- oO; ~~ Vou Ths +: | pages? ote eat Fees nfs (SEE ss $ ete GES N 7 sue PSone. SZ hes 2 = if Poe Published the Last Day of every Month [PRICE 2. 64.}_ \\ PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE: COMPREHENDING “THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, _. THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, — - ‘AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, © er h AND COMMERCE. NUMBER LXXXL \ For FEBRUARY 1805. . a EMBELLISHED AND. ILLUSTRATED WITH THE FOLLOWING ENGRAVIN GS: oe 1. A Portrait of Dr. Hurron; engraved by Kies, from ' a Likeness painted by Miss Byrne. $02. The Peramdles nasuta; engraved by Lowey. © ey 3- The Peramiles obesula ; also engraved by Lownzy. BY ALEXANDER TILL OCH, MEMBER < OF THE ROYAL Ubied ACADEMY, &c. &e, &. es Mt Muononary “LONDON: 2 Re , Printed ty R. 7 auier and Co, Biack=Horse- Court, Peet Street, VOLS APOR A. TILLOCH ¢ x 1 SAS ‘ , And sold by Messrs-Ricuannson; Canes and Davies; Tona- at Ke man, Hunst, Rees, and Onme ; Symonps; Murray; Heer Cl rex; Veuwor and Hoop; Hatnine; London: Bint and {ss Brapevre, Edinburgh 5 By han and Qasp. and D. Nevin, | Glasgow ; ang Gripen and Hopces, Dublin. . _ MSL Fn Te ain) ew ab ENGRAVINGS. | eS, Volume XX. is illustrated with a Quarto Plate to illustrate the — Anatomy of the Rhinoceros—A Quarto Plate of an improved Malt Kiln—An Astronomical Chart, exhibiting the Path of the new Planet—A Quarto Plate of Fossil Teeth of the Rhinogeros: en-_ graved by Ler—A Plate relating to the Principles of Pump-work ; ‘engraved by Lowry—Mr. Knicut's improved Woucr'’s Appa- ratus—A Quarto Plate. to illustrate Mr. Martiy’s Paper on the Principles of Pump-Work—Mr. Sreevens’s Instrument for — equalizing the Efflux and Pressyre of non-elastic Fluids—A View of a Water-Spout, taken from Natare, Sg $e On the roth of March will be published, in Royal Quarto, Price, Two Guineas in Roards, ; ESIGNS for COTTAGES, COTTAGE FARMS, and RURAL BUILDINGS; including ENTRANCE GATES and LODGES. : recat i By JOSEPH GANDY, Architect, A. R.A. This Work will prove very useful to Gentlemen who-build upon their Estates, and to Architects and Surveyors ;. as it containg a _ great variety of Plans for Country Buildings, designed in a style of - uncon:mon beauty, and possessing all the advantages of commo- dious and economical interior arrangement. Each Plate is accom panied with a Ground Plan, Estimate, and Descriptions, in Letters press, The principal Subjects are: ‘Single Cottages for Husband- | Hunting Villas. men and Labourers. -| Country Houses. Double and treble ditto. Baths, Corn, Dairy, apd Grazing | Green-houses. Farms, Entrance Gates. ; Mills. . Lodges and Toll Gatés. Manufactories and Work- | Bridges. shops. Inns and Public-houses. Stables, A Village, &c. &c. &e. ' London: Printed for Joyx Harpine, 36, St. James's-street, Where may be had, ahd te 1. Garrard’s Plates, descriptive of Improved British Cattle folio: plai | :. 6d.: tolo ; ; yt lio: plain, 2]. 12s. 6d.; coloured, 5]. 5s. Pe 2, Culley’s Observations on Live Stock; containing Hints ‘or choosing and improving the best Breeds of the most use!ul kinds of Domestic Animals. | A new Edition, with Plates. Price 6s. 3- Lord Dundonald’s ‘Treatise on the Nature and Application of the different sorts of Manures. A new Edition, 4to, Price ros. 6d. Serr: Also a variety of other New Publications relating to Aericnl- > ture, Husbandry, Lapdscape Gardening, and Rural Economy in genera}, £ ee Oe (i EZ 2 Publisbed the Last Day of [PRICE 9s. 64.) - : THE \PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE: é . COMPREHENDING ar THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, . THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, AGRICULTU RE, MANUFACTURES, AND | * COMMERCE. =— SS a NUMBER LXXXII. For “MARCH 1805. aed ILLUSTRATED WITH THE FOLLOWING ENGRAVINGS, _ iy BY LOWRY: x, Mr. Rawtinson’s improved Mill for gtinding Oil Colours ; ; and an improved Mill for grinding Indigo, or other dry { Colours. : ne mA 2. Mr. Harpy’s improved Method of Banking the Balance of gS _ a Time-keeper. te RNS —————— BY ALEXANDER TILLOCH, ONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY, &c. &c. &c, LONDON: Printed ly R. Taylor and Co. 38, Shoe Lane, Flect Street, 3 : FOR A. TILLOCH : 2 ; And sold by Messrs. Ricuarpson; Cavett and Davirs; Lone- A NPQe oman, Huxsr, Rees, and Orme; Symonvs; Murray; Hicu-{\ Ley; Vexnor and Hoop; Harvina; London: Bert and WN _ Braprute, Edinburgh; Brasu and Reip, and D. Nevin, g& Glasgow; and Gitssert and Hopces, Dublin. ie EEF TR . ENGRAVINGS. » Vol. XVITL. is illustrated with a Head of the late Joan Doz- LonD, F.R.S. Inventor of the Achromatic Telescope: engraved _ by Mackenzie from an original Portrait in’ the Possession of the. Family—A_ new Fish called the Bichir, found in the Nile: en-, graved by Lowry—A quarto Plate containing Plans and Repre~ sentations of the Buildines and Apparatus employed by Mr. J..C.. Curwen in Steaming’ Potatoes for the Use of Cattlh—The Rev. Micuaget Warp’s Method of adjusting HapLey’s Sextant, so as’ to take Back as correctly as Fore Observations ; and to measure — Angles of 150, 160, or 170 Degrees, as accurately as Angles of 39, 49, or 50 Degrees—A Quarto Plate containing an “accurate Representation of Mr. Ropert Harx’s Expanding Crane—Mr. Georce Russex's improved Water Bucket for drawing Water. from deep Wells—~A_ Plate containing Improvements made in. Clock-work, by Mr. Massey—Another Plate on the same Subject. Vol, XIX. is illustrated with a Likeness’ of the Princess DasH-. Kor, lately Directress of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at. St. Petersburgh—Mr. Bow xer’s improved Churn—The Orbits of the two new Planets, by Laranps—M. Tincry’s. Furnace for. dissolving Copal for the. Purpose of making Varnish———-Mr. . Wricur’s Apparatus to prevent Conduit Pipes from being burst by Water Freezing in them—Mr. Hv ary’s Method of cutting Screws in the common Turning Lathe—A Portrait of M. Deva- ~ METHERIEe, Editor of the Journal de Physigue—Figures to illus-. — _ trate a Paper on the Mensuration of Timber, by Mr, Farey— Representations of some cutious Ornitholites found avWestena Nova. —Skeleton of the one-horned Rhinoceros.—Diagrams to illustrate a Paper on the Velocity of calorificRays emitted by the Sun. Volume XX. is illustrated with a Quarto Plate to illustrate the Anatomy of the Rhinoceros—A Quarto Plate of an improved Malt Kiln—An Astronomical Chart, exhibiting the Path of the new ay Planet—A Quarto Plate of Fossil Teeth of the Rhinoceros: en- _graved by Lee—A Plate relating to the Principles of Pump-work : engraved by Lowry—Mr. Knicut’s improved Woutr’s Appa-. ratus—A Quarto Plate to illustrate Mr. Martin’s Paper on the - Principles of Pump-Work—Mr. Sreeyens's Instrument for | equalizing the Efflux and Pressure of non-elastic Fluids—A View . _ of a Water-Spout, taken from Nature. Vol. XXI, is illustrated with a Portrait of Dr. Hurrow; en= graved by Kyicut, from a Likeness painted by Miss ByRNE—~ The Perameles nasuta; engtaved by Lowax—The Parameles obe= sula; also engraved by Lowny. vy i » cy EN 7 F y ae ant ite Seen ai ES tae: ¥ _ anni 1805. _ PRICE 2 ‘Qs. 60) . o - " coMPRenENDING . __ aye various BRANCHES OF niheaniei — _ “THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, "AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, - | _ AND TR i ie gre. oe ees Nes NUMBER LXXXII, _ ey ee 4 | For A P. OS 6) me 673 1 adh eae ge 4h een THE. FOLLOWING ENGRAVINGS, _ : > » BY LOWRY: R I. A Plan of Me Bernock’ 5 improved Draw- back Lock. r. Bower's Screw-Press. A Survey to illustrate some Geographical and pteper ct ‘ Londige stm proposed by J. Cuurcuman, Esq. Member of: ae a alanis of Rotentes at erbewirt ane 5 ghd One ; densa. Manat ; “pont We a gad Hoop; Harptne ; 5: ‘London : Bete andy: Edinburgh; Brasu and: Rei, and D. Nevin, a Giupanr and Ho ie oh - a an ort J _» THE MONTHLY LITERARY ADVERTISER... 10 "HE MONTHLY LIST OF PUBLICATIONS was nes > _ cessarily discontinued in February last, in consequence of a . ¥ sudden notice from the Stamp-office, that, if continued, it must _. .pay the same duty asa Newspaper. It being-a Paper highly ap- Ng _ proved by the Friends of Literathre, and found very desirable, as giving early information of New Publications, the Booksellers of ~ . Lendon intend to publish on the toth of May next (and Monthly © \ on the same day) a whole Sheet, the size of the former List, under _ the title of The Monthly Literary Advertiser. It will contain Ad-- _ yertisements of new Books, Music, Maps, and Prints; new Edi- = > tions of Books, Works lately published, and Foreign Books, &¢. ie imported; also Notices of Works that are printing and preparing for the press: and at the end of the year will be given an Alpha- betical Index of the new Books, with. their Prices. nlite ’ This Paper may be had of every Bookseller and Newsman in Town on the day it is published, price 6d.; and it will be sent by os’ them into the Country at the same price, free of postage, to those _. who think proper to give their orders, . ’ London, April 22, 1805. rae rofl ANTIENT STAINED GLASS WAREHOUSE, ; No. 97, Pavr-Matt, For the Decoration of Churches, Halls, Cabinets, Libraries, &c. a convey some idea of the brilliancy, effect, variety, and sizes of the Articles which compose this Collection, a Catalogue may be had gratis of 3co Windows, Lights, Tablets, &c. ‘ Also, just published, price 1s. 6d. correctly drawn and coloured; * a Print of the Visitation, from the Window presented by the Fark of Carlisle to the Dean and Chapier of York Cathedral. “a It may be had as above, and of Mr. Tomkins, New Bond-street ; Mr. Miller, Albemarle-street; Mr. Chapple and Mr, Moltens, | Pali-Mall; Mr. Ackerman, Strand ; Messrs. Laurie and Co. Fleet- street;-Mr, Taylor, Holborn; Mr. Lunn, Soho-square. And at the following places in the Country :—Mr. Meyler, Bath; Mr. Deck, Bury ; Mr. Deighton, Cambridge; Simmons and Co. Can- beh iy -terbury; Mr. Trueman, Exeter; Mr. Washburn, Gloucester; \.. Stevenson and Matchett, Norwich; Mr. Cooke, Oxford; Mr. — Collins, Salisbury; Mr, Burden, Winchester; Mr. Holl, Wor-_ cester; Mr. Todd, York. _ ays: " In addition to the above Catalogue may be mentioned a Window — of Three Lights, (each 20 feet high, by 3 feet 6 inches wide,)of = the Judgment Day, after’ Michael Angelo; the design, drawing, __-and richness of which entitle it toa place among the first per- formances of the art. ais in Richard dU. price Eight Guineas,” So See # ait 3 vy é : . ; my iy ie our 5) Garay eye" a Ra oo “ee ae 1 hl x wad "aks —_ ~ a" z a ey Boy ie = Stes. wy arma 3 ’ ZSRC OF Publish [PRICE 2s. 6d.) ———— ee PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE: X et COMPREHENDING 5 THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, tity, AND COMMERCE. es a eee . NUMBER LXXXIV. For MAY 1805. — cel - YLLUSTRATED WITH THE FOLLOWING ENGRAVINGS, © eS Nene _ BY, LOWRY: : “Ng +, The Chevalier Epetcranrz’s Safety-Valve for Steam Engine J e ‘Boilers (Described in our last Number). CARRY Ne a2, A 4to plate, containing magnified Representations of the Pa-\\ & \ rasitic Plant which causes the Blight in Corn, engraved by | SE} Permission of the Rt. Hon. Sir Joseru Bawxs, P.R.S. fromg ‘the original drawings.—(Another 4to Plate on this subject, S# executed in the same superior Style with the one now given, Ry) was intended for the present Number, but in consequence off Ali g the indisposition of Mr. Lowry, it must be deferred for a} ey =. futere Number.) . ; AS Ww *,* A Constant Reaper will find the Electrometer he wantsy ) ny ~~. described in our rith Vol. Page 251. BY ALEXANDER TILLOCH, HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY, Kc. &c, 8c. Satara Se Bit pk te ; ‘ ie LONDON: Printed by R. Taylor and Co., 38, Shoe Lane, Fleet Street; ) | _FOR A: TILLOCH : Shek, & And sold by Messrs. Ricuarpson; Caperi and Davies; Lonc-, “man, Hurst, Rees, and Orme; Symonps; Murray; Hieu- /aey¥; Vernor and Hoop; Haxnine; London: Beir and\ Braprure, Edinburgh; Brasu and Rein, and D. Nevin, ARS . Glasgow; and Girgerr and Hopes, Dublin. ay Ny Giz; + TRE Eo Ape BD Sg 77, . Saye 1G Sy, AEA ids » ae F it , a . > eet WORKS lately published by Lowomas, Hurst, Rexs, and 4 Oxme, Paternoster-row. ‘ i. ~ al xy SERIES of ENGRAVINGS to illustrate the ILIAD and ODYSSEY - i of HOMER; from the compositions of John Flaxman, R.A. sculptor to the King. New editions with additional plates, price 2]. 2s. each. boards, . For this edition of the Odyssey, new engravings have been made, under the designer’s inspection, and are now published im England, for the first _ time; it is to be observed, that the Italian, French,' and German editions are copies from this, the original work. ; For the accommodation of those who purchased the former edition cf the Iliad, the additional plates for chat work will be sold separately, price tos. 6d. atipsass *,% These works altogether consist of 75 prints (eleven of which are from new designs) representing in regular succession the stories of the iad and the Odyssey, with descriptions of their subjects, and extracts from Pope’s translation upon each plate. The dresses, habits, armour, imp!e- ments of war, furniture, &c. are all of classical authority. é 2. MADOC, a poem, in two parts, by Robert Southey. With four yi- gnettes, in one yclume, price 2]. 2s. boards, ; } 3- The LAY of the LAS¥ MINSTREL, a poem, by Walter Scott, Esq. In quarto, 11. §s. boards. ate 4. The ENGLISH DRAMA; ora Collection of Pl»ys of the most cele- - brated authors: with critical and biographical essays, and an historical in- quiry into the drama and the stage. ‘The first volume, ciown octavo, - price ros. 6d. and reyal octavo, price 18s. boards. 5. POEMS and PLAYS, by William Righardson, AM. Professor of Humanity in the University of Glasgow. A new edition, in two volumes _ fool-cap octavo, witha portrait of the author, 19s. 6d. in boaids. 6 NAVAL and MILiTARY MEMOIRS of GREAT BRITAIN, from 1727 to 1783, by Robert Beatson, Esq. LL.D. author of the Political Index to the Histories of Great Britain and Ireland. The second edition, with a continuation, in six volumes, octavo, 31. 3s. boards. : P aE ++ For high charact-rs of this work see the Monthly Review, Feb. and March, 1791, and’the Critical Review, April and May, 1791. ~ wore 7. MEMOIRS of MARMONTEL, written by himself ; containing his: literary and political life, and anecdotes of the principal characters of the x8th century, including Voltaire, Rousseau, D’Alembert, Diderct, Cardinal Maury, Madame Pompadour, the Duke de Choiseul, the Mare- chal de R-chelien. the Marechal de Saxe, Cardinal Bernis, Lord Albe- marle, the Prince of Kaunitz, Duke of Brunswick, Calonne, Necker, the Comte D’ Artois, the late Queen of France, the King of Sweden, &c. &¢. In 4 vols. 12m0, price il. 1s. in boards, : 8. ADELINE MOWBRAY; or the Mother and Daughter, a tale, by Mrs. Opie. the second edition, in 3 vols. 12mo0. 138. 6d. boards. _ ; «« We opened with great pleasure a new nove, from the entertaining pen of Mrs. Opie, a lady whose uncommon talents do honour to her sex and. couutry. She displayed ia her pathetic tale of « The Father and ~ Daughter,” a power of werking upon the passions we think udrivalled (perhaps with the single exception of Mrs. Inchbald) by any writer of the” present day, nor has 2 - won on? ae a mn Cah ie) Rae al ‘ | . a pet ‘ f | b bees ta a) “ Pgh rain vy ot wo ine “neva ; r Gg - ie ead 4 Riis CS fina ; Vie chance 2 et etaed ) eer hs Laer. (ee Bee Tesh; pened 1 pasta? au Rl eh ae ie He taal) oA Bie oe dy eight / vs Ti 5eete we 4 pinaesli ag: mat & >< Ca toe heh Mgt Uc te J we ~* ¢ ' nme ie ‘i a - ee \ 3 ‘ e yee ~ ‘ ‘ CONTENTS OF THE TIWENTY-FIRST...VOLUME. 1. ON the present State of Husbandry in Bengal. By a sina now residing in that Country....... Page 3 I, Analytical Experiments and Observations on Lac. by Cuarves Hatcnert,,Bsq. FLR.S. oo. 6.6... 12 IIT. Some Account of the Trade of Siam ............ 22 IV. Account of the Self-immolation of the two Widows of Ameer Jung, the late Regent of Tanjore .......... 26 V. Memoir on a new Genus of Mammalia with Pouches, named Perameles. By ¥.. GuOFFROY .........-. 28 VI. Memoir on the Tinctorial Properties of the Denais of Commerson, a Shrub of the Family of the Rubiacee. Ex- tracted ‘from the Flora of Madagascar. By Avorn pu Perir-Tnovans. Read in the Prench National Institute 33 VII. Observations on the Change of some of the proximate Principles of Vegetables tale Bitumen; with analytical Experiments on a a peculiar Substance which is found with the Bovey Coal. By Cuanrus Harcurrt, Esq. P.R.S. 40 VIII. On the Use of Green Vitriol, or Sulphate of Iroit, as a Manure; and on the Efficacy of paring and burning depending partly on Oxide of Iron. By Grorcr. Pears son, M.D. Honorary Meiater of the Board of Agri- culture, F. R. ei CAD COE ines eas a Seba a pdlam & are 52 IX. Biographical Anecdotes of CHAancrs Hourros, D.LLD, Me AAT. i chcpsah Bert inci sla Dak ae Salary if ae aces g2 X. On Pithing CE ay eee . 67 Xf. Memoir on the Natural History of the Coca-nut Rie, and the Areca-nut Tree; the Cultivation of them accord- ing to the Methods af the Hindoos; their Productions, and their Utility in the Arts, and for the Purposes of ‘domestic Economy, By M, Le Goux DE Fratx, an Officer of Engineers, and Member of the Asiatic Suciet ly of Caléulia, 0s. Bike Chas Wats tints setae aes 77 XII. Experiments to ascertain whether there exists any Affinity betwixt Carbon and Clay, Lime and Siler, se- pur ately ar as Compounds united with the Oxide of Iron forming Tron Ores and Iron Stones, By avi MusHer, Usq. of the Calder Iron-Works ., 2... .- es eee snes 80 XIII. Proceedings of Learned and Econ romical Sqcieties 87 XIV. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles ......+. 88 XV. On the. Means mast proper to be resorted to for exe Vol, 21, No. 84, May 1805. a tinguishing ’ CONTENTS. tinguishing accidental Fires in Ships. By ALEXANDER Tintoca. Read before the Askesian Society in December 0. Mithyy ie ees RN RL dado (au eee 97 XVI. Memoir on the Natural History of the Coco-nut Tree and the Areca-nut Tree; the Cultivation of them accord- ing to the Methods of the Hindoos ; their Productions, and their Utility in the Arts and for the Purposes of do- mestic Economy. By M. Lx Govux pr Frarx, an Officer of Engineers, and Memler of the Asiatic Society at Cal- CULO pata iste poets ee SWRI Siniss Dic\ een SRiis oles = 110 XVII. Experiments on preserving Potaioes. By J. Dr Lancey, Esq. of the Island of Guernsey ........ 117 XVIII. Processes for preparing Lake from Madder. By Sir i. C, ENGLEVIELD, —BOMt case sian + Se cea 118 XIX. A new Process for separating Gold and Silver from the Uaser Wietals: .% Jo A wae tra, 5, « pave cers wes XX. Twenty-first Communication from Dr. THORNTON, relative to Pneumatic Medicine ........0-0+000: 126 XXII. Communication from Mr. Ince, Surgeon, relative to Pretmatic Wed icine 7 asses, sap = o>. 0 sie oes pert Tass! XXII. Eatract of a Memeir on the Temperature of the Water of the Sea, loth at the Surface and at different Depths, along the Shores and at a Distance from the Coast. By M. F. Peron, Naturalist on the French Expedition to News otha a. 5 ote sete ety e ches ee ogee an ener 129 XXIII. An Analysis of the magnetical Pyrites; with Re- marks on some of the other Sulphurets of Iron. By Cuantes HATCHETT, (PSQtel: Ge. o. neel- fe yer 133 XXIV. Observations on the Change of some of the proximate Principles of Vegetables into Bitumen; with analytical Experiments on a peculiar Substance which is found with the Bovey Coal. By Cuantes HatcHett, Esg. F.R.S. 147 XXV. Experiments and Reflections of Dr. Joacu1m Car- RADORI DE Prato on the apparent Repulsion between some Kinds of Fluids observed by DRAPARNAUD....154 XXVI. A new Electricai Phenomenon. Communicated by i CONT ASOAENE sa esa tte et PEE eek «ie Oe XXVIT. Wricurr on measuring the Meridian—WRIicGHT, Wren and Wiuk1ins on an Universal Measure—J. Bar- TisTA Porta on the Reflection of Heat, Cold and Sound TROTR CONCEDE LVET OPS Tae sae tars tenia He ee 163 XXVIIL. A new Process for rendering Platina malleable. By ALEXANDER TittocH. Read before the Askesian Society in the Session 1804-5 .. 0.2.0... ec cee 175 XXIX. Description of an improved Mill for grinding Painters’ CONTENTS. Painters’ Colours. By Mr. James Raw .inson, of a SO AORTIC TCS TAOE CC oe iN A ar eee 176 XXX. Improved Mill for grinding Indigo, or ether dry etapa te SE SY) SO Ne A A a 180 XXXI. 4 new and most accurate Method of Banking the Balance of a Time-keeper. By Mr. W. Harpy, of IO nec toe ie fee came oe ete stern y 181 XXXII. Proceedings of Learned and Economical Societies 183 XXXII. Intelligence and Miscelluheoiis Articles .... 183 XXXIV. An Account of the Aériat Voyage under taken at Petersburgh on the 30th of January 1804. Read before the Academy of Sciences by the Academician SACHAROF 193 XXXV. A brief Account of the Mineral Productions of Shropshire. By JosEru PryMury, 4. MM. Archdeacon of Salop, and Honorary Member of the Board of Agricul- PER eg ee alec snl ss eee! once «ghee seein aN afebaate & 201 XXXVI. On Metallic Sulphurets. By Professor Proust 208 XXXVIT. An Analysis of the magnetical Pyrites; with Remarks on some of the other Sulphur ets of Iron. By Onances Harcuerr, sg. BR! Sel ee 213 XXXVIII.. Account of an Aérostatic Voyage performed by M. Guy-Lussac, on the 29th of Fructidor, Year 19; and read in the National Institute, Vendemiaire oth, oa ee MERE, tS eo al A Ak te a ee 220 XXXIX. On disclosing the Process of Manufactories . . 228 XL. An Essay on Medical Entomolog sy: By F. Cuav- METON, Physician to the Army voy. bp 6. cee 230 XLI. On the Use made of Zinc in China in regard to Coin. RP fer =, WY PGR iy th sied w Sinica + Mayne whe, wd wg 249 XLII. On the Use of the Amianthus in China. By B. G. eee Our ROL ORR 6 Okt MATL ttt ne Ra a a 243 XLIM. On the Property ascribed to Quicklime of increasing the Force of Gunpowder. By M. LemAtsTre, Inspector~ General of Gunpowder and Saltpetre ............ 245 XLIV. Description of an improved Drawlack Lock for House Doors, invented by Mr. Wittiam Butuock, of Perils ech CR PTL SUN, SNR NS OUTER AT AE 248 XLV. Description of a Screw Press with an expanding Power. By Mr. Wirtiam Bow ter; of ER: SAME aes Te ae eV eee ty ee ey dae 249 XLVI. Geographical and Topographical Inprovements pro- posed by Joun CwURCHMAN, Esq. Me mber of the bn- perial Academy of Sciences at St. Peterslurgh...... 251 XLVII. Description of a Safety Vulve, containing a Vacuum Valve in the same Hole of the Boiler .... ..'954 : “XLV TI. An CONTENTS. XLVIUL. An Account of the Tea Tree. By YRepEentcr PIGOU, Esq. ..0cessccssesc est ser tess ees bee ae 256 XLIX. An Account of the Hindu Method of cultivating the Sugar Cane, and manufacturing the Sugar and Jagary in the Rajahmundry District ; interspersed with such Re- marks as tend to pout out the great Benefit that might le expected from increasing this Branch of Agriculture, and improving the Quality of the Sugar; also the Process ols served by the Natives of the Ganjam District. By Dr. WirttaAM RoxBurGu .....-. is, dha TAS okay vie «2 264 L. A brief Statement of some Particulars relative to the Sinking, @c. of William-Pit, near the Sea-shore, at Bransty, Whitehaven, the Property of Lord Viscount LOWTHER: crry, and poppy. Most of these require land solely appropriated to the respective culture of each; they would here deserve full notice, with some other articles, if we were not in this place limited to a general review of the usual course of husbandry, and the implements and me- thods it employs. . The arts and habits of one country elucidate those of another. The native of the North may deem every thing novel m India; but if he have visited the southern king- toms of Europe, he will find much similarity to notice. _ The plough, the spade of Bengal, and the coarse substi- tute for the harrow, will remind him of similar implements in Spain. Cattle treading out the corn from the ear, will recall the same practice in the south of Europe : where, also, he has already remarked the want of barns and of inclosures; the disuse of horses for the plough ; the business of domestic economy conducted in the open air; and the dairy supplied with the milk of buffaloes. The plough is drawn by a single yoke of oxen, guided by the ploughman himself. Two or.three pair of oxen as- signed to each plough, relieve cach other until the daily task be completed. Several ploughs in succession deepen the same furrows, or rather scratch the surface; for the plough wants a contrivance for turning the earth, and the share has neither width nor depth to stir a new soil. A second ploughing crosses the first, and a third is sometimes given diagonally to the preceding. These frequently re- peated, and followed by the substitute for the harrow, pul- verize the surface, and prepare it for the reception of seed. The field must be watched for several days, to defend the seed from the depredations of numerous flocks of birds. This is commonly the occupation of children, stationed to seare the birds from the fresh sown field. After the plant has risen, the rapid growth of weeds de- mands frequent weedings, particularly in the rainy season. For, few indigenous herbs vegetating in the dry season, weeding is little, if at all required for plants which are. cultivated in the absence of rain. Viewing the labours of the weeders, the eye is not easily reconciled to see them sitting to their work. The short-handled spud, which they use for a hoe, permits no other posture: but however fa- miliar that posture may be to the Indian, his labour is not employed to advantage in this mode of weeding. AS The oe. 6 “On the present State The hook (for the scythe is unknown) reaps every har- vest. In this also much unnecessary labour is employed ; not merely from the want of a more expeditious implement, but from the practice of selecting the ripest plants, which, taught by the harvest of different plants ripening succes- sively, the Indian extends to the harvest of a simple crop. Yet such is the contradictions of custom, that while the peasant returns frequently to one field to gather the plants as they ripen, he suffers another to stand long after the greatest part of the crop has passed the point of maturity. He justifies his practice upon circumstances which render it impracticable to enter these fields to select the ripe plants without damaging the rest; and upon the inferiority of crops which mix with ripe corn a considerable proportion not fully npened. Though his excuse be not groundless, his loss is considerable, by the grain which drops before the harvest in so great a quantity, that if the field remain un- sown it will afford a crop by no means contemptible *. The practice of stacking corn intended to be reserved for seed, or for a late sale, is very unusual. The husk which covers rice preserves it so perfectly, that, for this grain, the practice would be superfluous: and the management of rice serving for the type of their whole husbandry, it is neglected by the peasants for other corn. A careless stack which waits the peasant’s leisure to thrash it out serves for a convenient disposition, rather than as a defence from the inclemencies of weather. With the first opportunity his cattle tread out the corn, or his staff thrashes the smaller seeds. The grain is winnowed in the wind, and stored in jars of un- baked earth, in baskets, or in twisted grass formed into the shape of baskets. The want of roads, which, indeed, could not possibly be provided to give access to every field, in every season, does not leave it in the option of the farmer to bring home all his harvests by cattle; but the general disuse of cattle in circumstances which would permit this mode of transport, is among the facts which show a great disproportion be- tween the population and the husbandry. - * Of this, instances are frequent: the remarkable result of one instance deserves to be mentioned. An early inundation covered a very extensive tract before the rice had been sown: the landlord remitted the rents, but claimed the spontaneous crop; and he profited by the accommodation, realising from this harvest a greater amount than che rents he remitted ; although, tn addition to the common expenses, he was at considerable cost to watch the crop, and was probably defrauded of a large proportion of the harvest. Irrigation aM Mee See ee ce ae a aart , of Husbandry in Bengal. Irrigation is Jess neglected than facility of transport. In the management of forced rice, dains retain the water on extensive plains, or reserve it m Jakes, to water lower lands as occasion requires. For either purpose much skill is ex- erted in regulating the supplies of water. For the same culture, ridges surrounding the field retain water raised by the simple contrivance of a curved canoe swinging trom a pole. In other situations ridges are also raised round the field, both to separate lands and to regulate the water on considerable tracts. In some provinces water raised by cattle, or by hand, from wells, supply the deficiencies of rain. Each of these, being within their compass, is the undertaking of the peasants themselves. More considerable works, not less necessary, are much neglected. Reservoirs, water-courses, and dykes, are more generally in a progress of decay than of improvement. The succession of crops,’ which engages so much the at- tention of enlightened cultivators in Europe, and on which principally rests the success of a well-conducted husbandry, is not understood in India. A course extending beyond the year has never been dreamt of by a Bengal farmer: in the succession of crops within the year, he is guided to no. ~y choice of an article adapted to restore the land impoverished i by aformer crop. His attention being fixed on white corn, other cultivation only employs the intervals of leisure which the seasons of white corn allow to the land and to labour; with an exception however to sugar, silk, and other valuable productions, to which corn is secondary ; but which, grown on appropriate lands, belong not to the consideration of the course of crops. In this, which is not regulated by any better consideration than convenience of time, it would be” superfluous to specify the different courses which occur in practice: as little would it tend to any useful purpose to develope the various combinations of different articles grown. together on the same field, or in the stubble of a former harvest, or sown for a future crop before the preceding harvest be gathered. — A competent notion may be formed of this practice by conceiving a farmer eager to obtain the utmost possible pro- duce from his land, without any consideration for the im- poverishment of the soil; able to command, at any season, some article suited to the time, and not content to use his field so soon as the harvest makes room for succession, but anticipating the vacancy, or obtaining a crop of quick ve- getation during the first progress of a slower plant. {t may be judged that his avidity disappoints itself, both A4 as : On the present State as the several articles deprive each other of the nourishment which would have afforded a more abundant crop of either separately, and as the land impoverished makes bad returns -for the labour and seed. In most situations the land racked in this husbandry soon requires time to recruit ; the Indian allows it a lay, but never a fallow. This would be well judged, if the management of stock gave to the lay all the benefit which belongs to this method, and if the inefficacy of the plough, which must be preceded by the spade, did not greatly increase the expense of opening old lays. The abuse of dung, employed for fuel instead of heing applied to manure, must have concealed from the husband- man the benefit of well managed stock: else, in his pracs tice of pasturing his cattle in the stubble of his harvest, and in fields of which the crop has failed, he could not omit to notice the advantage of a farm well stocked. For want of perceiving this benefit, the cattle for labour and subsist- ence are mostly pastured on small commons, or other pas- turage, intermixed with arable lands, or fed at home on straw or cut grass; and the cattle for breeding, and for the dairy, are grazed in numerous herds on the forests and downs. Wherever fed, the dung is carefully collected for © fuel. Cultivation suffering very considerably by the trespasses, of cattle, through the wilful neglect of the herdsmen, it is, a matter of surprise that inclosures are so much neglected, For a reason already mentioned cattle cannot be left ag night unattended: but, in the present practice, buffaloes only are grazed at mght; cows and oxen are pastured in, the day. For these, inclosures would be valuable. and even, for buffaloes would not be useless; and the farmer would be well rewarded by suffering the cattle to ferttlize all his arable Jands, instead of restricting the use of manure to sugar-cane, mulberry, tobacco, poppy, &c. Few Jands unassisted are sufficiently fertile to raise these productions ; the husbandman has yielded to the necessity of manuring for them. On the management of it little oc- curs for particular notice in this place, except to mention, that khully, or oil-cake, is occasionally used as manure for the sugar-cane. A course of experiments would be requi- site to ascertain whether the methods actually employed be better suited to the soil and chmate, than others which might be or have been suggested from the practice of other countries, or from the varying practice of different parts of Bengal. For a similar reason the consideration of other produce. (Cf of Husbandry in Bengal. 9 (of which the culture is now general, or which might be generally diffused, as cotton, indigo, arnotto, madder,) may « also be deferred. Enough has been said to show that hus- bandry in Bengal admits of much improvement; or, rather, that the art is im its infancy. ‘An ignorant husbandry, which exhausts the land, neg- lecting the obvious means of maintaining its fertility, and of reaping immediate profit from the operations which might restore it; rude implements, inadequate to the pur- pose for which they are formed, and requirmg much super- tluous labour; this again ill divided, and of consequence employed disadvantageously, call for aniendment. The simple tools which the Indian employs in every art are so coarse, and apparently so inadequate, that it creates surprise he should ever effect his undertaking ;_ but the long continuance of feeble efforts accomplishes (and mostly well) what, compared to the means, appears impracticable: ha- bituated to observe his success, we cannot cease to wonder at the simplicity of his process, contrasting it to the me- chanism employed in Europe. But it is not necessary that the complicated models of Europe should be copied in India. A passion for the contrivances of ingenuity has adopted in- tricate machinery for simple operations. The economy of labour in many cases justifies the practice, whether an ef- fect be produced at a smaller expense, or more be performed at proportionate expense, but with Jess labour. In Bengal the value of money, and the cheapness of labour, would render it absurd to propose costly machinery; but is n@ ebjection to simple improvements, which, adding little te the cost of the implements, would fit them to perform, more effectually, and with less labour, the object under- taken. The plough is among the implements which stand most in need of such improvements. The readiness with which he can turn, from the occupa- tion in which he-has been accustomed, to another branch of the same art, or to a new occupation, is characteristic of the Indian. The success of his earliest efforts, in a novel employment, is daily remarked with surprise. It is not so much a proof of ingenuity and ready conception, as the effect of slow and patient imitation, assisting a versatile habit necessarily acquired where the division of labou- is unperfect; and though its performance may surpass ex- pectation, it must ever fall short of the expeditious and finished performances of the expert mechanic, whose skill is formed by constant practice in a more circumscribed oc- pupation, The 10 Present State of Husbandry in Bengal. The want of capital, employed in manufactures and agri» culture, prevents, in Bengal, the division of labour. Every manufacturer, every artist, working for his*own account, conducts the whole process of bis art from the formation of his tools to the sale of his production. Unable to wait the market, or anticipate its demand, he can only follow his regular occupation as immediately called to it by the wants ot his neighbours. In the intervals he must apply to some other employment in immediate request ; and the labours of agriculture, ever wanted, are the general resource. The mechanic, finding himself as fully competent as the constant cultivator to the management of common husbandry, is not discouraged from undertaking it at his own risk. Every labourer, every artizan, who has frequent occasion to reeur to the labours of the field, becomes a tenant. Such farmers are ill qualified to plan or conduct a well judged course of husbandry, and are idly employed, to the great waste of useful time, in carrying to market the paltry produce of their petty farms. If Bengal had a capital in the hand of enterprising pro- prictors, who employed it im husbandry, manufactures, and niternal commerce, these arts would be improved; and, with greater and better productions from the same labour, the situation of the labourers would be less precarious and more affluent, although the greatest part of the profit might rest with the owners of the capital. ef Capital is certainly not less deficient to the internal com- merce of Bengal than to manufactures and agriculture. The small capitals now employed require large returns, Blessed as Bengal is, beyond any country, with an extensive internal navigation, the want of roads (though a great evil) would not sufficiently account for the very limited intercourse of commerce at present existing. But the large profits which small, capitals reqyire, explain the want of intercourse. This conspires with the deficiency of capital in manufac- tures and husbandry: to depress Bengal; for m> agri- culture particularly, which is the basis of prosperity to a country, the want of capital is a bar to all improvement. Under a system of government which neither drained its wealth nor curbed rational enterprise, Bengal:could not fail . fo sevive; the employment of capital in husbandry would introduce large farms, and from these would flow every improvement wanted; and which must naturally extend from husbandry into every branch of arts‘and commerce. Without capital and enterprise, improvement can never. be obtained. Precept will never inculcate a better hus- 2 bandry ‘Present State of Husbandry in Bengal. , 11 bandry on the humble unenlightened -peasant. It could not, without example, generally engage a wealthier and ‘better informed class. Positive institutions would be of as little avail. The legislator cannot direct the judgment of his subjects ; his business is only to be cayeful lest his re- gulations * disturb them in the pursuit of their true in- terests. In Bengal, where the revenue of the state has had the form of land-rent, the management of finances has a more immediate influence on agriculture than any other part of the administration. The system which has been adopted, of withdrawing from direct interference with the occupants, and leaving them to tenant from landlords, wiil contribute, more than any of the remediary ¢ regulations which have been promulgated, to abuses and evils which had rendered the situation of the cultivator precarious. But not yet hay- ing produced its effect, it requires us-to review the systen of finances, under which abuses had grown, and placed the occupant in a precarious situation, as discouraging te agri- culture as any circumstance yet noticed; for without an ascertained: interest for a sufficient period, no person could have an inducement to venture a capital in husbandry. * A strong instance of such ill-advised institutions occurs in a lecal regulation, which prohibited farms exceeding fifty begehs. + Regulations on this and other subjects have copied too closely the notions and forms of European nations. Though they have been framed by persons well informed of the customs and prejudices of the natives, a predilection for the maxime of European societies has introduced rules, which, if not incompatible with the disposition of the Indian, have at least been pressed with too eager haste, not allowing time to the natives to accommodate themselves co new forms and to innovating maxims. The provisions of new laws, not easily apprehended by the natives, are to them the more obscure, being framed in a foreign language, fiom which translations cannot assimilate to the idiom of their own tongue. Hence the best intentions have not yet projiced guod effects, The people have received no material relief, no considerable benefit; the only summers is, that their understs.dings are confounded, and their minds armed. ' “ IL, Analytical ae SAS If. Analytical Experiments and Observations on ‘Lae. By Cuantes Harcuetr, Esq. F.R.S. {Continued from our last volume, p. 358. ] § Il. Analytical Experiments on Stick, Seed, and Shell Lae. Linc, when placed on a red-hot iron, at first contracts, and then melts, emitting a thick smoke, of a peculiar but rather pleasant odour; after which, a light spongy coal remains, Distillation of Stick Eac. 100 grains of the best stick lac, separated as much as possible from the twigs, were put into a glass retort, to which a double tubulated receiver and hydro-pneumatic apparatus were adapted. Distillation was then gradually performed, with an open fire, until. the bottom of the retort became red hot. The products thus obtained were, Grains. i. Water slightly acid - - - 10. 2. Thick brown butyraceous oil - - 59. 3. Spongy coal © - - bind ori 13.50 4. Asmall portion of carbonate of ammonia, with a mixture of carbonic acid, carbonated hy- drogen, and hydrogen gas, which may he estimated at’ - - - ~ 17.50 100. Seed Lac. 100 grains of very pure seed Jac were distilled in a similar manner, and afforded, i. Acidulated water - - - 6. 2. Butyraceous oil -s - 61. 3. Spongy coal , - - - - a 4. Mixed gas nearly as before, but without am- monia, amounting by estimation to - 26. 100. Shell Lac. 100 grains of shell lac, treated as above, yielded, 1. Acidulated water - = t 6. 2. Butyraceous oil - Ps i 65. 8. Spongy coal - - “i act 7.50 4. Mixed pas, amounting by estimation to < 21.50 100. ‘The Experiments and Olservations on Lac. i3 The coal of the shell Jac, by incineration, afforded about ene grain of ashes, which contained a muriate, probably ef soda, and a little iron, with some particles of sand, which may be regarded as extraneous. Analysis of Stick Lac. A. 200 grains of stick lac, picked and reduced to powder, were digested in a pint and a half of boiling distilled water during 12 hours. The liquor was transparent, and of a beautiful deep red; this was decanted into another vessel, and the operation was repeated, with fresh portions of wa- ter, until it ceased to be tinged: the lac then appeared of a pale yellowish-brown colour. The whole of the aqueous solution being evaporated, left a deep red substance, which possessed the general proper- ties of vegetable extract, and weighed 18 grains. B. The dried lac was digested for 48 hours, without heat, in eighteen ounces of alcohol; and the clear tincture being cautiously decanted, different portions of alcohol were added, and the digestion was repeated, until the alcohol ceased to produce any effect. The whole of the solutions in alcohol were then poured into distilled water, which was heated, and an attempt was made to separate the precipitated substance by filtration ; but, as this did not succeed, on account of the filter speedily becoming clogged, the whole was subjected to gentle distillation ; by which a brownish-yellow resin was obtained, amounting in weight to 136 grains. C. The remainder of the lac was again digested in boil- ing distilled water ; by which 2 grains of the colouring ex- tract were obtained. D. The residuum was then digested with one ounce of muriatic acid diluted with two ounces of water, which, by boiling, became of a bright pale red, but changed to purple, when saturated with a solution of carbonate of potash. A floceulent precipitate was thus obtained, which pos- sessed the characters of precipitated vegetable gluten com- bined with some of the colouring extract ; this, whien com- pletely dried, weighed 11 grains. E. There new remained 25 grains, which evidently con- sisted of a sort of wax, mixed with small parts of twigs and other extraneous substances. A part of the wax was separated by heat aud pressure in a piece of linen; and another portion \as separated by di- gestion in olive oil, which assumed the consistency of an unguent, , ; The “ Experiments and Observations on Lae. The residuum was then boiled with lixivium of potash, and became tinged with purple, in consequence of some of the colouring extract which had not been dissolved by ihe preceding operations. The undissolved part, now consisting only of the extra- neous vegetable and other substances, weighed 13 grains ; so that the wax, with a small portion of the colouring ex- tract, may be estimated at 12 grains. By the above process, 200 grains of stick lac affurded, ot Colouring extract - - B. Resin - - " D. Vegetable gluten - - Grains. - il x, § Wax, with a little colouring extract, about 12 Extraneous substances - Analysis of Seed Lac. = 13 200 grains of very pure seed lac were subjected to opera- tions very similar to those which have been described, and afforded, Colouring extract - ms t Resin i a ty ty Vegetable gluten = - - W a x ‘ — = - = Analysis of, Shell Lac. Grains. - 5 177 - 4 he 9 195. A. 500 grains of this substance were first treated with boiling distilled water, as above-mentioned, and yielded of extract only 2.50 grains. B. The 497.50 grains which remained, were then di- gested with different portions of cold alcohol, until this ceased to produce any effect ; the resin which was thus separated amounted to 403.50 grains. C. As the shell lac had not been reduced into powder, but only into small fragments, these were become white and elastic, and, when dry, were brittle, and of a pale brown colour ; the whole then weighed’94 grains. D. These 94 grains were digested in diluted muriatie acid ; and the acid, being afterwards saturated with solu- tion of carbonate of potash, afforded a flocculent precipi- tate (resembling that obtained from solutions of vegetable gluten), which, when dry, weighed 5 grains: E. Alcohol ee — Experiments and Observations on Lac. 15 E. Alcohol acted but feebly on the residuum ; it was therefore put into a matress, with three ounces of acetic acid, and was suffered to digest without heat during six _ days, the vessel being at times gently shaken; the acid thus assuined a pale brown colour, and was very turbid. The whole was then added to half a pint of alcohol, and was digested in a sand-bath ; by which a brownish tincture was formed, and at the same time a quantity of a whitish floc- culent substance was deposited, which, being collected, well washed with alcohol on a filter, and dried, weighed - 20 grains. This substance was white, light, and flaky, and, when rubbed by the nail, it became glossy, like wax; it also -easily melted, was absorbed by heated paper, and, when placed on a coal or hot iron, emitted.a smoke, the odour of which very much resembled that of wax, or rather spermaceti, | F. The solution formed by acetic acid and alcohol being filtrated, was poured into distilled water, which immediately became milky ; and, being heated, the greater part of the resin which had been dissolved assumed a curdy form, and was partly separated by a filter, and partly by distilling off the hquor ; this portion ofresin amounted to 51 grains. G. The filtrated liquor, from which this resin had been separated, was saturated with a solution of carbonate of potash ; and, being heated, a second precipitate of gluten was obtained, which, when well dried, weighed 9 grains. he 500 grains of shell Jac thus yielded, Grains. A. Extract > -. - 2.50 Bs} Resin = eas elie aca. 5 e } Vegetable gluten - - 14, c» Wax - be = 20. 491. - The mode of analysis adopted for the shell lac, must un- doubtedly appear less simple than that which was employed for seed and stick lac; but, upon the whole, it was attended with advantages ; for the shell lac being in small fragments, and not in the state of a powder, considerably facilitated the decantation of the solution in alcohol from the resi- duum ; and although, in this last, a portion of the resin was poplasted from the action of the alcohol, by being enveloped in the gluten and wax, yet, by the assistance of acetic acid, the remainder of the resin, as well as the who ; 0 16 Experiments and Observations on Lac. of the gluten, were dissolved ; the wax was obtained in a pure state, and a separation of the resin from the gluten was afterwards easily effected by the method which has been described. As therefore acetic acid is capable of dissolving resin, gluten, and many other of the vegetable principles, it certainly may be regarded as a very useful solvent in the analysis of bodies appertaining to the vege- table kingdom. From the results of the preceding analyses it appears, that the different kinds of lac consist of four substances, namely, extract, resin, gluten, and wax, the separate properties of which shall now be more fully considered. Properties of the colouring Extract of Lac. 1. When dry it is of a deep red colour, approaching to purplish crimson. g. Being put on a red-hot iron it emits much smoke, with a smell somewhat resembling burned animal matter, and leaves a very bulky and porous coal. 3. Water, when digested with it in a boiling heat, par tially dissolves it; but the residuum was found to be abs. solutely insoluble in water. 4. Alcohol acts but slowly on it, and, in a digesting heat, dissolves less than water. The colour of the solution is also not so beautiful; and a considerable part of the re- siduum left by alcohol was, when digested with water, found to be soluble, although this was not the case when the residuum left by water was treated with alcohol. 5. It is insoluble in sulphuric ether, excepting a very small portion of resin, which appeared to be accidentally mixed with it. 6. Sulphuric acid readily dissolves it, and forms a deep brownish-red solution, which, being diluted with water, and saturated with potash, soda, or ammonia, becomes changed to a deep reddish-purple. 7. Muriatic acid dissolves only a part: the solution is of the colour of port wine, and, by the alkalis, is changed to a deep reddish-purple. g. Nitric acid speedily dissolves it: the solution is yel- Jow, and rather turbid; but the red colour is not restored by the alkalis, for these only deepen the yellow colours. This nitric solution did not afford any trace of oxalic acid. g. Acetic acid dissolves it with great ease, and forms a deep brownish-red solution. 10. Acetous acid does not dissolve it quiteso. readily, put the solution is ef a brighter red. Both of the abovey “hs when ce oe Experiments and Observations on Lac: ij when saturated with alkalis, are changed to a deep reddish- purple. 11. The lixivia of potash, soda, and ammonia, act power- fully on this substance, and almost immediately form per- fect solutions, of a beautiful deep purple colour. 12. Pure alumina, put into the aqueous solution, does not immediately produce any effect; but, upon the addition of a few drops of muriatic acid, the colouring matter speedily combines with the alumina, and a beautiful lake is formed. 13. Muriate of tin produces a fine crimson precipitate when added to the aqueous solution. i4, A similar coloured precipitate is also formed by the addition of solution of isinglass. These properties of the colouring substance of lac, espe- cially its partial solubility im water and in alcohol, and its insolubility in ether, together with the precipitates formed by alumina and muriate of tin, indicate that this substance is vegetable extract, perhaps slightly animalizéd by the coccus. The effects which it produced ou gelatin, also demon- strate the presence of tannin; but ihis very probably was afforded by the small portions of vegetable bodies, from which the stick lac can seldom be completely separated. Properties of the Resin of Lac. This substance is of a brownish-yellow colour; and, when put on a red-hot iron, it emits much smoke, with a pe¢uliar sweet odour, and leaves a spongy coal. tis completely soluble in alcohol, ether, acetic acid, nitric acid, and the lixivia of potash and soda. Water precipitates it from alcohol, ether, acetic acid, and partially from nitric acid; and it possesses the other general characters of a true resin. Properties of the Gluten of Lac. It has been already observed, that when small pieces of shell lac have been repeatedly digested in cold alcohol, they become white, bulky, and elastic. By drying, these pieces become brownish and brittle; the elasticity is also destroyed by boiling water, exactly.as when the gluten of wheat is thus treated. If the pieces of shell lac, after the digestion in alcohol, be digested with dilutcd muriatic acid, or with acetic acid, the greater part of the gluten! is dissolved, and may be recipitated in a white flaky state, by alkalis; but, if these last he added to excess, and heat be applied, then the glutinaus. substance is redissolved, and may be precipitated by acids. Vol, 21. No. 81. Feb. 1805. 2B 18. Experiments and Oiservations on Lac. Tf the pieces of shell lac, after digestion in aleohoi, be’ treated with alkaline lixivia, then the whole is dissolved, and forms a turbid solution. But when acids are employed, the chief part of the gluten is alone acted upon, and a con- siderable residuum: is left, consisting of the wax, some of the resin, and a portion of gluten, which has been protected from the action of the acid-by the two former substances. | The above properties indicate a great resemblance between this substance and the gluten of wheat; I therefore have called it gluten, but at a future time I intend to subject it to a more accurate examination. Properties of the Wax of Lae, Ye If shell lac be long and repeatedly digested in boiling mitric acid, the whole is dissolved, excepting the wax, which floats on the surface of the hquor, like oil, amd, when cold, may be collected; or it may be more easily obtained in a pure state, by digesting the residuam left by alcohol. in boilmg nitric aed. sir9 The wax thus obtained, when pure, is pale yellowish white, and (unlike bees-wax) is devoid ef tenacity, and is extremely brittle. It melts at a much lower temperature than that of boiling water, burns with a bright flame, and emits an odour some- what resembling that of spermaceti. Water does not act upon it, neither does cold alcohol ; but this last, wher boiled, partially dissolves it, and, upor cooling, deposits the greater part ; a small portion, how- ever, remains in solution, and may be precipitated by water. Sulphuric ether, when heated, also disselves it; but, upon cooling, nearly the whole is deposited. Lixiviam of potash, when boiled with the wax, forms milky solution ; but the chief part of the wax floats on the surface, in the state of white flecculi, and appears to be converted into a soap of difficult solubility; it is no longer inflammable, and, with water, forms a turbid solution, from which, as well as from the solution in potash, the wax may he precipitated by acids. Ammonia, when heated, also dissolves a small portion of the wax, and forms a solution very similar to the former. Nitric and muriatic acids do not seem to act upon the wax : the effects of sulphuric acid have nct been examined. When the properties of this substance are compared with those of bees-wax, a difference will be perceived ; and, on the contrary, the most striking analogy is evident between the wax of lac and the myrtle wax which is obtained from rm the Myrica cerifera. - a : An ’ Experiments and Observations on Lac. 19 An account of the latter substance has been published by Dr. Bostock, of Liverpool, in Nicholson’s Journal, with comparative Experiments and Observations on Bees- Wax, Spermaceti, Adipecire, and the crystalline Matter of biliary Calculi*. ( The properties of the myrtle wax, as described in Dr. Bostock’s valuable paper, so perfectly coincide with those ; which I have observed in the wax of lac, that I cannot but consider them as almost the same substance; indeed I think they may be regarded as absolutely identical, if some allowance be made for the slight modifications which have been produced by the different mode of their formation. From the preceding experiments and analyses we find, that the varicties of lac consist of the four substances which have been described ; namely, extractive colouring matter, resin, gluten, and a peculiar kind of wax. Resin is the predominant substance; but this, as well as the other in- gredients, is liable, in a certain degree, to variation in re- spect to quantity. According to the analyses which have been described, one hundred parts of each variety of lac yielded as follows. Stick Lac. Grains. Resin - - - 68. Colouring extract - - 10. Wax - - - 6. Gluten - . - 5.50 Extraneous substances - 6.50 96.0 Seed Lac. Resin “ - - 88.50 Colouringextract - - 2.50 Wax - - - 4.50 Gluten - -- - 2. 97.50 Shell Lac. Resin - - - 90.90 Colouring extract - me OO Wax - - - 4. Gluten - - - 2.80 98.20 * Nicholson's Journal for March 1803, p. 129. " Be The (20 Experiments and: Observations on Lac. The proportions of the substances which compose the varieties of lac, must however be subject to very consider- able variations ; and we ought therefore only to consider these analyses ina general point of view. Hence we should state, that Jac consists principally of resin, mixed with certain proportions of a peculiar kind of wax, of gluten, and of colouring extract. . The relative quantity of the two latter ingredients very considerably affects the characters of the lacs; for instance, we may observe that the glutinous substance, when present in shell Jac in a more than usual proportion, probably pro- duces the defect observed in some kinds of sealing-wax, which, when heated and burned, become blackened by particles of coal; for the gluten affords much of this sub- stance, and does not melt like the resin and wax. From what has been stated, therefore, lac may be denominated a cero-résin, mixed with gluten and colouring extract. ” § IL. General Remarks. From the whole of the experiments which have been re- lated, it appears, that although lac is indisputably the pro- duction of insects, yet it possesses few of the characters of animal substances; and that the greater part of its agere- gate properties, as well as of its component ingredients, are such as more immediately appertain to vegetable bodies. Lac, or gum lac, as itis popularly, but improperly, called, is certainly a very useful substance ; and the natives of India furnish full proofs of this, by the many purposes to which they apply it. According to Mr. Kerr it is made by them into rings, beads, and other female ornaments. When formed into sealing-wax, it is employed as a japan, and is likewise manufactured into different coloured varnishes. The colouring part is formed into. lakes for painters: a sort of Spanish wool for the ladies is also prepared with it 5 and as a dyeing material it is in very general use. The resinous part is even employed to form grindstones, by melting it, and mixing with it about three parts of sand. For making polishing grindstones, the sand is sifted through fine muslin ; but those which are employed by the lapi- daries are formed with powder of corundum, called by them Corune*. %, * Philosophical Transactions 1781, p. 380. But ee Ss eee ——— Experiments and Observations on Lac. 21 But in addition to all the above uses to which it ts ap- plied in India, as well as to those which cause it to be in request in Europe, Mr. Wilkins’s Hindi ink occupies a conspicuous place, not merely on account of its use as an ink, but because it teaches us to prepare an aqueous solu- tion of lac, which probably will be found of very extensive utility. This solution of lac in water may be advantageously em-= ployed as a sort of varnish, which is equal in durability and other qualities to those prepared with alcohol; whilst, by the saving of this liquid, it is infinitely cheaper. .I do not mean, however, to assert that it will answer equally well in all cases, but only that it may be employed in many. It will be found likewise of great use as a vehicle for colours; for, when dry, it is not easily affected by damp, or even by water. With a solution of this kind I have mixed various co- lours, such as vermilion, fine lake, indigo, Prussian blue, sap green, and gamboge; and it is remarkable, that al- though the two last are of a gummy nature, and the others had been previously mixed with gum (being cakes of the patent water-colours), yet, when dried upon paper, they could not be removed with a moistened sponge, until the surface of the paper itself was rubbed off. In many arts and manufactures, therefore, the solutions of lac may be found of much utility; for, like mucilage, they may be diluted with water, and yet, when dry, are jittle if at all affected by it*. We find, from the experiments on lac, that this substance is soluble in the alkalis, and in some of the acids. But this fact (considering that resin is the principal ingredient of lac) is in opposition to the generally received opinion of chemists ; namely, that acids and alkalis do not act upon resinous bodies. Some experiments, however, which I * The alkaline solutions of lac are evidently of a saponaccous nature, and, like other soaps, may be decomposed by acids. The entire sub- stance of lac is not however completely dissolved, as appears from the rurbidness of the liquors. Three of the four ingredients; namely, the resin, the gluten, and the coiouring cxtract, appear to be in perfect so- tution ; whilst the wax is only partially combined with the alkali, and forms that imperfectly soluble saponaceous compound which has been formerly mentioned, and which remains suspended, and disturbs the transparcucy of the solution, From various circumstances, it does not seem improbable that the long sought for, but hitherto undiscovered vehicle employed by the cele- brated painters of the Venetian School, may have been some kind of resinous solution, prepared by means of borax, or by the alkalis, B3 have ’ 22 ‘Account of the Trade of Siam. have made on various resins, gum-resins, and balsams, fully establish that these substances are powerfully acted upon by the alkalis, and by some of the acids, so as to be completely dissolved, and rendered soluble in water. It will be a very wide and curious field of inquiry, to discover what changes are thus produced in these bodies, especially by nitric acid. Each substance must form the subject of a separate investigation ; and there cannot be a doubt but that much will be learned respecting their nature and properties, which hitherto have been so little examined by chemists. 04 The alkaline solutions of resin may be found useful in some of the arts; for many colours, especially those which are metallic, when dissolved in acids, may be precipitated, combined with resin} by adding the former to the alkaline solutions of the latter. I have made some experiments of this kind with success ; .and perhaps’ these processes might prove useful to dyers and manufacturers of colours. It is probable also, that medicine may derive advantages from some of this extensive series of alkaline and acid solutions of the resinous substances. } III. Some Account of the Trade of Siam*. Tue English know so little of this place and its trade, that it will require a particular description, as the traffic may be much improved, particularly for the import and consumption of British manufactures, such as broad cloths, cutlery, ironmongery, jewelry, and toys. The Portuguese have principally enjoyed the trade and profits of this place. There have been some speculations madé by British merchants from Calcutta, and which al- ways turned out to advantage. ~The Menam (the chief river), by which ships enter Siam, discharges itself into the gulph of Siam, and is rendered dif- ficult of access on account of a bar, to cross which it is ne- cessary to have a pilot. The winter here is dry, and the summer wet, occasioned by the different monsoons, which act here as in the bay of Bengal, viz. the north-easterly monsoon bringing in dry, and the south-westerly monsoon bringing in heavy clouds, ‘thick weather, and rain, * From the Mariner’s Directory and Guide to the Trade and Nuviga- tion of the Indian and China Scas. The Account of the Trade of Siam. 2S The southerly monsoon is therefore the season for ships to go to Siam, as it is a fair wind to cross the bar; and-the northerly monsoon to leave the bar, and proceed to India through the straits of Malacca, Bankasoy, situated on the river near the bar, is the prin- cipal place of trade; and the king is the chief merchant, for his revenues are paid in elephants’ teeth, sapan, and aquilla wood, ‘This is the best part of the Malay coast for pro- curing that exquisite sauce called ballichong, which the fasten epicures so much seck, value, and regale upon: it is made of a composition of dried shrimps, pepper, salt, seaweed, &c. &c. beaten together to the consistence of a tough paste; and then packed in jars for sale, uge, or ex- portation. Siam, near the shores, (the only places where Europeans have access to,) is very unhealthy. The land seems to be formed by the mud descending from the mountains; to which mud, and tie overflowings of the river, the soil owes its fertility ; for in the higher places, and parts remote from the inundation, al] is dried and burnt up. by the sun soon after the periodical rains are over. The arts have been in more, repute, and better attended to formerly, than at ihe present time. Few travellers will emit noticing the many casts at this place, both of statues and cannon, of an immense calibre and length, as well as many other curiosities, many of them in gold. The mountains produce diamonds of an excellent water, (little if at all interior to those of Golconda, though not so large,) sapphires, rubies, and agates. They have tin of a very fine quality, of which they make tutanag; steel, iron, lead, and gold: they have copper also of a fine quality, but not in great plenty. The low grounds produce rice in great quantities; and on the higher grounds, that are not inundated, they raise wheat. They have many medicinal plants and gums, oil of jessamine, sack, benzoin, crystal, emery, antimony, cotton, wood, oil, varnish, cinnamon, cassia buds, and iron-wood, which is much used by the natives, Malays, and Chinese, as anchors for their vessels. They have also great quantity of white betel nut, which is exported to hina, by the junks and Portuguese ships, which have en- joyed almost uninterruptedly the whole trade of this place, and the coast of Cochin-China, from the Ridang islands te Macao. They have also the fruits known in India, as well as the s B4 durian, © et OOS PP a Ti rene, 24 Account of the Trade of Siam. durian, mangostein, and tamarind, which are remarkable for thriving here. . The animals are horses, oxen, buffaloes, sheep and goats, tgers, elephants, rbinoceroses, decr, and some hares. _ There is poultry in great abundance, with peacocks, pi< geons, partridges, snipes, parrots, and many other birds. They have insects and verinin, as peculiar to other parts of India. The sea yields them excellent fish of all kinds, particu- larly flounders, which are dried and exported to all the eastern ports; and they have extraordinary fine lobsters, ema'l turtles, and oysters. Here too are very fine river fish, particulagly the beatie (or cockup), silver eels of a very large size, and mangoe fish, so much esteemed in Calcutta. From the humidity of the soil, it is almost unnecessary to observe, that the chief disorders to which Europeans are subject, are fluxes, dysenteries, fevers, and agues. Ps, No private merchant here. dare trade in tin, tutanag, elephants’ teeth, lead, or sapan wood, without leave from the king; which permission is seldom granted, as he mo- nopolizes these articles to himself, and pays in them for any goods he purchases, at the highest prices they will bring at most markets in India. The following are the general prices for elephants’ teeth from the king in payment: g teeth to the pecul, equal to 120 ticalls. 3do - do. - 112 4do. - do. - 104 5 do <= do. - 96 6 du," 2 do. -— 88 7 do. - do. - 80 8 do. = do. - 72 Q'do. = do. - 64 10 do. - do. - 56 11 do. - do, - 48 12-do. - do. = 40 13 do. to 20 or 30 do. Ce thus falling eight ticalls in each pecul, as the number of teeth increases. But if you purchase with ready money, instead of receiving them in barter (or payment) for goods, you will buy each quality eight ticalls per pecul cheaper than the above prices; and still lower if you have permis- sion to trade with the Christians, or private merchants. In purchasing sapan wood, it is customary to allow, five eattics per pecul for loss of weight; and as cach draft is 2 weighed Account of the Trade of Siam. 38 weighed by the large or five pecul dotchin, you are allowed 525 catties; which, if it is the first sort, should not be more than 16 to 18 pieces: second sort runs 22 to 94 pieces; and as the number of pieces increase the price falls in pro- portion. , After you have settled with the ministers what part of your cargo the king is to have, (which is commonly called a present, unless he asks particularly to buy any thing,) some of the principal merchants of the place are called to value them; and as they are valued you are paid by the King, as a present, in the fore-mentioned goods at the highest prices they will bear. It may not be deemed superfluous here to observe, that a complaisant behaviour and a cheerfulness of disposition are absolutely necessary, particularly if you have, as all traders must have, a point to carry. Presents, as they are called, but in grosser language bribes, properly applied, give the officers of government and the people in power the true tone and relish to serve you, as you_ will have frequent occa- sion to call upon them in their official capacities. Every application for a permit to purchase any descrip- tion of goods costs 104 ticalls: this permit only serves for one house, and one time of weighing; so that ‘if you are about receiving any quantity of goods of the same quality from different merchants, agree with them to send it all to one house, and make one day for weighing off the whole in the merchant’s name at whose house it is weighed. This mode will save the expense of a multiplicity of permits, and quicken dispatch. Upon each of these weighing days you must have three of the king’s writers; the first and second shabunder, and the linguist: to each of these, daily, you pay one-quarter ticall ; but it will be your interest to give them some trifling presents. Elephants’ teeth, tin, sapan wood, and lead, purchased from the king, are free of all customs; but if bought from private merchants, they pay as follows : Elephants’ teeth (any sort) 4 ticalls per pecul. Tin - - 2 ditto per bhar. Sapan wood - 4 ditto per 100 pecul. Lead - - 2 mace per bhar. If from any part of India, (as Bengal, the Coromandel, Malabar, or Guzerat coasts, Bombay, Surat, &c.) you pay the following customs before you sail: Measurage, if above 3 fathoms, or 18 feet beam, to the king - = - 10 ticalls, Te the barcola, or first shabunder + 10 . 0) 26 Self-immolatién of the two-Widows of Ameer Jung, To the second shabunder - wc! eh Or, tarde For your arrival at the bar - Thos MOR go ee _ To pilots and entrance = i ' To pass the two tobangoes, or chee a gS houses, each - - - 104 ih To each permit & ithe sielitsee 104 ' Toa permit io measure. - = alOL To a permit to open your bales, - 12 To a permit for leave to sell - 103. And on going away, to each of the two tobangoes - ay - 20 At the place where they insist on your landing your guns, 20 ticalls; with some other charges which are trifling. The duties upon your imports are eight per cent.; except dates, kissmisses, almonds, and some other trifles which are excused. Vessels from Malacca, Palamban , Banca, Batavia, Tringano, Campodia, Cochin China, and ‘their coasts, pay neither duties nor customs on their goods; they only pay » For registering inwards - - 14 ticalls. Two permits to pass the tobangoes, each 104 Tf the vessel has no goods, she will pay 1 ticall per covid (of 141 inches) for her breadth of beam ; but if she has trade, she pays 2 ticalls per covid. I would advise all vessels from India, going to Siam, to take a fresh port clearance from Malacca; as the great in- dulgences she will enjoy, and the saving in : the measuremerst and charges, must appear obvious. IV. Account of the Self-immolation of the two Widows of Ameer Jung, the late Regent of Tanjore*. AA regent died on the 19th of April 1802, about ten o'clock a.m. The moment he expired, two of his wives adorned themselves with their jewels and richest clothes, entered the apartment in which the body was laid, and, after three prostrations, sat down by it; and announced to the whole court, which had assembled around it, their de- termination to devote themselves to the flames. The youngest of the women was the regular wife, and about twenty years of age, and without children; the oth ‘ was a wile of inferior tank, aged twenty-six, having one * From the Asiatic Annual Register for 1892: ~ ehiild, the late Regent of Tanjore. . °7 = child, a daughter four years old. The fathers and brothers of both were present in the assembly ; they made use of the most pressing and affecting entreaties to avert them from their purpose, but without success. _ The British resident at Tanjore, having been apprised of the intention of these ladies, and not being able to be per- sonally present at the residence of the late regent, had sent his hircarrah to the spot, with orders to use every possible effort, short of absolute force, to prevent the horrid sacri- fice. When the relations of the ladies found their entreaties of no avail to induce them to relinquish their purpose, the hircarrah was sent for; but his threats of the displeasure of government had only a temporary and feeble effect. The Mahratta chiefs observed, that the Company had never in- terfered in their religious institutions and ceremonies ; that the sacrifice in question was by no means uncommon in Tanjore; that it was highly proper to use every art of per- suasion and entreaty to induce the women to relinquish their resolution; but, if they persisted in it, force ought not to be used to restrain them. The women laughed at the menaces of the hircarrah, when he told them that their fathers and brothers would be exposed to the displeasure of government. The younger widow observed, that it was not the custoin of the English government to punish one person for the act of another; and pointing to her father, who had actually thrown himself at her feet in an agony of grief, asked the hircarrah if he thought anv other inducement could alter her resolution when the afilictios of her father failed to move it. The young brother of the other widow went into the women’s apartments and returned with his sister’s child in his arms, which he Jaid at her feet; but such was the resolution of these astonishing women, that not a single expression of regret, not a sigh or tear could be drawn from them. Any one of these weaknesses would have disqualified them from burning with the body; and the efforts of the relations were strenuously and constantly directed to excite them, but in vain. “Jn answer to an ob- servation of the hircarrah, that if the late rezent had been aware of their intention he would have forbidden it, they said they had formed their resolution a year before, and communicated it to him; who, after several ineffectual at- tempts to dissuade them, had consented to it. The hircarrah, however, determined to protract the per- formance of the obsequies, if possible, until the arrival of the resident. The women waited with patience until seven in the evening, taking no other refreshment than a i 3 ete 28 On anew Genus of Mammalia. hetel occasionally. They then sent for the hircarrah, and told bim that they suspected the cause of the delay, and were resolved, if the procession did not immediately set out, to kill themselves before him. Their relatives now gave up the -pomt in despair. The other chiefs, who had taken no part _ hitherto, now interfered, and said they had a right to be in- dulged, and should not be restrained. The hircarrah re- tired, and the procession set out. The younger and regular wife mounied the pile on which the body of the deceased recent had been placed, and they were consumed together. The fate of the other, who was not entitled to this distine- tion, was, in appearance, more dreadful. A pit eight feet deep, and six in diameter, had been dug a few yards distant from the pile; it was filled with combustible matter, and fire set to it. When the flames were at the fiercest, fire was applied to the pile im which the young widow and the body of the regent had been enclosed. The other, un-_ supported, walked thrice round the pit, and, after making obeisance to the pile, threw herself into the midst of the flames, and was no more heard or seen! V. Memoir on a new Genus of Mammalia with Pouches, named Perameles. By E, GEorrroy*. \ I HE animals with pouches which first engaged the at- ention of naturalists are, as is well known, natives of America. They are carnivorous animals, which easily catch their prey by means of their long canine teeth, and divide it by employing their molar teeth, which, are laterally com- pressed and terminated by three points. Like the apes of the same country, they can make use of their hind feet as a hand, the thumb being at the same distance from the other toes, and suspend themselves by means of their long wail, which is naked and covered with scales. They are more particularly characterized also by being the only mam- malia which have ten incisor teeth in the upper jaw and eight in the lower, Linnzus mentions these animals under the name of the didelpha, _'This denomination, by expressing that they are provided with two matrices, has the advantage of bringing to remembrance one of the most remarkable facts of their organization, the existence of a pouch under the belly of the females, where the gestation begun in the real matrix is in some imeasure completed. F , d * Brom Anualesdu Musewn National d’ Histoire Naiwelle, no. 19- . og The mr 7 , 4 Seg) Sept e Bees 1 ea a adi ie RRR ea t 1 . » sa! ™ - On a new Genus of Mammaiia. 29 ® The cenus of the didelpha was scarcely established when new animals with pouches were discovered in the Indian ‘Archipelago; but at first they were described only in a vague manner. {ft was however known that the females had their dugs inclosed in a bag, and m consequence of this circumstance naturalists did not hesitate to comprehend these new quadrupeds among the didelpha. It was not till a long time after, that it was known that the marsupials of India differed from those of the new world by important organs, such as those of mastication, digestion, motion, and prehension; but they were then so accustomed to de- note them by the same generic name, that they hesitated “to make any change; and, as through respect for a usage introduced contrary to rules, they had retained in the genus of the didelpha species which were anomalous; they found themselves encouraged after the important discovery of the kanguroos to rank among the latter the didelpha, though they were very remote from it. Ina word, as if after so much confusion it had been allowed to venture on any thing, Gmelin admitted into the same genus a qua- drumanus fully known as such, which my illustrious master Daubenton published under the name of the Tarsier. In the year 4, I conceived the idea of enabling naturalists to estimate with some precision the distance there is be- tween these different animals, and, in a dissertation which appeared in the gth volume of the Magazin Encyclopétigue, I submitted to a sort of revision the Jast labour of Gmelin in regard to the genus of the didelpha. My first care was to bring this genus to its primitive state. T left none in it but the animals with bags, of America, to which al] the characters without exception assigned, by Linneus are applicable. This groupe, deducting three animals, which are placed there under a double. point of view, will be carried to nine species by my future publica- tions. “n . I then proposed to form, under the name of phalanger, a genus of the marsupials of the Archipelago of India, which have the upper jaw armed with incisor and canine teeth like the carnivorous animals, and in the lower jaw of which, however, there is found only that system of dentition which characterizes the rodentia. Fourteen species, of which almost the half are yet unpublished, unite the characteristic traits of these two great orders, with this difference, that seven of them are endowed with the faculty of leaping froin tree to tree, and of flying by means of membranes extended on their flanks; while fhe other seven, unprovided “ig ‘ these STR POT epee peer ah ail 30 Cn anew Genus of Mammalia. these membranes, have nothing to facilitate their existence on trees but their tail, with which they can lay hold of any thing, like the didelpha, and which is naked either entirely or in part. ) The kanguroos, so remarkable by. the disproportion of their extremities, the want of canine teeth and the thumb of the hind feet, formed my third genus; and the fourth was composed of the daysures, on which I wrote a paper printed in the third volume of that work. I flattered myself with the idea that the order of the mar= supials, which I proposed to establish, would be confined to these four genera. They form a direct and very natural: series. By means of the daysures and the didelpha this scries was connected with the carnivorous animals, and by the phalangers and the kanguroos it was blended in some measure with the numerous species of the rodentia. There was no interruption, no gap, whether we consider in general the organs of mastication and digestion in particular, or attend only to the organs of motion and prehension. But this result, which was so striking that I thought it at the time worthy of remark, was susceptible of being changed by the discovery of a new family; nature, properly speak- ing, being unacquainted either with continued series or chains in one single direction. Two new genera indeed have destroyed the whole simplicity of this combination. The first is that of the phasvolomes, the characters of which [ have already traced out*, and the second is the new genus, which I now announce under the name of the perameles (Llaireau a poche). I. Description of the Genus. The perameles are animals which on the first view have 2 pretty near resemblance to the didelpha, but their head is longer and the muzzle much slenderer. They are far also from participating in the habits of these mammalia, and fram being able to live on the summits of the largest trees. Their whole economy indicates that they live on the earth :- as in the badger, their nose is elongated, their hair stiff, and their feet terminate in large claws almost straight ; there is no doubt therefore that they dig for themselves holes, and they do it perhaps with more dexterity than any other animal, as they have no reason to apprehend either that their claws will break or be detached, an advantage for which they are indebted to the form of the last phalangium * Annales du Museum d’ Histoire Naturelle, vols ii. p. 364. of Pe eee - he Ona new Genus of Mammalia. 3% of the toes, which, like that of the sloth, pangolin, and myrmecophagi, is cleft at the free extremity. It needs excite no surprise that I should here employ the last character among the number of those which may serve for the determination of the genera, if we recollect the result to which my colleague, Dumeril, was conducted by his learned researches in regard to the diffcrent configura- tions of the unguical bone. It is indeed natural that this small bone which terminates the fingers, and serves as 4 mould to the corneous matter with which they are covered, should contribute more than all the other parts of the hand to those determinations of animals which are founded on touching. The feet of the perameles, remarkable by the conforma- tion of the last plralangium, are distinguished also by the combination and numerical arrangement of the fingers in the fore feet: the three middle fingers only can rest on the ground while the animal is walking ; those on the sides are so short that they exist only in rudiments, and they are perceived behind the fect only, under the form of'a spur. The hind feet have a great analogy to those of the kan- roo; the fourth finger is the longest and the largest ; the second and third are united and enveloped under common integuments. They are distinguished, however, by their claws, which are free; these two fingers are besides shorter and slenderer than the last or the fifth. The character by which the feet of the perameles differ however from those of the kanguroos, is the presence of a thumb, which really exists though it is very short. Jt is neediess, no doubt, to add that this thumb has no nail, since it is one of the distinguishing attributes of all the marsupials. The organs of mastication appear also in the new family of the perameles, im an order which has never yet presented itself to observation. The canine and molar tecth have indeed a resemblance, in regard to their number, form, and arrangement, to those of the daysures and the didelpha ; that is to say, the perameles have four long canine teeth and twenty-eight molar. But the case is not the same im re- gard to the incisors ; for if there be ten in the upper jaw, as in the didelpha, the order is different. The last incisor on each side is very much ‘separated both from those of: the same kind before and from the canine tooth behind ; and this incisor has besides the form, and discharges the office, of a second canine tooth : it is implanted however in the intermaxillary or incisive bone: moreoyer in the lower jaw there are only six tecth; a curious anomaly, since this ; 4 13 Ey tt NO eae” oe a 32 On a new Genus of Mammalia, is the first time that the combination of ten and six incisora has been met with among the mammalia; the last incisor below is a little broader than the rest, and is half divided by a small groove. of aaah tau) All the marsupials are able, more or less, to assist them- selves readily with their tail: on the other hand it does not appear that the perameles can employ theirs for any thing; it is too short, is covered with short hair, and is destitute of the faculty of prehension. ame 7 | Their muzzle, which is much too long, gives them an air exceedingly stupid; but this dismal and disagreeable physiognomy is compensated. by the lightness. of, their motions, and the gracefulness of their gait, since they have the posterior extremities twice as long as those before. I have already remarked that the form of their hind feet has some analogy to that of the kanguroos. This. dispropor- tion between the paws gives them a greater similarity : it is indeed so great that I have no doubt that they possess the . Meaus as well as the latter of raising themselves on their hind legs, aud of using them to take leaps almost. as ex- icnsive. | In the last place, it is probable that the organs of genera- tion of the perameles, while they exhibit that pees ae of form which characterizes all the marsupials, might have afforded some generical differences, but I had no oppor- tunity of examining them. / These considerations, however, on which I have here enlarged, seem to me to require the establishment ofa new family of the perameles, in the natural order between the didelpha and the kanguroos. Description of the Species. This genus hitherto bas been composed of two species ; that published by Dr. Shaw, under the name of didelphis obesula, and another which is new, and to which I have given the name of nasuta. I. Perameles nasu(a. (Plate J.) . The length of the muzzle‘aud nose of this pcramele forms its principal cha- racter ; measured from the extremity of the lips to the root of the tail, its lengih is 0:45 metre; its: head 0-11 metre, and its tai] 9°16 metre: its anterior extremities are 0°18 Metre, and its posterior 6°16 metre. Its last incisor, the canine tooth, and the first molar, instead of being contiguous, are very much scparated from gach other, and hence the great length of the muzzle. The cutting molars are lobed and have three points; those in Ona new Genus of Mammalia. 33 in the bottom of the mouth, with a broader base and a flat crown, do not seem to have been used: they are furrowed transversally, so that their crown 1s rough, with several small points, which are the summits of these molar teeth. This observation might give reason to suspect that the ~ Perameles nasuta does not supply, like the daysures and the didelpha, the want of flesh by a vegetable regimen, but that this marsupial contents itself with insects; and indeed there is reason to suppose that it forms of them its principal nourishment, its muzzle being too long to fit it with any advantage for combat : its fore feet, which render it so easy for it to dig up the earth when searching for its food, ap- peared to me to be a proof of it. The ears of the Perameles nasuta, however, are short and oblong, and its eyes are very small. Its hair is moderately thick, more abundant and stiffer on the shoulder, mixed a little with some very thick, and abundance of silky hair, ash- coloured at the root, and fawn-colour or black at the points; the general tint above is of a bright brown colour: the whole lower part of the body is white, and the claws are yellowish ; the tail may be sufficiently strong to contribute in the same manner as that of the kanguroos to progressive motion; it is besides of a more decided tint, brown in- clining to maroon above, and below of a chesnut colour. 2. Perameles obesula. (Plate II.) Though I do not observe that this animal is in any manner fatter than others of the same genus, | have retained the trivial name given to it by Dr. Shaw. in my opinion we cannot be too cautious in changing a denomination consecrated by usage. I was acquainted long ago, by means of the Naturalist’s Miscellany, with the figure of the didelphis obesula, but I in vain endeavoured to determine its relations. I set out on this research neither by the way of analogy, since this species be- longed to none of my genera of the order of the marsupials, nor by the description of Dr. Shaw, since he qualifies the teeth only by the epithet of numerous. I however presumed that this might be the type of a new family; and, under this persnasion, knowing that the olicsula formed part of the collection of Dr. Hunter, I wrote to England, to Mr. Parkinson, for the information I wished to obtain. I re- ceived in return the drawing trom which the annexed figure was engraved. , It was thereforé only when I saw the first peramele of which I have spoken, that I was able to supply, by con- jecture, the ideas which were still wanting, and to ascribe Vol, 21. No. 81. Feb. 1805. C to 34. On a new Genus of Mammalia. to the obesula the teeth of the nasuta. I do not think that T have been more deceived by analogy on this occasion than before. The organs of motion are too perfectly similar in the two perameles for the organs of mastication not to be the same. The relation which always exists between them is well known. ; pate The olesula, in the proportions of its body, resembles the preceding. The only difference is, that its head is shorter, and, if I can trust the drawing now before me, a little more arched; the ears are broader, and entirely rounded ; the bair is also mixed with some of a silky texture, which is blackish at the extremity ; the colour in generalis yellow, inclining to russet, and the belly is white. ‘ Lrefer to this species, but with some doubt, an indi- vidual in the collection of the Museum of Natural History, which was brought also from New Holland. It came to me in.a2 bad state of preservation, without the tail and some of the toes: it is more than double the size of the obesula. It resembles it in its rounded ears, its short muzzle, and the colour of the hair, which inclines, however, a little more to brown ; its head also is not so much arched. I caused the cranium to be engraved, that it might be compared with that of the naswta.. The difference in their proportions is striking: the last of the incisors above is much nearer that which precedes it, and the first molars are perfectly triangular and contiguous. Those in the bottom of the mouth have their erown very much worn, which might give reason to bclieve that this peramele is more carnivorous than the other. The last incisor below is scarcely lobed; the interval which separates it from the eanine tooth has only the thickness of one tooth, &c. all characters by which the cranium differs from that of the Perameles nasuta. + . Explanation of the Plates. A, the cranium of the Perameles nasuta. B, a hind, foot. C, a fore foot. D, extremity of the lower jaw. FE, extremity of the upper. ’ “a VI. Memoir 7 . hah mata rel iA ACA A RS iets at [ 35 J VI. Memoir on the Tinctorial Properties of the Danais of ~ Commerson, a Shrub of the Family of the Rubiacie, Ex- tracted from the Floraof Madagascar. By Auserr pu Prrir-THovars. Read in the French National Institute*. Boranxi, like all the other physical sciences, may be considered under two points of view. Inthe first, we ex- amine in plants those things which are perceptible to the senses; and, by comparing the differences observed, deduce the means of distinguishing them with certainty from cach other. In the second, we endeavour to discover the qualities by which they may be useful to man :—the one is pure botany, the other is the application of botany. Most people who have devoted themselves exclusively to one branch of knowledge, or who haye uot had an opportunity of acquiring any, being accustomed tu judge superficially, value only the second, and consider the first as almost en- tirely useless. It ought, however, to he considered as the . foundation of the second; for as it alone establishes, as we may say, the state of a vegetable, it is by it that we can be assured what plants are capable of giving us that assist- ance for which we may have occasion. The moment, therefore, that the theoretic botanist seems to attend least to the wants of society, 1s very often that when he is about to apnounce an important discovery. Being enabled by an exact synonymy to consult all the books which have been written on the object he examines, he takes advantage of the knowledge of all nations and all periods. In the second place, if the vegetable he examines have escaped the researches of his predecessors, observation enables him to , find out the purpose for which it may be employed. The ‘science which he cultivates affords him still another mean * From the Fournal de Physique. Brumaire, an 13, +-This is the third memoir of M, du Petitc-Yhouars read in the In- stitute since his return, Jn the first, afcer a short view of a voyage of tet years to the isles of France, Bourbon, and Madagascar, entirely de- vored to the natural sciences, and particularly botany, he gives a brief description of the deserts of Tristan d’Acngna, which are litle fre- guented by navigators. The second is an essay on germination, and the natural relations of the Cycas. This interesting memoir forms part of a first number, which the author has published, and which is to be fol- lowed by twelve more, destined to make kncwn the new, or little known, genera which he had an opportunity of observing ; and which are to be accompanied with dissertations, in the manner of the present one, on in- teresting points of vegetable physiology. ‘This first number contains also the description and figures of nine plants, which M. du Petic-] houars considers as forming new genera. C2 of On the Tinctorial Properties of of interrogating naturc; it is the examination of affinities, or the study of natural families; for observation has taught, that, in general, plants which have an external resemblance in their organization, retain it in the immediate principles of which they are composed. The natural classification, therefore, may give reason for conjecturing the virtues of a new plant, but, unfortunatcly, the labour which could give us any certainty in this respect has not been carried to a sufficient length :—to bring it to perfection would re- quire the complete union of a thorough knowledge of bo- tany and chemistry. Hitherto, therefore, the senses of taste and smell have been almost the only guides for disco- vering in several families, exceedingly natural, one common principle. In the umbelliferous plants, for example, it is traced from plants the most wholesome aud the most com- monly used for food, such as the carrot, to those which are aromatic, as fennel, ard even to poisonous plants, such as hemlock ; ove observes in all these plants a particular taste, more or less striking, and which is found in its highest degree in those species accounted poisonous. It even ap- pears that the observation of it is sometimes more certain than the common classifications. ft is thus that the dagacia could not by these means be separated from the umbelli- ferous plants, when by its fruit it was referred te them only with doubtfulness : we must therefore hope that botanists will be able to discover a substance common to: all these plants, an umbelliferous principle. In a word, there exists one equally striking in the leguminous plants, from which it passes also, but more rarely, from those that are fit to be eaten to those which are poisonous, when it exists in its state of greatest concentration. But there are several other families which seem to be equally natural, and in which it is difficult to discover a common principle: of this kind are the rubiaceous plants of Jussieu.. The signal services derived from a small number of the plants which they comprehend are of a nature so different that it is dificult to deduce a general induction for the rest. Of this kind is madder, the root of which possesses a dyeing quality in so emincnt a degree; coffee, the berries of which are so useful ; and, in the last place, cinchona, ren- dered so valuable by the febrifuge qualities of its bark, Though all the plants comprehended in this family have a greater affinity to each other than they have to any other of the vegetable kingdom, it'appears itself to be composed of particular groupes or species of sub-tamilies, and each of the plants J haye-mentioned-imay be considered asthe type © of the Danais of Commerson. 37 of one of them. It may be readily seen, that the other plants which accompany each of them, either as belonging to the same genus or as its neighbour, participate more or less in the quality on account. of which it is emploved. Thus it has been found that almost al] the steftate of Ray are tinctorial; almost all the seeds of the neighbouring genera of the coffee shrub, sufficiently large to be torrified with advantage, appear to be of the same nature. The case is the same with cinchona. I have seen the bark of a beautiful massenda of the Isle of France employed as a febrifuge by a physician, one of my friends. These qualities also are seen to pass trom one groupe to another. It is thus that the Indians extract the beautiful red colour of the chailliver, which, according to Adanson, was a hedyotis, and which Roxburgh has described as an oldenlandia. ‘They extract also a red colour from the royoc or morinda. The cinchonas themselves have given colours. Some of their particular properties have been found also in shrubs which had a very distant relation to them. The psychotria emetica approaches near to some of those which have been found to be emetic. The antirhea of Commerson, er wood of the losteau, participates in the anti-dysenteric quality of the jast-mentioned plant. In a word, according to Geertner and several others, a kind of coffee has been ex- tracted from the seeds of the aparine. Other properties less extensive in one groupe have others analogous to them in another. Thus the pretty species of the mussenda, which Commerson named, after his country- man, Lalandia stelliflora, has a relation to the asperula odorata. Its dried leaves, like those of that plant, acquire an agreeable odour, on which account they are put among knen: on the ether hand, the fetid and cadaverous odour of the peederia is found in the serissa of Jussieu, or the dysoda of Loureiro, and in the fruit of some kinds of py- rostria. However vague these indications may be, they may serve as guides in experiments ; and though one cannot previously assert that a rubiaceous plant possesses any of its properties, one will not be surprised to find them in it. When I was in Madagascar, in 1795, I saw without astonishment the natives of the country extract, from the root of a rubiaceous plant, the red dye they employed for the cloth which they wore of thread, made from the tafia palm. 1 readily knew it to be a creeping shryb, common in the elevated places of the Isle of France. ‘ C3 On 2° On the Tinctorial Properties of On my return to the Isle of France, T proposed to make some experiments in regard to the utility it might be in gv a ing an intense and fixed colour ; but having no apparatus, and being unprovided with books which might point out the process I ought to follow, I could only make a few. trials, which convinced me of its utility, but they were not sufficient to indicate the method of using it. They exhibited one phenomenon which was very remarkable ; it is not how- ever peculiar to this plant, for it is found in another ve- getable, but which has so little relation to the one in ques- tion, and exhibits it in a part so different, that the confor- mity itself is still another singularity. But before I describe it I must speak of the plant. It has been described by Commerson, and is found in his herbals. This naturalist, whose premature death was sensibly felt by all those who cultivate the sciences, besides his knowledge, had a particular instinct in the application of names. Observing that this plant was dicecous by abor- tion, so that the stamina seemed to be choked by the pistil, he compared it to the Danaides, which put to death their husbands, and thence gave it the name of Danais ; he was not able to procure any of its fruit. The fruit being the important character of this family, it was impossible for him to determine its place with precision, and Jussieu and Lamarck united it to the pederia. The latter, in his Dictionary, calls it the odoriferous danais, because its flowers, according to the remark of de Court, are exceedingly odori- ferous, and of a beautiful orange colour. These two na- turalists having afterwards procured some of its fruit, found that they had two cells, each containing several seeds, and consequently that it differed from the pederia, which had only two. Having an opportunity of seeing them in all their states, I observed the same thing; and finding also that the seeds were bordered by a membranous circle, I con- sidered it as a species of cinchona: but it appears that there are several peculiar characters in the internal construction of the capsule, and its manner of opening, which renders it necessary to restore the genus of Commerson, and this is confirmed by the difference of appearance; but it’ ought to. be placed between the mussenda and the cinchona, and very near to the latter. I discovered four species which be- long to this genus; the present is the only one which I found to possess the tinctorial quality ; a description of them here would be misplaced, they will form part of my Flora. I shall at present confine myself to an account of the ‘sthe Danais of Commerson. 39 ’ the few experiments which I made, to point out the route to some one more successful who may Le able to deter- mine the means of employing it. Having pulled up the roots of this plant, I was much surprised to see them of an orange colour, inclining rather to yellow than to red: the rind was pulpy and succulent. Having cleaned them, I put some pieces of it into spirit or rack extracted from the sugar of the country, which in a little time became charged with a tincture of a very pure vellow. When it appeared to me that it had extracted all it could, I poured it into a saucer ; the pieces of the root were then of a beautiful red colour: having poured more rack over them, some more particles of yellow were extracted, but it became still redder, and this colour continued un- alterable, though I suffered the liquor to remain over them several days. What I poured into the saucer having eva- porated, the residuum was of a very beautiful yellow colour. For want of other means, I contented myself with rubbing it over paper. Being desirous to try whether a pigment proper for water colours could be extracted from it, I mixed it with gum arabic : it spread very well on the paper; I tasted also the extract, it had the bitterness of cinchona in such a degree as gave me reason to hope that it may be rendered of utility in this point of view. Having tried this root with spirit of wine, I put some of it fresh into pure water. By ebullition the water became charged in like manner with the yellow colouring principle, which it extracted entirely: the root also assumed a red colour, which could no Jonger be attacked by water. One of my friends had given me a small quantity of a solution of tin in the nitric acid; I poured a few drops of it into the liquor I had obtained, and they precipitated all the colouring parts suspended in it. Having decanted the water, the residuum was of a beautiful yellow colour; I hoped I should obtain from it a kind of Dutch pink; I therefore poured more water oyer it to wash it, hut the water, _ though cold, took up all the colour: nothing then re- mained at the bottom of the yessel but oxide of tin exceed- ingly white. lecatns i I learned at Madagascar that the process employed by, the natives, and probably from time immemorial, to obtain a red colour, is to boil the root with ashes: I thence pre- sumed that alkalis were its solycnt, but at that time I was unable to procureany ; I contented myself, therefore, with boiling it in alum ; the two colours were then perceptible ; the yellow appeared first, anil then the red: at: first bey R C4 ittle Ew Se ee Ee ER AE ETT RCE) ee te 40 Observations on the Change of dittle mixed, but afterwards combined, which formed the colour of a fawn’s belly, exceedingly beautiful. These were al! the experiments T was able to make. They are suffi- cient to show the relation between this plant and the car- thamus: its flowers give in Jike manner a yellow colour ; and the beautiful red which they produce betomes purer in proportion as it is separated. I wish I could present results more satisfactory ; but, being bufieted by circumstances, I was seldom able to carry my plans into execution ; and in regard to many other objects I have nothing left but regret : but I easily console myself when I reflect, that I shall be exceedingly happy if I can publish what I have left of ten years’ observations made in a field almost new. Since this memoir was written, having had an opportu- nity of observing the asperula tinctoria, I remarked that its roots exhibit the same colour as those of the danais. Hav- ing put them into spirit of wine they gave also a yellow colour, but not so pure as that of the dunais. I obtained the same thing from the rubia tinctorum; and I have since learned that it had been observed that these plants give two colours, according as they are treated, which still tends to confirm the analogy I have announced. — ——— VII. Observations on the Change of some of the proximate Principles of Vegetables into Bitumen ; with analytical Experiments on a peculiar Substance which is found with the Bovey Coal. By Cuantes Harcnerr, Esq. FP. Rws.4 § I. Onz of the most instructive and important parts of geo- logy, is the study of the spontaneous alicrations by which bodies formerly appertaining to the organized kingdoms of nature have, after the loss of the vital principle, become gradually converted into fossil substances. In some cases this conversion has been so complete as to destroy all traces of previous organic arrangement ; but in others the original texture and form have been more or Jess preserved, although the substances retaining this. tex- ture, and exhibiting these forms, are often decidedly of a mineral nature. Some, however, of these extraneous fossils fas they are called) retain part of their original substance or principles, whilst others can only be regarded as casts or linpressions. . * From the Transactions of the Royal Suciety of Londen for a sae’ ‘Tom ab) gidl OS ey eae Si paca OC a i ae some of the Principles of Vegetables into Bitumen. 41 From the animal kingdom we may select, as examples, the fossil ivory, which retains its cartilage * ;' the bones in the Gibraltar rock, consisting of little more than the earthy part or phosphate of lime; the shells forming the luma- chella of Bleyberg, which still possess the lustre and irides- cence of their original nacre; and the shells found at Hord- well in Hampshire, and im Picardy, which are chiefly por- cellaneous, but more or less calcined; also the fossil echini and others so commonly found in the limestone, chalk, and calcareous grit of this island, which, although they retain their original figure, are entirely, or at least exter- nally, formed of calcareons spar, imcrusting a nucleus of flint or chalcedony. And if, in addition to these, we may be allowed to regard the more recent limestone and chalk strata as having been principally or partly formed from the detritus of aniinal exuviz, we shall possess a complete series of gradations, commencing with animal substances ana- gous in properties to those which are recent, and termi- nating in bodies decidedly mineral, in which all vestiges of organization have been completely destroyed: The vegetable kingdom has likewise produced many in- stances not less remarkable ; and it is worthy of notice, that animal petrifactions are commonly of a calcareous nature, while, on the contrary, the vegetable pcetrifactions are ge- nerally siliceous ¢. It is not, however, my intention here to enter into a minute discussion concerning the formation of these ex- traneous fossils ; I shall theretore proceed to consider other equally or perhaps more important changes, which orga- nized bodies, especially vegetables, appear to have suffered (after the extinction of the principle of life), by being long buried in earthy strata, and by being thus exposed to the effects of mineral agents. § Il. The principal object I have in view is to adduce some additional proofs that the bituminous substances are derived trom the organized kingdoms of nature, and especially from vegetable bodies ; for although many circumstances seem to lead to the opinion that the animal kingdom has in some measure contributed to the partial formation of bitu~ men, yet the proofs are by no means so numerous, nor so * f have also found the cartilage perfeét in the teeth of the mammoth, ‘ + Pyrites, ochraceous jron'ore, and fahlertz, are also occasionally found in the {usu of vegetable bodies. positive, 42 Observations on the Change of positive, as those which indicate the vegetable kingdom to have been the grand source from which the bitumens have been derived. But this opinion (founded upon very strong presumptive evidence), although generally adopted, is how- ever questioned by some persons; and I shal! therefore bring forward a few additional facts, which will, I flatter myself, contribute to demonstrate, that bitumen has been, and is actually and immediately formed from the resin, and perhaps from some of the other juices of vegetables. The chemical characters of the pure or unmixed bitumens, such as naptha, petroleum, mineral tar, and asphaltum, are, in certain respects, so different from those of the resins and other inspissated juices of recent vegetables, that, had the former never occurred but in a separate and unmixed state, no positive inference could have been drawn, from. their properties in proof of their vegetable origin. Fortunately, however, they have been more frequently found under cir- cumstances which have strongly indicated the source from whence they have been derived; and much information has been acquired from observations made on the varieties of turf, bituminous wood, and pit coal, on the nature of their surrounding strata, on the vestiges of animal and vegetable bodies'which accompany them, and on various other local facts, all of which tend considerably to elucidate the history of their formation, and to throw light upon this interesting part of geology. eae Some instances have already been mentioned which show that fossil animal substances form a series, com- mencing with such as are’ searccly different from those which are recent, and terminating in productions which have totally lost all traces of organization. is wath Similar instances are afforded by the vegetable kingdom ; hui, without entering into a minute detail of every grada- tion, I shall only cite three examples in this island, namely, 1. The submarine forest at Sutton, on the coast of Lin- colnshire, the timber of which has not suffered any very apparent change in its vegetable characters *. 2. The strata of bituminous wood (called Bovey coal) found at Bovev, in Devon; which exhibits a series ‘of ora- dations, from the most ‘perfect Jigneous’ texture, ‘toa sub- stance nearly approaching the chatacters ‘of pit ‘coal, ‘and, on that account, distinguished by the name’ of'stene coal: » 3. And lastly, the varieties of pit coal, so+ abundant in , * Account of asubmaring,Forest on the East Coast of “England, by Dr. Correa de Serra, Phil. Trans. for 1799, .p. 145: many some of the Principles of Vegetables into Bitumen. 43 many parts of this country, in which almost every appear- ance of vegetable origin has been destroyed. The three examples abovementioned appear to form the extremities and centre of the series; but as, from some local. circumstances, the process of carbonization and formation of bitumen has not taken place in the first instance, and as these effects have proceeded to the ultimate degree in the last, it seems most proper that we should seek for informa- tion, and for positive evidence, in the second example, which appears to be the mean point, exhibiting effects of natural operations, by which bitumen and coal have been imperfectly and partially formed, without the absolute ob- literation of the original vegetable characters; and, although I have selected the Bovey coal as an example, because it is found in this country, we must recollect that similar sub- stances, or strata of bituminous wood, are found in many parts of our globe; so that the example which has been more immediately chosen 1s neither rare nor partial *, The nature, however, of the various kinds of bituminous wood may in some respects be different: but this I have not as yet had the means of ascertaining ; 1 shall therefore only state the facts resulting from experiments made on Bovey coal, and more especially on a peculiar bituminous substance with which it is accompanied. But, before I enter into these particulars, it will be proper to mention a very remarkable schistus with which I was, some months since, favoured by the right honourable Sir Joseph Banks. § II. This schistus was found by Sir Joseph, in the course of his tour through Iceland, near Reykum, one of the great spouting hot springs, distant about twenty-four English miles from Hatnifiord ; but circumstances did not. permit him to ascertain the extent of the stratum. The singularity of this substance is, that a great part of it consists of leaves, which are evidently those of the alder, interposed between the different lamellz. I do not mean mere impressions Of leaves, such as are frequently found in many of the slates, but the real substance, in an apparently half-charred state, retaining distinctly the form of the leaves and the arrangement of the fibres. . The schistus is light, brittle, of easy exfoliation; in the. transverse fracture earthy, and of a pale-brown colour ; but, * Strata of bituminous wood are found. in various parts of France, itt the Vicinity of Cologne, in Hesse, Bohemia, Saxony, Ttaly, and especi- ally in ‘Iccland, where it is known under the name of surturbrand. when 4a ~~ Olservations on the Change of when longitudinally divided, the whole surface constantly: presents a series of the Jeaves which have been mentioned, uniformly spread, and commonly of a light gray on the upper surface, and of a dark brown on the other ; the fibres» on the light gray surface being generally of a blackish- brown, which is also the colour assumed by the schistus when reduced to powder. The leaves appeared to be in the state of charcoal, by being extremely brittle, by the blackish brown colour, by defla- grating with nitre, by the manner ot burning, and by form- img carbonic acid. I was, however, soon convinced that the substance of these leaves was not complete charcoal, but might more properly be regarded as vegetable matter in am incipient state of carbonization, which, although pos- sessed of many of the apparent properties of charcoal, still retained a small portion of some of the other principles of the original vegetable. My suspicion was excited, partly by the odour produced during combustion, which rather more resembled that of wood than that of charcoal, and partly by the brown solu tion formed by digesting the powder of the unburned schistus in boiling distilled water; for by various tests | ascertained that the substance thus dissolved was not of a mineral nature. In order, however, fully to satisfy myself m this respect, I digested 250 grains of the pulverized sehistus with six ounces of water. A ’ The liquor was, as before, of a dark brown colour. }+ bad but little flavour. Prussiate of potash, muriate of barytes, and solution of isinglass, did not produce any effect; nitrate of silver formed a very faint cloud; sulphate of iron was slowly precipitated, of a dark brownish colour; and muriate of tin produced a white precipitate. A portion of the solution, by long exposure to the air, was partially decomposed ; and a quantity of a brown sub- stance was deposited, which could not again be dissolved in water. ‘ Another portion was also evaporated to dryness, and afforded a similar brown substance, which was only par- tially soluble in water; and the residuum, in both of the ahove cases, was found to be insoluble im alcohol and in ether. W hen burned it emitted smoke with the odour of vege- table matter. J 250 grains of the schistus afforded about three grains of the above substance ; and, when the properties of the : aqueous ee Wes Pe Cee ee te has EPs tr) va Bsr YE a TIEN, 0 ya ee} e Shin sae bein NR kes lcs Sa toy Se 4 x ad ist ail Oe eo . 4 " ' : some of the Principles of Vegetubles into Bitumen. 45 aqueous solution are considered, such as its partial deeom- position, and the depesit which it yielded by exposure to air, and by evaporatiun; the insolubility of this deposit when again digested with water, alcohol, or ether; the smoke and odour which it yielded when burned 3 and the precipitates formed by the addition of sulphate of iron and muriate of tin to its solution; when these properties, I say, are considered, there seems much reason to conclude, that the substance dissolved b water was vegetable extract, which had apparently suffered some degree of modification, but not sufficient to annul the more prominent characteristic properties of that substance. The powder of the schistus which had been employed in preceding experiment, was afterwards digested in al- cohol during two days ; and a pale yellow tincture was thus formed, which, by cvaporation, left about one grain of a yel- low transparent substance, possessing the properties of resin. Tt appears, therefore, that a substance very analogous to vegetable extract, and a small portion of resin, remain in- herent in the leaves of this remarkable schistus. As solution of isinglass did not produce any effect, there was reason to conclude that the aqueous solution above- inentioned did not contain any tannin; but, as the tannin might be combined with the alumina of the schistus, I di- gested a portion of it in muriatic acid, which, after filtra— tion, was evaporated almost to dryness, leaving, however, the acid in a slight excess. This was diluted with water, and afforded a blue precipitate with prussiate of potash, a yellowish precipitate with ammonia, and a white precipitate with muriate of tin, but not any with solution of isinglass. The tannin which might have been contained in the recent vegetable appears therefore to have been dissipated er de- composed, with the greater part of the other vegetable principles, excepting the woody fibre reduced to the state of an imperfect coal, and the small portions of extract and resin which have been mentioned. Previous to having made the analysis, I had an idea that this schistus might be a lamellated incrustation, formed b the tufa of the hot springs; but, according to Mr. Kiap- noth’s analysis*, the tufa of Geyser is composed of, Silica - - 98 Alumina - - 1.50 Iron - - - 50 100. * Beitrdge, Zweiter band, p. 109. Te 46 Olservaiions on the Change of It is therefore very different from the schistus, the com- ponent ingredients of which were ascertained by the follow- ing analysis. _ Analysis of the Schistus from Iceland * . A. 250 grains, by distillation, yielded water, which, in the latter part of the process, became slightly acid and turbid, = 42.50 grains. ‘ B. The heat was gradually increased, until the bulb of the retort was completely red hot. During the increase of the heat, a thick brown oily bitumen came over, which weighed 7.50 grains ; it was attended with a copious pro- duction of hydrogen, carbonated hydrogen, and carbonic acid, the whole of which may be estimated at 23.75 grains. C. The residuum was black, like charcoal, and weighed 176.25 grains ; but; being exposed to a strong red heat in a crucibie of platina, it burned with a faint Jambent flame, and was at length reduced to a pale brown earthy powder, which weighed 122 grains; so that 54.25 grains were consumed. D. The 122 grains were mixed with 240 of pure potash 3. and, as some particles of charcoal remained, 50 grains of nitre were added, and the whole was strongly heated, during half an hour, in a silver crucible. The mass was then dissolved in distilled water ; and muriatic acid being added to excess, the liquor was evaporated to dryness, and was again digested with muriatic acid much diluted; a quantity of pure silica then remained, which, after having been exposed to a red heat, weighed 98 grains. E. The liquor from which the silica had been separated was evaporated nearly to dryness, and added to boiling lixi- vium of potash; after the boiling had been continued for about one hour, the liquor was filtrated, and a quantity of oxide of iron was collected, which amounted to 6 grains. F. Solution of muriate of ammonia was added to the preceding filtrated liquor ; and the whole being then heated, a copious precipitate of alumina was obtained, which, after having been made red hot, weighed 15 grains. Carbonate of soda caused the preceding liquor (after the separation of alumina) to become slightly turbid, bat not any precipitate could be collected. * The remaining specimens are now in the British Museum, and in the collection af the Right Honourable Charles Greville. ? By b/ , some of the Principles of Vegetables into Bitumen. 43 By this analysis, 250 grains of the schistus afforded, aby \ , Grains. Water tioviasext pos9o8 er WAY nee. 50 Thick brown oily bitumen RB 7-50 Mixed gas (by computation) } ‘ { 23:75 c. Charcoal (by computation) 54.25 : Silica - - - = MOD 98 Oxide of iron = - E. 6 ‘ Alumina - - - F. 15 247. But the water and vegctable matter must be regarded as ex- traneous ; and if they are deducted, the real composition of the schistus is nearly as follows. Silica - - 82.30 Alumina = - - 12.61 Oxide of iron - 99.91 Tt evidently, therefore, belongs to the family of argillaceous schistus, although the proportion of silica is more consi- derable than has been found in those hitherto subjected to chemical analysis. This schistus has not been noticed by von Troil, nor by any of those who have written concerning Iceland ; for the slate which was sent to Professor Bergmann by the former, and which is mentioned by the latter in one of his letters, is there expressly stated to be the conrmon aluminous slate containing impressions*. . § IV. From the experiments which have been related, we find that the. leaves contained in the Iceland schistus, although they are apparently reduced almost to the state of charcoal, nevertheless retain some part of their original proximate principles; namely, extract and resin. This, of itself, is ® Letters on Iccland, by Uno von Troil, p. 355. Mr. Faujas St. Fond has, however, described.a schistus nearly simi- lar, which is found near Roche-Seauve, in the Vivarais. The stratum vextends about two leagues; and the only difference is, that, according to Mr. St. Fond, the schistus at Roche-Seauve is of the nature of marle, or, as he terins it, argillo-calcarcous, whereas this of Iceland is undoubt- edly argillaceous. From Mr. St. Fonds account, it does not appear that the vegetable leaves contained in the schistus of Roche-Seauve: have been chemically examined. £ssai de Geologie, par B, Faujas St. Fond, tome i, pp. 128 and 134. : 3 undoubtedly: 4s Observations on the Change of undoubtedly a remarkable fact ; but if it were unsupported by any other, the only inference would be, that the schistus was most probably of very recent formation, and had been produced under peculiar circumstances. I was desirous, therefore, to discover some similar cases which might serve as additional corroborative proofs of the gradual alterations by which vegetable bodies become changed, so as at length to be regarded as forming part of the mineral kingdom; and from the reasons which have been stated in the commencement of this paper, as well as from a certaim similarity in the external characters of tlie substance composing the leaves abovementioned with those of the Bovey coal, [was induced to make this last also a subject of chemical inquiry, In the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1760*, some remarks on the Bovey coal, and an account of the strata, are stated, in a letter frem the Rev. Dr. Milles to the Earl of Macclesfield. The object, indeed, of the author was to establish that this and similar substances are not of vegetable but of mineral origin; and, to prove this, he adduces a great number of cases, most of which, however, im the present state of natural history and of chemistry, muss be regarded as proving the contrary; whilst others, men- - tioned by him, such as the Kimmeridge or Kimendge coal, - are nothing more than bituminous slates, and of course are of a very different nature. Dr. Milles’s account of the varieties of the Bovey coal, and of the state of the pits at that time, appears to be very accurate ; and for the ‘present state, or at least such as it was in 1796, I shall beg leave to refer to a paper of niine, published in the fourth volume of the Transactions of the Linnean Society ¢ 3 for, as this is more immediately a che- mical investigation, I wish to avoid, as much as possible, entering into any minute detail of geological circumstances. It may however be proper to observe, that the Bovey coal is found in strata, corresponding im almost eycry particular with those of the surturbrand in Iccland described by ven Troilt and by Professor Bergmann§. The different strata of both these substances are likewise similar, being composed of wood or trunks of trees, which have com= pletely lost their cylindrical form, and are perfectly flattened, © Vol. li. p- 534. + Observations on bituminous Substances, p. 138.—See also Parkin- son's Organic Remains of a former World, vol. i. p. 126- + Von Troil’s Letters, p. 42. . § Opuscula Bergmanni, tom. iil. De Protuctis Pclcanits, p. 239. 2 as \ Dae SNe <1 OO TT ; on “ae Pe ene ane aN ye UF mT ASIN ANS NC SNES some of the Principles of Vegetables into Bitumen. 49 as if they had been subjected to an immense degree of pressure *. ; ’ The Boyey coal is commonly of a chocolate-brown, and sometimes almost black. The quality and texture of it are various in different strata: from some of these it is obtained in the form of straight flat pieces, three or four feet in length, resembling boards, and is therefore called Board coal. Others have an oblique, wavy, and undulating tex- ture, and, as Dr. Milles obseryes, have a strong resemblance to the roots of-trees, from which, most probably, this sort has in a great measure been formed. Some kinds also appear to be’ more or Jess intermixed with earth ; but that which produces the most powerful and lasting fire is called stone coal: itis black, with a glossy fracture ; has little or none of the vegetable texture ; is more solid and compact than the others, being almost as heavy as some of the pit coals, the nature of which it seems very nearly to approach. lor chemical examination I selected some of the coal * Bergmann, in the dissertation above quoted, accurately describes this appearance of the surturbrand, and then says, “* Que autem immanis requiritur vis, ut truncus cylindyicus ita complanetur? Noxne antea particularwm nexus putredinis quodam gradu fuerit relaxatus? Certe, nisi compages quodammodo mutatur, quodlibet pondus incumbens huic effec- twieritimpar. Ceterim idem observatur phenomenon iz omni schisto argillaceo,’ This is certainly a very curious fact; and the learned Pro- fessor, with his usual acuttness, rejects the idea that mere weight can have been the cause. As a further proof also, he afterwards observes, ** Orthoceratit2, que in strato calcareo conicam fisuram perfecté servant, in-schisto planum fere triangulare compressione efficiunt. \dem valet de piscibus, conchis, insectisque petrefactis.” And again, “ Observatu guoque dignum est, quod fdem reperiatur effecius, quamvts stratum cal- careum sub schisto colloratum sit, et maja t ideo pondere comprimente onustum.” DeProductis Volcaniis, p. 240. It is evident, therefore, that weight alone has not produced this effect ; and Bergmann’s idea, that the soli- dity of the vegerable bodies may have undergone sone previous change, in the manner of incipient putrefaction, by mvisture, and by becoming heated in the mass, must be allowed to be very probable. But bodies such as shells could not be thus affected ; and therefore they must have been exposéd to some mechanical effect peculiar to argillaceous strata ; which effect, however, from the circumstance, which have been adduced, evidently could not have resulted from the mere pressure of the super- incumbent strata. To me, therefore, it seems not very improbable that, together with a certain change in the solidity of vegetable todies, pro- duced in the manner imagined by Bergmann, and, together with some degree of superincumbent pressure, a teal and powerful mechanical action has been exerted, by the contraction of the argillaceous strata, in conse- quence of desiccation; this, I believe, has not hitherto been much con- sidered ; but I am inclined, from many circumstances, to atiribute to it a very great degree of power. Vol. 21. No. 81. Fel. 1805. D which " Olserbabdons on the Schone: of which had a wavy texture, and rather a glossy fracture; yt quality of this sort being apparently intermediate be the others, as it retains completely the marks of its wane table origin, while, at the same time, it possesses every perfect character of this species of coal. A. 200 grains of the aia coal, by distillation, yielded, Grains. 1. Water, which soon came over acid, and after- wards turbid, by the mixture of some bitumen 60 2. Thick brown oily bitumen = - - - - 91 3. Charcoal - - as - 90 4. Mixed gas, consisting of branes: carbonated hydrogen, and caboni baimate at 29 acid, 200. The charcoal, in appearance, perfectly resembled that which 1s made ons recent vegetables. By incineration, about 4 grains of yellowish ashes were left, w hich consisted of alumina, iron, and silica, derived most probably from some small portion of the clay strata which accompany the Bovey coal. But it is very remarkable, that neither the ashes obtained from the charcoal of the Bovey coal, nor those obtained from the leaves of the Iceland schistus, afforded the smallest trace of alkali*. B. 200 grains of the Bovey coal, reduced to powder, were digested in boiling distilled water, which was after- wards filtrated and examined ; but I could not discover any signs of extract, or of any ‘otter substance. “C. 200 grains were next digested with six ounces of alcohol, in a very low degree of heat, during five days. A vellowish-brown tincture was thus formed, ‘which, by eva- poration, afforded a deep brown substance, possessing all the properties of resin, being insolubie in water, but soluble in alcoho} and in ether; ; italso speedily melted when placed on ared hot iron, burned with much flame, and emitted a fragraut odour, totally unlike the very unpleasant smell} produced by burning she coal itself, or by burning any of the common bituminous substances. The quantity, how- ever, which could be extracted from 200 grains of the coal, * This, as far as retates to the Bovey coal, has been also noticed by Dre Milles. Pint. Trans. vol. ii. p> ss53- But wood, however long submerged, is not deprived of alkali, unless it kas more or less been con- verted inio coal; for L have, since the reading of this Paper, made some experiments on the wood of the submerged forest at Sutton, on the coast of Lincolnshire, and have found it to contain Mpa Ds by " ‘ some of the Principles of Vegetables into Bitumen. 51 by alcohol, was but small, as it did not exceed 3 grains. But this small quantity was sufficient to prove, that although the Bovey coal does not contain any vegetable extract, like the schistus formerly mentioned, yet the whole of the proximate principles of the original vegetable have not been entirely changed ; as a small portion of true resin, not con- verted into bitumen, still remains inherent in the coal, al- though the bituminous part is by much the most prevalent, and causes the fetid odour which attends the combustion of this substance. Upon a comparison of the general external characters of the Bovey coal with those of the substance which forms the leaves contained in the Iceland schistus, a very great resemblance will be observed; and this is further confirmed by the similarity of the products obtained from each of them in the preceding experiments, with the single exception that the leaves contain some vegetable extract, which I could not discover in the Bovey coal. They agree however in every other respect ; as they both consist of woody fibre in a state of semicarbonization, impregnated with bitumen, and a small portion of resin, perfectly similar to that which is contained in many recent vegetable bodies ; and thus it seems, that as the woody fibre, in these cases, still retains some part of its vegetable characters, and is but partially and imperfectly converted into coal, so, in like manner, some of the other vegetable principles have only suffered a partial change. Undoubtedly there is every reason to believe that, next to the woody fibre, resin is the substance which, in vegetables passing to the fossil state, most powerfully resists any alteration ; and that, when this is at length effected, it is more immediately the substance from which bitumen is produced. The instances which haye been mentioned cor- roborate this opinion ; tor the vegetable extract in one of them, and more especially the resin which was discovered in both, must be regarded as part of those principles of the original vegetables which have remained, after some other portions of the same have been modified into bitumen, The smallness of the quantity .of resin obtained in hoth the preceding cases by no means invalidates the proof of the above opinion ; but, as an additional confirmation of it, I shall now give an account of a very singular substance, which is found with the Bovey coal. , [ To be continued. } De VIII. On lla yin’ Male HMI ail a CA Eau RA te ee el UN i cl ee p C92 VIII. On the Use of Green Vitriol, or Sulphate of Irom; as a Manure; and on the Efficacy of paring and burning depending partly on Oxide of Iron. By GrorcE PEaR- son, M.D. Honorary Member of the Board of Agri- culture, FLR.S, €c. Ge. Ge.* I TAKE leave to lay before this honourable Board an ac count of a substance as a manure which I find, on exa- mination, is one of the things hitherto universally believed to be a poison to vegetables. Having ascertained that this substance is what is commonly known by the name of vi- triol of iron (the sulphate of iron of the chemists), invete- rate opinion prevented me for some time from accepting the testimony of it as a manure; but feeling the weight of the respectable evidence by whom it was attested, after consideration I perceived that the fact in question was not at variance with established principles of vegetable philo- sophy, as I shall, Ithink, make appear in this communi- cation. - My friend John Williams Willaume, esq. of Tingrith, in Bedfordshire, having desired his brother, Charles Dy- moke Willaume, esq. to ask my opinion of a saline sub- stance collected from peat, which has been used with pro- fitable consequences as a manure in his neighbourhood, I proposed a set of queries to Mr. John W. Willaume, the answers to which, in the two following copied letters, com- prehend the evidence I have to offer. Letter No. I.—To Dr. Pearson, from C. D. Willaume, Esq. MY DEAR SIR, I received the inclosed last Saturday, and hope the an-+ swers to your queries will-be satisfactory, and tend to elu- cidate’this curious subject. Though the answers under the article dust only relate to your queries, yet my brother has thought proper to advert to the ashes, which you coriceive to be a caput mortuum ; but which have been used as, and have been supposed to be, a beneficial manure from time immemorial. I have reserved a piece of the peat from which the ashes are produced, and if you would wish to analyse it, I will send it you. Favour me with the result of your fu- ture inquiries on this subject; and I am, My dear sir, yours very sincerely, Walham Green, ‘, C.D. WiLLAUME. Aug. 24, 1801. 4 ied * A communication to the Board of Agriculture. Nae LETTER ich sieieiaall ~~ J ‘aru * On the Use of Green Vitriol-as a Manure. 53 Lerrer No. 11.—From John W. Willaume, Esq. to “ C. D. Willaume, Esq. Queries proposed by Dr. Pearson, 1. How long has the salt of peat been used ? 2. How much per acre is laid on? ms 3. On what kind of lands? 4. The effects of it on vegetation ? 5. Whether it is mixed with dung manure, or lime ? 6. In what parts of the country has it been employed ? 7. Any other facts which can be collected relative to the ase of this substance? In answering the above queries, I shall divide the subject into three articles; 1st, The peat considered as an object cf fuel: 2d, The ashes: 3d, The salt of peat, or dust: the two last as objects of manure, 1. Peat. The peat, which is found after the removal of the turf er exterior surface to about a spade’s depth, has long been known as an article of fuel. It is, however, used only by cottagers, who burn it on a brick hearth : it has been re- jected from the parlour, the kitchen, the brewhouse, &c. as being injurious to grates, and to all sorts of vessels put on it; it cannot he employed in the roasting of meat, as it will impart a disagrecable taste ; and it is destructive of all sorts of furniture by the effluvia which it emits, or by the dust or ashes which may chance to be blown from it. If these disagreeable consequences could be obviated, it might be made an article of general consumption as a substitute for coal, much to the adyantage of the seller and consumer ; it is dug out in the form of a brick to a certain depth, well known to the common labourer. Thisdepth must be care- fully attended to, lest you should cut out the staple, in which case it would never be retrieved; but, this cireum- stance attended to, it will grow again to its former state in the space of fifteen years. “Thus the whole moor is divided into proper portions, and periodically cut once in fifteen years. 2. Ashes. The turf or surface, and such parts of the peat as do not appear to be of the best quality, are laid up in considera- ble heaps and reduced to ashes by the action of fire, The ashes are red, * Ds Answer 54 On the Use of Green Vitriol of Iron, Answer to Queries. big a 1. The ashes have been long known as a manure, and the demand is on the increase. 2. The quantity usually laid on an acre, by spreading or sowing it, is fifty bushels, either on grass or arable land. 3. It is laid on hot Jand. By hot land we understand sandy, gravelly, chalky soils of a dry nature, such as are burnt up on the long continuance of hot weather. It is most commonly used for grasses; but is in considerable esteem as a manure for oats or barley, on land of the na- ture abovementioned, 4, The vegetable effect is surprising, inasmuch as it will double or treble a crop of any new sown grass, such as tre- foil, &c. Ihave seen the benefits arising from it on old pasture land much overgrown with moss, which it effec- tually destroys, and produces in its stead white or Dutch clover. You may trace to an inch the cessation and re- commencement of this manure. It is observable, that mear the fire-heaps, as far as the wind can carry the lighter parts of the ashes, the production of clover is sure to be abun- dant: it is equally favourable to the growth of barley or oats. 5. Jt is not mixed with lime, or any other manure. 6. These ashes are bought by a set of higglers, who carry them in bags loaded on asses to a considerable distance, where they are known to be in great repute; they must come excessively dear to the consumer by this mode of con- veyance. The farmers in the vicinity send for them in wagons, particularly Mr. Brumiger, near Sundon, in Bed- fordshire, a considerable and intelligent farmer, who in- creases his consumption every year, both for his grass and arable land. 3. The Salt of Peat, or Dust. Answer to Queries.—}. The dust or gray saline substance is produced by beating the earth containing this salt to a powder; it is found in particular spots, not universally, the earth not being equally impregnated with it im all places : it has not been known as a manure above six years ; but oa trial greatly increases in reputation and demand. 2. Fifty bushels are the proper quantity per acre. This should not be exceeded, for it it be laid on in too great abundance it may prove extremely deleterious. 3, It is used for cold lands. *By cold lands we under- — stand clayey, or any wet grounds. Ti, 4. It will much improye the vegetation of sowed. grasses and é or Sulphate of Iron, as a Manure. 53 and old pasture, and is equally favourable to the production of corn; the ground, whether grass or arable, being of a cold nature. 5. It is not mixed with lime, or any other substance. 6. The dust is likewise bought by the higglers, and carried to great distances. The nearer farmers likewise “send for the dust in waggons, particularly Mr. Anstie, of Dunstable Houghton, and Mr. Smith, of Sundon, who hold this ma- nure in great esteem. Tingrith, Yours, &e. ; Aug. 19, 1801. J. W. WILLAUME. Dr. Peanson’s Experiments, Observations, and Remarks, on the Substance called Salt of Peat, or Dust. 1. It isa blackish gray, coarse, and rather heavy pow- der. Has no smell; tastes strongly styptic 5 readily dis- solves in the mouth; did not deliquesce on exposure to the air. 2, Dissolves in four times its weight of water of the tem- perature of sixty degrees of Fahrenheit, and in twice its weight of boiling hot water, giving a pale green coloured solution, with a trifling sediment, which is imsoluble in muriatic acid. 3. To the solution (2) I added a little liquid prnssiate of vegetable alkali in a perfectly neutral state, which occa- sioned immediately a most abundant precipitation of prus- siate of iron; and this test was added gradually, till noe further precipitation took place. 4. Into the decanted and filtrated fluid °(3) was poured liquid caustic volatile alkali, but without inducing any change. ; 5. Into the same fluid (3) was poured liquid carbonate of vegetable alkali, which produced a sgareely perceivable cloudy appearance. 6. Into the solution (3) was dropped the aqueous solution of muriate of baryt, which occasioned imme:liately a milky appearance. 7. To the solution (3) I added the oxalic acid, and tur- bidness ensued. : g. A little of the powdery substance, called the salt of peat, with concentrated sulphuric acid, produced no emis- sion of fumes, nor smell. 9. The solution (2) with muriate of baryt, immediately grew aos i a white 4s cream. The solution (2) with carbonate of potash, deposited “a Da a Very On the Use of Green Vitriol of Iron, a very copious greenish sediment; and the same effect en sued with caustic volatile alkali. : 11. The solution (2) with oxalic acid, gave instantly a very turbid blueish green precipitation. ‘The preceding experiments manifested that .the peat salt consists of sulphate of iron, vulgarly called green vitriol of iron, mixed with a very minute proportion of siliceous earth, and of lime united either to sulphuric acid or to car- bonic acid. But the presence of the earths magnesia and argil; the uncombirel alkalis; the uncombined acids ; are by these experiments excluded. In short, the salt of peat is almost pure sulphate of iron. REMARKS, i. The salt of peat is, I apprehend, deposited by evapo= rations which run over the moors where it 1s found; and hence I should expect many of such waters to be strongly impregnated with it, and in many parts the soil to be tinged red and yellow by ochre. Very likely * on inquiry mach iron pyrites will be found on or near the moors. 2. The quantity spread on land is said to be fifty bushels per acre, which I estimate at 2,250 pounds avoirdupoise ; oR will give near seven ounces and a half per square yard, If a larger quantity be applied, it is observed it will prove extremely deleterious. ‘This is true also of every other ma+ nure, such as lime, alkaline salts, marine salt; nay, of the dung of animals; for if they be used in certain quantities they poison plants instead of promoting their growth. This is equally true in the antmal kingdom; for there is not an article taken as food, or as seasoning, which is not a poison if taken in certain quantities. A human creature may be poisoned or alimented by beef or pudding, according to the quantity of them taken into the stomach. He may be poi- soned or have digestion greatly assisted by salt or pepper, according to their quantity. Jn brief, the vulgar notion of the term poissw ig erroneous: for by it is conceived that substances so called are in their nature positively destruc- tive of life; but the truth is, that the most virulent poisons are, 1n all reason and fact, only deleterious according to the quantity applied. White arsenic, swallowed in the quantity of ten grains or less, will destroy life; but in the quantity . _ * « This is,” says Mr. Willaume, “ exactly the fact. This sul- phate of iron, the salt of pear, during the heat of the summer is fre- quently found in a crystallized state, very white, and crackling under the feet; but is deliquescent in that form, and turns to its former dark eslour when the air becomes moist.""-—Note by Mr. 7. W. Willaume. iN or Sulphate of Iron, as a Manure. 37 of one-sixteenth of a grain, it is as harmless as a glass of wine; and further, in that dose 1s a remedy for inveterate agues, From these considerations I conclude, that there is ne admissible contradictory evidence to the testimonies for the fertilizing effect of sulphate of iron, unless by such con- travening evidence the quantity stated to be used exceed fifty bushels per acre; it being an established fact, that in certain proportions this metallic salt is a poison to plants. This discovery of Mr. Willaume will, 7 think, give new light, so as to explain fully the rationale of the improve- ment of land by the burnt earth and ashes from paring and burning. It is usual to account for the effects of this pro- cess, by referring to supposed alkaline or other salts; but. of these there is no evidence; nay, on trial I have not de- tected them, or at least not in any efficient quantity; but this I know, that such earth and ashes contain oxide of iron, and as J suspect of manganese ; which irom the ana- lysis, and the effect of salt of peat, must now be admitted into the class of manures. This very communication of Mr. Willaume affords ‘evidence of the truth of this conjec- ture; for the ashes of the peat which affords the salt ¢* have | been long known asa manure, and the demand is on the in- _¢erease :”’ of course, these ashes contain an unusual quantity of oxide of iron. A consequence of this reasoning 1s, that the burnt earth of soils will, ceteris paribus, fertilize in pro- portion to the oxide of iron it contains. Accordingly, the ashes of the peat, says Mr. Willaume, have a surprising effect ; they ‘ will double or treble a crop of any new sown grass, such as trefoil, &c.”: they are so beneficial, that, in spite of the expence, they are carried in bags by higglers to great distances, It would be extending this paper beyond the proposed limits, to reason at greater length,and to make a further induction of facts; therefore I will close with as- serting, that the more I contemplate the facts in. Mr. Wile. laume’s letter, the more evidence I perceive for the truth, that metallic salts and metallic oxides in general, and salts and oxides of iron in particular, are manures, if applied in proper doses. Ido not think it is within the design of this paper to make observations on the answers to the 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th; and 6th queries, except once for all, desiring that it may be understood that [ consider the salt of peat, and the ashes of peat, as operating in promoting vegetation analogous te seasoning, or condiments, taken with the food of animals ; _ that is, analagous to mustard, cinnamon, ginger, &c. which ; ° are 58 On the Use of Green Vitriol of Iron, are not of themselves at all or necessarily nutritious, but contribute to render other things nutritious by exciting the action of the stomach and other organs of digestion and as~ similation. I have no doubt of the truth of the proposi- tion, that no living thing, neither plant nor animal, can grow and live in a state of visible action without constant supplies of matter which has been alive; in other words, hving animals and vegetables can only live on dead animals and dead vegetables. No plant nor animal has ever been known by experience, nor in the nature of things does it seem reasonable, that they can be nourished by mere water and pure air, as some persons have asserted, I shall make a very few remarks on the other two sub- stances which are the subject of Mr. Wallauine’s letter. 2. The Peat. The peat is a dense mass of vegetable matter for a certain depth, partly in a dead and partly in a living state, with which is mixed more or less earth, and in burning it affords so much empyreumatic oi] as to give a disagreeable taste to roasted provisions; hence, as we are told, it has been re- . jected from the kitchen. This fuel affords a vast quantity ef what the chemists call lignic acid; hence it is rejected also from the parlour, as very destructive to the grates. | beg to suggest that this lignic acid might be saved im burn- ing the peat as fuel, and be used for various purposes in manufactures ; and the charred peat may be used in place of charcoal of wood. Probably, too, other useful products will be found, on examining the matters more accurately which are afforded by distillation. 3. Ashes. ! Tf the peat were mere vegetable matter, the ashes afforded hy it would be as trifling as those of wood; but some parts of the mocr contain so much earth and oxide of iron as ~ to Jeave behind, on burning, a considerable quantity of in- combustible matter; and such kind of peat, we are told, is not used as fuel; but, after burning, the residuary matter is an efficacious manure, much more so than 1s commonly afforded by paring and burning. The ashes are more red and more fertilizing than ashes of common turf, because they contain more iron. The spontaneous springing up of white clover, in Jand manured’ with these ashes, is similar to the spontaneous growth of this plant on heath Jand which has been covered with lime to destroy all its present vegetation ; and this fact 4 00 shows a a oe ae a seared aria. Aerie dln va, oe ae” OP Rosato yew See eel be Pate eel ee » : or Sulphate of Iron, as a Manure. 59 shows that probably these are seeds buried in the earth for many ages, which yet remain alive, but do not grow until exposed to the stimuli of air, water, calorific, and lifeless animal or vegetable matter. APPENDIX, The following facts, lately discovered by most respectable chemists, appear to be worth adding to the preceding me- moir, as they serve to show that other salts, besides sulphate of iron, and certain earths, may be employed advantageously as manures, although, like iron, they have heen esteemed deleterious to plants. 1. Ashes of Pit Coal are a good Manure for Grass. My much valued friend, the Rev. Wm. Gregor,. of Grampound, on examination of the ashes of coal from Li- verpool, found them to contain both sulphate of magnesia - and sulphate of lime, especially the former, salt. I appre- hend that these ashes also contain oxide of iron, or perhaps sulphate of iron. These ashes, says Mr. Gregor, skeaded * over grass apparently produced good effects notwithstand- ing the sulphate of magnesia, which I was well assured they contained. (Sce Nicholson’s Journal, vol. v. p. 225.) _ From this observation of Mr. Gregor, it seems he is aware of the prevailing popular opinion, that ‘sulphate of magnesia is not fayourable to vegetation; and to reconcile his fact with the unfriendly nature of magnesia to plants, as discovered by Mr. Tennant, he observes that the effects of sulphate of magnesia may be very different from those of Magnesia and carbonate of magnesia. J apprehend it is the magnesia (calcined magnesia) only which this learned che- mist found hurtful to vegetables, as the discovery was made on the examination of Noitingly lime, which the farmers near Doncaster employ as a manure, while they reject the lime of their own neighbourhood.. In the latter Mr. Ten- Nant met with magnesia, and in the former none. (See the account of this important discovery in the Philosophical Transactions.) 2. The Earth from Ashes called Cinis, is a durable and ef- Jicacious Manure: by Professor Mircui.y, of New York, one of the Representatives in Congress. Addressed to Dr. PEARSON. Dr. Mitchill, in a letter addressed to me on cinis, or earth found in the ashes of wood, has made some observa- . © From 2xedaw. t ions vere Soe: 60 On the Use of Green Vitriol of Iron, tions relative to the preceding memoir, which scem worthy of notice. s¢ Ashes of wood contain very commonly sulphate of potash, also phosphoric acid, besides other well known salts ; but after these salts are separated by lixiviation, there remains a peculiar earth and a small proportion of iron, This earth differs from lime, baryt, magnesia, strontian, or any other known species of earth. I would call it cénis, for entiful, common, and important as it is, science has not ignified it with a name. To judge of the excellence of © this earth as a manure, after all the salts are extracted from soap-boilers’ ashes, the earth sells for ten cents the bushel ; and, notwithstanding this high price, it is not unusual for the farmer to pay for the article twelve months beforehand. When ploughed into steril ground, at twelve loads per acre, it produces great crops of wheat, clover, and other sorts of grass and grain, and its fertilizing operation will last twenty years. Although some of the other ingredients of the ashes left after lixiviation may prove beneficial, yet the effects are chiefly from the cinis, or new named earth. s¢ This earth, which is so prized in America as a manure, was esteemed of old in Asia as an ingredient in a cement : among the antient Syrians it was one of the materials form- ing the plaster of their walls; and, as it holds an interme- diate place between lime and potash, it can easily be con- ceived how it may act both as a cement and a manure. It js to be hoped chemists will turn their attention to this im- portant subject,” (See Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, vol. vii. p. 273, for the whole of this interesting letter.) 3. Several metallic Salts promote Vegetation, shown by the Experiments of Professor Barton, of Philadelphia. Letter from BENsAMin SmitH Barton, M.D. Professor of Medicine in the College of Philadelphia, to Dr. PEar- * son, containing Experiments with metallic Sobutions to determine their Effects on Plants, SIR, Philadelphia, Oct. 28, 1802. In the Annals of Medicine for the year 1801, you inform us that you have lately read a paper at the Board of Agri- culture *¢ containing an account of the effects of a saline’ body collected from peat as a most powerful manure, which turns out to be sulphate of iron; a substance, you. remark, hitherto considered to be a poison to plants.” This piece of intelligence gave me much satisfaction. I have, for some years, been engaged in an extensive series of experiments relative Ser ey or Sulphate of Iron, as a Manure. Gi telaiive to the effects of various stimulating articles, such as camphor, &c. upon vegetables; and on the absorption of certain powerful mineral substances inte the organic sys tem of vegetables. In numerous instances I have subjected ‘the stems and leaves of plants, young and old, large and small, tothe influence of the sulphates of iron and copper. I have found that both of these metallic salts are very greedily absorbed by vegetables, insomuch that I have de- tected the presence of iron in the vessels of a branch of mul- berry, at the height of five or six fect above the place of im- mersion, in a solution of the sulphate of this metal. A full account of my experiments | design to communicate to the public in two memoirs. Permit me to observe in the mean- while, that the sulphate of iron applied to vegetables in the manner J have mentioned ‘is only (to use your own words) a poison, like almost every thing else, from the over-dose.” In several of my experiments the branches of vegetables that were placed in vessels containing solutions of the sulphate of iron and copper, lived longer and exhibited more signs of vigour than similar branches that were placed in equal quantities of simple water. It is true, that in many other experiments these metallic salts proved fatal to my plants 3 but this was when I employed too large a dose. In like manner I had found, several years ago*, that camphor, by greatly stimulating, often kills vegetables; and yet, when properly dosed, this is a very wholesome stimulant to plants.. { had aiso found that large doses of nitre (which is unques- tionably a powerful stimulant, both with respect to animals and vegetables) produce an appearance like genuine gan- grene in the leaves of vegetables; and yct it 1s certain that nitre, when it is judiciously dosed, may be made to greatly assist the healthy vegetation of plants. Excuse the liberty J have taken in troubling you with these few loose hints, and permit me to subscribe myself, Sir, your very humble and obedient servant, &c. To Dr. Pearson. BrnJaAMIN SMITH Barton. 4. Sulphate of Iron in the Peat of Russia, found by Professor Robinson. ‘ Something else besides vegetable matter is necessary to form peat or black moss of the moors. ‘The smell of burn- ing peat is different from that of vegetable matter. Peat ashes, says the professor, always contain a very great pro- * See Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. iv. nO. 27. - portion mt ‘ 62 Biographical Anecdotes of portion of ifon: he has seen three piaces in Russia where there is superficial peat moss, and in all of them the vitriol is so abundant as to effloresce. In particular, on a moor near St. Petersburgh, the clods show the vitriol (sulphate of iron) every morning when the dew has evaporated. Ac+ cording to this learned professor’s observation, the sulphate of iron in pit coal may be accounted for in the following manner :—‘* Peat mosses form very regular strata, lying, indeed, on the surface ; but if any operation of nature should cover this with a deep load of other matter, it would be compressed and rendered very solid; and, remaining for ages im that situation, might ripen into a substance very like pit coal. (See the Medical and Chirurgical Review for No- vember 1803.) 5. Mr. Anstey’s Testimony of the Use of Peat Dust and Peat Ashes. SIR, Houghton Regis, Dec. 3, 1801. I received yours, dated the 18th of November last, in which you requested me to inform you what experiment I had made from the turf dust taken from Tingrith Moor. I have made use of the ashes and dust near thirty years, and I frequently lay on from eighty to a hundred bushels per acre. Our land is dry, and very thin stapled, owing to the chalk rock laying so very near the surface: it encourages vegetation in moist warm weather; but when hot and dry, the reverse. We never:mix any other manure with it. It eosts about fourpence per bushel, including all expenses. We chiefly spread it on our seed grass, clover, &c. Iam, sir, your humble servant, Jos, ANSTEY. 1X. Biographical Anecdotes of Cuartes Hutton, LL.D. FER.S Turs gentleman, so much distinguished by his abilities, isa native of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where he was born about the year 1737. At an early age he was placed at a school in that town, where he soon made a rapid progress ; and about the cightcenth year of his age, having lost his parents, who, though in the humbler ranks of life, were aiways respectable, he endeavoured to. provide for him- self by commencing country school-master. | His first establishment in this line was at the village of Jesmond, about 4 Py Te ee Pee ae hid noite, Miah led Tia Colaib Charles Hutton, L.L.D. F.R.S. 63 about two miles from Newcastle, where he remained some years ; during which he improved himself by close study, reading all the mathematical and other books he was able to purchase. About the year 1760, Mr. Hutton removed to Newcastle, where he had a better opportunity of displaying his talents to advantage, and where he ay extraordinary proofs of the progress he had made, by the solution of several curious and difficult questions in various periodical publications ; and particularly in the Ladies’ Diary, in his own name, and in Martin’s Magazine of Sciences, under the signature of Tonthu, being the letters of his name transposed. The first of Mr. Hutton’s separate publications was a little work on arithmetic, for the use of schools, first printed at New- castle in 1764. It has already gone through ten large editions ; and in printing the first, to supply the want of proper mathematical types, which at that time could not be procured in Newcastle, Mr. Hutton was obliged to cut with a pen-knife, on the reversed end of old types, many of the algebraical characters used in the vulgar fractions and other parts of the work, Mr. Hutton employed his evenings in composing a large work on mensuration, which came out in quarto numbers, the Jast of them in the year 1770. It was printed at New- castle. This work met with a very favourable reception, and a second edition, with improvements, was published at London in 1788, large octavo. Mr. Hutton soon gave another proof of his genius and industry, by a republication of all the useful parts of the Ladies’ Diaries, from the com- mencement in 1704 to that of 1773. This work was given to the public, in parts or numbers, quarterly, beginning in July 1771,-and ending in July 1775, forming altogether five volumes, viz. two volumes of the poetical parts, and three of the mathematical. ‘These extracts were accom- panied with numerous notes and illustrations, which sup- plied the defects in the original solution of the questions. Each number contained also a few sheets of new mathema- tical correspondence, of original essays, questions, &c. making one volume, in which. the contributions of the editor himself made a considerable portion, but under various fictitious names. About the years 1771 and 1772, Mr. Hutton was employed by the magistrates of Newcastle to make an accurate survey of the town and county of New- eastle-upon-Tyne, which he did with great ec: rectness. This plan was soon after engraved and published in a map epnsisting of two very large sheets, with an abridged account , its Bas = teal Gr 64 Biographical Anecdctes of — account of the history, trade, and population of that lace. ‘ The old bridge of Newcastle being borne down by a very high flood on the 17th ot November 1771, which raised the waters in the river about mime feet higher than the usual spring tides,—this accident gave rise to so many absurd notions among the people sm regard to the arches of bridges, that Mr. Hutton conceived that 2 demonstration of the re- lation between the more essential parts of bridges might be of great utility to such architects and builders as might ‘have mathematical knowledve sufficient to enable them to comprchend the theory of arches. In a few months, there fore, he composed, and published at Neweastle, a very learned and useful little book, entitled ‘ The Principles of Bridges, &c.,” 1772, Svo. As this tract had been out of print for many years, the author was induced, in conse- quence of being consulted on the project of a new bridge for the improvement of the port of London, to give a new edition of it. This edition, as the author thought, was very illiberally and unfairly attacked in the Monthly Re- view for March 1802; and he consequently wrote a very able and masterly reply to the reviewer, which was pub- lished in the Monthly Magazine for August the same year. About this period the health of Mr. John Lodge Cowley, professor of mathematics at Woolwich, having so much declined that he could no longer attend the duties of his office, the master-general and principal officers of the Board of Ordnance, came to the resolution of permitting him to retire. Eis successor was to be appointed by competition ; and the gentlemen made choice of to examine the candi- dates were the ablest mathematicians that could be found, viz. the Rev. Dr. Horsley, now bishop of St. Asaph, the Rey. Dr. Maskelyne, astronomer Royal, Colonel Watson, chief engineer in the service of the East India Company, and Mr. Landen, well known by his publications on ma- thematical subjects. ‘Fhe candidates were in number seven or eight; but Mr. Hutton, who had repaired to London for the purpose of competing on this occasion, was the person whom the examiners thought it their duty more particularly to recommend, on account of the very able manner in which he had answered all the proposed questions. : _ In consequence of the advantage which Mr. Hutton ac- quired by his new situation at Woolwich, he entered upon a new and severe course of study, with a view of qualifying himself better for the important task he had undertaken, 1 and Charles Hutton, L.L.D. F.R.S. 65 and for the execution of some new works which be had projected. The first publication which he engaged in after this period was the Ladies’ Diary, to which for many years he had been an useful contributor. On his arrival in Lon- don, he was informed of the death of the last compiler, and a few days after the future managerment of this fa- vourite work was confided to his judgment and industry, by the Stationers’ Company, with increased enioluments. for several years after his settling at Woolwich, Mr. Hutton employed part of his time in writing accounts of mathematical and philosophical books for the reviews pub- lished monthly in London. The same year that he removed to Woolwich he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, to the Transactions of which he was afterwards a valuable contributor. The first of his papers published in that work was “ A new and general method of finding simple, ahd quickly converging series, by which the proportion of the diameter of the circle to its circumference may be easily computed to a great number of figures,” printed in the Transactions for 1776. The second was «© A demonstration of two remarkable theorems mentioned in a former article of the Transactions,” published also in the same year, 1776. - The next was a paper, in the year 1778, “ On the force of fired gun-powder, and the initial velocities of cannon-balls, determined by experiments; from which is also deduced the relation of the initial velocity to the weight of the shot, and the quantity of the charge of the powder.” This papet contains the account and calculation of a great number of curious experiments with cannon- balls, made at Woolwich, in the year 1775, by the author and other ingenious gen- tlemen ; and so sensible were the Society of the value of this communication, that Mr. Hutton was honoured with the prize medal of that year. Soon after, he was elected one of the cotincil, and appointed Latin secretary for con- ducting the foreign correspondence, vacated by the election of Mr. Maty to the reading secretaryship. In the Transactions of the same year appeared “ An ac- count of the calculations made from the survey and mea- sures taken at Schehalliea, in order to ascertain the mean density of the earth.” The determination of the mean density of the earth was an important problem proposed by the Society, and the survey and measurements for this purpose were taken at the hill of Schehallien, in Perth- 1? shire, in the years 1774, 1775, and 1776, by the direc» tion, and partly under the inspection, of Dr. Maskelyne, Vol. 21. No. $1. Fel). 1805. E the diate ay os Te Oe ee ee iy Oe Pa Pee te ? 66 Biographical Anecdotes of Charles Hutton. L.L.D. the astronomer royal; after which the Society entrusted 6 Mr. Hutton the important charge of making the calcula- tions, and drawing the proper conclusions from them. The result was, that the mean density of the earth was found to be in proportion to that of the hill of Schehallien, as 9 to 5, so that when the actual density of the hil} shall be ascertained, the real density of the earth will m some measure be determined. by The year following, Dr. Hatton gave another paper, as supplement to the preceding, which contained * Calcula- tions to determine at what point in the side of the hill its attraction will be greatest.”” The next communication, which was in the year 1780, was a long tract on cubic equations, and this was followed, in 1783, by “* A project for a new division of the quadrant.” This was the last of his communications to the Transactions, as, it seems, a stop was put to his usefulness in this way by a misunderstanding between him, and the Society, in consequence ef whieh he resigned his office in the year 1784. t Soon after, that is im 1786, Dr. Hutton published a volume of mathematical and philosophical tracts, im quarto, containing a number of curious papers, which would pro- bably have appeared in the Philosophical Transactions had not the before-mentioned misunderstanding taken place. One of these tracts consists of “ New experiments in artillery for determining the foree of fired gun-powder ; the initial velocity of cannon-balls ; the ranges of pieces of cannon at different elevations; the resistance of the air to projectiles ; the effect of different lengths ef cannon, and of differeut quantities of powder,” &c. These experiments were made in the years 1783, 1784, aud 1785. Besides these, Dr. Hutton has given to the public several other useful and ingenious works on mathematical subjects ; as, in 1781, a folio volume, containing ‘*Tables of the pro- ducts-and. pewers of numbers,” published by order of the Commissioners of Longitude :—In 1785, “ Mathematical tables of the common hyperbolic and logistic logarithms: ; also sines, tangents, and secants, versed sines, both natural and logarithmic, with several other tables.usefulin mathema- tical calculations; to which is prefixed an original history of the discoveries and: writings relating to these subjects ;” a.second edition of this work was printed in 1794:—In 1786, ** ‘Fhe compendious measurer; being a brief yet comprehensive treatise on mensuration and practical ge- ometry ; with an introduction to decimal and duodecimal arithmetic, adapted to practice and the use»of schools.’” ’ This aii Pavan Sow, en ee Se ee aT : , ; On Pithing Cattle. 67 ‘ This is chiefly an abridgment of his large work on mensu- ration, and has since gone through several editions :—In 1787, in one volume 8vo, ** Elements of conic sections, with select exercises in various branches of military mathe- matics and philosophy, for the use of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich.” This volume, which consists chiefly of practical exercises for the use of the cadets at the Academy, was ordered to be printed by the Duke of Richmond, then master-general of the ordnance; and on this occasion Dr. Hutton had the honour of being pre- sented to the king, and of kissing his majesty’s hand. In 1796, Dr. Hutton published, in two large volumes, in quarto, his ‘* Mathematical and philosophical dictionary,” an useful and laborious work, replete with curious and original matter. It has been said that one article alone in it, namely, that on algebra, occupied no less than two _ years of the author’s time, in reading all the treatises on the same subject to collect the materials and arrange them. In 1798 appeared, «* A new course of mathematics,”’ in two volumes, composed, and more especially designed, . ~ for the use of the gentlemen cadets in the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. In this work the author has con- densed into two octavo volumes, of a middling size, a great variety of useful matter, and the subjects, though mostly elementary, are treated in a novel manner, with great neatness, precision, and even elegance. In 1799 our author had the honour of being presented with a'diploma of Doctor of Laws by the University of Edinburgh, and he has since been elected honorary. mem- ber of several learned academies and societies both in Europe and America. : X. On Pithing Cattle*. Tue method of killing cattle by dividing the spinal mar- row, with a view to lessen or prevent entirely the suffering of the animal, was introduced at Mr. Mellish’s slaughtering- houses by the laudable perseverance of Lord Somerville and other members of the Board of Agriculture, and Mr. Mellish found the flesh of the beasts so killed equally good, if not better, than the flesh of those slaughtered in the usual way. And as the operation is performed quietly, and with- out alarm to the animal, all bruises are avoided, .and such ' * From Plymley's General view of the Agriculture of Shropshire. E2 are ee EET POC UE he Tr ea enn ra toe D gee ee eNOS 2/8) ATG IR 68 On Pithing Cattle, are not very uncommon in forcing them into a proper posi- tion to receive the stroke when. they are to be knocked down. A butcher at Wisbech practised this mode severak years ago, from the representations made to him by captain Clarkson, of the navy, who had seen them so slaughtered for the use of our flect when at Jamaica. After this person’s death, Mr. Smith, a butcher of the same place, adopted the same method, and im the year 1796 E procured, by favour: of Mr. Clarkson (whose mame accords so well with any question of humanity), the following account, which he had. from Mr. Simith.—** Mr. Smith: intormed me, that he kills. all his bullocks by striking theny in the spinal marrow. | If a line were drawn from ear-root to ear-root (at about am inch and half distance from the horns), and the centre of this line were found, this centre would be the place where the Knife should enter. The kuife is not in the form of a dagyer, nor is it thrast iu with any force. It is rather larger than a common penknife, but the blade is permanently fixed, to the handle. “Fhe handle is taken into the hand, and the forefinger goes down it towards the point, merely to direct it. The person using the kiife takes hold of one ear of the beast with his left hand, aad with the right he strikes it with the knife. Tn the same instant the bullock drops, and is out of sensation of any pain. Le informs me, that it is not once im a thousand times that any person misses the right place; perhaps an apprentice may at the beginning, bat the rule is so certain that it may be said hardly ever to fail, and if if should fail, the knife is at any rate so near the proper place, that by the least alteration of the position (without even taking it out) it jimds its way. In this case there would hardly be the pain of two seconds. I was, obliged to leave Wisbech before the kiling-day, or I would: have seen this method practised. Tf tatkhed to Smith’s ap- prentice, who assured me that he bad uo difficulty. in find- ing the proper spot, ane) that the beast drops instantly. Though Sanith kills in this manner, no other butcher of Wisbech follows the examole. He says, however, that the practice obtains pretty universally on the Lincolnshire bank of the Hunrber, as at Barton and several other places. Calves, sheep, pigs, &e. are killed by Smith in the same manner. I saw three sheep that had been skinned, and were banging up in his shop, which had been killed by his apprentice in this way. [ie showed me the small hole on the back of the head,.or neck, which the knife had made.”’ Plausitle, however, as these experiments are, [believe now that they proceeded upou a mistaken paasiples or: rather, _ be TE ee PORTE NTS Ie | POM he, ee f e ‘ ’ , » On Pithing Catile. 69 rather, that the operation did not accord with the principle, so far as tenderness towards the animal is concerned : for though a beast is managed completely by this mode, it is not so certain that his sense of feeling is destroyed. The contrary indeed seems proved by the meritorious pains taken by Mr. Du Gard, of the Shrewsbury Infirmary, who has shown im the following communication, that though the spinal marrow was divided, the nerves that supplied the or- gans of respiration and most of the senses were uninjured. Mr. Du Gard’s experiments were communicated to Mr. Everard Home, of London, and by him, through sir Joseph Banks, to the Board. Mr. Home afterwards sent lord Carrington the valuable paper that follows Mr. Du Gard’s, » an which he has suggested a mode of performing the ope- ration which would answer completely, could we be sure of having operators sufficiently skilful. We may the less regret the difficulty in getting new modes established, when we thus see the superiority of an old custom under very improbable circumstances; and if well-imeant reformers wanted any additional motives to care and circuimspection, a very forcible one is furnished in the instance of the time and trouble taken to introduce this operation, and which, as it has been hitherto practised, is the very reverse of what was intended. os Observations and Experiments on Pithing Catile. By Tuomas Du Garp. ' ** The subject of slaughtering cattle by puncturing the medulla spinatis, with a view of superseding the method generally practised in England, has lately engaged the at- tention of the Agricultural Board, and been strongly recom- mended by them. . * It is, | believe, universal in Portugal and other parts of the continent, as well as in some of our West India islands, but is only of late introduction into this country. * Pain and action are so generally joined, that we mea- sure the degree of pain by the loudness of the cries and violence of the consequent ‘exertion; and therefore con- clude, on seving two animals killed, that the ene which ‘makes scarcely a struggle, though it may continue to breathe, suffers less than that which is more violently convulsed and strugvles till life is exhausted. R «ft appears, however, that there may be acute pain without exertion, perhaps as certainly as there is action without pain ; even distortions that at the first glance would E3 seem PE ee Oey ie eee Sar > nn ee aera 70 On Pithing Cattle. seem to proceed from pain, are not always really accom- panied with sensation. ** To constitute pain, there must be a communication between the injured organ and the brain. - © The heart of a viper pulsates after being taken out of the body ; and that pulsation is increased if it be goaded with a pin. Limbs suddenly separated from the human body sometimes start and twitch for afew moments. The viper cannot be said to feel pain on its heart being pricked with a pin: nor would any man who saw his own finger contract from electricity or heat, after it was cut off, fancy _ a suffered pain. The pain in both instances is in the part only from whence the separation took place. ‘€ Perception, and the power of exertion, are derived from the brain in the skull and back-bone. That part which lies in the skull seems principally to supply our senses and appetites with nervous energy ; and that part which lies in the spine, and is called marrow, is more par- ticularly appropriated to the action of the large locomotive muscles. ‘© An injury to the skull not sufficient immediately to take away life, often leaves the patient with the power of moving his limbs, though without any feeling or perception, lying in a profound apoplectic sleep. ** On the contrary, an injury to the spine leaves the power of perception perfect, though the limbs are immove- able; but as life depends more on the functions of the brain and of the lungs, than on the spinal marrow and its dependent, locomotive muscles, the animal feels and lives longer on its sustaining a given injury in the spinal marrow than on a fracture or concussion of the head*. “a3. B: * That perception may remain in the head, and respiration be conti- nued after the division of the medulla spinalis, will be evident to any one who consults the anatomy of those parts. In the human subject, the par vagum, or eighth pair of nerves, arises from the corpora olivaria of the medulla oblongata, and passes out of the cranium through the foramena lacera into the neck, thorax, and abdomen, sending off branches to the tongue, larynx, pharynx, lungs, and abdomi- nal viscera. Cuvier, in his Lecons @’ Anatomie compariée, after stating the course of this nerve in the human subject, observes also, , *« Dans les mammiferes. “« Cette distribution du nerf vague ¢toit a-peu-prés la méme dans quatre ou cing espéces de mammiféres sur lesquéls nous avons fait des reckerches a cet égard. Le veax seul nous a offert une particularité que nous avons indiquée a l’article du nerf facial ; mais les anastomoses avec le grand sympathique, les nerfs récurrens, les plexus cardiaques et pulmonaires ne nous On Pitlung Cattle. 71 * J. B. fell in the summer ef 1801 from a load of hay ; he was bled, and brought to the infirmary at Shrewsbury, which, being my residence, gave me hourly opportunities of examining him: he complained of great pain in the upper and back part of kis neck, bet-of none lewer- down: he had not the power of using the least motion with any of his timbs. His arms, body, and degs, were all quite msen- sible to any pain or feeling from pricking or pinching, and therefore all sensation below the injured part of the spine was destroyed. In this state he languished a week, being apparently in full possession of the feclings and faculties of his mind, and of his senses of hearing, sight, smell, and taste. He took food for two or three days, though the power of retaining or. protruding his evacuations was lost- On examining the neck after death, the second cervical vertebra was found fractured. ** On reflecting on this case it occurred to me, that a dumb animal, if reduced to the state of this poor man, would not have the power of expressing the pain it endured, for J. B. had great pain above the injured part, though all power of moving, as well as feeling, was destroyed below ; and in the brute creation, we judge of pain by the muscu- dar efforts of the animal. I therefore, by means of a dagger, punctered the spinal marrow of a cow according to the new method of slaughtering, and having divided it as much as possible after she fell, reduced her 40 the same state as the poor man whose case I have related. The animal breathed with freedom, and perception in the head continued, as was evinced by the eyelids closing on the approach of my hand, tll the butcher struck a blew near the horns, when her breathing ceased, and the cye became fixed with imme- diate death. « In all the experiments T have hitherto tried, the ani- mal has suddenly dropped, and has been slightly convulsed, but has not died immediately. in sheep, after puncturing the medulla spinalis in the new way, I have seen their eyes close and open on the approach and withdrawing of my hand, for twenty times successively, and the pupil as muck contracted as in health, till I was anxious to terminate their misery by having the blood-vessels of the threat divided. nous ont présenté de diflérence que dans le nombre des filets, ce qui peut dépendre de l'addresse du prosesteur des espéces que nous avons dessé- quees sont le chien, le raton, le covbon, le porc-épic.”” I have examined the head and neck of a sheep killed by the puncture, and found the par vagum uninjured. : : E4 Trom ae ee i Os (2 On Pithing Cattle. From the loss of blood their eyes have then soon’ become dilated and insensible. eerie outed amsacnr! ** In the old method of slaughtering, a concussion, of the brain takes place, and therefore the power of feeling Is destroyed, The animal drops, and although convulsions: take place generally longer and more violent than when the spinal marrow is divided, yet there is, 1 think, reason to: hcheve that the animal suffers less pain. *¢ The immediate consequence of the blow is the dilata+ t'on of the pupil of the eve, without ary expression of cons siousness or fear on the approach of the hand. ee ** Jn this state of insensibility, which in man would be called apoplexy, or extreme stupor, the blood is always drawn off by the butcher cutting the throaf, and the animal cies without the Jeast sign of feeling or uneasy faintness. ‘© In severe epilepsy the brain suffers. a temporary sus- pension of power, in many respects very sunilar, to the concussion of the brain from a blew, only that the convul- sions and expressions of pain scem greater; yet the patients uniformly agree, that they do not recollect any pain; the season 1s Obvious, the discas¢ 1s a suspension of the power of feeling. te ‘* From all these cireumstanees F conclude that the new method of slaughtering cattle is more paintul than. the old. The puncture of the medulla spinalis docs not destroy feel- ing, though it renders the body quicscent ;-and, in this state the animal both endures pain at the punctured. part, and suflcrs, asit were, a sccond death, from the pain andifamt- ness from. loss of blood in cutting the throat,, which. is practised im both methods.’”” —- Copy of a Lether from Everany Wome, Esq. to Lord CARKINGTON.. . ‘* MY LORD, ns *© T iad the honowr of presenting to your lordship, through sir Joseph Banks, some experiments and obser- vations made by a surgeon at Shrewsbury, to show that the mode adopted in this country, of killing animals by wound- ng the spinal marrow, is less humane thaw the more com-- mon one of knecking them down, mr ** [ have, at your lordship’s request, repcated these expe- riments, and find the results agree with those of the author of the paper in every respect ; but the want of success appears to arise entirely from the opcration.having been peflormed ina very mmperiect manner, ; Ge On: On Pithing Cattle. 73 «- On Thursday the 15th of July 1802, the following experiment was made at Mr. Giblet’s, in Bond-street: A very fine ox was pithed, as it is termed, by Benjamin Bar- tholomew, who. has performed this operation more than twenty different times, and is considered to be very expert in the modeof doing it. I begged that he would take some pains, soas to do it in the most effectual manner. «* ‘The instrument he used was in the shape of a brick- layer’s trowel, made sharp at the point, and having a guard at the shoulder, to prevent the blade from being buried in the neck. «© He plunged it, with great dexterity, into.the canal containing the spinal marrow, and the animal instantly dropped, but the breathing continued, the motions of the eye and eye-lids were perfect, and the whole face lost no part of its animation, *< This being ascertained by observation for ten minutes, and the animal not being sufficiently quiet to admit of the throat being cut, it was knocked on the head, and every appearance of animation m the countenance immediately _ceased, and the breathing stopped. «* The spinal marrow was afterwards examined: it was found completely divided, but too low in the neck, the wound having been made one inch and a half below the erigin of the nerves that sapply the diaphragm. ‘¢ That a division of this part of the spinal marrow does not deprive an animal of life, has been known to anato- mists for many years; and the causes of its faijure cannot be better explained than by extracting an account of some experiments made by Mr. Cruickshank, in the year 1776, at which I was present, and gave my assistance. They are published in the 83th pat nt of the Philosophical Transactions. ** Experiment V1. April t9, 1776-—I divided the spinal marrow of a dog, between the last vertebra of the neck and first of the back. The muscles of the trunk of the body, but particularly those of the hind legs, appeared instantly relaxed ; the legs continucd supple, like those of an animal killed by electricity. The heart, on performing the opera- tion, ceased for a stroke or two, then went on slow and full, and in about a quarter of an hour after the pulse was. 160 in a minute. Respiration was performed by means of the diaphragm only, which acted very strongly for some: hours. ‘The operation was performed about a quarter of at hour before twelve at noon; about four in the afternoon the pulse was ninety only ina minute, and the heat of = body ~ 74 On Pithing Cattle. body exceedingly abated, the diaphragm acting stronvly, but irregularly. About seven in the evening the pulse was not above- twenty in a minute, the diaphragm acting strongly, but in repeated jerks. Between twelve at night and one in the morning the dog was still alive: respiration was very slow, hut the diaphragm still acted with consi- derable torce. Early in the morning he was found dead. This operation I performed from the suggestion of Mr. _ Hunter. He had observed in the human subject,’ that when the neck was broke at the lower part (in which cases the spinal marrow is torn through), the patient lived for some days, breathing by the diaphragm. This experiment showed that dividing the spinal marrow at this place, on the neck, if below the origin of the phrenic nerves, would not for many hours alter destroy the animal; 1t was preparatory to the following experiment. ni dasa «© Experiment VIL. April 26.—I divided the par vagum ~ and intercostal nerves, on both sides, in a dog. Soon atter, I performed on the same animal the operation of the last experiment, and the same symptoms took place. His respirations were five in a minute, and more regular than in Experiment JIJ.; the pulse beat 80 in a minute. Five minutes after, I found the'pulse 120 in a minute, respiration unaltered; at the end of tcn minutes, the pulse*had again sunk to §0 in a minute, respiration as before; at the end of fifteen minutes, the pulse was again 120, respiration not altered. The operation was performed avout two im the afternoon, at Mr. Hunter’s in Jermyn-street. | At three- quarters of an hour after five, the respirations were in- creased to fifteen in a minute; the pulse beating 80 in the same time, and very regularly: the breathing seemed so free, that he had the appearance of a dog asleep. At a quarter before eight, the pulse beat 80, respirations being » ten ina minute. «At three-quarters of an hour after ten, re- spiration. was eight in a minute, the pulse beating 60. The animal heat was exceedingly abated: I applied heat to the chest, he breathed stronger, and raised his head a little, as if awaking from sleep. At balf after twelve Mr. Hunter saw him ; the breathing was strong, and twelve in a mi- nute, the heart beating forty-eight in the same time, slow, but not feeble. He shut his eyelids when they were touched ; shut his mouth on its being opened; he raised ‘his head a little, but as he had not the use of the muscles which fix the chest, he did it with a jerk. Mr. Hunter saw him again between four and five o’clock in the morn- ing ; his respirations were then five in a minute, the heart é beating Pee ER Pe We) a a ai eee a . On Pithing Cattle. 75 beating exe¢edingly slow and weak. We suppose he died about six in the morning, having survived the operation sixteen hours. This experiment I made from the suggestion of Mr. Hunter, with a view to obviate the objections raised against the reasoning drawn from the three first experi- ments. It was urged, that though by these experiments I had deprived the thoracic and abdominal viscera of their ordinary connexion with the brain, yet, as the intercostals communicated with all the spinal nerves, some influence might be derived from the brain in this way. This expe- riment removed also the spinal nerves, and consequently ‘this objection. ** As I found by the two last experiments that dividing the spinal marrow in the lower part of the neck did not immediately kill, although instant death was universally known to be the consequence of dividing it in the upper part of the neck, I expressed my surprise to Mr. Hunter, that the spinal marrow should, according to modern theory, be so irritable in the one place, and so much less so in the other. , “* Hetold me, that from the time he first observed that. men who had the spinal marrow destroyed in the lower part of the neck lived some days after it, he had established an opinion, that animals who had the spinal marrow wounded in the upper part of the neck did not die from the mere wound, but that in dividing it so high we destroyed all the nerves of the muscles of respiration, and reduced the animal to the state of one hanged ; whereas, in dividing it lower, we still left the phrenic nerves, and allowed the animal to breathe by his diaphragm. If this opinion be well- founded, though dividing the spinal marrow in the lower part of the neck does not kill instantly, whilst the phrenic nerves are untouched, yet, if I divide the phrenic nerves first, and then divide the spinal marrow in the lower part of the neck, the consequence, I said, will be the same as if I had divided it in the upper part. «© Faxperiment V1I1.—By detaching the scapule of a dog frgm the spine and partly from the'ribs, ] got at the axillary plexus of nerves on both sides from behind. 1 separated the arteries and veins from the nerves, and passed a ligature under the yerveS close to the spme. I thought I could discern the phrenic nerves, and imstantly divided two con- siderable nerves going off from each plexus. The action of the diaphragm seemed to cease, and the abdominal muscles ‘became fixed, as if they had been arrested in expiration, the belly appearing contracted. His respirations were aa about As er et eee ee Pe ee i : le te ' 76 On Pithing Cattle. about twenty-five in a minute, the pulse beating a hundred and twenty. As I was noi willing to trust the experment to the possibility of having divided only one of the phrenics (which I afterwards found was, really. the case), and some different nerve instead of the other, atter carefully attending to the present symptoms I divided all the nerves of the axillary of each side. The ribs were now more elevated in respiration than before ; respirations were increased to forty in a minute, the pulse still beating a hundred and twenty in the same time. Finding that respiration went on very easily without the diaphragm, in about a quarter of an hour after dividing the axillary plexus of each side I divided the spinal marrow as in Experiment VI. The whole animal took the alarm; all the flexor muscles of the body seemed to contract, and instantly to relax again: he died as sud- denly as if the spinal marrow had been divided im the upper part of the neck. - wesien de <¢ Having explained the causes of failure in the present mode of pithing animals, it becomes necessary to state, that when the operation is properly performed, its success is complete. Of this I will mention the following istances : << A small horse was killed in this manner, that a cast might be made of its muscles in their natural state of action. The animal was allowed to stand upoma pedestal, and the operation was performed by Mr. Hunter, with a large awl: the breathing ceased instantaneously, and the animal was so completely dead as to be supported by the assistants, without making the slightest struggles and was fixed im the position in which he stood, without ever coming to the ground *. «« A dog was killed so instantaneously im the same way, by Mr. Hunter, that Mr. Clift, the conservator of the Hunterian Museum, who held the legs, and did not see the awh introduced, was waiting till the animal should struggle, and had no knowledge of any thing having been done, ull he was told to let go, and was surprised to find that the animal was completely dead. “ In thee operations the instrument was small, and 4li- rected by the skill of an anatomist upwards.into the cavity of the skull, soas to divide the medullary substance above the origin of the nerves which supply the diaphragm. «‘ By adopting this method of performing the operation of pithing cattle, it will be attended with the same success.” * The cast of this horse has a place in the Hantesian Muscum - Liha d XI. Memoir on the Natural History of the Coco-nut Tree and the Areca-nnt Tree; the Cultivation of them accord- ing to the Methods oy the Hindoos ; their Productions, and their Utility in the Arts and for the Purposes of du- mestic Economy. By M. Lr Goux pr Fratx, an Officer of Engineers, and Member of the Asiatic Society at Cal- cutta. ; [Continued from our last volume, Pp: 332-1] ye usual product of one coco-nut tree in India, a country where provisions of every kind are extremely low, is about six shillings per annum. This produce is no doubt eonsiderable. There is no tree’ in any part of the world which in this respect is equal to it, if we reflect on the small space which the coco-nut tree occupies: if it be considered also that various kinds of leguminous and gramincous plants, and even fruit-trees, can be cultivated under its shelter; that it scarcely requires any care or expense; and that all its parts are useful, as will be shown in this memoir- It is well known that the fibrous covering of the coco- nut is converted into good ropes, which are useful in na- vigation, and for various purposes on shore. Cables for anchors made of this substance are much better than those made ot hemp. They are exceedingly elastic, stretch with- out straining the vessel, and scarcely ever break ; inappre- ciable advantages, which are not possessed by those of hemp- They are also lighter, and never rot, in consequence of their being soaked with sea water. They never, like those of hemp, exhale damp miasmata, exceedingly hurtful to the crews of ships who sleep on the same deck where these ropes are kept when ships are under sail. To all these advantages must be added, that ropes made of the kaer* float like wood, that they are much easier managed, and run better in the pulleys during nautical manceuvres. The utility of the second covering of the coco-nut is so well known in Europe that it is needless for me to speak of it here. oma The palms of this tree, when entire, are employed to make mats for sleeping upon. When split through the middle, according to the length of the foot-stalk, they are wove into mats for covering sheds and houses. The use of these mats, even for the largest edifices, is general on the coast of Malabar. Such roofs are more agrecable than those made « © The name given by the Hindoos to the fibrous covering of the-coco- aut, : 4 of 78 - Natural History of the Coco-nut Tree of straw. Thcy do not attract rats and reptiles like the latter; and they are lighter, equally strong and durable, and much less exposed to danger im the case of fire. If fire happen to fall on a roof of this kind, which consists of two leaves placed one over the other, it can burn only a small surface, and is prevented from spreading for want of aliment. It may therefore be said that the coco-nut tree,which in the fields defends the wearied Indian by its shade from the scorching rays of the sun, protects the peaceful farmer in the night trom the long and heavy rains of the monsoons. The liquor of the coco-nut, when it is yet tender, is an agreeable and cooling beverage; its kernel, when newly formed, is sweet, and exceedingly pleasant to the taste. Both of them are salutary to persons afflicted with the scurvy. It would be dangerous, after long sea voyages, to make immediate use of them: instead of being beneficial, they would produce pernicious consequences. When the coco-nut has attained to maturity, it detaches itself from its stalk and falls spontaneously; but its fall, might be dangerous, and to prevent accidents the bunch 1s cut by the chana some days sooner than the period/at which. it attains to complete maturity. When the nut is rasped with a circular-teethed piece of iron, there 1s extracted from ita kind of milk or emulsion, by mixing with it a small quantity of boiling water and then straining it through a piece of thin cloth in thé same manner as those do who extract milk of almonds. . This emulsion is employed for different purposes: it is used for preparing saloop and sago. When put into coffee, instead of cream, it gives it an exquisite taste: that of our almonds produces néarly the same effect... This emulsion is employed also in the art of painting chintzes; to remove stains of the colours, and scour the cloth after the colours have been applied. The milk of the coco-nut, though gily, effervesces with an acid extract of that plant called by the Hindoos colechi, and the acid then precipitates it into a grayish lime, which. becomes of a rich violet colour by the addition. of fixed alkali; it is with this colour that cotton cloth and chintzes are dyed. When this emulsion is mixed with quicklime the alkali becomes: rose-coloured.. It is by these means that the Hindoos, prepare the rose-co- loured lime which they use with betel. pprress The dyers employ this milk with great advantage for silk, cotton, and woollen stuffs, which they dye black. It prevents that colour, which is generally caustie, from burn- ing the stuffs, and the dye becomes darker and more beau~ 3 tiful. alles PT eS eR TON Lar ete ad, EN eee oh - e and the Areca-nut Tree. a) g ‘tifal. ' I suppose that emulsion of almonds would produce the same effect as that of the coco-nut; our black stuffs then would not be burnt, as is generally the case: this ob- servation may be of use to dyers. If the milk of the coco-nat be concentrated by ebullition over a moderate fire, a sweet oil, agreeable and fit for the table when fresh, is obtained from it. The physicians of the country compose with this emulsion a gentle purgative, which is not nauseous: it produces no cholic or violent pain. Jt is administered in cases of plethora, gonorrhea, and other diseases ; it is also an excellent vermifuge. It is composed of half a pint of emulsion in which three or four heads of garlic have been dissolved, by boiling over a slow fire, to the consistence of marmelade: it is giyen to the patient fasting, while warm, with the addition of a little sugar. The oil of this nut is extracted by pressure; it is fit only for being burnt in lamps; it is of a drying quality, a little acrid, white, and so light that it becomes fixed even in the torrid zone; when burnt it gives a clear bright flame with- out exhaling any odour or smoke. It ts emrptoyed by rich people and in the houses of the Europeans in preference to any other kind. The substance from which this oil has been squeezed is given to beasts of burden mixed with their forage ; this food when given to cows and goats increases the quantity of their milk. Such are the properties and different uses made of this palm. If the wood could be employed for building or for domestic pusposes, it might justly be said that the coco- nut tree alone would be sufficient for the use of man. It is, however, a useful vegetable production, a valuable gift _of Providence to.the peacetul inhabitants of that fine country where it has been placed. _ It was the coco-nut tree. which gave the Hindoos the first idea of inventing the allegory and ingenious fable of the pheenix, as may be seen in the fifth chapter of the Poronia, one of the commentaries of the vades, a sacred book of these-people, which contains the principles of their xeligion, the history of the country, their sciences, and in op all their knowledge, as well as the practical know- due of all the arts which are cultivated init. | _.. The coco-nut tree does not renew the buds of its flowers after an interyal of two months, but in April, a period at which the year of the Hindoos commences, it is produced enly from its fruit, which, are their children, This is a emer actly eS ee oA Ee) ey ae oe ee a VOT Lee P 80 On the Affinities of actly the idea which the antients had of the phoenix; that. is to say, that it nouvished and reproduced itself. It is seen in the Indian mythology that these people deified the coco- nut tree in the same manner as many other trees and small vegetables ; useful animals, such as the ox; the sea, and all rivers. The Egyptians and all the neighbouring nations adopted the mythology and fables, as well as the arts and sciences, of these people, as is fully proved by researches made for more than half a century: the Egyptians, the Tyrians, and the Greeks deified therefore, like the Hindoos, animals, useful vegetables, and rivers. Hence the ox be- came the god apis, and the date-tree the phoenix. [To be continued. ] XII. Experiments to ascertain whether there exists any Affinity betwixt Carbon and Clay, Lime and Silex, se- parately or as Compounds united with the Oxide of Iron orming Iron Ores and Iron Stones. By Davin Musnet, Esq. of the Cader Tron-Works. [Continued from our last volume, p. 235.] 3d, Siliceous Ironstone. Tue varieties of this ironstone are in general much poorer in iron than the common qualities of ironstone: from 15 to 25 per cent. seem to be the medium contents in metal. Some specimens have been obtained as high as 35 per cent. and 38 per cent. At first sight this class of tronstones re- semble sandstone; but, upon minute examination, there appear other characteristic features, of which density is al- ways one, to distinguish them from each other. The varieties of this class are, like the arvillaceous and ealeareous, found both in balls and in regular strata, and subject to the same general rule, i. e, the thicker the band or stratum, the less metal will be found in a given quantity of the ore. Siliceous ball ironstone is geverally rich in iron, and is commonly found with a fracture more or less granulated resembling a coarse variety of freestone. What distinguishes it from sandstone is the calcareous earth that is found in the state of chalk, and which appears in some measure to be the seat or bond of union of each individual granule of ore. ~ "The poorer varieties of siliceous ore are sometimes — 2 rom ad pee ap | Oe | des a! 2 Shklar! Shae Ree Seen RRM Tat cee et different Earths for Carbon. Bl from 2 to 4 feet in thickness; they are either called hard- eeking freestone, or water-whin, or dyke metal; and have seldom been suspected of containing iron. Almost every variety I have examined has contained a portion of calca- reous earth, either in the state of chalk, spar, or crystal. This circumstance, added to density, leads always to a strong suspicion of iron being contained in quantity. The ironstone subjected to the following experiments is found in an irregular stratum from 4 to 8 inches thick. A bed of coal is immediately below it, and a carbonaceous ironstone 14 inches thick is incumbent to it. ' Its appearance is like gray freestone or sandstone, but much more compact and heavy. Its surface is entirely co- vered with large plates of mica, and interspersed with calca- reous earth. Its specific gravity is — 3:41. Exp. 1. 400 grains of raw siliceous ironstone, 8 of carbon, or 1-50th. The fusion of this mixture yielded a very glass crystal- lized in feathered radii upon the surface. The fracture was finely prismatic, and the lustre of some of the shades un- commonly luminous and decp. Towards the bottom two cavities of a pearly white colour were found; and imme- diately below, in one similar, a metallic spherule which weighed 54 grains. Equal to 1°375 per cent. from, raw Irotistone. Exp. Il. 400 grains of raw ironstone, 10 of charcoal, or 1-40th. A complete fusion was also obtained in this experiment. The surface of the glass, however, in place of being shining and crystallized, as in No. T., was dull, black, and covered with an enamel of oxide usual in these experiments, but of an unusual thickness. The fracture was prismatic and wavy. A metallic spherule was’ obtained which weighed 104 grains. Equal to 2625 per cent, Exp. Il. 400 grains of raw ironstone, 20 of carbon, or 1-20th. This experiment was also completely reduced, though under appearances somewhat different from No. I, and II. When the cover was taken off, after redness had ceased, the surface of the glass was found semi-spherical. In half a minute part of the convex was removed: at the time a slight explosion was heard, accompanied with a flash of sparkling light blue flame. Beneath, the glass was found of a variety of brown and blue colours. Their fragment displayed a dark amber considerably transparent.. A neat smooth Wot. 21. No. 81. Feb. 1805. F skinned RN ee ee i . ‘: . . ‘ _ wet : ~ 82 On the Affinities of skinned button of metal was obtained, which was found to weigh 17 grains, and equal to 44 per cent. , Exp. 1V. 400 grains of raw ironstone, a. 4g of carbon.” ee The result of the fusion of this compound was a shining pearly coloured glass. A’ minute hollow sphere of glass in cooling reared itself upon the surface: this was quite transparent, and became immediately filled with a smoky blue vapour. {ft then burst with a fine flash of light, as happened in the former experiment. The metallic product consisted of one button of white cast iron and five carburated globules, weighing in all 32 grains; and equal to 8 percent. A large portion of char- coal remained untaken up, and symptoms of general in- fusibility were evident from the nature of the glass. To correct this, and by the effects of the addition of calcareous to siliceous ironstone, the following experiment was made: Exp. V. 400 grains of raw ironstone, 40 of charcoal, 140 of chalk. The reduction of this mixture was complete. The whole of the charcoal had disappeared and a dark green glass ob- tained, which in thin fragments possessed a little transpa- rency. . Latitude. 1804. Dec. 91 - 0° 43’, +, 9° 40'S. 31 soit Oded 8@ sgt aa -* 1805. Jan. 8 - 7-439 m1 059 3758 16 =) ER (18 686 Qe 57 93) ooiee 14588 = a0! 10, 31 -) 18 ; 27 =O 0] Feb. 8 : 2945 28) )= 9 59 15. = 26 8) = 9. 58 BurcKHARDT, Dec 25, 1804. Member of the Institute. VOLCANOES, Naples, Nov. 24, 1fo4. Last night Vesuvius, which had been pretty tranquil for some weeks, suddenly began to excite attention, A smart shock of an earthquake was first felt ; a column of flame of an astonishing height then issued from the craters and this was followed by an abundant discharge of lava, which in three hours flowed beyond the boundaries to which that thrown up by the volcano three months ago had pro- eceded. The inhabitants of the mountain were thrown into the utmost consternation, and most of them fled with what- ever they could carry with them, The greatest danger seemed to threaten the town of Torre del Greco, for the current of Java ran_directly towards it; but. it, has not yet reached it; and this day the discharge of the lava, has perceptibly de- creased. ‘The court is now at Portici, an elegant seat be- longing to the king at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, .and is resolved to remain there unless the danger beeomes greater. - LIST — List of Patents for new Inventiyns. 95 LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS, Which have passed the Signet Office frum Dec. 24, 1804, to Jan. 24, 1805. » To Thomas Hamilton Keddie, of Duke-street, Grosvenor- square, in the county of Middlesex, sadler, for a cartouch- box or receptacle for cartridges of gunpowder or gunpowder and ball for charging. musquetry or artillery, or any other description of fire-arms. To John Heppenstall, of Doncaster, in the county of York, machine-maker and engineer, for certain improve- ments im shivering, and preparing hemp, flax, and sub- stitutes for hemp and flax, previous to the operation of spinning. To John Robert Lucas, of Charlton-House, in the county of Somerset, Esq. for an improvemeht in the art or method of making, spreading, or fattening shect-glass, commonly called German sheet-glass, er any other spread glass re- quiring a polished surtace. To Samuel Chitney, of Newmarket, in the county of Suffolk, rider, for certain improvements upon bitts of bridles. To John Jones, of the city of Chester, chymist, fora liquor for printing or dyeing of cotton, linen, or woollen. To William Lester, of Piccadilly, in the county of Mid- dlesex, engineer, for certain improvements on an engine or machine for separating corn sceds and pulse from the straw. To William Hackwood the younger, of Shelton, in the county of Stafford, potter, fora method of making win- dows and lights upon new principles. To Edward Shorter, of New Crane, Wapping, in the county of Middlesex, mechauic, for certain mechanical apparatus, by which the raising of ballast is rendered more easy, cheap, and expeditions, and which may also be ap- plied to other useful purposes. To Simeon Thompson, of Red Cross Wharf, Upper Thames-street, in the city of London, coal-merchant, for a bushel or bushels and other measures upon a new con- struction for measuring coals, grain, seed, and other dry measurable commoditics. To John Ball, of the city of Norwich, engineer, for cer- tain improvements in a machine for thrashing corn and pulse. . To Edward Thunder, of Brighthelmstone, in the county of Sussex, for an improved mode or method of keeping in tune certain musical instruments called piano fortes, grand piano fortes, harpsichords, spinets, and other stringed instruments. METEOR- 96 : Meieorology. . : a eee + METEOROLOGICAL TABLE “pag: By Mr. Carzy, of THE STRAND, For February 1805. | Thermometer. . Soap » GRE - Oa 3 af ‘Daveokthe Ss 2 6. | Heightof |= 8 3 bei : 2 § \om the Barons 338 Weather. “> | \zapcoumenttnees. (bee 30 oe = : A oa : i‘ Jan. 27 28°), 29°! 29° 10° |Fair Ra 98 | 29 1°30 7 |Cloudy ou 29 | 34 | 32 ~ 6 {Fair 30) 32 | 36 | 83 o> jRain 31; 33 | 34 | 29 - 0. |Snow and rain Feb. 1] 28 | 30 | 27 6 {Cloudy 9) 21 | 34] 31 1. | Eas 3] 29 | 37 | 34 10 |Fair 4| 35 | 41 | 46 0 |Rain | & 16 | 46 | 34 | 28°95 0 [Stormy | 6.29 | 35 | 32 | 29°82 6 |Fai 7,92 | 41 | 40 “90 _~ Showery of 42 | 49 4 47 65 | 8 1Fau 9) 49 | 5a | 49 82 10 |F 10} 49 | 55 | 46 72 7 tl| 44 | 44 | 35 “70 oO. |Rain 19) 35 | 39 | 30 “91 16 {Cloudy 13} 30 | 39 | 28 | 30°20 18 |Fair 14} 298 | 38 }| 34} 29°99 15 {Fair 15),33 | 38 | 34 | 30°04 18. |Cloady ‘ E6| 32 | 42°] 30 07, 29 «|\Fair 17) 27 | 38 | 32 | 20°85 18 {Fair 18; 32 | 39 | 30 “SQ ¥9 {Fair 1g| 28 | 40 | 30 “92 22 | Fair 20) 27 | 41] 39 } 30°00 10) |Fair 21; 39 | 49 | 48 | 29°69 4 |Rain 22| 41.| 48 | 40 ‘78 Il |Fair ; 23| 41 | 49 } 44 | 30°04 21 [air 24 46 | 48} 40 | 29°78 | * 0, {Rain 25 38 | 47 | 44 76 18 (fair N. B. The barometer’s height is taken at noon. ns en ee + [en sy XV. On the Means most proper to le resorted to for ex- tinguishing accidental Fires in Ships. By ALEXANDER Tittocn. Read before the Askesian Society in December 1801. I, is impossible for human imagination to conceive any calamity more horrid and distressing than that of a ship on Jire;—a species of accident to which vessels are much ex- posed, owing to the combustible nature of the materials of which they are constructed, and which, unhappily, too often baiiles every effort to subdue it. To discover some means by which those on board, in such circumstances, may extinguish the flames efficaciously and speedily, has long been a desideratum ; for experience has but too fully proved, that buckets and fire-engines, with water, the methods heretofore resorted to, are not effectual. To point out such means as are calculated to arrest the pro- gress of the devouring flames will not be thought an useless labour; nor will they be the less valued for being simple, and, in almost every case likely to occur, perfectly within the reach of the people. That the efficacy of the means to be proposed may be established on incontrovertible prine ciples, it may be of some use to examine, previously, what. takes place in deflagrations of the kind to which we allude. This inquiry will also probably lead us to a knowledge of the cause why the methods usually employed prove inade~ quate to the end proposed. The laws and operations of nature are extremely simple, and, if we attend to what she points out, we cannot be misled. For maintaining the common process of combustion, certain conditions are indispensable. 1. A substance or substances capable of undergoing a chemical decomposition, and of entering, wholly or par- tially, into new combinations when circumstances favour the process. Such are wood, tar, hemp, &c. 2. The presence of some other substance which, by its decomposition, may furnish a principle or principles capa- ble of entering into union with those of the combustible substances, thereby liberating caloric or the matter of heat, which, with the light also fiberated. constitutes the most striking phenomena in combustion. Atmospheric air is such a substance. It is a fact well known, that the atmosphere consists of Vol. 21. No. 82. Marchig05. G two 98 On the Means most proper to be resorted to two distinct substances dissolved in caloric or heat, whicli. forms a third ingredient. The two first are oxygen and azote. The azote is in such strong chemical union with the ca- loric, in which it is dissolved, that in no common process of combustion is the union destroyed: or, in other words, that portion of the heat of the atmosphere which is united to the azote is never liberated to exercise its action in form- ing new combinations *. It is otherwise, however, with the portion of heat united — to the oxygenous part of the atmosphere. These two have so weak an affinity for each other, that a little increase of temperature is all that is necessary to determine their sepa- ration, if substances to which the oxygen can unite itself, be present. In proportion as the oxygen joins itself to these substances, the heat thus liberated raises the temperature of other portions of them to that point which determines their union with oxygen ; thus more air becomes speedily decom- posed, and all the phenomena of combustion are rendered more and more conspicuous, till complete deflagration pre- cludes all possibility of checking the progress. What office does water perform when employed for the purpose of checking the progress of a fire? It extinguishes the flame by cutting off the communication between the burn- ing body and the air which maintains the combustion. But this it can do only in certain cases. Water is known to consist of two substances, oxygen, and hydrogen. The former, as has already been noticed, is an ingredient also in atmospheric air, and is that substance which unites itself to the burning body in every case of com- bustion: the latter is the base of hydrogen gas or inflam- mable air. . Water, like atmospheric air, may be decomposed by pre- senting to it, under certain circumstances, substances for which either of its constituent principles has a stronger -affinity than the two have for each other. When a fire has got to such a height that water cannot be thrown on it in sufficient quantity to imterpose itself as a wall of separation between the burning materials and the atmosphere, but is itself instantly converted into vapour and decomposed,—in that case, instead of extinguishing, it adds * Ire must be here observed, however, that this remark should be taken with some limitation : modern chemistry is in some measure forced to suppose that the azote goes to the formation of alkalis when they: result from the combustion; in which case the caloric may be supposed to exercise some action; but that affects not our general argument, to ——— For extinguishing accidental Fires in Ships. 99 to ihe deflagration. Its oxygen joins the combustible ma- terials, while its hydrogen, disengaged in the form of in- flammable air, mixes with the atmospheric air present, and inflames almost as quickly as it is liberated. A ship in such a case becomes filled with flames, even in those places where, before, there was no fire; and it may truly be said, these parts are set on fire BY WATER! But water has been thé only means hitherto employed to extinguish fires; and if this is not te be used, what other method can we resort to? | The question is answered in part by what we have stated respecting water when it succeeds in any case in extinguish- ing fire. Cut off ail communication between the burning body or bodies and the atmosphere. The presence of air, we have already obseryed, is indis- pensably requisite to maintain combustion. This fact has been long known, and it appears wonderful that advantage was never taken of it to extinguish fire in ships ; especially when it is considered that their structure is such that, had this been one of the principal objects in view in the building of them, they could not possibly have been better constructed to enable us to take advantage of this law of nature. If a glass jar be inverted over a burning taper in such a manner as to bile the mouth of the jar into contact with the table on which the taper stands, the flame soon grows janguid, and in a little time we see it expire altogether. The oxygenous part of the atmosphere has been decom- posed, and having, by that decomposition, given up all its oxygen to the combustible body, the proccss ceases of itself, not for want of fuel, but for want of a fresh portion of oxy- genous air to be decomposed. If this experiment be per- formed over water, its ascent in the jar, as every one knows, will prove that a portion of the air has disappeared ; its ox- ygen having become concrete in the burning body, or as- sumed a less volume in the new products formed, viz. car- tonic acid gas and water ; and that portion of its caloric not necessary to the formation of the acid gas having been libe- rated. The larger the flame of the taper compared with the quan- tity of air; or, in other words, the smaller the quantity of air compared with the size of the burning body, the sooner does the process of combustion cease. It is on this princi- ple that a common extinguisher puts out a candle. These simple facts furnish us with sufficient data on which to found a rational and infallible method for extinguishing hed G2 fire 100 On the Means most proper to be resorted to fire on board a ship. If the fire cannot be got at; and in- stantly extinguished with a bucket or two of water, no time should be wasted in fruitless attempts to reach the spot; for during all this time the prime auxiliary, the most for- midable ingredient in the conflagration, viz. the atmo- spheric air, is allowed to pour itself upon the burning ma- terials and to furnish the very essence of the flame,—tor the Jire IS FURNISHED BY THE AIR, and not by the wood, tar, e.; a fact too well established to be insisted on here. In- stead of suffering this to take place, all hands should be called up; the ports, hatches, &c. should be shut, and every one set to work to stop up with oakum, tallow, pitch, (any thing,) every chink and crevice all over the vessel. She would thus literally become a large extinguisher; and it would be just as rational to insist that a man could live de- prived of fresh air, as to assert that fire can continue to burn in the interior of a ship when every possibility of a fresh supply of air is thus cut off. Such 1s the general principle that ought to direct the pro- ceedings of the officers and crew on every emergency of this kind. They ought all to be drilled to the business, that every one may know the particular station and specific duty allotted to him in case of such an accident taking place. This would be an antidote against that confusion and in- subordination which almost always take place in cases of fire. The means are so infallibly certain im their effect, that not only the officers, but a great number of the men would have full confidence in the issue of their exertions ; this would insure firmness, and the unruly would be as ef- fectually kept in order as on any common occasion. The general principle we have stated to be, the cutting off every possibility of a fresh supply of atmospheric air gctting into the interior of the ship. But a still further ad- vantage may be taken of the natural laws before examined, so as to hasten the destruction of the whole air contained in the ship, and to render it unfit for maintaining combustion. We have already brought to recollection, that the larger the mass cf burning materials compared with the quantity of air present, the sooner will the fire extinguish itself: this is a truth that cannot be too forcibly impressed on the minds both of the officers and crews; for, however fiercely the fire may be raging below, the sooner will it be extinguished if they can only succeed in making every thing air-tight above decks and round the ship (as the ports, scuttles, scup- pers, windows, &c.): the full conviction of this truth will prevent them from relaxing in their exertions, and wonder- , fully for extinguishing accidental Fires in Ships. 101 Tully conduce to their ultimate safety. ‘This is no small advantage that results from the law of nature now under considertion ; but a further use ought still to be made of it. If a number of fires le made between decks, by setting fire to pitch and other inflammable substances in pots, stew- pans, &c., before closing down the hatches and making every thing air-tight, the sooner will the air left in the vessel be deprived of its oxygen, and the combustion of course be terminated. . Thus we see that FIRES MAY BE EMPLOYED TO EX- TINGUISH FIRE; and the more there are of them, the sooner will all of them, as well as the prime fire, be ex- tinguished. This is the more necessary because, if all the air in the interior of the vessel must expend itself in the prime fire, a hole may possibly be the consequence, and there fresh air would rush in to maintain the flame; but a number of fires in different parts of the vessel would quickly destroy all the air, and render that accident impossible, In short, if the people be once made thoroughly masters of their duty in such cases, they need not fear even to kindle fires on the bare boards for the purpose of extinguishing one where they cannot reach it; for the exclusion of fresh air will soon.arrest the progress of the flames. If fears (groundless fears) should be entertained that such fires would increase the danger, candles may be employed with considerable effect. A good sized candle consumes about a gallon of air in one minute of time: several hun- dreds of them lighted between decks, before closing all up, would contribute not a little to exhaust the oxygen of the atmosphere. In short, proper receptacles for fires, to be employed for this express purpose, should constitute a part of the outfit of every ship, especially those of the royal navy and East India company, If such arrangements were made a part of the system (they surely ought to be so), any fire below decks might be extinguished in less than half an hour. It need hardly be remarked here, that in this case, as in every case of danger, the toe should be opposed with firm- ness from post to post. If the fire breaks out in the hold, the first stand should be made on the lower deck. It ought instantly, and with deliberation, to be cleared, fore and aft, that not a chink or crevice may escape observation. Every opening, the pumps among others, ought to be closed, and the slices and men to be at their stations. This search ought to be a close one; for the escape of smoke ought not to be held as the only criterion of a seam being open. Where air is rushing in, smoke cannot come out; for two streams G3 cannot, 102 On the Means most proper to le resorted to. cannot, at one and the same time, blow in opposite direc- tions through the same aperture: therefore every seam should be examined; nor will it'be difficult to do so, when it is considered in what a close and substantial manner ships are built. While this is going on in the deck immediately above the fire, the officers and men on the next deck above should be preparing every thing for a second barrier to the ingress of air; and so of the third deck: and each, before quitting their own deck, should light the extinguishing fires before recommended. Similar fires should, 1f possible, be mtro- duced under the lower deck, the sooner to exhaust the air in the hold. If these means be cooly and deliberately pursued, when a ship is on fire below or between decks the flames may be as effectually extinguished as a burning candle when an extin- guisher is put over it; the ship, as we have already said, is in fact converted into an extinguisher ; nor is she less so om account of the combustible nature of the materials of which she is constructed: for @ cone MADE OF PAPER extinguishes a candle as effectually as one made of metal. A fact of which any one may easily satisfy himself by making the experiment. To discover when the conflagration is subdued, the test of acandle should he employed. For this purpose there ought to be a few places in each deck that can be opened when necessary. Into one of these introduce a lantern and candle, taking care instantly to close the hole again. If the candle, after remaining a few minutes below, is found, on being drawn up, to have been extinguished, it may be concluded that all is safe, and that the air left is unfit for maintaining combustion. The people-will then feel cheer- ful; nor will they be impatient to open the decks when in- formed that, though'the fire is out, some articles may have attained such a high temperature, that the access of fresh air might occasion a new deflagration. Even when, by the test of a candle, it is found that all the air is destroyed, the precautions should be continued for a number of hours. (It will occur from, what has been stated, that if there be any particular part of a ship where fires are supposed to ori- ginate oftener than in any other, that part ought to be in- sulated, as it were, in the building of the vessel; that is, every part of it, all round, ought to be caulked up so as to make that room or apartment air-tight, that, when an acci- dent occurs, no more might be necessary than to close the door or entrance, and caulk it up.) i aban In for extinguishing accidental Fires in Ships. 103 In the preceding remarks we have pointed out the prin- ciples that ought to be kept constantly in view in every at- tempt to extinguish fire on board a ship. That we might not interrupt the connection we purposely avoided men- tioning another mean which it might be advisable to pro- vide against such accidents, and which depends on the same principles. The methods already laid down, if followed up with firmness, cannot fail to answer the purpose intended ; but what we are going to mention would prove a most powerful auxiliary. We have already noticed that the presence of oxygen in combination with caloric is an indispensable requisite in the process of combustion, and that atmospheric air contains these two ingredients in such a state of combination, and therefore serves to maintain combustion by giving up its oxygen to the combustible body, in consequence, of which its caloric is liberated. It follows from this, that the sub- stitution of any gas for atmospheric air, or the introduction of any gas into the interior of the ship, to displace the whole or a part of the atmospheric air contained in it, would hasten the extinction of the flames, provided the gas so substituted for air be one that cannot be decomposed by the action of the fire. It ought to be a gas that can be easily procured, and also one specifically heavier than atmospheric air, that it may descend, get below the common air, take its place in the vessel, and thus be certain (when a sufficient quantity ig introduced) to reach the place on fire, and interpose itself as a wall of separation between the burning materials and the atmosphere. Carbonic acid gas, or fixed air, is well calculated for this purpose. It can be procured even on board a ship with little trouble (if the proper requisites have been provided), and at a small expense. It is considerably heavier than common air, and extinguishes flame in a moment. All that is necessary to insure a supply of any quantity in avery few minutes is, that each ship should be furnished with a certain stock of common oil of vitriol, (vinegar or any other acid would answer, but would be more expensive,) and a quantity of common chalk or unburnt lime. The sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol is an article of a much less dangerous nature, with respect to accidents, than is vulgarly believed. Compared with gunpowder, which means are found to keep safe, even in a ship, it may be considered as perfectly harmless. Indeed, it ought to be put on board in a diluted state; and, in that case, would produce no G4 more 104 On the Means most proper to be resorted to more mischief, should a vessel of it by accident be broken or spilt, than as much strong vinegar. No good objection can therefore be offered against its use on the score of its being dangerous. . The chalk should be in powder, either in a dry state or diffused in water, and the vessels containing it should be so disposed and arranged in regard to those containing the diluted oil of vitriol, that, without needing to huat for and arrange them in the hour of danger, (when the hurry and alarm might make it impossible to get at them, or to make a proper use of them when found,) no more might be ne- cessary than to turn a cock, somewhere near the cabin, under the immediate eye of the commander or some inte]- ligent officer. to allow the acid to convey itself through Jeaden pipes into the vessels containing the chalk or lime- stone. The moment the sulphuric acid comes in contact with the chalk, the Jatter will be decomposed and part with the carbonic acid, one of its constituent principles, which will escape in the gaseous form, while the lime, its other prin- ciple, wil] remain united to the sulphuric acid. All the articles connected with this process should be made of lead, or lined with it, as the sulphuric acid exer-~ cises little or no action on that metal, which renders it pre- ferable to every other material for the purpose. The ways in which the parts of such an apparatus might be arranged to advantage are so various, that to insist on any one in particular is unnecessary. The principle of the arrangement is all that need be noticed here. The vessel or vessels containing the acid must be in a higher situation than those containing the chalk or unburnt lime. The latter may be in the hold, or in any situation lower than the former ; and pipes af communication, that can be opened or shut at pleasure by turning a cock, as already mentioned, must pass from the vessels containing the acid to those in which the chalk is. The Jatter, if in the hold, should have perforated covers, that the fixed air, when liberated from the limestone or chalk by the action of the sulphuric acid, may have a free escape. If above any of the decks, a hose or tube should pass from their tops down to the hold and lower decks for the liberated gas to descend through. These tubes should be secured from injury by covering them with planks, or casing them at the time of their fitting up. Such an apparatus as is here recommended would be found much more simple than it can possibly appear to be fram a description, for extinguishing accidental Fires in Ships. 105 *. . description, nor can any fire-engine that has ever yet been ‘constructed be compared with it in point of simplicity. Still less will fire-engines bear comparison in point of effi- cacy; for the gas that may be liberated by this simple ap- paratus will imfallibly extinguish flames, but the water thrown by a fire-engine seldom succeeds in doing so, and often, as we have before proved on physical principles, in- creases their fury *. With a view to the application of the means for extin- guishing fires which we have pointed out, care ought to be taken in future in the construction of ships, to fill up, at the decks, all the seams and joinings between the side timbers, that an air-tight line of division may reach from the decks even to the outside planks, to prevent all passage of air behind the linings. But I shall not insist longer on this. The principles I have laid down are sufficiently ob- vious, and the only wonder is, that they have not been re- sorted to before this time as a safeguard against fires below and between decks. , As the minor details are perfectly obvious, and cannot fail to present themselves to the minds of those in whose department it may lie to give efficacy to the plan we have roposed, it would be carrying the present paper to an un- necessary length to enter into them. There is one point, however, that must not be overlooked, being connected with the safety of the people :— After the fire has been extinguished by the means that have been recommended, the air which remains in the inte- rior of the vessel will be found as unfit for maintaining ani- mal life as for maintaining combustion. It would instantly suffocate those who should descend into it ; and consists of two non-respirable gases, azotic gas and fixed air. It would be unsafe, therefore, to venture down till after the vessel has been ventilated by opening the ports from the outside of the ship, and by means of bellows and leathern hose thrown down into the hold. Jn short, any or all the ways now employed for ventilating ships may be employed to re- move the foul air, and make it safe for the people to go down. * It is possible that in some cases a vessel may not be able to afford room for a sufficiency of these materials to furnish a quantity of fixed air equal in volume to her hold, and there may be other objections to taking so large a supply which have not occurred to me; but as in a case of fire it may be necessary to stave the rum and brandy on board, as much of vitriol and chalk should always be provided as would furnish a stratum of fixed air able to rise a few inches at least over any spirits that tay thus be stayed into the hold. To 106 Onthe Means most proper to be resoried to. To determine when the air is sufficiently renewed to ad- mit of this, a lantern with a burning candle should pre- viously be let down at the end of a string. If, after being allowed to remain below for some time, it come up unex- tinguished, the people may venture down,—and so from deck = deck till they have got every part completely ven- tilated. In the preceding observations I have confined myself to fires which may happen below or between decks; but as accidents (though this is perhaps less to be apprehended) may also take place above decks, or below the quarter-deck; &c., where the same means cannot be employed tor extin- guishing them as in the former case, it may not be thought superfluous to offer a few hints for subduing them when they occur. It is obvious that the means adapted to accidents below are inapplicable to such as may happen above decks; but it is equally obvious, that, whatever method may be resorted , to, it must agree in principle with the former. 4 wall of separation must be interposed Letween the burning materials and the atmosphere, or the flames cannot be extinguished. Water, we have already seen, can but seldom be applied with effect for this purpose ; and the experience of ages has only served to furnish evidence that it ought not to be trusted to.. By its great volatility and its extreme liquidity (even if it could not be decomposed, and so add to the conflagra- tion, as it has already been proved to do,) it is but little fitted to remain on the places where its presence might be serviceable. Some other matters, therefore, ought to be provided, that may, when employed, be able to serve as an effectual co- vering to the burning materials, or to the subjacent parts of the vessel, to prevent the fire from penetrating downwards. They ought to be such as can be met with in every port, and at the cheapest rate: such are sand, or mould, or clay. The first is perhaps the best, because it can be moistened with water in a moment; though the last, if means could be insured for speedily converting it into a kind of soft pap or — uddle, would answer better for throwing upon such burn- ing parts as may be vertical or over head, , Every ship carries some ballast, or might carry as much as would be necessary for the end in view. A part of the ballast ought to be sand or clay, in bags or in small casks, and these ought to be so disposed in the hold, that, in the 4 case ee eee ee —— _ ——— =. a eee u be 4 5 for extinguishing accidental Fires in Ships. 107 ease of a fire above decks, they may be easily got at, and taken up. A number of buckets should also be provided that the people may not be without the means of hoisting up the sand, &c. even when the rigging takes fire and pre- vents them from employing a tackle for that purpose. The sand, as brought up, should be thrown upon the burning materials, especially on those on the deck. Where- ever it rests it will mstantly extinguish the flames by pre- venting the access of atmospheric air. In tact, the whole deck, especially near the spot on fire, should be covered with sand to the depth of three inches, which will be much more easily accomplished than at first may appear possible ; for the people have only to begin at the side of the fire next to them, covering the deck before them with sand, and spreading it with shovels,—thus making a road for them- selves to advance upon, still covering more of the deck es . they advance; an advantage that cannot be commanded by the use of mere water. By these means, even where the deck has been absolutely on fire, the flames will be so effec- tually extinguished that the people may instantly walk over the place with perfect safety. This will enable them to gain upon the fire, and with mops (especially if a clay puddle instead of water be em- ployed) to dash out the flames on such parts of the sides (under the quarter-deck for instance) or over head as may have caught fire. Let it be particularly observed, that if means can be found to enable the people (sand, &c., would enable them) to advance on the flames, in that case mops with water, or rather water mixed with clay or sand, applied directly to the burning wood, &c., beginning at the part on fire immediately next to them, and proceeding step by step, will extinguish flame better than water thrown from a fire- hy ‘The reason is obvious: water so thrown on runs off by the most direct course it can find, and will not stop to spread itself over prominences or to penetrate into inter- stices ; but when daslied on by means of mops, it has no choice, but must apply itself where it is intended it should. ~ Ido not mean by this that a fire-engine ought in no case to be employed; but when resorted to, its jet should be di- rected forward further than the people can yet advance, and never in such a manner as to wash away the bed of sand from the decks, or the coating of sand or clay that has been bee by mops to the uprights and parts over head. And the moment the people can advance to apply mops, the en- ine should be stopt. In mopping, the process should go on from the lower parts 108 On the Means most proper to le resorted to parts upwards ; there will then be the least waste of labour, and consequently the greater chance of success: for when a contrary mode is followed (which is always more or less the case with water thrown on by an engine) the parts ex- tinguished are again rekindled by the flames ascending from the lower parts, and which therefore ought first to be sub- dued. Clay or sand is recommended to be applied with the water employed in mopping, that a kind of incrustation may le formed wherever the mops are applied; but in attending to this, the uniform continuity of the bed of sand, distributed and still distributing on the deck, must be carefully main- tained ; for this is the chief ultimate security that the men ~ have tor saving the hull of the vessel, and consequently their own lives. The red-hot balls employed by the garrison of Gibraltar to destroy the Spanish floating batteries, were carried from the furnaces to the bastions zm wooden barrows with only a layer of sand interposed; and this was found sufficient to prevent the balls, though in a high state of incandescence, from setting fire to the wood. A fact so notorious renders it perfectly unnecessary to insist further on the efficacy of sand on the upper deck to prevent the descent of the fire from above. As to the rigging, there appears but little hope of any means being ever devised to secure it effectually from the effects of a fire above decks, and perhaps the least evil will result from clearing it away in such a case, and getting it overboard as fast as possible. I shall, however, venture to int at one improvement. The hull is sheathed with copper as a guard against the worm.—Would there be any thing absurd in sheathing the masts with copper to preserve them from fire? I think not: and the expense would be no ob- ject *. In that case an iron or copper chain (composed of very long links to make it require the less weight of metal) should accompany each main-stay, to secure the masts in any case when the other rigging might be destroyed by fire. The chains, of course, would require to be Jess tight than the stays, that they might only act in case of the other being destroyed. All the upper works ought to be covered with sheet cop- per to secure the side timbers from being set on fire by any * This could be done without increasing the weight of the masts; for the copper would add so considerably to: their strength, that they might be made much smaller than at present. ; accident for extinguishing accidental Fires in Ships. 109 accident that may happen above the upper deck. This would effectually answer the end intended; for as to those parts where cross tumbers of any kind join the side, and where consequently the fire might communicate, they could individually be extinguished in succession, by the means we have pointed out, with much less trouble than if all the upper works were exposed to the accident. ’ But, though we recommend sheet copper as a covering for the upper works, which surely ought to be as well se- cured against fire as the lower are agaist the worm and against water, even if this improvement be not adopted, the means we have pointed out (wet sand, wet mould, and wet clay,) should be provided to enable the people to extinguish the parts in detail till they master the fire; which in many _ cases they will be able to accomplish when the application __ of water would not be of the smallest avail. TI need hardly add, that when any part of the cargo consists of articles that will of themselves, by the aid of an increased tempera- ture, furnish a sufficient supply of oxygen to maintain com- bustion without the aid ef atruospheric air, (as for instance saltpetre,) such part of the cargo should be disposed low in the hold, and should, if possible, be cut off from all com- munication with the other parts of the lading, that, should _ afire happen, there may be the less chance of its being » communicated to that part of the cargo. Tor this purpose __ a part of the hold should be set aside, and ought to be boarded up, caulked, and covered with sheet copper. If _ that cannot be done, a false flooring should be laid in above that part of the cargo, which should be covered over with _ coarse matting of any kind: over the matting there ought to be a layer of sand or earth of two or three inches in thick- ness, and over the sand another cover of matting, to pre- vent it from being displaced by the stowing of the rest of the cargo. But whether such arrangements are practicable respect- ing the oxygenous parts of the cargo or not, the other ge- eral precautions ought to be strictly enjoined, and the _ people should be appointed and trained to their respective _ hae in case of fire: books of instructions should also be seeeeusely distributed among the officers and crews, and instructions ought to be drawn up in a manner so plain and simple that no one may be at a loss to know what ws necessary to le done, whether he understand the scientific principles on which they are founded or not. But the better the crew in general, and the officers in particular, under- i ; stand * as 110 Natural History of the Coco-nut Tree stand the science of extinguishing fires, the more effectual will their endeavours be in every case. Though in this.essay I have taken no notice of cases of spontaneous ignition, the principles recommended are equally applicable to these as to other cases of fire. Even when the exciting cause of the combustion may be in the cargo itself, it cannot be maintained without the access of atmospheric air. XVI. Memoir on the Natural History of the Coco-nut Tree and the Areca-nut Tree; the Cultivation of them accord- ing to the Methods of the Hindoos ; their Productions, and their Utility in the Arts and for the Purposes of do- meslic Economy. By M.Le Govux ps Fiatx, an Officer of Engineers, and Member of the Asiatic Society at Cal- cutiad. — [Concluded from p. 80.} Tue areca-tree is that beautiful palm which Linnzus has so judiciously characterized by giving it the name of catechu, because its ligneous nut furnishes cackow by means of an easy preparation. ‘This fact, though contradicted by a great number of authors, is no less certain; and I propose to prove it in the course of this paper. This tree is called pakmarow in almost all the languages of the peninsula; in the Hindostanee, the modern idiom of that antient country, it is denominated sovparz, which sig- nifies the areca-tree. Though this palm is not so extensively useful in all its parts as the coco-nut tree, it is no less necessary to the Hindoos and the inhabitants of that vast part of the world ealled the East Indies, who all employ themselves in the cultivation of it. The areca-tree, without having-the beauty and port of the coco-nut tree, is of an elegant and agreeable form. It always rises vertically, and nothing is able to derange its direction. It is attacked by no insects: they are all kept — at a distance by the sourness of its juice and of its gum. — Its stem is somewhat thicker in the middle, but slender, smooth, and perfectly well proportioned in all its parts. Its foliage presents an agreeable spectacle by the regular arrangement of its palms, which are known in botany by — the name of spadix, to characterize their form, and in ge- neral that of the branches of this family. The palms in mi eine and the Areca-nut Tree. 1li the centre of the crown of the areca-nut tree, to the number of seven or eight, stand erect, while the rest, being five in number, incline, rounding themselves by a slight curva- ture, and by their union form a kind of elegant crown. The leayes of the areca-nut tree, as long as they vegetate, are of a rich and brilliant green colour; the eye can behold them without being fatigued: as they grow old they assume successively an orange colour, which, though it contrasts’ with the brilliant green of the other leaves, does not offend the sight. ‘This palm exhibits, as a distinguishing character, very small flowers of a pale apple green colour, with a sweet and agreeable odour, moncecous, disposed in a panicle in- closed in a very thin spath or sheath like that of the coco- nut tree, which differs from it only by its thickness, and by the other being fibrous. Each of these flowers consists of a calyx half a line in length, with three acute and coria- _- ceous points; a corolla of three petals perfectly similar to the calyx. The male flowers have six and sometimes nine stamina not projecting, and the female an upper ovarium furnished with three styles. The male are placed along small twigs proceeding from a common pedicle which form _ ~ the panicle. They are parted from each other in groups of five or six; in these intervals is the group of female flowers consisting of from nine to ten. The fruit are all set before ___ the spath opens. ; It is seen by this exact description that most naturalists are deceived, or at least have implicitly believed and mutu- ally copied each other, instead of making observations be- fore they wrote. I shall make known the rest of their errors as circumstances furnish me with an opportunity. These facts, though apparently of little importance in re- rd to a vegetable which we do not possess, are, however, interesting to botany; and this consideration alone has in- duced me to indulge in this kind of critique, for which | hope I shall be forgiven, as it tends to promote truth. _ The areca-nut tree, as well as all the other palms, are re- produced only by the fruit: to thrive, it requires good soil, and this is a character which distinguishes the coco-nut tree from vegetables of this family; it needs less watering, but it requires much more air, and the full enjoyment of the _ rays of the sun, without which its vegetation would only ie ish. ; Some plants which I cultivated in a large garden, and beneath which L caused animals to be interred, produced much more than usual; yet this increase of fecundity did : not 112 Natural History of the Coco-nut Tree not seem to hurt or exhaust them. JI shall here observe, that I obtained the same results in the cultivation of orange and lemon trees, vegetables which we have naturalized im our climates. The areca-nuts are planted in beds, with their husk or fibrous covering, one by one, in holes five or six inches in depth, and at the distance of twelve or fourteen inches in every direction. The plantation is slightly watered. On the twenty-ninth or thirtieth day the germ issues from the earth: in form it is similar to that of the coco-nut, but it differs from it by its hardness, and by an acrid or your taste. They are generally transplanted in a year or fifteen months: they may be removed without danger even im the seventh year, because they are exceedingly lively, and expand very slowly. Their total duration, however, 1s only fifty or sixty years; they never go beyond the seventieth.: Of all the palms it is the shortest lived. This forms a con~- trast with the slowness of its vegetation, and particularly with the hardness of its wood, which is surpassed only by that of the sindi, called by Linnzus lontarus. This palm has given its name to the river which separates Hindostan from Persia, and which, copying the Greeks, we have dis- fizured by the denomination of the Indus. As the palms of the areca-tree are not above eight or nine feet long, they can give only a shade of a moderate extent, and which it would appear could not hurt the plants cultivated in the same ground ; but experience proves that this shade, though it cover only a small surface, is hurtful, and would certainly occasion the destruction of the most of those ve- getables over which it extends; neither men nor animals ever remain under its immediate shelter, especially daring the strong heats. Its foliage is so thick that the sun’s rays can never penetrate it; the rain water, therefore, which falls on its palms is thrown off; they form a real parapluie. Though this tree be one of the most beautiful ornaments of gardens, there are few worse neighbours: it attracts all the adjacent juices; and herbs, as already said, cannot ve- getate under its shade. The different kinds of banana, how- ever, called commonly the Indian fig, known im botany under the name of musa, thrive when planted in the same soil, provided they are not brought too near to the areca-nut tree. I shall add, that I saw at Nigambo, a maritime town in the island of Ceylon, an immense orchard of areca-trees, among which were cultivated coffee shrubs which appeared to me to thrive, as they were exceedingly beautiful. An _and the Areca-nut Tree. 113 An orchard of areca-trees, between which the Hindoos almost always plant bananas, exhibits a charming and de- lightful prospect. To form a just idea of such a spectacle, it must be seen. The areca-nut, of which we make no use, might, in my opinion, become an advantageous object of exchange in some of the African markets. This fruit might be ren- dered useful also in Europe in regard to the arts, as I shall hereafter show. The leaves of this palm are fit only for being burnt. The ashes which arise from them produce good manure when mixed with the dung of sheep or of cows. They give also by lixiviation a kind of soda, employed for bleaching raw silk. This manure is used with great advantage in the cul- tivation of the avi/, or plant which produces indigo. The timk, which is exceedingly straight, is employed | for rafters to sheds and houses which have pent roofs ; it is also split into excellent laths, which are very strong, and never liable to be pierced by worms. A pectoral and anti- scorbutic decoction is extracted from the flowers. The nut or fruit is of different sizes, and of an oval form, spherical or turbinated, according to the species to which it belongs. The largest nuts do not exceed the size of a large pigeon’s egg. The bunches generally contain a hundred and fifty; and when the number rises to two hundred and fifty, which is sometimes the case, they are thinned from time to time for the use of persons who set no value on these nuts unless when they are fresh. The areca-tree begins to produce fruit in its seventh year; but it is never in full bearing till the age of ten. Vigorous trees give annually six, seven, and sometimes ten bunches. _ . - The Hindoos, ag well as all the people of Asia from Arabia to China, make a general use of the areca-nut along with the leaves of betel, which by some nations is called tamloul, and by the Moguls pane. This aromatic plant is 60 well known that it is needless to describe it: I shall therefore confine myself to giving some details respecting its use, aud the properties ascribed io it. - Betel acts a distinguished part in all companies: at courts as well as in the towns, and even in the most wretched hovels, to be deprived of it would to the Indians be a misfortune. At all visits betel is served up ; and when _ friends imeet they mutually offer to each other this drug. The Hindoos cousider it as a great uncivility to speak to a _ person of dignity or consideration without chewing this >, Vol. 21. No. 62. March 1805, H mixture ; 114, Natural History of the Coco-nut Tree mixture: it is composed of the betel leaves, areca cut very thin, a little lime spread over the leaves, cardamom, fine spiceries, and cachou, rolled up in small cornets in a leaf of betel. The [ndians ascribe to this preparation, which gives to the saliva and lips a very bright rose colour, the property of allaying hunger, per fuming the breath by cor- recting the humours of the breast and stomach, and of fa- cilitatmg digestion. This mastication, in theif opinion, prevents also perspiration, or speedily restores it; preserves from megrim and pains of the head ; strengthens the gums, and secures the teeth from rottenness: ina word, it Inspires gaiety, removes spasms and attacks of the nerves, prevents suppression of the menses, and maintains the tone of the fibres. According to my experience, all these ideas are well founded. ‘ That substance which we call cachow and the Indians catecambé, of which the Portuguese have nrade catecambré, a word adopted by all the Europeans, though corrupted, is the inspissated juice of the areca-nut. Naturalists have entertained a variety of opinions on this object of naturat history. In speaking of this drug, which has many pro- perties with which we are unacquaimted, I shall endeavour to remove all uncertainty by making known the process for preparing it, and the manner in which the Hindoos extract that concrete juice of the areca known under the name of cachou. The process, as I saw it practised in different parts of the peninsula of India, in Ceylon, and even in Pegu, where immense quantities of it are made, is as follows : The arcca-nuts, very fresh, are cut into three or four small pieces with a kind of shears named katipak, which signifies the areca-knife: they are then put into a very large glazed earthen-ware pot, as a copper vessel would be dangerous, and one of iron would give to the cachou a black colour and a ferruginous taste. About a third of the quan- tity of water which the pot is capable of containing 13 put into it: this water is as much impregnated with selenite as possible, and about twelve or fifteen “pounds of the bark of the kutai babala, a prickly plant of the family of the mi- mosa and genus of the acacia, is infused in it over a mode- rate fire for twenty-four hours. From this trée the Indians extract a gum similar to that known in Europe under the name of gum arabic. A shrub of the same kind is culti- vated in the gardens in the south of France, and is so well known that it is needless to describe it. As soon as the pieces of areca have been thrown into the pot it is covered, and the cover is luted with clay or ee A ter and the Areca-nut Tree. 115 After strong ebullition of two hours, the fire is lessened till it 1s nearly extinguished, and it is then kept at that degree for five or six hours. When the pot is completely cold, it is unluted, and the areca is taken out with a large shovel pierced with holes; after which it is suffered to drain on a hurdle of bamboo. The Hindoos in this operation use only utensils of wood, on account of the sour quality of this nut. When the pieces have been well drained, they are exposed to thesun. This kind of areca, which the inhabitants of the upper part of Hindostan, where this palm is not found, call chikui-soupari, that is to say, gummy areca, is preferred in the use of betel to the raw nut. The whole aqueous part is evaporated over a slow fire till the juice is inspissated to the consistence of an extract, and till 1t has such adhesion that it can be held in the hand. It is then taken out to be formed, by kneading, into small pieces as large as the fist, which are dried in the shade that they may not crack and break. These pieces in several of the dialects of Hindostan are called batai, a word to which is joined that of cambe; so that the whole signifies a Jump of the juice of the areca. The catecambre, to use the expression generally employed by the Europeans, though faulty, receives a preparation at Goa, Batavia, and Macao, which we endeavour to imitate. The Portuguese call it cachoudé, from which we have made the word cachou. It is obtained in these places by com- bining the catecambre with a propertional quantity of sugar, cinnamon, coco-nut milk, musk, and sometimes a very small quantity of essence of roses. , This paste of the cachoudé is of a black colour, and has a sweet perfume: it is formed into square tablets of different sizes, and is a very important object of commerce to the town of Goa. The European women, habituated to the use of betel, and the Mogols, prefer it to crude cachou or eatecambre. The Hindoos make no use of it: they employ only the latter, after having purified it with the betel, either as a topic or internally. Catecambre is useful in many arts, and even in medicine, in which it is employed on various occasions. The condensed juice of the areca inspissated with gum- hen, furnishes a very good resin, which the fishermen em- ploy for the preservation of their nets and fishing-lines. It ‘preserves wood from worms. It is used with astonishing success for burns, against apthe, and in general all Sind of ulcers and fungous ex- erescences ; in a word, for deafness, by diluting it with human milk, which is ie i into the ears. The ss 4 : 2 oO 116 Jatural History of the Coco-nut Tree, Be. of this remedy has been proved to me by repeated experi- ments. Ina word, all the medical properties of this sub- stance, when taken internally, are so well known to the Europeans that it is needless to enumerate them. The Hindoos, who ascribe to it the same virtues, apply it to the same purpose. : Arusts who paint cotton cloth, and dyers, employ it with great advantage for several purposes relative to their arts. The former use it as the base of the composition of a gum varnish, which they apply to those parts of the cloth which are not to be painted. To explain this process it is: necessary to observe, that the painters of chintz do not use blocks for imprinting the colours ; they are applied with a brush, er the cloth receives the red and blue colours by im- mersion ; a method of working very different from that of the Europeans, and of which we have no idea. I am con- vinced of what T advance, either by visiting our manutac- tories, or reading the works which treat of this art in our country, and which speak of the processes used in India. I have examined in particular the Annales des Arts et des Manufactures *, where it is said ‘* that the Indians apply the. red colour, by immersing the cloth first in a mordant, &c.”” This is not correct ; for this colour is always applied, as [ have said, by immersion, and warm. It is very sur- prising that we should have ideas so incorrect on the me- thods and processes used in the arts by these people, for more than three centuries that we have had an opportunity of being better acquainted with them. It is with the catecambre also that they compose the mordant which fixes on cloth the gold and silver leaf ap- plied to it. This kind of chintz is made at Mazulipatnam ; and it is impossible to describe the richness, elegance, and strength of this work. These cloths may be washed with- out hurt to the gilding, in the same manner as the other Indian stuffs are washed without injuring the brilliancy of the colours. This art is valuable, and we have not at- tempted to imitate it. The dyers extract also from the cate- cambre, combined with the juice of other plants, lilac mor- doré, puce, and maroon colours, which are employed for dyeing silk, woollen, and cotton stuffs. It is employed with such success in the art of tanning, ‘that in five days leather is perfectly tanned and prepared. The English, for some years past, bring it from India for *their tanneries: they use it with great advantage in order to sunmplify their labour and to improve theirleather. * No. 370 a XVII. Ex-. { 117 J XVII. Experiments on preserving Potatoes. By J. Dr | Lancer, Esq. of the Island of Guernsey *. Puaziy in March 1803, I observed my winter’s stock of potatoes, which I had dug in October 1802, sprouted from the mildness of the weather in this island: it occurred to me, that, by putting them under ground, vegetation might be retarded. I accordingly took indiscriminately from my pile about three dozen, and in my court-yard dug a hole two feet and a half deep, under the protection of a south- west wall, where the rays of the sun prevail for a few mi-. nutes only during the day at any season of the year; then, with three pantiles, one at bottom, I Jaid. most of the po- tatoes in the hole, and placcd the other two tiles over them in farm of the roof of a house: they not containing all, I threw the remainder carelessly into the hole (having no great confidence in my experiment), covering the place over to its usual Jevel. Business calling me from home during part of the summer, I neglected looking after my small deposit: but, on the 2ist of January 1804, nearly eleven months after covering them, I had the curiosity to examine them; when, to my astonishment, | found them (two or three excepted, which were perforated by the ground-worm, though firm) all perfectly sound, without. having in the least vegetated, and in every respect fit for the purpose of sets ane the use of the table, as I have boiled a few, and found them similar in taste and flavour to new potatoes. [ further pledge mysclf that they were perfectly firm. I have still some of them by me, for the inspection, of my friends, who all agree with me that they are so. _ Guernsey, J. De Lancry. Jan. 24, 1804. SIR, . ‘LT wave received the favour of your letter of the 7th inst. eonveying the thanks of the society, for my experiments in the preservation of potatoes, which is highly gratifying to my feelings. [avail myself of the opportunity of a friend - going to London, to send* three of the potatoes as a con- firmation of their being fit for sets, as they are actually sprouting. I have still a few left, which I shall plant. The potatoes | send, I pledge myself to. you are of the growth of 1502, when I first dug them out of the ground ; neither have they been under the ground since January 21, * From Transactions of the Society of Arts, &c. 1804. " H 3 1804, 118 Processes for preparing Lake from Madder. 1804, but lain in acloset. I have buried some others of the last year’s growth, with a few carrots and parsnips, in a similar manner to my former experiments, the result of which I shall make known to the society. Guernsey, [remain, sir, May 17, 1804. Your obedient servant, | J. DE Lancer. Charles Taylor, Esq. , The above potatoes were examined before a committee of the society on the 30th of July 1804, and found to be in a state fit for vegetation. Cures Tay_or, Secretary. XVIII. Processes for preparing Lake from Madder. By Sir H. C. ENGLEFIELD, Bart.* ‘bien want of a durable red colour, which should possess something of the depth and transparency of the lakes made from cochineal, first induced me to try whether the madder root, which is well known to furnish a dye less subject to change by exposure to air than any other vegetable colour, except indigo, might not produce something of the colour I wanted. Several of the most eminent painters of this country have, for some time, been in the habit of using madder lakes in oil pictures ; but the colours they possessed under this name were either a yellowish red, nearly of the hue of brickdust, or a pale pink opake, and without clearness or depth of tint, and quite unfit to be used in water-coloured drawing, which was the principal object of my search. My first attempts were to repeat the process given by Mareraf in the memoirs of the Academy of Berlin; but the colour produced by this mode was of a pale red, and very opake, although the eminent author of the process states the colour he produced to be that of ‘ /e sang en- flammé,” which probably means a deep blood colour. It may, however, be observed, that colours prepared with a basis of alumine will appear much deeper when ground in oil than they do in the lump, the oil rendering the alumine ‘nearly transparent. This advantage is, however, lost in water colours. On examining the residuum of the madder ® From Transactions of the Society of Arts, &c. 1804. The society voted their gold medal to sir H. C. Englefield for this communication. root, Processes for preparing Lake from Madder. 119 root, after it had been treated in Margraf’s method, it _ appeared tinged with so rich a red, that it was obvious that by far the greater part of the colour still remained in it, and that the most powerful and beautiful part. To extract this, several ineffectual trials were made, which it would be useless to enter into; but, on attentively examining the appearances which took place on infusing the madder in water, I began to suspect that the red colouring matter was very little, if at all, soluble in water, and that it was only mechanically mixed with the water when poured on the Toot, and suspended in it by the mucilage,; with which the root abounds. . A very small quantity, therefore, can be obtained by any infusion or decoction, as the greater part sinks down on the root, or remains with it on the sieve, or in the bag, through which the infusion or decoction is passed to render it clear. I therefore was induced to try whether, by some merely mechanical means, I could not separate the colour- ing matter from the fibrous part of the root. In this at- tempt my success was fully tqual to my hopes; and, after several trials, I consider the process I am now about to describe, as the most perfect ] have been able to discover, Process 1. Enclose two ounces, troy weight, of the finest Dutch madder,; known in commerce by the name of crop madder, - in a bag capable of containing three or four times that quantity, and made of strong and‘fine calico. Put it into a large marble or porcelain mortar, and pour on it about a pint of cold soft water. The Thames water, when filtered, is as good as can be used; it being very nearly as pure as distilled water, at least when taken up a very little way above London. With a marble or porcelain pestle, press the bag strongly in every direction, and, as it were, rub and ound it as much as can be done without endangering the ag. The water will very soon be loaded with the colour- ing matter, so as to be quite opake and muddy. Pour off the water, and add another pint of fresh water to the root, agitating and triturating it in the manner before described ; and repeat the operation till the water comes off the root very slightly tinged. About five pints of water, if well agi- tated and rubbed, will extract from the root nearly the whole of its colour; and if the residual root be taken out _ of the bag and dried, it will be found to weigh not more than five drachms apothecaries weight; its colour will be a kind of light nankeen, ‘or cinnamon, ard it will have en- i) H4 tirely 120 = Processes _for preparing Lake from Madder.. tirely lost the peculiar odour of the root, and only retain a: faint woody smell. The water loaded with the colouring matter must be put into an earthen or well tinned copper, or, what is still better, a silver vessel, (for the use of iron must be carefully avoided through the whole,) and heated till it just boils. It must then be poured into a large earthen or porcelain bason, and an ounce troy weight of alum dissolved in about a pint of boiling soft water must be poured into it, and stirred until it is thoroughly mixed. About an ounce and a half of a saturated solution of mild vegetable alkali should be gently poured in, stirring the whole well all the time. A considerable effervescence will take place, and an immer diate precipitation of the colour. The whole should be suffered to stand till cold; and the clear yellow. hquor may then be poured off from the red precipitate. A quart of boiling soft water should a@ain be poured on it, and well stirred. When cool, the colour may be separated from the liquor by filtration through paper in the usual way 3 and boiling water should be poured on it in the filter till it passes through of a light straw colour, and quite free from any alkaline taste. The colour may now be gently dried; and when quite dry it will be found to weigh half an ounce ; just a fourth part of the weight of the madder employed. . By analysis, this colour possesses rather more than 40 per cent. of alumine. If less than an ounce: of alum be employed with two ounces of madder, the colour will be rather deeper; but if less than three quarters of an ounce be used, the whole of the colouring matter will not be coms bined with alumine. On the whole, I consider the pro- portion of an ounce of alum to two ounces of madder, as the best. Process 2. If, when the solution of alum is added to the water loaded with the colouring matter of the root, the whole be suffered to stand, without the addition of the alkali, a con- siderable precipitation will\take place, which will be of a dark dull red. Fhe remaining liquor, if again heated, will, by the addition of the alkali, produce a rose-coloured pre- cipitate of a beautiful tint, but wanting in force and depth of tone. This is the process recommended by Mr. Watt, in his Essay on Madder, in the Annales de Chymie, tome 7; and this Jatter colour is what may, perhaps with propriety, be called maddzr lake. But, although the lighter red may be . excellent NS Processes for preparing Lake from Madder. 121 excellent for many purposes, yet I consider the colour pro- duced by the union of the two colouring matters, as given in the first process, as far preferable for general use, being of a very beautiful hue when used thin, and possessing un- rivalled depth and richness either in oil or water, when laid on in greater body. ’ If but half an ounce of alum be added to the two ounces of the root, the first precipitate will be nearly similar to: that when an ounce is employed; but the second, or lake precipitate, will be less in quantity, and of a deeper and richer tint. In this case the whole of the colouring Matter, as before observed, is certain!y not combined with the alumine; for, on adding more alum to the remaining hiquor, a precipitate is obtained of a light purplish red.) In this process, -when two ounces of madder and an ounce of alum are.used, the first precipitate has about 90 per cent. of alumine, and the second, or lake precipitate, about 53 per cent.; but these proportions will vary a little in repetis tions of the process. Process 3. > If the madder, instead of being washed and_-triturated with cold water, as directed in the Yoregoing process, be treated in exactly the same manner with boiling water, the colour obtained will be rather darker, but scarcely of so ood a tint; and the residuum of the root, however care- fully pressed and washed, will retain a strong purplish hue ; a full proof that some valuable colour is retained in it, pro- bably fixed in the woody fibre by the action of heat. Mr, Waitt, in his excellent Treatise on Madder above mentioned, observes, that cold water extracts the colour better than hot water; and I have reason to suspect that a portion of that colouring matter, which produces the bright red pigment, distinguished before by the name of madder lake, remains attached to the root when acted on by boiling water. Process 4. If to two ounces of madder a pint of cold water be added, and the whole be suffered to stand for a few days (three or four days) in a wide-mouthed bottle, lightly corked, in a temperature of between 50° and 60°, and often shaken ; a slight fermentation will take place, the infusion will acquire a vinous smell, and the mucilaginons part of the root will be in a great degree destroyed, and its yellow colour much lessened. If the whole be then poured into a ealico bag, and the liquor be suffered to drain away without pressure, and then the root remaining in the bag be heated ; with 122 = Processes for preparing Lake from Madder. with cold water, &c. exactly as directed in the first process the red colouring matter will quit the root with much greater ease than before fermentation. It will also be equal in quan- tity to that afforded by the first process, but of a much» lighter red. This difference of tint appears to be owing to a destruction of a part of the lake by the fermentation of the root; for if the colours from the fermented root be ob- tained separate, as in Process 2, the first precipitate will _not sensibly differ from that obtained from the unfermented’ madder, but the second, or lake, will be of a very light pink. This process, then, is not to be recommended. Spanish and Smyrna Madders. Spanish madder affords a colour of rather a deeper tone than the Dutch madder, but it does not appear to be of so pure a red as the Zealand crop madder. The Smyrna madder is a very valuable root. The colour produced from it by Process 1, is of a deeper and richer tint than any I have obtained from the Dutch madder, The quantity produced from two ounces is only three drachms twenty-four grains: but this is not to be wondered at; for as this madder is imjrted in the entire root in a dry state, _and the crop madder of Zealand consists principally of the bark, in which probably the greatest part of the colouring substance resides, there is every reason to think that the Smyrna madder really contains a greater proportion of co- lour than the Zealand in equal weights of the entire root. The products of Process 2, prove that the lake of the Smyrma madder is more abundant im quantity and of a richer tone than that of the Dutch root; for, from two ounces of Dutch madder the first precipitate was two drachms, and the lake was two drachms and forty-eight grains; where- as, from two ounces of the Smyrna root the first precipitate was one drachm and twenty-four grains, and the lake was two drachms and twenty-four grains. The proportion of the lake to the other colour is therefore much higher in the Smyrna than in the Dutch root. Fresh Madder. The colour may be prepared from the recent root; and it will be of a quality equal, if not superior, to any other. The difficulty of procuring the fresh root has prevented me from making as many experiments on it as T° could have wished. I procured, however, a small quantity of the best roots packed in moss from Holland, and the following process answered perfectly well. Eight —__ *—™ Processes for preparing Lake from Madder. 123 _ Eight ounces of the root, having been first well washed and cleaned from dirt of all kinds, were broken into small pieces, and pounded in a bell-metal mortar, with a wooden pestle, till reduced into an uniform’ paste. This paste being inclosed in a calico bag, was washed and triturated, as de- scribed in the first process, with cold water. About five pints seemed to have extracted nearly the whole of the co- lour. To the water thus loaded with colour, and boiled as before, one ounce of alum, dissolved in a pint of boiling water, was added, and the alkali poured on the whole till the taste of the mixture was just perceptibly alkaline. The colour thus obtained, when dry, was of a very beautiful quality. The success of this experiment, which was twice re- peated with the same result, has led me to hope that it is not impossible that the mode of obtaining the colour from _the fresh root here described, may be productive of advan- tages for more extensive use than I had in view when first [ ’ attempted to obtain a pigment from madder. Many tracts of land in this country are as well adapted to the growth of this valuable article as the soil of Holland can ke; and-the cultivation of it, which has more than once been attempted to a considerable extent, has been laid aside, principally from the expense attendant on the erection of drying-houses and-mills, and the great expense and nicety requisite for conducting the process of drying. But should the colour prepared in the mode just described be found to answer the purposes of the dyers and calico-printers, the process is so easy, and the apparatus required for it so little expensive, that it might be in the power of any grower of the root to extract the colour: besides which, another great advantage would be obtained ; the colour thus separated from the root tay be kept any length of time without danger of spoiling, rag its carriage would be only one-fourth of that of the root. Iam, moreover, thoroughly inclined to believe, that in the present mode of using the root, a very considerable part of the colour is left in it by the dyers ; and, should this oa to be the case, an advantaye much greater than any itherto adveried to may arise trom the process‘here recom- mended. Should it be attempted to obtain the colour from the fresh root, on an extensive scale, I should recommend that the root be first reduced to as uniform a pulp as possible, by grinding or pounding, To this purpose it is probable that the cider-mill would answer perfectly well; and its extreme simplicity is a great recommendation. For the purpose of ’ trituration, 124 = Processes for preparing Lake from Madder. trituration, bags of woollen, such as are used in the oil-mills, would probably answer as well as calico, and they would be much cheaper and more durable. A large vat, with’ stampers, would be easily constructed, by thuse who are conversant in mechanics, for the holding them and pressing them in water; and when the colour was boiled and preci- pitated, the flues of the boilers might easily be formed into convenient drying-tables, without any additional expense of fuel. The part of the process which I] consider as of the - greatest importance, and as being the essential advantage of my methods over all those which have come to my know- ledge, is the trituration or pressing of the root in water ; and I believe that the colouring matter of the root has not been hitherto considered as so nearly insoluble in water as I have reason to think it is. It were much to be wished that in the present advanced state of chemistry some skilful analyser would investigate the properties of this very useful root, in which perhaps it will be found that there are three, if not four, different co= Jouring substances. Such are the processes and views, which I have thought it not improper to submit to the con sideration of the Society of Arts, &c. T have only now to describe the specimens which aecom- pany this paper ; assuring the society that they have been all prepared by my own hands entirely, and that I am therefore responsible for their having been produced by the processes stated, without the addition of any foreign matter whatever, excepting the*cake ground up with gum, and the bladder of oil-colour, which were prepared from the colour which I gave him, by Mr. Newman, of Soho-square, whose skill and fidelity are too well known to need any tes- timony in their favour. It may be proper to add, that all the colours produced from the Dutch madder were prepared from the same parcel of crop niadder, in order that the differences in them might proceed from the processes, and not from a variation in the qualities of the root, which, in different specimens, will produce different shades of colour under the same mode of treatment. 1. Dutch madder, treated by Process Ist. 0 Ditto s) FI 8 aR .. Process 2d. SPDitto 84. VN So Procersiade As Ditto! AOS Eosel ou. ‘Pregese4ths 5. Dutch madder, two eunces; alum, half an ounce ; treated by Process 2. dy ~ 6. Dutch Separation of Gold and Silver from the laser Metals. 1925 6. Dutch madder, two ounces; alum, one ounce; fer- mented two days, and then treated by Process 2. 7. Produce of Process 1s ground in gum by Mr. Newman. 8. Produce of Process 1, ground in oil by Mr. Newman. S—1. Smyrna madder, by Process 1. ee A TELON cee oe ete eee Process 2. So. Dittman aie .. Process 3. See a ee Bite Rea os SEU Process 4. Certificates accompanied the foregoing description, from Mr. Cotman and Mr. Munn, testifying the merits of slr H. Englefield’s madder lakes, as water-colours; and also from Messrs. West, Trumbull, Opie, Turner, Daniel, and Hoppner, speaking greatly in its favour, where it has been tried in oil-colours. XIX. A new Process for separating Gold and Silver from : the baser Metals *. Hiruerro this process has always been, as far as I have understood it, attended with considerable difficulty in the execution ; but, by that which I am about to describe, is done with exact certainty. It was discovered and commu- Micated to me by a gentleman in this neighbourhood. The process consists in mixing noi less than two parts of pow- dered manganese with the impure or compound metal which should be previously flattened or spread out so as expose as large a surface as possible, and broken or cut into small picces for the convenience of putting the whole into a crucible, which then is ta be kept in a sufficient heat for a short time. On removing the whole from the fire, and allowing it to cool, the mixture isfound to be converted into a brownish powder, which powder or oxide is then to be mixed with an equal proportion of powdered glass, and then submitted in a crucible to a sufficient heat, so as to fuse the whole; when the perfect metals are found at the bottom: in a state of extreme purity; a circumstance of no small importance to the artist and the chemist; the latter ef whom will find no difficulty in separating the one from the other with so little trouble compared with the usual ocesses, that | have no doubt it will always be practised in preference to the cupel. . * Extracted from a Communication by Dr. William Dyce, of Aber- deen, inserted in the twenty-second volume of the Transactions of the Society of Arts, &c. ‘ % ed 1 XX. Twenty- {[ 326 J XX. Twenty-first Communication from Dr. THORNTON, relative to Pneumatic Medicine. March 15, 1805. No. 1, Hinde Street, Manchester Squares To Mr. Tilloch. DEAR SIR, HAVE the honour to inclose you the following remarka- ble case cured by the inhalation of vital air. ' A Deviation from the common Course of Nature. Mary Tame, xt. 16, residing at No. 17, East-strect, when fourtecn years of age, instead of being regular im the usual way, had a copious discharge of blood from both breasts. These discharges, for nearly the space of two years after, came on regularly once a fortnight, or three weeks, attended with violent pains in the baek and loins, and continued the regular period of three days. The quan- tity of blood so discharged was about the same as under the usual circumstances. It distilled gradually from the nip- ples as milk from an overloaded breast, but without pain. \t this period the face appeared turgid with blood. I wit- nessed myself this discharge of blood from the breasts, and have no doubt of the reality of so extraordinary a pheno- menon. Having first invited the blood from the superior to the inferior parts by aloetic cathartics, I next ordered the inhalation of vital air with tonics; and this phenomenon has not again occurred, it is now four months. Observations on this Case by Dr. Thornton. 1. Each part of the body obeys its adapted stimulus learned from experience. Thusthe eye is stimulated by hght, the ear by sound, the stomach by food; and the most dif- fusible stimulus is the oxygen in the arterial blood. Thus, if the liquid in the bladder escape into the cavity of the abdomen, it excites the highest derangement, although a proper stimulus to that reservoir. Thus, if water, or even milk, be injected into the veins in a small portion, accord- me to the quantity. is the derangement of the frame; and if jalap or emetic tartar be injected into the circulation, each will be determined to the respective organs, as though they had been received into the stomach and bowels. Thus tt is, that rhubarb and aloes stimulate the lower parts of the intestinal tube, especially the rectum, inviting the blood to the aorta descendens. 2. The Twenty-first Communication from Dr. Thornton, 127 - 2, The blood, being then properly propelled throughout the whole frame, whose energies, were increased by bark, -serpentaria, myrrh, and afterwards stecl,—every organ re- sumed its proper functions, and the aberration ceased. s. Mr. Morton*, a gentleman whose.mind rises much superior te the delight of low persons, has certainly mis- understood the science of pneumatic medicine when he at- tempted to hold it forth to ridicule on the stage. To wipe away, as far as my voice reaches, the*odiwm he would attach to the practice, I shall beg leave to refer the philo- sophic world to what I published th the year 1799.—Vide Philosophy of Medicine, vol. i. p. 545, fourth edition. Dr. Brown’s golden Maxim. « As the most healthy state of man is occasioned not by the operation of any one, or of a few exciting powers, but by the united operation of them all; so neither is its re-esta- blishment to be effected but by the same wnited operation of all the*remedies, the last of which come to be the ordi- nary means of the support of the healthy state.” Upon this principle, my practice is, im all asthenic dis- eases requiring more than the usnal routine, to endeavour for the stomach to be braced and strengthened by bark, myrrh, steel, or zinc; the blood improved, and hence the whole vascular system, by the inhalation of vital air ; the mind to be exalted with ihe hopes and novelty of cure; a generous mode of living enforced ; and thus every energy of the frame to be roused mto action. But the public mind has been Jong poisened by the doctrines of specifics ; and as *‘ what is good for every thing is good for nothing,” for quackery advertises the same specifics for every disease, so no credit will be given by many to ahe healing powers of the constitution, and Jess to those means which act on the constitrtion, and thus on a variety of diseases of the same class: but in the issue, “ truth and science will prevail :” aud as constitutions are differently affected by the same means, hence the neccssity of discrimination in the practi- tioner, and hence our prophecy, that the extinction of quachery i8-at no great distance in an enlightened age. Steering is very simple; move the rudder ever so little to the right or left, and the ship turns in a contrary direction ; put it straight, and the ship moves ‘straight: but God has so connected mankind, that even the conduct of this simple * The wit aimed at by Mr, Morton, in his School of Reform, is by the introduction of one Dr, OXYGEN; who gives his patient, by mistake, instead of a certificate of Cures, the bilis of Mortality! process 128 Communication from Mr. Ince. process requires some experience: and it will be found to be the same with engraving, writing, tuning of instruments, hair-dressing, and physic.” 4. So far, therefore, is the application of vital air from deserving to be branded on the stage as quackery, that it most perfectly accords with the Brunonian system, now almost universally received. 5. Perhaps of all remedies for the cure of diseases, when properly administered, this is the most harmless and effi- cacious. Some have occasicnally had recourse to it for five years past, and one gentleman, in an cbstinate disease, daily, for six months. 6. I shall conclude, therefore, these remarks with saying, that however it may be estimated by Mr. Morton and others, the philosophic world will, I am sure, wish to , see this remedy continued; and I shall content myself with their approbation, and a consciousness of the integrity of my own motives. XXI. Communication from Mr. Ince, Surgeon, relative to Pneumatic Medicine. . : March 15, 1805. No. 29, York Buildings, New Road. To Mr. Tilloch. SIR, i woutp thank you to insert the following cure in your “Magazine. A Case of Ulcerations in the Leg, cured ly Vital Air. Mrs. Mead, eet. 45, living at Kinsbray, near Edgware, had five large ulcers in the left leg, which extended along the calf to the ancle, and had resisted every attempt made to cure them for two years. She was advised by Dr. Thorn- ton to inhale the vital air, and place herself under my ma- nagement. He ordered her bark, steel, with myrrh, as medicine, and the common unguents were employed to the ulcers, and occasionally a weak solution of oxygenated silver. The ulcers in a few days, from an ichorous dis- charge, put on an healthy appearance, and the cure of the ulcerations was perfected in less than three weeks. Her limb has since remained sound; it is now upwards of six months, and her health is completely re-established. I have the honour to be, sir, Your obedient humble servant, Henry Rozenrt Ince. XXII. Ex L 129 | XXIL. Extract of a Memvir on the Temperature of the Water of the Sea, both at the Surface and at different Depths, along the Shores and at a Distance from the Coast. By M. F. Psron, Naturalist on the French Expedition to New Holland*. te O: all the experiments in: natural philosophy,” says M. Peron, * there are few the results of which are more interesting and more curieus than those which form the subject of this memoir. The meteorolovist must derive from them valuable data in regard to atmospheric observations in the middle of the ocean: they may furnish to the natu- ralist knowledge indispensably necessary in regard to the habitation of the different tribes of marine animals; and the geologue and philosopher will find in them the most certain facts in regard to the propagation of heat in the middle of the seas, and of the physical state of the interior parts of the globe, the deepest excavations of which cam scarcely go beyond the surface. In a word, there is no science which may not derive benefit from the results of experiments of this kind. How much then ought we to be surprised that they have hitherto excited so little atten- tion |” ; Proceeding then to an account of the observations which may be made at the surface of the sea, and which he him- self pursued from lat. 49° north to lat. 44° south, repeating them four times a day,—at six in the mornive, at noon, at six in the evening, and at midnight, —M. Peron deduces from them the following results :—* The temperature of the surface of the sea, colder at noon than the atmosphere, and warmer at midnight, is nearly in equilibrium with that of the morning and evenwg, in such a manner, however, that the mean term of a given number of observations is more considerable for the water of the sea.” By a very happy application of these first results M. Peron easily proves, that the supposed heating of the waves is a mistake of sensation produced by the more considerable 8ooling in a given time of the atmosphere than of the waves. The proof he has adduced seems to beas simple 5 it is incontestable. This prejudice, which is as old as Anistotle, and which the incomplete experiments of Forster and. Irving did not admit of being entirely rejected, not- withstanding the supposition of a principle contrary to ae * Feom.the Journal de Physique: Brumaive, an 13, Vol.21. No. 82. March 1805. I those 130 Memoir on the Temperature of those advanced by sound philosophy, will in future be erts tircly proscribed ; and M. Peron substitutes in its stead this consequence of the experiments which he made on this subject. The relative temperature of the water of the sea increases during its agitation, but its absolute temperature always de- creases, The second section of M. Peron’s memoir contains an account of experiments which may be made at great depths. The author here establishes a great distinction between ex- periments of this kind made along the coasts, and those re- peated in the open sea at a great distance from the conti- nents and large islands. From his examination of experi- ments of the first kind, those made along the coasts by Saussure and Marsigii in the Mediterranean ; by Donati in the Adriatic ; and by himself in the sea which washes the western coast of New Holland, it results that, ceteris pa- gilus, the temperature of the sea along the coasts is greater vat equal depths than in the middle of the ocean; that it scems to increase as one approaches the shores; and that these writers themselyes furnish objections against the uni- form temperature of 10°, which has hitherto been admitted as the mean temperature of the interior part of the globe either in its solid or liquid part. For the above experiments, and those about to be men- tioned, M. Peron employed an apparatus, invented by him- self, which appears indeed to be superior to all those hi-« therto employed for the same purpose. By arranging suc- cessively around his thermometer a stratum of air, glass, charcoal, wood, tallow, and resin, he was able to unite under a very small volume all those bodies which are the worst conductors of caloric, and in such an order, that this property of being a bad conductor necessarily became still less; M. Peron having set out from this principle, that caloric, as well as electricity, can with the greater difficulty penetrate a stratum of a given thickness, as the bodies which compose it are more different in their nature. This part of the author’s labour has been universally approved. The author then proceeds to the temperature of the sea at great depths :—‘* We have now arrived,” says he, *¢ at the third and ninth part of the experiments which might be attempted on the heat of the sea water. It is also the most delicate and the most interesting, in consequence of the va- Juable data it may furnish us in regard to the internal phy- sical state of the globe at depths which cannot be reached in the solid part.” He then gives the result of the experi- ments eet. — the lVater of the Sea. 131 ments which he made successively in the neighbourhood of the equator at the depth of 300, 500, 1200, and 2144 feet. This consequence, which no doubt is new and very in- teresting, results, namely, that the temperature of the water of the sea decreases in proportion to the depth. The dif- ference obtained by M. Peron in his last observation at the dept) of 2144 feet, was 19° of Reaumur between the tem- perature of the surface and that at this depth. Flaving given the result of his particular observations, the auther examines the experiments of the same kind which were made before. < If we except,” says he, “ the celebrated traveller whose return has excited universal joy among all the friends of science, and who attended also to this object, but whose results and apparatus I am still un- acquainted with*, three persons only have made accurate observations in the open sea on the temperature of the wa- ters, viz. Irving, Forster, and myself. By a very uncom- mon accident, our experiments were repeated at three of the most opposite points of the globe. By Irving, during the voyage of the honourabie Mr. Phipps, afterwards lord Mul- graye, to the North Pole; in the expedition of captain Cook to the South Pole, they werecontinued by Forster to the 64th degree south, beyond which no navigator had been able to advance; and I myself, placed, as 1 may say, between these extremes, made all my experiments in the neighbourhood of the equator. It would certainly be difficult to find any other fact in physics where so many points of comparison can be enumerated; and yet we shall find the results of these different experiments reproduced,every where analo- gous to those which I shall here exhibit.” In Forster’s experiments, indeed, we find that the tem- perature of the sea decreases successively from the 16th of Reaumur to the term zero of the same thermometer, and it continually decreases the greater the depth. The inge- ‘mious experiments of Dr. Irving reproduce the same results with still more interest, since at the depth of 3,900 feet he obtained two degrees below zero of Reaumutr’s scale. M. Peron then takes a rapid view of the very incomplete experiments of Elis, Wallis, Bradley, and Baldh, and the -- anonymous ones collected by Kirwan: he is satisfied with observing, that they all concur to confirm the principal re- -sults-of his own experiments, and those of Forster and Ir- ying. He concludes with a general view of the same re- * Mr. Humboldt was still at Bourdeaux, 2 sults, 132 On the Temperature of the Water of the Sea. sults, and of the geological consequences which may bé deduced from them. The temperature of the sea water decreases according to the depth. All the results of the observations hitherto made on this point, concur in proving that the deepest guiphs of the sea, as well as the sunmmits of the highest mountains, are continually covered with ice, even under the equator: whence it must necessarily follow that a very small number. of animals and vegetables can live there, if any exist at all. ** Analogous results have proved,”’ continues the author, * that a similar cooling existed at great depths in the prin- cipal lakes of Swisserland and Italy. The observations of Georgi, Gmelin, Pallas, Ledyard, and Patrin, in Siberia, and those of that accurate observer Saussure, prove that the case in regard to the bosom of the earth has always been the same when experiments have been made at the bottom of mines. Similar results were obtained in America by Shaw, Mackenzie, Umfreville, and Robson. Onght not so many facts united to leave us in some uncertainty in regard to this theory, so generally admitted, of an interior central fire which maintains a uniform and constant temperature of 10° in the whole mass of our globe, whether solid or liquid? Shall we not one day be obliged to recur to this old’ principle, so natural, and so agreeable besides to all the phe- nomena which daily take place before our eyes? The only source of the heat of our globe is that great luminary by which it is enlightened: without it, without the salutary influence of its rays, the whole of our earth, soon congealed in every point, would be only an inert mass of ice. ‘Phe history of the winter of these polar regions would then be that of the whole planet.” However singular this last consequence of, M. Peron may appear, however contrary it may be to our present ideas in regard to the internal state of our globe, it must be allowed that the facts collected by this naturalist in support of his opinion are so numerous, and there prevails so much agree- ment in all the results obtained by observers, so different in. so many different places, and at periods so distant, and with apparatus so little susceptible of comparison, that no objection can be made to it by the respectable body before whom it is laid. In the last place, the experiments of M. Humboldt, en- tirely analogous to those of M. de Peron, to whom the Prus- sian traveller was eager to pay a publiétribute of praise, give it a new degree of weight. : ‘© This ee om Sh Analysis of the magnetical Pyrite’. 133 ** This consequence of M. Peron,” say the commission- ers of the Institute, “ appears to us the more probable, as it now proves the origin of those mountains of ice which in the polar regions have bitherto impeded the progress of the European navigators: it makes us readily comprehend how masses of ice, detached from the depths of the sea to float at the surface, can constitute in these regions project- ing mountains of ice which simple congelation could never effect under that form.” This ingenious theory, therefore, of an interior central fire maintaining a uniform temperature of about 10 degrees throughout the whole mass, whether solid or liquid, of our globe, experiences at present the fate reserved, soon or late, for almost all human theories. The calculations of Leib- nitz, who first conevived it; the eloquence of Buffon, who decided his triumph, ought however, it would seem, to have secured to it a ionger and more peaceable existence. We shall terminate this extract with the opinion given on this subject by the commissioners of the Institute charged to give in a report upon it. “© The memoir of M. Peron,” say they, “ seems to us to deserve great attention from phi- Josophers : it is written with method, precision, and clear- ness. The experiments, of which the author gives an ac- count, seem to have been made with that care and attention which are capable of ensuring the exactness of the results which: they have furnished. We are therefore of opinion that this memoir deserves the approbation and even the praises of the class, and that it ought to be printed among those des Savans Etrangers. We will venture to add, that this is not the only claim) of M. Peron to the gratitude of all those who are tond of the sciences; his labaurs during his voyage will considerably tend to enlarge the boundaries of the natural sciences.” TRE ir ty Ware aie) cj XXII. An Analysis of the magnetical Pyrites; with Re- marks on some of the other Sulphurets of Iron. By’ Cuarnres Harcnurr, Esq. F,R,S.* bed a ae O, the various metallic sulphurets which constitute ong of the grand divisions of ores, none appear to be so univers sally dispersed throughout the globe as the sulphuret of * From the Transations of the Royal Society of London for 1804. I3 ivon, 134 Analysis of the magnetical Pyrites. iron, commonly called martial pyrites; for the species and varieties of this are found at all depths, and in all climates and soils, whether antient, or of alluvial and recent formas tion. It is remarkable also, that, under certain circum- stances, this sulphuret is daily produced in the humid way ; an instance of which, a few years back, I had the honour, in conjunction with Mr. Wiseman, to lay before this so- ciety *; and although, in regard to pecuniary value, the pyrites of iron may be considered as comparatively insig~ nificant, yet there is every reason to believe, that in the operations of nature it is a substance of very considerable importance, § Il. The species and varieties of martia! pyrites are in gencrak so well known, and have been so frequently and accurately: described, as to figure, lustre, colour, and other external characters, that it would be totally superfluous here to give any detailed account of them. One of the species, however, merits peculiar notice, as possessing the remarkable property: of strong magnetic polarity ; and, although it has been de-~ scribed by modern mineralogists t+. it does not appear to have been as yet subjected to any regular chemical exa- mination; so that, whether it be a sulphuret of iron imhe- rently endowed with the magnetical property, ora sulphuret in which particles of the ordinary maonetical iron ore are simply but minutely interspersed, has to this time remained undecided. This species is known by the name of magnetical pyrites, and is called by the Germans magnet-kies, or ferrums mine- ralisatum magnetico-pyritaceum. It is mast frequently of the colour of bronze, passing to a pale cupreous red. The lustre is metallic. wine The fracture is unequal, and commonly coarse-grained, but sometimes imperfectly conchoidal. ' The fragments are amorphous. ‘The trace is yellowish gray, with some metallic lustre It is not very hard; but, when struck with steel, sparks are produced, although with some difficulty. ’ It is brittle, and is easily broken. This pyrites has been hitherto found only in some parts of Norway, Silesia, Bavaria, and especially at Geier, Met- * Transactions of the Royal Society of London for 1798, p+ 567. + Kirwan, vol. ii. p- 79. Widenmann, p. 792. Emmerling, 2d edit. teme ii, p. 286, Karsten, p. 48. Brochant, tome ii. p. 232. fersdorf, Analysis of the magnetical Pyrites. 135 fersdorf, and Breitenbrunn in Saxony ; but, having received some specimens from the right honourable Charles Gre- ville, F.R.S., I was struck with their resemblance to the pyrites of Breitenbrunn, which happened at that time to be in my possession ; and, upon trial, J found that they were magnetical, and agreed with the latter in every particular, Their magnetic power was such as strongly to affect a well- poised needle of about three inches in length; a piece of the pyrites, nearly two inches square, acted upon the needle at the distance of four inches. The powder (which is blackish gray, with but little me- tallic lustre) is immediately taken up by-a common mag- net; but the pyrites does not act thus on the powder, nor On iron filings, unless it has been placed for some time be- tween magnetical bars; then, indeed, it acts powerfully, turns the needle completely round, attracts and takes up iron filings, and seems permanently to retain this addition to its original power. In the specimens which I obtained, the north pole was generally the strongest. This pyrites was found in Wales, about the year 1798, by the honourable Robert Greville, F.R.S., who sent the specimens above described to his brother the right honoura- ble Charles Greville, with the following account: . «© Tt is found in great abundance in Caernarvonshire, near the base of the mountain called Moel Elion, or pro- bably with more accuracy Moel iia, and opposite to the mountain called Mynydd Mawr, These mountains form the entrance into a little close valley, which leads to Cy- wellin lake, ncar Snowdon, a little beyond the hamlet of Bettws. _ The vein appears to be some vards in depth and breadth, and seems to run from north ta south, as it is found on Mynydd Mawr, which is across the narrow val- Jey, and opposite to Moel Aélia,” Mr. Robert Greville, in another part of his letter, states that copper ore has been worked in several of the adjacent places, and that, many years ago, captain Williams, of Glan yr Avon, employed some miners at the place where this pyrites is found, but the undertaking proved unpro- ductive. Yellow copper ore is certainly in the vicinity ; for some portions of it were adhering to the specimens hich-have been mentioned; and I shall here observe, that e stone. which accompanies the magnetical pyrites is a variety of the lapis ollaris, or pot-stone, of a pale grayish green, containing smooth pan crystals of common A 4 ; 136 Analysis of the magnetical Pyrites. § TIT, From the appearance of those parts of the magnetical py rites which have been exposed to the weather, it seems to be liable to oxidizement, but not to vitriolization. The specific gravity, at temperature 65° of Fahrenheit, is 4518.) y | When exposed to the blowpipe, it emits a sulphureous odour, and melts into a globule nearly black, which is at- tracted by the magnet. : 500 grains, in coarse powder, were exposed, in a smalk earthen retort, to a red heat, during three hours. By this operation the weight of the powder was very little dimi- nished; neither was there any appearance of sulphur in the receiver, which, however, smelt strongly of sulphareous acid, 500 grains of the same were put into a flat porcelain cru- cible, which was kept in a red heat, under a muffle, during four hours. The powder then appeared of a dark gray, with a tinge of deep red, and weighed 432°50 grains. ‘The loss was therefore 67°50 = 13°50 per cent.; but, upon examin- ing the residuum, J found that only part of the sulphur had been thus separated The magnetical pyrites, when digested in dilute sulphurie acid, is partially dissolved, with httie effervescence, although there is a very perceptible odour of sulphuretted hydrogen. The solution is of a very pale green colour. Pure ammonia produced a dark green precipitate, tending to black; and prussiate of potash formed a very pale blue precipitate, or rather a white precipitate mingled with a small portion of blue. The whole of the latter, however, by exposure to the air, gradually assumed the usual inten- sity of Prussian blue; and the blackish green precipitath, formed by ammonia, became gradually ochraccous. These effects, therefore, fully prove, that the iron in the solution was, for the greater part, at the minimum of oxidizement, so as to formthe green sulphate and white prussiate of iron *; and, consequently, that the iron of the magnetical pyrites is’ either quite, or very nearly, in the state of perfect metal. This pyrites, when treated with nitric acid of the specific gravity of 1-38, diluted with an equal quantity of water, is at first but little affected; but, when heat is applied, it is, dissolved with much effervescence, and discharge of nitrous gas: the cffervescence, however, is by no means so violent * Réchevehes cur Ie Bleu de Prusse, par M. Proust. Avnales de Chimie, tome Xxliis p.85. : as. | Analysts of the magnetical Pyrites. 137 as when the common pyrites are treated in a similar man- ner. It is also worthy of notice, that if the digestion be not of too long duration, a considerable quantity of sul- phur, in substance, is separated; whilst, on the contrary, scarcely any can be obtamed from the common pyrites, when treated in a similar manner; although I shall soon have occasion to prove that the real quantity of sulphur is much more considerable in the latter than in the former. ‘As soon as muriatic acid is poured on the powder of the magnetical pyrites a slight effervescence is produced, which becomes violently increased by the application of heat; a quantity of vas is discharged, which, by its odour, by its jnflammability, by the colour of the flame, by the deposi- tion of sulphur when burned, and by other properties, was proved to be sulpburetted hydrogen. During the digestion sulphur was deposited, which so enveloped a small part of the pyrites as to protect it from the further action of the acid. The solution was of a pale yellowish green colour. With prussiate of potash it afforded a pale blue precipitate, or rather a white precipitate mixed with blue; and with am- monia it formed a dark blackish-green precipitate, which ually became ochraceous; so that these efiects corro- orated the conclusions which were founded on the pro- perties of the sulphuric solution, namely, that the iron con- tained in the pyrites is almost, if not quite, i the metallic state. Other experiments were made; but, as they merely con- ‘firm the above observations, I shall proceed to give an ac- . count of the analysis. : § IV. Analysis of the magnetical Pyrites. A. 100 grains, reduced to a fine powder, were digested, with two ounces of muriatic acid, in a glass matrass placed ima sand-bath. The effects already described took place, and a pale yellowish green solution was formed. The resi- was then again digested with two parts of muriatic mixed with one of nitric acid ; and a quantity of pure yhur was obtained, which, being dried, weighed 14 grains. . ls The acid in which the residuum had been digested was led to the first muriatic solution; some nitrie acid was ured in, to promote the oxidizement of the iron, and thereby to facilitate the precipitation of it byammonia, which POP) . was 138 Analysis of the magnetical Pyrites. was added after the liquor had been boiled for a considera=, ble time. The precipitate thus obtained was boiled with lixivium of potash; it was then edulcorated, dried, made, red-hot with wax in-a covered porcelain crucible, was com- pictely taken up by a magnet, and, being weighed, amounted to 80 grains. C. The lixivium of potash was examined by muriate of ammonia, hut no alumina was obtained. D, To the filtrated liquor from which the iron had been precipitated by ammonia, muriate of barytes was added ‘until it ceased to produce any precipitate: this was then digested with some very dilute muriatic acid ; was collected, washed, and, after exposure to a low red heat fora few minutes in a crucible of platina, weighed 155 grains. If, therefore, the quantity of sulphur converted into sulphuric acid by the preceding operations, and precipitated by ba- rytes, be calculated according to the accurate experiments of Mr. Chenevix, these 155 grains of sulphate of barytes will denote nearly 22°50 of sulphur; so that, with the addi- tion of the 14 grains previously obtained in substance, the total quantity will amount to 36°50. E. Moreover, from what has been stated it appears that the iron which was obtaimed in the form of black oxide weighed 80 grains; and, by adding these 80 grains to the 36°50 of sulphur, an increase of weight is found = 16°50. This was evidently owing to the oxidizement of tbe iron, which, in the magnetical pyrites, exists quite, or very nearly, in the metallic state, but, by the operations of the analysis, had received this addition. ‘The real quantity of iron must, on this account, be estimated at 63+50. 190 grains, therefore, of the magnetical pyrites yielded Sulphur { si etsy 36°50 grains. Jron. « -E.. =>) '68750 ———— 100° This analysis was repeated in a similar manner, excepting that the whole was digested in nitric acid until the sul- phur was entirely converted into sulphuric acid. To the liquor which remained after the separation of the iron by ammonia, muriate of barytes was added, as before, and formed a precipitate which weighed 245 grains. Now, as the sulphuric acid in sulphate of barytes is estimated by *Mr. Chenevix at 23°5 per cent., and the sulphur which 1s y required Analysis of the magnetical Pyrites. 189 required to form the sulphuric acid contained in 100 parts of sulphate of barytes at 14°5 *, it follows, that 245 grains of dry sulphate of barytes contain sulphuric acid equal, very nearly, to 36 grains of sulphur; so that the two analyses corroborate each other. The proportion of sulphur in the magnetical pyrites may therefore be stated at 36°50, or in- deed at 37 per cent. if some small allowance be made for the occasional presence of earthy particles; a minute por- tion of quartz having been found, by the last analysis, after the complete acidification of the sulphur, The increase produced, by the operations of the analysis, in the weight of the iron, arose, as I have already remarked, from the addition of oxygen; for the iron, as obtained by the analysis, was in the state of black oxide; but in this, and indeed in all pyrites, it undoubtedly exists very nearly, or quite, in the state of perfect metal. Now the black oxide of iron, called protoxide by Dr. Thomson t, has been proved by Lavoisier and Proust to consist of 100 parts of metallic iron combined with 37 of oxygen, thus forming 137 of black oxide: the exact proportion of oxygen is therefore 27 per cent., and 80 grains of this oxide must contain 21°6 of oxygen. But, in the above analyses of the magnetical pyrites, the increase of weight did not amount to more than 16-5; and we may therefore conclude that, in all probability, a quantity of oxygen = 5°1 was previously combined with some part, or with the general mass, of the iron in the pyrites. A small part of the above-mentioned increase of weight must likewise have arisen from another cause ; for, although the true proportions of the black oxide of iron are 27 of oxygen and 73 of iron, (so that 100 parts of the latter absorb 37 of the former,) yet, in actual prac- tice, it is difficult to obtain it exactly in this state, and there is commonly a small excess of weight: this I have repeat- edly observed in many experiments, some of which were purposely made. When, for instance, 100 parts of fine iron wire were dissolved in muriatic acid, and afterwards preci- pitated by ammonia, edulcorated, dried, and made red-hot with a small quantity of wax in a covered porcelain cruci- ble, the weight, instead of 137, usually amounted to 139 or 140. ‘The quantity of wax empl»yed certainly did not afford a ponderable quantity of coal or other residuum ; but the real cause of the increase of weight appears tu be the air, which can scarcely be completely excluded, and which, | * Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. Vili, p. 240. + System of Chemistry, zd edition, vol, i. p. 147. after 140 Analysis of the magneticul Pyrites. after the wax is burned, combines with the superficial part of the oxide, and converts a portion of it into the red or peroxide; so that the surface in the crucible appears brown when compared with the interior. To this cause, therefore, I am inclined also to attribute a small part of the increase observed in the weight of the iron obtained by the preceding analyses. § Vv. Before I make any observations on the nature of the sul- phuret which has been proved to constitute the magnetical pyrites, it may be proper to state some comparative analyses which I have made of several of the common pyrites ; and, as the method employed was precisely the same as that which has been described, all that secims to be requisite is to give an account of the results. In each analysis the whole of the sulphur was conyerted ‘into sulphuric acid, which was precipitated by barytes; and, in the selection of the specimens, great attention was paid to takeMthe internal parts of the fragments, and not to make use of any which exhibited an appearance of decomposition, or of extraneous substances. The iron was, .as before, reduced to the state of black oxide; and the addition of weight in each separate analysis — corresponded, within a few fractional parts, with the pro- portion of oxygen requisite to form into black oxide a given quantity of metallic iron, equal to that which in each pyrites was ascertained to be the real proportion, by deducting the quantity of sulphur from the otal quantity of each pyrites. The iron, therefore, in these is completely metallic, and as such Is stated in the following results, No.1. Pyrites in the form of dodecaedronsy Sulphur 52°15 with pentagonal faces. - - [ron 47°85 Specific gravity 4830. 100: Sulphur 52°50 No. 2. Pyrites in the form of striated cubes. J Iron 47°50 100: No. 3. Pyrites in,the form of smooth po- lished cubes, found in the lapis ae ane Tron 47°30 100° which accompanies the magnetical pytites. | - - - - Specific gravity 4831. No. 4. Analysis of the magnetical Pyrites. 141 Sulphur 53-60 ‘No. 4. Radiated pyrites. = ra JIron 46-40 - Specific gravity 4698. oe 100° + : Sulphur 54°34 No. 5. A smaller variety of radiated pyrites.} Iron 4.566 Specific gravity 4775. bee hwi ; 100° Considering the difference in the figure, lustre, and co- lour of these pyrites, I expected to have found a much greater difference in the proportions of their component in- gredients ; but, as the results are the average of several ex- perunents, I have not any reason to doubt their accuracy, _ The pyrites crystallized in regular figures, such as cubes and dodecaedrons, according to the above analyses, contain less sulphur and more iron than the radiated pyrites, and - perhaps than others which are not regularly crystallized. This difference, however, is not considerable; for the do- decaedral pyrites, which afforded the smallest quantity of sulphur of any of the regularly crystallized pyrites, yielded §2°15; and the radiated pyrites, No. 5, gave 54°34: the _ difference, therefore, is only 2°19. So that the mean pro- portion of sulphur in all the pyrites which were examined is 53°24 per cent.; and, taking the proportion of sulphur im the magnetical pyrites at 36°50 or 37, the difference between this and the mean of the common pyrites will be 16°74 or 16°24. The magnetical pyrites, therefore, is quite distinct, as a. sulphuret of iron, from the common martial pyrites; and in the following observations I shall prove that a sulphuret consisting of the proportions last men- tioned has till now been unknown as a product of nature. § VI. Although pyrites is one of the most common of mineral substances, yet the discovery of its real nature is compara- tively of a late date; for it appears that even Agricola _ “(whose knowledge of mineral bodies was certainly great, considering the state of science in his time) was not ae- quainted with its characteristic ingredient, :amely, iron. i Ricarling to Henckel, this was first.noticed by our coun- man Martin Lister, a member of this learned society, _ who says, “ Pyrites purus putus ferri metallum est.” From the time of Henckel, pyrites seems little to have attracted ‘the notice of chemists, until Mr. Proust, the learned 242 Analysis of the magnetical Pyrites. learned professor of chemistry at Madrid, published two memoirs, in which he states that there are two sulphurets .ef iron, the one being artificial and the other natural. The first is the sulphuret which is formed in laboratories, by adding sulphur to red-hot iron, or by exposing both of them to heat in a retort. This is distinguished from the second sulphuret (which is the common martial pyrites) by its easy solubility tn acids, especially in muriatic acid, by the form- ‘ation of sulphuretted hydrogen gas during the solution of the su!phuret in the last-named acid, by its colour, and by its inferior density. According to Mr. Proust, the first or artificial sulphuret is composed of 60 parts of sulphur, combined with 100 parts of iron; whilst the second sulphuret, or common py- ‘rites, consists of 90 parts of sulphur and 100 Of iron. He moreover observes, that the sulphur of the first sul- shuret is difficultly separated ; but that the excess which is iti the second sulphuret, or common pyrites, is easily ex- pelled, and is that portion which is obtained by distillation, the residutim being then reduced to the state of the first sul- phuret *. 100 parts, therefore, of this substance, are com- posed of 62°50 of iron and 37°50 of sulphur; and 100 parts of common pyrites are, according to this statemrent, com- posed of 52°64 of iron and 47°36 of sulphur. These proportions Mr. Proust considers as the minimum and maximum of the sulphurets of iron. For the latter he ‘ajlows some variation; but the composition of the former he regards as fixed by the invariable law of proportions f ; although he observes, that it has not as yet been discovered in the mineral kingdom ¢. In support of these assertions Mr. Proust states, 1. That the pyrites found near Soria, when distilled in a retort heated to redness, afforded nearly 20 per cent. of sulphur. 2. That the residuum of the above distillation had lost the external characters and chemical properties of pyrites, and had assumed those of the artificial sulphuret of iron. * Journal de Physique, tome liti. p. 89, and tome liv. p. 89, From >. 91 and 92 of tome liv. it is evident that the author does not mean to assert that the first sulphuret contains 60 per cent. of sulphur; but that 100 parts of iron are combined with 60 of sulphur, and form 160 of the sulphuret. In‘ like manner, when 90 of sulphur are united with too of iron, a substance analogous to common pyrites is formed, which weighs _ 190 grains or parts. : na : + ‘Yournal de Physique, tome liii. p. 90. ‘ + La regne minéral, jusqu'ici, ne novs a point. encore présenté le fer sulfuré au minimum.”’"— Journal de Pdysique, tome liv. p. 93. 3. That Anulysis of the magnetical Pyrites. 143, © 3. That when to this residuum a quantity of sulphur was added, and the whole was distilled in a degree of heat not too great, the 20 per cent. of sulphur, which had been se- parated by the first distillation, was by this again restored ; and the mass in the retort thus recovered nearly the original colour, lustre, and chemical properties of the pyrites. - 4. That, by adding sulphur to iron filings, or fine iron wire, heated to a low red in a retort, a compound is ob- tained, in which the proportion of sulphur amounts only to about 20 or 30 parts; but, if this compound is again treated with sulphur in a red heat, a sulphuret is formed, which is readily dissolved in acids, and plentifully affords sulphuretted hydrogen gas. This is the real minimum of the sulphurets of iron, fixed by the invariable law of proportions (according to Mr. Proust) at 59 or 60 of sulphur and 100 of iron, the former being (as I have already observed) in the proportion of .37°50 per cent. 5. and lastly, That when this sulphuret is again mixed ‘and distilled with sulphur, (due attention being paid to the degree of heat,) the product is found to have assumed most of the chemical and external properties of the natural com- mon pyrites, density alone being excepted.’ ' The application of the above observations to the principal | subject of the present paper is sufficiently obvious; for, ‘when it is considered that the magnetical pyrites is so dif- ferent from the common .pyrites in colour, hardness, solu- bility in sulphuric acid, and more especially in_ muriatic acid, with the copious production of sulphuretted hydrogen ‘ ._ This substance agreed, in all the properties which have been noticed, with the magnetical pyrites ; and the precipi- ’ tates obtained by adding prussiate of potash, and ammonia, to the muriatic and sulphuric solutions, were sisi milar. > 144 Analysis of the magnetical Pyrites. milar, The speciiic gravity was 4390, whilst (as T havé already remarked) that of the megneiical pyrites is 4518. § VII. So far, therefore, a3 can be proved by similarity in. che- mical properties and analysis, the magnetical pyrites is in- disputably'a natural sulphuret, completely the same with that which till now has been only known as an artificial product ; hut, that the mind may be perfectly satisfied, an- other question must be solved, namely, How far do they accord in receiving and retaining the property of mag- netism ? Common pyrites do not appear to affect the mag- netic needle; or, if some of them shghtly act by attraction, (which, however, [ never could perceive, nor recollect to have read in works expressly relating to magnetism,) yet they do not possess, nor appear capable of acquiring, any magnetic polarity. As, therefore, the iron of pyrites ts un- doubtedly in the metallic state, and in a considerable pro- portion, the destruction of this characteristic property of metallic iron must be ascribed to the other ingredient— sulphur. : : But we have lately seen, that a natural combination of iron with 36°50 or 37 per cent. of sulphur, is in possession of all the properties supposed hitherto to appertain (im any marked degree) almost exclusively to the well known mag- netic iron ore; and that the combination alluded to is strictly chemical, and not (as at first might have been imagined) amixture of particles of magnetic iron ore with common pyrites *. , This is certainly very remarkable; and it induced me to examine the effects produced by sulphur on the capacity of metallic iron for receiving and retaining the magnetic pro- perties. I therefore prepared some sulphuret of iron by adding a large quantity of sulphur to fine iron wire in a moderate red heat. . eto ~ The internal colour and lustre of the product were not very unlike those of the magnetical pyrites; and, after the mass had been placed during a few hours between mag- netical bars, I found that it peer so strong a degree of polarity as to attract or repel the needle completely round upon its pivot ;.and, although several weeks have elapsed * This has ben sufficiently proved by the facts which have becn stated; [ shall however add, that upon digesting a mixture of the powder ef common’ pyrites and iron filiags in muriatic acid, I only obtained hy- @rogen gas, exactly as if 1 had employed the iron filings without the pyrites. . since Analysis of the magnetical Pyrites. 145 since it has been removed from the magnetical bars, it stil! retains its power with little diminution ; like the magnetical pyrites, however, in its natural state, it is not sufficiently powerful to attract and take up iron filings. But this sulphuret did not contain so much sulphur as the magnetical pyrites; I therefore mixed some of it, reduced to powder, with a Jarge quantity of sulphur, and subjected it to distillation in a retort, which was at length heated until the intire bulb became red. _ The sulphuret by this operation had assumed very much the appearance of the powder of common pyrites in respect to colour; but in its chemical properties, such as solubility im muriatic acid, with the production of sulphuretted hy- drogen gas, as well as in the nature of the precipitates it afforded with prussiate of potash and with ammonia, it perfectly resembled the magnetical pyrites. Moreover, by analysis, it was found to consist of 35 parts of sulphur and 65 of iron; and although (being in a pulverulent state) its power, as to receiving and retaining the magnetic property, could not so easily be examined, yet, by being powerfully attracted by the magnet, with some other circumstances, there was every reason to conclude that in this respect also it was not inferior. - Another portion of sulphuret was formed as above de- scribed ; it was placed between magnetical bars, and, in like manner, received and retained the magnetic power. It is certain, therefore, that when a quantity of sulphur equal to 35 or 37 per cent. is combined with iron, it not only does not prevent the iron from receiving the magnetic fluid, but enables it to retain it, so that the mass acts in every respect as a permanent magnet. Black oxide of iron, by one operation, does not appear . to combine with sulphur so readily as iron filings ; a second operation, however, converts it into a sulphuret, very much, resembling that which has just been described, including the chemical as well as the magnetical properties; but un- doubtedly by these processes it is progressively converted, perfectly or very nearly, into the metallic state. ' Tron combined with a larger proportion of oxygen, such as the fine gray specular iron from Sweden, will not form a sbberret by the direct application of sulphur in one ope- ration ; although it becomes of a dark brown colour, partly iridescent, and is moderately attracted by a magnet. » 50 grains of the magnetical pyrites, reduced to powder, and mixed with three times the weight of sulphur, were distilled in a retort until the bulb became moderately red-hot. Vol. 21. No. 82. March 1805. K Atter 146 Analysis of the magnetical Pyrites. After the distillation the pyrites weighed 54°50; conse- quently, the addition of sulphur was g per cent., making the total = 45°50 or 46 per cent. The powder was become greenish yellow, very like that of the common pyrites; it did not aiford any sulphuretted hydrogen when digested in muriatic acid; but it nevertheless was partially dissolved, and the solution, when examined »by prussiate of potash, and by ammonia, was not, different from that of the crude magnetical pyrites. : : The powder, which. had been distilled with sulphur, and which had thus received an addition of 9 per cent. to its original quantity, was still capable of being completely taken up by a magnet, 1 From the whole of the experiments which have been re- lated, it is therefore evident, that iron, when combined with aconsiderable proportion of sulphur, is not only still capable of receiving the magnetic property, but is also thereby ena- bled to retain it, and thus, as [ have already remarked, be- comes a compicte magnet; and it is not a little curious, that iron combined, as above stated, with 45 or 46 per cent. of sulphur, is capable of being taken up by a magnet, whilst iron combined with 52 per cent. or more of sulphur, (al- though likewise in the metallic state,) does not sensibl affect the magnetic needle; and hence, small as the differ- ence may appear, there 13 reason to conclude that the capa- city of iron for magnetic action is destroyed by a certain proportion of sulphur, the effects of which, although little if at all sensible at 46 per cent., are yet néarly or quite ab- solute, in this destraction of magnetic influence, before it amounts to 52. But what the exact intermediate propor tion of sulphur may be which is adequate to produce this eflect, I have not as yet determined by actual experiment. As carbon acts on soft iron, (which, although it most readily receives the magnetic influence, is unable to retain it so as to become a magnet without the addition of a cer- tain proportion of carbon, by which it is rendered hard and brittle, or, in other words, is converted into steel,) so, in like manner, does sulphur seem to act; for it has been proved, by the preceeding experiments, that the brittle mass formed by the union of a certain proportion of this sub- stance with iron, whether by nature or by art, becomes ca-- pable of retaining the magnetic virtue, and of acting as a complete magnet. ‘sa This remarkable coincidence in the cffects produced on iron by carbon and sulphur, induced me to try the effects of phosphorus; and miy hope of success was increased by the ORK oe Change of Principles of Vegetables into Bitumen. 1417 the remark of Mr. Pelletier, who says, that ‘* the phos- phuret of iron is attracted by the magnet *;”’ and therefore, although certain bodies may be thus attracted, without being capable of actually. becoming permanent magnets, I was desirous to examine what might be the power, in this respect, of phosphuret of iron. I therefore prepared a quantity of phosphuret of iron in the direct way, viz. by adding phosphorus, cut into small pieces, to fine iron wire made moderately red-hot im a cru- cible.. The usual phenomena took place, such as the bril- liant white flame, and the rapid melting of the iron, which, when cold, was white, with a striated grain, extremely brittle, hard, and completely converted into a phosphuret. The fragments of this were powerfully attracted by a mag- net; and, after I had placed two or three of the largest pieces, during a few hours, between magnetical bars, I had the pleasure to find that these had become powerful mag- nets, which not only attracted or repelled the needle com- pletely round, but were able to take up iron filings, and “small pieces, about half an inch in length, of fine harpsi- chord wire; and, although they have now been removed from the magnetical bars more than three weeks, I cannot discover any diminution of the power which had thus been communicated to them. The three inflammable substances, carbon, sulphur, and phosphorus, which, by their chemical effects on iron, in many respects resemble each other, have now therefore been proved alike to possess the property of enabling iron to re- tain the power of magnetism: but | shall consider this more fully in the following section. : [To be continued. } e XXIV. Observations on the Change of some of the proximate Principles of Vegetables into Bitumen; with analytical Experiments on a peculiar Substance which ts foun with » the Bovey Coal. By Cuances Harcnerr, £sq. P.R.S, [Continued from page 51. ] Wis gv. . 4 / om Mittrs, in his remarks on the Bovey coal, (which 1 have several times had occasion to notice in the course of this paper,) states, that ‘* amongst the clay, but adhering * «Le phosphure de fer est attirable 4 Vaimant.” Annales de Coimte,. fome xiii. p. 154+ Kk 2 to 148 Olservations on the Change of to the coal, are found lumps of a bright yellow loam, ex~ tremely light, and so saturated with petroleum, that they burn like sealing-wax, emitting a very agreeable and aro-~ matic scent *.” This substance I also observed when I visited the Bovey coal-pits in 1794 and 1796. At that time, however, it was: scarce, and I could only procure one small specimen, which is now in the British Museum ; but from a cursory exa~ mination of it, I was convinced that it was a peculiar bitu- minous substance, and not loam impregnated with petro= leum, as Dr. Milles had supposed. I could not then con- veniently make a regular analysis of it, and therefore con- tented myself with briefly describing it in a note annexed to my paper on bituminous substances f. Lately, however, my friend John Sheldon, esq. of Exe- ter, F.R.S., obligingly sent me several pieces of it, toge- ther with specimens of the different kinds of Bovey coal which have been mentioned ; and thus I was enabled fully . io ascertain its real nature and properties. Description of the Bitumen from Bovey. It accompanies the Bovey coal in the manner already de- scribed, and is found in masses of a moderate size. The colour is pale brownish ochraceous yellow. The fracture is imperfectly conchoidal. ; It appears earthy externally, but when broken exhibits a slight degree of vitreous lustre. servis de The fragments are irregularly angular, and completely opaque at the edges. It is extremely brittle. It does not apparently becotne softened when held for some time in the hand, but emits a faint resinous odour. The specific gravity at temperature 65° of Fahrenheit ig 1°135. Some specimens have dark spots, slightly approaching in colour and lustre to asphaltum; and small portions of the Bovey coal are commonly interspersed in the larger masses ‘ of this bitumen. . babs When placed on a heated iron, it immediately melts, smokes much, burns with a bright flame, and yields a very fragrant odour, like some of the sweet-scented resins, but which at last becomes slightly tainted with that of as<— phaltum. ; —igyht, * Philosophical Transactions, vol. li. p. 536. TS + Transactions of the Linnean Scciety, vol. iv. p. 139- ‘The ba gin — some of the Principles of Vegetables into Bitumen. 149 The melted mass, when cold, is black, very brittle, and ‘breaks with a glossy fracture. Experiments, A. 100 grains of this bitumen, when distilled until the bulb of the retort became red-hot, afforded, . Grains. 1, Water slightly acid - - - 3 2. Thick brown oily bitumen, very similar to that which was obtained from the Bovey coal, but pos- sessing slightly the odour of vegetable tar - 45 3. Light spongy coal - - - 23 4. Mixed gas, composed of hydrogen, carbonated — hydrogen, and carbonic acid, (by computation,) _ 29 The coal yielded about three grains and a half of ashes, which consisted of alumina, iron, and silica, with a trace of lime, ee B. The bitumen was not affected by being long digested in boiling distilled water. C. By digesting 100 grains in lixiviam of pure potash, 2 brown solution was formed; this was saturated with mu- Fiatic acid, and a brown resinous precipitate was obtained, which weighed 21 grains. D. A portion was digested in nitric acid: at first much nitrous gas was evolved, and, after the digestion had been continued for nearly 48 hours, a part was dissolved, and formed an orange-coloured solution, which did not yield any precipitate when saturated by the alkalis or by lime ; the colour only became more deep, and, by evaporation, a yellow viscid substance was obtained, which was soluble in water. The above nitric solution possessed every property of those nitric solutions of resinous substances which I have mentioned in a former paper. E. The benzoic and succjnic acids were not obtained from this substance by any of the methods usually emploved. F, Alcohol almost immediately began to act upon this bitumen; and, being added at different times, gradually dissolved a considerable part of it. The solution was red- dish brown, and had a resinous odoyr; by the addition of © water it became milky, and, by evaporation, afforded a dark brown substance which had every property of resin, whilst the residuum teft by the alcohol possessed those properties which characterize asphaltum. Tlie following analysis was then made to discover the proportions of the component ingredients. * Philosophical Transac ions for 1804, p. 19%. K 4 Analysis 150 Olservations on the Change of Analysis of the Bitumen from Bovey. A. 109 grains, reduced to a fine powder, were digested, during 48 hours, with six ounces of alcohol, the vessel being placed in sand moderately warmed: A deep reddish brown tincture was thus obtamed; and the operdtion was again twice repeated, with other portions of the same men- struum, until it ceased to act upon the residuum. The whole of the spirituous solution (which had been cautiously decanted) was then subjected to a very gradual distillation in an alembic, and yielded a brown fragrant resin which weighed 55 grains. . B. The residuum, which could not be dissolved by al- cohol, was digested in boiling distilled water; but this did not act upon it; the whole was therefore collected on a filter, was gradually dried, without heat, by mere exposure to the air, and then weighed 44 grains. 25 These 44 grains consisted of a light, porous, pale brown substance, which, being melted, formed a black, shining, brittle mass. It burned with the odour of asphaltum, but rather less disagreeable, owing most: probably to a small portion of the resin which had not been completely ex- tracted by the alcohol. It was insoluble in. water and in alcohol, but was readily dissolved by heated fat oils; and in every other particular was found to possess the properties of asphaltum. aR The 44 grains of asphaltum, when bumed, left a resi- duum, which weighed 3 grains, and consisted of alumina, silica, and iron. oe? By this analysis it appears that the bitumen which ac- companies the Bovey coal is a peculiar and hitherto un- known substance, which is partly in the state of vegetable resin, and partly in that of the bitumen called asphaltum, the resin being in the largest proportion; as 100 grains of the above-mentioned substance aftorded, Saws - Resin. = Ba’ ores Sts Asphaltum - 41 " Earthy residuum & 263 tniauny 99.29 Ago eel 3) Thus we have an instance of ‘a’ substance being found under circumstances which constitute a fossil, although the characters of it appertain partly to the vegetable and partly to the mineral kingdom. § VI. fos Sap . some of the Principles of Vegetables into Bitumen. 151 § Viv The powerful action which alcohol exerts on most of the resins may justly be regarded as forming a marked distinc- tion between those substances and the bitumens. But, as some of the bitumens are acted upon by alcohol im a slight degree, I was desirous to ascertain whether a small portion of resin was contained in any of these; or, if that was not the case, I wished to determine the nature of the substance which could be separated, although very sparingly, by this menstruum. J therefore made the followiug comparative experiments on the soft hrown clastic bitumen from Derby- shire; on the genuine asphaltum ; on very pure cannel coal ; and on the common pit coal. ‘ 100 grains of each were digested with three ounces of alcohol, in matrasses placed in warm sand, during five days, some alcohol being occasionally added, to supply the loss eaused by evaporation. After the above-mentioned period had elapsed, the liquid contained in each matrass was poured into separate vessels, , 1. The aleohol which had been digested on the elastic bitumen was not tinged, nor, when spontaneously evapo- ‘rated, did it leave any film or stain on the glass, 2. From asphaltum the alcohol had extracted a yellow tincture, which, in some situations, appeared of a pale olive -colour, and, being spontaneously evaporated, a thick brown liquid was deposited, in small drops, on the glass; these drops did not become hard after two months, and possessed the odour, and every other property, of petroleum. The asphaltum had lost in weight about one grain and a balf. 3. The eannel coal had communicated a pale yellow tint to the alcohol, which, in the manner above described, was as- certained to be caused by petroleum; but, from the smail- ness of the quantity, the weight could not be determined. © 4, The alcohol which had been digested on pit coal had pot assumed any colour; but, by spontancous evaporation *, ¥t left a film on the glass, which, by its odour, was also _ found to be petroleum. , * By these experiments we find that the action of alcohol on hee biti is very slight; and that the small portion which may thus be extracted from some of thein is petro- Jeum. In these, the process of bituminization (if [ may be allowed to employ such a term) appears to have been comn- pleted, whilst in the Bovey coal, and especially in the sub- > * Spontaneous evaporation, by exporure to the air, was employed in these experiments for reasons which must be sufficicnily obvicus. K4 StInce 159 Observations on the Change of stance which accompanies it, nature seems to have per- formed only the half of her work, and, from some unknown cause, to have stopped in the middle of her operations. But, by this circumstance, much light is thrown on the history of bituminous substances; and the opinion, that they owe their origin to the organized kingdoms of na- ture, especially to that of vegetables, which hitherto has been supported only by presumptive proofs, seems now, in a great measure, to be confirmed, although the causes which operate these changes on vegetable bodies are as yet undis- covered. Many facts indicate, that time alone does not reduce ani- mal or vegetable bodies to the state of fossils. In this coun- try, there are numerous examples of large quantities of tim- ber (even whole forests) which have been submerged. prior to any tradition, and which nevertheless completely retain their ligneous characters *. Other local causes and agents must therefore have been required to form the varieties of coal and other bituminous substances. In some instances (as in the formation of Bovey coal) these causes seem to have acted partially and imperfectly, whilst, in the forma- tion of the greater part of the pit coals, their operation has been extensive and complete, di _ In the pit coals, the mineral characters predominate, and the principal vestige of their real origin seems to be bitu-. men; for the presence of carbon in the state of oxide can+ not alone be considered as decisive. Bitumen, therefore, with the exuyie and impressions so commonly found in the accompanying strata, must be more immediately regarded as the proofs in favour of the origin of pit coal from organized bodies; and, considering the general facts which have been long observed, together with | those lately adduced respecting the Bovey coal, and the sub- stance which is found with it, we seem now to have al- most unquestionable evidence that bitumen has essentially been produced by the modification of some of the proximate ” principles of vegetables, and especially resin. on , Modern chemistry had ‘comparatively made but a small progress when the illustrious Bergmann published his Disser- tation entitled Producta Ignis subterranei chemice considerata; for at that time the extent and power of chemical action in the humid way were very imperfectly understood. In that * Phil. Trans. for January 1671. Phil. Trans. vol. xix. p. 526. oid. vol, xxii. p. 980. Ibid. vol. xaili, p. 1073. Ibid. vol. xxvii. p. 298. Ibid. for 1799. p. 145. : ah ‘ ' part, some of the Prineiples of Vegetables into Bitumen. 153 part, however, of the above work where he speaks of the fossil wood of Iceland, called swrturlrand, he evidently ap- pears doubtful how far volcanic fire may have acted upon it; although he conceives that, in the formation of it, there has been some connection with yolcanic operations. His words are: «* Quid de ligno fossili Islandize sentiendum sit, gnaro in loco natali contemplatori decidendum redinquimus. Interea, ut cum vyulcani operationibus nexum credamus, plures suadent rationes, quamvis hucusque modum ignore- mus, quo situm texturamque adquisiverunt hiec strata.” It certainly was very natural that Bergmann should enter- tain this opinion in respect to the surturbrand; and it is remarkable that the leaves contained in the schistus lately described are’of the same nature, and are found in the same country. The leaves also described by Mr. St. Fond are. likewise found in a country which, according to him, was formerly volcanic. Were these shbstanees, there fore, never found but in countries which either actually are or were vol- canic, we should be almost compelled to believe, with the Swedish professor, that the operations of subterraneous fires have been concerned in the formation of these bodies, or rather in the conversion of them-into their present state. . But similar substances are found in countries where not the smallest vestige of voleanic effects can be discovered, and Devonshire most undoubtedly is such; yet, nev ertheless, the Bovey coal is there found similar to the surturbrand in most of the external, and, from experiments which [ made some vears ago, I believe I may say, chemical proper- ties ; to which must be added, that ‘both these substances perfectly resemble each other by forming regular strata *. Moreover, the half charred appearance eof Bovey coal, and of surturbrand, cannot be adduced as any proof that the ori- ginal vegetable bodies have been exposed to the partial ef- fects of subtcrraneous fire; for at this time we know that the oxidizement of substances is performed at least as fre- quently: dnd as effectually by the humid as by the dry way. It would therefore be superfluous here to enter into an ela- borate discussion to prove that coal and bitumen, with quch greater probability, have been formed without the intervention of fire; and I am the less inclined to say more upon'this: subject, as I have already published sonie’ consi~ erations on it in a former paper f. * Transactions of the Linnean Society, vol. iv. p.138. Von Trvil’s Liters, p.42 Opuscula Rergmanni, rome iii. Pp. 23% + Transactions of the Linpean Society, vol iv. pp agz, &¢. Before 154 On the apparent Repulsion Before I conclude, I must bee leave to observe, that as the substance which is found with the Bovey coal is, mm every respect, so totally different from any of the bitumens hitherto discovered, it seems proper that it should receive some specific name ; and, as it has been proved to consist partly of a resin and partly of a bituminous substanee, Tam induced to call it retinasphalium*, a name by which a fall definition of its nature is conveved. I have lately seen, in No. 85 of the Journal des Minds; p.77, an account of a peculiar combustible fossil, found near Helbra, in the county of Mansfield, and described by Mr. Voight, im his Versuch einer Geschichte der Steinkohle, der Braunkohle, &c. p. 188. This substance is of an ash- coloured gray, passing to grayish white; it is found in a bed of bituminous vewetable earth, which has apparently been produced by the decomposition of fossil wood. The purest specimens are in the form of nodules: the fracture 1 1S earthy ; it is opaque, soft, brittle, and is very light. “When applied to. the flame of a candle, it burns and melts like sealing-wax, at the same time diffusing an odour which is not disagreeable. This substance appears to accord in sq any properties with the retinasphaltan 1 of Bovey, that I cannot but suspect it to be of .a similar nature; and I have little doubt that, by a chemical examination, it will be found to consist partly of resin and partly of bitumen. - XXV. Experiments and Reflections of Dr. ghey Bed CarR- RApORT DE Pravro ow the apparent Repulsion between some Kinds of Fluids observed ty DRAPARNAUD f. Taz observations which M. Draparnaup published in the Annales de Chimiet are not new, and the conse- quences which he Aeiisecs from them are false. Several years ago § I observed that fluids are impedled: others on the surface of the water; and I have proved) that these re- pulsious are only apparent, and are owing inerely to the different degrees of attraction which these fluids” experience from the surface of the water. I have several times 1 ain dif % From przim, resin; and aésparrog, bitumen. 2 + Annales de Chimie, No. 152. y + Meémoie sur les Mouvemens que certains Fluides regoivent par le Cont: ag d'autres Fiuides, an 11, no. 1 § Giornale Pisic Medic, di Payia Sane Ann. Chim. di Pavia; Opus- colt Scelti di Milano. ferent detween some Kinds of Fluids. 155 ferent’ journals *, and particularly in my answers to Pre- vost t, and in some letters written to profes sor Brugnatelli, insisted on the real explanation of the phenomena of this kind; proving; by decisive experiments, that these move- ments, thought to be the effect of a repulsive power, arise xll from the same principle, that 1s to say, the atéraction of surface; whence it results, that one fluid being attracted more than another, retires from the surface on which it had extended itself, and obeys its own cohesion or force of aggregation, and concentrates itself. I have lately resumed this subject, and have exhibited it in a clearer point of view, in the Transactions of the Italian Society of the Sciences, proving, with the greatest rigour, that it is the attraction of the surface which gives rise to the pre- tended repulsions of some fluids on the surface of fluids, and of some fluids on the surface of solids. Professor Brugnatelli, extending my experiments on the attraction of surface, spoke of the repulsions recently ob- served by M. Draparnaud; for he remarked, that several fluids thrown in drops on the smooth surface of solids repel il, spirit of wine, oil of turpentine, and ether ft. M. Draparnaud says that alcohol or spirit of wine expels water and other liquids from the bottom of vessels, because there is a continual emission of subtle particles, which, forming an atmosphere, produce the removal of the water, as Prevost said of odoriferous atmospheres: and, according to him, all volatile bodies are capable of doing the same at the common temperature of the atmosphere, since he is of opinion that they act mechanically, that is to say, by means of the impulsion of their emanations. But I shall beg leave to oppose to him some facts, and some reasoning to throw light on this truth. Water, in- eed, retires from the surface of the vessel to which spirit of wine is applied; but it is not true that it is expelled ity repulsive force. It is equally false, that the space abandoued ay aoe when the experiment is made, 1 is perfectly dry, as M. Draparnaud says; but the water is succeeded bya ae stratum of spirit of wine, which soon evaporates ater, as’ well as the other fluids, adduced by Draparnaud, ‘retire, because they are obliged to give up the surface to the spirit of wine, which has a greater attraction for it than they, and seizes on it with more cnergy : iehag & thus aban- L ° . Giorn. Italiani et Journal de Physique ; Annales de Chimie. Ann. Chim. di Pavia, tom. xix; Annales de Chimie, nov 143. t Ann, di Chin. di Pavia, tom. xviii. doned 156 - On the apparent Repulsion doned to themselves, they become concentrated. A drop or two of spirit of wine, indeed, poured, in a gentle tem- erature, on a porcelain dish for example, is seen to extend itself, and to cover the said surface like varnish; which is not the case on pouring out a drop or two of water, because it has not the same attraction of surface. The integrant moleculz of the water, which have more affinity of agere~ gation or cohesion, than of attraction for the surface of the supposed body, do not become flat, or dilate in the same manner. It is so true, that spirit of wine or alcohol attaches itself more strougly than water to the surface of vessels, that if a drop or two of this fluid be thrown on a porcelain dish 5 and if, after it has extended itself, forming as it were a disk, some drops of water be thrown on it, and forced to take the place occupied by the spirit of wine ; it will be seen that the water, not being able to detach the alcohol, will be obliged to pass over it, and the alcohol will remain always fixed at the surface of the dish. But I can produce an easy experiment, which is directly opposite to the opinion of Draparnaud. I fixed, in the middle of a porcelain saucer, a smal] ball of soft wax, and formed in it a cavity with the head of a large pin. I then poured into the saucer such a quantity of water as to rise above the edges of the cavity, but not to enter it. The vessel being thus prepared, 1 dipped a reed of straw in the spirit of wine, and removed a drop of the fluid to the cavity of the ball in such a manner that it was filled with it. In this manner, a drop of spirit of wine remained surrounded by water almost in contact with it, and continued also below the level of the water, Tt 1s certain that, if spirit of wine were capable of exercising an expansive force by means of the particles it emanates, it must have produced i it in this case; but I saw no movement of repulsion in the water which was around the drop of alcohol. The water always remained tranquil and motionless, qs if it had been close to a fluid not of a volatile nature, ' But when the water had risen above the sides of the: itn cavity of soft wax, it rushed into it to come to a level; and I saw the small bodies which floated on the surface of the water remove from the said cavity, while the water rushed into it. This is a proof that spirit of wine, like other oily fluids, has the faculty of spreading itself over the surface of the water before it becomes mixed with it. [have indeed observed, that spirit of wine applied to the surface of water contained in a dish, on which is spread ous letween some Kinds of Fluids, 157 out a drop of oil, expels it, assuming its place, and obliges it to concentrate itself. Jn like manner, if a little cotton dipped in spirit of wine, or a drop of that fluid, be applied to the surface of water on which float small! bits of gold or silver leaf, they are seen to recede. ‘These small bodies re- cede also sometimes from the surface of the water where they are placed, on the approach of a small bit of cotton well dipped in spirit of wine: but they do so faintly, and not with that velocity as when a little cotton dipped in ether* is applied ; because spirit of wine, both in the fluid state and state of vapour, on being applied to the surface of the water, has the property of diffusing itself over it like oily substances. But if a drop of the milky juice of the tithymalus be reviously applied to the surface of the water, and if small Lies of gold or silver leaf be thrown over it, and if it be then touched as usual] with a little cotton dipped in spirit of wine, or if a drop or two of the same fluid be poured over it, the supernatant small bits of metal will not be seen to exhibit the same phzenomena as before, because the spirit of wine traverses the surface of the water occupied by another fluid, which has a greater attraction for it. The case is the same when there is applied to the surface of the water any fluid exceedingly volatile and oily, when it has been pre- occupied by the juice of the tithymalus ; but this juice, as soon as it touches the surface of the water, expels from it all the oils most volatile, and the most odoriferous, and obliges them to concentrate themselves at the extremities of the vessel under the form of small globules. If these repulsions are occasioned by the impetuous efflux of volatile and odoriferous erianations, why has the milky juice of the tithymalus, which is neither volatile nor odori- ferous, the faculty of expelling from the surface of water the most volatile and most odoriferous fluids? However, if a drop of spirit of wine be placed gently in the middle ot a dish, and the vessel be then moistened with water in such a manner that the water shall approach only within the distance of two lines of the said drop, it will be seen, before it dilates, to exercise a repulsion on the water which sur- rounds it, chiefly when it approaches near to it; and, in my opinion, this effect is owing to the vapours of the spirit of wine, which act at a distance; not because the water is , * See my answers to Prevost, in which it is seen that ethér is a fluid which approaches nearer than spirit of wine to the nature of oils. 4+ Memoir on Attraction of Surface, in vol. xi, of the Transactions ef the Italian Society of the Sciences. expelled 158 On the apparent Repulsion expelled by a mechanical movement, but because, in striking the surface of the dish, they extend themselves over it, and displace the water. If it then happen that the drop of spirit of wine begins to touch the surrounding water, an agitation is immediately seen to arise, by which the water is repelled with great vivacity, and the drop of spirit of winc, animated with a new expansive force, bursts its limits, extends itself, and makes the water fly before it. The case is the same nearly with a small bit of camphor. If a small bit of this substance be placed in a pretty large dish, and covered with water to the height of a hne, in such g manner that the bit of camphor may touch the bot- tom of the dish, the water will be seen in a kind of contest, around the camphor, and the water will seem to be kept at a distance by an expansive force. All this in my opinion is the effect of the attraction of surface of the spirit of wine and of the oil of the camphor for the water. The oil of camphor, indeed, excited to dilate itself by the at- traction of the surface of the water, evaporates with asto- « nishing speed, and in a little time is consumed, The case is the same with spirit of wine and oil of camphor; they rush on the water, extending themselves over its surface with astonishing speed ; whence arises a dispersion of the water, and adhesion of the spirit of wine to the bottom of the vessel. The.accelerated evaporation of these fluids can be ascribed to no other cause than to this force; that is to say, the attraction of surface, by which the cohesion of the integrant parts is overcome, and consequently the expansive force of the small volatile parts which compose these fluids is increased; but I have sufficiently explained, in another ‘place, all these phenomena in. regard to the movements of camphor on water*. A drop of volatile alkali or ammonia, says Draparnaud, does not expel water from the bottom of a vessel like spirit of wine, because ammonia has a great affinity for water. But cannot the same be said of spirit of wine? This re- pulston, however, ought to take place when the water sur- rounds a drép of ammonia, as near as possible, but without touching it; which is not the case. aa A drop of ammonia in the middle of a stratum of spirit of wine does not expel it, and does not form the circle of recession ; but a drop of spirit of wine in the middle of a . * The Medico-Physical Journal of Pavia, Ann. Chimydi Pavia: Opusc. scelti di Milano, and im some letters addressed ro professor Brug- patlli, Ann. Chim. di Pavia; and Memoir on Attraction of Surface, vol. xis of the Italian Society. 1 : stratum a. a ~~) =o between sume Kinds of Fluids. 159 stratum of ammonia expels it around, and forms a circle. This shows, according to Draparnaud, that the expansive force of spirit of wine is greater than that of ammonia. But I remark that ammonia has no attraction of snrface, or at least very little with the bottom of vessels, and, on ‘the contrary, that alcohol has a great deal. If a drop of. ammonia be poured on a porcelain saucer, or ona piece of glass, and one of spirit of wine, the former remains con- centrated, and the other dilates itself. YFhis is the reason why spirit of wine expels ammonia on the bottom of vessels, and that ammonia does not expel spitit of wine. Moreover, if the expulsion of the ammonia depended on the mechanical impression of the emanatious of the spirit _of wine, it ought scarcely to manifest itself for the force of the emanations of the spirit of wine ouyht to be weak- ened by. the force of the emanations of the ammonia, but it manifests itself with the same promptitude as that of water. It is observed also, that some fluids almost equally volatile and odoriferous expel each other when applied sin Succession to the same surface. For example, essential oil of turpentine expels naptha, and ether expels esscniial oil of turpentine. : . If the opposite forces destroved each other, how could this happen? But the case is so, because essential oi! of turpentine has more attraction of surface than naptha, and ether more than essential oil of turpeatine. But there is one observation of Draparnaud which de- serves to be discussed. He has remarked that ammonia ‘expels oil from the surface of vessels, though it expels nei- ther water nor spirit of wine. I have remarked also, that the approach alone of a drop ef ammonia to the surface of oil, manifests there an evident commotion, as if it- were breathed upon. It appears then that the emanations of ammonia render themselves by these means manifest to the sight, that is to say, in consequence of the expulsive force or mechanical shock of the oil. - Ido not pretend, nor have ever pretended, that there ‘ean be no emanations of volatile bodies capable of render- ing theinselves sensible to the sight in this sense, but only to show that several phznomena which are considered as the effects of repulsion, occasioned by the expansion of volatile bodies, do not depend ion that canse, but are the effects of attraction of surface,- and iat there are no means of rendering the ensanations. of odoriferous bodies sensible to the sight, as Benceict Prevost thinks. But be- fore 160 On the apparent Repulsion fore we decide in regard to the effect of ammonia, let ug pay attention to the following remarkable observations. Throw small bits of gold or silver leaf on the surface of oil contained in a goblet, and then bring near to it a drop of ammonia, a commotion will be observed in the surface of the oil, and in the small bits of metallic leat which float on it: if the drop of ammonia be applied to the surface of the oil, the small bodies will fly still more, and the fluid will be seen to spread itself over the surface of the oil in the most visible manner, while it produces in it an agitation. If this operation be performed on water, that is to say, if after throwing on the surface of water contained.in a similar vessel very light bodies, such for example as bits of metallic leaf or raspings of cork, a drop of ammonia be brought near or applied, no movement will take place. The same thing will happen. if spirit of wine, or any other fluid, not oily; be used in the place of water; but 1f instead of these stipernatant bodies there be on the water a drop or two of oil, the latter will experience a commotion. On the drop of ammonia being brought near, in a perpendicular direc- tion, to the oil which floats on the water, if the oil be en- tirely in the form of a drop, it causes it to dilate, and if it be spread over the surface of the water, it divides and is dispersed. If an orange skin be squeezed over the surtace of the water, and if a drop of ammonia be then applied, a slight agitation will be manifested in all the oily points with which the surface of the water is interspersed. It appears then from these experiments, that ammonia renders sensible to the sight the emanations on oil, not by mechanical impulse, but by a physical action, because it does not manifest itself on other fluids. : It is beyond all doubt that the shock or expansive force of ammoniacal emanations ought to act without distinction on alt bodies, and communicate to them all the same im- pulse when they can easily move; and a drop of ammonia brought near to the surface of spirit of wine ought to pro- duce in it a commotion equal to that which it communi- eates to the oil, because it is equally light, and may be also Hiehter than oil. [have found also that ammonia applied to the smoke of a candle, which bends itself on the least breath of air, docs not make it move im the least. The effect of the ammonia on the oil cannot therefore be ascribed to a mechanical action. But the following is a proof which admits of no reply :— If raspings of cork be thrown upon water, and if a drop of ammonia between some Kinds of Fluids. 161 ammonia be then brought near, no movement is produced ; if a few more raspings of cork be rubbed with the fingers dipped in oil, and then thrown on the surface of the water, in another glass, on approaching another drop of ammonia, all these small parts will move in a wonderful manner. If the farina of wheat be thrown into another glass of water, the approach of a drop of ammonia will not cause these small molecule to move ; but if the farina of almonds, which is oily, be thrown into the water, it will cause them to move, and precipitate them in an instant to the bottom. The same experiment repeated a thousand ways, will always confirm my conclusion, that is to say, that the action of ammonia is rendered sensible only on oils, and on all oily matters, or matters imbibed with oil. I think then I have proved that the repulsion exercised by ammonia over oil is not the effect of the force of its va- pours or emanations ; and I am of opinion that it ought to be ascribed to the attraction of surface possessed by the ammonia in the state of fluid, as well as of vapour, with oil itself, together with a chemical attraction which results from the changes which the oil undergoes when exposed to the effluvia of ammonia. This phenomenon, in my opinion, may be explained like that of a drop of spirit of wine exposed in the middle of a stratum of, water, that is to say, that the repulsive force which ammonia seems to exercise over oil, arises from the expansion of the ammonia, or from its vapours on oil by means of the attraction of surface. If a drop of ammonia, indeed, be thrown on the bottom of a vessel, and if a very little oil be poured around it in such a manner as to surround the drop of ammonia, if the oil be extended with the finger, and ammonia be applied, the oil will be seen to recede ; but when it touches it, the drop of ammonia will then break its limits, extend itself over the oil, and disperse with surprising velocity. ' The antients would have ascribed it to an antipathy be- tween the ammonia and the oil ; but these chimerical ideas have been banished by the light of experimental philosophy. It does not appear that now the repulsions between the dif- ferent fluids can be maintained, since I have established the Jaws of the attraction of surface, which I have observed *. * See my Memoir on the Attraction of Surface, Joc. cit. Vol. 91, No. 82. March i805. j a XXXVI. 4 {, 162 J XXVI. A new. Electricai Phenomena. Conmnniatd iy a Correspondent. ‘ To the Editor of the Philosophical Magazine. SIR, ; Tue following remarkable result in electricity occurred some time since. If you think it worthy of insertion in * your excellent publication, it is at your service. - Having accidentally placed a shilling between the ball of my discharger and the coating of a charged jar, I was sur- prised to fiud, on making the discharge, that the shilling adhered to the side of the jar. Imagining that this effect might have proceeded from,some foreign matter lodged be- tween the shilling and the coating, I removed it, and care- fully wiped both. On repeating the experiment the effect was the same as before. That part of the coating where piece was taken from sometimes had a small hole in it, with a bur protruding outwards, something similar to that produced on a card through which a small j. jar is discharged. fat frst imagined this effect to have been an amalgamation, or rather a fasion, of the two metals. Repeating t the expe- riment with two pieces instead of one, they both adhered a$ before, as did likewise three and four. Trying it with five, tl they felt. The jar that was ‘made use of for these ex- periments did not contain more’ than a quart; and not haying a.much farger one at hand, I cannot tell what the effect would have been had J used one four or five times as / big. ‘The sae experiment béing repeated with gold, brass, | copper, &c., the result was. the’ same. I cannot however reconcile the idea of amalgamation or fusion taking place i the experiments with the two and three pieces, &e., and aim, therefore totally at a loss to account for this strange F phenomenon. Some of your correspondents may, perhaps, Sir, offer some theory on this curious experiment, which I ‘ should:be very happy to see, being but'a young and i PB f perienced electrician. > vie ‘ Tam, Sir, } ait ae rf ee * j Your obedient servant, “epee | Hi » he * - Pc ap LETTER [63> j LETTER V. XXVII. Wricut on measuring the. Meridian—-W n1GHT, Wren and Witkrss on an Universal Measure—J.Bar- -qista Porta on the Reflection of Heat, Cold and Sound from concave, Mirrors. Ego sané non minoris zstimo, imd multS magis admiror, ‘inventorem lyre primum, quam vel centenos artifices alios, qui, sequentibus sacu- lis, professionem istam ad summam perfectionem deduxerunt. »GALIL E&I Syst. Cosa, ed. 1699- P- 388. SIR, : . Is addition to my four communications, on the invention of the telescope, &¢., I intended to have offered you some reflections on the adoption and execution of the methods lately taken in France, for establishing a natural standard of weights and measures. But, after a good deal of thought, and a careful perusal of the Report of the Com- missioners in the Mémoires de Institut for 1799; the sub- ject appears to me to present such ample scope for mere opinion, that J find it would be impossible for me to state my doubts, without exciting controversy. Those doubts arose in my mind, upon reading the third Dialogue m Galileo's Systema Cosmicum 3 Jurin’s annotations on. the 4th chapter of the Geographia Generalis of Varenius ; and the 20th proposition of the 3d book of the Principia, edition second ; not to mention the late correction .of the admeasurements of Maupertuis &c. by M. Swanberg and other Swedish astronomers, which I have not seen. Having no wish to propagate my scepticism, or to render it incurable by contestation, [shall content myself with offering you the two following extracts; leaving you and your intelligent readers to compare them with the Report mentioned, and to draw your own conclusions. It will also be amusing to bring that elaborate Report into comparison with the performances of ingenious individuals on the same ‘subject ; for example, with W hitehurst’s At- tempt towards obtaining invariable Measures, London 1788; Essai sur les Poids et les Mesures, pat M. Ber- ~ thoud*, Paris 1792; and Sir G. Shuckburgh’s Memoir on Weights and Measures, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1798. It has been said, that our great individual, Johnson, did more for the English language, than some »™ Author of a copious, and, as I am told, a very good, book on clock- and watch-work, lately published at Paris, in 3 Vols, gto. ak L2 foreign 164 right Fc. on an Universal Measure ; foreign academies for the languages which they were esta- blished to improve. The first extract 1 have to offer is taken from the 88th and sgth pages of Certain Errors in Navigation detecte¢ and corrected, by Edw. Wright, a work to which that science owes many of its best improvements. This book was first printed in the year 1599, but ‘* written thany vears before*.”.. The second edition, in which I have also read the following passage, appeared in 1610, and the third, from which I now transcribe it, in 1657. Of the value of this now almost forgotten work, we may judge from Halley’s recommendation of it, near a century after it was first published, as a book well deserving the perusal: of all such as desigu to use the seat.” Mr. Wright 1s chiefly’ known as the inventor of the true construction of what is ¢alled Mercator’s, but which bettcr deserves the name of Ptolemy’s, chart}. His genius, however, was not con- fined to mathematical speculations; for it appears, from a Latin paper,, preserved at Cambridge, and quoted by Dr. Hution§, that right was the first undertaker of the canal called The New River, to which a great part of London owes that abundant supply of water, which excites the ad- miration of strangers. But the learned gentleman ts mis- taken in reckoning among /Vright’s works, the Haven- finding Ast, which he only translated from the Dutch. This appcars from the dedication of a copy now before me, printed in 1599; from which we also learn that our coun- tryman, Robert Norman, had, some years before, disco- vered the magnetic dip. In 1593 and the following year, right, by observing the greatest and least heights of the pole-star, with a brass quadrant of six feet radius, deter- mined the true latitude of London to be 51° 32’, instead of 54° 45’, which it had till then been reckoned. This was a wonderful performance, at a time when instruments were so imperfect, and when the refraction had been but just de- tected by Tycho; and was by no means fully ascertained ; for that noble astronomer was much mistaken with regard to its quantity |}. On ¢his occasion, I hope to be exensed * See Dr. Futons Mathim. and Philos. Diction, article Wright. - + Seethe Bhseellanca Curipsa. Vol. it px'20.; also, Hudgson's System of the Mathematics, printed in 1722, vol. i. p, 254 oh . + See the preface to the Errors m Navigation, and the ‘ Plat of all the World,” at the end of the 3d edition. l : § Dictionary, art. Wiivhe. § Fede ovo cas, Opera Posthuma, pp. §%70.5 Wolf, Elem. Astron,: 4§ 346- 359. Blair's rhist, of Geogr p. 16g: ’ : 1 for . ‘Porta, on the Reflection of Cold ec. 165 for adding, that the latitude of Paris was not settled seventy years after /¥right had ascertained that of London. For MM. Auxout (to whom, or to Kirch, the invention of the mi- crometer is ascribed by those who are ignorant of the ante- rior claim of our Gascoigne*), in a letter to Louis XIV. in 1664, says, ‘* Mais, Sire, c'est un malheur, &c. But, Sire, the misfortune is, that there is not in Paris, nor, as far as I know, in your whole kingdom, an instrument on which I could depend, in taking the exact height of the polet.” Thus, Sir, your ingenious correspondent, the Rev. Mr. Toplist, appears to be perfectly in the right, when he alledges that, if our neighbours have lately over- taken, for I would gladly hope they have not yet distanced, us in the race of science, it can only be because they are publicly encouraged and supported in their arduous pursuits, and we are wolf. But of this more, perhaps, on some future occasion. It is high time to come to the immediate ob- ject of this letter. __ The marginal title of this curious passage of Wright is, *“ A most exact way to find the quantitie of the earth’s semidiameter.”—The paragraph itself is as follows : ‘* This angle” (the Dip of the Horizon, owing to the elevation of the observer’s eye above the surface of the sea) ‘may other- wise be found, the quantitie of the earth’s scmidiameter being first known, which is to be done divers waics 3 but they may be all reduced to two beads or kinds, whereof the first requireth the certain. measure of some arch of the Me- ridian to be first given, which is also divers waies to be performed. But the best and perfectest way of all others (viz. of exactly measuring the size of the whole earth) is to observe so exactly as is. possible the Summer solstitiall Altitude of the Sun at two places, so farr distant asunder, and lying so neer North and South each from other, with so direct and faire a way betweene them as conveniently anay be chosen. Suppose, for example, Portsmouth and - Barwick, or some other place in the furthest parts of Scot- dand ; for the further these places are each from other, the more perfectly may this businesse be performed. Then measure, end plat down so truly.as is possible, all the way betweene those two places, with all the turnings and wind- ings, ascenis and descents that are therein; out of which , * See Phil. Trans. no. 25 29.3 Saverien, Dict. Univ. de Math. et de Phys, act. Micrometre. Harris's Lex. Tech. art. Micrometir. t See Asivon. de M. De la Lande, v& 2+ p. 842. ede 1. t Sce ovr xxth vol. p, 25. L3 the 166 Hivight Sc. on an Universal Measure; the arch of the great circle, or shortest distance ‘betwixt’ them, together with the angle of declination thereof from the true meridian line truly found by observation at either ‘of those’ places, may most exactly be knowne : whereby’ (with belpe of the doctrine of right angled sphericall tri- augles) the difference of the latitudes of those two places, in miles and furlongs, &c. may easily appeare ; which com~= pared with the difference of the latitudes of the same places, found by observation of the Sun, in degrees and minutes, &e. will shew how many miles and furlongs answer to one or more degrees of the meridian: and so the whole circum~ ference, diameter and semidiameter of the earth, will easily and more truly be found, then any other way yet used for this purpose. But meanes convenient for the triall hereof have hitherto been wanting, and so I must omit it, till some better opportunity, if any shall befall hereafter, by the bounty of any such as are of more ability to bear the charge hereof. 13 “¢ Yet besides our purpose now in hand, this would bee the best ground that can be, both for the making and con- tinuing of a Standard, and all other measures thereon de- pending at a certainty forever; insomuch that although all the Standards, weights and measures in the world were lost, : they might,-notwithstanding, upon record of such obser- vation and’ means, as heré we have mentioned, be again restored much more perfectly, then by the ordinary way of beginning all our measures from a barly grain taken out of the midst of the Ear, whereof there is no such certain de- terminate bignesse that can be set down, but that they may be something greater in one Ear then another ; neither can there be any certain rule or reason given how to know which Ear to chuse rather then other for this purpose. And if any error be committed herein, though insensible (which cannot be avoided) yet in going about to make other greater measures by often taking this least, and so proceeding a minimis ad maxima*, so often as you take your first or Jeast measure, so often doe you increase and multiply your error; which though at first it seem very smal and scarcely perceivable, yet commeth at the last to be very notorious and intollerable... But the other way I here speak of, taking the length of all England, or of the whole Iland, for our first measure, and out of it by subdi- vision, dividing all the rest, although wee may erre some- thing, m taking the length hereof (which notwithstanding, * From the least to the gréatest. I dare Porta, on the Reflection of Cold &c. 167 I dare undertake, may be so handled, that it shall not be so much as the thousand part of the whole distance between the two places, before mentioned) yet because we proceed a maximis ad minima, so still dividing, and the more di- minishing this error, the further we proceed ; it will in the end, when we come to our ordinary measures most in use, become very insensible, and not worth the regarding.” _ A’“ natural standard, or universal measure”’ is the only subject of my next extract, which is taken from pages 191 and 192 of the Rev. Dr. Wilkins’s “‘ Essay towards a real Character, and a philosophical Language*.”?. This work was printed in 1668, in which year the Doctor was appointed Bishop of Chester, but written some time beiore ; for the truly learned and ingenious author, in his dedication to Lord Brouncker, President of the Royal Society, says that when it “ was done in writing, and the impression of it well nigh finished, it happened (among many other better things) to be burnt in the late dreadful fire,’ (in 1666) *¢ by which all that was printed, excepting only two copies,, and a great part of the unprinted original, was destroyed.” «© Measures of magnitude,” says Dr. Wilkins, © do com- prehend both those of length, and of superficies or area, together with those of solidity, both comprehended in that which is adjoined, viz. the word capactry, hold, contain. The several nations of the world do not more differ in their languages, than in the yarious kinds and proportions of these measures. And it is not without great difficulty, that * From La Vie de M. Leibuitz, prefixed to that great man’s Fssars de Theodicée, by the Chev. de Faucourt, Amst. 1747, p. tor. we learn that the celebrated Dr. Hook was delighted with this work of Wilkins; but that M. Lerbaitz was not very well pleased with it ; having had a plan of his own, for a real or universal character, expressive of all languages, but which never appeared. In the same place, we are told of a well written anonymous paper, on the same subject, which appeared’ in, the year 1720, inthe 2d vol. of the Yournal Litcraire. Some other attempts bive been made; the last, I believe, by my ingenious friend Dr. Fumes Anderson, iv the Manchester Transactions, I think, or in his miscellany, 1¢ Bee, printed at Edinburgh, or perhaps in both. It seems probable, at the idea was suggested to Dr. Wilkins by ¢ the art of short-hand, which,” as he says in his dedication, ‘ is in its kind an ingenious device, ~ and of considerable usefulness, applicable to any language, much gwon- dered at by travellers, that have seen the experience of it in England : and yet though it be above three score years, since it was first invented, tis not to this day (for ought I can learn) brought into common practice © in any other nation,” Mr. Locke also expressed his surprise, many years afterwards, iv his tract on education, that short-hand had never come into use on the continent ; in some parts of which, however, it is now almost as much practised as it 1s in this island; though it be no where cultivated so much as it deserves. L.4 the 168 ‘Wright &c. on an Universal Measure ; the measures observed by all those different nations, who trafic together, are reduced to that which is commonly known and received by any one of them; which labour would be much abbreviated if they were all of them fixed to anv one certain standard; to which purpose, it were most desirable to find out some natural standard, or universal measure, which hath been esteemed by learned men as one of the desiderata in philosophy. If this could be done in longitude, the other measures might be easily fixed from thence. ' ‘* This was heretofore aimed at and endeavoured after in all those various measures derived from natural things, though none of them do sufficiently answer this end. As for that of a barley-corn, which is made the common ground and original of the rest, the magnitude and weight of it may be so various in several times and places, as will render it incapable of serving for this purpose ; which is true likewise of those other measures, an inch, palm, span, cubit, fathom, a foot, pace &c.; none of which can be de- termined to any sufficient certainty. *¢ Some have conceived that this might be better done by subdividing a degree upon the earth; but there would be so much difficulty and uncertainty in this way as would render it unpracticable. Others have thought it might be derived from the quicksilver experiment; but the unequal gravity and thickness of the atmosphere, together with the various tempers of air in several places and seasons, would expose that also to much uncertainty *. , “«¢ The most probable way for the effecting of this, is that which was first suggested by Dr. Christopher Wren, namely, by vibration of a pendulum; time itself being a natural measure, depending upon a revolution of the heaven or the earth, which is supposed to be every where equal and uni- form. If any way could be found out to make longitude + commensurable to time, this might be the foundation of 4 natural standard ; in order to which, Par. ** Let there be a solid ball, exactly round, of some of the heaviest metals; let there pe a string to hang it upon, the * Since Bishop Wilkins wrote the above, Halley, Condaminé, Godin, and others, have ascertained that, at and near the equator, there is little or no variation in the height of the barometer, except during hurricanes, See Philos, Trans. No, 110; and Templeman's Extracts from the Mem. del’ Acad, R. des Sp. 312, + The learned author, by longitude means length; for longitude, when it signifies an arch of the equator, between the first meridian and any other, may be said (loosely not mathematically) to be commensura- ble to time; since 45 degrees of longitude answer to.an hour, &c. smallest, Porta, on the Reflection of Cold &c. 169 smallest, limberest, and least subject to retch: let this ball be suspended by this string, being extended to such a length, that the space of every vibration may be equal to a second minute of time, the string being, by frequent trials, either lengthened or shortened, till it attain to this equality: these vibrations should be the smallest, that can last a suflicient space of time, to afford a considerable number of them, either 6 or 500 at least; for which end, its passing an arch of five or six degrees, at the first, may be sufficient. The pendulum being so ordered as to have every one of its vi- brations equal to a second minute of time, which is to be adjusted with much care and exactness; then measure the jength of this string trom its place of suspension to-the centre of the ball ; which measure must be taken as it hangs free in its perpendicular posture, and not otherwise, because of stretching: which being done, there are given these two lengths, viz. of the string, and of the radius of the hall, to which a third proportional must be found out; which must be, as the length of the string from the point of suspension to the centre of the ball, is to the radius of the ball, so must the said radius be to this third: which being so found, let two-fifths of this third proportional be set off from the centre downwards, and that will give the measure desired. And this (according to the discovery and observation of those two excellent persons, the Lord Viscount Brouncker, President of the Royal Society, and M. Huygens, a worthy member of it) will prove to be 38 Rhinland inches, or, which is all one, 39 inches and a quarter, according to our London standard. « Let this /ength therefore be called the standard ; let one tenth of it be called a foot; one tenth of a foot, an inch; one tenth of an inch, a line. And so upward, ten. standards should be a perch; ten perches a furlong; ten furlongs a nule; ten miles a league, &c. «© And so for measures of capacity: the cubical content of this standard may be called the bushel ; the tenth part of the bushel, the peck; the tenth part of a peck, a quart; and the tenth of that, a pint, &c. And so for as many other measures upwards as shall be thought expedient for use, ** As for measures of weight; Jet this cubical content of distilled rain water be the hundred; the tenth part of that, astone; the tenth part of a stone, a pound; the tenth part of a pound, an ounce; the tenth of an ounce, a dram; the tenth of a dram, a scruple; the tenth of a scruple, a grain, &c. And so upwards; ten of these cubical measures may 2 be 4170 Wright Sc. on an Universal Measure ; be called a thousand, and ten of these thousands. may be called a tun, &c. j he banat: od ‘«s As for the measures of money, “tis requisite:that they should be determined by the different quantities of those two natural metals which are the most usual: materials of it, viz. gold and silver, considered im their purty without any allay. A cube of this standard of either of these metals may be called a thousand, or a talent, of each; the tenth part of this weight, a hundred; the tenth of a hundred, a pound ; the tenth of a pound, an angel; the tenth of an angel, a shilling ; the tenth of a shilling, a penny 5) the tenth of a penny, a farthing. aiag sh <¢ 1 mention these particulars, not out of any hope or expectation that the world will ever make use of t jem, but only to show the possibility of reducing all measures to one determined certainty.”—Thus far bishop Vidkins. » The above extracts contain, as far.as I know, the earliest sketches of the ingenious methods therein proposed ; and eur neglect of such suggestions of our own countrymen, has been very properly rewarded by our obliging neighbours, who) as in other instances, have done our nation the honour to,adoptiand combine them, without distressing our modesty by ian acknowledgment. I have no room or time, at pre« sent, to expatiate on this becoming and characteristic exer- cise of politeness. But I cannot dismiss the subject, with+ out adding a few explanatory remarks, which historical justice Seems to require. vetou I apprehend that few philosophers in this country, and _ still fewer on the continent, know to whom they really are indebted for the proposal of a subdivision of the meridian as an universal standard, or the application of the seconds pendalum to the same valuable purpose. To say nothing here of the Comparative merits of these methods, or of the combination of beth, I believe the following passage from the French Eneyclopedie, contams the generally received opinions on this. matter.» “ Mouton, astronome de Lyon, &c.* Thatis, “ Mouton, an astronomer of Lyons, pro- ed as ati universal measure, a geometrical foot, virgula eometrica, of which a degree of the earth” (meridian) <¢ contained 600,000; and to preserve the length of it to perpetuity, he remarked that a pendulum of this length ynade 39594 vibrations in half an hour: Olserv. Diametro- rum; 1670, p. 433. Picard proposed a similar idea in ~ 1672.00 M. Huygens, who, in 1656, had conceived the ® Encyelope die methodique. Maibematiques, axt. Mesure, p. 388... rs / application y Th Aga ‘' Porta, on the Reflection of Cold Se. 171 application of the pendulum to clocks, spake of it, in like manner: «Horolog. Oscillat. 1673, parti. p. 7, and part iv. p- 1515 and the Royal Society of London proposed to adopt it.” The learned Encyclopedists then go on to mention the similar proposal of Amontons in 1703, and others of a later date, particularly that of M. Condamine, who in 1747 very philosophically recommended the equatorial pendulum, as preferable to all others, for an universal standard. MM. Berthoud, in his late excellent piece above quoted, as- signs the same date (1673) to the proposal of Huygens, in p- 151; and, in the title of his 2d article, which is “¢ Moyens @etallir, &c. A way to establish an universal and perpetual measure, by a pendulum, proposed by Huygens in 1673.” “Thus it appears that Wright proposed the derivation of an universal standard from the mensuration of the meridian in 1599, and Mozton not till 1670; and that Sir Chris- topher Wren recommended the pendulum some years before 1668; Mouton in 1670; and Huygens not till 1673. How many years before 1668*, I cannot say; for Sir Chris- Hg did not publish any of his numerous discoveries him- . self; but many of them were recorded or epitomized in the Philosophical Transactions, and in the works of /Vallis and others. Not having the early volumes of the Transactions at hand, [have séarched in vain for Sir Christopher's pro- posal, now in question, throughout the first seven volumes of the old Abridgement, which for want of a good index (for it has several bad ones) is mere “ confusion worse confounded.” ~~ ’ Hes, . Thus the mere date of Wilkins’s « Real Character,” though Spl ‘carries /Vren’s claim decisively beyond those of | Mouton and Huygens. 1 may add, as the book, is before me, that Dr. Sprat includes, in a catalogue of the original discoveries of /Vren, “a natural standard of méa- sure from the pendulum ;” for he says ¢¢ it was never before attempted ¢.””. Dr. Derham is equally explicit in favour of Wien. His words are: (The pendulum) ‘to be, as Sir ristopher Wren first proposed; a perpetual and universal “Measure and standard, to which all lengths may be reduced, by which they may be judged of in all ages and coun- . Spt! * T might say dcfore 1666, when Wilkins’s first impression was burnt. - 4 Sprat’s Hist. of the R. Society, pp. 247. 314, edit. 2d, 1703. This history contains scarcely any dates; but in his 120th page the author says he was interrupted in writing it by the plague in London‘in 1665, and the fire in 1666. Dr. Hutson says, in his art. Wrex, that Sprat brings down the Society’s Transactions to 1665, when it had existed about twenty years, though only about five with a charter. : $id. 7 tries. 172 Wright €3c. on an Universal Measure; tries. For, as our Royal Society, M. Huygens and Moun- tonus have proposed, after Sir Christopher Wren, this ho- rary toot, or tripedal length, which vibrateth seconds, will fit all ages and places. But then respect must be had to the centre of oscillation, which you have an account of in M. Huygens’s aforesaid book De Horol. Oscill.’’—§ pub- Nished at Paris 1673*.” Now Wilkins, Sprat, and Der ham, (who wrote his ‘ Artificial Clock-maker in his juve- nile yearst”’) were cotemporaries of Huygens, Wren, and Mouton, and appear to be very impartial, dispassionate writers. Their testimonies, therefore, added to the date of Wilkins’s book, establish, beyond all doubt, Wren’s right to be remembered, as the first proposer of the pendulum for an.universal standard. Huygens’s discoveries on the pen- dulum, were numerous and important; but assuredly this was not one of them. The truth is, that that justly distin- guished Hollander and his cotemporaries, especially in this country, (which, according to Leibnitz {, thea enjoyed its Augustan age,) made so many discoveries about the same time, and often on the same subjects, that their claims are apt to be confounded, when, as in this case, they are per- fectly distinct. , But, as we must not love our countrymen and their fame better than truth, I think it my duty to add, for the in- formation of persons unacquainted with the history of the mathematics, that Wilkins, who, in the foregoing extract, secommends the decimal division of weights and measures, was by no means the first who made this most wise and muportant proposition. John Muller, commonly called Regiomontanus, or rather his master Purbach, actually in- troduced that division of the integer when they transformed the tables of Sines from the sexagesimal to the decimal] scale about the middle of the fifteenth century: so far is this ar- rangement from being recommended by novelty to those hight minds whe make fhis the god of their idolatry ! These megenious German mathematicians were followed, at a con- siderable interval of years, by our no less ingenious, but now forgotten, countrymen, Buckley and Recorde; and afterwards by the famous French philosopher Ramus, But Simon Stevin, master of mathematics to the renowned prince Maurice of Nassau, and inspector of the dykes of Holland, was.the first European who generally applied de- * Artif. Clock-maker, pp. 10%. rq. edit. 4.. printed in 1759. + Preface to the 3d and gth editions, % Lett, a@ M. Abbe Conti, in Recueil de Pieces, sur la Philos. ke. tom. i p. 76. edit. 2. cimals u < Porta, on ihe Reflection of Cold 8c. 173 cimtals to measures in his Practical Geometry, published early in the seventeenth century *. | say the first European ; for, according to father Noel, the decimal division of weights and measures has long been established in China R Iam, &c. 2): P.S. Having little prospect of addressing you again for some time, I shall take the liberty to subjoin a short extract trom the Magia Naturalis of J. Baptista Porta, first pub- lished in the year.1594. Though I have proved in my former letters, { believe to general satisfaction, that this jearned Italian did not invent the telescope, I by no means insinuated that he was destitute of’ original genius. This work shows the contrary, and that he both encouraged and practised physical experiments with great success; for his Magia contains nothing of what we now call magic, but the name, and somwhat of the legendary spirit. ** Calorem, oa | : Ex IBiiJ XXX. 4 new and most accurate Method of Banking the Balance of a Time-keeper. By Ar. W. Uarny, of Islington *, SIR, P T isis letter is accompanied with a drawing, a description, and a medel, of 4 more perfect mode of banking the balance of a time-keeper, than any that has yet appeared ; and its application to a time-keeper is a matter of such real im- portance, that the most accurate, without this most neces- sary appendage, is liable to such derangement, that from the most trivial cause it is in one moment rendered useless. To preserve the good qualities of the time-keeper, on which often the strength, the wealth, the grandeur, and safety of this great empire depend, | deem it necessary that my invention should be laid before the Society of Arts, as the means of its being more generally known; and I hope that I show proper respect to the society, when I assure you that I do not offer any crude idea, neither could I think of giving you any trouble until I had fully verified the utility of my contrivance by several years’ trial, As I can produce the testimony of some of the most eminent watchmakers in favour of my invention, I look forward with some degree of confidence, in expectation of obtaining the approbation of the society. It was at first imagined that a banking to a watch with a free escapement was quite unnecessary, as the limits of banking were so great as to admit of almost twice 360,’ or 720 degrees ; but on trial the balance was frequently found to exceed this quantity, and that a very slight motion given to the time-keeper (particularly when the axis of the balance became the axis of that motion) was sufficient to alter the strength and figure of the pendulum spring, and position of the picces in respect of the balance wheel, so as to change the rate of tlie time-keeper; and, what was worse, beaine a new adjustment af the balance, to accommodate i{sclf to the changes made in the spring, and other parts connected with it. Hence it became necessary that some means shduld be used to stop the balance at certain limits beyond its na- tural arch of vibration; and various attempts have heen made to effect it. One way is, by a moveable piece on the axis of the balance, which banks against a pin, yet so as to suffer * From Transactions of the Swiety of Arts, &c. for 04 — A hounty of thirry gifingas was vored to Mr. Hardy by the Society for this commun- cation, ; M 3 the iso Method of Banking the Balance of a Time-keeper. the balance to vibrate more than 360 degrees. Another method is to have a piece moveable on a centre in one of the arms of the balance, and applying itself as a tangent to the pendulum spring, which passes through a hole in the piece. It has also a knee, which almost touches the plate, and just passes free of a pin placed init. But when the balance vibrates so as to approach its utmost limits, the ac- tion of the spring, while in a state of unwinding, throws the piece outward, so as to fall in the way of the : pin, and stop the balance from proceeding further. Another mode is by a straight spring, screwed upon the plate, having a hook at the end of it, into which a pin placed in the balance strikes, when, as before, the pendulum spring, in unwind~- ing, touches the straight spring, and moves }t a little out- wards. There is also a w ay of banking by means of a bolt, which is thrown back by the pendulum spring, and made to fall in the way of a pin placed in the rim of the balance. These are the principal modes of banking now in use, and they do not differ materially from one another j in principle. But the weight and friction of so many pieces on so delicate an organ as that of a pendulum spring, are perbaps nearly as hurtful to the time- keeper as the injury it may sustain when it is left without any banking whatever. I am, sir, your most obedient servant, WitityaAm Harpy. Charles Taylor, Esq. In figures 1 and 2 (Plate III.) the same letters are placed, to signify the same things. AA is the balance to which the pendulum spring is fastened in the usual way. In one of the crosses of the balance is placed a pin P, which stands a little way above its surface; and when the balance. is caused to vibrate a complete circle, the’ pin in ifs motion will describe the dotted circle POO, and just pass clear of the inside of a projection formed on a cock B, which is fastened on the plate by means of a screw. At about one- fourth of a turn of the pendulum spring, reckoned from its stud E, is placed a very delicate tapering piece of steel S, having a small hole in it, through which the pendulum spring passes ; and it is fastened to it by means of a pin, and stands perpendicular to the curve of the spring. Let the balance be at rest, as represented in fig. 1, the banking- pin at P, and the banking-piece at 5. Suppose the balance is made to vibrate from P towards O, when P arrives at the banking-piece s, it will pass it without touching because iis extremity s lies wholly within the circle traced out by the Economical Society of Leipsic at Dresden, Fe. 183 the banking-pin. But when the banking-pin P has arrived at O, the banking-piece s will have advanced to ¢, by the pendulum spring winding itself up into the figure repre- sented by the dotted curve; and when the banking-pin P (aow at Q) returns back to P, and passes on from P towards Q, to approach B, and so complete the other half-arch of its vibration, before P can arrive at the banking-cock B, the pendulum spring will have unwound itself into the firure described by the dotted curve, and the banking-piece s will have advanced into the position at 7, just touching the banking-cock. Its extremity 7; however, being thrown beyond the dotted circle, must necessarily fall in the way of the banking-pin, which arrives there al wost at the same moment, and is opposed by it, without the slightest shock to the pendulum spring. The model renders any further explanation unnecessary. Witttam Harpy. eee ee ? XXXII. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ECONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LEIPSIC AT DRESDEN. Onxa request by Count von Reisch, this society has pro- posed the two following prize questions : *" Ist, To determine the means, established by experiment, : of extirpating from fields of oats and barley the wild radish {Raphanus Raphanistrum), with instances of these means proving successful. The prize is 5 Fredericks of gold. ad, To invent a handmill of a simple construction, easy to be moved, and which will not cost more than forty rix-dollars. The inventor must send a model and scale. The prize is 8 Fredericks of gold. The papers, written in the German language, must be transmitted with a sealed device to the secretary of the society at Dresden, before the end of April 1805. * an XXXII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles, ORIGINAL VACCINE POCK INSTITUTION, No. 44, Broad-street, Golden-square, Quarterly Court, % Tue following Resolutions, on the authority of a public institution, must serve to tranquillize many families dis- turbed by prevailing ill-founded reports ; and the notice of M 4 the 164; |! Original Vaccine Pock Institution. the privilege of letters to and from the establishment miust be especially acceptable, . Among the resolutions were the following : 1. Resolved, That it appears from the numerous reports that have been transmitted or attested by the members of the medical establishment from abroad, from our own) country, and from their own experience, that the propor tion of failures in the cow-pock inocuiation to give secu rity against the small-pox, which haye been published, does not amount to more than 50 .out of 250,000 yacci- nated persons. 2. Resolved, That it does not appear on examination of the published reports of these failures, and the investigation of many of them by the medical establishment of this insti- tution, that TEN haye been substantiated by admissible and adequate evidence. 3. Resolved, That it seems more than probable, that all or many of even the admitted of failure, according to the evidence produced, are liable to be deceptions, on the same grounds as in the asserted cases of the occurrences of the small pox, subsequent to the small pox. 4. Resolyed, That, considering that the cow pock inocu Jation has been the practice of producing an affection which practitioners in the first instances in general had not preyi- ously seen, and the history of which was so little known and considering the greater deceptions than in the small pox inoculation-to which practitioners are exposed, it was to have been expected that a much greater proportion of supposed failures would have occurred. 5. Resolved, That it does not appear that a single instance has occurred of the small pox, subsequent to the cow pock, during more than five years practice at this institution; for, on inquiry, two instances which were said to be such were found to be inadmissible cases: viz. one of. them on ac- count of the supposed cow pock preceding being only a local affection; and in the other, that it was only proved that there was a local affection from the yariolous inoculation: 6. Resolved, That the numerous instances of exposure of vaccinated persons to the small pox since the commence- ment of the practice in January in 1799, and likewise of repeated re-inoculation with small pox matter at this insti- tution, and which have been communicated, establish the fact, that a person who has really gone through the cow pock is incapable of the small pox, on as firm ground as the fact of variolous imoculation giving security against the smal] pox. us 7. Re- Original Vaccine Pock Institution. 185 7. Resolved, That considering the novelty of the practice of vaccine inoculation, and that it has not been performed in many instances, after such a mode as might give the greatest chance of security ; it is advisable to take precau- tionary measures with many who haye been inoculated, or who shall undergo the practice in future. 1 8. Resolved, That the tests of patients who have been inoculated being secure, are, exposure to effluvia and con- tact with persons in the small pox; inoculation with small pox matter, and re-inoculation with vaccine matter. But, for reasons set forth in a memoir read at the quarterly meet- ing by Dr. Pearson, the repetition of re-inoculation with vaccine matter is a preferable test ; for it does not appear, from abundant evidence brought forward by the experience of Dr, Pearson, that a person who has gone through the cow pock is susceptible of it a second time. 9. Resolved, That such practitioners as are desirous of seeing proofs of the proposition last stated, that a second inoculation for the cow pock is an equally decisive test of the question of the susceptibility of a vaccinated person to ‘take the small pox as inoculation with variolous matter, be invited to attend at the institution, for that purpose. 10..Resolved, That although it is probable, from the amount of the deaths by the small pox in the bills of mor- tality in two preceding years, viz. in 1803, of 1202; and in 1804, of 622, that the proportion of deaths by that disease has been diminished by vaccine inoculation ; yet’ it does not appear justifiable to draw this conclusion positive- ly at present—because, in former years, previously to the new practice, even a still smaller proportion occurred by smnall pox, viz. in 1795, there were 1040; in 1797, there were only 522; and in 1799, there were 1111: therefore that it will require at least five successive years of vaccine practice to draw a just inference. 11. Resolved, That Dr. Pearson be requested to allow the memoir on the state of the practice of vaccination, and on the conduct of it, to be printed, in order to quiet the minds of many families disturbed by the late unfavourable reports, . 12. Resolved, That the medical establishment continue their practice of registering their observations, as the most likely means to reduce to certainty the vaccine practice as a prophylactic of the small pox. 43. Resolved, That although the conduct of this institu- tion, under the economical management of the treasurers, Thomas Payne and John [eaviside, Esqrs. and the trustees, . Win, 186 Metallic Nature of Ochroit, &&c. Wm. Bosville, Wm. Noble, and Charles Bingy, Esqrs. has been such, that the subscriptions hitherto have been sufficient to defray the expenses, without requesting addi- tional aid from the present supporters; yet, to accomplish the objects of the institution to their full extent, it will be requisite that further contributions he requested from the public, and that the present subscribers particularly be re- spectfully solicited to use their interest for that purpose. The number inoculated since the last report amounts to 2337. Subscribers of ten guineas are Life Governors; of two guineas annually are Electors, and of one guinea annually are Governors. _ All persons, with or without letters of recommendation, are admitted for inoculation every Tuesday and Friday, at one o’clock. Subscriptions will be thankfully received by Messrs. Devaynes and Co. Pall Mall, and-by Mr. Sancho, at the institution. Note—Provincial subscribers and correspondents are in~ - formed, that permission has been liberally granted by their Lordships the Postmasters-general for letters to come and re- turn postage free, provided they are addressed to Mr. San- cho, Secretary to the, Original Vaccine Pock Institution, Broad-sireet, Golden-square,*and are sent under cover to Francis Freeling, Esq. General Post Office, with this in- dorsement—** On the business of the Broad-street Vaccine Institution.” By order, Witi1am Sancuo, Seeretary, METALLIC NATURE OF OCHROIT. M. Gehlen, .of Berlin, bas received from Messrs. His singer and Berzelius, a memoir on the analysis of the ochroit of Klaproth. They consider the new substance contained in this fossil as a metallic oxide, and they. give to the metal the name of Cerium, from the planet Ceres. They have, however, judged of the nature of it only from the phenomena of the oxidation exhibited by the substance, for hitherto they have not been able to obtain it in a me+ tallic state. CHARACTERS OF PURE NICKEL. M. Richter is employed in examining the nature of nickel. In its state of purity, this metal 1s exceedingly malleable; it is also almost as brilliant as silver, and more ‘susceptible of attraction by the magnet than iron, He ase serts, ’ : Galvanism, 187 serts, that in the purest state in which it has been hitherto obtained it contains still a great deal of copper. M. Rich- ter has discovered a sure method of freeing it from that metal, Purified oxides of nickel are of a much livelier green co- lour than common oxides, and their solution in ammonia is of a very pale blue colour, — ALKALINE METALLIC SOLUTIONS PRECIPITATED BY OTHER METALS, AND BY PHOSPHORUS. Klaproth has found that solutions of metallic oxides in alkalies are as easily precipitated in the metallic state, by other metals soluble in the same salts, as also by phospho- Tus, as acid metallic solutions are. He makes a very inge- nious application to analysis of tin ores, according to a method which he ipdicates in his (Beitraege) collections, In this process, tungsten is separated by zine from tung- state of ammonia, under the ferm of black flakes. DECOMPOSITION, BY BOILING WATER, OF SUCCINATE OF IRON OXIDATED AT A MINIMUM. Bucholz, in examining M. Gehlen’s method of separat- ing iron and manganese by the help of succinate of potash, has found that succinate of iron, oxidated at a minimum, is entirely decomposed by boiling it with distilled water, so that the water dissolves the acid with an inappreciable quantity of oxide. The same chemist is employed in exa- mining uranium and its combinations. GALVANISM, Brugnatelli, in a letter to M. van Mons, says, Volta is | - still employed on electricity. He has lately constructed | different piles, composed merely of saline substances of a f different nature, with solutions of which he impregnated disks of bone. ; I have lately, adds he, gilt in a complete manner two large silver medals, by bringing them into communication, by means of a steel wire, with the negative pole of a Vol- taic pile, and a po them, one after the other, immersed in ammoniuret o gold newly made and well saturated*, * The result here detailed reminds me of one somewhat similar, which took place during some experiments performed some years ayo atthe Askesian rooms. Some gold leaf was put loose upon a new picce pf copper coin, which was then brought into the circuit of the pile; a part of the gold was inflamed, and other portions adhered to the surface of the copper as completely as if they had been attached by any common gilding process. Evrr. NEW iss New Metal in Platina.— Astronomy. NEW METAL IN PLATINA. I have seen with pleasure, says Brugnatelli, in a letter ta the same, that Fourcroy and Vanquelin have found a new metal in platina. I must observe that I obtained separately a long time ago the substance which gives colour to solu- tions of platina. I enlarged, by eight or ten parts of water, the solution of that crude metal, and added to it a solution of muriate of ammonia. The mixture at first did not be- come turbid, but after some minutes, the sides and bottom of the jar were covered with the red matter in shining molecule, and similar to that of which I send you a spe- clnen. ASTRONOMY. M. Harding, of Lilienthal, near Bremen, has discovered a new planet, to which he has given the name of Juno. While comparing with the heavens the fifty thousand stars observed -by Messrs. Lalande, he saw one of the eighth magnitude, which appeared to him to have a motion of its own. He observed it several days, and soon found that it was a planet. On the 5th of September, its right ascension was 1° 52’, Tts north declination 0° 11’. — M. Burckhardt observed it on the 23d of September, at 359° 7’, and 4° 6’, and thence concluded that the duration of its revolution is five years and a half, Its inclination is 21°. Its excentricity.1s a quarter of its radius. . its mean distance from the sun is three times that of the earth, that is to say, it 1s about a hundred millions of leagues ; it is consequently a little farther distant from the sun than Ceres and Pallas, which are only ninety-six mil- ‘lions of leagues. * Its diameter has not yet been measured, but it appears hike a star of the eighth magnitude. Its size appears nearly equal to that of Ceres, or of thepla~ net discovered by Piazzi. As astronomers daily observe if, more precise elements of it maybe obtained. Junois the 12th planet discovered within a small number of years. Her- schel discovered Uranus, aid its six satellites ; he discovered * also two new satellites to Saturn; Piazzi discovered Ceres; Qlbers discovered Pallas ; and Harding has discovered June, M. Piazzi, the astronomer, of Palermo, in a Ietter to M. Delalande, says, that he has observed in the fixed stars a change of one, two, aud three secends, according to the ea situation Geology. 189 situation of the earth in its orbit. This effect of the annual parallax, respecting which astronomers have disputed so much for a century past, is an interesting fact: it thence follows that the distance of the stars is not seyen millions of millions of leagues. GEOLOGY. The following authentic account of an ascent to the summit of one of the highest mountains in the Tyrol, has becy published in the Vienna court gazette :—** For some years past, doctor Gebhard has been employed in exploring the Tyrol in all directions by the order of his royal highness the archduke John, who exeris himself with so much zea} and makes so many sacrifices to promote the good of his country. One of the most interesting consequences of this measure, which promises to furnish abundance of matter to geology, botany, mineralogy, and natural history in ge- neral, is the late ascent to the summit of the Orteler, the highest mountain in the Tyrol, which is covered with eter- nal snow and ice.’ By his highness’s orders, Dr. Gebhard proceeded to Glurus im the Vintschgau, and thence exa- mined all the valleys which obtain their water from the Orteler, in order to ascertain the most favourable point for ascending the mountain ; but he began to doubt of the pos- sibility of accomplishing this enterprise, when a hunter of chamois goats, from the village of Passayer, a man. habi- tuated to the dangers of these precipices, oflered to become his guide. Dr, Gebhard added to him as companions two boors from the Ziller valley, who had attended him during his excursions among the mountains, and one of whom possessed sufficient knowledge to observe two bazometers which they carried with them. About two o’clock in the morning, September 27, they set out from Drofui, and between 10 and 11 reached the very summit of the mountain, But they could scarcely remain here four minutes. These they employed in ob- serving the barometer; and about eight in the evening returned to Drofui half benumbed, and, at first, deprived of the power of speech. Without resting more than the above four minutes, they had wandered during seventeen hours over rocks, snow, and ice, in many places at the hazard of their lives. Both the barometers observed on the summit were exceedingly good, and agreed. Corresponding observations were made at Mals. The height of the moun- tain above Mals is therefore known, but the elevation of Mals above the sea has not yet been calculated. It may however 196 Botany. however be estimated, that the summit of the Orteler is at least 19,200 Paris feet above the level of the Mediterranean. His royal highness has caused huts and places of shelter to be erected below and above the glaciers, roads to be cut out in the rocks, and ropes to be extended along them, in order to open a safe passage for the friends of geology, and those tond of the sublime beauties of nature, to the summit 6f 2 mountain, next to Montblanc, the highest im Europe. The ingenious and profound researches by which Cuvier was able to discover and restore entirely the fossil skeletons of several animals found in the quarries of Montmartre, and of whichan alogous ones exist, are well known. The riethod by which he effected this restoration has been confirmred int a striking manner, by the discovery he has: made of a skeleton of the « opossum, an animal the genus of which 1s now cor- fined exclusively to America. All the bones of this skeleton, and those in particular by which it is characterized in the most striking manner, were not at first discovered in the stone ; but the relations which M. Cuvier knew to exist between the different organs, and which he calls the xoo/o- gical laws, enabled him to judge from what he saw of what he did not see. Such is the certainty of these relations, that M. Cuvier was able to predict, that in searching further in the quarry the two characteristic bones of this species, those which serve to support the edges of the bag in-which the opossum carrics its young, would be found. Experience confirmed what theory had foreseen. This fact is no less curious than embarrassing to the geologues. M. Cuvier observes, that it entirely overturns almost all their systems in regard to fossil animals :— « Hitherto,” says he, °¢ they would see in the fossil bones of the Norih the animals of Asia only. They allowed, also, that the animals of Asia had passed over to America, and had been there buried, at least in the north; but it would seem that the American genera never quitted- their native - soil, and that they never extended to those countries which form at present the old continent. ae his is the second proof I have discovered of the contrary.’ BOTANY. E. Rudge, Esq. F.R.S. and F.L.S. is about to publish in a few days the first fasciculus of a splendid work, en- titled Plantarum Guiance Rariorum Icones et Descriptiones hactenus inedite. The plants from which the figures are taken, formed a part of that superb collection of natural history consigned by order of the french Government from Cayenne - - } Tnundation of the Tyber —Mechanics. r9t Cayenne to the National Museum at Paris, and which was captured on ts passage by two British privateers, in Sep- tember 1803. It will comprise upwards of one hundred new plants. - METHOD IN WHICH SNAILS BREATHE. T am ignorant, says Giobert, whether yeu know, that ac cording to the experiments of Spallarizani, it appears to be proved, that snails absorb oxygen, not only by other organs than the lungs, but also through their shells, and that this absorption continues some time after their death: even when the shell of a snail has been freed from the animal it contained, it seems to continue to absorb oxygen. INUNDATION OF THE TYBER. ’ A letter from Rome, dated February 21, says, Andrew Vinci, hydraulic engineer, has published the result of his observations on the last inundation of the Tyber; whence it appears that the waters rose this year forty-two Romam palms above their usual level, and, on the whole, higher than in all the inundations which have before taken place. Monsignor Naro, president of the department of waters, has ordered that an inscription shall be placed on the shore to transmit to posterity the remembrance of this terrible inundation. The greatest remembered was that of the year 1750: the one this year exceeded it by four palms. On the 31st of January the water covered all the neighbouring plains, penetrated to all the lower parts of the eity, and in- undated a great portion of them: the Rue de la Cours, the laces Nayone and De la Rotonde, the church in the latter, and all the adjacent quarters, were covered with water: in that of the Jews, the water rose to the first stories. The waters did not retire within their usual bed till the day of the Purification of the Virgin. MECHANICS. _M. Regnier, an ingenious mechanist, has invented a me- ridian which may be placed in the window of an apartment. It is so constructed that it may rernain exposed to the open air without any covering. It consists of a quadrant fur- » nished with a lens, and a plate of brass in the plane of the meridian with a black horse-hair, which when it breaks lets go the catch of a hammer which strikes on a bell. When the faintest ray of the sun appears, the hair crisps and breaks: a ray Jess brilliant than that which makes the shadow on 4 sun-dial appear distinctly, is sufficient for this Purpose, and the mechanism is sufficiently strong to strike noon on a large bell. METEORO- 192 Meteorology. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE By Mr. Carey, oF THE STRAND, For March 1805. Thermometer. oe : > : AS b as : oO oy bre Height of }%& 2 3 ye ag Be] § 135 |che aes 32.8 | Weather. SB rads 4. "OS iF Inches. | => Eh 25