlies of innocence and the palms of con-
ciliation should spring up, where, however, nothing but the

AUTHOR’S PREFACE. 3

marsh-trefoil of credulity and the poisonous water-hemlock of
calumniation grow, they deserve no attention.

M. Frederic de Rougement, one of the champions of Prussia,
in Neufchatel, has relieved his oppressed heart by an in-
dignant outcry, under the title, Man and the Ape, or Modern
Materialism. This publication has, I believe, been translated
into German, and published by the Missionary Society of Neuf-
chatel. Whoever takes an interest in it, may read the history of
a storm in a tumbler of water, and how the indignation of the
faithful of Neufchatel, caused by my lectures, subsided after
hearing the prelections of Rougemont.

Rougemont and myself are old acquaintances. More than
twenty years ago I saw him mount the rostruam—“ the Deluge”
under his arm—to refute Dubois de Montpereux and Agassiz,
who looked upon Noah’s flood as a local phenomenon of
Armenia. I then heard him at a public lecture explain the
creation of Eve from Adam’s rib, and why God, in his infinite
wisdom, had selected the rib in particular, and no other part
of Adam’s body. ‘He took no piece of the head—woman
would then have had too much intelligence ; he took no piece
of the legs—woman would have been too much on the move ;
he took a piece near the heart, that woman should be all
love”’ !

It would, perhaps, have required more profound inves-
tigations than Rougemont can command to refute my views
from a sc entific standpoint. He preferred, therefore, to make
an attack on Materialism on general grounds. The description
of the monstrous doctrines of this modern aberration is taken
from the book of a certain Boehner. At first I imagined this
to be a misprint for Biichner, when, to my astonishment, I
found that it was the production of a parson, directed against
Materialism. This appears to me asif one were to take Luther’s
doctrines from the works of Eck and then proceed to confute
them.

It is written altogether in the old manner. The world,
history, morality, the whole structure of moral order perishes—
just as during the ages of superstition ; only rattling skeletons
have by M. de Rougemont been advantageously replaced by

. B2

4, AUTHOR’S PREFACE.

offensive corpses, which the Materialists trade in and make
manure of. I see no other difference.

M. Schleiden, who so successfully combated Materialism in
Dresden, that he converted his whole audience to it, also felt
bound to read a lecture on man. In spite of all the trouble I
took, I derived no instruction from it, merely finding in it some
newspaper paragraphs seasoned with Fries’ philosophical sauce.

The reader will observe that I have strictly confined myself
to the animal kingdom, and specially to such animals as stand
next to man, and have entirely omitted the vegetable kingdom,
with which I confess I am not so conversant. Had I included
plants, I certainly should not have neglected to mention two
most important treatises which have recently appeared in
favour of Darwin’s theory. I allude to A. de Candolle’s
Treatise on Oaks, and Naudin’s prize essay on Hybridity in the
Vegetable Kingdom. Both arrive at the conclusion that species
have arisen, and still arise, from each other by modification.
Naudin expressly states, that variety, race, and species are
merely different terms designating progressive changes, the
intimate connection of which is undeniable. When one of the
greatest experts in the investigation of species, after a most
careful examination of the various species of oak, and sup-
ported by colossal materials, arrives at the same conclusion as
an industrious naturalist who has tried thousands of crossings,
and specially devoted himself to the production of hybrids, the
Darwinian theory must be more than-an ingenious dream, and
less destructive of science than certain zealots are apt to believe.

The Anthropological Society of London, on the publication of
the first part of these lectures, did me the honour of nominating
me one of its Corresponding Members, and subsequently ex-
pressed a wish that the English edition of the book should
appear under its auspices. To this Society, which prosecutes
important scientific subjects with such great zeal, I feel bound
to express my warm thanks, and more especially to its Presi-
dent, Dr. James Hunt, and its Foreign Secretary, Mr. Alfred
Higgins,

C. VOGT:
London, April 4th, 1864,

LECTURE. ~ I.

Introduction.— Difficulties of the subject.—Materials.—Collections of Crania.
—Skeletons.—Anatomy of the Races.—Man to be studied like any other
Mammal.—Objections of Theologians.—Morton and-Bachman.— Compa-
rative Study of Domestic Animals.—Antiquity of the Human Species.—
Objections of Naturalists.—Researches of Boucher de Perthes.

GENTLEMEN,—Surely there is not a more inciting subject
than the study of man himself. Involuntarily we apply to all
our actions the knowledge of man, long ago insisted upon by
the oracle of Delphi. It is the starting-point from which
we proceed, and the standard by which we measure the phe-
nomena occurring in nature. But as-it frequently happens
to the inhabitant of any particular region, that he neglects
the curiosities of the spot where he was born and nurtured,
to which the stranger pays especial attention ; so most per-
sons neglect to fathom their own nature, and thus fail to
establish a basis for further progress. There are but few who
search out man; not, indeed, lke the ancient philosopher,
lantern in hand, and only in the market-place, but everywhere ;
and there are still fewer who dare to give a candid and unvar-
nished account of the results of their investigations. Most
men look upon themselves as incarnations of the generic
idea man, and remain under the delusion that they know
themselves. The same phenomenon occurs in the history of
science. In ancient times, the science of man was limited to
the inquiry into some particular functions of his organism and
the action of the brain. The material basis was only occa-
sionally and superficially considered, like the region in which
man lived. It is only with great trouble that we can collect
from ancient authors a few scattered notices, which may throw
some light on questions now deemed of the greatest import-
ance. The opening of a single grave containing a well-pre-
served skeleton, arms, and ornaments, affords more information

6 LECTURE I.

as regards the physical and mental condition of the people to
which the exhumed belonged, than ten authors of antiquity
who may have described that people. It is only by degrees
that we have been led to search for a proper basis on which to
found the science of man.

The object which I have proposed to myself in these lectures
is, to make you acquainted with the latest results obtained
from the study of the natural history of man, with his relation to
other animals, his antiquity upon the globe, and the primitive
state of the human species. Many of these questions I have
already aphoristically touched upon in a polemical treatise,
published some years ago. If this treatise had no other merit,
it at any rate opened questions which are intentionally passed
over in silence, or made party questions. As is well known,
an Athenian legislator imposed a fine on any citizen who did
not profess to belong to some political party. Similarly there
occur periods in the history of science, when public opinion
forces the inquirer to espouse a party, and neglect is followed
by punishment. For inquiry per se, yielding neither results
nor increase of the knowledge of mankind, seems to me as
little meritorious as the digging of a hypochondriac which has
for its sole object to equalise the circulation of his blood. It
is only when digging the soil leads to the production of fruit,
that it becomes meritorious.

The questions I intend to discuss offer peculiar difficulties,
to which I must draw your attention, lest from the paucity of
the results you should hastily draw the conclusion that insuf-
ficient pains have been taken to elucidate certain poimts. 'The
study of the natural history of man, like a giant with a thousand
arms, embraces almost every branch of human knowledge, and
the deeper we penetrate, the more intricate appear the paths
which may lead to the goal. The subject is not man, con-
sidered as an abstract being: the inquiry extends to millions
of men scattered over the earth, their physical peculiarities,
their present and former relations to each other, and stretches
back to a time when man scarcely left more traces of his ex-
istence than the savage beast which inhabited the same region.
From the results obtained we must, then, draw inferences con-

LECTURE I. fi

cerning the relations of the races of mankind to each other,
their intermixture, their descent and propagation, their relation
to other creatures, especially to the higher mammals; and
also, the changes which air, climate, and mode of life, have pro-
duced in man in his struggle for existence.

It is clear that the difficulties attending an investigation of
this kind are very great, so that in spite of all efforts we are
only on the threshold of our inquiry. Man is scattered all
over the globe, and everywhere, even in the remotest regions,
numerous intermixtures have taken place, by which the pos-
sibly original purity has been more or less impaired. More-
over, a science, if it is to draw unimpeachable inferences, re-
quires fundamental principles mathematically certain, and these
can, in this our field, be but very slowly obtained. Direct inves-
tigation can only be applied to individuals. If we have to deter-
mine the characteristics of a tribe, a people, a race, a species, we
can only ascertain them by taking the mean of numerous observa-
tions and measurements of individuals. We all know that the
characteristic peculiarities of a people, the Germans and French,
for instance, cannot be determined from a superficial acquaint-
ance with single individuals at a table d’héte, but that a long
intercourse with all the various classes of a nation is requisite
for the formation of a proper estimate. And yet here we have
only an individual perception of peculiarities for which there is
no certain standard, the estimate of which frequently depends
on the disposition of the observer. But when, as in our case,
we have to do with physical peculiarities, actual measurement
comes into play, and it alone can lead to useful results. The
first step is to examine the whole physical conformation, espe-
cially the most characteristic parts; head, skull, brain, hand,
and foot: notin a few, but in a great many individuals, and in this
way to eliminate individual peculiarities, and give prominence to
such as are common to the great majority. Now, anyone who
knows the difficulties we meet with in this respect, even in our
civilised countries, where the materials are at hand, will readily
conceive that they are increased when such inquiries are to be
carried on in distant regions among savage nations. Quételet,
the eminent director of the Brussels Observatory, has been occu-

8 LECTURE I.

pied many years in investigating, with meter and balance, the
laws of human growth in Belgium, and in thus constructing, so
to speak, what he calls “‘ the average man,” as obtained from the
mean of a great number of individual observations. And yet
these measurements and weights apply only toa small stock, in-
habiting but a little corner of the globe, and exhibiting but
few of the relative proportions of the bodily organs.

Very recently, Professor Welcker of Halle has attempted to
construct, from a comparatively small number of crania, the
normal skull of the Germanic stock, or in other words, to find
out the peculiarities belonging to most German skulls; and
though thirty normal male, and as many female skulls have
been measured and registered, still this number is not sufficient
to yield an absolutely certain average. Recollect, now, that
investigations of the same nature as these, which required
years, though confined to a small district, are to be extended
to all parts of the globe, with a view to the acquisition of
such data as we possess with respect to Belgian recruits and
German skulls, and contrast with this the inadequacy of the
means we at present possess of obtaining the materials needful
for our inquiry. The travelling naturalist, even when he sails
in the Novara, under the Austrian flag, may congratulate
himself if here and there soldiers, porters, sailors, or loose
women offer themselves for examination, or if the chiefs of
some tribes allow themselves to be photographed. In southern
parts, where nakedness is not deemed indecent, observation is
in this respect facilitated ; but in the north, where the climate
forces man to cover the body with skins night and day, as among
the Esquimaux, Samoiedes, and T'schuktshes, permission to view
the naked body is not so readily conceded. And finally, where
shall we find naturalists dwelling for many years among foreign
races, inorder to secure opportunities for comparative researches?

We shall see in the course of these lectures, that the cranium,
the most important part of the osseous system, containing
as it does the organ of the mind, deserves the closest examina-
tion. Many naturalists, hke Blumenbach at Gottingen, Morton
in America, and others, have devoted much of their time to the
formation of collections of crania, representing the various types

LECTURE I. 9

and races of mankind. Even here the difficulties we meet with
are great. It is hardly feasible in the times we live in to cut
off the heads of the living ; and to despoil the graves of the dead
is in most civilised countries considered a crime, and severely
punished. Pious ignorance even now declaims against dissec-
tion, and it is not so very long since English anatomists were
driven to employ resurrection-men, and were indirectly the
cause of murders being committed. We must, therefore, not
wonder that the procuring of skulls in uncivilised countries is
not unattended with danger, and that we succeed only in ex-
ceptional cases in collecting a sufficient number of skulls of any
stock to enable us to draw just inferences from comparison.

The industry and perseverance of some observers have brought
together comparatively large collections of crania, of which,
however, the origin is frequently doubtful. Thus, for stance,
it is frequently impossible to say definitely whether the skull is
that of a male or female; and yet the differences between the
male and female skull are not insignificant. In the more civi-
lised races the difference is as great as between the skulls of
the same sex in different races; and, as there is but little
difference in this respect in the Negro and other inferior races,
the determination of the sex becomes more uncertain as we ap-
proach the inferior races of humanity.

As regards the rest of the skeleton, the materials become
still more scanty. It is easy to carry off skulls, but a skeleton
requires more care. Nine out of every ten sailors still believe that
a skeleton or a coffin on board brings bad luck, and under such
circumstances they are apt to mutiny if a storm breaks out.
And yet many parts of the skeleton require to be examined,
such as the structure of the hands, feet, the form of the pelvis,
—all these can only be determined by numerous observations.

The skull is chiefly important from its investing the brain so
closely, that its chief features are impressed on the inner surface
of the cranium. ‘The brain deserves, above all, a close investi-
gation, in examining the organisation of thinking beings. It
has even been proposed to classify mammals according to their
cerebral structure. The ideal of an anatomy of races, which
Professor Wagner, of Géttingen, promises the public in the

10 LECTURE I.

preface of every new work he publishes, but which seems not
to have advanced further than a collection of materials, such
an ideal, I repeat, would undoubtedly comprise a close exami-
nation of all racial brains, founded on minute dissection. But
we are as yet far from such a consummation. Here and there
some European anatomist succeeds in obtaining a black sub-
ject for dissection, but want of acquaintance with his genea-
logy, which can only be traced through one or two generations*
of slaves imported from Africa, may give rise to the suspicion
that transportation into another climate, and the change in
mode of life and civilisation, may already have modified the
original structure of the body, and specially of the brain as the
organ of mental activity.

You will from these few remarks easily form some concep-
tion of the difficulties under which the naturalist labours, in
the process of determining not merely the physical but also the
psychological nature of man. The material is only obtained
in scanty fragments, and these are capable of elaboration in
so many different ways, that the labours of predecessors cannot
always be appropriated.

When, having overcome these difficulties and procured some
materials, we try to apply the results obtained, there rise
from the depth of society other phantoms which must be com-
bated, The whole inherent pride of human nature revolts at
the idea that the lord of the creation is to be treated like any
other natural object.t No sooner does the naturalist discover
the resemblance of some higher mammals, such as the ape, to
man, than there is a general outcry against the presumptuous au-
dacity that ventures to touch man in his inmost sanctuary. The
whole fraternity of philosophers, who have never seen monkeys
except in zoological gardens, at once mount the high horse,
and appeal to the mind, the soul, to reason, to consciousness,
and to all the rest of the innate faculties of man, as they are
refracted in their own philosophical prisms. This mode of

* And even then with no certainty.—EpITor.

+ This, no doubt, is quite true of the masses of mankind; but such feel-
ings are not shared in by either the philosophic or the truly scientific mind —
Eprror.

LECTURE I. ata!

reasoning resembles that of my old teacher Wilbrand, in
Giessen, who until his death, which took place about twenty
years ago, protested against the circulation of the blood.
«‘ Which,” he asked, on examining a candidate for honours,
“is more preferable—the mental or the physical eye?” Woe
to the candidate who replied “‘ the bodily eye :” he was plucked
at once. Of necessity the candidate answered the mind’s eye.
“Well, then,” continued the professor, “mental inspection
must be superior to physical inspection ; if, therefore, you say
that you have, by the aid of the microscope, seen the circula-
tion of the blood with your bodily eye, and I tell you that I
have seen the impossibility of the circulation with my mind’s
eye, it follows that 1 am right and you are wrong.” In the
same way our philosophers observe with the mind’s eye, and
when they call to their aid the imagination, which, according
to Carriére, “is a direct inspiration from above—which per-
ceives the divine thoughts in nature, and represents a transi-
tion of universal thoughts into the thought of the individual :”
when, I say, these imaginative philosophers, come forth as God-
inspired prophets, we, ordinary mortals, must bow down our
heads, and confess that our results are only the fruit of human
labour, and not the emanations from a supreme being entirely
unknown to us.

These idle speculations have had the effect of confusing and
perplexing even unprejudiced inquirers, so that we meet with
the most striking contradictions, and must take every possible
care that we do not fall into them ourselves. A kind of system
of double entry, much lauded formerly though with small suc-
cess, makes again its appearance under a different form. Thus
we find that the same naturalist declares in the same page,
that the physical differences between man and the ape are just
sufficient to constitute mankind a family which must be placed at
the head of the order of apes ; whilst, on the other hand, man’s
intellectual faculties are so essentially distinct, that he must form
a separate kingdom, like the animal and vegetable kingdom.*
In order to show you the contradictions that arise in this

* Quatrefages.—EDIToR.

12 LECTURE I.

matter, when we abandon the basis of exact science, I will
just quote the opinion of another not less celebrated natura-
list, who opines that the mental faculties of a chimpanzee
compared with those of a Bosjesman* exhibit only a difference
in degree, but that the structure of the human brain differs
greatly from that of the ape.t These opposite views pro-
ceeded solely from the desire to place man above the ape.
The one of these inquirers has forgotten to tell us how it is
possible that man with a monkey brain could conceive human
thoughts; and the second has not told us how a human brain
can produce apish thoughts. If the brain be the organ of the
mind, the function must always be consonant with the structure.

This is only one aspect of the question. If the human spe-
cies, as it is scattered over the globe, be considered as a
whole, we are immediately struck by the differences which the
various races exhibit. There can be no doubt that the investiga-
tion of these differences is within the province of the naturalist,
and, however much our pride may revolt against it, there is no
other method than that followed in zoology. The degree of the
variations is very important, as it furnishes us with a standard
for ascertaining the relations in which the various races stand
to each other. This we shall illustrate by an example. Cats,
like the human race, are found in all parts of the world ; every
where, excepting in the extreme north, we find beasts of prey
belonging to this type. But at the first glance we perceive that
they greatly differ. No man will confound lions, tigers, panthers,
cats, and lynxes, and it is just as impossible to confound Negroes,
Mongolians, and Caucasians. On close examination, however,
there occur in the feline family, as well as in the human family,
intermediate types, which engender doubts. The spotted cats,

* This is an allusion to a note inserted by Prof. Owen in the Journal of the
Proceedings of the Linnean Society for 1857, p. 20. The author’s words are that
we are unable to “appreciate, or conceive of the distinction between the
psychical phenomena of a chimpanzee and of a Bosjesman, or of an Aztec with
arrested brain growth.” The comparison is therefore made between the
psychological phenomena of the chimpanzee and the Bosjesman “with
arrested brain growth,” and not between the chimpanzee and the Bosjesman
in a normal state.—Epiror.

+ R. Owen.—EDITor.

{~ An author may hold such opinions without any “desire” to place man
above the ape.—Ep1ror.

LECTURE I. 13

which were formerly included in the panther type, run into a
variety of forms, which differ, more or less, in the number and
arrangement of the spots, the length and hairiness of the tail,
the variations in the dental system and the skull; in short, by a
variety of marks known only to the minute observer, which,
however, enable the inquirer with more or less certainty to
determine whether they are merely accidental variations or
permanent forms. Let us confess at once, that, in all wild
animals, the estimation of these variations, and their conse-
quent classification, depends much on the predilections of the
observer, so that what one declares to be a species another takes
to be only a variety. The accumulation of facts leads generally
to the result, that some decidedly different forms are laid down
as species, round which the less differing forms are grouped as
varieties. Though the validity of many species is still dis-
cussed, and though many definitions of species have been given
without any satisfactory result, still these discussions stimulate
the progress of science.

It is somewhat different as regards the science of man: here
was a field in which the result at which science was to arrive was
prescribed. One Adam, one ancestor, one Noah with three sons as
secondary ancestors—these were the premises forced upon scien-
tific inquiry, without the assumption of which the naturalist was
unceremoniously sent to a place we need not mention, In the
former case we had to do with philosophers, who in their acade-
mical gowns only talk to a select audience, but here we had
against us the whole clergy, with their faithful sheep and butting
rams—a state of things which can only be appreciated from expe-
rience. Do not think that I only speak from my own experience.
Dr. Morton, an eminent name among naturalists, an es-
teemed physician of Philadelphia, devoted himself to the study
of American craniology. After many years study he arrived
at the conclusion that the human family consisted of distinct
species, and could not possibly have descended from the same
Adam, and this result he published. A parson, the Rev. Dr.
Bachman, in Charleston, took great offence at this. As is the
custom with priests, Bachman first writes a friendly letter
to Morton, informing him that, being of a different opinion, it

14. LECTURE I.

will be his duty to write against him, but hoping that this will
not interrupt their friendship, as he still considers his friend
Morton an ornament to science. Dr. Bachman straightway
publishes a work in which he clearly betrays the greatest
ignorance of the subject. But what is this to a man full of
faith ? In spite of his ignorance, his reverence arrogantly attacks
Morton, as his biographer says, in a bombastic and declamatory
style. Morton replies in gentlemanly dignified terms, repeating
his arguments, and sustaining them scientifically. This greatly
irritates his reverence; he now accuses Morton of being at the
head of a conspiracy which had its branches in four cities of the
Union, and whose sole object was the overthrow of a doctrine
closely connected with the faith and hope of the Christian for this
world and for eternity. Infidelity, he continues, was the neces-
sary result of Morton’s views, which must be energetically op-
posed. This took place in 1850. Morton’s death in the following
spring put an end to the dispute ; but do we not hear similar
sounds from Goettingen, and are they not the echo of the
priestly objurgation wafted across the Atlantic Ocean ?

The question with regard to the differences of human races
not merely affects the basis of theology, but the most interest-
ing and difficult problems of natural history. When we have
to decide whether these differences are original, or acquired
in the lapse of time, the closest examination is requisite,
not merely as to man’s historical development upon the globe,
but as to the influence of surrounding media. We must
ascertain what may be the effect of the climate and the mode
of life to which man may be exposed in his migrations ; how
far deficiency or abundance of aliment, certain habits, the
gradual elevation to a higher civilisation may have changed
the original character, or entirely effaced it, so as to be no
longer recognisable; how far intermixture between several
races, intentional or accidental, may have given rise to new
forms. Here it is not man alone who is to be considered, but
other creatures, specially the domestic animals which are im-

* For particulars of these statements see Dr. Patterson’s Memoir of Morton,
in Types of Mankimd,p. 53.—Eprror.

LECTURE I. 15

mediately under man’s control, and the forms of which he
endeavours to alter according to his wants.

This part of the question—perhaps the most interesting—
has given rise to the greatest controversy. Very recently this
subject has again been handled by Darwin, the eminent natu-
ralist, and we shall in the sequel have to treat of his theory of
the origin of species. Here I may say this much, that,
though I do not adopt this theory with all its inferences, it
yet appears to me to be nearer the truth than any other, and I
do not hesitate to say that I accept it with regard to nearly
allied types.

I have already observed that our question has also its his-
torical, or, if you like, its geological side, which cannot be
neglected, although we again run the danger of turning the
milk of human kindness into poison, and Christian love into
grim hatred. When we desire to study the influence which
the natural conditions exercise upon man, we must go back as
far as possible into the history of the human race, since the lapse
of time is a factor which must always be keptin view. We must
necessarily form an alliance, not merely with the historian
and antiquary, but with the geologist; we must appropriate
their results, and apply these to the solution of our problem.
Here, also, the difficulties are numerous. The delusions and
mystifications to which antiquaries are exposed, have yielded
materials to the novelist. But in this maze the right path
has been detected ; and as the testimony of Egyptian antiquities
shows that the civilisation of mankind reaches further back
than the period assigned to Adam by the Jewish lawgiver,
we are at once justified in declaring that the antiquity of man
reaches back to a period when extinct animals peopled our
continent, and that this period exhibits a state of civilisation
which can scarcely bear comparison with that of the aborigines
of Australia.

One might suppose that the question regarding the anti-
quity of man on the globe concerns science only ; such, how-
ever, does not seem to be the case. The Christian theologian
immediately discovers that it is a mere presumption of the

16 LECTURE 1.

layman to assign to the Mosaic Adam a recent period in his-
tory, and to assert that there had existed a previous civilisa-
tion, in which man knew not the use of metals, and prepared
his tools and weapons from flints and bones.

We must not, however, lay the blame altogether on theolo-
gians; the reproach must also be extended to the representatives
of science, though in a lesser degree. In consequence of the
dicta of some eminent naturalists at the time when the facts
were less numerous, the opinion generally prevailed that man
belonged to the most recent geological epoch, and had only
existed in the present condition of the globe. The remains of
extinct animals intermixed with human bones, had, no doubt,
been found ; but these facts had either been ignored, or very in-
differently investigated. To such an extent did the belief im the
late appearance of the higher animals prevail, that the existence
of fossil apes in the tertiary strata was denied.* Soon, however,
the facts accumulated, and they were all the more readily accepted
as they were thought to relate to apes only. Just read the lamen-
tations of that enthusiastic inquirer Boucher de Perthes, as to the
trouble he had to induce some few unprejudiced naturalists
merely to inspect the beds from which he extracted flint
hatchets. ‘ Practical people,” he observes, “ smiled, shrugged
their shoulders, and would not look at the implements; in one
word, they were afraid of a heresy. And when the facts
became so patent, that each could verify them for himself, I
met,” says he, “with a greater obstacle than opposition,
sarcasm, and persecution—the silence of contempt. ‘The facts
were no longer denied, they were buried in oblivion. Then
followed explanations more wonderful than the facts them-
selves; the stone hatchets, it was said, were the products of
fire; they had been thrown up by a volcano in a fluid state,
and, falling into water, had, in cooling, assumed the shape of
hatchets. Others said it was intense cold that burst the flints
into fragments resembling knives and hatchets. Then, again,

* Even by Cuvier. It was not until four years after his death that the
first fossil apes were discovered.—EDITOR.

LECTURE I. 17

that the workmen had chipped the flints and imbedded them.*
All these objections I did not much care for, but what vexed
me most was, the obstinate refusal to examine the facts, and
the use of the expression, ‘ It is impossible !’ before people had
taken the trouble to ascertain whether it was actually so.”

The distrust with which antiquarian researches are fre-
quently received by physicists, may have had its share in the re-
ception which gave rise to these jeremiads. But science has no
written code, and every fact finds a way for itself if zealously
advocated. Boucher de Perthes at length succeeded in inducing
some geologists to visit the valley of the Somme, when he showed
them the flint implements in situ. These observers created some
sensation in the learned societies of Paris and London ; the sub-
ject was discussed, and the facts verified, so that there exists no
longer any doubt. But in theology, Tubal-Cain still occupies
his place as the first worker in metal, and whoever does not
believe it is not only now and for ever lost, but is publicly
branded+ as an infidel.

The great antiquity of the domestic animals, and their rela-
tions to man, are of particular interest, as they exhibit more
than man the influence of nature. As man can act upon them
by breeding and aliment according to his will, he is enabled to
alter the given forms in a manner which it seems scarcely possible
could happen by natural means. If, then, in tracing the changes
they have undergone since the most remote times, it could be
proved that the various races into which our domestic animals
are divided, are either the descendants of one original stock,
or the products of intermixture between several original spe-
cies, we should no doubt obtain analogies of as much value
as many of the conclusions derived directly from the human
species.

You observe then, Gentlemen, that the field of these in-

* See on this subject the Anthropological Review, vol. i, p. 80.—Ep1ToR.

+ It is certainly little to the credit of our “enlightened” age, that men of
science are, even in our own country, still exposed to coarse epithets and the
imputation of sordid motives, if they advance any doctrines at variance with
preconceived ideas. Like the Brahmin who smashed to pieces the unoffend-
ing microscope, which showed him living beings in his vegetable food; so
the vehemence of such self-sufficient assailants rises in proportion as the
facts advanced cannot be disproved.—Ep1ror.

Cc

18 LECTURE I.

quiries is more extensive than might be supposed. It will be my
object not, indeed, to touch upon all the facts, but merely upon
those possessing real importance as regards the inferences to be
drawn from them. In fulfilling our task we shall care very little
about the dust we may raise, or about religious and political
prejudices which we shall, perhaps, be obliged to take by the
horns and cast aside. It concerns us very little whether the
existence of Adam, Tubal-Cain, and Noah is, or is not, verified
by our researches. It is indifferent to us whether the Democrats
of the Southern States find in our investigations a confirmation
or a refutation of their assertion,* that slavery is approved of
and ordained by God; or whether the Yankee can fairly infer
from our inquiries that he is quite justified in his proud refusal
to sit in the same room, or to ride in the same railway carriage
with the Negro, though he does not refuse to eat what the
Negro has cooked. We shall advance straight forward, heed-
less of the yelping behind us.

* There is no doubt that the greater part of the democrats look upon slavery
as a divine institution. Many believe that it is supported by the history
and teaching of the Bible. Most, however, of the slaveholders of the South
look upon their slaves as a great charge which they have inherited from
their forefathers. They believe that the Negro is mentally only a child, and
quite incapable of living happily and naturally in juxtaposition with the
white European, except in a state of complete subordination and subjection.
Many slaveholders assert they would be very glad to part with their slaves, if
they could be taken entirely away; but they refuse to “free” them and
allow them to become a nuisance, and an eyesore.—EpriTor.

19

LECTURE II.

Method of investigation—Mixed Types.—Average Man and Skull.—Use of
the French Metrical System.—Scherzer and Schwarz’s System of Mea-
surement.—Craniometry.—Fixed Points in the Skull.—Choice of the
Thinnest Places.—Busk’s System of Measurement.—Aeby’s System.—
Horizontal and Vertical Planes.—Relation of the Skull to the Face.—
Camper’s Facial Angle-——Measurement of the Base and Vault of the
Cranium.—Welcker’s System of Measurement.—Cranial Angle; Skull;
Net.—Von Baer’s Nomenclature for Cranial Forms.—Coronal View:
Longheads, Medium Heads, and Short Heads.—Profile View: Pro-
gnathism and Orthognathism.—Anterior and Posterior View: Tower
Heads, Pyramidal Heads, and Roof Heads. — Scherzer - Schwarz’s
Scheme.—Tables of Cranial Measurements after Virchow, Welcker, Von
Baer, and Busk.

GrntLEmMEN,—A proper method of investigation is frequently
of greater value than the investigation itself. This axiom emi-
nently applies to natural science. A fixed plan, which will
prevent digression and enable other inquirers to pursue the same
path, is of special value. In speaking therefore in this place
of the methods which ought to be followed in order to arrive at
any results in the study of the natural history of man, I do so
under the firm conviction that only an insight into the
methods of investigation can enable us to estimate its re-
sults. We must, however, confess that it is only within a
very recent period that investigations on a proper system have
been commenced, and that some inquirers have agreed upon
uniformity of method.

There can be no doubt that the object of our inquiry is sub-
ject to a variety of changes, resulting partly from individual
disposition, from the lapse of time and from external influ-
ences, so that every investigation has necessarily many defects,
arising from a variety of sources. The original disposition
which parents transmit to their offspring, varies extremely even
in children of the same father and mother—the more so the

C2

20 LECTURE II.

longer the interval between the births of the offspring. The
development of life from birth to death depends on many
conditions, which, though following a certain law, are still
subject to many oscillations. Not merely the body as a
whole, but each part individually, every bone and every organ
has its own law of development and decay. Sex, climate,
dwelling-place, alimentation, and occupation, all have their
influences. In proceeding further, other important sources
of error arise which increase the difficulties. Let us, for
instance, assume that we are investigating the question of
human races, and that we confine our researches to the skull ;
that we take the German skull as a standard for measurement
and comparison, as we have many of these at our disposal. But
where is the guarantee that this skull, which every German ana-
tomist may declare to be a well formed German skull, belonged to
one of pure German blood? Where is the spot on German soil
where there has not been, or at least might not have been, an in-
termixture of the most various races? Have not, from the most
remote times, Asiatic and Huropean peoples chosen Germany
as their battle-field ; and, as Venus always accompanies Mars,
have they not left their traces in the blood of their descend-
ants? And, independently of these invasions, are there
not many districts in Germany where for centuries different
tribes dwelt side by side, until both became fused, or the
weaker were absorbed in the stronger? Have we not the most
evident proofs that the Germans, of whose habitation in the oak
forests our patriotic songs speak, were only the third invaders,
who subjected and absorbed two peoples, the previous occu-
pants of the German soil? Do not the Sclavonic historians
claim two-thirds of Germany as their inheritance, from which
they have been displaced by cunning and violence? Where,
then, in that historical or antediluvian mixture now called
Germany, is the spot where we may find the genuine, unmixed,
pure German square head—the téte carrée as the French call it ?
Certainly no one can give a definite answer to this question,
and every one will admit that the possibility of intermixture in
preceding generations cannot be denied.

As with the Germans, so it is with every people on the

LECTURE It. 21

globe. Traditions, historical facts, physical peculiarities, point
to extensive intermixtures, which either affected the purity of
the original stock, or perhaps gave rise to a new race. How
are we to get out of this maze? Can we possibly discover a
method which may diminish the sources of error, and lead to
more certain results ?

Natural philosophy, and its allied sciences, have long since
solved this problem, and it only remains to apply the same
method to our investigations. Where inquiries necessarily in-
volve many sources of errors, these can only be reduced to their
minimum by frequently repeating the observations and measure-
ments, so that we obtain from the mass of experiments an aver-
age representing a law. The greater the number of individual
facts accumulated, and the more strictly they are defined, by
selecting, for instance, cases of the same sex, age, and condi-
tion, the more exact will be the results. Let us illustrate this
by an example. In countries where conscription is in force, all
males, excepting cripples, are measured during their twenty-first
year, and those are excluded who do not possess the prescribed
military height. We can thus determine the average height
of the males of twenty-one years of age in certain countries. It
is clear that great errors would arise if only a hundred recruits
were measured; for these may be, as for example, in France,
either from Alsace, Brittany, or Provence, which are inhabited
by three different stocks varying in stature. But after the mea-
surement of a thousand recruits from different regions, the
calculation of the mean height will be less lable to error; and
by further measurement of all the conscripts of a certain
year the result will be singularly near the truth. Still, even
such a proceeding may prove somewhat fallacious, as a parti-
cular year may be distinguished by special peculiarities. Thus,
it is a fact that durmg a famin® fewer children are born, and
these are, on the average, weaker and less developed than those
born during other periods. But by extending the measure-
ments to a number of years, even this source of error will be
greatly diminished, and the result very nearly approach the
truth.

I have purposely selected this example to show what striking

22 LECTURE II.

results may be obtained by the most unpromising means, the
moment we know how to group and handle a number of data
properly. Itis from the recruiting tables of France that one
of the most ingenious writers on the Natural History of Man,
Paul Broca, has deduced the distribution of the large-sized
Kimri or Gaels, and the small-sized Celts in France, and
indicated the districts where these tribes have preserved their
purity, and those where they have become intermixed.

You thus perceive, gentlemen, that in examining either in-
dividual characters or separate races, we must apply the prin-
ciples adopted in physics, meteorology, and the allied sciences.
Exact measurements and weights, expressible in figures, and
applicable to numbers and masses, can alone afford a basis for
scientific accuracy. Everything that rests merely upon personal
predilection or individual conception must only be added as flesh
and skin to the skeleton, afforded by measurement and weight.
In ordinary cases, measurement and weight form the generally
received standard ; in others, the standard has yet to be found.
Attention has rightly been called to the necessity of devising
a table of colours for the estimation of the coloration of the
skin and hair (like the cyanometers for the sky), in order
to obviate the confusion prevailing among naturalists as regards
the shades in the different races, some of which are, by one
writer, described as of olive colour, and by another, as of dark
coppery-brown.* It must, however, be admitted, that there
are many difficulties in the preparation of standard colour-
tables calculated to lead to satisfactory results.

If we are to devote our attention, before all things, to what can
be measured and weighed, the living man is the first object which
demands our investigation. The “average man” of Europe hav-
ing been determined by Quételet, his system is now applied to
races. Hitherto, such observations have only been made
during three voyages in distant parts of the world. Burmeister
applied this method, to a lmited extent, to the Negroes in

* The Anthropological Society of London, acting in concert with the Paris
Société d Anthropologie, are about to bring out some tables of this description ;
and these will be accompanied by some general instructions which are to be
sent to all the fellows, correspondents, and local secretaries of the society
in different parts of the world.—Hnp1rTor.

LECTURE II. 23

Brazil; Drs. Scherzer and Schwarz, on a large scale, during the
voyage of the Novara; and the brothers Schlagintweit in
India. Burmeister has published the results, if not the details,
of his measurements ; the observations of the latter travellers
have, to my knowledge, not yet been published in their en-
tirety. Since the story of the colossal idols of Thibet, the
scientific reputation of the brothers Schlagintweit is not such
as to warrant implicit faith in their conclusions; so that we
must adopt the Novara expedition as the starting-poimt of a
scientific investigation of human races in distant regions.

It is a matter of primary importance to establish a uniform
standard of measurement, so that we may compare the results
obtained by a variety of observers, without any necessity of
reduction. Most observers, with the exception of the English,*
now use—and quite properly—the French measure and weight,
the metre and the kilogramme ; and it is surprising that so dis-
tinguished a naturalist as Karl Ernst von Baer should adopt the
English standard, which is not even fixed, some dividing the
foot into ten, others into twelve, inches. By the way, gentle-
men, the great reputation of the English, as practical people,
rests on as small a foundation as any other flattery, and it is
precisely the things of common life that prove this most evi-
dently. , During the Crimean war, we saw the stiff and formal
English perish from frost and hunger, though they had abundant
provisions at a small distance ; whilst the more handy French,
with much scantier material at their disposal, contrived to make
themselves exceedingly comfortable.t It is just the same in
social life. There is not a more senseless metrical and monetary
system than the English. Without calculation you cannot re-

* The English have certainly hitherto used their own measures; but the
inconvenience of this course is so fully appreciated by myself and brother
members of the Council of the Anthropological Society of London, that we
have decided to do all we can to introduce French measurements, into
all our researches and investigations. The author is not, apparently, aware
of the difficulty of obtaining any mutual action on the part of English
men of science. The Anthropological Society—as a young institution—is
fortunately free from the trammels and hereditary prejudices which too often
are successful barriers to the introduction of foreign methods.—Epr1Tor.

+ This is, to a great extent, true; but the causes of the great mor-
tality of the English troops in the Crimea are also in some measure to be
ascribed to the want of training of our young soldiers, a large proportion of
whom besides were suffering from the effects of syphilitic disease.—Hprror.

24, LECTURE Il.

duce lines to inches, and inches to feet. The foot has no de-

finite relation to the mile, nor the latter to the degree of lati-~
tude. Pounds, ounces, and scruples vary for different objects,

just as formerly apothecary and market-weight were in use in

Germany; and they, also, cannot be reduced without cal-

culation, and have no relation to the measurements of solids

and liquids. ‘This nonsense even extends to the thermometer,

the Fahrenheit scale being the only one in use. How simple,

compared with all this, is the French system! How easily is it

applied in making calculations and noting the results.

After this digression, let us return to our subject. It is no
small task to measure a living man. On looking at the sys-
tematic scheme made use of by Scherzer and Schwarz* in
the Novara expedition, we find that it takes several hours to
note in the register the seventy-eight data required. In the
general part, the age, name and sex of the individual, colour and
structure of the hair, the growth of the beard, colour of the eyes,
and other peculiarities, are noted first ; then the number of pul-
sations, the strength, by means of Regnier’s dynamometer, and
finally, the weight and height of the naked body, are deter-
mined. Next follow the measurements of the head, the trunk,
and the extremities; twenty-one of them relate to the head,
seventeen to the trunk, and twenty to the extremities, I can-
not particularise them here; those who wish to render them
more complete, or criticise them, must make themselves
familiar with them by practical manipulation. This much
may be said, that the scheme gives a tolerably complete repre-
sentation of the body measured, and thus attains the object in
view, as far as is practicable.

The first requisite for every measurement is that fixed points
should be discovered, which may easily be found in all objects of
the same kind, and to determine the lines and planes from which
further points may be determined. Such requisites seem at first
sight very easy to obtain ; but on examination they will be found
attended with so many difficulties, that we need not wonder at

* T have added to this lecture Messrs. Schwarz and Scherzer’s scheme,
which is so arranged that every instrument is only laid aside after it has
answered all its purposes.

LECTURE Il. 25

the difference of opinion in the matter. Measurement on the
living individual is, of course, only external, and we all know
how human beings differ in dimensions, owing to aliment,
condition of life, and constitution; as far as possible, the
measurements on the living body must be confined to those
parts where the bones are nearest the skin, or where aper-
tures exist which either lead to internal organs, or present
fixed positions. Let us apply this first principle to that part
which is of the greatest importance to us, namely, the head.
In most cases, the skull and the lower jaw are so near the skin
that their shape may easily be felt. The base of the cranium
alone is inaccessible, and its important proportions can only be
determined on the prepared skull. Of the various apertures in
the cranium, the external auditory opening is the one which sup-
plies all the conditions required for a central point. The aperture
of this canal is sufficiently narrow to render it easy to determine
its centre, and it corresponds very nearly with the aperture
in the dried skull, so that all measurements from this point
may be transferred from the living individual to the cranium,
and vice versd. We may, therefore, boldly assert that any
system of measurement which does not include the external
auditory opening as one of its most important fundamental
points, is faulty and imperfect.

The external margin of the orbit, corresponding to the outer
angle of the eye; the centre of the process to which the muscles
of the neck are attached ; the root of the nose; the junction be-
tween the septum of the nose and the upper lip, which bears a cer-
tain relation to a bony process called the anterior nasal spine; the
terminal point of the upper jaw between the two middle incisors ;
the central point of the projecting chin, so characteristic of
man ;*—all these points are easily determined in the cranium,
and form a net of triangles, by means of which all other mea-
surements may be effected. I merely indicate the principle
without giving details; but you will agree with me that it is
to be regretted that many recent measurements are of such a
kind as to preclude their comparison with measurements on

* And some Indian monkeys.—EDITOoR.

26 LECTURE II.

living men. Thus while von Baer, for instance, with many
others, measures the diameter of the skull from the lowest
point of the forehead, the so-called glabella, to the most pro-
jecting point of the occiput, Welcker takes the frontal emi-
nences, which are situated higher up and cannot be exactly
determined either in the living or the dead skull, as his start-
ing-points, so that both these measurements are lable to
great objections, both on the score of usefulness and accuracy ;
this much, moreover, is certain, that, even if they could be
accurately determined, they are not comparable with each
other.

There is another circumstance, as von Baer justly observes,
which must be attended to in cranial measurements, namely,
the unequal thickness of the skull in various parts, so that in
order to obtain an approximative idea of the internal capacity of
the cranium, we must select the points where the bone is thin-
nest, and avoid the prominences, which are especially lable to
be modified by the action of the attached muscles.

On each side of the human skull there is a curved line, the
so-called temporal ridge, which marks the limits of the tem-
poral muscle. The more this muscle—the chief masticating
muscle—is developed, the higher up is the line, and the broader
the space between the zygomatic arch and the cranium. The
development of this muscle is sometimes so great that in many
animals its fibres have no room for attachment to the side of
the skull, and a crest is formed on the vertex to serve for at-
tachment. The development of the temporal ridge and the
breadth of the zygomatic arch are, therefore, in direct propor-
tion, both depending on the development of the temporal
muscle. Now, it is this muscle which especially effects the
perpendicular action of the jaw; whilst the lateral motions of
the jaws, for the grinding of the food, are effected by other
muscles. The latter are greatly developed in vegetable feeders,
such as ruminants, whose lower jaw acts like a millstone. The
perpendicular motion especially obtains in carnivora. We thus
necessarily arrive at the result, that nations living chiefly on
animal food exhibit more developed temporal ridges and broader
curved zygomatic arches than vegetable feeders ; the latter pos-

LECTURE II. 27

sessing, also, flatter zygomatic arches, and therefore narrower
faces, and perhaps also longer skulls.* It is clear, therefore,
that the advice, to avoid prominences and to select the thinnest
parts of the skull, should certainly be attended to in estimating
the internal capacity of the cranium; whilst, on the other
hand, the development of lines and crests is of importance,
as affording indications for distinguishing races. For the ques-
tion may also be asked, has any given race strongly developed
temporal ridges because it is carnivorous? or, is it carnivorous
because of the great development of these ridges and of the
muscles of mastication ?

Still, it is very difficult practically to follow Von Baer’s
well meant advice. The thinnest part of the cranium is just
the centre of the temple, which is covered by the temporal
muscle: but this point, though well known even in common
life from the danger attending a blow on this spot, can neither
in the living nor the dead subject be determined with that
accuracy requisite for measurements; whilst those spots
nearest the skin generally correspond with the ridges and
muscular projections. The objection which may be made to
so many methods, viz., their inapplicabilty to both the
living and dead subject, applies also to the otherwise ra-
tional method lately proposed by Professor Busk of London.
This mode of measurement is based essentially upon a fixed
vertical line passing through the centre of the auditory open-
ing, and drawn from the vertex at the point where the
sagittal and coronal sutures meet. ‘The selection of the ex-
ternal aperture of the ear as the starting-point of the radi
and angles is unobjectionable ; but the perpendicular line can
hardly be determined with accuracy. In many skulls the exact
point can only be guessed at, as the sutures are frequently
denticulated to such an extent that the exact spot in which they
meet may be outside the central line, and consequently either
before or behind the pomt. It is, moreover, impossible
to find this point on the living head; and as all other lines
depend upon the vertical, Busk’s method of measurement can-

* This is a very ingenious theory, but must be pronounced to be as yet
mere speculation.—EpITor.

28 LECTURE Il.

not be applied to the living body. It is, moreover, difficult to
apply this method, as the explanations are so brief and imper-
fect,* notwithstanding the illustrative figures. I, however, give
the table and some illustrations, as the method contains the
germ of a rational system of measurement.

A new method of cranial measurement, proposed quite re-
cently by Prof. Aeby of Berne, is founded on the use of a
base line, the posterior end of which coincides with the central
point of the anterior margin of the foramen magnum. The
other extremity of this base line must be sought for at the
anterior margin of the plate of the ethmoid, which is easily
accessible in a skull sawn through longitudinally, but is more
difficult to determine in the entire skull on account of the
hidden position of the ethmoid bone. “ Externally,” says
Aeby, “ this point generally corresponds with the lower mar-
gin of the frontal bone, where it joins the nasal process of the
superior maxillary bone; still it must be borne in mind that
the suture in question may remove higher up or lower down in
different individuals. The poimt may be obtained with great
certainty by connecting the foramina ethmoidalia by a straight
line, and producing it in front until it intersects the suture be-
tween the above-mentioned process and the lachrymal bone.
Regard must be had to the possibly abnormal course of this
suture. Here, then, we have the anterior end of our base line,
which embraces the whole space where the cerebral and
the facial portion adjoin each other.” The base line obtained
in this way is produced backwards and forwards, and the whole
system of measurement is founded upon it. A plane placed
perpendicularly upon it, longitudinally bisecting the skull, is
called the median plane, and in this plane various ordinates
are measured which run upwards towards the surface of the
cerebral portion, or downwards to points of the facial portion
of the skull. Upon both the terminal points of the base

* This is scarcely a fair criticism of Professor Busk’s method, which chiefly
errs on account of its diffuseness and prolixity. The author does not seem
to be acquainted with the tables circulated by Messrs. Quekett and Busk
many years ago; or with Mr. Busk’s paper on “A Systematic Mode of Cra-
niometry,” in Transactions of Ethnological Society, vol. 1, new series, p.
341.—EDITOR.

LECTURE II. 29

line, the absolute measure of which is in comparison always
assumed as unity, two perpendicular ordinates are erected,
and the space between both extreme points equally divided by
two other ordinates. Other perpendiculars are then drawn
through the most prominent points of the frontal and occipital
bones, and also through the posterior border of the foramen
magnum, so that we have upon the base line, at various dis-
tances, seven perpendiculars, by which the contour of the
curve, described by the median plane on the surface of the
skull, can be determined with sufficient exactness to be used for
graphic delineation. Less attention is paid by Aeby to the facial
portion ; itis determined by three lines which are drawn to the-
points of the nasal bones, to the upper jaw above the roots of
the incisors, and to the posterior border of the bony palate.
The development of the skull in breadth and height is repre-
sented by three transverse sections perpendicular to the base
line. The hindmost of these is placed at equal distances be-
tween the external auditory opening and the articulation of
the jaw; the central one at the point of greatest constriction
behind the orbits, while the anterior one joins the zygomatic
processes of the frontal bone, where they join the frontal pro-
cesses of the zygoma. All these planes are measured by equi-
distant ordinates, like the median plane. All measurements
being reduced to the base line as unity, Aeby obtains compa-
rable numbers ; and by multiplying the measurements he eli-
minates individual deviations, and reducing them to an average,
obtains for each race, for each species, a definite mean number,
and also comparable reduced normal skulls, capable of being
arranged in series.

Aeby gives the following reswmé of his measurements and
calculations in the Transactions of the Basle Society of Na-
twralists :— “I expected to obtain from the median plane in
particular, definite starting-points for the scientific division of
human races; I was therefore not a little surprised to find just
the contrary. If a close examination of more than five
hundred skulls from all parts of the earth entitles one to ex-
press an opinion, then I must say, most decidedly, that the
normal skulls of all races essentially agree with one another as

30 LECTURE II.

regards the median plane, and that in this respect the ex-
tremest dolichocephaly and brachycephaly show no difference
whatever. The variations to which the occiput is subject are
in some cases so abnormal and so great, even within individual
limits, that they cannot be regarded as influencing the general
law. Opposed to this constancy of the median plane, the dif-
ferences in the frontal planes are the more striking. Here the
cranial forms decidedly separate into narrow and broad. Hach
is distributed into particular regions ; the former belonging to
the southern, the latter to the northern, hemisphere. Africa
and Polynesia, with New Holland, offer the narrowest, Hu-
rope, with Northern Asia, the broadest, forms of skulls.
Southern Asia is intermediate between both divisions, not
merely because its inhabitants (Chinese and Javanese, for
instance) possess generally a medium breadth of skull; but
also especially because some districts repeat the type of the
most decided narrow skulls (e. g. Hindu), others, that of the
broad skulls (some islands in the vicinity of Java). It is re-
markable that the Greenlanders, though a high northern people,
possess the most decidedly narrow skulls which exist. How
it is in the rest of America Iam unable to say, as I had not
sufficient materials at my disposal. Both types seem repre-
sented. Some, at least, of the Brazilian peoples are narrow-
headed ; whilst the Botocudos and the Indians of the North are
more or less decidedly broad-headed. The measurements, as
already stated, all refer to the reduced skull, and are, therefore,
independent of absolute size. I have not succeeded in finding
a definite law of development for the latter.

“«¢ All differences, therefore, of the human cranial form de-
pend essentially on the difference in the development of breadth.
Platycephaly stands opposed to leptocephaly, though connected
with it by gradual transitions. The uniform development of
the median plane in the whole human species, appears to me a
fact of the greatest interest. Not less important seems to me
the observation that ethnic differences do not much obtain in
childhood ; for between the infantile skulls of Negroes and Hu-
ropeans I find the greatest accordance. Median planes and
frontal planes cover each other completely ; an important fact

LECTURE II. ol

in the estimation of narrow and broad skulls: both originate
from the same point, but in such a manner that whilst the
growth of the latter proceeds at a uniform rate in all directions,
that of the former is confined to transverse expansion. In
this we find an accord with the type of development of the
lower creatures. I have already elsewhere drawn attention to
the similarity of all foetal cranial forms. J am now prepared
to lay it down as a general law, that a cranial form occupies a
higher rank accordingly as it ddvances by uniform peripheral
development from the fcetal form; and that it stands lower,
accordingly as the growth is confined to certain directions and
points. From this point of view, the narrow skull must be
considered as a lower type. Of course, no inference must be
drawn from this as to the mental capacity of the possessor of
such a skull. We will not leave unmentioned that possibly
the same position may be assigned to the most decided broad
skulls. Some of these, at least (e.g. the Tunguse), have a
tendency to vertical flattening. But if this be considered as
arising from the predominance of the growth in width, we have
the reverse of the type of development of the narrow skull.
The most perfect form would accordingly be the intermediate
one; and it is, perhaps, not without significance that this form
is the inheritance of those peoples who have accomplished
most in the province of intellect.”

I must freely confess that I do not perfectly understand one
point in this deduction. If “the uniform development of the
median pl&ine” means that the area of the vertical section is, in
proportion to the base line, the same in all normal skulls, the
result would be of considerable importance, and might be ex-
pressed in other words,—that the diminution of the frontal
part, for imstance, is compensated by the occipital part, and
vice versdé. It appears to me, however, that the estimation of
the median plane, from the few ordinates measured, must pre-
sent considerable difficulties. But if the meaning is, that the
individual ordinates, calculated upon the base line, are equal to
each other, then I must express my disbelief, and should re-
gard it as a fundamental defect in the whole system of mea-

32 LECTURE II.

surement, that it cannot show such differences as are found in
the development of the forehead and the vertex.

If we return from this digression to the investigation of the
normal base line, upon which measurement must depend, we
find the same difficulties in determining a universal horizontal
plane, as in determining the normal vertical one. In perfect
repose the head is balanced upon the topmost vertebra, the
so-called atlas, but as is easily seen, this equilibrium is dis-
turbed both in the living subject and in the dead skull, in the
most various ways. If, however, the above position is assumed
as the normal, then selecting as the starting-point the aperture
of the ear, the horizontal line passes nearly through the centre
of the nasal aperture, a little above the point of the nose, in
the living man. A horizontal line must, therefore, be assumed
(its importance will be seen in the sequel), which can be de-
termined by its terminal points, though it causes the head to
deviate slightly from the natural position.

The half-dozen anthropologists who met at Gottingen, in the
autumn of 1861, had a lively discussion with regard to the
line, or rather the plane, which ought to be assumed as the
horizontal. One proposed the zygomatic arch ; another, a plane
passing across the occipital foramen ; a third, a line from the
auditory aperture to the base of the nasal aperture. The zygo-
matic arch is never quite straight; the direction of the hori-
zontal line passing through it must frequently be taken more ac-
cording to the feeling than actual measurement. Even if we
could succeed in laying a plane exactly across the occtpital fora-
men—a task of considerable difficulty on account of its form—
it cannot be determined in the living head, and as this plane
is so short, every error would be magnified by the necessary
prolongation of it. The only horizontal plane which can be
termed rational is that between the two aural apertures and
the bottom of the nasal apertures, and which may be deter-
mined both on the living head and on the skull. The hori-
zontal line drawn in this way, between two fixed points,
easily determinable both on the living head and dead skull, has
moreover the advantage of representing one of the lines of Cam-
per’s facial angle, which has been long in use, and although defec-

LECTURE Il. 33

tive in many respects, does not at all deserve the neglect with
which it has been treated in some recent works. As regards the
estimation of this angle, as well as of some others which can
only be taken on the dry skull, it will be necessary to make
some further observations.

Fig. 1. Cranium of an Australian in profile, after Lucae.

t=)

The osseous framework of the head is composed of two
intimately connected parts: the cranium proper, containing
the brain, and forming a firmly closed box with a few aper-
tures only, through which the spinal cord, nerves, and blood-
vessels obtain access to the brain; and the fuce, containing
spaces for the more important organs of sense and the en-
trances to the respiratory and digestive organs. On compar-
ing the formation of the head in man and brute, we see, at the
first glance, that in the former the skull-cap, and consequently
the enclosed brain, predominates considerably over the face,
which appears like an appendage to the skull. For we must bear
in mind, that in normal skulls a plane drawn from the upper
margin of the eyebrows through the aural apertures, passes to
the posterior edge of the occipital foramen; that is to say,
almost entirely within the internal cranial space, and that when

the head is thus divided into two parts, the upper portion con-
D

34 LECTURE Il.

tains the brain, the lower the face. If the dried skull is looked
at without the lower jaw, the disproportion is still more strik-
ing. The forehead, which, according to artistic notions, con-
stitutes so essential a part of the countenance, belongs to the
skull, and not to the face; it is, in fact, one of the most
important parts of the cerebral cranium, and must be particu-
larly attended to in investigating the peculiarities of the struc-
ture of man.

Let us now compare the formation of the human head with
that of any other animal, and we shall find two essential
differences depending on the proportions of the two parts.
The cranium proper is in man absolutely larger than in the
brute, in which the face frequently occupies more space than
the brain-case ; in man, too, the face is, to a certain extent, a
sort of appendage, fastened on under the cranium, whilst in
the animal the cranial cavity lies rather behind the face. In
man the roof of the orbits, upon which the anterior lobes of
the brain rest, forms nearly a horizontal plane; in the animal
it may be nearly vertical. In man a perpendicular line drawn
from the root of the nose falls usually upon the canine tooth ;
in the animal upon the posterior molars.

Fig. 2. Skull of the Weeper Monkey, Cebus apella, in profile.

In man the forehead is arched forward; in the animal, on the

LECTURE II. 35

contrary, the face projects in a muzzle, whilst the forehead and
the cranium recede. Camper endeavoured to express this
relation by his facial angle. The more the muzzle projects and
the forehead recedes, the more acute must be the angle formed
by two lines, one of which is drawn from the aural aperture to
the margin of the upper jaw, and the other from the jaw to the
most prominent point of the forehead. It is true, Gentlemen,
that the facial angle does not altogether answer its purpose ; it
is true that Camper did not definitely determine it, so that
some take the angle at the nasal spine, others at the alveolar
margin. It is also true that there are skulls in which the pro-
jecting snouts depend almost entirely upon the formation of
the jaws. In many cases, too, the eyebrows are very promi-
nent, such prominence depending not upon the development
of the brain, but upon that of the frontal sinuses, which are
connected with the nose. But, granting all these objections,
it must be admitted that similar ones may be made to most
other measurements, and that conclusions as to the general
proportions of a skull cannot be deduced from a single measure-
ment. Camper’s angle alone cannot afford a valid standard of
the relative proportions of skull and face, still it fairly repre-
sents these proportions, and should in no case be neglected.

It must not be forgotten that all these observations, which
have for their object the determination, not merely of the
external form of the head, but of the proportions of its parts,
have to be made chiefly on the dead skull, and not on the
living head. The real proportions can only be ascertained
when the skull is bisected, so that both the right and left
halves may be inspected and measured internally and ex-
ternally. As I cannot expect you to be acquainted with
anatomical details, I venture to offer a few explanations, which
I shall endeavour to make as short as possible.

The basis of the cranium, upon which the brain rests,
consists essentially of four bones: the occipital, the sphe-
noid, the ethmoid, and the frontal. By the aperture in the
occipital the spinal cord reaches the brain; the optic nerve
passes through the sphenoid to the eye, and the olfactory

through the ethmoid bone. We need not notice the frontal
De

36 LECTURE II.

bone, as it merely assists in supporting the anterior lobes
and can scarcely be considered as belonging to the base of the

Fig. 3. Base of skull, inner surface; calvarium removed.

a. The frontal sinuses connected with the nasal cavity. b. The ethmoid bone,
with the crista galli and cribriform plate for the passage of the olfactory nerves.
c. Anterior fossa, roof of the orbit. d. Frontal bone. e. Anterior clinoid process.
f. Great wing of the sphenoid bone. g. Body of the sphenoid bone; depres-
sion of the sella turcica. h. Posterior clinoid process. i. Squama of the
temporal bone. k. Body of the occipital bone. 1. Parietal bone. m. Petrous
portion of thetemporal. o. Occipitalforamen. jp. Cerebellar fossa. gq. Occi-
pital squama.

brain. The central parts, or bodies, of the occipital, sphenoid,
and ethmoid bones, correspond to vertebrae, which, however,
are considerably modified in their structure. The ethmoid bone
exhibits, though imperfectly, the form of a vertebra without
peripheral parts ; the occipital bone, on the contrary, represents
a perfect vertebra, having not merely articulating surfaces for
the succeeding vertebra, the so-called atlas, but forming the fora-
men magnum, by which the continuation of the spinal cord enters
the cranium. The sphenoid bone finally represents an interme-
diate shape, its body, on the one hand, being a continuation of

LECTURE II. oN

the occipital bone, and the wings, on the other hand, which

assist in closing the orbits and the temporal fosse, forming side

pieces, and at least tending towards the formation of an arch.
Fig. 4. Base of skull viewed externally.

a. The palatine process of the superior maxillary forms with d. the hori-
zontal plate of the palate bone, the bony palate. b. Zygomatic process of
the superior maxillary forms with c. the zygoma, and g. the zygomatic pro-
cess of the temporal bone, the zygomatic arch. e. Temporal fossa, formed
chiefly by the greater wing of the sphenoid. /. Posterior nasal spine. h.
Vomer. i. Body of the basilar bone, formed of the confluent bodies of the
sphenoid bone (in front) and the occipital bone. k. Styloid process of the
temporal bone. J. Glenoid fossa for the condyle of the lower jaw. m. Py-
ramid of the petrous portion. mn. Mastoid process of the temporal bone.
o. Articular surfaces of the occipital bone. p. Posterior inferior angle of parietal
bone. gq. Lambdoid suture. vr. Foramen magnum. s. Squama of the occi-
pital bone. ¢. Inferior curved line. -w. Occipital crest. v. Superior curved
line. w. Occipital protuberances.

The vault of the cranium is completed by the arched bones
termed the temporal, parietal, and frontal, which are joined to-
gether by sutures. It is important to know the course of these
sutures. On looking at the skull from above, there is seen on
the vertex a transverse suture which separates the frontal from

38 LECTURE Il.

the two parietal bones—the sutwra coronalis.* The two parietal
bones are separated by a longitudinal suture (the sutwra sagit-
talis).t In the earliest stages of existence this suture is con-
tinued to the root of the nose and thus divides the frontal bone
into two symmetrical halves, but in normal skulls the aperture
is closed before birth ; in some broad heads the frontal suture
remains during life. The sagittal suture terminates in the oc-
ciput, where it touches a triangular suture which separates the
occipital from the parietal bones, and is called the lambdoid
suture.

The cranial bones are developed at the expense of a cartila-

Fig. 5. Outline of an adult skull with persistent frontal suture, top view,
after Welcker. The positions of the two fontanelles are marked by dotted

lines, as well as the outlines of the bones as they are developed in the new-
born child.

a. Frontal suture. 6. Coronal suture. c. Lambdoid suture. d. Sagittal
suture. e. Anterior Fontanelle. jf. Posterior fontanelle. g. Frontal protu-
berances. i. Occipital protuberance (not visible). &. Frontal bone. Jl. Pa-
rietal bone. m. Occipital bone.

* « Fronto-parietal’ suture.—Epitor. + “ Interparietal’’ sutuwre.—Eprror.

LECTURE I. 39

ginous or membranous base from separate osseous points, some
of which are symmetrically placed on both sides of the median
line, others lie in the central line. Increasing in growth—the
laws of which Welcker has recently established,—the bones ap-
proach each other and are finally connected by sutures.

Thus it is well known that in new-born children the sutures
are not closed on the top of the head: the openings are the so-
called fontanelles. The anterior or the large fontanelle is of an
oblong shape, and corresponds to the junction of the sagittal
and coronal sutures, the posterior, triangular in shape, is situated
at the junction of the sagittal and lambdoid sutures. These
fontanelles usually close in the course of the first year. The
frontal suture closes sooner. Synostosis of the sphenoid and
occipital bone frequently takes place at maturity, so that some
anatomists* have described them as one bone. All these sutures
are often closed in old age. Premature closing is frequently
the cause of the arrest of cerebral development. The order in
which the sutures close appears to be connected with the
development of individuals and races, as we shall see in the
sequel.

Some of the osseous points from which the cranial bones are
developed may be observed as prominences in the adult skull.
This is not, however, always the case; in some crania they are
obliterated, in others very perceptible. Such are the frontal
eminences (tubera frontalia) above the eyebrows, the parietal
protuberances (tubera parietalia), and the occipital prominence
(tuber occipitale) in the centre of the squama occipitis. These
prominences are very distinct in the infant, and if, as is done in
the annexed figures, the outlines of the embryonal bones are
marked on the adult skull, and the corresponding prominences
superposed, we obtain a good idea of the ah hae of the respec-
tive bones from birth to adult age.

The base of the head formed by the three eee vertebree is
of great importance, as it determines the development of the
cranium, as well as that of the face; the cranium, as regards
development and interpretation, being only a radiation of the
parietal parts of the base, and the face being appended to them,

* Meckel especially —Epiror.

4.0 LECTURE Il.

every change in the development and juncture of these three
fundamental bones must necessarily influence both parts of the

Fig. 6. Side view of the skull, as in preceding figure. a. tom. have the
same signification.

BE 6 U

vor

/, ~ WL

n. Squama of temporal bone. o. Mastoid process. y. External auditory
aperture. gq. Temporalridge. +r. Zygomatic arch. s. Wing of the sphe-
noid bone. t. Zygoma (cheek bones). wu. Upper jaw. v. Nasal spine.
w. Orbit. «#. Nasalbone. y. Nasal suture. z. Glabella.

head, inasmuch as these in a certain degree represent the two
arms of a lever which finds its central point in these bones.
On inspecting a skull sawn through, so as to divide these
bones longitudinally through the centre, we perceive that they
do not, at all events, in normal skulls, present a straight
line, but an angular surface, the centre of which is in a depres-
sion of the sphenoid bone called the “Turkish saddle” (sella
turcica). Upon this “saddle” rests an appendage of the
brain situated almost in the centre of the lower surface of the
cerebral mass. Jn the same spot where the angle is formed,
that peculiar cartilaginous body the chorda, terminates what
served as the central point for the formation of the vertebrz
of the embryo at the earliest period. It has been observed that

LECTUR® Il. Ay

in all higher vertebrate embryos, there is at this spot a con-
siderable curvature of the cerebral axis, by which, at a time
when scarcely the first foundation of the face exists, the anterior
part of the head is bent lke the anterior phalanx of a finger
when we close the fist. Though this original curvature in the
embryo is subsequently diminished both by the growth of the
face and the brain, there still remains, even in mature age,
a trace of this formation so characteristic of the higher verte-
brates. The region in the vicinity of the sella turcica,
and the bones connected therewith, are, then, in many re-
spects the apex of the angle, the central point on which the
skull and face turn, and of the greatest importance in the study
of them. To Professor Virchow belongs the merit of having

Fig. 7. Vertical section in the median plane of the skull of a very ortho-
gnathous German, after Welcker.

a. Parietal bone. 6. Cantle of saddle. c. Turkish saddle (sella turcica).
d. Pommel of saddle (olivary process). e. Frontal protuberances. jf. Frontal
sinus. g. Nasal bone. h. Nasal cavity. 7. Anterior nasal spine. k. Dental
margin of the superior maxillary. J. Osseous palate. m. Foramen magnum.
m. Occipital squama. o. Body of occipital bone. pp. Cerebral cavity.

The lines continued beyond the skull by dots are measuring-lines, which
are explained in the Table, and indicate at the same time the angles of the
facial quadrangle, they enclose—1l. Fronto-nasal angle and line ne. 2.
Dental angle and linebz. 3. Linenz. 4. Line be and foraminal angle.
Line nb and nb = length of the cranial vertebre, according to Virchow.
See Table No. 6.

42 LECTURE II.

first pointed out the importance of the relations of these bones
to cerebral and cranial development, and of having shown that
the size and position of the so-called sphenoid angle are ab-
solutely requisite for examining the skull and face—a truth
which has been very recently confirmed by Welcker’s numerous
measurements.

In fact, Welcker has shown that the more the sphenoid bone
is bent, that is to say, the smaller the sphenoid angle, the more
perpendicular is the position of the teeth, and that the sphenoid
angle becomes larger in proportion to the greater obliquity of
the incisors produced by the enlargement of the facial bones.
Besides this, Welcker has proved that the measurement of this
angle, which is determined by three points, namely, the root
of the nose at the juncture of the nasal and frontal bone, the an-
terior margin of the occipital foramen, and the “ pommel of the
saddle” (olivary process); he has proved, I say, that this angle
and its development in man is an excellent corrective of Cam-
per’s facial angle, as well as a distinctive character between
man and ape. I will explain the matter further.

In the infant, the head and cranium are proportionately very

Fig. 8. Vertical section of the skull of a new-born child, after Welcker.

Description the same as in the preceding figure, except, in addition, q, anterior
fontanelle, r posterior fontanelle.

LECTURE II. 43

large, the forehead is arched, the brain more developed, so to
speak, than any other part of the body ; the jaws especially are
remarkably slightly developed, the teeth are absent. During
the first year, the growth is accordingly greater in the face

Fig. 9. Vertical section of the skull of Cebus apella, natural size. Descrip-
tion the same as in the two preceding figures.

than in the cranium. Hence it follows that Camper’s facial
angle is larger in the child than in the adult; and if the facial
angle were to be the sole measure of cerebral development and
of intelligence, the child would be intellectually in advance of

44, LECTURE II.

the adult. But it is different with the angle of the sella, which
is more obtuse in the child than in the adult, so that in this re-
spect the correct proportion is established. But according to
Welcker’s researches, there is a great difference as regards the
formation of this angle between man and even the ape nearest
allied to him. It is well known—and we shall subsequently re-
vert to this point—that in the most anthropoid apes, the chim-
panzee, gorilla, and orang, the young animal in every respect °
resembles man more than the adult, and that this relapse
to the semblance of the brute, consists essentially in the fact
that the cranium remains stationary as regards cerebral capa-
city ; whilst the jaws and the whole face are greatly developed,
and project in the form of a muzzle. In corresportdence with
this, we find that, e.g., in the orang the angle of the sella is
the more obtuse the older the animal is; whilst, on the contrary,
in man this angle is smaller in the adult than in the child.
“Tf,” says Welcker, “the skulls are arranged according to
Camper’s angle, the skull of the infant, contrasted with that of
any animal, occupies a higher place than the skull of the adult ;
but if the skulls are arranged according to the increasing
size of the angle of the sella the series stands: man, woman,
. child, animal.”

If a fourth point be added to the three which mark the angle
of the sella, namely the nasal spine, and if these points are
connected by lines, we obtain an irregular quadrangle, which
pretty nearly circumscribes the whole face, exclusive of the
lower jaw, and the form of which depends on the development
of the bones and their curvatures. The four corners of this
quadrangle might be termed the sella-angle, the nasal-angle,
the dental-angle, and the foraminal-angle; and we may, by
comparing these angles in different individuals and races,
discover important and constant proportions in direct relation
to the development of the face and the base of the skull. A
diagonal of the facial quadrangle, drawn from the anterior
margin of the occipital foramen to the root of the nose, and of
which the length can be easily estimated in either opened
or unopened skulls, is so far important, that it corresponds

LECTURE Il. AD

- with the axis of the curved cranial base, and thus, by its rela-
tive length or shortness, indicates the curvature of this axis.

Whilst by means of the facial quadrangle, and a few trans-
verse diameters, the face can easily be characterised in its chief
features, the difficulty is much greater as regards the cranium
proper. This hollow case presents so many deviations from
the oval form, the various points on which the measurement is
based are so easily misplaced, that it is extraordinarily difficult
to establish a system of diameters, radii, and angles universally
applicable to all crania. Huschke, in a big book containing
much that is valuable as well as much that is singular, has not
only proposed, but carried out on several specimens, a formal
triangulation of the skull, by means of which he endeavours
to calculate the area of the cranial bones and their relative
development. His object was to find the superficial extent of
the three cranial vertebra, which, in accordance with a natural-
philosophical idea which Carus has specially defended, bears a
special relation to the intellectual functions. No one has
hitherto followed this path, and we doubt whether any one
will pursue the same method by reason of the irregularity of
the cranial bones, and the numerous sources of error incidental
to the system, nor does the development of the individual
cranial vertebree stand in constant proportion to that of the
brain and its lobes.

Welcker has selected for the designation of the measure-
ments of the skull a geometrical construction, which he terms
the cranial net, resembling the reticulated designs used in
making paper and pasteboard figures of crystals.

Though a figure composed of triangles and squares cannot
give a correct representation of the skull and face, the cranial
nets still exhibit such characteristic forms and peculiarities,
that they afford us considerable assistance in determining
cranial measurements.

At the meeting of anthropologists in Géttingen, Von Baer
justly observed, that however many measurements are tabu-
lated, they cannot stand in the place of general impressions
made by the skull itself examined from various points of view,
and that it would be well to agree upon the designation of
definite characteristic forms, as is done in botany with regard

46 LECTURE II.

Fig. 10. Cranial net, after Welcker. The measures are taken from an
asymmetrical skull. The lines of which the diagram is composed have the
same names as in the table at the conclusion of the lecture.

0

0

f. Frontal protuberances. pp. parietal protuberances. 2. Zygomatic pro-
cess of frontal bone. m. Mastoid process. o. Occipital protuberances. 1.
Superior cranialquadrangle. 2. Frontalquadrangle. 3. Basal quadrangle. 4 and
5. Lateral trapezia. 6. Superior, 7, inferior, 8 and 9, lateral, occipital triangles.

to the shapes of leaves and flowers. Welcker also admits that
many important peculiarities of parts situated between the
points of measurement, can only be determined by a very com-
plicated process, e. g., the shape of the frontal profile, the
degree of elevation of the various eminences, the circumfer-
ence of the skull, &c.; and that, for all these particulars,
pictorial representations and full and lucid descriptions must
supplement the measurements.

LECTURE I. 4.7

According to Von Baer the following characteristic relations
with regard to form, may be pointed out in the aspect of skulls
from different points of view :

THE VERTICAL VIEW (norma verticalis) was designated by the
venerable Blumenbach as highly important and characteristic,
although, strange to say, there is not a single figure of this
kind to be found in his decades of views of the cranium.
“Very frequently,” says Von Baer, “‘ the form of the cranium
viewed from above, is oval, if the transition from the frontal
bone to the zygoma is kept out of view. The shape is some-
times very like that of a common hen’s egg, that is, simply
oval, sometimes broadly oval, sometimes longer, narrowly oval.
In the broad form the rounded part in front is frequently
wanting, the forehead is not arched transversely, but is broad
and flat; in others, especially the short-heads, this form occurs
in the occiput ; there are anteriorily and posteriorily shortened
oval shapes ; and if forehead and occiput are equally flattened,
and the sides slightly compressed, there results the form
which has been termed quadrate.” But sometimes, especially
among the long-heads, the occipital region is found as pointedly
arched as the forehead, so that no true broad end exists, a
form which Baer designates not quite correctly as elongated
oval. And, finally, there are forms very closely resembling the
elliptical, though the largest transverse diameter is always a
little behind the centre.

But this vertical view is of special importance, as exhibit-
ing, at a glance, the proportion of the longitudinal to the
transverse diameter of the cranium. This proportion is, in
fact, so important, that recent French authors* term it the
cephalic index (indice céphalique), and designate it by a single
cipher, which is obtained by assuming the longitudinal dia-
meter = 100, and reducing the transverse diameter to this
denomination ; cephalic index = 80, means, therefore, that
assuming the longitudinal diameter to be 100, the transverse
is 80. As Welcker observes, Blumenbach designated the
Negro and the Calmuck skull as the extremes of cranial form,
and he added, that a model, made of wax (better, now-a-days,

* Especially Broca.—Ep1ror.

48 LECTURE Il.

of gutta-percha) of the Caucasian, would, by lateral pressure,
assume a Negroid shape, whilst, by antero-posterior pressure,
it would assume a shape like that of the Calmuck.

Fig. 11. Top view of the skull of an Australian, after Lucae. Dolicho-
cephalic, elongated oviform shape.

Fig. 12. Top view of the skull of a Little-Russian, after Von Baer. Re-
markably brachycephalic, quadrate form of skull.

LECTURE II. 49

Retzius made use of this character, and founded upon it his
division of peoples into long-heads (dolichocephali), and short-
heads (brachycephali). This division was first founded upon
an examination of Swedish and Sclavonian skulls, and, in these
cases, Retzius gave the proportion of the two diameters as
follows: in Swedes, the greatest length to the greatest breadth,
as 1000:773, that is nearly as 9:7; in Sclavonians, as 1000:888,
or nearly as 8:7. It must, however, be admitted that Ret-
zius’ measurements were confined to a few skulls, which he
selected as typical, and that he estimated the cranial shape
rather from the general impression of the aspect of skulls
than by exact measurements. It must also be kept in view, that
though Retzius only applied these various forms to distinguish
different tribes, ¢.g., Swedes and Sclavonians, Finns and Lapps,
he expressly says that both these cranial forms are to be found
in every one of the assumed chief races.

Welcker has more closely examined this question, and
proved, by numerous measurements, that long- and short-
heads represent the extreme forms, but that between these
there are many nations presenting gradual transitions, so that
a third group must be interposed, which might be called
orthocephali.* Welcker has measured, as far as he could, a
considerable series of skulls, with the interesting result, that
the different stocks diverge constantly, and within somewhat
wide limits, from one common centre, but that the variations
are of nearly equal extent on both sides, and appear to be
greater in proportion to the commixture of the race. Thus,
the variation among Lapps, Cossacks, ancient Greeks and
Romans, Hindus, Esquimaux and Australians, are but very
slight; much greater among Italians, Germans, Russians,
and Finns; and greatest among the Buggese and French, on
whose cranial forms the Frankish invaders had a considerable
influence. Broca’s measurements of skulls, taken from old
and recent Parisian cemeteries, yielded similar results. The
unquestionable intermixture of the inhabitants of Paris, from

* This remark has been made by Broca before Welcker ; Broca proposed a
better name, “middle-heads” (mesaticephali), which we shall use in pre-
ference.

E

50 LECTURE II.

the earliest origin of that city, is easily detected in the series
of skulls, including long-, short-, and middle-heads, the oldest
of which date from the time of the Carlovingians. The ex-
tension of the series may, in future measurements, afford a
standard for the degree of intermixture, and the confinement
of variation in size within narrow limits be regarded as
a proof of the purity of a stock. Taking the tables of
Welcker as a basis, and assuming the longitudinal diameter of
the skull = 100, the following results are obtained for the
various races: where the mean of the transverse diameter is
below 72, they may be termed long-heads ; where it exceeds 81,
short-heads ; where it varies between 74 and 81, middle-heads.
Setting aside the old Peruvians, among whom the heads of
children were artificially deformed, to such an extent that the
transversal diameter sometimes exceeded the longitudinal,
the series of decided brachycephali includes the Lapps, Macas-
sars, Madurese, Bashkirs, Turks, and New-Italians ; among the
dolichocephali, are comprehended the Nukahivans, Hindus, Hs-
quimaux, Negroes, Australians, Kaffirs, Bushmen, and Hotten-
tots, who reach the highest standard of dolichocephaly, so that
one of the skulls measured exhibits the simian proportion of 63
for the transverse diameter. The series of mesaticephali may
be arranged as follows, those with the shortest heads first, and
those with the longest heads last: Germans, Russians, Bug-
gese, Sumatrans, Calmucks, Javanese, French, Cossacks, Jews,
Gipsies, Moluccans, Indians, Chinese, Finns, ancient Greeks,
ancient Romans, Brazilians, Dutch. One might almost be led
to conclude from this table that the most favourable conditions
for civilisation are to be found in the intermediate position
between the two extremes, a conclusion which would be flat-
tering to the French, as they form nearly the centre of the
mesaticephali, just as they consider themselves as the centre
of civilisation. But we shall see in the sequel that there are
other conditions which exercise a definite influence.

The LATERAL view or profile best exhibits a proportion
which may also be observed from above, namely, the relation
of the cranium to the face, and especially the projection or re-
trocession of the jaws. We have seen that the projection of

LECTURE I. 51

the face impresses an animal character upon the physiognomy,
a circumstance which has long since been taken into considera-
tion in craniology.

Fig. 13. The skull of a Negro in profile as a type of prognathism.

On looking at a characteristic Hottentot or Negro skull in
profile, the face projects like a muzzle, and the incisors are
obliquely inserted, so that their edges meet as at projecting
angles. On viewing a German skull, on the contrary, we see
that the incisors meet perpendicularly ; and that on closing the

Fig. 14. The skull of a Tatar in profile, after Von Baer. Orthognathous,
and at the same time a mesaticephalic head of round shape.

E 2

52 LECTURE II.

mouth the lower incisors are a little behind the superior,
whilst in the Negro they are rather in advance. This forma-
tion, the orthognathous, has been accordingly distinguished
from the prognathous, and it has been observed generally
that this development of the jaws is in direct relation to the
intellectual capacity of a people, the prognathous being con-
fined to the lowest races of man. Welcker has subjected
this difference to measurement by taking the angle formed
at the root of the nose by the central line of the base of the
skull or the diagonal of the facial quadrangle, and the line
drawn from the root of the nose to the nasal spine as the
measure of the position of the jaws.

Fig. 15. Ancient Helvetian skull, viewed from behind.*

According to him, the following peoples are prognathous,
all the rest being orthognathous: Kaffirs, Australians, Ne-
groes, Bashkirs, Hindus, New Hollanders, Hollanders, Bra-
zilians, Cossacks, and Sumatrans. J must also add that

* This skull, which was discovered with Roman antiquities near Geneva,
belongs undoubtedly to the Helvetian type.

LECTURE It. 53

Welcker distinguishes the extremely orthognathous as opistho-
gnathous (or with retreating teeth), a distinction which does
not seem to me quite justifiable.

Besides this position of the jaws which is connected with the
curvature of the cranial basis, the length of which seems to in-
crease in proportion to the projection of the jaw; the side view
also gives us a general idea of the roundness of the skull, the
arch of the forehead, the development of the occiput, the eleva-
tion of the vertex, and the proportion of the perpendicular to
the longitudinal diameter. Just those points in which the
human cranium differs most from that of the animal, as, for
example, the projection of the brain and its anterior lobes over
the face, in connexion with an arched and more or less per-
pendicular forehead, are best seen in a side view, and this view
must, therefore, in no way be neglected.

The postrrion view (Norma occipitalis) and the ANTERIOR
view (Norma frontalis) supplement each other, and I cannot do
better than quote the words of von Baer on this point: “ If,”
says Baer, “we place a skull so that the assumed horizontal
line corresponds with the visual axis of the observer and ex-
amine the skull at a distance from behind, it will sometimes be
found that with a full development of the parietal eminences
and a roof-shaped vertex, the outline assumes the shape of a
pentagon. Although this pentagon never exhibits sharply
defined angles, still the figure is often very plain, generally
rather broad than high, and may be briefly described, accord-
ing as the angles are rounded or sharp, the lateral planes
straight, arched, shorter or longer. The rounding of the
angles is, however, not unfrequently so great that, leaving
out of notice the mastoid processes, which often recede, or
are elevated so as to be scarcely perceptible, the outline
is elliptical instead of pentagonal. The ellipsis is usually
rather high than broad, rarely the reverse, and still more
rarely is the difference between the perpendicular and the
horizontal axis so slight, that the aspect may be termed
circular. This outline is as variable as it is perceptible, so
that we must not expect to find it always similar, even in

5A LECTURE I.

unmixed races. The general proportions, however, are the
same, and, regard being had to the variations, they will be
easily recognised.”

The view from behind best gives the proportion between
the height and the breadth of the skull, which is specially
important in the estimation of the capacity of the cavity. Not
less important is the flattening or roof-shaped form of the
vertex, which is best seen from behind. here are heads
which tower up, and terminate either in a platform or a pointed
roof. We sometimes meet with children in whom skulls of
this shape are evidently the result of some morbid process,
which, however, does not seem to interfere with the health or
intelligence of the individual. In some tribes such “ tower-
heads” (pyrgocephali), are characteristic, and to be regarded
as the result of normal formation. There are, also, pyramidal
heads, where the parietal planes meet in a point, whether the
cranium be viewed from before, behind, or in profile. Prichard
observed that such pyramidal heads are specially prevalent
among the nomadic tribes of Asia and America; but he also
included among them, as von Baer justly observes, those
peoples in whom the parietal planes do not meet in a point,
but in a long ridge, and which might, therefore, be called
“ rafter-heads” (tectocephali). It is true, a rafter-shaped head,
such as possessed by the Hsquimaux, for example, much re-
sembles a pyramidal head when viewed in front or behind,
because the ridge coincides with the line of sight; but a view
of the side immediately shows the difference. Unfortunately,
yon Baer has chosen for this rafter-shaped skull the term
cross-shaped, or rhomboidal, which does not appear to me
suitable.

The anterior view of the skull best indicates the relation of
the face to the anterior lobes of the brain, as well as the various
diameters of the face. The development of the frontal eminences
and of the ridges over the eyebrows, the form and position
of the orbits, the shape of the nasal apertures, the prominence
of the cheekbones—all these proportions appear to be of great
importance for the estimation of ethnic peculiarities.

Or
Or

LECTURE II.

Fig. 16. Skull of an Australian, front view, after Lucae.

Fig. 17. Helvetian skull, viewed from below.

The examination of the skull rrom BELOW appears to be of great
importance when we consider that the curvature of the basilar
plane, and the position of the occipital foramen indicate the

eal LECTURE II.

greater or lesser animal resemblance of a skull. The position
of the foramen magnum forward or backward, the distance of its
anterior border from the posterior margin of the osseous palate
and the alveolar margin of the lower jaw, the breadth and curva-
ture of the zygomatic arch, the distance of the articular cavities
of the lower jaw, the distance and curvature of the mastoid pro-
cesses, the direction of the auditory openings, and the curva-
ture of the petrous portion of the temporal, the height and
breadth of the posterior nostrils—all these proportions deserve
the fullest consideration. The very complicated structure of
the base of the skull does not, however, admit of a definite
terminology of the parts similar to that applied to the other
views of the cranium. We shall have to recur to some points
touched upon here in our next lecture.

TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS BY SCHERZER AND SCHWARZ.
I. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

Name, Sex, Native Country, Occupation, Shape and Growth of Beard, etc.

No. of the Sys-

et es tematic Series.
. Age of the individual measured” - - - - 1
. Colour of hair - . = 2 = _ ‘

1
2 2
3. Colour of eyes - - - - : : 3
4. Number of pulsations in a minute - - - - 4
5. Weight - - = = = = : 5
6. Pressing power (force manuelle) measured with the dy-
namometer of Régnier - - = = = 6
7. Lifting power (force rénale), ditto ditto - - 7
8. Total height - - - = - - : 8

II. MEASUREMENTS WITH THE PLUMMET AND METER-SCALE.

9. Distance of the commencement of the growth of hair on

the forehead from the perpendicular - - 9
10. A of the root of the nose from the tieplenaierile - 10
11. » of the anterior nasal spine from the perpendicular 11
12. » of the point of the chin (mental process) from

the perpendicular - - - - - 12
13. ae from the root of the nose to its tip - - 13

14. », fromthe tip ofthe nose to the anterior nasal spine 14

LECTURE II. 57

III. MEASUREMENTS WITH THE CALLIPERS.
No. of the sys-
tematic series.
15. Distance from the point of the chin to the commencement

of growth of hair - = - = - 5 17
16. 3 from the point of the chin to the root of the nose 15
17. e from the point of the chin to the anterior nasal

spine - - - - - - - 16
18. Distance from the point of the chin to the vertex - 19

19. a from the point of the chin to the crown of the head 21
20. » from the point of the chin to the external occi-

pital protuberance - - - - - - 23
21. » from the point of the chin to the external au-

ditory opening - - - - - - 25
22. $3 from the point of the chin to the angle of the

lower jaw - - - - - - - 27
23. From the root of the nose to the vertex - - - 20
24. Distance from the root of the nose to the crown of the head 22
25. » from root of the nose to the external occipital

protuberance - - - - - - 24
26. > from the nasal root to the external auditory

opening - - oh - - - - 26
27. 55 from the nasal root to the angle of the lower jaw 28
28. », from the place where the hair begins to grow to

the incisura jugularis sterni - - - - 18
29. 53 from the external occipital protuberance to the

seventh cervical vertebra—the measurements 28 and 29
must be taken with the head in the same position, 7. e.,

the naturalone_ - - - - - - 56
30. » from one external auditory opening to the other 30
31. » of the uppermost points of attachment of the ear 31
32. Greatest distance between the zygomata, or zygomatic

arches* - - - - - - - 32
33. Distance between the external corners of the eyes - 33
34. as between the internal corners of the eyes - 34
35. 9 between the points of attachment of the lobes

of the eart - - - - - - - 35
36. Breadth of the nose - - - - - 36

* The following measurements may then be made. From the point taken
by the callipers on the zygoma to the commencement of the growth of the
hair on the forehead, in the median line, and also to the point of the chin.
By this the most prominent point of the cheek bone in the facial plane may
be determined.

+ Measure also the breadth of the forehead in the horizontal line :—

(a) From one part of the linea semicireularis, which may be felt like a
crista beneath the skin, to the other. The spot where the convexity in front
is greatest should be selected.

(b) In the same horizontal measure the greatest breadth of the forehead,
from the beginning of the growth of the hair, from one temple to the other.

LECTURE II.

No, of the sys-
tematic series.

37. 5 of the mouth - = - 5 =

38. Distance between the angles of the lower jaw-bone - 38

39. 53 from the seventh vertebra of the neck to the
semi-lunar notch of the sternum (incisura jugularis

sterni) - - - - - - - 40
40. Transverse diameter from one middle line of the axilla

above the mamma to the other - - - - 43
41. Distance from the sternum to the vertebral column - 4A,
42. » from one anterior superior spine of the ilium to

the other - - 2 - - = - 49
43. S from one trochanter major to the other - 50

IV. MEASUREMENTS WITH THE MEASURING TAPE.
44. Circumference of the head around the external occipital

protuberance - - - - - - 29
45. Circumference of the neck - - - - - 39
46. From the greater tuberosity of one humerus, in a horizon-

tal line across the chest, to the other - = 41
47. Distance from one middle line of the axilla, above the

mamma, to the other - = = = = 42
48. Circumference of the thorax at the same place - - 45
49. Distance from one nipple to the other - - - 46
50. Circumference of the waist = < = = 47
51. Distance from one anterior superior spine of the ilium to

the other - - - - - - - 48
52. 5 from the trochanter major to the anterior supe-

rior spine of the ilium (on the same side) - - 66
53. a5 from the most prominent point of the sternal

articulation of the clavicle to the anterior spine of the

ilium - - - - - - - 51
54. » from the most prominent point of same articula-

tion to the umbilicus - - - - - 52
59. 5, from the umbilicus to the upper ridge of the sym-

physis pubis - - - - 53

56. 5 from the fifth lumbar vertebra, along the crest
of the ilium and the inguinal fossz to the symphysis pubis 54

57. 55 from the seventh vertebra to the terminal point

of the os coceygis - - - - - - 57
58. as from one summum humeri across the back to the

other - easly - - - - - BY)
59. Pe from the summum humeri to the external con-

dyle of the humerus - - - - - 58
60. », from the external condyle of the humerus to the

styloid process of the radius across the extensor side - 59
61. 33 from the styloid process of the radius across the

back of the hand to the articulation of the metacarpal
bone of the middle finger - - - - 60

LECTURE II. 59
No. of the sys-
° i pt tematic series.
62. Distance from the same articulation to the top of middle

finger = = < = - - = 61
63. Breadth of hand - - = = = = 62
64. Greatest circumference of the upper arm (round the biceps) 63
65. Pe 45 of the forearm - - - 64
66. Smallest circumference of the same - - - 65
67. Distance from trochanter major to the external condyle .

of the femur - - - - - - 67
68. a from the external condyle of the femur to the

external malleolus - - - - - - 68
69. » from the inferior margin of the symphysis pubis

to internal condyle of femur - - - - 69
70. » from the internal condyle of the femur to the in-

ternal malleolus’ - - - - - - 70
71. Greatest circumference of the thigh - - - 71
72. Smallest circumference of the thigh - - - 72
73. Circumference of the knee-joint - - - - 73
74, Greatest circumference of the calf - - - - 74
75. Smallest cireumference of the lower part of the thigh

above the malleoli - - - - - - 75
76. Length of foot - - - - - - 76
77. Circumference of the foot around the instep - - 77
78. a of the metatarsal joints - - 3 78 -

For the better understanding of the following synoptical
tables of the craniometrical systems of Virchow, Welcker, C.
E. von Baer, and Busk, and of the accompanying figures, I
add the subjoined explanations.

I have only cited systems requiring the simplest instruments,
such as a rule about 25 centimetres in length, a measuring
tape about 60 centimetres long, a common pair of compasses,
callipers, a beam compass, arranged like a shoemaker’s mea-
sure, having a horizontal bar of 25 centimetres in length, and
two vertical arms one of which is fixed at the end, the other
sliding along the beam. Such complicated imstruments as
those designated cephalographs or cephalometers seem to me
too much of a good thing.

As Welcker’s system is but a further development of that of
Virchow, the middle column, which gives the determining
points of the measures, refers to both systems, just as the
measures of the figures refer to both systems.

60 LECTURE Il.

T have endeavoured by lines to represent in the figures such
measures as figures will admit of. Most of the circumferences
can, however, be only demonstrated on the skull or on models.
The letters and ciphers belonging to the measures, as marked
in the Tables, are always placed at the continuations of the
respective measurements outwards.

Fig. 18. Side view of a Helvetian skull from a Roman grave near Geneva,
with Welcker-Virchow measurements.

C. C. Camper’s facial angle after one method: ear, nasal spine, forehead.

The figures 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, represent the measurements
of Virchow and Welcker. Welcker’s measurements are plain
in the figure, and dotted in the continuation towards the
letters. Virchow’s measurements, in as far as they differ
from those of Welcker, are dotted in the figure and plain
in their continuations.

The figures 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, represent the measurements

LECTURE Il. 61

of von Baer and Busk; those of the latter are plain in the
figure, and dotted outwards; Baer’s are dotted in the figure
and plain outside.

Fig. 19. Side view of a Negro skull, with Baer-Busk measurements.

Cc. C. Camper’s facial angle after the other method : ear, alveolar margin of
the upper jaw, forehead.

IS)

Cc 1

62 LECTURE II.
VircHow. WELCKER.
| aaa, Sees a ase NAS oe eT sists Per
Refer. . . d Poi d eee Refer. 3
ames, |tohe| Peeing and Deine termining Vothe| Names
CIRCUMFERENCES. .
Wanting. Around the frontal and} 1. |Horizontal Cir-
occipital protuberances. cumference.
Wanting. That part of the horizon-|1a.| Frontal Cir-
tal circumference which cumference.
is enclosed within the D
coronal sutures.

Longitudinal | 2 |The central line of the| 2. |Vertical longi-
Circumference. whole skull. tudinal circum.
Frontal suture. | 3 | From the nasal suture to|n.c. 7

the coronal suture. |
Sagittal suture.| 4 | Length of the sagittal] c.1.
suture.
Occipital 5 |To the posterior margin|1. b.|| Portions of
squama. of the occipital foramen the vertical
in Virchow to the ante- longitudinal
rior margin in Welcker. | circumfer-
Length of the| 6 | Anterior margin of the|n.b.| | °"°°
vertebral bodies. occipital foramen to na-
sal suture in a straight
line. LJ
Coronal )right} 7 |Anterior transverse cir- Wanting.
suture. left cumference.
perteneg 8 | Posterior transverse cir- Wanting.
suture. ) left cumference. |
( In a straight line from j. b. Ba- )
the margin of the zygo- sal.
matic process, over the T
aural aperture, to the 3 a 0
Wanting. same point on the other| ~* ce ae
side over the base of Cumser-
the skull. cree
Between the same points |j. c. Up-
() over the skull. per.
Diagonal 9 From the aural aperture Wanting.
Circumference. to the anterior fonta-
nelle.
|

LECTURE II.

Cart Ernst von Baer.

= Se Se EA)
Refer! Directions and Points determining | References to Busk’s Sys-
Names. up the| the measurements. tem, and other remarks.
figures
CIRCUMFERENCES.
Horizontal cir-| 1 | Across the glabella and} Horizontal circum-
cumf. wanting. the greatest prominence ference.
| of the occiput.
Longitudinal 2 1) Longitudinal — cir-
circumference. cumference.
3
4 ||
As in Virchow and
5 Welcker.
Chord of the | 6 |
longitudinal |
circumference. \J
Length of cra-|6 a. From the anterior mar-
nial vertebrae. gin of the occipital fora-
| men to the foramen ce-
| cum.
Occipital cir- 7 | From the posterior mar-
cumference. gin of the mastoid, at
the same height as
the aural aperture, to
the same point on the
other side across the
vertex.
Internal circum-| 8 In the bisected skull on} Wanting in all
ference. the inner side, from the others.
foramen cecum along
the arch, to the foramen.
magnum.

64

LECTURE II.

Fig. 20. Front view of the Helvetian skull—Welcker-Virchow.

VIRCHOW. WELCKER.
SE Fae de Ee = eee aE ae ia er eR ewig ey
Refer.) pj ; Poi 5 pel Refer. i
Nanos go-the iPad oo gels te ac oe Namen:
DIAMETERS.
Longitudinal | 10. | From the nasal suture to Wanting.
diameter. the point of the lamb-
A. doid suture. |
|
Longitudinal | 11. | From the glabella to the | Wanting.
diameter. greatest occipital pro-
B. tuberance. |
Wanting. |Fromthe middle between) 4 | Longitudinal
| the frontal protuber- ‘diam. Diamet.
ances to the occipital of horizontal
protuberances. circumference.
|
Vertical dia- | 12.| From posterior border of Wanting.
meter. occipital foramen to the
A. anterior poimt of the
| sagittal suture.
Vertical dia- | 13.|Fromtheanteriormargin| 6 | Vertical dia-
meter. of the foramen magnum meter.
B. | tohighest point of vertex.

LECTURE II. - 65

Fig. 21. Front view of a Kaffir skull. Baer-Busk.

Cart Ernst von Baer.

aa REET
Refer. Directi seis 9
Nanes Foitie irection and Points determining |References to Busk’s System,
figures the measurements. and other remarks.
DIAMETERS.
Longitudinal | 9 |Same as Virchow’s lon- Length ?
diameter. gitudinal diameter B 11,
Wanting.

Vertical height.| 10 | From the horizontal to,The horizontal is
the highest point of the) the plane of the

vault of the cranium. zygomatic arch.
Height. | 11 Same as Virchow and) Height ?
Welcker.
Width. ce Extreme breadth. Breadth ?

F

66 - LECTURE II.

VircHow. WELCKER.
res —<S— eres ea ee Oar =
Refer.) y:...,4: * ni Refer:
INGA, oe Direction .qna iy pints deters othe NAME!
Transverse dia-| 14 | Between the margins of|z. z.
meter. Lower the zygomatic processes
frontal. of the frontal bone.
Upper frontal. | 15 | Between the frontal pro-| f. f.
tuberances.
Temporal. 16 | Between the points of the Wanting.
alisphenoids.
Upper parietal. | 17 | Between the parietal pro-| p. p.
tuberances.
Lower parietal. | 18 | Above the middle of the| s. | Transverse
squamous suture, diameter.
Occipital. , 19 | Betw. the posterior infer. Wanting.
angles of parietal bones.
Mastoid. | 20 | Between the points of the m,m.
mastoid processes. |

Fig. 22. Top view of the Helvetian skull. Welcker-Virchow.

fi ee

nnn | r

LECTURE II.

Cart Ernst Von Barr.

67

Oooo. — OOO ews eee:
Refer. i i d Points d ini References to Busk’s Syst
NCES tothe | Directions and Points determining ystem,
figures the measurements. and other remarks.

Greatest width | 13
of forehead.
Least width of | 14
forehead.
Parietal width. | 15
Occipital width. | 16
Fig. 23.

Lo}

DIAMETERS,

In the coronal suture at
the widest spot.

Anywhere.

Same as Welcker earl

Virchow.

Between the two points
of the mastoid through
which the occipital cir-
cumference 7 passes.

Greatest frontal
width.
Least frontal width.

Parietal width ?

Occipital width.

Top view of Negro skull. Baer-Busk.

68

VircHow.

NN

LECTURE II.

WELCKER.
SSS reo

Names.

Wanting.

tH ——,

Refer.
to the
figures

Direction and Points determining
the measurements.

OBLIQUE MEASUREMENTS,
To be taken on both right & left sides.

From the frontal protu-
berances to the parietal
protuberances.

From frontal protuberan-
ces to zy gomatic process.

From mastoid process to
parietal protuberance.

From mastoid process to
zygomatic process.

From parietal protuber-
ance to occipital pro-
tuberance.

From mastoid process to
occipital protuberance.
The lines ff, pp, and fp,
both sides form the .
The lines ff, zz, and fz,
both sides form the .
The lines zz, mm, and mz

both sides form the

sin
He

| Refer.
| to the
‘figures

Names.

mM. Z.

Pp. O.-

m.0.

on | Upper cranial

quadrangle
Frontal
quadrangle.

Basal quad-
rangle.

Fig. 24. Base of the Helvetian skull.

y)
\
\

Nl
)

ee

LECTURE II. 69

Cart Ernst von Barr.

(=e eee SSE)
Namen ey: Direction and Points determining |References to Busk’s System,
ee ae 2 i the measurements. and other remarks.
gures
RADII.
Foraminal 17 | From the anterior mar-
radius. gin of the foramen mag-
num to the point where
the occiput is arched

most.

Frontal radius. | 18 |From the meatus audi-|} Frontal radius ?
torius to the glabella.

Occipital radius.| 19 | From the meatus audi-| Occipital radius.
torius to the point of
greatest arching of the
occiput.

Fig. 25. Base of Kaffir skull.

70

VIRCHOW.

LECTURE II,

ee SS eS SS See

Names.

aa

Not more de-
finitely fixed.

Fig. 26. Occipital view of the Helvetian skull.

o2)
i
'

'

‘

5

Direction and Points determining
the measurements.

ANGLES.
Between a line drawn
from the anterior bor-
der of the foramen mag-
num (b) to the root of
the nose (7), and a se-
cond line drawn from
the nasal spine (z) to
the root of the nose
(n).
The three points, J, n, 2,
Beiwe Ge eg ciate seers
Between two lines drawn

from the points } and)
n to the ephippiwm (e).

The three points, b, e, n,
BAVOTRE Vie lel aed

n

WELCKER.
aD
Refer.
to the Names.
figures

At the root of
the nose.

(Nasal angle.)

Facial triangle.
Angle at the
ephippium

(sella angle).

Basal triangle.

LECTURE It. 71

Fig. 27. Vertical section of the skull of an Australian, after Lucae.

Nill
il!

Busk’s System oF MEASUREMENT.

See figures 19, 21, 23, 25, 27; pages 61, 65, 67, 69, 71.

Direction and Points determining the Measurements. Beker.

eran References to Virchow and Welcker. figures
CIRCUMFERENCES.
Circumference. : 5 F : : gf
Longitudinal arc. | Nasal suture to the posterior margin
of the foramen magnum. hitie
Frontal transverse arc. |. : : : 3
Vertical transverse arc. |} The two meati auditorii. 4
Parietal transverse arc. ; : : : my ee.
Occipital transversearc.| | All these circumferences of arcs are} 6
Longitudinalfrontalare. taken in the direction of the radii] 7
Longitud. parietal arc. of the same names. f

Longitud. occipital are. | J

72 LECTURE I.

Names. Directinlaad Points desing oa | te
gures
DIAMETERS.

Length. ‘ : : : ‘ .| 10
Breadth. ; : ; 3 é Ale i
Height. : ‘ ‘ : : 1} 12
Least frontal breadth. |. : 3 : : 3) ie 33
Greatestfrontal breadth.|. ‘ : ; : .| 14

Parietal breadth. Upper parietal diameter, V. pp.; W.?| 15
Occipital breadth. | Occipital diameter, Virchow ? . .| 16
Orbital breadth. Lower frontal diameter, V., zz, W.? 17

Zygomatic breadth. |. : : : : -| 18
Ethmoidal breadth. |. : 5 ‘ ; 49
RADII. All radii are taken from the meatus
auditorius.
Frontal radius. Glabella. : : ; .| 20
Vertical radius. To anterior point of sagittal suture. .| 21
Parietal radius. . 3 : ; .| 22
Occipital radius. : ; . : : .| 23
Fronto-nasal radius | To nasal suture. : 3 .| 24

Maxillary radius To alveolar margin of the upper jaw. .| 25
Horizontal plane Through the floor of the nasal cavity.| H.

73

LECTURE III.

Pictorial representations.—Ethnic portraits generally Caricatures.—Photo-
graphic Drawings.—Perspective delineations.—Geometrical Drawings
after Lucae.—Instruments required.—Casts.—Casts of the internal Cra-
nial surface.—Proportions.—Sexual differences in the formation of the
Cranium.—Examination of the Brain.—Weight.—Weight of the Brain
in relation to the body.—Estimation of the Cranial Capacity.—Method
and results.—Broca’s researches on Parisian Skulls.—Increase of Cranial
Capacity in relation to Civilisation.

GrnTLEMEN,—Before proceeding to those investigations which
relate to the internal capacity of the cranium, and to the
central organ of the nervous system, I have to offer some
observations on pictorial and plastic representations, which,
in addition to descriptions and measurement, form essential
elements in instruction. Much discussion has recently taken
place as to the mode in which the skull should be portrayed,
and as the principles of cranial delineation apply to other
_ objects of natural history, a few words on this subject may not
be out of place.

It cannot be denied that most ethnic delineations which
have recently appeared, whether of living men or of skulls,
have very little or no value. Many of the drawings from
living individuals are perfect caricatures unconsciously per-
petrated by the artist, since even the practised painter, in
order to give prominence to the individual resemblance, ex-
agegerates the features peculiar to the individual. These
features are frequently not those characteristic of the race, as
such ; often, too, just those features which belong to the race,
and which strike the painter, are too much exaggerated ; and
frequently the race peculiarities are suppressed in order per-
fectly to effect the resemblance to the individual.

Independently of these disadvantages, the position in which
the head, or the cranium, is to be portrayed, is of special

74, LECTURE III.

importance. For purposes of comparison (and all pictorial
representations used in natural historical researches must be
comparable inter se), strictly geometrical drawings are requi-
site, as they admit of the object which is to be compared with
the delineation being brought into the same position in which
the drawing has been taken.

For the delineation of the living head there are mostly only
two aspects which can be relied upon, viz., the profile and the
full front view, and these the artist rarely selects. With
regard, then, to ethnic portraits taken from life, we may boldly
assert that most of them have no scientific value, but are more
likely to mislead and to direct our attention to subordinate
points.* I say this, not only with regard to the position of
the subject, but also to the management of the ight which, in
photography, constitutes the most essential element, and by
means of which prominent parts may be entirely suppressed,
and insignificant parts rendered prominent. The travelling
naturalist who undertakes such investigations, should, there-
fore, be a very expert photographer to overcome such diffi-
culties. If this be effected, there can be no doubt that photo-
graphy is the best means of obtaiming ethnic pictures in great
numbers; as science requires, in order to establish the mean
type, not individual characteristic faces, but a multitude of
them.

Photography, in which the ray of hght, subject to un-
alterable physical laws, takes the picture, and not the err-
ing hand of man, is the only means of obviating one of
the greatest obstacles in the study of anthropology, by en-
abling us to compare objects separated by time and space.
The soft parts of the head and the whole body are, im many
cases, of considerable importance. I need only mention the
shape of the nose, the lips, the aperture of the eyes, the posi-
tion and shape of the ear and the lobule, as well as of the
beard and the hair. But most of these parts are perishable,
and cannot be preserved in their original form. Without

* With regard to living individuals, photography is undoubtedly one of
the most invaluable aids to study, provided it is skilfully used.

LECTURE III. 7)

photography, it is only the subjective conception of the de-
signer which can serve as a means of comparison. Generally
we cannot place races side by side. Naturalists sail or steam
round the world; they observe one race or tribe, then, after
weeks, or perhaps months, they see another, and, from memo-
randa and sketches, try to discover resemblances and to in-
stitute comparisons. The zoologist, who is required to institute
a comparison between two similar animals—the one from
Africa, the other from Asia—and to determine from memory, or
from notes and drawings, whether or not they belong to the
same species, shrugs his shoulders and says, “Show me the
animals side by side, or at least the skin and the skeleton, but
do not ask anything unreasonable.” Nevertheless, this demand
is frequently made of the anthropologist. Though photography
cannot place the races themselves side by side, it, to a certain
extent, supplies the want of them by the exactness of its
delineations.

With regard to the delineation of the skull, there are two
points of view, and the opinions of naturalists vary accord-
ingly. If the object be to obtain figures which are to repre-
sent the character of the skull and its peculiarities, so as to
strike us at the first glance, perspective delineation, which is
to be obtained most perfectly by means of photography, is to
be preferred above all others, as it best renders the peculiar
physiognomy of the original. But when a recent author re-
commends, in the portraiture of the skull, positions of half or
one-third profile, according as either of these positions is most
characteristic, it seems to us a mistake, because one of the
chief objects of delineation, viz., comparison, is ignored. When
Welcker, for instance, gives a skull with an open frontal
suture and widely-distant orbits four-fifths full face, and some-
what inclined to the left side, we cannot see that such a dis-
torted position better represents the peculiarities of formation
depending on open sutures, the position of the eyes, &c., than
a full front view. If we compare with these the excellent
photographic delineations of Von Baer, it can easily be seen,
that even in strictly geometrical positions, the characteristics
of cranial formation can be better rendered than by the method
just mentioned.

76 LECTURE III.

But if it be requisite to have drawings which are not merely
comparable but measurable,* then the geometrical method
recommended by Dr. Lucae, of Frankfurt, must be applied.
This consists simply in this, that the object is not drawn from
a fixed point of view, so that the rays of light emanating
from it meet in the eye as in the summit of a cone, but that,
on the contrary, the eye constantly changes its position, and
forms the representation of the object by means of the parallel,
horizontal, or vertical rays emanating from it. In per-
spective delineation, which is also that of the photographic
instrument, the individual parts of the body to be depicted
are greatly foreshortened, according as they form projections
or depressions ; in the geometrical delineation everything is in
the place which it occupies in the original, with regard to the
plane upon which the image is projected. ‘The various cranial
measures reducible to a plane, may certainly be measured on
such geometrical drawings with compass and meter-scale ; but
only these—and when Lucae asserts that these measurements
can supply the place of actual measurements on the skull itself,
we can only ascribe such an assertion to his exaggerated
predilection for a method which certainly is not without its
advantages.t+

It must also be admitted that geometrical drawing offers
very great difficulties to any one who is accustomed to ordinary
drawing, and that in practising it one must abandon all the
rules one has hitherto followed, and consent to become a mere
machine, which does nothing but mark with pencil or pen the
point which indicates the perpendicular ray. Lucae has re-
commended two instruments, one constructed by himself, the
other by a Herr Wirsing. In both the fundamental principle is
the same: a diopter fastened to a perpendicular arm is placed
upon a horizontal glass plate, beneath which is the object.

* Compare Crull., De Cranio ejusque ad faciem ratione, 8vo, Groningen,
1810.—EDIToR.

+ Lucae does not propose to substitute measurements from geometrical
drawings for measurements taken on the skull itself; he merely says, speak-
ing of the difficulty and uncertainty in obtaining several necessary cranial
dimensions, “‘ that they can be taken on such drawings with greater rapidity
and certainty than in very many cases from nature itself.” See Morphologie
der Rassenschiidel, Frankfurt, a. M., 1864, part ii, p. 3—Ep1Tor.

LECTURE III. 77
In Lucae’s instrument the perpendicular ray is given by the
intersection of two crossed threads, the point of the pen having
to be placed in the same vertical line as the point of the object
to be delineated. In Wirsing’s instrument the point of the
pen is fixed perpendicularly under the minute aperture of the
diopter. The glass plate being adjusted in the horizontal
plane, and the skull so placed that the plane upon which the
delineation is to be projected, runs parallel with the glass plate,
we draw the lines and points upon the glass plate, by moving
the instrument thereon in the requisite directions.

I possess Lucae’s instrument, and having practised with it
for some time, must say that one may, in a comparatively short
time, obtain by it a correct outline, which is, however, some-
what coarse, as the glass plate but imperfectly takes up the
liquid whether it be common or lithographic ink. In the prac-
tical use of this instrument it is especially requisite to pay
attention to the distribution of the light. Whilst for other
drawing purposes a side light is preferred, and studios have
only one large window for the proper distribution of light and
shadow, geometrical drawings, on the other hand, should be
taken in a glass house, where all is hght, and there is no
shadow. The fine aperture of the diopter, too, through which
we look, cuts off so much light, that when the light comes in
from one side, the black threads, or the point to be drawn
on the darker side of the object is invisible, and we thus have
an imperfect drawing. To obviate this, I have often artificially
‘illuminated the dark side by means of a candle or a lamp; but
this is only a poor expedient, and becomes further objection-
able on account of the glass plate often becoming heated.
A mirror conveniently arranged will, as Lucae rightly observes,
serve the same purpose. Though geometrical drawing, so
long as it is given in natural size, admits of some measure-
ments being taken as easily as on the object itself, it cannot
be denied that, to common observation, it presents an appa-
rently incorrect image, and that our common mode of viewing
objects corresponds more to the perspective than the geo-
metrical. Strictly speaking, it corresponds to neither, and
stereoscopic views alone can render the image of the skull as

78 LECTURE III.

we see it with our eyes. Many years, however, will elapse
before they will be used for scientific purposes; until then,
naturalists must agree to apply photography for ordinary
delineation, and the geometrical method for drawings which
are required to be comparable by measurement.

Casts, as well of living persons as of dried skulls, if they
are carefully prepared, may, in many cases, entirely supply the
place of the originals. In the case of nations who shave the
whole, or nearly the whole, head, complete casts of the head
may be taken from the living. The masks are generally less
useful than the casts of the head, as the forced positions of the
closed eyes and lips, as well as the unpleasantness of the con-
traction of the drying gypsum, contorts the features.

It cannot have escaped you, that the various cranial measure-
ments by compass, measuring-tape, and rule, give but an
imperfect idea, and indeed only some of the principal dimen-
sions of the head. If both the exterior and interior of the skull
are to be represented completely by measurements of this sort,
a very great number of measurements must be taken, which
would be objectionable, owing to the necessary indefiniteness of
their terminal points. Other means had therefore to be contrived
to measure the internal capacity of the skull, with a view to the
formation of conclusions as to the development of the brain
and its component parts. The various substances used for
this purpose may be divided into two categories: such as
serve to indicate the capacity of the skull, irrespective of the
size and shape of individual parts; and such as show this
shape and the proportion of the individual parts to each other.
Tiedemann closed the apertures of the cranium with wax,
placed it upon the vertex, and then filled the cavity with
millet seed, shaking them till they were at the level of the
occipital foramen. He then weighed them, and using them
for other similar measurements, he obtained weights which,
though comparable with each other, could not be adopted by
other observers, there being no certainty that the millet-seeds
used by them were of the same size or degree of dryness* as

* Sand, of a recognised specific gravity, and carefully dried, is the sub-
stance most frequently employed in England.—Eprror.

LECTURE III. 79

those used by Tiedemann. Morton used peppercorns or shot,
and, instead of weighing, he measured them, by which he
obtained the advantage that measure corresponded to measure
and not to weight. Huschke used water, measuring the
quantity requisite for filing the skull; here, of course, the
temperature of the water must be attended to. The results
thus obtained I shall presently indicate.

There can be no doubt that skull and brain exercise a reci-
procal influence as regards development; that they grow with
each other, but that the details of the superficial formation
depend on the mechanical action of the brain. The inner
surface of the skull represents, therefore, the impress of the
surface of the brain, but, be it understood, of the brain invested
with its integuments. Now, the hard, external membrane of
the brain, the so-called dura mater of anatomists, forms a cover-
ing, which passes above the inequalities and the convolutions
without entering into the depressions which separate them. A
east, filling the cranial cavity, and preserving its shape after
removal, will therefore represent only the coarser features of
the brain, but not the minute details. There has been a great
deal of dispute as to the substance best fitted for this purpose.
To supply, says Huschke, the want of brains of various na-
tions, I have made wax models from the crania of a Carib,
Cossack, etc., which afford some idea of the convolutions.
Wagener used gypsum, Lucae glue; the latter is of opinion
that there is no substance more suitable for rendering the
form, size, and circumference of the brain.* Gypsum has,
however, the advantage of retaining the form of the effusion,
whilst glue only retains it for a few days. Both sub-
stances have the disadvantage of uniting with water in dif-
ferent quantities, and consequently vary in weight. Hence,

* Compare Flower on “ The Brain of Siamang,” Nat. Hist. Rev., 1863, for
details of the method employed by him in the preparation of the series of
casts in the Royal College of Surgeons by the use of a composition of glue
and treacle.—EpITor.

In the second part of Zur Morphologie der Rassenschiidel, Frankfurt, 1864,
Lucae recommends the use of seed, as he finds that the specific gravity of
the glue-casts varies so greatly, even when taken from the same liquid mass,
that it is quite impossible to determine the volume of the brain by means of
such casts with anything like accuracy.—Ep1rTor.

80 LECTURE III.

the different parts of the same plaster, or glue, casts may be
compared with each other, but not different gypsum, or glue,
casts, made at different times and with different materials.
The most unobjectionable substance in this respect would be a
metallic alloy which melts at the boiling-point of water. We
could then obtain, not merely the external form, but also the
weight, the specific gravity of the alloy having been deter-
mined. I do not, however, intend to take out a patent for the
discovery of a material for taking casts of the skull cavity ;
for, if we go a little further into the matter, we find that it was
not an anatomist, but a physicist, who deserves the credit of
having first made use of such a substance. Lichtenberg, in
the famous auction catalogue of the curiosities of a deceased
gentleman, mentions a butter-dish in the form of a skull,
having the inner surface of the cover so modelled that it im-
pressed upon the butter the exact form of the brain!

The measurements of Welcker have shown that, in the
structure of the skull, a tendency generally prevails to estab-
lish, even when there is a considerable variation in total mass,
a nearly equal internal capacity. There also exists a certain
proportion between the size of the skull and that of the body,
although the proportion is not always the same for different
degrees of stature. Thus, though giants have generally a
larger skull than dwarfs, it is proportionally smaller in the
former than in the latter. Besides, the large skulls incline
rather to length, at the same time decreasing in width; while
small skulls become more rounded, thus acquirmg that form
which, for a given external surface, affords the largest internal
space. From long skulls of considerable size we may, there-
fore, generally infer that their possessors were tall, muscular
men, and it is known that among the Negroes, who are
characteristically long-headed, we frequently meet with strik-
ingly athletic forms.

This will be the proper place to make some remarks on
sexual differences which occur within the same species and
variety, and which have hitherto not received the attention
they deserve. You are aware that, m the animal kingdom,
there are many instances in which this difference is so great,

-

LECTURE III. 81

that both sexes would not be included in the same genus, much
less in the same species, if their relations to each other were
not ascertained. It would have occurred to no naturalist to
associate the beautifully decorated cock pheasant or peacock
with their plainer mates, if their sexual relations were not
known, and I might quote hundreds of instances occurring
among mammals and the anthropoid apes, in which sufficient
sexual differences occur to justify their arrangement in dif-
ferent species. Thus it is with the orang, the baboon, howling
monkey, and other apes, more or less approaching man in struc-
ture. When, therefore, Welcker justly observes, that the skulls
of man and woman are to be separated, as if they belonged to
two different species, and that they differ in their proportions
more than many typical or race skulls, he gives expression to a
fact in nowise peculiar to the human species, but one that finds
its counterpart in the mammalia, and especially in the anthropoid
apes. According to Welcker, the female skull is smaller, both
as regards horizontal circumference and internal capacity, and
the weight of the brain corresponds with this. The female
skull exhibits, according to Welcker’s measurements, the fol-
lowing proportions, assuming the male = 100 throughout :—
circumference = 96°6; capacity = 89°7; weight of brain = 89°9.
The outlines of the female head are rounder ; the facial portion
of the skull, especially the jaws and the base of the skull,
smaller, the latter being especially narrower in the posterior
section. The base is at the same time more extended, the
sella-angle larger; and there is developed in the female a
striking tendency to prognathism as well as to dolichocephaly.
We may, therefore, say that the type of the female skull ap-
proaches, in many respects, that of the infant, and in a still
greater degree that of the lower races; and with this is con-
nected the remarkable circumstance, that the difference be-
tween the sexes, as regards the cranial cavity, increases with
the development of the race, so that the male Huropean excels
much more the female than the Negro the Negress. Welcker
confirms this statement of Huschke from his measurements
of Negro and German skulls; more observations are, how-
ever, requisite before it can be accepted as generally true.
G

82 LECTURE III.

If it were proved to be correct, it would furnish an interesting
indication of the influence of civilisation and mode of life on
the development of races. It has long been observed that,
among peoples progressing in civilisation, the men are in advance
of the women ; whilst amongst those which are retrograding, the
contrary is the case. Just as, in respect of morals, woman is the
conservator of old customs and usages, of traditions, legends,
and religion; so in the material world she preserves primitive
forms, which but slowly yield to the influences of civilisation.
We are justified in saying, that it is easier to overthrow a
government by revolution, than alter the arrangements in the
kitchen, though their absurdity be abundantly proved. In the
same manner woman preserves, in the formation of the head,
the earlier stage from which the race or tribe has been devel-
oped, or into which it has relapsed. Hence, then, is partly
explained the fact, that the inequality of the sexes increases
with the progress of civilisation. To this must be added the
circumstance, that the lower the state of culture, the more
similar are the occupations of the two sexes. Among the
Australians, the Bushmen, and other low races, possessing no
fixed habitations, the wife partakes of all her husband’s toils,
and has, in addition, the care of the progeny. The sphere of
occupation is the same for both sexes; whilst among the civi-
lised nations, there is a division both in physical and mental
labour. If it be true that every organ is strengthened by ex-
ercise, Increasing in size and weight, it must equally apply
to the brain, which must become more developed by proper
mental exercise.

Passing now to the brain itself, we have already remarked
that an opportunity for comparative ethnological investigations
is rarely met with. The organ is so soft, so dependent in its
form on its integuments, that its general measurements can
neither be taken from the fresh nor the indurated brain, but
only from casts, with any degree of accuracy. On merely re-
moying the calvarium, leaving the brain in the skull, we can
only take measurements, such as the longitudinal and trans-
verse diameters, which are just as easily obtainable from the
calvarium. If the brain be removed, we find that it sinks and

LECTURE III. 83

becomes flattened by its own weight; in short, changes its
form, despite of all efforts to support it. The mass is so rapidly
decomposed, that, in order to study the various parts, it must
be indurated in some such fluid as spirits of wine. In short,
there are a variety of circumstances which render comparative
investigations of this organ specially difficult, so that we must
proceed with the greatest accuracy and caution.

The weight of the brain has been especially taken into con-
sideration, and the investigations of the English have, in this
respect, been conducted on a much larger scale than those of
the French and the Germans. Thus Dr. Boyd weighed not
merely the brains, but also the other organs, of 2,086 males
and 1,061 females of all ages; whence it resulted that in the
adult the male brains varied from 1,366 to 1,285 grammes, and
the female brains from 1,238 to 1,127 grammes, so that the
highest cerebral weight of the female is much less than the
lowest in the male. Among the insane (528 cases were inves-
tigated) the variations in the weight of the brain are much
greater than among such as died from other diseases ; and it
seems to us that such investigations ought to be pursued on an
extensive scale, and in detail. There are cerebral diseases, or
psychical disturbances, such as mania, connected with great
exaltation of cerebral activity ; whilst there are other mental
states in which the cerebral activity is evidently diminished.
Very possibly the greater variation in weight may depend on
such alternate conditions; but this, however, can only be
clearly ascertained from a great number of observations. Thus,
in Wagner’s tables of the weights of various brains we find by
the side of intellectually gifted men such as Cuvier, brains of
insane and hydrocephalic subjects, in whom the cerebral sub-

stance itself was evidently affected.

Regarding the question of the possible development of the
brain, it becomes important to note the relation of the size
and weight of the cerebral mass to the intelligence of the in-
dividual. It has been generally observed, that highly gifted
individuals possess a comparatively large skull, an opinion
which prevails among the people generally, especially in France.
I have, hundreds of times, heard the expression, ‘a good head,

G2

84. LECTURE III.

a capital head,” which did not apply to the performances of
the person, but merely to the external shape; and I have con-
vinced myself, by actual inquiry, that the common people draw
their inferences as to the intellectual capacity from the size
and shape of the skull, and especially of the forehead. In
fact, actual measurements have shown that many highly gifted
individuals, among whom I may mention Cuvier, Schiller, and
Napoleon I, possessed, in proportion to their height, very large
skulls, and consequently highly developed brains.

Wagner, of Gottingen, has published a rather large table of
cerebral weights, among which may be found those of many
highly gifted persons; and he has based on this table the
assertion, that there is no good ground for the above theory,
inasmuch as the brains of Hausmann and Tiedemann, who
occupied an eminent position in science, were under the aver-
age weight. Exceptions, however, only prove the rule; and
besides, both the abovenamed philosophers died at a great age
from exhaustion of the vital powers, in consequence of which
all organs, and certainly the brain also, became atrophied.
Observations have not, however, been sufficiently numerous to
justify the positive assertion of the diminution of the brain in
old age, though the possibility of such a thing in man, as well
as in apes, is undeniable. I have before me two skulls of the
same species of baboon ; one belonged to a male which perished
at the period of dentition ; the other, to another male which had
reached maturity. The internal capacity of the young skull
is not only relatively, but absolutely larger than that of the old
animal,* so that unless it depended upon individual variation,
the old skull must have suffered a reduction. Such a reduction
can, of course, only be positively established by a great number
of measurements, for which I have not the means. The same
relation seems, however, to obtain among other apes. Thus,
Welcker gives delineations of three orang skulls,t which, on
close examination, show that the youngest skull has apparently
the largest internal cranial capacity. But if such be the case,
there is no reason why the diminution of the skull, which com-

* Similar instances amongst apes are very frequent.—EDITOR.
+ Compare Brooke, Owen, and Wallace.—EpiTor.

LECTURE III. 85

mences at an earlier period in the ape, should not take place
in advanced age in man.

Parchappe, who has made a number of cranial measurements
on his own system, asserts that the cranium increases up
to the fiftieth year, but considerably diminishes after the
sixtieth; that the diminution takes place especially in the
frontal region, corresponding to the anterior cerebral lobes, and
that the frontal sinuses enlarge after the sixtieth year. Theile
has observed, that that sphere of life in which we especially
look for intelligence embraces two classes of intelligence ; the
one original; the other, acquired by education, and which,
under lower social conditions, would not have risen above the
common level. <A distinction must certainly be made between
creative minds, such as that of Gauss, which open new roads to
science, and such minds as that of Hausmann, which proceed in
the beaten path, and whose names, though occupying high posi-
tions during life, soon disappear from the history of science.
We must not forget that the solution of this question is, as
Welcker observes, to a certain extent invidious. Anthropo-
logists, with large heads, may feel inclined to adopt one view,
whilst those less favoured will accept the opposite theory.

There is no doubt that, in every race and species of man
and animals, there obtains a definite law as regards the pro-
portion and weight of the brain to that of the body; but this
can only be determined from numerous observations. At all
events, it is certainly erroneous to lay down absolute rules as
to the proportion between the weight of the brain and of the
body. The weight of the body varies, as is well known,
greatly according to the nutrition and nutritive decomposition
to which an animal is exposed. If the increase during fatten-
ing, or the diminution during starvation, affected all parts in a
similar degree, the proportion of the weight of the brain to
that of the body would remain the same. We know, however,
that such is not the case; and the accurate investigations of
Chossat have shown that the brain is just the very organ which
proportionally loses least weight from starvation. ‘The poorer
the alimentation of an animal, the greater is the proportional
weight of the brain, and the greater should be its intellectual
function if it depended on such a condition. Hunger, no

86 LECTURE III.

doubt, sharpens the wits as well as the teeth, and according
to Horace, growing fat is a mark of incipient stupidity.

Formerly, the opinion prevailed that man possessed a brain
absolutely heavier than that of any other animal. This is true
as regards most animals; but intelligent colossals—such as
the elephant, and we may also add, the whale—soon proved
the axiom to be unfounded. If, it was then said, it be not the
absolute, it is the relative, weight. The weight of man’s body
compared with that of his brain is, on the average, as 36 to 1;
whilst in the most intelligent animals it is rarely above 100 to 1.
Whilst in the former case it was the giants, it was now the
dwarfs of creation which upset the axiom. The host of small
song birds vary as regards this proportion, within limits
which far exceed the normal proportion in the human race.
The small American monkeys, too, exhibit a proportionally
heavier brain than that of the lord of creation. If, then, the
weight of the brain is to be compared with any other numerical
factor in the body, it can only be a measure of length, which,
although subject to variation, is so in a much less degree, and
it might, perhaps, be best to adopt the length of the vertebral
column as the standard. On adopting the whole length of the
body, that of the legs is included, and it is just the length of
the legs which exhibits the greatest variations. The trunk of
man varies much less, and this offers a much more accurate
standard. Moreover, measurements of the whole length of
the human body can never be compared with those of mam-
mals, none of them possessing an erect stature, but their pos-
terior limbs forming invariably a greater or lesser angle with
the axis of the vertebral column.

We possess at present only the weights of the brains of the
tribes of central Europe,—Germans, French, and English,—
in any considerable numbers, and these are so arranged that
they require further critical sifting. The table furnished by
Wagner is a crude, undigested mass; and those who would
draw inferences from it must subject it to a close sifting, as
Sex, age, and diseases are curiously intermixed. This much
may, however, be inferred from it, that although there is no
definite mathematical proportion, there is an approximative
relation between the weight of the brain and the development

LECTURE III. 87

of intelligence ; and Broca has shown, from Wagner’s table,
that, excepting the brain of Hausmann, all the brains of noted
or celebrated individuals excelled the average weight of those of
unknown persons, and that the brains of Wagner’s colleagues,
weighed by himself, occupy the first rank in the series, if ar-
ranged according to weight. This is a point of very great
importance ; for after all, only such brains as have been weighed
by the same observer, after the same method, can be compared
with each other. <A difference of fifty grammes or more may
easily be caused by the way in which the brain is prepared ;
and in most cases experimenters give no clear explanation of
their mode of preparing the brain previous to weighing. Whilst,
then, men occupying the same rank of intelligence may have
brains of different weights, and privileged individuals may
sometimes possess lighter brains than others who are noways
distinguished from the common horde, it still remains an
established fact that, generally speaking, there is an approxi-
mative relation between cerebral weight and intelligence, and
that the determination of this relation should on no account
be neglected.

The result of these investigations enables us definitely to
assert, that a certain weight of brain is requisite for the mani-
festation of intellectual faculties ; that idiocy and mental weak-
ness begin below this weight ; and that this weight, as regards
the white race, or central European nations, is about a kilo-
gramme for the male, and 900 grammes for the female. We shall
recur to this point when treating of the relation of idiots with
arrested cranial and cerebral development to the simian type.

I have purposely stated, that the lowest normal weight quoted
only applies to the central Huropean peoples; whether to the
white race in general is yet doubtful. The more we specialise
in such matters the better; and as it is scarcely determined
whether the white race forms really a united whole, or is not a
mixture of various species, it is as well to confine ourselves
strictly to data before us. Direct investigations relating to
other races, which no doubt have their peculiar standard,
we do not yet possess. We are necessarily confined, for the
present at least, to measurements of the internal capacity of
the skull. Even with regard to this, erroneous results were

88 LECTURE III.

formerly propagated by Tiedemann. Supported by few and
erroneously interpreted observations, Tiedemann asserted that
the cranial capacity of the Negro was not less than that of the
European, and this assertion was naturally turned to profitable
account by monogenists. More numerous measurements are
now available, and their results, as far as they are known to me,
I have arranged in the following table. They have all been
taken according to Morton’s method, by filling the skull with
small shot, and ascertaining the measure in cubic centimeters.

CRANIAL CAPACITY IN VARIOUS RACES.

No. of |} Volume in

No. People. skulls | cubic centi- Observers, Remarks.
measd.| meters.

1 | Australians. 8 | 1228-27 | Aitken Meigs.

2 | Polynesians. 1230 Morton.

8 | Hottentots. 1230 ms

4 ay 3 | 1233-78 | Aitken Meigs.

5 | Peruvians.* 152 | 1233-78 33 * [With artificially
6 es 1246 Morton. compressed skulls.
7 | Oceanic Negroes. 2 | 1253-45 | Aitken Meigs. | —Eprror. ]

8 | Mexicans. 1296 Morton.

9 | Americansin general.) 341 | 1315-71 | Aitken Meigs.

10 | Negroes borninAme-| 12 | 1323-90 3
rica.

11 | Malays. 1328 Morton.

12 | Mexicans. 25 | 1338-65 | Aitken Meigs.

13 | Greenlander. 1 | 1340 Welcker.

14 | Chinese. 1345 Morton.

15 | Negroes in general. 76 | 1347-66 | Aitken Meigs.

16 3 1361 Morton.

17 | Ancient Peruvians. 1361 es

18 | Negroesbornin Africa) 64 | 1371-42 | Aitken Meigs.

19 | Wild Indians. 164 | 1376-71 BA

20 | Parisians, from a | 35 | 1403:14 Broca. Skulls of the 19th
common grave. century.

21 | Parisians from the| 117 | 1409-31 3 Skulls of the 12th
Cimetiére des In- to the 18th century.
nocents.

22 | Esquimaux. | 1410 Morton.

23 | Parisians of the 12th] 115 | 1425-98 Broca. From a Vault.
century.

24 |Caucasiansin general) 1 | 1427 Aitken Meigs.

25 | Malays. 1 | 1430 Welcker.

26 | Germans. 30 | 1448 u

27 | Parisians of the 19th} 125 | 1461-53 Broca.
century.

28 | Anglo-Americans. 7 | 147465 | Aitken Meigs.

29 | Parisians from pri-| 90 | 1484-23 Broca. Skulls of the 19th
vate graves. century.

80 | Parisians from La 17 | 1517 ip The same.
Morgue.

31 |Germans in general.| 38 | 1534-127) Aitken Meigs.

32 | Brachycephale, 1] 1540 Broca. From a Dolmen.

from Meudon.
33 | English. 5 | 1572-95 | Aitken Meigs.

LECTURE Il. 89

This list requires some explanation. The results arrived at
by Morton and Aitken Meigs have been obtained, to a great
extent at all events, from the same skulls, namely, from Morton’s
collection of crania, which was purchased by the Academy of
Science in Philadelphia, and has since then received but few addi-
tions. Some of the differences between the above observers may
have arisen from the circumstance that the measures originally
given in English cubic inches, were differently reduced to cubic
centimeters. These measurements, as well as those of Welcker,
were made with small shot, with which the cranium was filled,
and shaken until no more could be introduced.

Broca has observed, that no exact measurement is obtained
by this method, the differences arising when the same skull is
measured several times, amounting to from twenty to thirty-
five cubic centimeters, owing to the fact that, in many skulls,
some parts of the internal cavity of the cranium rise above the
level of the occipital foramen, through which the shot is intro-
duced. Broca, therefore, by means of a long cuneiform in-
strument, presses the shot in every direction, until no more
can be introduced. His results, though comparable with each
other, present therefore somewhat higher numbers. Again,
the skulls examined by the American observers were selected
specimens, whilst those of Broca were obtained from disturbed
churchyards.

Broca availed himself of the rare opportunity of examining
a number of skulls which were found in Paris, on laying the
foundation of the new Tribunal de Commerce, in a vault, at a
depth of three meters, at a spot which was already covered
with houses at the time of Philip Augustus. The crania must
therefore, at the latest, date from the twelfth century, many of
these possibly from the Carlovingian period. They certainly
belonged to individuals of the hgher ranks, as they were found
in closed vaults; and they present two distinct types,—long-
heads and short-heads, as well as a larger number of medium-
heads, which possess the least capacity ; whilst the long-heads
occupy, in this respect, the middle position between the me-
dium- and the short-heads, the latter occupying the highest
position. All these skulls are marked as Parisians of the
twelfth century in the table.

90 LECTURE III.

A second series of skulls was obtained by Broca from an old
churchyard, Cimetiére des Innocents, which was opened under
Philip Augustus in the twelfth century, and used up to the
eighteenth century. Finally, a third series was obtained from
a more recent churchyard, the Cimetiére de ’ Ouest, used from
1788 to 1824. The skulls are indicated in the table as Parisi-
ans of the nineteenth century. Both these churchyards served
chiefly for the poorer classes ; but Broca was enabled to form
three series of the skulls of the Cimetiére de ? Ouest; namely,
crania from the pit, in which the bodies were buried after
having been exposed in the Morgue, and which consequently
belonged chiefly to suicides, and unknown persons accidentally
lulled ; skulls from the common pit where paupers were buried ;
and lastly, skulls from private graves, for the preservation of
which a fee was exacted, and which consequently were the
skulls of people of some means, who, it may be assumed, were
better educated than the others.

On comparing Broca’s results, we find first that the skulls of
suicides exhibit the highest average, which may, perhaps, be
explained by the fact that in most of these cases cerebral dis-
eases may have been the cause of the act of self-destruction.
But what is more striking is the difference between the skulls
obtained from the common pit and those from private graves ;
for it amounts to above eighty cubic centimeters,—a large
amount, considering that the total capacity does not amount
to 1,500 cubic centimeters. We may hence infer that indivi-
duals engaged in art and science possess a higher cranial capa-
city than mere labourers,—a result which is confirmed by other
observations to which we shall recur.

Broca’s observations yield, moreover, the remarkable result,
that the cranium of the Parisian population has, in the course
of centuries, gained in capacity. On comparing the skulls of
the twelfth with those of the nineteenth century, we find that
the capacity has increased. This single fact may, perhaps, not
be sufficient to establish a rule; but it affords an index, and if
supported by other facts, we shall be justified in inferring that,
by progressive civilisation the cranial capacity of a race may,
in the course of centuries, become gradually increased.

LECTURE III. 91

It might be maintained, that the variable cranial capacity
presented in these observations was the result of the intermix-
ture of various tribes which have settled in Paris. No doubt
there is nowhere a more mixed population than in such a
capital; but a single glance at such a population is sufficient
to show that the variation pervades all ranks, and that the
labouring population of Paris is nearly as much mixed as the
higher classes. All the peoples of Europe furnish their quota,
the losses of which are constantly supplied by fresh immigra-
tions. As it is at the present time, so it was 600 and 1000
years ago: Celts, Germans, Slavonians, Romans, already then
migrated to the Seine, and the cranial forms of the vaults of
the twelfth century show that the intermixture was then the
same as now.

If the table be examined with regard to races, it exhibits
the remarkable fact that all European nations, without excep-
tion, have a cranial capacity of more than 1,400 cubic centi-
meters ; whilst, of non-Huropeans, only the Esquimaux and
Malays exceed that measure. The former stand near the line
of separation; whilst the Malay skull measured by Welcker
occupies an intermediate position amongst European nations
very near the Germans. Some doubts exist, however, con-
cerning this measurement, since it differs more than 100 cubic
centimeters from the measurements of Malay skulls made by
Morton,—an amount of difference so large that it can scarcely
be attributed to individual peculiarity alone. Welcker’s Malay
skull may possibly not have been that of a pure Malay, but of
a cross-breed who had European blood in his veins. In the
environs of the Dutch possessions in the Sunda islands, there
are, probably, few Malays whose pedigrees do not exhibit the
intermixture of European blood.

Setting aside these minor exceptions, we find that there is
an almost regular series in the cranial capacity of such nations
and races as, since historical times, have taken little or no part
in civilisation. Australians, Hottentots, and Polynesians, na-
tions in the lowest state of barbarism, commence the series;
and no one can deny that the place they occupy in relation to
cranial capacity and cerebral weight corresponds with the de-

92 LECTURE III.

gree of their intellectual capacity and civilisation. Our table,
no doubt, is very imperfect and incomplete, for it neither ex-
hibits the sex and age, nor the stature of the populations, the
measurement of whose skulls is given. Still it is an index,
and an important one, showing at the first glance that such in-
vestigations form a basis for the superstructure of a scientific
natural history of man.

I must not omit to draw your attention to a point worthy of
particular notice. According to Aitken Meigs’ measurements,
the cranial capacity of Negroes born in Africa is considerably
more than that of the American slaves. Is this the effect of
that cursed institution which degrades men to the condition of
chattel, and deprives them of that liberty which alone can lead
to a higher development? As slavery exercises an equally in-
jurious influence on the master, it might perhaps be possible,
by a comparative examination, to show a similar relation as re-
gards the cranial capacity of the inhabitants of the free and
of the slave states of North America. The recent tremendous
butcheries may afford abundant materials for such investiga-
tions. Let the materials, then, be made use of before they
find their way into the bone mills and manufactories of artificial
manure.

93

PwC LU RE Ly,

Structure of the Brain.—Elementary Constituents of Brain-substance.—Ce-
rebellum.—The primitive Brain.—TheCerebrum the seat of intellectual
activity.—Localisation of individual functions.—Application to Phreno-
logy.—The Cerebral Lobes.—The Convolutions: their relation to the In-
tellect and the Size of the Body.—The development of the Convolutions,
and their arrangement according to Gratiolet and Wagner.—Huschke’s
Opinions.—Comparative Investigation of various Cerebral Forms.—The
Cerebral Cavities.—Dispute about them, especially in England.

GrnTLEMEN,— Whatever opinion we may entertain regarding
the intellectual functions, whether they be regarded as the
manifestations of an independent soul by the intermediation of
the nervous system, or as the functions of the nervous system
itself and its parts, we are always reduced to the necessity of
considering the brain as the organ from which the intellectual
functions proceed. Hvery disturbance in the cerebral struc-
ture, by whatever agency it may be produced, is immediately
reflected in the intellectual functions; it may even be pre-
dicted, in many instances, that laceration will be followed by
certain effects, and even every change in the cerebral circula-
tion immediately influences cerebral activity. If this be true,
and no one can doubt it, for stupor and epileptic fits may be
produced experimentally in any animal, we can easily imagine
that the structure of the brain and its component parts stands
in the most intimate relation to the development of the in-
tellectual function, and that this mode of relation may be,
though at present only approximatively, ascertained. The
structure of the brain is exceedingly complicated ; there is no
organ in the human body which, consisting of comparatively
so few elementary constituents, possesses so great a variety of
parts which, by their shape, internal structure, and position,

94, LECTURE IV.

plainly prove that they exercise different functions, though we
have not yet succeeded in determining them.

On turning our attention first to the constituent elementary
forms, we find in the brain of man and animals two groups of
substances, a grey substance, more or less blackish or yellowish,
appearing to the naked eye as a uniform mass, and a white
substance apparently distinguished from the other by being
composed of fibres which run in various directions. The grey
substance consists of cells containing nuclei and finely granu-
lated matter, from which issue processes subdivided into very
delicate threads, which either form delicate networks or are lost
in the fibres of the white substance. These nerve-cells (see
fig. 28) exhibit a variety of forms which are probably connected
with their respective functions, an hypothesis rendered more
probable by the fact, that the grey substance no doubt origi-

Fig. 28. Multipolar Cells, with Processes in the Human Brain.

1. Cell, the process of which, a, becomes the cylinder-axis of the sheathed
primitive fibre, b. 2. Two cells, a and b, connected by processes. 3. Three
cells, a, connected by commissures, b, sending forth nerve fibres, c, 4. Maul-
tipolar cells, with much more black pigment.

LECTURE IV. 95

nates nervous activity, whilst the white substance acts as a con-
ductor. All the fibres of the white substance, all the nerves
entering the brain, terminate in the grey ganglia and masses
scattered in the centre of the brain or on its surface. It fol-
lows, then, that in the question of the relation of cerebral struc-
ture to mental development, the grey substance and the parts
chiefly composed of it, demand our special attention.

Now it does not admit of a doubt that many of the grey
nuclei in the interior of the brain, are not, strictly speaking,
connected with the mental functions, but only with the organs
of sense. Just as in the spinal cord the grey matter has different
functions, one mass presiding over sensation and another over
motion, so are there in the brain grey nuclei whose relation to
particular functions can be determined. In that part of the
spinal cord which enters the cranium by the occipital foramen,
and is then called the medulla oblongata, there are situated
the grey nuclei which preside over the respiratory and the
cardiac movements; more in front are other parts which have
been experimentally proved to be related to the movements of
the body and to the organs of sense. These parts are in our
investigations only so far interesting in that the senses may be
more developed in some races than in others. Although, how-
ever, the acuteness of the senses in some savage tribes excites
our astonishment, it appears to be rather the result of train-
ing than of an original endowment, since individuals belonging
to civilised races, whose calling as hunters or mariners requires
constant practice, soon acquire the same acuteness of per-
ception.

On examining a human brain at the base, we see in the
centre a nearly white mass ascending through the large occip-
ital aperture, which must be divided in order to remove the
brain from the cranium. This is the medulla oblongata, in the
interior of which we see several grey ganglia, and from the
edges of which issue several cerebral nerves, as the vagus
which proceeds to the heart, the lungs, and stomach. In front
it is continued in a bridge-shaped structure termed the pons
Varolii, composed of transverse fibres, and from which emerge
fasciee of white matter, which, entering the hemispheres, are

96 LECTURE IV.

termed the crura cerebri. All the white parts, with their con-
tinuations, in front and above, and concealed in the cerebral
mass, may be termed the primitive brain, masmuch as this is the
original portion which is first of all deposited during the de-
velopment of the brain in the embryo. The great mass of the
brain consists, as shown by comparative anatomy, of arched
parts which gradually grow from the primitive brain and unite
in the median line, so that in the interior of the brain there re-
mains still a system of cavities, the size of which diminishes in
proportion to the development of the cerebral mass.

Fig. 29. Base of the Human Brain.

Base of the Brain. 1. Anterior lobe. 2. Middle lobe. 3. Posterior lobe
of the cerebral hemisphere. 4. Hemispheres of the cerebellum. 5. Vermi-
form process of cerebellum. 6. Flocculus. 7. Longitudinal fissure. 8. Ol-
factory nerves (first pair). 9. Exit of the olfactory nerve from the brain.
10. Crossing of the opticnerves. Chiasma nervorum opticorum (second pair).
11. Tuber cinereum. 12. Corpora mammillaria. 13. Oculomotor (third
pair). 14. Pons Warolii. 15. Crura cerebelli. 16. Trigeminal nerve (fifth
pair): immediately before it, the fourth pair: N. patheticus, or tro-
chlearis. 17. Abducens (sixth pair). 18. Facial and auditory nerve: N. faci-
alis and N. acousticus (seventh and eighth pair). 19. Pyramidal bodies of
the medulla; at their sides, outwardly, the olivary bodies. 20. Glosso-pha-
ryngeal nerve, vagus and accessory nerves (ninth, tenth, and eleventh pair).
21. N. hypoglossus (twelfth pair). 22. First cervical nerve.

LECTURE Iv. 97

Physiological experiments have proved that it is the primitive
brain only which possesses sensibility ; that all cerebral nerves
spring only,from the grey ganglia it contains, and that this
part is mainly connected with sensation and motion.

On further examining the base of the brain we perceive im-
mediately above the primitive brain on both sides of the medulla
amass divided into lobes and laminz. This is the cerebellum, so
little developed in man and most apes, that, on being viewed
from above, it seems entirely covered by the brain proper.

If a vertical section be made through the cerebellum, the
medullary substance is seen covered with grey matter, produc-
ing a tree-like figure, which the old anatomists designated the

Fig. 30. The Brain of the so-called Hottentot-Venus : top view, after
Gratiolet.

\"

L, Longitudinal fissure. R. Rolando’s fissure. V. Posterior transverse
fissure. F. Frontal lobe. P. Parietal lobe. O. Posterior lobe. T. Temporal
lobe. Po. Pons Varolii. C. Cerebellum. V. M. Medulla oblongata.

H

98 LECTURE IV.

tree of life, arbor vite. The white fibres, called the erwra
cerebelli, connecting the cerebellum with the encephalon, are
sensitive ; not so the foliated parts. From all experiments
hitherto made, the cerebellum seems to be chiefly connected
with motion. If it be destroyed on one side only, paralytic
phenomena are observed, in which the body rolls towards the
opposite side ; if the whole cerebellum is destroyed, the verte-
bral column, and consequently the whole body, loses the
power of equilibrium, the animal oscillates, the walk resem-
bles that of an intoxicated person, all the motions are irregular
and without any harmony. The same facts are observed in
diseases in which the cerebellum is by any cause affected. The
relation of the cerebellum to the sexual functions, ascribed to
it by Gall, and which has become an axiom in phrenology, has
not been confirmed by experience.

It results from these facts, that the examination of the cere-
bellum would contribute but little to the elucidation of the
questions before us, inasmuch as that part of the encephalon
cannot be proved to be connected with the intellectual functions.

There remains now the brain proper, which constitutes by far
the largest mass of the encephalon, covering all other parts on
being viewed from above, and at once distinguished by the
singular convolutions on the surface. The cerebrum is divided
into two hemispheres by a process of the dura mater termed
the falz. Another process of the same membrane, termed the
tentorium, extends horizontally between the cerebrum and the
cerebellum. Thus the cerebrum constitutes, as it were, a
separate whole which, as comparative anatomy teaches, has
overgrown and, so to say, suppressed all other cerebral parts.
This overgrowth increases in the lower animals accordingly as
they approach the human conformation. In the lowest verte-
brates, fishes, the cerebrum is only a grey knot, situated in front
of the other ganglia of the cerebral stem, and in the same line.
But the cerebrum swells out like an inflated india-rubber pouch
in the higher vertebrates, gradually covering the grey ganglia
of the primitive brain, and the imperfectly arched forms of
the originally separated meso-cephalon, which are known by
the name of thalami optici and tubercula quadrigemina; it then

LECTURE IV. 99

passes above the cerebellum and gradually covers it with its
lower surface. A section along the course of the zygomatic
arch, dividing the skull, would almost exactly comcide with the
under surface of the cerebrum. The cerebellum would not be
touched in such a section, as it lies in the part of the occiput
covered by the insertions of the muscles of the neck.

The mass of the cerebrum is insensible ; only the crura and
the tubercula quadrigemina are sensitive. In wounds of the
head, when the brain is exposed, the surface may be touched
or portions removed, without the manifestation of any pain.
On the other hand, experiments performed on animals, espe-
cially birds, have proved that the cerebrum is manifestly the
sole seat of inteligence. Pigeons may be kept alive for weeks
after the removal of the hemispheres. You will find a sum-
mary of such experiments in my Physiological Lectures (3rd
edition, p. 316). But these phenomena prove that an animal
deprived of its brain continues to live, in a deep sleep as it
were. ‘I'he power of motion remains as well as combined
muscular action to a limited extent; pain is felt, and certain
movements are made to avoid it; but the animal is undoubt-
edly in a state of stupor, in a certain dreamy condition which
admits of no consciousness. There is no combination of the
sensations to manifest the feelings. The animal, as an ob-
server remarks, might die of starvation before a well-filled
trough, as the want of food does not induce the motion requi-
site for feeding.

The cerebrum is thus unquestionably the seat of intelligence,
consciousness, and will, consequently of all intellectual ac-
tivity. The white fibres contained in it serve probably for
connecting the individual grey parts; for they are, like them,
insensible. The question now is, whether the different intellec-
tual functions are confined to different parts of the brain, and
if so, to what parts ?

Experiments on animals furnish, in this respect, only unsatis-
factory results. If the hemispheres are removed in slices, the
phenomena of stupor become gradually more manifest. The
removal of one entire hemisphere presents no remarkable re-
sult ; whence it may be concluded that the remaining hemi-

H 2

100 LECTURE IV.

sphere may, for a certain time at least, perform all requisite
functions. All that is observed, is that the cerebral activity is
sooner exhausted than in the uninjured brain, so that it is
merely the quantity and not the quality of the function which
is affected. Some physiologists have, not unreasonably, asserted
that such an interchanging of activity of the two cerebral hemi-
spheres may and does occur also in the living man, and that one
hemisphere may, to a certain extent, go to sleep and refresh
itself, whilst the other half is in a state of activity. The facts,
however, upon which this assertion is based, are, as yet, insuf-
ficient for the establishment of such a theory.

Neither wounds in the head nor cerebral diseases have hith-
erto yielded satisfactory evidence as regards the localisation of
the intellectual faculties in individual parts of the cerebrum.
The question has been much discussed whether speech, or,
rather, the capacity for producing articulate sounds expressing
thoughts, is localised in the anterior lobes of the brain, and
cases have been adduced in which a morbid condition of those
parts was concomitant with loss of speech. But the fact that
one hemisphere may act vicariously for the other, has been lost
sight of, and also that it is but rarely that both hemispheres
are equally affected. This, however, is clearly the requisite
condition for estimating such a case, for that function which is
destroyed by disease on one side may be preserved on the other,
and, though sooner exhausted, would, for a time. be performed
in its integrity. Cases are by no means rare of persons hav-
ing lost a quantity of cerebral substance from one hemisphere
by wounds, and who, though exhibiting no actual diminution
in their intellectual functions, were compelled frequently to
rest after any mental exertion, as their mental energy was
sooner exhausted.

Since direct observations yield but scanty results, we may
be permitted to appeal to conditions which may indirectly con-
tribute towards the elucidation of the question. The results
of such investigation certainly do not possess the same validity
as those drawn from direct observation. Still, they are of
some value and should not be neglected.

There are normal conditions in which certain parts of the

LECTURE IV. 101

brain are less developed than others, and such conditions may

be noted in the analysis of the intellectual functions. We

may thus, perhaps, find that in individuals of high intellect,

this or that lobe of the cerebrum is more developed than

another ; that the convolutions on the surface are more dis-

tinctly and differently marked in eminent persons than in per-

sons of lower rank. Such investigations may embrace the °
different races of mankind, and animals also, though we must

not forget that the inferences and analogies become more de-

ceptive in proportion as we go further off from the human

type. We may also call to our aid cases in which, from arrest

of development, the brain has preserved the foetal type, in

consequence of which the intellectual life approaches that of
the animal. A close examination of the cerebral structure of
such idiots may teach us which are the special parts arrested

in their development, and by comparing with the obtained data

the various manifestations of intellectual activity, we may,

perhaps, arrive at some conclusions as regards the functions of
individual parts of the brain.

The so-called science of phrenology rests, as is well known,
upon such inferences, which, however, labour under the great
drawback that on the one hand the capacities are to be marked
on the outer table of the skull, and, on the other hand, a local-
isation is claimed which in no ways corresponds either with the
intellectual faculties, or with the details of the cerebral struc-
ture. However correct the fundamental principle of phre-
nology may be, that individual functions must correspond to
individual parts of the organ, the inferences drawn from it are
none the less exceedingly erroneous. On viewing the brain
from above, each hemisphere appears as one mass; exhibiting,
indeed, convolutions and intermediate sulci, but no actual divi-
sion. It is different, however, when we view the brain from
the sides or from below. In the latter case we immediately per-
ceive in the anterior part a deep fissure which runs from the
anterior margin of the cerebellum to the corresponding margin
of the cerebrum, and separates two lobes which, when the
brain is viewed laterally, extend far lower down than the anterior
lobes. The basis of the anterior, or frontal lobes, as we shall

102 LECTURE IV.

call them, rests upon the roof of the orbits, whilst the lower
or temporal lobes fill up a deep cavity formed by the sphenoid
and temporal bones in the base of the cranium, on both sides
of the sella Twreica. Again, on viewing the human brain
from below, the posterior margin of the hemisphere is seen
to project beyond the cerebellum, thus forming a prolongation
which is called the posterior lobe. Finally, there may, in this
posterior lobe be distinguished a middle or parietal lobe which
is, however, the least marked of all.

Fig. 31. Brain of the celebrated mathematician, Gauss, side view,
after Wagner.

S. Sylvian fissure. R. Fissure of Rolando. C. Cerebellum. F. Frontal
lobe. P. Parietal lobe. O. Posterior lobe. TJ. Temporal lobe of cerebrum.

On viewing the brain from the side, the deep fissure which
separates the temporal from the frontal lobe is seen to divide
into two branches, one of which, rising almost perpendicularly,
is gradually lost in the mass of the frontal lobe ; the other takes
at first a horizontal direction, and is lost between the convolu-
tions in the mass of the temporal lobe. This fissure, termed
the Sylvian, is important, because, under all circumstances, it
clearly indicates the division between the frontal and the pari-
etal lobes. Viewed from above, the brain seems to consist of
three parts: the anterior, the parietal, and the posterior lobes.
Viewed from the side, there would be added the temporal lobe,
and a small concealed lobe, called the island or the central lobe,

Te

LECTURE IV. 103

which is not visible externally. It may be seen by separating
the margins of the Sylvian fissure, and removing parts of the pa-
rietal lobe which cover it. Though the formation of this inter-
mediate lobe seems peculiar to the cerebral structure of man
and the ape, not having, to our knowledge, been met with in
other anynals, it need not further occupy our attention, since
the comparative anatomy of the brain, as far as races are con-
cerned, is as yet in its infancy.

Many attempts have been made to connect the development
of the several cerebral lobes with the mental qualification
of individuals and races, but with scanty success. The three
cranial vertebrae, namely, the frontal, temporal, and occipital,
have been connected with the development of the three prin-
cipal lobes, so that some authors distinguish frontal, parietal,
aud occipital races, in proportion as either of these regions
predominate. Some have proceeded still further, naming the
races,—“Men of the day, men of the twilight, and men of
the night,” with the very acute remark that the forehead of
man corresponded to day; but the occiput to the shady or
night side of nature. Even north pole and south pole, and
the point of magnetic indifference, have played their parts in
these vertebral theories ; from the analyses of which I must
beg to be excused, as the times in which we live are not much
given to such speculations as these. The actual facts obtained
from investigations of the kind seem to amount to this, that
the anterior or frontal lobes are intimately connected with
mental development. Height, breadth, and shape of this part
must be taken into special consideration in forming an esti-
mate of intellectual capacity.

The development of the convolutions on the surface of the
brain is of particular importance. As already observed, the
whole surface of the cerebrum is covered with a layer of grey
matter, beneath which the white substance appears. If the
convolutions are broad, the white substance penetrates to
their centre ; if small or imperfect, they are formed wholly of
grey matter. The very delicate vascular membrane which
covers the brain enters into the sulci. The dura mater is
stretched over the convolutions, so that the internal surface of

104 LECTURE IV.

the cranium presents only indistinct impressions of the
larger convolutions. The coarser the convolutions, and the
broader the furrows which separate them, the more distinct is
their impress on the internal surface of the cranium. ‘The cast
of a skull by means of a plastic mass which retains its form, is
but an imperfect substitute for a view of the brain itself and
its convolutions. :

The convolutions contribute to increase the quantity of grey
substance. Just as in the secreting glands the secreting sur-
face is increased in size by the subdivision of the originally
simple bag into tubes, so the cerebral substance, by its com-
plicated windings, secures a surface considerably exceeding
that of the internal space of the skull. Now, if it be true
that the grey substance alone is the source of nervous action ;
if it be farther true that the superficial grey matter is inti-
mately connected with mental activity, whilst the internal grey
nuclei are rather connected with the phenomena of sensation ;
then it follows that the multiplicity of the convolutions is con-
nected with the development and increase of the intellectual ca-
pacity, the substratum of which is the increased quantity of
grey matter. The convolutions have been compared to the
figure which would be produced by forcing a bag, possessing a
larger surface than the interior of the skull, into the cranium.
The comparison may be pursued, and it may be said that the
more grey substance we force into a skull the greater the intellec-
tual capacity, which would lead to the inference that an animal
must be more intelligent in comparison with another in proportion
as the convolutions are more complicated, and the furrows deeper.

If this principle is adopted in its crudity, a single glance at the
convolutions in the brainof the mammalian series will be sufficient
to overthrow it. It is true that in some of the lower mammals,
e.g.,in the edentata and marsupials,no convolutions are observed,
whilst, with few exceptions, they exist in all carnivorous ani-
mals and largely in the apes. But, on closer examination, we
find that within the orders which possess convolutions their
development seems to be connected with the size of the body.
Now it certainly cannot be maintained that all larger animals
are more intelligent than the smaller, and when it is considered

LECTURE IY. 105

that the brains of the ass, the sheep, and the ox, all of which,
in fables, are the representatives of stupidity, are more conyo-
luted than those of the beaver, the cat, and the dog, the axiom
connecting the convolutions with intelligence seems to have re-
ceived a hard blow.

Happily, mathematics will assist us here. On compar-
ing two bodies of similar form but of different size, their
respective volumes vary as the cube of their diameters, whilst
the proportion of the surfaces is as the square of the diameters,
or, in other words, the volume of a body increases more rapidly
than the surface, and this more rapidly than the diameter.
Every artillerist knows well that a twelve-pounder, though
thrice as heavy as a four-pounder, does not nearly possess
a diameter thrice as large.

In applying this principle to the head, and specially the cra-
nium of animals, it will be seen that in every natural group or
order of mammals the head, and especially the cranial capacity,
stands in a certain relation to the body, which is nearly constant
in the various species. The head of the tiger and the lion bears
the same proportion to the body as does that of the cat,
although the size of the animals is so different. It follows
hence that the volume of the cerebral mass of the tiger stands
in the same proportion to the body as does that of the cat ;
that the surface of the internal cranial capacity is proportion-
ately smaller in the larger animal, and that consequently in
order to secure a similar surface of grey matter, it must be
convoluted in the large animal, whilst it may remain smooth
in the small animal. We might, therefore, infer from the
above geometrical axiom, that if in two species of animals of
the same size and the same normal structure, the convolutions
are differently developed, this development is connected with
the development of intelligence, whilst animals of unequal size
are less capable of comparison with each other in proportion
as their respective sizes differ. When, therefore, man,
whose skull is, in proportion to the body, larger than that of
the largest animals, excels all the rest in the richness and
variety of the cerebral convolutions, it is manifestly in har-
mony with his intelligence, in which he also far excels the rest.

106 LECTURE IV.

In instituting comparisons, they must be confined to very
nearly allied groups : man can only be compared with man ; ape
with ape; the extension of this comparison to other animals is
not admissible. On examining the order of apes, for instance,
the influence of size is seen with the greatest distinctness.
Thus the small leonine tamarin and the marmoset monkeys have
no convolutions, the scarcely larger squirrel and tailed monkeys
have but few, whilst the large anthropoid apes, the orang,
chimpanzee, and gorilla, have very conyoluted brains.

The old anatomists paid but little attention to the arrange-
ment of the convolutions, specially as it was soon found that
they were not symmetrical on both sides. The sinuosities were
thus considered as accidental, or, as one naturalist observed,
as a confused mass of intestines, so that draughtsmen repre-
sented them in anatomical plates entirely conventionally.
Modern researches have, however, shown that, amidst this appa-
rent confusion, there exists a certain regularity, a definite
plan, which had not been detected for the simple reason that
inquiries extended to man only, in whom this irregularity of
the convolutions reached the highest degree. Naturalists were
in the same position as amateurs in architecture, who are un-
able to make out the ground-plan on account of the overloaded
ornamentation of a structure.

No sooner was attention directed to animals and the more
simple phenomena analysed, than it became apparent that for
every family or order there existed a special plan, as regards
the arrangement of the convolutions, entirely characteristic of
the orders and easily traceable in the highest as well as in
the lowest forms. In the unconvoluted brain of a small lion-
monkey (Simia rosalia, Geoftry), there is exhibited the same
fundamental plan of arrangement as in the convoluted brain of
the orang, and the incomparably more convoluted brain of man.

I may be allowed, perhaps, to dwell for a moment on this
result of recent investigation. There is no doubt whatever
that, according to the fundamental plan of his brain, man be-
longs to the ape. “On comparing,” says Gratiolet, “a series
of human and simian brains, we are immediately struck with
the analogy exhibited in the cerebral forms in all these creatures.

LECTURE IV. 107
The convoluted brain of man resembles the smooth brain of
the Ouistitis in the characteristics of a rudimentary olfactory
bulb ; a posterior lobe, which entirely covers the cerebellum ;
a perfectly marked Sylvian fissure, and a posterior cornu in the
lateral ventricle of the brain.” [Gratiolet might have added a
fifth character, the existence of a central or intermediate lobe,
which occurs in all apes. |

“These characters,” continues Gratiolet, ‘coexist only in
man and the ape. The cerebellum is uncovered in all other
animals ; we mostly find an enormous olfactory bulb, as in the
elephant; and with exception of the makis (Lemuride) no
animal presents a fissure, like the Sylvian, with an enclosed
central lobe.

“Thus, there is a cerebral form peculiar to man and ape;
and so in the cerebral conyolutions, wherever they appear,
there is a general unity of arrangement,—a plan, the type of
which is common to all these creatures.

“This uniformity in the arrangement of the convolutions in
man and ape deserves, in the highest degree, the attention of
naturalists. Thus, in the makis (Lemuride), cats, dogs, bears,
in short, in all families a peculiar type of convolution is found.
Each of these families has its own character; and we can
arrange the different species within any group by examining
the convolutions.”

So far Gratiolet. It seems to me to follow necessarily from
these words, that it is requisite to study the convolutions more
closely, since, as we shall see, their development is, no doubt,
connected with that of the human type and also with intelligence.
In order to proceed upon a definite basis, it is best to com-
mence with a side view, and to start from the Sylvian fissure,
which is most distinctly marked in all human and ape-brains
(see fig. 31). As already observed, the Sylvian fissure divides
into two branches : an anterior, nearly perpendicular ; and a pos-
terior, nearly horizontal, which, however, usually turns upwards,
so that the Sylvian fissure, on the whole, takes the form of a
V. Between these two branches there is thus marked off a por-
tion which might be called the lateral middle lobe, which some
authors include in the frontal, and others in the parietal lobe.

108 ; LECTURE IV.

Upon these lateral central lobes, two convolutions always pro-
ceed from the point of the V upwards, extending to the longi-
tudinal fissure of the hemispheres, where they terminate about
the centre of the sagittal suture, that is to say, at the vertex.
These two convolutions form at their base the covering of the

Fig. 32. Side view of the brain of the Hottentot-Venus.

) Vi M.

The following designations apply to this as well as to all following figures
of the brain in these Lectures. F. Frontal lobe. P. Parietal lobe. O. Pos-
terior lobe. TT. Temporal lobe. Po. Pons Varolii. C. Cerebellum. V. M.
Medulla oblongata.

8S. Sylvian fissure. R. Fissureof Rolando. V. Vertical transverse fissure.
L. Longitudinal fissure. P. 8. Parallel fissure.

A, Anterior central convolution.

B. Posterior ,, =

a! Upper fold of the convolutions of the frontal lobe.
a? Middle fold of the convolutions of the frontal lobe.
a’ Lower fold of the convolutions of the frontal lobe.

b1 Upper fold of the convolutions of the parietal lobe.
b? Middle fold of the convolutions of the parietal lobe.
b3 Lower fold of the convolutions of the parietal lobe.
c! Upper fold of the convolutions of the temporal lobe.
c? Middle fold of the convolutions of the temporal lobe.
c3 Lower fold of the convolutions of the temporal lobe.
d' Upper fold of the convolutions of the posterior lobe.
d? Middle fold of the convolutions of the posterior lobe.
d Lower fold of the convolutions of the posterior lobe.

LECTURE IV. 109

central lobe; hence they have been called the central, or interme-
diate, convolutions. They are separated by a deep fissure, which
is easily seen in most brains, even when viewed from above.

We look upon these central convolutions as an important
part of the brain; but we cannot agree with the meritorious
Huschke when he says, “ After what I have shown of the de-
velopment of the conyolutions, there can be no doubt that the
point of indifference in each hemisphere is to be found in the
central convolutions. Their central, indifferent signification is
known by their central position (in the centre of the sagittal
suture), their great size, and the depth of the central fissure
which separates them, their simplicity and regularity, and
finally, from their manifold connexions with their six to
eight arms, which radiate to different sides, like wires bring-
ing telegraphic messages from all parts of our mental organs to
these chief convolutions, or receiving orders from thence. Here
is the watershed whence the longitudinal convolutions flow north
and south, forward and backwards; or the common bed intowhich
the different branches empty themselves. With their formation
in the ape, the brain enters the last stage of development until
it arrives at its perfection in man, beyond which stage it cannot
pass, having gained the object of its development,—a distinct
point of indifference with its connecting poles. In those mam-
mals in which these large convolutions are absent, the two poles
are like the anterior and posterior halves of three superimposed
horseshoes fused together. In the brain of man, they first
become divided by a partition in the shape of central convolu-
tions,—just as the heart does not reach its highest stage of
development until a septum is acquired, so that red and black
blood are divided from each other. The great influence of this
polarity of the blood is shown by animal heat. The organism,
hitherto cold-blooded, becomes in the class of birds, almost at
once, warm-blooded. A similar, though as yet unknown in-
fluence must be exercised on the mechanism of nervous activity
by the central convolutions. Determination, acuteness, perspi-
cuity, greater unity of psychical life must be connected with it.”
Really, this is carrying polarisation a little too far. Let us
return to our convolutions.

110 LECTURE IV.

Turning from the anterior central convolutions in a forward
direction, we usually find the whole frontal lobe covered with a
number of convolutions, which generally stand more or less per-
pendicular to the anterior central convolution, that is, more or
less horizontal. The convolutions nearest to the longitudinal
fissure mostly proceed from the beginning of the central con-
volution, so that, to a certain extent, they appear as an
appended lobe. We might fairly assume three stories of these
complicated frontal convolutions ; the ground floor (a) rests im-
mediately upon the roof of the orbits, whilst the upper story (a’)
touches the top of the forehead. In poorly convoluted brains,
these windings, viewed from the side, present three distinct
superimposed folds ; in richly convoluted brains they appear as
closely intertwined plaits, rendering the separation into three
stories more difficult.

The remarkable differences exhibited by brains are especially
shown in these convolutions, above all, in those of the upper
and middle (a?) fold. The length of the frontal lobe varies
greatly, so that the fissure of Rolando changes its place either
in a forward or backward direction. The complication, also,
in the shape and arrangement of these convolutions differs,
not only in individuals, but even in the two hemispheres of the
same brain. The younger Wagner has endeavoured to express
these conditions by measuring the surface of the convolutions,
and also the development of the furrows separating them. The
surfaces were measured by being covered with square pieces of
paper four millimeters long, thus covering sixteen square
millimeters,—a method evidently much more open to errors
than another in which small slips of paper are pressed into the
sulci to estimate their depth.

As it may be assumed, as a general principle, that the extent
of subdivision of the frontal lobe gives the measure of the
degree of convolution of the whole brain, these measurements
have been confined to the frontal lobe and to only a few brains;
but they yield important results nevertheless. Assuming the -
absolute length of all the sulci of the frontal lobe of the brain
of the mathematician Gauss = 100, we obtain for the brain of
Fuchs, the physician, 96 ; for a woman of twenty-nine, about

LECTURE Iv. }11

whose intelligence nothing is said, 85 ; for the brain of a com-
mon day-labourer named Krebs, 73 ; and for the brain of an
idiot who died, aged twenty-six, only 15, a diminution which,
as you will observe, tallies with the hypothesis, that great de-
velopment of the frontal convolutions, and consequently of the
conyolutions generally, is connected with the development of
intelligence.

We may here observe that Wagner has also in the case of
twelve brains endeavoured to ascertain the proportion between
the measured convex surface, the extent of which also depends
upon the development of the sulci, and the cerebral weight.
As a general result it appears that the heavier the brain, the
greater is the development of the surface; but that in the
female sex the lesser weight, already alluded to, is compensated
by a larger development of surface. Omitting from the twelve
the three female brains, and having regard only to the eight
male brains (the twelfth belonged to an idiot) we find a similar
compensation in the male brain which, according to weight oc-
cupies the fifth, but according to surface the third place. This
condition is, however, more strikingly exhibited in females,
since the heaviest female brain in the whole list occupies but
the eighth place, whilst, with regard to surface, it occupies the
second place. In the same way the female occupying the tenth
place would advance to the ninth, and the one occupying the
eleventh would advance to the eighth. Subjoinedis Wagner’s
table, in which the brains are arranged in a double series ac-
cording to weight and according to surface, so as to present
their relative proportions as clearly as possible :—

No. Weight in Grammes. Convex surface in squares

of 16 square millimeters.
en(Biiehiaty =) ae, VIB ke aoe | eetagos
2. (Fuchs) - - - 1499 - - - - 2489
3. (Gauss) = - - - 1492 - - - - 2419
4, (Hermann) - - 1358 - - - - 2406
5. Male - - - - 1340 - - - - 2451
6. Male - - - - 1830 - - - - 2309
7. Male - - - - 1273 - - - - 2117
8. Female - - - 1254 - - - - 2498
9. (Hausmann) - - 1226 - - - - 2065
10. Female - - - 1223 - - - - 2272
11. Female = - - 1185 - - - - 2300
12. Microcephale - - 300 - - - - 896

112 LECTURE IV.

No. ’ Convex surface in squares Weight in Grammes.
of 16 square millimeters.
1. (Dirichlet) - - - 2553 - - - - 1520
2. Female - - - 2498 - - - - 1254
3. (Fuchs) - - - 2489 - - - - 1499
4. Male - - - 2451 - - - - 1340
5. (Gauss) - - - 2419 - - - - 1492
6. (Hermann) - - 2406 - - - - 1358
7. Male - - - - 2309 - - - - 1330
8. Female - - - 2300 - - - - 1185
9. Female - - - 2272 - - - - 1223
10. Male - - - - 2117 - - - - 1273
11. (Hausmann) - - 2065 - - - - 1226
12. Microcephale_ - - 896 - - ae ate 300

Wagener remarks, very justly, that this series is far too imper-
fect, and the number of measurements too small to draw from
them absolutely correct inferences. The whole series never-
theless indicates that a compensation may exist, that it pro-
bably does exist in females, and that it may also extend to
races which, like the Hindoos, to a certain extent exhibit
the female type in their small, and not very capacious skulls.

On examining the convyolutions, situated behind the central
convolutions on the surface of the brain, and which form the
parietal lobe, it is seen that they proceed from the posterior
central convolutions. They have the appearance of notched
rolls, which may also be divided into three stories, the upper-
most (b ) forming, as it were, only a fold of the central convolu-
tion. On viewing the brain from the top, this upper story reaches
a small transverse fissure, the perpendicular posterior, or inner
cerebral fissure (V), which has only a small superficial extent
in man, but penetrates the more deeply into the interior. The
great importance of this fissure is shown partly by its early
appearance in the foetus, immediately after the appearance of
the Sylvian fissure and that of Rolando, when there is scarcely
any trace of the other furrows as anfractuosities of the frontal
lobe; and further, by the fact that in the ape it can be dis-
tinctly traced far over the side, separating the occipital from
the parietal lobe, so that the first forms a characteristic flap
which, overlapping the posterior margin of the parietal lobe,
covers some conyolutions which in man lie on the surface.

The second or middle convolution of the parietal lobe (6°),

LECTURE IV. 113

which is mostly only seen in a side view of the brain, usually
joins a curve, like a bent finger, around the parallel fissure,
which will be mentioned further on when speaking of the tem-
poral region, whence Gratiolet calls it the bent convolution,
pli courbé. /

The third, or lower parietal convolution (b?), generally ap-
pears in the shape of a triangular knob, wedged in between
the branches of the horizontal arm of the Sylvian fissure, and
corresponds in its position pretty nearly to the parietal emi-
nence of the skull.

The convolutions of the temporal lobe are generally simple,
and can only be distinctly seen in a side view. The superior
edge of the lobe, as already observed, is bounded by the hori-
zontal branch of the Sylvian fissure. On the lobe, parallel
with this, there is a fissure—the parallel fissure (P. 8.)—which
stretches far back towards the posterior lobe and the perpen-
dicular fissure, and separates the upper story of the temporal
convolutions (c!) from the intermediate (c?). A second smaller
furrow separates the middle story from the lower (c3), which
rests on the base of the skull. In poorly convoluted brains,
these stories are scarcely at all notched on their margins; but
in richly convoluted brains, the notches become secondary
fissures, which, however, are rarely sufficiently deep to efface
the original tripartition of the lobe.

The occipital lobe seems, in every respect, the most difficult
as regards the systemisation of its convolutions. As in the
human brain, its limit is only indicated by a very small per-
pendicular fissure, it runs without any visible separation into
the parietal and temporal lobes. It is, moreover, very small,
the conyolutions are mostly very irregular and unsymmetrical ;
whilst, on the contrary, in the ape it is well defined by the
great development of the perpendicular fissure.

On the margins of the lobes, Gratiolet distinguishes four
so-called transition convolutions (plis de passage), of which
the first, or upper—which Wagner calls the first convolution of
the posterior lobe (d+), adjoining the central line, behind the
first parietal convolution—sends forth some folds towards the
posterior lobe, which Gratiolet terms the upper story of the

I

114 LECTURE IV.

convolutions of the posterior lobe. The three other transition
convolutions of Gratiolet are included by Wagner in the middle
story (d”) ; and he also distinguishes beneath this a third, but
not distinctly developed story (d), which rests immediately
upon the cerebellum.

Gratiolet, by extending his observation to the brains of apes,
has shown the special importance of these transition convolu-
tions. In these animals, in consequence of the greater depth
of the perpendicular fissure, the anterior border of the pos-
terior lobe becomes gradually a flap which, by overlapping the -
parietal lobe, covers more or less the transition convolutions.
This flap, which, in its inner surface, has a very characteristic
structure, must be lifted back in order to see these transition
conyolutions in the closed fissure into which they seem to have
sunk. Gratiolet has even attempted to advance this formation
as a peculiar characteristic, distinguishing the simian from the
human brain. He, however, omitted to take into consideration
that the formation of this flap increases in the ape but very
gradually ; that the plis de passage are very inconstant, fre-
quently differing on both sides, so that, according to another
observer, if we merely keep in view the arrangements of these
convolutions, the two hemispheres might belong to different
species ; and finally, that there are apes in which all transition
convolutions lie as much on the surface as in man, and which
would, therefore, have to be considered as human, if these
conyolutions. were really indicative of the human character.
These apes are, according to Gratiolet’s own observations, the
Ateles which stand next to the howling monkeys.

For the better understanding of the discussions on the dis-
tinction between man and ape, I must allude to some points
regarding the minute structure of the brain which have re-
cently gained a special importance.

As already mentioned at the beginning of this lecture, the
hemispheres are developed from the brain-trunk by arches
which, at first, proceed along the parietes of the skull and
deposit substance internally, until both parts, the brain-trunk
and the brain-vault, are so connected that only a system of
cavities. remains, which cavities have received the name of
ventricles.

LECTURE IV. 115

In hydrocephalous children, the fluid is chiefly accumulated
in these cavities, which thus become enormously expanded ; in
the normal state, these cavities are merely fissures whose lips
nearly touch. On removing the hemispheres by horizontal sec-
tions, or on making a perpendicular section parallel with the
central line, we soon reach the largest system of cerebral cavi-
ties, the so-called lateral ventricles, which are separated in the
centre by a thin double septum, but are very symmetrically
formed. In each of these singularly curved cavities there are
distinguished three so-called horns; an anterior or frontal
horn, which extends into the frontal lobe and overlies the cor-
pus striatum ; a lateral horn, which curves downwards into the
temporal lobe, and exhibits in its interior a club-shaped. emi-

hoa
(| ph a
dd

Fig. 36. Human brain viewed from above. The right hemisphere re-
moved down to the lateral ventricles. The description of the left side is the
same as in the preceding figures. On the right side, cs indicates corpus
striatum, forming the floor in the anterior corner of the ventricle. ca, Cornu
ammonis, curving into the lateral corner of the ventricle. hm, Hippocampus
minor, forming the floor of the posterior cornu.

12

116 LECTURE IV.

nence, the so-called cornu Ammonis; and finally, a posterior
horn, which, slightly curved, enters the posterior lobe, and
contains a small eminence, which has received several dozens
of names, those most in use being the little Ammon’s horn, the
Hippocampus minor, and the Calear avis (ergot de Morand
among the French.)

On removing the hemispheres from above, the anterior and
posterior horns and the hippocampus minor, and their junction
with the descending cornu, as well as the choroid plexus, are
plainly discerned. In vertical lateral sections, the connexion
of the horns and the extension of the middle cornu can be
easily followed.

I was compelled to enter into these details, because one of
the greatest anatomists of modern times, Richard Owen, has
maintained that the sole characteristics of the human brain are
to be found in the existence of a posterior lobe, of a posterior
cornu, and a hippocampus minor, and in spite of accumulated

Fig. 37. Drawing of the brain of a Chimpanzee, after Marshall; descrip-
tion and preparation precisely the same as in the preceding figure.

LECTURE IV. 117

proofs to the contrary, obstinately denied the existence of these
parts in the brain of the ape.

The new school of English naturalists, which seemingly does
not entertain as much respect as Owen for the Hstablished
Church and its doctrines, has opposed him ; and for some years
past there has been at the annual meetings of the British
Association a regular duel between Huxley and Owen, about
which the Times and other journals furnish as conscientious
reports as the sporting papers do about the pugilistic encoun-
ters in honour of Old England. No great results have been
obtained from these duels. But in order to show which party
is supported by facts, I have introduced a photograph of the
brain of a chimpanzee, after Marshall, reduced to the same
size as the preceding figure, and marked with the same letters.
Compare them, and you will be surprised.

118

LECTURE V.

Examination of other parts of the body.—The Pelvis: the Extremities.—
The Skin; its coloration, structure, perspiration, and hair.—The soft
parts.—The Face.—Eyes, nose, mouth, lips, cheeks, ears, and chin.—
Internal organs.

GENTLEMEN,—Whenever we find a decided and persistent
variety in any essential part of an animal organism, we may
be sure we shall trace its influence in the other organs.
Though characters of species frequently present themselves
preferentially in some particular organ; still, as a certain har-
mony pervades the whole structure, there will be corresponding
peculiarities in other organs.

We are frequently able to trace the connexion of such
changes within the animal body; but im most cases we must
be content simply to acknowledge the fact of such changes
in the organism, without being able to trace the causes which
produced them. Thus, we may readily understand that there
must be some connexion between a certain form of the cranium
and that of a pelvis, since the head of the child must, at birth,
pass through the pelvis; whilst, on the other hand, we cer-
tainly cannot understand why, in such or such a race, the
foot should be flatter, the arm longer, and nose broader. Fre-
quently, such distinguishing marks seem to be formed accord-
ing to a leading idea, a general plan. Very often, however,
all attempts to refer these phenomena to design, or to any
other determining causes, are unsuccessful. At all events,
variations are found in the body generally as soon as they have
been proved to exist in any particular organ, and, to a certain
extent, they afford a criterion of the importance of the varia-
tion to which the individual organ has been subjected. When,
therefore, we have to determine what characters are of primary
importance in the study of man, as an object of natural history,

LECTURE V. 119

we must bear in mind that, next to the skull and brain, the
skeleton of the trunk and limbs demands our attention, as the
relative proportion of the several regions of the body entirely
depends upon the skeleton.

Thus, when we learn that certain tribes of South America,
e. g. the Quichuas inhabiting the plateaux of the Andes, are
distinguished by an extraordinary development of the thorax,
giving to these people a peculiar aspect, there is good reason
for especially remarking the structure of the vertebral column,
the ribs, and the sternum, as it may be assumed that charac-
teristic differences in this respect may occur in various races.
This very instance, however, shows how careful we must be in
at once assigning plausible causes for such peculiarities. “ The
Quichuas,”’ it was said, “live upon the plateaux of the Cordil-
leras, in a comparatively rarefied atmosphere. They are like
all mountaineers, agile, ascend mountains without much fatigue,
and experience no difficulty in breathing, such as is felt in as-
cending Mont Blanc. It is not surprising that their chests have
gradually expanded and acquired a larger volume, since they
have to inspire a larger volume of rarefied air than the inhabit-
ants of the plains, in order to obtain an equal amount of
oxygen.” The conclusion is, in point of fact, unobjectionable ;
but unfortunately, nature breaks the whole chain of reasoning
by placing in the Siberian plains, along the shores of the
Arctic Sea, populations whose chests are not less developed
than those of the Quichuas. And thus it is with many other
peculiarities attributed to climate, mode of life, and other in-
fluences; for we find, on closer examination, that peoples
living under entirely different external influences present the
very same peculiarities.

As already stated, the pelvis is the part which most cor-
responds to the skull, and by means of which we may most
reasonably hope to arrive at some conclusion as regards ethnic
peculiarities. It is composed of several bones grown together
into one piece in the adult, but separated by sutures up to the
seventh year. These bones have received the names of the
ihac, ischiac, and pubes; they form a kind of ring, closed
in front by fibrous cartilage, and behind, by the broad and

120 LECTURE V.

connected vertebre called the os sacrum. ‘The pelvis re-
presents a funnel-shaped body, curving forwards, upon which,
when the body is in an upright position, the intestines partially
rest, and to which the thigh bones, which support the whole
body, are articulated.

In the pelvis, as in the skull, the sexual differences are very
evident, but they are more distinct in the former, as this part
of the skeleton is so immediately connected with parturition.

Fig. 37. Normal Pelvis of a Male European, front view.

a. Sacrum. 6. Ilium. c. Acetabulum. d. Symphysis pubis. e. Tuber
ischii.

The female pelvis is always lighter and thinner than that of
the male, and the diaphanous spots in the ilium especially are
larger and apparently thinner. In the female, the transverse
dimension predominates ; in the male, the longitudinal. The
iliac bones are more expanded in the female than in the male.
The superior pelvic aperture is nearly heart-shaped in the male ;
in the female, it is transversely oviform. The lower aperture
is, in every respect, relatively and absolutely larger in the
female than in the male. The ischia, as well as the acetabula
for the femur, are more widely separated ; hence, the female
thigh has a greater inward inclination than that of the male.

LECTURE V. 121

There is no doubt that, even in European nations, there
exist pelvic variations, which are certainly connected with the
formation of the cranium. Just as we find in cranial measure-
ments that extreme forms occur which are normal in distinct
races, as for instance, among Germans we find long heads at-
taining almost the dimension of the negro-head ; so we find
pelvic forms among Huropeans approaching those of other
races. There can, however, be no doubt that an exact method,
as recommended for the measurement of crania, will show the
existence of a normal form characteristic of each race, both
for the male and the female, around which all deviations, to
their furthest limits, may be grouped. Professor Weber, of
Bonn, has distinguished four chief forms of the pelvis: the
oval, the round, the square, and the cuneiform ; and, according
to him, the oval prevails among Europeans, the round among
native Americans, the square among the Mongols, and the
cuneiform among the black races. The distinction of these
forms, and their applicability to races, may be open to objec-
tion, on the ground that sometimes only two or three specimens
were examined. On studying the animal series, there can be
no doubt that the shape of apertures, in which the accoucheur
is especially interested, and which Professor Weber has taken
as the basis of his classification, should not be taken as the sole
standard of pelvic formation, but that the entire structure
should be taken into account, and especially such parts as
relate to the position of the young.

Itis the iliac bones, and their expansion in length and breadth,
which deserve especial attention in this connexion, and we
should accordingly have to distinguish two forms of the pelvis,
—the flat, key-shaped, and the long, cuneiform shape. On
considering the pelvic sexual difference from this standpoint,
it is easily seen that the normal male pelvis approaches the
animal type, whilst the female pelvis most represents the hu-
man type. I shall, in the sequel, have an opportunity of
showing that this resemblance to the brute is, like other cha-
racters, most marked in the cuneiform, lengthened pelvis of
the negro and negress.

The form and the proportion of the ewtremities are not less

122 LECTURE V.

important. The characteristic peculiarity of the genus homo
consists, as we shall show in another lecture, not merely in the
existence of hands, but rather that he has only two hands, and
only two feet which carry the whole body. In consequence of
this, the proportion of the extremities to each other is quite
different from that of the most anthropoid apes. The arms,
not destined for support, but merely for work, become shorter
and thinner in proportion to the legs, the bones and the
muscles of which become highly developed. In common life,
we are accustomed to look only at the shape of hands and feet,
a well-formed hand and foot being considered the greatest or-
naments of a fine figure. But the length of the arms and
legs, the proportion of the upper to the forearm, and of the
thigh to the leg, are of importance in distinguishing the human
type from the nearest anthropoid ape, as well as in the charac-
terisation of races and their special peculiarities.

We shall have another opportunity of explaining in what
manner this resemblance to the ape, as regards hands and feet,
is shown, which must be sought not merely in the length of
the thin fingers, the flatness of the foot, the mobility of the
long toes, and the position of the great toe, but also in the
inclination of the extremities, and in their position on the
eround. When the ape walks upright, which happens but
rarely, he walks in a manner different from that of man,
namely, upon the external edge of the sole, not upon the
whole surface, an inclination which is observed in the child,
and is more evident the younger the embryo is. There
is thus in the child a certain resemblance to the brute; and
every tendency to such a formation, every approach to a
similarity between hands and feet, which might be found in
human races, deserves particular attention. For we must not
forget that, during the first period of the human embryo, as
in all embryos, the extremities perfectly resemble each other,
being of the shape of spatulated plates, which receive their
development at a later period.

The colour of the skin and the hair has always been con-
sidered as an important distinctive mark of the races of man-
kind, because it at once strikes the eye. It is undeniable, that

LECTURE V. 123

the various gradations through all tints, from yellow, copper-
colour, and brown, to jet black, are scattered over the globe,
and that irrespective of climatic conditions. Generally speaking,
brown and black peoples are met with in hot countries, fair
and yellow races in the temperate zones; but there is no
general rule, and the many exceptions prove that climatic con-
ditions and the sun exercise but a secondary influence.

As regards the skIN, its structure is not essentially different
from that of mammals, and in the various races of mankind it
only differs in the grouping of some structural elements, but
not by the development of special tissue elements. It has
been declared, absurdly enough, that the layers of the skin in
the respective races should exhibit different tissue elements, if
there really existed different species of mankind, in forgetful-
ness of the fact, that it would be exceedingly difficult to detect
such fundamental differences in many different genera and
orders of mammals. Let anyone try to establish the differ-

Fig. 38. Sectional view of the skin of a white man. a. Superficial horny
layer. b. Rete mucosum. c. Papille of the corium ; the middle with a tac-
tile corpuscle, the rest with vascular meshes. d. Vessels. e. f. Hfferent
ducts of the sudoriferous glands. g.h. Fat. %. Nerves.

124 LECTURE V.

ence in the tissue elements of the skin of the dog and the ape,
and if this be found impossible, will anyone maintain that
these creatures belong to the same species? We even go fur-
ther, and maintain that the skin of two known species of
animals, which belong to the same genus and family, would,
in the special arrangement of the tissue elements, not exhibit
such great differences as are found in the white man and the
negro.

The human skin consists of two layers,—the dermis and the
epidermis ; the latter is again composed of two layers,—the
mucous layer (rete mucosum), and the horny or scarf-skin.
The cells in the mucous layer are round and nucleated, which,
by development from beneath, become flattened, forming a
layer lying close upon the papillary layer of the dermis. The
horny, or scarf-skin, is the product of the cells of the mucous
layer, which, by evaporation of their fluid contents and by
attrition, become flattened, and finally form a membranous
scale.

The contour of the skin is mainly due to the deeper cells of
the rete mucosum, the nuclei of which are brown at first,
owing to the deposition of pigment corpuscles. These cor-
puscles increase, so that in some spots the whole cells seem to
be filled with a black pigment. In the white races, there are
only certain parts, the mammary gland and the scrotum, which
present such a dark tint, which evidently is not caused by
sunlight. We find a similar coloration in freckles, and in some
morbid states the whole body may become nearly black. Some
years ago, there was observed in Switzerland, during a very
severe winter, a peculiar form of disease in vagrants and
trampers, characterised by a negro-like colouration of the skin,
not in such exposed parts as the face and the hands, but upon
the abdomen and the chest.

As regards the structures of the skin in the various races, I
may quote the words of that competent observer, Kélliker,
“In the negro, and other coloured races, only the epidermis is
coloured, the true skin being the same as in the Huropean ;
the pigment is, however, much darker and more abundant.
In the negro, in whom the epidermis, as regards the arrange-

LECTURE V. 125

ment and size of the cells, is the same as in the European,
the deepest columnar cells of the mucous layers are the
darkest, forming a contrast with the lighter dermis. Then
come cells which are lighter, though still brown, and which
especially accumulate between the papille, but are also found
in the top and sides of them; finally, in approaching the
scarf-skin they become yellow and pale. All these cells, ex-
cepting the membranous, are coloured throughout, and espe-
cially the parts around the granules, which, in the lower cellular
laminz, are by far the blackest parts of the cells. In the
negro, the scarf-skin has also a yellowish or brownish tint. I
find in the yellow skin of a Malay head, in the Anatomical
Collection of Wirzburg, the same as in the dark-coloured
scrotum of a European. Accordingly, the epidermis of the
coloured races is not essentially different from that of the
coloured spots in the whites, and even almost entirely agrees
with the skin in particular spots (aureola).

Fig. 39. Section of the Skin from the femur of a Negro, much magnified,
after Kolliker.

a. Papille of the corium. b. Lowest black-coloured cells of the rete mu-
cosum. c. Lighter-coloured cells of the rete mucosum. d. Epidermis.

Cutaneous perspiration, like colour, has a peculiar character,
which, in certain races, cannot be got rid of, even by the

126 LECTURE V.

greatest cleanliness. These ethnic odours must not be con-
founded with such as are evidently the result of alimentation,
and which vary in the same races. An Italian or Provengal,
eating garlic, onions, and celery will, no doubt, emit an odour
different from the Norwegian or Icelander who lives on fish,
blubber, and rancid butter ; still, the odour may be removed by
a different mode of life. It is not so with the specific odour of
the negro, which persists, wash or feed the negro as you like.
It resembles entirely the odour of the musk-animal, and de-
pends upon the peculiar secretion of the sudorific glands,
which, however, in their structure, are similarly arranged as
in other races, though they are larger and more numerous.

The comparative anatomy of races has, certainly, hitherto
not thrown much light upon skin peculiarities, such as the
peculiar velvety texture of the skin of the negro. This may,
perhaps, result from the larger number of sudorific and seba-
ceous glands, and partly from the greater development and
length of the papille.

Abnormal shades of colour, such as are seen in albinos, afford
very little explanation. In exceptional cases, the pigment
peculiar to the race is absent in some individuals belonging to
it. Such conditions may, no doubt, be transmitted, though it
frequently occurs that the young relapse into the colour of the
original stock. Though, by inbreeding of such white indivi-
duals as mice and rabbits, and by careful exclusion of indivi-
duals relapsing to the primitive colour, a permanent variety
may be formed in which the pigment is absent, we must not
forget that Albinos occur in every race; and Negro-Albinos
do not in the least resemble the Caucasian, but only the Cau-
casian-Albino, and him only, as regards colour, and in nothing
else. A morbid condition, long known to Europeans before it
was observed in other races, cannot possibly establish a transi-
tion from one race into another.

The warr fully deserves all the attention it has received,
some authors, indeed, having made it the basis of a classifica-
tion of mankind. Thus I. Geoffroy St. Hilaire assumes two
principal groups of mankind. The straight-haired (Leiotrichi),
including the white, yellow, brown, and red races ; and woolly-

LECTURE Y. 127

haired (Ulotrichi), including Negroes, Negrillos, or the black
races of the South Sea, the Hottentots, and the Bushmen.
The distinction is, perhaps, not sufficiently marked, and inter-
mediate forms may be found, such, for instance, as that shown
by some South Sea peoples, and called by the French tétes en
vatrowille (mop-headed).

Be this as it may, this much is certain, that essential cha-
racters may be found in the hair. Even the distribution
of this ornament differs remarkably. Whilst*in the Negro
and the Mongol we find scarcely a trace of hair, excepting on
the head, the armpits, and the genitals, while even the down
regularly found in the European is wanting, we find a small,
nearly extinct tribe of the Kuril islands,—the Ainos,—whose
body is so completely covered with shaggy hair, that it gave
rise to the Japanese tradition, that the Aino mothers suckled
young bears, which gradually became men. The distribution
of the hair may thus, perhaps, also form a subordinate cha-
racter of the human type. Geoffroy St. Hilaire has justly
called attention to the fact, that there is no animal in which
the distribution of the hair is so unequal as in man, in whom
the greater part of the body is naked, or only covered with
down; whilst the hair on the head, especially in females,
reaches a much greater length than in any other animal. An-
other circumstance has been observed, that man is more hairy
in front than on the back ; whilst in all mammals, in harmony
with their posture, the back is more hairy than the belly. The
distribution of the hair, as well as its length, should, therefore,
be borne in mind.

It appears, also, that there are differences, not merely in the
distribution, but also in the structure of the hair.* The hair
of the straight-haired human races is cylindrical; the section
under the microscope appears perfectly circular, and provided
with a medullary canal. Not so the hair of the Negro, which
is flattened, so that its section exhibits an elongated ellipsis, in
the axis of which no medullary canal is seen. It is this lateral

* See M. Pruner-Bey’s most important memoir, “De la Chevelure comme
caractéristique des Races Humaines,” recently published in the Mémoires de
la Société d’? Anthropologie de Paris, vol. ii, p.1, transl. in Anthrop. Rev., No. iv.

128 LECTURE V.

compression which effects the peculiar frizzling of the hair,
owing to its not taking place exactly in the direction of the
longitudinal axis of the hair, but ascending in spirals, so that
the hair resembles a spiral spring, which always returns to its
shape when drawn out.

The arrangement of the sorr Parts is not less necessary for
the characterisation of the various human races. The distri-
bution of the muscular apparatus upon the trunk and the limbs
becomes very important in relation to the corresponding ar-
rangement in the ape. The pendulous abdomen of some of
the lower races, among whom a mature man resembles, in this
respect, a Caucasian woman who has had a large family, shows
an approximation to the ape, as do also the want of calves,
the flatness of the thighs, the pointed form of the buttocks,
and the leanness of the upper arm, observed in other races.
The observer must, no doubt, be careful not to assume, as
original race differences, changes produced by famine, etc.
The Australians, Bushmen, and some less known American
tribes, have a severe struggle for existence. Their increase is
impossible on account of privations, and if subject to further
injurious influences, the tribe becomes extinct. In sugh cases
we find some characters, such as deficiency of muscle, to be
the consequence of the condition under which. the tribe
has lived for many years, and we must be careful how we infer
an original character from them. But when, as in many
Negro peoples, we find that food is possessed in abundance,
the muscular apparatus may very properly be included in the
series of distinctive characters.

The FEATURES depend less on external influences. Even the
general form of the face, and the proportions of its component
parts, are frequently characteristic to an extraordinary degree.
There are faces of a perfect oval form, the chin representing
the pointed, and the forehead the obtuse, end of an egg
There are some which present the form of an elongate ellipsis ;
while others present the aspect of a pentagon, or of a pyramid,
or a square with round corners, the angles being formed by
the cheekbones. We then come to the proportions of the
several parts of the face. In the well-formed European, the

LECTURE V. 129

three segments, the frontal, the nasal, and the lower part of
the face, are nearly all of equal breadth, the forehead predo-
minating in the European. In other races the proportions
vary ; sometimes it is the nasal segment, sometimes the lower
facial segment which, receding or advancing, stamps a peculiar
character upon the face.

Just as the form of the orbits in the skull, so in the face, the
form, the size, and the position of the eye, and its appendages,
must be taken into consideration. As is well known, some
peoples, as the Chinese and Japanese, are distinguished by
the peculiarity of the aperture of the eye, the outer angle
of which has an oblique, upward direction. This character
is, by the artists of these peoples, exaggerated for the
purpose, as it seems, of exhibiting its beauty, as contrasted
with the red-haired barbarians. We should also pay attention
to the development of the third eyelid, which, in the white
races, 1s only indicated by the small fold in the internal angle
of the eye. This third eyelid is generally considerably larger
in mammals, though never developed into a perfect nictitating
membrane, as in birds. There is no doubt that in some tribes,
especially among Negroes and Australians, the nictitating
membrane is not smaller than in apes, so that these peoples
exhibit an approach to the animal type. In unmixed tribes,
the size of the cornea in proportion to the apple of the eye,
as well as the colour of the iris, are as characteristic as in the
various species of animals ; whilst intermixture produces essen-
tial differences in this respect, as well as regards the colour of
the hair.

The size and shape of the nosz equally presents, in unmixed
nations, characteristic peculiarities. In some cases, the nose
is prominent, straight, or curved; in some, thick, bulbous;
in others, broad, flat, like that of the ape. The position of
the nostrils varies accordingly. On viewing a Caucasian face
from below, the nostrils form two nearly rectangular tri-
angles, the hypotenuses of which are turned outwards; whilst
the septum of the nose forms a perpendicular line common to
the two triangles. On taking a similar view of the Negro
face, the nostrils present only a transverse aperture, or the

K

130 LECTURE V.

figure of a horizontal eight united in the middle by the
nasal septum. Now, it is just these original ethnic forms of
the nose which seem in a high degree permanent, and hkely to
recur in intermixtures. Thus, in all American mongrels, the
sharp-backed, thin, projecting eagle nose of the redskins is
one of those characters which persist longest, and indicate the
source of the intermixture.

The form and size of the moutu, the shape of the ties, and
the CHEEKS, are features not less characteristic. There are
peoples with such wide mouths that the cheeks seem to spht
up to the ears; there are others with lips so puffed up that the
red parts nearly reach the nose, and seem to cover the chin.
It may be objected that such forms are sometimes developed
among ourselves; but here again I must observe, that such
deviations do certainly occur among mixed populations, whilst
in pure races the form of the soft parts is nearly the same in
all individuals; hence, they resemble each other more than
individuals of mixed and civilised races.

The projection or recession of the cHtn, as well as the form
of this projection, is not less worthy of our attention, being
one of the essential characters of human nature. The broad
square chin of many nomades in the interior of Asia is in
striking contrast to the poimted chin of the Semitics, and the
apish chin of the Negro, which has hardly any projection
at all.

Finally, we must not neglect the mars. The remarkably
small, thick, projecting and gristly ear of the Negro presents
a striking contrast to the large, broad, but thin ear of the
Tatars and Calmucks, which presents some resemblance to the
large ear of the Chimpanzee.

Not much can be said with regard to the INTERNAL ORGANS,
the peculiarities of which are less known than those of the
external form. Still, there are some indications, chiefly refer-
ring to the Negro, which we shall consider in the sequel, show-
ing that here, also, differences exist as great as those observed
in different species of mammals belonging to the same genus.

I cannot quit this subject without drawing your attention to
the great difficulties attending the description of the external

LECTURE V. 131

peculiarities of living men. Dress, habits, and manners, are
apt to produce ideas which do not correspond to the reality, or
are evidently exaggerated. It has been said that we cannot
imagine a Turk without a shaven head, or a Chinese without
his pigtail and wide breeches. This circumstance shows the
necessity of studying the comparative natural history of man-
kind in the originals, and not from hearsay.

I must also impress upon you, that the more mixed the races are
which occupy our attention, the more numerous must be our ob-
servations, and the more searching our inquiry into particulars.
A hundredfold greater exertions, more numerous measurements,
drawings and photographs are required, to extract from the great
hotch-potch of Huropean intermixtures the original types, than
are necessary to point out the. peculiarities in pure types.
Whilst it is the individual character which strikes us at once
in the European, the sight of a Bashkir impresses us with the
general race type ; and whilst among the latter the unpractised
eye cannot easily distinguish one individual from another, we
are in the European frequently doubtful as to the stock to
which he belongs. I recollect how my grandmother amused
us children by her stories of the war of liberation, and her
description of the faces of our liberators, which came from the
eastern steppes, under the Russian banner, which, by the way,
they left us as the banner of German politics, whilst they
carried back the spoils of the citizens into their steppes. She
told us how they rushed into the kitchen, how they opened
their wide mouths garnished with tremendous teeth, and
winked with their obliquely set eyes. Hach appeared a wolf,
and only a wolf,—no individuality was distinguishable ; they
seemed to be all formed after the same model,—Bashkirs and
Calmucks,—ancient, very ancient, nobility of pure and un-
mixed stock from the Asiatic cradle of mankind !

132

LECTURE VI.

Comparison of the Structure of Man with that of the Ape.—Differences.—
Defencelessness.—Erect position.—Equilibrium of the Skull.—_Free mo-
bility of the Anterior Extremities.—Formation of the Pelvis.—Propor-
tions of several parts of the body.—Proportion of the Cranium to the
Face.—Development of the Jaws.—Proportion of the Cranial Angles.—
Cubic capacity of the skulls of Men, Idiots, and Apes.—Herr Bischoff
and the Idiots.—Nose, intermaxillary Bone, and Teeth.—Signification
of the Diastemata.—Structure of the Pelvis.—Proportions of the Limbs.
—Hands and Feet.—Differences in the Form of the Brain.—Dispute
between Owen and Huxley.—Researches of Gratiolet and Wagner.—
Relations of the Transition Convolutions and the Operculum.—Develop-
ment of the Brain.—Form of the Brain in Microcephali.

GrnTLEMEN,—In the preceding lectures, I have directed
your attention to the method of investigation, and to certain
points which must be particularly attended to in researches
regarding the races of mankind. With few exceptions, I have
confined my remarks to man, and have only glanced at the
relation of the superior animals standing next to man, in order
that we might more easily succeed in solving the problems
presented to us.

But however desirable it might be, in some respects, to con-
fine our attention to man; it is, on the other hand, impossible
to neglect the relations in which man stands to the brute crea-
tion. This is the more necessary, as it 1s our object to show
that such relations do exist, and that they are sufficiently
strong to connect man indissolubly with the animal world, of
which he is only the last and highest development, and not
the separate product of a special creative act. By examining,
therefore, the relation of man to the ape, by pointing out the
similitudes which establish the closest analogy to this highest
type of mammals, by showing the differences which, on scien-

LECTURE VI. 133

tific principles, induce us to separate the human type from the
ape type, not merely as a genus, but as a Family and Order,
or, at least, sub-Order, we may advance a step towards the
knowledge of our own nature, and acquire a basis for further
researches. We shall preferentially keep to those differences
which, rightly or wrongly, have been set up, leaving the fea-
tures of resemblance, which certainly predominate, in abeyance
for the present. We shall give weight to the anatomical
characters above everything else. At philosophical and re-
ligious arguments, by which even naturalists sometimes en-
deavour to support their systems, we shall only cast occasional
glances. It will not concern us much that Schopenhauer
places the difference between man and ape in the Will, whilst
Bischoff, of Munich, places it in self-consciousnegss,

Let us first examine the human structure in general. Hyery
animal, we are told, has some weapon of defence or offence ;
man alone has none. “The intelligent observer,” so it is
asserted, “‘ cannot fail to perceive that it is in reference to this
point that the Creator has implanted in the human organism
the germ of, and necessity for, the development of the faculties
with which it is endowed.”

It is true, man has no horns; his canine teeth are neither
large nor formidable, neither are his nails claws. But, on
the other hand, is the axiom generally true, that all animals
are armed? In what respect are the weapons of the chim-
panzee superior to those of man? Its canine teeth are
scarcely longer, and certainly not intended for attack; its nails
are just as flat; its forehead just as devoid of horns. When
attacked, the animal acts ike an unarmed man; it scratches,
bites, strikes, throws stones or branches of trees, and finally
runs away if it cannot save itself in any other way. Hundreds
of other species of apes are in the same condition ag the chim-
panzee. Has this defencelessness of the chimpanzee caused
him to become one of the lords of the creation? Are the
faculties of the hornless sheep or the doe more developed be-
cause of their defenceless state? or shall we say that the sheep
has a weapon, because it butts with its hard skull? and if this
were so, does not the Negro use his skull, of ivory-like hard-

134. LECTURE VI.

ness, in the same manner? Does he not knock down his
adversary by striking him in the breast with his head ? and do
not two Negroes, when fighting, butt one another lke con-
tending rams? We cannot, therefore, accept the exceptional
state of man in this respect, nor the inference drawn from it,
though it has been assumed by ancient authors. The older
the opinion, the older is the error.

There is, however, an exceptional condition, an essential at-
tribute of human nature, and one which distinguishes -the
bimana from all other mammals, namely, the wpright posture.
The main characters of the human structure are in harmony
with this position; they partly stand to each other in the rela-
tion of cause and effect. It is true that an upright posture
cannot be said to be entirely confined to man to the exclusion
of the rest of the animal kingdom; for among birds there are
some, as the penguin and the auk, which stand and walk as
uprightly as man. Here, however, there are other structural
relations which occasion this posture. Man is absolutely dis-
tinguished from the animals most closely related to him struc-
turally, the apes, by the erect posture, which is only assumed
by the latter transiently, or in consequence of training.

The proportionally large skull, with its contents, rests 7m
equilibrio on the points of support afforded by the vertebral
column. The arrangement exhibited by the articulating sur-
faces of the so-called atlas, and of the second cervical vertebra,
the axis, almost seems to have been the model for such mecha-
nical contrivances as are used to secure the horizontal position
of the mariner’s compass or of ship lamps. ‘Two articular
surfaces on the upper side of a ring, i. e., the first cervical
vertebra, the atlas, as anatomists call it,—transverse articular
surfaces on the under side of the same ring,—a projection
serving as an axis on which the ring turns—the head is
balanced on this mechanism, and has its motions free in all
directions. The muscles, tendons, and ligaments are so at-
tached, that the slightest effort is sufficient for the re-establish-
ment of the disturbed equilibrium. When we find in the
animal world a heavy head on the top of the spinal column, we
also find a development of the spinous processes of the cervical

, LECTURE VI. 135
vertebrae, to which is attached the ligamentum nuche inserted
in the occiput. A well-proportioned skull will be in equilibrio
when supported on the two articular surfaces at the base near
the occipital foramen ; if the jaws project forwards, as in the
prognathous negroes, the occiput becomes elongated in order
to establish the equilibrium. Not so in the mammalia. In
the natural position of most of these, the axis of the vertebral
column runs parallel with the horizontal plane of the pelvis ;
whilst in man it forms with it nearly a right angle. The axis
of the head, again, forms in mammals a right or an obtuse
angle with the axis of the vertebral column; its direction is
perpendicular, and the long jaws form the arm of a lever which
draws the head still more downwards and forwards. The elastic
ligamentum nuche is then developed as a counterpoise ; and
even in the most anthropoid apes, the orang and chimpanzee, but
especially in the formidable gorilla, we find the cervical spines
prominent, and provided with powerful muscles and ligaments.
With all this, the position of the occipital foramen itself is
closely connected, as we shall see in the comparative structure
of the skull.

The relations of the thorax and pelvis may also be explained
by the erect posture. The transverse diameter of the human
chest is greater than the antero-posterior, the reverse of the
proportion in mammals. The chest of man is flattened in front
and behind, and arched on the sides; that of the mammal is
laterally compressed, with a cuneiform inclination towards the
sternum and the backbone. The arms and hands of man hang
down by the sides freely, and are thus unconfined in their
movements, and adapted to the manifold purposes which their
not being used to aid the support of the body, enables. them
to subserve. For in all mammals, in which the hand is not
transformed into an instrument for flying or into a fin, the an-
terior limb always serves as a support in locomotion. This is
the case even in the most anthropoid apes.

In the ape the anterior hand as well as the posterior is used
for climbing; and when the animal moves on the ground, it
supports itself on the closed fist, when, from the length of the
arms, it assumes a more or less half erect position. But every-

136 LECTURE VI.

where in the animal world, as Milne-Edwards has most conyinc-
ingly shewn, the division of labour is an index of perfection.
An animal which has four limbs apparently destined for the
same end, as is the case with the horse and the sheep, is in
this respect inferior to the animal in which the anterior limb
is at the same time a prehensile organ, as in the squirrel and
the beaver. The ape, whose four limbs are provided with
hands, stands in this respect a step below man, in whom the
legs are exclusively adapted for locomotion, and the hands
exclusively prehensile organs. The more special the function
of an organ, the more perfect it is: the greater the number of
purposes an organ has to subserve in the animal economy, the
more imperfectly will they be performed. Hence, though the
hand is in every respect a more perfect organ than the merely
locomotive foot, the multiplication of hands must still be con-
sidered a mark of defective organisation, since each of these
hands is at the same time a locomotive and prehensile organ,
whilst the restriction of both these functions to two different
sets of organs is a step towards perfection.

The breadth of the hips, and the pelvis, which forms their
osseous support, is still more connected with erect stature than
the width of the thorax. The bowels suspended in the thoracic
and abdominal cavities press downwards. The pressure of the
thoracic contents is partially neutralised by the diaphragm
which separates the cavity of the chest from that of the abdo-
men; but the whole weight of the intestines, including liver
and spleen, rests upon the pelvis. _ This latter expands like a
dish ; the iliac bones become broad and flat, excavated above
and arched downwards and outwards ; so that the name “ pel-
vis,” or basin, is perhaps one of the best chosen in anatomy.
In animals, on the other hand, the pelvis bears but little of the
weight of the bowels ; and just that part which does bear it,
namely the symphysis pubis, is in man least concerned in this
respect. The weight rests, in the animal, upon the central
line of the chest and the belly, the pelvis chiefly serving as the
fulcrum of the hind legs. Hence the pelvis presents no ex-
tended surfaces, but becomes long and narrow; the parietal
parts resemble the shoulder-blades, which serve as supports to

/

LECTURE VI. 137

the fore legs. The greater the mass which the pelvis has to
support, the broader and more dish-shaped does it become.

Fig. 40. Pelvis of a Male Chimpanzee, reduced to the same length as the
human pelvis, fig. 37. The description is the same.

Thus we see in the female, besides its relation to parturition,
that the pelvis is also large, because periodically it has to bear,
in addition, the contents of the gravid uterus. To the width
of the pelvis must be added the powerful muscles of the
haunches and the buttocks, which proceed from the pelvis to the
thighs. No animal presents such a rotundity and fulness of
the buttocks ; no ape such a cylindrical, gradually diminishing
thigh ; and we are justified in saying that man only possesses
thighs. The muscles of the leg are in man so accumulated as
to form a calf, whilst they are in the ape more equally distri-
buted; still transitions are not wanting, since one of the
greatest characteristics of the Negro consists in his calfless
leg.

The proportions of individual parts of the body, and specially
of the limbs, are not less worthy of notice. The arm of man is
. proportionally shorter, the leg longer and stronger, than in the
ape. Ifa man is placed in the posture of a quadruped, he
must stretch out his arms ; but he must bend his legs if he is

138 LECTURE VI.

to bring his vertebral column into a horizontal position parallel
with the ground. In the ape both limbs are either of equal
length, or the leg is shorter than the arm,which in some species
reaches an extraordinary length. Thus the orang shews his
affinity to the gibbon (Hylobates), a native of the same country,
by the length of the arms, which reach down to the ankle ;
whilst in the chimpanzee they reach only the middle of the leg,
in the gorilla the knee, and in man only the middle of the thigh.
On the other hand, the articular surfaces of the arm, specially
at the wrist, are so arranged that a much greater mobility for-
wards and backwards is effected. Nevertheless, the long arms
as well as the legs of the ape, though they are deficient in mus-
cular rotundity, possess much greater strength than those of
man: thus it is a gymnastic feat for a man to hang for a con-
siderable time, or to draw himself up by the arm; but with the
ape this is an ordinary and by no means fatiguing posture.
In the quadruped every limb shares almost in the same degree
the burden of the body. Only leaping animals, such as hares
and kangaroos, resemble man in some degree in the length and
strength of the legs, even much excelling him, as the short-
ened fore legs are out of proportion to the colossal hind legs.
Here, however, a number of organic conditions cooperate to
prevent any closer comparison. The great development of the
tail in leaping animals, as a sort of balancing pole ; the deve-
lopment of the foot; the simple, long, metatarsal bones and
toes,—exhibit a fundamentally different type which cannot be
compared with that of man. Thus man possesses, as contrasted
with the ape, a distinctive character in the strength, rotundity,
and length, of the leg ; especially of the thighs, which in most
animals are considerably shortened in proportion to the leg.
On proceeding to a closer examination of the separate parts,
the head with its component parts, cranium, and face, first fixes
our attention. I have already, in a preceding lecture, pointed
out that in man super-position predominates ; while im the ape
a juxta-position, or rather a position of one part in front of the
other, prevails; that the (anatomical) face included between —
the eyebrows and the chin is only a small appendage of the
human cranium, which expands in every direction, above the

LECTURE VI. 139

Fig. 41. Side view of the Skull of an ancient Helvetian.

eyebrows as forehead, on the sides as temples, above the occi-
pital foramen as neck, in order to obtain space for the dispro-
portionately large brain; whilst in the ape the cerebral space
is more receding, the forehead is flattened, and the occipital
foramen placed further back; so that in the lowest apes it reaches
the limit of the base, and in the other animals is placed at the
posterior surface of the skull.

Fig. 42. Sige view of the Skull of an aged Chimpanzee.

140 LECTURE VI.

Camper’s facial angle varies in man from 70 degrees to
85 degrees; and there is probably no instance of a normal
human skull known where it is as low as 64 degrees. In the
Negro skull here depicted the angle amounts to 67 degrees ;
and, according to Geofiroy St. Hilaire, the skulls of the Makoias
or Namakas; a South African tribe, sent to the Paris Museum
by Delalande, have a facial angle of only 64 degrees ; whilst it
decreases in the adult chimpanzee to 35 degrees, in the orang
to 30 degrees; though when these animals are young, and the
jaws undeveloped, it frequently reaches 60 degrees. On the
other hand a small American ape, the saimiri (callithria sciurea),
as regards organisation, is far more remote from man, but very
human-like in behaviour in some respects (it weeps readily,
for instance) ; has a facial angle of 65 to 66 degrees ; so that it
completely fills up the gap. Equally decided are the differences

Fig. 43. Skull of an aged Chimpanzee, top view.

observed in the development of the jaws. The temporal
muscles which raise the jaws must be stronger in the apes,
inasmuch as they have to move a longer lever, independently
of the greater development of the jaws in width. Hence the

LECTURE VI. 141

temporal fosse are so deep in the ape-skull that it seems as if
the skull had been grasped from above, behind the eyebrows,
and forcibly compressed : hence the zygomatic arches are more
distant, and the temporal ridges, to which are attached the
fibres of the masseter muscles, rise more towards the vertex
and farther behind the aperture of the ear. In some anthro-
poid apes, as in the gorilla and orang, there is observed, in
advanced age, simultaneously with the increased size of the
jaws, a prominent ridge, a sort of crest, on the cranium, pre-
senting a larger surface for the attachment of the masseter
muscles ; so that in these apes the whole skull is covered with
muscles, while in man it is in most parts only covered by the
scalp.

Fig. 44, Base of the Skull of an ancient Helvetian.

Closely connected with the development of the jaws, is the
position of the zygomatic arches and of the occipital foramen ;
and this is at once observed in the examination of the base of
the skull. In human skulls the zygomatic arch always lies in
the anterior half of the longitudinal diameter. The external

142 LECTURE VI.

aperture of the ear, where it terminates, is situated, even in the
Negro, in the middle of the longitudinal diameter, and even

Fig. 45. Base of a Kaffir Skull.

lp
|

more forward in the higher races; but in the anthropoid apes
the aperture is situated farther back, and the distance to the
end of the jaw is greater than to the hindmost occipital promi-
nence ; while the zygomatic arch reaches the posterior half of
the longitudinal diameter, and frequently extends to the last
third of the length of the skull. The large occipital foramen is
also thrown back. In the ape it is situated in the posterior
third of the skull; in man it les usually in the centre, or even
a little forward,—a difference to which Daubenton long since
drew attention, and which has been fully confirmed by subse-
quent researches.

We must here direct your attention to the relations of the

LECTURE VI. 143

angles which can be measured on the skull when bisected lon-
gitudinally, and which, as already explained in a previous lec-

Fig. 46. Base of a Skull of an old Chimpanzee.

ture, are of great importance for estimating the proportions of
the cranium to the face and jaws. The sella, or sphenoid angle,
is, as shown by Welcker, always smaller; and consequently the
base of the cranium more bent, in man than in the ape, though
transitions do exist.

The nasal angle increases with the sphenoid angle, as may
be seen in the following table taken from Welcker :

Cranium. Nasal Angle. Sphenoid Angle.
Mean of 30 male Germans ... wes as G62): 134
Idiot aged 44 (Halle Collection) ... od SES) Be 138
Three Negroes si pee ad wa G7: OMe: 138
Idiot aged 31 (Gottingen) Ses so cide 80 se 145
Chimpanzee... Nee fa a2 = — a 149
Three other Negroes ... ae ‘A set MAO? Se 150
Young Orang ... ee ure 98 =e 155
Swine Ape (Inuus eget) see Sea LOZ, side 170
Old Orang oes aa nae .» 104 oa 174

Roll Ape (Cebus ape). z ae is LOS Re 180

144 LECTURE VI.

With the extension of the cranial basis, which also obtains
in the gorilla,—in which, according to Owen, the sella turcica
is less depressed than in the chimpanzee,—is undoubtedly con-
nected the internal capacity of the skull. The occipital fora-
men, as well as the minor apertures through which the cranial
nerves pass, are all larger in proportion to the cranial space
than in man ; a natural consequence of the greater size of the
spinal cord and the nerves in proportion to the cerebral hemi-
spheres.

The internal cranial capacity and certain of the chief measure-
ments are, according to Owen, as follow:

English-| Malay. |Negroes| Austra-| Gorilla.| Orang. | Chim-
men. Jians. panzee.
In. lines In. lines|In. lines In. lines
Length of Skull...... TA, 82.0: JLe 2O:) 910:
Length of cerebral |
BPACEr..ceccuc eerie one 6. 6. (9) | [isan by | Mee ts
Height of cerebral
BPACe cr cee rem tseleciiat 5. 6. 5. 5 es oa
Contents of cerebral
space in cubic
INCHES ess sseee ee 96 86 82 75 30 28 28

Despite the equality in height which may exist between the
gorilla and the Australian, the cranial capacity is one and a
half times larger in the latter than in the former; a proportion
so much the more favourable for the Austral Negro, as in the
gorilla the legs are proportionally shorter, and consequently
the trunk larger and more powerful. The limits may, however,
be brought closer together ; for the smallest human skull, not
idiotic, measured by Morton, had a capacity of 63 cubic inches,
whilst the largest gorilla cranium recently measured possesses
only a capacity of 343 cubic inches.

These measurements afford, moreover, an important insight
into the relative proportions of the skeletons of the head and
face. If we assume the entire length of the skull = 100, and
then express the proportion in which the length of the cerebral
space, that is to say, of the brain itself, stands to the length of
the skull, we obtain the following numbers: Europeans =89'1;
Austral Negroes = 78°7; orang = 47:7; gorilla = 45:9; whence

‘

_LECTURE VI. 145

we obtain for the proportion of the facial skeleton the following
numbers: Huropeans = 10°9 ; Austral Negroes = 21°3 ; orang
= 62°3; gorilla = 54:1.

Fig. 47. Skull of an Idiot, after Owen, side view.

Thus from every point of view there always presents itself a
great interval between man and ape in the conformation of the
skull, occasioned by the relative proportion of the cranial and

L

146 LECTURE VI.

facial parts. As we have seen, the length of the cerebral space
extends in no anthropoid ape to one half of the whole length
of the head ; whilst in man, even in the lowest races, the length
of the facial part constitutes only an unimportant fraction,
which in the Australian does not amount to a quarter of the whole
length. There are, no doubt, Negro heads in which the quarter
is reached, and even slightly exceeded, inasmuch as the genuine
Negro has a proportionately much longer and narrower skull
_ than the Austral Negro; but the gap can only be filled up by
those unfortunate creatures born as idiots, and known by the
name of microcephali,—their defective formation of brain and
cranium not being produced, as in cretins, by disease after
birth, but by an original arrest of cerebral development. In
such creatures, sometimes the offspring of normal parents, and
of which the so-called Aztec children are instances, we find all
the intermediate proportions between the cerebral and the
facial skull that can be imagined.

In mentioning idiots, I come into collision with a mighty
authority, not unlike the fragile clay pot with the iron kettle.
Addressing his Munich audience, Prof. Bischoff says: “‘ Com-
parisons have been made with diseased and degenerate men as
they appear in the shape of microcephali, idiots, and cretins.
The error thus committed is palpable, since these unfortunates
are not men at all, but monstrosities ; the saddest thing about
them being that they possess human shape without being men.”
We should like to ask where man ends and monstrosity begins?
Ts a man with a cleft iris no man, but only a monstrosity? Is
that citizen of Hamburg who, some years since, travelled about
to exhibit his cleft sternum, through which the heart could be
felt, a man, or only a monstrosity ? Is the unfortunate being
who is born without arms, and has to paint with his feet ; who
converses with you in your own language, and is a cheerful,
intelligent, and witty companion (we have known such cases,—
and the instance of Ducornet, who, though deficient in hands, be-
came a painter, is well known), is he no man because he has only
stumps? And if all these individuals are men, which no person ,
can doubt, why should individuals with malformed brains (as much
an organ of the body as the eye, sternum, or limb) not be men ?

LECTURE VI, 147
No doubt we ought not to compare abnormal with normal
conditions, still we may often avail ourselves of them for expla-
nation and elucidation ; and it is only in this sense that I men-
tion them here, as being, to a certain extent, a key to the
process through which the human skull rises from the ape to
the human type.

Let us return to our subject. On examining the facial por-
tion of skulls we find a great difference between man and ape
in the conformation of the nasal bones and the mode of their
connexion. In the ape the nasal bones are broad, depressed,
mostly grown together in the middle; the nasal apertures con-
sequently oblique, or in form of a horizontal 8, and, viewed
from below, parallel with the apertures of the eyes. But in the
gorilla the middle of the nasal suture rises in the form of a
little crest ; and in the Negro the nose is so depressed that the
difference between the two formations is scarcely perceptible.
It is remarkable that there is also an analogy between the
Austral Negro and the gorilla as regards the internal nasal
cavities,—the frontal sinuses which are met with in all other
races, causing the projection of the region between the eye-
brows. These cavities, which are so enormously developed in
the elephant, are absent both in the Australian and the
gorilla, though they exist in the other anthropoid apes.

The incisors are inserted, in all mammals which have them,
in a special bone, the intermaxillary, which is generally recog-
nisable throughout life, and remains separated by sutures from
those parts of the maxillary bones which contain the canine
teeth and the molars. The elements from which the inter-
maxillary is developed exist also in man, and are plainly per-
ceptible in the foetus. But it soon becomes confluent with the
other bones, so that even in the new-born infant the sutures are
generally obliterated,and the union with the upper jaw complete.

At the beginning of this century, when the history of deve-
lopment had as yet made little progress, the absence of the
intermaxillary was considered as a specific human character ;
and Goethe, assisted by that excellent anatomist, Loder of Jena,
took great trouble to point out the error. At present it is only
the early union which can be cited; but even this has its

L2

148 LECTURE VI.

degrees. We sometimes find in young Negro skulls, as well
as in skulls of idiots (see figure 48, p. 145), traces of the max-
illary suture ; and, moreover, the sutures in apes are obliterated
’ at various ages. Thus the sutures remain open in the gorilla
to an advanced age, and are only closed in the oldest skulls,
whilst in the chimpanzee the union takes place immediately
after the change of teeth. I have now before me skulls of the
same age, of the genus cebus, in which the teeth had just been
shed. In one genus (cebus apella) the intermaxillary is plainly
separated ; in the other (cebus albifrons) the union with the
maxillary is so perfect that there is no trace of any suture.

Fig. 49. Base of the Skull of Cebus Apella, with the Maxillary Suture.

LECTURE VI. 149

The formation of the rows of teeth, and of the teeth them-
selves, is closely connected with the projection of the muzzle
(prognathism), which in the ape reaches a far higher degree
than in the lowest human races ; the palate becomes long and
narrow ; the rows of teeth, on the whole, parabolic instead of
elliptic ; the teeth themselves are distinguished by their size,
hardness, and whiteness. The formation of their crowns, of
the cusps of the molars, and of the chisel-like edge of the
incisors, 1s so extremely similar, that it is possible to be in
doubt about a single tooth, as to whether it is human or
simian ; but the doubt is no longer possible when the whole
row of teeth can be inspected. It is specially the canine teeth
which in apes destroy the harmony of the dental structure.

Fig. 50. Base of the Skull of Cebus albifrons.—The Maxillary Suture is
obliterated.

150 LECTURE VI.

The pomted crowns are frequently grooved, so that in some
baboons they resemble short, curved daggers. They rise above
the level of the other teeth, so that it would be impossible for
the mouth to be perfectly closed were there not gaps for the
reception of the projections of the canine teeth: indeed, in the
upper jaw of all ape-skulls there is a gap, or diastema, between
the canine tooth and the incisors; in the lower jaw there is a
diastema between the canine and the first molar tooth; and
even where the canine tooth is least developed, as in the chim-
panzee, this gap is plainly seen; but is very large in the
gorilla and in the baboon. At the same time the prominence
of the muzzle towards the nose indicates the comparatively

Fig. 51. Base of a Kaffir Skull, with a Simian Diastema.

large and strong root of the canine tooth. But as there is
great variation in the general structure of the ape, so shall we

LECTURE VI. 151

find many transitions to the human structure. The canine
tooth generally rises a little above the level of the others; but
frequently it is considerably higher, and in closing the mouth
is received into an imperfect gap formed by the summits of the
opposite teeth. We moreover observe, though rarely, such
gaps in human skulls, otherwise perfectly normal, as in the
Kaffir skull from the Erlangen Collection, figured in Wagner’s
Atlas of Comparative Anatomy, and which we here reproduce.
(See fig. 51.) A series of skulls exhibiting similar abnormities,
with such occurring in other parts, might afford some indica-
tions as to the original stock; just as Darwin has directed
attention to the dark transversal rmgs sometimes observed on
the feet of horses, which apparently indicate descent from a
stock common to the zebra, quagga, and other striped wild
species of horses; so might the occurrence of dental gaps
among Kaffirs and other inferior races indicate their earlier
common origin. We must, however, not infer that an unbroken
row of teeth is a distinctive human character. Thus in the
anoplotherium, a pachydermatous fossil animal, found near
Montmartre, there may be seen a perfectly unbroken row of
teeth formed of incisors, canines, and molars. This, at any
rate, proves that an even set of teeth does not form a distinc-
tive human character.

The lower jaw is in the anthropoid apes massive, and the
horizontal arm much longer, broader, and stronger, than in
man ; but the projection which forms the chin is absent. The
chin may therefore be considered as a human character,
though it recedes gradually in the lower prognathous races
approaching the ape type.

The double curvature which is so striking in the vertebral
column of man, is entirely lost in the ape, where the spinous
processes of the cervical vertebre are longer, stronger, and
appear simple at the points, whilst in man they are divided
by a shallow groove.

The Prnvis presents great variations. However narrow and
elongated the human pelvis may be, it never, in this respect,
resembles that of the ape, in which the iliac bones rise verti-
cally and incline to the sacrum, whilst in man they spread out

152 LECTURE VI.

Fig. 52. Side view of Male Pelvis.

Fig. 53. Pelvis of a Male Chimpanzee, side view.

The description is, in figs. 52 and 53, the same. a. Ilium. 6. Third
lumbar vertebra. c. Fourth lumbar vertebra. d. Acetabulum. e. Os pubis.
f. Femur. g. Tuber ischii. h. Coccyx.

LECTURE VI. 153

in the form of a dish. Whilst the form of the superior portion
of the pelvis, as already observed at the beginning of this
lecture, seems to be regulated by the burden of the bowels, the
lower portion is closely connected with parturition and the
form of the head which is to pass through its aperture. Now
the long, narrow, and thin head of the young ape can easily
pass through a narrow pelvis, whilst the more rounded human
head requires a wider diameter in every direction.

On examining now the Limes we find both in their propor-
tions and their relations to each other a marked difference.
Whilst the leg of man, as the sole organ of support, is heavier
and more massive in its component bones, the leg of the ape
resembles the anterior imb. In man the thigh bone (femur)
is the longest and heaviest of the whole skeleton ; in the chim-
panzee the humerus equals it in length, in the gorilla it shghtly
exceeds it, and in the orang it does so greatly. The chimpan-
zee in a forced, erect position, which he, like the other apes,
never assumes, can reach the knee with the end of the middle
finger ; and the orang can reach its ankles without bending.
The difference becomes still greater when we study the propor-
tion of the parts. Assuming the length of the humerus to be
= 100, the length of the radius in the white man is = 75°5, in
the chimpanzee = 90°8; the length of the hand in the white
man = 52°9; in the chimpanzee, 73°4; and in the other apes,
specially in the orang, these proportions are still more striking.
The humerus is therefore proportionately shorter in the ape
than in man, but the forearm and the hand are longer. Accord-
ing to Professor Aeby’s measurements, which have not yet
been published in detail, the gorilla alone among the apes
entirely agrees with man as regards the dimensions of the upper
extremities. The other anthropoid apes, however, differ greatly
from man in this respect. Now compare the hand of the chim-
panzee (fig. 54) with its long, narrow fingers, thin, insignifi-
cant thumb, long, narrow, flat palm, in which the ball of the
thumb scarcely projects, with your own broad hand, its power-
ful thumb and well developed ball, the projecting cushions on
the lower surface of the fingers’ ends ; and you will at once,
even without examining the skeleton, perceive the great differ-

154 LECTURE VI.

ence in the development of the hands in the two genera. But
now, instead of the hand of the chimpanzee, take that of the
gorilla, Its breadth and the thickness of the thumb so much
approach that of man, that, as Huxley justly observes, there is
more dissimilarity between the hand of the orang, which has
one bone more in the carpus, and that of the gorilla, than
between the hand of the gorilla and that of man. It is not
necessary to shew farther how the gorilla, with regard to his
limbs, presents a perfect transition from the ape to man. If
an isolated arm of the gorilla were found in a fossil state, it
would unhesitatingly be ascribed to a species of man; just as
the cranium of a microcephalus would be regarded as a new
species of ape. The difference is still more marked in the leg,
not so much as regards the relative length of the several parts
as in the internal structure. Assuming, again, the length of the

Fig. 54. Hand of the Chimpanzee: the palm.

‘liu i

| i il

LECTURE VI. 155

femur = 100, the European presents the following proportions :
tibia = 82:5; foot =52°9; whilst in the chimpanzee the pro-
portion for the tibia is = 80; but for the foot, 72°8. Here
the extremity of the limb acquires the greatest length.

This organ, compared with the human foot, is a real hand.
True, the fingers are somewhat shorter, the thumbs larger and
thicker than in the anterior hand; but still it is a hand, with
a flat lower surface, well-separated, moveable, drawn-out fingers,
with opposable thumbs, and a long furrowed palm. On com-
paring a sketch of this hand with that of a human foot, we
first perceive that Burmeister was right in designating (Geolo-
gische Bilder) the foot the specific character of humanity. The
strength and length of the great toe, which generally exceeds
in man those of the other toes ; the smallness and imperfection
of the other toes, which can generally be moved only together,

Fig. 55. Foot of Chimpanzee: the sole.

156 LECTURE VI.

not separately ; the projecting anterior cushions, formed by
the bones of the metatarsus ; the vaulted juncture of the meta-

Fig. 56. Skeleton of the Human Foot, top view.

tarsus with the tarsus, which equalises the weight of the body
upon the whole arch, favouring the raising of the foot and the
elasticity of the sole; the narrow but high heel, which projects
but little backwards ;—all these peculiarities in the structure
of the human foot constitute it an important organ as regards
the characters differentiating man and ape. But here, too, we
must not forget that connecting links exist. The foot of the
gorilla is more anthropoid than that of any other ape, and the
foot of the Negro more ape-like than that of the white man.
The bones of the tarsus in the gorilla exactly resemble those
in the Negro; the ape has the same broad, flat, low heel; the
large toe is thicker and longer than in the other apes, but the
toes, on the whole, are longer, more moveable, and the thumb
more opposable. ‘The posterior limbs of the gorilla,” says
Huxley, “‘ terminate in a real foot, with a moveable great toe.
It is a prehensile foot, if you like, but no hand,—a foot which
differs from that of man, not in any fundamental character,

LECTURE VI. Tay

but in mere proportions in the degree of mobility, and in the
secondary arrangement of its parts.”

Fig. 57. Foot of Gorilla, after Huxley.

Still, we must bear in mind that the ideas “hand” and
“foot”? may be very differently conceived, and that they run
into each other. Whilst most anatomists consider the essen-
tial part of the idea “hand” to be the opposability of the
thumb, I. Geoffroy St. Hilaire justly observes, that many
species of apes of the Old and New World, as the colobus and
ateles, have no thumb at all, or only a rudimentary one in the
anterior limbs, and that the opposable thumb is in apes always
more developed in the hind limb than in the anterior one,
whilst the reverse is the case in man. Whilst, therefore,
Huxley restricts the notion hand so much, that he terms the
posterior extremity of the gorilla a prehensile foot, Geoffroy
St. Hilaire calls, on the contrary, every extremity a hand,
though it be thumbless, provided it has long and flexible
fingers, capable of prehension. According to this definition,
most birds, especially parrots, also possess hands.

We now proceed to some internal organs, and especially to

158 LECTURE VI.

the brain. Within the last few years, as I have previously
stated, there have been, as regards the central organ of the
nervous system, two contending parties in the field. The
question was :—Does the brain of the ape, in its fundamental
plan and its parts, differ from the human brain? This ques-
tion has greatly agitated the scientific world; and though it
now seems decided by the clearest evidence, we still find, as
frequently occurs in the history of science, the standard-bearer
of one side vainly defending his position. This reminds us of
the anecdote of Thénard, who, in a lecture on chlorine, had
among his auditors Berzelins, the only chemist who insisted
upon the compound nature of chlorine. ‘‘On one side,” ob-
served Thénard, “‘ we see the whole army; on the other side,
a single man, whom, however, this once only, the army refuse
to follow, but who outweighs them all, whoever they may be.”
So, too, we may say here: all against one,—but the one is
Richard Owen.

Man has neither absolutely nor relatively the largest and
heaviest brain among the mammals. The large aquatic mam-
mals, as the whale, finner, sword-fish, large dolphins, and the
elephant among land animals, have brains of more than two to
three pounds in weight. The small American monkeys, the
sajou, sai, and saimiri, have, in proportion to the body, a rela-
tively larger brain, which, in man, is ] : 36, and in the former
as 1:13,1:24:25. Although the emaciation of monkeys
which die in menageries is very great; still, this much has
been proved by the weighing of their brains, that man pos-.
sesses no advantage as regards the cerebral mass.

On the other hand, his brain is much larger in relation to
the spinal cord and the cerebral nerves ; and the cerebrum is
also larger in relation to the cerebellum. Even in this respect
the lower races approach the animal structure, and the Negro
is as much distinguished from the white man, by the compara-
tive thickness of the spinal cord and the nerve trunks, as the
ape is from the Negro.

I shall do myself the pleasure of making you acquainted
with the present state of the dispute among naturalists con-
cerning the cerebral structure of man and ape. I confess, the

LECTURE VI. 159

pleasure is rather a malicious one. We see how they play hide
and seek in three or four corners ; how, when obliged to leave
one corner for another, the player finds another player who
cries out to him, “ You can’t stay here ; find another corner.”
“The human character,” exclaims one philosopher, “ les not
in the developed form of the adult, but in the mode of devel-
opment” ; immediately there comes another, who says, “ Non-
sense! the character hes in certain parts which are peculiar to
.’? “False!” replies a third, “the ape, also, has these
parts ; it is the general type which constitutes the difference.”
“Wrong again!” says a fourth, “that is exactly the same
in both,—but the brain does not constitute the difference ; ’tis
the mind!” “ Mind, spirit?” asks a fifth, “there is no quali-
tative difference, only a quantitative one; but the structure,—
the parts,—there it is !”

“In man,” says Owen, “ the brain presents an ascensive step
in development, higher and more strongly marked than that by
which the preceding sub-class was distinguished from the one
below it. Not only do the cerebral hemispheres overlap the
olfactory lobes and cerebellum, but they extend in advance of
the one, and further back than the other. Their posterior de-
velopment is so marked, that anatomists have assigned to that
part the character of a third lobe,—it is peculiar to the genus
Homo; and equally peculiar is the posterior horn of the lateral
ventricle, and the hippocampus minor, which characterise the
hind lobe of each hemisphere. Peculiar mental powers are
associated with this highest form of brain, and their conse-
quences wonderfully illustrate the value of the cerebral cha-
racter ; according to my estimate of which I am led to regard
the genus Homo as not merely the representative of a distinct
Order, but of a distinct sub-Class of the Mammalia, for which
I propose the name of ARCHENCEPHALA.”

Huxley rephes to this :—TI shall prove,

“|, That the third lobe is neither peculiar to, nor character-
istic of man, seeing that exists in all the higher quadrumana.

«2. That the posterior cornu of the lateral ventricle is neither
peculiar to, nor characteristic of man, inasmuch as it also
exists in the higher quadrumana.

man

160 LECTURE VI.

“3. That the hippocampus minor is neither peculiar to, nor
characteristic of man, as it is found in certain of the higher
quadrumana.”

Fig. 58. Top view of brain of the Chimpanzee, after Marshall.

On the right side, the ventricle with the posterior cornu, are laid open.
For description, compare figures 30 and 36.

The English now begin energetically to study the anatomy
of the simian brain; Marshall dissects a chimpanzee; Rol-
leston, an orang; Huxley, an ateles; preparations, drawings,
and photographs are made, and—Huxley’s assertions remain
unshaken. Owen appeals to older drawings of Tiedemann,
Van der Kolk, and Vrolik, to support his negative opinion ;
whilst his opponents appeal to the same works to prove their
positive opinion. But this is too much for the phlegmatic
Dutchmen. ‘Mr. Owen,” they write, “has been carried
away by his desire to upset the theory of Darwin (of which

LECTURE VI. 161

Messrs. Schroeder Van der Kolk and Vrolik are not over fond),
and we believe him to be in error. In order to prove that
the Negro brain rises at once without any transitionary stage
‘above that of the anthropoid apes, Mr. Owen asserts that
the posterior lobe of the hemispheres, the posterior cornu of
the lateral ventricle, and the pes hippocampi minor, which
exist in the Negro brain, are absent in the former.” The
Dutch anatomists now maintain that they have found and de-
lineated all these parts, and that singularly enough, whilst
praising the correctness of the sketches, he by a contradictio
in adjecto denies the existence of these parts; they mention
the researches of Huxley, Marshall, and Rolleston, and are
glad to observe that they agree with their own. ‘ We also
are glad,” they say, ‘ that the zoological gardens, now-a-days,
so easily furnish us with the necessary materials for com-
parison. An error, which formerly would have been per-
petuated, is now more easily removed; but we feel grieved
when we compare the assertions of Mr. Owen with the results
obtained by the above eminent naturalists, which confirm our
own.”

And thus Owen’s characteristic marks of the human brain
are broken to pieces; and Wagner, of Géttingen, observes
very justly, ‘I could never understand how comparatively
insignificant cerebral parts, which vary in individual human
brains, e.g. longer or shorter posterior cornua of the lateral
ventricles, presence of the pes hippocampi minor, nay, some
single or double medullary globules (eminentie candicantes),
could be urged to be distinctive marks of the human brain, as
distinguished from that of the anthropoid apes.”

This being disposed of, the convolutions are taken to task.
These, it is said, are in man rounder, more complicated, more
numerous, and less symmetrical. All this is very true; but
like the proportions which the nerve-trunks, the spinal cord,
and the cerebellum, bear to the brain, they furnish only rela-
tive and quantitative, but not qualitative differences.

With regard to the general arrangement of the convolu-
tions, Gratiolet expresses himself as decidedly as concerning the
general cerebral structure. ‘On comparing a series of human

M

162 LECTURE VI.

and ape brains,” says this author, ‘‘we easily detect the re-
markable analogy of the cerebral form in all these creatures.
The folded brain of man, and the smooth brain of the Ouistiti,
resemble each other by a fourfold character,—a rudimentary
olfactory bulb, a posterior lobe covering the cerebellum, a well
marked Sylvian fissure, and a posterior cornu of the lateral
ventricle.

“These characters co-exist only in man and the ape. In
all other animals the cerebellum remains (partly) uncovered ;
in most, even in the elephant, there is an enormous olfactory
bulb ; and, excepting the makis (lemur), no other animal pre-
sents the Sylvian fissure.

“Thus there is in man and apea peculiar cerebral form ; and
there is also in all these creatures a general type in the ar-
rangement of the cerebral convolutions. This resemblance of
man and ape in the arrangement of the convolutions is worthy
the attention of the philosopher. There is equally a particular
type of the cerebral convolutions in bears, cats, dogs, makis,
in short, in all natural families of animals. Hach of these
families has its normal type; and in each of these groups the
species may be connected solely according to the character of
the cerebral convolutions.”

Wagner fully agrees with Gratiolet. ‘The fundamental
development of the lobes in the large, lesser, and central
brain ; the limitation of the lobes in the cerebrum to inter-
mediate, frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, are in
the quadrumana, as well as in man, arranged according to the
same plan; and so are the chief fissures between them,—the
Sylvian, Rolando’s, the occipital fissure, the overlapping of the
cerebellum by the well-developed posterior lobe of the cerebrum ;
all this gives more or less, to the lowest simian brain, a
striking physiognomical resemblance to the human brain.”

There is, then, nothing more to be said on this point; the
general plan is and remains the same, and I cannot prove it
better than by placing some drawings of human and simian
brains in juxtaposition. But there are certain people who
never give in. Distinctive characters must exist ; how can
you otherwise explain man’s exceptional position? or how

LECTURE VI. 163

can you otherwise separate him from the animal kingdom ?
If man, both in his mental qualifications as well as in his cere-
bral functions, possesses not merely a something more (what no
one denies), but something else not existing in other animals,
which he must have if he is to be capable of religion, of salvation,
and of immortality; then there should be something in his
brain, were it only an organ of faith!

Fig. 59. Brain of Macacus silenus, upper surface, after Gratiolet.

0

Fig. 60. Side view of the same; the operculum is reflected to display the
subjacent transition convolutions.

The description in both figures is the same as in the Chimpanzee brain,
fig. 58 (compare figures 30 and 36). K, operculum; 2, transition convolution
covered by the operculum.

uM 2

164 LECTURE VI.

Prof. Wagner finds such an organ—with Gratiolet. ‘‘ The
superior apes approach man gradually as regards richness of con-
volution, depth of fissures, and the presence of the gyri breves
in the central lobe of the island, and greater asymmetry, etc.
But they are far behind man as regards the preponderance of
the large hemispheres, especially as regards their proportions
to the cerebellum; and there are distinctive differences im the
arrangement, size, and limitation of the posterior lobes, which
are always more developed in the ape and cover a portion of
the convolutions, which Gratiolet terms plis de passage (trans-
ition lobes).” In a note to this, Wagner observes, ‘ The
posterior lobes of the apes do not admit of a strict reduction of
their convolutions to man. That I have done so by way of essay
in my tables, and have paid no particular attention to Gratiolet’s
plis de passage, was done in order to establish a more simple
terminology, which may be useful in cerebral dissections.”

Ihave distinguished some of the above words by italics to
show how contradictory they are. First, it is said, the poste-
rior lobes have a remarkable resemblance, then they exhibit a-
striking difference; and how? ‘The only human character
which Wagner is able to find, the cap-lke covering of the
transition convolutions, he estimates so little as to omit it
altogether, simply for the sake of the terminology in dissections.

Let us now return to Gratiolet, from whom the facts are bor-
rowed. “ The shape, says this author, of the brain is known.
Its elevation, the breadth of the frontal lobe, the anterior
portion of which, instead of becoming pointed, is formed by a
surface which corresponds to the expansion of the frontal bone.
The depression of the Sylvian fissure, the richness and com-
plication of the secondary convolutions distinguish at first
sight the human from the simian brain.

“Yet in spite of these differences, however great and charac-
teristic they may be, when we compare the proportions of the
individual parts, there still remain between the human and
the simian brain such analogies that a general description is
sufficient for both.”

Further on he says, “ This is an essential character; in man
all transition convolutions are superficial.” This fact is signi-

LECTURE VI. 165

ficant in the highest degree, when the question applies to the
comparison of the cerebral convolutions in man and the ape.
In fact :—

1. In the chimpanzee the posterior lobe is large and the
operculum well marked. The upper transition convolution is
wanting, the second is covered.

2. In the orang the posterior lobe is moderate and its oper-
culum imperfect. The superior transition convolution is large
and superficial, the second covered.

3. In man the posterior lobe is much reduced, the oper-
culum is absent. The two superior transition convolutions
are large, undulating, and both superficial.

* Does not this regular gradation tell its own tale ?”

The question does not turn here on the two superior transi-
tion convolutions, which are both in apes and men superficial
and uncovered; but on the two superior, and not even on
both of them, but on the second, for the superior is in the
orang as in man, uncovered, superficial, and free. Then there
is the operculum, which, though imperfect, exists in the orang.
I now write in my note book: Man is distinguished from the
ape by the absence of an imperfect operculum and by the
second transition convolution being uncovered. I may here
apply Waegner’s observation that we can hardly consider
insignificant variations, as the second plis de passage, which,
in some cases, as Dareste (another convolution student)
maintains, may in the same individual differ in both hemi-
spheres, as characteristic marks of man. But I console myself
by studying my Gratiolet, and I read of the devil’s ape (ateles
Beelzebuth). ‘‘ We easily recognise the posterior lobe, it is
of moderate size ; anteriorly its limits are badly defined. The
external vertical fissure is in fact obliterated by the develop-
ment of the transition convolutions, which are very large and
all superficial.

“This circumstance is most important, as, hitherto, we have
only found it in man.”

But is it not remarkable that Gratiolet, in the second part
of his Essay, which treats of the American apes (the devil’s
and the capuchin ape belong to the new world), establishes

166 LECTURE VI.

by facts the fallacy of his assertions in the first part ? Is it not
still more remarkable that Wagner, who studies this treatise,
makes extracts and long comments on it, adheres to the first
part without reading the second, despite that the underlined
passages are also rendered prominent in the original? And is
it not most remarkable that M. Gratiolet, in the year 1860,
that is to say ten years after he had submitted his memoir to
the Academy, has so entirely forgotten his own results, that he
straightway lays down the maxim, that the superficiality of the
second transition convolution is “an absolute peculiar cha-
racter of man?”

But Gratiolet tells us further, “In the adult state the ar-
rangement of the cerebral convolutions is in the two groups
(man and ape) the same, and in this respect there is no suffi-
cient ground for separating man from the animal. But in
the ape the convolutions of the spheno-temporal lobe appear
(during the development of the embryo in utero) first, and
those of the frontal lobe last ; whilst in man the frontal lobe
convolutions appear first, and the spheno-temporal convolutions
last. Here, therefore, the same series of developments are
.from alpha to omega, and there from omega to alpha. From
these facts it necessarily results: that no arrest of develop-
ment can render the human brain more resembling that of the
ape than it already is. This result is perfectly confirmed by
the brains of the microcephali.”

Let us examine these alleged facts. The first relates to the
history of the development of man and ape. Is.this difference
so absolutely great ? It certainly only depends on the circum-
stance that in man the frontal lobe is more developed, that the
formative action is greater in that region. On this point
Wagener justly remarks, ‘‘ However much we may adopt Gra-
tiolet’s asserted development differences, there still obtains
a decided similarity (analogy and homology) in the stages of
cerebral development in man and the stages of development in
the lowest monkeys up to the highest anthropoid apes. It is
true that the frontal lobes in man have already in the first
stages a certain peculiarity, specially in the early formation of
the sulci. But there is a decided resemblance between the

LECTURE VI. 167

nearly smooth hemispheres in the fifth month of the human
fcetus and the unconvoluted brains of the small clawed mon-
keys. There is also a decided resemblance in the greater sym-
metry and scantiness of the convolutions of both hemispheres,
the poor, compact, less furrowed and undivided frontal convo-
lutions in the human foetus in the sixth and seventh month on
the one side, and a number of superior apes up to the anthro-
poid apes on the other.”

I would finally ask whether this development law has been
traced in all races? As far as I am aware, no anatomist has
examined Negro and Hottentot embryos of the fifth and
seventh month. But we also know that skull and brain are
so intimately connected, that they condition each other; we
know, and Gratiolet has pointed it out, that the Negro skull
follows, as regards the closing of the sutures, a different law
from the skull of the white man; that the frontal and coronal
sutures, as in the ape, close earlier than the posterior suture,
whilst the reverse is the case in the white man. Would it
then be so very hazardous to assume that this same simian
development of the skull in the Negro extends also to the
brain ?

The second point refers to the microcephali. These unfor-
tunate creatures who, according to Bischoff, are not men, will
Just prove to us that the human brain preserves its type under
all circumstances.

The cerebral form of the microcephali consists essentially in
an arrest of development, which, however, does not equally
affect the whole brain, but chiefly the frontal lobes. The
brain of all microcephali hitherto examined has in the anterior
parts the same type as that of the anthropoid apes, being
arrested in that stage “‘in which the embryonal human brain
exhibits less developed conyolutions and sulci, as is always
observed in simian brains.” In the posterior part the micro-
cephalous brain is even behind the simian type. The cere-
bellum is not perfectly covered by the posterior lobe, whilst
in all apes it is covered. This condition reminds us of the
brain of the carnivora, and the form of the foetus between the
third and fourth month.

168 LECTURE VI.

We are now told that the projection of the cerebellum is
caused by the defective development of the posterior lobe,
which is a decided character of man. ‘In the brain of our
microcephalus,” says Wagner, “it may in our cast be seen
that the posterior and parietal lobes are reduced ;” and in
another passage, “ The examination of seven or eight micro-
cephalous brains showed that the atrophy of the convolutions

Fig. 61. The brain of an idiot, aged 26, described by Theile. The length
of the hemispheres is reduced to the same length as that of the chimpanzee,

fig. 58. The ventricle on the right side is laid open. The description is the
same as in figures 60 and 30.

and the masses chiefly affected the posterior lobes and the pos-
terior portions of the parietal lobes.” ‘The microcephalie
brain has just in its posterior part not the least resemblance
to the Simian brain ; it is a thoroughly human type, but atro-
phied.””

Now, gentlemen, I have taken the trouble to subject these
proportions to measurement, and as I had no materials at

LECTURE VI. 169

command I have measured M. Wagner’s delineations. I have,
in the engraved brains of a microcephalus and a chimpanzee,
measured two distances on the left side—the first from the
apex of the brain to the vertical fissure which separates the
posterior lobe, the second from the above fissure to the end of
the posterior lobe. I find for these measures, in the chim-
panzee: length of the anterior lobe = 76 millimetres; of the
posterior lobe = 21 millimetres ;—in the microcephalus : length
of anterior lobe = 75 millimetres ; of the posterior lobe = 20
millimetres. I further find from Wagner’s measurements of
the cerebral surface, that it is to the surface of the posterior
lobe: mean in eight males —100: 16:2; that, on the con-
trary, in the microcephalus, the proportion is = 100 : 68°5 ;
that, therefore, the posterior lobe presents a surface four times
greater in the microcephalus than in the adult man; that,
therefore, the idiot has a posterior lobe at least as much deve-
loped as the ape.

Result.—The posterior lobe is in the microcephalus just as
large as in the ape; the idiot has in proportion to the cere-
brum exactly as large a posterior lobe as the chimpanzee.
The idiot has not the deep transversal fissure, nor the opercu-
lum of the chimpanzee, but no more has the devil’s ape, and it
cannot be said that the human embryo could lapse into the
chimpanzee, whilst its posterior lobe resembles that of the
devil’s ape as closely as one egg resembles another. Here,
therefore, the size and form of the posterior lobe is exactly as
in the ape; the cerebrum, the anterior and posterior lobes,
have the simian type.

The cerebellum is not quite in the same condition, as it pro-
jects behind. But this only results from its size, being less
arrested it approaches the normal human cerebellum, having
become too large in proportion to the arrested cerebrum. This
also can be shown by the measurements by Wagner of the
brains of four microcephali and an old orang.

Mean of the 4 Microcephuali. Orang.
Length of cerebrum - - 110°25 - - 101
Breadth of cerebrum - - 79°25 - - 103

Breadth of cerebellum - 78°75 - - 86

170 LECTURE Vi.

In short, the microcephalic brain has, by arrest of develop-
ment, which advances from behind in a forward direction,
become strikingly analogous in the general arrangement of
its parts to the simian brain, and none of the assertions which
recognise in it a particular type are consistent with truth.

The difference between the brain of the microcephalus, who
is only an abnormally formed man, and that of the lowest race
we know, the brain of a bushman’s wife, which according to
Gratiolet would have produced idiocy in a white man, is thus
greater than the difference between the brain of an idiot and
that of an ape. The idiot who has remained stationery in a
primary stage, stands nearer to the ape than to his progenitor.
The distance which his brain has to pass to perfect human de-
velopment is greater than the distance it has passed from the
simian stage. Thus, everywhere we find only variation, inter-
mediate stages which certainly do not all lead to the same
point, but run to and fro in different directions.

LECTURE VII

Comparison of Negro and German.—Bodily proportions of the Negro.—
Skull.—Pelvis.—Proportions of extremities: arm, hand, leg, foot.—
Internal Parts —Brain.—Wace.—Deviations from the normal type.—
Differences of Colour.—Insensibility of the Negro.—Babies, and theic
development.—Remarkable change about the period of puberty.—Mental
Inferiority of the Negro.—Constancy of differences——Resemblance to
the Brute.—Intermediate form between Man and Ape.—Microcephali.—
The Aztecs. ei

GunTLEMEN,—By a scientific investigation of the facts, we
have arrived at the conviction that essential differences be-
tween man and the highest anthropoid apes do exist—differ-
ences sufficiently important to induce us to assign to man a
distinct rank in the animal kingdom, but by no means so
great as to obliterate the close aflinity subsisting between man
and the animals standing next to him. We have in these in-
vestigations, to some extent, idealised both man and ape with-
out noticing the differences obtaining within each of these
groups, and have only endeavoured to establish for each the
abstract collective conception which these various forms com-
pose. We have preferentially paid attention to the heads of
these groups. Among the apes we chiefly noticed the anthro-
poid group, and among the human group the white race.
But here already we soon detected that even among these
groups there appeared forms which, on comparison, might be
separated ; and that as among the superior apes, the orang,
gorilla, and chimpanzee, represent three types, which in cer-
tain parts of their organisation approached man’s structure,
and in others deviate from it; so there appear within the
human group different types, which in some points approach
the simian, and in others the highest human type. We shall, in
the investigation of these facts adopt the same method we
have hitherto followed. We now no longer oppose the generic

WA LECTURE VI.

conception “man” to that of “ape”; but we compare two
well defined human types in order to determine the characters
which distinguish these typical organisms. We select for this
purpose the two extreme human types, namely, the Necro and
the German, and comparing them side by side, as regards all
their peculiarities, we may ascertain the degree of their differ-
ential character. The result thus obtained we shall in our
next lecture compare with what we may be able to deduce
from the comparison of two acknowledged simian types. It
will then be seen whether the sum of the differences existing
between two human races is greater or less than that obtain-
ing between two kinds of apes, the separation of which into
two species is recognised by all naturalists. It will also be
seen whether we mete by the same measure, by assuming in
apes a difference, and in man the unity of species.

I know full well that this method will be objected to. You
select, it will be said, the Negro and the German, who, by
your own confession, stand at the extreme limits of the human
group, and you will probably select two species of apes which
are closely allied, belonging to the same genus and only sepa-
rated by some slight variations. We should not be surprised
if you find greater differences between Negro and German
than between the two apes. I reply to this: species is spe-
cies, and there is but one zoological science, the principles of
which must apply equally to man and ape, and what in one of
these types is called species must not in the other be called
race or variety. If, then, the differences between Negro and
German should be greater than those between the capuchin
ape, the cebus apella or the sajou, it would follow that either
the two human types must, like those of apes, belong to two
different species, or the two acknowledged different species
of apes must only form one species.

Let us now proceed in our investigations.

The Nucro is on the average shorter than the German, the
mean length of his body being 64-66 inches. Six Negro
skeletons yielded as their mean length 160 centimetres ; whilst
as many European skeletons gave above 172 centimetres.
There are no doubt athletic forms occurring among Negroes,

LECTURE VU. 173

and some tribes among the blacks, just as among the whites,
are distinguished by a high stature; but even these exception-
ally tall Negroes never reach the length of the tall tribes
among the Germans or Anglo-Saxon races, and no such giants
will be found even in the most privileged black tribes, as are
occasionally found among the whites.

The proportions in the corporeal structure greatly differ.
The trunk is smaller in proportion to the extremities, specially
to the arm, which in the Negro reaches below the middle of
the femur. Most Negroes can, without stooping, reach with
the finger’s end the region above the knee-cap. The neck is
short, the cervical muscles very powerful, but the shoulders
are narrower and less strong than in the white. There is a
certain resemblance in the form of the neck to that of the
gorilla, to which the remarkable development of the cervical
muscles, combined with the shortness and curvature of this
part, gives something of the aspect of a bull’s neck. Surely it
is for this reason that the Negro always carries his burden on
the head, rarely upon the shoulders or back; and it is for this
reason that he, like a ram, uses his hard skull in a fight. The
chest is narrow, the antero-posterior is almost equal to the
transverse diameter, which predominates in the German; the
belly is relaxed and pendulous, and the navel situated nearer
the symphysis pubis than in the European. Hven in muscular
Negroes the arms are less rotund, the hips narrow, the thighs
laterally compressed, the calves lean. The Negro rarely stands
quite upright, the knees are usually bent, and the legs fre-
quently bandy. Hands and feet are long, narrow, and flat,
and form the least attractive features in the Negro figure.

Most of these external characteristics remind us irresistibly
of the ape: the short neck, the long lean limbs, the projecting
pendulous belly—all this affords a glimmer of the ape beneath
the human envelope. Such similarities are equally detected on
examining the structure of individual parts. Commencing
with the skeleton, we find that the bones are always beautifully
white and hard, almost like ivory. The angles and rims are
always more marked, and the contour of the individual bones
coarser than in the Huropean.

174 LECTURE VII.

The skull is usually elongated, narrow at the forehead, the
central line of the vertex rather depressed, the parietal sur-
faces flattened, the greatest breadth being in the posterior
third. The Negro skull is the purest type of the long skull
with receding forehead. On this small and narrow receding
frontal bone the superciliary arches are moderate, the frontal
eminences little marked, the nasal process broad, correspond-
ing with the broad flat nose. The temporal fossa are deep in
front, but flat and lengthened backwards. On looking at the

Fig. 62. Skull of the Negro, top view.

skull from above, it seems as if it had been compressed behind
the orbits. The parietal bones are proportionately much larger
than the frontal bone and the occipital squama, which are
usually small and short. The sutures are usually fine but
small, the Wormian bones, which in the European are fre-
quently found in the lambdoid suture, are rare exceptions in the
Negro. The base of the cranium is long, the occipital foramen
rather long than broad and situated behind the centre of the
line drawn from the alveolar margin of the upper jaw to the

LECTURE VII. 175

most projecting rim of the occiput. The basilar bone is long
and narrow, but the mastoid processes, as well as the petrous
bone, are generally strong and thick, the brims of the occipital
foramen rise above the flattened base. The facial skull is re-
markably large in proportion to the cerebral skull.

_ Fig. 63. Kafir Skull, base.

The orbits are wide, funnel-shaped, their lower margin very
thick, rounded and projecting, the nasal bones short, narrow,
almost square, the nasal apertures broad, with rounded angles,
the nasal spine is scarcely indicated, the upper jaws drawn
outward, usually provided with knobs corresponding to the
canine teeth, the cheekbones usually form prominent angles.
According to Pruner-Bey, we may distinguish three kinds of
prognathism. In the lowest degree the alveolar arch is elliptic
instead of parabolic, outwardly convex, but the incisors are
perpendicularly inserted, so that the prognathism is confined
to this jaw. In the second degree the incisors are oblique,
but are in the same line with the jaw; whilst in the third de-
gree they form an obtuse angle at their insertion and exhibit

176 LECTURE VII.

projecting edges. But in no case is the prognathism of the
Negro solely confined to the position of the teeth and their cavi-
ties, it is the jaw which constantly contributes towards the pro-
jection of the muzzle. An interval, though of small extent, is
not rarely seen in the upper jaw between the incisors and the

Fig. 64. Negro Skull, side view.

canine teeth. Soemmering found in some Negro skulls a sup-
plemental molar in the upper jaw; two anomalies, which to
our knowledge, have never been observed in Germanic skulls.
This diastema reminds us of the ape in general. The additional
molar in the upper jaw, by which such Negroes have thirty-
four instead of thirty-two teeth, reminds us of the American
monkeys in particular, which have thirty-six teeth, the increase
extending to the lower jaw.

The osseous palate is not only absolutely longer, but abso-
jlutely broader than in the white, and these circumstances indi-
cate the exceptionally great development of the jaws in general.
The zygomatic arches are curved and wide, so that the tem-

LECTURE VII. 177

poral muscles, presiding over the motion of the massive lower
jaw, and filling the whole temporal fossz, are larger and more
powerful in the Negro than in the White. The lower jaw is, in
fact, far more powerful and massive than in the white; the
chin is retracted, broad, and rounded ; the horizontal branch of
the lower jaw is very long; the vertical broad and short, and
forming an obtuse angle, so that a considerable force can be
exerted. The size of the teeth, which are broad, long, and of
glittering whiteness, corresponds to this. ‘The substance of
the teeth is, moreover, far harder than in the European, so
that they are not so easily used up. I know dentists, who
partly owe their reputation to the circumstance that during
their stay in America they procured sacksfull of Negro teeth,
with which they supplied the gums of our European ladies,—
an operation which could be the more easily effected, since the
female European skull resembles much more the Negro skull
than that of the Huropean male.

On further examining the proportion the cerebral-skull bears
to the facial-skull, the simiousness in the Negro is exhibited by
the greater development of what may be called apposition. The
elongation of the skull, its narrowness in the anterior part,
the recession of the forehead, cause, as it were, the brain to
slide back from the face, whence the roofs of the orbits appear
more oblique than in the European, and resemble the form
seen in most mammals. The funnel-shape of the orbits is
caused by this formation. The internal cranial capacity is,
despite of its elongation, considerably smaller than in the
German, the difference amounting to nearly 100 cubic centi-
metres or more, according to some measurements already
given.

The facial angle of Camper amounts in the Negro to 70-75
deg., it may sink to 65, whilst in the German it is rarely
below 80, and frequently a few degrees higher. In the Ger-
man the saddle-angle (ephippiwm) is 134 deg., in the Negro,
138-150 ; the angle on the root of the nose, in the German 66
deg., is in the Negro above 70 up to 77.

On examining the other parts of the skeleton, we are at
once struck by the fact that the S-shaped curve of the verte-

N

178 LECTURE VII.

bral column is less distinct in the Negro than in the White,
the column approaching in its arrangement that of the ape.
The pelvis is further distinguished by its length and narrow-
ness. All the diameters of the small pelvis, through which
the head of the child must pass, are considerably smaller in
the Negro. This applies specially to the large diameter, and
we may say that, on the whole, the pelvis of the Negress (for
in the female sex this part of the pelvis is much more spacious
than in the male), as regards the smallness of its diameter,
resembles the pelvis of the white man. This is not surprising,
as the head of the Negro child presents already at birth all
the characters of its race in the narrow and elongated head,
and accordingly we find the narrow pelvis adapted to this
form.

The pelvis of the male Negro, compared with that of
the white man, appears larger, the iliac bones not broad key-
shaped, and so that the upper parts lean on the sacrum almost
like the shoulder blades on the superior extremities. The
length of the extremities, and specially the proportions of the
separate parts, are of particular importance.*

* I give here the proportions of the parts composing the extremities, as-
suming the total length of the body to be = 100, and expressing the length
of the component parts in per cents, we obtain the following numbers, ac-
cording to Burmeister’s measurements :—

MALES. FEMALES,

| Europeans. Negroes, |/Europeans.!| Negroes.

Superior extremity......... 45°5 446 46 48°8
WUPPCRRMEIN ao. ond ucsaneetes 18°9 18°15 19 20
Fore-arm 159 14°77 143 16°7
ARVAUU cess veneesy ccsaseads. 10°6 11°5 9°5 11-7

Inferior extremity ......... 515 51:9 49-2 51:7
AB th Ted CUBASE aR aOPAE ose EP EreEE 26°75 27°8 27 28°3
MIDs tener taesiasae occas ce 24-7 25'8 23°8 261
MOOG 4 Fe ieee ebeenoe cst. 15°15 15 14°3 15°7

By calculating in the same way, Pruner-Bey’s measurements of the skeleton,
we obtain the following corresponding numbers, which, as the author himself
observes, lay no claim to perfect correctness, as the total length partly de-
pends on the manner in which the skeletons are mounted.

LECTURE VII. 179

The arm by itself is perhaps somewhat longer than that of
the European ; still there are several Negro tribes, in which
the proportion of the total length to that of the arm is nearly the
same. But the proportion of the individual parts to each other
varies: the humerus of the Negro is proportionately shorter,
the forearm proportionally longer than in the German. This
proportion is in the subjoined table apparent at once, and this,
as has long been observed, is a decided approach to the animal
type. The humerus exceeds, in all human races as well as in
the anthropoid apes, the bones of the forearm in length ; but
this predominance, which is greatest in the white race, dimi-
nishes in the black, and sinks still further in the anthropoid
apes. In the American apes the predominance is already
reversed, so that from the monkeys through the whole animal
kingdom the upper arm is shorter than the lower arm. Con-
nected with this is a greater leanness and a more equalised dis-
tribution of the muscular fibres, so that the rotundity of the
upper arm partly produced by the development of the biceps,
and the spindle-shape of the forearm, is not seen in the Negro,
both parts presenting in their whole length nearly the same
thickness.*

Euro- Euro- Euro- Euro-

peans. |Negroes.} peans.1 Negroes. peans.2 |Negroes. 3) peans.
Humerus......... 19°58 | 19°54| 107°83 | The corre-| 100-2 | 100 100
Radius............ 14°78 | 15:32 | 103-37 | sponding ne-| 96°5 | 78°7 | 75°5
PANG. ©. 22... c 0000 10:94 | 11:58 | 101:62 | gro limb is| 94°47] 59:3 52°9
Thigh (femur).. | 27-29 | 27-94 105°10 | everywhere | 97-68 | 100 100
Leg (tibia) ...... 22°45 | 23°80 | 100°17 | adopted —| 96°43 | 85:2 82°5
WOO ensce acs: sane 14°51 | 15°40 | 102-04 100. 94-3 54°8 52°9

1 This series is calculated according to the absolute numbers of mea-
surement.

2 This series is calculated according to the proportional numbers of the
first two columns.

3 This series shows the proportions of the middle and terminal members
to the first member, which is assumed — 100.

* According to Aeby’s measurements, the details of which are not yet
published, the individual races and peoples are not distinguished as regards
the proportions of the limbs and their parts. The difference in length of
the forearm of the European and the Negro does not amount even to one
per cent., and even this slight difference may, perhaps, be reduced by further
and more extended measurements.

N 2

180 LECTURE VII.

To the long lean forearm is joined a hand which has a deci-
dedly simious character. Though the stature of the Negro and
the Negress is on the average a few inches below that of the
White, the hand of both sexes is always absolutely, mostly an
inch or more longer than that of the white race. Besides this,
the hand is narrow, the fingers long and thin, the cushion of
the third phalanx scarcely perceptible, the nails narrow, flesh
coloured, rounded at the end, but much arched. The palm is
flat, the thumb-ball scarcely prominent, the coloration lighter
than on the dorsum. The thumb is narrow and long, but weak,
and reaches in the black to the middle of the second finger,
and sometimes beyond. All these characters of the hand de-
cidedly approach those of the simian hand, which is equally
distinguished by narrowness, long fingers with curved nails,
and slight difference between the thumb and the other fingers.

The disproportion between the limbs is still more developed
in the Negress, in whom the arm is absolutely longer than in
the male, whilst the upper arm is absolutely shorter. I will,
however, not dwell on this, and bearing in mind that between
the two sexes of the same species differences may and do pre-
vail greater than between the same sexes of different species,
I shall keep to the male sex. We may be sure that, whenever
we perceive an approach to the animal type, the female is
nearer to it than the male, hence we should discover a greater
simious resemblance if we were to take the female as our
standard.

The leg exhibits the same proportions as the arm. The leg
of the Negro is proportionately somewhat longer than that of
the European; not the femur, but the tibia and the foot.
Hence it is that the ends of the fingers seem to reach farther
down than in the White, as the knee is, from the shortness of
the thigh, brought nearer the trunk. The femoral bones as
well as the fibula seem curved outward, so that the knees are
more apart from each other than in the White. This mainly
arises from the narrowness of the pelvis, by which the articu-
lating surfaces of the heads of the femoral bones approximate
the central axis of the body. There is also a peculiar arrange-
ment in the muscles of the legs, which appear thin, calfless, and

LECTURE VII. 181

laterally compressed. The whole leg has the appearance of a
wooden leg covered with skin, from the absence of fleshy
muscles.

The foot of the Negro, says Burmeister, produces a dis-
agreeable impression. Hverything in it is ugly: the flatness,
the projecting heel, the thick fatty cushion in the inner
cavity, the spreading toes. Let us examine these characters.
We have seen that the character of the human foot les mainly
in its arched structure, in the predominance of the metatarsus,
the shortening and equal direction of the toes, among which
the great toe is remarkably long, but not like the thumb op-
posable. In every public bath you may observe the following
marks left by the wet feet: a round spot behind correspond-
ing to the heel, in front a transverse spot almost pear-shaped,
the thick part inwards, formed by the ball. Sometimes there
is a small] line, corresponding to the external margin of the
foot, running towards the heel-spot, but rarely reaching it ;
the anterior, or ball-spot, corresponds to the articulations
between the toes and the metatarsus; the toes in standing
leave no marks, but do so in progression. The whole middle
part of the foot does not touch the ground. Persons with flat
feet, in whom the middle of the sole touches the ground, are
bad pedestrians, and are rejected as recruits. If the same rule
were applied to Negro regiments, the Pacha of Egypt could
not have placed his soldiers at the disposal of the Emperor of
the French for the Mexican Expedition. The Negro, says an
American song, cited by Burmeister, makes with the cavity of
his foot a hole in the ground. The Negro is a decided flat-
foot, which, indeed, may be seen also in the skeleton, but
much better in the living man, as the fat cushion on the sole
not only fills up the whole cavity but projects beyond the
surface, so that the ball and the heel do not exactly lie on the
same plane with this pad. The toes of the foot are longer,
narrower, more moveable and spreading than in the European,
the great toe somewhat shorter than the second, but long
and narrow and more removed, so that here we have again a
decided approach to the form of a hand. But as we have seen
the formation of a foot instead of a hand is an essential human

182 LECTURE VII.

structural character, and it is specially the foot of the go-
rilla, or if you like, the posterior hand, which also in other
respects presents a decided similarity to the foot of the
Negro.

With respect to the internal organs, I shall chiefly quote the
remarks of Pruner-Bey, who, as the physician of the Viceroy
of Egypt, has ample opportunities for observation. “ Soemmer-
ing,” says Pruner, “ had already remarked that in the Negro the
peripheral nerves are very large and thick in proportion to the
volume of the brain. This fact is rendered particularly evident
by the excellent preparation of M. Jacquard in the Paris
Museum.

«The narrow and elongated brain always presents on the
surface a brown coloration, resulting from a considerable in-
jection of venous blood. (Other observers attribute, im our
opinion with greater probability, this dark colour to a greater
deposition of pigment both in the grey matter and in the
arachnoid membrane). The superficial ves are very thick ;
the grey substance presents internally a clear brown colora-
tion ; the white substance is yellowish ; the cortical grey sub-
stance, which covers the hemispheres, is less thick than in
the white. Viewed in front the brain presents a rounded
apex; viewed from above the parts seem coarser and less
manifold than in the white. The anterior and parietal convo-
lutions seem less deep, flattened, excepting the third convolu-
tion, which rather protrudes on the frontal surface. On tracing
the convolutions backwards, we find fewer of those parietal
folds which render the brain of the white a perfect labyrinth.
The convolutions on the middle lobe seem raised, but massive
and coarse; the posterior lobe always appeared to me as flat-
tened on the top as the anterior lobe is at the base. In the
side view it is specially the direction of the Sylvian fissure
which has engaged the attention of anatomists. I myself have
never been able to detect in this respect an essential difference
between the brain of the Negro and that of the Egyptian,
though I placed them side by side. The part above the corpus
callosum 1s comparatively less raised, the cerebellum less an-
gular than in the European, the vermis and the pineal gland

LECTURE VII. 183

are very large. The cerebral mass is undoubtedly firmer and
' more consistent in the Negro than in the White.

“In the brain of the Negro the central gyri are like those
in a foetus of seven months, the secondary are still less marked.
By its rounded apex and less developed posterior lobe the
Negro brain resembles that of our children, and by the protu-
berance of the parietal lobe, that of our females. The shape
of the brain, the volume of the vermis and of the pineal gland,
assion to the Negro brain a place by the side of that of a
white child.”

Huschke mentions some other differences. The Sylvian and
Rolando fissures are more perpendicular than in the brain of
the European ; the anterior lobes are shorter, the gyri coarser,
the chief anterior convolution broad, but all without islands.
Huschke arrives at the conclusion that in the Negro brain both
the cerebrum and the cerebellum, as well as the spinal cord,
present the female and infantile European as well as the
simious type. The resemblance of the Negro brain to that of
the European female would be still greater if they were not
distinguished, the former by its length, the latter by its breadth.

I possess no Negro brain, and I must confess that I have no
confidence in the old representations, chiefly for this reason ;
that the convolutions, so important in our researches, are, in
the figures of old authors, such as Tiedemann and Soemmering,
not very faithfully rendered. But on examining the brain of
the Hottentot Venus, an excellent representation of which is
given by Gratiolet, and which by breadth and shortness de-
viates from the Negro brain, but exhibits in other respects the
same type; and comparing it with the brain of a German and
that of an anthropoid ape (see fig. 65-67), I find a remarkable
resemblance between the ape and the lower human type, spe-
cially with reference to the development of the temporal lobe.
The simplicity of the parallel fissure, the arrangement of the
gyri, accord so much with those of the orang, that the brain of
this bushwoman would certainly be rather placed by the side
of the ape than of the white man, were there not a decided dif-
ference in the form of the posterior lobe and the operculum at
its end. The frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes are, by their

184 LECTURE VII.

coarse simple gyri, decidedly simious, still the brain of this
woman belongs to the human type by the size of the hemi-
spheres and the character of the posterior lobe.

Fig. 65. Profile of the Brain of the Hottentot Venus.

Of the other internal organs Pruner-Bey’s remarks are as
follows :—
“The eyeball is at least as large, if not larger, than in the

————

pum hay

LECTURE VII. 185

European ; the cornea comparatively small and flattened; the
pigment abundant ; the iris dark brown mixed with yellow ; the
retina very firm. The glandular system is much developed,
both upon the skin and in the internal mucous membrane ;
hence the intestinal canal has an uneven aspect, specially in the
stomach and the large intestines. The mucous membrane is very

Fig. 67. Profile of the Brain of the Orang.

The description of the figures is the same as in figs. 31, 32.

thick and fatty. All the abdominal glands are large, specially
the liver and the supra-renal glands. These organs seem
gorged with venous blood. The bladder lies higher up than
in the European ; the large seminal vesicles were always, even
in sections made shortly after death, filled with a turbid grey-
ish fluid. The penis is always disproportionally large. The
blood is always thick, black, and glutinous; it never is in
bleeding projected in an arch, but adheres to the vessel, whilst
the serum is more or less dark yellow. The lungs are compa-
ratively less expanded than the abdominal organs, they are
frequently filled with a black deposit, and are pressed back by
the stomach, liver, and spleen. Black pigment spots are fre-
quently met with on the tongue, the palate, and the conjunc-
tiva, as well as in the mucous membrane of the intestinal

186 LECTURE VII.

canal. The fat, as well as all fibrous and cellular tissues, the
periosteum, and the conjunctiva, have always a yellow colora-
tion. The mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, etc., are of
a cherry red, but the lips of a bluish colour. Excepting the
masseter, the aural and the laryngeal muscles, the development
of the other muscles is not proportioned to the weight of the
bones. In colour they are never so bright red as in the Huro-
pean, but rather yellowish or brownish.

“The face, of the Negro is flat and narrow, frequently
pointed downwards, whilst the cheek bones and the posterior
parts of the cheek covered by the masseters are prominent, so
that it seems as if the cheeks had been compressed in front.
The aperture of the eye is narrow, horizontal, and both eyes
are wide apart. From this depressed and wide nasal root
proceeds a broad, flat, upturned nose, the apertures of which
are so placed that viewed from below they seem to run parallel
with the aperture of the eyes. The ears are remarkably small,
the posterior margin much curved, the lobules small, but ap-
parently thick and cartilaginous. The superior part of the
face, with its retreating narrow forehead, low vertex, and pro-
minent orbital margins, resembles perhaps more the simian
face than the lower part with the projecting teeth, the white
even of which is the more marked from the contrast with the
brown or violet lips and the black face.”

I know well enough that the description of the Negro-type,
as here given, is that which, so to say, represents the purest
type, and that there are many Negro tribes in which some of
these characters are less distinct. Pruner-Bey summarises these
deviations as follows :—* We must admit,” he says, “ that the
inferior orbital margins are frequently narrow and retreating ;
that the nose becomes longer and more prominent; that the
lips, turned up in some tribes, are only full in others; that pro-
enathism diminishes, without however disappearing entirely,
that the aperture of the eye becomes wider; that the hair,
short and woolly in most, grows longer; that the transverse
diameter of the chest becomes enlarged ; that even the pelvis,
though much more rarely, acquires more rounded outlines ;
that the limbs acquire more harmonious proportions; that the

LECTURE VII. 187

hips, thighs, and legs become more fleshy and the foot more
arched; but as regards the crowning of the work, %.e., the
skull, specially the cerebral skull, all the variations in the
Negro race remain and are confined within limits which
deserve our attention. In the Arian race the skull presents
three fundamental types: the elongated form (producing in
some exceptional cases slight prognathism) which approaches
the boundary of the Negro-type; the short and round form,
approaching the Turanian race ; and, finally, the typically
beautiful oval form, which seems to have resulted from a com-
bination of the two former. Nothing like this is to be found
in the Negro; his skull is, and remains, elongated, it is ellipti-
cal or cuneiform, but never round; the facial skull may ap-
proach the pyramidal form by a greater distance between the
cheek-bones, and may in this respect resemble that of the
Kaffirs and of the Bechuanas, but no more. Still, there is in
Gall’s collection the skull of an Austrian, the outlines of which
correspond to the Negro type,* and Meigs mentions a Negro
skull in Morton’s collection, which, apart from a slight pro-
enathism, might be taken for an European skull, as this emi-
nent craniologist himself admitted. But assumin’e that these
exceptional skulls belonged to individuals of pure descent, there
would still remain sufficient characters—both in the living and
the skeleton—to distinguish such individuals from the Negro,
the White, or from any other race.

“This also applies to the regular Caucasian features, with
which some travellers have endowed certain Negro peoples.
Among many thousand Negroes who have come under my own
observation, there was not one who could lay claim to it.

«Similar variations may also occur as regards the colour of
the skin. The deep velvety black is very rarely met with.
There are gradations from brown to grey, which latter colour
imparts to the individuals a cadaverous aspect. Though the
pigment of the Negro seems to be the same substance as the
colouring matter in freckles and the tanned skin of the Huro-

* Tn the anatomical collection of Bern there is the skull of a murderer,
which, on a superficial view, appears to me to possess more of the Negro
type than any white skull I have yet seen.—C. V.

188 LECTURE VII.

pean, it cannot be asserted that an European can be so browned
by the sun, by exposure, or by affections of the liver, as to ac-
quire even a light Negro skin. The equalised colour both in
the covered as well as in the exposed parts, independently of
other characters, makes a distinction between them very easy.”

As regards the acuteness of the senses, the Negro stands
far below the white race, and by no means confirms the opinion
which attributes to savages and peoples living in a state of
nature more acute senses. The eyes are frequently rather
dim, and the flattened cornea seems rather to favour long-
sightedness than short-sightedness. Smell, taste, or hearing
do not seem highly developed. The Negro, however, shows
great talent for plain cookery and vulgar music, so that in
America nearly all the cooks and musicians are men of colour.
Touch is not very delicate, the finger cushions being less de-
veloped in the black; ‘ but,” says Pruner, “the most re-
markable phenomenon relates to coencesthesis, as regards the
Negroes apparent insensibility to pain. We have never seen
the least spontaneous expression of pain ; in the hospitals we
see Negroes suffering from the gravest diseases cowering on
their couche’ without taking any notice of the attending phy-
sicians. Asa slave, he is more communicative, without, how-
ever, exhibiting greater sensibility to pain. Mishaps, or bad
treatment will draw from the Negress, the child and even the
adult Negro, an abundant flow of tears, but physical pain never.
The Negro frequently resists surgical operations, but having
once agreed to submit, he fixes his eye on the instrument and
the hand of the surgeon without the least mark of pain or im-
patience, though his lips become blanched and the perspiration
runs down his body during the operation. As we see, the
Negro is a born stoic, certainly more from spacariarl) than
from habit or education.”

Even with regard to the development of the Negro child, I
can do no better than follow this experienced Kgyptian physi-
cian. ‘The Negro child,” says Pruner-Bey, “is born without
prognathism, but with a totality of features which, though
characteristic for the soft parts, are not yet expressed in the
skull. The Negro, the Hottentot, the Australian, the New

a

Se ee es

eT eS a? a ae

LECTURE VII. 189

Caledonian, do not, with regard to the osseous system, ex-
hibit the differences which arise subsequently.* The new-born
Negro child has not the colour of its parents; it is reddish
nut-brown, and the redness is less vivid than im the case of a
new-born white child. The colour soon becomes slate-grey, and
more or less rapidly corresponds to that of the parents, ac-
cording to the surrounding media among which the child grows
up. In the Sudan the development of the colouring matter is
generally finished within a year, in Egypt within three years.
The hair of the Negro child is at first rather chestnut-brown
than black, it is straight, and only curled at the ends. I have
not been able exactly to determine the extent of the fontanelles,
but there does not seem to exist a measurable difference in
this respect from those of the white child”’ (Burmeister re-
marks concerning the differences in new-born children. “The
hair is not crisp or black, but is of a chestnut colour, and has a
silky fineness. In growing, it becomes gradually darker, and
more crisp, until the time the child learns to walk, when the
hair is perfectly woolly. This reminds me of the down of
young birds in relation to the feathers of the hen.”’)

“The first dentition,” continues Pruner-Bey, “ commences
nearly at the same time as with us; I have, however, also ob-
served cases of premature, as well as of retarded dentition.
Lactation lasts never less than two years. On the completion
of the first dentition, we perceive already in the skull the
peculiar characters: the raised central line in the forehead,
the retreating chin, the slightly projected upper jaw, the flat
nose, the dazzling whiteness of the teeth, the prominent occi-
put. The young Negro possesses, however, a pleasant phy-
siognomy up to puberty, which commences in girls between
the tenth and thirteenth, and in boys between the thirteenth

* This opinion of Pruner-Bey seems to me hazardous, and not founded on
sufficient observation. I have had no opportunity of examining a new-born
Negro-child; but in Blumenbach’s Decas Craniorwm there is such a figure,
which, at the first glance, shows the great length and narrowness of the
cranium, as well as prognathous jaws. When we take into consideration the
narrowness of the pelvis of the Negress, it must follow that the skull of the
newborn Negro should present dimensions different from that of the Arian
child.

190 LECTURE VI.

and fifteenth year. This is followed by a rapid transformation
in the forms and proportions of the skeleton. The transforma-
tion proceeds differently in the cranium and the face; the jaws
predominate without an adequate compensation in the cranium.
It is not meant that there is exactly an arrest of development ;
but that the race difference consists in the different growth of
individual parts. Whilst in the white man the gradual increase
of the jaws and the facial bones is not only equalled but ex-
ceeded by the development or rather enlargement of the brain,
and specially of the anterior lobes; the reverse is the case in
the Negro. The muscles subservient to animal life cause a
compression on the sides, which is but little resisted by the
brain. In this way the cranium obtains the shape previously
described. As everything in the organism is harmonious, this
theory of cranial formation may be contested, but the mode in
which the sutures close furnishes an important commentary on
these phenomena. The central frontal suture closes in the
Negro in early youth, as well as the parietal part of the coronal
suture.* With advancing age the central portion of the coro-
nal suture, the saggital suture, and all parietal sutures close,
nearly simultaneously, as I have observed in skulls from Hast
Africa. The lambdoid suture remains open the longest, speci-
ally at the apex. At the base of the cranium we find, on the
contrary, the suture between the sphenoid and the occipital
bone still open, and the suture between the incisors is not
only seen in the Negro child, but in many old Negro skulls.
Generally speaking, the sutures in the Negress close sooner
than in the Negro.

“Prognathism may, perhaps, be partly considered as the result
of the action of the lower jaw on the concentric arch of the upper
jaw. At any rate, the mode of its direction towards the temporal
bone contributes to it; for I have found this formation princi-
pally in races where the sockets for the lower jaw are broad
and less deep, whilst the heads are flat or at least elliptical.
This agrees with a greater or lesser harmony of the rows of

* In the numerous skulls I have examined, there occurred but a single
exception. The progress of the closure of the sutures seems to me to ditter
generally according to the form of the long or short skulls.

————

LECTURE VII. 191

teeth. Such a condition facilitates the movements in a forward
direction ; whilst in skulls, in which the sockets are deep and
narrow, the motion is more vertical. I am fully aware that this
explanation is not very satisfactory, and I ask myself whether
prognathism is not rather the expression of a relapse into the
animal form.”

(Thus far Pruner-Bey. On our part we have no doubt the
latter explanation is the correct. Everything is in harmony in
an organism, and we might as well say, the socket and the
head of the bone must be flat because the upper jaw projects
and the lower jaw is long, as to assume the reverse. More-
over, carnivora whose jaws move only in a perpendicular direc-
tion, possess very elliptical articulating heads of the lower jaw.)

It is undeniable that the sudden metamorphosis which at the
time of puberty takes place in the Negro, is not only inti-
mately connected with psychical development, but is a repe-
tition of the phenomena occurring in the anthropoid apes. In
them also the skull presents, until the second dentition, a
remarkable resemblance to the human skull, the cerebral por-
tion being arched and the jaws but little projecting. From
that time the cerebral skull remains stationary, the internal
capacity no way increases; the ridges and crests only are
developed together with the muzzle, which projects from under
the cranium until it acquires the form seen in old apes. And
with this the mental development proceeds pari passu. Young
orangs and chimpanzees are good-natured, amiable, intelligent
beings, very apt to learn and become civilised. After the
transformation they are obstinate savage beasts, incapable of
any improvement.

And so it is with the Negro. The Negro-child is not, as
regards the intellectual capacities, behind the white child. All
observers agree that they are as droll in their games, as docile
and as intelligent as white children. Where their education is
attended to, and where they are not, as in the American Slave
States, intentionally brought up like cattle, it is found that the
Negro children in the schools, not only equal but even surpass
the white children in docility and apprehension. But no sooner
do they reach the fatal period of puberty than, with the closure

192 LECTURE VII.

of the sutures and the projection of the jaws, the same process
takes place as in the ape. The intellectual faculties remain
stationary, and the individual—as well as the race—is inca-
pable of any further progress.

The grown up Negro partakes, as regards his intellectual
faculties, of the nature of the child, the female, and the senile
White. He manifests a propensity to pleasure, music, dancing,
physical enjoyments, and imitation, while his inconstancy of
impressions and all the feelings are those of the child. Like
the child, the Negro has no soaring imagination, but he peoples
surrounding nature, and endows even lifeless things with
human or supernatural powers. He makes himself a Fetish of
a piece of wood, and believes that the ape remains dumb lest
he should be compelled to work. The general rule of the
slaveholder is, that slaves must be treated like neglected and
badly brought up children. The Negro resembles the female
in his love to children, his family, and his cabin ; he resembles
the old man in his indolence, apathy, and his obstinacy.
Temperate in common things, the Negro becomes intemperate
if not kept within certain bounds. He knows not steady
work, cares little for the future; but his great imitative in-
stinct enables him to become a skilful workman and artistic
imitator. In his native country the Negro is shepherd or
agriculturist ; some tribes understand working metals; others
carry on trade, not without cunning. Some tribes have
founded states, possessing a peculiar organisation ; but, as to
the rest, we may boldly assert that the whole race has, neither
in the past nor in the present, performed anything tending to
the progress of humanity or worthy of preservation. As a
proof in favour of the artistic and scientific capacity of the
Negro, we find cited in nearly all works the instance of Mr.
Lille Geoffroy of Martinique, an engineer and mathematician
and corresponding member of the French Academy. The fact
is, that the mathematical performances of the above gentleman
were of such a nature that, had he been born in Germany of
white parents, he might, perhaps, have been qualified to be
mathematical teacher in a middle-class school, or engineer at
a railway; but having been born in Martinique of coloured

a i i

LECTURE VU. 193

parents, he shone like a one-eyed man among the totally blind.
M. Lille Geoffroy, besides, was not a pure Negro, but a Mulatto.

Having thus, in our investigation regarding the differences
between Negro and White, shown that there are certain con-
stant and easily detected distinctive characters; and having
further seen that the differences are in the Negro mostly re-
ducible to an animal or simious resemblance, there arise now
two important questions to be discussed.

The first question refers to the permanence of the differences.
Is it possible that these may become obliterated by any influ-
ences in nature, that is to say, without an intermixture of
races, so that the Negro may by elevating influences become
metamorphosed into a White, or the White by depressing
causes be transformed into a Negro?

The second question refers to animal resemblance. Are we
able to point out the gradations which bridge over the gulf
which still exists between the Negro and the ape, and follow
them step by step from the anthropoid ape to the Negro, and
from the Negro to the white man?

As regards the first question, I shall have an opportunity
of discussing it in connection with other phenomena, which
will prove that in the various races there is an immanent
fixed character, which by external influences is liable to
change with certain limits only. As far as our observations
extend, we are unable to say that the changes have essentially
altered the character. The Egyptian monuments, which show
us the Negro as he was thousands of years ago, contempo-
raneous, probably, with the Biblical Adam, contain excellent
representations of the present Negro; and yet the black race
has since that time existed in that country by the side of
another type—the genuine Hegyptian, which has also remained
unchanged. With the exception of the tanning of the skin,
the white man in Africa never exhibits an approach to the
Negro-type. Again, in America, where the black race has for
some time been acclimatised, we find that a somewhat lighter
colour in the North is the only effect which the climate has
produced in more than a hundred years. As far as we can
trace, neither these nor other races have undergone greater

)

194, LECTURE VII.

changes than other species of animals transplanted to other
regions, and must, therefore, according to principles at present
prevalent, be looked upon as different species with permanent
types. The case is altered when viewed from a higher stand-
point, as we shail show in the sequel.

With regard to the second question, an answer resting upon
satisfactory observations is as yet impossible.

It is only a few years since the gorilla, of whose existence
no one knew, was discovered in the forests of Western Africa.
This is, as regards the form of the hands and feet, the most
anthropoid among the three great tailless apes; whilst as regards
the cranium and brain, it stands lower than the orang and the
chimpanzee. The possibility of finding apes which, as regards
cerebral and cranial structure, approach man as the gorilla in
the structure of the limbs, cannot be denied, but in the absence
of the fact it would be foolish to form any conclusions. It is less
probable that human races will be found which approach the
ape more than the lowest existing human races. The globe
has been too much explored to countenance such hopes. The
desire of society drives the savage from his hiding places, into
which the ape retreats. The ape avoids discovery, man seeks it.

There may, however, have existed intermediate forms, which
in the lapse of time have become extinct. We shall have to
speak on this point when treating of petrifactions, the fossil
man, and the primitive condition of the human race, which
reaches further back than history, tradition, and mythology.
This much we may here observe, that fossil remains of monkeys
have been found, which at first were considered as belonging
to man; and that, on the other hand, a cranium has been
found in the Neander-Valley near Diisseldorf, which has more
of the simian type than any other known race-skull. But
though this is at present merely an indication, we may hope
that other discoveries will be made, the more so as it is only
within the last few years that Europe has been well explored.

Where the normal form leaves us in the lurch as regards our
investigations, we have a right to avail ourselves of abnormal
forms, where we may reap a rich harvest. I do not hesitate to
uphold against Bischoff and Wagner, and even against Johannes

LECTURE VII. 195

Miller, that microcephali and born idiots present as perfect a
series from man to the ape as may be wished for; and I con-
sider it my duty here to make an addition to a previous state-
ment concerning the cerebral structure of these unfortunates.

I shall keep, with reference to the skull, to the description by
Theile of a twenty-six year old idiot, whilst as regards the
psychical phenomena, the classical treatise of Leubuscher, on
the so-called Aztecs, furnishes us with excellent materials. The
drawing of the skull of an idiot I take from Owen, as the base
is also given, agrees in all but a few details with that given by
Theile of his “‘ape-man”. I have compared about twenty
cases of congenital idiocy, which must not be confounded with
cretinism, and I find the following results.

This congenital idiocy is manifestly an arrested brain deve-
lopment chiefly affecting the anterior portion. The form of
the cranium adapts itself to that of the arrested brain. The
development of such individuals proceeds very slowly, they
learn to walk only in the fifth or sixth year, their brothers and
sisters are frequently healthy, and so are the parents, though
perhaps not distinguished by great intellectuality. In some
cases, however, there are in the same family besides healthy
also several idiotic children, the malformation being in such
cases due to some hidden cause. These idiots are frequently,
though not always, dwarfs like the Aztecs. The stooping walk,
with their curved knees, not unlike the walk of the ape, makes
them appear less tall than they really are. Among the adult
idiots, of whom we possess a minute description, some are of
average size, as the two Johns examined by J. Miiller, and the
two idiots of Gottingen and Jena described by Wagner and
Theile. Such unfortunates usually die early. Of twenty cases,
however, which I noticed, eight reached the twentieth year—a
proportion not very unfavourable.

The impression produced by these individuals is decidedly
simious, so that the authorities even describe it as such. The
arms seem disproportionately long, the legs short and weak.
The head is that of the ape; the skull cap is covered with
thick woolly hair; the forehead nearly absent ; the eyes stare
from projecting orbital margins; the nostrils are wide; the

02

196 LECTURE VII.

lower portion of the face muzzle-shaped ; the teeth obliquely
set, frequently more oblique than should be, owing to the large
size of the tongue.

Fig. 68. Negro skull, side view.

Fig. 69. Idiot skull, side view.

As regards the head particularly, it is disproportionately
small in comparison with the body, the diminution chiefly
affecting the cranium proper. Viewed in profile, the face oc-
cupies as large a space as the cranium. The large osseous
pad above the root of the nose, the projecting jaws, the facial

LECTURE VII. — 197

angle of about 53-56 deg.; all these characters are decidedly
simious. When viewed from below, the large occipital fo-
ramen situated farther back, the long parabolic palate, the

Fig. 70. Kaffir skull, base.

Fig. 71. Idiot skull, base.

198 LECTURE VII.

open basilar suture, as well as the traces (in Owen’s skull) of
the intermaxillary suture, all these strike us at the first glance
as animal characters.

Fig. 72. Chimpanzee skull, side view.

We need only place the skulls of the Negro, chimpanzee
and idiot side by side, to show that the idiot holds in every
respect an intermediate place between them. The only human
characters which the idiot shows in his skull are the gapless
serried teeth, and the somewhat projecting chin. The closure
of the sutures must by no means be considered as the cause of
the arrested cerebral development. In most old idiots the
sutures of the upper surface are still movable, those on the
sides are frequently closed, whilst at the base they are open as
in the ape. The occiput is sometimes square, at times round,
but very large compared to the forehead ; the internal pro-
cesses of the skull bear so far an infantile character, from their
being rounded, never sharply angular.

We may, therefore, summarise the idiotic forms by stating,
that in their brains and skulls the resemblance to the human
standard has been diminished by the arrested development of
the anterior cerebral lobes, and that only the secondary human
character, the serried set of teeth and the projecting chin, have
been preserved. If a fossil microcephalic skull were found,
without a lower jaw and an upper row of teeth, every natwralist*

* Query.—EDIToR.

LECTURE VII. 199

would at once declare it to be the craniwm of an ape, as in such
a mutilated skull there would not be found the least character-
istic mark which would justify an opposite inference.

Fig. 78. Chimpanzee skull, viewed from below.

We possess the measurements of the two so-called Aztecs—
the Mulatto dwarfs ; the boy then being about sixteen or
seventeen, the girl thirteen to fourteen years old. I have cal-
culated these measurements in the same way as those given of
the Negro and European, and having compared them with two
anthropoid apes, the chimpanzee and the orang, obtained the
following values. The proportion of the length is :—

Chimpanzee, Orang. Aztecs.

Old. Young. Old Young. Boy. Girl.

Of the vertebral column to
that of the arm = 100...| 136°5 | 163°5 | 158°5 | 167°7 | 119-7 | 115-1
Of the vertebral column to
that of the leg =100...| 98°8 | 115-2 90°4 96°7 | 122°8 | 115°3
Of the upper arm to that
of the forearm = 100...| 93 85-7 102 99 66°7 67:7
Of the upper arm to that

of the hand = 100...... 97-5 87 78:1 82 52°8 62°5
Of the thigh to that of

the leg = 100 ............ 76:5 73:9 81:8 81-4 | 102°5 | 108-1

the foot = 100............ 742 76°3 97°5 | 109°3 50 48:7.

Of the arm to that of the

Hee: 100). s..sve:cceenseees 724 70°6 57 57:6 | 102°56 | 104°4

Of the thigh to that of |
|

260 LECIURE VII.

The human character of the Aztecs is clearly shown by the
proportional length of the vertebral column to that of the
limbs in general, as well as from the relative proportions of
the limbs to each other ; the arm is proportionally shorter, the
leg longer. Even in its parts the arm exhibits the human
type, not so the leg. The thigh is remarkably small compared
with the leg, the length of which exceeds that of the anthro-
poid, and resembles that of the inferior apes. The same
proportion which, from the predominance of the cerebellum,
almost places the idiot among the apes, obtains also here as
regards the shortness of the thigh and the length of the leg.

Here, therefore, we find human and animal character so in-
termixed, that they might be taken as the results of a hybrid
production.

Let us now cast a glance at the vital phenomena of these
miserable beings. There are scarcely any sexual manifesta-
tions, the parts remaining in the infantile condition ; still there
are some idiots with normal generative organs. The move-
ments are rapid but unsteady, the walk is tripping. Many of
them never learn properly to use their hands. There is in
them a restless activity ; their attention is easily excited and
as quickly obliterated ; memory is defective ; they are fond of
play, but cannot share the amusements of other children, as
they are unable to learn them; they are tolerated like domes-
tic animals. Most of them manifest their wants by shrill sounds,
which their attendants understand, just as the hunter distin-
guishes the cries of animals and the gestures of his dogs.
Most of them cannot acquire articulate language. The Aztecs
pronounced some few words they had learned. Miiller’s micro-
cephalus, in whom the arrest of development does not appear
to have been so decided as in most others, could pronounce
some articulate words, and even simple sentences, such as
“ Koppe dute weh !? (My head aches.)

Leubuscher says of the Aztecs :—‘“ They possess memory
for such things as greatly excited their attention, for persons
who have been long about them. When I measured them the
boy recollected earlier proceedings of this kind. .. . After the
lapse of eight days he well recollected the previous process, so

LECTURE VII. 201

that on my questioning him what I had done, he described
the lines round his head. But having interrupted my visits
for several days he had forgotten me and all the rest, as had
also the girl. The extent of their intellectual capacity does not
surpass that of an eighteen months’ child, and, may be, falls
below it. What we are accustomed to call ideas they probably do
not possess, as this degree of intellectual development can only
be formed upon the basis of individual self-consciousness.”

R. Wagner is of opinion that a minute analysis of the psy-
chical phenomena in various idiots-might yield important re-
sults as regards intellectual activity in general. There is no
doubt about this, nor that some of these idiots may, by careful
training, be raised in the intellectual scale. This much re-
sults, however, from the known facts, that the intellectual
capacity is closely connected with the cranial and cerebral
structure, and that it never reached a stage admitting of a
well articulated language. Most of these idiots are unable to
articulate words, some few succeed in pronouncing simple
sentences. But so do the parrot and the raven, which ani-
mals too, both by tone and pronunciation, render their words
significant. A domestic animal can, like the idiot, be trained
to cleanliness, in this respect they are therefore equal. There
is no trace of such decided human characters, as ideas, a
higher intelligence, and abstraction—not even of such primi-
tive notions of good and evil, nor of those original moral
qualities as induce some modern French authorities to
claim for man a separate kingdom. In many respects the
idiots stand below the animal: they are more helpless than
the latter, are unable to procure food for themselves, and to
preserve their life without assistance. Their whole appearance
is simious. The deficient forehead, the protruding, glossy,
rolling eyes, the projecting muzzle, the stooping posture,
the long arms (Gottingen idiot) and short legs, the minute
analogies in the cranial and cerebral structure, the restless-
ness, the spasmodic twitches, the shrillness of the notes of
pleasure or anger,—who does not here detect the ape ?

There are no doubt individual human characters, to which I
add the distribution of the hair, the form of the hands and

202 LECTURE VII.

feet—but we have not asserted that the microcephalus is
actually an ape ; only that, if these few characters which mani-
fest the human type were wanting, nothing would remain to
distinguish the idiot from the ape. When then Wagner
from these few characters infers “that the human type is
manifested in all corporeal organs of microcephali,” he is
“running a-muck” against scientifically demonstrated facts.
There is here undoubtedly a mixture of human and simious cha-
racter, the latter being produced by an arrested development of
the foetus im utero, forming thus an intermediate stage between
ape and man, produced by the progress of the laws of the
development of human genus. If now it be possible that man
by arrest of development may approximate the ape, the for-
mative law must be the same for both ; and so we cannot deny
the possibility that just as man may by arrest of development
sink down to the ape, so may the ape by a progressive de-
velopment approximate to man.

203

LECTURER EV ili.

Comparative Examination of two species of monkey, Cebus albifrons and
Cebus apella.—Skull and Brain.—Other parts.—Affinities in Nature.—
Families.—Definition of Species, Variety, and Race.—Inbreeding of
Races and Species.—Mutability of Species.—Classification of Mankind.
—Relation to the Ape-—The Human Kingdom according to Geoffroy
Saint-Hilaire and Quatrefages.—Objections.

GrntLemENn,—It has ever been the custom to mete with a
different measure according to the object to be measured and
the disposition of the measurer. Sooner or later, however,
the fraud, even if it be a pious fraud, is detected and refuted.
This is more readily effected in science, which acknowledges
no other authority but its own laws resting upon well observed
facts. My object in this lecture is to apply to apes the same
method which we have followed as regards man. We shall
select for this purpose two species of apes generally acknow-
ledged as such, and shall examine their distinctive characters.
As already observed in a previous lecture, it is perfectly indif-
ferent what species are selected, as, considering the great
analogy in the physical structure of man and ape, the charac-
ters of the same parts are to be considered. Had we descended
to the lower orders and classes of the animal kingdom, it
might have been objected that the great modifications in
structure would require the application of different principles.
This does not apply to the ape, and if it can be shown that
such and such characters force us to assume different species in
apes, the same characters must lead to the assumption of dif-
ferent species in the human group.

‘By mere accident, and not by choice, I have come into pos-
session of two species of the American Cebus (Rollaffen). This
genus is very numerous; it is spread over the whole South

204 LECTURE VII.

American continent inhabited by simious tribes, and exhibits
such a variety in form, that it is difficult to distinguish the
different species merely by their external appearance. ‘The
cebus presents in this respect difficulties not unlike those at-
tending the investigation of mankind, since every species ex- ~
hibits such a diversity in form, that by some they are considered

Fig. 74. Skull of the brown Sajou (Cebus apella), top view.

as separate species, by others as varieties or races. It is,
however, our object not only to ascertain whether the cebus
albifrons (Weisstirnige Rollaffe) is only a variety of the common
Capuchin ape, or a separate species; but also to discover by
what characters this species may be distinguished from the
common brown sajou (cebus apella). That they belong to
different species is undoubted. The brown and the white

LECTURE VIII. 205

fronted cebus belong to two different divisions of the genus
cebus. The first, according to Girbel, belongs to the species
possessing five ribless lumbar vertebra, a compact structure,
a thick globular head, powerful teeth, large canines, short
limbs and tail; whilst the white fronted Capuchin ape belongs
to the species possessing six ribless lumbar vertebre, small

Fig. 75. Skull of the Cebus albifrons, top view.

canine teeth, and a slender structure. We thus find here
more than a simple specific difference, so that some natural-
ists felt justified in establishing two sub-genera; neverthe-
less I selected these two species simply because in the Geneva
Collection I found two male skulls of the same age and
size.

The Roll-apes (Cebus) possess a long hairy roll-tail. The

206 LECTURE VIII.

body is long and slender, the limbs powerful, the eyes small,
the muzzle short, the head roundish, so that among all
American apes they most resemble man—a resemblance which
is increased by their having around the face tufts of hair
resembling whiskers and beard. It is only the flat nose which
mars the human likeness. The four hands are equally deve-
loped, the hand itself is long and narrow, but the thumb of the
posterior hand is longer and stronger than that of the anterior.
The dental system consists of four chisel-shaped incisors, two
large projecting and somewhat curved canine teeth, presenting
deep grooves on the inner side, and twelve molars in each jaw,
so that the number of teeth amounts to thirty-six. The molars
diminish in breadth backwards, so that the hindmost is small
and almost rudimentary compared with the other.

We shall first examine the external aspect. The brown
Cebus reaches to the size of a cat, and presents in middle age
a yellowish brown colour, somewhat brighter on the belly,
whilst the vertex, the cheeks, forearm, hands and legs are dark
brown or black. The face has a tinge of violet, the eyebrows
are long, on the short forehead is brown hair so stiff that the
animal seems on a side view to be provided with two horns.
The ear is covered with long soft hair; the beard is of a paler
shade.

The Cebus albifrons was met with by Humboldt near the
cataracts of the Orinoco, and is by most zoologists considered
a mere variety of the Capuchin monkey. ‘The face is bluish
grey, forehead and eyemargins white, the body dark grey on
the back, of a lighter shade on the thorax and belly, the hmbs
yellowish-white, the vertex brownish-grey, so that the animal
seems to wear a cap on the head. The ears are very hairy.
The common Capuchin monkey, to which this variety is said
to belong, greatly resembles the Cebus as regards colour.

The skull presents in both species exactly the same shape.
Viewed from above, we see an elongated oval, having its
greatest breadth in the posterior part corresponding to the
large occipital foramen. We must here certainly make allow-
ance for the projection of the mastoid processes, the upper brims
of which are continuations of those of the zygomatic arches.

LECTURE VIII. 207

I shall presently give the exact measurements, here I shall
only notice a few characters.

On viewing the skull from above, that of the brown Cebus is
distinguished by the rising of the temporal fossa above the

Fig. 76. Skull of Cebus apella, side view.

margin of the temporal line, passing behind the whole length
of the superior orbital brim, and producing in the middle of
the forehead a depression which causes the orbital ridge to

208 LECTURE VIII.

project. The temporal line is thereby less distinct and runs
nearly parallel with the central line, until with a sudden curve
it reaches the point of junction between the lambdoid and
temporo-occipital sutures. In the white-fronted Cebus, on the
contrary, the temporal line proceeds from about the middle of
the superior orbital margin, and rises in a curve towards the
central line, so that between the two temporal lines there

Fig. 78. Base of skull of the Brown Cebus.

remains only a space of a centimetre, it then turns abruptly to
reach the same point as in the former species. In this way
there is formed on the forehead a triangular space, smooth and
somewhat arched, differing considerably from the depressed

GQ

LECTURE VIII. 209

forehead of the brown Cebus. As regards the rest, the shape
of the cranial bones and the course of the sutures is the same
in both.

On viewing the skull from the side, scarcely any differ-
ences are noticed excepting those mentioned. The posterior
projection of the temporal bone, which, so to speak, continues

Fig. 79. Skull of Cebus albifrons, base.

the zygomatic process, is less prominent in the brown Cebus,
but shows behind it a deeper depression than in the albifrons.
The zygomatic arch is higher and thinner in the brown Cebus ;
in the albifrons rounder and thicker. The skull of the albi-
frons is more equally arched, whilst it is somewhat depressed
in the middle in the brown Cebus ; in the latter the occipital
Squama is nearly horizontal, in the former it inclines inwards.
P

210 LECTURE VIII.

On examining the skulls in front, the orbits of the brown
Cebus appear larger and wider; in the albifrons they are
rounder, smaller, and the margins thicker and more massive.
The maxillary region, specially around the nose, appears nar-
rower in the brown Cebus, and rather compressed behind the
projecting root of the canine tooth, which has a downward
direction ; whilst in the albifrons it is oblique, thicker, but less
long and sharp. The two characteristic grooves on the inner
side of the canine tooth are in the brown Cebus deeper than
in the other species.

On viewing the base of the skull (see figs. 78, 79), it seems
in the albifrons on the whole broader, more massive, and better
developed in all its parts than in the brown Cebus, in which
the palate is longer and narrower, the front teeth more pro-
jecting, and the zygomatic arch more curved. No difference is
seen in the arrangement or form of the molar teeth, but the
petrous bones are more prominent in the albifrons.

TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS OF THE CEBUS IN MILLIMETERS.

Albifrons. | Apella.

|

Longitudinal circumference from posterior margin of

1
occipital foramen magnum to alveolar margin -/| 150 148
2 | From anterior meee of pecipral foramen to nasal
suture - 54 52
3 | From eee as brim of occipital foramen to alveolar
margin 72°5 73
4 | From anterior brim of occipital foramen to alveolar
margin - - 60°5 60
5 | From anterior brim of occipital foramen to basilar
suture - - - - 15 13
6 | From anterior brim of. occipital foramen to posterior
margin of palate - - - - - 31 32
7 | Length of palate - 29 28
8 | Greatest eee of skull from alveolar margin to
occiput - 90 91°5
9 | Length from nasal suture to occiput. 77 74.
10 | Greatest breadth of a vertical plane throngh the
centre of the occipital foramen - 54 51
11 | Transverse diameter on the eerie margin of the
zygomatic arch - - 51 50
12 | Transverse diameter on the lowest point of the tem-
poral fossa - - - - - - 40 41
13 | Distance between the zygomatic arches” - 62 57
14 | Distance between the inner margins of the external
auditories - - - - - - 31 32
15 | Breadth of palate - - - 19 18
16.| Greatest diameter passing between the eyes - 42 44
17 | Breadth of the septum - - - - 5 5
18 | Height of nasalaperture’ - - - - 17 11

LECTURE VIII. 211

You perceive from these details, that the skulls of these two
species, which some would distinguish as two sub-genera, are
much more like each other than the skulls of most human
races and even tribes. We should, in fact, detect much wider
differences between the dolichocephalous skull of a Swede and
the brachycephalous cranium of a Russian ; between that of a
Hottentot or an Austral Negro; between that of a Irokese
and a Botocudo; though all these various tribes are all in-
cluded in one race. We are even able to point out greater
differences between individuals belonging to the same stock,
and it would be easy for me to show by the juxtaposition of
the skulls of a Graubitinden, Zurich, or Bernese man, that
these skulls of Swiss tribes differ more from each other than
those of the apes we have described. Hven an inexperienced
individual would find it easier to separate these human skulls
in a collection than to assign the above ape-skulls to different
species.

No skeletons of the two species of apes are at my disposal,
I cannot therefore furnish you with the measurements of the
limbs and other parts. According to Giebel the skeleton of
the Cebus is distinguished by greater solidity, that of the
large Capuchin monkey being more elegant and slender. This
is seen in the ribs, the lumbar vertebre, pelvis, and sternum,
in short, in all parts of the skeleton. Besides this the Cebus
has only five lumbar and twenty-four caudal vertebre, whilst
the Capuchin has six lumbar and twenty-five caudal vertebree,
corresponding with the greater length of the tail.

Having no internal parts at hand, I give two brains from
Gratiolet’s well known treatise. These brains belong to a
simian group of the old world, which has by zoologists been
divided into various subgenera.

The Macacus silenus, which inhabits Ceylon, has a short tail,
whilst the Cercopithecus cethiops, originally probably a native of
Senegambia, has a very long tail. I have given also side views
of the brains, and have in the first figure turned back the
operculum of the posterior lobe, in order to show the transition
gyri beneath it. I shall not enter into any details, as even a
superficial inspection shows that the form of the brain and its

P2

212 LECTURE VIII.

parts, the arrangement of the lobes, of the convolutions and
their sulci are so similar, as to amount only to imdividual dif-
ferences. In the cercopithecus the margins of the gyri are a
little more notched and arched, so that there exists an indica-

Fig. 80. Brain of Wanderoo (Macacus Silenus), top view.

Fig. 81. Cercopithecus ethiops, top view (‘The Mangabey).

Hl }

WK “ull
oy lil |

I)yyp

tion of greater complexity in the convyolutions, which is further
developed in other apes. Apart from this the differences are

LECTURE VIII. 213

so slight, that they might in so delicate an organ be ascribed
more or less to a difference in observation. Now compare with
these the brains of the Hottentot Venus and the German as
given before. We may leave the inference to common sense.

Fig. 82. Brain of Macacus Silenus, side view.

The description of the figs. 80-83 is the same as in the preceding brain figures.

It is unnecessary to say more on this subject. Any person
may select any two well characterised races of mankind, and
having by comparison formed a scheme, let him proceed in the
same way in the comparison of two well marked species of
apes. The unprejudiced observer cannot fail to find, as we
have done, that the sum of the differences between two species
of apes, is in no case greater, and in many cases much less

214 LECTURE VIII.

than those obtaining between two races of mankind, and he
will arrive at the conclusion that the races of mankind must
either be considered as different species, or the species of apes
must be designated races. But what is to become of systematic
zoology, if the long and short-tailed species of apes, differing
so much in external form that they have even been divided
into genera, are to constitute only varieties or races? All
systematic natural history would go to ruin, and all simiade,
from the lowest ouistiti up to the gorilla, would be fused into
one whirlpool, which would swallow up man and all his races.

But we must now pause before proceeding further. You
may justly complain that I have as yet given no definition of
species or genus, of race or variety, and that, therefore, you
are perfectly indifferent, whether the systemisers look upon wolf
and dog, ass and horse, Negro and White, as so many genera,
species, races or varieties, provided the analogies or differ-
ences are so well established as to enable us to distinguish the
respective animals.

In some respects it might matter very little whether Negro
and Mongol are placed in the same chest labelled ‘‘ Man;” for
the classification of the animal kingdom is nothing but an
arrangement of animals in chests, drawers, and pigeon-holes.
But the question acquires importance if by the expression
species we understand a permanent type with fixed lmits,
which may admit of an ideal but not of a material relation to
other species. It is therefore of importance for us to establish
whether any particular form we meet with constitutes an
independant species or not.

We can at first only examine such animal forms individu-
ally ; but the results we may obtain are insufficient, as each
individual has its own more or less marked peculiarity. We
are therefore necessarily led, on the one hand, to search for the
sum of analogies, and on the other, for the differences, and
to infer from the results the degrees of affinity subsisting
between the individual beings.

Nature points out such affinities. Family bonds exist as
much in the animal kingdom as in the human species, and are
frequently in the former stronger and more lasting than in the

LECTURE VIII. 215

latter. In most cases, it is true, this family life in animals
extends only to one generation ; for when the young are able
to support themselves, they separate from the parents, and the
family connection is severed. Hvery year, or even a shorter
period, brings a new family, which again separates, to become
perhaps the heads of another family. It, however, occasionally
happens, as is the case with bears, that the eldest of the
young remains at home, being appointed nurse to the younger
generation, and is severely chastised by the mother if it
neglects any of its duties. Wherever the families remain
together, the society enlarges and a division of labour obtains,
so that the existence of the individual frequently depends on
family life. The herds of deer, antelopes, and buffaloes are
probably only the members of one family grown up together
and led by the oldest member of the herd. In such societies
the family bonds are slender enough; but it is different in
such social animals as bees, ants, etc., in which the individuals
possess different forms and organisations, according to the
part they play in their domestic economy.

The development of the young presents a series of con-
ditions greatly differing from those of advanced age, and a
very close examination is requisite for becoming convinced
that an animal in the larval state is transformed into a subse-
quent mature form. These deviations are so great, that up
to Cuvier’s time certain animals were classified when young
as mollusca, and in the adult state among the articulata.
There are also the sexual differences. We have seen that in
man the physical differences between male and female are in
every respect greater than the differences existing between
individuals of the same sex in different races; and we also
know that in many animals the sexual differences are so great,
that the closest examination is requisite to establish their rela-
tions to each other.

In the lower animals we observe a series of development
stages, which only terminate after several generations, so that
not the child (so to speak) but the grandchild resembles the
parents ; and there exist, probably, more complicated family
connections, by which individuals seem to return to the origi-
nal form by a roundabout way.

216 LECTURE VIII.

The range of divergence is as yet far from being exhausted.
Every one knows that children of the same parents, though
possessing a family likeness, are never perfectly alike, that
even twins or animals of the same litter still exhibit pecu-
liarities which enable us to distinguish them. The range may
be wide without transgressing the limits which separate the
normal from the abnormal structure, and this is specially the
case when the parents themselves occupy the limits of the
normal structure. Reserving the details for another occasion,
I would here merely draw your attention to the fact that such
peculiarities may be transmitted through several generations.
Thus there are families in which supernumerary or webbed
fingers have been transmitted through several generations,
until frequent intermixture with normally formed individuals
has led to the obliteration of such abnormities.

To characterise the family the naturalist must study all
these possible- deviations, and it is clear that in the absence of
direct observation he is hable to many errors. Natural history
furnishes many instances of the separation of parents and
offspritig, young and old, male and female, until direct obser-
vation clearly established their relationship.

Having now arrived at the first stage, namely, the recogni-
tion of a certain type belonging to all individuals derived from
a certain stock, we must proceed further and acknowledge
that this type may also belong to a number of individuals,
which, as far as we can trace, are not descended from the self-
same stock. Thus, for instance, taking into account the pre-
sent condition of the globe, we cannot understand how the
trout north of the Alps can belong to the same stock as those
south of the Alps, separated as they ever have been by insur-
mountable mountains ; or how the chamois of the Pyrenees
can be directly related to those of the Alps, separated as they
are by plains equally maccessible to the mountain animals.
And yet the sum of resemblances is so great that these animals
might unhesitatingly be included in the same stock if their
descent were not known to us. We recognise a type with
certain definite characters which we term species, and which
we might define as follow :—all individuals possessing such

LECTURE VIIL. 217

common characters, which mark them as actual or possible
descendants from the same parent stock, belong to the same
species.

Let us for the present adopt this definition and keep to
observation, which, in most cases, is unable to trace actual
descent, but must attend to the characters of the individuals.
We find in a certain region a type of animals,—a good species,
as naturalists would call it,—which is easily recognised; we
collect a number of such individuals, we dissect them, we ob-
serve their development, compare them so as to obtain a per-
fect knowledge of the species. The question arises now, is
the type we have so closely studied universal and unalterable ?

Observation teaches that this question must be answered in
the negative. We find almost all naturalists agreeing that
species has a wide range, in which the characters of the indi-
viduals composing it are changed. In all books and treatises,
varieties are mentioned which are subordinate to species. But
as regards the term variety, and the notion to be attached to
it, its limits and relation to species, the opinions are conflict-
ing; some authors calling that a variety which others term a
species. Linnzeus defined variety, as any alteration produced by
an accidental cause; Geoffroy St. Hilaire terms a variety a
simple anomaly which does not obstruct the performance of
any function. We may, perhaps, ask what is the limit of this
simple deviation ; and as no general rule can be given, it will
depend on the judgment of the observer what limits he assigns
to variety. We find, in point of fact, that each type and each
species has, in this respect, its own laws; that a deviation
which is insignificant in the one may be great in another. It
is, consequently, very difficult to lay down a general definition
of variety, the more so as an accidental abnormity may become
normal by its permanence. Let us examine this subject. By
some accidental influence a short-legged ram is produced in a
long-legged flock. This is an accidental abnormity confined
to one individual,—the case is an exceptional one, and the
naturalist does not look upon this individual as constituting a
variety. But this ram has descendants; the local conditions,
let us assume, favour the propagation of short-legged sheep

218 LECTURE VIII.

(in the case I have in view it was done by the interference of
man). ‘The short legs become numerous, and constitute a
large proportion in the number of sheep of that region. We
now possess a variety which, by naturalists, is considered the
product of local influences. The variety is now described as
the short-legged, and in the museums placed side by side with
the long-legged sheep; and the name of variety seems the
more justifiable, since, among the lambs produced by the short
legs, there are always some with longer legs, which seems a
relapse into the original type.

In the above case, it was the advantage of the proprietor
to possess short-legged sheep unable to surmount the fences.
He therefore interfered ; he coupled his short-legged ram with
his shortest-legged descendants, purged his flock from all the
long legs, and thus he obtained, in the course of time, a short
legged race, which is now spread over North America. Now,
in the course of time the births of long-legged lambs have
become rare among the short-legged sheep, and the abnormity
has become permanent, so that man has first formed a variety,
and finally a race,—for races are defined constant varieties,
whose characters are permanently propagated.

What man has done here, nature does everywhere. We
may consider every species, with its distinguishing characters,
as the product, to a great extent, of the influences acting upon
it. Hvery day in the life of an individual is a struggle for
existence. The individuals will be best developed where the
struggle is easy. The conditions of life vary for each species ;
hence each species will best thrive in one or several centres,
but will degenerate or become extinct in others. We usually
consider that the type of a species which is developed under
the most favourable conditions; we consider as varieties or
races such forms as under less favourable conditions have de-
viated. The mussels peculiar to the seas of our temperate
zone become smaller, and are differently marked at the limits
of their region, be it north or south. They miss the con-
ditions requisite for their growth, and are no longer seen.
But among the mussels on the German and French coasts
there are some which increase in size as they move towards

LECTURE VIII. 219

the north; such are the mussels which find their vital con-
ditions in the arctic sea, in Greenland and Spitzbergen, where
they acquire their full development. Among the arctic mussels
on the French coast, a particular type has been established,
which, having become permanent as an independent race, no
mussels are now produced with the size or the markings of the
arctic type. The smaller the region tenanted by a certain
species, the more defined is its type; the wider the region,
the greater the number of races and varieties. That which
here interests us most is the inference that the abnormal form,
and generally any deviation from any given type, by whatever
influences it may have been produced, may, by propagation
and transmission, give rise to a variety, and that this variety
may, by the constancy of its distinguishing characters, become
a race, and be propagated as such.

With regard to propagation, we observe a difference among
races, some becoming obliterated in the progress of inter-
mixture with other races; whilst some impart their peculia-
rities to their descendants for many generations. LHvery dog-
fancier knows that the blood of a Newfoundland dog is almost
indestructible,—that one crossing is sufficient to perpetuate
some of the characters through many generations. But it is
also known that the Newfoundland dog belongs to a race very
probably the product of the country where it is found, and of
the natural conditions of that country, and that this race may
justly be considered as a well-marked species. Those who
include all dogs, from the Dingo of Australia to the Polar dog,
in one species, will only look upon the Newfoundland dogs as
a race which is distinguished above many others by the con-
stancy of its characters.

It is looked upon as characteristic of races or varieties that
they admit of crossing, and that their descendants are in-
finitely prolific. We shall, for the present, consider this axiom
as established, though we cannot help observing that the
proofs are not complete, and that some results in the breeding
of domestic races do not accord with it. This much seems
established, that in proportion as races become constant, the
difficulty in pairing them increases, and that in the free state

220 LECTURE VIII.

races manifest as much antipathy to each other as so-called
species, so that extraordinary circumstances, or the interference
of man, is necessary to overcome that antipathy in order to
effect the crossing.

Species, according to Linnaeus, is the corner-stone upon
which systematic natural history rests. Linneus considers
species as an originally created form. Buffon, whose opinions
oscillated, taught that all individuals which produce a prolific
offspring belong to one species, and according as authors at-
tached more weight to propagation or classification, the agree-
ment in characters, or the production of prolific descendants,
became the centre around which the definition turned. Thus
Andreas Wagner includes under one species all individuals
which produce prolific descendants, without any regard to
external characters; so that the same man who assumed
hundreds of species of animals, from mere differences in their
fur, would at once include wolf, jackal, and the domestic dog,
in the same species, if it could be shown that they produce, in
crossing, prolific descendants. Agassiz, on the contrary,
rejects prolificacy of offspring as a distinguishing mark of
species, which he constructs solely from external characters
and their relations to surrounding nature.

The real cause of such discrepancies must be sought for in
the practical treatment of science, and the tendency attributed
to it. The reason why some embrace one, and others a dif-
ferent theory, is that the results are conflicting if you start
from any assumed axiom. Allow me to explain this point.
We may boldly assert that, among the many thousand species
now known, the number of which will, in the course of time,
rise to a million, there are not one hundred whose inbreeding
has been traced so far as to enable us to assert that they are
infinitely prolific ; we cannot even in the strictest sense assert
this of our domestic animals, and still less of wild animals.
As regards, therefore, the great majority of species, as Giebel
has proved, propagation is purely hypothetical. You will also
observe that, in discussions on the establishment of new
species, the faculty of propagation is taken into account.
Men dispute about the value or worthlessness of distinctive

LECTURE VIII. 221

characters, and compare these with such as are considered
as decisive in similar species; but they never think of insti-
tuting experiments in regard to the propagation of the dif-
ferent species; and thus two naturalists, though perfectly
agreed about the definition of species, may entertain different
opinions as regards the application of the definition, so that
one assumes ten different species where the other only sees
one species with ten varieties. In living nature, the specific
character of propagation might be discoverable ; but in extinct
animals,—those thousands of species which have disappeared
from the surface of the earth and are only known to us from
their relics,—such proofs cannot be given; and paleontology
would be deprived of a basis if species could only be deter-
mined by propagation, and not by distinctive characters.

There can thus be no doubt that practically it is only the
distinguishing characters which must guide us; whilst the
test of propagation can only be applied to man, the domestic
animals, and some others standing next to man. But when
we try to combine the distinguishing characters with the re-
sults of propagation, we meet with the most glaring contra-
diction, inasmuch as certain animals produce a fertile progeny,
and yet differ far more from each other than those which pro-
duce sterile hybrids. Giebel has scientifically demonstrated
that the races of dogs which produce a fertile progeny present
in size, hair, colour, the structure of the skeleton, the number
of toes, the formation of the skull and teeth, much greater
differences than the horse and the ass, which produce sterile
hybrids. Such, therefore, as consider all dogs as races of one
species, must admit that, as regards the distinctive characters,
the races of some species may be more remote from each other
than species,—an admission which upsets all systematjc natural
history.

Species has been characterised as a permanent type; and it
can easily be shown that such naturalists as assume this im-
mutability theoretically, are practically forced to assume va-
rieties and races. Species has also been spoken of as an
original type, something primitive and fundamental ; and yet
it must be confessed that, in the history of the earth, species

ype LECTURE VIII.

have arisen and have perished like the flowers in summer.
Species has further been defined as a collection of individuals
who transmit their characters regularly and indefinitely ; but
it has not been considered that thousands of species have be-
come extinct, some of them even in historical times, specimens
of which are only to be seen in our museums. To cite only
one instance of this kind, I would mention that the great auk
(Alea impennis), which formerly inhabited Denmark, and in
1842 still existed in Iceland, is now entirely extinct, so that
only some twenty of their skins are preserved in different
museums. Species, then, is alterable by external influences,
and arises and perishes like individuals.

On more closely examining the definitions of race and
species, sanctioned by usage, it may be reduced to an historical
basis. We assume races where we know, or think we know,
their common origin; we assume species where their origin is
hidden in the past. We assume races in domestic animals
where, by our interference, we have succeeded in producing
varieties. We assume races in mankind, because we believe
we have evidence that the differences in form have arisen in
historical times. No man would certainly have doubted the
specific difference in mankind, if the unity of the human
species had not to be defended at any price,—if a tradition had
not to be supported in opposition to the plainest facts,—a
tradition which has been the more venerated because it runs
counter to positive science.

As regards species, then, we hold fast by the principle that
the genus Homo consists of several species, which deviate from
each other as much, if not more, than most simiade; and if
the principles of systematic zoology are to be of any value,
they must be as applicable to the human as to the simious
species.

With regard to general classification, we distinguish genera,
families, orders, classes, provinces, and kingdoms; the latter
being the great divisions constituting the animal, the vege-
table, and the mineral kingdom, comprehending all existing
forms. We shall now examine the relations in which the
species of mankind stand to this classification.

q
j
:

LECTURE VIII. 223

That all human races belong to the same genus admits of
no doubt. The sum of characters which connect the white
with the black, on the one hand, and separate him, on the
other, from the most anthropoid ape, are, by the admission of
all naturalists, so great, that they determine a separation as a
genus and a family. But now opinions diverge. Whilst some
would, according to zoological characters, consider the human
genus as a family of the simious type; others would consider
man as constituting a separate kingdom, of the same value as
the vegetable and animal kingdom. Let us shortly examine
these theories.

It is undeniable that, in the human and the simious struc-
ture, one fundamental plan is perceptible, which is well marked
in most parts. The formation of the brain, the structure of
the skeleton, the position of the bowels,—all indicate this
fundamental plan. But within this fundamental plan, which
is as plain as that in the carnivora and ruminants, there occur
deviations, such as we have explained in a former lecture ; and
the question is whether these deviations are sufficiently great
to justify a separation from the ape, or whether in the ape
family itself there obtain differences as great as between man
and ape.

Naturalists distinguish from the apes proper so-called half-
apes (prosimie), which, as regards the form of the limbs and
hands, are perfect apes, but are distinguished by form of skull,
brain, and teeth. The hands are generally well-developed ;
only the forefinger of the posterior, and sometimes that
of the anterior extremities, is provided with claws, adapted
for scratching out the insects from fissures. These de-
yiations would scarcely render a separation necessary, as
greater differences in the formation of the hands occur also in
Kuropean and American apes, in some of which the thumb in
the fore extremities is either entirely absent or curtailed to a
stump. The differences in the structure of skull, brain, and
teeth seem, however, sufficiently important to justify a separa-
tion of the prosimicw from the apes proper. The cranium is
round and small, the muzzle prominent; the teeth scarcely
resemble those of the apes, they are serried, exhibiting no

224, LECTURE VIII.

gap, aS seen in most apes; the superior incisors are stunted,
the lower projecting nearly horizontally, in short, according to
the dental formation, the prosimiw seem to belong to the in-
sectivorous mammalia. Also, with regard to cerebral structure,
they approach the insectivora ; they possess no posterior lobe,
but an olfactory bulb, not possessed by the former ; they have,
however, like the apes, a Sylvian fissure. The prosimice are
usually considered as a sub-order, from the formation of the
limbs, which certainly are simious; but as, despite the re-
semblance of limbs, insectivora are separated from carnivora,
the prosimiz might also be separated from the ape, and placed
among the insectivora. Whilst, therefore, many naturalists
look upon the prosimic as a family of the primates or quadru-
mana, and others make a sub-order of them, we might, on the
ground of their dental and cerebral structure, claim for them
a separate order.

The same conditions occur in mankind. The chief differ-
ences consist in the structure of the skull, brain, and teeth;
whilst the differences in the extremities, though sufficiently
characteristic, occupy, as regards importance, only a secondary
rank. The great preponderance of the cranium over the facial
part, the development of the anterior lobes and the conyolu-
tions, the serried teeth, would alone secure for man a position
above the apes, such as is assigned to the latter above the pro-
simie. When to this is added the peculiar structure of the feet,
a distinction which is not obliterated by the prehensile foot of
the gorilla, the separation of the human genus from the ape is
as justifiable as the establishment of a separate order for the
phocide, which, as regards cerebral and dental structure, be-
long to the carnivora, but claim a separation on account of the
development of their extremities.

Our opinion as regards the classification of mankind is, that
it is of the same value as that of the apes, and that both be-
long to a common type in the series of mammals.

. It may be said that no modern author lays such stress as we
do upon the zoological differences prevailing among mankind ;
for the sub-class which Owen would create for it, is, with the
material facts of cerebral formation upon which it was founded,

LECTURE VIII. 225

gone the way of all flesh. But recently two Frenchmen,
Geoffroy St. Hilaire and Quatrefages, have attempted to deter-
mine the position of man, not according to the peculiarities of
his organisation, but according to qualities external to the
physical organism. I shall offer some observations on this
subject after quoting the remarks of the respective authors.
Isidore Geoffroy St. Hilaire says: “ Sensation and motion alone
constitute the animal; and all efforts to render the definition
more perfect, by adding other characteristics, only render it
less philosophical and correct. The characters, derived from
the structure of the animal, at once distinguished from others
derived from its qualities, are neither essential nor constant,
and can by no means rank with the attributes of sensation
and spontaneous motion.

“Tt is in this way that the chief objection to the esta-
blishment of a human kingdom is removed. Let us abandon
to the subdivisions of natural history those structural charac-
ters by which every being is distinguished. The true know-
ledge of the great divisions of nature, of provinces and
kingdoms, lies in a different sphere. The animal is distin-
guished from the plant by peculiar faculties, which are oblite-
rated where animality ceases, and it is by virtue of these only
that it belongs to a separate kingdom. Even so is man
- separated from the animal kingdom by his incomparably higher
qualities and capacities,—by the intellectual and moral facul-
ties, which are added to sensation and motion; and it is by
these that he constitutes the highest division in nature,—the
human empire, above the animal kingdom.

«The plant,” continues Geoffroy, “lives,—the animal lives
and feels ; man lives, feels, and thinks.” In another passage
the distinctive character of man is said to consist in “ intelli-
gence ;” in other sentences, again, it is said, “ Moral life is, in
the human kingdom, added to vegetative and animal life ;”
and again, “there may be degrees in the development of the
vital, sensitive, and intellectual qualities ; but there is nothing
intermediate between life and non-lfe,—feeling and insensi-
bility,—thinking and not thinking.” Thus, the animal, ac-
cording to Geoffroy, does not think,—man alone thinks; the

Q

226 LECTURE VIII.

question is, therefore, disposed of; yet we cannot conceive
how so monstrous an assertion can be sustained.

Quatrefages is more cautious. He says, “ Shall we find the
characters of the human kingdom in the intellectual capacity?
Certainly, the comparison of the mental development of man
with the rudimentary intelligence of even the most gifted
animals, never suggested itself to me. The mterval between
brute and man is, in this respect, so great that a perfect differ-
ence between them was admissible. But this is no longer
tenable. The animal does possess intelligence ; and though
their fundamental capacities are less developed, they neverthe-
less exist; the animal feels, wills, remembers, deliberates, and
the correctness of its judgment seems frequently miraculous ;
whilst the very errors which the animal commits give evidence
that its judgments are not the mere results of a blind and neces-
sary impulse. We, moreover, observe great inequalities in the
various groups of animals. Thus, among the vertebrata, we
see that birds much excel fishes and reptiles, but are much in-
ferior to mammals. It would, therefore, not be surprising
if, among the latter, we were to find some animal possessing a
much higher intelligence; this would only be a progress, but
no fundamentally new phenomenon.

«What we observe of intelligence in general, applies also
to its highest manifestation,—language. Man, it is true, alone
possesses articulate language ; but two classes of animals pos-

‘sess voice. They, like ourselves, produce tones which express
feelings and thoughts, and which are not only understood
by individuals of the same species, but even by man. The
hunter learns quickly to understand what is called the lan-
guage of birds and beasts; nor does it require a long ap-
prenticeship to distinguish their sounds of love, passion, pain,
or alarm. This kind of language is, no doubt, very ru-
dimentary, consisting, it might be said, of mere interjections,
but it is sufficient to establish the mutual relations of these
creatures. But does this language differ fundamentally
from that of man by the mechanism of its production, its
object, and its results? Anatomy, physiology, and ex-
perience teach that it does not; here, also, we find a

LECTURE VIII. 227

progress,—an immense development, but nothing absolutely
new.

“* Finally, as regards the qualities of the heart, which partly
depend on instinct and partly on intelligence, we find their
manifestations in the animal as we find them in man. The
animal loves and hates ; it is known how greatly many of them
are attached to their young, and how strong is the instinctive
hatred with which some animals pursue each other. It is
known how the congenital faculties may be further developed
by training. We also find among our domestic animals indi-
vidual characters, as we find among men. We all know how
docile and goodnatured some dogs are, and how vicious and
irritable others. Man and brute resemble each other, perhaps,
most as regards character.

«Where, then, shall we find this something new which is
absent in the animal and belongs exclusively to man, and
which would justify the establishment of a separate kingdom ?
In order to overcome this difficulty we shall follow the natur-
alist, and examine all the characters of the being to which we
are to assign a place. We have hitherto directed our attention
chiefly to the organic, physiological, and intellectual characters
of man; we must now consider him in his moral aspect:
here we find two fnondamental features which have, as yet,
escaped our notice.

“We find in every society, possessing a language sufficiently
developed to express abstract ideas, words designating virtue
and vice, good and evil. Where language fails in this respect,
we find opinions and habits which plainly show that the
notions exist, though not expressed in the vocabulary. Even
among the most savage peoples and tribes to which, by
general consent, is assigned the lowest rank in humanity, we
see public or individual actions performed, which show that
man recognises something above what is physically good or
evil. Among nations farther advanced, the whole political
economy rests upon this basis.

“The abstract idea of moral good and evil thus exists in
every human society ; nothing leads us to suppose that it also
exists in animals: here, then, we have the first character of

Q2

228 LECTURE VIII.

the human kingdom. In order to avoid the word conscience,
which is frequently taken in too restricted a sense, I call morality
that quality which furnishes man with the above notions, just
as we term sensibility that quality which perceives impressions.

“There are other allied conceptions which are found
in all, even the smallest and most degraded, societies of
man. Everywhere man believes in another world different
from ours, in mysterious beings of a higher nature, which
must be feared or worshipped; in a future life after the
destruction of the body; in other words, the notions of a
deity and a future life prevail as generally as those of good
and evil. However faint these ideas may be, they everywhere
give rise to important facts. From such notions arise a
number of habits and usages which, even among the most
savage peoples, are the equivalents of the greater manifesta-
tions among civilised peoples.

“‘ Never has anything similar or analogous been observed in
animals ; we find, therefore, in the existence of these concep-
tions a second character of the human kingdom, and designate
the sum of the qualities which furnish man with these notions,
—religiousness.”

So far Quatrefages. As will be perceived, he is more in
accordance with the facts than his late colleague, Geoffroy ; for
he acknowledges that the animal possesses all the intellectual
faculties,—that it thinks, considers, communicates with its
fellows; in short, that the mental qualities are the same as in
man, and differ only in degree. But according to him, mo-
rality and religiousness are something perfectly distinct and
new; and as they occut only in man, they form an essential
character, which distinguishes him from the brute. Let us
examine these assertions.

We shall assume, for a moment, that what Quatrefages
terms religiousness is found among all peoples, without excep-
tion ; still, this would not prove it to be a new mental quality
in man. It would simply prove that man forms ideas concern-
ing certain phenomena which he cannot fathom, which the
animal, from its inferior mental capacity, is not induced to
take into any consideration. The idiotic crétin takes no

LECTURE VIII. 229

notice of thunder; the simple minded, in ignorance of the
cause, fears it; the heathen imagines a thunder-god; the
Christian, also, believes that God speaks in thunder; whilst
the intelligent man produces himself thunder and lightning
when provided with the proper apparatus. This is the usual
march of religious ideas; and I know of no sufficient reason
for endowing the human race with religiousness as an exclusive
quality.

R. Wagner vindicated this religious quality, and even
thought that there was an organ of faith in man. The germ,
at least, of a belief in some mysterious, higher power exists,
also, in animals. The dog is evidently afraid of spectres, quite
as much as the Breton or the Basque; every out-of-the-way
phenomenon not explained to it by its nose, renders even the
most courageous dog a coward. I knew a grove which the
peasants firmly believe to be haunted by a fiery spectre,
and prove it by the alleged fact that dogs which have passed
the mght in it will not re-enter it. It is the fear of the
apparently supernatural which is the germ of religious ideas ;
and this fear is developed in a high degree in our domestic
animals, the dog and the horse. The germ of these ideas,
as well as of others allied with it, being by man developed
into a system, becomes a faith. Mathematics has just as
much claim, as this belief in the supernatural, to be considered
an exclusive, fundamental quality of man. No animal knows
mathematics, geometry; but there are animals which can
count, though only up to a few ciphers; and this is the germ
of the whole edifice which man has erected, and by means of
which he has measured the celestial spaces. In the same way,
the animal has no faith, but it fears something unknown ; and
is it not the fear of something unknown—the fear of God—
from which man has developed his religion ?

With regard to morality, or the idea of good and evil, it
cannot be maintained that it exists absolutely in man. It
always corresponds to the condition of society; it is, in one
word, the result of the social condition. Whilst in the
civilised world it is a capital crime for the son to kill his
old decrepit father, there are Indian tribes where such an

230 LECTURE VIII.

action is considered praiseworthy. The notions of good and
evil arise from the wants of society and the relations of in-
dividuals to each other. Now if this be true, it is equally
certain that the notion of good and evil is as much prevalent
in social animals as in human societies. The first step in
society is the family ; the notions of good and evil consist, as
regards the child, chiefly in obedience towards the parents,
and as regards the parents, in caresses or punishment. Ob-
serve now ina cat or bear family, the behaviour of the young
and their education by the parents, and say, whether it is not
the image of a human family in all its manifestations of good
and evil. I grant it is cat morality and bear morality which is
impressed upon the young, still it is a morality, and the kitten
which does not come when the mother calls it, the two-year-
old bear who does not properly tend his brothers and sisters,
is as much scolded and cuffed as our dear little ones when they
neglect the first moral and Christian duty—filial obedience.

With regard to animal societies, I beg to quote an extract
from Dr. Brehm’s “TIllustrirte Thierleben” (illustrations of
animal life) :—

“The most gifted male member of a horde of apes becomes
the leader. This dignity is, however, not conferred upon
him by ‘universal suffrage’; he only obtains it after having
conquered the other male competitors. The longest teeth and
the strongest arms decide. Whoever does not voluntarily
submit, is bitten and knocked about until he listens to reason.
The crown belongs to the strongest, and his wisdom les in his
teeth. The strongest apes are usually the oldest, to which the
younger and less experienced must defer. The leader demands
and enforces implicit obedience. Chivalrous behaviour is not his
affair; he takes the reward of love by storm. No female member
of the horde must carry on any love affair. His eyes are sharp,
and his discipline severe ; he won’t take a joke in his amours.
The females who should commit themselves, are so cuffed
that they take care not to offend again; the youthful ape
which intrudes into the harem of his Sultan is treated much
worse.”

* * * *& * * “As for the rest, the leader performs

LECTURE VIII. Dall

his functions with great dignity. ‘The esteem which he enjoys
imparts a certain independence to his character which is want-
ing in the rest. He is moreover much flattered, and the
females are anxious to grant him the highest favours. They
are very zealous to free his hairy garment from troublesome
parasites, and he receives this homage with the dignity of a
Pacha, whose favourite slave strokes his feet. On the other
hand, he watches carefully over the security of his subjects.
He surveys every corner ; he trusts no one, and so he is always
the first to discover any danger.”

We do not understand how far the difference between the
morality in this simian society, depending on the will of
the leader, and that of a horde of Australians, in which the
strongest equally lays down the law, is sufficiently important
to base upon it a new kingdom. Theoretical absolutism knows
no other morality than the will of the ruler. He makes the laws,
he establishes the faith, he determines the morality ; whoever
acts or teaches diffegently may be punished or killed. Does
the morality of an absolute theoretical despotism then greatly
differ from that prevailing in a simian society.

Thus this distinguishing category of Quatrefages cannot be
sustained. ‘These two French authors have undertaken im-
possibilities—to find qualities without any material substratum.
Where the organisation is formed after the same type, the
qualities and functions resulting from it must exhibit the
same fundamental ‘unity.

Before quitting this subject, I would, for the benefit of those
who wish to erect for man a special throne, quote the following
words of Wundt :—“ Animals are creatures whose intelligence
differs from men only by the degree of development. There
exists between man and brute no wider gulf than is to be
found within the animal kingdom itself. All animated or-
ganisms form a chain of connected beings without an in-
terval. An antiquated psychology, with its great variety of
mental faculties, draws here and there lines of demarcation.
When we have succeeded in representing mental life as a
whole, we are bound to admit that everything animated forms
a part of the whole.”

LECTURE IX.

Primeval period of Mankind.—Discovery of Human Remains associated
with those of Extinct Animals.—Cuvier’s Objections.—Human Remains
in Caverns.—Formation of Caverns.—Stalactites.—Osseous breccia.—
Preservation of Bones.—Mode in which the Caverns were filled.—The
Extinct Cavern Inhabitants.—Extinct and Living Species.—Extinction
of some species within the Historical Period.—Schmerling’s Discoveries.
—The Cavern of Engis.—Caverns of Lombrive and Lherme.—Grottoes
of Arcy.—Grotto in the Neander Valley.—Grotto of Aurignac.

GrntLEMEN,—We now turn from the living to the dead.
There is, perhaps, no subject of inquiry more interesting than
the primeval period of the human spgcies, which reaches
further back than written documents or tradition, and to
which we can only obtain a clue by the discovery of human
remains or objects of human industry. The methods used in
historical investigations are inapplicable here, and we are fully
justified in asserting that it is no longer the historian and the
antiquary, but the geologist alone, who is entitled to give an
opinion on the primitive ages, deduced from geological pre-
mises. ‘The traces which primitive peoples have left behind,
the remains which testify to their existence, are only so far
distinguished from those of extinct species of animals, that
with their bones and teeth are found associated objects of
industry, which sufficiently prove that man, even at the earliest
period, applied his mind to multiply the. means with which
nature had endowed him for the struggle of existence. The
hyena cracks bones by the power of its jaws. Man breaks
them with stones to obtain the marrow. The beast defends
itself with horns, teeth, and claws, given to it by nature; man
endeavours to manufacture arms and tools of bone, horn, and
stones, and constant attention directed to these objects leads him
on towards civilisation. Animals enjoy the warmth of fire if

LECTURE IX. 233

they accidentally meet with it ; man alone keeps it up, so as to
render it serviceable for various purposes. As far as our
investigations reach into the recondite past, we find associated
with human bones and teeth objects of art, though rudely
fashioned, tools of wood, stone, horn, bones, and half-baked
clay, together with coals, which prove that man knew the use of
fire. But there are no traditions, no legends which can serve as
guides in reference to the first period of human existence. Even
in the oldest civilised countries, where from the earliest period
monuments and statues speak in hieroglyphics, whence great
scholars have endeavoured to collect the old traditions and to de-
cipher the primitive history of the country—even in these oldest
traditions there is no trace of a pre-historic non-metallic period
of which stone hatchets and pile-structures testify. It is only
the position of these relics, their relation to the beds upon
which they rest, or by which they are covered, their association
with other vegetable and animal remains, which can afford
any clue to the relation of the primitive man to the external
world, his mode of life, alimentation, dress, habitation, cus-
toms, manners, and social condition.

The field, as you will observe, is very extensive; the way to
it is dark; knowledge difficult. From the fragments of the
scenery after the theatre is burned down, we are to guess the
pieces which have been played ; from the remains of those who
have perished we are to say what part they played. Wherever we
cast our glance, there is uncertainty and doubt; it is only with
the greatest caution that we can grasp a guiding thread which
in this labyrinth may lead us to a starting point. The least
mistake in observation may engender an innumerable series of
errors ; every unfounded or illogical deduction may lead us so
much astray that return becomes impossible. But the most
dangerous rocks, against which the vessel of the inquirer must
inevitably be wrecked, are the traditional prejudices of church
dogmas and biblical exegesis. Whosoever here attempts any
mediation is at once carried into a whirlpool of absurdities,
from which no degree of prowess as an oarsman is able to
extricate him. But the greater the difficulties, the greater the
satisfaction of the inquirer who may succeed in raising a

234. LECTURE IX.

structure upon the foundation of facts—a structure which may
brave both the attacks of criticism and the serpent tooth of
hatred. In proportion as error is easy, so is our admiration
sincere for such men as devote their industry and their minds
to throw light into the Egyptian darkness.

It is my object to lead you at once into the remotest anti-
quity known to us, and I shall treat im this lecture of fossil
man. Not of fanciful stone-forms, or skeletons of unknown
animals ; not of that petrified horseman, designed upon a block
of sandstone at Fontainebleau, and about which they quarrelled
in Paris forty years ago; not of the salamander of Oeningen,
which Scheuchzer took to be the remains of a four years old
child, and under:a portrait of which a theologian wrote the
touching lines—‘‘ Melancholy skeleton of a poor sinner, soften
the stony heart of the present generation!” I shall say
nothing of such mistakes, but shall treat of real and undoubted
human remains, found associated with extinct species of ani-
mals, and petrified animal bones, in strata whose great age is
undoubted.

I have here indicated the limitation which the expression
“ petrified” or “ fossil’ must undergo, if it is to be correctly
applied. The question is not whether human bones are more
or less penetrated by solutions of petrifying salts, or more or
less deficient in organic matter; the question, on the contrary,
is whether the primitive man saw animals different from such
as now exist in our country ; whether he hunted other ‘beasts
than such as inhabit our forests ; whether he dwelt upon a sur-
face which has changed since the historical period ; whether
he survived convulsions, which destroyed a number of animals.

Until a recent period, this question was unconditionally
answered in the negative. Cuvier laid it down, that the
occurrence of human remains along with bones of extinct
animals was unproved ; that the facts adduced rested upon
error; that the petrified Guadaloupe skeletons were recent
formations ; and that fossil human bones would not be found
associated with those of extinct animals. As is usually the
case when some great authority lays down a law, so it was
here. The facts discovered, here and there, were neglected,

a i oe

LECTURE IX. 235

considered as errors, and everthing relating to fossil man
was set aside. When, however, latterly, there were found
products of art, stone hatchets in beds containing bones of
extinct animals, the attention was again directed to the results
formerly obtained in the exploration of grottoes and fissures.
The methodical examination of such spots was now carried on
with renewed zeal, and though but a comparatively short
period has elapsed since these studies were recommenced, the
results obtained are great. But before touching upon the
discovery of human remains in cayerns, grottoes, and fissures,
I must offer some few observations on certain geological phe-
nomena and important facts pertaining to this inquiry.

Jt has been repeatedly and justly observed that, there is
scarcely any solid rock upon the earth which is not somehow
torn or split; it has even, with some exaggeration perhaps,
been maintained, that there is not a block found of the size of
one cubic meter which does not show some fissure. These
fissures are generally very fine, and frequently newly cemented
by trickling water. Thus, in dark-coloured chalks, we frequently
find a network of white calcareous veins representing the
original fissures. The lodes which are sterile or filled with
ore, are but large fissures of this kind, which have gradually
been filled with the deposit of mineral matter. In these
deposits, again, are found cavities not filled up. Fissures quite
empty are also frequently seen. In other instances, it may be
seen how the trickling water not only furnished crystalline
deposits, but that clay, earth, sandstone, and pebbles have been
introduced into the fissures. Nothing is more frequent than
to find such deposits in the fissures, so that the margins of
the crevices do not exactly correspond, and, if the fissure be
not perpendicular, there are alternate contractions and expan-
sions. Neither is it rare to find fragments of the surrounding
rocks filling the fissures; and there are even mountains and
hills presenting the aspect of heaps of irregular superposed
blocks with intermediate fissures, whose form and size is con-
stantly changing under the influence of atmospheric action.

Whilst, on the one hand, the trickling waters form in most
stones crystalline deposits, it is undoubted that they also

236 LECTURE IX.

extract from the rocks certain elements, and that this extrac-
tion is nowhere greater than in the gypseous and chalk
mountains; because in these latter the dissolving power of
simple water is augmented by the addition of carbonic acid,
which is found in all atmospheric waters. For this reason, a
deposit will be specially formed in such fissures, where a
small quantity of water trickles down slowly and partly evapo-
rates, whilst, on the contrary, where large quantities of water
pass through rapidly, the fissure becomes rather enlarged by
the removal of its contents. The origin of the large cavities
in horizontal fissures is, however, mainly attributable to the
falling in of beds deprived of their supports, which thus form
wide spaces in the interior of the mountains.

All these phenomena, from the finest crack to the largest
cavern, are closely connected ; their formation being confined
neither to time nor place; the filling up depending on local
conditions. Where there is no access for the water from above,
it can only enter from the sides or springs which may rise up
from beneath. If there be external apertures, springs, brooks,
and streams may enter and form a subterraneous river system,

‘as actually existing in many spots, but nowhere so well deve-
loped as in Carinthia and the Krain on the platform above
Trieste, where is found a series of subterranean lakes connected
by rivers, partly navigable, and inhabited by various animals.

It is customary to make a distinction between crevices of
little width, running more or less perpendicularly ; grottoes,
which are but short cavities, with externally wide apertures ;
and caverns, consisting of a succession of vaults, connected by
narrow channels. ‘The grottoes, or balmen as they are called,
(probably from a Celtic word) in Switzerland, South Germany,
and France, frequently owe their origin to soft beds of marl,
carried off from beneath the harder lime beds, which now cover
them ; they are often only the inlet of caverns cut off by the
closure of the fissure. Caverns, on the contrary, are sometimes

of surprising dimensions, extending in some cases for miles.

under the ground, frequently containing chambers one hundred
feet in height, and as many in diameter. These chambers are
not always situated in the same plane, but have to be reached

:
j
4

LECTURE IX. 237

from above or from below by ladders, and the entrance is
sometimes so narrow that it requires to be enlarged before a
person can pass through.

Having thus shortly described the formation of the crevices,
grottoes, and caverns, let us glance at their internal condition.
Most of these caverns are found in the chalk formation of old
and recent origin. The Devonian and carboniferous limestone
of Ireland, England, Belgium, and Westphalia ; the magnesian
limestone of the Hartz mountains ; the Jura limestone of
France, Germany, and Switzerland; the chalk and the num-
mulitic masses of the Pyrenees, Alps, and Apennines contain
caverns, some of which have acquired sufficient celebrity to
attract numbers of travelling sight-seers. What first strikes
such tourists is the curious form of the stalactites, which by
torchliight assume most fantastic shapes. These stalactites
are but the crystalline deposits of the trickling water which
hold ime in solution, and they appear-brown or yellowish
according as the water is impregnated with clay or earth.
The size of these stalactites gives no certain clue to their
age. ‘The deposits vary even in the same cave according to
the quantity and quality of the water. Bones and pebbles are
rarely found in the stalactites. This only occurs when the
cavern is entirely covered with deposits; when the stalactite
mass forms only a crust in the roof and the walls, but does not
hang down in the form of icicles.

The lime water trickling down from the roof or the walls,
forms a crust on the floor of the cave, which, in contra-distinc-
tion to that on the roof, is called the stalagmite crust. Corre-
sponding to the spots where a larger quantity of water has
trickled down, there are eminences and columns which fre-
quently unite with those which hang down from above.

There are grottoes without stalactites. Such caves as
contain but few stalactites are best adapted for further
researches.

Beneath the stalagmite crust are usually found deposits of a
so called osseous earth. This is usually a yellowish fatty
earth, a clay mixed frequently with sand, often exhibiting a
kind of stratified form. In or beneath this clay pebbles are

238 LECTURE IX.

found, which must have come from a distance, as they belong
to different formations from those found in the vicinity of the
cavern. The clay is either loose, or so penetrated with lime
that it forms a solid cement, which can only be split with a
chisel. At times there are found angular stones, mostly de-
tached fragments from the walls of the cavern. The deposit
of this ossiferous clay is frequently very thin, but in some
cases so abundant, that it is stated that in the grotto of Ban-
well in England, one chamber fifteen meters high is nearly
filled with this ossiferous mud.

We are, in fact, perfectly justified in designating this cave
clay, mostly of a reddish tinge, which is only reached by
piercing through the hard stalactite deposit, as osseous clay;
for in it we find frequently a considerable quantity of bones.
Besides these bones, to which we shall presently advert, we
meet in the clay land and freshwater snails, which belong to
species still existing in the same spot. ,

The bones lie in this clay pell-mell, without any trace of
order. The skulls are usually separated from the lower jaws,
the other bones of the skeleton lie scattered about. Skeletons
complete in the relative positions of the parts have probably
never been found ; even such a discovery as that made in the
cave of Brixham, where all the bones of the posterior leg of a
bear were found in their proper position, is a rare exception.
It seems, however, that in most cases the bones had been in-
troduced into the caves more or less with the flesh attached, as
most of them have preserved their sharp angles and margins ;
others, however, have manifestly been transported and rounded,
whilst others, again, are split up, just asif they had, previous to
their introduction, been long exposed to the action of the
atmosphere. In many caverns, bones have been found eyvi-
dently gnawed or cracked, while some presented manifest
traces of having been worked by man.

The preservation of bones gives no clue to their age.
Where the stalactite roof is wanting, and the mud remained
dry, the bones are so decayed that they crumble into dust on
being touched. Where there is a stalagmite floor, they are in
a better state of preservation, and have even conserved the

LECTURE IX. 239

organic matter they contained at first. In most cases, how-
ever, the bones have lost the greater portion of it, and adhere
to the tongue—a quality which formerly, but erroneously,
was considered as the characteristic mark of a fossil. In the
fissures filled with bones which are found in the Mediter-
ranean region, the red clay, as well as the bones, is frequently
so impregnated with lime as to form a true breccia, which
must be blasted with gunpowder; and whence the bones are
only hewn out with considerable force.

The clue to the period in which the deposits in the fissures
and caves took place, must be furnished by the bones and
other remains. Animals of the same species lived in the same
geological epochs, which no doubt lasted for an incalculable
series of years ; animals of the same species belong, therefore,
to the same geological chronology. It can, however, be easily
shewn, that similar conditions may prevail in different geological
epochs, and produce the same effects. When the small tunnel
between Morges and Iverdun was commenced, there were
found in the yellow limestone, which belongs to the lower chalk
system, crevices filled up with brown-red osseous clay, the
traces of which are still visible at the southern entrance of the
tunnel. The bones contained therein belonged to pachyder-
mata of the tertiary period, and were mostly identical with the
species found in the gypsum of Montmartre near Paris. These
bones were consequently much older than those usually found
in ossiferous caves. On the other hand, in 1860, on the Stoss
in the Muotta valley in Canton Schwytz, near a place called
“« Barentross,” 5,042 feet above the level of the sea, a cave was
discovered in which a whole bear family, consisting of six
animals old and young, lay buried in a bed of clay two feet
thick covered with a crust of lime tufa half an inch in thickness.
“The bones themselves,” says Riitimeyer, “are also covered
with a thin tufa crust, and are in excellent preservation. Some
are in possession of the College of Schwytz, others in that of
Landamman Auf der Mauer in Brunnen. The largest skeleton lay
in an outstretched position, the two anterior extremities seem-
ingly broken off by a fragment of rock which fell from the roof.
The largest skull which I saw in Brunnen measured 285 milli-

240 LECTURE IX.

meters from the foramen magnum to the incisive alveoh, and
200 millimeters in width at the level of the zygomatic arches,
and thus must have belonged to a very large animal. A larger
skull is said to be in the College of Schwytz. The well-pre-
served teeth rendered it easy to ascertain that the skull be-
longed to a brown bear. Significant is the circumstance, that
the locality where this bear cave is situate is called upon
the maps ‘ Barentross,’ from ‘ Troos,’ alnus viridis, which tree
is abundant there, a circumstance which indicates a recent
habitation of the cave.””? Here, therefore, is an osseous deposit
of a comparatively recent date, at any rate much more so than
the deposits usually found in caves.

Before proceeding to the age of these deposits, I must be
permitted to say a few words on the mode in which these caves
were filled up. The bones are generally those of beasts of
prey. In Europe, to which portion of the globe these remarks
apply, it is chiefly the bones of bears and of hyznas which
have been found. These two animals inhabit caves, and as is
proved by the cave in the Stoss, they may have been over-
whelmed by the falling in of blocks of stone, and thus buried
in the clay. This could, however, have happened to but few
individuals, though several successive generations of such
animals may have inhabited the same cave; but the aircum-
stance that thousands of individuals are found buried together
in such caves, shows that other causes must have been at work.
There are proofs that some caves were inhabited by carnivora,
who introduced bones to feed their young, which was especially
done by the hyenas, whose coprolites contain undigested
bones. The bears, though they also inhabit caves, to which
they retire chiefly for hybernation, did not introduce bones.
Again, large collections of bones are found in cavities which
can only be reached by ladders, to which no living animals
could have had access. Hence but few caves are entirely filled
up with the bones of its former inhabitants, some remains must
therefore have been introduced by some other causes.

Sick and dying animals usually retire to caves and fissures,
to die or to recover. Many bones have been found showing
that the animals had been wounded or that the bones were

LECTURE IX. 241

carious or otherwise diseased. Schmerling has described a
series of such diseased bones found in the Belgian caves.
Soemmering described a hyena skull the parietal portion of
which had been bitten, and afterwards partially healed. Such
animals may also have furnished their contingent of cave bones:

But if these three causes were thoroughly established, we
ought, as in the cave at the Stoss, to find entire skeletons of
the carnivora. But so little is this the case, that caves which
have been completely explored furnished bones of several indi-
viduals, but rarely all the bones belonging to the same skeleton.
We shall recur to this fact when speaking of human bones.

There remains, then, as regards most caves, only the assump-
tion that the bones, together with pebbles, shells, and other
relics, have been carried into the caves by water. If the bones
show traces of having been rolled, or bleached, or dried, they
may have been introduced in that condition. Where they are
better preserved, they were probably floated pieces of putrefy-
ing carcasses. As the mouths of caves and grottoes are fre-
quently several hundred feet above the valleys, we are justified
in assuming that in certain localities the watermark was much
higher than it is now, and that the brooks carried a larger
quantity of water. In many caves the deposition must have
been effected very gradually, as shewn by the stratification of
the mud intermixed with layers of sand and pebbles. In other
caves the deposition was more irregular, and probably effected
under the influence of cross streams. The small size of the
pebbles shows, however, that the current could not have been
very violent. Violent currents may have occurred, but only
in few localities. ‘That caves containing no pebbles have been
but very gradually filled with mud by the introduction of the
melting snow waters is proved by the cave at the Stoss, which is
situated at a height and in a locality where the idea of a brook
cannot be entertained, and which nevertheless has within a
comparatively short time been filled with a layer of mud two
feet in thickness.

On examining the remains of such species as have hitherto
been found in caves and the so-called diluvium, we first obtain
the fact, that a great number of species, and particularly such

R

242, LECTURE IX.

as furnish the greater number of bones, are those of extinct
animals. To these belongs the powerful cave bear (Ursus
spelews), whose skull is distinguished from the present species
by its great size, the constant absence of the small gap-teeth, the
curved forehead and the prominent frontal eminences, forming
a ridge upon the forehead. Though Blainville considers all
the remains of bears found in caves as of the same species and
identical both with the brown bear of Europe, and the grey
and the black bear of North America and Europe, all other
naturalists have given as the results of their labours that the
difference between the cave bear and the present living species
is greater than that obtaining between existing different species,
so that we must either assume that all living bears belong to
the same species, or that the cave bear represents an extinct
species. Along with the remains of the cave bear there are
found, though rarely, skulls which seem to form a transition
to the brown bear.

The cave hyena (Hyena spelea), also, is an extinct
species. It was larger and more powerful than the spotted
hyena of the Cape, the remains of which have recently
been found in Sicilian caves. In caves of southern France
were also found the remains of a hyzena resembling the striped
species. The cave lion (Felis spelea), which in size and
streneth excelled the present species of lions and tigers, is also
extinct. It is found up to the Harz, whilst an extinct species
of large cats (Felis antiqua) resembling the panther or leopard,
has hitherto been only found in the Franconian Jura and south
of it.

To the extinct rodents belongs a beaver, (Tvogontherium
Cuviert) the skull of which is larger by one-fifth than that of
the present species; a hare (Lepus diluwvianus) which is found
in the region of the Mediterranean, and seems to occupy an
intermediate place between the hare proper and the piping or
calling hare, (Lagomys) at present confined to northern Asia,
some species of which formerly existed in central Europe, but
are now extinct ; a squirrel-like rodent, (Sciwrus priscus) which
is essentially distinguished from other species of squirrels, and
a digging mouse, (Arvicola brecciensis) almost the only con-
tents of osseous fissures in Sardinia; even among the insec-

Po ee ee ae

LECTURE IX. 243

tivora, which excepting in the formation of the teeth, are nearly
allied to the rodentia, a species of shrew (Sorex similis), for-
merly native in Sardinia, now perfectly extinct, has been found.

Among the ruminants the deer species were well represented,
and belong to the extinct animals. The splendid Irish peat
deer (Cervus ewryceros), which in size equalled the reindeer,
and possessed enormous antlers, whose size and weight seemed
out of proportion to that of the animal; the gigantic deer
(Cervus somonensis) which occurs in northern France, and
some less-known species found in French caves, are all extinct.
So tooare certain antelopes (Antelope Christoli and dichotoma)
found in caves of the south of France, a wild goat (Ibex Ceven-
narum) of the Cevennes, and other two species of oxen (Bos
primigenius), of which we shall speak when treating of domes-
tic animals.

Of all extinct species the pachydermata have excited the
greatest attention. No horses, of which an extinct species
(Equus fossilis) has, however, been discovered in France ; but of
the hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and elephants, some perfectly
preserved carcasses, especially of the latter, have been found as
far north as the coast of the Arctic sea. There existed probably
several species of extinct river horses (Hippopotamus Pent-
landi, major, minor) extending to England and Russia, which
could as easily have supported themselves in the marshy lakes
and large rivers of the diluvial period, as they can now in
central Africa. In Europe we find two* different species of ele-
phants ; the one of which (Hlephas meridionalis) was essentially
confined to the Mediterranean region, where it occurs along
with a rhinoceros (Rhinoceros leptorhinus), which resembles
the double-horned rhinoceros of the Cape; whilst the other
species, the mammoth (Hlephas primigenius), and another
species of rhinoceros (Rhinoceros tichorhinus), carrying two horns
upon a nose, supported by an osseous septum, was enabled by
a warm hairy coat, which is wanting in the present species, to

* Sir Charles Lyell, in his recent address to the British Association at
Bath, makes the following observations on this point : “We have now, there-
fore, evidence of man having coexisted in Europe with three species of ele-
phants, two of them extinct (namely, the Mammoth and the Elephas antiquus),
and a third, the same as that which still survives in Africa.’’—EprTor.

R2

244 LECTURE IX.

support existence in the northern regions. It seems remark-
able that an elephantine species, the mastodon, which in the
alluvial formations of North America replaces the elephant,
is also represented in Europe by a species (Mastodon anqusti-
dens) which appears in the old layers of the tertiary period.

We shall presently have to examine whether these various
species, which, excepting the mastodon, resemble the present
living species, have become extinct at the same period.

All other species hitherto found in caves and the alluvium,
agree with the existing, excepting in size, which seems to
increase in the older bones. It has, however, been justly
observed, that this character is insufficient for the distinction of
species, as it frequently depends on the abundance of food, and
facility of procuring it. One of the bear skulls found at the
Stoss, far exceeds in dimensions any of the brown bear recently
found ; yet, in the bear menagerie of Berne, they have, accord-
ing to Riitimeyer, brought up bears which attained an equally
colossal size. Pictet seems, therefore, perfectly justified in
declining to assume difference of species from the mere size
of the fossil bones. On examining the list of bones hither-
to found, we observe that almost all mammals of the present
fauna of Europe, excepting some few and not easily to be
distinguished species, or manifestly imported domestic animals,
were represented in the diluvial period, so that the fauna of
Europe was richer then than it is now. Pictet enumerates all
these species, and shows that but a few small species are want-
ing, and that, even recently, species, such as the porcupine and
the moufflon, the ancestor of our domestic sheep, have been
discovered in Italy. There can, therefore, be no doubt, that
most living species existed in the diluvial period; though it is
going too far to deduce from this that no new creation or
origin of species had occurred within or since the diluvial
period. Inthe same way as the extinct species disappeared
at different periods, so may the present existing species have
arisen at different times, though within the same great epoch.

As regards living species, the remains of which are also
found in the caves and alluvial mountains of central Europe,
there is, again, found a difference, in so far as many of these
species have changed their habitat, and have entirely withdrawn

LECTURE IX. — 2465

from the region they previously occupied. This phenomenon
is not peculiarly striking, as it is repeated within historical
times. The deer, the beaver, the ibex, formerly plentiful in
Switzerland, have now entirely disappeared. The wolf is ex-
terminated in England; the bear is so in the greater part of
Germany. On casting a glance at this departure of species, it
seems singular, that most of such as formerly inhabited central
Europe have retreated northward ; that consequently at the
diluvial period there existed in the heart of Europe a fauna,
the remains of which are at present only found in the north.
These northern, but formerly central-Huropean animals, in-
clude the glutton, the icebear, hamster marmot, the lemming,
the reindeer, the elk, the aurochs, the musk ox, the walrus.
Some of these species are apparently becoming extinct, as the
bison (Bison Huropceus), of which there exists only a single herd
in a Polish forest. Others hover, as it were, on the boundary
of the German continent, as, for instance, the elk, which inha-
bits only a small portion of the coast of the Baltic, but is found
in Scandinavia, and Russia: others have retreated to the
Arctic circle, as the lemming, glutton, and reindeer ; others,
again, now inhabit the icy mountain regions, as the chamois,
marmots, and ibex. Whilst among the extinct species types
are found, which are at present confined to regions south of the
Mediterranean, as lions, hyzenas, and riverhorses; we find among
the departed species scarcely a well-founded instance of a re-
treat to the south; and as regards the extinct species, as the
elephant and the rhinoceros, we may conclude that they retired
to the north, step by step, until they found the limits of their
existence in Northern Siberia. This view is supported by the
fact that the “collared lemming” (Lemmus torquatus), at pre-
sent existing in the highest north beyond the forest region, is
now only found in the ossiferous fissures of Northern Germany,
but never further south.

Since, then, of the extinct species, the cognates of which at
present inhabit southern climates, some had by their woolly
skin been enabled to support the cold, it gives rise to the
presumption, that other species, with whose bones only we
are acquainted, but of whose integuments nothing is known,
may have been similarly protected from the cold. As it is

246 LECTURE IX.

further known, that the tiger of south Asia makes excursions to
Siberia, up to the 50 deg. north latitude, and even in regions,
as in the Amoor, where the mean temperature in the winter is
— 20 deg. R.; and as we may suppose that the cave tiger was
equally enabled to support the cold; and as even the hyzenas,
which inhabit northern Africa, are found on the highest ridges
of the Atlas mountains, covered in winter with ice and snow, we
are fully justified in concluding, that from the beginning of the di-
luvial period there reigned in central Europe a much lower tem-
perature than at present, and that the animals, with the increase
of heat, at least partially retired northward, following the
temperature to which they had been accustomed in central
Europe. A considerable portion of central Hurope may, at
the beginning of the diluvial period, have presented the same
aspect as the damp and marshy plains of Poland, Lithuania,
and Siberia do now.

We have to some extent wandered from our subject. In
endeavouring to give you a sketch of the society in which the
primitive man lived, and showing the conditions in which
human remains are found in caves and fissures, I have invo-
luntarily digressed to describe the climate of the period which
these remains indicate. Let us then return to our starting
point, and examine the caves and fissures in relation to the
remains they contain.

History shows that caverns were at all times either places
of refuge, or habitations for more or less civilised peoples. The
ancients speak of troglodytes, or cave dwellers, in Asia Minor,
Greece, and Italy. Christian and heathen assemblies, when
subject to persecutions on account of their religion, were held
in forests and caverns. Cesar gave orders to his heutenant
Crassus that the Gauls should be shut up in the caverns of
Aquitania and destroyed, just as the famous warrior Pelissier
smoked out the Arabs who objected to having French civilisa-
tion forced on them.

Certain caves and fissures served as places for execution, the
criminals being thrown down and abandoned to a miserable
fate ; other caves were used as burial places. Most caves and
grottoes serve even now as places of refuge for shepherds in
tempestuous weather, or even as temporary dormitories. It is

LECTURE IX. 247

thus not surprising that in many grottoes and caverns are
found human bones or objects of art and industry from remote
periods to the present time. Thus in the cave of Mialet near
Anduze in the Cevennes were found fragments of pottery,
Roman lamps, the statuette of a senator in his toga, in yellow
burnt clay, also Roman antiquities with polished stone hatchets
and other stone weapons which belonged to an earlier period.
In one part of the grotto was a grave filled with human bones
dug in a sandy clay containing bones of the bear. In other
spots of alluvial soil were found objects of art manifestly more
recent than the ossiferous clay which it covered. In the back-
ground of the grotto were seven or eight bear skulls so sur-
rounded by stone blocks, which had become detached from the
roof, as to resemble a monumental group. ‘There is no doubt
that all these objects must belong to a later period, as it is
historically proved that at the time of the dragoonades of
Louis XIV, the persecuted Protestants- worshipped in this
cave. I merely cite this example to show that such late depo-
sits occur partly above and partly between, and in the osseous
clay itself, in the absence of a stalactite roof, or if it has been
subject to the exploration of intruders. But all these recent
intermixtures.in the caves may be easily detected on careful
examination.

The finding of human bones in the same condition as the
animal bones is different when they are met with imbedded in
clay showing no sign of having been disturbed, and when they
are intermixed with the bones of extinct animals covered by a
stalactite roof imbedded in stalagmite, so that bear- and human
bones are cemented in one mass. In such cases, and especially
if the discovery is made by careful and trustworthy observers,
there can be no doubt that man who was buried with the bear
also lived with him. To establish this fact, I shall cite a few
instances which inspire us with confidence from the character
of the observers, and which will assist us in our investigations,
as regards the origin of mankind and the different races.

Dr. Schmerling of Liége published in 1833 a classical work
on the caves of his own country. Hach of these caves, some
of which have now disappeared by being quarried out, was

248 LECTURE IX.

minutely explored by him and some of them emptied of their
contents, and each bone separately examined. Schmerling
observes on the condition of the fossil human bones in his pos-
session :— They, like the thousands of bones which I have
collected within a short time, are characterised by the degree
of their decomposition, which is quite the same as that of the
extinct animals. All, with few exceptions, are broken ; some
are rounded, as is frequently observed in other bones. The
fractures are transverse or oblique; nowhere a trace of being
gnawed; the colour, varying from yellow to black, does not
differ from that of other bones. These are all lighter than
fresh bones, excepting such as are covered with a layer of chalk
tuff or have their cavities filled with such a deposit.”

The most important object in Schmerling’s collection is the
upper part of a skull from the eyebrows to the occipital
foramen, which was found in the cavern of Engis at the depth
of 13 meter, in an osseous breccia one meter in width, 13 me-
ter in height, attached to the wall of the cave. The earth
which covered this skull showed no trace of having been dis-
turbed ; it contained the remains of small animals, teeth of the
rhinoceros, horse, of hyzenas, bears, and ruminants, which sur-
rounded the skull on all sides. In order to reach the cave,
Schmerling and his companions had to descend by means of a
rope attached to a nearly perpendicular rocky wall. In a sort
of antechamber five meters in width, six meters high, and
seventeen meters deep, was seen near the opening of the cave
a layer of osseous earth two meters in thickness. In this were
found, besides the usual animal bones, an incisor, a vertebra,
and a finger bone, all human, together with several stone
hatchets of triangular shape. A little beneath this cave was
a second aperture leading to another chamber, twelve meters
deep, five meters high, and four meters wide; this again led
into a semicircular gallery which contained many bones, and
terminated in a narrow fissure preventing any further advance.
There is on the other side a rising gallery leading into a small
hall, which seems filled with osseous earth. Here it was that
the skull, which we shall henceforth call the Engis skull, was
discovered. Besides this, was found the skull of a younger

LECTURE IX. 249

individual at the bottom of the cave, and also an elephant’s
tooth. This skull was entire, but when Schmerling tried to
lift it up it fell into dust excepting some pieces of the jaws.
The other human bones found by Schmerling, clavicle, radius,
and carpus, as well as bones of the foot, did not excite so much
interest, but they showed that they belonged to three different
individuals. Schmerling had the whole cave emptied, but he
did not succeed in finding the component parts of the whole
skeleton. In front of the aperture of the cave was osseous
earth, covered with a luxuriant vegetation. It was thus cer-
tain that only separate putrid portions of human bodies had
been carried into the cave by the waters along with the bones
of bears. The difficulty of access and the absence of certain
bones render the assumption that several human bodies had
been buried in the cave impossible.

In another cave, that of Engihoul, there were also found,
and under the same conditions, the remains of at least three
individuals. Here were only found some insignificant cranial
fragments, though a large quantity of the bones of the extre-
mities. ‘There was also found a piece of the radius and of the
elbow cemented together by stalactite, and Schmerling calls
attention to the fact that all conditions, including the peculiar
distribution of the bones, were quite the same as with the
bones of other animals.

In Southern France there runs along the Pyrenees a chain
of low chalk mountains, which are remarkably torn up and
fissured. Two caves found in this range, namely the caves of
Lombrive and Lherm, Department of Ariége, have recently
acquired importance by the discovery of entire skulls and re-
markable implements. I give you the details, because a pam-
phlet published at Toulouse by Messrs. Rames, Garrigou, and
Filhol does not seem to have excited any attention, and also
because I was fortunate enough to examine two skulls which
Dr. Garrigou brought to Geneva. It is the more surprising
that Lyell should have taken no notice of this discovery, as we
know that he has at least heard of it, and as this discovery is
in every respect more important than many others made in
England which excited so much attention.

250 LECTURE IX.

The cave of Lombrive, say the authors, is about 4,000
meters in length. It consists of a series of wide halls, which
are connected by long and narrow passages. Here and there
are side galleries. In some parts the roof is so low that we
must creep through. The entrance has been widened by a
small tunnel. Tourists have for a long time visited the cave on
account of the stalactite formations. The ground and the walls

Fig. 84. Section of the Cave of Lombrive.

a

a, b. Section of, passing through the Cave. c. Interior of the Cave.
1. Stalactites. 2. Stalagmite crust of the floor. 38. Ossiferous clay. 4.
Plastic clay. 5. Gravel, with small pebbles. 6. Large rolled stones.
exhibit traces of having been scooped by water, presenting
stripes, furrows, and deposits of gravel, sand, mud, and bluish
clay. The deposits are also found in the small side grottoes,
which frequently lie above the level of the chief cave. They
contain bones, and are here and there covered by stalagmite, the
surface of which resembles the surface of the sea ruffled by a
light breeze.

The cave has two entrances, at a little distance from each
other, through which the waters escaped, in a direction indi-
cated by a gradual elevation of the floor of the cave backward,
but especially by a perpendicular precipice, which abruptly
divides the cave into two portions. Five fire-escape ladders are
requisite to ascend this precipice. Above it there is a long
narrow passage, from which but little water escaped, so that
the posterior and wider portions of the cave formed at one time
a large pond, in which the most interesting deposits were

ahs ia

a ee! ee See

a ee ee

LECTURE IX. 251

formed. ‘The floor of the cave still shows a small pond, on the
right side of which was formerly an opening. There the de-
posits of pebbles and mud rose to the roof, forming a large cone,
which obstructed the fissure through which the waters entered.

The cave les far above the influence of the present state of
the waters, on the declivity of a steep mountain, in which,
among others, open also the remarkable caves of Sabard and
Niaux, which are on the same level, show the same deposits,
and were probably connected at an earlier period. In the
valley of Vicdessos, above the village Niaux, are seen well-
characterised diluvial formations, composed of the same ele-
ments as those in the caves.

The deposits in the cave consist of regular layers of rolled
stones, sand, clay, and mud, which are very distinctly seen in
the background of the caverns where the stalactite roof is
wanting.

Large rolled stones, sometimes a meter in diameter and
rather disconnected, form the lowest stratum (6, fig. 84), some-
times resting immediately upon the jura lime, sometimes upon
the stalagmite. Where this layer is exposed, it resembles the
bed of a forest brook, upon which walking is rendered difficult
(5, fig. 84).

These two layers of rolled stones contain all specimens of the
rocks of the Pyrenees; they are identical with the rolled
stones of the diluvium of the adjoining valleys, where are also
found rolled fragments of stalactite.

Above these rolled stones lies a stratum of grey plastic clay,
(4,) which is preserved in but few spots, having been washed
off in the rest.

A fine ferruginous and calcareous sand, a real loam (3),
forms the uppermost layer of the diluvial deposit; it fills up
the parietal grooves, and even the grottoes, to a height of ten
meters above the level of the cave. In some spots, where
there was a rotary motion, it forms considerable elevations.
In this loam, and sometimes in its stalagmite incrustation, le
human bones intermixed with those of carnivorous and herbi-
vorous animals, namely, of the brown bear, urus, reindeer,
stag, horse, and some undetermined species of a small kind of

252 LECTURE IX.

ox, and a species of dog differing from the fox and jackal. The
bones are chiefly found in close intermixture in the middle of
the cave, in a large gallery, where there, no doubt, existed a
small lake. All these bones present the same physical and
chemical characters, being light, sonorous, and friable, adher-
ing to the tongue, of the same colour, and containing the same
amount of nitrogen. Many bones are broken in pieces and
rolled, especially in the case of the skulls, some still covered with
flesh, which, by its decomposition, imparted a disgusting odour
to the osseous breccia. In a calcareous breccia, formed of
broken and rolled bones of several hundred individuals, there
was a whole skull, and near it some broken, not rolled, frag-
ments of bone, belonging, probably, to the same individual.
A second smaller skull has since been found. Among objects
of art may be mentioned some perforated canine teeth, which
were probably worn as amulets or trophies.

These skulls, which we shall describe presently, and which
at any rate are almost the best preserved we possess, belong
to a period in which the reindeer, the urus, and the old bear,
resembling the brown bear, lived in the Pyrenees, but when
the cave-bear and the cave-hyzena had already diaappeared.
These skulls are therefore not so old as those found in the
Belgian caverns.

In the same Department is the cave of Lherm, of but little
depth, but with narrow or wide passages in every direction. The
walls are bare, but here and there covered with large protu-
berances. Nowhere are furrows or channels indicative of the
passage of water to be seen. The bottom is almost every-
where covered with a thick layer of red mud, containing no
rolled stones, but is in many places covered with a hard crys-
talline stalagmite. The entrance to the cave, obstructed by
large blocks, leads into a gallery, the stalactites of which can
be easily detached, whilst the mud is only present in small
heaps. The gallery divides into two passages, the right lead-
ing down a terrace into a wide hall, to which some side grottoes
impart an irregular form. From the roof hang down some
stalactites ; the thick red mud is covered with stalagmite ;
there is mud in the side grottoes of the same kind, but without

LECTURE IX. 253

stalagmite. The passage to the left is narrow and winding,
leading almost horizontally to an abrupt precipice, beneath
which a large hall opens, the roof being formed by loose blocks
which threaten to fall at any moment. The floor of this cave
is very declivitous. On the elevated spots are large heaps of
ossiferous mud, and in the depression there is a bed of osseous
mud incrusted with thick, smooth, and uniform stalagmite.
In the most precipitous spots there is a threefold alternation of
mud and stalagmite.

In this ossiferous mud were found, along with teeth, shoul-
derblade, arm and foot bones of man, a number of bones of the
cave bear, the old brown bear, some few remains of the cave
hyzena, cave lion, dog, wolf, and some species of deer. Of
the cave bear there were seven skulls, fifty half lower jaws,
above 300 teeth and all the bones of the skeleton, and some
bones of embryos. The human teeth were found in a thin
mud layer intermixed with hyena and bear teeth, under a thick
stalagmite covering which was so crystalline that when struck
with the hammer it spht into large crystalline planes. This
crust had never been disturbed. Besides the human remains
were found evidences of human industry: a triangular flint
knife, a round bone of the caye bear which had been trans-
formed into a cutting instrument, three lower jaws of the cave
bear, the ascending rami of which were perforated for the pur-
pose of hanging them up, and the trochings of a deer carved
and pointed. The most remarkable weapons however con-
sisted of twenty half jaws of the cave bear, from which the
ascending ramus had been struck off and the body of the lower
jaw had been so carved that it presented a convenient handle.
The projecting canine tooth thus formed a hook which might
serve as a weapon, or a hoe for digging up the earth. Had
we found, say the authors, but one sample of these singular
tools it might have been objected that it was merely accidental,
but having found twenty, all worked in the same manner, how
can we speak of accident? We are moreover enabled to fol-
low the method by which the primitive man gave this form to
the jaw. In each of the twenty jaws may be seen the traces
of incisions made with the edge of a badly sharpened flint

254 LECTURE IX.

knife. From the absence of rolled stones and the condition of
the mud, which contains many excrements of hyenas, as well as
traces of coals and fire, the authors conclude that beasts and
human beings inhabited the cave of Lherm alternately, but
that at all events man lived simultaneously with the extinct
cave beasts, since he worked their bones into weapons and
tools. No valid objection can be made to this deduction.

A convincing proof of man having been the contemporary of
the cave bear has been furnished by the exploration of the
grottoes of Arcy near Avallon in the Department of the Yonne.
M. de Vibraye, who explored these grottoes, the largest of
which attains, including its halls, a length of 876 meters, whilst
the second or the fairy grotto in which most bones are found
reaches only 150 meters in length, distinguishes in these caves
three kinds of deposits. The lowest deposit, intermixed with
rolled stones from the granite of the Morvan, lies immediately
upon the jurassic lime, in which the cave is imbedded, it fills up
depressions and thus forms a stratum of variable thickness.

There are found in it the cave bear, the cave hyzena, the rhino-
ceros with a bony septum, the mammoth, the river-horse, the
urus and the horse. In this lower stratum, which has a mean
thickness of about one meter fifty centimeters, was found, among
a large accumulation of bones chiefly belonging to cave bears, a
human lower jaw, and subsequently a human tooth. The jaw,
externally, resembles exactly the bones of the cave bear, which,
however, have mostly a thin carbonaceous crust, the result,
probably, of the decomposition of the skin and the soft parts
still attached to them. The middle layer of about seventy-five
centimeters in thickness consists almost entirely of calcareous
fragments from the mountain. The red cement which connects
the lower stratum of rolied stones, forms here, only an in-
crustation of the fragments. In this second middle layer, bear
and hyzena bones are no longer met with, but numerous bones
of ruminants, including those of the reindeer. Quite on the
top is a very irregularly disposed stratum of marly clay, of
white-yellow colour, fatty and soapy to the touch.

Though the jaw, found under such circumstances, gives no
clue as to the race, it affords, nevertheless, like the Belgian

‘.
;
4
7
2
F
-
{

LECTURE IX. 255

caves, an irrefragable proof that the middle stratum of Arcy,
with its bones of ruminants and the reindeer, corresponds to
that stratum of Lombrive in which the skull was found.

Let us now turn to Germany.

In a valley of the Diissel, near Elberfeld, in the so-called
Neanderthal, which forms a wild fissure in lime stone, there
was a little grotto, about fifteen feet in length, ten feet
broad, and eight feet high, opening in an almost perpendicular
rock 60’ above the level of the valley. From the top the cave
could be reached by a steep path which led to a small ledge
where the grotto opened. The Neander ravine has been used
as a marble quarry, and the left side which contains the grotto
is nearly exhausted. The progress of the quarry led to the
exploration of the grotto. There was found in it a stone-hard
layer of loam, presenting a horizontal surface without calcareous
sinter, but with fragments of brown rolled gravel, a dilu-
vial deposit which occurs in all caves and grottoes of the
Diissel valley, and contains, in some places, bones of the bear,
as in Sundwich and Honnethal. In this ossiferous mud, con-
taining rolled gravel, two feet below the surface were found the
bones of a human skeleton, with the skull lying in the same
horizontal plane towards the entrance. The loam adhered so
strongly, that the workmen took no notice of the bones, but
scattered them about, believing them to be the bones of bears,
until Prof. Fuhlrott of Elberfeld, to whom we are indebted
for an account of this discovery, declared them to be human,
and saved from further destruction the cranium, the femoral
and humeral bones, a clavicle, a portion of the pelvis, the
scapula, and several fragments of the ribs. The bones adhere
strongly to the tongue and are covered on the surface with
minute spots, which, under the magnifying glass, proved to be
groups of dendritical markings, as also seen upon the bear bones
of the neighbouring caves. Though these markings afford no
absolute proof of antiquity, such arborescent infiltrations of
metallic matter have also been observed in Roman bones, and
as dendrites may be rapidly formed under favourable circum-
stances by the introduction from the loam of salts of iron
and manganese, they still furnish an important indication, inas-

256 LECTURE IX.

much as the bones of the cave-bear and the elephant, imbedded
in the same loam, present similar dendritic crystallisations.
“This indication,” says Fuhlrott, “is confirmed by the circum-
stance, that the country between the Diissel valley and the
neighbouring railroad station, Hochdahl, to the level of the
margins of the Neanderthal ravine, is covered with a stratum of
loam fifteen feet thick, which seems identical with the loam of
all the grottoes and caves which contained human bones. That
this loam bed belongs to the diluvial period is, apart from other
reasons, confirmed by the last paleeontological discovery in that
spot by the mammoth remains, which were found December 27,
1858, in one of the Dornap lime-stone quarries (on the Steele-
Vohwinkel railroad), about thirteen feet under the surface in a
fissure fourteen inches wide, which was filled up with a loamy
mass, analogous to that of Hochdahl. 'These mammoth remains
shew that the inclosing mass belongs to the diluvium. Now,
since the Dornap (Devonian) lime-stone forms the eastern con-
tinuation of the Neanderthal lime-bed, and as the spot where
the mammoth remains were found is scarcely more than four
miles distant from the Neanderthal, it becomes more than
probable that the respective loam deposits in the fissures and
erottoes of both localities have the same geological origin, and
both belong to the diluvial period. But if the mammoth
remains are undoubted fossils, then the human bones im-
bedded in the same diluvial mass may also be fossil, and we are
thus sorely tempted to assign to the human race, perhaps to
a primitive form of it, as high an antiquity as to the antedilu-
vian pachydermata.”

The decomposing corpse was undoubtedly washed into the
erotto along with the loam and the rolled gravel, when the
waters stood high, and as there is no trace of a more recent
deposition, and the age of the loam is sufficiently proved by
the presence of bear and mammoth bones found in this
loam, and as, moreover, this skull presents peculiar characters,
which distinguish it from all modern skulls, there can be but
little doubt that the owner of that skull lived at the time of
the mammoth and the cave bear. We shall term this skull, to
be described hereafter, the Neander skull.

LECTURE IX. a7)

There are, to my knowledge, no human remains at present
known to which may be ascribed a higher antiquity. The
human remains found by Esper and Rosenmiiller, in the Fran-
conian caves; by Schlotheim,in the gypsum quarries of Késtritz,
in Saxony; the remains which Marcel de Serres, de Christol,
and Tourtual, dug out from the caves near Montpellier, are
either lost or inaccessible to examination. Concerning the
structure of all these skulls, I found but one notice in a paper
by Schaaffhausen, entitled, ‘Contributions to the knowledge of
the oldest race skulls,” according to which Link is said to have
found amongst Schlotheim’s collection a skull with a remarkably
flattened forehead. In all these researches, particular attention
must be paid to the age of the human bones, which must be in-
ferred from the animal bones associated with them. In this
respect we find, even in the few human cave skulls, from pre-
historical times, important differences. Thus the Engis and
Neander skulls belong to an earlier period ; those of Lombrive
to a later period of the same epoch. In all these cases the
conditions under which the bones were found are identical. The
human corpses were washed into the caves along with the animals
they lived with, and imbedded in the same mud.

There are other caves which furnish decisive evidence, that
they served as burial or fire-places, where, besides the remains,
flint weapons, coals; and worked bones, are found intermixed
with fresh bones, or such as served for food. One of the most
interesting of such caves has been recently described by Lartet.

In the vicinity of Aurignac, in the department of the Haute
Garonne, is a hill of nummulitic limestone, called the beech
mountain. At present no beeches are found, nor exists there
any tradition of their having formerly flourished there. On
the slope of this eminence, about thirteen to fourteen meters
above the brook, is seen the entrance to a grotto, about three
meters wide and two and a-half meters deep. The entrance
to this grotto was formerly concealed by a heap or talus.
The sportsmen knew that there was a hole into which the
rabbits escaped when pursued by the dogs. A labourer, em-
ployed to repair the neighbouring road, one day introduced
his hand into the hole and extracted from it a large bone. He

s

258 LECTURE IX.

-at once suspected the existence of a cave, and having removed
a portion of the talus, he came, after a few hours work, to a
thin slab of sandstone, placed vertically, which completely,
with exception of the hole used by the rabbits, closed the
opening, which led to an arched recess containing a number of
human bones. Amongst the bones extracted were two entire
skulls, which afterwards could not be recovered. The workman
talked of his discovery, the curious flocked to the spot, there
was great agitation ; and as nothing can be more disagreeable
to the Imperial governors than agitation, the mayor of Auri-
gnac ordered all bones to be collected and to be re-interred in
the parish cemetery. Had it been a common provincial village
mayor who gave such an order, constituting, as it were, a
crime against science, we might have pitied his ignorance ;
but this undertaker, we are sorry to say, was a doctor of
medicine! In short, the bones were interred after the mayor
had ascertained that they belonged to seventeen different indi-
viduals ; and when Lartet, after the lapse of eight years, visited
the place, no man in the whole community could or would
inform him where these bones had been interred, so that these
relics, so interesting to science, seem lost for ever.

Besides the human bones were found some teeth of large
mammals, distinguished by Lartet as the grinders of the horse
and aurochs, canines of the hyzena and cave lion, and fox’s
teeth. There were also found small perforated discs, appa-
rently made from the shell of a species of cardium, which could
be strung together as a necklace.

When Lartet, in the autumn. of 1860, visited the grotto,
then only half a meter in height, there was on the floor a layer
of loose earth, which contained some human and animal bones,
as well as flint implements. This layer extended beyond the
arched sepulchre, and it remained doubtful whether the slab
of sandstone which served as a door, was fixed or only placed
there. At all events the upper layer was the same within and
without the cave, and it is probable that the slab was removed
after every burial. From the dimensions of the grotto and
the number of bodies, Lartet concluded that they had been
placed ina crouching attitude, like the Peruvian mummies.

LECTURE IX. 259

The grotto was subsequently, under Lartet’s supervision, ex-
plored layer by layer, and yielded the following results :—

In front of the grotto the inequalities of the rock had, by
slabs of sandstone, been transformed into a kind of hearth,

, it, St ff Tae
i} ji iludll WE: sll
WS RAYS -—

1. The inner vault. 2. The rabbit-burrow which led to the discovery of
the grotto. 3. Human bones. 4. Rubbish, with bones and implements in-
side the grotto. 5. Rubbish outside the grotto. 6. Deposit of cinders. i
Rock. 8. Talus of gravel, which concealed the slab of sandstone, 10,
Placed vertically against the entrance. 9. Slope of the hill covered with
gravel.
upon which was a layer of ashes and charcoal, about fifteen
to twenty centimeters thick.

The sandstone slabs, which formed this rude hearth, showed
here and there the effect of the fire. The layer of charcoal
thinned off towards the grotto, and did not actually reach it.
In this layer were found many teeth of herbivora, and hun-
dreds of fragments of bones, some of which were carbonised,
while the greater part were manifestly broken and gnawed by
large carnivorous beasts. As also coprolites of hyenas were
met with in the same layer, Lartet concludes that the long
bones had been broken by man for the sake of the marrow,
and that the remains of his repast were taken advantage of by
hyenas. This conclusion is supported by the discovery in the
layer of ashes and charcoal of about 100 flint knives with which
the incisions upon the bones were made. These flint knives
were probably manufactured on the spot, as in the neighbour-
hood of the hearth were found the nuclei of some blocks from

s2

260 LECTURE IX.

which splinters had been struck off, and a round pebble with a
central depression on each side, a portion of a kind of rock not
found in this part of the Pyrenees. There were also found
two roundish pebbles with angular facets which may have
served as slingstones, besides a number of implements, arrow-
heads, and knives made of reindeer horn. There were also
discovered the canine tooth of a young cave-bear singularly
worked on the outside and perforated in its whole length,
worked reindeer horns, and disjointed laminz of a mammoth
molar from which the enamel had been detached.

In the rubbish which covered the interior of the sepulchral
vault were found, as already observed, some few human bones,
the most finished flint implements, the best worked reindeer
horns, some well preserved bones of herbivora neither broken
nor gnawed, and a large number of teeth and jaws of carnivora.
But nowhere existed any cranial fragments of mammals; and it
was quite evident that the remains of carnivora had been intro-
duced into the sepulchre for a special purpose.

Lartet gives a list of the animals whose remains could be
identified. The list includes from’ eighteen to twenty foxes,
five to six cave-bears and cave hyzenas, three wolves, one to
two badgers, and some few teeth of the cave-lon (Felis spelea),
the wild cat, the pole-cat, and the common bear. Among the
herbivora he found twelve to fifteen aurochsen (Bison Huropeus),
as many horses, ten to twelve reindeer, which thus constituted
the chief food of man in that region ; whilst of the roe there were
only three or four, and of the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the wild
hog,and the gigantic Irish deer, there were scarcely any remains
of each specimen. It appears that these few bones were those of
swift animals as well as of the pachydermata, which could not
at that period be easily overcome by man ; for the bones of the
rhinoceros, which were found split and deprived of their mar-
row, belonged to a very young animal.

There is no doubt that the interior of the grotto of Aurignac
served as a sepulchre, whilst at the entrance there was a hearth.
It is probable that teeth and jaws of the beasts of prey, which
an individual had killed in his lifetime, were buried with him
as trophies, or may be to provide him with aliment during his

LECTURE IX. 261

voyage to another world, as is the custom with many primitive
peoples. In any case, this grotto furnishes another proof that
man was the contemporary of extinct animals, upon which he
fed, and that consequently the age of mankind reaches back
to a very remote period.

In the ossiferous caves of Brazil, explored by Lund with so
much perseverance, there were also found amongst the remains
of extinct animals human skulls with receding foreheads.
These skulls, as far as I know, have not been closely examined
nor compared with the races now inhabiting South America.

Is it necessary for me to enumerate all those caves, in which,
it is true, no human bones were found, but the products of man’s
industry, flint and horn implements and hatchets, &c., among
the teeth and bones of extinct animals in the same condition
deep in the ossiferous loam, deep under the stalagmite? The
conditions, with slight differences, are everywhere the same,
so that the proofs would be mere repetitions. If the evidences
could be refuted as regards one cave, it would affect them all.
As such, however, is not the case; as the evidence is irrefra-
gable not merely with respect to the explored caves of Italy,
France, Germany, and England, but also as regards the caves
in North and South America, we may confidently assert that
the facts obtained from the exploration of caves and grottoes
are sufficient to prove that man existed at the beginning of the
diluvial period, and was the contemporary of the extinct
animals.

262

LECTURE X,

Human Remains from Denise, near Puy.—Fraudulent speculations.—Dilu-
vium in the Somme Valley.—Flint Implements.—Human Jaw.—Dilu-
vium of Joinville.—Diluvium of Hoxne.—Brazilian Caverns.—Alluvium
of North America.—Civilisation of Primitive Peoples.—Skulls of Engis
and the Neander Valley.—Proportions of these Crania compared to
those of living races of Mankind and Apes.

GENTLEMEN,—We have, in the preceding lecture, given an
accumulation of proofs that man existed contemporaneously
with the extinct animals in the so-called diluvial period. But
as the deposits in fissures and caves always present some extra-
ordinary mysterious character, it may not be out of place to
examine such human remains as are found im alluvial formations,
in the open soil, where we shall meet with some additional im-
portant facts in relation to the age of the strata.

In 1844 an account was published of the discovery of a
human skeleton, or rather of several human bones, in a volcanic
block, found in the vicinity of Puy, on the slopes of the extinct
volcano Denise. ‘The remains consisted chiefly of two pieces
of the upper jaw, the frontal part of the forehead, some other
cranial parts, a lumbar vertebra, a portion of the radius, and
two metatarsal bones. The block itself consisted of ight
porous tuff, in which the bones are imbedded, and behind which
is a harder stone, consisting of alternate layers of clayish
lava. Blocks of a similar kind, a product of the last eruption
of the now extinct volcano, are frequently met with in volcanic
alluvia; they, perhaps, formed at first mudstreams, which, on
drying up, became more condensed. In these tuff blocks, in
the vicinity of the town of Puy, are found the mammoth and
the rhinoceros with a bony nasal septum, whilst in the other
tuffs, which evidently belong to older eruptions of the same
voleano, other animals occur, which, according to French
naturalists, belong to an older Fauna. The human bones found
in Denise thus belong to the same period as the bones of the

LECTURE X. 263

Belgian caves, which were contemporaneous with the mammoth
and cave bear. The bones are, unfortunately, insufficient to
determine the primitive race of Auvergne. The preserved
cranial bones do not, however, shew any great deviation from
the form at present obtaining in that region. According to all
appearance, for hitherto they have not been closely examined,
they most closely resemble the cranial type represented in the
caves of Lombrive.

No sooner was attention excited, and the importance of the
Denise discovery established, than fraudulent speculation laid
hold of it. There are, at present, blocks in the possession
of some persons, into which the bones have been inserted arti-
ficially, and an eminent naturalist of that county, M. Bravard,
informed the Geological Society of France that he had detected
a skilful workman in the act of so introducing them, From
this it has been inferred that the block first found was also a
counterfeit, but its authenticity is now established. Cases of
this kind need not surprise us. No sooner is a discovery made
than collectors flock to the spot, the English specially, offermg
high prices. There are some quarries which yield the owner
more by their petrifactions than by the building materials they
yield. The greater the demand the higher the price, and the
greater the inducement to deception and fraud. The workmen
themselves now fabricate the desired articles, or produce some-
thing new, in which they are as inventive as were the monks
of the convent Rheinau, who, of the slabs of Oeningen, with
fossil fishes and’ salamanders, compounded the most fantastic
creatures. A similar case occurred recently in Switzerland.
When the railroad near Concise was in course of construction,
there was found in the Lake of Neufchatel a pile structure of the
stone period, from which were extracted a large number of
bones of deer in all stages of workmanship. When the work-
men, who at first took little notice of these objects, found
out that antiquaries pounced upon them lke hawks upon
sparrows, they raised the prices, and when the articles became
scarce they provided themselves with worked staghorns.
Many an antiquary was thus taken in. Mr. Troyon, the con-
servator of the Museum of Lausanne, purchased in good faith

264 LECTURE X.

a whole collection of these articles and exhibited them in the
Museum, where the fraud was detected by some more acute
observers. This fraud, however, as little invalidates the
genuineness of the first articles found, as the fabrication of old
pictures, statues, and mosaics, which is now so successfully car-
ried on in Italy, can diminish the value of the genuine original
antiquities.

Let us return to our subject. The volcanoes of Auvergne
and the Rhine, which in prehistoric times vomited forth mighty
streams of lava and ashes, have become extinct since the time
of the mammoth, cave bear, and the reindeer. The volcanic
tuff, enclosing the above-named animals, is contemporaneous
with the deposit in the caves. The fossil man or Denise is,
however, as far as we know, the only human relic found in this tuff.

In the diluvium of France and England, on the other hand,
have been found so many stone and bone implements, that they
deserve our attention, as their discovery has given the first
impulse to researches in this new direction. We may, how-
ever, observe at once that, excepting one lower jaw, the anti-
quity of which is still contested, no human fossil bones have
been found in the diluvium, but only implements, so that the
race question remains unsolved. It is just possible that some
old graves, such as those discovered in Mecklenburg, of which
more hereafter, belong to that period ; but the contemporaneity
is far from being established, and further researches are needed.

In the North of France, especially in Picardy, the soil is
chiefly composed of white chalk, containing in its horizontal
strata regular layers of flints. In former times, when flints,
alike for purposes of peace and war, possessed a high value,
which they retained until the invention of lucifers and percus-
sion caps, there were in Picardy and the Champagne large flint
manufactories which procured their material from the subsoil.
We shall see that this manufacture of flint implements dates
from the remotest antiquity.

This chalk formation was, no doubt, at a former period
covered by tertiary formations, thus forming an almost uniform
plateau which gradually thinned off towards the sea. These
tertiary formations were mostly of a sandy nature, and thus it

LECTURE X. 265

was that every brook gradually washed off the tertiary forma-
tion and transformed its harder parts into rolled pebbles.
Hence we only find the tertiary formation at a distance from
rivers, specially from the main stream of the Somme, upon the
plateau, and mostly covered by the old diluvium, a fatty clay
or brick earth, itself mostly derived from the destruction of the
tertiary formation, and forming an extremely fertile bed about
five feet thick, which contains no fossils. Into this old diluvium,
as well as into the tertiary strata, and deep into the chalk, have
the streams and brooks dug their beds ; and the valley in which
each of these streams flows, a valley of comparatively consider-
able width, is thus bordered on both sides by a chain of hills,
the slopes of which towards the stream consist of white chalk,
above which at some distance is spread out the fertile loam,
while beneath le the sandy tertiary strata. The bed of the
Somme, near Amiens, is nearly a mile in width, but enlarges
considerably from below Abbeville down to St. Valery. In
this river-bed, as well as in the neighbouring valleys, occur form-
ations which are manifestly more recent than the excavation
of the river bed, the tertiary strata, and the alluvial formation
of the platform. These formations within the old river valleys
claim our special attention, as they contain human remains.

Fig. 86 Section of the Valley of the Somme, at Abbeville, after Prestwich.

S. The river Somme. WM. Sea-level. 1. Peat in the valley. 2. Subjacent
Letten. 3. Flint gravel reposing upon chalk. 4. Grey diluvium, with bones
and hatchets. 5. Calcareous loam or loess. 6. Brown clay and vegetable
soil. 7. Chalk.

On the sides of the valley there are comparatively very slight
deposits of rolled gravel, marl, sand and clay, forming two
different terraces, to distinguish which a practised eye is requi-
site. In the lowest terrace, from twenty to forty feet thick, there
is immediately beneath and upon the chalk a layer ten to fourteen

266 LECTURE X.

feet thick of coarse, white, chalky sand, with flints but little
rolled, about three inches in diameter, intermixed with many
flint balls, washed forth unbroken from the chalk, and forming
a confused bed in which layers of fine sand alternate with sandy
marl. In the fine sandy layers are frequently found sea- and
fresh-water shells still existing in the district, excepting a spe-
cies (Cyrena fluminalis), which at present is only met with in
the Nile and some parts of High Asia, namely in Cashmir.
Here and there the fresh water shells are intermixed with the
strand mussels of the sea which still live in a neighbouring
canal, showing that the sea made frequent irruptions far into
the land. Besides this, there are found in this inferior bed of
the lower terrace, in immediate contact with the chalk soil,
fossil bones, and, associated with them, flint implements, of.
which more anon. The bones found in this bed are generally
those of the mammoth, the rhinoceros with a bony septum, the
fossil horse, the aurochs, the gigantic deer, the reindeer, the
cave lion, the cave hyzena, and other extinct cave beasts.

This older stratum generally presents an irregular surface,
with eminences and depressions, as seen in all beds deposited
by the irregular flow of the waters. Above it lies fine white
silicious sand, with rounded pebbles and thin beds of marl, in
which also here and there some fragments of the bones of ex-
tinct animals are met with. This bed has manifestly been
deposited at a later period ; it has a mean thickness of six feet,
and contains no other petrifactions.

Upon this lies a bed of brown clay, mixed with a few angu-
lar flints, fillmg up the depressions in the surface of the second
bed, and passing here and there into an ochrous sand which
contains no fossils. The surface is even, and covered with a
layer of common earth of considerable thickness. Old graves
occasionally found in this terrace sometimes pass through the
superior brown clay bed to the white sand bed, but never reach
its bottom. They are known at once, being filled with brown
earth and human bones.

The upper terrace is similarly constructed, so that it is not
easy to point out any difference.

The central parts of the valleys are generally filled with peat

LECTURE X. 267

bogs, reaching occasionally a thickness of thirty feet or more.
These peat moors have been distinguished as old and recent.
The old peat bed is said rarely to be more than one meter
thick. There are found in it in every direction trunks of alders,
oaks, firs, hazels, and bones, specially of the beaver and the
common bear. This old peat is in some spots covered with
sand dunes. It reposes upon a bed of sand and gravel resting
upon chalk, from which it is separated by a layer of brown or
black impervious marly clay.

In our endeavours to decipher from the above description
the history of the valley of the Somme, we arrive at the con-
clusion, that this valley was excavated after the deposit of the
alluvia on the table land; that the terraces had ata later period
been formed by smaller streams, after which a temporary in-
crease of water in the streams caused these terraces to be
washed off, so that they are only preserved in certain spots ;
that the rolled gravel and the marly clay which now form the
bottom of the peat bogs, are the deposits of the waters which
scooped the valleys, after which the formation of the peat com-
menced. The formation, however, of the old peat in the vici-
nity of the sea has frequently been interrupted by the irruption
of the sea, which covered it with sand.

The alluvial formations upon the platform correspond with
those which the Parisian geologists term diluvium des plateaux.
The lower bed of the terraces, with the pebbles, large blocks,
elephant bones, and flint implements, corresponds to the grey
diluvium of Paris (Diluviwm gris) ; the upper layer, with its
silicious sand and gravel, to the red diluvium of the French
(Diluvium rouge) ; the brown layer to loam or loess.

Must I repeat the touching story of how Boucher de Perthes,
a meritorious but somewhat eccentric antiquary of Abbeville,
first found the singular flints in the grey diluvium, how he
went with his discovery a-begging from door to door, and
found no hearing ; how, at length, some of his neighbours, and
next some Englishmen, became interested, until Amiens, Ab-
beville, St. Acheul, Menchecourt, and other localities of the
valley of the Somme became the resort of geological and archzeo-
logical pilgrims, who visited these places either to be convinced

268 LECTURE X.

or to gather new facts, whilst not a few allowed themselves to
be overreached by the workmen, who soon established a regular
manufactory of flint implements. It must be admitted that
the coolness with which the news of the discovery was at first
received, was partly due to the exaggerations of the discoverer,
from which charge he is not altogether free even now ; for he
sees in some of these worked flints rude delineations of human
and animal heads, and in others instruments for cutting the
hair and nails. We may reasonably doubt whether art, in its
rudest beginning, included hair-dressing in the primeval epoch
of the human species.

I shall pass over the desperate attempts made to explain
away the formation of these implements. They afford a
melancholy proof of that disposition to regain, at any price,
even at the expense of common sense, a lost position. It is
proved, beyond any doubt, that these flints have been fabricated
by man’s hand; that they owe their origin to no other cause ;
that they lie in beds which, since their deposition, have never
been disturbed ; and that they unquestionably date from the
same period as that of the extinct animals.

Let us now examine the flint implements. They are very
rudely fabricated, and manifestly split off from the flint stones
found in the district. Two stones were struck against each
other until one was shattered, and such splinters collected as
appeared suitable for being worked. As the flint pebbles have
a round or oyal form, it is natural that the splinters should more
or less exhibit the same shape, and that the centre of the pieces
should be thicker, and present an edge lengthwise. Flint has
- nearly the same fracture as glass. On some of the stone
hatchets is seen the crust which flints imbedded in chalk
always present. These instruments were either not finished,
or the workmen found that condition suitable for their pur-
pose, and so left them as they were. The edges are mostly
sharp. There can be no doubt but these implements have
been manufactured on the spot, or in the vicinity, as they
are but little rolled. This assumption is further supported
by the circumstance that the hatchets are mostly found at
the base of the formation in large quantities, as during the

LECTURE X. 269

few years that attention has been drawn to this subject many
thousands have been extracted from the Somme valley. It
is this quantity which affords additional evidence of their
being worked, for a smgle sample may have been the effect
of accident, but not so many thousands.

Three forms have been distinguished. The so-called knives
or flakes (éclats) are the least worked; they are thin elongated
pieces, with cutting edges, running to a more or less sharp
point, and manifestly the result of few blows.

Fig. 87. Flint Knife in the Geneva Museum, presented by Boucher de
Perthes. Surface and Profile.

Among the splinters caused by the breakage of large flints,
such were selected as resemble the blade of a knife, which
were used for cutting meat, skinning animals, &c., as is also
shewn by the worked bones of which we have spoken, and
which still shew the indentations made by their flint knives.

The two other forms are more finished; they are spear- or
lance-shaped. The lance-shaped are longer, some eight inches
in length, finely pointed, thicker, and more massive at the
broad end, so as to form a sort of a handle. The instru-
ments of oval shape have been mostly worked by gentle blows.
From the form and workmanship, as well as from comparison
with pieces of a later period, which are more perfect, it may
be shewn that these implements served for wedges. The savages

270 LECTURE X.

Fig. 88. Oval-shaped Stone Hatchet, sharpened. Both from the same place.

a. The original Chalk Crust.
Fig. 9. Lance-shaped Stone Hatchets. Surface and Profile.

in the islands of the Pacific, who, when discovered, were
ignorant of the use of metal; the Indians of North and South

LECTURE X. 271

America, all worked and made use of similar flint im-
plements.

The condition of the stone hatchets found in the valley of the
Somme also bears evidence of their great activity. As already
observed, many of the implements are encrusted with the same
film as the flint in its chalky bed. All those made from
dark grey flint show also a coloration (called by the French la
patine), more or less penetrating into the interior and corre-
sponding to that of the gravel in the same strata. In some
spots it is white, in others yellow or dark brown. This colora-
tion extending to all the edges and surfaces, and penetrating
equally into the interior structure, furnishes ample evidence

.. that the period, during which the tools have lain in the strata, is

of equal duration with that of the broken gravel forming
part of the same bed. In some spots the surfaces have
dendrites like those on the Neanderthal skull ; these, however,
furnish no absolute proof of great age.

Beside the stone hatchets no other traces of human industry
were found excepting some small round bodies perforated in
the centre, which are fossils found in the chalk, and known
by the name Coscinopora globularis. At first it was suggested
that the hole was artificial, until it was found that many of
them still imbedded in the chalk were equally perforated ;
the central portion, being of a more spongy texture, had
probably been scooped out during decomposition. As rows of
them have been found in juxtaposition, it-is probable that these
bodies had been strung together as beads and worn as orna-
ments, which is the more likely, as some of these beads, belong-
ing to a later period, have been found which were evidently
artificially bored.

Human bones have long been sought for, but in vain, and
Lyell, who possesses a mania for explaining everything, did
not neglect this opportunity of writing an explanatory treatise
on the absence of human fossils in the valley of the Somme.
But at last a human jaw was found at Moulin Quignon, near
Abbeville (March 29).

The jaw was carefully removed by Boucher de Perthes from
the lowest bluish ferruginous stratum, resting immediately upon
the chalk. One of the molars is still in the jaw, the socket of

272 LECTURE X.

the last molar, which must have been lost during life, was
closed up, the other open alveoli were filled with sand. The

Fig. 90. The Moulin-Quignon Jaw, outside view, from M. de Quatrefages’
photograph.

Fig. 91, The Moulin-Quignon Jaw, inside view, from M. de Quatrefages’
photograph.

jaw had the same black coating as the hatchets found in the
gravel. © The form of the jaw presents many peculiarities.

LECTURE X, Bika

The angle formed between the ascending and the horizontal
ramus is very open, the ascending ramus very low and broad,
its head uncommonly round, and the posterior margin curved
inwards, as in the marsupials. All these characters may
separately be met with in some European skulls, but they are
never found in such combination. Doubts respecting the
authenticity of this jaw, raised chiefly by English naturalists,
have, after a long investigation, been removed, as we shall show
hereafter. The jaw of Moulin Quignon is the first, and hitherto
the only human fossil obtained from the stratified diluvium,
and, from the combination of many characters, no doubt
belongs to a peculiar race, which cannot be determined until
more such discoveries are made.

The proceedings of the above congress excited general interest
and gave rise to different interpretations. The members them-
selves did not seem quite clear as to the results obtained. Dr.
Falconer, for instance, had no sooner crossed the Channel than
he began to raise doubts against what he could not well deny
in France in presence of the facts. I feel, therefore, bound
to enter into further particulars concerning the points at issue.

The succession of the beds in the spot where the jaw was
found is represented in the subjoined figure.

Fig. 92. Section of the Beds at Moulin-Quignon, after O. Dimpre,

3
WE LE ES Wass
>= SE
ow
SSS = S=———
kk EC SSS SS
SSS gp
= SSS
=
S—= Ze
Zee
—— ——
a
o ceed
e a,

274 LECTURE X.

Thickness in metres.

1. Vegetable earth - - - - 0°30
Grey undisturbed sand, with aie flints - - 0-70
3. Yellow argillaceous sand, mixed with large and little rolled

flints, below which is a bed of grey sand without flints - 1°50
4. Yellow ferruginous sand, mixed with less thick but more

rolled flints, below which is a bed of less yellow sand.

In this bed Boucher de Perthes found fragments of a

tooth of the Mammoth, and some flint hatchets - 1°70
5. Black argillo-ferruginous sand, colouring and sticking to

the hand; small pebbles, more rolled than in the higher

beds. In this bed were found flint hatchets, and the hu-

man jaw. a. Marks the spot where Quatrefages found two

flint hatchets in the presence of the Congress. b. The

spot where Boucher de Perthes found a flint hatchet:

and c. where he found the jaw, March 28,1863. d. Isthe

spot where Dr. Falconer found another hatchet, April 14,

in the presence of the Congress - - - 0°50

No

Thickness of the alluvium - - 470
6. A bed of chalk with an irregular surface.

The objections raised by Elie de Beaumont, Perpetual secre-
tary of the French Academy, deserve some special notice; in
order to obviate misapprehension, I shall state them nearly in
his own words: “ I am of opinion,” says this geologist, “ that
the alluvial deposits excavated from the gravel pit at Moulin-
Quignon do not belong to the diluvium proper.

“Tn my opinion this apparent diluvial formation belongs to
such deposits as I have formerly called alluvium. . . . . .
These formations are synchronous with the formation of peat,
and may, like it, contain human bones and the products of
human industry; but such deposits which represent a kind
of post diluvium, and are formed by detached fragments,
transported by atmospheric influences, thunderstorms, snow,
frost, and rain, may contain what the small diluvial deposits
collected on the surface or the fissures of the rocks contain,
namely, bones and teeth of elephants, etc., which belong to such
bodies as are less apt to be destroyed by atmospheric influ-
ences or transportation.

‘The men and elephants, the bones of which are found in
such deposits, need not, therefore, have been contempora-

es

LECTURE X. 275

neous, and the different state of their cartilages appears to me
to prove that they belong to different epochs. With regard to
the flint implements, it seems to me natural to assign them to
the stone period of the Swiss pile works. Since now these
pile works are co-ordinate with the present level of the lakes,
they must necessarily be post-diluvian, for in all the Swiss
lakes, even those whose beds were not excavated by the erratic
or diluvian phenomenon (if there be such), we can only date
back the present level of the waters to the last effects of this
mighty phenomenon, which left the bed of every lake in that
condition in which we see it at present.

“T do not think that man co-existed with the mammoth; I
still adhere in this respect to Cuvier’s opinion. Cuvier’s opi-
nion is that of a genius, and has hitherto not been refuted.”

Milne-Edwards, the celebrated professor of zoology, imme-
diately replies, that he will give no opinion respecting the age
of the beds at Moulin-Quignon, which concerned the geolo-
gists ; but as regards the contemporaneity of man and the
extinct animals, he must formally declare that it rests not
merely upon the discovery at Moulin-Quignon, but upon a
great number of facts ascertained in different countries.

Quatrefages also declares that, though for a long time he ad-
hered to the view of Cuvier, he now entertained a different
opinion.

According to all observations which I have cited in this
work, there can really be no doubt on this subject. It is well
known that more recent alluvial formations contain well pre-
served remains of destroyed beds; nothing, for instance, is
more common than to find in the strata immediately overlying
chalk, whether they belong to the tertiary or more recent for-
mations, flints and silicious petrifactions from the chalk bed.
Why, then, should not detached elephant and human bones
be found intermixed in a recent diluvium? No doubt, such
may be the case; but when such discoveries are made in
the most different localities, when not merely rolled and worn
away fragments of bones, but connected parts which manifestly
must have been covered with flesh, are found associated with
human bones and numerous remains of man’s industry ; if these

tT 2

276 LECTURE X.

animal bones bear traces of workmanship, effected when they
were in a fresh state, the aspect is changed. Were it possible
to expunge from science the discoveries of Schmerling, Lartet,
and many others, the jaw of Moulin-Quignon might, as is sug-
gested by Beaumont, be considered a perfectly isolated case.
But as these facts, perhaps unknown to the celebrated acade-
mician, are on record, it is impossible to treat a multitude of
facts as a collection of exceptions.

With regard (apart from this jaw) to the parallelism of the
stone hatchets of the valley of the Somme (and, by the way, of
many other localities) with the pileworks of the Swiss stone
period, it will excite both in the archzologist and palzontolo-
gist a smile of incredulity; in the antiquary, because the
hatchets of the diluvium bear traces of different and more rough
workmanship, whilst the Swiss implements indicate a much
higher culture and a more recent epoch ; in the anatomist, be-
cause the Swiss pile-works, as Riitimeyer has shown, present
a different Fauna, in which there is no trace of extinct species,
and which are perfectly distinct from those of the diluvial de-
posits. Whoever has read with attention the accumulative evi-
dence given in a previous lecture, will find that I need not here
prove again that the ingenious opinion of Cuvier, if it was
such, has been in every respect refuted, and that the parallel-
ism of the deposits of the Somme valley with the Swiss pile-
works has turned out an unfortunate attempt void of any
foundation.

We shall pass on now to the geological aspect of the ques-
tion. Ishall here summarise the assertions of Ele de Beau-
mont, and those of his opponents whose names are of not less
weight in geology.

In a note read August 10th before the French Academy, Elie
de Beaumont expresses himself thus: —“ My theory rests chiefly
on the distinction between the real or Alpine diluvium and cer-
tain gravel deposits which, like those of Moulin-Quignon, more
or less resemble the diluvyium.

_ “J attribute the origin of the latter to the effect of still
acting forces, the action of which has, in my opinion, been mo-
mentarily interrupted by the diluvial phenomena, whilst other

‘

bo

LECTURE X. 77

geologists, in opposition to my opinion, ascribe even the dilu-
vium to still acting forces. Reference has been made to pre-
sent agents, only in another form than mine; the origin of the
sandbank of Moulin-Quignon has been ascribed either to the
action of floating iceblocks stranded in the Somme creeks, or
to the various level-changes of the general mass of the conti-
nent. It does not seem to me justifiable to assume such grand
phenomena for the explanation of such small effects, but I
must be permitted to observe, that, if the sandbank of Moulin-
Quignon really owes its origin to either of these two different
phenomena, it manifestly does not, in my opinion, belong to
the real diluvium.

“Ttis equally manifest that if this same sandbank of Moulin-
Quignon is the product of a mixture of the elements of the grey
and the red diluvium, it cannot belong to the grey diluvium,
which is the proper alpine diluvium, and which, I agree with
Cuvier in considering as corresponding to the extinction of the
fossil elephant and as preceding the apparition of man.

“Attempts have, nevertheless, been made to prove that I
am wrong in distinguishing the gravel of Moulin-Quignon, as
well as many other deposits of flint, sand, and loam upon the
platforms of Picardy, from the Alpine diluvium, and my views
have been criticised because I very simply had recourse for the
formation of these deposits to thunderstorms, frost and snow
as the acting causes. I shall oppose to these critics a few
ciphers.

“1. The sandbank of Moulin-Quignon lies, according to Bou-
cher de Perthes, thirty meters above the level of the Somme,
near Abbeville, consequently thirty-nine meters above the level
of the sea. At a distance of less than two kilometers there are
spots which, according to the map, have an elevation of sixty-
one, sixty-three, and sixty-seven meters; at a distance of less
than three kilometers there is one spot eighty meters, and at
five kilometers are spots one hundred meters high. Taking
into consideration the difference of elevation in proportion to
distance, it will be found that the declivities from these points
towards the sandbank of Moulin-Quignon all exceed the hun-
dredth or 0, 34’ 22", 58, that is to say that this fall is ten times

278 LECTURE X.

greater than the upper limit of the fall of the navigable rivers,
and that this fall even exceeds that of the Isere, Arve, and
Bruche in the Vosges, where these rivers, in the vicinity of
their sources, flow with great rapidity, causing great devasta-
tions. All that is required is a heavy fall of snow or rain for
the waters to effect similar devastations upon the undulating
and loosely connected stony platforms of Picardy. Who could
thus undertake to determine the limits of the greatest effects
of this kind, which might have been produced on the environs
of Abbeville since the stone period ?

“Tt has been particularly pointed out that the sandbank of
Moulin-Quignon is older than the peat of the banks of the
Somme. This gravel deposit seems indeed to date from the
stone period, whilst the peats of northern France are partly
more recent than the Roman roads. If this be true, it is easily
understood how the bones of the elephant and the rhinoceros
may have undergone the removal which produced these and
other deposits. They were then less petrified and less fragile
than now; it remains nevertheless true, that the deposit at
Moulin-Quignon, as well as the peats, have been formed by
still acting causes, and belong, like the peat, to the present
period.

“This gravel bank is composed of such variable deposits,
which have been formed and are still forming on the surface of
the earth by the agency of atmospheric influences, and which
I designate by the name of alluvium of the slopes, in contra-
distinction to the fluviatile alluvium which forms the planes of
the valleys. The alluvium on the slopes is very abundant in
the north of France on account of the composition of the ter-
tiary strata covering the chalk, in the mass of which the undu-
lations of the ground enter.

“The alluvia on the slopes are forming daily during every
fall of rain ; some are formed in the garden of the Luxemburg,
where the sand is scattered upon the paths, expressly as it were,
to produce this little phenomenon. ‘The alluvium on the slopes,
that in the valleys, and the peats, are to be considered, in their
totality, essentially synchronous.

««T will not enter into further particulars, but wait until the

=) Beene SE rs ht

LECTURE X. 279

jaw found at Moulin-Quignon has been analysed. I find, with
Boticher de Perthes, that this analysis can afford no absolute
solution, but I also share the opinion of the English savants,
that the analysis of a bone, found in a doubtful position, ig
essential. The natural chronometer, such as the Diines, the
river-deltas, and the waterfalls, yield no absolute measures.
The disappearance of the animal matter of a bone, is in itself
a kind of natural chronometer, which, though it must be
reduced to its fair value, is not to be neglected. I should be
glad to see the jaw of Moulin-Quignon chemically compared,
not only with fossil bones from the real diluvium, but with
human bones, extracted from Gaelic or Gallo-Roman graves,
and also with bones preserved in the catacombs of Paris.”

Before proceeding further, I beg to offer a few remarks. As
late as in the month of May, Hlie de Beaumont asserted the
synchronism of the peat and the gravel bank of Moulin-Qui-
gnon, and supported his view by the circumstance that human
bones, wood, horn, stone, bronze, and iron implements have all
been found in the peat. But, it seems, in the month of August,
Moulin-Quignon becomes considerably older, but still remains
in the same epoch, being thrust back to its beginning, the stone
period, whilst the peat is advanced to the Roman period. It
would be just the same to assert that Homer and King Otto
were contemporaries because they belong to the same epoch,
namely, the historical period of the Greeks.

Elie de Beaumont goes further. Moulin-Quignon is formed
by still acting forces ; the Alpine diluvium, on the contrary, is
formed by other causes which momentarily interrupted the
forces still acting in nature. Here is the rub. The present
theory is that the diluvial period was of a very lengthened
duration, and also that the present forces, glaciers, and waters,
were in continued action, and that the diluvial period merged
into the present without any perceptible interruption, and that,
as we have shewn, the extinct animals died off very gradually, or
retired, or were transformed into present species. The whole
theory of Elie de Beaumont, regarding the Alpine diluvium, is
founded upon an error of fact.

He has mistaken beds of Nagelfluhe (conglomerate of the

280 LECTURE X.

Alps), interposed between molasse strata, for diluvium, and has
compared these beds, for which no fossils have yet been found,
to the alluvium of the valleys where elephant bones have been
met with. Hence this transposition of the diluvium into another
epoch ; hence this repudiation of still acting forces, as regards
the above formations, for which he invokes unknown forces,
which cannot at present be traced in nature.

As regards the slopes, there is a small point which must not
be forgotten, namely, that the motion of water does not merely
depend upon the fall, but also upon the mass, and that a
navigable river flows down more rapidly than a small brook, and
that rain water remains, to a certain extent, stationary.

With respect to chemical analysis, it may be said that the
amount of organic matter only then furnishes a kind of natural
chronometer when the respective bones are found in the same
positions. If this be not the case, the chemical analysis has
scarcely any importance, as those influences, which deprive the
bones of their animal matter, act with greater intensity in one
locality than in another.

Thee note of Elie de Beaumont, which we have rendered ver-
batim, is partly an answer to the communication of Hébert,
laid before the academy in May, which I also subjoin. Hébert
is intimately acquainted with the environs of Paris, and has,
with other geologists, taken part in the Scientific Congress.

“The celebrated Secretary of the Academy of Sciences,”
writes Hébert, ‘‘ ought to have noticed that we were specially
occupied in investigating this question; that we are far from
confounding the various accumulations of conglomerates ; that
we have shirked no difficulties; but that these difficulties do
not invalidate the facts that man has existed in France since
the beginning of the quaternary or diluvial period.

«With regard to the special locality of Moulin-Quignon, I
have declared at Abbeville, that this conglomerate, consisting
partly of broken or entire and frequently large flmts, which
seem to have come from the subjacent chalk, and are cemented
together in a brown firm clay, which here and there contains
sandy parts; I have declared, I say, that this formation does
not, in my opinion, belong to the lower diluyium, which occurs

LECTURE X. 281

at St. Acheul, near Amiens, at Menchecourt, and other localities
in the vicinity of Abbeville, and in which flint implements are
found associated with the bones of the mammoth and rhinoceros
tichorhinus.

“I therefore consider the deposits of Moulin-Quignon of a
more recent origin, and incline, in this respect, to the opinion
of Ehe de Beaumont; but this learned geologist adds, that
this deposit is synchronous with the formation of the peat, with
which I cannot agree. The stratification at a much higher
level, the nature of this stratification which indicates the action
of water in rapid motion, do not admit of a relation between
the phenomenon to which this deposit owes its origin, and the
conditions which gave rise to the peat. The peat formation is,
im my opinion, much more recent, and in it the waters present
relations similar to the present, and which would be vainly
sought for in the conditions which may be inferred from the
flint deposits at Moulin-Quignon.

“T consequently rank this formation among the diluvium,
but I have declared on the spot that I cannot exactly determine
its constitution, as may be done with the well known deposits
of Menchecourt and St. Acheul.

“To render the subject more plain, I crave permission to
describe the phenomena of the diluvium in the north of France
as established by geologists who have specially studied this
subject.

“1. Excavation of our present valleys by erosion, a work of
long duration, which required large masses of water.

“2. Development of the Fauna of the mammoth upon the so
formed soil of France, which was covered with forests inhabited
by the elephants and rhinoceros, forests of which scarcely any
traces are left, whilst the animals which inhabited them have
left their bones in the soil.

“Formation of the lower alluvium of our valleys, by streams,
gravel below, sand above, with numerous relics of mammoth,
rhinoceros tichorhinus, and flint hatchets, in the valley of the
Somme. These deposits have filled up the previously scooped
out valleys to a height of ten to fifteen meters, so that at Paris
they rise thirty-five to forty meters above the level of the sea.

282 _ LECTURE X.

This portion of the alluvium is, on account of its colour, fre-
quently called grey diluviwm.

“3. Deposition of calcareous loam, called loess, which always
contains lime knolls of the same shape, whether on the banks
of the Rhine or at Paris, which overlies the preceding stratum,
and marks a new phasis in the quaternary period.

«4, Formation of a gravelly deposit, the broken flints of which
are cemented in red loam and quartzose sand, which contains no
organic remains, is never clearly stratified, and les partly upon
the grey diluvium, partly upon the loess, as may be plainly
seen in the vicinity of the new church of the Quartier de Deux
Moulins, or upon the calcaire grossier, as may be seen on the
platform of Maison Blanche and Montrouge.

“This deposit, usually called the red diluviuwm, which was
previously, but erroneously, believed to be overlaid by the
loess, ies mostly in channels, which are scooped out in the sub-
jacent strata. All geologists know the singular bag-like de-
pressions, which sometimes form well-shafts of five, ten, and
fifteen meters in depth, intersecting both solid and moveable
stone masses. These also are the effects of different pheno-
mena of the quaternary period.

““When the subjacent diluvial strata, where they are in contact
with the deposit, show no excavation, there are seen in the
bottom one or two horizontal layers of firm brown or reddish
clay, which sometimes contains a layer of ferruginous sand ;
and if bag-shaped depressions are present, this clay lines their
walls, and thus envelopes the red diluvium, which it separates
at the same time from the loess and the grey diluvium.

“The red diluvium spreads generally over the ground and
the side walls of our partly filled up valleys; and rises in the
vicinity of Paris to a height of at least sixty-five meters, but
does not reach the heights attained by the loess.

“5, The surface of the red diluvium was itself washed off by
the waters, which stratified its upper masses, and mixed it
with grey loam. This deposit is still seen at the gate of Ivry.

«6, After these successive processes our valleys were again
scooped out, but manifestly under new conditions. The de-
posits hitherto mentioned adhered to the walls of the valleys,

ee |

4
?
x
k;
9
3
=

LECTURE X. 283

and the form of the ground surface became what it is now;
though in these newly scooped out valleys numerous other
geological processes took place, the investigation of which has
scarcely commenced, but which, unquestionably, assign this
final excavation to a very remote period.

“The grey and red diluvium are found with all their cha-
racteristics at St. Acheul, Menchecourt, and in many other
places of the Somme valley ; loess also occurs there, but in a
very rudimentary form.

«The numerous flint-hatchets which testify to the existence
of man in the beginning of the quaternary period, have been
found in the grey diluvium, which is covered by its double
undisturbed mantle. :

“This deposit of Moulin-Quignon shows neither the cha-
racters of the grey nor of the red diluvium, but seems to
be the result of a mixture of both, produced by disturbed
waters ; perhaps, by the same waters which scooped out the
valleys.

«The last excavation was, perhaps, not a simple phenome-
non ; for the deposit of Moulin-Quignon is, as has been shown,
intersected by vertical, natural shafts, resembling those pro-
duced by the red diluvium ; but differing so far that the latter,
as seen at St. Acheul and Paris, are filled with the red dilu-
vium, whilst those of Moulin-Quignon are filled with a mani-
festly more recent clayish matter, resembling vegetable soil.
This is, perhaps, an indication of a seventh phase in the quater-
nary period.

“The formation of the peat deposits must, in my opinion, be
placed in an epoch subsequent to the above periods.

“Tn conclusion, I would just observe that the natural shafts,
which intersect the gravel brook of Moulin-Quignon, can no
ways be considered as having favoured the introduction of the
jaw in question to the bottom of the deposits.”

“The jaw was situate in a bed of black flint, perfectly dis-
tinct from the shafts, and the ferruginous substance had
filtered through a fissure which pervades the whole mass from
the surface down to the bottom, and which was itself filled
with the same ferruginous mass, which it had carried down at

284 LECTURE X.

an indefinite, but at all events very remote period. The
coloration and the incrustation of the jaw is accordingly a
pure accident, but just on that account a guarantee against
deception.”

So far Hébert. We learn from it that the Parisian geolo-
gist, like ourselves, considers the diluvial period to have been
of long duration, during which a number of phenomena suc-
ceeded each other, which required long periods of time. There
is no question here of supernatural forces no longer acting,
which are imagined only by such as cannot convince them-
selves that slight forces may, within a proportionate length of
time, produce extraordinary effects. The position of the loess
immediately upon the grey diluvium does not seem so strange
to us; it may be parallelised with the loess at Cannstadt, so rich
in bones of the elephant.

The following is a report of the concluding part of a Lecture
delivered by M. D’Archiac, Professor of Geology in the Jardin
des Plantes, on the 19th of June.

“Whatever be the authenticity ascribed to the human jaw
of Moulin-Quignon, this discovery possesses only a secondary
importance. It is a very simple fact, confirming other proofs,
which by their number and universality have a much greater
value. If the flint hatchets cannot be ascribed to accident; if
they are really the products of human industry, however rude ;
if they must be held to furnish as irrefragable evidence for the
existence of man before the formation of these deposits, as the
bones of the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, and
of the cave lion, bear and hyzena, furnish for the existence of
these animals, it becomes of little importance whether or not
the remains of man are found in these deposits.

“The question is answered by the fact itself, and it is of
secondary importance whether the sand and gravel of Moulin-
Quignon are quaternary or not. The essential result, the
theoretical poimt which predominates over all others, namely,
the antiquity of man and his co-existence with the extinct
species of large mammals, loses nothing of its value, if it be
founded only upon the products of human industry, instead
of the discovery of human skeletons.”

LECTURE X. 285

“What has been said of the caverns of Liege, and what we
shall say, is quite sufficient to answer satisfactorily the other
part of the question.

“From the facts before us we cannot, in the present state
of our knowledge, but assume, that the flint hatchets of the
environs of Amiens and Abbeville are situated in undisturbed,
essentially quaternary beds, along with the bones of extinct
species, and, unless peculiar circumstances come to light, we
must also assume that the jaw of Moulin-Quignon dates from
that period.

“We must here touch upon a point, hitherto but little
noticed; I mean the determination of the age of these de-
posits, or rather of the rank they occupy in the quaternary
series. ‘To what time of this period, disturbed by so many
phenomena, do these beds correspond ?

“This determination appears to us at present easy, unless
we search for comparisons in the south [in the Alpine dilu-
vium, C. V.], where they do not occur, and where we cannot
estimate their value ; but when we proceed to the north-east,
the Netherlands, where the whole quaternary series stands in
its true relation to the upper tertiary strata, both above and
below the present sea level, or still better, when we proceed
more northwards to the eastern counties of England.

“The deposits of clayish, sandy or flinty conglomerates,
which are found in the basin of the Somme and in all the small
brook-valleys which run from the Oise direct to the sea, all lie
directly upon the chalk, and, excepting those cases where
lower tertiary formations interpose, we see no intermediate
deposit which may enable us to estimate the immense time
which must have elapsed between those deposits which are at
present superimposed upon each other.

_ “But on the other side of the Channel, the flint hatchets,

which are identical with those of the Somme valley, lie in fresh
water strata deposited in the cavities of the boulder clay. This
is shown by the sections in the environs of Hoxne in Suffolk,
Bedford, and the coast of Norfolk, near Mundesley. These
sections prove that the fresh-water formations are more recent
than the quaternary marine deposits of England, Scotland, and

286 LECTURE X.

Ireland, and consequently much younger than the Norfolk
crag, the accumulations of bones of the Hlephas meridionalis
and antiquus.

«What is the animal world which characterises the beds in
which traces are found of a rude industry the genuineness of
which cannot be easily doubted ?—land and fresh water shells,
which, with few exceptions, still inhabit these regions, pachy-
dermata, ruminants,and carnivora; namely, Llephas primigenius
and antiquus, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Hippopotamus major, Cer-
vus tarandus, Cervus megaceros, Bos primigenius and moschatus,
Liquus fossilis, Felis spelea, Hyena spelcea, Ursus speleus, ete.
That is to say exactly that assemblage of species which we
find in the fluvio-marine beds of Menchecourt, in the sandy and
flinty alluvium of localities near Abbeville and Amiens, as well
as in the valley of the Oise near Chauny.

“The analogy of these /aune on both sides of the Channel
is still more strikingly proved by the occurrence near Menche-
court of the Corbicula consobrina or fluminalis, which occurs
from Grays Thurrock, on the left bank of the Thames, up to
Hull on the Humber, and is also found in the borings of Ostend.

“The remains of this Fauna of invertebrate and vertebrate
animals were found in the great deposit of sand, clay, and
rolled flints, which extends over the east and south of England,
and which there, as on the continent, was in some places suc-
ceeded by a gravelly clayish deposit which corresponds to the
older alluvium.

“In now comparing the results obtained on the other side
of the Channel with the deposits of the Somme valley, we must
necessarily consider the latter as not much older than the fresh
water formations of the south of England, and contemporaneous
with such strata as beyond the Channel contain the Fauna of

those large mammals which lived during the quaternary period. ©

The deposits of the Somme valley and the basin of the Oise
are thus younger than the boulder-clay, than the Norfolk crag,
and belong in fact to the phenomena which occurred in the
second glacial period.

“Thus, on the one hand, the comparison of these deposits
with those of the adjoming departments in the east, where the

Wik.

LECTURE X. 287

relation of the strata to each other is more evident, permits us
to determine the period to which they belong; and, on the
other hand, this comparison with those in Belgium, England,
and Holland points out to us the place they occupy in the
series of deposits of this period.

“We may, therefore, with Worsaae, distinguish two stone
periods. The one, antediluvian, characterised by rudely hewn
flimts, precedes these last quaternary deposits; the second,
the later or pre-historic period, the weapons and implements of
which indicate a less barbarous condition, comprehends the
time when the population in Denmark accumulated the kitchen-
middens, and that of Switzerland, Ireland, and other regions
built the pile works.”

The reader is now, from these extracts from Elie de Beau-
mont, Hébert, and d’Archiac, enabled to draw his own conclu-
sion. As far as I am concerned, I am glad to find that I,
simultaneously with d’Archiac, and quite independently, have
arrived at the same results, namely: that the appearance of
man on the continent (independent of Desnoyers’ discoveries,
which were then unknown to us) occurred in the period after
the deposit of the boulder-clay.

You may easily imagine that the search for stone hatchets
and flint tools as found in the valley of the Somme, extended
soon to other parts. Similar discoveries were presently made
in other spots. If I preferentially mention those made by
Gosse in the neighbourhood of Paris, the reason is, that the
stratification has been closely examined and determined.
Charles D’Orbigny thus describes the section of the diluvium
at Joinville, about six miles from Paris :—

Upon the fresh water chalk of St. Ouen, which belongs to
the tertiary formation, rests a layer of about two meters,
seventy centimeters in thickness, of so-called grey diluvium,
with granitic pebbles, intermixed with large erratic blocks, in
which, besides bones of mammals and teeth of the mammoth
and rhinoceros, are found fragments of sea- and river-shells
from the subjacent tertiary cretaceous strata. Upon this grey
diluvium reposes a bed of white marly sand, about seventy
centimeters thick, in which are found marly knolls, as in the

288 LECTURE X.

loess ; and which contains, besides some fragments of mam-
mals and reptiles, a large quantity of well-preserved land and
fresh water shells, of which thirty-seven species have been de-
termined, all of which still occur in the surrounding country,
or in the south of France. These shells were, no doubt, de-
posited in a lake, which extended far beyond both banks of
the Seine. Above the fresh water stratum lies another of
grey diluvium, half a meter in thickness, containing granitic
and porphyritic pebbles, but only a few fragments of fresh water
snails, which seem to have been washed up from the subjacent
stratum. ‘Then comes a marly sandy layer of grey colour, with
but few pebbles, without shells, seventy-five centimeters thick,
and then comes the red diluvium of quartzose sand with pebbles,
for which the chalk flints and the granite porphyry of Morvan
have furnished the materials, which are coloured and cemented
by the red ferruginous marly clay. This red diluvium, which thus
partly consists of the same elements as the grey diluvium,
reaches a thickness of seventy centimeters, and les imme-
diately beneath the loam or loess, which is here only thirty
centimeters thick, though in many places much thicker, and
covered by vegetable soil. In the lowest stratum of the grey
diluvium in a suburb of Paris, at La Motte Piquet, Gosse
found, amidst numbers of bones of the elephant, rhinoceros,
and the horse, flint hatchets of the same kind as those of
Amiens. One of these hatchets was attached by sand to a
bone, so that there was no doubt that both were imbedded
together.

Since that time a number of similar discoveries have been
made in England, of which I shall only mention such as de-
monstrate the parallelism of the respective beds with those of
France.

In 1801 John Frere communicated a paper to the English
Society of Antiquaries, in which he reports that he has found,
at Hoxne, near Diss, in Suffolk, worked flints at a depth of
twelve feet in a stratified soil, which had been dug up for brick
earth. Under afoot and a-half of vegetable earth was clay seven
and a-half feet thick, and beneath this a layer of white fine sand,
one foot thick, with shells, and under this two feet of gravel, which

LECTURE X. 289

contained the worked flints. Frere found also in the horizon-
tal strata the jawbones and teeth of a large animal unknown
to him; and saw five or six hatchets within the space of a
square yard.

Fig. 93. Section at Hoxne, after Prestwich.

14,

M. M. Sea-level. 1. Higher level sand overlying the basin. 2. Upper
sand of the basin. 3. Lower sand with bones and hatchets. 4. Peaty clay
for brick-making. 5. Boulder clay. 6. Sand and gravel. 7. Chalk.

Prestwich very recently examined this spot, and found the
pit from which some hatchets were extracted, but no bones.
Among the bones found there at an earlier period, were those
of the elephant, the horse, and the deer. A minute examina-
tion established the fact that the chalk at the bottom is here
covered with sand and gravel, upon this lies the lower glacial
drift, which extends over nearly the whole of England and
Scotland, namely, boulder clay and large blocks, which came
from the north, specially from Norway. In this clay a basin
seems to have been scooped out, the lowest bed of which is
formed of a peaty and clayey stratum, impervious to water.
In this black stratum fragments of the oak, yew, and fir have
been recognised. Upon this bed lie the sand and gravel
which contain bones of mammals, stone hatchets, with fresh
water shells, amongst which the common river shell, valvata
piscinalis, abounds ; nor are the common pond snails wanting.
Finally, this fresh-water basin is overlaid by a layer of sand
and gravel of apparently very recent origin.

Similar discoveries have been made in other English coun-
ties. I shall not dwell on these, but would merely draw your
attention to the fact that all these beds are deposited above
that clay stratum, with pebbles and blocks, which the English
term glacial drift, or boulder-clay. Whilst in all localities in
France where these implements are found, one stratum, corre-
sponding to the glacial drift formation, is entirely absent, or at

U

290 LECTURE X.

least not demonstrated, it is plainly seen in England, and
may, therefore, serve for comparison with the discoveries
in Switzerland, where glacial formations play an important
part. I must also observe that in some beds in England,
in conjunction with the bones of the mammoth and the rhino-
ceros, have been found bones, not only those of the reindeer,
but also of the musk-ox; and that remains of this animal,
which has now retired to Northern America, on the confines of
the Arctic region, have also been found in the old alluvium of
the Kreuzberg near Berlin, as well as in the valley of the Oise,
at} Chauny in France—another proof of the retreat of the
diluvial Fauna to the north.

Having thus treated of the remains found in caves and the
diluvium in Europe, which prove man to have been the con-
temporary of extinct animals, we may be permitted to cast a
glance at what has been done in other parts of the world. I
must here mention, in the first place, the Brazilian caves,
which have been so successfully explored by Dr. Lund. The
circumstances were almost entirely the same as in Hurope.
There were the same deposits, the red ossiferous clay covered
with stalagmite, and the caves abounding with animal bones,
mostly belonging to species now extinct. But these extinct
species are as closely allied to those which at present exist in
South America, as the cave-bear and the cave-hyzena is to the
now existing bear and hyena. The peculiar character which
distinguishes the South American Fauna has been preserved.
There are marsupials, antbears, lamas, armadilloes, as they
still exist in South America. It is probable that when inves-
tigations shall be carried on by as many inquirers as is the
case in Europe, the list of these peculiar species will be con-
siderably enlarged. Be this as it may, this much is certain,
that even in Brazil man was the contemporary of the extinct
animals, and that the human remains found by Lund were in
the same condition as those of the extinct animals. Unfortu-
nately Dr. Lund’s crania have not, as far as I know, been
closely examined. According to one observer they possess the
type of the American skulls, which, in my opinion, does not
amount to much, as a great many different types occur in

LECTURE X. 291

America. There are prognathous and orthognathous crania,
dolichocephalic and brachycephalic skulls even amongst the
existing Indians.

In Australia, where cave deposits of extinct marsupials are
found; in New Zealand, where the bones of those extinct
gigantic birds, the moas, are found in large quantities, exist
as well the most convincing proofs of the co-existence of man
with extinct species of animals. We do not attach much
weight to the moa, as there are traditions among the Indians
of their having fought them, so that the species appears to
have been but recently exterminated.

The alluvial formations of North America also show that man
was the contemporary of extinct animals. Lyell reports nearly
as follows: ‘‘ At Natchez there is a fine range of bluffs, several
miles long and more than two hundred feet in perpendicular
height, the base of which is washed by the river. The lower
strata, laid open to view, consist of gravel and sand, destitute
of organic remains, except some wood, silicified corals, and
other fossils, which have been derived from older rocks, whilst
the upper sixty feet are composed of yellow loam, presenting,
as it wastes away, a vertical face towards the river. From
the surface of this clayey precipice project in relief the perfect
shells of land snails, of the genera Helix, Helicina, Pupa,
Cyclostoma, Achatina, and Succinea. These shells, of which
we collected twenty species, are all specifically identical with
those now inhabiting the valley of the Mississippi.

“The resemblance of this loam to the fluviatile silt of the
valley of the Rhine, between Cologne and Basle, which is
generally called ‘ Loess,’ and Lehm is most perfect.

“In both countries the genera are the same, and as, in the
ancient alluvium of the Rhine, the loam sometimes passes into
a lacustrine deposit, containing shells of the genera Limmneus,
Planorbis, and Cyclas, so I found, at Washington, about seven
miles inland or eastward from Natchez, a similar passage of
the American loam into a deposit evidently formed in a pond
or lake. It consisted of marl, containing the shells of Limmneus,
Planorbis, Paludina, Physa, and Cyclas, specifically agreeing
with the testacea now inhabiting the United States. With the

u 2

292 LECTURE X.

land shells before-mentioned are found, at different depths in
the loam, the remains of the mastodon; and clay immediately
under the loam, and above all the sand and gravel entire
skeletons of the Megalonyx, associated with the bones of the
horse, bear, stag, ox, and other quadrupeds, for the most part,
if not all, extinct species. This great loamy formation, with
terrestrial and freshwater shells, extends horizontally for about
twelve miles inland or eastward from the river, forming a plat-
form about two hundred feet above the great plain of the
Mississippi. In consequence, however, of the incoherent and
destructible nature of the sandy clay, every streamlet flowing
over what must originally have been a level table land, has cut
out for itself, on its way to the Mississippi, a deep gully or
ravine.

“This excavating process has, of late years, proceeded with
accelerated speed, specially in the course of the last thirty or
thirty-five years. Some attribute the increased erosive action
to the partial clearings of the native forest, a cause, of which
the power has been remarkably displayed, as before stated,
within the last twenty years in Georgia. Others refer the change
mainly to the effects of the great earthquake of New Madrid,
in 1811-12, by which this region was much fissured, ponds
being dried up and many land-slips caused.

“Tn company with Dr. Dickeson and Colonel Wailes I visited
a narrow valley, hollowed out through the shelly loam, recently
named “the mammoth ravine,” from the fossils found there.
Colonel Wiley, a proprietor of that part of the State of Missis-
sippi, who knew the country well before the year 1812, assured
me that this ravine, although now seven miles long, and in
parts sixty feet deep, with its numerous ramifications, has been
entirely formed since the earthquake. He himself had ploughed
some of the land exactly over one spot which the gully now
traverses. :

<< A considerable sensation was recently caused in the public
mind, both in America and Europe, by the announcement of
the discovery of a fossil human bone, so associated with the
remains of extinct quadrupeds in ‘‘the mammoth ravine” as
to prove that man must have co-existed with the Megalonyz

Te ee were

Was ee . Wo Tass

LECTURE X. 293

and its contemporaries. Dr. Dickeson showed me the bone in
question, admitted by anatomists to be part of a human pelvis,
being a fragment of the os innominatum. He felt persuaded
that it had been taken out of the clay underlying the loam, in
the ravine alluded to, about six miles from Natchez. I ex-
amined the perpendicular cliffs which bound a part of this
watercourse, where the loam, unsolidified as it is, retains its
verticality, and found landshells in great number at the depth
of about thirty feet from the top. J was informed that the
fossil remains of the mammoth (a name commonly applied in
the United States to the mastodon) had been obtained, toge-
ther with the bones of some other extinct mammalia, from
below these shells in the undermined cliff. The bones were
stained or black, and were in the same condition as the fossil
bones of other mammals with which they were found.” Never-
theless, Lyell was then of opinion that the bone might have
been dislodged from some old Indian grave near the top.
Now, he observes, such a theory would not be resorted to if
the bones belonged to any other animal, but as this discovery
of a human pelvis was the first he ever heard of, he ventured
an explanation which he at present is not inclined to insist upon.

On reviewing all these discoveries, we are forced to admit that
the facts are few in number, though they furnish us with some
starting points, which deserve our attention. We are entitled
to assume that the cave population, in which the carnivora pre-
dominate, was contemporary with the elephant and the rhino-
ceros, whose remains are chiefly found in the stratified alluvial
formation. ‘The appearance of both may have been simulta-
neous, though they may have become extinct at different
epochs. We must take into particular consideration, that just
from the appearance of the cave-bears and the mammoth dates
an uninterrupted chain of phenomena reaching down to the
present period: that at different periods species became ex-
tinct or were exterminated by man, whilst, perhaps, some new
species, though few im number, were developed. It is, there-
fore, not surprising, that if man appeared on the scene simul-
taneously with the cave-bear and the mammoth, some species
of mankind should also have become extinct, whilst others

294. LECTURE X.

were preserved, propagated, and further developed. I shall,
in the next lecture, have to treat of the relation of man to sur-
rounding nature, as well as of the development of the so-called
diluvial period and its sub-epochs. This lecture I shall con-
clude with some observations on the condition of primitive
peoples, and the relation of their race to existing races.

As regards the primitive culture of man, it was manifestly
confined within very narrow limits. The Belgian and West-
phalian caves, the sepulchre in Aurignac, the alluvial formations
can alone give some clue. No other implements of that period
have come to hand, except some rude stone weapons bearing as
yet no trace of any polish. Though these have only been
found in spots where they were originally fabricated, still it is
somewhat striking that of that period none of better work-
manship are found, none of them have a handle of staghorn or
bone, as seen in tools belonging to a later period. ven the
bear-jaws fashioned into weapons show no trace of polish, as
seen in those of a more recent period. ‘The pieces are simply
struck off as if with a sharp stone.

With respect to aliment, we have no trace of any other than
animal food. Nowhere do we find any traces of vegetable
food, not even hooks or nets for the capture of fish. Man
attacked his prey like the wild animals, by cunning, speed,
or strength, so that with his simple stone weapons he even
mastered the young rhinoceros. Man provided his dress from
the skins of animals, which he sewed together with sinews
by means of needle-shaped bones. His dwelling was probably
a nest or a hut, constructed of boughs, perhaps, but little
better than those constructed by the anthropomorphous apes.
This primitive man possessed no domestic animals, and no-
where is there any trace found of them. The dog seems to
have been the first animal which, at a later period, became
attached to man.

This is the paradisiacal state of the primitive man, so far as
it is known to us, as narrated by those silent witnesses, the
stones and bones. From such a low condition, compared to
which that of the so-called savages of the old and new world
is a refined civilisation, has the human species gradually ex-

LECTURE X. 295

tricated itself, in a bitter struggle for existence, which it was
well able to maintain, by being gifted with a larger amount of
brain and intelligence than that possessed by the surrounding
animal world.

But even this amount of intelligence was comparatively but
a moderate one, as shown by the crania dating from that
period. We possess but two imperfect specimens of this kind
—the skull of the Neanderthal and that of Engis, which we
shall now examine.

The skull of Engis, of which, thanks to Dr. Schmerling of
Liége, Geneva possesses a fine cast, is more perfect than the
Neander skull; for on the right side, besides the frontal bone
and the parietal bone, the greater part of the occipital and
mastoid process, with the meatus auditorius, are well pre-
served; whilst of the Neander skull we only possess the roof

Fig. 94. Engis Skull in Profile.

of the cranium, the facial bones being entirely absent, and the
base of the skull destroyed. This, no doubt, is very unfor-
tunate, as regards the proper estimation of the skull. Thus it
is impossible positively to determine whether the skull was
prognathous or orthognathous, though the presumption is that
it was prognathous. As little can the form of the face be
determined, still less the formation of the angles at the base
of the skull. We must, then, rest satisfied with what we
possess, and draw our deductions accordingly.

296 LECTURE X.

The Engis skull is of medium size and belonged to an aged
subject, for the sutures are here and there obliterated, the
coronal suture especially. Possibly the skull is that of a
female, as the bones are thin in comparison with those of the
Neander skull. Viewed from above, the skull presents a
longish oval form ; its greatest width is in the posterior third ;
the apex, somewhat obtuse and rounded, is in the forehead.
It is decidedly a long head, for the greatest length to the
greatest width is as 100 to 70°1, a proportion which, accord-
ing to Welcker’s table, approaches nearest the Hsquimaux
skull, and is scarcely different from that of the Negro and
Austral-Negro. This length and narrowness of the skull,
with the small elevation of the forehead and the form of the
orbits so widely apart, induced Schmerling to characterise it
as an Ethiopian skull, which at that time was the more excus-
able as but little attention had yet been paid to the Australian

Fig. 95. Top view of Engis Skull.

SS

IS YY
sa TY, 4 AY
Sa i”

race. The Engis skull, however, is at once easily distin-
guished from that of the genuime Negro by its slight curva-
ture behind the orbits, where the Negro head seems com-
pressed ; consequently, too, by the lesser depth of the temporal

es

ev "aerey i)

LECTURE X. 297

fossee and by the form of the occipital part of the skull, which
in the Negro is more globular. Viewed from above, well cha-
racterised Negro heads appear more simious than the Engis
skull.

“ The front view,” says Huxley, “ shows that the roof of the
skull was very elegantly and regularly arched, and that the
greatest transverse diameter was a little less below the parietal
protuberances, than above them. The forehead cannot be
called narrow in relation to the rest of the skull, nor can it
be called a retreating forehead. On the contrary, the antero-
posterior contour of the skull is well arched, so that the distance
along that contour, from the nasal depression to the occipital
protuberance, measures about 13°75 inches. The transverse
arc of the skull, measured from one auditory foramen to the
other, across the middle of the sagittal suture, is about
thirteen inches. The sagittal suture itself is 5°5 inches long.

“The supraciliary prominences or brow-bridges are well,
but not excessively, developed, and are separated by a median
depression. Their principal elevation is disposed so obliquely,
that I judge them to be due to large frontal sinuses.

“Tf a line be drawn, joining the glabella with the occipital
protuberance, no part of the occipital region projects more than
one-tenth of an inch behind the posterior extremity of that
line, and the upper edge of the auditory foramen is almost in
contact with a line drawn parallel with this upon the outer sur-
face of the skull. A transverse line drawn from one auditory
foramen to the other, traverses, as usual, the fore part of the
occipital foramen. The capacity of the interior of this frag-
mentary skull has not yet been ascertained.”

Thus far Huxley; to whose description I would add, that
assuming the line from the occipital protuberance to the gla-
bella to be horizontal, the cranium is so arched that its greatest
height would fall behind a perpendicular drawn upon it, through
the meatus auditorius, and that the slight vaulting of the oc-
ciput, as well as low position of its protuberance, give it a
significant character. Though not a very striking occurrence
in civilised skulls, it is so in the skull of a savage, to find the
muscular lines and ridges so little developed, especially when

298 LECTURE X.

we compare them with those of the Neander skull. As to the
rest I agree with Professor Huxley, who says:—‘I confess
that I can find in the remains of the Engis skull no character,
which, if it were a recent skull, would give any trustworthy
clue to the race to which it might appertain. Its contours and
measurements agree very well with those of some Australian
skulls which I have examined ; and especially has ita tendency
towards that occipital flattening, to the great extent of which,
in some Australian skulls, I have alluded. But all Australian
skulls do not present this flattening, and the supraciliary ridge
of the Engis skull is quite unlike that of the typical Aus-
tralian.

**On the other hand, its measurements agree equally well
with those of some European skulls.” (According to Welcker’s
table, there is not one European skull which, as regards the
proportion of length to breadth, can be compared with the
Engis skull.) ‘ And assuredly there is no mark of degrada-
tion about any part of its structure. It is, in fact, a fair
average human skull, which might have belonged to a philo-
sopher, or might have contained the thoughtless brain of a
savage.”

From the materials at my command, I cannot altogether
agree with these last remarks of Huxley. The exceptional
length and narrowness of the cranium, with its slight elevation,
conditions a proportionately small internal capacity. It is the
projection of the approximated frontal eminences which makes
the forehead appear arched. But from these frontal protu-
berances the arched line to the vertex is rather flat, and conse-
quently the anterior lobes of the brain but little developed.
These proportions, however, concern only the individual deve-
lopment of the cerebral mass. The essential character for
determining the race lies in the proportion of the length to the
breadth, and in this respect the Engis skull is one of the most
ill-favoured, beast-like, and simious skulls we know of. In
Welcker’s list there are, no doubt, some very few (probably
belonging to females) exceptionally long skulls of Europeans,
which approach or even exceed the length of the Engis skull,
namely, one French, one Dutch, and two Finnish skulls. But

Bed ota he Nee i) phe

LECTURE X. 299

these skulls differ so widely from those of their cognates, that
they can only be considered as abnormal exceptions. Still it
is somewhat striking that the Dutch skulls are, on the whole,
longer than those of all other Europeans, and specially of the
Germanic peoples, an indication, perhaps, of the commixture
of the oldest race with its typical cranial form with the peoples
now inhabiting these parts.

In my opinion, which is, certainly, not founded on numerous
investigations, this Engis skull holds an intermediate place
between that of the Australian and the Esquimaux. Of the
latter, it possesses the comparatively thin bones, the scantily
developed brows, the height of the profile in the posterior part,
and the proportion of the diameters. Of the first, it has the
oval form of the cranium, the rounding of the parietal line, the
flat forehead, and the outline of the roof of the cranium. I
know of no living cranial form which perfectly agrees with that
of the Engis skull, but I have in some Swiss crania (of the
fourth and fifth century) near Biel, Grenchen, and Solothurn,
seen forms much resembling the Engis skull even in the chief
measurements.

Fig. 96. The Neander Skull in Profile, after a plaster cast.

The Neander skull, of which the Geneva museum, thanks to
Prof. Fuhlrott, possesses a cast, differs in many respects from
the Engis skull, though it resembles it in some. I shall give
the description in the words of Prof. Schaaffhausen, who first
anatomically examined it. “‘ The cranium is of unusual size, and
of along elliptical form. A remarkable peculiarity strikes us

300 LECTURE X.

at once in the extraordinary development of the frontal sinuses,
by which the supraciliary ridges coalescing in the middle be-
come so prominent, that above, or rather behind them, the
frontal bone presents a considerable depression, whilst a hollow
is also formed in the region of the root of the nose. The fore-
head is narrow and flat, but the middle and posterior portions
of the cranial arch are well developed. 'The semicircular line,
indicating the upper attachment of the temporal muscle, though
not strongly developed, ascends to more than half the height
of the parietal line. On the right orbital ridge, is observed an
oblique furrow indicative of some injury received during life ;
upon the right parietal bone is a depression of the size of a
pea. The coronal and sagittal sutures are on the exterior
nearly, and on the inside of the skull entirely effaced. The
lambdoidal is open; the frontal is indicated externally by a

shght ridge, and where it joins the coronal, this ridge also be- —

comes slightly protuberant. The sagittal sature is grooved,
and above the angle of the occipital bone; the parietal bones
are depressed.

Fig. 97. Neander Skull, top view.

cS: ie sy

LECTURE X. 301

“There is no valid reason for considering the enormous deve-
lopment of the frontal sinuses in the remarkable Neander skull
as an individual or pathological abnormity ; it is unmistak-
ably a racial type, and stands in physiological connexion with
the striking thickness of the bones of the skeleton, exceeding
by one-third their usual strength. This expansion of the
frontal sinuses, which are appendages to the respiratory organs,
indicates both strength and endurance in muscular activity, as
shown also by the development of all the ridges and processes
to which the muscles are attached. That large frontal sinuses
have this signification is confirmed by other observations.
Pallas distinguishes by this mark the wild from the tamed
horse. According to Cuvier, it distinguishes the fossil cave
bear from the living species ; according to Roulin, the wild
boar from the domesticated hog, the chamois from the goat,
and, finally, the bony and muscular bulldog from all other
species of dogs. ‘T'o determine the facial angle, which, accord-
ing to Owen, is in the large apes rendered difficult by the
projecting orbits, is in our skull rendered more so by the
absence of the nasal spine and the auditory meatus. But if
the horizontal plane be taken from the remaining portions
of the orbital plates, and the ascending line is made to touch
the surface of the frontal bone, behind the prominence of the
supraciliary ridges, the facial angle amounts to no more than
56°. Unfortunately, no portion of the facial bones, so import-
ant for determining the form and expression of the head, has
been preserved. The cranial capacity, compared with the great
strength of the corporeal structure, apparently indicates a
small cerebral development. The skull holds nearly thirty-one
ounces of millet seed, and as from the proportion of the want-
ing bones six more ounces should be added, the contents of
the whole cranial cavity might be taken as thirty-seven ounces.

“Tiedemann estimates the cranial capacity of Negros at forty,
thirty-eight, and thirty-five ounces of millet seed. The cranium
holds rather more than thirty-six ounces of water, which cor-
responds to a capacity of 1,033°24 cubic centimeters. Huschke
estimates the cranial capacity of a Negress at 1,127 cubic
centimeters ; that of an old Negro at 1,146 cubic centimeters.

302 LECTURE X.

The capacity of Malay skulls, measured with water, equalled
thirty-six to thirty-three ounces; whilst in the diminutive
Hindoos it diminishes to twenty-seven ounces.

** Under whatever aspect,” says Huxley, “‘ we view this cra-
nium, whether we regard its vertical depression, the enormous
thickness of its supraciliary ridges, its sloping occiput, or its long
and straight squamosal suture, we meet with ape-like characters,
stamping it as the most pithecoid of human crania yet dis-
covered. But Professor Schaaffhausen states that the cranium
in its present condition holds 1,033:24 cubic centimeters of
water, or about sixty-three cubic inches; and as the entire
skull could hardly have held less than an additional twelve
cubic inches, its capacity may be estimated as at about seventy-
five cubic inches, which is the average capacity given by
Morton for Polynesian and Hottentot skulls.”

“So large a mass of brain as this would alone suggest that
the pithecoid tendencies, indicated by this skull, did not ex-
tend deep into the organisation; and this conclusion is borne
out by the dimensions of the other bones of the skeleton given
by Professor Schaaffhausen, which show that the absolute
height and relative proportions of the limbs were quite those
of an European of middle stature. The bones were, indeed,
stouter, but this and the great development of the muscular
ridges noted by Dr. Schaaffhausen are characters to be ex-
pected in savages. The Patagonians, exposed without shelter
or protection to a climate possibly not very dissimilar from
that of Europe at the time during which the Neanderthal man
lived, are remarkable for the stoutness of their limb bones.

“Tn no sense, then, can the Neanderthal bones be regarded
as the remains of a human being, intermediate between man
and apes. At most they demonstrate the existence of a man
whose skull may be said to revert somewhat towards the
pithecoid type—just as a carrier, or a pouter, or a tumbler,
may sometimes don the plumage of its primitive stock, the
columba livia. And, indeed, though truly the most pithecoid
of known human skulls, the Neanderthal cranium, is by no
means so isolated as it appears to be at first, but forms in
reality the extreme term of a series leading gradually from it

[3]

_ LECTURE X. 303

to the highest and best developed of human crania; on the
one hand, it is closely approached by the flattened Australian
skulls of which I have spoken, from which other Australian
forms lead as gradually to skulls having very much the type of
the Engis skull; and, on the other hand, it is even more
closely affixed to the skulls of a certain ancient people
who inhabited Denmark during the stone period, and were
probably either contemporaneous with or later than the
makers of the ‘ refuse heaps’, ‘ Kjékkenmédddings’ of that
country.

“The correspondence between the longitudinal contour of
the Neanderthal skull, and that of some of the skulls from the
tumuli at Borreby, very accurate drawings of which have been
made by Mr. Busk, is very close. The occiput is quite as
retreating, the supraciliary ridges are nearly as prominent, and
the skull is as low. Furthermore, the Borreby skull resembles
the Neanderthal form more closely than any of the Australian

Fig. 98. Skull from a Tumulus at Borreby: Danish Stone Period.

skulls do, by the much more rapid retrocession of the fore-
head. On the other hand, the Borreby skulls are all some-
what broader, in proportion to their length, than the Neander-

304 LECTURE X.

thal skull, while some attain that proportion of breadth to
length (80: 100) which constitutes brachycephaly.”

Fully agreeing with these observations, I will only add some
few remarks. ‘The least developed skull of Borreby (see fig.
98) stands far above the Neander skull by the arched elevation
of the middle head, but differs from it entirely by the form of
the occiput and the great breadth of the skull, which renders
it decidedly brachycephalous. The only distant similarity be-
tween these two types consists in the flattening of the fore-
head and the projection of the eyebrows. Apart from size, the
forehead of the Neander skull is that of an idiot or.micro-
cephalus. Up to the occiput, which presents different pro-
portions, the profile of the idiot, which Owen delineated for
comparison with the chimpanzee (see fig. 47, p. 145), cor-
responds with that of the Neander skull. As surely as a man
of the white race with a brain like that of the Hottentot
Venus, justly remarks Gratiolet, would be an idiot, so surely
would a white man with a Neander skull be an idiot in the
midst of his more gifted race.

But apart from the height of the skull, the development of
the forehead and eyebrows, I still find a great similarity be-
tween the Engis and the Neander skulls, which becomes striking
when viewing them from above. The Engis skull is somewhat
narrower ; its length in proportion to its breadth being 10: 7,
which in the Neander skull is 100: 72 ; but in other respects
we have the same lines, the same general form. Taking now
into consideration that the female skull is on the average
smaller than the male; that it is narrower and longer; that its
roof considerably predominates over the base; that its bones
are thinner, and that the muscular attachments as well as the
eyebrows are always less developed ; and considering further
their simultaneous appearance in the same region, and the
oscillations which the Austral-Negros also show in the deve-
lopment of the eyebrows, the forehead, and the height of the
skull, I arrive at the rather hazardous conclusion that both
skulls belong to one and the same race, and that the Neander
skull belonged to a muscular but stupid male, while the Engis
skull, perhaps, belonged to an intelligent woman.

LECTURE X. : 305

The examination of the cast taken from the internal surface
of the Neander skull, kindly sent me by Professor Fuhlrott,
fully confirms the opinion derived from the inspection of the
bones. As already stated, some at least of the principal con-
volutions of the cerebral surface, as well as the vessels and
the so-called Pacchionian glands, leave impressions upon the
inner surface of the skull and admit of some comparisons.

On comparing the side-view with that of the external
surface, reduced to the same scale, namely, fig. 94, or the
top view with fig. 95, we are immediately struck by the
difference in size, which is mainly the result of the great thick-

Fig. 99. Cast of the cerebral surface of the Neander Skull, side view.

ness of the cranial bones. Professor Schaaffhausen, of Bonn,
who compared this cast with that of an Austral-negro, has the
x

306 LECTURE X.

following observations in the Transactions of the Natural His-
tory Society of the Lower Rhine. ‘‘ This cast shows the greatest
similarity, as regards cerebral development, to that of an
Australian, placed by the side of it. The proportions in the
former are, as regards size, rather more favourable than in the
latter. But the difference in the cranial shape is also exhibited
in the form of the brain. The length of the hemispheres of
the Neander skull amounted to 173, the width of the anterior
lobes to 112; the greatest width of the brain 136, the greatest
height of the brain above a line connecting the extreme points
of the anterior and posterior lobes, 67 millimeters. These
extreme measures are in the brain of the Austral-negro : 164 ;
100; 125; 77. Lucae found, that although the brain of Kuro-
peans is on the average 300 grammes heavier than that of the
Australian, that of the former is neither in length nor in height
much greater than that of the latter, but exceeds it much in
width. It is noteworthy that this difference in race type is
traceable in the remotest period, when there were, in our parts
of the globe, men who stood in the same intellectual scale as
the living Australian savage.”

T have had a cast taken of the cranium of a Swiss skull
in the Museum of Bern, which I have called an ‘ Apostle
skull,” and which is at the service of my friends. The
greatest length of the hemispheres of this cast is 180; width
of the anterior lobes 110; greatest width of brain 127;
greatest height, which, on account of the greatly developed
Pacchionian glands, cannot be exactly ascertained, about 63
millimeters. On reducing these numbers, on the assumption of
the greatest length—100, we obtain the followmg comparable
proportions :—

Cast. Length. Wath g anferiae Greatest width. Height,
obes,
Neander skull 100 = GA, - 78°6 - 38:9
Australian 100 - 60°9 - 76°2 - 46
Apostle 100 - 611 - 70°5 - 35

I know not whether these measures can be really considered
as measures of the cerebral development—for if this he the
case, the Neander skull would in every respect stand above
those of the Australian and the Apostle skull; whilst, accord-

Hos,

LECTURE X. 307

ing to the general form, the reverse is the case, at least as
regards the relation of the Neander skull to the Apostle skull.

On viewing the Neander cast from the side, the frontal lobe
seems remarkably small and separated from the vertical convo-
lutions by a deep depression, across which the large blood-
vessel of the cerebral membrane ascends nearly perpendicularly.
At the same time, the imprints of the convolutions are compara-
tively broad and coarse—like those in the Hottentot Venus,
whilst these very convolutions, which are indicative of the con-
voluted state of the whole brain, are more numerous and more
curved in the Apostle skull, nay, were on the surface of the
frontal lobe so fine, that they left only an undulating mark.
We observe the same condition in the lower parietal temporal
lobe, where at least two floors are as plainly indicated as in the
Orang and the Hottentot Venus.

Not less remarkable is the break in the posterior lobe pro-
vided with some few coarse convolutions—a break which is so
considerable, that we might be induced to believe that the
transverse occipital fissure is developed in the same manner as
in the ape. This break is also seen when viewed from above.
Over the apex of the right occipital lobe the lateral venous
sinus winds up to the vertical, as Schaaffhausen justly contends,
against Huxley’s opinion. The characters of cerebral develop-
ment, still recognisable, thus indicate a very degraded human
race, approaching the simian type.

But whom did this primitive race of Hurope resemble most ?
—the Australian, the most disgusting type of living savages !
Poor Adam! Poor Eve !*

* The author’s sarcasm on this occasion is not based on any well ascer-
tained fact. There is no character in the Neanderthal skull to show that it
belonged to the Australian or any other race. Much less is there any rea-
son to suppose that this skull represents the primitive race of Europe: with-
out wishing to dispute in the least that it may be of a very high antiquity.
With respect to the race-characters of the Neander calvarium, Dr. J. Barnard
Davis, a most competent and painstaking observer, has just given his opi-
nion in these emphatic words:—“<The peculiar form of this Neanderthal
example, I am satisfied, is the result of a synostosis, and is not in any way
to be regarded as a race-character.’” See Memoirs read before the Anthropo-
logical Society of London, vol. i, 1864: Triibner and Co.—Ep1Tor.

x2

308

LECTURE XI.

The Diluvial Period—Revolutions and Transitions.—Glacial formation.—
Boulder-Clay—Old Alluvium.—Terminal Moraines and Erratic Blocks.
—Slate-Coal, and its Formation.—Ice-sea and Glacial Formation in the
North—In England.—Table of Diluvial Strata.—Length of Time.—
Chronological Calculations in the Deltas of the Mississippi and the Nile.
—Impossibility of a Universal Deluge.

#

GENTLEMEN,—Our investigations concerning man’s appear-
ance upon the globe have, indeed, furnished us with a clue as
to the geological period in which that event occurred, but
leave us in the dark as to the determination of the year or cen-
tury. With regard to the geological period, we may state at
once that it is the last period we treat of, since which there has
apparently been no interruption down to the present time. We
possess, at present, no facts for determining the age of human
fossils calculated by centuries or millenniums. All that we are
entitled to say is, that these remains are very old, reaching far
beyond the time assigned by current traditions and legends
concerning man and the creation of the earth. When treating
of more recent remains we shall have an opportunity of men-
tioning the attempts which have been made chronologically to
determine the age of some relics from the overlying strata in
which they were found. For the present, we shall consider
the geological period in which man first appeared.

I must begin with a confession. There was a time when
the history of the earth was construed from individual, inde-
pendent periods, separated from each other by mighty revolu-
tions. It was assumed that, during the intervening periods of
rest, a new creation arose, propagating and accumulating until
the crust of the earth suddenly bursting, chains of mountains
were formed, vast regions became submerged, and sea-
covered tracts laid bare. After every revolution, which des-

LECTURE XI. 309

troyed every living being, a new creation took place with more
perfect forms, according to a premeditated plan by the inter-
ference of a personal creator. I confess that the simplicity,
clearness, and, so to speak, mathematical precision with which
this theory was propounded by the highest authorities greatly
captivated me in my younger years—excepting, perhaps, the
idea of the interference of a personal creator, which I found at
all times difficult to reconcile with the laws of sound reasoning.
If this creator, as Rolle alleges, is the keystone of the whole
system, my disbelief in his interference has probably contri-
buted to my speedy rejection of the whole theory. A con-
tinued examination of these questions from every point of
view, and a thorough investigation of the facts upon which any
part of the theory rests, led me and the majority of my contem-
poraries to the conviction that there were no such independent
periods in the history of the earth, but only a gradual develop-
ment. Here and there, temporary and local convulsions may
have occurred, but these were confined to comparatively small
regions of the surface of the earth, and nowise extending their
destructive effects over the whole globe. The various species
of living beings, plants, and animals, did not become extinct at
once, like fire at the approach of the FGhn (a moist south wind
on the lakes of Switzerland), and rekindled after its passage.
Species are constantly disappearing from the list of living
beings ; but new ones arise, and the aspect of the remains of
extinct life in the strata changes as gradually as that of the
species at the present time. Instead of sudden revolutions, I,
on the contrary, merely behold infinitely long periods of time,
during which the effects of apparently small forces, acting in
the smallest visible proportions, gradually accumulate until, sud-
denly as it were, they reveal their might. It would lead us
too far to enter upon this subject more fully ; but I felt bound
to touch upon it, to prevent misapprehension of what follows.
The end of the tertiary period, which we do not separate
from the present by a sharply defined line, but by a broad trans-
itional margin, was, doubtless, distinguished by a somewhat
warmer climate, from that which at present obtains in central
Europe, and which is, by the way, rather exceptional when com-

310 LECTURE XI.

pared with other regions of the earth. Whilst in the middle of
the tertiary period, palms were growing in Switzerland, and high
Californian pine trees in Iceland, the end of the tertiary period
was marked by a number of evergreen plants, with a temperature
in Switzerland lke that of Italy; on the shores of the Medi-
terranean neither plants nor animals show the evidence of any
conditions which might have been detrimental to the life of
man in the tertiary period. Just as at present, man can live in
the same climate as the ape, the hippopotamus, the elephant,
and the rhinoceros, so could he have existed side by side with
these animals and their corresponding Flora in the tertiary
period. That human fossils may, at some future time, be
found in the tertiary strata, is rendered probable by the dis-
coveries of M. Desnoyers, member of the French Academy,
who found traces of the existence of man in strata older than
the quaternary deposits. These consist in strie, or incisions,
some very fine, which were apperently produced by the aid of
flint knives, upon the bones of large animals, found in a sand-
bed of St. Prest, near Chartres, on the banks of the Hure.

“The sand-beds of Saint-Prest,”’ says Laugel, in his descrip-
tion of the departments of Eure et Loire, in 1860—that is to
say, at a time when the dispute about the relative age of the
diluvial beds had not yet commenced, and consequently there
was no motive for ascribing to these strata a greater or less
antiquity— the sand-beds of Saint-Prest have nothing what-
ever to do with the diluvial deposits proper, which, on their
part, are connected with the excavation of the valleys. They
fill up a lateral depression which must have existed before the
excavation of the Kure valley. The section of the sand-pit
presents, beneath a thick layer of surface clay first, banks of
gravel, then beds of white sand containing pebbles, and at the
bottom beds of very fine white sand. In the whole sand-pit,
excepting these lower fine sand-beds, there are found large
worn-down blocks of flint, sand-stone, sometimes a siliceous
conglomerate ; some veins in the lower parts contain also por-
tions of felspar, mixed with transparent quartz.”

The sand-pit of Saint-Prest contains, in the lowest part,
imbedded in the fine sand, a large number of the bones of

hie

LECTURE XI. 311

extinct animals; among others a species of elephant, rhinoceros,
hippopotamus, large stag, horse, ox, three species of deer, and
a large rodent, which seems to have held an intermediate posi-
tion between the beaver and the paca; the remains of species
of pachydermata: Hlephas meridionalis, Rhinoceros leptorhinus
and Hippopotamus major, agree perfectly with the species
found in the vicinity of Asti, in the Arno valley, and in the so-
called Norwich-crag ; strata which undoubtedly lie beneath
the diluvial beds proper, and have hitherto been considered as
belonging to the most recent tertiary formations.

These three species differ entirely from the mammoth
(Elephas primigenius) ; the rhinoceros (Rhinoceros tichorhinus) ;
and the diluvial hippopotamus; just as the Megaceros Carnu-
torum differs from the Megaceros Hibernicus, and the horse
from the diluvial horse, belonging probably to that species
from the Arno valley,* which is known by the name of Hquwus
plicidens. Lyell, in his work which appeared in 1863, still
asserts that the Elephas meridionalis had not yet been found
associated with man.

Now if it could be proved that the bones in the deposits of
Saint-Prest bear indeed the traces of the human hand, which
markings must have been made before the deposition of these
bones in these old sand-beds, then the age of mankind is necessa-
rily removed beyond the diluvial epoch, and further back into the
tertiary period. An unprejudiced person will not feel surprised
at this; there are no sufficient reasons against the assumption
that man may have lived in the tertiary period in countries
inhabited by elephants, rhinoceros, oxen, horses, and apes.

Desnoyers found, on some bones which he extracted from
the sand-pit, and subsequently upon all the bones preserved in
collections, traces of incisions, consisting mostly of transverse,
straight, curved, or elliptical striez. Upon the cranium of an
elephant he found a triangular cavity, apparently produced by
the point and barb of a flint arrow. The skulls of the large
deer seem all to have been broken by a blow upon the frontal
bone at the root of the horns. The antlers are broken in pieces

* And common in English deposits.—ED1Tor.

312 LECTURE XI.

to serve as handles, some were longitudinally split for the sake
of the marrow. Similar characters have been observed in the
kitchen-middens, as well as in the bones of the Swiss pile
works.

Desnoyers’s discovery was confirmed by leading men in sci-
ence. It is true that MM. Robert and Bayle objected (evidently
to save the theory of Beaumont) that the scratches on the bones
in the collection of the Heole des Mines of Paris had been made
by the preparer of the specimens, who scratched off the ad-
hering sand with a chisel. Desnoyers found, however, no dif-
ficulty in proving that the objection was puerile, for four
reasons : because the bones not in the Hole des Mines have all
the same striz ; because the bones taken directly from the
sand-pit also have them ; because in these notches there are
sandgrains, and therefore the bones must have been thus
marked before they were imbedded; and, finally, because the
said white sand adheres so little to the bones, that no chisel,
but only a little water, is required to cleanse the bones.

As, however, Desnoyers’s discoveries must as yet be consi-
dered as isolated, we are still justified in asserting that, gene-
rally speaking, man has only appeared in Hurope and North
America during the so-called diluvial, post-pliocene, or quater-
nary period.

There is ample evidence, that this last period was accom-
panied with a considerable refrigeration of our hemisphere,
which increased so much that at a certain period the whole of
Switzerland, the Scottish Highlands, Scandinavia, and a por-
tion of North America were covered with ice. The question
now arises: Did man exist in France, Belgium, and England
before or after this glacial period? The question is so far in-
teresting, that m case of man’s pre-existence the glacial period
may have put a stop to his existence in the aforesaid regions.
But let us examine the geological conditions apart from man.

Everywhere in Scandinavia, North America, and England,
as well as in the vicinity of the Alps, we meet with a formation
which is generally called glacial-loam or boulder-clay. This
formation, of marl or plastic clay, which in all countries is used
in brickmaking, is spread over the surfaces in layers of varying

LECTURE XI. 313

thickness. It overlies the platforms, follows the slopes of
mountains down to the valleys, it forms frequently the bottom
which prevents rivers from further excavating the valleys ; it
contains in the North large angular erratic blocks, or rounded,
scratched, and striated rolled stones in the vicinity of the Alps
and the Scandinavian mountains. Where the formation re-
poses upon solid rocks, the latter are polished, grooved, and
striped like the rocks passed over by a glacier. Most geolo-
gists of the present day agree as to the origin of this formation.
It is the glacial loam produced by the grinding of the rock
under the weight of the moving ice masses, which also pro-
duced the scored stones. Where these latter only exist, it is
the lower moraine which so presents itself; but where large
blocks occur, then either the earth-moraine has coalesced with
the fundamental moraine, or the angular blocks have been
carried upon the moving ice masses and deposited in the loam.

On taking, for the present, this formation as a starting
point, we find that but few land and fresh-water deposits are
known which intervene between this formation and the tertiary
period. That the tertiary period did not suddenly enter the
glacial epoch, seems to be proved by the condition of those
tertiary strata known in England as “crag.”? There was also
found, near Cromer, on the Norfolk coast, a group of beds
underlying the glacial loam, but characteristically distinct from
the tertiary period. There are sunken forests which, in many
spots, are exposed at low water. The roots of the broken off
trunks are still in their natural position, and the loam in which
they are imbedded is black from the intermixture with vege-
table matter. The fir, pine, yew, alder, oak, and sloe grew
here in a marshy soil, in which the white, and yellow water
lies, marsh-trefoil, frogsbit, and other aquatic plants of our
present Flora, were found. There were also discovered fossil
bones of three species of elephants, of the mammoth, rhino-
ceros, hippopotamus, of the extinct large beaver, of horses,
oxen, deer, the common beaver, and the water rat, of the wal-
rus, the narwhal, large whales whose carcasses had been washed
ashore.

This fresh-water formation, the insects and shells of which

314 LECTURE XI.

belong to living species, must therefore be separated from other
diluvial formations, in so far as it contains along with extinct,
many of the existing species, and the plants, at all events,
are of the same kind as are found in the later deposits above
the glacial loam. ‘The spread of the glaciers, therefore, does
not, as hitherto believed, mark a new epoch, a new section in
the history of the earth; it only changed temporarily the as-
pect of the earth, of the Fauna and Flora, where it occurred.
After the retirement of the glaciers and the Arctic sea to its
present northern confines, the antecedent condition was re-
established ; the Fauna and Flora returned to their native
district, excepting some species which became extinct. We
are, however, far from asserting that no new species arose
after the retirement of the glaciers. Desor has with great
acumen shown the fallacy of such an assumption, and if we
accept the theory of the transformation of species, there is no
reason why this metamorphosis should not proceed as well in
the present as it did in periods gone by.

Let us now examine the various deposits, which have occurred
since the glacial period, and let us commence with Switzerland,
where the comparison with the process still in action in the
Alpine chain gives a clue to the origin of the above phenomena.
The glacial loom is, in that country, a more or less grey or
bluish clay, without any trace of stratification, and in which,
near the Alps and almost on the whole plains of Switzerland,
are found polished and furrowed stone boulders. This forma-
tion is obviously connected with the large angular erratic blocks
on the slopes of the Jura, which, on the Chasseron, in Waad-
tand, rise to 1,600 meters above the level of the sea, or 1,000
meters above that of the lakes. It is now generally admitted
that these blocks have been deposited by the glaciers, which
have spread over almost the whole plain of Switzerland,and Swiss
geologists have succeeded in nearly determining the limits of
these old glaciers which reached far up the Jura. I must refer
you to the map of Escher von der Linth, which you will find in
my text-book as well as in my Principles of Geology, and in
which the limits, which these glaciers reached at the time of
their greatest expansion, are marked.

ay

LECTURE XI. 3815

Morlot, with whose deductions, as regards two glacial epochs,
I do not agree, has, nevertheless, very clearly shewn the
connection between the blocks and the glacial clay. Such
enormous masses of ice must, by their under surfaces, produce
a corresponding quantity of till, hence the glacial clay is found
in immense quantities near the Alps, for instance, near the lake
of Geneva, where it is forty feet deep. It is also clear, that at
a time when the ice masses reached the highest cliffs of the
Jura, no angular blocks could have been deposited upon the
level land, and that the lower blocks on the Jura must belong
_ to the period of recession, during which the formation of the
glacial clay continued as long as the motion of the glaciers
upon the soil. But it is not less clear, that at the time of this
greatest extension, but few Alpine pinnacles rose above the
Swiss ice-sea; that, consequently, but comparatively few blocks
could be transported upon the ice, and therefore no perfect
moraines could be formed, as is the case with smaller glaciers
which receive the detritus from more extensive rocky tracts.

Upon this glacial clay in Western Switzerland we find, in
many places, considerable beds of pebbles, gravel, and sand,
which are, by the infiltrated lime, so cemented together as to
form a species of gompholith. The pebbles frequently attain
the size of a man’s head, or even larger. They show no traces
of grooves or striz, but are simply rounded and clean ; nowhere
is clay or marl attached to them; they are manifestly rounded
by the action of water. One of the finest specimens of such
deposits may be seen near Geneva, where the heights of St.
Jean and the woods of Lancy, through which the bed of the
Rhone runs, consist of such old alluvia, which are also found in
great extent in most other parts of Switzerland. Of particular
deposits of this kind in Eastern Switzerland I shall speak on
another occasion.

It is clear that these old alluvia could only have been depo-
sited after the retreat of the glaciers towards the Alps. As
the retreat of a glacier is effected by the melting of its mass,
which necessarily produces an accumulation of water, it is
evident that the recession of colossal glaciers gave rise to tur-
bulent streams, which here and there excavated their beds, but

316 LECTURE XI.

in other places formed temporary lakes. This retreat of the
glaciers was manifestly a very complicated phenomenon, as the
main features of the formation of the soil, as they exist at
present, were already extant (by which assertion we deny what
has recently been asserted, namely, that the glaciers at the
period of their greatest extent scooped out, in the soft molasse
soil, valleys and lake basins). The glaciers remained longer
in the valleys and the basins, and sent forth branches between
the molasse hills already free from ice. It must further be
taken into consideration that such a retreat was never uniform.
The alternation of colder or warmer years, and consequent
variations of the limits of glaciers and of their elevation are
common phenomena, and the history of our Alps speaks of
meadows and fields, alternately covered with or free from
glaciers. Many accurate local investigations are requisite
before we shall possess a full account of the retreat of the
glaciers in Switzerland, though we have a general notion of its
main features.

The retreat of the glaciers is evident at some distance from
the Alps, in the great valleys and lake basins, where the ice
continued as such for a longer period. In the immediate
vicinity of the lakes of Geneva, Sempach, Ziirich, Hallwyl,
Greifen, and Pfaffikon, in the valleys of the Aar near Berne, of
the Reuss near Bremgarten, of the Limmath near Baden, may
be seen terminal morains, which testify to the preservation of
the glaciers in the lake basins and deeper valleys.

Morlot very justly observes, that this persistence of the ice
must have continued for a considerable time, as some of these
moraines are of immense size. But this preservation must
have been attended with same phenomena which accompany
the retreat of glaciers. Glaciers which stretch forth their icy
tongues through the basin of the lake of Geneva, up to Geneva
and Nyon, which penetrated the Reuss valley up to Mellingen,
the Limmath valley up to Baden, and probably filled up the
basin of the lake of Constance, must necessarily have produced
larger masses of water than the present dwarfs, which cannot
transgress the limits of the inner Alps. The same alluvial
formation was deposited in front and on the sides of these

LECTURE Xt. 317

glaciers, and above these formations angular blocks were de-
posited and pushed forward by the extreme end of the glacier.
Escher has shown, that in the whole district of Buredorf,
Wangen, and Langenthal, westward, and eastward over Brugge
to Kglisau, there is such an alluvial formation, m which are
seen blocks floated by the ice from several basins ; but where
they were transported by the solid ice, they are less in num-
ber. In the vicinity of these ice-tongues, which persisted
during the retreat, have been found lake basins produced in
the manner described. The waters may at that time, as Mor-
lot assumes, have been one hundred and fifty to one hundred
and eighty feet above their present level, and then gradually,
when the retreat recommenced, after forming several terraces
of about one hundred and then fifty feet above their present
height, may have ultimately descended to their present level.

Finally, there commenced a further retreat after the stop-
page. Several terminal moraines show that this retreat was
not effected without fresh halting places which correspond
with the alluvial terraces on the plains, and each of these
stoppages may have continued for a long period, for here also
we find moraines of remarkable size, which required a long
time for their formation. That during this whole period of
retrogression, the formation of glacial clay, of alluvia, of rolled
pebbles, and the transportation of angular blocks upon float-
ing icebergs, continued uninterruptedly, is undeniable.

I am fully aware that my theory is in antagonism with that
of many geologists, who assume two separate ice periods, be-
tween which the older alluyia are said to have been deposited.
Morlot, Collomb, and many others, especially English authors,
defend this dualism, whilst Desor has always insisted upon
the unity of the glacial period. Both parties agree as to the
facts, but not as regards their explanation. The old alluvium,
no doubt, overlies everywhere the old glacial clay with the
polished rolled stones, and equally without doubt, above this
old alluvium le angular blocks intermingled with glacier clay
and recent alluvium. The stratification of the terminal moraines
in the valleys and lake basins of level Switzerland above and
upon the old alluvium is however nowhere demonstrated, and

318 LECTURE XI.

it seems to me that we are justified im assuming, that such
blocks as rest upon the old alluvium have not been transported
directly by glaciers, but by floating ice blocks. If, indeed, the
glaciers had any influence upon the soil, as asserted by some
English authors, the influence must have been proportionate to
the acting mass. A glacier measuring several thousand feet in
thickness, which must be assumed to account for the blocks
found on the Jura, must have scooped the soil rather deep,
whilst an extremity of a glacier scarcely 100 feet thick, might,
for some short distance, pass over a gravelly soil without dig-
ging deeply into it. Charpentier, I believe, cites such an in-
stance in Wallis, where, after the stay of the extremity of a
glacier for a number of years upon vegetable earth, immediately
after the retreat perennials appeared, as if the glacier had ex-
ercised no influence upon the soil. But it must be considered
that this can only apply to the extremity of a comparatively
very small and thin glacier. We may, therefore, assume that
in some spots during the retreat, not merely a stoppage but
sometimes an advance took place, during which the extremity
of a glacier passed a certain distance above the previously de-
posited old alluvium and also deposited blocks. But we can-
not believe that the glaciers spread again in this manner over a
great portion of Switzerland, as in this case they would from
their weight and size have necessarily scooped out all the older
drift and alluvial formations, and destroyed all the loose sand
and gravel masses.

In East Switzerland we meet with various phenomena, con-
ditioned by the existence of buried forests and peat bogs. In
the vicinity of Utznach and Dirnten, on the lake of Zurich, and
near Morschwyl, on the lake of Constance, there are consider-
able beds of slate-coal, which manifestly belong to the period

we speak of, having originated from the peat bogs, which have:

been overwhelmed and compressed by enormous masses of
drift. This peat bed consists mostly of mosses and reeds,
rushes and marsh-trefoil, upon which, at first pines, and then
firs and birches, grew. The disposition of these layers is as
follows :—

The subsoil of the whole region is formed by molasse, the

LECTURE XI. 319

beds of which are somewhat vertical. Upon the heads of these
beds rests slate clay of considerable thickness with boulders,
and large angular blocks, so that this clay manifestly corre-
sponds to the glacial clay. The existence of these large angu-
lar erratics, hitherto unnoticed, in the lower clay beds, has
recently been clearly demonstrated by Messikomer’s examin-
ation of pile buildings. Then come coals in horizontal strata
nearly twelve feet thick, and upon the coals, drift with clay and
rounded blocks, and upon them angular erratics, which, in our
opinion, have been floated and not directly deposited by gla-
ciers. The substratum had hitherto not been sufficiently
attended to, hence it was believed that the coal beds had been
formed before the glacial extension; but Messikomer’s re-
searches have shown that the coals overlie the glacial clay, and
had therefore been formed immediately after the retreat of the
glaciers, after which they were covered with the old alluvium
and floated erratics.

On comparing the coal beds of England with those of
Hast Switzerland, they appear at first sight so strikingly iden-
tical, that it leads to the belief that they belong to the same
period, and were formed simultaneously either before or
after the glacial extension. But as such is not the case, and
as the two respective formations are, on the contrary, separated
from each other by the glacial period, it follows that this glacial
extension must have been an intermediate event, which even
in countries where it occurred produced no important change.
There is no doubt, as we shall presently see, that there have
been, specially in the North, great changes produced in the
level of various regions. It is probable, that at least before
the commencement of the glacial period, if not immediately
after 1t, England and the north of France, Denmark and Nor-
way were connected, whilst, on the other hand, large districts
towards the east, now dry land, were under water. With the
increase of cold in the north, the northern population retreated
southward, an immigration rendered evident by the present
composition of the Fauna of the German Ocean and the Baltic.
Again, with the cold it retreated, as we have shown, towards
the north. Such immigrations and emigrations, like the phy-

320 LECTURE XI.

sical changes of the surface, and the transposition of clay,
gravel, sand, etc., require long periods of time.

Every person who carefully examines the enormous accumu-
lations which the glaciers and the rivers, sprung from them, have
deposited upon Swiss soil, must admit that only a long series
of centuries, the number of which can scarcely be estimated,
could have effected them. This assertion may be proved by
the estimation of some individual factors of the beds. We
have seen that the coal bed of Diirnten forms but a moderate
intermediate stratum in the so-called diluvial beds. This
stratum at its greatest thickness, reaches about twelve feet, or
rather, ten, for in many places there are intermediate seams of
letten. “This, its greatest thickness,” says Heer, ‘‘ may
enable us to calculate the period of time requisite for the for-
mation of this bed. From the mode and manner of the com-
pression of the stems of the trees, from a comparison of the .
carbonaceous constituent of slate-coal with that of the peat, it
follows that these coal beds, when in the condition of peat,
ought to have been six times thicker, that, consequently, the
above coal-bed of ten feet thickness must have originated from
the compression of a peat-bed sixty feet high. Assuming, on
the average, an increase of one foot of peat within a century,
we obtain 6,000 years.

« Another mode of calculation leads to the same result.
An acre of slate-coal ten feet thick contains, according to
Mine-Superintendent Stokar-Hscher, 96,000 hundred-weights
of carbon. On assuming that an acre of peat-land produces
annually fifteen quintals of carbon, 6,400 years would be
required for the formation of the above-mentioned coals. The
assumption of an annual production of fifteen quintals of car-
bon (based upon the assumption that a foot of peat is formed
within a century), is rather too high than too low, for accord-
ing to Liebig’s interesting researches, an acre of wood plantation
produces annually but ten quintals of carbon, in which case the
formation of the above coal-bed required 9,600 years.”

In these calculations it is certainly assumed that the climatic
conditions resembled those at present existing. As the same
species of plants, which now produce peat, formed the slate-coal,

LECTURE XI. 3a21

there is no reason to suppose that the climate differed widely
from the present; at any rate, it may be safely assumed that
thousands of years were required for the formation of the afore-
said beds.

But whether six or ten thousand years were requisite for their
formation, these slate-coals occupied but a small fraction of the
diluvial period. They overlie thick glacial clay, and are them-
selves covered with flint and sand-banks, thirty feet high and
with floated glacial blocks on the top. Despite of the immense
period of time which separates these coal deposits from histori-
cal time, during which not even the thin stratum of vegetable
earth was completely formed, these coal formations still belong
to our geological period, though to the beginning of it ; for we
have seen that there grew in them the same marsh and peat
plants, and the same trees, as are still extant in that region.
We should, nevertheless, add, that there oecur some species, as
the hazel, which differ from living species; but the same
character which manifests itself im the animal world shews
itself also in the vegetable kingdom. Some species have
become perfectly extinct, others have retreated northward,
or to the mountains, but most continue to live in the same
region.

The coal beds in eastern Switzerland are specially interest
ing on account of the animal world they contain. Small fresh-
water snails of still living species are as abundant as small
marsh-beetles, whose glittermg wing-sheaths, often closely
compressed, form the surface of the beds. There occur, also,
coleoptera, which belong to extinct species, like the trunk-
beetle, etc. There were also found teeth of the deer and bear,
remains of the elephant and rhinoceros (not of the mammoth
and the rhinoceros with a bony septum), but of an elephant
resembling the Asiatic (Hlephas antiquus), and the rhinoceros
with a semi-osseous septum (Rhinoceros leptorhinus), both of
which occur with the bones of man, but seem to have become
extinct at an earlier period than their hairy cognates. From
this fact follows the deduction, confirmed indeed by the strati-
fication, that the slate coals of eastern Switzerland had been
formed upon the glacial clay immediately after the retreat of

; Y

322 LECTURE XI.

the glaciers, that the old thin alluvium covered them, and that,
consequently, the beds in which occur the mammoth and the
rhinoceros with the bony septum, are of a somewhat later date
than the slate-coal beds.

We now make a long stride to the north, where the glacial
formations attained the greatest extent.

Kjerulf very properly directs our attention to the observations
of Rink, who passed several years in Greenland, where he
studied the ice of the interior, the so-called ‘iceblink.””? There
we find a continent not less in extent than the whole Scandina-
vian peninsula, covered with an ice-crust 1,000 feet in thickness,
moving from the interior towards the west coast. This mass
of ice, laden with stone blocks, advances slowly but steadily
towards the west coast, where it breaks up into large fragments,
which, in the form of icebergs, often of colossal dimensions,
are carried by the sea currents in definite directions, even to the
Azores. They gradually melt, and deposit their freight at the
bottom of the sea.

The same phenomenon formerly occurred in Norway, Sweden,
and Finland. The country lay shrouded beneath an enormous
ice-mass, which carried its substratum of pebbles and gravel
into the sea. The whole rocky mass of Norway was polished
and grooved, but the frozen sea, which surrounded this pre-
historic Greenland, stood at a lower level than at present, for
in many places the dragged surfaces stretch far out beneath the
present sea-level. Though this circumstance alone may not be
sufficient to explain the refrigeration of the northern continent
to the same degree as that of Greenland, the greater elevation
of the land above the sea may have contributed to it. When-
ever the tracts of the glaciers show beneath the present sea-
level, the waters must have been lower, for the ice is melted
and undermined by them, as shown by the polar glaciers at
ebb tide.

The sea rose, the land became warmer, the ice-shroud melted,
the highest ridges showed their pinnacles, the ice broke into
separate glaciers, which continued to fill up the valleys. Now
we find moraines as in our present glaciers ; medial and terminal
moraines; walls, the extremities of which now stretch towards

LECTURE XI. 323

the sea, or are found as terminal barriers in the valleys. The sea
rose about five hundred feet; for up to this height we find
deposits of molluscs, which belong to the Arctic sea. These
enormous ice-masses furnished, at the same time, large streams,
which here and there obstructed by the terminal embankments
of the glaciers, formed large inland lakes,and deposited the finely-
ground material, carried by them, in the form of loam, marl, and
sand-clay. The sea on the one hand, and the inland lakes on the
other, worked on the masses deposited by the ice; the glaciers
brought down erratic blocks, and these were either directly or
indirectly, after floating on the icebergs, deposited upon the
banks. Thus the present period was gradually induced, when
glaciers stretch to the sea in but few spots, but rise in other
places considerably above the sea-level, and where in the
valleys a milder climate prevails.

This pre-historic history is no romance ; it is derived from
actual facts and the deductions therefrom. The facts are thus
summarised by Kjerulf:

“«‘ What is the prevalent order of the glacial deposits? Quite
at the bottom, where they could not be washed away, are sand
and pebbles. This is ‘ shewer-sand’ (scoring-sand), and ‘ schewr-
steine’? (scoring-stones). ‘This is the material which, pressed
by the ice, was carried above the rocks. These blocks should
be examined, if we wish to estimate the direction of the mo-
tion. But as for the most part they are smaller, much broken,
and frequently rounded, they are termed pebbles (rolled
stones), though this is an incorrect name, they should there-
fore be distinguished as ‘scheuer-steine.? They are not
rolled, but have been crushed against each other, and being
inserted into the ice, like diamonds in the glazier’s pencil,
they have drawn lines and furrows upon the stones. Above
this ‘scheuer-sand’ and the pebble banks he the various kinds
of clay, first, calcareous, marly clay, in districts accessible to
the glacial waters which brought down the ground up lime and
clay from the Silurian beds; next above, the shell-clay, where
the elevation was not too high; then comes brick-clay, without
shells, derived probably from the period when the flood from

v2

324 _ LECTURE XI.

the interior was at its highest ; then comes sand, and, quite at
the top, loam.

“The large erratics lie above the banks of pebbles,
loam, and sand; they are in Scandinavia, in a less degree,
Coe by fakin ice-rafts, but mostly directly by the
glaciers.”

“We have thus before us a period, a real ice-period, and an
ice-sea, which washed the glacial coasts of Scandinavia and Fin-
land, then constituting one continent. But the proofs of such
an Arctic sea apply not only to this ice continent. The north
German plains, from Holland to Russia, are covered with
blocks, pebbles, and drift, all of which are derived from Scan-
dinavia and Finland, the southern boundary of which is along
the elevation of the land, which is limited by the Weser moun-
tains, the Hartz, the Bohemian, and Giant mountains. In the
east, the tracts of these erratic blocks wind through the Russian
lowlands towards the Ural so regularly around Finland that
they describe almost a circle. This is the dispersion circle, so
to speak, of this ice sea, within which the blocks carried by the
icebergs were stranded, and the mere circumference of this
block line shows, that at the time of the greatest extension of
the ice sea, the Scandinavian-Finnish continent was an island,
whilst a broad ice arm connected the present Polar sea, and
the White sea with the Baltic.” 2

In the whole extent, from the North American continent
down to New York, in England and Scotland, in Scandinavia
and Finland, in Russia, as far as the steppes of Petschora
(Peczora), are found the same formations, the polished, striated,
and furrowed surfaces, the gravel banks, and above them the
clays, marls, with specific northern marine molluscs, or with
species which attain their proper size only in the north, but
which diminishes in the south.

Sars has, by his minute investigations, succeeded in deter-
mining the highest level of the ancient ice-sea, and the periods
of retreat, whilst Lovén proved that Denmark was connected
with Norway, that the White sea must have been connected
with the Baltic by a broad arm, which wound round Finland,
and that the Swedish Wener- and Wetter-lakes, now several

LECTURE ‘XI. 325

hundred feet above the Baltic, must have been connected with
this ice sea, as several species of crustacea still inhabit these
lakes, the relics of this ice population. Already, in 1846, my
friend Desor had proved, in a treatise, that there prevails the
greatest analogy between the phenomena in the north and those
of the Alps, and that the peculiarities which distinguish the
northern phenomena are due to the alterations in the level, by
which the sea on the Scandinavian coasts rose, then again gra-
dually subsided down to the present time, during which the
elevation of the Scandinavian soil is still continuing. During
the last period there were formed, as in Switzerland, here and
there, glacial necks, which produced those confusedly stratified
ridges upon the surface of which le angular blocks known by
the name of “ Oesars.” In the interior of the high valleys,
just as in the lake basins of Switzerland, were heaped up mo-
raines, which at times attam a great size. All this has been
confirmed by Martins, so that we can add nothing fresh as re-
gards the north.

The process was the same in the North-American continent,
with this difference, that but little of the land was there sub-
merged under the sea, but large fresh water-lakes were formed,
the deposits of which prove that the present lakes on the Ca-
nadian boundary are only the remnants of the inland fresh
water lakes.

On turning to England, we find an analogous series of phe-
nomena. At the bottom, boulder-clay resting here and there
upon fresh water formations, alluvium, and pebbles; above
them, in the mountainous regions, as in Scotland and Wales,
moraines testifying of glaciers which descended into the valleys.
Everywhere the same phenomena in the same succession, only
so far modified, that in the north it is the sea, in the south it
is the fresh water which predominates in its action.

The following table shows on the one hand the synchronism
of the glacial clay in different countries, and on the other hand
the synchronous appearance of the mammoth (Hlephas primi-
genius), and the rhinoceros tichorhinus, which in some parts of
the European continent were the contemporaries of man.

326

Scandinavia.

Kitchen refuse

(Kjokken - médd-
ings).

Older Pine Period
of the turf-moors

Upper Moraines
in the valleys.

Pebbles in the
lower valleys.
Oesars.

Greatest height of
the Ice-Sea.

Bed with glacial
molluscs.

‘Glacial tracts be-
neath the present
sea - level, with
scoring stones.

LECTURE XI.

SYNCHRONAL TABLE OF DILUVIAL

Great Britain.

Loam.

Sand, with fresh water snails.
Hlephas primigenius, Rhinoceros
tichorhiwus.

Stone hatchets, near Hoxne,
Icklingham, on the Ouse.

Caves, with Ursus speleus,
Hyena spelea, and hatchets.

Clay, with wood (oaks, yew,
pine), near Hoxne.

Old alluvium (drift), with
pebbles.

Clays, with glacial molluscs,
on the Clyde.

Glacial clay with blocks
(boulder-clay).

Sunken forest and_ fluvio-
marine formations, near Cro-
mer, with Hlephas antiquus and
meridionalis, Rhinoceros etruscus,
etc., with oaks, yews, firs, etc.

Belgium, North
Germany.

Modern allu-
vium.

Loam.

Mecklenburg
graves ?

Caves of Liége
withHlephas pri-
migenius, Rhino-
ceros tichorhinus,
Ursus spel., ete.

Man of Engis,
Engihoul, and
Neanderthal.

Blocks of the
North - German
plain transport-
ed from Scandi-
navia.

LECTURE XI.

FORMATIONS DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME.

Valleys of the Seine, | Vogesen, | Rhine Valley and

Somme, Yonne, etc.| Vosges. | South Germany.
Caves of Lombrive

with man, Ru-

rochs, rein-deer,

etc.
Diluvium rouge.

Loess and clay of

Paris, Amiens, Ab-

beville, etc.

Dilwvium gris with |Terminal| Loess and loam
Eleph. primigen.,|moraines|of the Rhine-
Rhin. tichorhinus,| in the |valley, of the
Man of Amiens,| valleys. | Neckar - valley,
Abbeville, Paris, withHlep. prim.,
etc. Rhin. tichor.,ete.
Caves with Ursus Terminal mo-
speleus, Hyena raines in the
spelea, etc. Black Forest.

Vosge- | Vosge- & Black-
gravel. | Forest gravel.

Diluvium of the
plateaux.

Gravel of the
Bavarian pla-
teau.

Alpine
gravel.

327

Switzerland.

——$ |

Loam and modern
alluvia.

Stratified diluvium
with Hlephas primige-
nius, Rhinoceros ticho-
rhinus, ete.

Older alluvia.

Terminal moraines
near Ziirich, Sempach,
Bern, Geneva, etc.

Slate-coal with Hle-
phas antiquus, Rhino-
ceros leptorhinus, near
Diirnton, Utznach,
Morshwyl.

Glacial clay and marl
with blocks and scor-
ing stones.

Erratic blocks on the
Jura.

Greatest glacial ex-
tension,

328 LECTURE XI,

Our table embraces only the earliest appearance of human
remains in Belgium, the north of France, and the south of
England, phenomena which are well attested. The animal
world, which is associated with man in the pile-buildings of
Switzerland, for instance, leaves no doubt that man settled in
these regions at a much later date, where, as proved by the
caves of Besancon and in Appenzell, the cave-bear existed,
which in Belgium was the contemporary of man. We have
thus, in the earliest geological period of man, some indications
of the migrations and spread of mankind; for this much at
least results from the skulls found, that the oldest human re-
mains found in Switzerland belong to a different race, which
cannot have immigrated from Belgium.

In whatever way we examine the facts, we are constantly
led to the inference that the so-called diluvial period lasted an
incalculably long time, during which considerable elevations
and subsidences of land and sea, and many alterations of the
surface of the globe and its inhabitants, plants and animals,
took place both in restricted localities and large districts.

That man appeared in our hemisphere only in the course of
this long period, and that, hitherto, no traces have been found
of man’s earlier appearance is an admitted fact; but whether man
appeared before, or after the last glacial extension on our conti-
nent is still an open question. After a careful examination of the
facts, we adhere to the latter alternative, as we have only found
proofs of man’s appearance after the great glacial period, after
the formation of the glacial clay in Scandinavia, England, and
Switzerland. We are, however, quite ready to abandon this
position, and to assume a greater antiquity of man, as soon as
human remains are found under the glacial clay or under
undisturbed tertiary strata.

This difference of opinion renders man chronologically nei-
ther older nor younger. Whether, or not,an intermediate glacial
period occurred, an immense period of time was requisite to
heap up drift thirty feet high above the worked flints, specially
as this accumulation proceeds but very slowly.

We must confess that all the efforts hitherto made to deter-
mine the period in time of man’s first appearance have hitherto
been unsuccessful. We must, however, mention them, though

Salt Mec a ey Sth a mag ta

LECTURE XI. 3829

they refer to human remains of a considerably more recent
date than the stone hatchets and the jaw of Amiens, or the
skulls of the Belgian caves.

One of these calculations is founded on the Delta of the
Mississippi. The alluvial deposits must have been continued
for an indefinite period; for near New-Orleans, at a depth of
six hundred feet, the bottom of the deposits had not been
reached. The plain. on which New Orleans stands rises only
nine feet above the level of the sea, and the excavations made
pass far below the sea level. In these excavations are seen
superimposed beds of cypress forests (T'aaodium distichum).
On laying the foundations for the gas-works, the Irish navvies
had to give up the task, as they had to dig out wood instead
of soil. They were replaced by woodcutters from Kentucky,
who cut their way down through four superimposed layers.
The lowest was so old, that the wood cut like cheese. The
section of the banks also showed sunken forests, whilst stately
live oaks grew upon the banks, indicating that the surface had
not changed for years.

In that part of Louisiana where the water-height presents
greater differences than in New-Orleans, Dickeson and Brown
have traced ten distinct cypress forests at different levels below
the present surface. These groups of trees, the live-oaks on
the banks, and the successive cypress forests, are superimposed
upon each other, as may be seen in many places in the vicinity
of New Orleans.

Dr. Bennet Dowler has made an interesting computation as
regards the emergence of New-Orleans, in which these cypress
forests play an important part. He divides the history of this
event into three epochs:

“1. The era of colossal grasses and waving prairies, as seen
in the lagoons, lakes, and the sea coast.

«2. The era of the cypress basins.

«3. The era of the present live-oak bank.”

Many districts on the Mississippi show that the development
from the water proceeds in the order named. First appear the
grasses, then the cypress, and finally the live-oak. Assuming
an elevation of five inches in a century (the rate of the Nile

330 LECTURE XI.

deposits), we obtain 1,500 years for the era of aquatic plants
until the cypress era. Supposing ten feet to represent the
size of one generation of trees, we obtain a period of 5,700
years as the age of the oldest trees now growing in the basin,
for they measured from ninety-five to one hundred and twenty
rings of annual growth to an inch ; and according to the lowest
ratio, a tree of ten feet in diameter will yield 5,700 rings of
annual growth. Though many generations of such trees may
have grown up and perished in the delta of the Mississippi,
Dr. Dowler, to avoid all cavilling, has only assumed two suc-
cessive growths, including that now standing: this gives for
two cypress generations the age of 11,400 years. :

The maximum age of the oldest trees on the live-oak bank
is estimated at 1,500 years; one generation only is counted.
Thus we obtain the following data :—

Era of aquatic plants - - - - 1,500 years.

Era of cypress basin - - - - 11,400 ,,

Era of live-oak platform - - - = SLE 00N
Total period - - 14,400

Each sunken forest must have had a period of rest and
gradual depression, estimated as equal to the era of live-oaks,
which of course occurred only once in the series. We then
certainly keep within the limits of probability in assuming each
period of elevation to have been equivalent to the one above
arrived at, and as there were at least ten such changes we reach
the following result :—

Last emergence as above - - - - 14,400 years.
Ten elevations and depressions, each
equal to the last emergence - - - 144,000 ,,
Total age of the Delta = - 158,400

In the excavation of the gas works, burnt wood was found
at the depth of sixteen feet, and at the same depth the work-
men found the skeleton of a man. The skull lay beneath the
roots of a cypress tree belonging to the fourth forest below the
surface. It was in good preservation, but the other bones
crumbled into pieces on being touched. The cranium no doubt
belonged to the American type.

LECTURE XI. 331

Assuming, as above, the present era at 14,400 years, and
adding three subterraneous groups, each equal to the living,
(leaving out the fourth, in which the skeleton was found), that
is to say 43,200, we obtain a total for the age of the skeleton
of 57,500 years.”

The data requisite for this computation are so simple that
the result can scarcely be cavilled at.

Between 1851 and 1854, two sets of shafts and borings were
sunk in Heypt, the one in the latitude of Heliopolis, where the
valley is sixteen miles broad, the other near Memphis, where
the valley is but five miles broad. All the remains, such as
land-shells and bones, belonged to living species, bones of the
ox, hog, dog, camel, and ass, were very common.

There were also found pieces of burnt brick and pottery, one
piece at a depth of sixty feet. If now it be correct that the
increase of Nile-mud is at the rate of five inches in a century
(in the Delta the rate of deposit is less, namely, 2} inches),
then the piece of burnt brick, found at a depth of sixty feet in
the Nile-mud, would be 12,000 years old, which can scarcely
surprise us, as the Egyptian King Menes lived about 5,000 years
before Christ, and before him Egypt had attained a high degree
of civilisation, and possessed at least two important cities,
Thebes and This. If 7-8,000 years ago, that is to say, at the
time of the biblical Adam, flourishing cities were standing, we
need not wonder that some thousands of years before the
existence of these cities, the art of brickmaking was known.

The discoveries in the peat-bogs, specially of Denmark,
where, as in the Delta of the Mississippi, superimposed gene-
rations of forests are met with, consisting of trees, at present
not existing in Denmark, also testify to a high antiquity, though
T am not aware that any attempts have been made to compute
the duration of the turf-moors from the annual rings of the
trees.

The great antiquity of man reaching back to the period of the
cave-bear, being thus established, it is as easy to prove that man,
the contemporary of the cave-bear, cannot have immigrated from
afar. The structure of his cranium presents no resemblance to
that of any European race, still less to any Asiatic; for in Asia,

332 LECTURE XI.

and specially in Central Asia,—the supposed cradle of huma-
nity,—the short form of head predominates, and if longheads
are found they bear no resemblance to the longheads of the
caves. At most, it might be assumed that Paradise was situ-
ated somewhere in Australia, whence these ancestors, of a
simious type, emigrated. It is not our business to pursue
speculations of this kind.

There is, however, one matter to which, before I conclude
this lecture, I would draw your attention. There exists not a
single fact which in any way indicates a general flood, a deluge,
which reached the highest pinnacles, destroying all living begs
excepting such of our ancestors as found refuge in the Ark
of Noah. We find, indeed, everywhere phenomena indicative

_of a greater height of the waters, but they nowhere rose very
high above the valleys, still less did they cover the summits of
the highest mountains. Nowhere are there traces of sudden
flood-catastrophes, everywhere we merely observe the slow
workings of such forces as stillact. We have thus everywhere
an opportunity of making observations which induce us to con-
sider the tradition of a general deluge as a myth. Many times
has it been pointed out that the loose cones of volcanoes, built
up of scoriz and ashes, specially of the extinct volcanoes of
Auvergne and the Rhine, could never have resisted the force of
a general flood ; nevertheless, within the sight of these cones,
which must have existed at a more remote period, the old tale
is constantly repeated. The sun is now left in peace; he no
longer walks the heavens but remains fixed. Shall we have to
protest, as in the former case, for two centuries, before they
give up the opening of the flood-gates of heaven and the foun-
tains of the deep, to drown “‘sinful beast and man’’?

ad aot Tere Y

je)
(Jb)
(ee)

ERe TOR i, XLT.

Stone Period in the North.—Refuse-heaps.—Peat-bogs.—Graves in Den-
mark and Mecklenburg.—Grotto of Chauvaux.—Pile-works on the Swiss
lakes and moors.—Civilisation of the Stone Period.—Agriculture of the
Pile-builders.—Skull of Meilen.—Pile-works in Italy.—Chronological
Calculations of Morlot, Gillieron, and Troyon.—Pious Fancies of the
latter.

GenTLEMEN,—In pursuing our investigations concerning the -
relics of man, we first turn to the North, which furnishes us with
most of the facts belonging to the pre-historic period of huma-
nity. Itis but the traditions of a comparatively modern period
which direct us to the East, and which induce us to search in
High Asia or India for the cradle, not of humanity, but of such
tribes, or rather languages of the tribes, which now inhabit
Europe. As regards the events of a period reaching further
back, we find no connection with Asia, but traces of an inter-
course between the north and north-west with central Europe
and Switzerland. The discovery of northern antiquities has
thrown much light on the earliest period of mankind accessible
to us, and has been the more productive, because the in-
vestigations of the facts have not been carried on exclusively
by antiquaries, but by naturalists also, who with singular in-
dustry and ingenuity knew how to avail themselves of appa-
rently insignificant facts, for the explanation of the most
difficult problems. The name of Steenstrup, who was also
well versed in other branches of natural history, shines here in
full splendour. I shall give you the results obtained by him,
Forchhammer, and Worsaae, as contained in the condensed
and excellent account of Morlot, since the original is in Danish,
and it cannot be expected of us naturalists that we should be
acquainted with the languages of all minor nations.

On several spots on the coast of northern Denmark, specially

334 LECTURE XII.

in the vicinity of the Fjords, where the surf is moderate and
immediately on the sea shore, a few feet above the present
level, may be seen shells-mounds, three, five, and even ten
feet high, extending in length to above one thousand feet, with
a breadth of one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet. Here
and there these heaps lie around a free space, which seems to
have been a place of habitation ; it is only by way of exception
that these heaps are found on the land at a distance from the
coast, or much above the level of the sea. These shell-banks
are not formed by nature, which would indicate a greater
height of the water. But few species are found, all in the
adult state, species which do not inhabit the same depth.
These shells are intermixed with broken bones of animals, flint
implements, coarse pottery, coals, and cinders. There is no
doubt that these heaps are kitchen-refuse ; that a people dwelt
there who lived on molluscs and animal food, and cast away
the shells and bones. The northern scholars thus termed
these mounds Kjékkenméddinger (kitchen-refuse), by which
name they are now generally known. In some spots there is
seen upon these accumulations a thin layer of gravel and
pebbles, deposited by the sea, but mostly they are covered
with vegetable earth and green sward.

The exploration of these refuse-heaps led to the following
results :—Of vegetable matter, but few fragments of burnt
wood are found. Here and there are seen peculiar-looking
heaps of ashes, which from the large quantity of manganese
they contain, seem to be derived form the Zostera marina, a
sea plant which, some centuries ago, was still burnt in that
country for the extraction of the salt. These mounds testify
thus to a similar industry in a remote period. Among the
shells the most common is the oyster (Ostrea edulis), the
cockle, mussel, and periwinkle (Cardiwm edule, Mytilus edulis,
Litorina litorea) all which are eaten at the present day, and still
inhabit the same sea, but are now not so large, and have in
some parts, where these mounds occur, entirely disappeared.

That the decrease and disappearance of these edible molluscs
is to be attributed to the fisheries cannot well be assumed; but
even the diminution of the salt in the Baltic, to which the above

Bhim

LECTURE XII. 335

effect is attributed, does not seem to us a satisfactory explana-
tion. The Romans succeeded in transplanting oysters into the
freshwater lakes near Naples, where they still live and propa-
gate, and even mussels and periwinkles thrive well in brackish »
water as well as in lakes periodically filled with fresh water.
The cause of the phenomenon must therefore be sought else-
where: in that slow transformation and alteration of the sea-
bottom, which has been found in oyster beds, and which is
chiefly produced by tubicole, which overgrow the oyster beds
and destroy them.

Besides the shells mentioned above, there are found others
of species still living in the Danish waters, though in smaller
quantities, such as Buccinwm reticulatum and undatum ; Venus
pullastra, which do not seem to have been much relished by
these old mussel-eaters.

But few remains of the crab are found, but many of the
herring, cod, lemon sole (Plewronectes limanda), the eel, the
latter being chiefly found where it abounds at present. Of birds,
besides several species of wild ducks and geese, are found the
remains of the wild swan, woodcock, and the great auk (Alca
impennis), which died out (Iceland its last refuge) in 1842.
The capercailzie (Tetrao wrogallus) is no longer seen in Den-
mark, as the firs, on the sprouts of which it fed in the Spring,
have now mostly disappeared, whilst formerly they were very
abundant, as shown by the exploration of the peat bogs. The
swan comes to Denmark in the Winter only, proceeding in
Summer further north to Iceland ; but as even the auk, which
took refuge there, was formerly in all the Northern Seas, in
Denmark, the Faroe Islands, and the Hebrides, very abundant,
there is nothing against the assumption that the swan formerly
passed his summers in Denmark. Small land birds were not
found, the common fowl was entirely absent.

Of quadrupeds, the bones found belonged to the stag, the
roe, the wild hog, the beaver, the seal, and the now extinct
‘urochs’? (Bos primigenius), which seems, among our present
races, to have left as his progeny the heavy Friesland cow. Of
the Lithuanian Bison, or Auerochs (Bos wrus, or Bison Huropeeus)
which is a distinct species, and formerly spread over all Hurope,

336 ' ‘LECTURE XII.

there have been traces found in the peat bogs, but not in the
kitchen-heaps. It is remarkable, that the remdeer, the elk, and
the hare, which no doubt then existed in Denmark, are also
» absent; on the other hand, bones of the wolf, the fox, the lynx,
martin, the otter, the wild cat, the hedgehog, and the water-rat
are met with. The only domestic animal was the dog, a race
resembling the setter, the existence of which is also proved by
the circumstance that only the long bones of birds are found,
which these dogs usually reject.

All tubular bones are broken, or split open lengthwise to get
at the marrow, and if the cavity, as in ruminants, is divided by
a septum, the blows are given on both sides. The marrowless
bones are unbroken, but gnawed, specially where they are
covered with cartilage. The teeth impressions are partly those
of dogs as well as of man. All animals seem to have served
for food; for the bones of carnivora, and even of the dog, are
split like those of ruminants. The meat was either boiled or
roasted ; for in the kitchen-heaps are found stones of the size
of a closed fist, arranged so as to form a hearth about two
feet in diameter, around which coals and ashes are seen. There
are also pieces of coarse pottery, made by the hand; the clay
is mixed with angular pebble fragments. There are also found
in these kitchenmiddens rude flint tools, hatchets, wedges, and
knives, the incisions of which can be easily traced upon the
bones. It was at first believed that the people of these kitchen-
middens were ignorant of the mode of sharpening and polishing
their implements, but as some well worked tools were found,
and the incisions upon the bones are so deep that they could
only have been made by sharp instruments, it is probable that
the people of that period only used the rude flints for opening
shells or breaking bones, considering their finer instruments
too valuable to be used for such a purpose.

The turf moors of Denmark supplement the evidence derived
from the kitchenmiddens. Besides the meadow moors, in and
near the water basins of the valleys, and the high moors
scattered upon the plain formed of mosses, there are in
Denmark peculiar little forest moors (Skovmose), which fill up
deep hollows in the subjacent boulder formation. On the steep

LECTURE XII. Say

walls of these funnel-shaped pits, frequently above thirty feet
in depth, grew, at the time of their formation, trees which sank
so gradually that the tops are turned towards the centre of the
bog. In the centre of the bog there is generally at the bottom
a clay bed, then a stratum of turf, frequently mixed with
lime and microscopic plants, above which lies the proper
moss-peat. Firs grew sometimes upon these moors, but did not
seem to thrive, and were, at a later period, replaced by the
common moor-shrubs Vaccinniwm oxycoccos and uliginoswm, the
Erica tetraliz and vulgaris, the birch, elder, and hazel. Around
the borders of the bogs, where large trees grew, the forest
vegetation presents a remarkable change. ‘There we find firs
(Pinus sylvestris) of great height, often three feet in diameter,
which are only distinguished from our common firs by a thicker
bark. The rings indicate an age of several centuries. This fir
no longer grows in Denmark, nor has it existed there within
historical times, nor is there any tradition that it was ever known
to the inhabitants of Denmark. These firs frequently stood so
thick that by falling into the bogs they formed a kind of floor.

The firs disappeared and were supplanted by oaks (Quercus
robur sessiliflora) ; stately trees, often four feet in diameter; these
have also disappeared, or nearly so. In the upper layer of the °
peat is found the summer oak (Quercus pedunculata), with the
birch, the hazel, and the alder. At present the Danish forests
are formed by the common beech, which is not found in the
surface of the forest bogs. The presence of the woodcock in the
latchenmiddens proves that the people who formed them lived
during the fir-peridd, and that since then the oak vegetation
also passed away, the remains of which are found in the forest
bogs, and which has been superseded by the beech. Fir-trunks
were found worked bythe hand of man, and between these trunks
flint implements, which establish the parallel with the kitchen-
middens, whilst in the turf-moors, which correspond with the
oak period, fine bronze tools were found.

Human bones were neither found in the kitchenmiddens nor
in the peat-bogs of the fir-period; but graves were discovered
composed of large stone blocks, in which only stone- and bone-
implements were found. The skulls found in these graves are

Z

338 LECTURE XII.

remarkably small and very round, the occiput short, the orbits
very small, the supraciliary ridges much projecting, the nasal
bones very prominent.

Fig. 101. Borreby Skull of the Stone Period (Denmark), after Busk.

LECTURE XII. 339

Between the supraciliary arches and the nasal bones there is
a depression large enough to receive the index finger of an adult.
The forehead is usually flat and retreating, though not so much
as in the Neander skull. The mean proportion of length to width
in twenty skulls is, according to Busk’s table, which he kindly
sent me, as 100: 78. The vestiges of the facial muscles are
strongly marked, the alveolar margins prominent, the teeth used
up obliquely. The skulls resemble the Lapp skulls by their rotun-
dity and smallness, but are distinguished by the depth of the
nasal suture and the oblique position of the anterior dental
margins. They resemble, at all events, no other Huropean race
than that high Northern people, or perhaps the Fins, whose
customs are indicated by the builders of the kitchenmiddens.

A comparison of these skulls of the stone period with the Lapp
skull on the one hand, and the Romanic skull on the other,
yields the subjoined results :

Fig. 103. Skull of a Lapp, top view, after Busk.

On comparing the top of this Lapp skull with that of a stone-
period skull of Borreby (fig. 101), and the Romanic skull (fig.
127) a series is presented in which the Lapp occupies the middle.
In all these three skulls the zygomatic arches are, in this posi-
tion, scarcely visible ; the forehead behind the eyes is thus pro-

Z2

34.0 LECTURE XII.

portionately wide,and the temporal fossz are but little depressed
in the upper portion towards the vertex. The Romanic skull
is the widest ; were it not for the slight depression towards the
zygomatic arches and the narrowness of the forehead, the con-
tour of the head would be nearly circular. The Lapp occupies
the intermediate place ; the contour of his head corresponds to
that of a short thick egg, with a flattened and narrowed
anterior end. The malar bones at their junction with the
zygoma project more, and on this account render the aspect of
the frontal region wider. Whilst in the Romanic skull the
posterior contour forms a flat arch somewhat depressed in the
centre, it is in the Lapp more curved and somewhat projecting
in the central line. The greatest width of the Romanic skull
is in a backward direction almost opposite the last quarter of
the central longitudinal line of the skull, whilst in the Lapp it
is in the last third of that line.

The stone skull (fig. 102) is still narrower than the Lapp
skull, and by the projection of the supraciliary arches which is
wanting both in the Romanic and the Lapp skull, the front part
of the oval which forms its contour is nearly as wide as the pos-
terior section. The zygomatic arches project somewhat more ;
the temporal lines are more deepened; the frontal protuberance
forms a continuous col before the contour of the receding nar-
row forehead. All this indicates a greater muscular develop-
ment, which, however, but little influences the cranial structure,
which is decidedly longer and narrower; the greatest width is
almost in the middle, but not so pronounced as in the Lapp and
the Romanic skull.

The proportions of the head measurement confirm this view:
the mean in the stone skulls measured by Busk is =78, 2; in
the Lapps = 87, 8; in the Romanic = 92, 1.

I must, however, observe that the differences between the
stone skulls of various localities and the different sexes are by
no means insignificant. The skulls of Borreby are the widest
the mean of the head-measure being = 81, 3; the skulls from
other localities are narrower, the mean being = 75, 1; whilst
the supposed female skulls are — 79, 8.

On viewing these heads in profile, there is also found no slight

LECTURE XII. 341

difference. The Lapp head approaches more decidedly the
stone skull of Borreby (see fig. 101) than the Romanic skull
(see fig. 126).

Fig. 104. Profile of a Lapp Skull, after Busk.

It is true that in the Lapp skull the frontal protuberance is
scarcely indicated; the forehead is much higher and more
arched, the vertex more situated in front, the occiput more pro-
jecting, and there is something like a break in the lambdoid
suture ; the nasal root is less drawn in, and the front teeth are
perpendicular, whilst in the Borreby skull, the alveolar mar-
gins of the upper jaw shew a decided tendency to prognathism,
which, if the teeth were not wanting, would be plainly seen ;
but it must not be forgotten that the skull of Borreby which I
give is that which presents these characters in the greatest
degree, and that in the rich collection of drawings from the
stone period, kindly sent me by Professor Busk, I find some
which almost exactly correspond to the Lapp skull. Thus,
apart from size, which is somewhat greater in the stone skull,
a female skull of Borreby, marked No. 1, all but covers in
profile the Lapp skull.

342 LECTURE XII.

The Romanic skull (fig. 126) maintains also here a sepa-
rate position. The high arching of the forehead, the uniform
curvature of the vertex, the steep descent of the occiput,
the compactness of the base, the acclivous direction of the
upper jaw and the mastoid processes, distinguish it at the
first glance ; and, viewed in profile, it appears almost as the
polar opposite of the stone skull. The position also of the
foramen magnum, which is not seen in our drawings, is more
backward in the Romanic skull than in the stone- and Lapp-
skulls.

The Lapps present thus in their cranial structure a greater
affinity with the stone-period people than with the Romanic-
type; and the latter must have undergone a much greater
alteration than the former, if both types are to be derived
from the primitive people of the northern stone-period.

There can be no doubt that during the stone-period, as it is
called by archeologists, when metals were unknown, the north
had attained to a certain degree of civilisation. This is partly
proved by the finished tools made of stone, bones, and wood,
found in the peat bogs, and by the old graves, all of which
bear a common character, being a chamber formed of large
stone blocks, in which the corpse was deposited or placed in a
crouching position. Upon this chamber large masses of stone
were heaped, and thus arose those large mounds which attract
the attention of the traveller in the northern plains, mounds
frequently overgrown with high trees—oaks or beeches. In
many places, besides Switzerland, the custom prevails for
wayfarers to place upon the grave of one accidentally killed a
stone or a handful of earth. Possibly, a similar custom may
have obtained among the ancient stone-peoples, and may have
contributed to these accumulations above the graves.

Whether bronze was introduced by a distinct race, or whether
the art of making it was discovered by the stone-people, must
for the present remain undecided. No skulls of the bronze
age have as yet been discovered, probably from the custom
then prevalent of burning the bodies and preserving the ashes
along with the arms and other tools of the deceased. It was
at the iron period that the burial of bodies recommenced,

LECTURE XII. 343

whence are derived those long heavy skulls, which differ
entirely from those of the stone-age.

The Lapp people of the stone-period, if we may so call
it, inhabited not merely Denmark and Scandinavia, but no
doubt also the north of Germany. Discoveries made in Meck-
lenburgh furnish the clearest evidence for such an assumption.
I shall give you a description of them nearly in the words of
Dr. Schaaffhausen, who also gives a minute description of the
skulls found.

«There was found near Plau in Mecklenburg, in the gravel,
six feet under the surface of the soil, a human skeleton, in a
crouching, almost kneeling, posture, with implements made of
bone, a hatchet made of staghorn, two wild boar tusks which
had been cut off, and three incisors of a stag, perforated at
the root. This grave was considered to belong to a very re-
mote period, as it was neither protected by stones, nor were
there any implements of stone, iron, or pottery present. Dr.
Lisch, struck by the abnormal projection of the supraciliary
region, observed, that the cranial formation indicated a very
remote age, in which man occupied a very low position in the
_ stage of development, and that the grave probably belonged
to an autochthonous people. The skull and the skeleton
having been broken to pieces by the workmen, I had some
difficulty in cementing the twenty-two fragments sent to me.
Notwithstanding the great similarity between the form of the
forehead of this skull and that of the Neander-skull, the pro-
minence of the supraciliary arches is greater in the latter, and
is confluent with the superior orbital margin, which is not the
case in the former. The skulls, however, are essentially dis-
tinguished by their general form, which, in the latter, is long-
elliptical, and in the former, rounded. In the Plau-skull, a
portion of the upper jaw, with the teeth, and the whole lower
jaw, have been preserved; it is orthognathous. The bones
are thick but very light, and adhere strongly to the tongue.
The muscular attachments on the occiput, above the mastoid
process, are strongly developed; the sutures of the cranium
are wholly unossified ; the last upper molar on the right side
has not yet broken through; the teeth are worn away; in

344 LECTURE XII.

some of the molars, the entire crown has almost disappeared ;
the lower canine teeth are much larger than the incisors, and
rise above the row of teeth; the foramen incisiwwm in the
upper jaw is very large, exceeding in width four millimeters.
The ascending ramus of the lower jaw rises at a right angle,
and is broad and short. The muscular attachments are also
well marked on the lower jaw. On the right parietal bone is
an elongated depression as from a blow. ‘The proportional
dimensions are as follows :—

Millimeters.

Cranial circumference over the supraciliary ridges and the semicircular

lines of the occiput - - - - - 445
From the root of the nose, over the vertex, to the superior semicircular

line - - - - - - - 320
From the root of the nose, over the vertex, to the occipital foramen - 380
Length of skull from the glabella to the occiput —- - - 168
Breadth of the frontal bone - - - - - 107
Height, from a line connecting the temporal borders of the parietals,

to the middle of the sagittal suture - = = =) 80
From occipital foramen to the same point - - 122
Width of the occiput from one parietal protuberance to the vee - 138
Width of base from one mastoid process to the other - - 155
Thickness of the frontal and parietal bones in the middle’ - - 9

The cranial capacity, measured by millet-seed, amounts to 36 ounces, 34
drachms, Prussian apothecaries’ weight.”

A similar discovery was made near Schwaan, in Mecklen-
burg, but the cranium is far from being so well preserved as
that of Plau. I might here mention some discoveries in the
Baltic provinces of Russia, described by Dr. Kutorga, had not
his authenticity been found to be rather suspicious. The skulls
in question were found in the Government of Minsk, in the
sand of an old river-bed.

I must, however, dwell at greater length on a discovery
made by Dr. Spring, a distinguished professor of the Univer-
sity of Liége, more than ten years ago, which has not at-
tracted the attention it deserves, and to which I have already
alluded in my work Kohlerglaube und Wissenschaft. On the
banks of the Meuse, near Chauvaux, about one hundred feet
above the present level of the river, there was a small grotto,
or fissure, with two ossiferous beds, separated from each other
by stalagmite. There was first a stratum of decomposed and

ee

LECTURE XII. 345

almost dissolved small bones, about a decimeter thick. This
was covered with a stratum of stalagmite one to two centi-
meters in thickness ; then came a mass of broken bones, near
a conglomerate of large pebbles, cemented by stalagmite. The
bones showed no trace of having been rolled, but were so
much decomposed that they crumbled into pieces. Above
these broken bones, the fractured surfaces of which were clean,
there was another stalagmite crust, about forty-five centi-
meters thick, covered by a stratum of loam of variable thick-
ness. Many of the bones, though very friable, had retained
nearly all their organic substance ; but they were strongly im-
pregnated with carbonate of lime.

Amongst the bones of the upper stratum there were a large
number of human intermingled with animal bones. The
majority of human bones was found at the entrance to the
grotto; shin-bones, thighs, arm-bones, bones of the carpus
and tarsus, of fingers, toes, ribs, jaws, and cranial bones,
all broken, and a large number of teeth fallen out from their
sockets.

“‘ All the long bones,” says Spring, “ were broken either
in the middle or at the ends; the lower jaws were more
abundant than any other skull-bones ; and I possess a piece,
as large as a paving-stone, which contains five human jaws,
amongst which there is the jaw of a child from seven to eight
years of age, the period of the second dentition.

“T possess many fragments of parietal, temporal, and occi-
pital bones. I saw on the spot the parietal half of an entire
skull, but it was impossible to extract it without breaking it
up. On account of the extremely fragile nature of these
bones, I examined this skull before I ventured to give the first
blows. This examination, as well as that of other characteristic
bones, convinced me that I had before me a race differing
from the present inhabitants of western and central Europe.
The race equally differs from the old Germanic as well as from
the Celtic races, which I had opportunities of examining in
various collections of skulls.

“This skull was very small, both absolutely and in proportion
to the development of the jaw; the forehead was flattened,

346 LECTURE XII.

the nostrils wide, the alveolar arches projecting, the incisors
oblique, the facial angle scarcely exceeding 70 deg. I venture
to assert that these characters resemble those of the Negro
and Indian more than those of any race now inhabiting Hu-
rope. To judge from the length of the thigh and the tibia,
this must have been a stunted race, perhaps only five feet
high, about the height of the Greenlanders and Lapps.

“Amongst this great number of bones, there was not one
which could be assigned to an aged or even to a strong mus-
cular individual ; all the bones belonged to females, youths,
and children.”

Spring obtained, also, a parietal bone fractured by some
blunt instrument. The instrument which caused the injury
was in the same piece of stalagmite ; it was a rudely manu-
factured stone hatchet, without any perforation for a handle ;
another stone hatchet was also discovered.

The animal bones, which lay about intermixed with the
human bones, were in exactly the same condition. All the
long bones were broken; but those which contain no marrow
were entire. There were many teeth of beasts of prey, some
boars’-teeth, but none of deer, or any other ruminant; which
is the more remarkable as human teeth, and the long bones of
the large ruminants, were very abundant.

Another surprising circumstance is that, with the exception
of a fragment of the lower jaw of a sheep or roe, neither cra-
nium, nor horns or antlers of a stag, boar, ox, or aurochs were
found. The bones are those of the deer, ox, sheep, roe, boar,
dog, fox, marten, and hare; some bones of the ox and stag
are so large that they might be assigned to the aurochs and
elk. In addition to these bones were found cinders, pieces of
charcoal, and small fragments of burnt clay.

Spring concludes, and, as it appears, with much reason, that
the bones of Chauvaux are the remains of a cannibal feast,—
an opinion which he founds on the similar condition both of
the human and the animal bones, all of which are broken for the
sake of the marrow, and upon the circumstance that all human
bones belong to young individuals, whose flesh was, no doubt,
preferred on such festive occasions. _ Dr. Spring also quotes

Q

LECTURE XII. 347

some old authors to show that, in Belgium and Gaul, human
sacrifices and cannibalism continued down to the time of the
Romans. The short and imperfect description of the skull,
though insufficient to indicate the race, gives at least evidence
that it differed entirely from the contemporaneous race which
inhabited Denmark and North Germany.

Whilst the discovery of Boucher de Perthes, which directed
attention to the antiquity of man, slowly made its way,
that of Dr. Keller, made at Meilen, near Zurich, in 1853 and
1854, burst upon the world like a thunder-clap. The water
being very low, this circumstance was taken advantage of to
erect some walls for the recovery of a piece of land from the
dried up bottom of the lake. There was seen on the surface
a yellowish, grey mud, about one to two feet thick; below
this, a bed of sandy clay, two to two and a half feet thick, in
which were imbedded the heads of piles and a number of
stone hatchets, clubs, hammers, and flint implements. In-
struments of bone, horn, and wood, rude vessels of unburnt
clay, a bead of amber, a bronze clasp, broken hazelnuts, fir
branches, and finally the roof of a human skull and several
skeletons, were found in this: bed, denominated by Keller ‘the
culture-bed.”” ‘The piles stuck in the old lake bottom, which,
like the uppermost stratum, consisted of light coloured letten,
but contained no other articles. Keller soon perceived the
great importance of his discovery. He saw at once that he
had before his eyes a pre-historical building of a people igno-
rant of the use of metal, and, as regards civilisation, standing
in the same scale as the northern stone-people. No sooner
did this discovery become known, than similar discoveries
were made in Germany, Italy, and France, and we can say
that there exists in the plains of Switzerland, between the
Jura and the Alps, no lake or peat-bog which does not present
traces of such pile-buildings. The zeal with which these in-
vestigations were carried on, has brought many a singular
phenomenon to light, and whilst the reports of F. Keller, of
which the fifth has now appeared, are models of clearness, we
may characterise the huge volume of Troyon (Les Habitations
Lacustres) as a pious novel, resting, like the now favourite

348 LECTURE XII.

historical novels, upon foundations borrowed from Moses’
family chronicle of the Jewish tribes.

Fig. 105. Section of a Pile-work in the Lake.

1, Rocky bottom. 2. Lake. 3. Mud-bed. 4. Whitish-grey-, or old Mud-
bed. 5. Stone-hill of the Stone Period. 6. Culture-bed of the Bronze
Period.

Let us return to the facts. There are pile-works situated
on the shores of the lakes, at some distance from the water,
covered by sand, loam, or calcareous sinter, which have been long
known to fishermen, who attached their nets to them. In some
few spots the water stands thirty feet above the piles furthest in
the lake, but the height of the water is generally much lower.
In the lakes of western Switzerland it has been observed that
those pile-buildings, in which no metal is found, are nearer the
shore and less under water, whilst others, where metal, and
specially bronzes are found, are situated at a greater distance
as well as greater depth.

Fig. 106. Section of a Pile-Building in a Peat-moss.
cs

1. Vegetable earth. 2. Light peat. 8. Thick peat, with old trees at the
bottom. 4. Culture-bed with the piles imbedded in the white bottom. 5.
6. Sand-bed. 7. Coarse gravel, flints. 8. Present lake-level.

The pile-works in the turf-moors are always found in spots,
where formerly a lake existed, which even now shows in the
middle of the moor traces of its former extension. So it is
in Moosseedorf, Wauwyl, Robenhausen on the Pfiffikon lake,

LECTURE XII. 34.9

and many other places. There is usually found upon the bot-
tom of the turf-moor, above the gravel and sand of the old
alluvium, which in some parts of Switzerland contains bones
of the elephant, the so-called white bottom (blanc fond), a
calcareous bed, consisting of snail-shells reduced to powder,
belonging to still existing species. Into this white bottom,
which corresponds to the lower letten of Meilen, the piles are
driven, and at Wauwy]l one pile was found driven ten feet into
the old bed of the lake. Upon this white bottom lies the peat
generally five to six feet thick, but in some spots it reaches
twenty feet. The stone and bone implements of the “ culture-
bed” usually le upon the white bottom under the peat, in
which no trace of antiquities has been found. The broken
bones, the implements, in short, the whole material constitut-
ing the culture-bed, form the lowest stratum of the peat bed.
If relics of the historical period, such as Roman coins, are
found, as at Moosseedorf, they are situated higher up, whilst
those of the middle ages le immediately under the vegetable
earth. The pile-works at Wauwyl consisted of five floors
formed of superimposed rounded beams connected with the
upright piles. The lowest of these floors rests upon the bed
of the lake. The thickness of all the layers amounts to about
three feet. ‘Two separate platforms are frequently connected
by round beams passing from the upper to the lower floor,
leaving channels between them. Neither notches, mortises,
ligatures, or other contrivances were traced, which would have
required more perfect instruments. In some places we are
induced to believe that the platform could easily rise and sink
with the water. The space between the layers of the trees
is filled up with clay and branches. Here and there vertical
piles are found, the top of which is burnt in the shape of a
cone. Upon this terrain, as far as it has been explored, we
are able to trace a rectangular plain 92’ in length and 50’ in
width, which seems to have been covered with platforms of
different heights. Round this square, which may perhaps be
considered as the habitation of a family, are seen frequently
irregular vertical piles without any intervening horizontal
beams.

350 LECTURE XII.

These facts enable us to form some definite deduction regard-
ing the age of the pile-works. The alluvial formation in which,
in certain Swiss districts, are found the remains of the ele-
phant and the rhinoceros, lies beneath the white bottom into
which the piles are driven. It follows, therefore, that the
white bottom must have attained a thickness of several feet
before the pile-works were erected, inasmuch as the piles are
only driven into this layer and not into the gravel. But for
the formation of such a lake-bed, consisting of an enormous
mass of shells, many centuries were requisite, for we know that
though mussels and snails frequently abound in freshwater, still
many years are required for the formation even of a thin bed.
Thus the settlements in Switzerland are much more recent
than the beds of Amiens and the cave beds in which human
remains have been found. Nevertheless, they reach back to a
remote period, which has no history, the age of which may
perhaps be approximatively estimated by the growth of the peat
which has overgrown these pile-works. Hitherto we possessed
no correct standard for the growth of peat. The calculations
hitherto made rest upon no certain foundations, as the up-
heaving of the peat soil has been erroneously taken for its
growth.

The great number of pile-works successively discovered in
Switzerland, though they possess many features in common,
differ specifically with respect to the metals and other imple-
ments found in some of these pile-works. It is undeniable
that in Hast-Switzerland there are numerous pile-works in
which none, or but few, metals are found, whilst on the con-
trary, in West-Switzerland there are many such works which
contain objects of the bronze or both periods, whilst in some
have been found iron tools, and even Roman coins. To draw,
as Troyon has done, a geographical line, is inadmissible, and
some settlements afford clear indications that they have been
inhabited during the whole period and successively enlarged.
Notwithstanding this, we are able to distinguish the stone- from
bronze-period buildings, first by their depth, and secondly by
the modes in which the piles are worked, independently of the
objects found in them. The piles of the stone-period are much

LECTURE XII. ool

thicker than those of the bronze-period; they are mostly
trunks, one foot in diameter, partly incised at the ends, and
forcibly broken off; split trunks are rarely found.

The piles of the bronze-period are much thinner, only about
four inches thick; the trunks are frequently split into four
parts, the tops rise several feet above the ground, whilst those
of the stone-period are hidden by the accumulation of stones.
As far as I know, there has not been discovered any pile-work
overgrown by peat which belongs to the bronze period. Thus,
we may distinguish as belonging to the stone-period the pile-
works at Moosseedorf, Wauwyl, Meilen, Robenhausen, Wan-
gen, and the numerous settlements on the Lake of Constance.
Pile-buildings which continued in unbroken succession from
the stone—through the bronze-period, are those at Concise,
Staffs (Hstavayer), Hageneck, and some other settlements on
the lakes of Bienne and Neufchatel. There are further pile-
works which contain iron-tools, like the celebrated Steinberg
on the Lake of Bienne. There are also numbers of settle-
ments on the lakes of Geneva and Neufchatel, and also near
Sempach, which have only yielded bronzes ; and, finally, there
is one pile-work which has only furnished iron articles, namely,
that of La Téne, near Marin, on the Lake of Neufchatel.

Many of these habitations have undoubtedly been destroyed
by fire, as in some places the burnt piles are still found.
Messikomer concluded from the direction of the scattered
cinders and coals, that at Moosseedorf the fire took place
during a violent storm, like the fire of Glarus. In other set-
tlements there was no trace of fire, and when it is considered
how easily huts and stores built of wood may burn down, we
think archeologists have gone too far when they combine the
introduction of metal with the irruption of a new people, and
thus explain the burning down of the old habitations. <Ac-
cording to Troyon, the pile-works of the stone-period have
been partly burnt down by a people coming from the Hast, who
introduced bronze, but have been repaired and inhabited by
them until another people, also coming from the Hast, the
Helvetians, arrived with iron swords, who, in their turn, burnt
the bronze villages, and also partly re-inhabited them.

302 LECTURE XII.

M. Troyon seems to have discovered the primitive Orsini
shells, clay-balls filled with pitch, which were thrown upon the
pile-works. Keller remarks on this point, “It is a pity that
when Troyon published his Habitations Lacustres, the many
lake stations in which Roman implements are found were
unknown ; he would, doubtless, have proved a third conquest
of the country, and a third burning of the pile-buildings, and
the decimation of the population as the concluding act of
the drama.”

On examining such stations as belong to the stone and
bronze period, it is found that the stone-period pile-work
forms, as it were, the nucleus around which the piles of the
bronze period extend and are progressive in depth. There
are, according to Desor, piles of the bronze period four to six
inches in diameter, thirty feet deep below the mean height of
the water level, which are driven in ten feet into the bed of
the lake. These piles supported platforms, as at Wauwyl,
above the water, and if we assume the height of these plat-
forms at four feet and the imbedding only at six feet, it yields
a total length of forty feet for a pile four inches in diameter,
which must have been driven in through a depth of thirty feet
water. This appears to me no slight task even for an engi-
neer of our own time, but for an architect of the bronze period
a manifest impossibility. We conclude hence, that at the
period of the erection of the stone piles the waters stood as
high as, or even a few feet higher, than at present, but that
they gradually retreated, which forced the pile builders to
follow the water. It is by this subsidence of the waters that
in the smaller lakes many pile-works were exposed, and then
abandoned, after which they were overgrown with peat, which
must have been rather dry as it contained in its lower strata
much wood. The waters rose again at a later period, the pile-
works were submerged in the water or buried under the gradu-
ally accumulating peat. The surface of the water must have
undergone various changes, so that the pile builders were
either obliged to follow the water or to settle on the land.

Possibly the first stone-period buildings or stone hills, as they
might be called, were only artificial islands, like the so-called

AEDES Senge agen 1

SORES Cy air ach er ug grieny andi? 5 HA

LECTURE XII. 353

crannags in Ireland, of which we possess a sample in the
small lake of Inkwyl, near Solothurn, which were used for
fishing and festivals, but rarely for habitations. Some of the
pile-works were no doubt inhabited, at least during a certain
period ; subsequently they were perhaps, as Desor surmises,
used as provision stores. Desor remarks: ‘ It is only neces-
sary to look at the objects found in any station to be convinced
that they have not been wilfully thrown into the water. Pots
filled with provisions are found in some spots, which have
neither fallen m accidentally, nor come there in consequence
of an attack on the proprietors, for in the latter case we should
find some human remains. The bronze articles are nearly
new, the pots entire, the provisions well arranged, and accord-
ing to the opinion of experienced explorers, a rich booty is
only obtained where the piles are burnt. These places were
thus probably magazines which were burnt accidentally ; and
the habitations constructed of brushwood and clay, one of which
was found on the Ebersberg near Zurich, were in the vicinity
of the land.”

I must confess, gentlemen, that since I have visited the
North, this view seems to me much more probable than the
habitation theory. In the North, the water is the high way.
The populations dwelling on the Fjords hold intercourse by
way of water, the stores stand upon piles, and the merchandise
is transferred to the boats and ships from these stores. The
fishermen and the Lapps, who frequently come from a consi-
derable distance, cook, eat, and sleep upon the wooden piers
which surround these stores. It is not improbable that, at
the earliest period, the conditions were similar in Switzer-
land. Most of the roads along the lakes have only been made
very recently, so that even down to our own century the inha-
bitants of the shores could only hold communication by means
of boats.

It is very possible to trace in the industry and the whole
condition of these pile populations a progressive civilisation.
Thus the implements on the lake of Constance are very rude
and clumsy in shape, whilst some of the objects of Concise
will bear comparison with some of the best finished articles

AA

304 LECTURE XII.

found in the north. Concise also shows a greater richness in
domestic animals, specially a peculiar stock of cow, which has
not been found in the east. An antiquary once told me, that
the inhabitants of one district were probably peasants, whilst
the others belonged to an industrial aristocracy. This dif-
ference may depend either on the locality or on the periods,
which are, however, not distinctly separate, but merely indi-
cate slow and progressive civilisation. Notwithstanding the
scantiness of the materials, it must be admitted that culture had
attained a certain development, bearing testimony to the acute-
ness, energy, and endurance of this primitive people. They
knew how to work the stone without metal tools, and to use it
according to its nature for different purposes. Thus the harder
molasse served for whetstones and handmills; the serpentine,
for hammers and hatchets. The hard pebbles served for cutting
tools. Several kinds of stones were imported from a distance,
flints from the chalk beds of France, perhaps also nephrite from
the East. With regard to this substance, which is but rarely
met with in Switzerland, there prevail great doubts. Though
nephrite is now imported from the East, it is not known in
what part it is most abundant. It is, moreover, by no means
certain whether the hatchets made, according to antiquaries,
of nephrite, are really constructed of this mineral, and not
rather of an exceptionally hard serpentine, or a tough felspar,
which Saussure formerly called jade. It is also possible that,
in the conglomerates which contain so many stones foreign
to the north side of the Alps (as, for instance, porphyry), this
material of Swiss so-called nephrite-hatchets may yet be
found. It is very desirable that all minerals used by the
pile builders should be more carefully studied than they
hitherto have been. An analysis of this kind has taught us
the mode by which the erratic blocks have been carried by the
glaciers down into the valleys, and in this way we may obtain
some clue as to the mode in which the pile builders communi-
cated with other peoples.

It belongs to a special branch of archzeology to trace the mode
of working the mineral; how it was fastened to a handle of
wood or staghorn, how the wood was split and carved, how the

LECTURE XII. 305

bones were fashioned into arrow-heads, needles, hooks ; how
the teeth were perforated to serve as ornaments. It is of par-
ticular interest for us to know that the pile-builders were not
only cattle-breeders, and had domesticated several races, but
became also in process of time agriculturists. The chase was,
no doubt, at first, the principal means of obtaining food, but
gradually vegetable food supplanted a purely animal diet. I
shall quote the remarks of Professor Heer, in every respect a
competent judge, on the agriculture of our pile-builders, as
published in Keller’s report, and also Riitimeyer’s investiga-
tions concerning the domestic animals.

“Wheat is most common, having been found at Meilen,
Moosseedorf, and Wangen ; in the latter place many whole ears
were found, as well as heaps of grain. The grains are free
from husk, and of the same form and size as our present
wheat. Lars of the six-rowed barley (Hordeum hexastichon),
differing from common barley (Hordewm vulgare, W.) by the
number of rows and smaller size of the grains, were numerous.
According to Alph. de Candolle, the six-rowed barley was the
species most cultivated in antiquity (by the Egyptians, Greeks,
and Romans). In the ears of Wangen, the longest and best
preserved ear has ten to eleven grains in a row. The grains are
smaller, shorter, and nearer to each other than that now grown.
They are (without the husk) two-and-a-half lines long, and
scarcely one-and-a-half line broad, whilst that now grown has
grains of a length of three lines, and has almost the same
breadth.

“The cereals were probably kept in large clay vessels, of
which many fragments are found. ‘These buildings were pro-
bably destroyed by fire, so that the cereals became carbonised,
which conduced to their preservation in the wet mud. All the
cereals of that remote period are in a carbonised state, and,
when cleaned from the mud, present a shining black colour.
We thus perceive that the above cereals have been cultivated
in our country much earlier than has been generally supposed.
It is, moreover, known how the cereals were prepared for
alimentation. As these peoples had no mills, they used round
smoothed stones, between which the corn was crushed, hence

AA2

306 LECTURE XIz.

these stones are called corn-crushers. They are found in
large quantities in almost all lake villages. The grains were
probably first roasted, then crushed, and put into pots, after
which the mass was moistened, and then eaten. This mode of
preparing cereals was found in use among the natives of the
Canary Islands at the time of the Spanish conquest. The
Spaniards adopted and have preserved it to this day, The
grain is first roasted im ovens, then crushed, and kept in goat-
skins. This gofio, as the prepared meal is called, still consti-
tutes the bread of the common people of the Canaries, and
may be considered as the oldest mode of preparing cereals,
Hence, amongst ancient peoples roasted barley is a sacred cereal,
which plays an important part in all sacrifices.

The rearing of plants pre-supposes the cultivation of the
soil; how this was effected is unknown to us, as no agricul-
tural implements have been found in the oldest settlements.
Crooked tree-branches were probably used as ploughs; how
the cattle were fed we know not.

“« Horticulture reaches as far back as agriculture. Carbon-
ised apples and pears were found; they are cut into two, rarely
into four slices, manifestly to serve as a provision in winter.
The pears found in Wangen are a kind of forest pears, called
‘achras,’ and of small size. Apples are much more common
not only in Wangen, but in Robenhausen, on the Pfaffiken
Lake, and at Concise, on the Neufchatel Lake. They all agree
in size and form, are perfectly round, with large cores and
long stalks, which were not found attached to the apples, but
near them. Several kinds of apples grow in our forests which
agree with the smallest sorts found in the pile-works. Whether
these trees were at that period cultivated, or whether the fruit
was gathered from the forest trees, cannot easily be determined.”

Professor Heer is inclined to adopt the former view, because
among the trunks intended to be cut for blocks there were
some of apple trees. We should consider this as a proof to
the contrary, inasmuch as a tree cultivated for the fruit it bears
is not used for other purposes. Professor Heer is further of
opinion that the cereals and the fruit trees have been obtained
from an Asiatic people, and that the fruits had degenerated

a
Pt
<
,

LECTURE XII. 307

in our forests. It appears to me that the experiments made
by Faber to transform a species of grass (4/gilops) into wheat
sufficiently indicate that cereals may easily have origmated in
our country, instead of having been impojted from Asia. All
deductions as to the importation of cereals and fruit from Asia
are made from what happened at later periods, when, no doubt,
the better species, but not the originals of these cultivated
plants were introduced. If indeed cereals, and apples and
pears, had been imported from Asia, we cannot understand why
hemp and the vine, which certainly are natives of Asia Minor,
were not introduced at the same time. A stimulating and intox1i-
cating fruit like the grape would certainly have been preferred
to crab-apples. ‘ Stones of the wild plum and Prunus
padus,” continues Heer, “seeds of raspberries and blackberries,
shells of hazel and beech nuts, are met with in abundance in
the mud, showing that these forest fruits served as food. The
aliment of these peoples thus consisted of cereals, fruit, fish,
game, and domestic animals; and, no doubt, the milk of the
latter was also made use of. The cheese obtained from the
milk was probably put into pots, and placed in a chimney-flue.
Pots are found perforated at the bottom: these could not have
been used for containing fluids, but were adapted for the pre-
servation of cheese, allowing the whey to escape. In the Swiss
cottages the cheese is frequently wrapped up in linen rags, and
hung up in the flue to dry; there the pots were used instead
of lmen. However great the resemblance of the bread of the
pile-works to carbonised bread, there would still be some
doubts were they not removed by remnants of the bran and
the well-preserved wheat grains in the pieces. ‘The bran was
not removed, and the grains but imperfectly crushed. The
whole mass was probably kneaded, and baked between heated
stones. Judging from the crust, the bread had probably a
disc-shape; it had small pores much smaller than in our
wheaten bread, reminding us of rye bread; but no rye has as
yet been found in the pile-works, nor did the people understand
how to make the dough rise.”

Finally, the pile-builders cultivated to a great extent the
short flax still grown in North-western Switzerland, and

308 LECTURE XII.

manufactured of it not only thread, lines, and ropes, but by
means, probably, of a very simple loom, various textures, as
well as mattings. Hemp was unknown to them, another proof
against the introduction of cultivated plants from the East.
They may have used skins, but the preparation of leather
seems to have been unknown, as but few badly-preserved
pieces are found in the pile-buildings. Boats made from
single large trunks prove that they navigated the rivers and
lakes, whilst the position of the pile-buildings on the lakes
shows that they were acquainted with the prevailing winds.

That the introduction of metals, though it took place very
gradually, must have been productive of an essential progress
in civilisation is clear enough. But what has been stated con-
cerning the stone-period shows that we have to do with a race
capable of every mental effort—a race which effected with
small means all that acuteness, patience, and industry could
effect. The analysis of the remains of a skull of Meilen, the
only one found in a pile-work belonging to the stone-period,
confirms this view. ‘The piece consists of the roof of the cra-
nium, the frontal bone, the parietal bone, the occipital squama,
and a fragment of the temporal bone ; the lower part of the skull
and face and all the facial bones are wanting. The dimensions
of the parts agree exactly with those of the present Swiss
skull of a youth; it belongs evidently to the same stock and
the same race. It is also remarkable that this cranial type
persists through all subsequent periods, though other cranial
types from the pre-Roman period down to the middle ages and
the present time coalesce with it.

No trace of a copper age, which, according to some arche-
ologists, always precedes that of bronze, has hitherto been
found in Switzerland. The copper for Swiss bronzes has
undoubtedly been obtained from Alpine copper-ore, that is to
say, on the spot, as, according to Fellenberg’s researches, it
contains nickel, which always occurs in these ores, but is
absent im northern bronzes. Since in eastern Europe, espe-
cially in the Lower Danube districts, copper implements
abound, the bronze cannot have been imported from the Hast,
otherwise copper would also have been imported ; nor would

LECTURE XII. 359

they have fetched tin from foreign parts for the purpose of
alloying it with copper. The alloy with tin, and the discovery
of pieces of chemically pure tin, indicate rather Belgium and
Cornwall as the countries where bronze was invented.

Fig. 107. Skull of Meilen, top view, after a drawing by Professor His.

re

Fig. 108. The same Skull in Profile.

Since the discovery of pile-works in Switzerland many simi-
lar discoveries have been made in other parts.
I consider those found in Italy to possess peculiar interest.

360 LECTURE XII.

Those discovered by Gastaldi and Strobel testify that also in
the ancient district of civilisation there existed in pre-historical
times a stone and a bronze period, of which the oldest Italhan
authors and the Romans had not the least idea. My friend
Desor justly observes, that garrulous Pliny, who had a villa on
the Lake of Como in the immediate vicinity of such pile-
works, would certainly have noticed them had any tradition
respecting them existed among the people. But every trace of
such a tradition had already disappeared when the Etruscan
pre-Roman civilisation unfolded its blossoms in Italy. Iregret
that I cannot enter into further particulars with regard to
Italian researches, which have furnished us with relics and
skulls from the stone and bronze periods, and well deserve an
attentive study.

Attempts have been made to determine the period in which
the pile-works of the stone period have been erected ; but, as
we have already observed, it is impossible to find in tradition
and legend any starting points leading to historical dates. It
is, therefore, only feasible to proceed as in geology, namely,
by taking into account the relative position of the strata.
Whilst in historical chronology years, months, and days are to
be determined, geological chronology lays no claim to such
exactness, as it embraces periods of time in which such dates
are mere vanishing points. Still, attempts of this kind deserve
acknowledgment, though they repose upon a fluctuating basis,
and yield results which cannot be determined exactly within
thousands of years.

Morlot was the first who made such an attempt. In the
vicinity of Villeneuve, on the lake of Geneva, the mound
formed by a torrent, la Tiniére, was opened in a railway cut-
ting one thousand feet in length and thirty-two and a half feet
deep. The internal structure was thus laid bare, and appeared
perfectly regular. In the centre lie large rolled blocks, some
as much as three feet in diameter; on both sides the alluvial
material becomes thinner and finer. Three layers of vegetable
soil were cut through at different depths, which must at one
time have formed the surface of the cone; they were inter-
posed at regular intervals, between the alluvium, parallel to
each other and the present surface of the cone.

LECTURE XiIt. 361

The upper layer was 4—6 inches thick, and about four fect
below the present surface ; in it were found angular pieces
of Roman tiles, and an obliterated Roman bronze coin.

The second layer was six inches thick, and lay at a depth
of ten feet; it contained some fragments of unvarnished clay
mixed with sand and a tweezer made of bronze.

The lowest layer was about 6—7 inches thick, at a depth
of nineteen feet. In it were rude pottery, pieces of charcoal,
broken animal bones, a collection which indicates the stone
period, though certainly the end of it, as Riitimeyer, after an
examination of the bones, believes that they belong to a later
period than the stone epoch. “ Besides numerous remains of
man,” says Riitimeyer, “ there were some of the domesticated
dog, pig, sheep, and cow, perfectly resembling the present
species, but differing widely from those of the stone period.
It was not merely the recent aspect of these bones, but the
great difference between these races of dogs and swine and
those of the pile-works, which testifies that these bones are
later additions to the relics of primitive human industry.” No
stone or horn implements were found, which might have
thrown some light on this point.

Morlot’s calculation is founded on the regularity of the
structure of the above cone, and the uniformity of its growth.
The Romans, he observes, came into the country fifty-eight
years before Christ, after the battle of Bibracte. In the year
563, after Christ, Tauredunum was destroyed by the fall of a
mountain, and already, a century before, the Burgundians,
who did not burn their bricks, had put an end to Roman do-
-minion. The Roman layer is, therefore, at the utmost eighteen
centuries, and at least thirteen centuries old. Assuming now
that the torrent had since that time deposited about four feet
(1,14 meter), and that this accumulation proceeded from the
remotest time at a uniform rate, we obtain for the bronze-
bed an antiquity of at least twenty-nine, and at most of forty-
two centuries ; for the stone period, a period of at least forty-
seven, and at most seventy centuries; and for the whole cone,
about one hundred centuries.

I must here observe, that in the layer of the stone period

362 LECTURE XII.

a human skeleton was found, with a very small, thick, and round
skull, which, from the measurements of a M. Montagne, is
said to have presented the type of a brachycephalic Mongol
skull. I have, unfortunately, been unable to learn anything of
the fate of this skull, and as far as I know, my colleagues His
and Riitimeyer are equally in the dark on this subject.

Pruner-Bey lately published in the bulletins of the Paris
Anthropological Society some details concerning this skull, -
apparently in his possession, which I must notice here.

“ The skull,” says Pruner-Bey, “measures 129 millimeters in
length, the thickest part of the roof measuring 12 millimeters
in diameter; the forehead is absent, it flies off behind the
orbital arches, which are much developed, as in the ape. As
the superior orbital ridge is quite straight, we may conclude
that the external angle of the eyelids was drawn up as in the
Chinese. Orbits very wide; frontal bones very narrow ; nasal
bones projecting ; superior jaw drawn forward ; surface of the
molars flattened by wear; large and wide foramen magnum
placed much forward ; flattened articular head ; auditory
meatus of fair diameter ; nasal fosse very thick ; occipital
squama rounded with very projecting ridges for the attachment
of muscles ; cerebellar cavities very broad and deep.

“ Remark. Sight and smell seem to have been power-
fully developed in this individual; and if the cerebellum be
connected with muscular activity, he must have been very
nimble.

«“This shortheaded type is even at present found among the
populations inhabiting the banks of the Lake of Geneva and
the Rhone, and Von Baer found it very prevalent among the
population of the Grisons. There we come to ancient Rheetia,
which leads by the gorges and southern declivities of the Alps
down to Htruria.”

I have cited this note in order to show how little science is
served by such descriptions. There is, in fact, here not a
single character applicable in any way to those Helvetian
skulls known to us as decided types of brachycephaly. Unless
there be a misprint in the longitudinal measure, the skull
measured by Pruner-Bey must be that of an idiot or a child,

LECTURE XII. 363

for all skulls measured by Von Baer and myself have a longitu-
dinal diameter of at least 170 millimeters. In all the Romanic
(Helvetian) skulls I have seen, amounting to several hundreds,
the forehead rises almost perpendicularly, whilst the supraci-
lary arches are scarcely developed, and the frontal bone is at
least in the posterior region very wide, and presents only, as
Von Baer remarks, a local constriction behind the eyes. The
occipital squama descends also almost perpendicularly, its
muscle ridges are but little developed, and the foramen mag-
mum is, on the contrary, placed farther back, whilst the arti-
cular surfaces are much projecting. This backward position of
the foramen magnum is so great that Von Baer considers it as
a decided approach to the animal form.

The notice of Pruner-Bey does not even afford a certain
indication whether the said skull, from the alluvial cone of the
Tiniére, near Villeneuve, is really a short head, as the trans-
verse diameter is not mentioned at all. But all the other
characters are so opposed to those of the well-known Romanic
(Helvetian) skulls, that I must decidedly reject Pruner-Bey’s
unfounded inferences as to their supposed similarity.

I must here add, that in other passages Pruner-Bey compares
a Helvetian skull to that of Meilen, which, as we have seen,
has nothing in common with the Romanic cranial type. I very
much doubt whether by this Helvetian cranium he meant that
of Tiniére, for there the following measurements are given for
this Helvetian skull:—Length, 195 millimetres; width, 145 ;
which would give for the head-measure 74:3, corresponding
to that of what we have termed “ apostle-heads.”” It is indeed
difficult for an unprejudiced person to find the guiding thread
in this Pruner-Beyish labyrinth.

Such calculations are open to various objections. Despite
of all apparent regularity, the deposits of a mountain torrent
are never quite regular. One single flood, in consequence of a
storm, may bring more material than will be deposited regu-
larly in long periods, and this material will be deposited accord-
ing to its gravity on the sides as regularly as that gradually
accumulating. The computation as regards the Roman bed,
which forms the basis of the whole calculation, is as ques-

364. LECTURE XII.

tionable as that of the stone-period, the bones of which are
certainly of a more recent date.

Gilliéron, who discovered in the vicinity of the Zihl-bridge,
near Neufchitel, a pile-work of the stone-period, arrived at
similar results. The “ culture bed” has a thickness of at least
five feet, and lies below a layer of black mud, above which is a
bed of loam about five and a half feet thick, in which many
freshwater snails are found. The pile-work, which is visible
in the Zihl when the water is very low, was in the vicinity of
the spot where the former connection between the Neufchatel
and Biel Lake is narrowest, and amounts to at most 400
metres. The lakes, according to Gilli¢éron, retreated slowly,
and the intervening space through which now the Zihl flows
was gradually filled up by moss and peat.

This retreat, no doubt, took place very slowly, as the fine
alluvial mud is everywhere regularly levelled and stratified. If
now we were enabled to find an historical standard of this re-
treat, it might be applied to the whole distance from the pile
work to the Biel Lake, a distance of 12,800 Swiss feet, which
Gilliéron only estimates at three kilometres. But in the vicinity
of the Biel Lake (Lake of Bienne) was built the old Abbey of
St. John between 1090 and 1106, so we may assume the date
1100. A document, prepared a century later, grants to the
conyent the right of fishery from the poplars growing on the
shore of the lake, but which poplars no longer exist. At
present the convent is 375 metres distant from the shore.
Gilliéron now assumes that the Abbey was built near the water,
and that this distance affords a measure for the alluvia accu-
mulated within 750 years. For greater certainty, he does not
measure the distance from the convent to the pile-work, but
to the point from which the lake regularly retreated, and,
assuming the distance to be 38,000 metres, he calculates
that 6,000 years at least were required for the retreat of
the lake.

I say at least 6,000 years, for the assumption that the con-
vent was built on the margin of the lake is incorrect, but that
the convent people built at some distance from the lake, and
that the poplars, though nearer the water, were also planted

ey 2

LECTURE XII. 365

at some distance as a protection against the north-east wind,
which throws the waves far up the shore. But if the basis
upon which the computation rests becomes narrower, by the
assumption that convent and poplars stood at some distance
from the water, the time which the lake required to retreat is
increased in an inverse ratio. Assuming that the poplars
stood at the edge of the water, about 100 meters from the
convent, the lake was within seven centuries only filled up
275 meters, and required 8,00() years for its retreat; and,
assuming 200 metres distance between the poplars and the
convent, which might be supported by the mention made of
the poplars in the document on fishing, which poplars stood at
some distance, we obtasn 13,000 years for the retreat of the
lake. At all events, the assumption of the least of the above
periods again shows that the Biblical Adam and his chronology
falls, between the piles, into the water.

An attempt to save the chronology must be made, and pious
M. Troyon does not shrink from attempting it. In the vicinity
of Yverdun is seen, in the middle of the peat, a rocky island
about 400 feet high, called the Chamblon, at the foot of which,
about eight to ten feet below the peat, was discovered a pile-
work with stone hatchets. The distance between the pile-work
and the lake is, according to Troyon, 5,500 feet. Yverdun, the
Roman Eburodunum, is built upon a dune extending over the
turf. According to Troyon, the lake is said in the Roman
period to have washed the town; at present it is 2,500 feet
distant from it. A simple comparison shows that if the lake
has in 1,500 years retired 2,400 feet, it must have required
3,300 years to retire from the pile work, and so Biblical
chronology is saved.

Unfortunately there are also sceptics in the faithful Canton
of Vaud, and a M. Jayet, who for many years has inhabited
and explored the above district, finds but little difficulty in
upsetting the whole of this orthodox computation.

“The peat in the vicinity of Chamblon,”’ says Jayet, “ pre-
sents a rare peculiarity ; it is divided into two layers, which are
separated by a thick stratum of mud, evidently deposited by
the lake. The piles found in the upper peat layer are em-

366 LECTURE XII.

bedded in this mud. The pile-works thus belong to an older
period than the upper peat, and to a later period: than the
lower peat with its mud covering. It is just this lower
peat bed which is connected with the lake formations of the
plains.

“Tf, then, the calculation of M. Troyon be correct, both the
formations which he compares should be of the same kind,
which is not the case. Nothing is more simple than the
formation of the sandy alluvia between Yverdun and the lake,
which are formed by the sand brought by the streamlets to the
lake, and which the billows cast upon the low banks; nothing,
on the other hand, is more complicated than the plain between
Chamblon and the lake. To the alluvia which first raised and
filled the bed of the lake, three successively formed dunes, and
two peat beds, have been added, which are separated from
each other by a layer of mud. This complicated stratification
required a much longer time, and the thirty-three centuries of
M. Troyon are quite inadequate for the chronology of the
pile works.”

I must here add, that the calculations of Troyon and Gil-
liéron are founded upon an erroneous basis. It is impossible
to calculate the time of the retreat from the horizontal distance ;
it is the vertical distance which is to be attended to. Let us
imagine a flat lake-basin a few kilometers in length, gradually
drying up. Around this lake are certain structures. The
surface of the water having sunk two feet, a space one kilo-
meter in diameter is dried up at one end. A structure is now
raised near the present water level. ‘The lake sinks again two
feet, and in one thousand years the last structure is a kilo-
meter from the shore. But the lake-basin is narrow ; and of
the older structures, situated two feet higher, it would only be
the most distant which would furnish a correct result in cal-
culating its age—all others would yield a false date, as they
lie 800, 600, or perhaps only 100 meters in a horizontal dis-
tance from the recent structures. Gulliéron would thus obtain
a different result were he to found his calculation upon the
nearer Neufchatel lake, and Troyon would, for a pile-work on
the southern bank of Chamblon, instead of the northern, have

ainda

LECTURE XII, 367

obtained a result which would have thrown the age of this
second pile-work far beyond the time of the Biblical Adam.

The only trustworthy basis for computation, is the vertical
increase of the peat in the districts where pile-works are buried
in the peat. For this we have at present unfortunately no
starting points ; my inquiries on this point of many naturalists
have not yielded any important fact in this respect.

I cannot, however, leave this subject without presenting you
with a short summary of the absurdities in which man becomes
entangled when he attempts to force the facts furnished by
nature into the narrow frame of the Jewish family chronicle.
I take the book of Troyon (Les Habitations Lacustres), and
summarise thus. After the deluge, the peoples of Asia com-
mence their march to populate the whole earth. No doubt,
the art of building upon the water was first invented in the
dry highlands of Asia. The first settlers, the post-diluvial
squatters, sprung from the blood of Japhet, naturally march
along river-valleys and the coasts. They bring with them large
herds of domesticated animals. The travellers on the coast
are frequently stopped by the mouths of the rivers; the tra-
vellers in the valleys are delayed by marshes or rocks. The
land must be explored, and the domesticated animals must be
protected from the wild beasts.* They therefere made them-
selves rafts for protection.t Such a raft having been built,
it is not readily abandoned, as it forms a refuge for the old and
young. ‘They have, therefore, rafts which are fixed when they
have a stoppage. ‘ From rafts,” says Saint Troyon, “ to ship-
building is certainly a wide leap; but the old tradition of the
deluge, and the ark of Noah which floated upon the waters, had
been preserved, and this tradition gave hints as to the fasten-
ing of the trunks requisite for constructing a raft. Ifa family
abandoned a migratory life, the raft acquired the character of
a permanent habitation. But where the waves proved too
strong, the people naturally hit upon the idea of changing the

* That these wild beasts, which also came from the ark of Noah, should

_ have spread more rapidly than privilezed man, and should have threatened

him in his resting places, I cannot well understand.—C. V.
+ How could these rafts protect them from the ice-bears and phoce, which
_ are excellent swimmers, and were also in the ark of Noah.—C. V.

368 LECTURE XII.

raft into a platform raised on piles above the water, so that
the billows could not reach it, and this is the origin of the
pile-works.”

Thus the squatters travel leisurely from east to west, from
Asia to Europe, along the coasts and up the rivers. It is,
however, thinks Troyon, difficult to say whether the first mha-
bitants of Switzerland ascended the Rhone or passed over the
Rhine. We much fear that this question will remain unsolved,
but we should like to know how these clumsy rafts could have
ascended a river, which feat, between Seyssel and Geneva,
cannot be effected by steamers. But as faith removes moun-
tains, rafts can no doubt ascend the Rhone.

There is another hard nut for Bible believers to crack,
namely the knowledge of metals. The stone people of Europe
knew of no metal. But Tubalcain, the Biblical Vulcan, was
an artificer in brass and iron before the Mosaic deluge, and
as, according to the sage remark of Troyon, man must acquire
by labour all that is requisite for his comfort, he cannot have
commenced with being a blacksmith. “But,” continues M.
Troyon, “‘we need only imagine these first migrations towards
the West, to comprehend how a people can lose the knowledge
of metals. There is no doubt that these families, at their
departure from Asia, possessed metallic instruments, but their
nomadic life did not permit them to work mines, to establish
forges, or to acquire the social organisation requisite for dif-
ferent handicrafts. The further these families penetrated into

unknown regions, the ways behind them were cut off, and *

they were no longer able to communicate with the centres of
Oriental civilisation.”” Thus the poor people necessarily forgot
the working of metal and had recourse to stones.

At a later period came the Bronze people, also from Asia,
and killed their unfortunate predecessors, burnt their huts,
and established themselves, worshipping the moon. ‘There
were discovered some pieces of clay or stone in the form of a
crescent belonging to the Bronze period; these, it was said,
indicated raoon worship. ‘These things were perhaps only
head-pillows, for many people even now use a crescent-shaped
block of wood or stone for a pillow.

ae

LECTURE XII. 369

But the Bronze people* were also punished for their forget-
fulness. Tubal-Cain was an artificer in brass and iron, and
the Hebrew word “Barsal”? in Genesis means iron, and no
other metal. Thus Noah’s brother, and the whole family of
Noah, were acquainted with brass (bronze) and iron. The
Stone people forgot during their migrations both metals, and
used horn and stone. They kept their nephrite hatchets, but
threw away their bronze knives and iron hatchets, and forgot
their use. The Bronze people kept their bronze knives, but
cast away the iron tools and forgot their use. That was a
great misfortune; for, after having long dwelt in the habita-
tions of their forgetful Stone brothers, the vengeance of God
came over them, for the bigheaded Helvetians, also from Asia,
came over them, slew them, and burnt them out.

O sancta simplicitas !

* Tt is scarcely necessary to remind the reader that bronze-people, stone-
people, stone-skulls, are mere abbreviations for peoples and skulls belonging
to the bronze or stone period.—Ep1ror.

LECTURE XIII

Distinctive Characters of the Cavern- and Stone-Period. Skulls of Den-
mark.—Arching of the Forehead.—Apostle-Skulls of Switzerland, and
their Age.—The Jaw of Moulin-Quignon.—Skulls of Lombrive compared
with those of the present Basques.—Danish Stone-Skulls compared with
the present Lapps.—Skull of Meilen.—Relation to the present Swiss
Skulls.—Romanic Short-Heads.—Relation to the Etruscans.—The Oldest
Domestic Animals.—The Dog.—Swine.—Wild Hog, and Marsh-Hog.—
Horned Cattle: Urus, Wisent, long-fronted, and curved-horned Cattle.—
The Sheep.—The Goat.—The Horse.—Cultivated Plants.

GENTLEMEN,—We considered in a preceding Lecture the
conditions under which the primitive man existed in Europe.
In arriving at the conclusion that he co-existed with the
extinct animals of the so-called diluvial period, reaching far
beyond any historical data, we, at the same time, obtained
the result, at least as regards the oldest skulls, that such
cranial formations as those of Engis and the Neanderthal, are
at present no longer met with in European races. A cursory
comparison of later skulls of the South of France, and of the
sepulchres of the stone period of Denmark, equally showed
that those parts must have been inhabited by other races,
whose cranial formation differs so much from those first men-
tioned, that a descent in the direct line is hardly conceivable.
We intend to-day to pursue this inquiry, and endeavour to
trace the connection of these various phenomena, aided by an
examination of domestic animals and their development.

I have already observed that the distinguishing character of
the two cave-skulls les in the extraordinary length of the
whole skull, in the comparatively small width which falls
behind the region of the parietal prominences, and in the
peculiarly attached occiput, which in one of these skulls,
viewed from above, presents almost a straight line of the
lambdoidal suture, whilst, in the other, this line presents the

-

Ns mi,

92

LECTURE XIII. 371

usual triangular form. A minute examination of the two
skulls led me to conclude that they belong to the same race,

Fig. 109. Neander-Skull, top view.

= ZE

372 LECTURE XIII.

though the development of the supraciliary ridges, and the
arching of the cranial roof, seemed to present at the first
glance great differences.

With regard to the formation of the supraciliary ridges, the
prominence of which, though not always, yet in this case de-
pends on the dimensions of the frontal sinuses ; there is no
doubt that they are also usually connected with the greater
development of the crests, ridges, and muscular force in general,
and are thus an attribute of the male sex. Professor Schaaff-
hausen cites numerous examples which prove that this connec-
tion exists both in animals and man. It will be found in
living persons that the imperceptible transition of the forehead
into the supraorbital margins is chiefly seen in women, whilst
the projecting eyebrows, frequently separated from the fore-
head by a deep groove, is peculiar to muscular males. The
same observations may be made on old skulls in which the

Fig. 111. Skull of Borreby, Denmark (Stone-Period), side view, after Busk.

development of the supraorbital prominences greatly differs,
though all other characters are perfectly identical. Thus,
Professor His, of Basle, communicates to me the interesting

LECTURE XIII. 373

case of two old skulls found in a Waadtland (Vaud) grave, which,
as may be inferred from the surrounding bones, belonged the one
to a male, the other to a female ; the male skull had remarkably
prominent supraciliary arches, whilst in the female skull the
forehead was quite smooth without prominent ridges.

Mr. Busk has kindly sent me a list of the measurements of
twenty Danish skulls of the stone-period, with many other
perfectly exact drawings. Proceeding on the principle that
the female skull is smaller than the male skulls, I discarded
from the list as female skulls all such as exhibited the smallest
longitudinal diameter. I now compared the figures, and
found that those which I had put aside as female skulls had
smooth foreheads, whilst the male skulls possessed prominent
supraorbital ridges, some of them to such an extent, that
they might be placed side by side with the Neander skull,
whilst the skull marked by Busk as a female skull presented
no trace of any protuberance, and in the flattening of the
supraciliary arches exceeds even the Engis skull. It is, more-
ever, known that in monkeys, which are distinguished by the
size of the supraciliary arches, the latter are only developed
with advancing age, which is also the case in man. As
now the female skull always preserves a certain amount of
the characters of the child, so that the male skull, about
puberty, scarcely differs from the adult female skull, this cir-
cumstance is equally in favour of my view, according to which
the development of the supraciliary arches ought not to be
considered as a race,—but as an individual and sexual cha-
racter. I must, however, qualify this assertion so far, that I do
not mean to insist that such an enormous projection of the
supraciliary arches as those in the Neander skull can occur in
all races. But wherever there exists in any race a tendency to
such a projection, it will only be met with in males, and per-
haps exceptionally in some masculine women, with a strongly
developed muscular system, but not in typical women.

The second essential difference between the Engis and the
Neander skull consists in the arching of the forehead and the
roof of the cranium. The Neander skull is so flat, that it
might belong to an idiot; the Engis skull, on the contrary,

374. LECTURE XIII.

though it presents a low, narrow, and but little capacious fore-
head, might still, according to Huxley’s opinion, have belonged
to a naturalist. But on carefully examining the general out-
line which both skulls show as regards the curvature, we find
that it agrees to a considerable extent.

Fig. 112. Neander-Skull.

This line ascends gently and uniformly from the frontal pro-
minence to the vertex, which les further back, nearly above
the mastoid process. From this vertical spot the curve de-
scends backwards in the same oblique line. The mode of
formation is exactly the same in both, though the height of
the arch is much greater in the Engis skull. But these pecu-
liarities find their analogues when we compare larger series of
skulls of both sexes belonging to the same race.

Re al a) en

bi
~
.
=

LECTURE XUI. 375

Professor Huxley has very justly drawn attention to the
fact, that the arching of the forehead and the skull greatly
varies in Australians, and it does not appear to me by any
means improbable that in the lower races, where the long and
flat skull of the adult must be developed out of the roundish and
arched skull of the child, the female has a skull higher arched
though narrower than that of the male. The drawings of
Busk lead to the same result; all the male skulls without ex-
ception stand, as regards the arching of the forehead and the
skull, far behind the female skulls which come from the same
locality and belong to the race of the stone period.

Fig. 114. Skull of an Austral-Negro, after Lucae, side view.

It has been generally asserted that among the present Hu-
ropean cranial forms, there was not one which any way ap-
_proached that of the above cave skulls; and, in point of fact,
the Dutch only show a distant approximation, inasmuch as they
possess the longest skulls in Europe. I was, therefore, not a
httle surprised to find, in the Anatomical Museum of Berne, the
roof of a cranium, ticketed as having been found near Biel,
which Professor Valentin placed at my disposal, and which, on
examination, might be pronounced the twin brother of the
Neander skull! The projecting supraciliary ridge, the de-
pression in the forehead, the flat ascending arch of the

376 LECTURE XIII.

cranium, the backward vertex, with its steep declivity towards
the neck, were all present ; the length was nearly the same,
the width less, so that this cranium is the smallest known to

Fig. 115. Skull in the Museum of Bern, top view.

me. Viewed from above, the form is the same, though the
bones of the Bernese skull are all smaller and thinner. The
anterior frontal prominence is transversely cut off, and the
occiput projects in such a manner that we have the figure of a
drawn-out pentagon with a posterior rounded apex. It was
evident that I had before me the roof of a cranium which
belonged to the same race-type, and as regards form and size,
was intermediate between the Engis and Neander skull.

You may easily imagine that this circumstance puzzled me
not a little, and that I spared no trouble to discover some
particulars as to the finding of this skull, which has been for
more than thirty years in the collection of the museum. My
endeavours were fruitless. The Bernese skull remained a
riddle as regards the place of its discovery. The old ticket put
upon it, probably by Albrecht Meckel, pointed out its resem-
blance to the skull of a Dutchman born at Leyden, and deli-
neated by Blumenbach.

LECTURE XIII. Bd

On comparing the drawings of many skulls from old graves
and pile-works of Switzerland made by Prof. His, we both
were struck with the resemblance of some of these long skulls
to my Bernese skull.

Fig. 116. Long-Skull of Hohberg, near Solothurn, after a drawing by His.

Sean —————

One of these skulls was in Basle; another had been dug out
by Hugi, twenty years ago, in Hohberg, about three miles
from Solothurn ; a third belonged to the collection of Colonel
Schwab in Biel, and was found in a pile-work on the lake.

We had now some starting points for further inquiries. A
journey to Biel and Solothurn furnished us with further par-
ticulars, and gave us at the same time an opportunity of
examining about two dozen old skulls, which Dr. Schild had
dug out at Grenchen, and presented by him to the museum
of Solothurn, the director of which, Prof. Lang, had the kind-
ness to place them at my disposal. Even among these Swiss
skulls of Grenchen, there were, by the side of broad Swiss
skulls of the present type, two narrow skulls which I studied.

The archeological question was soon solved by M. Amiet,
the learned town clerk of Solothurn. The graves opened by
Hugi, in the Hohberg, contained large ear-rings and bracelets
of bronze, strings of amber beads, and light blue opaque glass
pearls, iron swords, one with a silver ring and an old inscrip-
tion signifying, according to Professor Mommsen of Ziirich,

378° LECTURE XIII.

Renatus. These graves belong, according to Amiet, from
their contents, undoubtedly to the end of the Roman period,
that is to say, to the end of the fourth or beginning of the
fifth century, about which time Christianity was introduced in
Switzerland.

A similar ring was found in the graves of Grenchen, which
thus belong to the same period.

The skull of Schwab’s collection came from a pile-work in
the vicinity of the effluence of the Scheuss, from the lake
of Bienne, which hitherto has only furnished Roman antiquities.

All the narrow skulls of this kind known to me, where
the spots where they were found had been well examined,
thus belong to the same period,—the period of the decline of
the Roman empire and the introduction of Christianity in
Switzerland. They are in small proportions mixed with other
skulls which, as comparative examination teaches, have pre-
served their type from a comparatively recent period down to
the present day. Weare thus permitted to suppose that these
narrow skulls which approach the simian type must have
belonged to immigrants, who arrived only in small numbers,
and whose type was not propagated but soon disappeared.
But we can trace no other immigration at that period than
that of Christian missionaries who, according to tradition, came
principally from Ireland. It is not so very improbable that
the new religion, before which the flourishing Roman civilisa-
tion relapsed into a state of barbarism, should have been intro-
duced by people in whose skulls the anatomist finds simious
characters so well developed, and in which the phrenologist
finds the organ of veneration so much enlarged. I shall, in
the meanwhile, call these simious narrow skulls of Switzerland
“ Apostle skulls,” as I imagine that in hfe they must have
resembled the type of Peter the Apostle, as represented in
Byzantine-Nazarene art.

The jaw of Abbeville, the characters of which we have already
described, can in nowise serve for the determination of race
characters. The wide open angle formed by its rami, may
perhaps indicate prognathism, just as the Engis and Neander
skulls probably belonged to a prognathous race, but no certain

6 eee eee arene

LECTURE XIII. 379

inference can be drawn. I have three of the abovementioned
“ Apostle skulls,” found in three different places, before me,
whose facial bones are so far preserved that the profile is per-
fectly recognisable. The arching of the forehead isin the skulls
of Biel, Hohberg, and Grenchen considerably greater, and the
forehead fuller and more prominent than in the old cave skulls.
The insertion of the nose presents a peculiar character, as even
in such skulls as have no frontal prominences there is a deep
depression in which the nose is almost horizontally inserted.
The front teeth are certainly rather oblique, but not so much
as to be considered a special deviation from the type of
European skulls.

On comparing these skulls with those of the cave of Lom-
brive, we find the greatest possible difference.

Fig. 117. Skull from the Cave of Lombrive, side view.

The two skulls sent me by Dr. Garrigou are well preserved,
partly covered with tufa. The bones of the skulls are re-
markably light, dry to the touch, porous, and adhere to the
tongue. ‘The smaller skull belongs to a child of about nine
years, just on the point of changing the canine and the first
molar tooth. The large skull has such graceful outlines, that
it probably belonged to a woman. The teeth show that this
ancient people suffered as much from toothache as the present
generation. Two of the molars were carious, a third had

380 LECTURE XII.

fallen out, and the socket filled up. The teeth were worn down
in the same manner as observed in mummies and other ancient
peoples, very much so for an indicated age of about thirty years. |
In my opinion, this premature decay is probably connected with
the use of that coarse bread, which contains a large quantity
of stony particles, and which was partaken of by most ancient
peoples. The black bread of the Westphalians (pumpernickel)
and the flat cakes of the Norwegians seem both the offspring
of the bakings of antiquity, the remains of which are found in
the Swiss pile-works.

The shape of the crania of Lombrive is on the whole a noble
one. The forehead is high, arched, and slides into the nose
with a scarcely perceptible projection of the supraciliary arches.
The crown of the head is nearly above the auditory aperture.

Fig. 118. Skull of Cave of Lombrive, top view.

The occiput is somewhat protruding. The temporal fossz
are deep in the anterior part, but rather flattened in the poste-
rior region, whilst the temporal line extends further upwards.
The facial portion of the skull is very small, the front teeth
scarcely diverge outwards, so little, indeed, that most German
female skulls would show a more oblique direction. Viewed
from above (fig. 118), the skull appears short, oviform, with
broad zygomatic arches, and a considerable transverse diameter,

LECTURE XIII. 381

which passes in front of the parietal protuberances, and about
the centre of the longitudinal diameter. In point of fact, the
proportion of the greatest length to the greatest width in the
adult skull is 100:77; but in the young skull as 100 : 82°6—a
proportion which need not surprise us, as the young skull is
much rounder than the adult skull. The adult skull thus pre-
sents proportions as in Jewish and Gipsy skulls, which, accord-
ing to Welcker, are equal in this respect.

On viewing the skull in front, the orbits seem very deep, and
the roof so arched that the superior orbital margin presents a
sharp edge. The orbits are at the same time wide and almost
square, the nasal cavity is narrow and high, the forehead pro-
minent in the centre, but sloping rather abruptly on the sides,
so that the vertex has almost the form of a rounded house-
roof. Viewed from behind, the skull appears pentagonal, the
mastoid processes forming the inferior, the parietal promi-
nences the superior angles, and the sagittal suture a sharp
edge.

In the absence of a large collection, it was impossible for me
to determine which type these crania most approach. They
are, at all events, of such a character that they need not be
ashamed to appear amongst those of other Caucasian peoples.
In Dr. Broca’s opinion, which is, however, founded more on
first impression than on minute examination, these skulls
resemble most the present Basques, who still inhabit the
country in which the cave is situated. But these Basques are
just the most remarkable people—islands, if we may use that
term—which exist on the earth, differing in every respect from
all the surrounding peoples. They possess a language, the
analogue of which has only been met with in America. The
Basques are as yet an unsolved problem; they cannot possibly
have come from Asia.*

* Since the time Broca favoured me with this communication, he has
availed himself of the rare opportunity of examining sixty undoubted Basque
skulls, which were, under his own direction, dug out from the churchyard of
a Spanish village. This examination, we may say, is a model of an ex-
haustive treatise.

Not content with the usual division into short, middle, and long heads,
Broca interposes two other categories, which we shall term semi-long and
semi-short heads. According to this division, the pure long-heads measure

382 LECTURE XIII.

This resemblance, if it should be confirmed, would at any
rate furnish us with some clue relative to the age of this
Basque stock, which, with its physical constitution, its lan-

at most 75; the head measure of the semi-long is comprised between 75 and
77-77, 1. e. between six-eighths and seven-ninths; the middle-heads from
77-77, 1. e. from seven-ninths to eight-tenths; the semi-short heads, between
80 and 83; and finally, the genuine short-heads comprise all measurements
exceeding 83. According to this division there would be, among the sixty
Basque skulls, nine pure long-heads, twenty semi-longheads, nineteen middle
heads, twelve semi-shortheads, but not one genuine shorthead, so that the
mean lies in the semi-longheads ; and the Basques possess a proportionally
onger skull than the present Parisians, whilst the cranial capacity is also
greater,—a fact which cannot altogether be connected with the development
of intelligence, but is probably the result of racial difference.

Everyone is, of course, at liberty to fix the limits of the various propor-
tions in head measurements according to his pleasure; still it is to be re-
gretted that no agreement exists as to the signification of the various terms.
In fact it has come to this, that any person who uses the terms short, middle,
and longheads, must be asked in what sense, and according to what author,
he wishes these terms to be understood.

Broca, however, advances astep further, and from his measurements, the
terminal points of which can be determined with great exactness, he, with
Gratiolet, arrives at the conclusion that two types of dolichocephaly must be
distinguished: the frontal dolichocephalic, to which belong the German
races, and the occipital dolichocephalic, comprising the African and Oceanic
Negroes. In other words, in the former, it is the frontal region, and espe-
cially the frontal bone; in the latter, it is the occipital region, which is espe-
cially lengthened; and in this way conditions the predominance of the lon-
gitudinal diameter.

In order to give these proportions a definite term of measurement, Broca
connects the auditory apertures by a line which passes over the posterior
point of the frontal bone ; or, in other words, he draws upon the skull the
diagonal circumference of Virchow (see page 62), which has the same di-
rection. This diagonal circumference represents a section which divides
the fore from the back skull, which can thus be compared. Broca now finds
that although the Basque skulls are longer, wider, and higher, than the
Parisians, still the so-parted off foreskull is less developed in the Basques
than in the Parisians, so much that even in circumference it is absolutely
smaller by six millimetres. From other measurements Broca comes to the
conclusion that the dolichocephaly of the Basques rests mainly upon the
disproportionate development of the posterior cerebral lobe. i

“In proving,” continues Broca, “that the Basques present the characters
of occipital dolichocephaly, I have, in my opinion, also proved that between
them and the Indo-Germanic longheads there obtains a great difference.
As among the European races I found no points for comparison, and being
reminded that this kind of dolichocephaly belongs essentially to the Ameri-
can race, I studied, by comparison, the cranial forms of the Basques, the
Parisians, and the Negroes.”

From these comparisons, into the particulars of which we cannot enter,
Broca finally concludes :—“«'The Basques much approach the African long-
heads; they much resemble the Negroes by the form of the cerebral skull,
which in this respect deviates but little from the orthognathous African races.

«TJ must, however, add that the Basques differ from all African races, even
the whitest and most orthognathous, by the smallness of their upper jaw,
the slight development of the cerebellar protuberance, and the relative
shrinking of the occipital protuberance. These characters equally distin-
guish the Basques from the European races. ;

Pe okie i et ae

oor

Pd Ve 0

LECTURE XIII. 383

guage foreign to the Indo-Germanic stock, its customs and
manners, has been preserved in that corner of the globe which
it still inhabits. We are almost tempted to ask whether,
instead of that supposed emigration from Asia and Hurope to
America, we might not rather assume an emigration from
America to the Bay of Biscay, perhaps by way of the connect-
ing land between Florida and our own continent, which is now
submerged in the sea, but which, according to all probability,

Fig. 119. Skull of Borreby, side view.

was at least in the middle tertiary (miocene) period still above
water.
For my own part, I have arrived at the conclusion that the

*T conclude, hence, that in searching for the origin of the Basques out of
the Basque country, their ancestors will be found neither among the Celts,
nor the rest of the Indo-European nations, but that our investigations must
be directed towards Northern Africa. Europe was at a remote period, no
doubt, connected with Africa; we need, therefore, not feel surprised to find
affinities between the primitive inhabitants of both parts of the world, even
if it were not known that many migrations had, in ancient times, taken
place across the Straits of Gibraltar.”

I would add to this last hypothesis, that the former connexion of the

Pillars of Hercules is rendered probable by many facts, among which I may
mention the existence of wild monkeys of the same species as those which in-
habit, side by side with the Riff pirates, the opposite coast.

384 LECTURE XIII.

skulls of Lombrive belong to a race differing entirely from
Belgo-Rhenish cave-skulls. All the characters are so opposed,
that a descent of the Lombrive skulls from those of Engis,
or any affinity between them, is inadmissible. We do not
deny that a long period had elapsed between the time in
which the man of Engis and the Neanderthal fought with the
cave-bear, to that epoch when the man of Lombrive hunted
the reindeer. But, on the other hand, it can scarcely be
assumed, that considering these generations of men to have
lived in the same conditions, such a period of time should have
sufficed to produce such a radically different race.

Passing from these skulls to those of the Stone period of
Denmark, which appear to me to belong to a later age, I find
again a thorough difference in the general characters.

As already stated, Mr. Busk, a distinguished naturalist of
London, kindly furnished me with an elaborate table of mea-
surements of twenty skulls, half of this number having been
found at Borreby, and the rest in six different places. Seven
skulls of Borreby were represented by masterly drawings in
the most various aspects, so that I am, as regards the mate-
rials, as well provided as is possible in the absence of the
originals. The heads are, on the whole, not too small,
for their greatest longitudinal diameters vary between 6°58
and 7, 8 English inches, consequently about 171 to 195
millimeters, and at all events the length and breadth of these
heads exceed those of the Lapps with which they have been
compared. Setting aside those whose longitudinal diameter
seems to indicate youth or the female sex (there are six such
skulls), we have a series of fourteen adult skulls, the length of
which oscillates between 7:2:7°8, that is about six-tenths
English inches, or fifteen millimeters, namely from 180 to 195.
This certainly is an important agreement, which, like the
forms of the heads in general, leads to the conclusion that there
was a great uniformity in this old stock.

On examining the proportion of length to the width, we
find that the oscillation is greater, taking the length at 100, it

is 71°8 to 85°7; that is nearly 14 per cent. But, again, setting j
aside the skulls of the young and the females, of which the —

LECTURE XIII. 385

latter occupy the intermediate place and the children possess-
ing the roundest heads the extreme of the series, we obtain
the striking result that seven Borreby skulls have a remark-

Fig. 120. Borreby Skull, top view.

able agreement, and represent the widest heads, their measure-
ment being from 80:2 to 82°6, whilst all other skulls found
elsewhere measure less, and some even are decided narrow
heads. Whether the archeological designation is here in
fault, or whether there existed a geographically different stock,
cannot be decided from the facts at hand. It is very possible
that even at that period there existed in some districts of
Denmark a mixture of narrow heads and short heads, as at
Meudon, where in an old sepulchre under a dolmen both types
were found well represented.

Be this as it may, the skulls of Borreby, which we take as the
special types of the Danish skulls of the Stone Period, appear
decidedly brachycephalic. Their mean measurement amounts to
81-3, and occupies in Welcker’s table an intermediate place be-
tween the Germans, Russians, and Turks. The skull is generally
well rounded, the forehead rather flat, but not badly developed ;

ec

386 LECTURE XIII.

still there are just in this respect considerable differences. The
supraciliary ridges are very prominent in the males, and the
depression between them and the nose is very deep, as is the
groove above the ridges, whilst in the females the forehead
seems to slide without any perceptible depression into the
rather projecting pug-nose. The greatest elevation of the skull
is almost perpendicularly above the external meatus auditorius,
and viewed in profile the skull is in its posterior part uniformly
arched. In but few skulls can there be detected a tendency
to prognathism ; in most of them the front teeth are perpen-
dicular. Viewed from above, the skulls appear broadly elliptic,
the anterior portion being nearly as rounded as the posterior.
The greatest width is in the posterior third, about the region
of the parietal prominences. The zygomatic arches are short,
but curved outwardly. Viewed in front, the forehead appears
low but uniformly arched; viewed at the back, the angles of
the pentagon seem rounded so as to form a circular line. In
fact, no further particulars are requisite to establish that these
skulls also present a particular type, that they nowise agree
either with the skulls of Lombrive or with those of Engis and
the Neanderthal, but that they belong to a separate race, which
inhabited Denmark at the remotest period.

The cranial fragment of Meilen, in the Canton of Ziirich, is
the only human relic from the Swiss stone period possessing
any important relation to the determination of race. It is un-
fortunately so imperfect that it affords no certain index as
regards the shape of the skull; still it affords some clue to
certain proportions. His, of Basle, describes this fragment as
follows: The forehead appears moderately high, finely arched ;
the supraciliary arch is greatly developed; the semicircular
line around the temporal fossa is but faintly marked. The
occiput is roundish, but unsymmetrical; of the spine and the
ridge of the occipital bone there are only the vestiges; the
superior semicircular line is hardly recognisable ; downwards
it appears as a faint osseous ridge. These conditions do not
seem to indicate that the skull belonged to a muscular
individual.

The Meilen skull belonged, in fact, to a child apparently

AES BA Ghat

LECTURE XIII. 387

fourteen to sixteen years old. ‘ On account of the apparent
obliteration,” writes His, “ of a portion of the sagittal suture, I
was still doubtful, but now I have found that by moistening
the skull this obliteration is, indeed, only so in appearance. I

Fig. 121. Skull of Meilen, in Profile, after His.

Fig. 122. Skull of Meilen, top view.

A

have at the same time received from Altdorf the entire skull of a

child of our Helvetian (or as we call it) the lion-type, which in

the drawing and measurements exactly covers the Meilen
co2

388 LECTURE XIII.

skull, on the drawing of which also the child skull, from the
bronze-station of Auvernier, now in possession of Desor, can
be so placed that they perfectly correspond.

“On a close comparison with the skulls in the Basle collec-
tion, it becomes evident that the fragment before us is allied
to the cranial forms now prevalent in German Switzerland.
Our collection possesses only the small number of eight normal
Swiss skulls, which have been obtained from the cantons Basle,
Berne, Schaffhausen, and Ziirich, besides a skull from Biinden
of a different shape. The eight Swiss skulls are all distin-
guished by their comparatively great width and moderate
length; they appear, in general, considerably higher than our
pile-work skulls; still there are two skulls, of Schaffhausen
and Ziirich females, which in height do not exceed the height
of the pile-works’ skulls.”

Prof. His further justly observes, that neither the skull of
Meilen nor the Swiss skulls present the decided characters of
dolichocephaly or brachycephaly, but are more allied to the
brachycephalic shape by the great width of the occiput. In
the Meilen skull the proportion of length to width is 100 : 83-2,
by which this cranium, as the Swiss crania in general, ap-
proaches the crania of the Lapps, in whom, according to
Welcker’s table, the proportion is 100: 84, and who are now
generally considered brachycephali. The same type of pro-
portionally large and wide heads with prominent supraciliary
arches, square forehead, broad and projecting parietal promi-
nences, and projecting occiput, has been at all times the domi-
nant form of all Swiss skulls. Undoubted crania from pile-
works which contained only bronze objects, specially a young
cranium found in Corcelettes, now in possession of my friend
Desor, in Neufchitel, possess the same characters as the skulls
found in more recent graves.

The skull taken from a Roman grave near Geneva, belongs,
as I have since convinced myself by comparison, undoubtedly to
that type ; itis consequently a Swiss skull of the Roman period.
Among thirteen skulls of Grenchen, from which I excluded
four children—and female skulls, besides two decidedly narrow
skulls, the remainder gave the mean proportion of 83:8, and

LECTURE XIII. 389

thus belonged to the same type. Professor His is of the same
opinion. “ We thus possess,” he observes, “in the pile-works

Fig. 123. Profile of a Helvetian Skull from a Roman grave near Geneva.

Ih

NNN

i

TT
|

i \ i

of the stone, bronze, and iron periods but one type, the Hel-
vetian, which has been transmitted to the present period, so

390 LECTURE XIII.

that Troyon’s theory of the succession of different pile-peoples
becomes very doubtful. There remain only the children’s skulls
of Plan d’Essert and a fragment of an old skull of Wallis, both
in possession of Troyon, which certainly do not belong to the
Helvetian type, but to our square so-called Dissentis type, and
which according to Troyon belongs to the bronze period.
Further researches will show whether the Swiss skull really
has a tendency to an open frontal suture persisting in advanced
age. Several skulls of Grenchen present this peculiarity,
which is also shown in a skull sent me by Colonel Schwab,

Fig. 125. Back view of the Helvetian Skull of Geneva.
Well developed Os Ince.

«

> hii,

which was, according to the assertion of the workmen, found
in the vicinity of Biel in a railway cutting, at a depth of
eighteen feet in the sand, but which perhaps had rolled down.
I may here state that this persistence of the frontal suture is,
according to Gastaldi, found in many old skulls dug out near
Modena.

There seems also in these Swiss skulls to exist a tendency to
the separation of the lambdoid suture. The skull from the
vicinity of Geneva has that isolated piece of bone at the point
of this suture, which was formerly considered as peculiar to
Peruvian skulls, and hence called the bone of the Inca (Qs
Ince). I saw the same thing in some other skulls of Biel

ae

LECTURE XIII. 391

and Grenchen, also large Wormian bones in the lateral wings
of this suture.

When Professor His looks upon it as an important and
interesting fact, that since the pile-work period, the cranial
form has not in our country essentially deviated from the
original type, it merely confirms my own observations on
ancient skulls.

The Rheno-Belgian skulls find their cognates in the long
and narrow heads of the Dutchmen who still inhabit the flat
lands. The skulls of Lombrive are allied to those of the mo-
dern Basques, the stone skulls of Denmark are allied to those
of the Lapps and Fins, who have been driven to the north.
The stone skulls of Switzerland present the type dominant in
that country at all periods. Even the existence of a short-
headed race, of which the relics are found in some graves in
Wallis and Waadtland, need not surprise us when we assume
that this present Romanic type has, fromthe stone-period, been
as prevalent in Eastern Switzerland as the Helvetian type in
Central and Western Switzerland, and that across the St.
Gothard and on the banks of the Lake of Geneva it gave the
hand to the Helvetian type. Pruner-Bey, as stated in another
note, thinks he has recognised this brachycephalic type on the
Waadtland banks of the Lake of Geneva, which, according to
him is also the type of the skull from the Tiniére cone ; and, if
this view of Pruner-Bey is correct, which by the way cannot be
quite inferred from his description, we obtain thereby an addi-
tional proof in favour of the remarkable constancy of cranial forms
even in very limited localities. We thus find in the oldest pre-
historic times every where very diversified races as distinct in
form as Negros and Europeans are at present ; but nowhere do
we find any proofs of migrations or radiations from a common
centre over the habitable globe. Though the short-heads
might be derived from Asia, it would not apply to the narrow
heads, which claim the highest antiquity, as no such heads
are met with in Asia. Thus, the facts we adduce from the
earliest periods, merely represent man as an original product
of the soil he then inhabited and still inhabits. In every such
old race there is presented a remarkable constancy of form, the

392 LECTURE XIII.

fundamental type of which is not obliterated, though various
intermixtures have taken place with later immigrants.

The constancy of form extends even to apparently trifling
circumstances. When Von Baer, in his treatise on Romanic
skulls, says that the Alemannic stock had, generally, a wider
and shorter skull than the Franconian or Hessian, it is perfectly
correct ; but it should be added, that there obtain great dif-
ferences even within the Alemannic stock; thus the Suabian
skulls are much shorter and rounder than those of the neigh-
bouring Swiss, which are so much distinguished by their
angular form and greater length, that the skulls of the battle-
chapel of Dornach can be easily distinguished and separated
accordingly.

It would be a great mistake to believe that there occur in
Switzerland no other types than those mentioned, and which
are perhaps as old as the cranium of Meilen, or perhaps the
remains of later, though still pre-historical immigrations.
Baer has drawn attention to that remarkable brachycephalic
form which occurs in the Grisons, and of which I here give
some outlines of the skull of a very aged man, taken from a

Fig. 126. Romanic Head of the Grisons in Profile.

Geneva churchyard, now in possession of my colleague, Profes-
sor Claraparéde.

LECTURE XIII. 393

The greatest width of this skull hes immediately above the
auditory apertures, and is so considerable that it almost equals
the length, the difference being only a few millimeters.

Fig. 127. Romanic Head of the Grisons, top view.

Sa AMIN
Sn le

WOK NY

From the vertex, situated in the centre of the sagittal suture,
the occiput descends almost perpendicularly to the occipital
spine. The line of the cranial vertebrz is comparatively very
short ; the occipital foramen is, by the disproportionately short
neck, placed very far back, so that the skull is not balanced
upon the articulating surfaces. On viewing the skull from
above, it presents a very broad oval, the apex of which is
towards the forehead. Von Baer has raised the question
whether these remarkable short-heads, which are found in their
purity in the higher mountains of the Grisons, may not owe
their origin to the old Ktruscans. Why, they differ as night
from day ; the few old Etruscan skulls authenticated as such,
and preserved in Italy, are decided narrow-heads. We have
but few facts enabling us to give an opinion on the commixture
of different types amongst the Htruscans. As in the Grisons,
along with the skulls, the marsh sheep and the marsh hog
(Sus palustris), both of which were domestic animals in the

394 LECTURE XIII.

stone-period, have been preserved, it may reasonably be in-
ferred, that the Romanic skull-type had originally existed in
that district of the Alps, at the same time, and by the side of
that entirely distinct people, which erected the pile-works on
the lakes and marshy plains.

Whilst these human races, we have hitherto considered, have
furnished us with proofs that they had inhabited the same soil
from pre-historic down to historical times, and when we find
no traces of their having left their earlier habitations for adven-
turous migrations to Europe, we should expect something si-
milar as regards domestic animals. As the domesticated animal
is more dependent on man than man on the animal, we are justi-
fied in supposing that domestic animals are equally the pro-
ducts of the soil which they inhabited together with man,
and that the original domestic animals which man subjected
should be the descendants of wild species then existing in that
region. It will be necessary to consider such domestic
animals so far as they throw light on this question. I
cannot do better than give you the interesting results of
the researches of Riitimeyer, and I shall frequently quote
his own words.

The oldest domestic animal now known was undoubtedly
the dog, which is found both in the Danish kitchen-middens,
and the Swiss pile-works. This oldest dog belongs, according to
Riitimeyer, to a middle-sized race, of light elegant structure,
with rounded cranium, large orbits, short-pointed snout, and
moderately developed regular rows of teeth. ‘This dog, which
might be called the marsh-dog (Canis palustris) resembles in
its size and slender limbs both the setter and the hound. The
former as regards the transverse diameter of the skull, and the
latter as regards the general outlines and the longitudinal dia-
meter. This house-, or turf-dog, of the stone-age, must be
considered as perfectly distinct a race from the wolf and
the jackal, the pretended progenitors of the present domestic
dog. As it is found both in Denmark and Switzerland, there
can be no doubt it was a canine race peculiar to Europe, which
man first subjected, and used it for the chace, and subsequently
to guard his flocks. In support of this view, Riitimeyer men-

oO

LECTURE XIII. 395

tions the circumstance that dog-bones are rarely found broken
for the sake of the marrow, as is the case with all other bones of
animals which served as food, and that most dog-skulls belonged
to old animals, whence he infers that only in case of necessity
were dogs eaten, and that they were allowed to live to an
advanced age. In the metal period, there appear, both in
Denmark and Switzerland, larger and stronger races of dogs,
approaching the wolf-dog or the bull-dog in their dentition,
rather than the marsh-dog ; and which certainly may have been
imported. The constancy of the characters of the marsh-dog,
the perfect conformation of its remains found in various places,
its specific difference from the wolf, fox, and jackal, support
the assertion that the great variety of canine races is not the
result of the transformation of a single species, but of the
intermixture of many different, but nearly allied, species.
Riitimeyer distinguishes two well characterised races of the
swine family of the stone-period. The proper wild hog (Sus
scrofa), the propagation of which has been checked by civilisa-
tion, but which then extended over all Kurope, and the much
smaller animal, the marsh- or turf-hog (Sus palustris), which is
distinguished by various other characters, so that it must be
looked upon as a well marked distinct species. The wild marsh-
hog had probablya more limited sphere than the wild hog proper,
for whilst the former has hitherto only been met with in Switzer-
land, remains of the latter are frequently found in the Danish
kitchen-middens. On the other hand, the Danish kitchen-mid-
dens contain no traces of the domestication of the swine, or
indeed, any other animal, excepting the turf-dog; nor have there
in some of the oldest stations of Switzerland, as at Wangen
and Mosseedorf, been found any bones of hogs bearing the
character of domestication. In stations of a later period, the
domesticated marsh-hog is met with, and though at first the
bones of the domesticated hog are less numerous than those of
the wild boar, the proportion is soon changed, showing that in
consequence of its great fecundity, which it shares with all
swine species, the breeding of the marsh-hog soon became of
essential importance to the pile-builders. Riitimeyer further con-
siders that as a wild animal, the marsh-hog had become extinct

396 LECTURE XIII.

before the historical period, but that it agrees in its characters
so much with the middle tertiary hog, that this race may have
descended from it. As the hogs from the caves and the allu-
vial formations agree so greatly with the wild hog, the latter
and better armed type, which appeared later, would have sup-
planted the older and weaker race, had not man taken it under
his protection, and so preserved it to this day. There is even
now bred in Graubiinden, Uri, and Wallis a small, round-
backed, short-legged race, with short erect ears, short thick
snout, long bristles, and of uniformly black or reddish brown
colour, the osseous and dental structure of which agrees with
that of the marsh-hog. It is therefore highly probable that
this race is descended from the extinct wild marsh-hog, and
that by domestication it acquired a more sloping forehead, a
shorter occiput, and less curved zygomatic arches. The Indian
or the Siam hog, which in Asia is not found in a wild state,
but is a widely-spread domestic animal is said to approximate
most nearly the tamed marsh-hog. Still the material for com-
parison (a drawing of a skull by Daubenton) placed at the
disposal of Riitimeyer, is so scanty that nothing certain can
be inferred. The wild hog was undoubtedly the ancestor of
most central-European large-eared domestic swine. During
the stone-period it was in a wild state ; it is only in Concise,
the Neufchitel lake, where, as already stated, the civilisa-
tion of the stone-age was at its acme, that relics of the domes-
tication of the wild hog were found. ‘I must confess,” says
Ritimeyer, “ that the scanty traces of the tamed wild hog, by
the side of the abundant relics of the tamed marsh-hog, seem
rather in favour of the introduction of a new race into Concise,
than in favour of the domestication of the wild hog by the
lake dwellers, the more so as at Concise traces of the cow
belonging to the trochoceros race appear, which are absent in
the earlier pile-works.”

Be this as it may, the domestication of the common wild

hog, which inhabits Europe and the shores of the Mediterra-
nean, is not derived from Asia, where other wild hog races
exist, but origimated in Europe—possibly, as we shall pre-
sently see, in the regions of the Mediterranean. We have
here a repetition of the phenomena in the canine race, namely,

LECTURE XIII. 397

that the present races are descended from originally distinct
species, which intermixed with each other and with various
foreign types.

As regards horned-cattle, there occur in the pile-works of
the stone period two wild species of gigantic size, the Urus (Bos
primigenius) and Wisent (Bison Huropeus), whilst the Urus
only has hitherto been found in the Danish kitchenmiddens,
and the different beds of France (Amiens, Aurignac) associated
with the remains of man. The Urus was unquestionably a
contemporary of the mammoth and of the rhinoceros with the
bony septum, the teeth of it having been found with those of
other species of elephants and rhinoceros (Rhinoceros leptorhi-
nus), in the slate coals of Diirnten. In earlier pile-works,
the bones of wild animals, such as those of deer, are much
more abundant than those of cattle, but subsequently the
latter preponderate, a proof that the settlers gradually turned
from the chase to agriculture. According to Riitimeyer’s re-
searches, the Frisian race of oxen, which in size are not much
behind their gigantic progenitors, are descendants from the
urus. It almost seems as if the domestication of the urus,
which was hunted, according to the Nibelungen song, in the
forests of Worms, was merely attempted in the stone period,
but soon abandoned in favour of other races. In the north,
however, the breeding was continued down to recent times,
and produced in marshy regions that race which even now
exceed in size all other bovine races.

The Bison, Aurochs or Wisent, has evidently a more limited
sphere than the urus; its relics have, as yet, not been found
associated with those of the mammoth and the rhinoceros—it
is only in the peat that they occur with those of the Irish elk.
The Wisent has never been tamed, though it was in histo-
rical times spread over central Europe, and is mentioned by
the side of the Urus in Siegfried’s Chase (Nibelungen song).
The Bison always was a chase animal ; it still exists in the forest
of Bialowice in a single herd of about eight hundred animals,
which, no doubt, has been much diminished during the present
insurrection.

“Under the name Bos longifrons,” says Riitimeyer, “Owen has

398 - LECTURE XIII.

described the relics of a small species of oxen which are fre-
quently found in postpliocene strata in England associated
with the bones of the elephant and rhinoceros, and in the peat
bogs of Ireland with those of Irish elk (Megaceros Hibernicus),
and in more recent formations with those of the common stag
and Roman antiquities. Owen supposes it to be the original
stock of the small short-horned and hornless cattle which are
bred in the highlands of Scotland and Wales under the name
of kyloes and runts, which in Owen’s opinion, constituted
the tamed cattle of the Britons before the Roman invasion.”
Owen had previously given to this species the better name of
Bos brachyceros, whilst Riitimeyer named it the marsh-cow.
The small slender-footed species, which appeared earlier in
England and Scandinavia, and was distinguished by its com-
paratively short and thick horns, was by the oldest inhabitants
of Wangen and Mosseedorf, during the stone period alone,
domesticated along with the urus and some other races. The
small uniformly coloured race of Switzerland, the so-called brown
cattle, the breeding of which on account of the richness of the
milk has reached the highest perfection in Schweitz, is no doubt
descended from the above, and perhaps also that race now
very common in Algiers and the north of Africa.

In Concise and Chevraux on the Neufchitel lake were found
remains of an ox, with flat, almost square forehead and nearly
semicircular horns, the size of which is about one-third less
than that of its wild progenitor, but in other respects it resem-
bles that large species from the diluvyium of Arezzo and Siena
known by the name of Bos trochoceros (curved-horned cattle).

It thus appears that this species of oxen had been imported
into the above-mentioned civilised settlements from Italy, but
they were not bred there, and left in Switzerland no permanent
progeny. Whether the cow-race now spread in Central Italy
be descended from the old stock is worth investigation ; but
their importation affords a significant proof of the intercourse
of the later pile-builders with Italy.

Besides these three races, or rather species (when their
remains were found in the diluvium, they were called well
marked species—but since they were recognised in a tamed

LECTURE XIII. 399

condition they are again called races) there is a fourth species
in Switzerland, the wild progenitors of which are found in the
peat moors of Southern Sweden and England, along with the
Urus and Bison, and which is called Bos frontosus. It is
distinguished by the convexity of the forehead between the
eyes, by long and outwardly curved horns, it is smaller than the
Urus, but larger than the marsh-cow. It is absent in the pile-
buildings and in the peat bogs, but is now represented in
Switzerland by the so-called spotted cattle (the Simmen or
Saanenthal race), and has thus been introduced within histori-
cal times, very probably, from the North.

“In the stone-period,” says Riitimeyer, “we find a sheep,
which, by its small size, slender extremities, and, still more,
by its upright, short, goat-like horns, differs from the com-
mon existing ovine races. Wauwy] alone furnished remains of
large and curved-horned animals. The rarity of horns ren-
ders it impossible to explain the supplanting of those short-
horned animals by the present race. On examining, however,
the bones of Chavannes, Echalens, &c., we find that in the
middle ages large curved-horned animals were widely spread.”
This peculiar small sheep, with coarse wool, may be called the
turf sheep.

A wild stock, from which the goat-horned turf-sheep might
have been derived, no longer exists, whilst the curved-horned
sheep, to which belong all domesticated races, might have had
as its progenitor the Mediterranean Mouflon and the Asiatic
Argali. On the other hand, there were found in the caves of
the South of France, specially at Lunel-Viel the remains of a
sheep resembling the turf-sheep of the stone-period, so that
the species reaches back to the oldest period of the human race,
as human bones were also found in this cave. Again, in the
most northern islands of England,—the Shetland and Orkney
_ Islands, as well as in the mountainous regions of Wales, and
finally, also in the Grisons, there is a race of sheep bred, the
skulls of which correspond in size, form, and shape of horns to
those of the turf-sheep of the stone-period. There seems,
therefore, no doubt that the wild turf-sheep was a native of
Central Europe, that it was soon subjected by man, but that it

400 LECTURE XIII.

was subsequently supplanted by the importation of the curved-
horned sheep, which excelled it alike by a finer wool and the
flavour of its flesh.

In the pile-works of the stone-period the goat is much more
frequently met with than the sheep; but in the later settle-
ments the proportion is reversed. It is the same race which
at present exists in Switzerland, which may have been wild at
one period.

“«‘ Horse bones,’’ says Riitimeyer, “are in the pile-works of
the stone-period much more rare than the remains of man, and
as we cannot imagine the horse to have been buried with man
outside the pile-works, we can only conclude that the horse
was wanting to the early pile-builders, and even occurs but
sparingly in the later settlements of the same periods ; so much
so that I am led to suppose that the few horse relics found in
Robenhausen, Wauwyl, &c., have been introduced into the
pile-works as booty; the mode of life of the pile-builders
seems scarcely compatible with horse-breeding.

“Tt is almost superfluous to add, that all the horse-remains
found are those of the domestic species, and entirely distinct
from the fossil horse.”

The teachings of the cultivated plants are analogous to those
derived from human and animal relics. Apples and pears,
prunes and hazel-nuts, raspberries, bilberries, &c., were mani-
festly eaten and partly cultivated by the pile-builders. What
they specially planted was wheat, barley, and flax, the seeds of
which may also have served for food, whilst the fibres served
for various textures. The grains of the wheat are much
smaller than those of the wheat now cultivated. Barley in
the old settlements was six-rowed, in the later settlements
it. was also found two-rowed. Rye, oats, and hemp, which,
according to botanists, are natives of the Hast, whence, as
many believe, the pile-builders had emigrated, are entirely
absent. ‘“ We may assume,” says Dr. Christ, “that the
pile-inhabitants, true autochthons of our country, have never
visited the rye and oats districts, that is to say, Hastern Europe,
whilst wheat and barley, perhaps, came from the south. Wheat
was at all events the first cereal cultivated by man in our
northern regions.”

as

LECTURE XIII. 401

The introduction of both these cereals from the south appears
to us any thing but proved. Barley, of all cereals, grows
further northward; it may, therefore, even in such an inhos-
pitable country as Switzerland must have been at the pile-
work period, have grown wild; and it is just as probable that
wheat, which is only a cultivated wild-growing cereal, may have
been improved by cultivation, as appears proved by the small-
ness of the grains in the old ears.

The result of all researches touched upon in this Lecture evi-
dently shows that man, with his whole domestic economy,
including the useful plants and domestic animals, was deve-
loped on the soil, where he left his earliest traces; that he
there procured his means of subsistence, and that it was only
at a subsequent period that he came in contact and intermixed
with other races of mankind developed in another region.
The facts, as far as they are known, establish merely the origi-
nal difference of mankind, and that man, the domestic animals,
and the useful plants were natives of the soil where they were
developed. Beyond this all is tradition and hypothesis.

LECTURE XIV.

Transmission of Characters.—Natural Races.—Theory of Nathusius.—Ob-
jections to it.—Distinction between Races and Species.—Transformation
of Varieties into Races and real Species.—Influence of Time.—Raceless
Animals.—Mongrels and Hybrids.—Their Propagation.—Wolf-Dogs.—
Buck-Sheep.—Rabbit-Hares. —Their Breeding.— Conclusions and Infer-
ences from the preceding facts.

GenTLEMEN—In discussing the questions concerning the
origin of the groups, races, and species composing the animal
creation, including man, the consideration of natural generation
always occupies the foreground. The existence of the whole
animal creation in its various forms and species, depends solely
on normal propagation, as the existence of every living being
is limited by death. It is the more requisite to enter into
particulars regarding these questions, as the views on the
origin of mankind and animals, their affinity, descent, and
their transformation in the course of time, depend on the so-
lution of the above questions.

There can be no doubt that both sexes, male and female,
co-operate in the generation of the higher animals, and that
the characters of the parents are transmitted to their offspring.
We have seen that the family forms the basis of the various
groups in the animal world, and just as every individual pos-
sesses some, though frequently insignificant peculiarities, which
impress upon him the stamp of individuality, so does the family
present special characters which enable the observer to trace
their origin. It has been said that the distinction of indivi-
duals extends only to domestic animals, that in other ani-
mals there exist no peculiarities by which we can distinguish
the individuals, and I have even lately seen some religious tracts
in which this assertion is used as a proof of the exceptional
position of man in creation. Hvery taxidermist at any museum

LECTURE XIV. 403

can easily refute such an assertion, and prove that in a herd of
wolves, for instance, the individual difference is as great as in
a flock of sheep propagated by inbreeding. If the assertion
of perfect resemblance were well founded, no collector would
take the trouble to make a selection. ‘There obtains, there-
fore, an individuality in the whole animal kingdom just as in
mankind and the domestic animals, and if, in common life, we
pay no attention to it, it is because we see no use in so doing.

The transmission of individual characters, which distinguish
not merely the species, but also the family and the individual,
is thus one of those facts which must have a general influence
on the forms of the animal kingdom, and it is the transmission
of peculiarities distinguishing the individual which has become
such a powerful lever in improving the breeds of our domestic
animals.

Virchow has recently, in an excellent treatise, raised the
question whether the sum of characters transmitted is always
the same? As was expected, he arrived at the conclusion
that this neither is nor can be the case, for the simple reason,
that a change of the established family-type would thereby be
rendered impossible. The possibility of any alteration rests
upon this: that the hereditariness embraces an undeterminable
sphere of characters, the extent of which can only be learned
by experience. It is frequently impossible to predict whether
this or that animal, possessing otherwise some excellent qua-
lities, may not transmit to its progeny some germ of disease,
which only breaks out at a later period, while apparently
inferior animals produce a stock suitable for the purpose of the
breeder.

I have in a preceding lecture explained that the word “‘race”
in the sense in which it is used, cannot be separated from the
notion “species,” since the constancy in the transmission of
characters, the resistance against external influences, and the
adaptation to surrounding media, are frequently as great in races
as in the so-called species, and may be traced back to remote
antiquity, as is done in species, The term “race” expresses,
perhaps, only a theological idea. Applied to domestic animals
it is often used as equivalent to species, as it was known that

pDp2

A404, LECTURE XIV.

these races had partly arisen by the interference of man, whilst
for the origin of species the direct interference of a creator was
assumed.

“On comparing,” says Nathusius, “the existing forms of
domestic animals proper, we are met by a decided contrast:
we acknowledge races so far firmly established, when we find
a large number of individuals, representing by resemblance

J

and common characters definite groups, originally more or less
confined to certain localities, which have in historical times
remained unaltered. Such animals constitute natural, geogra-
phically established races. In contrast to them we have arti-
ficial or cultivated races.

“‘ By these we understand those domestic animals which are
cultivated and developed by the interference of the science of
rural economy. They owe their origin either to natural races
—to so-called inbreeding—by the coupling of such individuals
as are distinguished by some excellent qualities ; or by the cross-
ing of different natural races, in which the individual character
plays a more important part than the race-character. The
descent of the artificial races is thus of secondary importance ;
they have no natural home, but are dependent on the state of
ruraleconomy. The term ‘ full blooded’ is commonly considered
as equivalent to cultivated race; but the definition of this
word, now so much in use, based upon the notion of unity of
race, is erroneous.

“ Natural races must be characterised by zoological charac-
ters, though we must not forget that we have before us not
species, but varieties, and that sharply defined limits are not
applicable to transitional forms ; yet, such transitional forms are
always present ; for variableness conditions the notion of race.”
(Within equally wide limits is the notion of species ; for varia-
tions, 7.e. extraordinary forms, which are not constantly propa-
gated, occur also in species,—e. g. in fox, Cebus, lion, panther,
etc.—as well as in races.)

“The assumption that all domestic animals proper, and
specially the natural races, are derived from this or that wild
original stock, neither is nor ever will be proved. Still the
assumption is considered so well founded, that we rarely hear

i

LECTURE XIV. 4.05

any doubt expressed upon this point. There is, however,
another theory equally founded upon experience.

“Neither of these opposite assumptions can, however, be
decided by experiment; the correctness of either lies beyond
the province of systematic natural history ; the solution pertains
to another province, which cannot be opened by the sensual
keys of science.

«The opposite assumption then is, that there are created
domestic animals. The condition of domestic animals may
possibly be a specific not an acquired quality, just as the life
of animals in the forest, or in the steppe, is a specific not an
acquired quality. Those who believe that man is not a gradu-
ally developed animal, but a creature animated by the breath
of God, cannot find it strange that there are animals which, at
their creation, were not merely endowed with the capacity for
domestication, but were, for the use of man, at once created
domestic animals.

“There is a theory which scouts the word ‘ creation,’ which
knows of no creation, but only of a so-called development from
the primitive mud ; from this quarter we expect the reproach of
simplicity. Our view, by acknowledging that experimental
science has its limits, includes the assumption of a peculiar
quality for the racial differences of mankind, according to
which neither the notion of species nor of variety is applicable
to man as applied to the organic creation in general. When,
therefore, we speak of human races and domestic races, these
notions of race may be founded upon a peculiar principle of dif-
ferentiation exclusively belonging to these created forms. The
relation of the domestic animals to man renders it intelligible
that such a distinguishing principle is applicable to both. If
in the notion of race, applicable to man and domestic animals,
we only attend to qualities furnished by observation, and to the
exclusion of all other qualities observed in species and varieties,
many difficulties will be solved in the contest concerning the
unity of mankind and the descent of domestic animals. There
is thus in what we term races no longer any question about the
production of hybrids between species, about the incapacity of
real hybrids to propagate themselves regularly ; there is no

406 LECTURE XIV.

longer any question about pliancy of species, nor about
stability of varieties.

« Without attempting to fathom the question here raised, I
would only mention once more, that those animals which have
been domesticated within historical times are not included in
our considerations. It is conceivable, though not demonstra-
ble, that some domestic animals originated from a wild parent
stock, and that consequently the hog does not belong to primi-
tive domestic animals. Even the question of the relapse of
domesticated animals into the wild state, of which the swine
afford so many instances, must not divert us from our theme.

“Such a theory leads us to primitive or original races ; but
the question concerning their origin, their unity, or plurality, im
every animal species, lies beyond the limits of observation.”

This long extract from Nathusius, plainly shows that a
single deviation from the right path of inquiry leads to a
number of wrong conclusions. In order that man should
correspond to the religious idea of being a special being, pro-
duced by a direct divine interference, he is thrust into an
exceptional position. But as it is observed that the domestic
animals and their natural races stand in evident relation to
human races and stocks, and as specially as regards generation
and propagation the conditions are nearly identical, it becomes
requisite to assume for the domestic animals also an exceptional
position. The intelligence of man, they say, has done nothing
for the domestication of animals; they have been created as
such for the use of man. But then comes that somewhat fatal
objection, that within historic times man has domesticated
many wild species. I shall here only mention the turkey,
which even now occurs wild in North America, the domestica-
tion of which dates only two centuries back. The exception,
therefore, does not apply to this nor other domestic animals,
nor to the efforts of the Acclimatisation Society ; it only applies
to animals tamed in pre-historic times, of which we know
nothing.. But here again we are met by the fact, that the de-
scent of the large-eared swine from the wild boar can hardly
be denied ; consequently the hog too forms no exception. But
how about the Frisian cow, the curved-horned cattle, the large-

LECTURE XIV. 407

horned sheep, whose descent from the Urus, the curved-horned
ox of the diluvium of Italy, the Mouflon, is, as we have seen,
undeniable? Which are then the domestic animals entitled to
claim a place by the side of man? None, certainly, but those
whose fossil relics have not yet been found in the diluvial
formations, or the older tertiary strata! Whilst thus every
day brings forth new discoveries, and makes known to us
another domestic animal, the origin of which we may trace to
species found in the wild or a fossil state, we are told to claim,
for the few domestic animals of whose origin we have no data,
an exceptional position, merely for the purpose of supporting a
by no means well founded tradition concerning the origin of
mankind.

Nathusius, no doubt, tells us: “The solution of the question,
whether or not a domestic animal descends from a wild species
can be determined neither by observation nor by experiments,
as the discovery of the truth lies beyond the means of science”’!
We doubt whether this principle will be adopted by natural-
ists. If, as regards the domestic animals and their cognate
wild species, constituting by far the most important subjects
of natural history, we are referred to faith instead of ob-
servation, all experimental science is at an end.

But let us return to our starting point. The observations
on the transmission of characters, made by breeders, have not
yet reached such a stage that we can infer from them gene-
rally valid laws ; they have, nevertheless, yielded some definite
results. According to Nathusius, the transmission of characters
in an artificially bred animal is independent of its origin “ gene-
rically by the quality of its characters—individually by the
proportion of these characters, in reciprocal action with the
condition of the vital organs and the energy of their functions ;
nay, some physiologically abnormal, or diseased organs and
their functions, may be the condition for the desired trans-
mission of characters (for the formation of fat, deformity of
legs in badger-dogs, (Basset, Buffon) etc.).”

These principles being admitted, there can be no doubt,
that from this transmission of individual characters forms
may arise which are as distant from the primitive form, as other

408 LECTURE XIV.

original forms which we distinguish as well-established species.
And this is really the case. If at this day the badger-dog
were only found in a fossil state, that is to say, in a condition
which would give us no clue as to the origin of its deformed legs,
every naturalist would at once declare it a distinct species of
dog. The Urus, the marsh-cow, the curved-horned cattle, were
all by naturalists, like Cuvier, Owen, Nilsson, and others, distin-
guished as different species so long as they were only found in
the diluvial formations of various countries, and until the present
races of cattle were proved to be their descendants. Concern-
ing these races, all physiologists, ignorant of their connection
with the extinct races, maintained that they all belonged to
the same species—the Bos tawrus, and tried, with much inge-
nuity, to prove that they must all have originated from the
same parent stock. This proof was founded upon the circum-
stance that the artificial breeds, the production of which
occurred in historical times, differ not less in their characters
than the older races, the origin of which is lost in obscurity.
They were perfectly right as regards the latter pomt; they
only failed to draw a correct inference, namely, that the same
sum of distinctive characters which seems to us sufficient for
the establishment of a species, could also, within historical
times, have been produced by individual transmission; that it
is, therefore, in the power of man, and of present nature, to
produce from existing species new varieties, races, and real
new species.

Just as the artificial breeds depend on their profitableness,
being only preserved by the selection of such individuals as
are in the fullest possession of useful qualities, so will
the natural race, produced by the individual transmission
of some prominent characters, be only preserved and further
developed when these qualities are in accordance with the
requirements of the animal in its struggle for existence.
Artificial and natural races run, in this respect, perfectly
parallel, and the only discoverable difference seems to be that
man, though he cannot use unnatural means, has the power of
selecting, in preference, some natural influences. Let us just

eh

LECTURE XIV. 409

consider the mode in which man proceeds in the production of
any race. He finds some animal which appears to him to
possess some useful qualities; he couples this with another
animal of the opposite sex possessing nearly identical qua-
ties. The breed thus obtained is fed and nurtured in such
a manner as to improve, if possible, the desired charac-
ters. In the second generation he again selects animals
possessing the desired qualities in the highest degree; he
pairs them with each other, or with the parent stock, or, in
later generations, with the preceding generations, until he has
attained his object. Is the process different in nature? It
is certainly, in so far as the same starting point is given
hundreds, perhaps thousands, of times without further develop-
ment, because the selection in breeding can be easily effected
by the interference of man. But as qualities which prove
advantageous to the individual in the struggle for existence
also endow it with superior generative powers, this superiority
will produce the same result in nature, though at a slower
rate than when effected by man by exclusive selection. Thus,
with regard only to the higher mammals, it is well known that
there is scarcely any species in which there does not exist a
kind of courting, leading frequently to fierce combats between
a number of males for a certain female, after which the con-
queror carries home his bride. Upon this fact rests probably
the continuance of the species in the highest development of
which it is capable. But since every individual better endowed
for the struggle for existence, will transmit his superior qual-
ities, it follows that his offspring will gradually attain an
ascendancy, and displace the less privileged individuals, until
finally it becomes the sole representative of the race. Thus
the same effects which man, by his intelligence, produces in the
shortest time, namely, by the application of the most favourable,
and the exclusion of noxious influences, are equally produced by
nature, the length of time supplying, to a certain extent, the
place of human intelligence. Just as in the chemical trans-
formations which take place in the bowels of the earth, length of
time is the mysterious factor, so is it the agent in the production
of organic forms, which, by apparently insignificant changes, is

410 LECTURE XIv.

finally conducive to a permanently altered type. But this
circumstance, that for the formation and permanency of
natural races and species, a long period of time is requisite,
leads us back to the consideration of a question which occupies
a prominent position in artificial breeding. The breeders still
debate whether age, constancy, and purity of blood are the essen-
tial elements in transmission, or whether the quality of the in-
dividual be not the predominating agent. Since even accidental
defects, supernumerary fingers, arrest of development, are
transmitted and persistent through several generations, it
appears that individuality stands in the first rank. Never-
theless the length of time during which a race has maintained
itself is of the greatest importance, as the probability of trans-
mission is greater in proportion to the purity of blood and
the duration of the race. This is proved by the influence of
grandparents, which is so strikingly manifested. When it is
said that the influence of the grandparents upon the grand-
children is essentially an indirect one, the assertion is too
restricted in presence of the fact that frequently the grand-
children exhibit qualities possessed by the grandparents only
and not by the parents. One of my friends has a bitch of the
St. Gothard breed, which, excepting a narrow white spot
upon the chest, is perfectly black. Two brothers of this bitch
were spotted ight brown. The mother was black, the father
yellowish-brown. The bitch, having been covered by a perfectly
black dog of the same race, produced a litter of five puppies,
three of which were black with white spots upon the chest,
and two with yellowish-brown spots like the grandfather. The
peculiarity of the grandfather was here not transmitted to the
child but to some of the grandchildren. If cases of this kind
are authenticated, and I can vouch for this one, as I possess one
of the puppies, and have seen the mother and the brothers, then
it is clear that even in the purest blood there are sometimes re-
lapses to the ancestral stock, the qualities of which are deemed
extinct, and that, on the other hand, natural races and
species maintain their characters even in crossings with great
pertinacity, so that they may re-appear in succeeding genera-
tions. ‘Thus all dog-breeders know that the blood of a New-

EN LLL OLE DLE ELEM

LECTURE XIV. Al1

foundland dog, a descendant probably of a native wild species,
which was not tamed at the beginning of the seventeenth
century, is truly indestructible, so that, after ten generations
its characters may still be detected in the cross breeds with
other races. Darwin very justly observes, that the coloured
rings on the feet, and transverse stripes frequently seen in
bred-horses, which are not observed in preceding generations,
may perhaps be traces reminding us of their origin. My
friend Desor directed my attention to the fact, that in the
young of perfectly black cats, the pedigree of which, during
several generations, was known, the primary fur was always
of a lighter shade, and presented a striped appearance, as
in the wild cat, and it was only after the lapse of a year that
the fur became perfectly black without presenting any stripes.

Thus all facts combine to show, that by the side of individual
influences, there is in transmission another factor, namely
length of time, which gradually establishes a certain type
best adapted for a constant struggle for existence, and which is
the more permanent the longer the conditions for existence
remain unaltered. But the greater the fixity of this type, the
greater the demarcation from allied, and its hostility to other
types; the gulf which separates it from the latter was incon-
siderable at first, but it gradually enlarged until it became im-
passable.

Whilst thus the significance both of the natural and artificial
races of pure blood is certainly very great, we consider it at
the same time a step in a forward direction made by Nathusius
in distinguishing “raceless animals ;”? which, according to
this author, have arisen: “ Hither by the transportation of
natural races from their native country to foreign parts, not
offering them the same conditions for development, and where
their racial type was altered, without the assumption of a fixed
typical form; or by the crossing of different natural races,
which in their progress are not led to a typical form ; or, also,
when artificial races are not attended to with the requisite
care, so that by hunger and other deprivations they relapse
into their original state.”

That from this chaos of raceless animals, partly by natural

412 LECTURE XIV.

influences, and partly by artificial breeding, new well charac-
terised races and species may arise admits of no doubt. In the
raceless animals of the first category which are produced by
transplantation into other regions, that formative process takes
place which we have just characterised and by which a fixed
type is gradually produced corresponding to the altered con-
ditions. In so-called degenerate animals, which by want of
care approach the original form, this racelessness must cease
when the relapsing process attains its limits; so that of
the three cases established by Nathusius two have only a
temporary limited value, whilst the third—the racelessness
produced by the crossing of different races, is more generally
applicable.

Let us now examine more closely this point concerning
mongrels and hybrids, for which purpose we must return to
the terms “‘ variety and species.”

Every naturalist who has critically examined the question of
species has arrived at the conviction, that the conception of
species does not always consist in a definite sum of distinctive
characters ; but that, on the contrary, in each group both the
sum of the characters as well as the chief characters differ es-
sentially. We possess genera in which every species has as
sharply incised characters as an antique gem ; there are others
(especially genera with many species) in which the species as it
were coalesce, and can only with difficulty be distinguished,
frequently grouping themselves around a centre, so that within
one genus several principal species arise, around which other
species place themselves. These groups of allied species arise
by their possessing some chief character in common, whilst some
other characters may differ in allied species. The sum of the
distinctive characters, as well as their quality, has in every
type we examine its particular laws, which cannot be generally
formalised. But we have seen that both quality and sum of
distinctive characters may in different races be as great and
even greater than in different species. The characters can
thus only serve for determining the races, when we admit that
race and species are identical, and inseparable conceptions.

But we are told: Species have persisted since times imme-

LECTURE XIV. 413

morial, not so races ; species have always propagated in the
Same manner, races have been formed under our own eyes ;
Species are imperishable types, races disappear as they have
come. We were enabled to show that all these distinctions
lost their significance through modern researches; that the
chief races of our domestic animals trace their origin as far
back as the wild species which surround us ; that they have pro-
pagated exactly in the same constant manner as these wild
species ;—that finally wild species have disappeared from the
creation like tamed races; that consequently all distinctions
vanish, and that race and species are in this respect perfectly
identical.

Thus there remain only the conditions resulting from gene-
ration. Races, it is said, can interbreed and produce a progeny
indefinitely prolific. Species, it is said, sometimes interbreed,
but their progeny is sterile, if not in the first, certainly in sub-
sequent generations.

This principle, if firmly established, leads, it is believed,
to the inference, that all races spring froma single stock, but
all species from different primary stocks. Let us first examine
how it is with the species, and let us confine ourselves to the
mammals which stand nearest to man.

There can be no doubt that animals even in a wild state
pair or endeavour to copulate with races not allied to their
own, such is especially the case with males driven away by
stronger rivals, who, in the impossibility of gratifying the
sexual desire with females of their own species, pair with those
of other species with whom they frequently come in contact.
This phenomenon resembles that of the adoption of the young
of other species by a mother deprived of her own progeny.
Connexions of this kind have been observed between dog and
swine, stag and cow; but it was always found that in species
so remote from each other there was no issue, which is fre-
quently impossible from incompatible organic structure. We
may, therefore, from actual observation, consider it as a law,
that copulation between remote species differing in structure
is either impossible, or, at all events, sterile.

Allied species may copulate and produce bastards. This is

414, LECTURE’ XIV.

«

frequently effected by the interference of man, when generally
some tricks are required to deceive the male and so to conquer
its aversion to a female of a different species. The stallion
who is to cover a she-ass is frequently first excited by the pre-
sence of a mare, for which at the proper moment the she-ass
is substituted. The same manceuvre is often resorted to, to
induce thorough-bred stallions to cover plough horses. They
frequently refuse, until one of their favourite mares is pro-
duced, after which they are deceived in the above manner.
But though in common cases, the interference of man is requi-
site for the production of hybrids on a larger scale, there are
a sufficient number of cases known of the occurrence of hybrid-
ity in a wild or semi-wild state. Dog and she-wolf, fox and
bitch, dog and jackal, ibex and goat are authenticated instances
of this kind.

The hybrids present in the average a mixture of the physical
and mental characters of the parents. There persists, how-
ever, a certain individuality, as the intermixture does not affect
the separate organs in equal proportions. The description of
wolf-dogs as given by Buffon, shows very clearly how far this
difference may extend to the young of a single litter.

Whilst thus the production of bastards with characters
equally remote from those of both parents may take place with
or without the interference of man, the question whether inter-
mediate species may arise is not thereby solved. It is not
merely requisite that the hybrids should be able to inter-
breed, but that their progeny should be prolific so that the
species may be continued; for, unless this were the case, the
new species would become extinct. Supposing that the hybrids
are not prolific between themselves, but are so with the parent
stock, the hybrid character would, after a few generations,
become again obliterated. Let us suppose a wolf-dog, half-
wolf, half-dog, covering a bitch. The offspring is now only
one-fourth wolf and three-fourth dog, and if this three-quarter
dog and his progeny are crossed with bitches, the quantity of
wolf-blood must finally be so much reduced as to be no longer
perceptible. Traces of such an intermixture will now and
then appear in some of the descendants, which, perhaps, may

Ibe icn

LECTURE XIV. 415

present some wolf-character, just as a race-horse may show
zebra stripes about the feet; but, generally speaking, the
hybrid race disappears, and is absorbed in the original stock.

Experience now teaches that fertility among hybrids differs
in a remarkable degree ; that each species has its own law ;
that there obtains even a difference with regard to the sexes of
the same species. The he-goat pairs readily with the sheep,
and produces hybrids which, according to Buffon, are per-
fectly prolific. The ram, on the other hand, copulates unwill-
ingly with the goat; and, according to the same naturalist,
there never is any issue. The probable production of prolific
young, as Broca justly observes, by no means depends on the
external resemblance of characters.

The greyhound and poodle dog are, both externally as well
as in the structure of the bones, much more dissimilar than
horse and ass (though greyhound and poodle are considered
races of the same species, but horse and ass as different spe-
cies), and yet the former produce fertile, and the latter a sterile
progeny. Observation alone can furnish us with data ; and obser-
vation, we must confess, extends at present to but few species.

There are cases in which the sexual function of hybrids is
extremely limited, in which the bastards may copulate, but are
sterile. Mules may sometimes produce young, but they must
be covered by a horse stallion, and the progeny are usually
sterile, and possess little viability. This example, which is
the oldest and best known, is the only one, and may be consi-
dered as exceptional. Mule breeding has been carried on in
the Hast from the remotest antiquity, and it was reserved to
the enlightened government of King Otho of Greece to ignore
a thousand years’ experience, and to import from Portugal, at
a great expense, mule stallions for the improvement of mule
breeding in Greece. This example of sterile hybrids is con-
stantly quoted by those who maintain “all hybrids are gene-
rally sterile in the first or the next following generations.”

Broca cites an instance of a limited hybrid production be-
tween the American bison and the European cow. The bison
readily covers the cow, whilst the domestic bull manifests an
aversion to the bison-cow. The progeny from such a connec-

416 LECTURE XIV.

tion, which the Americans term “‘half-blood buffaloes” (they
call the bison buffalo), have the body of a cow, but the curved
back (without the hunch), the colour, the head, and the mane
of the bison. The hybrids seem inter se but little fertile, but
if the half-blood is crossed with the parent stock a quarter
hybrid is obtained, which is very prolific, and produces a per-
manent hybrid species which, with all its characters, is indefi-
nitely fertile. This too is, at present, the only known instance
of a semi-fertile hybrid progeny, in which the bastards produce
inter se a sterile generation, but after being crossed with the
parent stock produce a species fertile between themselves and
the parent stock.

The cases in which hybrids are fertile and produce a
constant mongrel race are abundant. As cases of this kind
are contested with the greatest obstinacy, I shall quote a few
from the description given by Broca.

Experiments by Buffon :—‘ A young she-wolf, scarcely three
days’ old, was found in a forest by a peasant, who sold it to the
Marquis Spontin-Beaufort, by whom she was brought up. She
became so tame that she was taken out hunting. When a
year old she became so savage as to kill fowls and cats, attack-
ing dogs and sheep, so that she had to be chained. One day
she bit the coachman so dangerously that he was laid up for
six weeks. -

“First litter—On the 28th of March, 1773, this she-wolf
was first covered by a pointer, of whom she was very fond.
The act of coition took place repeatedly during a fortnight.
Seventy days after the first coition, June 6, 1773, she cast four
whelps, three males and one female.

«Second litter.—A single male remained, which was brought
up with his sister. On December 30, 1775, at. the age of two
and a half years coition took place between them, and sixty-
three days after, on the 3rd of March, 1776, the bitch cast
four whelps, two males and two females.

“Third litter.—A couple of this second litter was sent
by Marquis de Spontin to Buffon, who kept them first at
Paris, and subsequently at his country seat. Both animals
were brought up together, and carefully watched to prevent

ee eS eee

oe a

“F

LECTURE XIV. 417

their intermixture with other dogs. Coition took place De-
cember 31, 1778, when they were two years and ten months’
old, and after sixty-three days the bitch cast seven whelps.
The keeper took up the whelps to examine them, immediately
after which the enraged mother killed and devoured all those
the keeper had touched. There remained but one, a female.
Fourth Litter. This female was brought up with its parents
in a large vault, into which no other animal was admitted. At
the beginning of 1781, when about two years old, the young
bitch was covered by her father, and cast in the course of the
spring four whelps, two of which she devoured. There thus
remained one pair, of whose fate we learn nothing. The
French revolution probably interrupted these experiments.
The hybrids of he-goat and sheep, which we term “ buck-
sheep,” (chabins by the French), are bred in large numbers in
Chile, as their long-haired, half-woolly fleece, known by the
name of pellons,” is much sought after for bedding, carpets,
and saddle-cloths. The buck-sheep of the first generation
lave the form of the mother and the hairy coat of the father.
The hair is, however, almost as stiff as those of the he-goat, so
that the fleeces are but little valued. These bastards are conse-
quently not bred from, though they are perfectly prolific between
themselves; a small number only is retained for further breeding.
The buck-sheep which furnish the most valuable skins, are those
of the second generation, and are obtained by the crossing of
the male buck sheep with ewes. These half-blood buck-sheep
are, as far as we know, indefinitely prolific; but after three or
four generations their direct descendants undergo a modifica-
tion which diminishes their commercial value: their hair be-
comes thicker and harder, thus approaching that of the goat,
which is the more remarkable as these half-blood buck-sheep
are one-fourth goat and three-fourth sheep, and are thus much
nearer the sheep than the goat. Still more remarkable is it,
that in order to re-endow the succeeding generations with fine
and soft hair, the females must be crossed with the males of
the first blood. We thus obtain a mongrel, with three-eighth
goat blood and five-eighth sheep blood, which does not stand
so near to the sheep as its mother, and yet possesses a softer
EE

418 LECTURE XIV.

fleece, the excellence of which is preserved through several
generations. The buck-sheep exactly resemble our domestic
cross breeds, which after some generations lose some of their
useful qualities, which can be recovered by a fresh crossing
within the race. The fertility of the buck-sheep is not
limited, as the crossing is not effected with the parent stock,
but on the contrary with hybrids.

Fox and bitch, jackal and bitch, ibex and she-goat, camel
and dromedary, llama and alpaca, vicufa and alpaca, all produce
mongrels productive between themselves and infinitely prolific,
some of which, as the bastards of the dromedary and the camel,
are more valued than the parent stocks. We cannot enter into
particulars, excepting in one’ instance which has recently ac-
quired some importance in its industrial aspect, we allude to
the breeding of hybrids of the hare and the rabbit as carried
on in France.

M. Roux, of Angouléme, took young hares from three to
four weeks old and brought them up with tame rabbits of the
same age. The rabbits, who had never seen a male hare,
looked upon them as their natural mates, and so did the young
hares as regards their female companions, although they did not
seem so familar. In order to prevent fierce combats, the
males must at puberty be separated and a few females given
to each. The crossing is thus easily effected, specially at night,
as the hare never approaches the female when under observa-
tion. The wild doe-hare casts usually only four young; the
rabbit from eight to twelve; the rabbit covered by a hare from
five to eight. The prolificacy is thus intermediate.

The half-blood hares, the progeny of the first crossing, re-
semble more the rabbit than the hare. Their fur has scarcely any
reddish tint, the grey being the predominating colour. The ears
are somewhat longer than in the rabbit, as also are the hind legs ;
the facial expression is less wild and timid. They are nearly
as large as their parents, so that without close observation
they might be taken for rabbits. M. Roux found no advantage
in breeding this race, though they are perfectly prolific be-
tween each other. If these half-blood males are crossed with
tamed doe hares, animals are produced resembling almost

2 eee

LECTURE XIV. 419

entirely the tamed hare. ‘This breed also presented no
practical advantage. It is different with the recrossing with
the male hare. The quarter hares of the second blood, the
progeny of a hare and a half-blood female, are stronger,
finer, and larger than the original stock. These bastards
of the second blood, three-quarter hare to one quarter
rabbit, resemble their grandmother rabbit as much as their
father hare, so that they might be taken as half-blood bastards
if their pedigree were not known. ‘The characters of the rab-
bit thus predominate over those of the hare, probably because
the mother was arabbit. In an accidental cross breed in Italy
between male rabbit and doe hare, the particulars of which
have not reached us, the young rather resembled the hare.

The quarter hares are prolific between themselves, but only
in a limited degree, casting, like wild hares, only from two to
five young. To render them more prolific, M. Roux recrossed
them with half-blood does.

We shall term this new product three-eighth hares. They are
as fine as three-quarter hares, and much more prolific ; they
cast five to eight young, which are more easily brought up than
rabbits, grow fast, and are productive after four months. The
female, like the doe-hare and the rabbit, brings forth after
thirty days, suckles the young for about three weeks, and
receives again the male seventeen days after delivery, so that
five litters may easily be obtained withina year. This three-
eighth race is that which M. Roux breeds in preference, as it
requires no more provender than the rabbit, and yields more
meat. A yearling ‘‘house-hare”’ commonly weighs six pounds, a
wild hare eight pounds, a three-eighth hare eight to ten pounds;
some attain twelve and fourteen pounds, and one weighed six-
teen pounds. The three-eighth hares acquire with advancing
age a fine fur, which frequently fetches a franc, being of a
reddish grey colour, and of the same consistency as that of the
wild hare. The market price of a three-eighth hare is about
two francs, whilst that of a rabbit is only one franc. The flesh
is white, like that of the wild rabbit, but of excellent flavour,
resembling that of the turkey.

These three-eighth hares have a thicker head than the rab-

EE

42.0 LECTURE XIV.

bits, a shy expression, larger eyes, apparently placed nearer
the nose, the hind legs are longer, almost as long as in the
hare; the fore legs are both absolutely and relatively longer
than in the rabbit. The ears are almost as long as in the hare,
but singularly enough, in all the young and in most of the old,
sometimes the left sometimes the right ear is pendulous, whilst
the other ear is erect.

The breeding of these three-cighth hares has been carried
on since 1850, and assuming but five litters per annum, we
have now arrived at the sixtieth generation, without the hybrids
having shown any marked change in their external condition
or diminution of their generative powers. Here then we have
a proof that two acknowledged different species may produce
indefinitely prolific descendants, preserving the same characters.
The three-eighth hares have thus become a constant species,
with definite characters, which are propagated indefinitely,
and thus present all the marks of a zoological species. We
will admit that it is an artificial species, which probably would
not have been formed in a wild state, it beg known that wild
rabbits and hares are hostile to each other in this state ;
and that the rabbits, though smaller and apparently weaker,
drive away the hares ; hence German sportsmen look upon them
as vermin which must be destroyed. They are rarely eaten in
Germany; while in France thewild rabbit isconsidered a delicacy.
We will also admit that three-eighth hares, when set at liberty
amongst wild rabbits and hares, may lose their intermediate cha-
racter, and by recrossing may be absorbed in the parent stock,
although we possess no certain proof of that. But what bearing
has all this upon the point in question? Is the fact hereby
altered that a new species has been produced by the crossing
of two species, both of which are known to us in the wild
state, and one of which has been tamed, whilst the other,
in Germany, namely, the hare, has never been domesticated ?

Races, it has been said, are distinguished from species by
the production of mongrels, which are indefinitely prolific ;
but on closely examining this point it will be found that the
assertion is without foundation.

There are cases where coition between individuals belonging

ae aaa *

SS PS

~

:

LECTURE XIV. - 421

to the same race is impossible. As little as can the wolf copu-
late with the Fennec of the Sahara, as little can a bulldog pair-
with the small hairless African or the Bolognese lap-dog: it
is a physical impossibility. Breeders are, moreover, aware,
that certain races can only be made to pair with the greatest
difficulty, that the prolificacy of the mongrels soon diminishes,
and that the race becomes extinct, whilst other races pair
readily and are prolific. ‘‘There are qualities,” says Nathu-
sius, “which are incompatible; hence every crossing does
not lead to a fusion of characters.” There are accordingly
crossings which can never become constant. In other words,
there are races which are, but with difficulty, productive be-
tween each other, and there are others in which the fertility is
limited to a few generations.

The aversion existing between allied species in the wild
state has also been considered of importance. We have
seen that this aversion is frequently overcome, especially by the
males ; but we know also that it increases with the difference
of the race. Rengger states expressly, that the cats imported
into Paraguay, which are now essentially changed, but whose
importation is historically proved, have a decided aversion to
European cats, and can only with difficulty be brought to pair
with them. “ Birds of a feather flock together” is an old pro-
verb, and applicable to the whole animal world. It appears to
me highly probable that were the Swytz and the Saanen races
of our common cattle set at liberty they would not intermix ;
but that each race would select its own grazing districts, and
not intrude upon those of the other race. Possibly, the larger
Saanen race may supersede the weaker Swytz race, but no
voluntary intermixture would take place.

On summarising the facts obtained in this field of inquiry,
we are justified in concluding that, as regards production and
propagation, there exists no difference whatever between species
and races ; that there are both races and species unable to pro-
pagate inter se; that there are some which only propagate
with difficulty ; and again others which easily produce prolific
hybrids, and thus give rise to new species and races. Hxpe-
rience, however, also teaches, that races and species intermix

422 - LECTURE XIV.

with greater difficulty the more distinctly the characters are
impressed by the stamp of time.

The chaos of raceless animals, which have not yet received
this stamp, exists not merely in races but in wild species, and
it will be worth the zoologist’s while to bear this idea in mind,
in the classification of wild animals and species. When I con-
sider the numerous varieties and species assumed in, for in-
stance, the South American genus Cebus; when we see that
every naturalist differently conceives and differently groups
the numerous allied forms, the conviction obtrudes on me that
we have before us a raceless multitude which oscillates between
different centres, like the multitude of raceless half-tamed or
wild dogs of the East, between the old pure races or species.

But when we consider the conduct of the so-called species
and races on the whole, we constantly observe an important
difference, which does not prevent us from establishing some
few generally valid laws. Just as there are species which re-
main the same in all zones and have undergone no change in
the course of thousands of years, so are there again other spe-
cies which, transported into other climates, are essentially
transformed. The one may be said to be composed of unyield-
ing, the other of flexible materials. In the same way do we
observe species, as far as history can trace them, despite of
their resemblance, dwelling side by side without intermixture,
preserving the same peculiarities, without giving rise to a
mongrel race. Other species, on the contrary, which at a re-
mote period were perfectly distinct species, intermixed, pro-
duced prolific mongrels, and formed raceless masses, common
root stocks, so to speak, giving rise to new races and species.
Finally, there may be other species, which, though origiating
from such common root-stocks, departed from them, and ac-
quiring distinct characters, became hostile to their brothers.

That similar processes take place within the human genus,
and human races, I shall endeavour to show in my next lecture.

423

Lei Ey XV.

The Tradition of Adam.—Geographical Distribution of Human Races.—
Constancy of their Characters in the course of time.—Pliability of Races
—Development of the Skull by Civilisation.— Degeneration of Races.—
An Example from Ireland.—Modifications of Negroes in America, Yan-
kees, Jews.—Time requisite for such modifications.—Intermixture of
Races.—Differences in Prolificacy in various Mongrels.—Intermixture
of White Races between themselves.—Mulattoes in South Carolina and
Louisiana.—Hombron’s Remarks.—Indians and Whites.—Whites and
Malays.—Whites and Polynesians.— Whites and Australians.—Infer-
ences regarding the Original Diversity of the Human Races, and the
Products of Intermixture.—Direct Divine Influence, according to Dr.
Sagot.

Gentitemen—aAs far as our traditions go, however far back
they reach into the remotest antiquity, we observe that wher-
ever peoples migrated to, and discovered unknown countries,
they found human beings, who appeared to them not less
strange than the animals and plants they met with. There
are but few Small islands which, from the nature of the soil,
their distance from any country, the inhospitality of the cli-
mate, presented obstacles to habitation, and thus form an
exception to the general rule. The larger islands, as well as
all parts of the continents under the hottest and coldest climates,
were, by navigators or conquerors, always found inhabited.
Eyen religious legends, which have for their object the origin
of mankind and the history of a privileged race, even these
legends indicate that at the creation of the first pair the world
was already peopled, an indication given even in the Bible.
After the murder of Abel, Cain was the only child of Adam ;
Seth and the other sons and daughters mentioned in the
Bible not being yet born. Notwithstanding this, Cain takes
his wife with him in his flight and immediately lays the foun-
dation of a new city, after having received the mark on his

A2Q4. LECTURE XY.

forehead so that nobody should kill him. This mark could
only have been intended for men, for the wolf kills also marked
sheep. But where Cain could have obtained a wife, or peopled
a city (at the time of Adam) must always remain a mystery,
unless we assume that the history of Adam is no more than a
legend intended to prove the specific excellence of the Jewish
race.

I merely allude to this to show that the only fact from which
we can start, is that of the original dispersion of mankind upon
the earth, and the original difference of races spread over the
surface of the earth. However much we may indulge in theo-
logical speculations on the origin and differences of mankind,
however weighty proofs may be adduced for the original unity
of the human species, this much is certain, that no historical, nor,
as we have shown, geological data can establish this dream of
unity. However far back our eye reaches, we find different
species of man spread over different parts of the globe.

The geographical distribution of mankind corresponds more or
less with that of animals, though not within such narrow limits
as those drawn by Agassiz. Hach race or species corresponds
to the general conditions of the country, climate, and the sur-
rounding animal or vegetable world; and the laws of distribu-
tion in general show the same shades which we find in the rest
of organic nature. As there are animals inhabiting a very
limited district which they never leave, so are there species of
mankind who are limited to a small space. Again, as there
are species of animals spread over large tracts, and enabled to
support the heat of the tropics as well as the cold temperature
of the north, so are there species of mankind presenting the
same power of adaptation to external media. Boudin has en-
deavoured to show, that of all known human races there is but
one, namely, the Jewish race, which can easily become accli-
matised in all the zones of both hemispheres, and can maintain
itself without intermixture with the native race, whilst all other
European races transported from a temperate to a hot climate
would in the course of time become extinct, unless supplied by
immigration from the mother country, because the deaths
always exceed the births. Hence it follows that, excepting a

LECTURE XV. 425

few favoured races which, as far as is known, may inhabit the
whole globe, the rest are more or less confined within certain
limits which they cannot without impunity transgress. But
these laws now prevailing in the physical world are applicable,
no doubt, to remote periods, in which the present conditions
existed ; and, as the facts relating to the existence of man upon
the earth teach us that the conditions were not changed,
neither can the laws of distribution of the human race have
undergone any material change.

Not merely the difference of races, but also their constancy
in the course of time, is perfectly established. We have en-
deayoured to show that these characters may be traced back
beyond the historical period up to the pile-works, the stone-
period, and the diluvial formations. The Egyptian monuments
show that already under the twelfth dynasty, about 2,300
years before Christ, Negroes had been imported into Heypt ;
that slave hunts had, as now, taken place under several dynas-
ties, as proved by the triumphal processions of Thotmes IV,
about 1700 B.c., and Rameses III, about 1300 3.c. There are
seen long processions of Negroes, whose features and colour
are faithfully rendered ; there are seen Hgyptian scribes regis-
tering slaves with their wives and children; even the down
upon the heads of the latter may be distinguished. There are
also seen many heads presenting the characters of Negro
tribes inhabiting the south of Egypt, and which the artist dis-
tinguishes as such by a superadded lotos-stalk. But not
only the Negroes, but also the Nubians and the Berbers, as
well as the old Egyptians, are always depicted with those cha-
racteristic peculiarities which have been preserved to this day.
“The peasants of the Nile valley,” says Broca, “ now termed
Fellahs, have preserved the type of the ancient Heyptians,
which is the more remarkable, as they have since the Arab
conquest intermixed with the stock of the conquerors. The
identity of the modern Fellahs with the Egyptians of the time
of the Pharaohs has been shown by Morton by the comparison
of their skulls; and Jomard confirms this as follows: “On
looking at the agricultural labourers of Esné, Ombos, Edfi, or
of the district of Selséle, one is apt to imagine that the images

426 LECTURE XV.

on the monuments of Latopolis, Ombos, or Apollonipolis
Magna, have detached themselves from the walls and descended
into the plains.”

The same constancy of characters can be traced in the other
races with which the Egyptians came in contact. The Jews
are as easily recognisable as the Tatars and Scythians with
whom Rameses III was at war. In the same way we observe
upon the Assyrian and Indian monuments the characters of
such races as still inhabit these regions, so that the constancy
of race characters is everywhere rendered evident. But the
example of Egypt teaches also that slight changes of climate,
as well as limited intermixture, have an insignificant influence
on the character of a race. For more than four thousand
years have Negroes, Berbers, and Egyptians inhabited the same
Nile valley, and propagated there without any essential change
in their characters. At a later period there was an immigration
of Greeks, Persians, Arabs, and Turks, still without changing
the original stock. These conquerors added but a small per-
centage to the existing population, and stood to it, nearly in
the same relation as limited intermixture, which, by recrossing
with the parent stock, is absorbed in it, or leaves only a slight
residue.

Whilst thus the constancy of the natural races of mankind
is established beyond any doubt, we must, on the other hand,
not forget that most of them possess a certain flexibility, and
show, when transplanted into different media, certain changes
which are the result of their adaptation to new conditions. As
it is upon this point that the advocates for the unity of the
human species base their arguments, we are compelled ne
scrutinise the respective facts.

Let us, at the outset, remember that many races, though
they remain on the same spot, are apt to undergo certain
changes, the result of progressive civilisation. It is chiefly
the height of the skull, and the development of the frontal
region, which is thereby affected, by which the internal capa-
city of the cranium, and the cerebral mass itself are increased.
We have already pointed out, that in races capable of civilisa-
tion, the anterior sutures remain open longer, and are ob-

Sty:

LECTURE XV. 42,7

literated at a later period than the posterior; the reverse
being the case in races incapable of high culture. We have
shown that, according to Broca, the Parisian skulls have, in
the course of centuries, acquired a greater internal cranial
capacity. We have further shown that the cave and stone-
period skulls are unfavourably distinguished by the indifferent
development of the frontal region. The height of the forehead
and the skull cannot, therefore, be adopted as a permanent
race character, since it may change in the course of time and
give to the profile a different aspect. Food, if appropriate,
may also have its influence, by rendering a people larger and
more muscular. The same characters which distinguish care-
fully-bred domestic animals from their parent stock, may also
be obtained in man by continued culture. There can be no
doubt that the prosperous and wealthy classes of human
society are, on the whole,. physically finer and stronger than
the lowest classes, who are much exposed to misery and want.
It is further unquestionable that those classes which, in succes-
sive generations, follow mental occupations, possess a greater
development of the skull than the ignorant masses who are
engaged in the meanest occupations. We should by no means
feel surprised to hear it established by comparative observa-
tions, that the squirearchy of the Mark Brandenburg, which
for centuries have had no other ambition than to wear the king’s
livery, possess a smaller cranial capacity than the intelligent
Berliners.

In the same way as culture, wealth, aliment, and particular
occupations may develope a cultured race from a natural race, so
may the deprivation of such influences reduce a cultured race
to its primary condition. Hunger and anxiety will do more,
by adding morbid characters, which may be transmitted through
several generations, until existence itself becomes endangered.
I shall cite for this purpose a remarkable instance of this kind,
which is quoted in the Dublin University Magazine :—

‘On the plantation of Ulster, and on the successes of the
British against the rebels in 1641 and 1689, multitudes of native
Irish were driven from Armagh and the south of Down into
the mountainous tract, extending from the Barony of the Flews

428 LECTURE XV.

eastward to the sea. The same race was, on the other side of
the kingdom, driven into Leitrim, Sligo, and Mayo. Hyer
since that time these people have been exposed to the bad
effects of hunger and ignorance, the two great demoralisers of
the human race. The descendants of these refugees can still
be distinguished from their cognates in Meath and other dis-
tricts. They have open projecting mouths, with prominent teeth,
and exposed gums, high cheek bones, depressed noses, and pre-
sent barbarism on their front. We thus see in Sligo and the
north of Mayo the consequences of a two hundred years’ misery
upon the whole physical structure, an example of deteriora-
tion by known causes, which offers some compensation by its
importance for the future, in shewing the sufferings through
which former generations have passed. They are on the
average five feet two inches high, big bellied, bandy-legged ;
their clothes a bundle of rags—thus walk about the spectres
of a people in the daylight of civilisation, as representatives
of Irish misery and ugliness; a people once well grown, able-
bodied, and handsome. In other parts of the island, where
the people have undergone no such degradation, the same
race furnishes the finest models of human beauty and strength,
both physically and mentally.”

** Kvery reader,” adds Quatrefages to this description, ‘ who
is any way acquainted with the distinguishing characters of
mankind, will, with the exception of the colour, recognise here
the character ascribed to the lowest Negroes, and the degene-
rate Australian tribes.” And further: “ These two different
groups, one of which reminds us of the lowest races of Aus-
tralia ; and the other, which will bear comparison with any
white race, are they really of the same race? We answer
no. The Irishman of Meath alone represents the old stock,
the surrounding media have for him remained the same, and
he is unaltered. The Irishman of Flews, on the contrary,
placed under different conditions, has changed, and formed a
new race, derived from the old, which corresponds to the
media which produced it. There are now in these adjoining
districts two races.” Thus far Quatrefages.

Let us examine this point. And, first, we must remember

LECTURE XV. 429

that party spirit speaks here, painting the condition of the
Trish in as gloomy colours as possible, and probably assuming
some few ragged and broken-down beggars as the type of
the whole race. But, assuming the description to be correct,
it is so imperfect and defective, that we can scarcely con-
ceive how such a cautious writer as Quatrefages can find in
it a description of the Australian savage.

No person has examined such a degenerate Irish skull, and
shown how far it deviates from other Irish skulls, or approaches
the characteristic form of the Australian skulls. The whole
description resembles as closely, if not more so, that of the
semi-crétins, as they are found by hundreds in poor moun-
tainous districts. The projecting teeth, the pendulous belly,
the thick noses, puffy lips, are always the attendants on
scrofula, that wide-spread disease which is produced by damp
dwellings, bad food, want of care, and similar causes. That
there has been degeneration in these poor creatures is unques-
tionable ; that neglect has changed the noble horse into a little
rough, thick-bellied mustang is certain ; but just as by proper
care the noble Andalusian horse may be developed from the
mustang, so may the scrofulous Irish emigrant from Sligo to
America, by proper alimentation, be made to resemble in his
successors the Irishman of Meath. Nothing in the whole
description proves that any of the characteristic features of
the Irish or Celtic skull had been obliterated. We have,
therefore, before us changes such as are experienced by civil-
ised races, when the conditions requisite for preserving that
civilisation begin to fail.

Weare, however, as already stated, far from denying certain
modifications in races produced either by hunger and misery,
or by transplantation to a foreign climate. We simply main-
tain, that these changes are in most human species but trifling,
that they stand in proportion to the flexibility of the race, and
that most races possess so little flexibility that, on being
transported to a foreign climate, they perish rather than adapt
themselves to the new influences. ;

The first and most common influence of climate shows itself
in a diminution of generative power in both sexes, which, by
diminishing the number of births, even if they balance the

430 LECTURE XY.

number of deaths, must necessarily lead to final extinction.
The Mamelukes in Egypt could only maintain themselves by
the purchase and importation of slaves, as their own pro-
geny, notwithstanding all care, perished. Despite of all advan-
tages enjoyed by English married soldiers in India, they never
succeeded in rearing a sufficient number for drummers and
fifers. The Dutch established in Java become sterile with
women of their own race, and, if they have any children, the
whole family regularly becomes almost extinct with the ap-
pearance of grandchildren. As generative capacity is the last
development of the organism, which is only unfolded when all
conditions of existence are present, so is it the first function
which fails, and soon ceases under hostile influences. As in
man, so is it in animals, many of which, though apparently in
excellent health, no longer propagate in captivity. Many
assertions of sterility of mongrels and hybrids, founded on
experiments in zoological gardens and menageries, rest merely
upon this diminution of generative power, observed also in
wild species, which are very protific in a state of liberty.

Let us now examine the changes which certain races are
said to have undergone, in which transplantation mto other
countries has produced no diminution of generative power,
and where thus the conditions requisite for the formation of a
new race existed. First of all are mentioned the Negroes,
who, imported into Southern and Central America, are very
prolific on that continent. The Northern slave-states, Virgimia
and Kentucky, carry on the trade of slave-breeders, just as in
our own country there are cattle-breeders. Here we have
abundant materials for observation. Some authors assert, in
fact, that the Negroes imported into America, in successive
generations, gradually approach the white race. ‘The Negro
children of pure race,’ says Reiset, ‘born in the Antilles,
have all the characters of the Negro, but somewhat more
faintly developed. The colour and the hair remain the same,
but the muzzle diminishes, and in all other respects the
Creole-negro approaches the white.” ‘The Negroes of the
United States,” says Réclus, “have by no means the same
type as the Negroes in Africa; their skin is rarely velvety,
though all their ancestors were imported from Guinea. They

Papper:

LECTURE XY. 431

have no such projecting cheekbones, thick lips, flat noses,
thick wool, brutish physiognomies, and so acute facial angles,
as their brethren in the old world. In the course of some
one hundred and fifty years they have, as regards their
external aspect, passed over more than a quarter of the dis-
tance which separates them from the white race.”

On summarising all these observations and adding the
blanching of the skin, I must ask what are the characters for
the remaining three-fourths of the distance which the Negro
has yet to traverse, and whether the slight changes enumerated
above really indicate an approach to the white race, or whether
they are merely such changes as the Negroes undergo even in
their own country with advancing civilisation? There are
leaden-grey Negroes in Africa, Negroes with but moderately
puffed up lips, with more prominent noses, less woolly hair and
less brutish aspect, with less prominent cheek-bones and less
acute facial angle, than the Guinea Negroes possess, which re-
present the low Negro-type in general. Though we would not
maintain that all the peoples of central Africa have sprung
from the same common stock, we know at least so much from
the descriptions of African travellers, as to enable us boldly to
assert that each of the above quoted slight changes occur as
much in Africa, without any contact with the whites, without
any transportation across the sea, and are developed amongst
the Negroes themselves. The proof for our assertion is easily
found: the extract from Pruner-Bey’s article on Negroes,
which we gave in a preceding lecture, confirms our view, as
Pruner-Bey has only examined African Negroes in Africa.
But supposing these changes to take place only in America,
do these changes, upon which so much value is set, affect any
of the essential features of the organisation, especially the skull
and the skeleton? Have any of these gentlemen compared
a slave-skull, I will not say of a hundred and fifty years ago,
but one of only three preceding generations, with that of a native
Negro skull? And how do these observations agree with
the measurements of Aitken Meigs, who assigns to American
slave-skulls less capacity than to the skulls of Negroes born
in Africa ?

We might say still more: was either of these observers, such

432 LECTURE XV.

as Lyell, Reiset, Réclus, in a condition to compare large num-
bers of recently imported African Negroes with as many
Creole Negroes, as since 1808 no more slaves have been im-
ported into America, so that the observations were only made
forty years after the above period? And finally, what guaran-
tee have these gentlemen for the pure descent of these Negroes?
We know the brutality of the slaveholders, who not only claim
the jus prime noctis, but also the first child, and who with de-
testable cruelty,* and with an utter disregard of every human
feeling, recross such bastards with the black race and keep
them in slavery.

The American Anglo-Saxons, or Yankees, are also cited as
an instance of change of characters. ‘ Already, after the
second generation,” says Pruner-Bey in Quatrefages, ‘“ the
Yankee presents features of the Indian type. At a later
period, the glandular system is reduced to the minimum of its
normal development. The skin becomes dry like leather, the
colour of the cheeks is lost, and is in males replaced by a loamy
tint, and in females by a sallow paleness. The head becomes
smaller and rounder, and is covered with stiff dark hair; the
neck becomes longer, and there is a greater development of
the cheek bones and the masseters. The temporal fosse
become deeper, the jaw bones more massive, the eyes lhe in
deep approximated sockets. The iris is dark, the glance is
piercing and wild. The long bones, especially in the superior
extremities, are lengthened, so that the gloves manufactured in
England and France for the American market are of a particu-
lar make with very long fingers. The female pelvis approaches
that of the male.” ‘‘ America,” adds Quatrefages, “has thus
altered the Anglo-Saxon type, and produced from the English
race a new white race which might be called the Yankee race.”

We have nothing to say against this ; for we also believe that
America dries up the skin and reduces the fat,—an effect
to which all the above differences might be reduced. That
the head becomes smaller, we utterly deny ; the exact cranial

* The author evidently writes in entire ignorance of the real facts, and
the credulity which he has here shown in believing the stories put forward
by the “ philanthropists” of Exeter Hall, and the absurd fictions of Mrs.

Beecher Stowe, is the more remarkable, as Prof. Vogt is not given to believe
without some reliable evidence.—EDIToR.

LECTURE XV. 433

measurements by Morton contradict this assertion categorically,
by showing that the skull of the Yankee is as large as that
of the Englishman. Thus the alleged differences are reduced
to a minimum, and are the less to be depended upon, as the
Anglo-Saxon race is itself a mongrel race, produced by Celts,
Saxons, Normans, and Danes, a raceless chaos without any
fixed type; and the descendants of this raceless multitude have
in America so much intermixed with Frenchmen, Germans,
Dutch, and Irish, as to have given rise to another raceless
chaos, which is kept up by continued immigration. We can
readily believe that from this chaos a new race is gradually
forming. The facts at hand are, however, by no means so
decisive as to justify us in considering these characters as
constant. We must, moreover, add that the German families,
who have been settled in Pennsylvania quite as long as the
Anglo-Saxons, and have kept their race pure, do not present
the transition into the Yankee type, but preserve that of their
stock. The so-called Anglo-Saxon race, which, in point of
fact, is no real race, as no fixed type has been produced by its
manifold intermixtures with foreign peoples, that so-called
race has, certainly, undergone some alterations in a foreign
climate, whilst the fixed Germano-Saxon race, which main-
tains itself with great tenacity in its old dwelling places in
Germany, has not changed even in America. Here again
we have that difference in the conduct of old fixed and new
formed races already touched upon.

The Jews also have been cited as a proof of alteration, even
though, as is here the case, the stock is kept pure. It is true
we find, chiefly in the North, m Russia and Poland, Germany
and Bohemia, a tribe of Jews frequently with red hair, short
beard, pug nose, small grey cunning eyes, massive trunk,
round face and broad cheek bones, resembling many Scla-
yonian tribes of the North. In the Hast, on the contrary, and
about the Mediterranean, as well as in Portugal and Holland,
we find the Semitic stock with long black hair and beard, large
almond-shaped eyes with a melancholy expression, oval face
and prominent nose; in short, that type represented in the
portraits of Rembrandt. In Africa finally, on the Red Sea in

FF

ABA LECTURE XV.

Abyssinia, we find a Jewish nation, which despises trade,
carries on agriculture and other handicrafts, and is seemingly
not distinguishable from the other peoples of the country.
They themselves derive their descent from the mythical Queen
Sheba, who is said to have visited Solomon, when she and her
household embraced Judaism.

The Jews, it was thought, thus afford a proof of the depend-
ence of the stock on the climate, in as much as in the North
they approached the Sclavonian, in the Mediterranean the
Oriental, and in the South the Abyssinian type. The proofs
are, however, insufficient. On the Red Sea the Jews had settle-
ments from a remote period where, before Mohammed, they
ruled in small districts, and, contrary to their usual custom,
made many proselytes. The investigations of Jewish scholars,
especially those of Dr. Ascher, made in Abyssinia, have shown
this conversion, but no affinity of race. All Jewish scholars
agree also that both types have existed from the remotest
period, so that some reduce them to the multitude of people
which accompanied the Jews on their departure from Egypt,
and passed with them through the Red Sea; though it is
rather surprising that this rabble too (the Hebrew expression
still used among the Jews) should also have been worthy of the
particular protection of their own God. Thus the differences
obtaining between Jews seem to result rather from original tribe
peculiarities than from change of localities. Another argu-
ment in favour of this view is, that the Jews of the Oriental
type expelled from Portugal, who for several centuries have
been settled in Holland, have preserved their peculiarities
unaltered ; whilst, on the other hand, in the Hast, the two Jew-
ish types lived also for centuries side by side in the same climate
and conditions, and preserved their respective characters.

We must, however, as regards these changes, not lose sight
of a pomt which seems to us of considerable importance.
“Tt required,” says Quatrefages, “‘ scarcely two centuries to
transform the Irish Celt into a kind of Australian ; two cen-
turies and a half, at most ten or twelve generations, have
sufficed to change the Anglo-Saxon intoa Yankee. We may
thus infer the effects which numbers of centuries, hundreds

LECTURE XV. ABS

of generations, may produce in man, nay, must have produced,
when the savage or semi-barbarous populations knew not how
to protect themselves from the influences of the new climate,
when they had to struggle against animal and vegetable nature,
against the physico-chemical forces which predominated. How
much more destructive must at that time have been the
struggle for life than it is now for those travelling pioneers
whose courage we so much admire. And how much more
durable and deeper must be the traces of those struggles.”

It appears to me that many facts are here confounded which
ought to be separated. The struggle for existence m anew
country may be deadly, because the number of deaths ex-
ceeds that of births, and then there can be no question of a
change of race, for it becomes extinct ! Or, again, the struggle
is not so deadly, that is to say, the number of births exceeds
that of deaths, and the race adapts itself to the new conditions.
This is done within a few generations, when a condition is
established corresponding to the altered vital condition. We
have for this the clearest proofs in the domestic animals which
are transplanted to foreign climates. Hog, sheep, cat, and dog
have thus within a few generations, in southern climates, passed
through such changes as, for instance, the Egyptian goose in
Europe. After that change, which, as stated, was effected
within a few generations, and the race was acclimatised, no
further modification took place. And we may easily convince
ourselves that it must be so. For if modifications are requisite
to live in a foreign climate, these modifications must be rapidly
accomplished to preserve the race from threatened destruc-
tion. If then, we say, that a race which has undergone modi-
fications within a few generations, must for that reason undergo
a corresponding sum of alterations at a subsequent period ; if
we were to establish a quasi rule of three, and say: since this,
this race has within three generations experienced «# altera-
tions, consequently it must within thirty generations have under-
gone 10 # alterations, as Quatrefages would put it, we commit a
scientific error, and excite hopes which can never be realised.

We thus infer that all instances which have been cited of
changes in races of pure descent, by the mere influence of

FF

436 LECTURE XV.

changed media, emigration into foreign countries, ete. are
insignificant, and do not affect the essential race-characters.
These modifications, therefore, which we by no means entirely
deny, do not in any way explain the differences in the human
species. As we, always in accordance with the facts, must
assume a fundamental difference of races as our starting point,
the crossing question now presents itself. Here, as with do-
mestic animals, the question was simply answered by the state-
ment, that all races of mankind can interbreed, and that their
mongrels are indefinitely prolific. But on closer examination it is
found that the same conditions present themselves as in other
animals, specially domestic animals ; namely, that there are
crossings which are sterile ; others in which the bastards are
but little fertile inter se, but more so with the parent stock ;
and again, there are others which are between themselves
indefinitely prolific.

There can be no doubt that the various white races which
have intermixed in Hurope and Asia are infinitely prolific.
Though by close examination we may, from this commixture,
pick out the original stocks of which the civilised peoples are
composed ; still all European peoples are more or less inter-
mixed, the proofs of which glimmer forth from beneath their
respective characters. Now these populations of Europe in-
crease everywhere; but nowhere do we find a pure unmixed
stock or race; it thus admits of no doubt, that the mongrels
of the white race are indefinitely fertile.

It is not quite so in the commixture of races more removed
from each other. The connections of Whites with negresses
are fruitful, and their issue—the mulattoes—are prolific both
between each other and with the parent stock. It is true that
race prejudices interfere with the connection of mulattoes be-
tween themselves, as the mulatto woman prefers rather to be
the concubine of a white man than the wife of a black, and
considers it an honour to have a child by a white man; whilst,
on the other hand, the mulatto spares no effort to obtain a
white wife, and only returns to the black parent stock by com-
pulsion. Thus it comes to pass that, in speaking of mulattoes,
we find only the mongrels of the first blood, for by recrossing

LECTURE XV. 437

they are ultimately absorbed in one of the parent stocks. It
might also, taken strictly, be boldly asserted that there exists
no proof for the infinite prolificacy of mulattoes between each
other ; and it might even be maintained that they or their
descendants must necessarily be sterile between each other,
inasmuch as nowhere can successive generations of such mu-
lattoes be shown to exist. It would, indeed, be difficult to find
in any country a single instance of grandchildren of a mulatto
by pure inbreeding ; whilst, on the contrary, the mongrels, by
recrossing, exist in all possible gradations, so that a number
of terms have been invented in transatlantic countries to
designate these crossbreeds.

The connections between negro and a white female seem to
be less prolific, for anatomical reasons, which appear to be well
founded. That they are productive at times there is no doubt,
but the cases are so rare, that we possess no facts as regards
the bastards so produced.

The distribution of the parental characters in Mulattoes and
human mongrels in general, seem to differ as much as in
animals. Sometimes the Mulattoes resemble more the White,
and sometimes more the Negro. Thus Lislet-Geoffroy, the
mathematician, though the son of a Frenchman and a Negress,
presented physically nearly all the characters of the Negro.
Quatrefages tells a story of a black servant who had married a
white woman, and found on his return from a journey that his
wife had given birth to a child so white, that he would not
acknowledge it until the midwife showed him some black spots
on the body. A Doctor Parsons, who saw the child, authen-
ticates this case. It is very probable that neither the father
nor the Doctor had ever seen a new-born Negro child, and
were therefore not aware that the dark colour is only gradu-
ally developed.

Some American authors assert that they have ascertained a
difference in the fertility of the Mulattoes, according as the
white fathers belong to different stocks. Nott observes that
in South Carolina the Mulattoes are shorter lived and less fit
for hard labour than the Whites and the Negroes; that the
Mulatto women are very delicate and subject to many chronic

438 LECTURE XY.

diseases ; that they are bad wet nurses and frequently miscarry ;
that their children die young, and that the Mulattoes are less
fertile inter se than with their parent stocks. But Nott found
subsequently that these inferences, though correct as regards
South Carolina, did not apply to Louisiana and the banks of
the Mississippi; hence he concluded that the Latin races of
Europe produced with the Negro race mongrels more viable
than the Anglo-Saxons. This fact seems also to have been
established as regards Jamaica, colonised by the English, for
the Mulattoes do not seem to thrive there, whilst on the
islands colonised by the French, Spaniards, and Portuguese
the Mulattoes show the same vitality as in Louisiana. At-
tempts have been made to explain these differences from local
influences, but it would be very strange if the English should,
by mere chance, have chosen such spots as are destructive to
Mulattoes, whilst the Latin races should have selected those
districts which are favourable to their development.

It may happen, that in the intermixture of certain races, the
prolificacy is increased in the same degree as in the inbreeding
of half- and three-eighth hares. Hombron, cited by Quatre-
fages, observes on this point: “During the four years which
I passed in Brazil, Peru, and Chile, I amused myself with
observing the curious intermixtures of Negroes with the
natives. I have even noted down the number of children in
many households, of Whites with Negresses, Whites and
American women, Negroes with American natives, and Negroes
inter se. In our colonies the Whites are only moderately
prolific with Negresses ; they are, however, very prolific with
Mulatto women, and so are Mulattoes inter se. I can affirm that
the marriages between European men and American women
furnish the greatest average number of children; then come
Negro and Negress ; then Negro and American female. The
scanty fertility of Americans between themselves depends
probably on the moderate development of their sexual in-
stinct.”? The latter reason, by the way, means as much as if
we were to say that the reason why the Arabs drink so little is
that they feel but little thirst. The intercourse of the Latin
race with the Indian seems to be remarkably fertile; for the

LECTURE XV. 439

South American States, almost exclusively populated by Span-
iards and Portuguese, are now chiefly inhabited by a mongrel
race, the issue of that intermixture. These mongrel races
may certainly be partly considered as perfectly raceless masses.
No constant type has as yet been formed, probably because
there is a continuous re-crossing with either of the parent
stocks and their direct descendants. But we should not feel
surprised to see a new race gradually developed, which might
be compared to the hare-rabbits. That these cross-breds of
Indians and Whites are not wanting in culture, and, in certain
respects, are superior to the aborigines, as well as the Creoles,
is best shown by the present war in Mexico, where the Re-
public, under the leadership of a mongrel (Juarez), offers a
heroic resistance to a well-disciplined army.

We know but little concerning the intermixture of European
nations with South-Asiatics and Malays. Despite the great num-
ber of connections between the Dutch men and Java women,
which generally prove fertile, and the products of which are
called ‘‘Liplaps,” no mongrel race has been produced ; as little
as in India, so that in both colonies the belief prevails that
these mongrels become sterile inter se in the third generation.

The fertility of Huropeans with Polynesians is attested by
the history of Pitcairn island, where from a few English sailors
and some Tahitian women a small mongrel race of about two
hundred individuals originated, who are favourably distin-
guished by bodily conformation, muscular power, and intelli-
gence. But this instance is to some extent invalidated by the
circumstance, that even upon islands where there is much in-
tercourse between ship-crews and native women no mongrel
race has been formed, whilst the natives themselves diminish
and apparently approach extinction.

The connections between whites and Australian females
seem to be the least prolific of all. According to Broca,
only a single bastard has been mentioned by many travellers.
Whilst the terms designating in America the numerous cross-
breeds form no small vocabulary, and whilst the Hnglish
in Australia and New South Wales have a number of nick-
names for the varieties of white colonists, there is no term

AAO LECTURE XY.

indicating the cross-breed between European and Australian,
nor is there any administrative law as regards such bastards.
““We may therefore,” continues Broca, “‘ assume it as a fact,
that cross-breeds of Europeans and native Australian women
are very rare. This fact is so much opposed to the usual
theory of the interbreeding of human races, that it is worth
while to examine whether there may not be other than physio-
logical causes for it.’ Broca then shows that sexual inter-
course between Europeans and Australian women, so far from
being rare, is, on the contrary, very frequent, for the simple
reason that there are but few European females; he further
proves that the bastards are not, as has been asserted, killed,
and that, in spite of numerous connections of this kind, there
exist so few mongrels, that we possess no information concern-
ing their physical and mental characters, and their prolificacy.
In the presence of such facts, we cannot be surprised that this
degree of sterility occurs in such races as, both by physical
conformation as well as by distance, are far remote from each
other. The objections to these facts by Quatrefages are so
weak that they require no refutation. Even if it were true
that the Australians kill the bastards who with their mothers
return to their tribe, it might at the same time be fairly as-
sumed that all European fathers, who produce children with
Australian women, are not such monsters as to expose them to
certain death. We cannot suppose such an abnegation of
every human feeling to have existed even among the first
criminal population of Australia.

In now casting a retrospective glance at the changes pro-
duced by external influences and by intermixture in the various
races inhabiting the globe, we arrive at certain conclusions
which may be fairly inferred from the facts at hand.

1. The differences in the human genus which we may desig-
nate either races or species, (both terms appear to me as
regards natural races perfectly identical), these differences are,
as far as we can trace them, original and have in the course of
time been transmitted unchanged upon the same soil.

2. The changes, which these original species can undergo
by external influences of any kind, are so shght that they can-
not be compared with the primary differences.

ee JY

LECTURE XV. 441

3. The raceless masses produced by transportation into a
foreign climate may, by pure imbreeding, give rise to a new
human race or species, the characters of which might, indeed,
become fixed after a few generations, but would require a very
long period of time before they can acquire that constancy
which distinguishes the original species of mankind.

4. The various species of mankind present in crossing dif-
ferent degrees of fertility. Most of them are between each other
indefinitely prolific, as also are their descendants ; in some the
fertility is so limited, that no mongrel race can be produced by
them.

5. The mongrel races gradually attain by inbreeding that
constancy of characters which distinguishes the original race,
so that from this commixture new species may arise.

6. Heterogeneous races have by intermixture given rise to
raceless masses—peoples which present no fixed characters,
and form, so to speak, dispersive circles around the original
species, which at their points of contact become confluent.

I cannot deny that these views are not exclusively derived
from what is observed in man, but chiefly from what is seen
in domestic and wild animals. But this, if I am not mistaken,
gives greater weight to them. We are not so blind as to
maintain, that the original species of mankind can undergo no
change by the influence of surrounding media. We neither
deny intermixture nor the mongrel races to which it has given
rise, but we are unable to perceive that their existence can
entirely obliterate the original difference, or afford a proof for
an original unity, which is opposed to all known facts. Again
we neither deny the disappearance and extinction of well cha-
racterised races, nor the rise of new races and species from the
commixture of existing species, intensified perhaps by the influ-
ence of external media. All this is confirmed by the facts ob-
served in the rest of the animal world. For the development of
this view we certainly as little require supernatural influences, or
direct interference of foreign forces, as Laplace required a
divine interference for celestial mechanics, an hypothesis which
a modern pious defender of the unity of species, in the face of
all facts, advances in this manner :

AAD, LECTURE XV.

“‘T am of opinion that during a period, probably of several
centuries, after God had multiplied the languages, separated
the various tribes which spoke different languages, and distri-
buted these peoples over the surface of the globe, He endowed
in the course of generations each race, as it became a nation,
with a peculiar external character. In appoimting to each
stock a dwelling place, God also endowed it with a capacity to
live either in the arctic, temperate, or torrid zone; He also
taught them, or assisted them, in their invention of means to
satisfy their wants, and finally presented them with useful
plants proper to the climate, and which do not grow wild.”

This is the explanation of Doctor Sagot, who in this manner
reconciles the diversity of mankind with Biblical unity. If
God really fed the animals in the ark of Noah with food from
heaven, all difficulties are at an end. If all natural conditions
and facts which oppose a myth are to be removed by a direct
divine interference, natural science is useless. We have not
arrived yet at this point in the civilised world, although some
eyes are turned in that direction.

Le RU R Ee: XV bE:

Origin of Organic Nature.—Differences between the Organic Kingdoms and
their sub-Divisions.—Origin of Organic Cells.—Theory of Darwin.—My
change of Opinion.—Creation of Species.—Mutability of Type.—Con-
sequences of this Theory.—Adaptation and Fixation of Types.—Prac-
tical Conception of Species.—Variation in Adaptation and Slowness of
Transformation.—Present and Former Transition Types.—Cebus.—
Bears.—The Greek Monkey of the Tertiary Period.—Exclusive Views of
Cuvier and Agassiz.—Rarity of Transition Forms.—Progression and
Retrogression.—Fundamental Plan in the Structure of Animals.—No
single Original Organic Form.—Derivation of the Human from the Ape-
Type.—Derivation of the three Anthropoid Apes from three different
Families.—The various original Human Races must be derived from
different Ape Families.—Lamentations of Moralists.

GuntLemmn,—The desire of man to inquire into the origin of
all things produces daily fresh attempts of ascending the scale
leading in that direction. Faith has in this respect an easy
task ; it builds upon some old myth a system which points to
an unknown beyond. The path of science is more rugged, as
it must steadily keep to the principle, not to depart from the
facts and the limits fixed by observation and experiment. The
further back science proceeds, the more necessary is it to use
caution in drawing inferences from the facts, and the greater
should be the candour in confessing the gaps which are every
where met with; not for the reason that no created being can
penetrate into the sanctuary of Nature, but simply because the
facts and observations are so numerous that they cannot be
mastered by one individual.

The origin of organic nature has always attracted the atten-
tion both of the professional naturalist and the general student.
Observation teaches that every organic being owes its origin to
parents, which are again the product of other parents; no
where is there an interruption in the series, so that notwith-
standing all assertions to the contrary, the production of organic
beings from original elements has hitherto failed. However

44,4, LECTURE XVI.

glad, to tell the truth, I might be to accept the theory of spon-
taneous generation ; however illogical it appears to me to
assume for the production of organic beings a special force in
nature, which we observe nowhere else; however natural it
may be to search in this primeval generation for the starting
point of organic creation, which might then have developed
itself in various directions by the influence of various causes ;
I must on the other hand confess, that only the most stringent
proofs could induce me to adopt it. If this be forthcoming I
shall accept it most willingly ; till then, I must acknowledge
the existence of this gap in our science, though I entertain the
hope that we shall finally succeed in filling it up.

Organic creation, considered in its totality, presents a remark-
able diversity. The chief kingdoms of nature, the vegetable
and animal kingdoms, appear sharply separated from each
other. Even within these kingdoms there are some divisions
so dissimilar in structure and fundamental plan, that again we
imagine a gulf to exist between them. It is, however, soon
perceived that there are some groups which have a closer
connection; that the similarities of structure grow out during
the development of the individual; that the groups related to
each other proceed from a common fundamental form, from
which these diversities very gradually arise.

It was no small triumph for microscopic science when
Schwann proved that all the tissues, whether vegetable or
animal, owe their origin to certain elementary forms which he
called cells,—a fact now generally admitted. There exists at
present no doubt with regard to the development of every
vegetable or animal organism from a single cell,—from the egg.
There are organisms, both vegetable and animal, consisting of
one cell only, which is endowed with all capacities requisite
for life and propagation. All other organisms, however com-
plicated they may be, are merely masses of cells, differently
shaped and grouped, and have all been developed from one
primordial cell.

Whilst thus the unity of the fundamental plan in the struc-
ture of the vegetable and animal world is no longer doubtful ;
whilst it is manifest that there are a number of primitive organ-

m2 ¢ <

LECTURE XVI. 445

isms which occupy an intermediate position between the
vegetable and animal world, and thus apparently constitute a
connecting link between the two kingdoms, we must, on the
other hand, not forget that “ cell” is only an abstract notion, and
that there prevail many diversities in the individual cells of
the various organisms and their respective organs—differences
which must be considered as original, and which therefore
from the very beginning impart to the organisms arising from
them a special direction in development. If, therefore, it be
said that all organisms arise from a single cell, and that this
cell is the fundamental and primordial form of the organism,
it is perfectly correct; but if it be attempted to reduce all
existing organisms to one primordial elementary cell, from
which they may have been developed, the axiom is false. Not
only do organisms that stand in an intermediate position
between animals and plants consist of different kinds of cells ;
not only are these cells developed in a different mode, so that
we are able to distinguish different species of these organisms ;
but also those egg-cells from which the more compound organ-
isms are developed, show, from the beginning, a fundamental
difference both in form and subsequent development. The
attempts, therefore, to reduce the whole organic world to one
fundamental form, so to speak, to one primordial cell, from
which all organisms have been developed in different directions,
are as futile as the assumption of those naturalists who con-
sider that the whole organic creation had been developed
from an elementary plastic matter, the so-called primordial
slime. In assuming the possibility that by the co-opera-
tion of some forces—as yet unknown to us—an organic cell
may be produced from chemical elements, it is clear that the
slightest change in the action of these elements must effect a
change in the product, that is to say in the cells produced.
But as it is impossible to assume that on the whole surface of
the earth the same causes have acted, and are still acting,
under the same conditions and with the same intensity in the
production of such elementary cells, the deduction is clear,
namely, that the original cells from which the organisms were
developed must have possessed diversified forms and a different

44.6 LECTURE XVI.

capacity for further development, so that the actual diversities
were conditioned by differences in the primary forms.

In bringing before you this hypothesis,—for as yet it is no
more,—I do so to prove to you that even on the assumption of
a gradual development of such types, as we find both in exist-
ing and extinct species, we are not led, as so often asserted,
to an original unity of the whole organic world; but that we
must, on the contrary, acknowledge that in that abstract unity,
termed a cell, there must necessarily have existed an original
difference,—such as that existing in the organisms interme-
diate between plant and animal. But just in this, as appears
to me, lies another reason for the assumption that the organic
world might have been developed from such a beginning. If
it be difficult to conceive how the great diversity of organic
types could have been developed from a common soil; it can,
on the other hand, not be denied that an intrinsic difference in
the constitution of this soil may have given rise to the diver-
sities of the types sprung from it.

The theory of the gradual development of types from pri-
marily common forms, has recently, with much ingenuity,
been advocated by Darwin, after it had been formerly advanced
by French and German naturalists, and especially by Lamarck,
though in a different form. This theory, as then advanced,
certainly found in me a violent and sincere opponent; but as
it is now propounded, I must confess that it appears to
me to afford, better than any other theory, a clue to the
affinity of individual types, and it seems in every respect a
step in advance towards the knowledge of truth. When I
opposed the doctrine of the gradual transformation of types,
I was certainly much prejudiced by received opinions, which
obtrude upon anyone engaged in scientific researches. The
sharp contrast apparently existing between species, the sys-
tematic distribution and strict division of the different groups,
must necessarily have a similar influence upon a young stu-
dent, as that produced by the contrasts which he finds in
living characters. And just as jn daily life we gradually be-
come convinced that there exist no human beings absolutely
good nor absolutely bad,—that life and society oscillate be-

LECTURE XVI. 44,7

tween two extremes, ; so do we find, in the investigations of
the forms of the animal world and their development from the
egg, that here also the contrasts diminish, and that there
exist a number of forms which may well have been derived
from each other. Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire has pointed
out how the views of Buffon, as regards the limits and fixation
of the conception of species, gradually changed ; how, at first,
he ventured upon a hard definition which admitted of no
flexion, and how he gradually adapted it to the facts which he
had gathered through life, and which he was wise enough not to
reject because they clashed with his theory. I also lay claim to
the benefit derived from continued self-instruction, as regards
the change of my opinion.

Darwin endeavours to show that every animal and every
plant sustains a constant struggle for existence, that it has to
contest for space, aliment and propagation, not only with the
surrounding physical agents, but with the whole organic
world, in which every other individual has the same rights to
space, aliment, and propagation. LHvery germ, every egg,
has a claim to life, but not every egg is developed, nor
every germ unfolded. Most succumb in this struggle, some
sooner, some later; that individual only, which by itself or by
association is strong enough to issue from this battle as victor,
is enabled to live and to enjoy life.

The question now arises, whether an adaptation of the indi-
vidual as well as of its progeny to the conditions of existence
can take place? The question is, whether this adaptation by
continued improvement, continued breeding, if we may thus
express it, can lead to transformations which may compel us to
acknowledge these products as new types. On this point most
naturalists differ in opinion.

The prevailing opinion, hitherto, was, that species are fixed
normal types, which may undergo changes within a very limited
sphere ; that they were the expression of a definite realised
idea ; that they were the separate unchangeable materials from
which, according to a creative plan, the structure of the organic
world had been erected. It was also asserted that species can
indeed perish, but cannot be transformed; that from time to

448 LECTURE XVI.

time the organic world is destroyed, after which a new crea-
tion takes place after an improved plan by a divine “ fiat.”

I have already stated that the idea of a Creator, who from
time to time destroys the furniture of the earth, and supplies a
new one, was repugnant to my notions. I said No! I cannot
believe this. But as I had no better theory to offer, I was
obliged to confess, like Kiindl, the professor of Theology at
Giessen, who, having lectured for a fortnight on the resurrec-
tion of Christ, during which time he had exhausted the mani-
fold hypotheses of theologians on that subject, concluded as
follows: “To tell the truth, gentlemen, I must confess we
know nothing at all about it.”

Darwin starts from the mutability of types. He instances
not merely the domestic, but also wild animals and plants in
support of his theory. In the struggle for existence, he con-
tends, every animal must endeavour to attain that relative
perfection which enables it to sustain that struggle. The
transmission of characters, which is undeniable, and even that
of individual characters, which is also established, renders it
possible that such peculiarities, which are advantageous to this
struggle, may also be transmitted to, and further developed in
the offspring. There thus arises a breed by natural selection,
which in some privileged individuals acquires a particular fixed
type. In this manner, that is to say, by continued and unin-
terrupted transmission arise new varieties, races, and species ;
and as this transformation process is continued through long
periods of time, the production of such natural selections may,
at last, so much deviate from each other, that they represent
genera, families, orders, classes, and kingdoms.

It is not surprising that Darwin’s theory, of which I have
given you but an imperfect sketch, has excited much opposi-
tion. Coarse attacks were directed against this naturalist, the
author of sterling works. At present, the opponents have given
up refuting ; for as there is much in this theory that cannot
be refuted, they confine themselves to calling Darwin’s theory
a dream, an ingenious hypothesis, a dazzling firework, and
think they have done for a work fraught with such momentous
consequences.

LECTURE XVI. 44,9

These consequences are certainly formidable in some re-
spects. There can be no doubt that Darwin’s theory ignores a
personal creator, and his direct interference in the transforma-
tion and creation of species, there being no sphere of action for
such a being. Given the first starting point—the first organism
—all existing organisms are subsequently, by natural selection,
developed from it in a continuous manner through all geolo-
gical periods by the simple laws of transmission. There arise
no new species by any creative interference ; none disappear
by a divine mandate of destruction, since the natural course of
things, the process of development of all organisms and of
the earth is amply sufficient for the production of all these phe-
nomena. EHven man is neither a distinct creature, formed in a
special manner, and differently from all other animals, nor pro-
vided with a special soul and endowed with a divine breath of
life—he is only the highest product of a progressive natural
selection, and descends from the simious group standing next
to man.

Darwin, it must here be stated, has nowhere in his work
touched upon these sequences, so that from the richness of
materials, and the logical treatment of the leading idea, the
work met at first with a very favourable reception in England
—a country so much attached to Biblical traditions. But when
it was perceived upon what base the theory rests, the storm
broke forth from all quarters of the compass; nor has the
agitation as yet subsided. But we must not be disconcerted
by attacks of this kind ; let us then pursue our investigations.

If it be once established, that species may generally success-
fully intermix and produce prolific mongrels ; if, on the other
hand, it is ascertained that for their adaptation to surrounding
conditions they may undergo changes, the limits of which are
not yet determined, there are two ways open in which new
forms may arise. There exists no doubt a conservative ele-
ment in the fixation of characters in unchanged external
media, otherwise the transformation would be infinite for
every type. Darwin has, perhaps, taken too httle notice of
this element, as his chief object was to establish mutability,
which hitherto had: been denied.

GG

450 LECTURE XVI.

We have seen that the notion of ‘species’ neither is nor
can be fixed, and that practically every author conceives it
differently. Any one who has seen the conchological collection
in the Paris Jardin des Plantes, must have observed twenty
or thirty species ticketed as races or varieties, which in the
British Museum are arranged as well characterised indepen-
dent species. ach of these scientific institutions defends its
own theory on apparently sufficient grounds. The one points
out the transition forms; the other the distinctive marks in
these forms. But this is not the only instance in which natu-
ralists differ; and in approaching man, I shall here touch
upon the ape. By the side of some well characterised species,
about which all are agreed, there are others, e.g. the capu-
chin, the brown Cebus, the howling monkey, and even the
orang, which by different authors are divided into dozens of
species ; so that it may be asserted that the views as regards the
specification of monkeys disagree quite as much as those concern-
ing that of mankind. Here, therefore, the principle of muta-
bility must play an important part, and there must exist a
series of forms which stand in the closest relation to each
other. All naturalists admit, that species occupy only a
limited sphere of distribution, which may be wider or nar-
rower, and within which they arrive at the greatest perfection;
but that at the boundaries of these spheres, these species de-
generate, that is to say, assume other forms in order to adapt
themselves to altered conditions. That this mutability might
go much further and transgress the lmits usually drawn
for species, we have already shown in the races of domestic
animals, which are in fact species.

From the same example we have also learned that when the
surrounding media are unchanged, the production of new
species can only be effected by intermixture of allied species.
At first, the issue of such commixtures will be raceless masses,
the characters of which have no particular constancy ; but by
degrees fixed characters are evolved from such masses, which
produce a constant race,—a typical species.

Tt is clear that so long as the surrounding media remain the
same, a typically fixed species will experience but little change,

LECTURE XVI. 451

but will have its characters more fixed. It hence is explained
that the old species, the relics of which we find in the alluvium,
and the species which existed 5,000 years ago in Hgypt,
the mummies of which we find in the graves, have not changed
since that period, but represent the same types now as then.
Just as there are species which in the present creation are
scattered over a considerable tract of inhabitable climates,
and which for their acclimatization require only insignificant
modifications, so are there types, which during geological
changes have remained unaltered till the present period. The
genus Lingula has thus been pointed out, as having remained
unchanged since the deposition of the oldest Silurian beds to
the present period, and as being represented in almost all
strata by several species differmg but little from each other.
Here we find a remarkable constancy, but I cannot look upon
this as a proof against Darwin’s theory. The error is con-
stantly committed of applying the conditions found in some
species to the whole animal kingdom, and forcing it into a
strait jacket which the variety in nature does not tolerate.
Though the mutability and adaptation to external conditions
be a possibility, it is no absolute necessity for all types, as
little as the number of these changes, requisite for adaptation,
is the same in all types. We know that some species cannot
be acclimatized at all, others are easily acclimatized: some
cannot undergo the slightest change without perishing, while
others experience important alterations before they become
adapted to the new conditions. And so, in the history of the
earth, there must necessarily exist similar differences, in-
asmuch as certain species and types last only short periods
and then perish ; others keep pace with the changes of sur-
rounding media, and undergo comparatively great alterations.
Others, again, require only insignificant modifications for their
preservation.

Although the changes which we now observe in creation are
inconsiderable and insignificant, we must not forget that the
history of the earth extends over a series of ages of which
we have no conception, and that this eternity (for we cannot
term it otherwise) comprises an immense series of changes,

GGa2

452 LECTURE XVI.

carried on slowly, but which, in their totality, exceed anything
we are able to observe within the span of time open to our
view. The upheavings and subsidences of continents, the
altered proportions of land to sea, the gradations of climates,
in short, all changes on the surface of the earth made known
to us by geology, have not been effected by sudden convulsions,
but have been gradually and impercepibly produced. ‘The
changes in the animal world have proceeded pari passu, and
while many inflexible races have perished, others have been

transformed, and thus present a series of changes, the terminal ©

points of which deviate so much, that families, orders, classes,
might have issued from them.

It has long been acknowledged that the actual creation re-
presents by no means an ideal whole, the members of which
are harmoniously connected, and that it can only be considered
in its ensemble by including the extinct animals. What in the
present animal world appears as perfectly distinct becomes
cemented by the transitions represented in extinct animals,
so that every new discovery adds an intermediate link in the
series of forms. Just as in the external animal world, no
definite boundary-line can be drawn between fishes and am-
phibia, inasmuch as the genera Lepidosiren and Protopterus
present the most evident transitional forms, so that, according
as a naturalist considers this or that character the more essen-
tial, they are by one author included in fishes, by another in
amphibia, so it is with a multitude of transitional forms found
among organic remains. The boundary-line between amphibia
and reptiles, which may be drawn in the present creation, no
longer exists when we look at the singular family of Laby-
rinthodonts, which extends to both. The boundaries be-
tween herbivorous Cetacea and Pachydermata, between these
latter and ruminants, are removed by the Dinotheriwm and the
Dichobune. The feathered reptile* of Solenhofen indicates that
nature is able to bridge over the gulf between reptiles and
birds. The existence of these transition forms is undeniable
—their significance does not consist merely in the fillmg up of

* Proved satisfactorily to have been a bird with a long series of caudal
vertebre.—EDITOR.

Le Nea

LECTURE XVI. 453

an ideal gap, but in the establishment of real intermediate
forms, which, by gradual unfolding and transformation, de-
velope themselves from lower forms and approach the higher—
an approximation which here succeeded only up to a certain
point, but is accomplished in the more perfect forms.

But, we are told, these-intermediate forms certainly fill up
the gap between great divisions, but the minuter transitions,
which might teach us the process of this transformation, are
entirely wanting. We ought to be able to trace these transi-
tions step by step, both in living and fossil species. As regards
living species, this would not be very difficult. Place side by
side the skulls of the various species of the genus Cebus, and
see whether you cannot establish a perfect series of minute
changes in form, as in dogs or cattle. The transitions are
then rendered as evident as they are in aseries of Orang skulls
of different ages in the extreme forms of the round young
head, and the long extended head of the old orang. With
regard to fossil skulls, need I instance those of bears? The
great cave-bear, with its prominent brow-ridge and its convex
elevations on the forehead, is certainly, as A. Wagner has
shown, a distinct species, just as our present brown bear; but
are there no intermediate forms, such as the Ursus arctoideus,
which, though it attains the size of the cavern-bear, has
neither its frontal eminences, nor such thick bones? then
there is the Ursus Leodiensis, which is smaller than the cavern-
bear, aud shows no such frontal eminences; there is also the
Ursus priscus, smaller than the cave-bear, but resembling in
profile the still smaller brown bear; and finally the brown
bears found in the caverns of Switzerland, the skulls of which
show a gigantic size, approaching that of the cave-bear. All
these transitional forms are very rare. We possess only a few
specimens of each, whilst skulls of cavern- and of brown-bears
are collected by hundreds. The large, savage, and formidable
cavern bear corresponds with the conditions which surrounded
him, in the same manner as the living brown bear corresponds
with existing conditions. The transition from the cave-period to
the present, perhaps, took place within a comparatively short
time, consequently the transitional forms, indicating the raceless
oscillations between two fixed types, are very rare, compared

A5A LECTURE XVI.

with those extreme forms which we acknowledge as indepen-
dent species.

I hasten to another example, which concerns us more par-
ticularly.

Cuvier never had an opportunity of seeing a fossil monkey ;
at that time there had not been a fragment of one found. Even
on theoretical grounds, Cuvier contested the existence of
fossil monkeys. ‘ At present,’ says Albert Gaudry, “we
know, besides those found in Greece, ten other species: two
from South America, three from Asia, five from Europe (where
at present no monkeys exist). All these species have been
determined from very imperfect remains, the bones being very
rare. In Greece the fossil monkeys are more abundant. The
excavations I was commissioned to make by the Academy pro-
duced twenty skulls of these animals, several jaws and bones
of different parts of the body, so that I was enabled to compose
a drawing of the whole skeleton.” After quoting the remarks
of A. Wagner, the first discoverer, and those of Lartet and
Beyrich on the fossil monkey, which Wagner considered as
an intermediate form between Semnopithecus and Hylobates, he
continues: “‘ My last investigations had a remarkable result ;
they prove that the limbs of the Greek monkey differ greatly
from those of the Semmnopithecus. The Greek monkey (called
Mesopithecus) resembles in its skull the Semnopithecus, but in
its hmbs the Macacus.

«This is a perfectly transitional type, which connects two
genera perfectly distinct im the present creation. When we had
before us, not merely a fragment of a jaw (as is the case of most
fossil mammals registered in the catalogues), but perfect skulls,
we were apt to believe the Greek monkey a Semnopithecus.
This was an error. Had we, on the contrary, had before us
not a single bone but all the bones of the limbs, we might have
assigned them to the Macacus; this also would have been an
error.”

I repeat with Gaudry: Is this not a perfect transition form
between two distinct genera, the head a Semnopithecus, the
body a Macacus ? We know not whether this new species,
which in Greece abounded in the tertiary period, was developed

LECTURE XVI. 455

from the crossing of both elements, or perhaps by natural
selection ; no person can decide how this form arose ; but that
the intermediate form exists in such a shape that it might have
been the result of cross-breeding cannot be doubted. That this
race acquired the requisite capacity for existence is rendered
evident by its frequent occurrence in a country where at present
no monkeys exist, where, therefore, by subsequent changes in
the surrounding media the existence of these animals was ren-
dered impossible.

There exist thus intermediate forms of minute transitions and
regular transformations. The example of the Greek monkey
shows that the whole structure must be known, and that it is
not sufficient to study the skull or the dentition to detect such
intermediate forms, and that for this reason our knowledge of
fossil forms is too fragmentary for us always to find them out.

We are certainly told not to make deductions from the un-
known. I agree with this perfectly. I do not assert that
because an intermediate form has been discovered between
Semnopithecus and Macacus, there must be one found between
the Semnopithecus of the old world and the Cebus of the new ;
but I also maintain, that in our fragmentary knowledge we
must not, where our knowledge is for the moment at fault, say,
thus far and no further! It is scarcely thirty years since
Cuvier said: There exists no fossil monkey, and none can
exist: there is no fossil man, and there can be none; and yet
to-day we speak of fossil monkeys as of old acquaintances,
and trace back fossil man, not only to the diluvium, but to
recent tertiary formations, though some obstinate persons still
assert that Cuvier’s principle cannot be controverted. It is
scarcely twenty years since I learned from Agassiz: Transition
beds, paleeozoic formations = Empire of Fishes ; there are no
reptiles in this period, nor could have existed, as it would
have been contrary to the plan of creation. Secondary for-
mations (Trias, Jura, Chalk) = Empire of Reptiles. There are
no mammals, nor could be, for the same reason as above. Ter-
tiary strata = Empire of Mammals ; there are no human beings
nor could have been. Present creation Empire of Man.
Where is at present this exclusive plan of creation? Reptiles
in the Devonian strata, reptiles in coal; farewell then Empire

456 LECTURE XVI.

of fishes! Mammals in the Jurassic formation, mammals in the
Purbecklimestone,which some consider as belonging to the lowest
chalk. Adieu, then, Empire of reptiles! Man in the upper tertiary
strata; manin the diluvium; good-bye Empire of mammals!

The proof of one well-attested transitional form includes the
possibility of all other transitional forms, but not their necessity
or actual existence.

I must now draw your attention to another point rendered evi-
dent by these examples. The transitional forms between the two
bear species with fixed characters—the cave bear and the brown
bear,are as rare as the two species themselves are abundant. One
portion of them seems also to have been intermediate in time,
since the colossal brown bears from the Alpine caverns of Swit-
zerland are more recent than the cave-bear, which is, according to
Wagner, also the case as regards the Ursus priscus, whose head
is found along with the lower jaw, and thus probably deposited
by standing water, whilst the cave-bear skulls are never found
so connected. But apart from this circumstance, we must
notice the rarity of such transitional forms. There is no doubt,
if the change of surrounding media occurs within a compara-
tively short time, the transformation of the type must keep
pace with it. We have alluded to this when speaking of the
domestic animals introduced into South America. The modi-
fication of type experienced by cats in Paraguay, swine in
Chile and the Brazils, and the sheep in the same regions, in
consequence of a sudden transplantation, were effected within a
few generations. The transformed type was soon adapted to
the climate, and has now assumed a stationary form. Unfor-
tunately our knowledge refers only to the exterior, and not-
withstanding the great interest attached to this question, no
naturalist has yet compared the skulls of the European domes-
tic animals, acclimatized in South America, with those of the
parent stocks bred in Europe. Admitting that striking dif-
ferences do exist, that the skull of the swine, for instance,
has become shorter and higher, the snout thicker, the tusks
more curved, so that the South American domestic pig repre-
sents, even in the skeleton, a new and easily distinguished
species. Admitting all this, where do we find the transi-
tional form which led to this result ?—Nowhere! The millions

LECTURE XVI. 457

of cattle, horses, and pigs which now populate the exten-
sive tracts of South America, either in a wild or semi-domes-
ticated state, are, as is historically proved, the descendants of
some few imported specimens. ‘The first generations, now
found in small numbers, had to struggle for their existence
in the foreign chmate until the acclimatization process was
completed. Only after the race has been brought into har-
mony with surrounding media does it begin to multiply ra-
pidly ; only when it has become typical does the number in-
crease up to millions. But as to the transitional forms of the
few individuals of few generations, where are we to find them ?
Who is to disinter them from the soil? The two species, the
original and the derived, are not apparently linked by an inter-
mediate form, as nobody can show them; yet they did exist,
for the transition has taken place within historic times, and
is historically authenticated.

Is the process different in wild animals? Let us assume
that the transformation of the bear has taken place during the
glacial period, which, as we have shown, was only an in-
cident of the so-called diluvial period. There is no doubt
that most of the cave-bears perished by the advance of the ice,
which deprived them of their means of subsistence, and pre-
vented their emigration into other regions. But some few of
these animals were preserved; their successive generations
adapted themselves to the new conditions; their wildness
diminished ; their means of subsistence changed, and they
became smaller in size, until the change was effected and the
cave-bear transformed into the brown-bear which, now adapted
to the new external conditions, multiplied greatly. But the
transitional forms—the witnesses of the fierce struggle for
existence during changing conditions—must they not be far
less numerous than the typical species which form the terminal
points of this struggle ?

Thus it will always be, if the surrounding media change
within a comparatively short time. The transitional forms re-
duced to a few individuals, will, among the number of typical
species adapted to external conditions, disappear, and it will
only be owing to a happy accident if, here and there, a speci-
men of them be found.

458 LECTURE XVI.

The case is altered when the changes, in consequence of
geological metamorphoses, are very slow. The adaptations
which these infinitesimal changes require, and which only
become visible in their effects by the accumulations of thou-
sands of years; these adaptations are as slight as the cause
which produces them, and they will consequently produce
such a number of gradual transitional forms that an infinite
number of specimens are required to connect the extreme
ends of the change. Do we not behold this in nature? Do
we not see species of one group of strata slide into another ;
that is to say, pass through a long series of development
stadia in order gradually to assume a form which differs from
the original form, not. sufficiently, indeed, to be distinguished
under all circumstances, and yet enough to justify its distinc-
tion by the prefix sub (e.g., Terebratula triquetra, and sub-
triquetra) from that found in another group of strata? Have
we not seen the changes which, by the gradual elevation of
Sweden and Norway, have taken place in the Fauna of the
coasts? Can we forget what Lovén has shown, that by the
separation of the Wener- and Wetter-lakes from the sea with
which they were formerly connected, most species of this ice-
sea perished, but some craw-fish have preserved themselves in
these lakes gradually filled up with fresh water, and have so
adapted themselves to the changed medium, that though the
original type can be detected, peculiarities of form have been
developed establishing an essential transformation? Does not
this example show us what all investigations concerning’ petri-
factions teach, that there exists nowhere a thorough separation
between two groups of strata, but that some individual species,
more or less in number, and more or less changed, pass from
one stratum into another?

We have seen that fixed species may alter under changed
conditions, and that this alteration of the surrounding media
is an essential lever for the production of those oscillating
types which pass under the name of raceless animals. We
have further learned that the fixed types interbreed less
readily the more constant that type. Is it not, hence, evident
that the production of new mongrel races must take place

LECTURE XVI. 459

at that period when, by the change of surrounding media, the
fixity of the type is broken and produces that raceless soil
from which the various types spring up, partly by inter-
mixture and partly by adaptation, in order to become again
fixed types ?

It appears to me that in this way may be explained both the
renewal of creation in different epochs, as well as the extinc-
tion of most species at the same periods, and also the fixity of
types during long periods intervening between renovation
epochs, and further the development of more perfect types
from the raceless masses which arise in the beginning of the
renovation period. There may, in many respects, be progress,
arrest, orretrogression. Thus the type of the Ammonites seems
to us a more perfect type than that of the Nautilus, neverthe-
less the former became extinct at the end of the chalk period.
The cavern-bear was more of a beast of prey than his de-
scendant the brown bear, and this can hardly be called a
progress.

Acquainted as we are with the retrogressive metamorphosis
in animals, namely, how an animal may in its earliest youth
have a more perfect structure than at a later age, why may we
not imagine a similar process taking place during the adapta-
tion to changed conditions which no longer permit the type
to continue in its former perfection? Why should not
types become gradually fixed by their adaptation to changes,
and modify their sensitive and locomotive apparatus, which
can no longer be used as formerly, when they moved under
different conditions, by which their senses and limbs acquired
a certain perfection? Modifications of this kind which, from
an anatomical standpomt, must be considered as a retrogres-
sion, may, under given circumstances, be as advantageous in
the struggle for existence as the transformation of the palmated
feet of the larve of certain parasitic Crustacea into hooks and
claws is advantageous for their subsequent, so to speak, seden-
tary life.

But whilst we thus proceed hand in hand with observation,
we must not forget that transformation by adaptation, or by
intermixture, is still confined within certain limits which are

4.60 LECTURE XVI.

impassable. Thus we see that the gulf between fishes and rep-
tiles has been filled up; that that between reptiles and birds is
beginning to fill; that some points have been gained to support
a bridge over the gulf between reptiles and mammals, the
more so as in all vertebrate animals we perceive a unity of
structure and a similarity in the fundamental plan, manifesting
itself in the unfolding of forms, as well as in the development
of the stages, which the embryos of the higher animals have to
pass through from the beginning of their existence until they
arrive at maturity. But from the Vertebrata to the Inverte-
brata I can find no guide, nor have I any idea by what adapta-
tion or intermixture intermediate forms can arise, which may
lead from the Mollusca and Articulata to the Vertebrata. It is
moreover well known that the lowest vertebrate we are ac-
quainted with,—the Amphioxus lanceolatus, is, as regards the
development of all its organs, so far behind that of the higher
Mollusca and Articulata, that the transition from one of these
better developed types into that of this vertebrate would include
a series of retrogressions, from which nevertheless is said to
have issued the beginning of a structure capable of the highest
development. In other words, I see here the vertebrate type,
with man as its highest development, commencing with an
animal, which, as regards the perfection of its organs, is
excelled by most worms, and much more so by most Mollusca
and Articulata, which in some instances attain the highest
development of which the structural plan of the Articulata is
capable. I should thus find myself face to face with an inso-
luble enigma, if I were not permitted to recur to the conclu-
sion I have arrived at, namely, the assumption of an original
difference in the primary germs from which the animal kingdom
has been developed.

On following the animal structure in its downward direction,
we certainly find that the Articulata, step by step, reach the
worms, and these again approach the Infusoria so closely, that
some naturalists include the latter in the former. On the other
hand, the Mollusca approach the Radiata, there being some
forms which naturalists include in either of the above divisions,
so that even here an original difference shews itself. These

LECTURE XVI. 461

fundamental differences cannot, in my opinion he reasoned
away, nor can I comprehend their development from one ori-
ginal form. What I can understand is this, that each of the
plans may, in its increasing simplification, be traced back to an
ideal original form of organic development—the cell; and, as
I have already observed, it appears to me very probable that
the elementary cells have from the beginning been differently
constituted, which differentiation is manifested in the develop-
ment of the fundamentally different structural plan, which is
recognised in the animal kingdom. I repeat, I am far from
adopting either a formal original substance or one cell form as
the fundamental type and beginning of the whole organic crea-
tion. As I find in the present creation animals and plants con-
sisting of a single cell, which present a different composition,
different forms, and a different mode of life and of propagation,
I do not see why the primary single-celled organisms which
might have arisen from the elementary substances should all
have possessed the same form, quality, and capacity for
development.

It is sufficient for me to have shewn that an original diffe-
rence may exist by the side of modification and adaptation,
that both must supplement each other in order to render intel-
ligible the picture presented by organic nature,

Let us after this digression return to our theme, the origin
_ of man and his descent from the ape.

The course of lectures which I conclude this day, had for its
object the indication of the kind of studies requisite in order to
arrive at certain results. Ihave endeavoured to show in what
respects the organisation of man differs or agrees with that of
the ape. I endeavoured to indicate the fundamental plan in
the structure of the individual organs, which is evidently the
same in man and ape. But whilst insisting on the identity of
the plan, I pointed out the difference in its execution, in the
same manner as a teacher of architecture may demonstrate the
unity of the plan in several Gothic cathedrals, whilst at the same
time he points out the diversity of its execution in the respective
minsters. I have proved to you that the differences between some
human races are greater than those subsisting between some ape

462 LECTURE XVI.

species; that, therefore, we are justified in assuming different
species in mankind, just as in several domestic animals of high
antiquity. I touched upon the antiquity of mankind, and pointed
out the differences in the human species, which, at the beginning
of the stone-period, inhabited the earth. We thén glanced at
the origin of new races and species, and arrived at the conclusion,
that transformation, adaptation, natural selection, are processes
in nature explanatory of the various forms of which the organic
world consists. We may, therefore, now proceed to discuss the
last question,—namely, whether the theory of the derivation of
the human type from the simian group is scientifically admissible.

The existing materials for bridging over the gulf between
man and ape I have placed before you. I have shown in what
points the three anthropoid apes establish the similarity ; in
what respects the races of mankind, and especially the Negro,
approach the ape-type, without, however, completely reaching
it. I have demonstrated that the oldest cave-skulls known
to us decidedly approach the ape-type, both by the elongated
form and the low arching of the skull. I have, finally, di-
rected your attention to the microcephali, those congenital idiots,
not as constituting a separate species, as some of my detractors
make me say, but as a morbid arrest of development, which
indicates one of the stages which the human embryo must ne-
cessarily pass through, and which now in its abnormity repre-
sents that intermediate form, which at a remote period may
have been normal. I remind you on this occasion of what I
said concerning these microcephali, together with Gaudry’s
remark on the Greek monkey. Just as Gaudry observed that
the whole skull of the Greek monkey would constitute it a
Semnopithecus had not the limbs been found, which present
the type of the macacus, so, I remarked, might the skull of a
microcephalus, found in a fossil state, in the absence of the
jaws be mistaken for that of an ape, until the discovery of the
limbs should establish the human type. But as it is certain
that the microcephalus, with his arrested development, is not
suited for propagation, it is neither the only possible nor the
only imaginable intermediate form between man and ape. But
this arrest which the brain experienced in its forward march,
is the simian stage. This abnormal creature, this arrested

LECTURE XVI. 463

monstrosity of the present creation, fills up the gap which can-
not be* bridged over by normal types in the present creation,
but may be so by some future discoveries.

We are told that intermediate forms have not been found, and
we admit this. But when it is added that none can be found,
the history of the last ten years, with all its discoveries relating
to man and the ape, tells a different tale. Twenty years ago
fossil monkeys were unknown, now we know nearly a dozen;
who can tell that we may not in a few years know fifty? A
year ago no intermediate form between Semnopithecus and
Macacus was known, now we possess a whole skeleton ; who
can assert that in ten, twenty, or fifty years we may not pos-
sess intermediate forms between man and ape?

But whilst we assume the actual descent of the human race
from the apes, and believe that the differences between both,
which will become greater by the further development of man,
are the result of selection and intermixture, we must, on
the other hand, decidedly repudiate an inference we are
charged with, and which consists in this, that we must neces-
sarily come back to the original unity of mankind, and con-
sider Adam as an intermediate form between ape and man.
“The changes in the history of science,” says Councillor R.
Wagner, “ have a remarkable, almost comic, aspect, when we
look at the fierce contest now raging between mono-genists
and poly-genists, as they call in France the advocates for one
or many parent stocks of mankind. Three years ago, just
before Darwin’s book appeared, the theory of the possibility or
probability of the different races of mankind having descended
from a single pair was considered as perfectly antiquated, and
as having lagged behind all scientific progress, whilst now, to
judge from the applause with which Darwin’s theory is re-
ceived, there is nothing more certain than the inference that
both ape and man had for their single progenitor a form inter-
mediate between ape and man.”* .

We crave pardon, Sir Councillor ; never was there a more in-
correct inference, and when you advise us “ to let this question
rest for the present, as it cannot be scientifically solved,” you

* Since the above was written, Prof. Rud. Wagner has departed this life.—Ep.

4.64 LECTURE XVI.

should not have been the first to raise it ; for as far as I know,
no Darwinist, if we must call them so, has either raiséd that
question or drawn the above inference, for the simple reason
that it neither accords with the facts nor their consequences.*

It is easy to prove our assertion as regards man and ape.

The ape-type does not culminate in one, but in three anthro-
poid apes, which belong to at least different genera. Two of
these genera, the orang and the gorilla, must at all events be
divided into different species ; there are perhaps some varieties
of them which form dispersive circles, like some around
certain races of man. Be this as it may, this much is certain,
that each of these anthropoid apes has its peculiar characters
by which it approaches man; the chimpanzee, by the cranial
and dental structure; the orang, by its cerebral structure ; the
gorilla, by the structure of the extremities. None of these
stands next to man in all points,—the three forms approach man
from different sides without reaching him.

I say “from different sides.” For, in point of fact, these
three anthropoid apes do not rise above the same fundamental
form from which they branch off ; but they sprang from different
ape families which we must consider as having run parallel.
Gratiolet has, as regards cerebral structure, followed up this
subject. I shall not enter into details which must be studied in
his treatise, but I shall give here the conclusions he arrived at.

““On comparing the brain of the orang with that of other
brains,” says Gratiolet, ‘‘we are bound, on account of the size
of the anterior lobe, the relative smallness of the posterior lobe,
and the development of the superficial transition convolution
(plis de passage), to place the orang at the head of the gibbons
and the Semnopitheci, of which any one may easily convince
himself on comparing the respective brains drawn with scru-
pulous exactness.

“These analogies are the more remarkable, as they lead to
the same result as the examination of external characters.”

The orang, considered as the highest gibbon, has a “ gibbon’s
brain, only richer, more developed, in a word, brought nearer
perfection.”

* This is quite true, although the author is mistaken respecting there being
no Darwinist advocates for unity: I have alluded to this in the Preface.—Ep.

LECTURE XVI. 465

Of the chimpanzee, Gratiolet remarks, “On comparing his
brain with that of the true Macacus, and specially of the ma-
got, it is impossible for us to reject the analogies presented by
this comparison. The examination of the skull and face con-
firms these analogies by new ones.

“When, therefore, we put aside every preconceived theory,
and keep solely to the facts, we are irresistibly led to the con-
clusion: The chimpanzee brain is a perfected Macacus brain:

‘In other words: the chimpanzee stands in the same rela-
tion to the Macacus and the baboon, as the orang to the gibbon
and the Semnopithecus.” Of the gorilla, finally, he says: “ The
gorilla is a mandrill, just as the chimpanzee is a Macacus and
the orang a gibbon. The absence of a tail, the existence of a
broad sternum, the peculiar locomotion, not upon the palmar
surface of the fingers, fut upon the dorsal surface of the second
phalanx, are indeed characters they possess in common ; but
however important these may be, they do not permit the ap-
proximation of these three genera. As heads of three different
series, these apes still preserve the characters of the groups to
which they belong, although they possess, if I may so express
myself, common insignia of their high dignity.”

No valid objection can be raised to these deductions of Gra-
tiolet, in presence of the facts; but these facts prove our
assertions, that the higher developed forms of different parallel
series of apes approach man from different sides. Let us
imagine the three anthropoid apes continued to the human
type,—which they do not reach and, perhaps, never will reach ;
we shall then see developed from the three parallel series of
apes, three different primary races of mankind, two dolicho-
cephalic races descended from the gorilla and chimpanzee, and
one brachycephalic descended from the orang ;—that descended
from the gorilla is, perhaps, distinguished by the development
of the teeth and the chest ; that descended from the orang by the
lerigth of the arms and light-red hair; and that issued from the
chimpanzee, by black colour, slender bones, and less massive
jaws.

When, therefore, we look upon the apes and their develop-
ment as proceeding from different parallel series, the assumption

iH

466 LECTURE XVI.

of only one intermediate form between man and ape is unjusti-
fiable, inasmuch as we know in our present creation three
different sources for such intermediate forms.

Schroder van der Kolk and Vrolik agree with us in this
respect, although they are opposed to Darwin’s theory. ‘‘ We
know,” they say, “no species of apes which forms a direct
‘transition to man. If man is to be derived from the ape, we
must search for his head amongst the small monkeys which
group themselves around the Cebus and the Ouistitis; for
his hand we must go to the chimpanzee; for his skeleton,
to the Siamang; for his brain, to the orang, [and I add,
for his foot, to the gorilla]. Putting aside the difference in
the teeth, it is manifest that the general aspect of the
skull of a Cebus, of a Ouistiti, or some other cognate mon-
keys, resembles, though in miniature, more the skull of man
than the skull of an adult gorilla, chimpanzee, or orang. The
carpus of the chimpanzee, [and of the gorilla], has the same
number of bones as that of man, whilst that of the orang is
distinguished by those singular intermediary bones found in all
other monkeys. The skeleton of the Siamang resembles by its
sternum, the shape of the thorax, the ribs, and the pelvis, much
more that of man, than that of the gorilla, chimpanzee, and
the orang; and our researches have also shown that the brain of
the orang stands nearer to that of man than the brain of the chim-
panzee. It would thus be requisite to collect the human cha-
racters from five different apes, from one of America, from two
of Africa, from one of Borneo, and from one of Sumatra ; the
primitive relations of man are accordingly so scattered, that we
can hardly believe in one common stock.”

It is just this plurality of characters which confirms us in
our view. If the Macaci in the Senegal, the baboons on the
Gambia, and the gibbons in Borneo could become developed
into anthropoid apes, we cannot see why the American apes
should not be capable of a similar development! If in dif-
ferent regions of the globe anthropoid apes may issue from
different stocks, we cannot see why these different stocks
should be denied the further development into the human
type, and that only one stock should possess this privilege ; in

LECTURE XVI. 467

short, we cannot see why American races of man may not be
derived from American apes, Negroes from African apes, or
Negritos, perhaps, from Asiatic apes !

On examining the species of mankind and their history, we
arrive at similar results. We have traced the plurality of
species, not merely in the historic, but also in the pre-
historic period ; we have shown that no existing species present
a greater contrast than did, e.g., the cave-men of Belgium and
the Rhenish provinces, and the Lapps of the stone-period.
This plurality and diversity which we find in the primitive
races of Europe—that is to say, upon a very limited space,
will also be found in the primitive races of other parts of the
world. At all events, all the facts which carry us back to the
oldest history of gies Africa, and America admit of no other
inference.

But if this salty of races be a fact, as well established
as their constancy of characters, despite of the many inter-
mixtures through which the natural primitive races had to
pass ; if this constancy be another proof for the great antiquity
of the various types, for their occurrence in the diluvium, or
even in older strata—then all these facts do not lead us to one
common fundamental stock, to one intermediate form between
man and ape, but to many parallel series, which, more or less
locally confined, might have been developed from the various
parallel series of the apes.

It is not unworthy of notice that the fossil apes of the ter-
tiary period, from which man perhaps might have issued, are
much more widely spread than the present monkeys, and that
they follow in their distribution the same laws as at present.
The monkeys found in Europe, as high up as England, are all
narrow-nosed, whilst those found in American caves are all flat-
nosed. The difference between the Fauna of the Old, and that
of the New World, as now observed, existed already then—there
was no road which led from South America to Europe. But if
apes became developed into men, they had in the old world a
range from the equator up to England, and could thus form
the autochthonic races upon the various spots, where we have
found the oldest species of mankind. This assumption equally

468 LECTURE XVI.

leads us to an original plurality of mankind, not to their deri-
vation from a single stock, but from the various twigs of that
tree, so rich in branches, which we surround with the order of
primates or apes.

Here again, gentlemen, you will observe the agreement in de-
meanour of the now distinct types. The simian type parts in
various directions ; it first divides into.two chief branches—
monkeys of the old, monkeys of the new world—each of these
main branches produces twigs which seem more and more to
part from each other. But on arriving at perfection the ends
of the twigs turn again towards each other, so that from the
fundamentally distinct families of the gibbons, Macaci, and
baboons are developed the three anthropoid apes, which, by a
number of common characters stand considerably nearer each
other than the groups of which they are the heads. Does not
the history of man present something similar? The further
back we go in history the greater is the contrast between indi-
vidual types, the more opposed are the characters—the most
decided longheads immediately by the side of the most decided
shortheads. Oursavage ancestors stand opposed to each other
—stock against stock, race against race, species against spe-
cies. By the constant working of his brain man gradually
emerges from his primitive barbarism ; he begins to recognise
his relation to other stocks, races, and species, with whom he
finally intermixes and interbreeds. The innumerable mongrel
races gradually fill up the spaces between originally so dis-
tinct types, and, notwithstanding the constancy of characters,
in spite of the tenacity with which the primitive races resist
alteration, they are by fusion slowly led towards unity.

My task is finished, believing that I have, as far as was in
my power, attained the object I had in view. But before con-
cluding, I feel bound to address a few words to friends and
opponents.

The lamentation over the destruction of all faith, morality,
and virtue ; the woeful cry about the endangered existence of
society, which years ago forced me to take up my pen, is heard
again—but this time it is in the French tongue. The pulpits
of the orthodox churches, the pews of the pietistic oratories,

LECTURE XVI. 4.69

the platforms of the missions, the’ chairs of the consistories,
resound with the pretended attacks on the foundations of human
existence made by materialism and Darwinism. They feel
surprised, that people with such views can be good citizens,
honest men, good husbands and fathers. There are priests,
who, while defrauding the state of taxes, mount the pulpit and
preach : that when materialists and Darwinists do not commit
all sorts of crimes, it is not from righteousness but from
hypocrisy.

Let them rage! They require the fear of punishment, the
hope of reward in a dreamt-of beyond, to keep in the right
path—for us suffices the consciousness of being men amongst
men, and the acknowledgment of their equalrights. We have
no other hope than that of receiving the acknowledgements of
our fellow-men ; no other fear than that of seeing our human
dignity violated—a dignity we value the more, since it has
been conquered with the greatest labour by us and our ances-
tors, down to the ape.

To our friends we return thanks for their support, and con-
clude with an anecdote.

In a satirical journal, edited by my late friend, Fritz Jenni,
called Der Guckkasten (The Show-box), there is a picture of a
cowkeeper with his milk-cans, and before him a cur, barking
furiously. Says the milkman, “Thou barkest! Thou always
barkest ! Thou barkest at all the dogs! Thou barkest at me,
and barkest till thou hast done barking, and canst bark no
more !”

Then let them bark, till they can bark no more.

THE END.

APPENDIX.

The following are the passages omitted from the text, to which allusion is
made in the Editor’s preface, p. xii :—

P. 122, line 16 from top :—

«When Sir Walter Scott, in some of his novels, describes some Highland
robber, distinguished by a disproportionate length of his arms reaching
down to the knee, which enabled him better to handle his sword, he praises
the ape type in man, just as the pious painter of the Byzantine school and
our present Nazarenes act in depicting their Saviours and Madonnas, with
their courts of saints, with long narrow ape-hands and feet, and orang-titan
pelves, which warrant the immaculate conception, since no human head
could pass through.”

P. 147, line 6 from top :—

“ Herr Bischoff proceeds further: the Esquimaux, Botocudos, New Zea-
landers, etc., whose appearance is certainly in many respects not superior
to that of animals, have been appealed to; or instances have been cited of
so-called wild men, who, lost in the forest in early youth, have grown up
amongst the brutes, and became so degenerate, that on being found they
exhibited scarcely any trace of a higher self-consciousness. Perhaps Herr
Bischoff only calls those men who attend his lectures at Munich, or have
implicit faith in the transformation of urea.”

P. 165, line 4 from bottom :—

«Properly speaking, my human character is here gone to the devil! No
operculum,—no covered transition convolution! To the devil with that
devil’s ape!* But we see how nature indicates here that the devil stands
nearest toman! It is remarkable enough that the Capuchin stands by the
side of the devil. In the Capuchin ape, the superior transition convolution
is absent; the second is superficial in its whole extent,—the operculum
almost null.

«Tables are frequently useful. I present, therefore, a synopsis of that ex-
cellent character of man,—the operculum and the convolutions :—

Part of Brain. Man. Devil's Ape. | Capuchin Ape. Orang. Chimpan-
zee.

Posterior lobe ...... Small. |Moderate.| Very short. | Moderate.| Large.

Operculum ......... Absent. | Absent. |Almost absent|Imperfect.| Perfect.
Superior transition

convolutions ... |Superficial|Superficial; Absent. |Superficial| Absent.
Second transition

convolution ...... Superficial|Superficial| Superficial. | Covered. |Covered.

“ Receipt resulting from this Table :—Melt the Devil, and the Capuchin in
ape-shape, together, and you have the Man! Nature seems to be very
sarcastic !”

* The monkey in question is best known as the Marimonda (Ateles Belze-
buth). Englishmen apply the name “devil-monkey” to the Cuxio (Pithecia
Satanas).—EDIToR.

ae —s

INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

Abel, 423
Abbeville, 265
Abyssinia, 434
Adam, 13, 16
Adult skull, 38
Alpine diluvium, 274, et
seq.
Alsace, 21
Ape and man, 12, 464
Angle, facial, 35, 140
» nasal, 143
» Sphenoidal, 143
Anthzopoid apes, 465
aoa sensibility of,
9
Py societies, 230
Apostle skull, 306
Apples, carbonised, 356
Arbor vita, 98
Arm, 179
Armenia, 3
Archencephala, 159
Aurignac, 257
Armagh, Irish in, 427
Arcy, grotto of, 254
Australian skull, 33, 48,
49, 52, 55, 71, 91, 375
Australian hybrids, 440
Average man, the, 22
Auk, great, 222
Aztec, 12, 146, 195, 199

Base line, the, 28
Base of skull (inner), 36
as (outer), 37

Bashkirs, 52

Basis cranil, 35

Base of brain, 96

Basque skulls, 381

Bears, 242, 244, 453

Berne skulls, 375

Bimana, 134

Bison, 397

Borreby skull, 303, 336,
369, 385

Bosjesman, 12

Brachycephalic, 49, 50,

385

Brahmin, 17

Brain, weight of, 83, 111,
133

Brain, structure of, 93

Brazil caves, 261, 290

Brazilians, 50, 52

Britanny, 21

British Association con-
troversies, 117

Bronze period, 368, 369

Buggese, 49, 50

Butter-dish, a, 80

Cain, 423

Callithrix, 140

Calmucks, 50, 181

Camper’s angle, 35

Canis, 394

Capacity of skull, 37, 88

Caricatures, 73

Carlovingians, 50, 88

Casts of skull, 78

Cats in Paraguay, 421

Cavern remains, 2, 237,
246

Cebus, 34, 43, 148, 149,
203 et seq. 422

Celts, 22

Cells, multipolar, 94

Cell, primordial, 444.

Cemetery skulls, 90

Cercopithecus, 211

Cerebral surface of Ne-

anderthal skull, 305

Cerebrum, 96
Cerebellum, 96

Chabins, 417

Characters of peoples, 7

Chauvaux grotto, 344

Cephalic index, 47

Cheeks, 180

Child, skull of Chinese,
50

Chimpanzee, 12,139, 140,
143, 160, 198

Chin, 133

Christian missionaries,
378

Church, use of,

Circulation of the blood,
il
Climate, influence of,

428
Colours, tables of, 22
Concise, 354
Conscription, its influ-
ence, 21
Constance, 354
Convolutionsofthebrain,
113, 163
Convolutions, 104
Copper age, 358
Corpora quadrigemina,

Coronal view of skull,

Coscinopora globularis,
271

Cossacks, 49, 50, 52

Cowkeeper, anecdote of,
469

Crag deposits, 313

Crania, collections of, 9;
measurements of, 25;
capacity of, tables, 88

Crannoges, 353

Creation, 405

Creator, a personal, 449

Crimean war, 23

Cyrena fluminalis, 266

Danish skulls, 373

Darwinian theory, the,
449

Delineation of the skull,
75

Democrats, 18
Development, 215
Difficulties encountered

472

by the practical ana- |
tomists, 9

Diopter, use of, 76

Diluvial beds, 275,
seq., 326

Dispute on the cerebral
characters of man and
ape, 158 |

Diminution of the brain
in old age, 84

Divergence, range of,
216

Dolichocephalic, 48, 49,
50

Domestic animals, 17

Down, Irish in, 427

Dura mater, 98

Diissel, 255

Dutch, 50

Dynamometer, the, 24

et

Ears, 180

Egypt, 425

Egyptian antiquities, 15,
193

Egyptian goose, 435

Engis skull, 248, 295

Esquimaux, 8, 49

Ethnic portraits, 73

Etruscans, 393

Hye, aperture of, 129

Facial angle, 35

Falx, 98

Features, 128

Female skull, 81
Fennec, the, 421
Finns, 49

Flax, 358

Flint flakes, 268

Flint implements, 16
Fontanelles, 42

Foot, 155, 156, 157 |
Foot of Negro, 151
Foramen magnum, 36
Fossil, definition of, 234
French, 49, 50
Frontal sinuses, 301

Gauss, the mathemati-
cian, 184

Gauls, 22

Geneva, skull from, 52,
60, 388 J

Geometrical drawings,
75

Geological system, 455

INDEX.

Germanic skull, 8, 49,

50, 174
German intermixtures,
20
Gibraltar, 383
Gipsies, 50
Glacial formations, 322
» Clay, 326
Goat and sheep, 417
Gorilla, foot of, 157
19H
Gottingen meeting, the,
32, 45
Greeks, 49
Grisons, 392
Gypsum, use of, 79

Hair, 126

Hand of the Chimpan-
zee, 154

Hares, 418

Helvetian skull, 52, 60,
66, 68, 70, 139, 141, 389

Hindus, 49, 52

Hips, breadth of, 136

Hollanders, 50

Horizontal plane, 28, 32

Hottentot Venus, 97,108,
184.

Hottentot, 51, 91

Hoxne, 288

Human kingdom, the,
11, 225

Hybrids, 414, 436

Hyenas, 242, et seq.

Hylobates, 138

Iceblink, 322

Ice-sea, level of, 325
Icelander, 1

Idiot, 145, 168, 195, 201
Index, cephalic, 47
Indians, 50

cere peculiarities,

Instrumentsrequired for
craniometry, 59 r
Intermaxillary bone, 147
Intermixture of races, 20
Internal organs, 131
Treland, missionaries
from, 378
Trish in Armagh, 427
Italians, 49

Japhet, 367
Javanese, 50
Jews, 50, 433

Joinville, section at, 287
Jus prime noctis, 432

Kaffir skull, 65, 69, 142,
150, 175, 197

Kimris, or Gaels, 22

Kjokkenméddings, 303

Kohlerglaube und Wis-
senschaft, 1

Lapps, 49, 339

Lateral ventricles, 115

Leptocephaly, 30

Lherm cave, 252

Liége caves, 24:7

Limbs, 153

Lion monkey, 106

Lips, 130

Lombrive remains, 249,
379, 380

Macacus, 211, 455
Malay skulls, 91
Man, the study of, 5
Mangabey, 211 ,
Materialism, 3
Mathematician, brain
of, 102
Measurements, tables
of, 56, 62, 76.
Medial plane, the, 29
Medulla oblongata, 95
Megaceros, 398
Meilen skull, 347, 359,
387 ;
Menchecourt, fauna at,
286
Mesaticephali, 51
Methods of investiga-
tion, 19
Metrical systems, 23
Microcephali, 166, 199
Mississippi, 326, 292
Models, wax, 19
Modena, skulls, from, 390
Molar, a supplemental,
176
Moluccans, 50
Monkeys, fossil, 454
Monogenists, 463
Moosseedorf, 348
Moraines, 316
Moral instincts, 226
Mosaic Adam, 16
Moulin-Quignon jaw,272
Mouth, 130
Mulattos, 437
Mules, 46
Multipolar cells, 94

Naked body, 8
Natchez, 291
Neanderthal skull, 194,
255, 299, 305, 369
Negro, 18, 51, 61, 66, 92,
125, 172, 181, et seq.,
189, 196, 301, 437
Net, cranial, 46
Neufchatel, Useful
Knowledge Society of,
its objects, 1
New Hollanders, 52
Noah’s flood, 3, 13, 367
Norfolk crag, 286
Norma frontalis, 53
Norma occipitalis, 53
Norma verticalis, 47
Normal German skull, 8
Nose, shape of, 129
Novara, the expedition
of, 8, 23, 24

Oeningen salamander,
~ 234
Oksars, 325
Olivary process, 42
Optic thalami, 98
Orang, 185
Organ of faith, 163
Origin of species, 15
Origin of man, 468
Orsini balls, 352
Orthognathie skull,41,51
Os Ince, 390
Oviform shape of skull,48

Pachydermata, 243

Paraguay, 421

Parisian skulls, 49, 88,
427

Pears, carbonised, 356

Peat bogs, 336

Pelvis, 119, 137, 167, 178,
293

Pennsylvania, 434

Persistent sutures, 38

Peruvians, 50

Philanthropists, 432

Photography, 74

Phrenology, 101, 293

Pile-works, 349

Plane, horizgntal, 41, et
seq.

Plane, vertical, 26

Plateau of the Andes,
119

Platycephaly, 30

Plau in Mecklenburg,
343

INDEX.

Plis de passage, 114 -
Polarisation, 103, 109
Polygenists, 453
Polynesians, 91
Primitive brain, the, 96
Primitive man, 294
Profile drawings, 75
Prognathism, 175
Prosimiz, 223

Puy remains, 262
Pyramidal heads, 54
Pyrgocephali, 54

Quadrate skull, 48
Quichuas, 119

Rabbits, 416

Races, 20, 402
Rafter-heads, 54
Rameses IT, 426
Refuse-heaps, 334
Religious sense, 228
Resurrection-men, 9
Rhine, valley of, 291
Robenhausen, 348
Rodents, extinct, 242
Romans, 49, 50
Roof-heads, 54
Ruminants, extinct, 243
Russia, Little, 48
Russians, 49

Saint-Prest beds, 310
Sajous, 204, et seq.
Salamander of @ningen,
234
Samoieds, 8
Sand, use of, 78
Schwaan skull, 349
Sclavonian skulls, 49
Sella turcica, 40
Semnopithecus, 455
Seth, 423
Sexual differences, 81
Shells, collections of, 450
Shot, use of, 79
Siamang, brain of, 79
Side view of brain, 102
Skin of man, 123
Skull, capacity of, tables,
88

Slate coal, 321

Slaveholders, 432

Sleep, 217, 399, 417

Soluthurn skull, 377

Somme valley, 17, 265

South American fauna,
290

Southern States of Ame-
rica, 18

473

Species, 4, 216, 402

Sphenoid bone, bent, 42

Stone-period, 333, 369

Stalactites and stalag-
mites, 237

Sumatran, 50, 52

Sus scrofa et palustris,
395

Sutures of the skuil, 38,
75

Swedish skulls, 49

Switzerland, 315

Swytz cattle,

Sylvian fissure, 102
Synchronal table of dilu-
vial formations, 326

Syphilitic diseases, 23

Tatar skull, 51

Temporal muscle, its ac-
tion, 26

Tectocephali, 54

Téte carrée, the, 20

Theology, its basis, 14

Thibet, colossal idols of,
23

Thickness of the skull,26

Thorax, 135

Time, lapse of, a factor,
15

Tiniére mound, 360

Tower heads, 54

Triangulation of the
skull, 25

Transitional links, 453

Tschuktchis, 8

Tubal Cain, 17, 368, 369

Urus, 397

Vaud, canton of, 365

Vertebral division of the
skull, 103

Vertical line, the, 27

Wanderoo, 211

Wax models, 79

Wauwyl, 348

Weeper monkey, 34

Weight of the brain, 83,
111

Wheat, ancient, 355, 400

Wisent, 397

Yankee, skull of, 433
Yverdun, 365

Zoological comparisons,
5

Zygomatic arches, 141
ap

474,

INDEX OF AUTHORS.

Aeby, 2, 28, 153, 179
Agassiz, 2, 424, 455
Amiet, 377

Ascher, 433

Bachman, 13

Baer, von, 23, 26, 45, 47,
48, 51, 53, 54, 59, 61,
63, 65, 67, 69, 75, 392

Bayle, 312

Beaumont, Elie de, 274,
279, 287

Berzelius, 158

Beyrich, 454

Bischoff, 133, 146, 167,
194

Blainville, 242

Blumenbach, 8, 47, 189

Boehner, 3

Boucher de Perthes, 16,
17

Boyd, 83

Bravard, 263

Brehm, 230

Broca, 2, 22, 47, 49, 86,
88, 389, 424, 427, 438,
443

Brooke, 84

Brown, 329

Biichner, 3

Buffon, 220, 414

Burmeister, 22, 155, 178,
181

Busk, 2, 27, 28, 59, 61,
63, 65, 71, 303, 338,
341, 372, 384

Cesar, 246
Camper, 32, 35, 177
Candolle, De, 4:
Carriére, 11

Carus, 45

Chossat, 85

Christ, 400

Christol, 257

Claparéde, 2, 392

Collomb, 317

Crull, 76

Cuvier, 16, 83, 215, 234,
275, 408, 454

Dareste, 165

D’ Archiac, 284, 287

Davis, Barnard, 307

Darwin, 4, 15, 152, 411,
446, 449, 463

Decandolle, 355

Delalande, 140

Désor, 2, 317, 353, 360,

_ 888, 411

Desnoyers, 287, 310

Dickeson, 293, 329

Dimpre, 273

D’Orbigny, 287

Dowler, 329

Dubois de Montpereux, 2

Eck, 3
Edwards, Milne, 275
Esper, 257

Faber, 357

Falconer, 273

Filhol, 249

Flower, 79
Forchhammer, 333
Frere, 288

Fries, 4

Fuchs, 110

Fuhlrott, 2, 254, 299, 305

Gall, 187

Garrigou, 2, 249, 379
Gastaldi, 2, 360
Gaudry, 454, 462
Gauss, 84, 102, 110

Geoffroy, 106, 126, 157,
193, 225

Geoffroy, L., 437

Giebel, 205, 211, 220

Gilliéron, 364

Gothe, 147

Gratiolet, 97, 106, 107,
1138, 114, 163, 165, 166,
183, 211, 304, 464

Hausmann, 85, 87

Hébert, 280, 287

Heer, 320, 355, 356

His, 2, 359, 372, 377, 387,
388

Hugi, 377

Huschke, 79, 81, 108,
183, 206, 301

Huxley, 2, 117, 154, 156,
159, 160, 297, 307,372

Jacquard, 182
Jayet, 364, 365
Jenni, 469
Jomard, 424
Juarez, 438

Keller, 2, 347, 352, 355

Kjérulf, 322

Kolk, Schréder von der,
160

Kolliker, 124, 125

Kiindl, 446

Kutorga, 344

Laugel, 310

Laplace, 438

Lartet, 258, 276, 454
Lay, 377
Leubuscher, 195, 200
Lichtenberg, 80
Liebig, 320

Link, 257

Linneus, 220

Linth, Escher von, 314

Loder, 147

Lovén, 325, 458

Lucae, 32, 48, 55, 71, 75,
79, 306, 375

Lund, 290

Luther, 3

Lyell, Sir C., 2, 248, 271,
291, 311, 432

Marshall, 116, 160

Meckel, 39, 376

Meigs, 88, 92, 187

Messikomer, 2

Mommsen, 377

Montagne, 362

Morlot, 2, 315, 317, 333,
360

Morton, 8, 12, 76, 88, 144,
425, 433

Miller, 195, 200

Nathusius, 404, 407, 412
Naudin, 4
Nilsson, 408

Otho, 415
Owen, 12, 84, 116, 144,
159, 195, 304, 397, 408

Parsons, 437

Patterson, 12

Perthes, Boucher de,267,
271, 277, 279

Pictet, 2, 244

INDEX OF AUTHORS.

Prestwich, 265, 289

Pruner-Bey, 127, 175,
178, 182, 184, 188, 189,
191, 362, 391, 480

Quatrefages, 2, 11, 225,
231, 272, 275, 428, 432

Quekett, 28

Quételet, 7, 22

Rameses, 248
Reclus, 430
Regmer, 24
Reiset, 432
Rengger, 421
Rembrandt, 433
Retzius, 48
Robert, 312
Rolle, 309
Rolleston, 160
Rosenmuller, 257
Rougemont, 3
Roux, 418
Riitimeyer, 239, 244, 276,
355, 360, 324, 397

Sagot, 442
Sais, 324
Schaaffhausen, 257, 299,
302, 305, 307, 343, 372
Scherzer, 23, 56
Scheuchzer, 234
Schild, 2, 377 -
Schlagintweit, 23
Schleiden, 4
Schlotheim, 257
Schmerling, 241, 247,
276, 295
Schopenhauer, 183

475

Schréder van der Kolk,
466

Schwab, 2, 377, 390

Schwarz, 28, 56

Serres, 257

Sommering, 182

Spring, 2, 344

Steenstrup, 333

Strobel, 360

Thénard, 158

Thiele, 168, 195

Tiedemann, 76, 88, 160

Tourtual, 257

Troyon, 347, 350, 365,
367

Valentin, 2, 375

Vibraye, 254

Virchow, 41, 56, 59, 60
62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 382

Vrolik, 160, 466

2

Waener, 9, 79, 83, 84,
86, 102, 111, 118, 151,
161, 162, 163, 194, 201,
220, 228, 453, 463

Wallace, 84

Weber, 121

Welcker, 8, 26, 38, 41,
46, 47, 49, 53, 59, 60,
62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 75,
80, 84, 91, 148, 296,
298, 379

Wilbrand, 11

Wirsing, 76

Worsaae, 333

Wundt, 231

T, RICHARDS, 37, GREAT QUEEN STREET.

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