ee Fiat Te pea e Et Dh . = * ' . t re ¢ a wd bd a , ‘4 / ' , . & r,s bE a<4 J ’ i P 4 - ale . Pi es —" as 1B =o a pew! MONMECV CE fi bapnal hunting tye botte wry : p stig st g Liod, Larey Jeet , 1 Ud TOIOG ) THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE: COMPREHENDING THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, : ‘THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, ian COMMERCE, BY ALEXANDER TILLOCH, HONORARY MEMBER OF fHE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY, &c, &c. &c. Nec aranearum sane textus ideo melier quia ex se fila gignunt, nec noster vilior quia cx alienis libanmus ut apes.” Just. Lies. Monit, Polit. lib. i. cap. te VOL. XX. LONDON: Printed ly Rs Taylor and Co., Black-Horse-Court, Fleet-street : And sold by Messrs, RicuarDson ; Capert and Davies; LonGMan, ' Worst, Rees, and Orme; SymMonps; Murray; HIcaLey ; ' Vernor and Hoop; Harpninc; London: .Bery and Braprute, Edinburgh; Brasu and Rei, and D. Nevin, Glasgow; and GILBERT and Honeers, Dublin. — 1805. ; : - CONTENTS OF THE TWENTIETH VOLUME. I. ACCOUNT of the Var yage undertaken by the Spaniards to the North-lWest Coast of America in 1792.... Page 3 II, On the Catoptrical and Dioptrical Instruments of the Antients; with Hints respecting theor Revival, or Re- invention and Improvement in modern Times s..4... 14 III. On the Decline of Mathematical Studies, and the Sci- ences dependent upon them. By the Rev. Joun Topvis, SEIN inlatss scale veo vss wp 8 biatnshininlhQO nda gr, Ka: % 8 25 IV. Experiments to ascertain whether there exists any Affinity y letwixt Carlon and Clay, Lime and Silex, se- parately or as Compounds united with the Oxide of Iron forming Iron Ores and Iron Stones. By Davip MusHet, Esq. of the Calder Iron-HWorks ......e0ce0+0+: envieat V. Letter from Dr. THORNTON to Mr. TruLocn on the Cow-Pock ; with an Account ofthe Cases in Jad ‘ BOMUES “oink 9ig'os 48 CC: tigi tna a halen kim ALAA Ths ade VI. Comparison of the Small-Pox and Cow-Pock fallen tion. By Cuarztes Branpon Trvg, Esq. Senior Sur- geon to the County Hospital, Gloucester .......... 60 VIT. Memoir on Nickel. By C. THENARD ........ 63 VIII. On the Orbit of the new Planet discovered by Mr. Haronine at the Observatory of Lilienthal, near Bremen, on the ist of September 1804 ...... ccc cence neees 70 IX. Description of improved Malt Kilns for drying ae ILC SUT gr tery seh an Wigner M Sk. vig ana ah oh 50 48 X. Cursory Sketch of a ‘Specimen of a Dictionary wf the Gealic Language. By Curugperr Gorpon, M.D. 72 XI. New Method of rendering Platina malleable. By Count Arottos Moussin Pousuxin. Made pub- lic, at his Request, by Cuarntes Hatcuert, Esq. Rs Pe DN nose A ROARIR ahha LAL EMSRS. Wind SS, afloat dabeivale 76 XII. Notices respecting New, Books ............000+ 78 XIII. Proceedings of Learned Socictics ...++..+ +0000 79 XIV. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles .....+++ 81 Vol. 20. No. 80. Jan. 1805. a XV. Letter - CONTENTS. XV. Letter from Dr. Mircui1x, of New-York, Represen- tative in Congress, 8c. to BENJAMIN MoseEty, M. D. €3c. contuining some interesting Particulars in the History Op uriate. OF GORA. ives ele Menige ¢ add Utube Aigthbes 2% 2's -- 208 XXXVII. On preventing the Fi eexing of en in Pipes. ep da TAREE RS MiGs \c'.3 . gape din d's wgtsa tino 269 XXXVIIL Experiments and Olser vations on mn, Feathers, and the Down of domestic Fowls. By M. ParmMenvier 211 XAXIX. Observations on some Dutch Processes in regard to the Arts and Sciences. By M. PARMENTIER,. ~e17 XL. On the Principles of Pump-iVork, illustrated and ap- plied in the Construction of a new Pump, without Fric- tion, or Loss of Time, or Water, in Working ; humbly proposed for the Service of the British Marine, with the Privilege of His Majesty’s Royal Letters Patent. By Pisstus noisy IM Ament) ash ie estates Geos 'as ake 223 XLI. Experiments to ascertain whether there exists an yf Affinity betwixt Carbon and Clay, Lime and Silex, se- Sa or as Compounds united with ihe Oxide of Tron forming Iron Ores and Iron Stones. By Davin Musuer, #£isq, of the Calder Iron-Woarks.. .. . 2°. 0.0 nna» =, toes 230 KLII. Comparison of the ‘Cow-Pock with the Smail-Pox. Bap Drn. TE ORION | ta.) siah Meth BR Meili. +5 236 XLIIL. Eighteenth Communication from Dr. THORNTON, relative to Pneumatic Medicine sie... 0... 0.0. 256 XLIV. Nineteenth Communication from Dr. Thornion re- lative to Pneumatic Medicine . 6.0.0.6 ce eeeecces 258 KLV, Memoir on the Devitrification of ‘Glass, andthe Phee- nomena which take place during its Crystallization. By Dartigurs: Read in the Phy ysical Class of ihe Insti-. Rite, May 20th): 1804. s:iN' sip Rij ets pens buss os 259 XLVI. On the beauti iful Green Colour for Painting, whick may be obtained from Chrome. By Gopon-Saint- INARBAEN ches 5 ooo ote Wi Wie 9S p LRA er MIR mage. AS 266 ALVII. Reflections on the particular Properties of Roman Alum. By M. Curaupeau, Memler of the Society of Phammacpiet Paris OS oa x. Suh lala Os oa « oh 269 XLVIII. List of Patents for new Inventions which have passed the Signet nee from November 24 to Decem- Bary SAS VSGR oc ogee tetra sc bs i os TE le welt «+ « o71 KLIX. Description of t a “Wouilf’ s Apparatus, invented by Mr. J. Kxicur, of Foster-lane, London ........ 272. L. Proceedings of Learned Societies ........ 00000085 273 il. Intelligence aud Miscellaneous Articles, ....-+-. 279 LIT, De- = CONTENTS. LH. Description of an Instrument for equalizing the Press sure and Efflux of non-elastic Fluids. By Mr. Josrrn oh ocd pate dT Py er eee a 289 LU. On che Principles of Pump-Work, illustrated and ap- plied in the Construction of a new Pump, without Friction, or Loss of Time, or Mater, in working ; humbly proposed for the Service of the British Marine, with the Privilege of His Majesty’s Royal Letters Patent. By BENJAMIN Marrin..... » pe Be eee ee 291 LIV. Notice respecting the Expedition to New Holland, undertaken for the Purpose of making Researches into Geography and Natural History. By A. L. Jussieu : 300 LV. Chemical Researches on Vegetation. By Taropore DE SAussuRE. An Extract read in the French National Institute by L. BERTHOULET .. 200.6... 0 eee 307 LVI. Memozr on the Natural History of the Coco-nut Tree . and the Areca-nut Tree; the Cultivation of them accord- ing to the Methods of the Hindoos ; their Productions, and their Utility in the Arts and for the Purposes of do- mestic Economy. By M. Le Goux pr Frarx, an Officer of Engineers, and Member of the Asiatic Society at Cal- CUBNEI ao 056 GN ein se 0os 0 1 ye os pak eel oe MESS 316 LVIT. dn Account of Borneo ; contained in a Letter from Mr. Joun Jussx, to the Court of Directors, from Borneo PURE Ay tara Ps oe bs Ws 0 se wl,» in Me Se 332 LVIII. On the Population of Bengal. By a Gentleman now residing in that Country ....cce. cece eens 339 LIX. Twentieth Communication from Dr. THornxTon, re- lative to Pneumatic Medicine voc... cc. cece eeu 347 LX. On Fumigation. By Dr. THORNTON ........ 349 LXI. Analytical Experiments and Observations on Lac., By Cuanies Garcnett, Esq. FLR.S. ........ 350 LXIU. Experiments and Observations on Feathers, and the Down of domestic Fowls. By M. PARMENTIER .. 358 LXIIM. On rendering Assistance to Persons in Danger of Drowning. By OH. Lawson, Esq. 2.2.0.5. ..045 362 LXIV. Letter from Witi1aM Rein, Merchant, in Peter- head, in Scotiand, respecting a Mode of curing malignant and epidemical Papers: i t5 .'. Biv o> ks cle bbe shes 354 LXV. Notices respecting New Books .. 0.2.0.0. 400. 365 LXVI. Proceedings of Learned and Economicad Societies 368 LAVII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles......370 THE THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE 3. Account of the Voyage undertaken ly y the Spaniards to the North-west Coast of America in tne Year 1792*., As the Spaniards had only very imperfect information ia regard to the channel de Fuca, situated in about lat. 48° 30’, two frigates, La Sutil and La Mexicana, were fitted out, in the year 1792, for the purpose of exploring it. They oiled from Acapulco, and arrived at Nootka Sound on the 13th of May. Macuina, the ¢ais or chicf of the Indians of that district, inamediately went to meet them in a canoe; and, having found three officers whom he had seen the preceding year, ‘he received them with, great cordiality. This prince is much praised by the Spaniards for bis justice, benefi- cence, and humanity. The crew of an American vessel, commanded by captain Gray, had a violent contest ait these poor Indians respecting the price of some beaver skins, exchanged for a certain quantity of copper. As seven of them were killed and several wounded during the affray, Macuina came to the Spaniards to complain, protes sting to them, with tears in his eyes, that his people had not me- rited that act of violence. At another time he came to seek consolation for his ¢ grief :—< I have condemned to death,” said he, ** one of my subjects for offering violence to a girl of nine years of age; and I have absented myself from the place of punishment, that I may not hear the groans of the eriminal.”? He had, how ever, his mene of energy. One day captain Quadra, who commanded at Nootka for the king of Spain, saw one of these Indians running to- wards him. He was a criminal, who came to beg he w vould intercede in his favour. Quadra interceded, and Macuina pardoned him; but he added with firmness:. « Hear me, Quadra; this man shall never be again admitted among Us, * From the Annales Liticraires. Vol. 20. No, 77. Oct. 1804. A Let 4 Voyage undertaken by the Spaniards Let him remain with you: cause his hair to be cut off; let him be dressed as a Spaniard ; and remember my clemency on the day when I shall come in my turn to demand pardon for one of thy people.” On another occasion he was less laconic, but equally in- genuous, in expressing his sentiments. The commandant, Quadra, suspected two Indians, Frijoles and Augustin, of having assassinated a young Spaniard. Macuina undertook to be their advocate 5 and, having waited on Quadra, he addressed him a3 follows, ater a short preamble, i in which he stated the circumstances of the case; *¢ I do not believe that you can impute to me this bad action. You have given me copper; I have: received from you a great many shells for the féte of my daughter. It is from you I eve sived the cloth, jewels, coat of mail, iron instruments, glass, and many other things with which EI am provided. Our mutual confidence has been carried so far, that we have both slept in the same chamber, where, while you remained without arms and without soldiers to defend you, | might have taken your life, had a friend been eapable of treachery. You entertain a mean idea of me and of my dignity, if you imagine that T would cause to be as- sassinated a child, less capable of defending itself than a woman. You w ould be the first whose life would be ex- posed to great danger were we enemies. You know well that Wicananish * has a great many fusees, with plenty of owder and ball; that captain Hana has not afew ; and that otk these as Well as the Nuchimases are my relations and allies; and that, united, we would form a number far supe- rior to that of the Spaniards, the English, and Americans, all together. Could we then be afraid of engaging in combat ? Have not you often been badly attended, and have you ever observed any thing else than that my subjects flocked round you to give you every testimony of friendship ? ? Why then do you allow your people to speak so disrespectfully of me? Make knawn to them all, that Macuina is thy real friend ; and that, far from doing hurt to the ‘Spaniards, % am ready to avenge the injury done to you, as I conjecture, by the perfidious people of Iticoac. You know the strength and intrepidity of my brother Ouat- -Laza-Pé, ‘and of my rela= tion Nutzape. Lend me five or six pedereroes; I will dispatch them both, with the most valiant of my Mischimis, to destroy these banditti, and to scour the neighbouring coasts. You may embark such of your people as you think * One of the neighbouring ¢a/s, or princes. proper, to the North-West Coast of America. 5 proper, in order that they and mine, as well as our enemies, may know that Macuina is the same as Quadra, and Quadra the same as Macuina.” Some of the customs of these people must appear very singular to the Europeans. The father of a new-born child, if a tais, shuts himself up in his hut, without looking either at the sun or the waves. To be wanting in this respect would be a serious offence towards the Quautz,—such is the name given to the supreme Being,—who would destroy both the father and the child. The child at the end of a month receives from the grandees assembled a first name, which is changed when it yuits the period of infancy; a third name is given to it at the epoch of puberty, and a fourth at that of youth: a new name is also given when it attains to maturity. Girls, when they become marriageable, change their name also. ‘This is a period of rejoicing for the whole family. The Spaniards of Nootka were present at a féte given by Macuina on a similar occasion. He caused his daughter, dressed with a profusion of ornaments, to appear in an alcove, from which he cried out to the assistants, <¢ My daughter Apenas is no longer a child, but a woman: henceforth she shall be called Isticoti-Clemoe ;”’ that is to say, the grand Taysa of Yucuatl* ; to which all the spectators answered by loud and repeated shouts. Figure-dances were then performed by the tais and nobles. . There were also different sorts of games, among which was wrestling. The Spaniards entered the lists, and obtained prizes of greater value than the wrestlers of the country. The good Macuina was hiehly gratified by their taking a share in the féte. When it was ended he carried to his daughter the imple- ments necessary for female labour, and said to her: ¢ Let us go, my daughter; you are now a woman, you must now think only of the duties of your sex.” Paternal advice was never more exactly followed. She attended to nothing but her domestic concerns. Apenas was simple and playful, and had often paid a visit to the Spaniards. The grand Taysa of Yucuatl, however, became grave and circumspect. She hardly returned the salutations of her old friends: she durst scarcely smile; and if she gave any answer when spoken toy it was only ina few words, and as if by stealth. The chief of the Spanish establishment, for whom her fa-». * This is the real name of that island to which the Europeans, for what reason is not known, have given that of Nootka, which bears no relation to any word in the language of the country except to Nutedi, which signifies a mountain, A 3 ther 6 Voyage undertaken by the Spaniards ther had @ real affection, could never prevail on hith to bring her along with him. <‘¢ No, no,” replied Macuima > «* my dauzhter is now a woman; she can no longer eave her house.” The manners of the tais himself displayed great singu- larity. When public calamities required fasting and prayer, he would repair to the place of worship, stretch himself out on his back with his arms folded over his breast, and remain in that posture several hours. He implored the divine mercy with loud eries, invoked the deceased tais, and begged them to attest that he was worthy of them. Some- times he spent two or three days without taking any other nourishment than a few herbs and water. At other times he prayed in his own house, to conjure the bad weather which smpeded hunting and fishing. He shut himself up in a kind ef cupboard, having coarsely painted in it a hideous figure, the signification of which the Spaniards were not able to learn. He beat against the walls, and thundered forth his orisons with a loud voice. These noisy supplications were succeeded by a profound silence. Such scenes could not fail to appear ludicrous to those who had never before seen any thing of the same kind. The Spanish navigators, being desirous to put to sea from Nootka in order to continue their observations, were prevented by contrary winds : Macuina immediately addressed his prayers to his god in order to obtain a favourable breeze; but he accompanied them with such strange grimaces that the Spaniards could not help laughing. Macuina observed it, and was much offended. This was the only time, perhaps, that they cver saw him ina passion. They endeavoured to appease him; and, as he was incapable of rancour, a recon- eiliation was soon effected. eg These Indians believe that the soul is ineorporeal, and: passes from this life to another. The tais and their rela- tions go to meet their ancestors in the abode of the Quautz. The Mischimis are transported to another place, to a prince whom they call Izmite. If a tais has been wicked, he is confounded after death with the plebcians. The dignity of tais is hereditary. There were three reign- ing at Nootka m1 1792. . Macuina was the principal. The -tais may, have several wives; but they generally confine themselves t6 three. The wives bring with them no dowry; but, on the contrary, must be purchased: and for want of property the Mischimis are condemned to celibacy, as the greater part of what arises from their labour does not belong 40 them. Those who are married have only one wife, whom - 5 they to the North-West Coast of America. 7 they receive from the hands of their prince as the.reward of their services. The inhabitants of Nootka do not amount to more than 2000. Of late, the venereal disease has been introduced among them; so that they are threatened with the fate of the old inhabitants of California, who have been almost entirely destroyed by this destructive scourge. But this is not the only inconvenience which attends their intercourse with Europeans. Luxury begins to make considerable pro gress among them, and gives birth to passions with which they were before unacquainted,—avarice and its shameful train; and Macuina, humane as he is, has already been obliged to establish the punishment of death in order to suppress theft. But there are also indigenous vices in this quarter of the lobe. The Indians of Nootka are anthropophagi. They o not deny it: and after all we have said of Macuina, will it be believed that he still adheres to this horrible custom ? Captain Meares learned from two of his officers, that at every new moon aslave was killed to regale their master, and that this atrocious act was accompanied with mirth and amusements. The Spaniards, however, flatter themselves that since they have been settled at Nootka the manners of these people have become softened ; whether the horror they expressed at this practice made an impression on their sim- ple minds, the depravation of which cannot be incurable, or that the victims they sacrificed, being taken from among the prisoners of war, the source of them has been dried up by the peace which the inhabitants of Nootka have enjoyed since 1789. We shall pass over what the editor of this voyage says in regard to the dress, ornaments, masquerades, arms, build- ings, canoes, food, and occupations of these people. Par- ticulars are given in regard to all these points, which are not to be found in the voyage of captain Vancouver. We shall only observe that the Indians of Nootka differ in no- thing from the other American tribes but in the pyramidal form of their heads, which must be ascribed only to the strong ligatures by which they are compressed in the cradle. We shall add, that they are much less copper-coloured than the Mexicans, and that M. Pauw, had he seen them, would have ceased to maintain that all the inhabitants of America are beardless. The young Indians of Nootka appear, in- deed, to have no beards, because they employ great care to pull the hair up by the roots; but adult males have beards like the Europeans, and the Spaniards have seen among Aa then & Voyage undertaken by the Spaniards’ them old men with beards as long and as’ bushy as those of the Turks. Their principal occupation, and the chief source of their riches, deserve some details. The natives inhabit only the coast, and abandon the interior of the country to bears,: stags, lynxes, wolves, martins, &c. Of the marine ani-’ mals which abound on their coasts the most valuable are no-doubt whales, which supply them with abundance of food. They have also sea otters, the skins of which are the only money with which they traffic. The sea otters are amphibious, but live for the most part in the water. They are found at a great distance from the coast, swimming on their backs, and) carry ing their young on their breast until they are in a state to swim themselves. In this manner they perform long voyages, for the purpose of finding the sma all fish on which they feed. They never abandon their young, even amidst the’ greatest dangers; and they can, be torn from them only with their life. ~ But this race of animals are daily decreasing, since mercantile avarice: - has caused .war to be declared against them along the whole north-west coast, from lat. 36° to lat. 60°... There is nota single point-of that immense coast where the. Indians are nvi -employ ed in hunting sea otters... It is. with their skins that they have hitherto procured all their articles of luxury— copper, shells, &e.. The lungs.of these animals aré so con- structed that they cannot keep. their heads, below water for more than two or three minutes 5 which gives.a great ad- antage to those who are im pursuit of them ; but the velo- city with which they swim often,enables them to escape the de xterity of the most expert hunters. The quality of their skins varies with age. - When only. a few mouths old they are covered with whitish hair of am . ugly appearance, which soon drops off, and gives place to a shorter and darker kind. “When they have attained to their full growth this hair becomes thicker and entirely black, and the skin acquires its full beauty; but it turns gray as the animal grows old. At all seasons the skins of the males are more valuable than those of the females. It is seen by this short description, that the otters of the north-east coast of America. differ in many respects from the land otter described by the naturalists.of Eurépe; and even from the saricovian, a kind of sea otter found on the coast. of Brazil, and which abounds in particular on the eastern coasts 6f Kamtschatka. . The sea otters of the north- west coast of America, though they live, ‘nearly i in the same. seas, scem to be far superior. in regard to their black, thick, putt? ! A and to the North-West Coast of America. 7 and silky furs, which are much sought after in China, Ox this account they have lately been an object of speculation to all those who carry on trade with that country. This competition could not fail of raising the price. It taught the Indians on the north-west coast the value of these ani- mals. At first they disposed of the skins fora trifle. But for some years past they have endeavoured to give the law instead of submitting to it. An English captain, therefore, complained to the Spaniards in 1792, that the trade in otters’ skins, which at first was so productive, appeared to him to have become much less so. But it is time that we should follow the two Spanish fri- - gates in their expedition, of which Nootka was the central point, and the results of which, combined with the ac- counts of captain Vancouver, leave nothing tu be wished for in regard to that portion, hitherto so little known, of the north-west coast of America. It has been already said that Macuina had offered up prayers to obtain a favourable wind to the Spaniards, who were tired of their long and useless stay at Nootka. . The wished-for breeze at length took place, aud Macuina had at least the merit of informing themsthat it was propitious to their designs, with which they had made him acquainted. Having sailed from Nootka on the. 4th of June 1792, they landed at the port of Nunez Ganoa, situated at the entrance and on the southern edge of the straight of Fuca. Pidalgo, captain of the Spanish frigate La Princessa, had begun to form there an establishment like that of Nootka. The tais of the district, named Tetacus, received the Spa- niards with the sincerest cordiality. Under his auspices they explored in the creeks several interior channels of the Strait de Fuca. He even attended them as a guide, and when their course was opposed by calms or contiary winds he offered up prayers for them. He seemed to be held in great consideration along the whole coast, and to deserve it by his character, which exhibited a mixture of dignity and goodness ; but, like his subjects, he participated in that superstition to whreh all uncivilized nations are so much attached, He really believed in the strangest prodigies, and endeavoured to make the Spaniards believe them also, He one day wished to persuade them that,he had scen, not in a dream, he said, an eagle dart from the clouds, seize a _ whale, and carry it up into the air. From the eastern shore of the Strait de Fuca they pro- ceeded to the northern, followed it trom west to east, ex- plored several small islands, and entered into various small on channels, koh. oer. 9" 10 yn Voyage inderiaken by the Spaniards channels. Then doubling the south-east point of this great island, to which captain Vancouver, out of compliment to his friend the Spanish comiaander, gave a name composed of both their names united, Quadra y Vancouver, they pro eceded to several islands of different sizes. They entered a winding channel which extends into the continent, and to which they gave the name of the fanious minister Florida ‘Blanca, with whose disgrace, however, they were no doubt unacquainted *. Approaching then to the western coast of the great island, they were exposed to some danger at the entrance of a bay which they named Porlier, from the name ef one of the governors of the Spanish Indies. Having escaped this danger, they arrived, after much fatigue, at a ereek in long. 118° and lat. 49° 15’, which they named Cala del Descanso ; that is to say, the Bay of Rest, where they experienced, indeed, a transient cessation of their anx- iety. They then found themselves entangled in this long ehannel of unequal breadth, which separates the island of Quadra y Vancouver from the continent. On their approach to the channel of Florida Blanca they fell in with the English brig Chatham, commanded by cap- tain Broughton, which formed part of the expedition under eaptain Vancouver, and which was employed in making a survey of the coast. Captain Broughton offered them his services, and, in return, the Spaniards informed him that in their preceding navigation they had explored the interior of the long sirait as far as the point where they then were. Reciprocal testimonies of good will passed between both parties. National rivality is forgotten at such a distance from the mother country. They are no longer Spanish and English who meet; they are men united by dangers, by their wants, and by the common interest which they have in the progress of the sciences. The Indians whom the Spaniards found at Cala del Des- eanso were little diferent from those of Nootka in regard to their conformation, but they had no resemblance to them im their manners and language. ‘They appeared to be more suspicious and Jess hospitable than those of Porlier’s Bay, which is at the distance of only eight or ten leagues. On this occasion the Spanish editor recommends to navigators not to judge of other tribes from what they have seen of . one, though at a small distauce from each oiher. The» Opposite coast soon justified tis salutary advice. From * Te took place in the month of Februery 1792, and the Spanish pas Vigators were on this coast in the mentis of June fellow ing, ig the io the North-West Coast of America. 11 the Cala del Descanso the Spaniards proceeded to Point de Langara, which is on the other side of the strait, where they found Indians of a very different character. They had other countenances and other manners. The latter were a brave people. They were proud of their armour, and be- lieved themselves invincible; but they were open, affable, and disinterested. They inhabit a peninsula of which Cape Langara forms the most northern point, and that of Cepeda the most southern. The Spaniards here rectified an error which had been confirmed by the observations of the pre- ceeding year, and which had made them believe that the two capes belonged to two different islands. Near Point Langara they fell in with captain Vancouver himself, who went on board of their vessel and ecommuni- eated to them his discoveries to the north-east of the great strait. The Spaniards were equally candid, and allowed that he had made several observations which had escaped. them. Captain Vancouver proposed to them to sail in company, in the hope that some advantage might be gained by this union. The Spaniards consented, but were sepa- rated by contrary winds. The Spaniards dispatched two boats to examine the channel of Florida Blanca, and made some addition to the knowledge of it acquired by the Eng- lish navigators. They explored the interior windings of this channel, which they were induced to consider as the , long sought for passage; but they suddenly found it shut on all sides by mountains covered with firs, and having their summits inwrapt in snow. The Indians of this in- hospitable region, who iad never received visits of this kind, showed more of fear than curiosity. When they saw vessels of a new construction, some of them only had the courage to examine them; after which they fled into the woods. ' Ascending then in a north-east direction, they did not think it necessary to explore the coasts adjacent to the mouth of the channel of Florida Blanca and that of Car- melo: trusting, says the Spanish editor, to the observa- tions of the English, they were unwilling to lose time and consume provisions in useless researches. Proceeding further, the English and Spaniards again met, and combined their operations in this strait, which some- times expands and sometimes becomes narrow, presenting a multitude of isles, small channels, creeks, and bays, which extend more or less into the land. The Spaniards, in particular, discovered several anchoring-places, to which they gave names, and indicated their position in the maps which accompany their relation, It appears that they exa- mined, ig Voyage undertaken by the Spaniards mined, with great care, the indentations of the American continent opposite to the large island of Quadra y Van- couver. At certain intervals they met with Indians, some of whom came to give them advice respecting the course they ought to pursue, while others fled on their approach 5 and some, conceiving their intentions to be hostile, began to put on their armour. The last approached them with otter skins in their hands, giving them to understand that they might take their choice, friendly commerce or battle. The first-mentioned, who were less suspicious, brought them fresh or smoked salmon, for which they took in ex- change iron, shells, and other trifles. ; On the 30th of July a violent quarrel had almost pro- duced bloodshed. A group of Indians having attempted to wrest a fusee from one of the Spanish hunters, it was found necessary, before they could be dispersed, to fire a cannon and some musketry from the boats. The ball, however, did no execution; and the boats fired only with powder. A serious subject of solicitude occurred soon after to the Spanish commandant. . He had detached a boat with cap- fain Vernaci, giving him orders to explore those parts of the coast which were inaccessible to large vessls. Vernaci entered one of the winding channels which penctrate a great way into the land between the lat. of 50° and 51°, and Jong. 120° and 121°. This navigation was in every respect dangerous. The boat had on board but a few articles for carrying on trade by barter, and Vernaci found it difficult to resist the importunities of the Indians, who were anxious to trafic with him. They were much surprised to see strangers approach their coast in this manner, and otten manifested a desire of taking by furce what the Spaniards were unwilling to give to them with good will. Vernaci was obliged to have recourse to mildness and persuasion. Though bis crew had carried arms with them, it would haye been imprudent to enter into a contest in which the neigh- bouring tribes would no doubt have taken a part. At length, having penetrated to the bottom of the channei or strait which extends beyond the 51st degree of latitude, and which has its own name in the Spanish maps and that of Knight’s Channel in those of the English; and having as- certained that it had no oudet, he prepared to join his com- panions by another route. An Indian who appeared de- sirous of serving him, and who was actuated only by an evil design, offered to point it out to him. He, however, conducted hin into a labyrinth of small islands, and then disappeared. to the North-West Coast of America. 13 disappeared. Vernaci was then glad to return the same way he had come, and to proceed into the great channel. He had been absent ten days, and great apprehensions for his safety began to be entertained. . The Spanish navigators, being now joined, thought only of getting out towards the north-east trom this long chan- nel, ito which they had entered about two months beiore: but they were not yet at the end of their labours. - On the 9th of Aueust they fell in with the English brig Venus, captain Henry Shepherd, which was returning from Ben- pal, and had touched at Nootka and the Strait de/Fuca. From captain Shepherd the Spaniards learned that in this strait the Indians had killed the pilot of the Spanish frigate La Princessa. They sailed some time in company with the English captain ; and the three vessels anchored within reach of two tribes, the Quacos and the Majoia, on the western coast of the great island, in about lat. 50° 40’, and a little to the east of long. 121°. They soon saw canoes approach- ing them in every direction, in one of which was the tais of the Majoia, who announced himself by presenting an ofter’s skin to each of the three commanders. These In- dians brought a great many more, some of which were pur- chased rather through politeness than with a view to spe- culation; for they were much dearer than they had found them on the coasts of California. These Indians are well made, and have an easy gait, but a fierce and savage look. They seem to be exceedingly irritable. One pf them who was unarmed, having quarrelled with a Spanish sailor, im- mediately disappeared to borrow a knife from one of his comrades; but he found on his return that the sailor was waiting for him with his drawn hanger. A great murmur- ing now took place among the Indians: they called with loud shouts for their tais, who was on board one of the Spanish ships; and it was not without great difficulty that tranquillity was restored and preserved until the moment of their departure, which took place soon after. Next day they resumed their voyage, and, proceed- ing some leagues north-east, found good anchorage after they had passed a number of small isles. This place they named Port Guemes, from the name of the family of the viceroy of Mexico. As the wind was contrary, they re- mained here twelve days. They found here abundance of fish of different sorts; such as salmon, rays, soles, and small cod like those of Faikland’s Islands. ‘Lhe Indians of Port de Guemes appeared to be yery unsociable, and almost stupid, . Pursuing i4 On the Catoptrical and Dioptrical Pursuing the same course along the coast they entered a very narrow channel, on coming out from which they found another port, which they called Gorostiza. They were now near the mouth of the great channel towards the north, Proceeding then south-east they arrived at Cape Scott, which is without the channel, and which is the most west- erm point of the great island Quadra y. Vancouver. Some leagues to the east of this cape, and in the open sea, there are two very large islands called those of Lanz. Butwhen they arrived at that space of sea which separates them from Cape Scott, they were obliged to return to search for an- chorage, which is at the mouth of the strait. Next day they steered for Nootka, where they arrived on the 30th of August, after employing four months 1m sailing round the large island. [To be continued. ] . LETTER ly, IT. On the Catoptrical and Dioptrical Instruments of the Anlients; with Hints respecting their Revival, or Reinvention, and Improvement in modern Times. | Continued from our last volume, p. 349. ] 9. Tues, with the help of lat, I have in some degree followed, without intending it, a plan I have somewhere seen recommended, namely, to prosecute historical inqui- yies backwards; that is, to begin with our own times, or rather with times not much anterior to our own, and pro- ceed, by retrograde steps, to more antient periods, till at last we approach the wilds of uncertainty and table.—I shal! now add a few miscellaneous remarks and quotations ; some of which did not before occur to me, and others could not well be introduced in my former communications. 10. And first, I think it right to lay before the reader the following passage from Buffon, which I have just found, and which, it must be owned, is not very consonant with the account of the destruction of the mirror of Ptolemy Euergetes, given by Alat, from Crusius. (See Lett. in. § 52.) Ihave not the means of reconciling them; and, if I had, I am not sure that I should make the attempt., For the question is not, How, or when, or by whom, this op- tical instrument was destroyed? but Whether it really pro- duced the effects recorded of it? And ihat it did, Adat, al- lowing _— Instruments of the Aniienis. is dowing for the mistakes of historians ignorant of optics, has made extremely probable, not to say absolutely certain, to those’ at least, who have the opportunity of repeating his very interesting experiments. -dlulfeda, savs M. de Buf- fon, in his Description of Egypt, has these words :—** In Pharo Alexandrie, erat speculum, e ferro Sinico, per quod a longeé videbantur naves Greecorum advenientes; sed paulo postquam islamismus invaluit, scilicet tempore califatus _Walid-fit Abdilmelech, Christiani, fraude adhibita, illud deleverunt ; that is, In the Pharos of Alexandria was a mir- ror of Chinese iron, by means of which the Grecian fleet, when at a great distance, was seen approaching; but, soon after Mahometanism prevailed, the Christians destroyed it, by stratagem *.” In Buffon’s opinion, the words ferro Si- nico ought to be rendered acier poli, or polished steel. But this interpretation applies only to ferro, the abl. sing. of JSerrum iron, and improperly excludes Sinico. I say impro- perly; for, of whatever kind the metal was, the historian certainly meant that it was Chinese. But why Ptolemy’s opticians should have sent to China for iron or steel, which, the Sacred Writers assure us, were common in Egypt, does not appear. Being thus uncertain as to the precise kind of metal of which this famous telescopic mirror was composed, may we not ask, Whether Abulfeda, a historian who, it seems, was not over accurate, might not have written ferro tor what is known to us by the name of Tutanag, a Chinese metallic compound, which might be valued then, as it is now, for the high polish it receives ? 11. The Rev. Mr. Nixon’s “ Dissertation on the Anti- quity of Glass Windows,” in the Philosophical Transac- tions for 1758, mentioned above, is a sequel of “ An Ac- count of some Antiquities discovered at Herculaneum,” in the volume for 1757. In the 13th article of this last paper, one of those subterraneous antiquities is described as * A flat piece of white glass, taken off from towards the extre- mity of the sheet ; as appears from the curvature and pro~ tuberant thickness of one of its sides above the other parts.” Abat, potions views Nixon too much in the light of an opponent; for I do not find that the latter advances any thing inconsistent with the arguments and proofs of the former, except this observation :—‘ Before the application *In Playfair's Chronology we find that Walid I., calif of the Saracens, reigned from A.D. 705 to 715. and Walid 11. from A.D. 74.3 to 7443 also that Ishmael Abulfeda, prince of Hamah, “an indifferent geogra~ pher and historian,” was born A. D. 1273, and died in 1343. of ¥6 Ox the Catoptrical and Dioptrical of quicksilver in the constructing of specalay or looking=. glasses (which I presume is of no great antiquity), the re-: flection of images by such specu/a must have been effected by being besmeared behind, or tinged through, with some’ dark -colour, especially blacks which woul obstruat the refraction of the rays of light.” . But I presume that those who duly attend to Alat’s “quotations and reasouings, will: be of opinion that Mr. Nixon’s language is abundantly too Strong, when he says that the antients mst have so be- smeared or tinged their looking-glasses; since Abat has: clearly proved that they knew how to coat them with metah.: Among other uses to which glass. was applied by the an~ tients, Mr. Nixon quotes from Pliny these passages :—~ “ Cum caditd aqua, vitree pile, sole adverso, in tantum excandescunt, wt vestes exurant: Glass globes, with the ad-: dition of wat: Ty when exposed to the)sun, grow so hot as! to burn clethes;” did. xxxvi.-c. 22. § 45. . (Yhereader will, ebserve Pliny’s ed ae in saying that the ploles grow thus hot.) Again: ‘ Tnwenia medicos, quee sunt urenda corpo= tune, mon aliter utilius idvfieri putare, quam crystallind pilé adversis positd solis radiis: 1 tind that medical men are of opinion, that there is not a more useful way to cauterize parts of the hody : than by a erystal globe placed opposite to the rays of the sun ;” fib. XxXvil.c. 6.§ 10. Mr. Nixon adds,’ on the authority of M. Renaudot, iu Mem. de l’ Acad. des | dnseripi. tom... that glass was not wrought into lenses for’, optical uses, till the beginning of the thirteenth century; so that we m ay add his suffrage to those of the other learned fautors of Roger Bacon’s pretensions. “He also endeavours to make it probable, ‘* that the original of glass windows) may haye fair pretensions to a place some years before the’ destruction of Herculaneum (anno Christi 80), in whose ruins the glass plate under consideration, was buried.” But? be eonteases, he “has not been able to trace up the use of alass in windows, by any positive authority, higher than! about 200 years short of the epocha last mentioned, VIX. tO: the latter end of the,third century, when it is: expressly: mentioned by Lactantins (De Opificio Det, cap. V+) In these. words: ° Manije slius est mentem esse, que per aculos eas quce sent oppostia, transpisiat, quast per fenestras, lucente: wetronaut speculari lapide obductas: Jt is more manifest that: there is a mind, which sees things presented to it through the eyes, as through windows composed uf clear, glass, < or ae a stone.’ -“¥9.On this subject, it may not be ‘amiss to’ add, that in ie reign of Tilerius, according to Pliny,'a Rowan’ a wo a xg: Instruments of the Antients. 17 had his house demolished, or, as Petronius Arbiter and others. affirm, lost his head, for making malleable glass. In modern times, it is said, that in the year 1610, the sophy of Persia sent the king of Spain six glass vessels which bore the operation of hammering *. 13. Abat and Nixon do not appear to have extended their researches to the antiquity of glass in this part of the world; which is a point of some importance. I do not know any better proof that the antient inhabitants of this island, in particular, possessed the art of making glass, than the specimens of their work which still exist in the glass rings, with a round hole in the centre, and a very thick rim, in shape like the whirl of a distaff-spindle, but much smaller, which are found in many parts of the country. By the genuine descendants of the antient Britons, they are called gleinew naidreedh, or glass-adders. I have seen se- veral of them, among the country people, in the south of Scotland, where their present name is adder-stones, to di- stinguish them, no doubt, from certain concretions there said to be formed in the heads of old toads, and called toad- stones. I remember a countryman picking up a greenish adder-stone, about 35 years ago, in a peat-moss, or turf- bog, in Dumfries-shire. He showed it to the late Rev. Dr. Walker, professor of natural history in the university of Edinburgh, then minister of Moffat, whose learning and ability are well known to proficients in that study. But the doctor, who was not very fond of giving his opinion in doubtful subjects, barely told the man that it was an amu- et; a word as mysterious to him as the modus operandi of the thing signified. On consulting a dictionary, however, he found that the word amulet meant a charm; for those glass rings are thought to have been used as charms by the ruids; with whom, perhaps, originated the wild but wide- spread notion, that they were formed by adders or vipers. Certain it is, that their supposed virtues are still as much venerated by some of the Scottish peasantry, as was, among the Gauls, the ovwm anguinum described by Pliny t. The ee old women use them to rub the gums of children uring dentition, and parts affected with pain in persons of all ages; and, perhaps, it: would not be easy to prove them to be less efficacious than the modern tractors. 14. All the adder-stones I have seen, though evidently ef glass, were opake, and some of them beautifully varie- * Harris's Lex. Tech. Supp. and Bailey's Fol. Dict. 2d ed. art. Glass. + Nat. Hist, lib. xxix.-c. 4. as quoted in the Minstrelsy of the Scot- tish Border, vol. ii. p. 4o4. Vol. 20. No, 77. Oct. 1804, B gated. 18 On-the Catoptrical and Dioptrical gated. But I would by no means insinuate that all adder- stones whatever are opake; and much less that the antient Britons did not possess the art of making transparent glass. Such a conclusion would scarcely appear more rational than it would be in our present antiquaries, if no antient vessels of transparent glass had heen found, to deny that the artists of those days could make such glass; or that they could make window-glass, if the curious specimen, described by Mr. Nixon, had not been dismterred at Herculaneum. 15. Hence, on reflection, 1 cannot help wondering that some antiquaries, as observed in my last letter ($ 96), should believe that the antient Egyptians made opake glass, but not transparent glass. For, waving the well known logical prin- ciple, That negative propositions, such as this is, admit not of proof, it is allowed that those antients were acquainted with the reduction of metallic ores, and consequently with fluxes or vitrifiable substances, which, though opake when in thick masses, would transmit more or less light when, as would often take place, they happened to be sufficiently thin. A rude kind of transparent glass, thus obtained from. crucibles or smelting furnaces, (not to mention potteries and brick-kilns,) would furnish a hint, which, it is natural to suppose, would not pass unimproved among so Ingenious a people. Besides, it is very improbable that the manufac- ture of glass could flourish, as we have seen it did among the Sidonians, without becoming known to their enlight- ened neighbours the Egyptians; some of whose monarchs have immortalized themselves by their encouragement of the arts and sciences. 16. According to the venerable Bede, glass windows were: first introduced into this country about the year 674, .when Benedict Biscop, the cotemporary of the famous Wtifrid, bishop of York, founded the monastery of Weremouth. « After the work was far advanced, he sent agents into France to procure, if possible, ‘some glass-makers, a kind of artificers quite unknown in England, and to bring themy over to glaze the windows of his church and monastery. These agents were successful, and brought several glass-. makers with them; who not only performed the work re- quired by Benedict, but instructed the English in the art of making glass for windows, lamps, drinking vessels, and other. uses *.” 17.:1 have imtroduced these passages, to save the reader * Bede Hist, Abhat. Weremuthex, as quoted in Henry's Hist, of Great Britain, vol. iv. p. 116. éd. 3. 4 yh ‘ i og “the Instruments of the Aniients. T9 the trouble of referring to other works, to satisfy himself that the art of making and variously moulding transparent glass, was practised in England above 500 years before the time of Roger Bacon; and consequently that he could be at no loss to procure that material for his experiments. But these remote historical facts must here give place to others, more immediately connected with the present inquiry. In « John Dee his Mathematicall Preeface to Euclid, //rit- ten,” to use his own words, ‘ at my poor house at Mort- lake, anno 1570, Febr. 9,” 1 find the following curious, but long neglected, passages; which, had I known of them, should have been inserted before I arrived at this miscella- neous conclusion of my communications. I must observe, that the copy of Dee's ‘ very curious and elaborate” pre~ face, in 95 small 4to pages, now before me, is prefixed, not to his own edition of the Elements, which <* was pub- lished by Henry Billingsley im 1570*, but to Euclid’s Ele~ ments of Geometry, the first VI books, in a compendious form contracted and demonstrated, by Capt. Thomas Rudd, Chiefe Engineer to His late Majesty; whereunto is added the Mathematicall Preface of Mr. John Dee: London: Printed by R. and W. Leybourn, R. Tomlins and R. Boy- dell, 1651.” This date will account for the orthography and punctuation, which I copy, being more modern than that which was fashionable, in 1570, when this interesting preface was first printed. 18. Dee defines “ Perspective” to be ‘* an Art Mathe- maticall, which demonstrateth the nature and propertics of all Radiations, Direct, Broken, and Reflected.” And * Glasse,” according to him, © is a generall name, in Catoptrike, for any thing from which a Beam reboundeth.” —‘* Is it not greatly,” he asks, “ against the Soveraiguty of Man’s nature, to be so overshot and abused with things (at hand) before his eyes? as with a Peacock’s tail, and a Dove’s neck: or a whole ore, in water holden, to seem broken. Things far off to seem ncer, and neer, to seem far off. Small things to seem great, and great to seem small. One man to seem an Army. Ora man to be curstly afraid of his own shadow. Yea, so much, to fear, that if you being a lone, neer a certain glasse, and proffer with dagger or sword, to foyne at the glasse, you shall suddenly be moved to give back (in mannér) by reason of an Image appearing in the air, between you and the glasse, with like hang, sword or dagger, and with like quicknesse foyning * See Dr. Hatton's Dictionary, article Dee. B2 at 20 On ihe Catoptrical and Dioptrical at your eye, likewise as you do at the Glasse. “Strange, this is to hear of, but more mervailous to behold, than these my words can signific. And neverthelesse, by de- monstration Opticall, the order, and cause thereof, is cer- tified: even so as the effect 1s consequent. Yea, thus much more, dare I take upon me, toward the satisfying of the noble courage, that longeth ardently for the wisedome of Causes Naturall: as to let him understand, that, in Lon- don, he may with his own eyes, have proof of that, which I have said herein. A Gentleman*, (which, for his good service, done to his countrey, is famous and honourable and for skill in the Mathematicall Sciences, and Languages, is the Odde man of this land, &c.) even he is able: and (I am sure) will, very willingly, let the Glasse, and proof bé seen: and so T (here) request him: for the encrease of wisedome, in the honourable: and for the stoppmg of the mouths malicious: and repressing the arrogancy of the ig- norant: ye may easily guesse, what I mean.’’—These last words will be best explained by the first sentence of the author’s long and querulous ‘* Digression Apologeticall :” —‘* And for these, and such like marvellous Acts and Feats, Naturally, Mathematically, and Mechanically, wrongbt and contrived: ought any honest Student, and modest Christian Philosopher, be counted and called a Coniurer ¢”—It appears that the foolish and superstitious multitude, not content with verbal abuse, destroyed the large collection of instruments, manuscripts, and printed books, which he had painfully amassed at Mortlake, in Surry, © as belonging to one who deali with the devil +.”— In another place, Dee has these words: ‘* Of the strange self-moving, which, at Saint Denis, by Paris, Anno ¥551, T saw ence or twice (Orontius t being then with me, in company) it were too strange to tell. But some have writ- ten it: and yet, [ hope it is there, of other to be seen. And by Perspective also strange things are done: as, to see in the air aloft, the lively image of another man, either walk- ing to and fro: or standing sul. Likewise, to come into an house, and’ there to see the lively shew of Gold, Silver, or precious stones: and comming to take them in your * S. W. P. on the margin. 4& See Dr, Hucton’s Dict., art. Dee, compared with this ‘ Digression Apologetical!l.”’ t Probably the great French geometer and mechanician Ovontins Fi- zens (or Ovonce Finé) who died A. D. 1665, after suffering much for an astrological prediction, which had offended the court of France. See Br. Heston's Dictionary, article Fineus, hand, i Instruments of the Antients. 9} hand, to finde nought but ayr. Hereby have some men (in all other matters counted wise) fouly over-shot them- selves: misdeeming of the means.”—Here it is observable that Dee does not, as in the former quotation, affirm that he actually saw these effects of perspective produced. The lord chancellor Bacon relates, that bis great precursor and namesake, Roger Bacon, apparently walked in the air be- tween two stecples, which he supposed was the effect of reflection from glasses, while he really walked on the ground *, And what Dee says of the “‘shew of Gold, &c.” is apparently taken from the 5th chapter of Roger Bacon’s tract De Nullitate Magie ; though I do not tind that the great author is mentioned, or alluded to, in this whole preface. 19. But the most extraordinary passage in this perferm- ance of Dee, is the following :—“ No small skill ought he to. have, that should make true report, or neer the truth of the numbers and summes, of footmen or horsemen, in the Enemies ordering. Afarre off, to make an estimate between neer terms of More and Lesse, is not a thing very rife, among those that gladly would do it.”—** The Herald, Pursuivant, Serjeant Royall, Captain, or whosoever is carc- full to come neer the truth herein, besides the Judgment of his expert cye, his skill of Ordering Tacticatl, the help of his Geometricall instrament: Ring or Staffe Astrono- micall: commodiously framed for carriage and use.) He may wonderfully help himself by perspective Glasses. In which, (I trust) our posterity will prove more skilfull and expert, and to greater purposes, than in these dayes, can (almost) be credited to be possible.” 20. I apprehend that this last passage must be admitted as a decisive proof, that ‘* perspective glasses,” and some of their most useful effects, were known in England, in 15703 er more than 40 years earlier than 1609, or 1610, when they are commonly believed to have been invented in Hol- Jand. I say more than 40 years; for Dee here talks of them as we should do of instruments familiarly known, but in the use of which we were not so ‘ skilful and expert” as, we “ trusted, our posterity would one day prove ;” probably be- cause they had not yet been reduced to a very commodious form. Thus much the words of Dee clearly warrant us to affirm ; but how much more than 40 years, they do not au- thorize us to say. Nor will Dee’s words enable us to ascertain whether his “ perspective glasses” were dioptrical or catop- trical; for his definitions above inserted, of ‘ perspective” a * See Dr, Hution’s Mathematical Dictionary, article Opics. Be and Sa 22 On the Catoptrical and Dioptrical and “ glasse,” contain nothing to prevent us from apply- ing them to either kind of ‘* glasse;” and our extracts from Abat show that distant objects may be viewed advantageously with both, 21. From the whole of what has been stated, in my four letters, I may now venture to draw a ‘few of the many in- ferences, which cannot fail to force themselves on the mind of the intelligent reader ; but which, in order to avoid all dogmatism, I shall express im the form of queries. 22. Preparatory, however, to my first query, I must ob- serve, that the celebrated Dr. Zach, of Saxe-Gotha, in exa~ mining, as he did in 1784, the unprinted papers of our great Harriot, found that his observations on Jupiter’s sa~ tellites extended from January 16th, 1610, to February 26th, 1612. Therenowned Galileo discovered those secondary planets on the 7th of January 16103; ** so that,” says Dr, Zach, itis not improbable that Harriot was likewise a first discoverer of these attendants of Jupiter.”’—* It ap- pears that Harriot had telescopes with magnifying powers of 10, 20, and 30 times.”—** And it is very likely that Harriot, who lived with so generous#a patron as The Earl of Northumberland, had got the new vention of telescopes in Holland much sooner in England than they could reach Galileo, who, at that time, lived at Venice.”-—Now, Har- riot was born.in 1560, and died in 1621.. The Pantome- tria appears to have been first printed in 1571 *, anda se- cond time in.1591 3; and the Stratioticos first in 1579, and again in 1590. These two interesting books were the joint works of Leonard Digges and his son Thomas Digges, the former of whom died about 1574, and the latter in 1595, when Harrioéf was 35 years of age. Dee’s Preface to Euclid was first printed in 1570, and its author lived till 1608, when Harriot was in his 48th year. These three performances, therefore, which, as we have seen, (Lett. ii. * Here a friend obligingly sent me the first edition of the Paxfométria, « imprinted at London anno 1571,’ when Tho, Digges, esq. the editor, and partly the author, says he was 25 years of age. Thus both editions of that work are before me; the first a small gto, (1571), and the se- cond a small fol. (1591) apparently much ‘augmented. But I cannot compare them now.—The note at § 8. of my second Jetter should be read thus; The Paxtometria was begun by Leonard Dieges, and finished by: his son, Thomas Digges. The first of the three books of the Stratioticos, was begun and almost finished by the father, and the two others, wholly written by the son. See the title of the first edition of the Pantometria, and the Dedidation of both editions; also the Preface to the Stratiolicos, and the List of Téo. Digges’s works, at the end of it’s Contents. §4 _ Instruments of the Anticnts. 23 § 3 and g, and § 18, 19, above) contain undeniable proofs of an acquaintance with some contrivance answerable to the telescope, could not but be known to Harriot, as well as, in all probability, the authors of at least two of them. Twenty years have scarcely elapsed since Harriot’s astro- nomical writings were brought to light, or since that cele- brated analyst, the instructor “of Descar tes, was at all known as an astronomer (a notable instance of our ignorance even of modern characters and events); and it seems by no means extravagant to suppose that future incidents or researches may furnish grounds for a decidedly affirmative answer to* Query 1st. Whether it be not, at least, as probable that Harriot’s telescopes were made in England as in Holland ? Query 2d. Whether itbe not undeniable, that the Diggeses and Dee actually possessed some such instrament as a telescope; and whether Thomas Digges do not expressly ascribe his father Leonard’s knowledge of optics partly to a written book of Roger Bacon? (See Lett. ii § 3, 4, 95 and § 19 of this.) Query 3d. Whether this express testimony of Thomas Digges do not strongly co- operate with Roger Bacon’s own writings, in producing a conviction that he was acquainted with some instrument equivalent to a telescope ; and whe- ther, when he says, ‘‘ Jt is thought that Julius Cesar dis- cerned through very large glasses,” &c. he do not forego all personal claim to the invention of those classes, and plamly imply, that it was believed by the learned of his time, that that invention was to be referred to a much more antient period, even to a period of indefinitely remote anti- quity? For Bacon does not say that Cesar invented those glasses, but only, that “ it was thought” he used thes) Query 4th. Whether from the silence, as far as appears, of Dee, the Diggeses, Recorde, and Roger Bacon, respecting the invention of the option! devices they mention, we may not conclude (as Alat has done with regard to glass mirrors) that those optical devices are so antient that their inventors were forgotten; and whether this conclusion would not be strengthened by T. Digges’ referring the knowledge of them ‘pattly) to Roger Bacon, and Roger Bacon attributing the * For the dates and facts mentioned in this paragraph, in addition to the authorities already cited, see*De. Hutton’s Mathematical Dictionary, articles Dee, Digges, and Haritor. B4 ese Bia thins 24 On Catoptrical and Dioptrical Instruments. use of them to Julius Cesar, while he says nothing as to the time and circumstances of their invention ? Ouery 5th. Whether the antient maxim of concealing from the people at large truths of which, it was supposed, they could make no good use; a maxim which, as we have seen, was applied to this very subject even by so modern an author as Dr. Recorde, did not peculiarly expose such truths, thus floating, so to speak, on the breath of a few adepts, to the danger of being lost in the revolutions which too frequently disturb or subvert society ; especially before copies of what might have leen thought fit to be committed to writing * could be multiplied by the press? (See Lett. i. § 16. 19.) uA Query 6th. Whether, notwithstanding these disadvan- tages, considerable remnants of optical knowledge have not escaped the reserve of philosophers and the fury of re- volutionists ; and whether, if Abad and others have proved, or rather, if experiments prove, that simple lenses and con- cave mirrors have the same effects as telescopes; and if Abat has, moreover, made it probable that Ptolemy Euer- getes applied a concave mirror to the same use; it would be absurd te conclude, that instruments equivalent to telescopes are, in fact, extremely antient? (See Lett. 11. § 12. 23, &c.) Query 7th. Whether this conclusion be not additionally justified by the proofs, which the same author has adduced, of the dexterity of the antient manufacturers of glass; proofs which reach from verv distant times down to the days of Vitellio, Peccam, and Roger Bacon? (See the former part of this letter.) Query 8th. Tivhether, after the evidence stated (and much more might no doubt be discovered) it would le rash, or ab- surd, or inconsistent with the undoubted pretensions of mo- dern inventors, to suppose that the knowledge of some such instrument as the telescope, has been concealed among the learned from very remote ages; and that, strictly speaking, such knowledge has only been published, and with other parts of optics, greatly augmented and improved, in modern times ? * Dr. Hutton, in his article Ga/ilvo, after enumerating the writings of that great man, adds:. * Besides all these, he wrote many other pieces, which were unfortunately lost though his wife’s devotion,” (say digorry), *¢ who, solicited by her confessor, gave him leave to peruse her hus- band’s manuscripts ; of which he tore.and took aw ay as many as he said aere nol fil to be published.” v9 These i .. On the Decline of Mathematicat Studies. 25 These queries, together with the facts and reasonings on which they are founded, I humbly submit to the candid examination and criticism of men of more learning, ability, and leisure, than, ‘ Dear sir, yours respectfully, [Postscript in our next Number. ] a a A SS EI DT Ser III. On the Decline of Mathematical Studies, and the Sci- ences dependent upon them. By the Rev. Joun Toruts, A. M.* Ir is a subject of wonder and regret to many, that this island, after having astonished Europe by the most glorious display of talents in mathematics and the sciences depen- dent upon them, should suddenly suffer its ardour to cool, and almost entirely to neglect those studies in which it in- finitely excelled all other nations. After having made the most wonderful and unhoped-for discoveries, and pointed out the road to more ; suddenly to desist, and leave these to be cultivated, and the road to more to be explored, by other nations, is very remarkable. It seems as strange as the con- duct of a conqueror would be, was he to conquer all the countries around him, and then tamely to suffer his own and the subjugated ones to be possessed, governed, and cul- tivated, by those whom he had conquered. Tt is a very great disgrace for a nation like this, which can proudly boast of a superiority over all others in arts, arms, and commerce, to suffer the sublimest sciences, which once were its greatest pride and glory, to be neglected. Surely a much more solid fame accrues to a people from their superiority in talents than in arms. Athens is as cé- lebrated for its learning as its commerce or its victories. It cannot be owing to any want of importance in the sciences: themselves that they are neglected; the discoveries made in them are of the most astonishing nature, and such as seemed absolutcly beyond the reach of human intellect. By the marvellous assistance of the mathematics from the simple law of gravity are deduced the orbits of the planets and satellites, their distances, the times of their revolu- tions, their densities, quantities of matter, and many other remarkable properties too well known to be enumerated. Were it not for them, mechanics, optics, hydrostatics, gea- * Communicated by the Author. graphy, 26 On the Decline of Mathematical Studies, graphy, and other branches of natural philosophy, would hardly bave been known as sciences. . It is possible that discoyeries more wonderful and of greater utility than those already made by the help of mathematics, may some time or other be effected, should some great genius once point out the way. It is the opinion of many philosophers *, that the various forms and diversified properties of bodies are owing to the various laws of attraction and repulsion which their constituent particles exercise upon each other. Should these laws ever be discovered, we shall become as well acquainted. with the structure, affinities, and mutual operations of bodies, as we are with the revolutions and ac- tions of the planets upon each other. The mathematics, and the sciences dependent upon then, cannot be neglected from their want of importance and uti- lity: they are a much nobler study than the present fa- vourite one of natural history, the yarious branches of which seem to require more the efforts of memory than judgment ; in the pursuit of which, the highest object to be attained is the discovery of some nondescript insect or plaut, in which chance more than judgment is con- cerned. Chemistry, from its very great importance as well as the utility arising from it, deservedly ranks next to ma- thematics and natural philosophy. But in chemistry, as well as natural history, we are left at so great.a distance by the philosophers of the continent, that there are no hopes of coming in for but a comparatively very small share of praise. We seem, as a nation, for this last half century,. to be sunk into a great degree of supineness with respect to the sciences, regardless of our former fame, The generality of the papers in the Philosophical Transactions are no longer of that importance they were formerly. We have long ceased to study those sciences in which we took the lead and excelled, and are content to follow, at a very humble distance, the steps of the philosophers of the continent, im those which they have in a manner discovered and made plain by their glorious exertions. We, after haying disco- yered and conquered regions in science, suddenly quit them to be possessed and cultivated by other nations, that we may pick up a few gleanings in the countries found out and cul- tivated by their exertions. . ' To what strange infatuation can it be owing thai we tamely give up what was once our greatest boast? Is it, * Vide Philosophical Magazine, vol xiv. p. 194. because and the Sciences dependent upon them. 27 ~ because a century back our philosophers made such ad- vances in science that all other nations were left at an im- measurable distance, that we are contented with their glory, and think our country sufficiently immortalized ? Can we tamely sit down with what they have done, and see other nations gaining fame where our ancestors immortalized themselves? By such conduct, the fame they have acquired reflects double disgrace upon ourselves; we show that we are degenerate, and unworthy of such fathers. There are some remarks upon the importance and decline of mathematical learning in the Encyclopedia amen article Physics, which I shall take the liberty of inserting as the remarks of professor Robison will carry with them | 4 deference not to be expected from those of one unknown to fame. <* A’notion has of late gained ground, that a man may become a natural philosopher without mathematical know- ledge; but this is entertained by none who have any ma~ hentia themselves; and surely these who are ignorant of mathematics should not be sustained as judges in this matter. We need only appeal to fact. - It is only in those parts of natural philosophy which have been mathemati- cally treated, that the mvestigations have been carried on with certainty, success, and utility. Without this guide we must expect nothing but a schoolboy’s knowledge, re- sembling that of the man who takes up his relig:ous creed on the authority: ‘of his priest, and can neither give a reason for what he imagines that he believes, nor apply it with confidence to any valuable purpose in life. We may read and be amused with the trifling or vague writings of a Noi- let, a Ferguson, or a Priestley; but we shall not understand nor profit by the truths communicated by a Newton, a D’Alembert, or De la Grange.”— “It is to be lamented that the taste for mathematical sciences has so prodigiously declined in this country of late years; and that Britam, which formerly took the Jead in natural philosophy, should now be the country where they are least cultivated. Few among us know more than a few elementary doctrines of equilibrium: while on the continent we find many authors who cultivate the Newtoe nian philosophy with great assiduity and success, and whose writings are consulted as the fountains of know ledge by all our countrymen who have occasion to employ the “discove= ries of natural philosophy in the arts of life. It is to the foreign writers that we have recourse in our seminaries even for clementary treatises; and while the continent has sup~ plicd 28 On the Decline of Mathematical Studies, plied us with most elaborate and useful treatises on various articles in physical astronomy, practical mechanics, hydrau- lies, and optics, there have not appeared in Britain half a dozen treatises worth consulting for these last forty years. ‘It is therefore devoutly to be wished that the taste for the mathematical sciences may again turn the eyes of Evrope to this country for instruction and improvement. The present seems a most favourable wera, while the amazing advances in manufactures of every kind seem to call aloud for the assistance of the philosopher. What pleasure would it have given to Newton or Halley to have seconded the ingenigus efforts of a Watt, a Boulton, a Smeaton, ait Arkwright, a Dollond! And how mortifying is it to see them indebted to the services. of a Belidor, a Bossuet, a Clairaut, a Boscovich !” Perhaps one reason to be assigned for the deficiency of mathematicians and natural philosophers i is the want of pa- tronage. These sciences are so abstruse, that, to excel in them, a student must give up his whole time, and that wthout any prospect of recompense; and should his talents and application enable him to compose a work of the high- est merit, he must never expect, by publishing it, to clear one-half of the expense of printing. All those men, there- fore, who have not fortune sufficient to enable them to give up their Gime in the study, and part of their property to “the ublication, of works in these sciences, are in a manner ex- cluded from advancing them. In Franee and most other nations of Europe it is 3 different: in them the student may look forward to a place in the National Institute or Aca- demy of Sciences, where he will have an allowance sufhi- cient to enable him to comfortably pursue his studies ; and should he preduce works worthy of publishing, they w “ill be printed at the expense of the nation. Ht is remarkable, that amongst the very few men who still pursue mathematical studies in this country, a consi- derable part, instead of being dazzled and delighted by the wondertul and matchless powers of modern analy sis, still obstinateiy attach themselves te geometry. It 1s.a science, perhaps, of all others, from the clearness and accuracy of its proofs, the most proper to be taught young men, that from the study of it their reasoning faculties may be im- prov ed; but at the same time, asa science, it 1s confined m. its application, feeble, tedious, and almost impractica~ ble in its powers of discovery in natural philosophy. But what ts called analysis possesses boundless and almost su- pernatural powers in its application to science; and the dis- coyeries and the Sciences dependent upon then. 29 coverics made by it in natural philosophy are of so surprising anature, that to pretend to despise it, and obstinately to grovel amongst a few properties of surfaces and solid bodies, part of which were discovered by means of analysis, denotes a very narrow and prejudiced mind. lt is much to be wished that the few men who study analysis in this country, would cease to lose their time and mis-spend their talents in the discussion of vam subtilties, and cavilling with its first principles, (amongst whom the opposers of negative quantities cut a conspicuous figure,) but combine in exerting themselves to increase its power and riches, and endeavouring, in some degree, to keep pace with the analysts upon the continent in their discoveries. I cannot here forbear making a few remarks upon the method of study made use of in the university of Oxford and the*principal seminaries of this kingdom, as I look upon it as a very great interruption to the progress of sci- ence. Regardless of the wondertul advances made in the sciences and arts, they treat their learners with contempt, and, obstinately shutting their eyes against their present most enlightened state, seem determined that nothing but the study of words and ridiculous attempts at elegant com- position in the Greek and Latin languages shall employ their scholars.- Are the sciences which ‘* weigh the sun and his revolving stars;”’ measure the velocity of light and the distance of the fixed orbs; draw the lightning from hea- ven ; weigh the air; enable us to traverse the clouds; guide the mariner through the trackless deep; separate the rays of light; class the animated and decompose the inanimate bodies of the earth, measure and describe its surface, and bless its inhabitants by increasing the number of their en- joyments from their discoveries—to be utterly neglected, for benneal unceasing attempts at imitating the style of Xeno- phon, Cicero, or Horace? Such a course of education, which insults reason and sets common sense at defiance, is so amazing an instance of folly and infatuation, that, although we have the strongest evidence of its truth, we can scarcely bring ourselves to believe it; and it almost inclines a person to suppose that it is a system formed with the intention of debasing and rendering ignorant, instead of: improving the faculties of the mind. Had the same mode of education been pursued throughout Europe, science would have been checked, and the world could never have advanced beyond the knowledge of the Greeks and Romans. It is not my wish totally to condemn classical learning, but the abuse of it. The Latin language, from the many valuable 30 Ox the Decline of Mathematical Studies. valuable works of the Romans, from its having been for 4 long time the universal language of the learned in Europe, and the most important scientific works of the moderns being written in it, becomes a necessary study for the scho-+ lar. But to know the language well enough to read thé works in it is sufficient, without mis-spending our time in a useless and vain endeavour to imitate the styles of its au- thors. I think the years consumed in learning Greek for the sake of reading half a dozen poets, historians, and ora- tors,—for there are not more in that language whose merits render the originals superior to their translations,—as very ill spent, considering the present state of literature and phi- losophy. Mathematics, and the sciences dependent upon them, ought to make the principal part of a good education. The strictness and accuracy of their reasonings would contribute in the highest degree to improve the mind of the student. By them he would learn to become patient im investigation, and severe in judgment. It would serve to check in him all conceited and arrogant pretensions to knowledge, and render him more difident, by showing how careful and la- borious it is necessary to be to acquire a few truths. They tend likewise to improve the morals, and give a steady se- renity to the mind. In studying them, we seem to leave | the jarring world, convulsed and rendered turbulent by the prejudices and frantic passions of men, to Jead a life of pure enjoyment. In the pursuit of them we proceed by incontestable truths ; every thing is certain, and the laws which take place throughout nature invariable. No preju- dices, passions, or wrong bias of education, can involve us in errors and perplexities ; any defect in the chain of rea- soning can always be detected, and the mind may rest sa- tisfied with the assured discovery of truth. How different is the case in other branches of learning! ‘There, system after system bewilder and perplex the mind; every age pro- duces different ones, which, after having flourished a short time, give way to others which fajl m their turn. It seems, either from some radical defect in our modes of reasoning, or from our mental faculties having been vitiated and nar- rowed some way in ovr education, that we cannot procced jn our investigations in other sciences by clear and incon- testable steps ; or why should those truths which are ma- thematically demonstrated be the only ones received with- out opposition? The mathematical sciences are not only of the greatest importance to us from the beneficial effects at- tending their study, but at the same time most sublime in their On the Affinities of different Earths for Carbon. 31 their. application. Through their assistance we become ac- quainted with some of the laws by which the omniscient and eternal Creator governs the universe, and are enabled to predict their effects in distant-ages. Our condition be- comes superior to the common lot of humanity, and we may be held out to the world as an example of the perfec- tion to which it is possible for the human species to arrive. Arnold, Nottinghamshire, October 13, 1804. IV. Experiments to ascertain whether there . exists any Affinity betwixt Carbon and Clay, Lime and Silex, se- | parately or as Compounds united with the Oxide of Iron forming Iron Ores and Iron Stones. By Davip Musuer, Lisq. of the Calder Lron-]Works. [Continued from our last volume, p. 344.] Unper the same class of mixture the following experi- ments were performed : VII. Pure silex six parts, or - 120 grs. ~ Oxide of iron four parts, or - 80 _ Charcoal 1-40th of the compound, or 5 Tins mixture was very perfectly reduced, and a glass ob- tained whose surface possessed a clouded coppery green co- lour. The fracture showed a much less perfect, though dense glass, the colour of which was a rusty yellowish rreen. Beneath was found a very neat spherule of mallea- le iron which weighed 12 grains, and equal to 6 per cent. © “a IX. Pure silex - - 120 ors. Oxide ofiron ., - - 80 Charcoal 1-20th, or - 10 The result of the fusion of this mixture was a glass si- milar, though more perfect throughout, to the former. A fine metallic button was found below the glass which weighed 22 grains, and equal to 11 per cent. X. Pure silex - - 120 grs. ° Oxide of iron - - 80 Charcoal, 1-10th, or - 20 - This mixture approached somewhat to infusibility. A’ rough half vitrified green mass, very cellular, was found in the crucible. Two pieces of iron were found which weighed 26 grains, equal to 13 per cent. The colour of the earthy parts was a rich green mixed and spotted with rusty yellow. o4! XI, Pure 4 32. On the Affinities of © XI. Pure silex - = - _ 120 prse Oxide of iron - - - 80 Charcoal 1-20th of the compound, or 20 Pure chalk - - - 30 The fusion of this mixture afforded a very beautiful glass of a rich brown blackish colour, possessed of great smooth ness and Justre. Beneath was found an elegant crystallized metallic button which weighed 50 grains; equal to 25 per cent. from the mixture. In this experiment again, as in others formerly recorded, we have a direct proof of the useful agency of calcareous earth in the reduction and separation of tron from its earthy combinations. Recapitulation of experiments with siliceous matter and oxide of iron in the proportion of six of the former to four of the latter. Exp. 11. 1-40th of charcoal yielded 1 4 per cent. ILI. 1-25th — ditto Ee 1V. 1-20th ditto —— 9 V.1-15th — ditto 13 VI. 1-1oth — ditto.not fused 19-4 . VII. Being No. VI. repeated, with the addition of 80 grains of chalk, 20,2, VIII. With pure silex, 1-40th of charcoal yielded 6 per cent. IX. 1-20th — ditto 11 X. 1-10th — ditto not fused 13 XI. Being No. X. repeated, with the addition of 30 grains of pure lime, 24 per cent. One very obvious fact marks this table, namely, a great difference betwixt the quantity of iron revived when sand and pure silex were used. It may be proper here to remark, that Exp. VIII, IX, X, XI, where pure silex was used, were performed in crucibles made af Cornwall clay. If, therefore, there exists any tendency in clay under high temperatures to absorb the oxygen of the oxide, which: I have suspected sometimes to have been the case; and if this affinity is exerted in proportion to the purity of the clay ; a partial deoxidation of the oxide in these experi- ments may account for a larger portion of metal being re- vived with the same proportion of charcoal. Third class of compounded ores consisted of Well prepared chalk, six parts, Oxide, four parts. I. Mixture * oa * . of steel. It was found to weigh - - 120 ers. obules thrown up against the top and sides - of the crucible during ebullition = - - 10 ; \ ; ua ; eee a _ Total 130 _. Equal to 26 per cent. —_— different Earths for Carbon. 33 oly. Mixturéo: eave bavorm- - 500 ors. _ Charcoal 1-40th, or =e ~igine A122 » A black rongh earthy glass was obtained by the fusion of this.mixture, not unlike a furnace cinder. It was care- fully examined, but without finding any trace of reviyed metal. Ped II. Mixture . - ~ 500 grs. Charcoal 1-30th, or - - 16-6, The glass obtained at this time was more perfect, glassy, and shining upon the surface. | The interior very like finery cinder. ‘There appeared no vestige of revived iron. | _ JIL. The same as before, performed with 1-20th, or 25 grains of charcoal. The glass had assumed a consjderable ‘skaen of lustre and a few pearly shades upon the surface, ut still there appeared no metallic produce. °1V. Mixture - - - 500 grs. » Charcoal 1-15th, or - - 33 A very perfect mass of glass was obtained by the fusion of this mixture. The surface was black, smooth, and shining: the fracture dense and opake. A neat metallic spherule was found which weighed 17 grains ; equal to 33 per cent. The corresponding experiment as to carbon with clay yielded 63 grains, and with silex 63 and 65 of iron. V. Mixture - - - 500 grs. Charcoal 1-10th, or ~ | 50 -A perfect fusion and fine black glass were obtained, ac- companied by a flattish metallic button of iron which weighed 58 grains; equal to 11,6, per cent. . VI. Mixture: - - - 500 grs. Charcoal 1-7th, or nearly 2710 MOTD A dark rich green glass was obtained in this fusion, and a bright silvery-coloured metallic button which weighed 124 grains; equal to 24-8. per cent. VII. Mixture - - - 500 grs. inne hare@al, 1.-5th,or a ee 100 ‘This mixture fused, and yielded a fine crystallized button The colour of the glass was light blueish green, very transparent in thin fragments. II, Mixture - - - 500 grs. ~~~ Charcoal 1-4th, or - :, wee Vol.20. No, 77. Oct. 1804. © . The 34 On the Affinities of The greatest part of this compound was reduced to per- fect fusion. A small portion was found intimately con- nected, but in the state of a powder, upon the surface of the glass. The metallic button was similar to the last, and weighed - - - 120 grs. Globules collected - - 5 Total 125 Equal to 25 per cent. —— The glass was still more transparent than in the former experiment. The green tinge had entirely disappeared, and was succeeded by a lead blue colour, which always manifests itself when the separation of the metallic particles has been complete. Recapitulation of experiments with chalk and oxide of iron in the proportion of six of the former to four of the latter. \ Exp. 1. 1-40th of charcoal, no iron revived. {I. 1-30th ditto ditto HII. 1-20th — ditto ditto IV. 1-15th ditto yielded 3} per cent. V.1-10th ditto -—— 114% VI. 1-7th «ditto -—— 244 VII. 1-5th = ditto -——— 26 VIII. 1-4th — ditto 25 The following table of comparison will, at one view, ex~ hibit the very various results that take place in the process of separation, effected entirely by the nature of the earths, which in all cases must inevitably form a chief component part of our iron ores and iron stones. General Table of the Results of the Fusion of Clay, Silex, and Lime, and Oxide of Iron, with various Proportions. of Charcoal. | Chay. | SIG x. IME.. —--- COC Proportions| Grains | Produce} Giains | troduce} Grains { Produce of Char-| of iron | per | ofiron| per | ofiron}| per coal. revived.} cent. | revived.| cent. |revived.| cent. 22 eee Eeeses Seeee tee. 1-40th } 14 2-8, 1-25th | 46 oy, 1-15th } 63 | 19-6, 1-10th |not fu-|sible |not fu- sible 1-7th | ditto | ditto | ditto | ditto 1-5th | ditto } ditto | ditto | ditto different Earths for Carton. 35 Were we to proceed to reason on what this variety of result depends, and referring to the experiments formerly communicated, we should have expected that clay and silex, each absorbing a considerable portion of carbon, would have required a greater dose in the experiments with oxide to have let fall the first portion of iron ; and that, as calcareous earth betokened no affinity manifested in a si- milar manner to carbon, ores thus compounded would have let fall their metallic contents with the most minute com- parative quantity of carbon. The reverse of all this turns out to be the fact: for the argillaceous and siliceous compounds separate iron with the smallest portion of carbon; the calcareous compound requiring three times as much. Hitherto we have discovered no direct active principle in calcareous earth, acting as a stimulant to the existing affi- nities betwixt carbon and iron, beyond facilitating, almost under every circumstance, the perfect fusion of the com- pound. If we suppose it to remain neutral in this respect, then, to explain the phenomenon of the argillaceous and si- Jiceous compounds, we must suppose an active principle exerted by each -of these earths, nearly in the same ratio, upon the oxide of iron, decompounding the oxide, and either liberating the oxygen or uniting with it. The re- moval of this immediately constitutes an affinity betwixt the particles of iron and the entire portion of carbon, the consequence of which is the revival of the iron. That these conjectures are well founded, may be gathered from experiments similar to the following : Calcareous earth six parts, or =~ - 120 grs. Oxide four parts, or - seid ay BO Charcoal 1-15th of the whole —- eee 2 To this were added of Cornwall clay 120 From the fusion of this mixture a neat metallic spherule was obtained which weighed 10 grains, and was equal to 5 per cent. ‘This is the same, with regard to proportion, as Experiment IV, third class, with the addition of 120 grains clay; and it appears a fair consequence that 14 per cent. of more iron was revived. There appears still another way by which we may in part account for the ea:ly separation of iron from the argilla- ceous and siliceous compounds. Inaformer part of this inquiry it was shown that the combi- nation of carbun with clay and silex did not produce full effect unless the latter entered into fusion; and it is evident from the foregoing experiments, that the compounds formed with C2 oxide 36 Letter from Dr. Thornton on the Cow-Pox. oxide and clay are more infusible than those formed by lime. The particles of clay and silex, therefore, being the last to’ enter mto fusion, must be the last to exert their affi- nities upon the carbon. ‘This being unacted upon, except by the oxide, readily unites first to carry off the oxygen, and next to impregnate the iron with carbonaceous matter. if this takes place at an early stage of the operation, it is evident that the metallic result may be formed in conse- quence of the entire combination of the carbon before the earths have entered into fusion. The quantity of carbon which the oxide’ of the calcareous compound takes up before any metal is allowed to fall, re- mains still unexplained, and appears a curious and very im~- portant fact, which cannot be solved by the last hypothesis. The presence of lime seems to prevent the immediate action of the metallic particles upon the carbon, but directs the whole force of the latter to the removal of the oxygen. By this means, however, it secures in the end a richer and more plentiful harvest of metal from ores similarly com- pounded. . The progressive stages of metallization are marked, m miany instances, with a greater proportion of produce than in experiments with argillaceous and siliceous ores. In the Ist class, the increase of the produce in iron, see Exps. IL and III, was 17 grs. for $1 carbon In the @d class, —--1V and V, — 21 81 In the 3d class, or caleareous, ——- V and VI, — 66 ——22 {Vo be continued. } V. Letter from Dr. Tuornron to Mr. Tuttocn an the Cow-Pox; with an Account of the Cases in Fulwood’s Rents. ; No. 1, Hind-street, Manchester-square, pT HEAR SIR, Oseret 15, 1804, . Hm subject of the cow-pock is of such general interest, that I shall delay my, fifth letter to Mr. Arthur Aikin, to say a few words on the late cases of supposed small-pox after the ¢ow-poeck imoculation so generally. known in this me=. tropolis. Dr. Lettsom, in‘a letter to me on the receipt of my work entitled * l'acts decisive in favour of the Cow-pock,”’ which I presented to him, says, * that after what has been written by me and others on yaccination, the practitioner who now 4 inoculates Letter from Dr. Thornton on the Cow- Pox. 37 inoculates with the small-pox, is guilty, if not in a criminal court, yet in foro conscientie@, snould that child die, of murder *.’? Whether he should die or not, J believe the same serious charge would apply; for, as the inoculated small-pox produces the natural small-pox, and pestilence spreads by an hundred avenues, and each contagion be- comes a fresh focus of other infections, the seeming kind- ness granted to one human being is made the destruction of many; and this fact staring the practitioner in the face, he must be callous to all the feelings of humanity should’ he attempt, after knowing the mildness and certainty of the cow-pock, (except for experiment,) variolous inocula- tion: andas Fourcroy strongly expresses himself with re- gard to pneumatic medicine, so it may be said here, “ It is now no longer permitted the practitioner to be ignorant of the circumstances attending such an important revolu- tion in physic. ‘The cold statue-like insensibility of some ; the affected indifference of others ; the irritated self-love of this man; the attachment of the world for the practice of their forefathers; the hatred of novelty; all the low and vulgar prejudices have at different times assailed this disco- very: but it will stand as a rock against the impotent bil- lows of human passions,”’ and the superior sense of the philosophic world will overcome the sophistry of prejudices, and truth finally reign triumphant. It is now evident that the small- pox has greatly decreased, and in a few years, most probably, will be annihilated ; for although it assumes an hydra shape, yet, wanting fuel for support, this tremendous frend must finally perish from the earth, and the cow-pox, like St. George and the Dra- gon, be the proudest emblazonment in the British heraldry. In proof, in part, of this position, I shall beg leave to ex- tract for you my experience in the North of England. * The facts are so decisive im favour of the cow-pock, that the practi- tioner should listen to these ; nor hearken to the evidence of a contrary nature without suspicion of some mistakes having occurred, Atthe onset my learned friend Dr, Moseley did right to arrest the hurry of belief, and impress caution: but that time is passed, and each fair practitioner is bound in duty to determine now respecting this discovery. As to myself, 1 have inoculated many thousands without ever taking any remuneration whatever for my trouble, and still continue the practice to this day on others and in my own family; and no inducement under the heavens could at this time make me so swerve from the principles of rectitude as to in- oculate with the sea/l-pox. If the word committing murder does sound barsh, itis still such in fact, notwithstanding the /écexce which the me- dical man reccives, and should ] think, be thundered into the ear of some few of the faculty. I know many of the sane way of thinking in this respect with myself. C3 Inoculation a 38 Letier from Dr. Thornton on the Cow-Pox. Inoculation of the Village of Lowther *, Lowther is a most pleasant picturesque village, situated two hundred and eighty miles from London, seven miles from Penrith, and a mile from the antient famous mansion of Lowther, and was built by the late earl of Lonsdale, in the Italian taste, is regularly sashed, contiguous, from two to three stories high, each house being of stone, and, with- out doubt, is the most tasty village in the kingdom. It contains about four hundred inhabitants. His lordship, observing, with great acumen, the cause of the prosperity of the north of Ireland, after having built in this delightful spot a village, unique of its kind, sufficient to contain five hundred jnhabitants, sent over to Ireland for manufacturers of cloth, to set the example of the true welfare of a nation. Here it is all his lordship’s linen, as table- cloths of damask, napkins of the same, towels, sheeting, and long-cloth ; in shert, every article of linen in use have been fabricated, and no other is at present employed either at his lordship’s establishment in London or at Lowther. Besides these manufacturers, all his lordship’s labourers re- side here, rent free, and are allowed a regular stipend both summer and winter, and, however old, are paid equally as when they could exert their youthful strength. It was with pleasure that I witnessed, in the winter, potatoes given as usual, meat, and bread; and when any of the wives are near their time to be brought-to-bed, they send to Lowther for linen, and are allowed beer-caudle during the month. The villagers, indeed, generally lament that there is no public-house throughout the whole place; but his lordship no less regards their temporal than their eternal welfare. — Agricolg, O fortunati nimium, sua si bona norint! = Vire. * Hence it is that the village of Lowther exhibits what should be the pride of English nobility, a fine healthy industrious peasantry, supported by, and contiguous to, a rich domain. Let the reader of sensibility contemplate the difference between that pride of nobility which ‘desolates a country to extend a park, and that patriotic spirit which, at a consi- derable expense, establishes towns and villages for the pur-_ poses of manufacture. Every thing seemed to conspire to render our experiment the most decisive imaginable. His lordship observing with a true patriotic eye, which looks beyond the narrow circle * From facts decisive in favour of the cow-pox. This inoculation was in the year 1800. of Letter from Dr. Thornton on the Cow-Pox. 39 of ‘private advantage, considering only the public welfare, had shown himself adverse to partial Sapoulation® hence the younger part of the whole village for upwards of twenty years were exempt from the small-pox, and therefore liable to this disease. - As fortune would have it, during the period Rose was under vaccine inoculation from matter obtained by me from Mr. Ring, who has been a most zealous advocate for vaccine inoculation, one ofthe industrious little villagers, a lad aged nine or ten years, had picked up mushrooms, which at that time were uncommonly abundant, and carried them for sale to Penrith, unknown to his parents, where the small-pox then raged, and had swept off a number of persons. This child took, in consequeuce, the natural small-pox, and exhibited signs of it, when Rose, zt. 9, the child of his lordship’s porter, was in a right state for propagating the vaccine ino- culation. It was now harvest-time in the north both for hay and corn, and there was not to be an idle hand throughout the whole village. No language can express the dismay that was spread from this event. Amidst this universal conster- nation and dread of the small-pox, scen by groups of old eople anxiously conversing of the impending calamity, his ordship ordered the glad tidings of a general inoculation with the cow-pock to be proclaimed, the advantages of which werestated, and had been seen in the case of Rose, wha had ailed little or nothing, and had but one local pustule, with slight constitutional affection; and the whole assembly per ordered to appear in review at Lowther before his lord- ship. Upon going to see the child labouring under the natural small-pox, I found his face greatly tumefied, not a feature to be discerned; blind, covered with pustules from head to foot; the whole face was one smear of blood and gore; and the parlour helay in being small, the stench was so into- lerable, that I was obliged soon to quit the room to hinder myself from being sick, I proposed inoculating the other two children with the small-pox; but the mother was much prejudiced against inoculation, and had rather “ trust them io God’s will ;” hence I foresaw that I should obtain a full completion of my viewst. The * There is a section in this work, ‘¢ Whether society at large has be- nefited by the introduction of the small-pox inoculation ?"" The answer is in the negative. + Maturation appears to be the season when the variolous miasms aré emitted 40 Letter from Dr. Thornton on the Cow-Pox. The happy villagers now thronged .to his lordship’s do- main; and it was a most pleasing sight for’ me'to see as- sembled at Lowther in the steward’s room, in the presence of his lordship, so many persons to whom:I was about to render the most eaenial service: at the same time I was enabled to make the most decisive experiments respecting a practice, which promised to be an epoch in the annals of medicine; and I flatter myself that the importance of the subject, and the present period of wngrounded alarm, will e a sufficient apology for my publishing here the scattered observations I at that time made, and without the’ smallest view to their publication. pty Bk OF met 3 MEMORANDUMS. |. ¢ © the Shs 1. Mary Bryham, et. 20, is’a good-looking well-grown girl, of a very florid complexion, the daughter of a groom of his lordship’s, William Brvham, who has superintended his lordship’s stables upwards of forty-eight years. The’ arm rose fincly, pustuled and then scabbed, but there was not the slightest constitutional affection. Observations on this case-—Having passed through the vaccine disease (as far as regards the essential circumstance, a proper pustule forming itself, and going through its re- spective’ stages, which occupies a space of from fifteen to twenty days,) I introduced her to where lay the wretched family in the natural small-pox ; one child was hardly re- ‘covered, and a second was in a deplorable condition, blind,’ and at that time dreadfully moanme. I shall never forget the expression of alarm manifested by the girl’s counte- nance, she having never seen this disease before. The blackness had not quite worn off the face of one, a second was at its height, and a third sickening; and if fear m- creases the pre-disposition to take infection, there wasno’ want of ‘this here*, and with the utmost difficulty I could’ emitted most copiously, the poisonous pus being exposed at that period naked to the air, according to the accurate description of the faithful Sydevham,, ‘+ Usque ad hunc diem” octavum a primo insultu pustulae, que faciem obsederant, laves ad tactum fucre atque rubra, jam vero as~ periores evadunt (quod quidem primum est incipientis maturationis indi- ciuin) et subalbids, paulatim insuper seccvm quendam luteum, colorea favo von abludentem, evomunt.” 698 ; * Besides the horror of the scene, axather cause might have con[pired. There lives in the same village along with her, Ann Roper, the daughter of her mother’s sister, and this girl was so dreadfully fcarred by the SMALL-POX, that she was rendered, to use the vulgar phrase, a perfect fright; she was said before to have been a dazny dass, and I might add, thatshe has from the same cause a speck over her right eye, of which she. is blind. . ' 4 get Letier from Dr. Thornton on the Cow-Pox. 4) get her to comenear these children ; but having, after much persuasion, the first surprise being over, consented to let me inoculate her plentifully with the variolous matter in both arms, she afterwards was induced to touch the children Jabouring under the small-pox with her hands, and catch their breath, but to no purpose; for, having had the cow- pock, she was unsusceptible of the small-pox, in whatever way attempted to be given. 2 & 3. Thomas Nicholson, et. 6, and John, et. 1, his brother, a child at the breast, passed through this disease, asis common. On the eighth day the accession of fever came on, rather stronger marked than usual, the symptoms of which were heaviness, a want of appetite, disinclination for food, an increase of heat, the sleep at might restless. Sometimes these symptoms, especially with infants, are ac- companied with nausea, and actual sickness; but these symptoms in a day or two passed off, and the patient was left in perfect health. There was no eruption in either of the two cases. $ Observations—The first reflection that must naturally strike the reader is, that the child who was in arms, Jabour- ing under the cow-pock, did not communicate this disease to the mother, who never had had the cow-pock; hence this disease is not contagious: secondly, being next door neighbours to the Smiths, and after the cow-pock had scab- bed, being permitted to visit their former playmates, that they resisted the small-pox. Besides this chance, they were each inoculated by me plentifully with the small-pox matter; and not satisfied with this, [ had them put naked into bed with their neighbour’s child, covered with maturated penne but it was all to no purpose, they were rendered y the cow-pock unsusceptible of the small-pox in whatever way attempted to be given. 4, 5, & 6. John Hutchinson, et. 9, William, et. 7, and Thomas, zt. 2, went properly through the several stages of the cow-pock pustule. John and Thomas had an aecession of fever on the seventh or eighth day. William ailed nothing. : Observations, —These were next door neighbours to the Smiths, onthe right, and being suffered to enter the house of their old playmates after the cow-pock had scabbed, they were exposed to the contagion of the small-pox for hours togciher; they were also plentifully inoculated by me for the sinall-pox, but were all three unsusceptible of that disease. bai Fis Thomas Johnson, wt. 13, was inoculated like the rest inthe arm, The occupation of this lad was to drivea cart, usually ae ere ae ee a , " d es frye oe ee 42 Leiter from Dr. Thornion on the Cow-Poxr, usually in company with his father, for the earl of Lonsdale ; and going to Penrith on the fifth day after moculation, he drank a pint of strong-beer given him by one Pellet, at Mr. Hutchinson’s brewery, and came back that same day with his team, having walked upwards of fifteen miles. In con- sequence there was an attempt towards forming a kind of eruption, one pustule appearing on the breast, and another on the cheek, which actually scabbed over, and he passed a restless and feverish night, and continued feverish the next day and night; after which he was able to drive his team and three horses as usual ; and being inoculated by me with the smal!-pox matter, and frequently exposed to the influ- ence of the small-pox in the house of the Smiths, he was found unsusceptible of that disease. Olservation.—What would have been the consequence of such imprudence under variolous inoculation as was ex- hibited in this case, I leave to the conjecture of the sensible reader! The appearance of a couple of pustules, and these maturating, is a very rare occurrence; for this disease 1s almost invariably confined to the inoculated pustule, and most probably arose from his blood being over-heated by the beer andexercise. 8. Maria Johnson, et, 16, his sister, had the cow-pock without any accompanying fever. Observation.—She was inoculated twice for the small- pox, and rubbed her hand over Smith’s children, and was frequently in the infected house, but was found unsuscepti- ble of that disease. 9. William Hodging, zt. 13, was inoculated in both arms; the pustule took, however, only in one. He is car- penter to the earl of Lonsdale, and works with his father tn the raft-yard. On the ninth day he had an accession of fever, but not so much as to make him leave off work. Observations —This youth lives but two doors from the infected house, was taken by me into this house, and brought so near to the children as to receive their breath, and at seven different times was inoculated both for the smal|-pox, and as many times for the cow-pock ; but hav- ang had the latter discase, no proper pustule rose, perform- ing its regular stages, or exciting the least constitutionat affection ; and hence he may be safely declared unsuscepti- ble of either disease. 10. Mary Henley*, zt. 14, was inoculated also in both * This case with others has led me to condemn the common practice of inoculating in both arms, or in more than one place, and will at last have its effect, One point of inoculation is enough. arms, Letter from Dr. Thornton on the Cow-Pox. 43 arms. It took effect in both places, and the pusttle on the left arm rose finely, and did extremely well; but that on the right arm got rubbed by some means, formed itself into an wgly scabby sore, producing real pus under it; and as fast as the scab came away, it formed a larger sore, yery deep, and was a very troublesome wound for more than six weeks, the scab filling up the place, extending to nearly the size of half-a-crown; and this would have been set down as an untoward case of vaccine inoculation, de- pending upon some peculiarity in the constitution, unless fortunately we had inoculated both arms, and the one arm had done so kindly. She had no fever, or any constitu~ tional affection; was taken into the house where the natural small-pox was, and inoculated then, and several times after, but to no purpose ; she was unsusceptible of the small-pox. 11. Maria Fry, wt. 7, had one pock, the fever was of one day and night’s continuance, and her father described her “ as burning like a coal, sick, but not to vomit, and as rambling in her sleep.” Observations.—When she had gone through the cow- ock I made a double experiment ; [ inoculated her with the small-pox, and at the same time her sister Charlotte, zt. 15, who had had the small-pox when seven years old, and was terribly disfigured by it, with the cow-pock ; and, con- trary to my expectations, there was a pustule formed in Maria Fry’s arm, and a general consternation took place among the villagers; but upon examination, there was zo bur of inflammation round it, no regular pustular rising 5 1t scabbed on the fourth day*, and produced no constitutional disease, or any pustules : the cow-pox in Charlotte Fry dicd away like a common scratch. It may not be irrelevant to mention here, that Jane Mattinsonsand Mary Dunn both presented themselves to be inoculated; but from their own account it was more than probable they had had the small-pox. The former had nursed a child who died of that disease; it was the child of his lordship’s park-keeper. At the same time I inoculated these with the cow-pock, I also inoculated * Ina few instances where a pustule has been fermed of either kind, the progress was found to be very different from the true pustule; and this kind, like a seed sown on ground, or in a climate, not congeoigs came forward, and soon passed off; whereas the other has its regular stages of rising, falling and scabbing- Those who have the spurious pustules, if J may so call them, have complained of much “ching, which 1 have not obseryed in the other sort; and at the end of ten days the pustule was gone, without leaving behind the usual targe and deep sear. the 44 Letter from Dr. Thornton on the Cow-Por, | the brother of Mattinson, a young man who was dreadfully: searred and marked with the smal!-pox, and James Broom, who had also the marks of that disease; and these were done, with both sorts, but in each instance there was) only. pro- duced a slight temporary local irritation, and both places. before the fourth day died away. — Olservation.—It appears, therefore, from these facts, that 4 those who have had the cow-pock are unsusceptible of the , small-pox, and vice versa. _— : ' . ¥2. Richard Walker, zt. 24, carpenter, on the ninth day was attacked with a fever, was light-headed, wanted to get out of hed; the next day, the tenth, was enabled to dejsome work, could not work much, had the fever return at might, | after which he ailed nothing, continuing his labour as_usual 4 alt the while, except on the. one day mentioned. Inocu- Yr lated with both the cow-pock and small-pox, but neither 2 took effect. ial 13. Harviet Fletcher, zt. 18, bad only one pustule, and Rs says she was able to follow all her domestic concerns, as usual, never being laid up a single day. Inoculated with the smmall-pox, but was found, like the rest, wasusceptible of that disease. 14. John Saunderson, zt. 10, had one pustule and ailed nothing. Lis brother, 13. Joseph Saunderson, zt. 7, had a fever for two days and nights, was hot and restless, the fever came on on the seventh day. Both were inoculated with the small-pox, but without effect. 16. William Patterson, zt.9, had one pock, alsoa small one underneath, which came out a few days after the other 5 feverish two days and nights, the fever commenced on the ninth day. Inoculated with the small-pox, but it took no effect. ‘ 18. Hannah Mandle, et. 2, had one pock, never ailed any thing. 19. Mary Falofield, zt. 11, one pock, feverish on the sth andninth nights, but played in the interval. » 20. John Henley, et. 16, one pock, never ailed any wig _ thing. ¢ 21. Hannah M‘Cran, et. 9, one pock, never ailed any thing. ) 29. Sarah M‘Cran, et. 7, one pock, and another came out’an inch below it, which was much smaller, and which went in stages, and scabbed like the other; ailed nothing. be 23. Thomas Richardson, et.4, one pock, no fever. yo A particular observation —We is terribly scarred in the 7) 2 face } | as ¢ | PO ae ae * mh ea | ‘ ia) Py aan is he ‘ x ee | ace Mvisce*. ie treat : eo Gly i | Ca ack et ieee VO Poe A ah tin Daa ae i aeadl El ls | 8, Pye Sy NOt Letier from Dr. Thornion on ihe Cow- Pox. 45 face and body, a year before his clothes catching fire, when the child was nearly burnt to death. General observation——These six having had no percep- tible constitutional affection, they were moculated again with the cow-pox, but this took xo effect; also with the small-pox, but they were likewise proof against both. THE CONCLUSION OR INFERENCE. . . Fearful that continuing the same account* would only fatigue my readers, I shall therefore just sum up, that, forty- eight fo) » The exampics of this sort, furnished by my practice as physician to the Mary-le-bone dispensary, for four years, are extremely namerous. shall mention, however, only a very few strong cases, thinking that more would be needless, and tiresome to the reader, Three years back [ inoculated John King, ext. 3, and Thomas, xt. 13, children of the publican, who lives in Margaret-street, at the corner of Great Portland-street, with the cow-pock, and they scarcely ailed any thing. . Mr. King’s niece not long after came out of the country, and on her arrival in town fell ill of the natural small-pox, and had them, very full. 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New Method of rendering Platina malleable. By Count Arottos Moussin Pousuxin. Made pub- fic, at his Request, by Cuartes Hatcuerr, Esq. FUR S.* if Paercrerrate the platina from its solution by muriate of ammonia, and wash the precipitate with a little cold water. me 2. Reduce it in a convenient crucible to the well-known spungy metallic texture; which wash two or three times with boiling water, to carry off any portion of saline matter which may have escaped the action of the fire. 3. Boil it for about half an hour in as much water mixed with one tenth part of muriatic acid as will cover the mass to the depth of about half an inch in a convenient glass vessel. This will carry off any quantity of iron that might still exist in the metal. 4. Decant the acid water, and edulcorate or strongly ignite the platina. . 5. To one part of this metal take two parts of mercury, and amalgamate in aglass or porphyry mortar. This amal- gamation takes place very readily. The proper method of conducting it is to take about two drams of mercury to three drams of platina, and amalgamate them together; and to this amalgam may be added alternate small quantities of platina and mercury till the whole of the two metals are combined. Several pounds may be thus amalgamated in a few hours, and in the large way a proper mill might shorten the operation. 6. After the amalgam is completely produced, it must be quickly moulded in bars or plates, or any other forms that may be preferred; taking care that these moulded pieces should at least be half an inch in thickness, and of a pro- per length to manage them afterwards in the fire; it is also requisite that the motlds should be perfectly even and smooth. Half an hour after the pieces are tormed they begin to harden by the oxidation of the mercury, and change their brilliant inctaliic colour for a dull leaden one. 7. As soon as the pieces have acquired a proper degree Me! hardness to be handled without danger of breaking, which commonly takes place in a little more than an hour, place them in a proper furnace, and keep them ignited un- der a muffle or in a small reverberatory. No other precau- * Feem Nicholson's Journal, vol. ix. Oct- 1804, tron New Method of rendering Platina malleable. 77 tion is necessary in this operation but that of not breaking the pieces during their transport. The mercury flies off during the heat, and the platina remains perfectly solid; so that, after being strongby ignited two or three times before the bellows, it may be forged or laminated in the same manner as gold or silyer; care heing taken, at the com- mencement of the forging, or of passing it between rollers, not to apply too great a force till the metal has ac- guired ail its density. It is almost superfluous to add, that in evaporating the mercury from large quantities of amal- gam, a proper apparatus, such as in the silver amalgama- tion, must be employed to receive the volatilized mercury ; but for small quantities, where the loss of this metal is of no consequence, the furnace must have a proper chimney to carry off the metallic vapours. When the platina comes out of the first fire its dimensions are about two thirteenth parts smaller every way than the original amalgam from the mould. The whole of this eperation seems to be governed by the pressure of the atmosphere and the laws of cohesive attraction ; for the air is driven out from between the mole- - cules of the platina, which by their solution in mereury are most probably in their primitive and consequently uni- form figure. _ It is very visible, and at the same time a very amusing phenomenon to observe, (during the process of ignition, which is performed in four or five minutes) how the platina contracts every way into itself, as if pressed by some external force *. Thave also lately obtained triple salts of muriate of platina with muriate of ponderous earth; and also with muriate of magnesia; and 1 strongly suspect that every other earth ex- cept the siliceous, and even the metals, are susceptible of such triplecombinations. I have likewise obtaineda very beau- tiful salt of platina by the combination of soda and platina with the muriatic acid; a combination which Beremn and several other chemists deny. ‘Tle best manner of obtain- * Inthe Count’s letter to Mr, Hatchett, requesting him to publish the method in the text (communicated to Mr. H. some years ago), the fol- lowing addition is piven: (in French.) “As soon as my amalyam of mercury is made, I compress the same in tubes of wood, by the pressure of an iron screw upon a cylinder of wood, adapted to the bore of the rube. This forces out the superadunday: mercury from the amalgam, and renders it solid. After two or three hours f burn upon the coals, or in a crucible lined with charcoal, the sheath in which the amalgam is contained, and urge the fire to a white beat; afier which I take out the platina in a very solid state,’ fir to be forged.” 9 uvad blnew Ing ) a Notices respecting New Books. ing it is by dissolving the platina in nitrous acid, to which, for that purpose, two parts of muriate of soda and one of platina are added. ‘The platina must be made in a retort with its receiver ; and after about four fifths of the fluid have come over, the process must be interrupted, and the whole left to cool in the sand bath. The salt crystallizes in fine prisms, which are sometimes four or five mches long, and either red brown, like titanium, yellow, like amber, or of abeautiful coquelicot colour, according to the purity of the platina. I enclose here my address during my absence, and hope you will receive with indulgence the contents of this letter. I am with great regard, sir, Your most humble and obedient servant, _ Count Apottos Moussin PousHkK1n. XII. Notices respecting New Books. hee physicians of the original Vaccine Pock Institution, established in 1799, have lately published “ 4 Statement of Evidence from Trials by Inoculation of Variolous and Vaccine Matter ; to judge of the Question, Whether or not a Person can undergo the Smatl-Pox after being affected by _ the Cow-Pock,” which is well deserving the attention of medical men. The chief object of the authors seems to have been to answer, by decisive experiments, the objec- tions of Mr. Goldson, in a recent publication, questioning the efficacy of vaccine inoculation; and they have taken the best means to ascertain the question, namely, re-in- oculating, with variclous matter, a number of patients who had some years ago. been inoculated for the cow-pock. The experiments related show, that above fifty persons who had been vaccinated from three to five years ago, and ten who had been vaccinated at a later period, were incapable of taking the small-pox by inoculation in circumstances chosen as most favourable for infection. For many of the sub- jects were exposed to the effuvia from small-pox patients; _ they were all inoculated in three times the usual number of places ; they were all inoculated with efficacious and recent matter; and with many of them unusual pains were bestowed to introduce the matter quite fluid immediately from the - variolous patient. In these it seems fair to calculate that not more than one, or at most two, of these sixty persons would have escaped the small-pox, if they had not already gone Board of Agriculture. 99 gone through that disease, or its vicarious affection, the cow-pock. They likewise strikingly manifest, that the same person is equally incapable of taking the cow-pock a second time, as of the small-pox, as hath been proved five ars ago, and been subsequently confirmed; and it has tieees elsewhere shown by many trials, that a person cannot take the cow-pock subsequently to the small-pox. We regret that our limits prevent our giving a large ex- tract from the work. XIII. Proceedings of Learned Societies. BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Premiums offered by this Board., {Continued from our last vol. p- 386.] Luvin down to Grass.—To the person who shall, ir the most satisfactory manner, make the following experi- ment in laying down land to grass, on a scale of not'less than three acres to each division, and report the result to the board—the gold medal. The land to be divided into three parts—one sown with grass-seeds, among barley or oats, in the spring, on land that was fallowed, or yielded turnips the preceding year ; one sown with grass-seeds alone, in July or August, or, at the option of the candidate, with buck-wheat, having been fallowed from the Michaelmas preceding; and the third sown with grass-seeds and wheat, earlyin September, having been fallowed, or cropped with tares or turnips; ihe soil to be of the same quality; the grass-seeds the same in each division. The grass to be fed with sheep the first year. Accounts, stating the comparative expenses and success of the three methods, verified by certificates, to be produced to the board, on or before the first Tuesday in December, 18115.—The same premium for 1806. ¥ Seed Wheat.—To the person who shall, by the most satisfactory comparative experiments, ascertain the proper quantity of seed-wheat to be used per acre, in the common or broad-cast husbandry; not Iess than one acre to be ap- plied to each quantity of seed—the gold medal. Accounts, containing a particular description of the soil, and the preparation thereof, including the manuring, if any; also the time of sowing; the various quantities of seed employed; with the respective products, verified by certificates; to be produced to the board, on or some 4 rst #o- French National Tistitute. first Tuesday in December, 1804.—The sane premium for 1805. Seed Barley.—To the person who shall, by the most satisfactory comparative experiments, ascertain the proper quantity of sced-barley to be used per acre, in the commoa or broad-cast husbandry; not less than one acre to be ap- plied to cach quantity of seed—the gold medal. Accounts, containing a particular description of the soil, and the preparation thereof, including the manuring, if any; also the time of sowing; the various quantities of seed employed; with the respective products, verified by certificates, to be produced to the board, on or before the first Tuesday in December, 1804.—The same premium for 1805. Seed Oats.—The sarae premium, and on the same con~ ditions, to be given, for ascertaining the proper quantity of seed-oats. Preparations for 1¥heat,—To the person who shall make and report to the board, the most satisfactory experiments, comparing various preparations for wheat, on the same soil —the gold medal. The preparations to include beans or pease, drilled and horse- and hand-hoed; red clover; buck-wheat; tankard turnips, eaten on the land; winter tares, mown for soil- ing; and buck-wheat, ploughed in for amanure.—Accounts; containing a description of the soil, previous culture and manure, if any, and the produce and value of the prepa~ ratory crops; with the produce of the wheat; verified by certificates, to be produced on or before the first Tuesday in March, 1807. Culture of Wheat.—To the person who shall send to the board, the best essay on the culture of wheat, which shalb include the useful facts hitherto published, with such addi- tions as the writer may be able to make, either from his own experiments, or those of others within his knowledge —fifiy guineas.—For the next best essay— thirty guineas. —For the next hest—twenty guineas.—Accounts to be pro- duced on or before the first Tuesday in February, 1806. FRENCH NATIONAL INSTITUTE. M. de Humboldt, correspondent of the institute, read, in the last sitting of the physical and mathematical class; a third memoir on his travels with M, Bonpland in the ins terior of South-America and, Mexico,,, In. the. first he od out the observations made injthe Atlantic Ocean at : Rr the - sGte 4érial Navigation. Bi the summit of the Peak of Teneriffe andin the province of New Andalusia. In the second he gave an account of the operations performed in the province of Venezuela, and in the plains of Calobozo, where he arade curious experiments on the gymnotus electricus... In the third memoir he gave.a short view of his dangerous navigation on the Oronoquo,. the Rio Negro, and the Carsequiare, undertaken for the purpose of determining astronomically the communication of the Orinaro with the river Amazon. These, memoirs, which embrace every thing interesting in regatd to the geography, botany, and mineralogy of these countries, and of the moral history of man, will soon be printed, to give to the public a short view of this expedition, until the ob-. Servations themselves are published. Several drawings made by M. Humboldt are now engraving. SOCIETY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES AT MENTZ. _ This society, in its first public sitting in the month of March last; proposed, as the subject of a prize for 1805, an eulogy on John Gaensfleisch de Sorgenloch, named Gut- temberg, a native of Mentz, one of the inventors of print- ing. The prize will be a gold medal of the weight of 940 francs, with the image of Guttemberg. The eulogy may be written in French or in German. ‘The competitors must transmit their productions, post-paid, to the president be- fore the middle of May 1805. The same society has resolved to raise a monument to the memory of Guttemberg. It is to consist of a public fountain, and a premium will be given for the execution of it. For this’ purpose a subscription has been opened, and all the members of the republic of letters are invited to contribute towards it. ; XIV. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. AERIAL NAVIGATION. By Professor Robertson. Riga, August 24. Tue following are somne further particulars respecting the aérial excursion of M. Robertson, which took place at six o’clock in the evening of the 1sth. At the end of fifteen minutes he lost himself, at the height of 500 fathoms, in hick clouds strongly agitated by the wind. - When he set Vol. 20, No. 77. Oct. 1804. F out 82 \ Atrial Navigation. out the barometer stood at 28 jn. 3 lin.; and, at the height to which he had attained, it fell to 23 in. Between the mass Gf clouds which rolled over him in an awful manner, like mountains, the thermometer fell suddenly to 5 degrees above zero. The balloon was whirled round and carried forward with a most violent motion. No scientific experi- ments ‘could here be made, except a few observations in regard to the management of a balloon; such as the simplest method of fixing the balioon at a determinate height, and of securing it; also to calculate the velocity of its fall in a diagonal line on descending, and thereby to ascertain the moment of its arrival at the earth, which is always the most dangerous part im an aérial excursion. M. Robertson will publish an account of these and of other experiments. While hovering in thé clouds,:the aériat’ traveller discovered below him a fir wood of great extent ; he proceeded over it a mile in order to take advantage of the first interval between the trees, and suffered himself to descend in an open place, which was scarcely so large as twice the diameter of the machine. That he might be able to dispense with the dubious and dangerous assistance of men in fastening the car, M. Robertson employed a kind of hooked anchors. In the middle of a thick wood, 20 versis distant from Riga, he alighted alone ; and the bal-_ leon was nearly emptied and folded up, when he saw a, shepherd and his two boys, whom he called to give him their assistance, and who showed him the way.: The ex- cursion continued three quarters of an hour. Messrs. Von Berg, Blankenhagen, Meyer and Schwarz,.had followed the aéronaut speedily, to draw up the account, M, Ro- bertson is justly entitled to the praise of having applied alk his aérialexcursions to the purposeof scientific experiments, and of throwing light, if possible, on experiments which all his predecessors have rather involved in darkness. By the same. Vienna, October ro. On the 8th, Professor Robertson undertook an aérial ex-. cursion here, with the best success, in the presence of their imperisl highnesses the archdukes and anumerous crowd of spectators... He. ascended from the Prater about a quarter st five m the. afternoon. He rose to, 2 considerable height, and sent down a parachutes which carried unhurt to the carth aliving animal. This aérial excursion is remark- able, on.account ef an.experuncyt made by Professor Ro- - , 2 bertson eve > - ‘ Aérial Navigation. 83 Bertson with a large sail, which served to guide his way ; but as this sail would have shaken his balloon too much, he fastened it to a smaller one, the inotion of which was inde- pendent of that of the other. By these means le was énabled to direct his balloon in an oblique line, fifteen degrees different from that in which he would have been conducted by the wind. Professor Robertson observed, that the atmospheric electricity suddenly disappeared as often as he moved over a forest, though the sky was serene, and though at other titnes it always gave strong and abundant signs of its existence. About three quarters past five he had attained to his greatest height, namely 700 fathoms; the thermometer then stood at six degrees above zero, About six o’clock the Professor descended in a plain, near the forest of Tresdorf, to the north of Kronenburg, .at the distance of four leagues and a half from Vienna. The bal- loon hovered a long time over the plain, because the anchor which was thrown out did not find a sufficient hold in the new-tilled land; and as the Professor observed that he was. about to be driven against two large trees which stood in his way, he thtew the extremity of his sail against the earth, and, in consequence of the shock it produced, rose over the trees, which then caught the anchor and stopped the balloon. M. Robertson here obtained every assistance from the surveyor M. Oettl and M. Bartsch, who were here hunting. Yesterday morning he returned hither about eight o'clock in a carriage attended bythe populace, and entered the city amidst loud acclamations. By M. Guy-Lussac, M. Gay-Lussac has given the following account of his last* aérostatic ascent, to the first class of the National In- stitute. He ascended on the 6th of September at ten in the morn- ing, from the Jardin du Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, which is about 20 toises higher than the level of the sea. His barometer then stood at 28 in. 3°33 lines, and the mer- curial centigrade thermometer indicated in the shade 27°75 degrees, These two instruments varied very little at the earth, or during the course of the ascension, and their changes were observed every hour by M. Bouvard at the Obser- vatory. M. Gay-Lussac in ascending made a great many observations on the barometer, the thermometer, the hy« grometer and the magnetic necdle. * For an account of his former ascent sec our last Number, 2 At SL Aérial Navigation. At the height of 3902 metres, or 2002 toises, he found thé inclination of the needle the same as at the surface of the earth. The duration of the oscillations of a horizontak needle, mdde with great care by that able artist Fortin, Magnetised by Coulomb and susperided by a silk thread, were also the same. M. Gay-Lussac never found any sen- sible difference in their duration. When he reached the height of 6673 metres, or 3425 téises, he opened two glass balloons which had been exhausted at the earth, and which had preserved a complete vacuum. The air entered into them with a hissing noise; and when they were filled he closed them. He continued to rise to the height of 7017 metres; or 3600 toises; his barometer was then 12 in. 1°76: ha. and his thermometer in the shade marked gi degrees below the temperature of melting ice.— This height, the greatest to which any person’ ever as- cended, surpasses by 600 metres the summit of Chim- boraco in Pera, the highest mountain known on the earth. M. Gay-Lussac still however saw clouds above him, but which appeared to be at a great elevation. His pulse was accelerated ; and the number of pulsations, which at the , earth was only 62, increased to 95. Hts respiration was a little confined ; but he thinks he could have risen’ to the height of $000 meires, without experiencing much incon- vemence, had he not been so unprudent as to throw out before, the ballast which would have been necessary to moderate his ascent. He therefore descended slowly, and with those precautions which his first ascent had shown to be necessary. At 45 minutes past three he reached the earthy without the slightest accident; six leagues to the north of Rouen, at the small village of Saint-Gourgon; the inhabitants of which assembled on seeing his balloon, gave him every assistance, and treated him with the utmost ospitatity. On his return to Paris, his first care was to analyse the air he had collected in his ascent. One of his balloons being opencd under water became half filled with it ; which proves that no foreign air had entered it. On comparing the air of this balloon with that collected at the surface of the earth, he ascertained by several very exact eudiometric pro- eesses, that the proportions of oxygen and azot in the two airs were perfectly equal, This interesting aériat voyage has therefore confirmed tivo iportant pomts in natural philosophy ; namely, Ist, ‘{bat the magnetic force experiences no sensible variation, either in its melination or its intensity, from the surface of Aerial Navigation, 65 of the earth to the greatest heights to which itis possible to ascend: 2d. That in this interval the constitution of the atmosphere is entirely the same. M. Gay-Lussac observed, that the heat decreased nearly in arithmetical progressioa in proportion as he rose into the atmesphere, and that each degree of the depression of his centigrade thermometer corresponded to an elevation of about 85 toises 5 feet. By Count Zambeccari. Venice, Oétober 2. Count Zambeccari has published a long account of his last aérial voyage, the principal particulars of which are contained in the following extract: Near Rouanzo the two aéronauts, he and Dr. Andreoli, descended to abeut within five hundred feet of the earth, after which they re-ascended. The machine traversed a cloud, but without experiencing the effects of electricity, About one o’clock they found themselves above Capo d’Argine, six Italian miles from Bologna. The Count here wished to deseend; and having got within a short distance of the earth, he made his anchor fast to a tree. The bal- Joon having ky this movement acquired an oblique diree- tion, the lamp was overturned, and the spirit of wine it contained fell to the bottom of the car and took fire. The flames soon reached a vessel containing thirty pounds of spirit of wine. The vessel burst, and the flames spread more and more. At length they extended to the clothes of the aéronauts, and even threatened the netting and the ropes by which the car was suspended. Zambeccari laid hold of a bottle of water and extinguished the fire in his clothes. Andreoli, who only thought of escaping, elided down by the anchor-rope to the tree, and fell thence to the ground without sustaining much hurt. The balloon being treed from the weight of about a quintal and a half, rose rapidly with Count Zambeccari, and in a moment disap- peared above the clouds. The Count, however, did not lose his presence of mind, but continued to extinguish the fire both in his clothes and in the car. The balloon was then carried by a strong current of air towards the Adriatic, and at three o’clock the. Count per- ceived the coast of Cemachio, but from suchan elevation that he could hardly distinguish it. Soon after he fell into the sea at about the distance of 25 Italian miles from the coast, The car, which was half burnt, sunk, ancl Count Zambec- cari, who held fast by the ropes of the balloon, had the water often uptohis neck. Apprehensive that lassitude would t 3 oblige 80 Vaccination. oblige him to let go his hold, or that he should be overcome by sleep, he endeavoured to fasten himself to a rope. By means of a bit of glass he detached one fram the balloon, and fastened it round his body, the other end of it being fixed to the machine. In this situation he floated on the water for some hours, the balloon being still inflated. At length, about six in the evening, he observed seven fishing-boats, the people in four of which, being struck with terror, betook themselves to flight, imagining that they saw some strange kind of sea monster. The other three approached, and took from the water the unfortunate aéronaut half burnt, after having spent four hours at sea, amidst the most dreadfyl anguish. The fishermen at- tempted also to seize the balloon; but as soon as they had cut the ropes it rose and took its course towards the Turkish coast. During some days great apprebensions were enter- tained for the right hand of the aéronaut, which had been severely burnt; but happily amputation has not been found necessary. VACCINATION, _ We have devoted a larger portion of our present Number to the Cow-Pock than we usually allow to one subject, and its importance at the present moment demands it. Two cases of an eruptive disorder, suppased to. be the small-pox, subsequent to vaccinatién at the Inoculation Hospital, and of course under the management of profes- sional nen of the greatest experience, have lately occurred in one family, that of Mr. Hodges, Fulwoad’s-Rents, Holborn. These cases have excited more alarm, attention, and examination, than any that have taken place since the commencement of the new practice. A considerable part of the medical practitioners of London have visited this family, and the accounts given have been one of the most popular themes of medical canversation during the last month. Different opinions are entertained on the subject by medical men, the greater partsof whom may be con- sidered as having divided themselves into two parties ; one representing these disorders to have been nothing more than the chicken-pock, and their account has even been published in the last number of the Medical and Physical Journal, in which the other party is charged ith shunning the inquiry by breaking their engage- ments to continue their visits to the patients, im con- sequence of the contrary opinion which they had given, The other, however, have uniformly declared the cases to be 4 thasg e Vaccination. 87 those of the small-pox; and maintain that the result of the cases has removed all doubt ; ; for persons have been inocu- lated with the matter from these patients, by which the most distinct small-pox have been produced, and exhibited at the Vaccine Institution in Broad-street. By this institution the investigation has been carried to a great extent. ‘The gentlemen of that establishment have found, on what they consider clear evidence, that the two patients had, within from two to four years, undergone the cow-pock in such a manner as has been usaally considered by the best judges -suiicient to afford security against the smail-pox. It is not therefore surprising that ‘the opponents of vaccination, as well as many well-disposed but not well-informed persons, should speak unfavourably of the new practice, and endea~ vour to set it aside. On the other hand, the friends of vac- cination represent these cases as on the same footing with those of persons taking the smatl-pox the second time, and Maintain that the instances of taking the small-pox after cow-pock, are not greatcr at present “than those of _ taking the small-pox the second time. We unde rstand that a somewhat different conclusion from any of the above, is likely to be drawn. by the medical establishment of the Broad-strect Institution ; namely, that it does now appect that the best authenticated instances of small-pox after the cow-pock, occur much more frequently than even the sup- posed instances of small-pox asecond time; yet they are of opinion that, provided the constitution be ‘daly affected by the vaccine infection, it is as certain a preventive of the small-pox as variolousinoculation, and hence that it will be necessary in future to take precautions which have hitherto not been known or commonly employed. © This will give some additional trouble, and render it Bereseely for prac- titioners to pay more attention to the study of the cow- pock than they have hitherto done; and it ‘will show the danger of the practice in the hands of persons not of the medical profession. We understand, also, that notice has been given by one of the medical gentlemen of the above institution, that he will present a memoir at the next quar- terly mecting, to communicate the measures to be taken to obtain security for the future, and to satisfy the minds of families who may be in doubt respecting their children al- ready inoculated. From t!is account it would seem as if the statement of evidence lately published by the Vaccine Institution, before the occurrence of ‘the above cases, was ven more strongly in fayour of the practice than that bad would now be inclined to give it; though we confess Fa we 88 Vaccination, Py we can see no grounds for hesitation on that point; for, as they were merely stating tacts, they had every right to draw from them any conclusions whatever that were warranted by the premises. It may be proper, however, to observe here, that that body seems to have anticipated the possibi- lity of such an occurrence as has taken place; for in their Report, published in 1803, p. 65, we find the following passage, which indeed they have quoted on the title-page of ’ their last Report :—** That many persons inoculated for the cow-pock in the years 1799, 1800, and even 1801 and 1802, have already, and may hereaiter, take the small-pox, is a reasonable expectation, from the characteristic proper- ties of the vaccina not being known to the inoculators by their own experience, nor from the description of authors.” We cannot dismiss this subject without observing, that even if it were proved that the two cases jn Fulwood’s-Rents were cases of real small-pox after real vaccination, they fur- nish no sound argument against the vaccine inoculation ; for all that ean fairly be drawn from them is, that one at most in twenty thousand may take the small pox after the cow- pock : and this surely is sufficiently in its favour, with all its other advantages, to deter parents and medical men from, the propagation of a disease a thousand fold more afflicting to the human race than the pestilence--a disease that has -swept from the face of the carth a greater number of vic- tims than all the wars that have occurred since the death of Abel—a disease that may and will be banished from the werid by the best gift of heaven, the Cow-pock ! We freely confess that we gre astonished medical men should have given so much weight to these, or to fifty such cases, if as many could be adduced ; and we maintain, that before they can be considered as heing fairly proved, some experiments that donot seem to have oecurred to them are called for. Dr. Thornton has shown * thai the small-pox which sometimes present themselves on nurses that have before had the disease, will, by inoculation, give the smaljl-pox. Has the effect of rubbing variolous matter into open pustules of chicken-pox or swine-pox, been tried on patients that have before gone through the small- pox or the cow-pock? Since it 1s possible, that nurses may have small-pox after going through that disease, and that matter from such pustules can give the real small- . pox, as stated by Dr. Thornton,—would it be strange that some small-pox pustules, capable of giving * See p. ¢7 and 55 of our present Number, ; ’ that Death of Mechain.— Earthquake. 89 that disease, might rise on a child among swine- pox, if that child was much exposed to infection, even though that child had the cow-pock or the small-pox be- fore? DEATH OF MECHAIN: The death of M. Mechain is one of the greatest losses that astronomy could sustain; it adds a very remarkable instance to the martyrology of that science, since he died a sacrifice to his zeal for one of the most important and difficult ope- rations. Peter Francis Andrew Mechain was born at Laon on the 16th of August 1744: His letters made known to me his turn for astronomy, and I had the happiness of being able to fix him at Paris in 1772. On the 13th of August 1774, the academy approved of his first memoir on an cclipse he had observed at Versailles on the 11th of April.~ He was then attached to the depot of the marine, where he made ’ immense calculations for the improvement of geographical charts. He discovered and calculated several comets, He gained the prize of the academy in 1782, respecting the comet of 1661, the return of which was expected ia 1790, and the same year was admitted amember. He was charged with the Connaissance des Tems, and after 1788 that work was much improved; it was enriched every year with the labours of M. Mechain, In 1792 he was charged with the grand labour of the meridian from Dunkirk to Barce- lona, in conjunction with M. Delambre. Ue returned in 1798. But to complete this work he was desirous of con- tinuing it as far as the Balearean Isles, and he set out for that purpose in 1803. He had already exammed with in- credible labour all the stations, and had terminated three, when he was attacked by that fever which. prevails every year on the coast of Valentia, occasioned by the marshes and rivers, and died on the 20th of September 1804. A fuller ‘account of bis labours, with a portrait of him, engraved in 1800, will be found in Von Zach’s Journal, and { propuse to enJarge it in my history of astronomy ior 1804. It is the melancholy fruit of my old age, that [ have always to write the culogy of my pupils to console myself for their loss. DE LALANDE. EARTHQUAKE. Saint Servan, Sept. 24th, Yesterday at five or six minutes after four in the afternoon, a shock of an earthquake, accompanied with a hollow noise like the discharge of a great number of pieces of artillery, oy 90 Earthquake. or the explosion of a powder magazine blown up at some distance, was felt here; its direction seemed to be from east to west; the duration of it was about forty-three seconds. The wind was then north-west, and it had blown a pretty fresh gale the preceding night, as well as during a part of ihe day. It was at that time ear water. The oscillations of the earth were so strong that they were observed not only in the houses, where the floors, partitions, windows, and furniture were strongly agitated, but also in the open air and on the sea shore. “The people were then assembled at vespers, and many of them were so frightened, that they ran out of the churches. An hour and twenty minutes after, thats to say, about twenty-six minutes after five, another shock was felt ; it was accompanied also with astrong detonation, but the agitation was Jess than during the former. This earthquake was ex- periénced at the same time at Dinan, and in the interior of the country, but it is not supposed to have done any damage. The wind continues to blow with violence from north- north-east, the atmosphere is filled with clouds, and it rains abundantly. I was im the country at the time of the earthquake, and it was on the rocks bordering the beautiful bay of Concalle that I felt it. From the place where I was walking I could see at once Granville, Avranches, Dol, and Mount Saint Michel. The noise, at the moment of the first shock, re sounded along that immense shore as if afl the guns at St. Malo had been fired at the same time. Several officers of the navy, who have been in the East and West Indies, assured me that they have experienced shocks much more violent, but that they never heard stronger de~ tonations. Letters from Italy state that earthquakes occur almost daily at Spoletto, which is nearly deserted by its inhabi- tants. The lavaof Vesuvius constantly overflows and alarms the neighbouring country. Most of the towns and villages mn its vicinity are = abandoned, the people having carried with them their most valuable bfects. concluding, from several circumstances, that some new and terrible explosion i is not distant. Letters from Sicily state, that on the 10th of August Mount A®tna ceased, for twenty-four hours, even to emit smoke; but this alr was succeeded on the 19th, early in ‘the morning, with: a terrible explosion, and a noise as if - js Height of the olecrancon < aoe Diameter of the body of the cybitus = o-05 Diameter of its inferior head - 908 + Length of the carpus - - 0°109 Length of the middle meticarpian ~ 0018 Lgngth of the middle Anger ~ Qor8 much one-horned Rhinoceros. 119 much longer and narrower ; it is 0°15 in length and 0-08 in breadth; the exterior edge of this bone is nearly as great as the interior, while in the elephant it is much smaller; the ridge of the pubis begins at the upper part’of the neck of the bones of the ilium; the oval foramina are broader than they are long; the tuberosity of the ischion is at the top very thick and in the form of a hook. The femur of the rhinoceros is perhaps still more remark~ able than its humerus; its upper part is very much flattened from before backwards ; the eminence, which | call the third trochanter, projects very much, and forms a hook which as- cends to touch a hock which descends from the common great trochanter, in such a manner that there remains an oval hole betweéh these two eminences; the lower pulley is very narrow before; the interior condyle is much more pro- minent, and ascends higher than the other behind ; the two condyles are at a greater distance than they are before, but they make nearly the same projection. The head of the tibia is an equilateral triangle, only the interior posterior angle forms a very strong tuberosity below the rotula. The lower part of the tibia is a little flattened from behind back- wards; the perone is slender, compressed laterally, and swelled at its two extremities*. The calcaneum is thick and short; its anterior or astragalian face is triangular. There are two large facets for the astragalus; that of the interior sides is lengthened into a kind of tail along the lower edge of that face. In my opinion this is a character proper to distinguish the species. “The facet which touches the cuboid is very small; the facets of the astragalus are a counterpart of those of the calcaneum; the two edges of its pulley are of equal height; the part of the. anterior face, which touches the cuboid, is narrow. aa Ble.dabaid has behind a long ayd thick protuberance ; on _ ~ the interior side of the foot there is a similar production by "a supernumerary bone attaahed to the scaphoid, to the inte- _ rior cuneiform, and the interior metatarsian; the scaphoid ~ then bas three articular facets on its anterior face ;_ the inte- rior cuneiform is much smaller than the other. | tay * Length of the femur - o's Its breadth at the top - 02 Breadth at the botrom - O'rs Length of the tibia - 04 Its breadth at the top - O'14 Breadth at the bottom - Orr Diameter of the body - 0°09 Length of the perone - 0°34 Breadth at the bortom - 0°05 H4 The 120 On the Eleciricity of Metallic Substances. The exterior metatarsian articulates only with the cuboid, and touches by two facets of the exterior edge of its head the middle metatarsian; the latter is articulated only with the great cuneiform, and by the exterior to the supernume- rary bone, for which it has only one facet. The phalangia are broader than long*. XIX. Observations on the Electricity of Metallic Sub- stances. By M. Havurt. Tue different methods of exciting in bodies the electric virtue, furnish characters from which great advantage might be derived in regard to the distinction of minerals ; the most remarkable is that which results from the electricity pro- duced by heat, and which hitherto has been observed only in six species of minerals, viz. tourmalin, borated magne-. sia, topaze, mesotype, phrenite, and oxidated zinc. An- other method of exciting the electric virtue consists in fric- tion, to which idio-electric substances are subjected. This virtue, as is well known, is of two kinds; one which we call vitreous electricity, and which belongs in general to earthy and acidiferous substances, and another distinguished by the name of resinous electricity, and which characterizes more particularly non-metallic combustible substances, the diamond excepted, the electricity of which is vitreous. Other substances are non-clectric, and, to acquire the elec- tric virtue, have need of being brought into communication with a conductor already endowed with that virtue. Metals in the metallic state possess, in an-eminent degree, the faculty of becoming electric in this manner, which may bi employed to detect a meta! concealed in a stony substance. This is the case with iron, which enters into the composi- — tion of jasper, and the presence of which is announced by —_ the sparks emitted by the stone on the finger being applied. © to it, while it is in contact with an electrified conductors = I conceived the idea of employing in another manner the electricity of metallic substances, by insulating them, and rubbing them over an idio-electric substance. The latter then acquires an‘electricity, the kind of which varies ac- cording to the nature of the metal used as a rubber; and by '* Length of the calcaneum at its exteriur edge =) 5 .O%1g Breadth of its articular frce - - 009 Breadth of the astragalus - - 0-08 Length of the middle bone of the metatarsus - 6*165 Length of the middle finger - - O18 + From Annales du Museum National d Histoire Naturelle, No. 17. a necessary On the Electricity of Metallic Substances. 121 a necessary consequence, the metal acquires the contrary kind of electricity, and retains it at least for a moment, be- cause it is insulated: for example, if tin be employed to rub a silk ribband, it produces in it vitreous electricity, in- stead of the resinous electricity which would be excited by friction with the hand; and, on the contrary, the tin is electrified in the resinous manner. Having then observed that the different metals tried, acquired in this manner some vitreous, and others resinous electricity, I thought that this diversity of states might increase the number of distinguish- ing characters which mineralogy borrows from natural phi- losophy. . To make experiments on this subject, I insulate the agment of metal I intend to try, affixing it by common wax to the extremity of a stick of gum-lack,. or Spanish wax; then holding the stick in my hand, I make the metal- lic fragment pass several times over a piece of cloth. If the surface of the fragment be rough, it will be necessary to smooth it by means of a file: after rubbing it five or six times, I make the metallic fragment touch the knob of the collector, a well-known instrument, invented by Volta, to: serve at the same time in electric and galvanic experiments, as a condenser and electrometer. Having repeated this ope- ration several times, and removed the disk which performs the office of condenser, I determine in the usual manner the kind of electricity which produces the separation of the two straws of the electrometer. I shall now present a table of the different metals which I subjected to experiment, with an indication of the result given by each. I comprehend in this list metals which have not yet been found naturally in the metallic state, and which are not obtained in that state bu: by separating them from the principles by which they are mineralized. I took care to note the substances in which friction excites the electric yirtue with more facility and in a more energetic manner than in others: ) Metals which acquire vitreous Electricity. Zinc, strong. é Silver. Bismuth, strong. Copper. Lead. ; Oligist iron. Metals 192 On the Electricity of Metallic Substances. _ Metals which acquire resinous Electricity, Platina, Gold. Tin. Antimony. Gray Copper, strong. Sulphurated copper, strong, Pyritous eopper, strong. Sulphurated lead. Tellurium of Nagyag, strong, Antimonial silver. Sulphurated silver, strong. Nickel. : Gray cobalt. Arsenical cobalt. Sulphurated antimony. Sulphurated iron, Oxydulous iron. In proofs in regard to silver, copper, and other metals, found in a native state, I operated on fragments which were in that state, and on others arising from the fusion of these metals. . I repeated my experiments a great number of times, and almost always obtained the same results; oxydulous iron and oligist iron alone exhibited anomalies by acquiring, under certain circumstances, an electricity different frem that indicated in the table. Steel, which in general acquires vitreous electricity, gave also some exceptions, arising in all probability from a dif- ference in the quantity of carbon united to the iron, or perhaps in the effect’ of the temper. Those habituated to electric experiments know that the faculty of acquiring one kind of electricity rather than another, by the help of frc- tion, differs sometimes by such slight shades that they escape the most attentive observer. If the two parts of the above table be compared, it will be observed that metallic substances, which have the same aspect, differ from each other in the results of electrisation, From these results one will be able to avoid confounding silver with platina; the same kind of silver with antimo- nial silver, native copper with pyritous copper, oligist iron with gray copper, &c., all the first substances giving signs of vitreous electricity whey they have been rubbed, while a! the second manifest the contrary electricity, There Observations on Tea. 123 There are some metallic substances also, which, in the game case, acquire an electricity so sensible, that the energy of its effects alone may serve to confirm the indications of- fered by the other characters. Such are sulphurated copper, which have no need of being passed eight or ten times over cloth to make the first contact with the collector often pro- duce repulsion between the straws of the electrometer, in yirtue of which the straws touch the sides of the glass flask in which they are suspended. To conclude; the metals have other properties which di- stinguish them so clearly from each other, that the charac- ters deduced from the preceding experiments will appear su- perfluous; but [thought it would not be a matter of indif- ference to collect and make known the results of these ex- periments, considering them oniy as simple facts, con- nected with a branch of natural philosophy, which for some years has been doubly interesting by the beautiful discove- isd to which metallic substances themselves have given irth. XX. Observations on Tea. By Desronvarnes *. Hut, Linnzus, and others, have thought it necessary to distinguish two kinds of tea; namely, bohea tea, thea Lohea ; and green tea, thea viridis; because, according to these writers, the one has six petals, and the other nme. Linnzus adds, that the Jeaves of the former are longer than those of the latter. Such are the only characters which establish the difference between them: but, according to the observations of Dr. Letisom, published in 1799, the num- ber of the petals of the green tea and the bohea tree are ‘subject to vary from three to nine, so that the principal character indicated by Hill and Linnzus is not admissible : and as Letisam could find no other, he considers, and with justice, green tea and bohea tea to be two varieties arising from the influence of chmate and soil. Thunberg, in his Flora Japonica, admits only one species, and he is of opinion that the green tea is a variety of the bohea. Kemp- fer also acknowledges only one species, which, like all cultivated plants, has produced several varieties. In aword, the observations which I made on some individuals culti- yated in the garden of the Museum of Natural History, two of which produced abundance of flowers*last, year, have * From Annales du Museum National d’ Histoire Naturelle, No. 19+ 4 serve oe 124 Observations on Tea, seryed to conyince me of the exactness of those of Kempter, Thunberg, and Lettsom. : aio aR . = . : . Tea is a branchy evergreen shrub, which, according to, Kempfer and Thunberg, grows to the height of five. or six feet, though other trayellers assert that it rises sometimes to thirty. ‘ Its leaves are alternate, hard, ,oyal, and elongated, or elliptic ; of a somewhat shining green colour, entire near th base, but serrated in the rest of their length, and supporte on ashort and half-cylindtic foot-stalk. The buttons are acute, and accompanied with a husk, which detaches itself and drops off at the period of their development, fae yis The flowers grow singly, er sometimes, but more rarely, two-and-~two, im the eyes of the leaves, on short and some- what thick pedicles. The calyx is smal], persistent, and has five obtuse divi- sions. . The corolla, for the most part, has six white petals, round and open: the two exterior ones are smaller and unequal. Its breadth is about three centimetres. eh The stamina, which are more than two hundred in num- ber, are shorter than the corolla, and attached under the ovarium. Each anthera has two cells. The ovarium, which is of a rounded triangular form, and surmounted by a style divided into three filiform stigmata, becomes a capsule with three round monospermous cells united at the base, and openmg longitudinally on one side only. re The seeds are spherical, internally angular, of the size of a filberd, covered with a thin shining pellicle, a little hard, and of amaroon colour. The kernel is oily, and of a bitter and disagreeable taste, which produces salivation, and even: occasions nausea. The tea often flowers in Europe, but it rarely fructifies,. It helongs to the order and class of the Polyandria monogy- ma Linn.; and M.de Jussieu has classed it in the pe of the orange trees next to the camelia. “4 It is cultivated every where, from Canton to Pekin; where the winter, according to the observations of the missiona- ries, 18 more severe than at Paris. It would, no doubt, be possible to propagate this valuable plant in France, if one could procure a suflicient number of individuals to make experiments, by cultivating it im different sails and under different climates. This, object deserves the attention of government, as the consumption of tea is immense, and as ie quantity bmported every year amounts to a considerable SUM, ‘Observations on Tra. ~ 195 ‘sum, for which Europe is rendered tributary to China. The tea seeds brought to us froin that country become ran- cid, and spoil at sea; so that scarcely one of a thousand ‘produces plants. It would, therefore, be necessary that persons who go to China should procure them exceedingly fresh, and take care to sow t!:em, before they sail, in boxes filled with light earth : they would then spring up on the assage. Nothing would be necessary but to water them Poin time to time, and to preserve them from the sea water: the voung plants might then arrive in safety. We are assured that the Chinese often sell to the Europeans the seeds of the camedlia for those of tea, to which they have a great resemblance: this deception ought to be guarded against, and might easily be prevented. ' What I have to say on the culture, preparation, and uses of tea, is collected from Kemptfer, and other travellers’ worthy of credit; and though I have little to add to what they have said, I hope this extract will still be useful, because it will exhibit in one point of view several scattered and little known facts. Tn Japan the tea is sown in the month of February, at certain distances, on the borders of the cultivated fields, that its shade may not injure the crops, and that the leaves may more easily be collected; and as the seeds are liable soon to spoil, from six to twelve are sown in the same hole, be- cause no more than about a fifth of them spring up. In Chi- ait is cultivated in the open fields. It thrives exceedingly well on the declivities of the hills exposed to the south, and in the vicinity of rivers and streams. When the young “ae have attained to the age of three years, the leaves may e collected from them. At the age of seven they produce only a small quantity ; the trunk is then cut near to the root, because the stock sends out new twigs which yield abundant crops: sometimes this operation is deferred till the tenth year. The leaves of the tea are detached one by one: the best are those gathered at the end of February, or in the begin- ning of March, when the leaves are still tender and not completely'expanded. This tea is scarce, sold at a dear rate, and reserved for the rich and persons of rank. The Ja- panese call it imperial tea, flower of the tea, or Lon tea: it is that most esteemed. The second crop is collected a month later; the leaves, whether expanded or not, are gathered without distinction; after which they are separated into several heaps, according to their different degrees of age. After this second crop, a third and last are collected: sa ast 226 Observations on Tea. last is the most abundant; but it gives tea of less value, which is consumed by the common people. The tea of the first quality, or bon tea, which the Japanese call also fiekt-tsjaa, is pounded and reduced te a fine pow- der, which is infused in boiling water. The quality of it varies according to the soil, the climate, and the age of the shrubs which have produced it, Tea of the second crop, called Chinese tea, and also too-~ tsjaa, is generally distinguished into four classes, in regard to the different degrees of goodness. That of the third, which they call Lan-tsjaa, composed of elder and harder leaves, and prepared with less care, has also its different degrees of value. When the tea-harvest is ended, it is celebrated by public festivals and amusements. The most esteemed tea of Japan, according to Kempfer, grows in the environs of the small town of Udsi, situated in the neighbourhood of the sea: in that district is a celebrated mountain, which is entirely employed for the cultivation of that used by the emperor. This mountain, which has a beautiful and picturesque appearance, is surrounded by a broad ditch, to prevent men and animals from having any aceess to it. The plantations are laid out by the line, arranged in a manner exceedingly agreeable to the eye, and the shrubs are washed and cleaned every day. While the leaves are collecting, the men employed in that operation bathe two or three times every day, and wear gloves when they pick the leaves, to prevent them from being dirtied. When the leaves have been torrified aud properly prepared, they are shut up in vessels of great value, and conveyed with much pomp to the emperor’s palace. Tea is prepared in public edifices, which are provided with the necessary apparatus. Some pounds of the leaves, fresh gathered, are put into a kind of pan, made of thin iron plate, broad but not deep, of a circular or square form, and heated by means of a stove destined for that purpose, and of which a description may be seen t2 Kempfer. They are stirred and rapidly turned with the hands, that they may be torri- fied in as uniform a manner as possible ; and the operation is continued until they emit a sort of crackling noise on the plate. The beat, by depriving them of their juices, destroys that intoxicating and noxious quality which thcy naturally possess. They must be torrified when exceedingly fresh, because if kept some days they would become black and lose their value. The heat of the pan ought to be so great as scarcely to admit of its being touched with the hand. In China the leaves are immersed in boiling water for half a , minute Observations on Tea. 197 é minute before they are roasted. When properly torrified, they are taken from the pan with a wooden spatula, and distributed to persons specially charged with the care of rolling them. This operation is performed by rolling them rapidly, and with an uniform motion, with the palm of the hand, on tables a little raised, and covered with very fine mats made of straw. ‘The slight compression which they then experience expresses from them a greenish yellow juice, which produces on the hands a heat almost insupportable ; yet the operation must be continued till they are cold, for they can be rolled only while hot; and, that they may not unroll themselves, it is essentially necessary that they should cool under the hand: the more rapid the cooling, the better they continue rolled. Jt is even accelerated by agitating the air with asort of fan: but, whatever care may be taken, there are always a certain number which become unrolled. The rolling is still continued; and those which, for want of having been sufficiently dried, are not susceptible of rolling, are torrified a second time, care being taken to check the action of the fire, to prevent their being blackened or burnt. Some torrify and roast the leaves five or six times, gradually diminishing the intensity of the heat: by this practice they retain better their green colour, and are less liable to be- come altered. Each time the operation is begun, the pan is washed with warm water, to remove the juices and other heterogeneous parts which may adhere to it. The leaves, thus prepared, are spread out on mats; and those which are thick, badly rolled, or too much burnt, are separated. Leaves of the first quality ought to be more torrified than the rest, in order that they may be more readily pulverised. _ When gathered young, and exceedingly tender, they are merely immersed in warm water; then dried, by means of a charcoal heat, on pieces of pasteboard; and, on account of their small size, are not rolled. The inhabitants of the country torrify their tea without much precaution, stirring it in earthen vessels exposed to heat. . This tea is often of a good quality, though sold ata low price; and M. Cassigni asserts that in Cochin-china itis not customary to roll the leaves. At the end of some months, the tea is taken from the vessels in which it is contained, and again exposed to a gentle heat, to deprive it of all its moisture, and that it may run no risque of becoming worse. To preserve tea, it must be put into close vessels, and completely defended from contact with the air. Kempfer asserts that the tea brought to Europe has always lost some part 198 Observations on Tea. part of its quality, and that he never found in it that agree- able taste and delicate flavour which it has in the country: where it grows. The Japanese keep it in vessels made of tin, and, when large, they are put into boxes of fir to support them and give them more strength, and the joints of the boxes are closed both inside and outside with paper. That destined for the emperor and egrandees is put into valuable vessels of porcelain, or of some other substance. It keeps them exceedingly well, and, as is asserted, even improves. The third sort of tea is that least susceptible of alteration. The peasants preserve it in vessels made of straw, which they suspend from the roofs of their houses. The author of Lord Macartney’s Voyage says, that'in China the tea is heaped up, and trod with the feet in large boxes of wood lined with sheets of lead. : Tea is perfumed with the flowers of a kind of mugwort, those of the scented olive, the camelia usanqua, the Arabian jasmin, the curcuma, or Indian saffron, &c. Some authors have advanced that tea is torrified on plates of copper, and that its colour arises particularly from verdi- gris; but Kempter says, positively, that it is torrified on ‘plates of iron. The writer of Lord Macartney’s Voyage asserts the same thing; and Dr. Lettsom was never able to discover a particle of copper, notwithstanding the number of trials he made with 2 great nuinber of kinds of tea; so that this imputation is void of foundation. Somie drink tea in infusion : others pulverise it in small mills made of stone, turned by means of the hand. It is cround on the evening before it 1s to be used. This custom is comifion among the rich. Boiling water is poured into the cups; and a certain quantity of pulverised tea, taken up with a spoon, is thrown into them: it is then mixed with a wooden instrument, like a chocolate-stick, which is moved in a circular direction with the hand. The third manner of taking tea isin decoction, which is used only among the country people. They boil water in a pot, then throw in a few haniiuls, more or less according to the company, of tea-leaves of the third quality, and drink it prepared in this manner to quench their thirst. Sometimes they boil the tea-leaves ina bag, in order that they may not become mixed with the water. That which has Jost its ‘virtue is employed in dyeing silk, to which they communicate . a brown colour. Fresh tea has an intoxicating quality. which attacks and irritates the nerves, and which it does not entirely lose by torrifaction: it is even asserted that it is not completely freed Ol:servations on Ted. 129 freed from it before the end of ten or twelve months; it is then pleasant and wholesome, and excites cheerfulness. The Japariese never drink it fresh, without mixing with it an equal quantity of old tea. It removes obstructions, assists digestion by rousing the action of the stomach; and there is no plant known of which P le can drink an in- fusion so frequently, and in such large quantity, without disgust. The Chinese consider it as exceedingly salubrious. They never mix with it milk, syrup, or strong liquors. They drink it pure, with a little sugar-candy which they hold in their mouth; and the habitual use which these people have made of it for so many centuries, proves that when well prepared it has no prejudicial qualities. They form from it also an extract, which they use diluted in a iantity of water, and to which they ascribe great vir- various maladies. Kalm asserts that tea is of great service in correcting the bad quality of water, that it revives the strength, and that it was of much benefit to him during his travels. \ - In commerce, tea is distinguished into eight principal kinds; three of which are green tea, and five bohea: but I shall. here observe that the bohea tea of the shops is not the same as that known under this name by the Chinese. The three kinds of green tea are: Ist, Imperial tea, or the lowers of tea. Its leaves are not rolled: they are of abright green colour, and have an agreeabie odour. 2d, Haisven, or hysson, which takes its name from an Indian merchant who first brought it to Europe. The leaves are small, and strong- ly rolled; they have a green colour inclining to blue. 3d, Singlo, or songlo tea, which, like several other kinds, is called after the name of the place where it is cultivated. The five sorts of bohea tea commonly known in commerce are: 1st, Suchong ; the leaves of which are broad, not rolled, and of acolourinclining toyellow. It is imported into Russia by the caravans in aiden of half apound. 2d, Sumlo tea, which smells like violets, and the infusion of which is pale. Ad, Congo; the leaves of which are broad, and the infusion high-coloured. 4th, Peko tea, which is known by the small white leaves mixed with it. Sth, Bohea; the leaves of which are of a brownish green and uniform colour: a kind ef tea rolled up in balls of different sizes, the leaves of which are united by a glutinous substance which does not alter their quality, is also brought from China. There are likewise balls of medicinal tea, composed of Jeaves impreg- nated with a decoction of rhubarb ; and there are several other varieties which it is needless to mention. Tea was first introduced into Europe by the Dutch. [n Vol. 20, No. 78. Nov. 1804. = 1641, ©. 130 Observations on Tee. 1641, Tulpius, a celebrated physician, and consul at Amster= dam, wrote in praise of its good qualities. It is asserted that he did so by desire of the Dutch East-India company, who rewarded him with a considerable sam of money. In 1667, Jonquet, a French ician, extolled its virtues. In 1678, Bontetre, physician e elector of Brandenburgh, who had acquired great reputation, bestowed high encomiums on its qualities, in a dissertation which he published on tea, coffee, and chocolate. This work was attended with great success, and contributed not a little to render the use of it more general; and, before the end of the century, the ¢onsump- tion of it was considerable. According toa table published in Dr. Lettsom’s work, the guantity of tea in i Europe from China, between the years. 477 amounted annually to fifteen, twenty, twenty: nine, and even thirty-six milhons of pounds; consumption, for wineeeerope pays every year, which it no doubt might save. ¥ } ig fy The use of tea in China may be traced back to the eatlicst ages; and it is so prevalent among all classes in thisimmense empire, that, according to the author of Lord Maeartney’s Voyage, if the Europeans should give up the tea oa, the value of it in the country would not be much lessened. . The Japanese ascribe to tea a miraculous_origin., Darma, a very religious prince, and third son of an Indian king, named Kosjusvo, lauded im China, they say, in the year 510 of the Christian xra. He employed all his care to diffuse throughout the country a knowledge of the true God and religion; and, being desirous to excite men by his example, imposed on himself privations and mortifications of every Kind; living in the open air, and devoting the days and nights to prayer and contemplation. After several years, however, being worn out with fatigue, he fell asleep against his will; and that he might faithfully observe his oath which he thought he had violated, he cut off his eye-lids and threw them en the ground. Next day, having returned to the same spot, he found them changed into a shrubwhich the earth had never’ before produced. Having eaten some of the leaves of it, he found his spirits exhilarated, and his former vigour restored. He recommended this aliment to his disciples and followers. The reputation of tea inereased, and after that time it continued to be generally used. Kemp- fer, i his Ameenitates exotica, gives the life with a portrait of this, saint so celebrated in China and Japan. There is geen, at the feet of Darma, a reed, which indicates that he had traversed the geas and. rivers. XXI.. On { 131 } XXI. On a Liquid Sulphur. By Professor Lampaptius*. a the year 1796 I discovered a liquid sulphur, which I Obtained while distilling martial pyrites with charcoal, in order to try*whether I could not extract a greater quantity of sulphur from that mineral. I then sent a small quantity of this liquid to my late frrend Gren, accompanied with a short notice in regard to. some of its principal properties. Chemists, since that time, have paid little attention to this subject; and though I have frequently repeated the experi- ment, I was never able to find this substance again. I was obliged to suspend these researches, but without entirely abandoning the subject. Performing some operations lately on pyritised wood, I succeeded in finding different methods of preparing this remarkable substance, and have even examined several of its properties; I shall, therefore, here give an account of my new observations, reserving the more ample details for | another opportunity. I obtained this liquid, which for the present I shall call alcohol of sulphur, by the distillation of pyritised wood alone, or by distilling martial pyrites with common or bituminous wood, fossil wood, coals, or anthracite. The manner of preparing it is as follows:—Charge an earthen retort with a proper quantity of the earth, and to the beak join an adaptor, which is immersed in a receiver filled with water: a communication, by means of a tube, is formed between the latter, with a pneumato-chemical appa- ratus. When the whole is well luted, kindle the fire, carry it to a white heat, and conduct the operation nearly in the same manner as for the preparation of phosphorus. A large quantity of sulphurated hydrogen gas is at first disengaged, except when anthracite 1s employed, and a little empy- reumatic oil; but, as soon as the retort is very red, the alcohol of sulphur passes in small liquid drops, which fall to the bottom of the water: when anthracite is employed it is white, and contains no empyreumatic oil, with which it is always tainted when the other setanes are used. To separate this oil, it is again distilled by alamp heat in a ~ retort with a little water, and the beak of the retort is im- in distilled water. By this means it is obtained tly white. proportions of the substances which I put into ‘the and which no doubt might be varied, were: * From the Annales de Chimie, No. 147. 4 12 1 pound Ld 132 On a Liquid Sulphur. 1 pound of pyritised wood, coarsely pulverised, (gave two ounces of alcohol of sulphur) ; ’ 4 ounces of pyrites, and 1 ounce of bituminous wood ; Adlnme «te ~ and 1 ounce of fossil woods 44 - - and 1 ounce of coals; 44 ~ - and 1 ounce of saw-dust ¢ 4 - - and 1 ounce of anthracite. These substances, reduced to powder and treated as above, cave from 7 to 8 gros of alcohol of sulphar. i Since anthracite gives*no empyreumatic oil, but only ¢ar- honated hydrogen gas (perliaps also gaseous oxide of carbon), q it appears that the presence of this oil is not necessary to the formation of the product, which can be considered only as a compound of empyreumatic oi] and sulphur. | In all these operations, less sulphur is obtained than in distilling martial pyrites alone. There may be other means of preparing this substance, but T never obtained any of it «hen L employed charcoal with pyrites.. It is possible that that which | took in 1796 was not completely carbonised, as sometimes happens, or that some circumstance in the opera- tion had particularly favoured the combination of the sul- phur with the substance which constitutes the alcohol of sulphur, Of the nuimerous properties of this substance, I remarked only the following: 1. A penétrating odour. 2. Extreme volatility. Alcohol of sulphur boils ai 32° of Reaumur; the barometer being at 26 in. 6 lines. By evaporation it produces a great deal of cold; and in this respect it surpasses all the others known, 8. The specific gravity is 1300, which is the more extra- ordinary considering its volatility. 4, It is exceedingly inflammable: the least electric or galvanic spark is sufficient to make it burn, and it leaves no residuum by its combustion. The product, on the conwary, is sulphuric acid and @ httle water. Hitherto no carbon has been found. The flame is blue, and withdut smoke. 5. It is exceedingly soluble in spirit of wine. 6. It dissolves het a with extreme rapidity, and without the aid of heats If a little of this solution be put on aper, the paper inflames at the end of ten or fifteen minutes. This solution when poured into water does not shine. A 10° of Reaumur the alcohol of sulphur can dissolve a weight of phosphorus equal to its own. ered 7. It has an extraordinary refringent power. bi 5 | 8. Wat On a Liguid Sulphur. 133 8. Water dissolves only a very s:nall quantity of it, and it then assumes all the properties of sulphurated water. I mention these propertics only until I can make further researches: they are sufficient to enable one to distiuguish the substance; the constituent parts cannot be exactly determined, but by repeating and varying the experiments. Sulphur more than the half of its weight, as appears from properties 4 and 8, and hydrogen, are no doubt the principal elements of alcohol of sulphur. If I thought that no carbon were to be sought for in this substance, I should have given it the name of hydrogenated sulphur: until its nature be mere precisely determined, that of alcohol of Iphur is applicable to it on account of its volatility. SU hope that this substance will be found hereafter a power- ful remedy in cases in which ether is employed. Freybuig, Jan. 28, 1804. P. S. Should this substance be found to be the same as that of Clement and Desormes, I must claim the priority of my discovery, which was made in 1796. But this is of litle importance, except that a fact when observed by seve- ral persons who have not communicated to each other their observations may be considered as the more authentic. Note—Since writing the above, I have read the experi- ments of Clement and Desormes with great attention, in Gilbert’s Annals, and am surprised at the resemblance which exists between the two products. d; however, find the fol- lowing differences: Clement and Desormes’ Carburated Sulphur. Alcohol of Sulphur, 1. Burns, and leaves a residuum of | 1. Buras, and |caves carbon. no residunm. 2. Deposits carbon in combining | 2. Dissolves entirely with fat oils. ? in fat oils. 3. With spirit of wine it is converted | 3. Dissolyes entirely into a soft mass, and a small por- in spirit of wine. tion is dissolved. 4. It is now obtained from sulphura- | 4. See the preceding fed iron. . @h, ~ experinicits.i I am engaged in experiments to answer the following queries ; ° # | _ Is my product hydrogenated sulphur?) or sulphurated “carbon or ¢arbon, sulphur and hydrogen?) or perhaps 1¢ base of sulphur? Feb, 2, 1804. 13 “XXII. Ex- f>1pe J XXII. Experiments to ascertain whether there exists any Affinity betwixt Carbon and Clay, Lime and Silex, se- parately or as Compounds united with the Oxide of Iron forming Iron Ores and Iron Stones. By Davip Musuet, Esq. of the Calder Iron-Works. {Continued from p. 36.] W ITH a view to obtain results from ores compounded similar to those which we use at furnaces in the scale of manufacture, the four following classes were carefully made and operated upon : ' 4th Class consisted of 40 parts of oxide, 20 of chalk, 20 —— of sand, » 20 —— of clay. burs ; 4 100 5th Class. 40 parts of oxide, 30 of chalk, 30 —— of clay. 100 6th Class. ' 40 parts of oxide, 30 —— of sand, 30 —— of clay. 100 Pieces, 7th Class. 40 parts of oxide, 30 of sand, 30 —— of lime, g.ekogtt. gO is the details of these experiments elie be deemed tedious, I shall confine myself merely to tables of the re- sults obtained from each compound respectively ; by which it will be easily perceived that the peculiar properties of the respective earths still exist where they are not corrected by an equality of mixture, or where lime is not used as one of the principal ingredients, ‘ 7 Results On the Affinities of different Earths for Carbon. 135 Results of 4th class, compounded of 40 parts of oxide, 20 of chalk, 20 of clay, and 20 of sand. Quantity ef matter used in each experiment 400 grains. ° per cent. Exp. I. 1-30th of carbon yielded 21 grs. of iron, or 625 II. 1-20th ditto 35 ditto, or 875 Il]. 1-15th ditto —— 58 ditto, or 14% TV. 1-10th ditto 93 ditto, or 23% V. 1-7th ditto 111 ditto, or 27% This last experiment was a perfect:assay. The glass was of a dull flinty colour, considerably transparent, and proves: that under similar circumstances an ore equally composed of clay, lime, and silex, will smelt to greater advantage than one either exclusively united to silex or clay. - Results of 5th class, compounded of 40 parts of oxide, 30 of chalk, 30 of clay, Quantity of matter operated upon 400 grains. _per cent. Lxp.T. 1-30th of carbon yielded 7 grs. of iron, or 14 II. 1-20th ditto 38 ditto, or 91 Ill. 1-15th- = ditto —— 51 ditto, or 122 IV. 1-1oth ditto 78 ditto, or 194 V. 1-7th ditto unfused. Results of 6th class, cempounded of 40 parts of oxide, 30 —— of clay, 30 of sand. Quantity of matter operated upon 400 grains. _ per cent. Lixp. 1. 1-30th of carbon yielded 16 ¢rs. of iron, or 4 IL, 1-20th «ditto “—30 ditto, or 74 Ill. 1-15th — ditto 57 ditto, © - or 143 IV. 1-10th — ditto unfused. Results of 7th class, compounded of » 40 parts of oxide, 30 of sand, . 30 of chalk, - Quantity of matter in each experiment 400 grains. * ‘ ; : per cent. Exp. l. 1-30th of carbon yielded 1 gr. of iron, of 4 If. 1-20th — ditto 13 ditto, or 3+} Ill. 1-15th ditto 40 ditto, or 10 AV. 1-10th — ditto 103 ditto, or 253 V. 3-7th ditto — 129 ditto, or 324 VI, 1-5th ditto unfused from an excess of carbon. 14 If 136 On the Affinities of If the results of this class are compared with those of Ciass 5, it will be found that an ore compounded of sand and _lime is more easily fused, and ultimately more productive, than one equally composed of clay and calcareous earths. In these classes I deemed it of some importance to add an eighth. Jt has of late been received and believed by the most of Europe, that the French chemists have discovered a process of imparting carbonaceous matter to iron by the decomposition of the carbonic acid, and that in such quau- tity as to convert soft iron into cast steel. Those who rest in the belief of this discovery must naturally have expected that in these experiments the greatest quantity of iron would have been revived where the carbonate of lime was used, and that this quantity would have borne an exact relation to the proportions of the carbonate. The very reverse of this, however, turns out to be the fact; for it requires double ‘and sometimes triple the quan- tity of carbonaceous matter to be added to revive the same quantity of iron when carbonate is used, than is requisite with either clay or silex, To ascertain what difference would arise betwixt the re- sult of the experiments with chalk, and the same deprived of its acid, the following experiments were made : Results of 8th Class, compounded of 40 parts of oxide, 60 of chalk deprived of its acid. Quantity of matter (deeming it more unfusible) made use of, 200 grains. Exp. 1. 1-30th of carbon yielded nosmetal. IT. 1-20th «ditto — ditto — III. 1-15th «ditto .— ditto IV. 1-loth ditto — 6ers. of iron, or 3 percent. VY. 1-8th ditto —37 ditto 184 VI. 1-7th.. ditt#®-—53. ditto “964 VII. 1-5th ditto not fused. Rn Tf these results are compared with those of Class 1, it will be evident that a larger proportion oficharcoal is requi- site in the present case to revive the first portions of iron ; but"then it ought to be considered that the oxide is pre- sented with a larger proportion of calcareous earth by all the quantity of acid and water of crystallization contained in the carbonate. : oo Bo ty General hr. st eee 137 different Earths for Carton. posnjan posnjun $93 TPG Sarg +8 I eee eee ound ¢ $¢3| pasnjyun uosL OU Ol TFI uodt OU +¢ a woll OU youd $+ | youd + uo. ou uod1 Ou uoJt ou oul] 09 poy} o€ AUNT | OF pus -Iprovagy; O€ pues | OF ArID Ob - IPIXO} OF APIXO | OF 9PIXO “BSE(D 438 *sseI-) WIL | *SstID 9 A ‘eps >» 70’ empoeene *sseIC) WIS ote 0 0 Sede © Shiels: 61> Ene ee 6. E15 pesnjun eeete rn ve sor eoeetise seve teceleoe se tase ve e83 Tr +8 "yo aad $1 |"30 sad ¢G9. uol ou uOdI OU 0G pues og Ag | 06 Aro OE swIT | O03 oT OF OpIxQ | OF OpIxXO. "ssuf) Wr Geo pee) eng Ch A es (oe Wil-1 Ss es OES et °*11{ pasnyun posnyun | MOI-T *yo sad +¢ €1 “+61) WISI-1 uodl Ou 6 me oe € 6.0 S64 4103-1 ad | °16 | YleS-T wom ou fectssttesf eres es | moet uomt ou |*}0 jad St] }y0 sad sg | WOF-1 *uoqied Og owTy | 09 pues | 09 AriQ | Jo Suoh OF opixQ | OF OpixQ |. OF ePIXQ | ~todo1g. *SSEID) PE. | “SSPID PS | *SSP{D IST “salQ, popunogiuos fo sassvjy 1ysig ay7 fo synsay ay} fo. aqny jpsauey he T 138 On the Affinities of The following experiments, performed with argillaceous, siliceous, and calcareous ironstones in the state in which they are taken from the mine, exhibit an exact coincidence of effect with those artificially compounded. 1st, Argillaceous Ironsione. 4 Of this particular quality the mine presents three strata, each about 24 inches ia thickness. They are found about” 2 feet incumbent to 2 regular stratum of shelly limestone about 9 inches thick, and containing a thin measure of cal- careous ironstone in its very centre. The shale or matrix in which the argillaceous strata are found, is a blackish blue clay in thin lamine, and of that particular quality best cal- culated to stand the heat of a large furnace. Above this shale is found a small gritted sandstone, commonly called water whin, as hard as flint and about four feet thick. The colour of the ironstone resembles very much the ap- pearance of the schistus described above, only a few shades darkér in point of colour. The fracture rough, and mi- nutely granulated. Its hardness as an ironstone below mediocrity. A solitary muscle-shell is sometimes detected upon its surface; and on one piece I found an entire bivalve neatly forced open, with the configurations distinct. It may be proper to remark, that the measure of calcareous matter below is an entire coagulation of muscles; and further, that the under surface of the roof, rock, or sand- stone, formerly mentioned, next to the matrix, is beauti- fully waved like the sea beach after flood tide. Irregu- Jarly dispersed along this surface are also found convex fi- gures of small pine-shoots very perfect and entire. The matrix or shale below bearing the corresponding impres- sion, with all the accuracy of a highly finishéd mould. The specific gravity of this ironstone was * Exp. I. 400 grains of raw ironstone were fused per se. The result was a dark coloured glass, the upper surface of which was covered with a film of oxide of a lake colour. Two small cavities were found formed, from which I in- ferred that the first portions of metal would be revived with a small dose of carbon. Exp. IL. 400 grains of raw ironstone, a of carbon, or 1-80th. This mixture was reduced to a very beautiful shining black glass with a metallic lustre. Under it was found a ~ very perfect spherule of iron which weighed exactly 8} grains, and equal in point of produce to ‘9! per cent. The surface of this glass. was imperfectly radiated with * The author has omitted to fill up this blank. : configurations ‘different Ear configurations of a lake cc co dense, and the fracture po highly finished razor-blade, 139 mass was uncommonly istre ‘beyond that of a: Exp. UI. a grains Of 1 stone, of al, cor 1-57th. The fusion of this | yielded an elegant spherule of iron which weig ns 3 equal to 38 7s per cent.’ The film of oxide upon t and the metallic lustre of the fracture near ; Exp. IV. 400 Ne 22 arcoal, or 1-40th. This mixture formed a very perfect black glass, i in the bottom sa which was f »bule of iron which weighed though an presented a fect crystallization, consisting lines crossed ' ht: ri) impression sembling hoar-frost. cm Exp. V. 400 erainae e oe _ There was obtained fro oval mass of soft iron whit - 144 per cent. glass was now nea: than in Exps. I, II, pen -20th. eee of this” mixture an ed 59 grains: equal to pon the surface of the dithe ageey a are black — ie es . or 4-19th. Eis mixture was exp of Wedgewood, and a perfect fusion was the result. — — grains of the charcoal, of a beautiful black colour, duntaken up. A com-' pact Seip: button was’ ; he glass, which weighed 75 grains ; and further, twelve small globules weighed two! a 77 grains ik: gi per cents: ’ glass was dull wh 2 minutely porous, and but tigi transparent. of oxide was aby gone from the glass in this € ~ Exp. VII. 400 aS a of 1 Heat. The result ain ed which weighed -against the sides and J 8 E ih iia to ‘a This consphaehi was perfect. A metal 82 grains, and small gh _ coyer of the crucible | 4, ‘per cent. ea VI an ee 140 sor & and nearly dro complete, erp \ Exp. (IX. 400 gr. ains 0 of ra 80 100 — of ch * na Jow Rica? The re- an was a sayutaliisea bu ferudeliron’ which weighed 112 grains; equal to 28 pe , ane a all 40 grains of iron. © Recapitulation of experim rgillaceous ironstone. $5 Per cent, 8 grs. iron, or Eas 1. ditto,” or 1S; , ny * ditto, or 8% V. 1-20ih ditto 59 cite or 143 VI. 1-12th, ditto” 77 ditto, or 194 © VII. 1-9th’ ~— ditto po eBay dition or 2135 VIII. 1-5th. a TX. 1-5th aidittoe* ae") And 100 ota of chalk A quantity of this argilla and found to lose 31 per 112 ditto, or 28 ‘ols ironstone was torrified, It had then coat a rkened considerabl erheated in roallie, acture, losing its Bilhie- pounding. Tit was found ‘o b and then assumed a semi sion to the tongue. If the the mass becomes of a blackis resolves itself into the state” of a bulk and in weight: »pqpre* . Exp. I. 200 grains of i yer se, and in the first expe ule of iron estimated at 1 blue colour, swells up pe on increased i rdfttone pounded was fused ent was found a minute glo- agrain. The'experiment 1t any metal being revived. ‘the first case, therefore, I ae of the iron was, most lik ely occasioned by a sma dentally thrown Exp. lf. soe S 125 - = There resul fect globules of iron y & oths per ce Ww und in the bottom of an ptical cavity osseweed of the } chest lustre 1d a variety of prismatic tints. Se” Lp. I. 400 grain sa ae 7? “¥ te his mixture three per- This ld I found the fusion in- s carried to a faint white, terains, which is about Liffernt Barts for Carbon. 141i This mixture fused, and yielded a very perfect glass, ac- companied by a metallic button which weiglicd 98 grains : equal to 244 per cent. The glass obtained’ was green, and possessed a flinty fracture. tpi Exp. IV. 400 grains of roasted ironstone, 80 —— of charcoal, or 1-5th. This mixture was fused at a heat of 160°, and when cold was examined, and found as follows : 23 grains of charcoal were found upon the surface of a light green coloured glass, which covered a metallic button weighing =: 108 grains. Globules extieg oe the glass - 6 Produce equal to 281 percent. , - 114 Exp. V. 400 grains of roasted ironstone, »-133-2, — of carbon, or 1-3d. This mixture was exposed to a heat of 162° of Wedge- wood. When cold it was found imperfectly reduced. About 50 grains of metallic globules were obtained. A portion of glass was formed in perfect spheres, entirely co- vered with carburated globules of cast iron, The pulveru- lent matter that remained unfused was of a deep black co- jour mixed with spheres of very brilliant crude iron. This experiment was repeated as follows: Exp. V1. 400 grains of roasted ironstone, ~ 433.35 —— of charcoal, or 1-3d, “ 120 — of raw chalk.) | This mixture was exposed in a much inferior heat, and a very perfect reduction of the compound obtained. A me- tallic button was found, and some globules, which weighed 142 grains; equal to 354 per cent.: which amounted to withm 14 grain of the whole contents of iron contained in the ore. These, with many other experiments, prove that when clay enters greatly into the compound of any ore, that car- bon alone is not capable of reviving its metallic contents whether the ore is used in the raw or roasted state, and that calcareous earth, in almost every case, can be applied as a substitute in part for carbon in consequence of the curious relation it bears to both, ~The difference betwixt the quantities of revived iron with 1-40th of carbon is sufficiently accounted for by the roasted ironstone containing 31 per cent. more of iron; of course the additional afin exerted by this iron required an extra dose of carbon befage any iron was let fall. © oul XXII. On e iin a) » Fagor Wabbit Pit : ey tte salir 5 gd / Tx our fourteenth volume, Pp. 859, by Charles Hatchett, esq. On Copper as a Pigment, which was rom the Journals of the Royal Institution, vol..i, p. 306. In the Ist number of the 2d vol. of that work, published the 1st of June 1803, was inserted a letter to Mr. Hate from Mr. Hume, of Long Acre, which we over d at the'time, but which, in justice to hoth of these gentlemen, we now lay before our readers, some of whom may not,hayve seen the work in which it originally appeared. ~ erted a short paper ty of Prussiate of Letter io Cuantes Hatcntt, Esq. respecting the Prus~ siate of Copper. From Mr. Hume. — DEAR SIR, i” Wee a : ite hie < On many accounts I have chosen to send following ‘communication to you, rather than <3 de the proper editor of the work to which it alludes ; ubting, ifany public notice be deemed proper, your eandour and your ice as I deserve. In the Roval Institution, I ob- nemical accuracy, on en will do meat least as much just ast number of the Journals of the serve a paper, written with your usual Prussiate of Copper, stating it to be very useful as a pig- ment, &c. Iam very confident you were not aware, that the same substance, and for the very same purpose, had been many years before discovered and prepared by myself; that T have ever since constantly kept it for the use of some par- ticular friends and artists; and have given away and sold of it to numberless other people, who, probably, neyer till now heard the name of prussiate of copper. I believe, amongst many others, two of the present proprietors of the Royal Institution will bear me out and testify to the truth of all this; viz. Mr. William Day, more particularly, and Mr. Collins, enamel painter to the king. The former gentleman will recollect that, more than ten years ago, I had made, indeed for a very different purpose than painting, a quantity of prussiate of copper; on begging him to try it as a colour, a task he is very competent to, he ap- proved of it and made a very favourable report, especially respecting its use in water. Indeed I dare say you are satis- fied with this single proof; but I sal just add that, from my friend’s recommendation, Mr. Collins began to use it, and has bec: supplied with it since miore than once: the last Second Letter to Mr. Tilloch on the Cozi-Pock. 143 Jast parcel he had on the 2d of November last, which, to use his own words, ‘* though an useful tint,is not so fine as that prepared two years ago.” Permit me to add, theagh in this place it may be irrele- want, that I have generally found good sulphate of copper answer best this purpose; and as this salt, from its cheap- ness, may possibly induce manufacturers to prefer it, the prussiate of lime must give place to that of potash or some other, since the former would form a simultaneous preci- pitate of sulphate of lime and prussiate of copper. I remain, sir, Yours, &c. Jos. Hume. XXIV. Second Letter to Mr. Tittoce on the Cow=Poch, JSrom Dr. Tuornton, leing a Comparison of the Cow- Pox with the Small-Pox. Description of the natural Small-Pox, and of its Mortality. "Tune is no disease that the medical writer has to describe, which presents a miore melancholy scene than the natural amall-pox, as it very frequently occurs. When the physician is first called to the bed-side of the patient, he is enabled at onee to form a probable conjecture. as to the approaching disorder, from the frequent sighings and sobbings of the person labouring under an anxiety he is unable to express; by pains felt in the region of the stomach, with an inclination, but generally an mability, to yomit; by the racking and frequent shooting pains along the back and loins ; a general lassitude and aching of every limb; a most unpleasant sensation of cold, not relieved by any external warmth; a continued drowsiness, and dis- ‘inclination to take food. moh; - Then succeed heat, thirst, an inflamed eye, restlessness, or a constant inquietude; the pulse is quick and hard ; conyulsions now come om in children, and violent sweating in adults. Such are the symptoms which usher in this dreadfal foe to the human race, which now manifests itself by many speck-like spots, resembling flea-bites, which appear first on the face and upper parts of the body, and afterwards invade the whole trunk, look angry, create pain, and gradually elevate themselves above the skin, taking on the appearance of pimples. By the fifth or sixth day, these are converted 3 Inte 144 Second Leiter to Mr. Tilloch on the Cow-Pock. into pustules, containing a transparent fluid, and each has an accompanying inflammation around. ‘TH At this period of the disease the throat becomes inflarhed, and is painful ; the breath is hot and foetid; swallowing is difficult; the voice hoarse; m adults there comes on a sa- livation, and in infants a diarrheea. On the seventh day the eye-lids swell; and are glued to- gether, and the patient has both the sensation and appre- hension of the loss of sight. On the eighth day the aqueous fluid of the pustules ts changed into thick pus, and the effuvia now issuing from the patient are highly noisome and infectious ; or, instead of a yellow pus, or matter, only ichor is produced, which erodes deep, and ends in mortification of the parts. Often, purple spots appear in the spaces surrounding the eruption, which forebode the approaching catastrophe. Often, profuse hemorrhages of thin corrupt blood pass off by the several outlets of the body. The human face divine, bereft of every feature, then exhibits the most dis- tressing sight, being one mass of corruption; and at this time, should sleep kindly come in to appease his miseries, it- is disturbed and short, and he frequently wakes witha start, as if roused by some dreadful apprehension ; but more gene- rally the sleepless nights are passed in tearing off this mask of humours, which from a dark brown changes to a black, and each morning presents a horrid scene of gore mingled vith corruption. Yo behold the poor tortured victim muffled, resisting, and finally overcoming every artifice to prevent him tearing his flesh to pieces, is the most melancholy sightwhich the fond mother can witness. By-standers no longer recognize the temper or features of the lovely infant—happy if he escape without actual loss of vision, and the dimples of the cherub check are not furrowed into deep seams and unsightly pits. Parents at such a moment would willingly compromise évery external grace for the possession of lite. But fate yet hangs suspended on a thread. The swelling of the face abates ; the limbs in their turn become tumefied ; the fever, which had remitted somewhat of its first violence, re- curs, from the matter absorbed ; and the poor tortured vic- tim, undergoing a second conflict more dreadful than the first, with weakened powers of resistance, most com- monly from between the 14th to the 17th day (one out of three or four usually dying of the natural small-pox) finds a release from his miseries by the arrow of death, now esteemed as a kind deliverer, instead of the horror of the human conception Or, if nature should come off vic- : 3 : torious, Second Letler to Mr. Tilloch on the Cow-Pock. 145 torious, how scarred! how each bone protrudes through the skin! how the limbs totter! how fretful the temper! how emaciated the countenance! how sunk the eye! howlivid the flesh ! Perhaps even then the destroyer has still accomplished his work; and the patient, too early congratulated, sinks under a lingering consumption, or is eaten away by slow cor- roding ulcers, commonly called the king’s evil, or scro- hula. Pash is the too faithful picture of this loathsome disease, that baffles in description all the powers of language, and which destroys annually in Great Britain alone 50,000 souls, or throughout the habitable globe 20,000,000 of people, exclusive of those who perish from the impoverished state of the system, producing those formidable disorders which follow in her train. 1. Of the Mortality occasioned by the Small- Pos. “HEE: de nal wodvares Kal aoavyese, & deweaig Keumroptva Adxotg Karxomes "Epiwise Lo! with unnumbered hands aed countless feet, The Fury comes, her destined prey to meet; Deep in the covert hid, she glides unseen.— SOPHOCLES. The reader may form some tolerable notion of the ra- vages committed by the small-pox, by examining ‘the bills of mortality; for in London, where the climate is temperate, the disease well known, and the treatment of the sick very ably conducted, from 2000 to 3000, at the present day, an- nually perish.— Baron Dimsdale. So great was the epidemic of the small-pox at Paris in 1723, that upwards of 20,000 perished in that city alone! —Voliaire. In 1768, this same scourge destroyed at Naples 16,000 persons in a few weeks.—_Allé Chappe. In Russia the annual destruction is estimated at 2,000,000. —Baron Dimsdale. In China, where the population is immense, the number who annually die of the small-pox, the most loathsome, next to the leprosy, of all diseases, is incalculable.—Dr. Clark. The fatality is still more remarkable among new people, who are wholly ignorant of the means of prevention, and the methods of cure. The small-pox was first introduced into New Spain in 1520, by a negro slave, who attended Narvarez in his expe- Vol. 20. No. 78. Nov. 1804. K dition 146 Second Letter to Mr. Tulloch on the Cow-Pock. dition avainst Cortez. Torribio affirms, that one half of the people in the provinces visited. with this distemper, died. ‘The small-pox was not brought into Peru for several years after the invasion of the Spaniards; but there too that dis- temper proved very fatal to the natives.—Guarecia Origen, p. 88. cited in Robertson’s Hist. of America, vol. ill. p. 400. About fifty years after the discovery of Pera, the small- pox was carricd over from Europe to America, by way of Carthagena, when it over-ran the continent of the new world, and destroyed upwards of 100,000 Indians in the single province of Quito. This account was found by M. La Condamine, in an antient MS. preserved. irt ithe cathedral of that city. This author also observes, that in the Portuguese settlements bordering upon the River Ama- zons, the sial}-pox was nearly fatal to all the natives, 7. e. original Americans.—See his Mem. sur ? Inoc. p. 63. In 1767, never were so many people seen to die as at Kamtschatka, when a soldier introduced the small-pox for the first time; 20,000 perishing from that disease, and whole villages were observed nearly desolate. — Coor’s Voyage. The small-pox was first introduced into the frozen region of Greenland in 1733, when the mortality of this disease was so great, that it almost depopulated the whole country. —See Crantz’s History of Greenland, vol. 1. p. 336. Even so late a$ the year 1793, when the small-pox was conveyed to the Isle of France, in the East-Indies, by a Duteh ship, five thousand four hundred persons perished there by this distemper m_ six weeks.—/Voadville, vol. 1. p- 28. The Conelusion. 1. Hence it appears, that had the small-pox seized upon a person more than once during the period of lite, the body beifg susceptible of more than one attack, as is the case with colds, fevers, agues, &c. either the human race would have presented a frightful spectacle of corroded scars and mangled deformity, or, what is more probable, would have become extinct, unless the inventive genius of man, assisted by God’s merey, had found out a mode to lessen the fatality and deformity occasioned by so formidable a disease, either by treatment, or some other means. ©. Itis likewise evident from this statement, that all the wars throughout the whole world {an observation worthy the notice of the statesman) have never cut the thread of so inany lives as this inexorable devovrer of the humen race, now happily, as will be seen in the following pages, 3 . chained Sécond Letter to Mr. Tilloch on the Cow-Pock. 147 chained down, it is hoped, never more to turn her destruc- tive fury on mankind, and strew the universe with dead bodies, mangled victims, and disconsolate mourners. 2. Of the inoculated Small-Pox, and of its Consequences. The Result of these Cases is represented in the annexed Table, taken from Dr. Jurin, Had the|Supposed, Persons | Small- | to apie jnocu- | pox by | died o AGES. lated. oekie: inocula- tion. tion, Under One Year ..| 11 11 oO One to Two......} 15 14 2 Two to Three ,...] 31 31 1 Three to Four ....| 41 38 1 Four to Five ...../ 33 31 } Five to Ten .....’.. 140 | 137 2 Ten to Fifteen....) 82) 76 O Fifteen to Twenty .| 56 50 2 Twentyto Fifty-two] 62 50 8) Age unknown .... 3 2 (0) Total....| 474 | 440 | 9g Hence we find, that of the 474 persons first inoculated in England, nine died, and their kanes were not unjustly suspected to have happened in consequence of inoculation. Of the natural small-pox, there usually dies one out of three; the difference is greatly in favour of the inoculated smaii-pox: but the question is not how individuals benefit, but the public at large. Is the mortality of the small-pox diminished? The great and learned Dr. Heberden, in his observations on the increase and decrease of different diseases, observes, “that he examined carefully the bills of mortality, and comparing the destruction occasioned by the sinall-pox among our countrymen before and since inoculation, re- juctantly was brought to this melancholy conclusion, that at the present period the proportional increase of deaths from this disease was as five to four.” Dr. Lettsom, whenexamined before the committee of the house of commons, stated, that he believed the inoculation of the smal}-pox, instead of benefiting society, had greatly Increased the number of deaths. About the year MTB 4 K 2 1a 148 Second Letter to Mr. Tilloch on the Cow-Pock. had paid particular attention to this subject, which afforded some observations applicable to the present inquiry, and de- cisive. upon a large scale of calculation, which a table by figures more clearly evinced... The experience of forty-two years preceding the introduction of inoculation into this country, was already placed in a clear point of view in the Philosophical Transactions, by Dr. James Jurin, who wasa sanguine advocate for inoculation, and whose testimony was therefore unexceptionable. His numbers were taken from the yearly bills of mortality, and the reason why the four- teen years from 1686 to 1701 were omitted, was, because in the bills of those years the acconnt of the small-pox and measles were not distinguished, as in the preceding and fol- lowing years, but were joined together in one article, so that from them no certain account could be drawn of the num- ber of persons that died of the small-pox. It appeared by these tables, that out of 1,005,279 burials within the last forty-two years, 1742 persons more have died.of the small- pox than the proportionate number, as collected from the experience of the fitst forty-two years; seventeen more burials therefore in one thousand had been occasioned by the small-pox, since inoculation had been adopted. ‘Taking Londonand the out parishesas containing nearly 1,000,000 of people, he calculates, that 3000 probably died yearly by the small-pox, or eight every day; or allowing Great Britain and Treland to contain 12,000,000 of people, no less than 36,000 annually. About eight persons die by the small-pox every day in the metropolis and its environs, or about fifty-six in each week.” The inoculation of the small-pox, therefore, increases instead of diminishing the number of burials. This circumstance soon struck the discerning mind of Baron Dimsdale, who had the honour of being selected from among the faculty here, and went from England in order to inoculate the empress of all the Russias ; which succeeding, besides a pension, he was made a counsellor of state, and physician to her imperial majesty. Although every inducement led him to conceal the fact, yet, actuated by the love of truth, and patriotism towards a country to which he owed his promotion in hfe, he came forward to sound the alarm, and show how a seeming bles- sing was an actual evil to the state. gfe . «¢ Although the loss,’”’ says he, *¢ under inoculation is very inconsiderable, almost the whole of those that are ino- culated recovering, yet by spreading the disease, a greater proportion take it in the natural way: more lives are now | 2 : forfeited Second Letter to Mr. Tilloch on the Cow-Pock. 149 forfeited in London than before inoculation commenced, and the community at large sustains.a greater loss: the practice, therefore, is more detrimental than leneficial to society. In the last four years preceding 1776, the London bills from the small-pox arose at a medium to two thousand five hun- dred and forty-four: this increase is truly alarming. The disease by inoculation at the different public charities throughout London, would spread by visitors, strangers, washerwomen, doctors, and inoculators; by means of hack- ney coaches, in which the sick are to be sent out to take the air, or by sound persons approaching them in the streets. “© The poor in London are miserably lodged; their habi- tations are in closealleys, courts, lanes, and old dirty houses : they are often in want of necessaries, even of bedding. The fathers and mothers areemployed out constantly in laborious occupations, and cannot attend the inoculated sick: should they neglect their occupations, food and necessaries would be deficient, and the medicines ordered by the physicians would not be regularly complied with. The air in their houses is impure: they have neither areas, gardens, nor carriages for the convenience of ventilation and taking fresh air. *¢ Sailors and sea-faring people, many of whose lodgings are miserable in the little houses bordering on the river, would be liable to catch the distemper, and either to fall sick there without friends or assistants, or perhaps being infected on shore, to carry it to sea in their contaminated clothes, and afterwards falling sick without care orattendance, might spread the disease in foreign climates. “ Country people coming to town for markets, visits, or pleasure, would all be subject to the danger of infection. Persons coming from the sick to public charities, for medi- cines or advice, by intermixing in the streets, the pudlic danger from their infected apparel would be great and inevi- table: the whole neighbourhood would be exposed, and in imminent danger, by having the small-pox brought to their doors. The gossiping disposition of the poor will spread it further; and after the sick recover, sallying forth in their infected clothes is certain to add to the mischief. The chil- dren who are able to run about will intermingle in the streets, immediately upon their recovery, with their playfellows : the success therefore derived from inoculation must be beneficial to a few only, but involvea great number of others in dan- ger, to which they would otherwise be less exposed.” Dr. Heberden observes, “ That the poor form the largest part of mankind, and only consider the present moment; and 150 Second Letter to Mr. Tilloch on the Cow-Pock. and their prejudices are strong, and not to be overcome by reason. Hence, while the inoculation of the wealthy keeps up a perpetual source of infection, those who either do not choose, or cannot afford expense, are more exposed to this distemper. The danger also is increased by the custom of sending persons into the open air in every stage of the dis- ease. Hence, while inoculation may be justly esteemed as one of the greatest improvements ever introduced into the medical art, it occasions a greater sacrifice of life by what has been distinguished by the appellation of the natural small-pox.” As a proof of this position, we have the following record from a most diligent and careful observer of facts, Dr. Wil- lan, in his account of the diseases in London. «© A child having been inoculated in a court (whose parent kept a chandler’s-shop) consisting of twenty houses ; the consequence was, that in this court seventeen persons took the natural small-pox, although the season was kind (April) ; and eight of these died. ‘© They in their turn became the focus of fresh infection, and thus a private good was converted into a public evil.” 3. Description of the inoculated Cow-Pock. First, of the Pustule.—4th day, A rising pimple con- taining a fluid; the apex elevated.—sth day, A circular even-edged, flat, uniform pustule, containing a fluid in cells; the apex ascab; circular inflammation—10th day, Pustule enlarged with many small depressions; its central part converting to a scab; fluid still transparent; the central scab increased, and of a mahogany colour; hardness and circular inflammation.—13th day, The central scab in- creased in size, of a dark mahogany colour; the circle of the pustule, as seen on the 10th day, completely converted into ahazel-coloured scab; scarcely any fluid; inflammation _ deadened.—14th day, Almost all the pustule converted into _ ahazel-coloured scab, surrounding the dark mahogany cen- tral scab; scarce any containing fluid, and that only in the circumference, which has lost its blue tinge, and looks brown.—15th day, The whole pustule converted into two distinct seabs ; no fluid; a white ring surrounding the pus- tule from the peeling away of some dead cuticle.—16th day, More white concentric rings from the same cause, and the harduess and inflammation greatly subsided. These appearances may vary according to constitutions ; they were drawn under my eye, from examinations made on twa its effects.” Second Letter to Mr. Tilloch on the Cow-Pock. 151 two of my own children, and tolerably correctly charac- terize the usual stages of the cow-pock. The cow-pock pustule is distinguished from the small- pox pustule from the following differences : In the smad/-pox the inoculated pustule is angulated, and numerous pustules surround it; in the cow-pock, the pustule has its edges regularly circumscribed, and stands solitary ; the small-pox pustule contains first a fluid, then opaque matter; the cow-pock pustule a gelatinous fluid, which never becomes converted into pus; the edges of the one are more _elevated, in the other more depressed; the scab is also much darker and harder in the cow-pock.—(Jenner.) The fluid of the cow-pock is like the juice of an orange, in blebs; of the smadl-pox, in a single cavity. The one may be inoculated upon, and is the disease of ammals ; whereas the small-pox seems peculiar to the human race, and can be en- grafted, as John Hunter’s experiment proves, upon no animal. When the cow-pock is inoculated, itnever produces an ir- ruptive disease liketke other, but usually only a local pustule. Dr. Woodville, in his public report on the cow-pock, observes, “ That of the last two thousand cases of cow-pock_ yinder my care, not a single alarming symptom was excited ; and I may now add, that during the last eight months I have not met with one instance of the vaccine disease, which has not been as favourable as the mildest cases of variolous inoculation. I haveno doubt, therefore, that the inoculated cow-pock is as much milder than the inoculated small-pox, as the latter disease is milder than the casual small-pox: nay, it seems to me from the very benign form in which the vaccine pock has of late invariably appeared, that it may be considered as a disease perfectly harmless in Dr. Willan, in his general report of the diseases of Lon- don, says, ‘‘ Few or none of the out-patients of the hospi- tal, inoculated with the vaccine pock, have pustules over the body.” Dr. Woodville likewise observes, (Observations ‘on the Cow-Pock, page 24,) “¢ In my private practice of in~ oculation for the cow-pock, which has been very extensive, I have not met with one instance in which any pustules, re- sembling those of the small-pox, appeared.”” My own ex- aa coincides perfectly with this statement, in dif- erent families I have seen inoculated with vaccine fluid, oc- casionally selected by myself at the hospital, and taken on new lancets, about sixty persons, none of whom had pus- tular eruptions*, at the maturation of the pack formed RY the * In one child, three minute hard tubercles appeared on the fore-arm K4 about ‘ 152 Second Letter to Mr. Tilloch on the Cow-Pock. the puncture. Patients admitted into the inoculation hos- ieee have often pustules on the body, after vaccine matter as been inserted in the arm, from the following cause: They are mostly persons from the country, who, alarmed . on finding some of the inhabitants of the houses where they lodge, or visit, affected with the small-pox, endeavour to an- ticipate the disorder by means of inoculation, at some asylum opened to them by public benevolence. But the applica- tion is probably too late: some of them have already re= ceived the infection, and, before the vacciné pock can reach the end of its second stage, an eruption of variolous pus- tules takes place in the usual manner. In attending at the hospital last summer, while Dr. Woodville was on his mis- sion to Paris, I observed four instances of persons so cir- cumstanced, in whom the eruptions appeared, on different days, between the third and the eighth from inoenlation*. The cow-pock producing no pustules, no quantity of fluid is re-absorbed into the constitution, producing a se- condary fever, as is often in small-pox, and the constitu- tional affection is also much slighter, when it occurs, than © with the small-pox. The small-pox when inoculated, or taken naturally, usually is ushered in by convulsion in children at all ages. ‘¢ Paint to yourself,’ says Dr. Macdonald, ‘* one of these little innocent sufferers, stretched out, and covered with one continued sore; threatened with suffocation, uttering the agonies he feels by piercingly heart-wounding groans.—Ob- serve how his mouth foams; listen to the grinding of his teeth; see how he thrusts his little trembling tongue be- twixt them, and how piteously it is wounded !—Look! how he is agitated with the most dreadful convulsions! his feeble limbs are twisted and contorted, and threaten dislo- cation; his frame bends backwards; is lifted up and thrown down again!—These fits now inctease,—then cease, alas! only to return with redoubled violence.—Masery calls aloud for help, help;—but calls in vain.—New convulsions suc- ceed;—he foams,—struggics, gasps,—gasps again,—-and expires !” The cow-pock is never ushered in by convulsions, about the seventh day, but they subsided in two or three days. . This Nittle eruption was merely the strophulus candidus, described in the Trea- tise on Cutaneous Diseases, page 32. * From this cause some confusion arose in Dr. Woodville’s first re- portss for, from inoculating at the same time with variolous matter, and sometimes fiom the contagion of the small-pox, pustular cases were not unfrequently produced. ' [Po be continued. ] XXV. Seventeenth AakSS Ap. XXV. Seventeenth Communication from Dr. Thornton, rela- tive to Pneumatic Medicine. To Mr. Tilloch. Nov. 10, 1804; DEAR SIR, N .1, Hinde-strect, Manchester-square. I HAVE the honor to enclose you the following very striking gase for the information of the philosophic world: . Case of Chronic Herpes cured by the Vital Air. Mr. Thomas Clutterham, glover, now residing at No. 3, Thayer-street, Manchester-square,was a patient of mine so far back as September 1796; and he had been afflicted, he be- lieves, from his cradle with a general humour extending nearly over the wholesurface. Various remedies had been usedat dif- ferent times, but to no purpose, under very able practitioners. His disease appeared to me to be confirmed herpes (impetigo scabida of the very accurate Dr. Willan); and his face, when I first saw him, looked very like one labouring under the small-pox, being one general incrustation. The erup- tion, as I observed before, was also diffused over the whole body. This disease had now existed ‘wenty-three years. I ordered bim to continue the use of the same re~ medies, before found ineffectual; as bark and steel, and, in addition, he mhaled the vital air,—a gallon to four of atmo- _ spheric air twice in the day,—and continued this for three months, without intermitting a day (Sundays in- cluded), when the eruption, gradually declining, was wholly eRe and I pronounced him, I hoped, permanently cured. Observations on this Case. 1. The patient is now before me (November 20, 1804), and says ** he has enjoyed excellent health ever since, and has had no eruption of any kind, either in the face or any part of the body; nor has he taken any medicine whatever since.” 2. He remembers “ that the vital air very much in- creased his appetite; that he ate more hearty during its ad~ ministration than at any former, or even at the present period.” _ 3. © Hisspirits were raised in consequence.” 4. Is not the rationale of this remarkable cure as follows? The vessels on the surface were torpid in their powers; but when the heart was roused to increased action by the vital air, 154: On Cerium. air, these were set into better motion, and the stagnated fluids absorbed, and more vis vite thrown on the surface, sufficient to remove cutaneous obstructions; and, aided by tonic medicines, the disease vanished. 5. Query—W ould the vital air alone have effected so ex- traordinary a cure? or medicines ?—It is from combined powers that I believe the benefit arose, as I have before endeavoured to explain in some other cases. I have the honour to remain, Dear sir, Your faithful, obliged friend, Rospert JOHN THORNTON. XXVI. On Cerium, anew Metal found ina Mineral Sub- stance of Bastnas in Sweden, called Tungsten, described ly W. D’Hrsincer and J. B. BERzEtius*. I. Description of the Tungsten of Bastnas. "Turoven this substance was formerly tried by Scheele and D’Ellbuyar, under the name of wolfram, yet its consi- derable specific gravity determined us to subject it to further researches. Our object in particular was to find yttria, which, being unknownat the time when these chemists carried on their labours, might have escaped their attention. Our suspicions were ill-founded ; since, instead of an earth, we found init, according to every appearance, a substance hitherto unknown, as will be seen by what follows: The tungsten of Bastnas, which we call cerite, for rea- sons which will be hereafter mentioned, was found in the year 1750, in a copper mine called Bastnas, or Saint Gorans Koppargrufva, at Riddare-Hyttan, in Westmannia, of which jt formed with asbestos the matrix; but after that time it was mclosed in quartz and mica, at the depth of seventeen toises. Bh cetaa Tungsten is almost always mechanically mixed with black amphibolite (hornbleud), striated actinote, of a bright green colour (schorl), with mica, sulphurated copper, bismuth, and sulphurated molybdena, as one may be more readily convinced by exposing it to the fire. eos Cerite, properly so called, is transparent, of a flesh colour, sometimes dark, sometimes bright, and rarely yellow. The stone in a mass, and in small specimens, is of an irregular * From Aunales de Chimie, Nov 150.. form 3 4 i On Cerium. 155 form ; its fracture is indeterminate, compact, and somewhat brilliant; the edges obtuse; its consisténce is tenacious and strong; it strikes fire with difficulty, but it does not scratch glass; it is not susceptible of attraction by the magnet ; but when it has been brought to a red heat in the fire, it loses its hardness and six or seven per cent. of its weight. By this ‘operation it becomes friable, and assumes a bright yellow colour; it does not fuse alone. Cronstedt, in his Mineralogy, places it, in consequence of its specific gravity, among the tungstens. In pure frag- ments its weight is to that of water, as 4733 and 4935 to 1000. As Scheele did not find wolfram in it, he called it false tungsten. According to an analysis of D’ElIhuyar, the constituent pave of this mineral were given by Bergmann, in the emoirs of the Academy for the year 1784, p. 121, a5 fol- OWS; Silex - 022 Tron - 024 Lime < 054 100 Heated by the blow-pipe with borax, it forms a glass glo- bule, which, when warm, appears greenish, but colourless when it has cooled. When fused with carbonate of soda, in a platina spoon, it is not dissolved. TI. Analysis of Cerium. To separate the yttria, which it was suspected to contain, it was reduced to a fine powder in a porphyry mortar, and pure concentrated nitric acid was then added to.it. The acid was decomposed, anda considerable quantity of nitrous and carbonic acid gases was disengaged. The. stony owder was several times treated with acid, until the insoluble resi- duum appeared white.: The solution, diluted with water, had a yellow colour, which became greenish by ebullition, and then red ;—when dried completely, it became yellowish white; but by attract- ing humidity it resumes its red colour. In alcohol it is entirely dissolved, and the solution, when slightly digested, deposits a considerable quantity of oxide of iron. It deposited also more oxide of iron during a rest of some days in a window. The solution decanted, being almost clear, was evaporated to dryness, and the salt cal- cined exhibited a powder of a brick colour, Water kp able 156 On. Cerium. able to dissolve only the calcareous earth. Distilled vinegar’ became charged only with a very small portion, and was not saturated, though assisted by the heat,of ebullition. The: acetic solution, when evaporated, gave small granulated crystals, of a saccharine and astringent taste. They were not soluble in alcohol. The part of the acctous salt, which was not dissolved by alcohol, gave, after calcination, a wder of a brick colour, similar to that which had not thes dissolved. se Ammonia precipitated from the solution of the alcohol a. white powder, which became yellowish in theair. It was a little soluble by carbonate of ammonia, and, by calcination, assumed a brick colour. The sediment being separated, the carbonate of ammonia produced a white precipitate, which was pure carbonate of lime. The acetous salt then contained no yttria. The powder from which the calcareous earth had been separated, dissolved in muriatic acid, disengaging oxy- genated muriatic acid gas, which indicated that it was a me- tallic oxide. Was it oxide of manganese united with oxide of iron? To ascertain this, we tried to develop the pure oxide from the manganese by means of the tartrite of potash, according to the method of Richter. In this manner we decomposed with tartrite of potash a solution of this substance in muri- atic acid perfectly neutralized, and, after having well washed the white precipitate, we subjected it to slow calcination : but this produced only powder of a brick colour. Caustic alkali had no action on the insoluble part of the nitrate ; which proves that it contained no alumine, To obtain the metal pure in a sufficient quantity for making several trials, we dissolved another portion of cerite — in nitric acid, and evaporated the solution to dryness. Water was then poured over the residuum, and the whole was precipitated by ammonia. ‘The precipitate when washed | was dissolved in nitric acid. The solution, when well neutralized by alkali, was precipitated by the tartrite of pot- ash. There was precipitated also from the same solution,’ by carbonate of potash, a white powder, but in small quan- tity. Both these precipitates were calcined separately, and both assumed a brick colour. The precipitate formed by the carbons‘e of potash was not dissolved by the potash with the assistance of digestion; there was therefore no alumine in it. The iron which the sclution precipitated by the tartrite of potash contained, was separated by the hydro-sulphuret of ammonia. The rest of the solution of the On Cerium. 157 the cerite im nitric acid, which had been precipitated by caustic ammonia, gave by carbonate of ammonia carbonate of lime. It results from these trials that cerite contains nearly 93 parts of silex, 5°5 of carbonate of lime, 22 oxide of iron, and a quantity of that matter in a metallic state; the weight of which after calcination exceeded, a little, 50 per cent. But this substance being then, as well as the iron, united with more oxygen than they contained in the cerite, instead of loss we had an increase of gravity, which in all probability arose from the oxygen. The loss which the cerite had ex- perienced by calcination is not here included. We thus found traces of manganese, but in a quantity so inconsi- derable that the potash fused with cerite and dissolved in water exhibited no colour. Not having much experience in regard to complete ana- lysis, as far as quantity is concerned, we give these results only with reserve, and in the hope that more expert che- mists will employ themselves on this object. III. Examination of the metallic Oxide found in Cerite. ‘With 37 grains of this oxide and linseed oil we made a paste, which was reduced to charcoal in a covered crucible. It lost half a grain of its weight. This mass was inclosed in a crucible of charcoal without flux: and M, Hjelm ex- pore it for half an hour to such a degree of heat as would be uecessary for the reduction of manganese. The oxide was not fused, but reduced to a very fine powder: it exhi- bited to the light brilliant particles, and stained white paper black. It dissolved in muriatic acid, disengaging at the commencement sulphurated hydrogen gas, and then pure hydrogen gas. This colourless solution had a saccharine taste. It therefore appeared to us that the metal was in part reduced. One may find the origin of the sulphur in the sulphuric acid from which the matter had been separated by caustic ammonia. It will be seen by further researches what influence this acid has in these trials. M. Gahn, of Fahlun, having a proper apparatus, pro- mised to us .to undertake the reduction of this substance with more force. If this operation be attended with success, we shall give an account of it hereafter. These and the following circumstances have determined us to consider the substance found in cerite as the oxide of a metal hitherto unknown, to which we have given the name of cerium, from the planet Ceres discovered by Piazzi. Method 158 On Cerium. Method of obtaining Oxide of Cerium. (A.) Dissolve pure cerite, not calcined, in nitro-muriati¢ acid, and, having saturated the clear solution with alkali, precipitate it by tartrite of potash. The precipitate, when well washed, calcined, and digested in vinegar, contains pure oxide of cerium. Or decompose a solution of cerium in nitro-muriatic acid, still warm, but not saturated by succinate of ammo- nia: a succinate of iron is gradually deposited. Continue this precipitation by muriate of ammonia until a white pre- cipitate appears. Leave the solution at rest, in order that the small portion of succinate of cerium may be deposited. The iron dissolved by the free muriatic acid deposits itself at the same time, and the solution is obtained free from that metal. You may then precipitate the cerium with ammonia, and wash and calcine it. Of the Properties of Oxide of Cerium. (B.) This oxide may appear under different degrees of oxidation. Alkalies precipitate from its solutions a white oxide, which in the air has_a yellowish colour, but which when perfectly dry becomes dark. When exposed to a strong heat, long continued, it assumes a dark brick colour. The oxalate and acetate of cerium, when calcined in vessels not completely shut, give a white oxide, which on an open fire becomes of a brick colour. It does not fuse alone. Treated by the blowpipe with borax, it readily fuses and swells up. The globule struck, by the external flame, as- sumes a blood colour, which by cooling passes to a greeri- ish yellow, and at length becomes colourless and acquires completé transparency. Fused by the interior flame, these changes do not take place: it is then reduced to colourless glass, but when exposed a little time to the exterior flame the same phenomena are exhibited. If too much oxide of cerium be employed, the glass resembles yellowish opake enamel. These changes are manifested more readily with phosphates of soda and of ammonia, If two clear colourless globules, one of which is made with borax and the other with phosphate, be fused together, they give a transparent glass, which on cooling becomes of an opake pearl colour. These characters taken together distinguish oxide of ce- tium from oxide of iron. The latter presents the same changes of colours ; but its glass, after it has been cooled, has a dark green fugitive colour. The globules of borax and phosphate fused together give an opake glass, the colour of which is a little darker. [To be continued. ] XXVII. Mes [ 159 J XXVII. Method of giving the Grain and Hardness of Steel to Copper. By B. G. Sace*. Manenatr and Pelletier have published their researches on the union of phosphorus with different metallic sub- stances: the French chemist has improved this process, and it was by repeating and varying his experiments that I dis- covered that the surest and speediest means of phosphoriz- ing copper was to take the metal under the metallic form, to fuse it with two parts of animal glass, and a twelfth of charcoal powder ; but it is essential that the copper should present a great deal of surface,—an advantage obtained by taking shavings of that metal, which are placed in strata with animal glass mixed with charcoal powder. I expose the crucible to a fire sufficiently strong to fuse the animal glass. There is then formed phosphorus, the greater part of which burns, while another combines with the copper, in which it remains incarcerated till no more is disengaged, though kept in fusion for twenty minutes under the animal glass which has not been decomposed. When the crucible has cooled, and is broken, the phos- 49% ea copper is found in the form of a gray brilliant utton under the glass, which has passed to the state of red enamel. On being weighed, it is found that by this opera- tion its weight has been increased a twelfth. If the phosphorized copper, when fused, falls on a plate of polished iron, it extends itself over it in the form of plates differently eared which exhibit the play of colours of a pigeon’s neck. The phosphorized copper is much more fusible than common copper: it may often be fused under charcoal powder without losing any of its properties. The same phosphorized copper, when exposed a long time undet the muffle, separates only with great difficulty from the phosphorus. The copper thus combined with phosphorus acquires the hardness of steel, of which it has the grain and the co- lour : like it, it is susceptible of the finest polish; it can be easily turned ; it does not become altered in the air. 1 have kept buttons of polished phosphorized copper in my labo- ratory for fifteen years, without their experiencing any al- teration. The copper emits no smell when rubbed. Were it ductile, it would be of the greatest utility, since no fat bodies seem to have any hold of it. * From the Yournat de Physique, Messidor, an 12. , , n 160 On Phosphoric Acid and Phosphorus. Tn the phosphorization of copper there is only a part of the animal glass decomposed, because a quantity of char- coal necessary to phosphorize the whole acid has not been employed : but it is necessary that this should be the case | in order that the vitreous scoria should be sufficiently fluid for the phosphorus to be disengaged and to collect itself readily. The dark red enamel which is formed in this experiment may be employed with advantage for porcelain and enamels, as this red does not alter in the fire. Copper can combine with phosphorus only in the dry way. Ifa cylinder of phosphorus be put into a solution of nitrate of copper diluted with four or fiye thousand parts of water, copper under the metallic form will be found at the end of eight days crystallized and ductile, forming a case to the cylinder of phosphorus. XXVIII. On Phosphoric Acid and Phosphorus. By Jos. Hume, Esq. To Mr. Tilloch. DEAR SIR, T the request of a medical friend of mine, I lately made some experiments with a view to form a comparative esti- mate between healthy urine and some of a peculiar morbid nature. In this analysis, amongst other observations which oc- curred, I found that acetite of lead is hy no means to be depended on as the best test for phosphoric acid; that it is liable to induce error; and in many instances where it has been trusted to ascertain the quantity of the acid, the accu- racy of the results may be suspected, especially where the ‘subject did not consist of a simple phosphate. : If my professional avocations permit, I shall endeavour to extend many of these remarks, and fit them, under some arrangement, for a future number of the Philosophical Ma- gazine. It may be proper, however, to acquaint you, that the substitutes [ employed in lieu of acetite of lead, were nitrates of lead, of barytes, or of zinc; and some other metallic salts which need not be named. In point of ceconomy and efficacy nitrate of lead is vastly superior to the acetite for the most exact and complete se~ paration of phosphoric acid: hence in all cases whatever it ought to be universally preferred in the preparation of phosphorus. With On Phosphoric Acid and Phosphorus. 161 With regard to the value, nitrate of lead may, I presume, be manufactured at less than 4-5ths of the price of the ace- tite. The last we know requires that the lead be previously prepared and oxidated ; and much time is spent in tlic ope- ration: on the contrary, the nitrate may be made directly from the metal itself in the metallic state, When phosphate of soda was decomposed by these me- | tallic salts, | found invariably a material difference in favour of nitrate of lead: for 100 grains of the nitrate decomposed 420 of the neutro-saline salt; whereas 100 of the acetite of lead required but 77 grains of the same phosphate. The metallic phosphate formed by the nitrate of lead and phosphate of soda was pure; but that procured by the ace- tite was contaminated with an oxide, ora kind, as I suspect, of sub-acetite of the metal; and this circumstance alone decidedly urged me to reject it as a test, and to abide by, and rely on, nitrate of lead alone in every future analysis. I know both of these metallic salts have been proposed for the preparation of phosphorus; but in no work what- ever, especially of the elementary kind, has any decided preference been bestowed on the nitrate of lead: on the contrary, the acetite is generally prescribed even by authors of the most modern date. These remarks naturally point out the most frugal method to procure phosphorus: the process, therefore, I should preter is briefly this :— a To decompose phosphate of soda by nitrate of lead; to wash and separate the metallic phosphate; and, in the usual manner, by means of charcoal, distil off the phosphorus. I have chosen phosphate of soda, in order to procure the phosphorus quite pure; as I apprehend, without great cau- tion, some sulphates may exist when the acid is prepared from bones, agreeably to Nicholas de Nancy’s process, and may eventually be converted into sulphur, which, we know, will rise and distil over with the phosphorus. This suspicion was entertained by my much respected friend the late Mr: “ Woulfe. ; In many places, such as in garrisons, several public esta+ blishments, and amongst manufacturers, where urine might be collected. with more decency, an immense quantity of phosphate of lead may be formed daily, and returned for a quantity of nitrate of lead, with which they should be furnished for the purpose. I need not say this is Giobert’s process, that of decomposing the phosphates in utine ; such as are capable of it, by nitrate of Jead too. I am surprised Vou, 20, No.78, Nov, 1804. L it 162 On two Metals, found in the black Powder it has not only been little noticed, but absolutely seems to. have been rejected from general practice. By sundry experiments I have ascertained, that, on an average, from 300 to 500 grains of phosphate of lead may be daily obtained from the urine generated by one healthy individual; by employing, for that purpose, a solution of nitrate of lead. Very pure phosphoric acid may likewise be commodiousl¥ manutactured by means of nitrate of barytes. The phos- phate thus formed is to be, in its turn, decomposed by sul- phuric acid. This process applies equally to separate the phosphoric acid from urine, or from the impure acid obtained from calcined bones. _ After bones have been calcined and powdered, they should invariably be washed before the affusion of sulphuric acid, that no neutral soluble salt remain: this operation maybe readily performed by suspending the pulverised ashes in a large quantity of water; and this method deserves to bé followed on many other occasions. [remain, sir, Your obedient servant, Long Acre, Jos. HumME, Nov. 19, 1504, XXIX. Ontwo Metals, found in the black Powder remaining after the Solution of Platina, By Smirnson TENNANT, Esq. F. R.S.* iow making some experiments, last summer, on the ‘ black powder which remains after the solution of platina, I observed that it did not, as was generally believed, consist chiefly of plumbago, but contained some unknown metallic ingredients. Intending to repeat my éxperiments with more attention during the winter, I mentioned the result of them to Sir Joseph Banks, together with my intention of communicating to the Royal Society my examination of this substance, as soon as it should appear.in any degree satisfactory. Two memoirs were afterwards published in France, on the same subject; one of them by M. Descotils, and the other by Messrs. Vauquelin and Fourcroy. M. Descotils chiefly directs his attention to the effects produced by this substance on the solutions of platina. He remarks, that a small portion of it is always taken up by nitro-muria- * From the Transactions of the Royal Society of London for 1804. tic remaining after the Solution of Platina. 163 tic acid, during its action on platina; and, principally from the observations he is thence enabled to make, he infers, that it contains a new metal, which, among other proper- ties, has that of giving a deep red colour to the precipitates of platina. M. Vauquelin attempted a more direct analysis of the substance, and obtained from it the same metal as that dis- covered by M. Descotils. But neither of these chemists has observed, that it contains also another metal, different from any hitherto known. The substance with which my experiments were made, was obtained from platina which had been previously freed from the sand and other impurities generally mixed with it ; so that it must have been contained in the substance of the grains of platina.. Though it has somewhat the appearance of plumbago, it may easily be distinguished by its stiperior Weight. By weighing it in a phial with water, I found its specific gravity almost 10°7. Before I describe the method of separating the two metals of which it consists, it may be worth while to mention the effects of it, when combined with different metals in an entire state. It readily unites with lead; but, even with ten times its own weight, the compound has not, when melted, much fluidity. Upon dissolving the Jead in nitrous acid, the black powder was obtained, with little apparent alteration, not having been entirely broken down, but con- sisting chiefly of the same scaly particles as at first. With bismuth, zinc, and tin, the effects were nearly similar; but, by fusion with copper in a very strong heat, a more per- fect union was produced. On attempting to dissolve the compound by nitro-1auriatic acid, some of the powder was taken up with the copper, forming a very dark solution. The undissolved portion consisted partly of the substance in its original form of scales, and partly of a blacker powder, the particles of which were too small to be visible, and which had probably been completely combined with the copper. This substance may be easily united, by fusion, with silver or gold; and it is particularly deserving of attention, that it cannot be separated from these metals by the usual process of refining. It remains combined with either of them, after cupellation with lead; and with the gold, after quartation with silver. The alloys retain considerable duc- tility; and the colour of that with gold is not materially different from pure gold. I shall now proceed to describe the analysis of the black powder, and the properties of the two metals which enter L@2 into 164 On.two Metals, found in the black’ Powder into its composition. .The method. which I used: for dis-. solving it, was similar to that employed by M. Vauquelin ; the alternate action of caustic alkali, and of an acid. I put a quantity of the powder into a crucible of silver, with a large proportion of pure dry soda, and kept it in a "red heat for some time. ‘The alkali being then dissolved in water, had acquired a deep orange, or brownish-yellow “colour, but. much of the powder remained undissolved. This powder, digested in marine acid, gave a dark blue solution, which afterwards became of a dusky olive-green, and finally, by continuing the heat, of adeep red colour. Part ef the pow- der, being yet undissolved by the inarine acid, was heated as besian with alkali; and, by the alternate action of the alkali and acid, the whole appeared capable of solution. At each operation some silex was taken up by the alkali; and, as this continued tili the metallic part was entirely dissolved, it scems to have been chemically combined with it. The alkaline solution contains the oxide of a volatile. metal, not yet noticed, but which I shall presently deseribe, and also a small proportion of the other metal. If this solu- tion is kept for some wecks, the latter metal separates spon- taneously from it, in the form of very thin flakes, of a dark colour. The acid solution also contains both the metals, but prin- cipally that which has been mentioned by the French che- mists. The propertics of this last metal, which they have remarked, are those of giving a red colour to the triple salt of platina with sal-ammoniac, of not being altered by muriate of tin, and of giving, with pure alkali, a dark brown precipi-. tate. M. Vauquelin also adds, that it is precipitated by galls, and by prussiate of potash; but I should rather ascribe these : precipitates to some impurity, and probably to iron. Asit is necessary to give some name to bodies which have not been known before, and most convenient to indicate by it some characteristic property, I should incline to call this metal #idiwm, from the striking variety of colours which it gives, while dissolving in marine acid. In order to obtain ihe compound of this metal with ma- rine acid in a pure state, I tried to make it crystallize. By slow evaporation of the solution, only an imperfectly ‘crystallized mass was produced; but this, being dried on blotting-paper, and dissolved in water, afforded, by again evaporating as before, distinct octaédral cry stals, These crystals, dissolved in water, gave a deep red coloured solu- tion, inclining to orange. With an infusion of galls, no precipitate was formed, but the colour was instantly, and almost remaining after the Solution of Platina. 165 almost entirely, taken away. Muriate of tin, carbonate of soda, and prussiate of potash, produced nearly the same effect. Pure ammonia precipitates the oxide; but (possibly from adding it in excess) [ found it retained a part im solu- tion, acquiring a purple colour. ‘The pure fixed alkalis also precipitate the greater part of the oxide, but are capable of retaining a ‘part in solution, becoming of a yellow colour. All the metals which I tried, excepting gold and platina, produced a dark or black precipitate from the muriated solution, which ts at the same time deprived of its colour. The iridium may be obtained in a pure state, merely by exposing the octaédral crystals to heat, which expels the oxygen and the muriatic acid. It ap- peared of a white colour, and was not capable of being melted by any degree of heat I could apply. I could not combine ‘it with sulphur nor with arsenic. Lead easily unites with it; but is separated by cupellation, leaving the iridium upon the cupel, as a coarse black powder. Copper forms with it a very malleable piney which, after cupellation with the addition of lead, left a small proportion of the iridium, but much less han in the former ease. Silver may be dinited with it, and the compound remains perfectly malleable.’ ‘Tbe iridium was not separated from it by cupel- jJation, but occasioned on the suriace a dark or tarnished hue. It appeared not to be perfectly combined with the silver, but merely diffused through the substance of it, in the state of a fine powder. Gold alloyed with iridium is not freed from it by Taentiods nor by quartation with silver. The compound was malleable; and did not differ much in colour from pure gold, though the proportion of alloy was very considerable. If the gold or silver is dis- solved, the indium is lett, in the form of a black powder, The: yellow alkaline solution, which I have already mention- ed as containing a metallic exider distinet from the former, ts considered by M. Vauquelin asa solution of the oxide of ebromeinalkali; but I could not, by any test, discover the pre-~ sence of chrome. After the superfluous alkali had been neu- tralized by an acid, it produced a pale or butf-coloured pre- cipitate with a solution of lead, and not the bright yellow 4 is given by chrome. But, as we are indebted to the above distinguished chemist, among many other important discoveries, for our knowledge of the existence of chrome, it is not improbable that some kinds of platina may contain that substance, besides the other bodies usually mixed with its When the alkaline solution is first for med, by adding water to the dry alkaline mass in the crucible, a pungent and L.3 peculiar 166 On iwo Meials, found in the black Powder peculiar smell is immediately perceived. This smell, as I afterwards discovered, arises from the extrication of avery volatile metallic oxide; and, as this smell is one of its most distinguishing characters, I should on that account incline to call the metal osmium. This oxide may be expelled from the alkali by any acid, ; and obtained in solution with water by distillation. The sulphuric acid, being the least volatile, is the most proper for this purpose; but as, even of this acid, a little is liable to pasa over, a second slow distillation is required, to obtain the oxide perfectly free frem it. The solution thus pro- cured is without colour, has a sweetish taste, and the strong smell before mentioned. Paper stained blue with violets, was not changed by it tored; but, by being exposed to the vapour of it in aphial, the paper lost much of its blue colour, and inclined to gray. As a certain quantity of this oxide is extricated during the solution of the iridium in marine acid, that part may also be obtaimed by distillation. Another mode by which the oxide of osmium may be obiained in small quantity, but in amore concentrated state, 4s, by disulling with nitre the original black powder procured from platina. With a degree of heat hardly red, there sublimes into the neck of the retort a fluid apparently oily, but which, on cooling, concretes into a solid, colourless, semitransparent mass. This, being dissolved in water, forms a solution similar to that before described. The oxide, in this concen- trated state, stains the skin of a dark colour, which cannot be eflaced. The most striking test of the oxide of osmium, is an infusion of galls, which presently produces a purple | colour, becoming soon after of a deep vivid blue. By this means, the presence of this, and of the metal first described, may be observed, when the two are mixed together. The solution of iridium is not apparently altered by being mixed with the oxide of osmium; but, on adding an in- fusion of galls, the red colour of the first is instantly taken away, and soon after the purple and blue colour of the latter appears. The solution of the oxide of osmium with pure ammonia, becomes somewhat yellow, and slightly so with carbonate of soda. It is not affected by pure magnesia, nor by chalk; but with lime a solution is formed of a bright yellow colour, The solution with lime gives with galls a deep red precipitate, which becomes blue by acids. It produces no effect on a solution of platina or gold; but precipitates lead of a yellowish-brown, mercury of a white, and muriate of tin of a-brown colour. 1 ‘ - The remaining after the Solution of Platina. 167 The oxide of osmium becomes of a dark colour with alcohol, and, after some time, separates in the form of black films, leaving the alechol without colour. The same effect is produced by ether, and much more quickly. This oxide appears to part with its oxygen to all the metals, excepting gold and platina. Silver being kept in a solution of it for some time, acquires a black colour; but does not entirely deprive it of smell. Copper, tin, zinc, and phos- phorus, quickly produce a black or gray powder, and deprive the solution of all smell and of the power of turning, walls of ablue colour. This black powder, which consists of the osmium in a metallic state, and the oxide of the metal employed to precipitate it, may be dissolved in nitro- muriatic acid, and then becomes blue with infusion of galls! If the pure oxide of osmium, dissolved in water, is shaken with mercury, it very soon loses its smell; and the metal, combining with the mercury, forms a perfect amalgam. Much of the mercury may be separated by squeezing it through leather, which retains the amalgam of a Hence con- sistence. The remaining mercury being distilled off, a powder is left, of a dark gray or blue colour, which is the Osmium in its pure state. By exposing it to heat with access of air, it evaporates, with the usual smell; but if the oxida- tion is carefully prevented, it docs not seem in any degree volatile. Being subjected to a strong white heat, in a cavi- ty made in a piece of charcoal, it was not melted, nor did it undergo. any apparent alteration. Heated in a similar situation with copper and with gold, it melted with each of these metals, forming alloys which were quite malleable. These compounds were easily dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid, and, by distillation, afforded the oxide of osmium with the usual properties. The pure metal which has been previously heated, does not seem to be acted on by acids; at least I could not per- ceive any effect produced by boiling it for some time with nitro-muriatic acid. By heating it in a silver cup with caustic alkali, it immediately combined with the alkali, and, with water, gave a yellow solution, similar to that from which it was procured. Acids expel from this solution the oxide of osmium, which has the usual sinell, and the power of giving to infusion of galls the blue colour before men- tioned. L4 XXX. On = [4684.9 XXX. On a new Metal, found in crude Platina. By Wiviram Hype Wottaston, M.D. F.R.S.* rift ; ' Nossutimediend T was aware that M. Descotils had ascribed the red colour of certain precipitates and salts of: platina, to the presence of a new metal; and although Mr. Tennant had obligingly communicated to me his discovery of the same substance, as well as of a second new metal, in the shining powder that remains undissolved from the ore of platina; yet I was led to suppose that the more soluble parts of this mineral might be deserving of further examination, as the fluid which remains after the precipitation of platina by sal ammoniac, presents appearances which I could nat ascribe to either of those bodies, or to any other known substance. ; My inquiries having terminated more successfully than I had expected, I design in the present Memoir to prove the existence, and to examine the properties, of another metal, hitherto unknown, which may not improperly be distin- guished by the name of rhodium, from the rose-colour of a dilute solution of the salts containing it. I shall also take the same opportuuity of stating the result of various experiments, which have convinced me, that the metallic substance which was last year offered for sale by the name of palladium, is contained (though in very small proportion) in the ore of platina, ' 4 m The colour of the solution that remains after the precipi- tation of platina, varies, not only according to its state of dilution, but also according to the strength and proportions of the nitric and muriatic acids employed, This colour, though principally owing to the quantity of iron contained in it, arises also in part from a smal] quantity of the am- moniaco-muriate of platina, that necessarily remains dis- solved, and from other metals contained in still smaller pro- portions. r «ond hkl ERT Mae eta (A 1.) To recover the remaining platina, as well as to separate the other metals that are present from the iron, I have in some experiments employed zinc, in others iron, for their precipitation. The former appears preferable; but, when the latter has been used, the precipitate may imme- diately be treed from the iron that adheres to it, by muriatic acid, without the logs of any of those metals which are at present the subject of inquiry. Ra ae ¥ From the Transactions of the Royal Suciety of London for 1804. On anew Metal, found in crude Platina. 169 ‘(A 2.) Having in one instance dissolved such a precipitate in nitro-muriatic acid, and precipitated the platina by sal ammoniac, I suffered the remaining fluid to evaporate with- out heat; and obtained a mixture of various crystals, very different from each other in form and colour. From these, I selected for examination some that were of a deep red colour, partly in thin plates adhering to the sides of the vessel, and partly in the form of square prisms having a rectangular termination. (A 3.) A portion of these crystals being heated ina smal! tube, yielded sal ammoniac by sublimation, and left a black residuum, which, by greater heat, acquired a brilliant me- tallic whiteness, but could not be fused under the blow- pipe. Having obtained this substance from a distinctly cry- stallized salt, I was’ inclined to consider it as a simple metal; and, as I found it to be wholly insoluble in nitro- muriatic acid, I judged it not to be platina. (A 4.) The crystals also, instead of being nearly insolu- ble, like the ammoniaco-muriate of platina, were dissolved in a sinall quantity of water, and gave a rose-coloured solu- tion. Upon mixing this with a solution of platina, the ammonia was trausferred by superior athnity to the latter, forming an ammoniaco-muriate of platina; and the precipi- tate was of a yellow colour. Consequently, the metal con- tained in the salt was neither platina, nor that which gives the red colour to the salts of platina. ' Itwould be useless to detail my first unsuccessful experi- ments, made upon the properties of this metal, in hopes of discovering means by which its separation from _platina , might be effected; I shall therefore confine myself to the following process, which appears to be the most direct for procuring rhodium in a state of purity. In the same process also palladium is obtained, so as to afford a presumption, that it is rather a natural simple body than any artificial compound. =~ * (B 1.) Since the platina to be procured in this country generally contains small scales of gold intermixed, as well as a portion of the mercury which the Spaniards employ for the separation of the gold, the platina used for my experiments, after being by mechanical means freed, as far as possible, from all visible impurities, was exposed to a red heat, for the purpose of expelling the mercury. It was then digested _ for some time in a small quantity of dilute nitro-muriatic acid, and frequently shaken, till the whole of the geld was dissolved, togetlier with any impurities that might super- ficially adhere to the grains of platina, ing. (B 2.) ihe 170 Onanew Metal, found in crude Platina. (B 2.) Of the ore thus prepared, nearly 24 ounces were then dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid, (diluted for the purpose of leaving as much as possible of the shining powder,) and the whole suffered to remain in a moderate sand heat, till completely saturated. wc (B 3.) Such a portion of this solution was then taken for analysis, as corresponded to 1000 grains of the prepared ore. An ounce of sal ammoniac was next dissolved in hot water, and used for the precipitation of the platina. The precipi- tate obtained was of a yellow colour, and, upon being heated, yielded 815 grains of purified platina. (B 4.) The water used for washing this precipitate hav- ing been added to the solution at from it, a piece of clean zinc was immersed in it, and suffered to remain till there appeared to be no further action upon the zinc. The iron contained in the ore (to the amount of 14 or 15 per cent.) remained in solution. The other metals had subsided, in the form of a black powder, which I estimated between 40 and 50 grains; but, as there was no occasion to weigh it with accuracy, I thought it better not to dry this precipitate ; for, if it be heated, the rhodium is in danger of being ren- dered insoluble. (B 5.) As I had previously ascertained that this precipi- tate would contain platina, rhodium, the substance called palladium, copper, and lead, the two last metals were first dissolved in very dilute nitric acid, aided by a gentle heat. The remainder, after being washed, was digested in dilute nitro-muriatic acid, which dissolved the greater part, but jeft as much as 44 grains undissolved*. (B 6.) To the solution were added 20 grains of com- mon salt; and, when the whole had been evaporated to dryness with a very gentle heat, the residuum, which I had found from prior experiments, would consist of the soda- muriates of platina, of palladium, and of rhodium, was washed repeatedly with small quantities of alcohol, till it came off nearly colourless. There remained a triple salt of rhodium, which by these means is freed from all metallic impurities. : (C 1.) This salt, having been dissolved in a small quan- tity of hot water, and let to stand 12 hours, formed rhom- boidal crystals, of which the acute angle was about 75°. (C 2.) It was then again dissolved in water, and divided into two equal portions. Ofthese one was decomposed by a * It was presumed that this residuum consisted principally of the me tal called by Mr. Tennant iridium; but, as it was accidentally mislaid, and was not examined, it might also contain a portion of rhodium. piece On a new Metal, found in crude Platina. 171 piece of zinc, and the other examined by the following re- agents. (C 3.) Sal ammoniac occasioned no precipitation; but, when asolution of platina was added to the mixture, a preci- pitate was immediately formed, and the colour of this preci- pitate was yeilow; which again proves, that the metal con- tained in this salt is neither platina itself, nor that which gives the red colour to its preclpitates. (C 4.). Prussiate of potash occasioned no precipitation, as it would have done if the solution had contained palla- dium. . ; (C 5.) Hydro-sulphuret of ammonia, which would have precipitated either platina or palladium, caused no precipita- tion of this meial. (C 6.) The carbonates of potash, of soda, or of ammo- nia, occasioned no precipitation; but the pure alkalis preci- pitated a yellow oxide, soluble by excess of alkali, and also soluble in every acid that I have tried. (D 1.) The solution of this oxide in muriatic acid, upon being evaporated, did not crystallize; the residuum was soluble in alcohol, and of arose colour. Sal ammoniac, nitre, or common salt, caused no precipitation from the muriatic solution ; but formed triple salts, which were not solublein alcohol. (D 2.) The solution in nitric acid also did not crystallize. A drop of this solution, being placed upon pure silver, occa- sioned no stain. On the surface of mercury a metallic film was precipitated, but did not appear to amalgamate. The metal was also precipitated by copper and other metals, as might be presumed, from the.usual order of their affinities for acids. ‘ .(E 1.) The precipitate obtained by zinc (C 2.) from the remaining half of the salt, appeared in the form of a black powder, weighing, when thoroughly dried, nearly 2 grains, corresponding to about 4 grains in the 1000 of ore dissolved. (E.2.) When exposed to heat, this powder continued black; with borax, it acquired a white metallic lustre, but appeared infusible by any degree of heat. (E 3.) With arsenic, however, it is, like platina, ren- dered fusible; and, like palladium, it may also be fused by means of sulphur. The arsenic, or the sulphur, may be expelled from it by a continuance of the heat; but the metal- lic button obtained does not become malleable, as either of ~the preceding metals would be rendered by similar treat- ment. (E4.) It unites readily with al] metals that have _— tried, ee 172 On anew Metal, found in crude Platina. tried, excepting mercury; and with gold or silver it forms very malleable alloys, that are not oxidated by a high degree of heat, but become incrusted with a black oxide when very slowly cooled. , (E 5.) When 4 parts of gold are united with 1 of rho- dium, although the alloy may assume a rounded form under the blowpipe, yet it seems to be more in the state of an amalgam than in complete fusion. (E 6.) When 6 parts of gold are alloyed with 1 of rho- dium, the compound may be perfectly fused, but requires far more heat than fine gold. There is no circumsiance in which rhodium differs more from platima, than in the colour of this alloy, which might be taken for fine gold, by any one who is not very much accustomed to discriminate the dif- ferent qualities of gold. On the contrary, the colour of an alloy containing the same proportion of ‘platina, differs but little from that of platina. This was oriyinally observed by Dr. Lewis. ‘* The colovr was still so dull and pale, that the compound (5 to 1) could scarcely be judged by the eye t contain any gold*.”’ : 1 find that palladium resembles platina, in this property of destroying the colour of a Jarge quantity of gold. When 1 part of palladium is united to 6 of gold, the alloy is nearly white. - (E 7.) When I endeavoured to dissolve an alloy of silver or cf gold with rhodium, the rhodium remained un- touched by either nitric or nitro-muriatic acids: and, when rhodium had been fused with arsenic or with sulphur,’ or when merely heated by itself, it was reduced to the ‘same state of insolubility. But when 1 part of rhodium had been fused with 3 parts of bismuth, of copper, or of lead, each of these alloys could be dissolved completely, in a mixture of 2 parts, by measure, of muriatic acid, with 1 of nitrict With the two former metals, the proportion of the acids to each other seemed not to be of so much consequence as with lead; but the lead appeared on another account preferable, as it was most easily separated, when reduced to an m- soluble muriate by evaporation. The muriate of rhodium had then the same colour and properties, as when formed from the yellow oxide precipitated from the original salt. (D 1.) (E. 8.) The specific gravity of rhodium, as far as could be ascertained by trial on so small quantities, seemed to exceed 11.. ‘That of an alloy consisting of 1.part rhodium _ ® Lewis’s Philosophical Commerce of Arts, ip..526. : sand On a new Metal, found in, crude Platina 173 and about 2 parts lead, was 11:35 which is so neatly that of lead itself, that cach part of this compound may be con- sidered as having about the same specific gravity. F. As it was expected that the alcoho! employed. for washing the sclt of rhodium (B 6.) would contain the soda- muriates- of platina and of paliadium, the platina was first precipitated by sal ammoniac. This precipitate was of a deep red a ; and, when it had been heated, to expel the sal ammoniac; the platina which remained. was of a dark gray colour. (G1.) To the remaining solution, after it had. been diluted to prevent any further precipitation of platina, [ added prussiate of potash, which instantly occasioned avery copious precipitate, of a deep orange-colour at first, but changing aiterwards to a dirty bottle-green, which I ascribed to iron contained in the prussiate. (G2.) This precipitate, when dry, weighed 121 grains. After it had been heated, it left a metallic residuum, in small] _ grains, of a gray colour, w cighing nearly 7 grains. A small portion of it being heated with borax, S alamieeaas eal a dark brown colour to the borax, as from iron, and acquired a bright metallic lustre, but could not be fused under. the blowpipe.. With sulphur, however, it fused immediately. into a, round globule, which, by floating upon mercury, appeared of less specific grav ity than that metal. (G 3.) The whole quantity was then treated in the same manner, and purified by cupeliation with borax, tllit cooled with a bright surface. From the globule the sulphur was expelled, by exposure to the extremity of the flames and it became spongy and malleable, weighing in this state very ay 5 grains. »(G4.)- A portion of this metal was dissolved in strong . - fiitrous acid, was precipitated by green sulphate of iron, and in other respects possessed all the properties-ascribed to the palladium offered for sale, in the printed paper that accom- panied it, as well as others since noticed by Mr. Chenevix. (G5.) In its precipitation by prussiates, “it differs most essentially from platina; and consequently is by no means difficult to be distincuished, or separated from it. (G6,) The action of muriate of tin upon the solutions of these metals is also totally different. A dilute solution of platina, is thereby changed from a pale yellow to a trans- parent blood-red. A solution of palladium, on the con- trary, usually becomes opaque, by the formation of a brown, or black precipitate; but, if mixed in such proportion as to remain transparent, it changes to a beautiful emerald-green. ) (G 7+) : 174 On anew Metal, found m crude Platina. 4 (G7.) In the formation of triple salts with the alkalis, as observed by Mr. Chenevix, palladium may be said to resemble platina; but the salts thas formed are far more soluble than the corresponding salts of pletina, and differ entirely in the colour and form of the crystals. (G 8.) The soda-muriate of palladium is a deliquescent salt; that of platina, on the contrary, forms permanent crystals. . (GQg.) The triple salts of platina, with either muriate of ammonia or of potash, form octaédral crystals of a yellow colour, that are very sparingly soluble in water. The corresponding salts of palladium likewise resemble each other in every respect. The crystals are very soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol ;- their form is that of a four- sided prism, and they each present a curious contrast of colour, that certainly is not observable in any known salt of platina. (G 10.) Although the solution is of a deep red, the erystals are of a bright green when viewed transversely. In the direction of their axes, however, the colour is the same as that of the solution; but, on account of its extreme intensity, it is with difficulty distinguished in fragments that exceed +1. of an inch in thickness. One consequence of this colour is nevertheless very observable; namely, that in viewing any -crystal obliquely, it appears of a dull brown, that arises from a mixture of the red and green*, The characters of palladium that have been enumerated, undoubtedly belong to none of the simple substances that we are acquainted with; and no experiment that I have made has tended to confirm the suspicion of its being a > = The change of colour above described, though certainly uncommom, is nevertheless not pecu'iar tothe salts of palladium, but may be seen alsa in some kinds of tourmalin. Among those which come to us from Ceylon, some are transparent; and one varicty is of a deep red in the direction of its axis, but of a yellowish green when viewed transversely. There is also a corresponding, but opposite contrast of colours, that has been ob- served by Miiller, and described by Bergmann, in some of the Tyrolese tourmalins. The general aspect of these stones is black, and apparently Op2que. Somme, however, of which the fracture is vitreous, are found to transmit a yellowish-red light when viewed transversely, butin the direc- tion of their axis the colour is a duil bottle-green, ; : In each of these tourmalins, as well as in the salts of palladium, the colour in the direction of the axis, is at least 10 times more intense thar. in the transverse direction. A thin lamina, cut from the end of a Tyrolese tourmalin for this purpose, transmitted no visible light, till ir was reduced te 1-6o0th of an inch in thickness; and, when less than t-zoothof an inch, it was not more transparent than another portien of the same erystal seen transversely, a-roth of aninch in thickness, compound, On a new Metal, found in crude Platina. 175 compound, consisting of any known ingredients. The ex- periments above related show evidently that the ore of pla- tina contains a very small quantity of palladium ; and it is not unlikely that this may have been a constituent part of some of the compounds obtained by Mr. Chenevix, and may have misled him, by some properties which he would consequently observe, Into the supposition that he had formed palladium. Tt is not, however, without having repeatedly endeavoured to imitate his experiments, that I have ventured to dissent from such authority. I made many attempts to unite pure platina with mercury, by solution and by amalgamation ; but without success in any one instance. From a solution of platina, carefully neutralized, as Mr. Chenevix directs, with red oxide of mercury, and mixed with a solution of green sulphate-of iron, I indeed obtained such a precipitate of metallic flakes as he describes; but, upon examination of these flakes, they yielded mercury by distillation ; and the remainder consisted of platina com- bined with a portion of iron, but had not any properties which I could suppose owing to the presence of palla- dium. « . Upon comparing the specific gravity of this substance, which was said to be, at most, 11-8, with that of mercury or of platina, I was always strongly inclined to doubt the possibility of its being composed of these metals. I could recollect no one instance in which the specific gravity of any compound is less than that of its lightest ingredicnt, and could not, without careful examination, admit the sup- position, that mercury could be rendered lighter by intimate union with platina. It now appears fully confirmed that this persuasion, arising from uniform experience, was well founded ; for, if we consider the difficulty of producing even an imperfect imitation of palladium, the failure of all at- tempts to resolve it into any known metals, the facility of stparating it from any mixed solution of those which it has heen supposed to contain, as well as the number and di- stinctness of its characteristic properties, I think we must class it with those bodies which we have most reason to consider as simple metals. XXXI. No- be heerJ XXXI. Noliees respecting New Books. die Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London for the Year 1804, Part II., contain :—Analyticat Experiments and Observations on Lac. By Charles Hat- chett, Esq. F.R.S.~-On the Integration of certain differen- tial Expressions with which Problems in physical Astro- nomy are connected, &c. By Robert Woodhouse, A.Mi F.RS. Fellow of Caius College.—Observations on Basalt, end on the Transition from the vitreous to the stony Texture, which oectirs i the gradual Refrigeration of melted Basalt ; with some geologi¢al Remarks. In a Letter from Gregory Wait, Esq. to the Right Hon. Charles Greville, V.P. R.S: —An Analysis of the magnetical Pyrites ; with Remarks on some of the otherSulphurets of Iron. By Charles Hatchetts . Esq. F.R.S.—Remarks ou the voluntary Expansion of the Skin of the Neck, in the Cobra de Capello, or hooded Snake of the East Indies. By Patrick Russell, M.D. F.R.S. With © a Description of the Structure of the Parts which perform that Office. By Everard Home, Esq. F.R.S.—Continua- tion of an Account of the Changes that have happened in the relative Situation of double Stars. By Wilham Her- schel, LL.D. F.R.S.~Observations on the Change of some of the proximate Principles of Vegetables into Bitumen 5 with Analytical Experiments on a peculiar Substance which is found with the Bovey Coal. By Charles Hatchett, Esq. F.R.S.—On two Metals found in the black Powder remain- ing after the Solution of Platina. By Smithson Tennant, Esq. F.R.S.—On a new Metal found in crude Platina. By William [lyde Wollaston, M.D. F.RS. The Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, Vol. VI, contain: Charterof the Linnean Society of Loudon.—Bye- laws of the Society.—Patent of Armorial Ensigns.—A new Arrangement of the GenusAloc, with a chronological Sketch of the progressive Knowledge of that Genus, and of other succulent Genera. By Adrian Hardy Haworth, Esq. F.L.S. —On the Germination of the Seeds of Orchides. By Richard Anthony Salisbury, Esq. F.R.S. & L.S.—Account of the Tusseh and Arrindy Silk-Worms of Bengal. By William Roxburgh, M.D. F.L.S.—Description of the Bri- tish Lizards; and of a new British Species of Viper. By Revett Sheppard, A.B. F.L.S.—Description of Bos Fron- talis, a new Species, from Indias By Aylmer Bourke Lambert, Esq..F'.R.S. V.P.L.S.—Description of the Esox 5 Saurus. ~ Royal Institution. 177 a Saurus. By the Rev. Thomas Rackett, M.A. F.R.S. & L.S. —Description of several Marine Animals found on the South Coast of Devonshire. By George Montagu, Esq. F.L.S.—Descriptions of four new British Lichcns. By Dawson Turner, Esq. M.A. F.L.S. Descriptions of some Species of Carex from North America. By Edward Rudge, Esq. F.L.S.—Remarks upon the Dillenian Herbarium. By Dawson Turner, Esq. F.R.S. A.S, & L.S.—Description of some Fossil Shells found in Hampshire. By William Pil- kington, Esq. F.A.S. & L.S.—An Historical Account of Testaceolovical Writers. By William George Maton, M.D. F.R.S. & L.S. and the Rev. Thomas Rackett, M.A. F.R.S. & L.S.—An Illustration of the Grass called by Linnzus Cornucopie Alopecuroides. By James Edward Smith, M.D. F.R.S. P.L.S.—Description of such Species of Chi- ronia as grow wild at the Cape of Good Hope. By Sir Charles Peter Thunberg, Knight of the Order of Wasa, Professor of Botany at Upsal, F.M.L.S.—Remarks on the Generic Characters of Mosses, and particularly of the Genus Mnium. By James Edward Smith, M.D. F.R.S. P.L.S.— Observations on the Zizania aquatica. By Aylmer Bourke Lambert, Esq. F.R.S. V.P.L.S.—Observations on the Du- rion, Durio zibethinus of Linneus. By Mr. Charles K6- nig, F.L.S.—Observations on some Species of British Oua- drupeds, Birds, and Fishes. By George Montagu, Esq. F.L.S.—Biographical Memoirs of several Norwich Bota- nfsts, in a Letter to Alexander MacLeay, Esq. Sec. L.S. By James Edward Smith, M.D. F.R.S. P.L.S.—Further Account of the Bos Frontalis. By Aylmer Bourke Lambert, Esq. F.R.S. V.P.L.S.—Description of a large Species of Rat, a Native of the East Indies. By Captain Thomas Hardwicke, F.L.S.—Extracts from the Minute-Book of the Linnean Society of London.—Catalogue of the Library of the Linnean Society, continued from page 394 of Vol. VI, of the Society’s Transactions.—List of Donors to the Library of the Linnean Society. XXXII. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL INSTITUTION. Tis national establishment opened its sessions on Tues- day the 13th of November. Mr. Davy will deliver twelve lectures on Chemical Analysis; Mr. Fletcher, a gentleman Vol, 20. No. 78. Nov. 1804. M whose 178 Board of Agriculture. whose talents have been long known among the literary eort+ versazioni of the present day, twenty-four lectures on Na-- tural Philosophy ; Mr. Landscer, engraver to the king, three lectures on engraving; and Dr, Croteh six lectures on music. Boarpd oF AGRICULTURE. Premiums offered by this Board. [Continued from page 80. ] Culture of Hemp.—To the person who shall send to the Board, the best essay on the culture of hemp, which shal} include the useful facts hitherto published, with such addi- tions as the writer may be able to make, either from hig own experiments, or those of others, within his knowledge, with the best means of extending the culture in the united kingdom, without lessening the growth of wheat~—thirty cuineas. Accounts to be produced on or before the first Tuesday in February, 1805. Culture of Hemp.—To the person in his Majesty’s colo- nies of Upper or Lower Canada, New Brunswick, and Halifax, who shall make the most satisfactory report to the Board, of the present state of the cultivation of hemp in those provinces, im respect of soil, previous state of the land, manure, seed, culture, watering, dressing, produce, price, and the expense of labour, with the state of population as applicable to this branch of culture; as well as of the ob- stacles to the extension of it, the best means of removing them, and of promoting the cultivation—fifty guineas. The report to be made on or before the first Tuesday in January 1Sso6. Weighing Machine.—To the person who shall, before the 25th of March 1805, produce to the Board, or shall erect in London, in some place to which the members of the Board can conveniently have access, the machine for weigh- ing cattle alive, as high as 300 stone at slbs. and as low as five stones weight, that shall be the cheapest in proportion to its accuracy and utility—twenty guineas. Machine for reaping corn.—Yo the person who shall in- vetit, and produce to the Board, the best machine for reap- ing corn—from one hundred to two hundred guineas, ac- cording to merit. ( Simplicity and cheapness of construction, and (if the ap- plication of horses or oxen be required) ease of draught, wilk be considered as essential objects. To be produced on or he- fore the first Tuesday in May 1806. Diseases Herculaneum Manuscripts. 179 Diseases of Cattle.—To the person who shall write, and produce to the Board, the best practical essay, founded on experiments, on the diseases of neat cattle, their symptoms and cure—the gold medal. The essays to be produced on or before the first Tuesday in May 1806. Diseases of Sheep.—To the person who shall write, and produce to the Board, the best practical essay, founded on experiments, on the diseases of sheep, their symptoms and cure—the gold medal. Theessays to be produced on or be- fore the first Tuesday in May 1806. Diseases of Swine —To the person who shall write, and produce to the Board, the best practical essay, founded on experiments, on the diseases of swine, their symptoms and cure—fen guineas. The essays to be produced on or before Pi the first Tuesday in May 1806. XXXII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. HERCULANEUM MANUSCRIPTS. Tue literary world will rejoice to learn, that the six yo- lumes of Papyri, presented to the prince of Wales by the king of Naples, are arrived in London; and thus, under the immediate auspices of his royal highness, the learned and the ingenious will be invited to exert their skill in en- deavouring, not merely to develop their contents, but to contrive some more speedy and efficacious means than have been hitherto practised, for unrolling and transcribing the many volumes that yet lie in the ashes of Herculaneum and Pompeii. It is a most important event to the cause of lite- rature, that the prince has patronized this undertaking with so much ardour and liberality, since in no other country could the resources of science and art be so well applied to the object as in England. Our artists will vie with one an- other in the suggestion of means to facilitate the decypher- ing of the nearly obliterated manuscripts; and if some happy contrivance should be found to preserve the tinder from erishing it can be traced and read, what treasures of iterature may not yet be brought to light, and what ho- nours and gratitude will not be due to his royal highness for his noble patronage of the design! Our readers may wish to have a short statement of the csircumstanees that induced the prince to take steps to fur- ther this great work. Inthe year 1800 he directed the rev. John Hayter, a gentleman eminently qualified for the task, AED to “ 180 Herculaneum Manuscripts. to go to Italy, and, with a suitable provision, to’exert him- self on the spot, under the kind permission of the king of Naples, to unrol and transcribe the papyri. Hevas gene- rously moved to this undertaking by the love of literature, and by the accounts of the very slow progress: which up to that time had been made in the work of developing the ma- nuscripts. The importance of the undertaking will be best shown to our readers by an extract from the letter which Mr. Hayter addressed to the prince at the outset of bis mission in 1800, a few copies of which were printed at the time, and distri- buted among literary men. After a very becoming expression of gratitude to his royal highness for the honour of his confidence, he gives this short narrative: ‘© The numerous settlements of the Greeks in Italy re- ceived the name of Magna Grecia, because their mother country was of asize considerably less than that in which they were planted: among these were nearly all the cities in the province of Canmipania, including Naples, the capital of his Sicilian majesty, and also Herculaneum and Pompei, which are supposed to beast a foundation coeval with Her- cules himself, three thousand and fifty years ago, or twelve hundred and fifty years before the Christian era. This pro- vince, more than any other part of Magna Grecia, was al- ways celebrated for the studious and successful cultivation of the arts and sciences. The two cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii ranked next to that of Naples in every respect, as places of considerable note ; they had their public thea- ties, with every other attendant of great population, splen- dour, opulence, and general prosperity. These, in common with all the rest of Campania, became the elegant, and favourite resort of the Romans, for the different purposes of health, luxury, repose, and erudition. ‘© —n the ninth year of Nero’s reign*, these two cities experienced a most formidable shock from an earthquake, which -overthrew a great part of them. Nor had they re- covered altogether from the effccts of this calamity by their own exertions, and the aid of imperial, munt se, when asecond calamity, of a diflerent nature, but equally uns expected, consigued them both at once to the most com- - POU, ICs ones » A. D, 63. Caius Memmius Recuius . ‘ Fie Se or 2 GOonsuls. Lucius Virginius Rufus, 7 Nh ce ee, ee ee ee Flerculantum Manuscripts. 181 ‘plete oblivion. ‘This calamity was the great eruption of Vesuvius, which happened on the 24th day of Auoust *; two full months from the accession of the emperor ‘Titus Ves-@ pasian. “Herculaneum was buried under a mass of lava, — and voleanic matter, to the depth of twenty-four feet. Pompeii, being more distant from the niountain, was over- whelmed principally with a sbower of ashes, nor in any place more than half the depth of the other city. But the fate of both was sudden and inevitable; and yet it appears that almost all of the inhabitants, and, what is an equally surprising circumstance, more of the ‘Ferodlahestis than the Pompeians, escapeil. By the few skeletons which have been found in either place, the relation of Dio Cassius, who states the destruction ef the people while assembled at the theatre, is proved to be totally erroneous. It may be proper to remark, that before this eruption the whole of Vesuvius was in a state of cultivation and fertility, from the top to the bottom; and though the form and sbi of the mountain in one particular spot seemed to denote the traces of some former explosion, yet no extant memorial of any kind had recorded it. © Neither of these two cities was discovered again till a long period of sixteen hundred and thirty-four years had elapsed. Tt was in the year 1713, that some labourers, in sinking a well, struck their tools against a statue, which was on a bench in the theatre of Herculaneum. Forty years afterwards Pompeii was excavated with much less dif- ficulty, as the incumbent stratum was neither so hard nor so deep as that of the former city. » © The number of the manuscripts saved from both those cities is said to be about five hundred; but, if Tam rightly informed by those whose official situation must give them a competent knowledge of the subject, your royal highness, by facilitating the development of these volumes, will pro- bably be the means of further excav ation, and on rescue from their interment an infinite quantity of others. About thirty years ago, his Sicilian majesty ordered the develop- aent, the transcription, and the printing of the volumes which had then been saved, to be undertaken, This ope- ration was accordingly begun, and has never been discon- tinued till the late invasion of the French. But its mode, however excellent, was extremcly slow; it has been per- 5D Ci Bnize AAD. 29: Flavins Vespasiqnus y Titus Vespasianus 8 \ ) M 3 formed Consuls. 182 Herculaneum Manuscripts. formed by asingle person, with a single frame only, under the direction of the marquis del Vasto, chamberlain to the king, and president of the royal academy. «© The frame consists of several taper and oblong pieces of wood, with parallel threads of silk that run on each side, the length of each piece: when the frame is laid on any volume, each piece of wood must be fixed precisely over each line of the page, while the respective threads being worked beneath each line, and assisted by the corresponding piece of wood above, raise the line upwards, and disclose the characters to view *. *< The operation seems ingenious, and well adapted ta the purpose: it was, I believe, invented by a capuchin at Naples. The fruits of it are said to be two publications only; one on music, by the celebrated Philodemus, who was a cotemporary of Cicero; and the other on cookery. The first is in his majesty’s library, at the queen’s palace. Through the obliging politeness of Mr. Barnard, the king’s librarian, I have had the advantage of perusing it. Indeed, I hope your royal highness will not disapprove my acknow- Tedging in this place the very warm and respectful interest which both this gentleman and the right honourable the president ¢ of the Roval Society have expressed for the furtherance of your royal highness’s great and good design, Meanwhile, by this specimen of Philodemus, I am con- vinced that, if the frames should he multiplied to the pro- posed extent, several pages of thirty different manuscripts might be disclosed and transcribed within the space of one week. Ta eghiee ae ‘¢ But the very period at which the manuscripts were buried, serves to point out to your royal highness thahiyou may expect the recovery of either the whole, or at least parts, of the best writers in antiquity, hitherto deemed ir- recoverable. All of these, in truth, had written before that * From the want of information in this country, I am apprehensive that this descriprion of the frame is rather defective. But, when [am on the spot, I shall not fail to transmit, for your royal highness’s inspece tion, an exact model of its mechanism, I am equaily apprehensive that the same cause may have occasioned more errors in this part of my ac- count: the same local adyantage, of which I shall be careful to make the earliest use, will enable me to remave them. + It was suggested by Sir Joseph Banks, that, f om the nature of the antient atrarnentum, which perhaps was not so much an ink as a paint, and from the material of these manuscripts, there may be derived a chance of applying a chemical process to this development of the cinders with increased expedition and effect. The suggestion is of the first import ance: hereafter there may be an opportunity of ascertaining its utility by experiment, 3 period P Herculaneum Manuscripts. 183 period, if we except Tacitus, whose inestimable works were unfortunately not composed till twenty years afterwards, during the reign of Trajan. “¢ Nor can it be imaged for a moment, that among five or six hundred manuscripts, already excavated, and espe- cially from the numberless ones which further excavations may supply, lost at such a period in two of the most capital cities, in the richest, most frequented, and most learned provinee in Italy, each of them an established seat of the, arts and sciences, cach of them the resort of the most di- stincuished Romans, not any part of those illustrious au- thors should be discovered. ** But the manuscript of Philodemus itself makes the reverse of such an idea appear much more probable. To the moderns, who have « Untwisted all the chains that tie The hidden soul of harmony,” his Treatise on Music cannot, indeed, be supposed to com- municate much information; yet the subject is scientific, and scientifically treated. The author himself, too, was one of the most eminent men in his time for wit, learning, and philosophy. But in the rest of the arts * and sciences, in history, in poetry, the discoyery of any lost writer, either in whole or part, would be deemed a most valuable acqui- sition and treasure, and form a new era in literature. “ [t is extremely fortunate that the characters t of these manuscripts, whether they should be Greek or Latin, must be very obvious and legible. Before the year of our Lord 79, and some time after it, the Majuscule or Unciales Littere, capital letters, were solely used. A page, therefore, in one of these manuscripts, would present to your reyal highness an exact image of some orl ated inscription in those lan- guages on an antient column, statue, or sepulchre. «© There cannot remain a doubt, even omitting the as- surances from men of official situation to that effect, that your royal highness’s superintendant will receive every pos- sible assistance from the marquis del Vasto; and in that ease it seems improbable that the ohject of this mission can be altogether fruitless. | «© With such a termination of it, however, your royal * Particularly the antient mode of cementing in architecture, and on proportions in sculpture and painting. + One of the principal difficulties in copying these manuscripts ap- ek to consist in supplying the proper letters or words at the different chasms, M 4 highness, i. G ; 184 Earthquakes. highness, by having proposed to.concur with his Sjeilan majesty in the quicker and more. effectual development, transcription, and publication of these manuscripts, will reap the satisfaction of having made a most princely attempt in behalf of knowledge and literature, on an occasion where their interests might be affected most materially, and in a manner of which no annals have afforded, or can hereafter afford, an example. Your very interposition will be your glory ; your want of success will only make the learned world feel with gratitude what you would have done.” The interposition ef his royal highness has had the hap- piest effect. The splendid encouragement which he gave to the work revived the drooping spirits of the Italian lite- rati; and the consequence has been, that the business of un- rolling and transcribing the manuseripts now proceeds with an alacrity which promises the most brilliant success. In forty-six years not more than eighteen rolls were developed betore the interference of our prince. Under his encou- ragément, ninety have been recovered in two years | What new facijities may not now be expected when all the vigour of British intelligenc se is exerted on the subject ! EARTHQUAKES. Clermont Ferrand, Oct. 24, 1fo04. At half past eight in the morning, on the 25th of Au- gust last, the weather being very serene, the thermal wa- ters of Nery (Allier) suddenly became agitated in a wonder- ful manner. At the principal place from which they issue they first rose to the height of a foot above the level of the bason which contains them, then to three, and in that state exhibited for two mjnutes the figure of a cone the base of which seemed to be four or five feet in circumference. A great agitation was observed in other parts of the bason. The water boiled with the greatest violence: a greater quantity of gas seemed to escape; and this extraordinary effervescence continued for the space of five or six minutes. Letters from Almera, in Spain, announce, that at half after eight, on the 25th of August, three shocks of an earth- quake were felt in that city : “they were so violent that not a house escaped suffering injury: some of the houses were destroyed. Is it not probable that there might be some connection between this earthquake and the phenomenon observed at Nery? May not the perfect comcidence of these tivo events, W hich took piace the saine day, and at the same hour, throw some ficht on the cause, stilf unknown, of the heat Newly discovered Island. 485 heat of thermal waters? These questions must be submit- ted to chemists and philosophers. We must add, that at the time of the earthquake at Lisbon, in 1755, the same waters experienced so much agitation that they rose in considerable quantity above the sides of the bason. M. de Vauvret, mayor of Nery, attests this fact, having been an eye-witness of it. At the time of the same earthyuake at Lisbon the thermal waters of Bourbon P Archambault suddenly increased in a similar manner. We do not know what took place at them on the 25th of Au- gust last. The public journals mention, that on the same day some very strong shocks of an earthquake were expe- rienced in Holland. The same day Vesuvius gave some new signs of an approaching eruption. i NEWLY DISCOVERED ISLAND. This island was discovered in the South Sea by captain * Sowle, in the American ship Palmyra, of Providence, Rhode Island, on the 10th of November 1802. As the weather was fine, that day at noon he had an observation of the sun’s altitude, by which the latitude is accurately ascer- tained ; and as he took his departure from Christmas Island, and had a gentle westerly wind, it is scarcely possible there can be any error in the longitude, This island lies out of the track of most navigators who ‘pass either from America to Asia, or from Asia to Ame- rica; and till lately English whalers have been prohibited fishing in that quarter ; which accounts for its not having been seen before. It is probable that there are several other islands in the same direction. Captain Sowle thinks he passed one the day before, as he saw many birds, and be- lieved he heard breakers; but the weather being very hazy he could not see either rocks or Jand. Palmyra Island, -so called after the name of the vessel, is Situated in north latitude 5° 49’, and in west longitude 162? 23’, from London. It is about three leagues in extent. There are two lagoons on it, in the westernmost of which is twenty fathom water, with a fine sandy bottom. It is very dangerous to approach the western part of the island, on account of the coral rocks which are just below the sur- face of the water, and extend to the distance of three or four leagues from the shore. The eastern part terminates in a steep reef of coral, over which the sea breaks with considerable force. _ Qn the north-west side there is good anchoring ground, about Se one 186 Gconomy of Light.—Information to Mariners, 8c. about three quarters of a mile from the breakers, in eigh- teen fathom water, on a coral bottom. There is no.inhabitant on the island; nor was any fresh water found; but cocoa nuts of very large size are in great abundance; and fish of various kinds, and in great shoals, surround the island. A great quantity of drift wood lay on the beach, which enabled those who landed to ascertain that the rise of the tide was about eighteen inches. ECONOMY OF LIGHT. We announced some time ago that Mr. Paul, of Geneva, had effected a considerable improvement in lamps for streets. We understand that his invention has since been extended to lamps for domestic purposes, possessing the property of effecting the perfect combustion of common lamp oil, which costs only about the half of spermaceti oil, and yielding a cheerful, steady, and durable light, without smoke or smell, INFORMATION TO MARINERS. The following article was furnished. by captain Candler, who arrived at Boston on the 8th of August in the schooner Betsey, from Madeira : «© On the 29th of May I was running for the western islands, when I made something which appeared hike a sail, but, as I approached it nearer, discovered it to bea rock, the top of which was nearly 100. feet out of water, and, fron: appearance, deep water all round about it. It blowing very hard, I was not able to sound, or examine the rock any further than by running within a cable’s length of it on the northern side. By observation T found it lay in lat. 39° 47’ north, and, by calculation, in long. 34° 29’ west. The situation of this stupendous rock may be relied on, as I was very particular in my course and distance till I made the Iand, which was the third day after: I then made Fayal. As T never saw a rock laid down in this situation, I think it my duty to give this information to the public. (Signed) JoHN CANDLER.” VOLCANOES. Letters from Petersburgh, of the 20th October, mention, that near the southern angle of the fortress of Fanagorji, a hill on the summit of a mountain, situated contiguous to a lake of 300 fathoms in circuit, began to swell on the 4th of July last, between twelve and one o’clock at night. The hill rose about twelve fathoms, and then burst, with light- ning Vaccination. — Longevity. 187 ning and a rumbling noise like thunder, emitting burning sloile and ignited stones, which were thrown a considerable height, and to a distance of 100 fathoms. Next a clear flame made its appearance, which spread a disagreeable smell, and blazed tor an hour and a half. The eruption occupied one half of the lake, forming a hill of ten fathoms in height, and 300 in circumference. Rome, Oct. 29« The eruptions of Mount Vesuvius have ceased. The fol- lowing fact may deserve the attention of naturalists :—The English ship of the line which lies before Naples, changing its position during the time of an eruption, one of the an- chors, when drawn up, was found to be so hot that the sailors could scarcely touch it. Does not this prove that the principal source of the volcano is under the sea? VACCINATION. Dr. Valentin, of Paris, is said to have adopted the fol- lowing method of inoculating the cow-pock :—He collects a quantity of the dried vaccine pustules or incrustations, which he reduces to powder, and forms into a kind of paste: with water. With this substance he moculates his sub- jects, by means of a lancet, in the usual way. W.B. LONGEVITY. Lately died at Gloves, near Athenry, Ireland, of a short illness, Mr. Denis Coorobee, of Ballindangen, aged 117, atruly honest man. He retained his faculties to the last, and, until two days previous to his death, he never remem- bered to have any complaint or sickness whatever (tooth- ache only excepted). Three weeks before his death he walked from his house to Galway, and back the same day, which is 26 miles. He could, to the last, read’ the smallest print witheut the assistance of glasses, which he never ac customed himself to, with as much ease as a boy of sixteen. He was a man of strong natural powers; and, as he followed husbandry, the results of his long experience, as might naturally be expected, were highly useful in improving agri- culture. It is upwards of seventy years since he propagated _ that most useful article the black potatoe. He was married seven times: the last time when he was ninety-three years of age. By his different wives he had 48 children. His descendants by these were 236 grand children, 944 great grand children; and 95 great great , children, the oldest of whom is four years of age, is youngest son by his last marriage is now about eigh- teen years old, SUBSTITUTE 188 ‘ Astronomy. SUBSTITUTE FOR CINCHONA AND FOR WHEAT. M. Westring, of Norkoping, in Sweden, in a letter to M. Bergman, at Paris, says: Tell M. Vauquelin that I have found that the inner bark of the Pinus sylvestris acts in the same manner as yellow quinguina (cinchona regia), and that for two years [have made use of the powder of this bark with the same advantage as quinquina; and that, in certain cases it is even of superior utility. ‘© M. Tutin announces, that in some provinces of the north of Sweden the poor inhabitants form with the spha- ganum palustre a kind of bread, which is white, and of the same quality as wheaten bread. M. Tutin has analysed it, and found that this vegetable substance contains a great quantity of saccharine matter ;—a proof that nature has given us the means of supplying the place of wheat in times of scarcity.” ASTRONOMY. A table of the right ascensions and declinations of Pallas and Ceres for November and December 1804. H PAULA. 2 iOGHROS Right Ascen. Deel. South | Right As. en, |Decl. South. Nov. 2/215 51™ 405 6° 45’ | 13" 485 | 13° 39’ j Bl sonal RS AAO Weer ca 12 32 13° 25 a ai Bhe 53 248 |. Ti alee 1] 28 13 16 BD). si). Soca hd «80 10 36 Pee 14) 65.56, <40j%e 35 9 56 12.53 171<. 258! 20) &..19 9 32 12 40 H 2022 0 8/18 21 9 16.) 7124 25 | 93)... 2 -4|.8, 32 9.5 LO; dee 26). 4 16|,8 492 QQ 24 11 52 29. 6 24/8 50 9 48 1l 33 Dec. 2}. 8 44].8 57 10 20 LLAS pi memes te Bie Cy rT RM Lk yh 10 53 8 BS eR Macaig 12... The | 11 16 32/9 11 13.12 10 9 14 19 230/19 13 14 32 Q9 45 M75 22a te 0 ake 16 Oo 9 21 20 25 12|9 14 Nt ae 8 56 23 28 20; 9 14 19 24 8 315] 26; 31 32) 9 11 21. 20 8 5 991... 34 48] 9. 9 23 94 VE 0 5 . SMEARING Smearing of Sheep—Improvement of Mossy Lands. 189 SMEARING OF SHEEP. The. following has been found effectual :—Immediately after the sheep are shorn, soak the roots of the wool that remains all over with oi] or butter and brimstone, and three or four days afterwards wash them with salt and water: the wool of next season will not only be much finer, but the quantity will be in greater abundance. It may be de- pended upon that the sheep will not be troubled with the seab or vermin in that year. Tar water is a safe and effec- tual remedy against maggots. IMPROVEMENT OF MOSSY LANDS. Sir John Sinclair has communicated to the public the result of some extensive experiments he has been lately making on the improvement of mossy lands. He states his failure for two years; but the third had completely removed all doubts of his ultimate success in this important undertaking. The causes of his original failure, and of ‘his ultimate success, he assigns to his having, at first, omitted tomark the distinction between quick and dead moss, which was latterly called to his attention by a perusal of Dr. Anderson’s Practical Essay on Peat Moss; in which, for the first time to his knowledge, that distinction is pointed out. “© While it is. quick or growing, it cannot afford food for other vege- tables, being a vegetable, or a con:bination of vegetables, itself; itis necessary, therefore, to convert it into dead moss, before it can be productive.’ And he assigns this additional cause, that he had adopted the mode used in - England for flat fens, whereas the grounds on which he tried the experiments lay on the sides of hills. . | The mode he recommends is, after having used the fen plough for pariny the surface merely, for which alone it is calculated, to plough deep. before attempting to crop the land, ‘the utility of which practice Dr. Anderson had expe- rienced. ‘* He knew,” says Sir John, ‘the beneficial effects of deep ploughing, and of exposing moss to the influence of frost, by which it is converted not only into a fertile soil, but even into a manure well adapted for light or clayey lands. It is, however, particularly to be observed, that exposing a mossy soil to the influence of the sun, or loughing it during the summer season, does mischief, diy- ng up its moisture, and changing it into peat for fuel, after which it is almost proof against the effects of frost ; whereas the more it can be exposed,to frost the better; as it is thus ‘! - changed 390 Improvement of Mossy Lands,—List of Patents. ckanged from quick into dead moss, and fertilised at the same time. Hence it appears that the mosses which are so gloomy and so unpleasant to look at, in their original state, and the abundance of frost, which so many object to in the climate of Scotland, may become sources of fertility and riches.” Preparation.—On this head he recommends to begin with draining the land, so as to put it into a state for being ploughed, without rendering it at the same time too dry. After burning the heather, and using the fen ploughs for paring the surface, the surface may be made into turf walls tor sheltering the grounds, or for filling up hollows. When the surface is cleared, the moss to be ploughed, to the depth of from six to nine inches, with a comnion Scots plough, during the months of September, October, and all the winter months while practicable, exposing the moss as much as possible to the frost. The frequent use of a heavy roller is recommended, as rendering the soil sooner capable of producing abundant crops, and effectually banishing that noxious weed sorrel, with which it is otherwise apt to over- Spread. As manure—fire spread over the surface is recommended ; the ashes to be immediately harrowed in, and the ground sown. Dung, lime, clay, sand, or small gravel, may also be employed, as circumstances require. Bear, oats, rye, rye-grass, rape, red clover, and the grass called Yorkshire fog, seem the crops which answer best. Of the succession of crops sufficient time has not elapsed to enable ajudgment to be formed. The great object, how- ever, is stated to be, to get the lands laid down into grass as speedily as possible. They can then be broken up with the fen plough, the surface burnt, and the quantity of rich ashes which the roots of the grass will produce, will ensure a suc- cession of abundant crops for the last three years, of which two may be grain, and with the last crop of grain the land may be again laid down in grass. ‘© There is great reason,’”’ says Sir John, * to believe, that, by following such a system, the extensive bogs in England, Scotland, and Ireland, may be rendered fertile, and a great addition made to the wealth of the country, and to the sub- sistence of its inhabitants.” LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS Which have passed the Signet Office from October 24 ta _ Novemler 24, 1804. To William Henry Clayfield, of the city of Bristol, wine- merchant, List of Patents for new Inventions. 19! merchant, for certain processes for separating the alkalis of pot-ash and of soda from their sulphates, ‘or vitriolic salts; and from their sulphurets, or combinations with sulphur; as in soaper’s slack ash, and other similar compounds. To Robert Raines the younger, of the town and port of Hull, in the county of York, tanner and glue-~manufacturer, for a method for the making and manufacturing of hard glue, from the tail, fins, and other parts of the whale fish. To James Sharples, of the city of Bath, in the county of Somerset, esq., for certain combinations and arrangements of implements and mechanical powers, and certain principles and forms of tables useful for surveying, and various other purposes. To James Ryan, of Doonane, in the Queen’s County, Ireland, engineer to the undertakers of the Grand Canal, for his invention of sundry tools, implements, or apparatus, for boring the earth for coal, and all kinds of minerals and subterraneous substances, by which the different strata mav be cut out in a cheap and expeditious manner, in cores or cylinders, from 1 inch to 20 inches and upwards in length, and from 2 inches to 20 inches and upwards in diameter, so as to be taken up entire at any depth that has hitherto been bored; by which not only the quality of such minerals and substances, but also the declination or dip of the strata, can be ascertained beyond a possibility of mistake; and which tools, implements, or apparatus, are also applicable to the purposes of sinking for wells, and giving vent to subterra- neous water in bogs, and draining mines and grounds, and ventilating pits, and other beneficial purposes. To John Edwards, of Bow-street, in the parish of St. Paul, Covent Garden, in the county of Middlesex, currier and harness-maker, for certain improvements in fire-places ; calculated to save fuel, give amore general heat, and prevent _ chimneys from smoking. ; To Matthew Gregson, of Liverpool, upholder, for a method of cleansing feathers for beds; and hair, wool, down, and other the natural covering of birds and animals, from their animal oil, in the most perfect manner, and in such a way as to render them more healthful, sweet, and pleasant for use. To Edward Steers, of the Inner Temple, London, esq., for an engine producing a force by the impetus which the parts of a fluid body have to an equal altitude, applicable to the working all kinds of machinery, METEOROLOGICAL 19% Metcorology. — METEOROLOGICAL TABLE By Mr. Carey, OF THE STRAND, For November 1804. Thermometer. |} “Soa Ari ; a\rbae Days of the |% 2 Height of | “> 5 2 Month, 52 the Ba:om. gs AS) Inches. Kw 3b ee eo > A Ase |. Oct. 27| 49° 29°78 19° tl 46 ‘66 10 29; 49 °56 5 30) 47 “Ol 16 $1; 49 46 18 Noy. I} 52 60 29 9) 50 °81 10 3) 45 DN 22 26 4| 492 ‘06 20 5) 39 29°90 20 6| 39 *05 20 ; 7| 37 Me OTA lie 8| 47 “49 5 9} 46 °49 4 10) 50 *20 oO tl! 50 Sele oO 12) 47 *93 15 13] 52 ‘67 3 14) 50 ies 192 15) 45 “86 7 16} 45 30°00 6 17\ 44 =i bet] CaN Gy 18| 45 215 10 19) 50 “O)] 18) 20° 44 *O4 1g 21) 46 20°74 aw 99! 42 °85 6), 23] 39 “92 10, 24 35 “80 0 25) 40 °85 95 26) 34 30°06 19 Weather. Rain Fair Rajm,.!- Fair, with rain at night Fair Fair Showery Fair, with wind Fair, with wind Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Foooy Rare Rain, Fair Rain Stormy Cloudy Smal! rain Fair Cloudy Rain Fair Fair Fair Rain Snow and rain Cloudy Fair + lace lie mealies Ee ewe —_. [ 193 ] XXXIV. Concerning the Analytical and Synthetical Modes of Reasoning made use of in Mathematics and other Sciences. By the Rev. Joun Torpuis, A. M. To Mr. Tilloch. SIR, I; you think the following worth insertion in the Philoso- phical Magazine, it is at your service. I have almost wholly extracted it from a long discourse read before the Philomatic’ Society at Paris by S. F. Lacroix. Iam, sir, Your sincere wel]l-wisher, Arnold, Notts, Joun Tor tis. October 25, 1804. There are two methods of reasoning made use of in the mathematical sciences; the synthetical and the analytical. By referring back to the Greek origin of the words syn- thesis and analysis, we shall find that one signifies compo- sition, and the other resolution or decomposition. Nothing appears clearer at the first glance than these denominations ; and we easily conceive that the methods they denote are the inverse one of the other : nevertheless, it appears to me that we do not pay sufficient attention to the difference between the proceedings of synthesis and analysis, nor form always distinct notions of them. I therefore thought it necessary to search into the writings of the antients for examples of composition and resolution, in order to fix my ideas upon this important point; from which the following reflections have arisen ; The Elements of Euclid are according to the synthetical method. That author having formed certain axioms, and made certain demands, advances his propositions, which he proves by means of what precedes; and thus continually passes from simple to composite, which is an essential cha- _racter of synthesis. At the origin of geometry we meet with traces of the ana- lytical method; for it is not correct to suppose that algebra * constitutes exclusively analysis: it serves likewise to facili- tate synthetical demonstrations ; for it is at the bottom only an abridged and regular method of writing, by mcans of which we represent all the relations which magnitudes can have with each other: and [ shall remark upon this subject, that Condillac, when he shows in his Logic that algebra is a Janguage, merely repeats what Clairaut asserted and proved in his Llémens d’ Algélre, printed in the year 1748. The first usage of analysis in geometrical researches is Vol. 20. No. 79. Dec. 1804. N attributed 194 On the Analytical and Synthetical Modes of Reasoning attributed to Plato. By this method we suppose the pro- posed problem is already resolved; from which it results that one condition is fulfilled, or, what comes to the same, that an equality takes place amongst certain magnitudes given and others sought. It is by finding out the conse- . quences of the condition which we suppose fulfilled, or of the equality which is the consequence of it, that in the end we discover the unknown quautity, or trace the pro- ceeding which it is necessary to follow in order to perform what is demanded. . I cannot do better than show here the definitions which Vieta has given of synthesis and analysis, after Theon, a reometrician of Alexandria, who, from his living so much nearer the times of the antients, was better able to judge of their opinions than we are. s¢ Est veritatis inquirendz via queedam in mathematicis, quam Plato primus myenisse dicitur, a Theone nominata analysis, et ab eodem definita, adsumptio queesiti tamquam concessi per consequentia ad verum concessum. Ut contra synthesis, adsumptio concesst per consequentia ad quesiti finem et comprehensionem.” (Viet@ opera, pag. 1.)* The * There is likewise a definition of analysis and synthesis given in the preface to the seventh book of the Mathematical Collections of Pappus, which, for its curiosity, I shall insert, Analysis is the way which, procecding from the thing demanded, ar« _ tives, by means of certain established consequences, to somewhat known ‘pefore, or placed among the number of principles acknowledged for true. This method makes us go from a truth or proposition through all its an- tecedents ; and we call it analysis, or resolution, or an inverted solution. fn synthesis, on the contrary, we begin from the proposition last found in analysis, ordering sroperly the above antecedents, which now present themselves as conscquents; and by combining them amonyst themselves we arrive at the conclusion sought, from which we procecded in the first case, We distinguish two sorts of analysis:—in one, which may be named contemplative, it is proposed to discover the truth or falsity of an ad- vanced proposition ; the other js relarcd to the solution af problems, or the research of unknown truths. [np the first, by assuming for true, or as formerly known, the subject of the advanced proposition, we proceed che consequences of the hypothésis to something known ; and i the result is true, the proposition advanced is likewise true. The direct demonstra- tion is lastly found by taking, in an inverse erder, the different parts of the analysis; if the consequence to which we arrive at last is found to be false, we conclude that the pioposition analysed is likewise false. When have to prove a problem, we suppose it already known, and we proceed upon this supposition till we arrive at something known. If the last res sult which we can obtain is comprised in the number of what geometri- cians call known truths, the question proposed can be resolved. , Phe de« monstration (or properly the construction ).is again formed, by taking, in an inverse used in Mathematics and other Sciences. 195 The demonstration of theorems in the manner called re- ductio ad absurdum is, properly speaking, an analytical proceeding; for we suppose the converse of the proposition Is true, and by seeking consequences which are absurd make it appear that the hypothesis is so likewise. [ believe the characteristics of synthesis and analysis im the mathematics are rendered tolerably clear by the pre- ceding descriptions. In the first method, the proposition enunciated is always the last consequence of the chain of Feasonings which form the demonstration: it is a composi- tion; for we add principle continually to principle, until we come to this consequence. . In analysis, on the contrary, by supposing the question resolved, we take in the whole of the subject ; and making it pass with different forms, or making diverse traductions of the enunciations, we come to the solutions sought. Condillac, in the fourth volume of his Course of Studies, makes it appear that all the art of reasoning merely consists in discovering the identity of diverse propositions; it is the order in which we connect the propositions that constitutes the method: moreover, when we reason synthetically, all the propositions that we make use of are identic until the last, which is itself a consequence of the preceding ones ; and, by containing the subject of the enunciation, «shows that the proposition advanced is true. When we reason analytically, we proceed from the enunciation, which is not identic by itself; and all the traductions which we pass by are merely hypothetical, until we arrive at the last, which always’ought to render it identic; and from that results the determination of the quantity sought: likewise by the con- nection of the anterior ideas all the intermediate proposi- tions become identic, and consequently the proposed ques- tion is resolved. / Those who understand algebra will readily perceive that I have traced the order made use of in resolving equations; they will see that at the last operation, when we have ob- tained the value of the unknown quantity, ihe final equa- tion will become identic by its substitution ; which willalso be the case with all those which precede it. Analysis is in general the method of invention; and we inverse order, the different parts of the analysis. The impossibility of the last result of the analysis will prove evidently, in this case as in the preceding one, that of the thing demanded. There is likewise, inthe solution of every problem, what is called the determination; that is to say, the reasoning by which we show when, in what manner, and how many different ways, the prob.em can be solved, farts. N2 believe ‘ 196 On the Analytical and Synthetical Modes of Reasoning - believe that through its means the geometers of the two last centuries found out the numerous discoveries which made them so illustrious, and which have served as a foundation for the labours.of their successors. But either to conceal their proceedings, or probably not being sufficiently used to the method, they dared not entirely trust to its but when they had discovered :a proposition, they always "demonstrated it synthetically. It appears from the posthumous works of Pascal and Roberval, that they first made use of the method of indivisibles to resolve problems, and afterwards demon- strated them according to the manner of the antients. They generally concealed the proceedings which they made use of; because, their ways of invention not being reduced to general rules and methods, they had the greatest interest in ke ‘eping them secret, for to assure themselves of arms proper to make them superior in the attacks which their rivals made by their defiances, which inereased ever y day *. Certain authors, in very different sciences, supposing that the evidence of which geometry exclusively boasted was owing to the method of geometers, thought, by applying this method to the object of their researches, they should be enabled to protect it from opposition; but it is easy to per- ceive that this imitation of method is imperfect, and that there will also be some difference owing to the nature of the subject. It is in chemistry that the application of the two methods appears most eviderit, and conformable to the etymology of their names. We combine together certain simple sub=. stances, or regarded as such, and thus operate by synthesis. We take a compound body, and separate it into its com= e * This could not be Newton's motive ; for he appears to have snpposed that a mathematical proposition was not fit to be published but with a synthetical demonstration. In his Treatise upon Fluxions, he expresses himseif as follows upon this subject: & Postquam area curva alicujus ita (analytice) reperta est et con- structa, indaganda est demonstratio constructioniss ut omisso, quatenus fieri potest, calculo algebraico, theorema fiat conetmnum et elegans, ac LUMEN PUBLICUM SUSTINERF VALEAT. Laplace thinks likewise that Newton “ had discovered by analysis the greatest parr of his theorems ; but his predilection for synthesis, and great estimation for the geometry of the antients, induced him to givea synthes tical form to his theorems; and likewise his method of fluxions.” (hes posit. a Syst. da Monde, 2d edit. p. 335.) We find in she luminous reflections upon the character and respective advantages of synthesis and analysis which follow this quotation, all that. precision hand clearness which the author has made use of inthe rest of his excellent work, upon the most abstract principles of mechanics. “3 % ponent used in Mathematics and other Sctences. ~~ 197, ponent parts: this belongs to analysis. However, these things do not take place in every instance, for all analyses are not perfect ; often we do not perceive the composition which we seek, but by comparing the properties which it manifests with those formerly known from synthesis, without being able entirely to decompose it. In like manner, all syntheses do not completely succeed, and we may reasonably suspect that they are often accompanied with decompositions which alter their truth. The objections of Deluc against the new theory appear to me to arise from these circumstances; and without admitting them, they ought, in my opinion, to ren- derus very cireumspect about the consequences we may de- duce from experiments; so long as we are not sufficiently acquainted with the nature of the effects of light, heat, electricity, and, in general, of substances which are in- coercible, The same reasons which caused the synthetical mode of proof to be adopted in all the sciences, when the geometers only proceeded by theorems and corollaries, induced the me- taphysicians of the middle of the last century to call that method analytical which they made use of to manifest their discoveries. Mathematics at that epoch enjoyed all the con- sideration which chemistry and physics have acquired since. The mathematicians who succeeded Newton had perfected those theories which he only hinted at, and resolved questions which he was not able to effect by the assistance of analysis. The metaphysicians were willing in some manner to asso- ciate their labours with those of the mathematicians, and to attach the revolution they had made in the system of ideas to that which Newton had made in the system of the world, But without bemg imposed upon by words, let us examine whether their method merits the name which they have given it, at least when it is compared with mathematical ana- lysis. ' The writings of Condillac will furnish us with examples of this method. In his treatise upon sensations, he com- mences by supposing his statue solely to possess the sense of smell, all others being abstracted; and he examines into . the nature of the ideas possible to be acquired solely by this sense. In passing to the second chapter of this work, I perceive, in the first paragraph, a definition; in the second aud third paragraphs true theorems, that is to say, proposi- tions first enumerated, and afterwards proved by tracing them up to identic ideas. By reading forwards in the samé chapter, and the remainder of the work, we may perceive that he adyances in a manner analogous to that followed in aia N3 elements 198 On the Analytical and Synthetical Modes of Reasoning . ¢lements of geometry ; he proceeds from simple to compo~ site. The understanding, or more especially the rapidity with which the faculty of comparing ideas, and presenting their result, exercises itself, conducted him to assertions, the truth of which he afterwards demonstrated by develop- ing all the intermediate propositions, which his judgment had Jed him to consider nearly in the same manner as gamesters estimate, almost at a glance, what they have to hope or fear from the different chances which are able to present themselves. This is much the same as what is called synthesis in geometry. This synthesis may be said to have been preceded by an analysis; for the author decomposed the system of sensations in order to discuss what regarded smell alone. The same takes place in geometry ; and some-~ thing equivalent to this analysis may be found in the diverse abstractions made by geometers to simplify their subject: thus they deprive a body of two of its dimensions, to form lines. Jt is not possible to find in the methods of Con- dillac, that proceeding of mathematical analysis which con- sists In supposing the question resolved, which itis probably impossible to apply to the things which he has treated upon, By examining his logic under the same point of view, I think we may convince ourselves that tt proceeds according to the sy e method. In tact, this proceeding may be unknown as such by those who have been struck with the difficulty of understanding the propositions which Newton, for example, has demoustrated synthetically. But this is merely an illusion which may easily be destroyed, The pro- ceedings of Newton might be understood with the same ease as those of Condillac, if all the truths which he has manifested were to follow cach other as closely as those which we meet with in the works of the latter. But the in- terval that separates them, both trom each other and those which are admitted as elementary, isso great; the number of intermediates to compare, and frequently to apply, is such, that the most continued application and profound talents are necessary to he employed, in order to avoid being lost in the series of consequences, There is no doubt but, by establishing all the intermediate Jinks, we might make the Principia of Newton as easy to be comprehended as the Elements of Euclid. Ina word, that might take place here which probably does in the na~ tural classifications of animals and plants; if all the species were known, we might pass from one proposition to any other by almost insensible transitions, It is easy 10 ac 1 that used in Mathematics and other Sciences: 199 that inthe Elements of Euclid there are to be found a grea nuinber of places in which it is very necessary that all the intermediate truths should be exposed; they were not known to the inventors, and it would be difficult to produce them although their existence is evident, Analysis produces these intermediates, and makes them pass under the eyes of the operator, although in an inverse order; and when they become so numerous that it is 1m- possible to express them otherwise than by algebraical for- mul, it then becomes necessary to employ calculation; and this makes known truths to which otherwise the rea- soning faculty could never attain. It will sometimes happen, that synthesis, by representing things much simpler than analysis, will lead to a conclusion in a much less complex manner. The researches upon the attraction of spheroids by Maclaurin, are a remarkable in- Stance of this circumstanee ; but in the hands of Lagrange, Laplace, and Legendre, analysis re-assumes, in these. cases, those advantages which it possesses in all others. I think that to all those who have clear notions of the me- thod employed by geometers, it will appear proved from what precedes, that the true method of analysis has never been applied to metaphysics, which does not appear susceptible of this application, at least in the present state of science. — It is not because Locke and Condillac made use of the analytical method, that metaphysics made such great pro- gress in their hands, but because they sought their first no- tions from nature, and not from their imaginations; it is because they ascended to the true origin of all our know- ledge, rather than create a system according to their fancy. if the first geometers had been willing, or perhaps able, to form to themselves other notions of the right line and circle than those they received trom nature, doubtless they would have formed ageometry which had no resemblance to that of nature, but would have been entirely imaginary. ©The method of geometers is not the sole cause of the certainty of their results; this certainty is principally owing to the nature of the notions which they have to combine. It is possible for a mathematical demonstration to be obscure, embarrassed, and iicomplete, and yet at the sae time to conduct to the truth of the enunciated proposition any per- son who shall have the patience and sagacity ssary to follow and rectify this demonstration. This takes place from mathematicians employing only complete notions, or such that the property which forms their principal charac- ter excludes al! others. When they wish to reason upon _ N4 “notions 200 On the Analytical and Synthctical Modes of Reasoning notions of another kind, they often find themselves deceived, notwithstanding all their exertions to preserve rigour in the form of the demonstrations; a thing which no one will dis- pute their knowledge of. It is therefore less in the method than in‘the simplicity and evidence of first notions, that the certainty of reasoning consists; and with regard to general principles, which Con- dillac always speaks of with merited contempt, they have no place in geometry. That of the least action, which Maupertuis made so much noise about, has only been,re- garded by mathematicians as an analytical result, arising from the general laws of mechanics; and it has never been exactly defined but by the assistance of mathematics ; for it formerly assumed very different forms in the hands of me- taphysicians. ~The second and third articles of the Pensées de Pascal ap-- pear to me to contain what is most luminous upon the man- ner of reasoning; and I do not perceive that Condillac has made any improvements to them. Already Pascal had per- ceived. the abuse of definitions, and reduced them. to their just value, that is, to descriptions and impositions of names ; hie far from proscribing any method of reasoning, as has been done latterly, by calling that synthesis which was but the abuse of reasoning, he classed the different methods of treating the sciences in such amanner as to show the as- sistance which might be derived from each of them. It is possible, says he, to have three principal objects in the discovery of truth: the first, to discover it when we seek it; the second, to demonstrate it when we possess it; and the last, to distinguish it from false when we examine it. In fact, these three cases are able to present themselves ; the first evidently almost always takes place; it likewise sometimes happens that the analogy of circumstances makes a proposition suspected, and then we endeavour to assure ourselves of its existence by a formal demonstration. Lastly, if we wish to submit a proposition to examination, In order to discover its truth‘or falsity, it is useful to know the ge- neral means for fulfilling this end. With regard to the exposition of acquired notions or known truths, the only rule to be observed as often as pos- sible consists in comparing them in those parts in which they have the greatest connection, and where the fewest in- termediates are required. By calling, as is most proper after the etymology of the words, that synthesis, by means of which we proceed from: simple to composite ; and that analysis, which returns from ’ composit¢ used in Mathematics and other Sciences. — 201 composite to simple, we shall see that these two methods almost always meet together: there are no complete truths but what result from their concourse ; but they vary a little in their form, according to the nature of the subjects to which we apply them. To unite synthesis with analysis at all times that we are able to make use of both; to exert the most scrupulous attention in the enumeration of the different appearances which the various cases of the proposition we examine present, in or- der to assure ourselves that all are comprised in the consi- derations upon which we foundit; that is to say, if the connection of ideas is observed; it 1s to this small number of principles, in my opinion, that all the art of reasoning should be reduced*. But this art, like all others, cannot be acquired but by continual and well-directed exercise; and all times when’ the theory is forced beyond a certain limit, it appears to lead the human mind from one error to an- other, and to present a vicious circle which produces all the subtilties of the antient schools. In fact, if nothing ap- pears that ought to limit the progress that may be made, by applying this reasoning to those sciences which rest imme- diately upon ideas acquired by the senses; it is not the case when we wish to analyse by themselves the operations of the understanding. It is possible, in this case, for the same cir- cumstance to take place as sometimes happens in mathema- tical researches, when by some error we combine one équa- tion with another, which only differs from it in appearance ; but being in fact the same, it does not aid the solution of the proposed questions, but gives a result purely identic. In the mathematics this result, which falls immediately under the senses, and is also expressed by signs which are well de- termined, cannot be mistaken; but when forced to turn our thoughts to subjects not susceptible of the same precision, - we deceive ourselves so far as to regard as essential modifi- cations, those trifling appearances which the intensity of understanding, which is exercised when the mind dwells too long upon one thought, produces in the manner of judging and perceiving—nearly as the sight becomes con- fused with being fixed too long upon one object. We think * The fiftharticle of the Elémens de Philosophie, given by D’Alembert in tome 4. of his Mélanges de Littévature, and the Supplement to th's article (tome 5. pag. 46.) contain, in a few words, all that is necessary to know upon the natural mechanism of reasoning. With respect to the different forms which can be given to syllogisms, they are to be found ex- po-ed in a manner as short as luminous, in tume 2. ces Lettres d’Euler & wne Princesse da’ Allemagne, ta #202 On the Analytical and Synthetical Modes, ec. to give a substance, if I may so express myself, to those fugitive deceptions, by creating new modes to design them, or by combining, in a different manner, words already known; and we afterwards blindly treat upon these hypo thetical abstractions: but as they are exposed to the-founda- tion, there comes a time when the absurdity of the conse- ~ quences derived from them shows their want of solidity. We then seek anew path, and in general find one formerly trodden, in which we again lose ourselves. It is probable we commenced hy perceiving, in our sensa~ tions, the origin of our ideas; but being obliged to class, divide, distinguish, and abstract the different circumstances which the acquired ideas presented, we lost ourselves in the catagories, and all the abstractions which are attendant upon them. The discoveries in physics, by giving a real subject for reasoning, opened the eyes to the abuse which had been made of it. The road traced by Newton in the third book of the Principia, could not be restrained solely to the objects to which it had been applied. The cclat of the discoveries which he made by following it, excited in those who cul- tivated the sciences an emulation which soon produced improvements in metaphysics. [tis to be granted that they have gained much by this revolution ; but there may possi- bly come a time when its progress will be stopped; and by comparing what it has lost on one hand and gained on the other, we shall know that this alone, amongst all the sci- ences, is susceptible of a limited progress, and that there exists in the theory of the operations of the understanding 2 point which cannot be gone beyond. Let us turn, therefore, to the physical sciences, which promise numerous and useful discoveries, all the activity of sur understandings ; and the theory of probabilities, by be- coming familiar to all those who cultivate the moral sci- ences, will give solid bases to those parts of our knowledge which are not capable of being ramified to a small number of abstract notions and complete ideas. XAXV. 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OLY, ** °° “SON IV ‘ "OZVAAV Affinity letween the Gealic and Greek Languages. ee ee ae se ‘ox yuma ey RES S ALT ¢*t ad |-sugt e ¢ peurtue uv Jo Uys 10 99N1 & Jo put oy} > yno opeut “ur ie | v , is 929 Ssaqopo Suidaoy 10 Surppoy 10 Surgy Aur saz $70 WO—ss_ a” ' $jeunuy ue jo ung Jo arly & Jo puny 10 yawg sour oy. —ysIy) 8 SO ysIY** * SO4SNT) + “ZONSId, *ALOJUOUL ; > -O1g & a2 fsylasoq 410 ‘siyipY ‘suIvyUNOTAT JQ—UoOTY JO ose anbiyqo ayy Suo, {tag dy} Spreso}y YOJo1JG 10 UNIT ay ,—YYy) MO A—IYY * “uOAIT YA," “NOTd, | “paUdg 10 ure]ANogy daa Tp doe AY . SB UNI 10 MOY 0} ‘a ‘7 fo jNO 10 Wotg—O faoy oF —eoyy]* ‘OY 40 ayy SOOT ate, | *pury MOD a4} Fo jo proy | JO oAoip v ta ‘2 fsaqummu yeinjd ayy Wo sass Qf fio; Wogan “q—ogl'' * nepertogy*.* +i ¢y74| . ‘yysnvu ‘oseq Guapndun ‘parsy asojo ‘az {we noyf{—sp {ssauua}}04 10 jysneu Soinpig—yey\ "Se ye yy snyey) * “ “ETE *pondsut que noy) ‘a2 fqiw noy,—sq $ pon—eyq fuy—uy]'* *sq—eyq—uy)'* ‘snaypuy}**—If he were to die, how shall T forgive myself ?—Am I sure that I ain not anticipating an evil that may never arrive ?—Where is imy right to do this ?—Is he certain to catch the small-pox?— of, is amongst infants under six months old, A remarkable proof of this disproportion appeared lately under a general i a sel ation Cow-Pock with the Small-Pox. 247 lation at Luton, during the progress of a malignant small- pox, which carried off one-half of those who were attacked by it in the natural way. In the midst of this fatality, twelve hundred and fifteen paupers were inoculated through the humanity of the Hon. and Rev. Mr, William Stuart, many of whom refused all preparatory medicines, and were besides addicted to the use of strong liquors: nevertheless, out of the tavelve hundred and fifteen only five died—all of whom were infants under four months old. Seven hundred adult people of better condition, in the same neighbourhood, were inoculated a short time afterwards, and with the like good success with the former. “ From this view of the matter it is pretty evident, I think, that this operation ought, in general, to be post- poned to a later period, which is pointed out by the child having cut all its first teeth.” Dr. Macdonald justly remarks, “ that the deaths of in- fants often happen under circumstances the more distress- ing.” %¢ Before me lie the records of two unfortunate families. In the one, a father and four of his children were inocu- lated for the small-pox: the eruptions proved of the con- fluent kind: two children out of the four died. The other is a young widow, who lost her husband at the early age of twenty-four. Ove infant at the breast was left her, which, in her pitiful situation, constituted her only con- solation. Soon after, the small-pox began to rage in the city where she lived; she therefore was advised by. her friends to inoculate her little boy. With reluctance, as if presaging her impending misfortune, she consented. Her tears, alas! were but too well grounded: on the day pre- cedin: the eruption the child was seized with convulsive fits, and expired on the tenth day. #* One smiling boy, her last sweet hope, she warms, Hush'd in her bosom, circled in her arms; Daughter of woe! ere inorn in vain caress’d, Clung the cold babe upoa thy milkless breast 5 With feeble cries thy last sad aid requir'’d, Stretch’d its stiff limbs, and on thy lap expired.”—Darw'x. 3dly, Dentition is found to bea period in which inoculation was haxardous. The small-pox is usually ushered in by convulsions in children at every age. The period of dentition being very boroes QO4 liable 248 Continuation of the Comparison of the liable to such convulsive attacks, which often prove fatal, would naturally put the practitioner on his guard against bringing oa, or adding to, an event equally terrific, as it is often fatal. ' “* It cannot be denied,” says my learned and eloquent friend Dr.. Macdonald, ‘* but the inoculation of the small- pox has proved to mankind a ready means to alleviate and escape the danger of a most distressig disorder: still, not- withstanding these happy effects, the inoculated small-pox is often accompanied with symptoms which give just cause of alarm, and somctimes prove fatal under the most judi- cious management. “ Were I to record all the distressing scenes which fre- quently attend the inoculated small-pox, or relate the sad histories of those unfortunate famihes, who, in consequence of inoculation, have felt the ragings of this dire disorder, the stoutest heart would shrink with horror, and drop a tear of pity over the sufferings of humanity. “© T would wish to relinquish this subject; for my pen can give but a faint sketch of those pictures of singular distress, which every physician of even moderate expericnce has witnessed, athly, Old age. Although this period cannot be alleged as equally un- favourable to either of the foregoing, it is one a practitioner would not prefer, and it secnis cruel to subject a person of the verge of the grave to the chance of a disease that pos- sibly may prove extremely severe. 5thly, Pregnancy is a situation in which inoculation gene- rally produced abortion, and the death of the individual, Cases of this sort are to be found in every author. In Mead we have the following affecting narrative : «¢ A lady of quality at the seventh month of Her preg- nancy was scized with the natural small-pox, which proved of an unfayourabJe sort, On the eleventh day she was brought to bed, and safely delivered of a male child: on the fourteenth she died. On the fourth day following, the infant was seized with convulsions, the forerunner of the eruption, which appeared on that same day, and he died in the evening.” The inoculated disease is found also equally dangerous. “© A physician: at Winchester informs me,” says Dr. Kirkpatrick in his Analysis of Inoculation, “ that in the several} Cow-Pock with the Smali-Pox.. 249 several towns of Hampshire, Sussex, and Surrey, there have been inoculated 2000, of whom two only died, both pregnant women, who admitted this operatton contrary to the opinion of their physician,” The cow-pock, on the contrary, may le inoculated under all circumstances. 1. Early infancy.—Dr. Jenner relates, “& that he caused an infant, but twenty hours old, to be inoculated for the cow-pock by his nephew Henry Jenner; and this litle stranger, so newly ushered into life, felt but a very slight disease; and, being afterwards inoculated for the small-pox, and exposed to its cuntacion, resisted all attempts to com- municate the small-pox.” 2. Time of teething.—We may adduce here the autho- rity of Dr. Denman, one of the most eminent accoucheurs in London, in coniirmation of the experience of Dr. Jen- ner. ‘ It became now the duty,” says Dr. Denman, wri- ting in the Physical Journal for April 1800, “¢ of medical men, especially of those who are much engaged in the practice of inoculating for the small-pox, or who are much consulted in infantile diseases, to declare their experience about vaccine inoculation, and examine into it with the greatest possible care. For my own part, I can affirm, that T have seen inoculated with the cow-pock, through my son- in-law Mr. Croft, a great many chiidren at al/ ages, and they went through the disease without the east. sign of danger, and even without much fever or indisposition.” 3. Humours in the body.—As scrophula does not ap- pear to be called into action by the cow-pox (vide last comparison, p. 250); but, on the contrary, there are eases where this cruel disorder has been found to be not only mitigated by vaccine inoculation, but also wholly re- moved, the dread of the subject being humoury is unim- portant. Fat and lean children do equally well. In my experience at Lowther the reader wall find a case of tinia capitis, which was not at all increased under inoculation. Dr. Pearson has recorded two cases of psora (itch), which, beiug unknown to me at the time, were inoculated; and from the pustule, which was broken, vaccine matter was conveyed to different parts of the body, producing avery se- vere disease, which appeared pustular solely from this cause, The psora, therefore, must be allowed to be a ground of ex- clusion to this, orany other inoculation: the only exception Jam at present acquainted with. s© More 250 Continuation of the Compérison of the ** More than a thousand subjects,” says Mr. Dutming, surgeow at Viymouth-Dock, have been vaccinated in this neighbourhood during the last year.. Some hundreds of them have fallen to my share. Complete success has been invariable in every case, where the vaccine character has been unequivocally expressed. With avery few exceptions, the indisposition has been none at all, or the least imaginable, and I know of no shade of accident that ean fairly be attri- buted to the new practice. In one child a very general and obstinate cutaneous complaint, which had previously resisted much external and internal medicine, very soon disappeared after vaceimation. Health and firmness have shortly suc- ceedcd it in several weakly chikdren, under my own observa- tion, and I have beard of many similar occurrences : this has so oflen and so strikingly happened, that it bas more than once been proposed to me to vaccinate séck/y children.” 4. Besides humours which militate against the small-pox inoculation, there cre variety of diseases, which, if they at= tack at the same time the child labouring under the small- pox, or soon after, usually prove fatal: a combination, how= ever, not found to become aggravated by, or increase, the ao cue pox. Miss. R , a young lady about five years old, was seized, on the evening of the eighth day after inocula- tion with vaccine virus, with such symptoms as commonly denote the accession. of violent fever. Her throat was also alittle sore, and there were some uneasy sensations about the muscles of the neck. dhe day following a rash was perceptible on her face and neck, so much resembling the: eflorescence of the scarlatina anginasa, that 1 was induced to ask whether miss R-~— had becn exposed to the con- tagion of that disease. An answer in the affirmative, and the rapid spreading of the redness over the skin, at once relieved me from much anxiety respecting the nature of the malady, which went through its course in the ordinary way, but not without symptoms which were alarming, both to myself and Mr. Lyford, who attended with me. There was no apparent deviation in the ordinary progress of the pustule to a state of maturity, from what we see in general; yet there was a total suspension of the areola, or florid discoloration around it, until the scerlatina had retired from the constitus tion. As soon as the paticnt was freed from this disease, this appearance advanced in the usual way. ‘The case of Miss H R is not less interesting thau that of her sister above related. She was exposed to the 2 contagion Cow-Pock ivith the Small-Pox, 25} contagion of the scarlatina at the same time, and sickened almost at the same hour. The symptoms continued severé about twelve hours, when the scarlatine tash showed itself faintly upon her face, and partly upon her neck. After re- maining two or three hours it suddenly disappeared, and she became perfectly free from evety complaint. My surprise at this sudden transition from extreme sickness to health, in great measure ceased, when I observed that the inoculated pustule had occasioned, in this case, the common efflores- cent appearance around it, and that as it approached the centre it was nearly in an erysipelatous state. But the most remarkable part of this history is, that, on the fourth day afterwards, as the efflorescence began to die away upon the arm, and the pustule to dry up, the scarlatina again ap peared, her throat became sore, the rash spread all over her. She went fairly through the disease, with its common sym- ptoms. That these were actually cases of scarlatina was rendered certain by two servants in the family falling ill at tae same time with the distemper, who had been exposed to the in- fection with the young ladies*.” I had a similar case of scarlet fever and cow-pox in the child of Mr. White, coachman, Adams Mews. The ef- florescent areola was arrested, but became visible after the scarlet fever ceased. “¢ J have met with,” says Mr. Ring, ‘ three cases of the co-existence of cow-pock and measles within the last six months. The first was in the child of Mr. Shepherd, in Phoenix yard, Oxford-street. The second was the child of —— Hardey, No. 45, Peter-street, Westminster. This case I showed to Dr. Jenner and his friend Dr. Marshall, of Gloncestershire. It was also seen by Mr. Missiter. The ‘third case was in the child of — Groom, World’s-end= passage, Newington-causeway.” «© Mr. H. Jenner lately met with a similar case.—In these different instances, the’ periods of the respective eruptions were various. In the first that occurred to me, the mcasles appeared on the second day, and went through their regular course; yet in no degree retarded the progress of the vaccine pustule. In the second instance the measles appeared on the eighth day; and in the third instance on the fourth day ; yet neither distemper interrupted the other. In the case which occurred to Mr. H. Jenner, the measles appeared tlre * From Jenner's Inquiry. eighth 252 Continuation of the Comparison of the eighth day, without checking the progress of the pustule. In those cases which I have seen, the areola surrounding the ustule was perfect. This was also remarked by Dr. Jenner, in the case which I showed him. Dr. Marshall assured me, that nothing but ocular demonstration of such a case could have convinced him of the possibility of its existence.” «¢ J have had,” says Dr. Jenner, ‘* an opportunity of trying the effects of the cow-pock matter on a boy who, the day preceding its insertion, sickened with the measles. The eruption of the measles, attended with cough, a little pain in the chest, and the usual symptoms accompanying that disease, appeared on the third day, and spread all over him. The disease went through its course without any deviation from its usual habits; and, notwithstanding this, the cow- pock virus excited its common appearances, both on the arm and on the constitution, without any sensible interruption ; on the sixth day there was a vesicle. § gth. Pain in the axilla, chilly, and affected with head- ache. «© oth. Nearly well. “12th. The pustule spread to the size of a large split pea, but without any surrounding efflorescence. It soon afterwards scabbed, and the boy recovered his geveral health rapidly., But it should be observed, that, before it scabbed, the efflorescence, which had suffered a temporary suspension, advanced in the usual manner. «© Flere we see a deviation from the ordinary habits of the small-pox ; as it has been observed, that the presence of the measles suspends the action of variolous matter. However, thesuspension of the efflorescence is worthy of observation,. “The case of co-existence of the cow-pox and the chicken-pox, which occurred to Mr. Little, of Plymouth, is published by Mr. Dunning, in his Observations on Vac~ cination. In that case the chicken-pock appeared on the tenth day of vaccine inoculation.. The vaccine pustule was at that time arrived at its height of inflammation, and main-, - tained its specific character.” A most remarkable case occurred to me. A girl, aged about nine, living with the dowager the countess of C——, fell from the balustrade of the stair-case, from the height of above forty feet, and pitched on her skull on the stone land- ing-place. The fracture was extenzive, and the largest piece of bone cver remembered was taken away by Mr, Heaviside, which is to be seen in his invaluable museum. A_ silver plate now defends the brain. This child was cautiously af watched, Cow-Pock with the Smail-Pox. 253 watched, in order that she might not catch the natural small- pox; and Dr. Turton and Mr. Heaviside were justly appre- hensive of inoculation. Their good sense at once, however, coincided that she should be inoculated by me with vaccine matter, and she passed through the disease without one day’s illness, with only the slight inconvenience of the pustule on the arm. 5. Pregnancy.— \ have inoculated,” says Dr. Mar- shall, “ a great number of females at different periods of pregnancy, and never observed their cases to differ in any respect trom those of my other patients. Indeed the disease is so mild, that it seems as if it might at all times be com- municated with the most perfect safety *.” The same suc cess is recorded by Henry Jenner, who relates a case, where he inoculated a person a week previous to the accouche- ment f. 6. Old age no exception.—For confirmation of the truth of his position, I shall give the report of the committee of vaccine inoculation { at Paris, instituted by order of govern- ment. “Report. The vaccine affection appears to us to be of a nature the most benign, and which hardly deserves to be called a malady: not so miuch as one accident occurred to the hundred and fifty subjects who have been inoculated. ‘© The yaecine inoculation is no less practicable than exempt from accidents, whatever be the age of the persons on whomit is performed. Infants have been inoculated in the arms of their nurses ; others at the age of one, two, and three years to fifteen. Persons of the age of forty, and even fifty to seventy years, have also been inoculated, and always with the same success.” Lastly, the cow-pock does not leave any. bad humours after it. The small-pox has been justly accused of often leaving the body in that state of wretched debility, as to make lite afterwards only acominued series of excruciating affliction. Besides other horrid disfigurations of the person, scrophulu, or the king’s evil, not unfrequently follows the natural or * From Jenner's Inquiry, p. 161., second edition. + Vide Jenner's Inquiry, p. 174. t The mor distinguished physicians at Paris were selected for this Purpese; as, Thourct, director of the school of medicine; Pinel, professor of physic in the échool of amedicine ; Leroux, ¢finicul professor; Partsir, inspector of the military hospitals, &c. &e. . inoculated 254 Continuation of the Comparison of the inoculated small-pox. The insertion of the humour of a brute into the human body in vudzar conception Jed a priori to the expectation of a loathsome distemper. But fortu- nately for the human race a more benign disease than the small-pox was the consequence, and one only similar to it, in having a somewhat resembling pustule, and in the pro- perty, of ever after securing from that fatal and loathsome distemper. «© Every practitioner in medicine,” says Dr. Jenner, * who has extensively inoculated with the small-pox, or has attended many of those who have had the distemper in the natural way, must acknowledge that he has frequently seen scrophulous affections, in some form or another, some- times rather quickly showing themselves after the recovery of the patients. Conceiving this fact to be admitted, as E presume it must be by all who have carefully attended to the subject, may I not ask, whether it does not appear probable that the gencral introduction of the sinall-pox into Europe has uot been ainong the least conducive means in exciin that formidable foe to health? Having attentively set the effects of the cow-pox in this respect, I am happy in being able to declare, that the discase does not appear to have the least tendency to produce.this destructive malady.” To this authority of Dr. Jenner we may add the following from the evidence delivered before the committee of the house of commons: Dr. Nelson, physician to the Vaccine Institution, de- clares, that he had never observed any disease to have been excited by the vaccine inoculation: on the contrary, the health of sickly children was in gencral much mended by lf. Dr. Baillie declares, he bas not known an instance in which the vaccine inoculation had introduced or excited any disease ; but he had known instances of the absorbent glands becoming enlarged and scrophuious, soon afier a paticut had undergone the small-pox; these instances happen sufh- ciently often to make a general impression upon the minds of medical men, that the constitution was sometimes ex- cited to form scrophula, in consequence of the irrttation that it had previously undergone during the small-pox. Dr. James Sims, president of the Medical Society of Lon- don, gave it as his opinion, that the vaccine disease docs not introduce any other disorder into the human frame. Mr. Cline, surgeon, lecturer on anatomy, states, that he believes a” Cow-Pock with the Small-Pox. Q! believes that the cow-pock does not excite scrophula, or any other disease, which is sometimes the case with the inocu- lated small-pox. Mr. James Simpson, surgeon to the Surry dispensary, and to the Magdalen hospital, has practised vaccine inocu- Jation, and has ineculated between fifty and sixty patients, and in no one instance had any symptoms occurred in- jurious tothe part inoculated, or constitution of the patients ; and he believes them to be completely secure from the small-pox. In one particular instance, the patient, a child of nine months, was covered with a crust commonly called the crusta lactea, which generally covers the body from head to foot, and had resisted the usual remedies tor that disease: but on the tenth day after the infection it began to disappear, and on the twelfth day was wholly gone ; during which time not a particle of medicine was given to it, and it continued in perfect health ever since. Dr. Willan, who practised the cow-pock in the absence of Dr. Woodville on a large scale, who is more conversant with every species of eruptive diseases than any other prac- titioner, J believe, in Europe, relates in his reports of the diseases of London. * The vaccine disease has not, in any case I have seen, been attended with glandular swellings, ulcers, cutaneous affections, diseases of the lungs, puffy tumours of soft parts, enlargement of hones, ophthalmia, deafness, dyspnea, anasarca, hydrothorax, which so often occur after the small- pox, whether produced by contagion or inoculation. This circumstance alone eden cast the balance in favour of the cow-pock, even were this disease on a level in some other respects with the small-pox.” Its security as a prophylactic against the small-pox has been before considered. 3 & / XLIII. Eighteenth [ 256 } XLII. Exghteenth Communication from Dr. Thornton, relative to Pneumatic Medicine. To Mr. Tilloch. Dec. 15, 4804, DEAR SIR, No. x, Hinde-street, Manchester-square. I. order to show the superior advantages of any remedy, it is necessary to state cases in which the common means have failed under the ablest practitioners; and this will plead my excuse forgenerally naming the parties concerned ; for, having no other purpose in view but to spread aknowledge of pneuma- fic medicine, 1 havc related usually ‘both the names of the pa- tients cured, and under what physician’s care these were previous to their applying to ine, but without ever intending thereby to derogate aught from their well-known skill. The following case isa very y striking one in favour of pneumatic Medicare : : Case of an Affection of the Heart. Mr. Mortlock, aged 26, who kceps the large Colebrook Dale China warehouse, No. 250, Oxtord-street, when I first attended him, bad been nize months ill. His disease was “a continual gnawing, uneasy pain” in the chest; I suppose it to arise from the “heart, his interrupted pulse appeared to indicate this, so that life was insupportable: the pain was so acute, upon using the slightest exercise, that he eould not et up a flight of stairs w ithout resting, and he could even hardly walk across the room. So increased was this pain, also, upon taking any food, that he was obliged to desist from all animal food, wine, or beer, and lived wholly on garden stuff, and drank water. His spirits partook of his general inability; there was no intermission to his pain night or day. He first was under the care of Mr. Cheva- Wer, a surgeon distinguished for bis treatise on gun- -shot wounds, which obtained for him a diamond ring trom the present empcror of Russia; who, after trying various reme- dies, recommended a physician, Dr. Pitcairn, who was con- sulted; and leeches to the chest, with blisters, and then tonics, were used, but all to no manner of purpose; he began to despair of ever being cured; when the duchess of Bolton, and the countess of Conadele, urged him by all means to consult me. Lady Mount-Edecumbe pressed him in On Pneumatic Medicine. 257 in thesame manner, with several others of the nobility ; and, from obedience rather than faith, he put himself under my direction. I shall be brief in my narrative;—employing | the same strengthening remedies that Mr. Chevalier was then judiciously using, I ordered, in addition, the inhalation of a gallon of vital air, mixed with three of atmospheric, once aday, and the pain gradually abated from the very first trial of the air, and wholly disappeared in the course of a fortnight, and at the end of three weeks he was the most altered personin the world, being then inthe full enjoyment of health. Observations on this Case. 1. The effect of the inhalation of a gallon of vital air, de- luted as above, was-a kind of intoxication, which lasted for ive minutes; he could stand upright, but felt, he says, “Cas one under the impression of liquor, all objects appearing confused to him, and in motion.” This was not succeeded by head-ache. _ 2. This intoxication was produced for a week, but dimi- nished in degree after each successive inhalation ; afterwards no such effect was observed. th _ 3. Onxly a sensible increase of warmth. 4. His appetite, which was before wholly lost, recurred. 5. Now he eats whatever comes to table, and takes his beer and wine as others. . 6. He walks now often three miles at astretch, without feeling any distress or fatigue. 7. His pulse is regular and good. : 8. The benefit, as vet, has continued more than three months, and, I trust, will be permanent. g. The question is, whether so quick a change in such a disease could have been accomplished by the use of medicine atone? or vital air alone ? ie 10. Or whether the vital air, by stimulating’ the heart, did not impart, aided by proper medicines, some change to that organ, and thence produce the whole train of benelits. I have the pleasure to sign myself, . . . Dear sir, your obliged, devoted friend, Ropert Joun THORNTON. “Vol. 20. No. 79. Dec. 1804. BR XLIV. Nine [ 258 } XLIV: Nineteenth Communication from Dr. Thornton re- - lative to Pneumatic Medicine. To Mr. Tilloch. Dec. 20, t804, No. 1, Hinde-strect, Manchicster-square. Case of Defective Circulation. Maay STAFFORD, aged thirty, servant to Mrs. Mills, No. 16, Queen Ann-strect, west, was subject to have her fingers swelled in both hands, looking blue, and so stiff as to inca- pacitate her from doing any kind of needle-work ; she could not clench her hand. This disease, if I may so call it, oc. curred every winter, and various external remedies were used, but still it remained, always throughout the winter. This lady haying observed this affliction in her maid, a valuable servant, for five years, the time she has lived with her, Mrs. Mills wished her to consult me about the vital air. In conse- quence, I advised the inhalation of the vital air, a gallon per diem, dilated with three of atmospheric; and at the end of a week, the swelling, blueness, and tension of the fingers, went off, and she obtained the perfect use of her fingers, and is able to do any. kind of needle-work, even during this hard frost; a circumstance she cannot remember in any former. winter, and she ascribes the benefit reeeived from the inha- lation of the vital air. Observations on this Case. 1. Mrs. Wilkinson, whose remarkable cure I have recorded in my Philosophy of Medicine, bad whitlows frequently during the time of her inhaling of vital air, and was never subject to them before or since, which, together with the present case, evinces that the blood, by the wilal air, is powerfully determined from the heart to the extremities. 2. Governor Pownall mentions, in a letter to me, that he knew a matiufacturer who was accustomed, once a day, to - to his workmen, obliged to be confined im thé vitiated air of a crowded room, after work, diluted vifal air, and theréby preserved them both in health and spirits. He makes this query—Have we im nature a more useful cordia? than the vital air? other cordials, as they are called, indirectly accelerate the motion of the heart, this mediately, and without injuring in the least the tone of the stomach. 3. When inhaling the vital air for other diseases, chil- blains have ceased in winter to appear. ‘ XLY. Me- { 259°.) XLV. Memoir on the Devitrification of Glass, and the Phe- nomena which take place during its Crystallization. By Danticurs*: Read in the Physical Class of the Insti- tute, May 20th, 18047. Some chemists have considered glass as a crystallization : this opinion appears to be natural, in consequence of tie transparency of glass or crystal, since we have borrowed the name of the latter to denote a regular and spontaneous ar- rangemeat of the molecule of bodies; but, on a little reflec- tion, we discover our error: glass, indeed, never affects the. crystalline furm, either at its surface or on its fracture; it never exhibits crystals of its own substance, as is remarked: in certain metals properly cooled; and if crystals are formed im the mass of glass, they are foreign to the part still vitri- fied; they may be consideredas a retrograde step of vitrifi- cation; this 1 shall prove in the course of the present me- moir. } Beginning with a definition of vitreous fusion, I shall distinguish and separate that of bodies fusible by themselves in the fire of our furnaces; such as borax, phosphoric and other acids. Here caloric, being condensed, softens and fuses the substances, which retain more or less, after they have cooled, transparency and the other physical proper- ties of glass, with which every body is acquainted. But I ought to examine and describe that. fusion experi- enced by the vitreous compositions employed in the com- mon purposes of life: in the latter case, vitrification is the result of a double phenomenon; it is not only the effect of caloric accumulated, but it is produced also by the affinity of the substances which enter into the mixture. Those sub- stance which tend to combine and to penetrate cach other, xercise the laws of their affinity the moment they have at- tained to a sufficient temperature. It is thus that several earths, when united, fuse at a degree of heat at which each of them separately would not have changed its state. Thus common vitrification, among ditferent and hetero- * Dartigues, proprietor of glass mapufacrories and other establishments at Vonéche, (Sambre-et- Meuse) engaged to submit to the institute a trea- tise on the art of g/ass-making, to serve as a continuation of the Arts and Meiers of the academy. The first part is ready for publication; a great many of the plates are engraved, “The:second part contains the applica- tion of glass in the different arts in which itis employed. The third part consists of detached memoirs on the physical and chemical properties of glass. The present dissertation is an extract from onc of these memoirs. 4 Frow Annales de Chimie, No. 150. : ' Re- geneous to 260 On the Detitrificatién of Glass. , weneous substances, is the result of a combination made ata, high temperature; a result which exhibits 2 compound per-: fectly homogeneous, more or less transparent, elastic, break - ing in a particular manner, whence comes the name ?i- treous fracture; a body a very bad conductor of caloric and electricity, "and susceptible ‘of becoming soft at a tem+ perature inferior to that at which it was fused, of becoming. paste-like, ductile, &c. The phenomenon, during which all these properties dis- appear, is what I call devitrification : : this expression may at first appear extraordinary; but it will be seen that it is per- fectly just. Devitrification has already been observed by various che- mists; some even have seen and -remarked several circuni- stances, but mm an insulated manner; and I do not know that any one has ever published a complete body of re- searches proper for rendering it clear, and for proving that it is connected with all the known properties of all bo ties of nature, and that it 1s only the product of crystallization. / Reaumur first observed that elass, especially when com- ed of different earths, as bottle-glass i is ip-general, may TE ieceakgeee, and lose its transparency and all its other vitreous properties. Being entirely engaged with his labour oti porcelain, he was desirous of apply mg this discovery to the fabrication of pottery, and ascribed the phenomenon to the substances in which he caused glass to cement. “This fact is called cementation of glass,and the result, Reaumiur’s porcelain. Nothing was more calculated to retard the real knowledge of this phenomenon than a similar denomi- nation. The labours of Bosq d’Antic, on the same object, were undertaken merely to obtain by’ this‘ method a good kind of pottery, and to find cements by ‘thehelp of whichnew proper- tics mmght be given to that body. It is thus that, by givingthe im proper name of cementation to a phanomenon which de- pended in no manner on the substances added as cement, they misled those who were induced to follow the course. of the experiments before made. It indeed results, that science has gained nothing m this respect since the time of Reauimur; ; several persons have: attempted to cement glass, and observed nothing more in the result. Several persons have since ec observed in glass the property of giving buth io erystallization; those remarks, made in particular by artists placed at the ‘head of glass manufacto- ries, have not furnished the consequences which ought to be deduced, The heads of a large establishment have seldom t time . On the Devitrification of Glass. 261 time to stop to contemplate small effects; they are obliged to embrace too many things at once. These remarks, curious jn themselves, remained without any consequence; and no” one imagined, or dared to publish, thatthe crystallization of glass and cementation, by the process of Reaumur, were ab- solutely one and the same. Sir James Hall, in his ingenious experiments on whin- stone and lava*, discovered in these stones the property of fusing into glass, and of. returning to the state of stones, according to circumstances. i He calls the latier_fact 4 devitrifications; he saw that it Was the effect of a precipitation, and he explains it in a true and satisfactory manner ; but being too much occupied in deducing from this fact’ arguments in favour of the vol- canists, he neglected to follow in that phenomenon whatever interesting it presented to the philosopher, This is the task which { have imposed upon myself; and, in this memoir on devitrification, { propose to explain the result of my last re- searches; as my situation has placed at my command a fire exceedingly violent, and continued for several years, I was enabled to obsetve what few have an opportunity of séeing. The facts which T am going to relate partly explain them- selves; they are the result of the laws to which all bodies are subject; the whole merit of the observation consists in having seen them insubstances in which, and at times when, it was not known that these laws took place. The bottom of furnaces for fusing glass exhibit in gene- ral large cavities, hollowed out by the action of the fire and of corroding substances, which often fuse crucibles. These eavities become filled with a kind of glass called picadil. This picadil is the result of the ashes, which are vitrified, of some of the stones of the furnace which are fused, and par- ticularly of the glass which falls from the pots. Care is taken to take it out at each fusion. At the end of the duration of the furnace, the fosse, being enlarged, cannot empty them- selves entirely, and on that account picadi/ remains in them. When the furnace is extinguished, the picadil experiences a coolitig exceedingly slow, because it is surrounded by mason-work, consisting of several cubic toises, which has been heated for more than a year. I always observed that it was in the glass at the bottom of the furnaces that I found erystallizations; they were diffused throughout the — sites of the glass, which, in other respects, was exceedingly “© Bibliotheque Britanniques vol. xiv! See also the Philosophicil Trans- arf : ie te TED : « toile yan 2 pure 62 On the Devitrification of Glass. pure and transparent. These crystallizations, always nu- merous and very regular, excited my curiosity, as they had done that of several glass manufacturers before. I collected a large quantity of them; and I carefully selected the most curious, and those which exhibited the most extraordinary characters. By comparing the pieces I had obtained, and the circum- stances under which they were produced, and by making remarks, attempts, and experiments to imitate at pleasure these crystallizations, I was soon able to distinguish different classes of them, all produced by the nature of the different substances which enter inta the composition of glass, I sha!l here take a short view of them: I shall not, however, speak of devitrification, which almost always takes place in the scoriz of forges; every body has been able to remark it, and may account for it by what I am about to say. . The first remark which may be made is, that the more in- eredients there are in glass, the more susceptible it is of being specdily and easily devitrified : but as a solvent charged with a great quantity of saline substances suffers them to crystallize in a more confused manner, it is also not in these kinds of glass that the most regular crystallizations areé re- marked; a precipitation is effected.in the whole mass; each of the ingredients obeys, at the same time, the laws of af- finity: transparency disappears speedily, and in a little time nothing more is perceived than a stone instead of a vitreous body: Amidst this chaos, it is however impos- sible not to discover the rudiments of crystallization. Such are the phenomena exhibited in their devitrification by glass bottles, which approach near to glass entirely earthy, since very few salts enter into their composition., Any person may keep a common glass bottle in a heat long enough continued, and capable of softening its paste ; soon after it changes its colour, becomes gray, and has the appearance of earthen ware. Such is the porcelain of Reau~ mur; but it is seen that there is nothing here which has the least resemblance to cementation. Now, instead of observing the phenomenon in so small a mass, if I search the bottom of ‘the furnaces in which such bottles are fused, J find that the glass is absolutely devitri- fied, and that it even has assumed so stony an appearance, that the most expert eye can scarcely distinguish the brick of which the furnace is constructed from the part which has been glass. It is only by following, in the fragments less advanced, the progress of the devitrification, that one can distinguish the glass in a granulated stone, which has rather to On the Devitrification of Glass. 263 rather the appearance of earthen-ware, or strongly baked clay. : Cooling, continued for an hour or two, is often sufficient to effect an entire devitrification of the glass of bottles. I have pieces about eight centimetres in thickness, which I collected in the glasshouse of M. Saget, at La Gare. On taking from the furnace a pot intended to be renewed, the glass which remained at the bottom was preserved from cooling during the time employed by the pot in cooling: and the nature of this glass was entirely changed; it was nothing but a mass of crystals composed of small needles converging towards common centres. There was no longer any appearance of vitrification. This fact shows with what facility the glass of bottles becomes vitrified, and always without the Icast appearance of cementation. - The infinite yariety of the substances employed in making bottles produces a great change in the phenomena which take place during their devitrification, and no doubt must have an influence on the form of the crystals; but I have not had much opportunity of observing this kind of glass. Proceeding then to glass Icss carthy, and composed of fewer substances,—if I examine also the bottom of furnaccs for fusing that kind of glass called glass of Alsace, or half white glass, in which there is more pure silex, and more alkali to fuse it, I observe nearly the same phenomena, but, being less abrupt, they are more easily remarked and separated. At first, and in pieces where devitrification is commencing, people might almost say that they saw a blue colour diffused throughout a greenish liquid. I shall here briefly mention a very singular fact, which T intend to examine at more length in another memoir. This greenish glass mixed with blue secs, indeed, to have become of a dirty blue when looked at opposite to the light; but if it be placed between the light and the eye, it scems always greenish, so thatit reflects the blue, and only refracts the grecnish colour. Continuing to observe the devitrifi- cation of demi-white glass, it is seen that the blue precipi- tation is followed by another more abundant, which gives the dirty white, and is very distinct from the former. The latter becomes stil] darker and darker, till it at length as-~ sumes the colour of gray horn. ~ In these different transitions the paste of the glass scems always to exist. One may distinguish its polish, its frac- ture, and all its other properties except transparency: but in the midst of4his paste similar to horn, very distinct ery - '@ R4 stallizations 264 On the Devitrification of Glass. stallizations are formed ; these are nuclei composed of smalh needles all converging towards the centre. In this state it, is no longer glass; it is crystal, which possesses all the physical properties of mineral substances left to themselves, An exact analysis, made with a certain number of crys- tals carefully detached from the mass, would indicate their nature, and throw more light on their formation. jaslaas It often happens that these crystallized nuclei are enve~ loped with a crust which seems foreign to their nature, and. which may be compared to the erust with which fiints are covered in the banks of chalk, where they seem to grow. Such is the series of the phenomena exhib by the devitrification of demi-white glass when it takes place slowly; but if hastened too much, these phenomena return to the class of those which may be observed in glass bottles, The common glass in question was that in which no earthy substances but wood ashes were employed. There ought, therefore, to be infinye varicties in it, according to the dif-. ferent compositions. ; It is very difficult to make white glass crystallize or to become devitrified. When well made one may even say. that it is not altered by heat a long time continued; but that this may be the case there must. be nothing In its com~ position except silex, and only the quantity of flux neces- sary to saturate it. A heat coutinued as long as possible will not then effect any. other change in the glass than to harden it and make it became yellaw. When white glass contains a certain quantity of neutral, salts or glass gall, which the fire has not had time or power to dissipate, there often results during a slow cooling what is called graisse, raiine, bubbles, and stones, which | re suddenly and spontaneously formed. These accidents, their diferent causes, and the remedies to be applied, are treated of at full length im the first part ‘of my work, where I speak of the fusion of glass; but, though the explanation of these facts belong entirely to the theory of devitrification, .I think it necessary to treat here: of the phenomena arising from the presence of the different earths. sgl ety White glass contains lime in greater or less quantity, in, consequence of the reasons mentioned im speaking of the different compositions of this substance. This lime, when, in excess, crystallizes exceedingly well, as remarked by Loysel. ‘These crystals may be easily distinguished: they, are so abundant that they absolutely obscure the transpa- rency, They are prisms which seem to float in the maids On. the Devitrification of Glass. 265 of the paste of the glass, and which tend to collect them- selyes into stars of different forms. These stars are all nearly of the same size, and about two or three millimetres in length. When this crystallization is effected of itself im large masses at the boitom of the furnaces, the colour of the glass becomes darker, inclining to black, by the pre- sence of a certain quantity of ashes mixed with it. The striated stars here mentioned become the more numerous as they recede rurther trom the side in contact with the fire. Crystailizations first insulated ave soon succeeded ‘by a mass entirely crystallized, in which nothing of the vitreous cha- racter is distinguished, _ Such are the most usual characters of crystallization; but one often sees others which are certainly owing to chance, and which deserve to be observed on account of their variety *. - I haye some pieces of glass containing crystals of so great tenuity that they can scarcely be seen by the help. of a mag- nifying glass. They are prisms diverging from the same centre and formigg. stars which are often not more than a millimetre in size: their unjon seems to be a slight obscu- tiv invthe paste of the glass. et Scie pieces exhibit the aspect of a saline crust applied en a foreign body with which the glass was in contact. In soiuc, this crust, composed of striated paps, seems to ad- vance more and more, and to gain on the glass. There is still another variety more curious than any of those already mentioned ; it is that observed in the middle of the paste of the glass; centres of crystallization like peas, and almost similar to grains. They are small globules flat-: tened at the two ends, with an umbilicus in the middle of each depression, The sides have ribs like the seeds of the capucin, and these ribs are always six in number. ' My intention is, when I can procure a sufficient number of these singular crystals, to analyse them, in order to dis- cover what is the earth which affects so extraordinary a form. pile , tts 5 ba , . Such, in a few words, are the principal facts by which the precipitation and crystallization of lass are character- ized. It is seen that they are of the same nature as those produced by the cementation indicated by Reaumur, and that the result is always a devitrification more or less abso- lute, tia deooweds peli G4) 1 frog i " - * M. Sage has in his possession a piece of pless erystallized into ba- ta'ti¢ prisms of six plines and entircly deviuifed, iy | When 206 Ou the Green Colour for Painting, When glass is devitrified it has no longer a vitredus but a granulated fracture: it possesses no transparency, ahd has a perfect resemblance to a stone: it becomes a léss bad con- ductor of caloric and electricity. In a word, it is no Jonger susceptible of being fused at the same degree of heat; and, to bring it more easily to the vitreous state, it must be first pounded, in order to place in contact the substances which were separated from each other during the crystallization, and which can no longer serve as mutual fluxes. I wish the novelty of several of the facts which I have here related, and the consequences IT have deduced from them, in proving that the crystallization of glass is a devi- trification, may be sufficiently interesting to induce che- mists to pay attention to them. J have no doubt they will be able to form many comparisons which escaped me, or which the limits of a single memoir would not allow me to mention. The resemblance of my specimens of devi- trified glass to those of certain kinds of lava; the possibility that other kinds of lava may have undergone a more abso- late devitrification by a longer cooling through volcanic cur- rents, or by remaining fluid for whole years under crusts already cooled: every thing, in short, induces me to believe that these facts may afford the means of explaining geolo- gical phenomena respecting which philosophers have not agreed, because nothing could make them believe that stones had before been glass. XLVI. On the beautiful Green Colour for Painting, which may be obtained from Chrome. By Gopvon-Saint- Menmin*. Wauex M. Vauquelin made known his ingenious labour on the red lead of Siberia, as the interesting series of the analyses which he published showed him that chrome is dispersed throughout various parts of the earth ; since Ame- rica presents it im the emerald, India in the spinel, and Si- beria in chromatized lead; he foresaw that this metal would one day be found in a natural state sufficiently abundant to, make a useful application of it to the arts, and he indicated the importance of itin a memoirf. The discovery of chro- matized Jead ore found in France confirmed the happy con- jeetures of this illustrious chemist, and convinced us that “o% From Annales du Museum National a’ Histoire Naturelle, No. 2%. + Annales de Chimie; Fevr. 1798. grr the >a which may te obtained from Chrome. »67 the knowledge of chrome was a present of great value made to the sciences and to society. Being employed at present in examining the chemical properties of this metal, I directed my observations in par- ticular to its oxide, or the combinations it may present with earths, in the hope of finding the elementary green colour so long wished for by painters. A series of experiments énabled me to publish results so véry satisfactory, that I hope soon to see the green colour of chrome make a figure n the pallette of the painter along with those beautiful co- Jours for which the art has long been indebted to those oc- cupied with the natural sciences. Having prepared, by the common processes, an alkaline chromate, I poured into it a solution of mercury ad mini- mum, There was formed a precipitate of a very beautiful red colour, which experienced no sensible change in the air. As this chromate exhibited a combination very proper: for furnishing oxide of chrome by an easy decomposition, 1 thought that this salt mixed with an earth would give, by the aid of heat, the colour [ required. — Three parts of the chromate of mercury and one of alu- Mine were strongly heated in a crucible. The result was a. ellow substance, slightly greenish at the parts in contact vith the air, and which I found to be chromate of alumine. I repeated the same experiment with the same propor- tions, but in a stronger heat, and obtained a beautiful green colour having a great deal of body, which experienced no alteration cither from the’ air or from light. The scrics of my experiments naturally induced me to analyse the chro- mate of mercury, the result of which I shall here lay before the reader, as it may serve to guide those who may be de- sirous of procuring oxide of chrome, or the green colour proper for painting. HH: Analysis of the Chromate of Mercury. Fifty grammes of the chromate of mercury were intro- duced into a retort, to the neck of which was adapted a glass tube immersed in a tub, a flask being properly placed to collect the gas which might be disengaged during the » operation. bay fab 3 sath After being exposed for fifty minutes to a heat which, during the last moments, was exccedingly strong, I thought that the whole of the mercury must have passed over. I took the apparatus from the fire. The whole of the mercury condensed in the tub was found to amount to 40 grammes. I found the chrome oxidated under the form.of a light o gulus 266 On,the Green Colour for Puintitg, Sc. zulus of a green colour, exceedingly intense, the weight of which amounted to no more than 06°3. A Mui di The neck of the retort was slightly lined with some small portions of grcen oxide, and of a substance of a darker red than that of chromate of mercury, but which I suppose to be, with some modifications, the same combination. ——, T have not yet determined the weight of the oxygen gas, but it may be easily seen that the defect 03-7 minus the quantity of oxygen which constitutes the oxide of mercury at a minimum, expresses nearly the difference which exists between the state of oxidation and that of the acidity of chrome. Ri This oxide alone, by its. mixture with the carbonate of Iead (white lead), furnishes durable and varicd tints; but it is no doubt more advantageous to employ it in'the state of combination with an earth; for it appears certain that in this circumstance the colours of the metallic oxides ac- quir > More’ brilliancy and durability, as we find to be the ease in ultramarine, smalt, sienna, earth, &c. ry’ The green of chrome, hesides the advantage of being use- ful in painting, in_ oil and distemper, may, with the ne- cessary quantity of flux, be applied immediately on porce- Tain, and can endure the greatest‘heat without alteration. It may be employed for painting on glass, in enamel, and for communicating to crystal the colour of ‘the most beautiful emerald. It may be used in general for ornamenting pot~— tery of all kinds, I have found by experiment that 1t may be prepared at such a price as to be within the reach of all. manufacturers: The different essays I had had the honour to submit to administration seem to me sufficient to induce me to believe that this colour will one day furnish a great resource to our mattufactories. | ee ¥ propose to make known other observations proper to enlarge the history of chrome, as well as of some prepara- tions, which, perhaps, as well as artificial chromate of lead, already introduced into painting, may become interesting the arts ; but I,wish to have leisure to present in order bs notes J] may be enabled to make on. this substanee, of more importance. to be .studied,. as the, territory of France seems to furnish it in abundance. es: co | Result of the Analysis of the Chromate of Mercury. Oxide of chrome = - ya§ Oxide of mercury 6-6 = - = 83° Difference between the state of oxidation | — and that afthe avidity of chrome’ = - 44 BIO : 7 > - méIOV YOO") a4 XUVIT. Ré~ / / { 269°} XLVII. Reflections on the particular Properties of Roman » dlum. By M.Curauprau, Member of the Society of Pharmacy at Paris, &c.* M . VAUQUELIN has recently analysed the different kinds of alum employed in. commerce, and from this analysis has shown that the proportions of the acid and of base are nearly the same in each kind. _ M. Hassentratz observes+, that if Vauquelin finds no sensible difference in the proportions of the acid and bases of cach kind. of alum, it is however very true that. dyers “allow that Roman alum produces in dyeing, effects which could not be obtained from the other kinds. The same chemist adds, that if any other person than Vauquelin had announced this result he should have been inclined to sus- pend his opinion; but that chemists have assured them- selves of the exactness of M. Vauquelin, and the confidence to which. his expcriments are entitled. This opinion, in which F sincerely participate, is still strengthened by the labour I have been engaged in on alum. evi 1h: M. Hassenfratz, however, cannot resist the doubt excited by the difference in the crystallization of Roman alum, which, affects the cubic form, and of the other alums the form of which is octaédral... He suspects that this diffe- rence may depend on the quantity of the base which Roman alum may have greater than the other kinds of alum, though, like them, it. may have an excess of acid, _ This observation of M. Hassenfratz on the difference of crystallization is yery correct; but, as the consequence which he deduces can be only conjecture, it can in no manner stand in opposition to the analysis of Vauquelin. Tn regard to the preference given by the dyers to Roman alum, it is not the result of an. ill founded prejudice ; it is ceraialy, tue that Roman alum produces in- dyeing, effects which cannot be obtained from the other kinds of alum. I have prepared with Roman alum red morocco as beautiful as. that of Choisy, while with any other kind of alum I could obtain only disagreeable colours. _ Crystals of Roman alum obtained in a liquor with excess sulphuric acid, retained in dycing the same properties as they had before their solution. This experiment, which destroys the conjecture of M. Hassenfratz in regard to the excess of base in Roman alum, proves that this alum has. properties peculiar to it, but which cannot be explained by analysis, Unfortunately, * From Annales de Chimir, No 1 53. $ Annales de Chimie, No. 10 “4 there: 270 © On the particular Properties of Roman Alum. there are many of these phenomena of which chemists will Jong remain spectators before any cause can be assigned for How can we explain the phenomena of cementation, which converts into steel one of the extremities or the mid- dle of a bar of iron subjected to this operation, while, ce- teris parilus, the remamder continues to be iron ? How can we explain the phenomena of the combination of hydrogen with oxygen, which, instead of giving birth to an acid liquor, produces an insipid liquor? From the analysis of M. Vauquelin one might suspect the observation of M. Hassentratz, and the experiment f have mentioned, that the properties of Roman alum depend on the state in which the alumineis found, and that there must be a great difference between the alumine of Roma alum and that of our natural or artificial alums. A voleano has been the crucible in which nature prepared the Roman alum, while our furnaces, in which we prepare that alumine, though brought to a strong red heat, are cold in comparison of the conflagration produced by a volcano *. How much colder are the turfy marshes in which the latter alum is prepared by nature?) Every thing then proves that the action of the caloric must have been very strong, and that it is by it that a very particular modification has been brought to the state of alum. This conjecture is still further strengthened by another phanomenon—that exhi- bited by the presence of potash in the earths of solfaterra. This alkali has certainly not had there a vegetable origin, and under this circumstance it cannot be considered but as the result of a combination of the principles which the heat may have called into action in some mineral substances. I shall conclude by observing, that the accuracy of M. Vauquelin’s analysis ought to subsist, because analysis cannot follow these modifications, and that alumine, when it issues by analytical means from its composition of Roman alum, cannot appear to us but in that new state of modifi- cation given to it by the re-agent in taking it from its first composition. I presume that this explanation will long be the only probable one that can be given in regard to the © causes of the particular properties of Roman alum, and that further researches on this subject may have a great resem- blance to those the object of which is to discover the phi- losopher’s stone. : $ \ * If this opinion of the author be correct, how are we to account for mineral! substances being found unfused in volcanic scoria which would nut resist the action of our furnaces >——-E pray I XLVI. List fee Beat) XLVIII. List of Patents for new Inventions which have passed the Signet Office from November 24 to Decem- ber 24, 1804, | ) my Thomas Margrave, of the parish of St. Mary, White- chapel, in the county of Middlesex, silk throwster, for the sole use, benefit, and advantage, of bis invention of certain mills and machinery, upon a new or improved econstruc- tion, for throwing, spinning, doubling, and twisting silk thread, cotton thread, flax thread, hemp thread, and all such other articles as usually are or may be thrown, spun,: doubled, or twisted. : To Samuel Guppy, of the city of Bristol, merchant, for his invention of certain additions and improvements on machines for cutting, heading, and finishing nails, and the mode of working thereof, for which machines he obtained his majesty’s letters patent, bearing date on or about the 19th of August 1796, whereby considerable labour is saved, and which additions and improvements may be used with, or independent of, such former machines. . To Richard Willcox, of the city of Westminster, engi- neer, for certain machinery for more expeditiously cutting, stripping, or plucking the various furs of beavers, seals, wool, hair, &c. from the various sins now cut, plucked, or stripped by hand, and for sundry methods of preparing and cleansing the said skins. . To Stephen Pasquier, of Wilderness-row, Charterhouse-' square, in the county of Middlesex, professor of languages, foranew manufacture, system, or method of writing, print-_ ing, engraving, drawing, painting or stamping, working and using certain characters, figures, instruments and ma- chines for facilitating correspondence and other literary operations.—This patent extends to all his majssty’s colo- nies and plantations abroad. Z “To Joseph Wickham Mayer, of Soho-square, in the county of Middlesex, esq., for certain improvements on bits of bridles. To Abraham Underdown, of the parish of Ealing, in the county of Southampton, for a new mode or method of making flour without grain. To Solomon Hougham, of Aldersgate-street, in the city of London, goldsmith, forspring clasps for buckles, lockets, and other ornaments of dress. Te a72 Description of a Woulf’s Apparatus. To William Everhard, baron Van Doornik, of Well- street, in the county of Middlesex, for certain compositions formed by uniting an absorbent or detergent earth with other ingredients, so as to render the same more effectual in washing or scouring, and for various purposes, to which soaps and detergent earths are now applied. XLIX. Description of a Woulf’s Apparatus, invented by » Mr. J. Knicurt, of Foster-lane, London*. Tu inconvenience attending the complicated form of the: Woulf’s apparatus now in use, is felt by experimental che- PP y exp : mists in general. Considering, therefore, how desirable a: thing it would be to render so useful an apparatus more. simple, and at the same time preserve all its properties, I have endeavoured to accomplish it by constructing an ap-. paratus agreeably to the following description. How far I have succeeded in my object, the public will be able to jedge; and should it proye useful I shall fecl gratified in, having contributed to the advancement of science. AAA (Platc VII.) represents three vessels, each ground into the mouth of thatybelow it... BBB, glass tubes, the middles of which are ground into. _ the neck of cach vessel, which allows. the upper end to rise above the liquor, while the lower descends nearly to the. hottom of the next vessel below. The upper vessel serves as the receiver to catch whatever may come over in a fluid form. Av ret a E, a Welter’s tube of safety, to prevent absorption. D, the lowest vessel, has a foot which supports the whole apparatus. ‘Lhe tube C is for the purpose of conducting thie gas into a pneumatic trough. — sult te. F, an adapter ground to fit the receiver, to which any, retort may be joincd and luted before the latter is put into its place. , - Tet a In order to prevent the danger of oversetting the appa- ratus I place it on a square-wooden foot, to which the glass one is easily fixed by sliding it in between two grooves. | By substituting a stopper in place of the adapter this ap- paratus forms a yery complete Nooth’s; the materials being put into the ‘receiver at top. * Communicated by the Inventor. L. Pro- [ 273 ] L. Proceedings of Learned and Economical Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. Ox Friday the 30th of November, being Saint Andrew’s day, the Royal Society held their anniversary meeting at their apartments in Somerset Place, when the president, the right honourable sir Joseph Banks, bart. K.B., in the name of the Society, presented the gold medal (called sir Godfrey Copley’s) to Smithson Tennant, esq. for his va- rious chemical discoveries communicated to the Society, and printed in several yolumes of the Philosophical Trans- actions. The president delivered the customary discourse on the subjects contained in Mr. Tennant’s papers. After- wards the Society proceeded to the choice of the council and officers for the ensuing year, when, on cxamining the bal- lots, it appeared that the following gentlemen were elected of the council ; 1 Of the old council,—The right honourable sir Joseph Banks, bart. K.B.; sir Charles Blagden, knt.; Henry Ca- vendish, esq.; Edward Whitaker Gray, M.D.; right ho- nourable Charles Greville; Charles Hatchett, esq.; William Marsden, esq.; Rev. Nevil Maskelyne, D.D.; George earl of Morton ; Joseph Planta esq.; John Walker, esq. Of the new council,—The right honourable lord Frederic Campbell; Davies Giddy, esq:; William Herschel, LL.D. ; George earl of Macartney ; William Parsons, esq. ; James Robertson Barclay, M.D.; Samuel Horsley, lord bishop of St. Asaph; Rev. Richard Dickson Shackleford, D.D.; William Hyde Wollaston, Esq.; Henry Penruddocke Wyndham, esy. if And the officers were,—The right honourable sir Joseph Banks, bart. K.B. president; Walliam Marsden, esq. trea- surer; Edward Whitaker Gray, M.D.; William Hyde Wollaston, esq. secretaries. Afterwards the members of the Society dined together, as usual, at the Crown and Anchor Tayern, in the Strand. ROYAL ACADEMY. ou On Monday, Dec. 10th, being the anniversary of the in- stitution of the Royal Academy, a general assembly was held sat big appointment of the annual officers for the year 1805, when Benjamin West, esq. was re-elected president. Henry Thomson, Philip James de Loutherbourg, Robert Smirke, Joseph Farington, George Dance, John Hoppner, Thomas Vol. 20. No. 79. Dec. 1804. S Lawrence, 274 Board of Agriculture. Lawrence, and Thomas Stodhard, esqrs. In rotation, council. John Flaxman, Henry Feech, Thomas Lawrence, Joseph Norskens, M. A. Shee, James Northcote, John Hoppner, Henry Thomsar, and fone Opie, esqrs. visitors. Joseph Farington and George Dance, esqrs. auditors, And a premium of a silver medal was voted to Mr. Wil- iam Tallemach, for the best model of an academy figure. .. Boarp or AGRICULTURE. Premiums offered by this Board. {Continued from page 179. | Operation of Tillage—To the person who shall report to the Board the result of the most satisfactory experiments on the various operations of tillage—the gold medal. It is required that the soils on w hich the experiments ate made be carefully described, and that the implements with which the operations are performed be explained. Accounts, ve- rified by certificates, to be produced on or before the first Tuesday in March 1806. Pood for Mankind. —To the person who shall sdkaxt up; and produce to the Board, the most satisfactory accounts, founded on specified facts, ‘of the com parative food for man- kind, produced by the application of grass land to cows, for butter and cheese; to oxen for beef; or to sheep for mutton—the gold medal. Accounts to be produced on or before the first Tuesday in March 1806... © Food for Mankind.—Yo the person who shall ibe up, and produce to the Board, the most satisfactory account, founded on specified facts, of the proportionate difference between grass and arable Jand, in producing food for man- kind—the gold medal, Accounts to be produced ‘on: or before the first Tuesday in March 1806. Paring and Burning.—To: the person who shall iveport to thie Board the result of the most satisfactory experiments made by, or under the inspection of, the reporter, in the paring- and burning- husbandry—the gold medal. Ac- counts, verified by certificates, to be produced on or before the first Tuesday in April 1806. Paring and Burning.—To the person who shall report to the Board the result of the ‘most satisfactory experiments made by, or under the inspection of, the reporter, to ascer- {ain the proper depth of paring, in order to burn, relative to the quality of the soil—the gold medal. Accounts, veri- fied by certificates, to be produced on or before the first Yuesday in ‘December 1806. ; Burning Clay, Loam, or Marl.—To the person who shall . make, and report to the Board, the most satisfactory expe- ‘riments ‘sp Bath Agriculture Society. 275 riments to ascertain the utility of burning clay, loam, or marl, for the purpose of manuring—the gold medal. It is required that equal portions of land (not less than five acres) be cultivated, the one thus manured, and the other without manure, for the comparison, during three years, each portion under similar crops. The quality of the soil, the expense of burning and carting, and the products of the respective portions, to be reported to the Board, and verified by cettificates, on or before the first Tuesday in March 1809. Leases.—To the person who shall draw up, and present to the Board, covenants consistent with the interests of landlords and tenants, that shall point out the best means of preventing the tenant from leaving his Jand in an ex- hausted state at the expiration of his lease—twenty guineas. To be produced on or before the first Tuesday in May 1805. BATH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. The annual meeting of this respectable society began on Monday the 10th of December, when the several commit- tees met at Hetling-house, in Bath, belonging to this so- ciety, and the residence of its secretary, aud made all the necessary arrangements for the sii » of cattle, implements, &c. Several excellent specimens of store cattle were shown and examined in a yard adjoining ; after which the company dined together at the White Hart tavern. Sir G. O. Paul was in the chair; and there were present, lord Cawdor, sir Jobn Smith, sir J, Hippesley, Messrs. Dickenson and Gore LenB Oe the members for Somersetshire ; Mr. Hobhouse, M.P.; Mr. Eastcourt, M.P.; Dr. Parry; Mr. F. Sitwell, M.P.; Mr. Paul; Mr. Billingsley ; Mr. Ashley, Mr. Ac- land; Mr. Dyke; Charles Gordon Grey, esq.; Mr. Biggs; Mr. Lethbridge ; Thomas Crooke, esq. &c. &c. Captain Norton, an American gentleman, who has vi- sited this country for agricultural information, was elected an honorary member; as were Mr. Davy, professor of che- mistry, and Dr. Currie. . The meeting at Hetling-house, on Tuesday, was most numerously attended. Benjamin Hobhouse, M. P. esq. in the chair in the ab- sence of the duke of Bedford, the president, who was pre- vented from attending. ' * Lord Somerville, also, was prevented from attending, by indisposition, __ Several excellent fat cattle were shown alive in the yard ; among which Mr, Eldridge showed an excellent two years S¢ old 276 Imperial Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh. old new Leicester sheep ; 5 Mr, Grey, three good new Lei- cester, of one, two, and three vears old; Mr. Jones, near Wellingford, two sheep of mixed breeds, Dorset and Lei- cester, ‘and i pp and Wilts. Several excellent specimens of fme wool were produced and examined, particularly from. sheep of crosses between the Spanish, Ryelands, and Wilts. Specimens of cloth were also laid before the society from English wool, mugh exceeding m quality amy before made trom wool imported from Spain. Fhe first adjudication of the annual gold medal, left by the late lamented duke of Bedford, and called the © "Bedford medal,” was made to Mr. Arthur Young, for his Essay on the Natare and Properties of Manures, there being severak other candidates. Sir J. Hippesley was elected a vice-pre= sident, and between, fifty and sixty new members, resident im different parts of the united kingdom. Premiums to encourage friendly or benefit societies among the labouring poor were adjudged, and a new one established for the en- couragement of female friendly societies. The company retired to the White Hart to dinner, where the utmost har- mony prevailed tilla late hour. On Wednesday morning the careases of the fat cattle, which had been viewed ative on the preceding day, and examined by Messrs. Grey, Paul, Ashley, and two other gentlemen, who were appointed judges, were examined ; after which B. H. Hobhouse, esq., the chairman, adjudged ihe premium to Thomas Crooke, esq., for the best heifer and calf: they were of the Tythertom breed, or two parts French and ove Devon. To Mr. Glyde, of ‘Preston, near Yeovil, the prize for the best sow and her offspring: they were between the China and Leicester breed, and remarka- ble fine ones. ‘Yo Mr. ‘Troy, near- Monmouth, for the best fat sheep of the new, Leicester breed ; and to Mr. Lewis the rize tor the best fat.spayed: heifer, bei ing of the Glamorgan’ feet Several unplements and other things were ait a which want of room obliges us to oinit. IMPERIAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AT PETERSBURGH. The following ¢ has been proposed by this sp aneris as pee subject of a prize fer the year 1806: There are a few subjects in natural philosophy, whichin regard to those parts susceptible of explanation, have been examined with more success than light; but the nature of this wonderful maticr is stil little isn wit, and it, is not improbable that we ane entirely unacquainted with it, 9 Two hypotheses, Imperial Academy of Sclences at Petersturgh, 277 hypotheses, equally celebrated by the names of their authors; have been formed on this subject: that of Newton, which makes light to consist in material emanations from lumi- nous bodies; and that of Euler, according to whem it arises from the vibrations of a particular elastic fluid which are produved by the action of luminous: bodies. The founder of the modern chemistry, the illustrious Lavoisier, has given a third hypothesis in regard to light; which is, that there exists in nature a peculiar matter which is the productive cause of the sensation denoted under the name of lighi 5 that the matter of light is subject to chemical affinities, in consequence of which it is susceptible of combining with other bodies, of fixing itself in them, of being disengaged from them, and of producing in them sensible modilica- tions ; that by the effect of its great affinity for oxygen it reduces it, with the concurrence of caloric, to that aériform state under which it erters into the composition of atmo- spheric air; and that the fire manifested in the combustion of bodies results from the decomposition of the oxygen gas of the atmospheric air operated by the combustible accord- ing to the laws of affinity, in virtue of which the oxygen, which forms the base of this gus, being absorbed by the burning body, the caloric and matter of light become free and are disengaged. However uncertain and subject to difficulties may still appear the existence of a matter of light, and the reality of its affinitics, on which the illustrious author of the hypothesis expresses hiinself with a reserve worthy of so great a scarcher into nature, it is however beyond all doubt that this ingcnious idea, which is not entirely desti- tute of support from experience, exhibits a kind of research highly interesting to the progress of natural philosophy. If there exists a matter of light, if & be subject to chemical affinities, and diffused around us, it may, by the combina- tions into which it enters with other ree 9 have a striking influeace on them and on several natural phenomena. The advancement of our knowledge in regard to this matter would consequently furnish us with results which, by giving us further information in regard to the secret springs of na- ture, might, perhaps, throw new fight on a number of its operations. In consideration of these reasons the {m- perial Academy has thought it would be advantageous to the progress of science to propose publicly a prize of 500 rubles, which will be adjudged to the philosopher who shall make, and communicate to it, “ the most instructive series of new experiments on light considered as matter; on the properties which he may be authorized to ascribe to it ; = $3. “~) te 278 Imperial Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh. the affinities it may appear to have with other bodies either organic or non-organic; and on the modifications and phe- nomena manifested im these substances in virtue of the com- binations into which the matter of light has entered with them.” Without entering into a history of the objections formed against this hypothesis, or of the researches made to unveil, in different modifications of bodies and of natural pheno- mena, the traces of the action of the chemical affinities of light, the academy observes, that these researches might perbaps be extended, and not without utility, to the Gal- vanic fire, the dazzling splendour of which, in large Voltaic piles and on carbonaceous substances, imitates in some mea- ‘sure that of the solar hight. Ina word, the academy is sa- tisfied with announcing generally the subject of the prize, in order that the learned who wish to employ themselves in it may not in any manner be fettered in the paints of view under which they may be led to consider and treat a matter so difficult, which has scarcely yet been touched, and which, however, deserves so much to be examined for the benefit of science. . The academy requests the learned of all nations, without excluding its honorary members and correspondents, to labour on this subject. It thinks it its duty to exclude none but the members who are to discharge the function of judges. / The learned who intend to be candidates for the prize must not put their names to the essays, but only a motto or device, adding a sealed note kaving on the outside the same device, aud in the inside the name, quality, and resi- dence of the author. None of the notes but that belong- ing to the paper which gains the prize will be opened. The rest will be burned. The essays, written in a legible hand, either in Russian, French, English, German, or Latin, must be addressed to the perpetual secretary of the academy, who will deliver to the person commissioned by the author a receipt marked with the device and motto accompanying the essay. The essays will be received till the 1st of May 1806 ex- clusively ; and the author of that which in the opinion of the academy is entitled to the prize will be announced in the public meeting held in the month of July the same year. The successful essay is the property of the academy, and the author cannot cause it to be printed without special per- mission. The other essays may be demanded from the se- eretary, who will cause them to be delivered at Petersburgh to those deputed for that purpose by the authors. cy ' LI. Ine LI. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. GEOGRAPHY. A terrer from St. Petersburgh, dated November the 2d, says, The large hydrographical chart of the White Sea, which has been some time preparing, under the direction of lieutenant-general Golenischtscheft-Kutusoff, will soon be printed. A trigonometrical survey of this sea, comprehend- ing the bays and a part of the northern ocean, was made between the years 1798 and 1801; at the same time the depth and nature of the bottom were ascertained and exa- mined, and sixteen principal points of the coast were de- termined by astronomical observation; so that this chart, by the indefatigable zeal of general von Kutusoff, has been brought to a considerable degree of perfection, and will render the navigation of that sea much safer than it hitherto has been. ASTRONOMY. We have received a note from Mr. Joseph Emmanuel Pellizer, a gentleman who some time ago published a new system of astronomy, centaining some doctrines very dif- ferent from those generally received. We cannot enter into the arguments he offers in defence of his system ; but as he mentions one decisive test by which the question may be settled, we shall state it as shortly as we can for the consi- deration of astronomers. . According to the Nautical Almanac for 1505, there will be a conjunction of the moon and sun on the 30th of March next, at 10" 53° P. M.—According to Mr. Pellizer’s cal- culation, that conjunction will take place March 29th, 20’ 2” A. M. Mr. Pellizer proposes that the distance of these two lu- minaries should be observed three days before the conjunc- tion—say on the 26th of March, at 20’ 2” A. M.; whenit will be found, according to him, 39° 30’ and a fraction—while, according to the received astronomy, it ought to be 58° 40’. POISON OF/THE VIPER. To determine, in a certain manner, whether the poison of the vipers in the forest of lontainbleau * is as subtile as imagined, Dr. Paulet has been induced to make some expe- riments on this subject, and the result*has been agreeable to * Sce page g1 of this volume. ; } expectation, 280 Poison of the Viper. expectations Till the month of October last, all the facts known respecting the bite of these animals attested that their poison was mortal, either to man or to the small ani- mals subjected to experiment. It was therefore necessary to ascertain whether it would be equally prejudicial to stronger animals, such as the horse: one procured for this purpose laboured indeed under a disease of the breast, but he was still strong, ate and drank, and, according to every ap- pearance, likely to live two months longer. He fed on grass while preparations were made for the experiment, and gave no signs of his respiration being confined. He was bit in the cheek in two different places, and immiediately after the part swelled in a sensible manner. As no remedy was ap- plied, the tumour increased, and advanced to the neck, the head became deformed by the size of the tumour, which was more sensible on one side; respiration became quick and very laborious ; the extremities cold; and he died at the end- of fourteen hours. The opening of the body, which was performed by veterinary artists, showed that the tumor was visibly gangrenous. At the end of October, another horse, but strénger and more vigorous than the preceding, though he had been sub- ject for several vears to a lientery, but in a state of conva- lescence, was subjected to a new experiment; he was bit in the lower lip by the same viper which had occasioned the death of the former. The same symptons took place; that is to say, the part was sensibly tumified; but a remedy being applied in time, under the direction of Dr. Paulet, he had the satisfaction next. day, at noon, of observing that the dan- gcrous symptoms had disappeared, and that the horse was ina good state, though weak from fatigue and the loss of blood he had sustained the preceding evening. Three days after, being tit for labour, he performed a journey of three leagues with a carriage, and mounted by a postillion, and, at the same time, was cured of his lientery. A third experiment was made, a few days after, on an- other horse belonging to a veterinary artist, who took charge of his treatment; he gave him proper drink; but, on the third day, he was not entirely cared of his tumor, which was still livid in the centre, “< Itmay be concluded,” says Dr. Paulet, ‘* from these experiments, that the Lite of this reptile may be fatal to a horse which receives no assistance; but that if a remedy be applied, le may be speedily and easily cured; and that the same treatment is applicable te man, and aflords hopes of a similar result.” 9 Such j Meteorology. 281 Such has hitherto been the researches made in regard to this reptile, which has all the characters of aviper; that is to say, the teeth or hooks bent forwards, moveable, re- tractile, hollow, and furrowed; with a glandulous apparatus for filtring the venom, a reservoir to contain it, an aperture at the bottom of the tooth to perinit its entrance into the interior, and a furrow on the outside to facilitate its flowing into the wound which it occasions; the tooth being cut into a gutter is open at the extremity, and pointed like a needle. Since the first discovery of these animals, fifteen indivi- duals of the same species have been killed or taken alive; among that number there were two females, one of which contained sixteen eggs, and the other six, which forms a total of thirty-seven individuals destroyed. More thaa three hundred persons are employed in the pursuit of these ani- mals, and itis hoped that it may be possible to destroy them in the forest of Fontainbleau. Dr. Paulet is almost certain of curing the effects produced by the bite of this reptile, not by volatile alkali, nor the cau- tery, but by more simple means, which he proposes to make known. METEOROLOGY. - Kingston, Jamaica, Sept. 22.—On the 30th ult. at fifteen minutes past eleven P. M. a single but violent shock of an earthquake was felt at St. Ann’s Bay; its direction appeared to be from north to south; its duration about four seconds; moon waning; thermometer 85; no wind, but was preceded by a solemn stillness of the atmosphere. The brute crea- tion, immediately previous and subsequent to the concus- sion, were extremely agitated, as was manifested by their cries of alarm. For several hours before the shock, the air was close and almost irrespirable; a heavy fall of rain took place the following day. The usual rumbling noise and un- ulatory motion of theearth, which generally attends those phenomena, were not perceived. St. Jugo de la Vega, Oct. 6.—A_ correspondent who re- sides near the Black River has transmitted to us the fol- lowing account of a most awful and alarming phenomenon, which made its appearance in Middle Quarters, in the parish of St. Elizabeth, on Monday the 24th of September ult. about four o’clock in the afternoon. It began with very heavy black clouds, as if there were a deluge of rain ready to fall. It was presently afterwards accompanied with a dreadful roaring noise, as if a violent sqlall of rain with wind was coming on, but much more loud and horrible, There 282 Antiquities. There was soon the appearance of a large globe rising and ascending mto the atinosphere, occasioning very: violent commotions and convulsions in the earth. ‘Whe fall of trees was distinctly heard, and large branches thereof, to- gether with innumerable birds, were seen carried to an im- mense height in the aur, the clouds, at the saine time, con- vulsed in the most awful manner: There was seen what re- sembled a water-spout, but no water fell from it. This continued its course from the north-east to the southward, carrying all before it, tearing up logwood, cotton trees, &c., by the roots, and whirling up in the air the limbs ef numbers of the largest trees, having, at the same time, the appear- ance of fire, attended with a thick black smoke, which ascended trom it in itscourse, and a reportlike guns went off. This comtmued nearly an hour, and its course was upwards of amile. Fortunately it kept where no dwellings or build- ings stood, otherwise they must have been destroyed, as the strongest buildings could not have withstood the violent force of this awful convulsion of nature. . ANTIQUITIES. y Some Russian peasants, in digging for the foundations of a fortress on the fords of the Limar, at the mouth of the Danube, discovered Jately a tomb which the antiquaries of that country consider as that of Ovid; the reasona given for this opinion are—first, that it stands on the site of Tomi, to which that unfortunate poet was banished; second, that this spot has long been known in the country under the name of Laeuli Ovidioli (the Lakes of Ovid); third, that there was found in the tomb a bust, which, being compared at Peters burgh with the heads of the beautiful Julia, the daughter of Augustus, has been found to have a perfect resemblance. The Russians have given to their new fortress the name of Ovideopolis. i it Sevaat Notwithstanding these details, given in the Russian jour- nals, we do not believe that this tomb is that of Ovid. We are acquainted with no medals of Julia but such as were struck in countries at a distance from Rome, and by which it is difficult to determine precisely the character of her form; besides, it is not probable that Ovid should cause himself to be interred with the portrait of the daughter of Augustus. Some time ago two Wallachians, named Jeremiah Thoma and Zacharias André, found in the forests of the Bannat, near Kis-oclos, belonging to count Hunyades, the former 214, and the latter 66 Greek medals in gold, which they carried Antiquities. 283 eatried to the mint at Carlsbourg, whence they were sent to the royal treasury at Hermanstadt, the capital of Transyl- vania, and to Vienna. To judge from the impression, these medals were struck in the time of Lysimachus. Their in- trinsic value is about 280 florins (3001. sterling). A con- siderable number of similar medals have been found at dif- ferent times in Transylvania; so that this new discovery cannot be considered as a direct increase of our neumismatic knowledge, if we except two medals of king Pharmaces and his general, Asander. The treasury of Hermanstadt has received intelligence, also, that evident traces and the ruins of a town, very con- siderable by its extent, have been discovered in the mountain of Gredistye, in the same county *. In the same ueigh- bourhood} and particularly the mountain Gattano, some Wallachian priests have found several antique medals of old, about four hundred of which have already been sent to the treasury at Hermanstadt ; each of them is equal in weight to about two ducats and a quarter;—the price for which they have been purchased by the treasury from those who found them, is 4,217 florins (about 450l.). All these medals arein fine preparation; on one side they exhibit the figures of three men, the first and third of whom bear axes; at the bottom is the word KODQN; on the reverse is seen an eagle, ‘holding in its right claw a crown. In the catalogue of the cabinet of Viennat, Eckhel ascribes this emblem to the town of Cos, in Etruria, as Tristan Patin Havercamp and other antiquaries had done b&fore; on the other hand, in his Doctrina Numorumt: he shows that these medals ovght to be aseribed to Marcus Junius Brutus. —od A letter from Rome says: “ This city is engaged with the greatest activity in repairing its losses. Thepope neg- lects nothing that can improve or encourage the arts. People are employed in digging around the triumphal arch of Severus, which is almost half buried. Fifty galley slaves, brought from Civita-Vecchia, are engaged in this under- taking. The same labour bas been several times undertaken in the course of the last three centuries, but the places where these researches were made had always been again * No inscriptions capable of giving further information have yet been found; a brick with the letters PERS co Rilo only t.as been dug up- + Vol. i. p. 14. ‘ = Vol. i. p. go, and vol, vi. p. 23, et seq: * . | j filled 4 284 Antiquities. filled up; which will never again be the case, because the works are surrounded by a parapet, as has been done in re~ gard to Trajan’s pillar. Researches of the same kind will be made around other ruins, and in particular near the co- lumns of the temple of Jupiter Stator, which are two-thirds buried. Workmen are now employed in clearing the py- ramid of Cestius from the bushes with which it has been covered for seyeral years, and the roots of which had begun to displace the stones. The researches at Ostia are still continued. At present they are carried on in the site occupied by the antient city. The foundations of several houses have been discovered ; and also of some temples, plans of which are now making by th? architect Balistra, who attended lord Elgin to Greece. Tt is hoped that this discovery will give some information im regard to the method of building, and the domestic ceco- nomy of the antients. Apartments are preparing at the Vatican to receive such curious articles as may be found at Ostia. Other atrange- ments are also making, and artists are employed in erecting the statues of the Belvidere. It is hoped that the pope wil purchase the Fawne endormi which formed part of the Bar- berine collection, and which now belongs to the sculptor Paccetti. ; The science of antiquities is also cultivated at Rome with great zeal.. A new edition of the Roma Antica of Venutt has been published, with supplements and notes by Philip Visconti, brother to the celeb®ted antiquary of that name settled in France. The learned Zaega is still employed on his catalogue of alt the Coptic nianuscripts in the library of cardinal Borgia. He has been engaged also several years on researches im regard to the topography of antient Rome ; and it is supposed that he will throw great light on this subject. In the month of February last several antient monu- ments were discovered at Bois-de-Vaux, near Vidy, at a smal] distance from Lausanne. This discovery was made by aecident im working at the mines. This place, accord- ing to some authors, was the site of the supposed city of Carpentras ; and according to others, perhaps on better authority, of the antient Lausanne. 1D tO td ° . oo ID = © =Oe On Gin & ie Meieorology. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE By Mr. Carey, or THE STRAND, For December 1804. 5 o’Clock, Morning. _Thermometer. | RP lacs Height of s rs} the Barom. Z |e} Inches. 38°] 35°] “og 35 | 32} 29°96 37 }3 “QI 9 ee ‘Ol 41 | 35 | 30°02 3 3] °27 36 | 2 “20 37 | 40 | 29°79 47 | 44 “O09 38 | 40 "O9 43 | 42 *58 44 } 4] “87 44} 40 °83 46 |; 44 “86 47 |} 45 ‘79 46 | 46 "49 47 | 45 “LO 47 | 44 48° 46 | 37 *88 39 | 35 | 30°09 36 | 3 “16 54 | 30 “26 29° 128 *36 29 ‘})' 28 a Os 34 |} 34 } 29°99. 34 | 30 ‘61 34°} 94 | 99°59 29) 30 ‘70 3 34 °54 34 |} 33 “46 ness bv Leslic’s Degrees of Dry Hygrometer. Weather. {289 J LIL. Description of an Instrument , for equalizing the Pres- sure and Lifflux of non-elastic Fluds. By Mr. Joseru STEEVENS; To Mr. Tiiloch. SIR, [Arrewitn you haye a drawing and description of an instrument for equalizing the pressure and efflux of non- elastic fluids. The principles on which it depends are the samt as that which J constructed for the Mathematical Society about four years since, but which had no provision for refilling durmg an experiment, Should it merit a place in your valuable publication, it is very much at your ser- vice. At some future time J purpose to submit. to your con- sideration a gasometer much simplified by varions altera- tions, and rendered more universal by the addition of this instrument. I am, sir, Your obedient servant, 26, Garlick Hill, JOSEPH STEEVENS. Dec. 7, 1804. -Having frequently had occasion to regulate the pressure and efflux of water with some degree of accuracy, and find- ing it usually attended with much difficulty, I was induced to try what could be done by the re-action of the atmo- _ spbere. The instrument represented in the annexed draw- ing (see Plate VIII.) is the result of several trials, and ap- pears to be at once simple and accurate, and is at the same time, I conecive, applicable to every purpose for which such an instrument ¢an be required. f There are severa] other constructions far more clegant and equally useful with that of which I have made choice. I have preferred distinctness of parts to symmetry, my principal object being the explanation of the principle rather than the construction of the machine. AB isa glass or metal cylinder about 24 inches long and 4 inches diameter, cemented at the bottom into a brass socket on the foot C, and at the top into the cap A, throngh a collar. of leathers in which is inserted a copper tube, ¢f, about 3-10ths of an inch in diameter in the bore. ~ £ is a cock screwed into the ocket B, the orifice of which is about 1-4th of that of the tube of. " he : es eae ray i : . - a he i (Th ¢ COMMIS LT y We 1 ti (f aying the machine thus constructed, unscrew the nut d, fill the vessel nearly full of water: screw it again into its place,-and thrust the tube 6s down until its lower end_is a little below the cock g3*which may now be opened, an og¥ ok29. No, 80. Jan. 1805. ‘I a small #90 Pressure and Efflux of non-elastic Fluids. a small portion of the water will issue, but will cease to run as soon as the air in the upper part of the vessel is so rare- fied that its spring, together with the weight of the column of water above r or g, are exactly equivalent to the re-action of the atmosphere. Raise the tube ef, and the water will issue with a continued and uniform stream, discharging equal quantities in equal times, without regard te the height of the column qr, provided it be within the limits of atmo- spherical pressure. The reason is obvious ; for it is evident that the pressure of the water at 7 would be proportionate to the whole height of the column 7q, werc the atmosphere to act equally at and q; but since the air is made to enter through the tube ef, and thereby to counteract the column fq, it follows that the pressure at q will be less than that at g¢ by the weight of the column qf. Now the pressure at q is in the inverse ratio of fq, therefore the pressure at r will be uni- formly the same, For while the vessel is closed at the top, and the air made to enter through the tube ef, the pressure on any plane, 77, will be equal to the column qf, together with the pressure on the surface g; for as the weight gf decreases by the reduction of the water, so does the pressure of the air on the surface increase by its easier access (in having to counteract a less column of water), the increment of the one being always equal to the decrement of the other. I shall now proceed to explain that part of the instrument which is employed for keeping up a constant supply of water when attached to a gasometer or the like, where an experiment is required to be continued a considerable length of time without intermission, V is a vessel provided with a cock h and funnel k, having also a cock | communicating with the top of the machine near d; and a tube mn, and cock p, communicating with the bottom of the machine AB. Shut the cocks | and p, and open k; fil] the vessel V and tube mn with water until it rises above k, which must now be shut, and the cocks | and p opened; by this means the whole is formed into one yessel, and the operation is na more than transferring the fluid from one part of the ma- chine to another, the pressure and efflux remaining the. same. ft will easily be perceived that the pressure may be increased or decreased at pleasure by slipping the tube ef upwards or downwards as circumstances may require. The imstrument in the Mathematical Society’s repository is used (besides the above purposes) for the illustration of all those experiments termed hydrostatig¢ paradoxes, ~{ 291 LIII. On the Principles of Pump-Work, illustrated and ap- plied in the Construction of anew Pump, without Friction, or Loss of Time, or Water, in working ; humbly proposed Sor the Service of the British Marine, with the Privilege of His Majesty’s Royal Letters Patent, By Benjamin Marti, {Continued fiom p. 229. ] 1. Tu particles of fluids and solids are equally hard, solid, and impenetrable. 2. Fluid particles are affeeted by gravity, act upon each other, and are subject to all the affections and laws of mo- tion in common with all heavy bodies. 3. Their fluidity is owing principally, if not solcly, to their not being in contact with each other. 4. For that reason the particles of fluids, as such, can produce no friction, or impediment to motion, among themselves, ; Fig..1.* 5. The weight of a perpendicular line of fluid particles, as ed, is in proportion to the number of such particles, that is, to the height ed. 6. Therefore the pressure of the line cd on a fixed point d, in the bottom of the vessel ABCD, is proportioned to its altitude cd. 7. The pressure of the whole fluid upon the bottom of ‘the vessel, is therefore in proportion to the height of the fluid and the area of the bottom of the vessel. 8. From the nature of fluidity, a constant endeavour to- wards an equilibrium, or state of rest, must obtain among all the particles. 9. But in case of an equilibrium of particles in a fluid, each particle must have a central force every way equal. 10. Theretore fluids press every way equally. 11, Consequently, the lateral pressure of a fluid is equa! to its perpendicular pressure at the same depth. 12. The lateral pressure against the line BD is just half a upon the line CD in the bottom, if BD be equal to 13, The re-action of the particle d, as being fixed, is equal to the pressure of the line cd, and must entirely sus- tain it. ; 14. But if a hole EF be made in the bottom of the ves- ® See Plute V, given in our Number for November. Ts sel, 292 On the Principles of Pump-Work. sel, there will be nothing to sustain the ee ees aFES of the fluid over ity) ‘which’ therefore must descend tna it by its weight. 9: .° ; »15. The ankle on the isurface contiguous to chi de- scending column at-a and! b will losé their lateral support, and must therefore fallin and descend 5 and as this will be the case of all the particles in the ‘surface, the whole surface will also descend. 16. By this means jHere will ee supplied a constant de- scending:columm of the fluid through the hole till all is run - out. 17.. lf the hole were made in the side of the vessel at D, the fluid would issue out by the same lateral force, and with the Same velocity. . ) 18.01fthe descending column: he receiv Hd into a recurved : holiew tube or pipe FNGHI, of any formoor size, it will rise in that*pipe to the same horizontal leva with that in the reservoir) A D, viz.-to the line A H; and no higher. 19. The air being taken out of the tube NHJ, will cause the water to descend in"the reservoir from AB to KL, by the pressure of the air AX YB over it, and at the same time it will rise from H to I in the tube. 20. Since the water in ABKL is equal to that in the tube:from_ H to J,: the velocity of that in the reservoir is to the yelocity of that ny the tube as AK ta H1,,or as the square of the diameter of the tube to the square | of the dia: meter of the reservoir, Figicd. a1. If AB be a surface of water, in which a tall tube or pipe BE is placed, ‘and open at the end B; then if the air be extracted front this tube at the” ‘upper id E, the water will rise therein to the height BD by the pressure of me een of air AX, upon an 7 equal base. . The weight ‘ofthe column Of Water BD will be pre- ansly equal to the w eight of the column of air on the same base A or BY and extending to the height of the atmo- sphere. . Pig. 3. 23." It 1s Cran by experience, at when the airis of a mean gravity dt. w ill sustain a.column of. mercury in the tube AB of a barojnetey, to, tle, height C, equal to 2g inches. 24, It is also known: that meroury as about 14 times "heavier than water ; therefore the pressure of the air in such . a case . l= v a On the'Principles of Pump=Worr. 207 in 40’ ‘or 18 inches ‘per second, if a lever be worked with its natural motion. But in the descent of the piston no water is raised ; therefore only 18 inches of water is raised by one piston in two seconds, or the water raised in/a single pump is not more than nine inches perisecomd, which is ’ about 3°6 gallons, or 216 per minute; whichasyshort of a ton by 36 gallons. m rf 64. But if the pamp be so-constructed with two pistons, that while one descends, the other ascends, the water will, in that case, always keep rising in the,pipe; and the water delivered by such a pump would bé 18 imches per second, or 432 gallons, or 14 ton minute. 65. Such would be the state of pump-work in its utmost perfection if men could act like a weight, viz. always with the same tenor of force; but though the force,of two men may be equiyalent to 200)b. for a few efforts at first work- ing, yet this’ human. force will soon abate and decrease, and atis'found by experience, that for working a pump without ceasing but 10) or 15 minutes, one man can raise no more than about 30]b. of water to his share; therefore six men, at least, must be employed for raising the above-mentioned quantity of 432 gallons of water per minute. 66. But such perfection is not to be expected in common pumps, for two reasons: first, they are subject to great friction between the piston and pipe, and other parts of the mechanism; and this is scarce ever so little asa third pat of the charge of the whole machine, and therefore: will re- quire nine or ten’men to raise! that quantity of water instcad . of six. ik 67. But, secondly, the great imperfection of all;common pumps working with a’ single piston is, that the water rises per vicem, or by fits ; for while; the piston’ is) descending, ‘the watery column A\Giis quiescent, and only moves when the piston rises; therefore every time the stroke is ‘repeated, ‘a new or additignal force is required to give)motion to the water, over and above what is necessary, to. continue that motion when produced. ‘ . ry . 68. Again, thirdly, the motion ‘of the water by a single piston can never be equable. For’ suppose the jet BW (fig. 5.) was produced by: the pressure of the atmosphere or weight of the water BD (im tig. 2.), then the velocity of the jet at the first instant willbe as 4/BD — /B R, ‘and the jet will thereby rise to V. 69. But the velocity of the jet must increase by the con- tinued pressure of the column KD, and at last will be-as AK D, and thereby produce the uniform jet BW. And 3 something 298 On. the Principles of Pump-Work. something analogous to this will always be the case of a single-pump, where the stroke of the piston is large, and its velocity nearly equal to that of the rising water, 70. But it is quite otherwise with the pump which has two pistons upon one pipe, and where the rising water is ‘constantly ina uniform motion; for there the whole force is employed to continue that motion only, and the velocity of the water will always be as the square root of the difference between 36 and the height of the pump, or in the present case of fig. 6, as 4/20. 71. The piston playing at the bottom of the pipe or the top, makes no difference in the power to work the pump; since in both cases the same column of water AG is moved by the piston, the pressure of air on the column at G and A being equal. r 72. The torce of any column of a fluid to resist motion, is compounded of its quantity of matter and velocity; there- fore while the force remains the same, the quantity of the fluid may be varied as you please, since the velocity will ever compensate any deficiency or redundancy of force that may happen on that account. Fig. 7. 73. Thus suppose EKLI be the cistern of the head of a pump, mm which the piston MN works, then the pipe ABCD may be in bore in any proportion less, and still the water shall be supplied to the cistern when the piston rises, with the same force and in the same time as it would be if the bore of the pipe were all the way the same with that of the head, or equal to KF HL. 74. In this latter case the velocity of the water will be the same with that of the piston, but in the former the ve- locity of the water will be to that of the piston as the square of MN to the square of BC, because the quantity of fluid in EFHI is to that in the contracted pipe ABCD in the same proportion. ’ 75. If the pump be required to raise water 26 feet (as in fig. 7.), then since the height AG = 26 is 4 of 39 = AX, the jet GX will be 13 feet ; and since the air at a mean gravity is equal to a column of water 34 feet high, we have 34 — 26 = 8; therefore the maximum force will produce a uniform velocity of near 29 feet per second ; and the pres- sure of the air only a velocity of 22°6 feet per second, 1f the -piston moves in a pipe ABCD of an equal bore through- out. ' 76. In this case the water would be wire-drawn, apes 8 On the Principles of Pump-Work. 299 the piston moves faster than the water can rise to follow it. Hence we see the great use of contracting the pipe AD and making the piston play in a large head EKLT, as by this means we lessen the velocity of the piston and in- crease that of the rising water, which can never be in any danger of being wire-drawn. 77. Since in the case of a piston’s working in a pipe ABCD, the difference between 34 feet and the length of the pipe is always equal to half the length of the pipe, for the force to be applied to the greatest advantage ; therefore 22°6 feet is the greatest height of such a pump, because in this case the velocity of the piston by the maximum force, and that of the water in the pipe by the air’s pressure, are equal, viz. to 38 feet per second. 78. But when the maximum force is applied to the lever, the motion of the piston is thereby rendered so slow that there will always be a velocity of the water, from the pres- sure of air, greater than that of the piston at a less height than 30 feet. For admitting the pipe 30 feet high, and the air in its lightest state equal to a pressure of 32 feet of water, then the difference of two feet will generate an uni- form velocity of water of more than 1! feet per second, which is many times more than that of the piston. 79. Hence it follows, that if two pistons be employed, they will not only have water enough, and to spare, but also keep that water in a constant uniform motion by their alternate action; but to answer this end, the water must rise in but one pipe, and be communicated at the top, by two separate valves, to pistons working in two different barrels placed in one common cistern EF GH. 80. To such a pump likewise a double lever MM may be applied to the wheel K, so that the pistons may be moved in a perpendicular direction on each side: at the two ends of this lever the men may stand in the best manner to work the pump; six, eight, or ten, as occasion requires. And thus we have at last arrived to the idea of a sucking-pump, ‘which, as far as I am able to judge, will have all the ad- vantages that such a machine is any ways capable of. LIV. Notice ae: Aor Ki 300 q AS W > | Sonn: > WIBY at ppc : rv.’ gi erny the Bipedition to Neu Tends ee ak en for the Purpose. of making Resea at Aer "Geogr raphy aud Najural History. By A.L. sem! N, ATURAL history is. indebted for. “its, most taluable collec- tions, and @ i rt of its, progress, to zealous, and. enlightened tray ellers,_ haye abi Toned ; their. homes t traverse « di- stant, SPUN Sp ften desert and little, known. Ve. preserve with. gr dean respect, in. the. history of, -science;, the names cue Tench naturalists who at different anne have enrich 1¢ : ots with foreign productions, :¢ er alive ‘andnow Aa uralized to our soil, OF forming part of the.c Jecti Lons: rst for, public mnstrpctions “Some have written i sae the fruit of their labours ; others have. fallen c othe fatig r of a long passage, the intemperance odie cal, b ata -the tacks: ot savage tribes whom they ed Sah Ny. dis position, and sometimes, the ob- jects “0B Ecollected, by fitch haye, teached. us sometimes “we hhaye Lo ‘si both, the, ti tray cllers and their collections, or we haye, ad Teft m “uncertainty in regard to the fate of both. Reverses of this kind have, been more fr equent,, than, success. Ww hat interest, therefore,’ ought | to be excited, by these ae nt aM who 6 ote. sesh gs.to the hedanaenl if such fo rn cee: EM aay in fe Sea? onde SBN Soe, ‘a Commission n of ies Was sae to select, Gs Abs- meine were Pie ae aie Ey ery sie eave reason to expect a successful result ; “especially when, amon hese travellers there were some who had participated, rand nine ‘same ‘chief, in the fatigues of a preceding voyage toy tica, aud who did not “hesitate to embark again, under es aus ices. “hese cotrihietetiee were deranged by some unforeseen circumstances. Several of these navigators were obliged by sickness to stop at the Isle of France; fear of being in want of provisions, and discontent, made “several others remain behind ; and when captain Baudin left that colony he had t * From Annales du Museum National d’ Histoire Nutnrelle, No. ry Wearag. #44 on ee ee Te a? ’ Notice respectingthe Bapeditionté New Holland. 304 on board the two vessels only Messrs. Bernier, the astrono- mer; Boulanger, the geographer; Mangeé, Peron, and Le- villas zodlogists; Leschenaut, botanists) DeyPuseh and Bailly, niineralogists; Riedlé, Sauticr, and»Guichenot, gar- denerss Lesueur and Petit, who embarked in no/parucular qualitvyowere substitutes for the dratismen Whoowrémained at the Isle 6f France: ) na tug od Hovloen ‘Phe fitst landings at New Holland, so ;imuch desired, avere attended with danger, ‘and-hadsalmost become atal te several of the navigators. They were not, bowevety dis- couraged by this unfortunate commencement, and, they anxiously embraced every opportunity of visiting these! wns known shores. When the ships arrived with ‘their tatigued erews at Timor, one of the isiinda »of theparchipelago -of Asia, in the neighbourhoodyof the Molucedsy these natu- ralists, tired of being ‘so long mactive; made haste to-col+ lect: the productions of the plaice.,)Riedl¢é} ithe gardener, though scarcely recovered from» aneillness:ayith which: he had been aitackedijon the passage, employeilyhimseli too Soon it the search of plants, with which die was desivous to enrich the garden’ af) Paris;, and -he tell aesacrificeto a new relapse, after he had formed a pretty numerots collec- tion. Manges the; zodlogist, ‘animated by the same zeal, neglected, in hke manner, the car@ot his health in order to occupy himself in searching for animals. fle was scarcely restored when he was obliged to re «embark togo and visit the lands situated to: the south of New Holland... In this part of the voyage the navigators obtained more, precise no- _-tions in regard to several points of geography, and made wumcrous collections of animals and vegetables ; but it be- came fatal to the zddlogist Levillain and Ahe gardener Sau- itier, who, like Riedié, ‘tell wictims: toy their 'feal. .. Maugé -soon followed them, and terminated:his career at tie Island -Mania, near to Van Diemen’s Lands 4 le had: beet wrth ie- djé; the companion ef captain Baudin, duringshis first voy- age to America, and it was to theip-care anited that tie Ma- * #eum of Natural History, to which, they were beth attached, was indebted for the numerous: productions of the Antilles, with which ‘its hot-houses and. galleries weresenriched in the year 6; and their loss was sensibly felt: by all belonging to that establishment, r 1998 . - The: two vessels, after passing d’Entrecastcaun’s strait, -on the coast of Van Diemen’s Land, ,and visiting several wf its ports and islands, were separated, andydid not mect inv till the month of Messidor, year 10, when they reached Jackson, in New Holland, where they received ine wiHA the 302 Notice respecting the the directors of that colony every necessary assistance for restoring the sick and in regard to a supply of provisions. That part of the voyage made by the two vessels in com- y here terminates. Captain Baudin, being afraid that he should Jose in a new voyage the live animals and vege- tables collected by his own care and that of his fellow-navi- ators, resolved to put on board the Naturaliste all the col- ections already made by both ships, and to send them di- rectly to France under the care of captain Hamelin, who had always had the command of that vessel since their de- parture from Europe. De Pusch, the mineralogist, whose health had been much injured, embraced this opportunity of returning to his native country; but, being too weak to bear such a Jong voyage, he was obliged to stop at the Isle of France, where he died after languishing a few months. Captain Hamelin, on approaching France, was examined by an English vessel, which, notwithstanding his pass, carried him into a port of England; in consequence of which delay he lost a great deal of time and many live vegetables. He arrived at Havre in the month of Prairial, year 11; his collection, being put into a boat on the Seine, reached Paris in safety. Captain Baudin left Port Jackson at the end of Brumaire the same year with the Geographe and a small vessel better calculated for making observations, as it could approach touch nearer to the coast. He had still on board Bernier and Boulanger, who assisted the officers in their astrono- mical and geogra ical labours. Leschenaut, who was the only botanist, was unwilling, though sick, to abandon the expedition. Péron, detained by the same motive, in order to make researches in zoology, which he was the only per- son who could follow, and in which he associated his friend Lesueur, become, by circumstances, a draftsman and na- turalist; Bailly, who was to be occupied with mineralogy ; Petit, charged with making drawings of the inhabitants, their dresses, habitations, and works of arts; and Guiche- not, the only gardener, who endeavoured to increase the herbals, and to collect seeds and living trees. This part of the voyage, in which the navigators care- fully explored the southern coast of New Holland and some of the adjacent isles, as well as a portion of the western coasts, was attended with complete success. Several im- rtant points of geography were fixed, and a more consi- derable collection was made than that before dispatched to ‘Europe. The captain himself had co-operated in the zoé- logical researches, and especially those relating to birds, After Expedition to New Holland. 303 After a voyage of six months he touched again at Timor, to take in a supply of water, and to wait a favourable oppor- tunity for entering the Gulph of Carpentaria; a minute examination of which was to conclude the labours of this expedition. During this part of the voyage, which was fortunate in several respects, none of the naturalists died; but Lesche- naut, too weak to continue his researches, was obliged to remain at Timor, from which he proceeded to Batavia, with a view of remaining there some time and then embracing an opportunity to return to Europe. Letters received from him by his family announce that, his health being restored by rest, he was enabled to make new botanical researches at Java, and was preparing to return. Baudin, with his fellow-navigators, endeavoured to reach the gulph which he intended to visit; but after several fruitless attempts, buffeted by contrary winds, fatigued with his crew by continual labour; deprived of his astro~ nomer Bernier, who died universally regretted, having been able to make only a few observations and small collections on different points of the northern coast, which is inacces- sible; finding sickness to prevail in his ship, and being se- verely affected himself, he at length determined to proceed to the Isle of France, where he arrived in Fructidor, year 11, so much broken down that he soon breathed his last. Captain Milius was charged to carry the ship to Europe with the new collections, increased by some live produc- tions of the Isle of France. Having touched at the Cape of Good Hope, he took on board some live plants and aui- mals furnished by the governor. After a fortunate passage the captain was desirous to enter the Loire, from which his collections might have easily been conveyed to Paris by water; but Hie J opposed by the winds, and fearing that his plants might he injured by the cold, which already began to be felt on approaching the coast, he was obliged to land, in the month of Floreaj last, at the port of L’Orient, from whence his collections were conveyed over land; but not without some loss, either in regard to the live plants or ani- mals. One part of these objects, destined for her majesty the empress, were carried to Malmaison ; the other was de- posited in the Museum of Natural History. Of all the collections which have reached us from distant countries at different periods, that brought by the Natu- raliste and the Geographe is‘certainly the most considera~ ble, et in regard to the animal kingdom. That of the Museum has been augmented by great number of new species egeeece ttt * er es 304 ‘ . Natice respecting. they species collected in the course of the expedition, and the science of natural history has gained, in. the same propor- tion. “It is our duty to present here.a short view of these acquisitions, in order to. give, to government and men of science some idea of the advantages arising from an, under~ taking which had been considered unfavourable, and. in order that we may pay those laborious men who surmounted so many obstacles for the purpose of collecting these scat- tered objects, that tribute of esteem and gratitude which is owing to them by the nation. Itwill not appear astonishing that, in researches confined to coasts for the most part desert or covered with woods, which presented neither high mountams nor ravines where the different strata could be observed, or where mines could be dug, the mineralogists Pusch and Bailly should be able to collect only a small number of minerals, insufficient to give an accurate idea of the geology of the country. What they brought bome will serye at any rate to convey a general notion of the surface of the districts which they visited, and to indicate the distinction of the epochs at which the mi- neral substances found in them were produced. In botany, numerous collections, formed with great care, of live and dried plants, seeds and fruits, and of s specimens of wood, were begun by Riedlé and Sautier, and continued by Guichenot, who alone remained behind them. Lesche- naut rendered important services by collecting, describing, and delineating himself, more than’ 600 species which he believes to be new, and of which seye eral may constitute new genera, and perhaps orders... 1 Teanaxsprnper tant researches were made on the south-west coast of NewHolland, and m touching at Nuyt’s Land, Lewin’s Land, Endracht and Edel’s Land, regions for the most part never visited by the English, . Seeds carefully collected by the. botanist and gar- dener, which were sown at Malmaison, in the garden of the museum at Montpellier, and other Pants, in the south of France, and most. of which have been raised, afford hopes that some productions of that part of the w orld may be nay turalized in, Erance. We shall mention here, the flax of New Zealand, which unites. the brilliancy of silk to; the strength of hemp ;. the caswarina wood and the a ylomelum, superior for cabinet-work to many, of those kinds. now em, ployed ;.the English cedar ; the eucaly plus, which; rises to the height of 150 feet, has a trunk 24 feet m diameter, , and which produces an odoriferous resin that may become a very valuable medicine. All these new plants, which have germinated in our-climate, when habituated) to 2t may.in- emnity Expedition to New Hoiland. 305 demnify us for the loss of a part of the plants which had been transplanted and carefully arranged in a hundred boxes, each of which contained fifteen or sixteen live plants. In the last place, an herbal of 1500 species, the specimens of which multiplied, and in good preservation, afford to bo- tanists the means of enlarging this part of the science. The European nation, who inhabit a point of New Hol- land, may, however, rival us in researches respecting the vegetable kingdom, to which several of our men of science devoted themselves; but in general they have neglected the department of birds, of which at present we possess a very numerous series, begun by the unfortunate Maugé, en- riched with some articles by Baudin and Levillain, but for which we are in particular indebted to the assiduous care of the young Péron and Lesueur, inseparable friends, who mutually assisted each other. The former, who remained the only zodlogist of the expedition, did not attend merely to physical and anatomical observations, to which he at first more especially devoted himself; he embraced also with zeal the other parts of zodlogy. Lesueur, charged only with delineating animals, thought it his duty to add to this function that of collector: and Péron acknowledges that he was much indebted to this faithful companion, who sometimes explored the coasts or penetrated into the coun- try with him; sometimes remained on board the vessel, prepared and made drawings of the objects collected by his friend, to shorten his labour and enable him to engage in new researches. The number of animals they brought home is considerable, and many of them are absolutely new. Péron wrote descriptions on the spot of a great number of them, according to a new and uniform method, which embraces the organization, manners or habits, names and usages of the country. This collection contains soine of those shell-fish which form the principal nourishment of some of the inhabitants of Van Diemen’s Land; a nume- rous series of holothuria, marine animals, which in India are accounted delicious food, and for that reason are a va- Inable article of commerce; various quadrupeds, which might be easily naturalized in France; and in particular several species of kangoroos, whose fur is good, and their flesh excellent ; the phascolome, also good to eat, and which might be easily domesticated; the cassoary of New Hol- land, alive in the museum, the flesh of which, participating in that of the turkey and pig, might be agreeable food ; the black swan, existing in the museum, which, on account of Vo]. 20, No. 80. Jan, 1805. U its 306 Notice respecting the Expedition to New Holland. its tender flesh and very fine down, might be rendered use ful in our court-yards, at the same time that it would con- tribute to the ornament of our pieces of water ; the pheasant with a tail like a lyre, which on account of its form and the beauty of its plumage might shine alongside our European peacock. Passing over other useful animals, we shall ter- minate this article by an abridgement of the report of the professors of the museum, who each in his department made out a list of this zodlogical collection, presenting here, under the form of a table of three columns, the num- ber of individuals brought home, that of the different spe- cies, and an indication of those which are new : ’ Number of | Number of New Classes of Animals, - Individuals. — Species. "Species. Mammalia - - - 125 “- 68° .=-“ 39 Birds - - - - 912 - 289 - 144 Quadrupeds and oviparous bipeds - etl 934 - 60 - 4! Reptiles - - - cE: FN St Ma Fish ~ - - - 592 - 340 - 183 Crustacea and arachnides 414°" = 753" = 134 Echinodermata = - 686 - 280 - 243 Testacea - -. - 106,000 - 1232 - 640 Worms “ - - SOE a sT BEN! a Cee Insects - ~ - 42918 - 1043 - 880 Zodphytes - - - 876 - 335 - 191 18,414 3872 9542 According to this table, therefore, the zodlogical collec- tion of the museum has been enriched with 2542 new spe- cies, and a great number which were wanting among the 1330 already described’ in some works. Besides, science has acquired more than 2500 unknown objects, many of which will form new genera, and perhaps orders. The considerable number of duplicates will enable us to procure by exchange objects which may still be wanting in the ge- neral collection, or to augment those which exist in the principal cities of the empire. We shall add, that 960 dyawings by young Lesueur still attest his zeal and activity. LY. Che- RirrGOZ. 0) : ‘iw ) LV. Chemical Researches on Vegetation. By Tuzopore DE Saussure. 4 Extract read in the French National Institute by Li, BERTHOLLET*. r T HE class charged me to give a verbal account of a work presented to it by Theodore de Saussure, entitled Recherches , Chimiques sur la Végétation; but the important results of these researches have induced me to present to it an extract which may enable it to judge of the progress for which the theory of vegetation is indebted to this author, Senebier, whose name occurs so often in the history of the physiology of vegetables, Gough, Rollo, and Wood- house, had observed that seeds.could not germinate without the contact of oxygen gas, and that germination is accom- panied by a production of carbonic acid. Saussure men- tions the experiments he before-published, and which, in- deed, prove that in this effect the volume of the oxygen gas is not altered, but that it is only changed into carbonic acid; whence it results, that in germination a seed loses a part of its carbon, by means of the oxygen gas which combines with it retaining the elastic state. If the seed which has germinated be afterwards dried, it is found that it loses a weight very much superior to that which arises from the extraction of the carbon; whence Saussure concludes that there is, separated also during the desiccation water, or a corresponding proportion of hydro- gen and oxygen, which greatly surpasses the weight of the carbon which has been disengaged: a consequence of this observation is, that notwithstanding the loss of the carbon it experiences in forming carbonic acid, the seed which has undergone desiccation after germination is found to have a aml proportion of that clement then if if had been dried efore it experienced germination. : The carbonic acid gas, which is a product of germina- tion, becomes itself an obstacle to its progress; so that, if earbonic acid be mixed with the air which is in contact with the seed, the germination is rendered more feeble than by a similar mixture of azotic gas or hydrogen gas. Water charged with carbonic acid is equally contrary to the development of the seeds put to germinate in it; but, if _they have passed the period of germiation and attained to that where vegetation begins, the carbonic acid besomes an useful agent, alin headiceke which, as they haye not yet ' ® From Annales de Chimic, No. 150. Ue been 308 Researches on Vegetation. been detefmined by observations, have produced uncertain- ties and even contradictions in the ¢gnsequences deduced from them. Saussure shows that a twelfth of carbonic acid gas added to the atmosphere in which yegetation takes place, is favourable to its progress ; that a greater proportion is prejudicial ; that the substances which can furnish this quantity of carbonic acid, by their contact with the atmo-~ sphere in which the plant lives, produce an advantageous effect without having an immediate communication with the plant, and that the benefit arising from the carbonic acid takes place only when the atmosphere contains a greater or less proportion of oxygen gas, otherwise it becomes hurtful. Atmospheric air which has been deprived, by means of lime, of the carbonic acid it contained, continues proper for maintaining vegetation in the sun ; but if lime be placed in a receiver filled with atmospheric air, and in which the plant is exposed to the light, the plant soon perishes, and the lime has absorbed the carbonic acid. It 1s seen, then, that during vegetation there is formed carbonic acid, but that this acid ought to serve for maintaining the act of ve- getation ; for if it be absorbed vegetation ceases. This ef- fect takes place whether the plant be kept in water or whe- ther its root be in the earth; only in the latter case the ef- fect is less, because a part of the carbonic acid arising from the root is more abundant, and is not soon enough absorbed by the lime. In the shade, the presence of lime instead of being hurtful is favourable to vegetation, because in the shade the carbonic acid is as contrary to vegetables as it is favourable to their development with the aid of light. Dr. Priestley discovered that leaves ameliorated air which had heen corrupted by combustion and respiration. Sene- bier had shown that this phenomenon arose from the pro- perty which leaves have of decomposing the carbonic acid by appropriating to themselves its carbon and eliminating its oxygen. This important discovery required that the et- ‘fects of the decomposition of the carbonic acid, and the changes which result from it, either in the atmosphere in which a plant is maintained or in the composition of that plant, should be more particularly analysed. This is what Saussure has. done. ; He shows that the atmosphere, of which carbonic acid forms a determinate part, and in which a plant vegetates in the light, does not generally change its dimensions, though it sometimes experiences a little diminution ; that the car- bonic acid is destroyed, and is replaced by oxygen gas; but that this replacement is not total, being equivalent only ce half —— Researches on Vegetation. 309 half that which formed the carbonic acid; that the comple- ment of the volume is owing to the azoiic gas which is ex- haled from the plant. When the carbonic acid, then, is decomposed, its carbon and a half of its oxygen enter into the composition of the plant, from which there is exhaled a variable quantity of azotic gas. : Saussure, indeed, has confirmed that plants which had operated a decomposition of carbonic acid give more carbon than before that decomposition; those, on the other hand, which are made to vegetate in distilled water and an atmo- sphere deprived of carbonic acid, make no acquisition of carbon. It was experiments, probably, made under this circum- stance which gave reason to conclude that plants which ve- etate in pure water and in the open air contain no carbon But that found in the seeds from which they were produced. But Saussure has ascertained, by repeated experiments, that plants exposed to the open air acquire pure carbon by the decomposition of the carbonic acid naturally found in them. It had been observed that vegetation produced under dit- ferent circumstances a dilatation or contraction of the at- mosphere in which it is effected. Saussure shows that the leaves absorb oxygen gas in darkness, and that they emit an equal quantity when exposed to the light; so that the same atmosphere deprived of carbonic acid is, according to common language, corrupted in the night and purified during the day. He denotes this alternate phenomenon by the words inspiration aud expiration, and establishes the relation of these vegetable functions according to the kind of plants and according to the circumstances under which they exist. The oxygen gas which has been inspired is changed into carbonic acid; the latter is decomposed in ‘the act of ex- piration, and abandons the half of its oxygen, which resumes the elastic state. ws The roots, wood, and: petals, perform no inspiration ; but they give up carbon to the oxygen gas which sur- rounds: them, and at the same time there is a production of water: green fruits, however, and the young bark which is still green, enjoy inspiration, and produce a compound _ effect on the atmospheric air. Having examined the relation between the living vegeta- ble and the atmosphere, water and the carbonic acid, Saus- sure submits to the same examination vegetable substances deprived of life, U3 Extracts 310 Researches on Vegetation. Extracts of vegetables placed in the air gradually deposit init pellicles less soluble ; during this alteration the oxygen of the atmosphere is changed into carbonic acid; but the volume of the latter undergoes no change, or experiences on only which arises from the absorption of the carbonic acid which is formed ; at the same time a part of the oxygen and hydrogen which enter into the composition of the ve- getable substance forms a more intimate combination, and as reduced to water; so that the extract loses much less of its weight by this production of water than by the carbon separated from it, and there 1s found a greater proportion of carbon than before this: formation of carbonic acid: we have before remarked other circumstances in which a double effect takes place during vegetation. Dead wood produces the same effect on the atmosphere, and undergoes the same production of water: when de- prived, by repeated decoctions, of all its soluble part, and sexposed to the air, it changes the oxygen gas of it into carbonic acid ; its own oxygen and hydrogen form water; it then gives a new extract in the water in which itis boiled, and by means.of its successive losses acquires a superabun- dance of carbon. It had been observed that in the acetifi- cation of wine there is an absorption of oxygen gas, and this oxygen absorbed had been considered as the cause of the acidity which is developed; but Saussure has’ ascer~ tained that the oxygen gas is merely changed into carhonic acid, and that there is no other absorption than that of the carbonic acid formed: the production of acidity can there- fore arise only from thevexcess of oxygen which becomes prevalent when»a part of the hydrogen has produced water. The caze is not the same with the epoch at which, by the progress of alteration, the vegetable substances placed under water disengage inflammable »gas: they can then absorb oxygen gas, which in all probability produces water. Oils form another exception: ‘they really absorb oxygen: the author was not able to ascertain whether there was a production of oxygen,or whether the oxygen combined with the oil. He has not yet cleared wp what takes place in the transition of oil to the state of resin. wom Azotic gas is not affected by vegetable substances, ‘except -by some oils which absorb a small quantity of it, but which retain it only weakly. Vegetables exposed to the action of the air and of water are at length reduced to a black substance which Saussure ici, a by the name of terreau (vegetable mould) : preceding experiments show that this substance is not = result Researches on Vegetation. 311 result of the combination of oxygen gas with the dead plant, but that it is the residuum of the subtraction of the ele- ments of the vegetable which have seryed to the production of water and carbonic acid. It was of importance to compare the different vegetable moulds with each other, and with the substances which had not experienced destruction, to establish afterwards in what manner they might serve for reproduction. Vegetable mould is an uniform substance, which seems to differ only by a greater or less proportion of the soluble part in water. It contains a greater proportion of carbon than the plants from which it arises; and we find here a consequence of preceding observations, which show that dead vegetables acquire by their action on atmospheric air a greater propor- tion of carbon, in consequence of the production of water which takes place, than they lose by the formation of the carbonic acid. y iid : The proportion of carbon, however, in vegetable mould, when it attains to a certain point of decomposition, does not increase by the continued action of the causes which produce it: brought into contact: with air,,it continues to form carbonic acid, and to ‘produce water by the union of the oxygen and hydrogen it contains: but the latter pro- duction is less considerable than before that epoch; the elements which are separated) by this ulterior destruction are in proportions corresponding to those which» form the residuum, so that the vegetable mould continues to :be de- stroyed without the residuum changing its nature. ‘The vegetable mould retained all the principles which are found in the ashes of vegetables; but these substances resist the proofs to which they are directly subjected : it is only in the ashes resulting from theircombustiom that one. ean distinguish them: moreover, a semi-vitrification may prevent the potash from being dissolved by the water; it 1s only by more energetic means that it can be) separated. This series of researches has induced the author to deter- mine the quantity of carbon furnished by a great number of vegetable substances: he took the most proper precautions to obtain uniform carbon, and to fix the proportions: he was obliged to neglect the part which is disengaged in a gaseous combination; but. this disengagement ought not to Occasion any sensible difference between the comparative quantities of the carbonaceous residuum. “ _ Having analysed the phenomena of vegetation which depend on the action of light, or the privation of it, in at- U4 mospherie 312 Researches on Vegetation. mospheric air, the author examines those it exhibits when green plants are placed in azotic gas, hydrogen gas, and m vacuo. Plants provided with their green parts seem to be those only which can vegetate in mediums deprived of oxygen gas, because they diffuse through them this gas. When it 1s taken from them, in proportion as they produce it their development is checked ; they absorb neither azotic nor hy- drogen gas; they vegetate in vacuo as in azotic gas, pro- vided the experiment is made under shelter from the direct action of the sun’s rays. Plants show a great difference in these phenomiena according to their epochs. The author then proceeds to examine a very important question in vegetable physiology, that of the fixation and decomposition of water. He shows that plants appropriate to themselves the oxy- gen and hydrogen of water by making it lose the liquid state; but this assimilation, he says, is not very striking, except when they become incorporated at the same time with carbon. To establish this assertion he placed plants in water, leav- ing no carbonic.acid in their atmosphere; they acquired a very considerable weight, but they lost nearly the whole of what they had acquired by desiccation in the open air: on the other hand, when the vegetation was assisted by tiie decomposition of the carbonic acid, the weight which they retained after desiccation far surpassed that which might or arisen from the carbon abandoned by the carbonic acid. f From this observation he concludes that all the oxygen gas dispersed throughout the insulated atmosphere when the green plants are exposed to the light, arises from the decom- -position of the carbonic acid. I shall venture also to defend an opinion which differs very little from that of Saussure and Sepebier, and which appears to me to throw more light on the phenomena of vegetation. We t The immediate effect of light is the production of the green juice of the leaves, which then undergoes various changes in the plants; but the green part arises from a re- sinous substance, as has been shown by Rouelle: it cannot be doubted that a resinous substance contains hydrogen which is not in a state of saturation. The water, then, must be decomposed in a plant which is supplied with no other aliment than the water in the insulated atmospheric air, if it acquires there a green colour. x During Researches on Vegetation. 313 During the desiccation in the open air of plants which have lived without carbonic acid, there must be formed car- bonic acid, according to the experiments of Saussure, an abstract of which I have here presented, and water must be produced at the same time ; since, instead of losing any of their primitive weight, they make, on the contrary, a small acquisition ; an increase of the vegetable substance, not owing to a mere fixation of water, and which is greater than that announced by the balance, must have taken place before the desiccation. When plants live in the light in atmospheric air, or in any other gas deprived of carbonic acid, they give out a little oxygen gas; according to Saussure, this oxygen gas is changed during each inspiration into carbonic acid, and is again decomposed ; but the carbonic acid in its decomposi- tion retains one-half of its oxygen: it thence follows that in each expiration the proportion of the oxygen gas ought to decrease, did not the decomposition of the water furnish a supplement. j It appears to me, then, that in common vegetation the water and carbonic acid are decomposed simultaneously by the action of the light; that the result of this decomposition is, on the one hand, an emission of oxygen gas, which can- uot be ascribed to the one more than to the other; that, on the other hand, there is formed a vegetable substance which is inflammable, because it contains an excess of carbon and hydrogen on account of the emission of the oxygen with which they were saturated ; and that when a plant is de- _ prived of carbonic acid it may still be supported, or make some progress, by means of water alone. > Having insulated the act of vegetation to discover its es- sential conditions, and to deduce from them the principal results, it was necessary to examine the circumstances of common vegetation to determine its particular effects, and especially to go back to the origin of the substances found in plants, and which cannot be owing to oxygen, hydro- gen, and the*carbonic acid. t: ‘This part of vegetable physiology stood so much the more in need of being explained, as observations which ex- hibited an imposing appearance of exactness had conducted to suppositicns which could not be reconciled with physical theories.“ Tull, Van Helmont, and even some modern naturalists,” says Saussure, * have endeavoured to show that vegetables do not draw water from vegetable earth, and that. manure acts on the soil only by furnisbing to plauts a maintenance 314 Reseurches on Vegetation. maintenance more or less proper for retaining heat and moisture: these authors have supposed that the vital force, both animal and vegetable, might, by decomposing or com- bining in different ways atmospheric air and water, produce all the substances, and even the salts, earths, and metals, which are proved, by analysis and incineration, to exist in vegetables. This confused idea is not more susceptible of being proved than that of making gold from substances which contain none of it. Before we have recourse to un- intelligible transmutations, miraculous, and in opposition to all the observations known, we ought to ascertain exactly that plants do not acquire and find these principles ready formed in the mediums in which they expand.” This part of the work contains a great number of new observations and happy comparisons Pethildad experiments and agricultural observations ; but I shall confine myself to general results. ; Roots and plants absorb salts and extracts, but in a less proportion than water which holds these salts and extracts in solution. $01 The salts which the roots have absorbed are found in plants without any change in their state of nature. It is to be wished that the author would extend his re- searches on the formation of the acids which seem to be the product of vegetation ; such as the oxalic acid, the citric, and the tartarous. J an A vegetable does not absorb in the same proportion all the substances contained at the same time in the same so- Jution ; it forms particular secretions of them: thus, ina solution of different salts'the roots take up more of one kind than of another; in general they absorb im greater quantity the substances the solutions of which, when separated, are less viscous. poe When we compare the weight of extract which can be furnished by the most fertile soil with the weight of the dry plant which has expanded in it, it is found that it could have derived from it but a very smal] part of its substance. | Saussure proceeds to examine the ashes which vegetables Jeave by combustion. He proves that all the predominating principles in ashes are contained in the vegetable mould, and that its soluble part, which alone penetrates mto the vegetable, contains these principles in a greater proportion than the insoluble part: their existence in the plant, then, has nothing natural, as he observes, and their absence in it would excite more astonishment. Plants * Researches on Vegetation. 315 Plants made to yegetate in water and in a confined atmo- sphere, give only the same quantity of ashes which would have, been obtained from their seeds; but in the open air they acquire a small quantity, which must procéed from the bodies floating in the atmosphere. Ashes are composed of saline parts soluble in water and of parts insoluble: the proportions of the insoluble and so- luble part vary according to the soil, according to the cir- cumstances of vegetation, and in the different parts of a plant: ashes are more abundant as the vegetable substance 38 more distant, from the ligneous state; but they contain the more soluble substance as they have been less subjected to the dissolving action of the water; so that a vegetable abandons the soluble salts it contains when exposed to the action of foreign water: I regret that the author did not examine the salts which the water may in this manner take trom vegetable substances, in order to ascertain in what state of combination is the potash which becomes free during inemeration. The author found phosphates in all the vegetables the ashes of which he examined: the phosphate of lime forms often the greater part of the insoluble portion; but that which is‘soluble contains sometimes phosphate of potash, or a'triple combination of phosphoric acid, potash, and lime : on this occasion he examines that triple combination, which may differ by its proportions and by the effects which che- mical re-agents produce in it: ashes contain scarcely any magnesia and alumine. These results, with which several others are connected, are established by seventy-nine ex- periments on incineration, to each of which is added a cor- responding analysis. The methods of analysis followed are carefully described. I have been able to give only a short view of this immense labour, which must add to the celebrity of the author. , LVI. Aemoir ) 386y 7] LVI. Memoir oi the Natural History of the Coco-nut Tree _ and the Areca-nut Tree; the Cultivation of them accord- ing to the Methods of the Hindoos; their Productions, and their Utility in the Arts and for the Purposes of do- mestic Economy. By M. Le Govux pk FLaix, an Officer of Engineers, and Member of the Asiatic Society at Cal- cutta™. Tuzsr interesting vegetables are indigenous in the East Indies: they are found also in some parts of Africa, and even of America; but I do not think that they were placed there by nature. Travellers have given descriptions of these vegetables, which are the delight of the natives, and serve to ornament their habitations ; but they appear to me to be in many re- spects incorrect. IJ shall therefore describe them as I ob- served them during a long series of years, and in different countries of Hindostan. I shall begin with the coco-nut tree as being the most useful, and shall, then speak of that. which bears the areca:nut. : It is well known that the coco-nut tree (Cocos nucifera Linn.) is of the genus of the unilobe plants, of the monoe- cia hexandria, and the family of the palms, to which bo- tany has given this appellation because. instead of boughs and, branches they bear palms... The coco-nut tree exhibits also as characters a flower-bud or sheath, which is mono- phyllous, and a branchy palm winged and exceedingly long. Its bud is furnished with a very great number of branches attached to a pedicle exceedingly short. It presents, also.a very great number of flowers about two or three Imes in length, oblong, with a corolla of six equal petals horned, convex, rounded at their extremity, of a pale flesh colour, and having little odour. These flowers, the males of which are placed above, have six stamina with sagittated anther, and a pistil which miscarries: the female, which are more numerous, placed near the former and along the same stalk at intervals of five or eight, have a round ovarium destitute of a style, and over it a three-lobed stigma. Some of the flowers before the spatha opens are succeeded by a drupa, at first exceedingly tender, round, and whitish, which becomes very large, smooth, coriaceous, and fibrous: it contains a nut more or Jess oval, monospermous, exceed- ingly hard, of a brown colour, sometimes veined, of one * From the Brdliotheque Paysico- Economique, Nos. 5, 6, 7, &¢. 1804. piece, Jatural Hestory of the Coco-nut Tree,@8c. = 317 piece, marked with sutures which form a ridge sometimes more and sometimes less prominent: it has in its lower part a hole called the eye, through which the germ issues: it exhibits also the figure of two more; which may have made some naturalists, deceived by the appearance, imagine that it has three. In the East Indies there are known seven different species of the coco-nut, without comprehending that called, impro- perly, the sea coco-nut, and which naturalists believe to be indigenous in the archipelago of the Maldives, though it grows only in the Sechelle isles. This coco-nut forms a particular species very distinct from that cultivated either in Hindostan, in the other countries of the East Indies, or in the islands of the Asiatic seas. I make use of the word species, and not variety, that I may expressly conform to the signification of the word received in hotany to denote those individuals which always retain the same configuration. No distinguishing characters between the species here mentioned can be drawn either from the palms, the sheaths, or the flowers of the vegetable, their figure and form being absolutely the same. These characters can be taken only from the configuration of the fruit, which never varies and never changes in whatever country or soil the tree may be cultivated. As no naturalist who has travelled in that part of the world where this useful and beautiful tree grows has described these species, I shall supply this deficiency by exact descriptions taken from their proper characters after a number of observations, and J shal! leave it to masters in the science to denominate and designate them in their sy- nonymies. There are three kinds cultivated in Hindostan ; four more are cultivated in the isles of the seas which lic adjacent to this country, rendered so rich by its productions, by the industry of its inhabitants, and by the mildness of its cli- mate. ‘ ist, The coco-nut of the coast of Coromandel exhibits a husk yery smooth and shining, of a reddish yellow colour, on which account it is called by the Hindoos the Bramin coco-nut, because it approaches near to the colour of the skin of the individuals of that cast. The sutures opposite to the side on which the eye is placed are more swelled towards the base, a part which is also more flattened than that opposite to it even when enveloped in its husk. ed, The coco-nut of Canara, a country situated between the two branches of the double chain of the Gauts, very high mountains which extend through the nee of ndia 318 Natural History of the Coco-:at Tree India from south to north, and divide it into three zones in its whole length. This species has for distinguishing characters a form perfectly oval, a ligneous and more solid shell, a husk exceedingly green, and filaments remarkably hard, all its sutures so little prominent that they are sensible to the eye but not to the touch. 3d, That of the coast of Malabar, which is tarbinated ; that is to say, larger at the hole which is found under the covering that binds and fixes the pedicle of the fruit to its cluster. ) 4th, The coco-nut of the Maldives, sandy islands, unco- vered, no doubt, by the sea at no very distant period, is very small and absolutely spherical; its sutures are very much raised, and far more prominent in the upper part than those opposite to its pedicle. 5th, That of Achem, a small istand situated on the south side of those of Sonda and the Moluccas, is distinguished by its ovoid form, its extreme smallness, and the thickness of its kernel, which is so pulpy that there is scarcely any vacuity in it, and that it contains very little liquor. 6th, The species cultivated in the Nicobar Isles, situated in the upper part of the Bay of Bengal, which is the largest of all the varieties of this fruit. Its external form is trian- gular; its husk or fibrous bark is remarkably thick ; the nut 1s oyal, and a little flattened at its two poles, and there is- sues from the upper pole a sharp point ; on which account it is called the needle coco-nut. 7th, The coco-nut of Ceylon is a very élongated spheroid : it has its suture corresponding to the orifice or eye of the germ, more prominent by a strong line than those of the other countries. Such are the characters which distinguish the different species of the coco-nut of the Indies. The utility of the coco-nut has been so well known in Hindostan since the remotest antiquity, that Brahma, of whom the Indians call themselves the children, the legis- lator of that country at a very remote period, marks out one of the nineteen casts which compose that people for the purpose of being exclusively occupied in the cultivation of this valuable tree, and in extracting and preparing the different products of it. This cast is that of the Chanas ; it is one of the highest and most distinguished, and one “of those said to be of the right hand. In a word, this tree is so valuable in the eyes of the Indians that they consider it almost as an unpardonable crime to cut it down: accord- ing to them it is a sort of homicide; an idea, in some mea~ sure, well founded, as 1 shall here show. “This opinion 3 characterizes, and the Areca-nut Tree. 319 characterizes, more than any thing that could be said, the mild and humane disposition of the Hindoos. The coco-nut tree, indeed, has some resemblance to man. Its development does not take place, like that of other trees, by ligneous strata placed over each other; the trunk is composed of an infinite number of needles of ater or less length, all united and bound together in bun- dies by a tender and spongy pith which surrounds them. It grows only by the successive development of its palms, all issuing from the body of the tree, which when the plant dies is speedily reduced to dust. This observation, which is very exact, destroys the assertions of most naturalists, such as Thunberg, Rumphius, &c., who have said that the wood of the coco-nut tree is hard, and fit for a great number of domestic purposes. I shall now give a short view of the methods of culture em- ployed by the Hindoos to rear and propagate this useful and beautiful palm, and to make it yield that liquor or wine which distils from the spatha; I shall describe the use they make, either for food or in the arts, of the fruit, the leaves, and the liquor of this vegetable; and I shall speak of the different processes which ought to be pursued in order to obtain from it its different products; details as interesting as curious, which no traveller has ever yet made known, at least in so particular a manner as to satisfy curiosity, and to convey an - accurate knowledge of this palm to those who may be de- sirous of cultivating it, and of deriving from it all those advantages it is capable of affording. f The coco-nut tree is called pheziana in the Shamskrit, the primitive language of the country. It is named fene- maron in the idiom of Ceylon, and in almost all the dialects of that part of India called by the Hindoo geographers the Decan; that is to say, the southern part, described, very improperly, by the Europeans as a peninsula, under the name of the Peninsula on this side the Ganges. Of all the great family of the palms it 1s that which at- tains to the greatest height. It has a majestic and agreea- ble appearance: it generally rises to the altitude of fifty feet, and its common duration is eighty-five years : it never ex- ceeds acentury. Its growth is quicker till it attains to the age of thirty-five years : when it reaches that period its deve- lopment is slower; from its fiftieth to its sixtieth year it pro- duces less; its beautiful and verdant crown loses its colour, becomes thin, and its development till its death is almost insensible. At that age it has al] the characters of the de- crepitude of man; its leayes grow yellow and drop; and if by 320 Naturai History of the Coco-nut Tree by any accident it Joses its top, which the Hindoos very expressively call its head, the roots cease to acquire nou~ rishment, and the crank’ is reduced to dust in the course of eight or ten days. It is with reason, therefore, as I have already observed, that the Hindoos find some relation be- tween this tree ane animated beings; or, in a word, with man. In this respect it 13 very diifirerth from other large vegetables the wood of which survives their destruction ; and it is for this reason that the antients; like the Hindoos in regard to this palm, personified trees under the name of Fauns, Satyrs, and Sylvans. \ The coco-nut tree is reproduced only by the fruit. It is planted in nurserics at every season of the year. The soundest fruits, and those which are not crackcd, must be chosen. They must not be stripped of their first fibrous covering, which the Indians call-kaer, and of which they make excellent ropes. They have found that water and this substance are necessary to facilitate the germination of the’ seed, which takes’ place about the seventeenth or eighteenth day. The nut must be placed Jengthwise a little mclined, and turned in such a manner that the eye from which the germ issues may be towards the surface of the earth, so that its rising stern as it shoots up may not ineline, and he obliged to bend itself in order to issue from the earth. Immediately after the nursery has been planted, and each coco-nut has been covered with five or six inches of earth, which is not trod down, the plantation, which is made of a square form in order to facilitate irrigation, 1s watered. This is the best method of supplying it with moisture. A watering-pot would displace the carth, or form it into masses; inconveniences which must absolutely be avoided, The Hindoos continue’ to water the nursery ever ee OF three days, according as the air is more or less dr Pe aerog six weeks or two months, Water, according to the doo agriculturists, is the only or at least the prificipal cause « of. vegetation : it is indispensably necessary to ve rminatio the existence of this palm, to its strength and its presé tion, especially in its youth. About the eighteenth or nineteenth day the point of the germ is observed issuing from the earth like the small tooth of an elephanty,and as white and smooth. This point of the nascent coco-nut tree, like that of al- most all the palms, retains this form for a fortnight or three weeks.’ It'is then exceedingly tender, saccharine, of an agreeable taste, and exceedingly delicate to eat either raw or and the Areca-nut Tree. 391 or roasted in ashes. It is often presented at the best tables of the Europeans. The Hindoos, who are frugivorous, make ragouts of it under the name of cari. To this point they give the name of kelingue, which signifies the first shoot of the palms. ; ‘The first leaf begins to show itself only on the thirty- fifth or fortieth day. It appears like a bundle of small ribbons, shaded with pale flesh colour, and bordered with ‘a band of beautiful green. The roots first begin to be formed in the woody cod, the second covering of the coco-nut, in filaments, united in groups, shaped like a very large goose egg, of a yellowish colour, tender, and saceharine, which are eaten, prepared like the kelingues, as well as the young leaves, which we call the cabbage of the coco-nui trec, and which in delicacy of taste surpasses tne finest almonds. Assisted then by mois- ture and heat, they burst about the thirtieth day, on all sides, that shell which preserves the fruit for years, which secures the nascent roots from the attack of destructive worms, and which, by its great solidity, prevents the eva- poration of the water inclosed in the shell, a3 well as the desiccation of the milky juice of the pulp or kernel neces- sary for the development of the germ, and of the roots of the vegetable. The roots, when become strong, about the third month, penetrate into the earth all around the palm, and take hold with such force, that the greatest efforts are necessary to tear them up, Hence, a coco-nut tree can with difficulty be overturned by the most impetuous storm. _The wood of the coco-nut tree is not hard, but it is ex- ceedingly flexible and pliable during the timethat it vegetates or retains its sap. It has then such elasticity, that a can- non ball rebounds, and is reflected from it. A military officer, in the service of the French East India Company, who in the year 1760 commanded fort Alemparne, the revetemens of which could not have stood ten cannon - shot, endured a siege of ten or twelve days, because M. erri, who had the command there, conceived the idea of causing the faces of the walls to be covered with coco-nut "trees, suspended from them. Another proof of my assertion, in regard to the astonishing elasticity of the wood of the eoco~nut tree, occurred during the memorablesiege of Pondi- cherry, in 1778: a ball fired from the place accidentally struck a coco-nut tree in an avenue opposite to it, and perforated the body of the tree, which bent, and suffered it to pass through it, as if it had gone through a mattress. the trunk then closed up, bringing together all the lig- Vol, 20. No. 80. Jun. 1605. neous §39 Natural History of the Coco-n ut Tree neous needles of which it was composed; and at the time the place surrendered the wound was perfectly healed. { mention these facts that advantage may be taken of them, should urgent circumstances render temporary for- tfications necessary in a conntry where coco-nut trees éan be readily obtained. I was sensible of the utility of it during the sicge of Pondicherry, in 1778, at which time T caused the merlons of the ramparts to be covered with it. Tt is not till the end of the fifth month that the first Ieaves of the eoco-nut tree wake their full appearance. Their ale are still adherent, and all united as if cemented together. The case is the same with all those which shoot. out till the twelfth or thirteenth month; they all issue from the centre, that is, from the head or crown of the foliage, and are supported by a kind of tissue exceedingly strong. If all seasons are propitious to the planting of this tree, they are all equally suited to it when transplanted to the place destined for it. Every kind of soil, even the most sandy, agrees with it, provided it is not suffered to want water; it even thrives better in light than in strong soil. The cultivation of this vegetable proves, in a decisive man- ner, the justness of the agricultural principles of the Hin- doos, that water alone contains all the nutritive parts of plants. In this respect my observations induce me to entertain the same opinion ; it is founded on a number of trials made during a series of years, on more than fifty species of gramineous plants, shrubs, and trees, which I cultivated in water only, keeping them in vessels propor- tioned to their strength. These facts are incontestable, and can be proved by many persons, both French and English, who were witnesses of them, and came to sce them in my. garden at Pondicherry, between the years 1771 and 1784. The coco-nut tree is gencrally transplanted from the age of cight to fifteen months. It may without any inconve- nience be removed, at the age of two or three years; but in this case it requires more caution, to prevent the roots from being broken, as they would not grow again; an accident which would infallibly cause the plant to die. It succeeds equally when planted in groves, in orchards, or when destined to form avenues, or to ornament walks in a garden; it produces a beneficent shade; and its roots, which do not extend far, can hurt no vegetable, though even so near as almost to touch it; nor docs it injure walls, near which it may be planted. All these reasons induce the natives of India‘ to place it around their habitations, and always as near them as possible. ' Its and the Areca-nut Tree. 323 Its numerous palms, which are from eighteen to twenty- four fect in length, become interwoven, and cross the branches of other trees in the neighbourhood, without hurting them, or impeding their mutial vegetation. The sca may wash the bottom of coco-nut trees without injury 5. for, instead of suffering from the salt water, they acquire more vigour, and produce with more fecundity. “This ob- - servation will occur to those who travel along ‘the coast of Malabar, which is covered by an immense and thick forest of these palms, and exhibits the most delightful and pic- turesque scencry. This observation leads me to speak of a practice fol- lowed by the agriculturists of Hindostan, as well as by those of China, and of other countries, comprehended un- der the gencral name of India. They are all accustomed, when near the ocean, to water their rice fields with sea wa- ter; or, when at a distance from it, they besprinkle them with salt before they are tilled ; and they generally follow this practice in the cultivation of all the esculent or Jegu- minous plants produced in their country. During my travels through the interior parts of India, and even the most northern districts of that vast empire, I have seen immense ficlds covered with other kinds of gramineous vegetables, the soil of which bad been manured only with leaves, salt, and the ashes arising from plants, and the re- mains of the straw of the former crop, preserved for that purpose, and burnt standing. » Salt, ashes, and water, then, are the only manure em- ployed by the Indian agriculturists to improve their lands; the remains of plants and noxious weeds: being burnt in this manner, it is never necessary to suffer the fields to re- main fallow. These agricultural practices, followed tor ages, by men who are the inventors ef all the arts and all the sci- ences, and who are the most. skilful in agriculture, ag is proved by the perfection to which the cultivation of land has been carried in Hindostan, are an evident proof that dunghills are not so necessary to the success of crops as is generally imagined in Europe. I shall here add, that the fields in all the districts of this immense country, where this method is followed, never remain fallow, and produce two, three, and even four distinct crops in the course of the year. I could not help introducing these observations in this place, though they do not belong Longevily. The chemical analysis of 10000 grains gave |, Tron in the metallic state = 1800 Brown oxide of iron - 2540 Regulus of nickel - ae 1350 Magnesia . - - — 3250 Silex - - - 1000 The rest seemed to be sulplinr 60 LONGEVITY. That instances of longevity are not so rare in mo- dern ‘times as is usually imagined, the subjoined list, col- lected from various sources, is a curlous proof, to which bez you may give a place, if you think it will afford any amusement to your numerous readers. That I might not swell it to an inconvenient length, none have been inserted who have not attained the 130th year, or whose longevity has not appeared to be well attested. Many more might, without doubt, be added, by those who have better oppor- tunities for collecting such accounts. The date affixed to each name is the year in which each person died, when that has been ascertained ; or when not, the latest year in which each is known to have lived. Year, Age. Year. Age. 1795 David Cameron 130 1772 Mrs. Clum 138 1766 John dela Somel 130 1766 Thomas Dobson 139 1766 George King 130 1785 Mary Cameron 139 1767 John Taylor 130 1752 William Laland 149 1774 William Beatie 130 Countess Desmond 140 1778 John Watson . 130 1770 James Sands 140 1780 Robert Macbride 130 1773 Swarling, a monk 142 1780 William Ellis 130 1773 Charles M‘Findlay 143 1764 Elizabeth Taylor 131 1757 John Effingham 144 1775 Peter Garden 131 1782 Evan Williams 145 1761 Eliz. Merchant’ 133 1766 Thomas Winsloe 146 1772 Mrs. Keith 134 1772 J.C. Drahakenberg 146 1767 Francis Agne 134 1652 William Meal = 148 1777 John Brookey 134 1768 Francis Consir 150 1744 Jane Harrison 135 1542 Thomas Newman 152 1759 James Sheile 136 1635 Thomas Parr 152 1768 Catherine Noon 186 1656 James Bowles 152 1771 Margaret Forster 136 —— Henry West 162 1776 John Moriat 136 1648 Thomas Damme 154 _ 1772 ——Richardson 137 1762 A Polish peasant 157 ' 1793 Robertson 137 1797 Joseph Surrington 169 1757 Wm. Sharpley 138 1668 Win. Edwards 168 1768 John M‘Donough 138 1670 Henry Jenkins 169 _ 70 Faicbrother 138 1782 Louisa Truxe 175 . 2A3 Te “374 Water-Spouts. To these may be added, a Mulatto man who died in 1797, in Frederick Town, North America, and who was said to be 180 years old. In The County Chronicle, of December 13, 1791, a pa- ragraph was inserted, which stated, that, Thomas Carn, according to the parish register of St. Leonard, Shoreditch, died the 28th of January, 1588, aged 207; but this is an instance of longevity, so far exceeding any other on record, that one is disposed to suspect some mistake either in the register or in the extract. WATER-SPOUTS. We are happy in being able to present our readers, in the present number, with a correct representation of this phe- nomenon, copied from nature. As it was not accompanied with any circumstances different from what are usual, and have often been stated, a particular description is unneces- sary. It seldom happens, however, that they are seen, as . in the present instance, by persons competent to make a correct drawing. fwag METEORO- Meteorology. 375 METEOROLOGICAL TABLE By Mr. Carey, or THE Srranp, For January 1805. Thermometer, oS eae yrs a ml . |S 5] Height of |] 8 2 ce F s a the Bars: ages Weather. = 7, ae Inches. F g eS A a AS RO Dec. 27} 34°] 35°] 34°) 29°59 4° |Cloudy 28| 34 | 33 | 30 “72 6 |Cloudy 29) 30 | 32 | 25 "92 10 |Cloudy 30) 24 | 31 | 30 | 30°12 15 {Fair 31 31 | 32 | 30 | 29°94 12 \Fair Jan. 1) 30 | 32 | 35 “78 8 jCloudy 36 | 39 | 36 *88 Oo |Ram 36 | 38 | 38 | 30°02 6 {Cloudy 37 | 42 | 36 | 29°98 12 |Fair 39 | 44 | 40 85 10 {Cloudy 41 | 45 | 42 ‘98 4 |Small rain 44 | 47 | 40 78 0 |Rain- 32 | 41 | 31 | 30°38 6 |Fair 34 | 33 | 27 “30 3 |Fogey 10] 25 | 29 | 28 "05 5 |Fogey 11} 32 | 32 | 28 | 29:66 5° jCloudy 25 | 29 | 37 “40 0 jCloudy 13) 39 | 43 | 42 | 28°98 5 |Fair,with wind 14| 39 | 43 | 35 | 29°16 6. {Fair 15) 33 | 42 | 36 *30 4 {Fair 16| 34 | 45 | 34 65 2 |Cloudy 17| 35 | 46 | 36 "50 6 |Pair 18| 34 | 40 | 34 "72 8 | Fair 19] 32 | 40 | 37 *20 5 |Fair 20] 41 | 45 | 38 | 28°96 2 |Rain . 21] 321 37 | 32 | 29°18 4 {Cloudy, snow at night 29] 33 | 33 | 32 ‘09 0 {Cloudy, snow at night 23| 33 | 33 | 33 "28 Oo {Snow 24) 39 | 32 | 31 61 5 |Cloudy 25} 30 | 35 | 32 68 4 |Cloudy 26) 29 | 29 | 28 75 8 |Cloudy ‘ ; | ten Lad. . a, = , a 4 . INDEX tro VOL, XX ee "Sid, “~ : ‘ _ | : ACADEMY of Belles Letires, Bernier, P. F. Memoirs ofye &c. Stockholm, 368 10F Acid, phosphoric, On? 160 Berzelius on cerium, ———-154. Adder stones, On, , ‘7 Bits of bridles. Patent for,.27% Aerial navigation, Blasting with gunpowder. Oy 208" Agriculture. Board of, 79, 158, 274, 369; moss lands, 189; Bath Society of, 275 Alcohol of sulphur. To prepare, 131 Alkalis, Patent for purifying, 190 Alum, On, 269 America. Voyage to the north- west Coast of, 3, 106 Analysis of cerium, 155 inalysis of lac, 350 Analytical reasoning. On, 193 Fondness of, for salt, 95 Anthropopbagi in America, 7 Antiquities, 93, 282, 368 Areca-nut tree. On, 316 Arseniate of lead. Ratio of in- Animals, gredients in, 66 Arsenic. To separate, from any metal, 65 Asironamy, 70, 188 Barber's patent, 95 Barber on preventing water pipes from freezing, 209 Barret’s patent, 95 Bath Agricultural Society, 275 Baudin’s voyage, 300 Beans, French, To preserve, 220 Bengal, Population of, 339 Penzct’s patent, | 95 Board of Agricu'ture, 79s 1785 274, 309 Books. New, 78, 176, 365 Boring the earth. Patent for, 1OE Borneo, Account of, 332 Botany, 285; discoveries in, 304 Bufizgton’s patent, 95 Caldwell’s patent, 95 Canal. Ofthe Tavistock, 370 Carben. Affinity of, for clay, &ce. 31, 134, 230 Carburated sulphur. poem: of, Carey’s meteorological table, se 192, 288, 375 Catoptrical instruments of the an- tients. On, 14 Cement for building. Indian, 33% Ceres. R. A. and dec. of, 188 Cerium, a new metal, 155 Chrome. Pigment from, 266 Clasps. Patent for, 291 Clay. Affinity of, for carbon, &e. 35: 134. 234 - Clayfield’s patent, Iyo Cobalt. To separate from iron and nickel, Clouds. Stones from, 372 Coco-nut tree. On, Concave mirrors described by Dee, : : 19 Coppers INDE X. Copper. To render hard like steel, 159 Correspondence. Patent for, 271 Cow-pock, On, 36, 60, 86, 143, 236 Cucumbers. "To preserve, 221 Curaudear on alum, 269 Customs of Indian nations, 5, 408 Dartigues on glass, 259 Deaths, 8g Desfontaines.on tea, 123 Dioptrical instruments of the an- _ Hents. On, 14 Distillation. Improvement in, 219, 329 Down, Patent for cleaning, 191; experiments on, 211, 358 Drowning persons. To assist, 362 Ducks down. On, 359 Earthquakes, 89, 184, 28% Economical Socicties, 79, 177, 273, 308 Ldwards’s patent, 191 £ggs. On preserviag, 218 Eiider-down. On, 216 Electricity of metals. On, 120 Enamel. Red, to prepare, 159 ; green, 268 Epitaph. Premium for, 368 Lverhard’s patent, 272 Farey on blasting with gunpow- der, 208 ’ Feathers. Patent for cleaning, cg 19l 3 experiments on, 211, . 358 Fevers, malignant and epidemic. To cure, 364 Fireplaces. Patent for improy- ing, 191 Flour, to e. without grain. patengaet, e278 Fluids, non-elastic. Instrument for equalizing pressure and eilux of, 289 = re 37? Freezing of water-ppis. On preventing, 209 French National Institute, 80 French teans, To preserve, 220 Fumigatien. To prevent the plague, 349 Furs. Patent for preparing, 275 Gay-Lussac’s aérial voyage from Paris, 83 Gealic language. On, 72 Geography, 3 93, 185, 279 Germination, n; 307 Ginger. To preserve, 222 Glass. Antiquity of, 15; on devitrification of, 259 Glass adders, 17 Glue. Patent for making, 191 Godox-Saint-Memin on chrome, 266 Goose down. On, - 359 Gordon on Gealic and Greek languages, 125 203 Gregson’s patent, 19 Gunpowder. On blasting with, 208 Guppy’s patent, 271 Hair, Patent for cleaning, 191 ; remarks on, PM 5] Harding’s new plaaet. Orb&t of, 7° Hatchett on lac, 35° Hauy on electricity of metals, : 120 Heathcote’s patent, 95 Herculaneum MSS. 179 Herpes cured by vital air, 153 Hindostan. On trees of, 316 Hisinger on cerium, 154. History, a prize question, 3068 Hosiery. Patent for, 95 Houghion’s patent, 278 Hume on prussiate of copper, 142 Hlume’s improved process. for _making phosphorus, 160 Hydraulic improvement, 92 Hydraulics. 378 Hydrazlies. Patent in, 1913 pre- mium for, 368 Ichthyo’ozy, 286 Imperial Acodemy, Petersburgh, 276 Indian custom’, 335. 343 Inscriptions. Premium for, 368 Jridium, a new metal, 164 tron. Mushet ony 31, (34, 2313 to separate from cobalt and nickel, > ~ 66 Zsland. A newly discovered, 185 Fvary. Remarks on, 217 Fesse’s account of Borneo, 332 Fussicw’s account of a voyage to New Holland, 300 Knizht’s improved Woulf’s ap- paratus, 252 Eac. Experiments on, 350 Lacroix on mathematics, — 193 Lampadius on liquid sulphur, 13t Language. Specimen of Indian, 107; on Gealic, 2035 on Greek, 203 Lawson on assisting drowning persons, ¢' 62 Learned Societies. Proceedings of, 79 1772 273 368 Lectures, 177, 286 Legumes. On preserving, 220 Licks, salt. Some account of, 98 Light, a prize question, 276 sLinie. Affinity of for carbon, &c, 33,134,231 Linnean Societys 195 Longevity, 187, 373 Malt-kiln. AUmproved, 713 pa- tent for, Mamn oth bones, where found; 300 Manuscripts. The Herculaneum, 179 Mariners. Notice to, 186 Margrave’: patent, aqi INDEX Martin's pump described, 223} on pump-work, 29t Mathematical studies. On, 255 193 Mayer's patent, 27 Mechain. Death of, 8g Blechanical powers. Patent for; . 19f Medicine, 152,256, 258, 347 Mentz Society of Arts and Sci- . ences, : ie 80 Metals. On electrity of, 120 New; 154, 162 Meteorol.gy, 9, 19%, 281, 288, 375 Mithill (Dx.) on muriate OF soda, 97 Moss land. To improve, 189 Mouse suckled by a cat, gt Muriate of soda. History of, 97 Mushet on iron, &c. Bly 134, 231 fails. Patent for making, 271% Natural history, 91, 953 disco- veri€s in, 306 Navigation. Notice respecting, 185, 186 New Holland. Voyage to, 300 Nickel. Thenard on, 63 Noon's patent, 95 Optics. Historical remarks or, 14 Osmium, a new metal, _ 166 Osteology', 1ik Pailas. _ Table of R. A. and dec. 188 Palladium. Wollaston on, 174 Parmentier on feathers and down, 211, 363; on Dutch pro- cesses; 214 Pasquicr's patent, 271 Patents, List of, 95, 190, 273 Pepper trade at Borneo, — 333 Philology, a prize question, 368 160 Phos« Phosphoric acid. On, , INDEX. Phesphorized copper. ares P Phosphorus. To pte- ao Improved process to make, 160 Plague, Preventive for, 349 Platina. 'To render malleable, 76; new metals in, 162, 168; to coat copper vessels with, 385 Pneumatic Medicine, 153, 256, ; 258, 347 Pompeia. Discovery of, 181 Poushkin’s process for makin P platina malleable, 76 Printing. Patent for, 271 Prize questions, 276, 363 Prussiate of copper. On, 142 Publications, New, 78, 176, 362, 365 Pump-work, Martin on, 223, 2g Quills for writing. On, 214 Raine’s patent, 19t Razors. Patent for, 95 Reid on curing epidemic fevers, 364 Rhinoceros. On the, 112 Rhosium, a new metal, 168 Robertson's aerial voyage from Riga, 81; from Vienna, 82 Roman aluim, 269 Royal Acadeny, 273 Royal Instituiion, 177 Roya! Society, 175,273 Ryan’s patent, 1g Sage on hardening copper, 159 Salt, common, Effect of, on cattle, Tor Saussure on vegetation, 307 Scouring. Patent for, 292 Serpent with two heads, Qt Sharpless’s patent, 191 Sheep. Smearing of, 189 Ship-building in India, 337 ’ Silex. Aflinity of, for carbon, ke. 31, 134,233 579 Silk, Patent for throwing, spin- ning, &e. 27t Sinclair (Sir F.) on improving moss lands, 189 — New work by, 366 Small-pox. Supposed cases of, after vaccination, 36, 60, 86 description of, 143; compared with cow-pock, 236 Societies, Learned, 79, 175, 176; 273, 368 Svatistics, 945 339 Steers’s patent, 1gt Steevens’s instrument for equa- lizing pressure and eflux of non-elastic fluids, 289 Stochings. Patent for, 95 Stockholm Academy, 363 Stones from the clouds, 372 Sulphur, liquid, On, 1gt Surveying. Patent for, Igtk Sivans’ down. © On, 358 Synthetical reasoning. On, 193 Tallow, fumes of, a cure for fevers, 364 oe Tanning. New ingredients for, 286 Tea. On, 123 Teeth of the rhinoceros described, : 4 TIE Tennat on new metals found in platina, 162 Thenard on nickel, 63 Thornton (Dr.) on cow-pock, 36, 143, 226; on pneumatic medicine, 153, 256, 258, 3473 on fumigation, 34.9 Thrashing- machine, Patent for, 9§ Tbread face. Patent for, 95 Toads in stones, 95 Toud. stones, 17 Toplis on mathematical studies, 25, 198 Trye on cow-pock, 6o Urine. To prepate phosphorus from, 16k Under- -380 INDEX. Underdown’s patents 271 WF accination. On, 36, 66, 86, 143, 187, 236 Vegetation. Chemical researches on, 3°97 Viper. Venom of, 91, 279 ‘Volcanoes. Eruptions of, 187 Voyage of discovery, 3c0 Foyage to the north-west coast of America, 3, 106; for dis- coveries, 105 Washing. Patent for, 272 Water-proof cloth, 92 W ater-spouts, 3 374 END OF THE TWENTIETH VOLUME, he ae SY Mus YM ee Printed by R. Taylor and Co.; Bluck Morse Court, Fleet Street Wilicox’s patent, 27t Window glass. Antiquity of, Wollaston on a new metal fund in platina, 168 Wool, Patent for cleaning, 191 $ remarks on, 216 Woollen cloth. Patent for strain- ing, &c. 95 Woulf’s apparatus improved, 272 Writnng. Patent for, .° 27% Writing quills. Ory 214 Zambeccari’s aévial voyage, 85 Zoology. Discoveries in, 306 a a eS Oe ONE HORNED RHINOCEROS . — Wr eee Se W) HORNED BHINOCEROS ONE HORNED RHINOCEROS Philo Mag PLI Vol XX Philo. MagPl il Vol XX . Degrees of Magnitude. + IMPROVED MALT KILN Lema Athens Philo. Mag. PUI Vol-XX. OU.XX PULV. Philo. Mag .V F sun TRETY OP THE RULNOCEK« Phils. Mag Val AX PLD Philo. Mag Vol.XX FLV. Lowry sculp May Vol XX LEV 1 SECTION of de PATENT PUMP without bid luceny a Continual Streas Invented by Benj -Martin Hi |x Philo. Mag .Vol XX £1 Vi! M*® KNIGHTS IMPROVED Wovxr's APPARATUS. Lowry sculy 4 ne oe 4 , ee yh So aa : s , 2 s ! \ ‘ ‘ . , ont ve ts ‘ ~ . Philo. Mag Vol. SX. 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